EPA-600/3-76-086
JULY 1976
Ecological Research Series
THE SEDIMENT ENVIRONMENT OF
PORT VALDEZ, ALASKA:
The Effects of
on This Ecosystem
Environmental Research Laboratory
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Corvallis, Oregon 97330
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into five series. These five broad
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The five series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
This report has been assigned to the ECOLOGICAL RESEARCH series. This series
describes research on the effects of pollution on humans, plant and animal
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influences. Investigations include formation, transport, and pathway studies to
determine the fate of pollutants and their effects. This work provides the technical
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This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
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EPA-600/3-76-086
July 1976
THE SEDIMENT ENVIRONMENT OF PORT VALDEZ, ALASKA:
The Effect of Oil on This Ecosystem
by
Howard M. Feder, L. Michael Cheek, Patrick Flanagan,
Stephen C. Jewitt, Mary H. Johnston, A.S. Naidu,
Stephen A. Norrell, A.J. Paul, Aria Scarborough,
David Shaw j
Project R800944-02-0
Project Officer
Frederick B. Lotspeich
Arctic Environmental Research Station
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory
College, Alaska 99701
CORVALLIS ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CORVALLIS, OREGON 97330
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Corvallis Environmental Research
Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for pub-
lication. Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily re-
flect the views and policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
nor does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute en-
dorsement or recommendation for use.
ii
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FOREWORD
Effective regulatory and enforcement actions by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency would be virtually impossible without sound scientific
data on pollutants and their impact on environmental stability and human
health. Responsibility for building this data base has been assigned to
EPA's Office of Research and Development and its 15 major field instal-
lations, one of which is the Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory
(CERL).
The primary mission of the Corvallis Laboratory is research on the effects
of environmental pollutants on terrestrial, freshwater, and marine eco-
systems; the behavior, effects and control of pollutants in lake systems;
and the development of predictive models on the movement of pollutants in
the biosphere.
This report provides a comprehensive discussion of a three-year study of
the tidal flat sediment system of Port Valdez, Alaska, and the effects of
oil on this ecosystem.
A.F. Bartsch
Director, CERL
111
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ABSTRACT
The tidal flat sediments of Port Valdez, Alaska display significant
variations in lithological, chemical, and biological subfacies. These varia-
tions are attributed to lateral changes in tidal energies and distances from
rock outcrops. The tidal flat deposits are poorly sorted, vary from gravels
to plastic clays with various admixtures of sand and silt, have low inter-
calated organic matter, and are constituted chiefly of physically weathered
glacial flour.
Simulated crude oil spills resulted in no changes in the sediment load,
nickel, vanadium and organic carbon content. Only under chronic oil
dosages did copper and zinc concentrations increase. The general lack
of chemical change in oiled sediments is attributed to (1) inability
of glacial sediments to immobilize crude oil and its degradable products,
and (2) the swift tidal removal of the oil from tidal flat surfaces.
Sediment samples from three intertidal sites in Port Valdez were
processed and numbers of filamentous fungi, bacteria and yeasts occurring
at various depths in the sediment profile tabulated. Numbers of fungi
were low and there was a general decrease in numbers with increased depth.
Bacterial numbers varied from site to site but also exhibited a decrease
in numbers with depth. Bacterial forms were largely gram negative rods.
Fungi were found to be common terrestrial forms of types often isolated
from Alaskan soils.
Monthly meiofaunal counts were made at a mid-tide station on three
beaches in Port Valdez over a two-year period from 1972 through 1974.
Additional beaches within Port Valdez and in Galena Bay were sampled when
time and logistics permitted. The meiofauna consisted primarily of nema-
todes and harpacticoid copepods with representatives of the Protozoa,
Cnidaria, Platyhelminth.es, Nemertinea, Annelida, Tardigrada, and Arthropoda
(ostracods, cumaceans and arachnids) present. Several small macrofaunal
species were also sampled with representatives of Annelida, Mollusca,
and Arthropoda found. Most of the meiofaunal species were restricted
to the upper three centimeters of sediment. No seasonal differences in
vertical distribution were noted.
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Distinct seasonal patterns of abundance of meiofauna were observed
with densities tending to be highest in the summer and lowest in the
winter. High winter meiofaunal densities were recorded in the winter
of 1972 through 1973. Total meiofauna population values reached a
O
maximum of 4682 individuals per 10 cm in August 1973. Limited infor-
mation is presented on the reproductive biology of several harpacticoid
copepods with only one species, Halectinosoma gothioeps, apparently re-
producing throughout the year.
A macrofaunal clam species, Macoma balthioa, was most abundant in
July and early August with many recently settled young present.
The biology of the harpacticoid copepod Harpaatieus uniTemis Kroyer
was studied for three years on an intertidal beach in Port Valdez, Alaska.
The species shows a relatively distinct reproductive period with a single
brood of eggs produced approximately 9 to 10 months after insemination.
The harsh environmental conditions typical of sediment beaches in Port
Valdez and the resultant selective pressures acting on H. un-Lvemis there
have resulted in high fecundity. Males do not live longer than six months
while the longevity of females is at least ten months.
The properties of the silt sediment ecosystem at Port Valdez
have important biological consequences that affect the ability of bacterial
population to degrade additional organic material. The bacterial popula-
tions were unaffected by single applications of up to 2000 ppm of oil,
or by chronic applications applied for several consecutive days during
several low tide series. However, when the sediment was enriched -in situ
by algal growth and oil seepage and in in vitro model systems, the bacteria
responded with an increase in biomass, an increase in respiratory activity,
and the formation of a sulfide system in sediment columns. Except for
heterotrophic H.S-producing bacteria, the sulfur cycle bacteria were
present in very low numbers. It is concluded that oil and other organic
matter are removed by tidal action, leaving an organically poor and rela-
tively biologically inactive ecosystem.
Three species of copepods (Harpacticus uniTemis, Eetevolaophonte sp.,
Haleotinosoma gothiceps) exposed to various levels of oil (200, 500, 1000,
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and 2000 ppm) in the field significantly increased in density within
a variable number of oiled plots. Two of the species, H. goth-Lseps
and Hetepolaophonte sp., also demonstrated an increase in reproductive
activity in some of the oiled plots. The statistically significant
increase in numbers of individuals in conjunction with the increase in
reproductive activity for these species suggest that density increments
are primarily a reflection of heightened reproductive activity. On the
other hand, the slight increase in numbers of H. uni-remis in some of the
oiled plots could be the result of an attraction of the copepod to oil
since this species was not reproducing during the experimental period.
The responses of the copepods to oil in Port Valdez are in contrast to
observations made in the laboratory elsewhere in which crude oil fractions
were found to be toxic to various species of pelagic copepods. Further
experimental work is recommended to fully comprehend the results of our
experiments.
The uptake and release of added Prudhoe Bay crude oil by intertidal
sediments and by Maeoma balthioa, a resident of those sediments, has been
studied at Port Valdez^ Alaska. Under the experimental conditions used,
petroleum was no longer detectable two months after a five day oiling pro-
cedure designed to simulate the stranding of a light oil slick. During
the experimental period a significant increase in mortality was noted for
M. balthica exposed to oil as compared to the clams in the unoiled control
plots.
VI
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT iv
LIST OF FIGURES xi
LIST OF TABLES xv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xxii
SECTION I - CONCLUSIONS 1
SECTION II - RECOMMENDATIONS 6
SECTION III - GENERAL INTRODUCTION 9
SECTION IV - DEPOSITIONAL AND GEOCHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT OF
PORT VALDEZ TIDAL FLATS 11
SETTING OF THE STUDY AREAS 11
Location and Physiography 11
Climate 11
General Oceanography 11
Geology 13
MATERIALS AND METHODS 14
DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE TIDAL FLAT COMPLEX 18
Island Flats 19
Dayville Flats 47
Mineral Creek Flats 48
LITHOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SEDIMENTS 48
Sediment Texture 48
Clay Mineralogy 48
Sediment Chemistry 50
SECTION V - GENERAL MICROBIOLOGY OF MARINE SEDIMENTS OF
PORT VALDEZ, ALASKA 56
INTRODUCTION 56
METHODS 56
RESULTS 57
DISCUSSION 68
vii
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
SECTION VI - SEASONAL OBSERVATIONS OF THE INTERTIDAL MEIOFAUNA 70
INTRODUCTION 70
METHODS 72
RESULTS 73
Environment 73
General Composition and Density of Organisms
on all Study Beaches 76
Vertical Distribution 109
Seasonal Fluctuations in Density HI
Reproductive Biology of Harpacticoid Copepods 113
DISCUSSION 115
SECTION VII - BIOLOGY OF THE HARPACTICOID COPEPOD, HARPACTICUS
UNIREMIS KROYER ON DAYVILLE FLATS, PORT VALDEZ 120
INTRODUCTION 120
METHODS 121
GROWTH 122
SEX RATIO 143
REPRODUCTION 143
POPULATION DENSITY RELATIONSHIPS 150
DISCUSSION 158
SECTION VIII - CRUDE OIL IMPACT ON PORT VALDEZ TIDAL FLAT
SEDIMENT CHEMISTRY 163
INTRODUCTION 163
METHODS 163
RESULTS - DISCUSSION 163
SECTION IX - THE EFFECTS OF OIL ON THE MICROBIAL COMPONENT OF AN
INTERTIDAL SILT-SEDIMENT ECOSYSTEM IN PORT VALDEZ, ALASKA.. 169
VALDEZ SEDIMENT BACTERIOLOGY 169
MATERIALS AND METHODS 172
viii
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
SECTION IX - (Continued)
Sampling and Site Preparation 172
Total Bacterial Population 175
Sulfur-Cycle Bacteria 175
Oxygen Uptake by Sediment 178
RESULTS 178
Sulfur Cycle Bacteria 181
Micro-Aquaria Model Ecosystems 184
Micro-Respirometry 186
DISCUSSION 191
SECTION X - EFFECT OF PRUDHOE BAY CRUDE OIL ON THREE SPECIES OF
SEDIMENT-DWELLING HARPACTICOID COPEPODS ON ISLAND
FLATS, PORT VALDEZ 197
GENERAL MATERIALS AND METHODS 198
Experimental Procedure and Sampling (Exp. 1) 198
Results 211
Experimental Procedure and Sampling (Exp. 2) 225
Results 226
General Results of All Meiofaunal Oil Experiments 226
DISCUSSION 232
SECTION XI - HYDROCARBON STUDIES ON SEDIMENT BEACHES IN PORT VALDEZ... 238
GENERAL INTRODUCTION 238
SEDIMENT STUDIES 238
Introduction 238
Methods 239
Results 244
Discussion 244
MACOMA BALTHICA STUDIES 251
Methods. 253
Results 254
Discussion 254
SECTION XII - GENERAL DISCUSSION 259
SECTION XIII - REFERENCES 267
ix
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
APPENDIX A.
277
APPENDIX B - RESPONSE OF THE CLAM, MACOMA BALTHICA (LINNAEUS),
EXPOSED TO PRUDHOE BAY CRUDE OIL AS UNMIXED OIL,
WATER-SOLUBLE FRACTION, AND SEDIMENT-ADSORBED
FRACTION IN THE LABORATORY 293
ABSTRACT 294
INTRODUCTION 295
METHODS COMMON TO ALL EXPERIMENTS 297
UNMIXED CRUDE OIL SPILL - EXPERIMENT 1 298
Apparatus and Experimental Procedure 298
Description of Simulated Oil Spill 300
Sampling Method 301
Results and Discussion 301
'ACUTE BIOASSAY WITH WATER-SOLUBLE FRACTION - EXPERIMENT 2 303
Preparation of the WSF for Use in Exposures 303
Design of Static Water System Experiment 304
Design of Flow-Through Water System Experiment 304
Experimental Methods 305
Results and Discussion of WSF Exposures 307
OIL-CONTAMINATED SEDIMENT TEST - EXPERIMENT 3 311
Experimental Des ign 313
Preparation of Oil-Contaminated Sediment
for Use in Exposures 313
Experimental Methods 314
Results and Discussion 314
OVERALL DISCUSSION 316
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 320
APPENDIX B - REFERENCES 321
x
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LIST OF FIGURES
SECTION IV
Figure 1. Map of Port Valdez showing the Mineral Creek,
Dayville, Old Valdez, and Galena Bay baseline
sampling sites as well as the Island Flats
experimental area 12
Figure 2. Lithological facies on Island Flats, Port
Valdez. A) General areas of investigation.
B) Enlarged view of Ammunition Island and
study area 20
Figure 3. Typical X-ray diffractogram traces of randomly
oriented, less than 2 micron fraction of inter-
tidal sediments, Port Valdez 51
SECTION VI
Figure 4. Sediment surface, water, and air temperatures in
Port Valdez during the baseline study period 74
Figure 5. Sediment temperatures in Port Valdez during the
baseline study period 75
Figure 6. Seasonal variations of meiofauna from 0.0 m at
all baseline sampling sites, Port Valdez 101
Figure 7. Seasonal variations of Nematodes from 0.0 m at
all baseline sampling sites, Port Valdez 102
Figure 8. Seasonal variations of Copepods 0.0 m at all
the baseline sampling sites, Port Valdez 103
Figure 9. The cumulative percentages of numbers of copepods
collected at the baseline site at Dayville,
Port Valdez 104
Figure 10. The cumulative percentages of numbers of copepods
collected at the baseline site at Island Flats,
Port Valdez 105
Figure 11. The cumulative percentages of numbers of copepods
collected at the baseline site at Mineral Creek,
Port Valdez 106
Figure 12. The number of polychaetous annelids collected
monthly at the three baseline sampling sites
in Port Valdez 107
xi
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LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)
SECTION VI - (Continued)
Figure 13. The number of young clams (Maooma balthiaa)
collected monthly at the three baseline sampling
sites in Port Valdez 108
SECTION VII
Figure 14. The percent length-frequency distribution of
Havpaotious univemis collected on Dayville
Flats from May 12 through May 1975 141
Figure 14. (Continued) 142
Figure 15. Seasonal variation in numbers of Harpao'b'ious
univemis copepodites, adult males and adult
females and the percentage of ovigerous females
from the total number of adult females 147
Figure 16. Seasonal population density-temperature relation-
ships of Harpaat-i-ous univemis on Dayville Flats,
Port Valdez, Alaska 153
SECTION IX
Figure 17. Oxygen uptake by unsupplemented sediments 188
Figure 18. Oxygen uptake by glucose - supplemented control
sediment samples (3 g of sediment and 3.0 m sea
water per flask) 189
Figure 19. Effect of added glucose on oxygen uptake by control
sediment 192
Figure 20. Effect of added oil on oxygen uptake by
control sediment , . 193
Figure 21. Effect of reaction temperature on oxygen
uptake by unsupplemented sediment samples 194
SECTION X
Figure 22. The experimental arrangement of glass rings
used to test the effect of three concentrations
of Prudhoe Bay crude oil on three species of
harpacticoid copepods at Island Flats 199
xii
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LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)
SECTION X - (Continued)
Figure 23. View of glass rings in place during oiling
procedures used to test the effect of three
concentrations of Prudhoe Bay crude oil on
three species of harpacticoid copepods at
Island Flats 200
Figure 24. The number of Harpaoticus un-iremis during
an oil-addition experiment on Island Flats,
Port Valdez 216
Figure 25. The number of Haleeti-nosoma gothiaeps during
an oil-addition experiment on Island Flats,
Port Valdez 217
Figure 26. The number of Heterolaophonte sp. during an
oil-addition experiment on Island Flats,
Port Valdez 218
Figure 27. The percent composition of each of three
species of copepods at the oil sampling site
on Island Flats 234
SECTION XI
Figure 28. Concentrations of hydrocarbons isolated
from sediments 245
APPENDIX B
Figure 1. Photograph of the experimental animal, Macoma
balthica 296
Figure 2. Diagram and photograph of outflow tank used
in the simulated oil spill 299
Figure 3. Results of static water system (WSF) experiment 308
Figure 4. Response of buried M. balthiaa to exposure to
WSF in flow-through water system type set-up 310
Figure 5. Response of unburied clams put into WSF of
Prudhoe Bay crude oil at time 0 312
Figure 6. Results of oil-contaminated sediment experiment 315
xiii
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LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)
APPENDIX B - (Continued)
Figure 7. Percentage of clams responding to oil-contam-
inated sediment by coming to the surface at 24 hrs
vs depth of sediment and depth of sediment squared... 317
Figure 8. Photograph of clams in high level exposure to oil-
contaminated mud, taken 24 hrs after start of
exposure 318
xiv
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LIST OF TABLES
SECTION IV
Table 1. Gravel, sand, silt, and clay percents of tidal
flat sediments of Island Flats, Port Valdez 22
Table 2. Grain size analysis of surface and subsurface
sediments taken from the tidal flats of
Island Flats, Dayville Flats, and Mineral Creek,
Port Valdez 23
Table 3. Temperatures in degrees centigrade, at low
tide in the Port Valdez area and other
nearby locations 26
Table 4. Mean monthly water and air temperatures in
degrees centigrade of samples from the
Port Valdez area 32
Table 5. Salinity of surface water and interstitial
water of sediments in Port Valdez 34
Table 6. Salinity of tidal waters in Port Valdez,
Alaska 35
Table 7 - Iron and manganese concentrations in sediment
interstitial waters of tidal flats, Port
Valdez, Alaska 39
Table 8. Organic carbon percents in carbonate-free
sediment core samples on tidal flats of
Port Valdez 42
Table 9. Carbonate, organic carbon, and total carbon
contents in baseline sediments of Island Flats
taken in the winter of 1973 45
Table 10. Weighted peak area percentages of clay minerals
in tidal flat sediments, Port Valdez 49
Table 11. Trace element concentrations in tidal flat
core sediments, Port Valdez area. ....... 53
Table 12. Baseline concentrations of heavy metals in the
gravel-free gross sediments and mud fractions
of tidal flat deposits, Island Flats, Port Valdez. 54
Table 13. Baseline trace element data on some faunal and
floral tissues, Island Flats, Port Valdez. 55
xv
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LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
SECTION V
Table 14. Number of organisms per gram of sediment obtained
from three sites in Port Valdez 58
Table 15. Percent density of filamentous fungi and yeasts
within sites .... 60
Table 16. Percent density of microfungi between sites 65
Table 17. Percent density of yeasts between sites.. 67
SECTION VI
Table 18. Densities of meiofauna, total Nematodes and
total copepods per 10 cm2 from an intertidal
sampling station at 0.0 m, Dayville, Port Valdez,
Alaska .. 77
Table 19. Densities of total meiofauna, total Nematodes
and total copepods per 10 cm from an inter-
tidal sampling station at 0.0 m, Mineral Creek,
Port Valdez, Alaska 78
Table 20. Densities of total meiofauna, total Nematodes
and total copepods per 10 cm2 from two inter-
tidal sampling stations at 0.0 m, baseline and
alternative study beaches on Island Flats,
Port Valdez, Alaska 79
Table 21. Densities of total meiofauna, total Nematodes
and total copepods per 10 cm2 from an inter-
tidal sampling station at 0.0 m, Old Valdez,
Port Valdez, Alaska 80
Table 22. Densities of total meiofauna, total Nematodes
and total copepods per 10 cm2 from an inter-
tidal sampling station at 0.0 m, Galena Bay,
Port Valdez, Alaska 80
Table 23. List of species collected on all study beaches
in Port Valdez 81
Table 24. Densities of harpacticoid copepods per 10 cm2 from
an intertidal sampling station at 0.0 m, Dayville,
Port Valdez, Alaska 83
Table 25. Densities of harpacticoid copepods per 10 cm2 from
an intertidal sampling station at 0.0 m, Mineral
Creek, Port Valdez, Alaska 84
xvi
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LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
SECTION VI - (Continued)
Table 26. Densities of harpacticoid copepods per 10 cm2 from
two intertidal sampling stations at 0.0 m, baseline
and alternative study beaches on Island Flats,
Port Valdez, Alaska 85
Table 27. Densities of harpacticoid copepods per 10 cm2
from an intertidal sampling station at 0.0 m,
Old Valdez, Port Valdez, Alaska 86
Table 28. Densities of harpacticoid copepods per 10 cm2
from an intertidal sampling station at 0.0 m,
Galena Bay, Port Valdez, Alaska 86
Table 29. Densities of "other copepods" per 10 cm2 from
an intertidal sampling station at 0.0 m,
Dayville, Port Valdez, Alaska 87
Table 30. Densities of "other copepods" per 10 cm2 from
an intertidal sampling station at 0.0 m,
Mineral Creek, Port Valdez, Alaska 88
Table 31. Densities of "other copepods" per 10 cm2 from
two intertidal sampling stations at 0.0 m,
baseline and alternative study beaches on Island
Flats, Port Valdez, Alaska 89
Table 32. Densities of "other copepods" per 10 cm2 from
an intertidal sampling station at 0.0 m,
Old Valdez, Port Valdez, Alaska 90
Table 33. Densities of "other copepods" per 10 cm2 from
an intertidal sampling station at 0.0 m,
Galena Bay, Port Valdez, Alaska 90
Table 34. Densities of other meiofauna per 10 cm2 from
an intertidal sampling station at 0.0 m,
Dayville, Port Valdez, Alaska 91
Table 35. Densities of other meiofauna per 10 cm from
an intertidal sampling station at 0.0 m,
Mineral Creek, Port Valdez, Alaska 92
Table 36. Densities of other meiofauna per 10 cm2 from
two intertidal sampling stations at 0.0 m,
baseline and alternative study beaches on Island
Flats, Port Valdez, Alaska 93
xvii
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LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
SECTION VI - (Continued)
Table 37. Densities of other meiofauna per 10 cm2 from
an intertidal sampling station at 0.0 m,
Old Valdez, Alaska 94
Table 38. Densities of other meiofauna per 10 cm2 from
an intertidal sampling station at 0.0 m,
Galena Bay, Port Valdez, Alaska 94
Table 39. Mean densities of other fauna per 10 cm2 from
an intertidal sampling station at 0.0 m,
Dayville, Port Valdez, Alaska 95
Table 40. Mean densities of other fauna per 10 cm2 from
an intertidal sampling station at 0.0 m,
Mineral Creek, Port Valdez, Alaska 97
Table 41. Mean densities of other fauna per 10 cm2 from
two intertidal sampling stations at' 0.0 m,
baseline and alternative study beaches, on
Island Flats, Port Valdez, Alaska. . 99
Table 42. Mean densities of other fauna per 10 cm2 from
an intertidal sampling station at 0.0 m,
Old Valdez, Port Valdez, Alaska 100
Table 43. Mean densities of other fauna per 10 cm2 from
an intertidal sampling station at 0.0 m,
Galena Bay, Port Valdez, Alaska 100
Table 44. Vertical distribution of total meiofauna in the
sediments 110
Table 45. Reproductive biology of the common copepod species
on beaches in Port Valdez, Alaska 114
SECTION VII
Table 46. Monthly frequency of occurrence by number and
percent of Earpaot'iQUS wvLvemls copepodites,
adult males and females at appropriate cephalo-
thorax lengths from May 1972 - May 1975. 123
Table 47. Size frequency distribution of H. univemis
copepodites on Dayville Flats 139
Table 48. Seasonal changes in the monthly composition of
H, uniremis on Dayville Flats 144
xviii
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LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
SECTION VII - (Continued)
Table 49. Newman-Keuls multiple comparison test with
equal sample sizes 151
Table 50. Densities of Earpaoticus uniremis on Dayville
Flats as related to mean water temperature,
sediment surface temperature, water salinity
and sediment surface salinity 154
Table 51. Totals, means and standard deviations of
Earpaotious uniremis collected at eight
tidal heights at Dayville Flats 161
SECTION VIII
Table 52. Carbonate, organic carbon, and total carbon
contents in baseline and oil-impacted sediments
of Island Flats 165
Table 53. Trace metal concentrations of gravel-free
tidal flat sediments of Port Valdez 167
SECTION IX
Table 54. Oil-ammendment and sampling protocol for
experiments of summer 1974 174
Table 55. Preliminary survey of bacterial biomass in
sediments from Island Flats study area and
oil seep site from Old Valdez pre-earthquake
oil storage area during 1973 sampling season 179
Table 56. Heterotrophic bacterial counts on sediment
samples from oiled and control island flats
sites taken during 1974 sampling season.... 180
Table 57. Percent of colonies producing H S from
organic sources 183
Table 58. Most probable number analysis of enrichment
cultures for Rhodospirrillaceae 185
Table 59. Oxygen uptake by sediments enriched in vitro
with glucose and by in situ surface application
of oil 187
Table 60. Oxygen uptake by control site sediments enriched
in vitro with glucose and oil 190
xix
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LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
SECTION X
Table 61. Prudhoe Bay crude oil additions and collections
sediment, bacterial, meiofaunal and oil studies.. 201
Table 62. Results of oil addition at 500 ppm on three
species of intertidal harpacticoid copepods from
Port Valdez, Alaska, summer 1974 213
Table 63. Results of oil addition at 1000 ppm on three
species of intertidal harpacticoid copepods from
Port Valdez, Alaska, summer 1974 219
Table 64. Results of oil addition at 2000 ppm on three
species of intertidal harpacticoid copepods from
Port Valdez, Alaska, summer 1974. „ 222
Table 65. Analysis of variance of the numbers of each of
three species of copepods, in control and test
rings 227
Table 66. Effects of oil on copepod populations from
an area of 3.14 cm2 in Port Valdez 230
Table 67. Populations of copepods expressed as a per-
cent of the total number present in control
and oil samples 233
Table 68. Oil experiment 235
SECTION XI
Table 69. Concentrations of hydrocarbons isolated from
sediments 241
Table 70. Number of deaths of Maooma balthioa in
intertidal test frames subjected to 1.2 and
5.0 y& oil/cm2 for 5 days at Port Valdez,
Alaska, in the summer of 1974 247
Table 71. Hydrocarbon concentrations in sediment depth
profiles taken at Island Flats 252
Table 72. Percentage mortalities of Maooma balthioa in
intertidal test frames subject to 5.0 \j.H cm"2
for five days at Port Valdez, Alaska 255
Table 73. Concentration of oil in sediments expressed as
lag oil/g of dry sediment, concentration of oil
in soft parts of M. balthioa, and percent mor-
tality of M. balthioa 256
xx
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LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
SECTION XI - (Continued)
Table 74. Concentration of oil in sediments, concen-
tration of oil in soft parts of M. balth-ica
and percent mortality of M, balthi-oa 257
APPENDIX A
Table 1. Analysis of variance of the numbers of
each of three species of copepods, in
control and test rings (7/3&4/7A) 278
Table 2. Analysis of variance of the numbers of
each of three species of copepods, in control
and test rings 281
Table 3. Analysis of variance of the numbers of each
of three species of copepods, in control
and test rings (8/2/74) 284
Table 4. Analysis of variance of the numbers of each
of three species of copepods, in control and
test rings (8/16/74) 287
Table 5. Analysis of variance of the numbers of each
of three species of copepods, in control and
test rings (9/15/74) 290
xx i
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Dr. G. D. Sharma and Mr. E. Szafran of the Institute of Marine Science,
are responsible for the textural analysis of tidal-flat sediment cores.
We thank Dr. T. C. Mowatt for fruitful discussions on the clay mineral com-
position of sediments. Mr. T. Trible helped in the emission spectrographic
analysis of sediments. Dr. Rita Horner and Mr. David Nebert of the Institute
of Marine Science, helped in the measurement of water salinities. Mr. George
Perkins of the National Marine Fisheries Service made temperature and salinity
data available to us; he also collected one year of samples used in the
Harpaeticus uni-Temis studies. Judy Paul of the Institute of Marine Science
assisted in the collection of meiofaunal samples in the field. We acknowledge
the following individuals of the Marine Sorting Center, University of Alaska:
George J. Mueller for advice, assistance and taxonomic aid; Nora Foster for
sorting assistance and John Chang for general assistance. We thank the fol-
lowing for taxonomic assistance: Thorkil E. Hallas, University of Copenhagen
for tardigrade determinations, Dr. R. Hamond, Melbourne University and Mr.
D. Geddes, Paisley College of Technology, Scotland for copepod identifications,
and Robert Given for cumacean determinations. We appreciate the aid of the
crew of the R/V Aaona. Ellen Grybeck was of inestimable aid in the sorting
of some material and in the compilation of data into tabular and graphic
form. Discussions with Ray Morris, Environmental Protection Agency, Anchorage
were much appreciated in the early phases of the investigation. Helen Stock-
holm and Ellen Nilsson graciously gave large blocks of their time and organ-
izational abilities in the final compilation of this report. Also, we would
like to thank Dr. Dale Brandon of Alyeska Pipeline Service Company, who donated
a sample of Prudhoe Bay crude oil.
This project was funded by Grant No. R800944-02-0 from the Environmental
Protection Agency.
xxii
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SECTION I
CONCLUSIONS
The tidal flat sediments of Port Valdez display wide lateral
variations in lithological, chemical and biological subfacies. These
variations are generally a function of variations in tidal energies,
and distances from rock outcrops. Within a radius of about 15 m from
rock outcrops the tidal flat is carpeted with very poorly sorted gravels,
supporting a dense growth of Fucus and a few barnacles at the highest
tide mark. At the toes of these gravel deposits, growth of profuse
colonies of Mytilus edulis is often promoted. At the mid-tide horizon (0.0 m
mean tidal height) the sediments, to a depth of 16 cm, consist of homo-
genous plastic muds. The surficial 4 cm of these sediments are well oxygen-
ated, slightly alkaline (pH 7.2 to 7.4), and contain interstitial waters
that have invariably higher salinity than the overlying sea water. Around
the 1.0 m tidal horizon (behind Ammunition Island) the tidal flats are
composed of either muddy sands, sandy muds, or muds with the granulometric
composition depending largely on microrelief. A few low mounds of this
latter area have muddy sands and seem to constitute the most suitable
habitat for the clam Macoma balthi-oa. The surficial 3 cm of these deposits
are well oxygenated; however, the subsurface layers are anoxic with a little
precipitated but no dissolved sulfide present. In the upper tidal flat area,
particularly north of the rocky islands, where tidal turbulence is rel-
atively low, deposition of muds and dense growth of algae (e.g. Chlorophyta,
Monostroma and Viva") are facilitated. Under putrefying algal masses the
sediments are anoxic, and the presence of both dissolved as well as pre-
cipitated sulfide is quite evident in them. The distal ends of the tidal
flats are constituted of marsh with muddy substrata.
Generally, the tidal flat sediments are very poorly sorted, and
have low intercalated organic matter. These sediments are composed of
glacially derived flour generated under intense physical rather than chem-
ical weathering conditions, as suggested by the overall clay mineralogy
and the lack of chemical fractionation in any sediment based on size grades.
-------
Chemical analysis of gravel-free gross sediments at the mid-tide horizon
showed the following heavy metal concentrations: Cu = 53 ppm; Pb = 33 ppm;
Zn = 117 ppm; Ni = 79 ppm; and V = 265 ppm. No significant change in the
concentrations of Pb, Ni, V, organic carbon, and the anoxic-oxic conditions
in sediments were discerned at the above tidal horizon, subsequent to addi-
tion of various dosages of Prudhoe crude oil. A notable increase in the
Cu and Zn concentrations was discernible only under conditions of chronic
oil dosages. An overall lack of change in oiled sediment chemistry is
most likely attributable to swift tidal removal of the crude oil from the
tidal flat surfaces, and also to the inability of the glacially weathered
sediments to immobilize metals that are either complexed with hydrocarbons
or are released from the degradation of the latter.
The number of fungi isolated from sampling sites was low, and there
was a general decrease in numbers with increased depth. The sampling site
in the area of Old Valdez appeared to be the richest in fungal flora.
Forty-seven species of microfungi were isolated from this site. The latter
area was subject to constant seepage from oil tanks damaged during a
serious earthquake in 1964. The known genera of fungi did not include
any typically marine organisms. Yeast species appeared to be more cosmo-
politan in distribution than the filamentous fungi. Aerobic bacteria were
most numerous at the Island Flats study site, and anaerobes were most
abundant at Mineral Creek. Ninety-two percent of the bacterial isolates
tested proved to be gram negative rods.
The sediment-dwelling meiofauna was examined over a two-year period,
and was shown to be relatively diverse in types as well as numbers of
organisms present. The faunal abundance and general composition of major
taxa collected compare favorably with that found for intertidal flats
studied in north temperate regions. Meiofaunal representatives of nine
phyla were collected; species with adaptations for an interstitial way of
life were rare. The fine sediments characteristic of Port Valdez appear
to preclude species with an interstitial way of life. Nematodes were the
most abundant organisms found, harpacticoid copepods were second in overall
2
abundance. Nematodes ranged from 172 to 3496 individuals per 10 cm ,
-------
2
harpacticoids from 26 to 1329 individuals per 10 cm , and total meiofauna
2
from 209 to 4682 individuals per 10 cm . Differences in meiofaunal com-
position appear to be related to the sediment characteristics of the
particular area. The study sites with somewhat coarser sediments (Mineral
Creek and Island Flats) contained a larger percentage of harpacticoid cope-
pods as well as a greater number of individuals of each species than that
found in the finer sediment beaches (Dayville Flats). Meiofaunal organisms
occurred primarily in the upper three centimeters of sediment. It is probable
that the presence of an anoxic environment in the subsurface sediments in
Port Valdez restricts the meiofauna to the surficial sediments. No seasonal
vertical movements of meiofauna were noted in Port Valdez. The sediment-
dwelling copepods of Port Valdez cannot tolerate the very low salinities
characteristic of the overlying waters there in the spring and summer, and
die rapidly if exposed to salinities less than 6 °/00. Thus, the relative
stability of the interstitial salinity of the surface sediments makes survival
possible there. Alteration of intertidal sediments by industrial activity
could alter the salinity-stability characteristics of the sediments there
with resultant loss of intolerant species. Densities of meiofauna can
typically be expected to vary directly with water and sediment temperatures.
However, unusually high temperatures in the late fall and early winter can
be expected to cause brief surges of reproductive activity at this time,
but the dramatic decrease in density of these resurgent populations when
the temperature drop once again suggests that these density peaks are not
important to the general recruitment of meiofauna on the Port Valdez beaches.
The life history of one species of harpacticoid copepod, Earpaot-ious
uniremis, was examined in detail, and a number of features of its biology
was determined. Some of these features should be useful for monitoring
beaches in Port Valdez in the future. A pattern of high densities of H.
unipemi-s during spring and summer months and low numbers during fall and
winter months generally persisted throughout the study. The species has a
distinct seasonal reproductive period with the maximum number of ovigerous
females occurring in late winter and early spring. Ovigerous H. uniremis
aggregate significantly (a = 0.05) at the mid-tide region. In the months
-------
with the greatest densities of copepods, primarily adult, non-ovigerous
females were present. Conversely, the months with lowest copepod densities
typically had a more heterogeneous composition. The months of highest
densities of H. uniremi-s at Dayville Flats were typically those months with
highest water temperatures and highest sediment surface temperatures. Males
of the year reach maturity first and grasp copepodid females of their own
generation. Copepod maturation, the appearance of males in the population,
and copulation takes place primarily in late winter and early spring. Males
typically disappear from the population in May. Only adult females pre-
sumably carrying spermatophores remain throughout the summer and fall.
The application of modest amounts of oil to the surface of silt sedi-
ment deposits typical of Valdez Arm, may be expected to have little or no
overt effect on the microbial population. This is due, in part, to the
physical characteristics of the sediment and the relatively mild effect of
tidal movements, which, in combination, prevent entrance of oil into the
sediment and cause its rapid removal to the water column. Even though there
may be some changes in the types of bacteria present due to oil enrichment,
the observed increase in the number of the bacteria-grazing harpacticoid
copepods may have been one factor which prevented any increase in bacterial
standing biomass.
It is probable that meiofaunal trends in species and density composition
in Port Valdez will have to be documented primarily by qualitative methods
in view of the distributional patchiness of many of the species present.
However, baseline studies accomplished in the investigation suggest that it
will be possible to recognize gross changes in meiofaunal composition with
time and that continuing meiofaunal studies on selected beaches should indi-
cate if oil is affecting meiofauna there. The field experiments carried
out to test the effects of Prudhoe Bay crude oil on three species of harpacti-
coid copepods indicated that at the concentrations used (200, 500, 1000 and
2000 ppm), the copepods were either not adversely affected or increased in
numbers in the presence of oil. It is suggested that these density increases
are the result of an increase in copepod reproductive activity and/or attrac-
tion by copepods to the oil. Such a positive response to oil must be further
-------
tested in the field and the laboratory, but data do suggest that such
density increases in copepods might be useful for monitoring purposes.
Under the specific set of experimental and environmental conditions in
which the oil additive experiments were accomplished in the field, petroleum
was no longer detectable two months after application. Penetration of pet-
roleum into the sediments to depths beyond one centimeter does not appear
to be an important process. Rather, as was suggested by the sedimentolo-
gical and microbiological studies, it seems that oil is largely removed
from the surface of the sediments by the rinsing action of the tides and
to a lesser extent by biological activities. During the experimental period,
a significant increase in mortality for Macoma balthiaa exposed to Prudhoe
Bay was demonstrated, with clams dying in situ. These clams, when exposed to
soluble fractions of Prudhoe Bay crude oil and to oil-contaminated sediment
in the laboratory, responded in an apparently different manner than clams
exposed to oil in the field. Buried animals in the laboratory tended to
move to the surface while organisms at the surface when exposed to the oil
tended to remain there. The somewhat dissimilar results obtained in field
and laboratory experiments may be compatible. It is suggested that perhaps
clams moved to the surface initially in some of the oiling experiments in
the field, but were soon removed by predator activity and movement of tidal
waters.
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SECTION II
RECOMMENDATIONS
Many of the conclusions arrived at in this study are to be considered
tentative. Intensive baseline data on granulometric and chemical composi-
tion of sediments have been gathered from a limited area around a refer-
ence stake at the mid-tide level of Island Flats, Port Valdez, Alaska.
Throughout our studies it has been assumed that this area typically re-
presents much of the tidal-flat environment of the Port Valdez region.
As alluded to in the text, this assumption is valid only to a limited
extent, because the presence of definite lateral variations have been
discerned in lithological, biological, and chemical subfacies in any one
of the several tidal flat environments of Port Valdez. Thus, it is
suggested that baseline studies be extended to other tidal horizons.
The study of sediment chemistry following simulated oil spills has
also been conducted in a limited area, i.e., the mid-tide horizon. No
attempt has been made to check the precision of the results on sediment
geochemistry following the oil experiments. Therefore, it is advisable
that at least three separate oil experiments be conducted and replicate
samples from each experiment be statistically analyzed to determine the
variability present between analyses. Perhaps on the basis of such a
series of rigorous experiments, it may be possible to predict with greater
confidence the impact of Prudhoe crude oil on sediment chemistry. With-
out additional experimental data, it is suggested that extrapolation of
the present results to all of the tidal flats in Port Valdez be made with
caution.
Microbiological sampling accomplished to determine distribution and
abundance of sediment-dwelling microflora in Port Valdez marine sediments
was only carried out once during the summer of 1972. Thus, no informa-
tion is available for seasonal variation of the bacterial populations;
more frequent sampling in future investigations is recommended. Since
microorganisms were found at all depths sampled, future cores should be
taken to greater depths to determine the maximum depth of microbial
-------
activity in the area. In addition to a further detailed taxonomic study,
an attempt should be made to determine the precise role of these micro-
organisms as decomposers of detritus. However, the role of the micro-
organisms in the sediments of Port Valdez can be fully resolved only after
detailed determinations of live biomass and secondary productivity poten-
tials. The effects of long term, continuous, but low level organic enrich-
ment of the surface sediments should be examined. The ability of the native
bacterial species to establish "sulfide" systems suggests that continuously
available organic nutrients may allow the establishment of a more biologi-
cally active ecosystem. Similarily, continuous enrichment with inorganic
nutrients, particularly phosphate and nitrogen, may result in surface
growth of algae, with resulting development of associated bacterial and
meiofaunal species. Some other areas, with similar physical characteristics
to those observed in Valdez Arm (i.e., upper Cook Inlet), show visible
algal growth and marked production of sulfide below the algae mats.
Although a preliminary basis for understanding the sediment meiofauna
in Port Valdez has been derived from a two-year study, interpretation of
the extreme seasonal fluctuations of organisms here from year to year can
only be resolved by further sampling prior to oil-port activity. Contamina-
tion from the port facility and tanker operation may cause some changes in
meiofaunal composition and density. Documentation of changes in population
structure over a substantial time base is a necessary prerequisite if
ultimate development of a meiofaunal monitoring program is to be considered.
The copepod Harpaoticus univemls appears to be an excellent target
organism for use in monitoring the sediment environment in Port Valdez.
Suggestions are included here to refine our understanding of this organism
prior to its use for monitoring purposes: (1) Additional information is
needed for seasonal understanding of the distribution of the copepod on
beaches; transects extending from high water to shallow subtidal localities
should be occupied. (2) Additional data on a bimonthly basis should be
collected: e.g., quantitative meiofaunal samples at the 0.0 m tidal level,
sediment organic carbon data, environmental information, and monthly
chlorophyll levels. (3) A continuing examination of sex ratio, percent of
-------
females with eggs and fecundity should be made as a basis for understand-
ing changes in reproductive behavior when oil port operation begins.
(4) The nauplius of H. univemis, a stage that is probably very susceptible
to environmental stress, should be identified. (5) The food habits of
nearshore demersal fishes should be examined to determine if the copepod
might serve as an important trophic link between the Port Valdez inter-
tidal sediment system and these large organisms.
Three species of copepods examined in sediments exposed to various
levels of crude oil were not adversely affected by their exposure, and, in
fact, tended to show statistically significant increases in numbers in
some of the test plots as well as an increase in reproductive activity in
two of the species. Further field and laboratory studies are needed to
fully understand the copepod-oil relationships demonstrated by the copepods
used in the short-term experiments discussed in this report. Also, long-
term data are needed to determine the effects, on copepods, of the continuing
presence of soluble oil fractions in the overlying water column and in the
sediment.
Under the specific set of experimental and environmental conditions used
to add oil to the sediments, penetration of petroleum into the sediment depths
beyond one centimeter does not appear to take place, and petroleum is no
longer detectable two months after application. These petroleum-sediment
interactions, as well as other characteristics of the sediment systems on
the beaches studied in Port Valdez, are sufficiently different from sediment
systems elsewhere that further study and comparison with other Alaskan
intertidal systems appear necessary.
Investigation of the clam Maooma balthica should be continued to
further assess its potential as an indicator of oil pollution and to in-
crease our understanding of the biological basis for the responses of this
clam to crude oil as observed in the investigations reported here. Considera-
tion should be given to M. balthioa in the design of baseline and monitoring
studies of marine intertidal sediment systems where this species is present.
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SECTION III
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Valdez, a small town located in Prince William Sound, has been
selected as the southern terminus for a pipeline transporting oil from
Prudhoe Bay, Alaska to the. sea. Initially, the terminal at Valdez will
process 600,000 barrels of oil per day, but will be capable of consider-
able expansion. Numerous tankers will ply the waters of the Sound,
either with oil-contaminated ballast or fully loaded with crude oil received
from the terminal. It is assumed that some spillage will take place during
the extensive operations necessary to handle and ship such vast quantities
of crude oil. Additional contamination can be expected when tankers empty
their ballast tanks at dockside. At this time, water will be pumped from
the ship to a shore station where oil on the surface of the ballast water
will be removed, and the effluent returned to the sea. Some hydrocarbon
fractions will be returned to the environment with this effluent.
The waters of Prince William Sound show a mixed tidal pattern with
two unequal high and two unequal low waters for each lunar day. Extreme
fluctuations (up to 6 m) take place during periods of spring tides when
the highest and lowest tides of the year occur. Waters containing petroleum
fractions will be carried high on the shore twice daily during these periods,
and some of these fractions will spread over the sediment surface as the
waters ebb. The extreme high tides at this time bring saline waters to
pink salmon (Onaorhynchus gorbuscha) spawning areas located at the upper
reaches of the intertidal zone, and any oil carried by these tidal waters
to such areas could pose a potential threat to developing eggs, young,
and adults there.
Oil spills in highly turbulent areas are rapidly dispersed in a few
days with biodegradation following soon thereafter, except where large
clumps become buried in the sediment. High concentrations of oil combined
with some wave action will lead to sinking of heavier fractions, a situa-
tion that could occur in Port Valdez where winds of 70 to 100 knots are
-------
not uncommon. Ordinarily waters are calm in Port Valdez and in most
bays in Prince William Sound, and during such calm periods heavier frac-
tions of oil might be expected to accumulate onshore.
The continuing presence of petroleum fractions in the marine envir-
onment of Port Valdez introduces a new complex of variables to organisms
residing there, and these factors could have an especially great impact
on the infauna and epifauna of intertidal sediments. The heavy petroleum
fractions making up oil slicks would be expected to spread over intertidal
substrata and their associated fauna at every low tide while soluble frac-
tions would be present as a continuing potential threat at all tides.
Thus, the presence of oil in Port Valdez could result in a wide spectrum
of potential dangers to intertidal marine life there.
It was the intent of this investigation to intensively examine one
component of the marine environment of Port Valdez, the intertidal region,
and to specifically investigate the sediment system of a number of beaches
there. The objectives of the investigation were: (1) to determine the
typical physical, chemical and biological conditions of the sediment eco-
system of three beaches in Port Valdez, and (2) to experimentally examine
the physical, chemical and biological effects of Prudhoe Bay crude oil
added to the sediments of these three beaches.
10
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SECTION III
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Valdez, a small town located in Prince William Sound, has been
selected as the southern terminus for a pipeline transporting oil from
Prudhoe Bay, Alaska to the sea. Initially, the terminal at Valdez will
process 600,000 barrels of oil per day, but will be capable of consider-
able expansion. Numerous tankers will ply the waters of the Sound,
either with oil-contaminated ballast or fully loaded with crude oil received
from the terminal. It is assumed that some spillage will take place during
the extensive operations necessary to handle and ship such vast quantities
of crude oil. Additional contamination can be expected when tankers empty
their ballast tanks at dockside. At this time, water will be pumped from
the ship to a shore station where oil on the surface of the ballast water
will be removed, and the effluent returned to the sea. Some hydrocarbon
fractions will be returned to the environment with this effluent.
The waters of Prince William Sound show a mixed tidal pattern with
two unequal high and two unequal low waters for each lunar day. Extreme
fluctuations (up to 6 m) take place during periods of spring tides when
the highest and lowest tides of the year occur. Waters containing petroleum
fractions will be carried high on the shore twice daily during these periods,
and some of these fractions will spread over the sediment surface as the
waters ebb. The extreme high tides at this time bring saline waters to
pink salmon (Oncorhynahus gorbuscha) spawning areas located at the upper
reaches of the intertidal zone, and any oil carried by these tidal waters
to such areas could pose a potential threat to developing eggs, young,
and adults there.
Oil spills in highly turbulent areas are rapidly dispersed in a few
days with biodegradation following soon thereafter, except where large
clumps become buried in the sediment. High concentrations of oil combined
with some wave action will lead to sinking of heavier fractions, a situa-
tion that could occur in Port Valdez where winds of 70 to 100 knots are
-------
not uncommon. Ordinarily waters are calm in Port Valdez and in most
bays in Prince William Sound, and during such calm periods heavier frac-
tions of oil might be expected to accumulate onshore.
The continuing presence of petroleum fractions in the marine envir-
onment of Port Valdez introduces a new complex of variables to organisms
residing there, and these factors could have an especially great impact
on the infauna and epifauna of intertidal sediments. The heavy petroleum
fractions making up oil slicks would be expected to spread over intertidal
substrata and their associated fauna at every low tide while soluble frac-
tions would be present as a continuing potential threat at all tides.
Thus, the presence of oil in Port Valdez could result in a wide spectrum
of potential dangers to intertidal marine life there.
It was the intent of this investigation to intensively examine one
component of the marine environment of Port Valdez, the intertidal region,
and to specifically investigate the sediment system of a number of beaches
there. The objectives of the investigation were: (1) to determine the
typical physical, chemical and biological conditions of the sediment eco-
system of three beaches in Port Valdez, and (2) to experimentally examine
the physical, chemical and biological effects of Prudhoe Bay crude oil
added to the sediments of these three beaches.
10
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SECTION IV
DEPOSITIONAL AND GEOCHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT OF PORT VALDEZ TIDAL FLATS
SETTING OF THE STUDY AREAS
Location and Physiography
Port Valdez is situated in the coastal belt of the Pacific Mountain
System of South Alaska (Figure 1). The Port is a glaciated reentrant or
fjord in the Chugach Mountains, and is characterized by a long (21 km),
narrow (4.5 km), deep body of water that is hemmed in by steep, precipi-
tous, high mountains (150 to 1000 m). It constitutes the northeastern-
most arm of Prince William Sound, and the extent of it at its head is
restricted by the outwash deltaic complex formed by the debris from the
Lowe and Robe Rivers as well as the melt-water streams of the Valdez Glacier.
Port Valdez consists essentially of a flat bottomed and steep-sided
glacially carved trough with two sills near the Port mouth. The east-
west longitudinal extension of the Port has been defined chiefly by the
alignment of the major structural trends of the surrounding lithology which
is also east-west.
Climate
The Port Valdez region is subjected to long, severely cold winters and
short, cool summers. Although the mean annual air temperature is around 10°C,
there can be quite wide variations between the lowest (-34°C in January) and
the highest temperatures (21°C in July-August). However, Port Valdez has
been recognized as the northern-most ice-free seaport in Alaska. The presence
of snow on the ground is evident for nearly 6 to 7 months a year while pre-
cipitation on the order of 158 cm/year is considered quite typical (Hood et
al., 1973)1.
General Oceanography
Port Valdez is a positive estuary with a classical estuarine cir-
culation of a seaward movement of brackish water and a landward movement
11
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Figure 1. Map of Port Valdez showing the Mineral Creek, Dayville, Old Valdez, and Galena Bay baseline
sampling sites as well as the Island Flats experimental area.
-------
of the deeper layers of saline water. Bottom waters are renewed each year
during cold months. During winter, freezing air temperatures and limited
freshwater runoff result in a renewal of the entire water structure within
the fjord. The surface water circulation moves in a counterclockwise
gyre; deeper waters oscillate with an apparent net movement into Port
Valdez.
Surface water temperatures range from winter minima of < 2.5°C to
summer maxima of > 11°C. Below about 75 m most temperatures are in the
3 to 6°C range. In the upper 20 m of the water column, extremely low
salinities (< 1.0 °/00) occur during the summer and higher values (32.0
°/oo) occur during the winter. Salinities below the upper 20 m vary
from about 28 to 32.5 °/00 (Hood et al., 1973)^.
Geology
The geology of the Port Valdez region is conveniently subclassed into
one bedrock unit and three depositional complexes that are comprised of
recent sedimentary deposits. The exposed bed rocks have been classed under
2
the Valdez Group of Late Cretaceous age (Moffit, 1954) . Typically, these
rocks consist of steeply dipping, thick inter-bedded slate and graywacke,
with minor amounts of argillite, arkosic sandstone, and conglomerate.
Around Valdez the rocks are closely folded, jointed, as well as foliated
in an east-west strike direction. The Valdez Group of rocks has been
subjected to intense glacial weathering, as evidenced by the physiography.
The recent deposits are the unconsolidated sediments of tidal flats, out-
wash delta and alluvial fans, and consist of a wide variety of poorly
sorted debris. The latter two environments are usually blanketed either
by gravels, sandy gravels, or gravelly sands with minor amounts of muds.
The tidal flats exhibit significant lateral variations in sediment types;
the upper flats generally consist of sandy muds whereas the lower flats
consist of muddy sands. Flats adjacent to rock outcrops, as is to be ex-
pected, show relatively larger amounts of gravels and rocks which may or
may not support a variety of sessile marine floral and faunal communities.
13
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Geological description of the Port Valdez area would be incomplete
without a note on seismic activity in the area. Port Valdez is part of an
extensive area in Alaska that is continuous with the circum-Pacific belt
which is seismically one of the most active zones on earth, and has been
subjected to relatively frequent earthquakes of significant magnitude.
The last severe earthquake which occurred in March 1964 was followed by
large-scale landslides and submarine slumpings in the Port Valdez area
resulting in some local changes in coastal geomorphology. The hingeline
showing the zero land level change, following the above earthquake, runs
3
almost along the southern edge of Port Valdez (Stanley, 1971 after
Plafker, 1965 ). This suggests that the intertidal regions of the study
sites at Island Flats and Mineral Creek have been recently lowered while
the intertidal study areas in the vicinity of Dayville Flats have been
uplifted (Figure 1). In the course of sampling operations we came across
several hundred dead bivalves, Mya arenaria, partly protruding on tidal
flats of the Dayville area. These suspension-feeding mollusks, probably
died enmass after the earthquake of March 1964, and have been subaerially
exposed because of local uplifting of the region and subsequent erosion
of the tidal flat surfaces.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A mid-tide site (0.0 m tidal height) was selected on each of three
tidal flats (i.e., Island Flats, Dayville Flats, and Mineral Creek Flats,
(Figure 1) for obtaining sediment samples simultaneously with biological
samples.
For the purpose of chemical analysis, sediment core samples were
collected in duplicate in short (46 cm) plastic core liners having an
internal diameter of 7.6 cm. The core samples were achieved by first
driving the liners manually into the tidal flats and then, following a
small amount of rotation or digging around the base of the core, the
liners loaded with sediments were retrieved. To minimize escape of gases
as well as contamination of the samples with atmospheric oxygen, the core
liners were quickly capped at the ends and sealed in the field with tape.
14
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Prior to taping, the section of the liner which was devoid of any sediment
sample was cut transversely and separated out. This step was taken to
ensure that no air pocket was left between the cap and the sediment top.
Because of the presence of compacted subsurface clay it was generally not
possible to manually drive the plastic liners deeper than 16 cm.
At the field base camp in Valdez, sediments in one of the core
liners were pushed out and cut transversely into 4 cm sections, using a
teflon-coated stainless-steel knife. The individual sections were then
put in plastic bags and stored in a frozen state until grain size, chemical,
and clay mineral analyses could be taken up at the Fairbanks laboratory.
From a second core sample interstitial water samples were obtained.
Approximately 4 cm sections of sediments from the core top were extruded
and directly loaded into teflon squeezers in order to express out inter-
stitial water samples. The squeezing unit was similar to that devised by
Reeburgh, (1967) and operated under N. pressure. To minimize contamination
of the interstitial water samples with atmospheric 0 , the entire operation
of sediment extrusion from liners and squeezing was conducted in a N
atmosphere in a glove compartment. The above procedure was satisfactory
for sampling interstitial waters from 4 cm sediment sections, but was not
favorable when interstitial water samples were to be desired from 1 cm
sections because of limited sediment volumes that can be obtained in a
liner of 7.6 cm diameter. As such, successive 1 cm sections from the top
to 4 cm depths were scraped from the tidal flats and the squeezers were
loaded up to the brim directly in the field, and the sediment samples were
stored with mimimum atmospheric contact until ready for squeezing. Invar-
iably these sediments were squeezed within one half hour of the time of
collection.
Aliquots of sediment interstitial waters, collected by the above
procedure, were directly taken into two separate hypodermic syringes for
quantitative colorimetric measurements of dissolved 0_ (Broenkow and
Cline, 1969) and H S (Cline, 1969) . When necessary, additional sediment
sections were taken from the field, squeezed, and interstitial water
samples collected for Fe, Mn, and salinity measurements.
15
-------
Size analysis of sediments was achieved by the combined sieving-
Q
pipetting method (Krumbein and Pettijohn, 1938) . The conventional
statistical grain size parameters were calculated using the formulae given
by Folk and Ward (1957)9.
Clay mineral compositions in the less than 2 mp fractions of sediments
were analyzed by the X-ray diffraction technique. For routine clay mineral
assessments oriented grains were mounted on glass slides and X-rayed after
glycolation. However, for the determination of mica (or "illite") and chlo-
rite polytypes, randomly oriented grains were considered. Details on the
procedures pertaining to sample treatment, mounting, and quantifying the
clay minerals have been elaborated upon elsewhere (Naidu e~t at., 1971)
Baseline trace element, organic carbon, and carbonate analyses were
performed on gravel-free gross sediments. Sediment samples were dried at
110°C and then pulverized into fine powders using an agate mortar and
pestle. Semiquantitative triplicate analyses of each of these powders were
conducted for 20 elements in an emission spectrograph. Results of the
triplicate analyses were averaged to document the baseline semiquantitative
abundances of the elements. In addition, quantitative trace element data
were obtained by another way. Known portions of the above fine powders
were ashed in a platinum crucible, and digested first in concentrated HF-HNO.
acid and then in concentrated HNO_. The residue was then taken into solution
in 10% V/V HNO_ acid. From the solutions thus obtained the concentrations
of Cu, Pb, Zn, Ni, and V were analyzed by atomic absorption spectrophotometry,
using a Perkin-Elmer Model 370 unit. Elemental analysis precision was
better than 12%, and the accuracies of the analysis were checked by con-
sidering the U.S. Geological Survey standard rock sample AGV-1. In order
*
to gather information on the partition patterns of a few elements in the
coarse and fine size grades, the mud fraction (< 0.0062 mm size) of selected
sediments were separated from gross sediments via wet sieving through a
230 mesh stainless-steel sieve. From the mud fraction thus obtained, the
same suite of elements as in case of the gross sediments, were analyzed by
atomic absorption spectrophotometry.
16
-------
Carbonate in the sediments was determined manometrically (Hulsemann,
1966) . Organic carbon abundance in the sediments were calculated from
the differences between total carbon and carbonate carbon. Total carbon
was estimated in a LEGO, TC-12 automatic carbon determinator.
Temperatures were taken routinely during every sediment sample col-
lection with the use of a glass mercury thermometer. The pH of sediments
were documented by use of a portable Coleman, Model 37A, pH-Eh potentio-
meter. The electrodes were directly inserted at various depths on sediment
cross-sections and readings were taken when the instrument stabilized.
Salinities of sediment interstitial water as well as of the overlying
sea water were measured with an inductive salinometer.
The assessment of the oxic-anoxic state of tidal-flat sedimentary
regime was approached by various geochemical means, rather than the instru-
mental measurements of the oxidation-reduction potentials (Eh). Use of the
Coleman, Model 37A, pH-Eh potentiometer that was available to us had
limited applicability, primarily because of operational difficulties coupled
with the recognition of interpretive problems generally encountered in
obtaining true Eh of natural environments via instruments such as the
above (Whitfield, 196912; Berner, 197113; Machan and Ott, 197214).
In this study the oxic-anoxic nature of sedimentary environments
was recorded primarily on the basis of the quantitative analyses of dis-
solved 0 and H S in interstitial waters, and also on the basis of a
simple qualitative analysis to detect the presence or absence of precipi-
tated sulfide. Throughout this study, the presence of dissolved 0 has
been assumed to connote presence of an oxic environment, while the absence
of 0 or presence of tLS has been assumed to imply an anoxic condition.
L, £-
Fortunately, these geochemical criteria correlated quite well with analysis
of bacterial types, change in sediment colours, and density of faunal
populations. As such, it is felt that the geochemical methods followed by
us for determining oxic-anoxic sedimentary regimes on a routine basis is
quite tenable for the Valdez tidal flat area. In attempting to document
the baseline composition of some trace elements in the tissues of some
indicator faunal and floral species of the tidal flats, random samples
of a few algae (e.g., Monostroma, Ulva3 and Fueus) and bivalves (e.g.,
17
-------
Mytilus eduli-Sj and Maooma balthioa) were collected from the Island Flats
area. At the field base camp samples of each of the species were lightly
washed in double distilled water, and any epiphytes on the surface of the
organisms removed with teflon-coated tweezers. The floral samples were
then cut into small fragments and stored frozen until ready for analysis.
The pneumatocysts or floats of Fuous were excluded from the analysis.
The living bivalves were left in a plastic trough of clear seawater for
two days to purge their digestive tracts of all sediment, and the soft
parts then removed from the shells and stored in a frozen state. In the
Fairbanks laboratory, individual tissue samples were first freeze-dried
and then pulverized in an agate mortar and pestle. Weighed portions of
the tissues were taken into solution by adopting a simple modification
of the nitric acid vapor oxidation method of Thomas and Smythe (1973)
via an additional HO reaction (Tolg, 1972) . Erom these solutions,
the abundances of Cu, Pb, Zn, Cd, Mo, and Ni were quantitatively measured
by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Mercury in the tissues was analyzed
by flameless atomic absorption.
DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE TIDAL FLAT COMPLEX
In Prince William Sound, as well as in Port Valdez which forms a part
of the Sound, a mixed tidal pattern with two unequal high waters and two
low waters is observed for each lunar day. During spring tides in the
above area the tidal range can be as high as 6 m. Because of this exten-
sive tidal range and the presence of a blanket of unconsolidated sediments,
broad tidal flats have developed locally in Port Valdez on level intertidal
ground. In Port Valdez, intertidal regions which are readily Exposed to
tidal flat developments are generally restricted to the marine-ward margins
of outwash deltas and alluvial fans. This report describes the physico-
chemical characteristics of the depositional environments of tidal flats
from three geographic locations at the head of Port Valdez.
An almost continuous semicircle strip of tidal flats borders the sea-
ward margin of the intertidal area between the new town of Valdez and
Dayville Flats at the head of Port Valdez. However, there are only two
18
-------
regions along this strip where extensive tidal flats have developed. For
convenience, in this report the first area will be called Island Flats
because it lies around Ammunition and other adjacent small islands, between
the new and old townsites of Valdez. The second area will be called Day-
ville Flats because of its proximity to a former small town known as
Dayville. A third tidal flat area which has been considered for our
present study is situated on the marineward margin of the fluvial outwash
of Mineral Creek, west of the new township of Valdez, and is isolated
from the first two flats by a hillock (Figure 1). Because Island Flats
was studied in relatively more detail, most of the description that follows
will pertain to that area.
The three tidal flats mentioned above have quite contrasting deposi-
tional milieu, primarily because of the differences in their locations,
sediment source, and the topography surrounding them. As such, each of the
areas will be described separately.
Island Flats
The Island Flats study site is located in an embayed portion of
Port Valdez (Figure 1), and has an aerial extent of about 1.6 x 2.4 km.
There are significant lateral variations in the physicochemical nature
of the surficial deposits within this flat. With the changes in sediment
substrate habitat, almost concomitant lateral variations in faunal and
floral assemblages can also be detected. The intertidal area south of the
chain of islands (Figure 2) is a relatively high energy area as compared
to the flat area north of the islands; the former area is exposed directly
to the sea and is therefore exposed to more intense tidal current action.
However, within the southern tidal flat area three broad subfacies can be
recognized. The narrow strip extending from the foot of the easternmost
hill of Ammunition Island (Figure 2) to about 15 m south of the island is
blanketed with very poorly sorted coarse sediments, consisting chiefly of
gravels (generally of boulder, cobble and pebble sizes), subordinate amounts
of coarse sand, and traces of mud. The boulders lying next to the hillock
and at the high tide mark support dense algal colonies of Chlorophyta and
Fuous, and a few barnacles. In Figure 2 this sub-environment has been
19
-------
ROCK OUTCROPS
SUBFACIES I
SUBFACIES II
SUBFACIES III
SUBFACIES IV
SUBFACIES V
TIDAL CHANNELS
Figure 2. Lithological facies on Island Flats, Port Valdez. A) General
areas of investigation. B) Enlarged view of Ammunition Island
and study areas. Details based on ground truth and air-photo
interpretation.
-------
depicted as SUBFACIES I. Extending seaward to about 60 m from the outward
margin of the above subfacies of coarse deposit is a tidal flat area that
is dominated by plastic and leathery muddy deposits (< 62 p) (SUBFACIES II
in Figure 2). These deposits may have some gravels (Figure 2; Table 1,
Samples 1 to 14), are generally poorly sorted, and have negatively to
positively skewed as well as leptokurtic size distributions (Table 2).
This subfacies was selected as the site for more detailed meiofaunal in-
vestigations, the site lies at the mid-tide level (0.0 m tidal height).
Temperature measurements of intertidal surficial sediments (upper 2 cm)
on a monthly schedule in Port Valdez during an entire year showed significant
temporal variations (Tables 3 and 4). As expected, these variations followed
the seasonal variations in the overlying air and water temperatures, as well
as on the presence or absence of snow cover on tidal flats. Sediment tempera-
tures paralleled air temperatures at low tide and water temperatures at high
tide (also see Figures 4 and 5 in Section VI). Salinities of sediment inter-
stitial waters generally displayed an overall slight increase in the deeper
sections of sediment cores. Further, for any one given month, the intersti-
tial waters of sediments had relatively higher salinities than the tidal waters
overlying the sediments (Tables 5 and 6). These results are apparently similar
to those obtained by Friedman and Gavish (1970) who observed a general sub-
— I I I I _1_ _L
surface increase in several major ions (e.g., Cl , Mg , Ca , Na , and K )—
thus, plausibly salinity also-rLn interstitial water of continental margin sedi-
ments of Long Island area, New York (also see Barnes, 1974 ; Leppakoski, 1968
for discussion of salinities of interstitial waters). Admittedly, at present
we have no definite idea why salinities of the sediment interstitial waters of
Port Valdez flats display an increase below the sediment-water interface. A
reasonable explanation could be that there are ionic influxes of some major
alkali and alkaline-earth elements into the original parcels of entrapped inter-
stitial waters, resulting from postdepositional changes. The slight upward
decrease in salinities of interstitial waters in some months presumably reflect
the establishment of progressively greater chemical equilibration between inter-
stitial waters and overlying sea waters of core sections that are nearer to the
sediment-water interfaces.*
Note: Continuation of text on page 38.
21
-------
TABLE 1
GRAVEL, SAND, SILT, AND CLAY PERCENTS OF TIDAL FLAT SEDIMENTS OF
ISLAND FLATS, PORT VALDEZ (SEE FIGURE 2 FOR SAMPLE LOCATIONS).
MUD PERCENTS CALCULATED SEPARATELY
Sample No.
VLDZ3/74-1
VLDZ3/74-2
VLDZ3/74-3
VLDZ3/74-4
VLDZ3/74-5
VLDZ3/74-6
VLDZ3/74-7
VLDZ3/74-8
VLDZ3/74-9
VLDZ3/74-10
VLDZ3/74-11
VLDZ3/74-12
VLDZ3/74-13
VLDZ3/74-14
VLDZ4/ 74-15
VLDZ4/74-16
VLDZ4/74-17
VLDZ4/74-18
VLDZ4/74-19
VLDZ4/74-20
VLDZ4/74-21
VLDZ4/74-22
VLDZ4/74-23
VLDZ4/74-24
VLDZ4/74-25
VLDZ4/74-26
VLDZ4/74-27
VLDZ4/74-28
Gravel
7.90
5.46
15.77
0.16
4.21
12.40
13.87
18.65
5.70
0.16
0.17
-
-
-
9.21
11.72
12.69
3.68
18.83
4.86
1.25
9.32
-
8.50
2.20
2.00
-
48.90
Sand
35.04
50.31
7.65
13.72
59.98
87.60
86.13
81.35
94.30
1.99
8.32
1.68
1.16
6.01
50.94
74.49
83.73
48.44
16.54
44.66
73.74
65.68
77.00
77.50
81.80
92.00
30.00
31.10
Silt
43.43
28.70
70.39
68.18
22.39
-
-
-
-
74.84
77.12
96.45
95.77
64.80
20.36
6.96
2.50
22.18
33.31
23.43
11.47
2.50
16.50
12.30
9.00
4.00
59.00
6.00
Clay
13.63
15.53
6.19
17.94
13.42
-
s __
-
-
23.01
14.38
1.87
3.07
29.20
19.48
6.83
1.08
25.71
31.32
27.05
13.53
12.50
6.50
1.70
7.00
2.00
11.00
14.00
Mud
57.06
44.23
76.58
86.12
35.81
-
-
-
-
98.25
91.50
98.32
98.84
94.00
39.84
13.79
3.58
47.89
64.63
50.48
25.00
15.00
23.00
14.00
16.00
6.00
70.00
20.00
22
-------
U)
TABLE 2
GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS OF SURFACE AND SUBSURFACE SEDIMENTS TAKEN FROM THE TIDAL FLATS
OF ISLAND FLATS, DAYVILLE FLATS, AND MINERAL CREEK, PORT VALDEZ.
Md=MEDIAN; MZ=MEAN; ax= SORTING; SKX=SKEWNESS; K^KURTOSIS
Core Section
Sample (cm) Gravel % Sand %
Island Flats
Core 1
(at 15 cm above
mid-tide level)
Core 2
(at mid-tide
level)
Surface Sediments
at 1 m high-tide level
No. 22
No. 23
0-1
1-2
2-3
3-4
4-5
5-6
6-7
7-8
0-1
1-2
2-3
3-4
4-5
5-6
0-2
0-2
2.25 75.
5.25 92.
7.00 92.
10.05 89.
15.00 85.
36.50 63.
35.00 64.
35.50 63.
75
75
75
95
00
50
75
00
7.50
13.
3.
8.
1.
0.
9.32 65.
77.
50
50
50
00
25
68
00
Silt %
8.50
0.25
0.25
-
-
-
0.25
1.50
47.50
43.50
49.50
49.50
51.50
50.75
2.50
16.50
Clay % Md()
13.50 1.
1.75 0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
-0.
-0.
45.00 7.
43.00 7.
47.00 7.
42.00 7.
47.50 7.
49.00 7.
12.50 2.
6.50 1.
16
95
91
91
87
19
59
51
81
65
36
60
85
94
70
60
Mz() O-L SKj Kg
2.
0.
0.
0.
0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
7.
7.
8.
7.
8.
8.
3.
2.
95
83
77
75
52
35
51
59
89
61
09
77
11
24
13
83
3.45
0.88
0.95
1.09
1.28
1.87
1.35
1.56
2.52
2.84
2.33
2.44
2.08
2.07
3.46
2.73
0.72
-0.27
-0.29
-0.36
-0.48
-0.37
0.09
-0.13
0.01
-0.02
0.15
0.05
0.21
0.27
0.22
0.63
3.26
1.12
1.12
1.31
1.19
0.65
0.89
1.23
1.31
1.30
1.13
1.23
1.04
1.09
1.99
1.22
-------
TABLE 2 (Continued)
GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS OF SURFACE AND SUBSURFACE SEDIMENTS
N5
.p-
Core Section
Sample (cm) Gravel % Sand %
No. 24 0-2
No. 25 0-2
No. 26 0-2
No. 27 0-2
No. 28 0-2
Dayville Flats
0-1
1-2
2-3
3-4
4-5
5-6
6-7
7-8
8-9
9-10
10-11
11-12
12-13
13-14
8.50 77.
2.20 81.
2.00 92.
30.
48.90 31.
15.
8.
2.
2.
1.
8.
8.
5.
2.
1.
6.
5.
4.
1.
50
80
00
00
10
00
50
50
50
50
00
00
50
00
25
75
50
00
50
Silt %
12
9
4
59
6
64
66
80
62
65
52
68
68
65
66
70
68
68
68
.30
.00
.00
.00
.00
.00
.50
.25
.50
.50
.75
.50
.00
.00
.75
.75
.60
.00
.50
Clay %
1.70
7.00
2.00
11.00
14.00
21.00
25.00
17.25
35.00
33.00
39.25
2i:50
26.50
33.00
32.00
22.50
26.50
28.60
30.00
Md()
1.70
1.30
0.70
5.00
-1.00
6.52
6.60
5.77
7.31
7.12
7.25
6.41
6.77
7.22
7.15
6.45
6.80
6.91
7.05
Mf i \ OV
_ \§) GT oJs.^
1.83
1.90
0.77
4.90
1.13
6.42
6.85
6.10
7.66
7.51
8.22
6.74
7.13
7.53
7.58
6.85
7.15
7.35
7.47
2.19
2.26
1.61
2.18
4.39
2.30
2.22
2.11
2.10
1.99
3.03
2.02
2.21
1.83
1.86
2.12
2.15
2.05
1.84
0
0
0
-0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
.11
.50
.13
.09
.67
.04
.21
.41
.30
.32
.37
.25
.32
.32
.41
.32
.29
.39
.40
KG
1.74
2.64
3.28
1.36
1.41
1.31
1.46
1.25
1.34
1.26
1.05
1.38
1.58
1.20
1.30
1.80
1.63
1.51
1.28
-------
TABLE 2 (Continued)
GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS OF SURFACE AND SUBSURFACE SEDIMENTS
N5
Core Section
Sample (cm) Gravel %
Mineral Creek
0-1
1-2
2-3
3-4
4-5
5-6
6-7
30.
32.
19.
26.
30.
34.
21.
00
25
50
00
50
00
25
Sand %
53.
50.
62.
55.
53.
50.
60.
50
25
25
50
50
75
75
Silt %
10.50
11.00
11.75
11.00
9.75
7.75
11.50
Clay %
6.00
6.00
6.50
7.50
6.25
7.50
6.50
Md(<(>)
0.40
0.51
0.96
0.90
0.58
0.20
1.11
Mz(4>)
0.71
0.47
1.31
1.09
0.65
0.55
1.25
°I
3.49
3.67
3.10
3.42
3.43
3.41
3.27
SKj
0.23
0.15
0.29
0.22
0.19
0.32
0.17
KG
1.21
1.01
1.23
1.16
1.06
1.49
1.20
-------
TABLE 3
TEMPERATURES IN DEGREES CENTIGRADE, AT LOW TIDE IN THE PORT VALDEZ AREA AND OTHER NEARBY LOCATIONS
Date
May 16,
June 11,
June 27,
July 10,
July 11,
July 12,
July 12,
July 26,
July 28,
July 29,
July 29,
July 30,
Aug 8,
Aug 9,
Aug 10,
Aug 11,
Sept 6,
Sept 8,
Sept 12,
Sept 15,
Sept 19,
Sept 22,
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
Location
0V
D
D
D
D
D
MC
D
D
D
MC
D
MC
D
IF
IF
MC
D
D
D
D
D
Water
7.
12.
10.
10.
10.
10.
12.
10.
10.
12.
9.
12.
10.
10.
10.
10.
8.
10.
10.
13.
10.
7.
T
6
3
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
2
8
5
5
3
5
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
Air T
6.2
13.5
12.0
17.2
16.0
12.8
13.5
10.9
-
11.0
10.2
18.3
14.5
12.4
12.3
11.3
9.1
12.2
12.3
12.2
9.2
3.8
Sediment
Surf T
-
14.5
13.5
14.0
19.5
15.0
11.5
12.6
11.5
18.0
12.0
17.0
12.3
17.2
17.3
17.4
11.9
11.7
9.5
10.0
10.1
5.5
1cm
-
13.0
13.0
13.5
18.5
14.5
11.8
12.8
-
14.3
11.5
17.0
12.3
16.2
16.0
16.0
12.1
11.9
9.5
10.0
10.0
5.5
2cm
-
12.0
12.5
13.0
17.0
12.5
10.5
12.4
-
14.0
11.4
16.0
12.0
15.1
14.9
15.2
12.1
11.9
9.5
10.2
9.8
6.0
3cm
-
11.5
12.5
13.0
15.6
11.9
10.2
12.0
11.2
13.0
11.2
15.0
11.8
14.3
14.1
14.2
12.4
12.2
9.3
9.8
9.7
6.5
4cm
-
11.2
12.3
12.5
-
11.5
-
11.9
-
12.4
-
14.0
11.8
13.2
13.2
13.1
12.5
12.2
9.2
-
9.3
-
5cm
-
11.2
12.0
12.1
-
11.3
10.0
11.9
-
12.3
11.0
13.5
11.8
13.2
13.3
13.1
12.5
12.6
-
-
-
-
-------
TABLE 3
TEMPERATURES IN
(Continued)
DEGREES CENTIGRADE
Date
Sept 25,
Oct 5,
Oct 6,
Oct 7,
Nov 4,
Nov 5,
Dec 5,
Dec 7,
Jan 3,
Jan 4.
Feb 4,
Mar 7,
Mar 8,
Mar 9,
Mar 10,
Apr 5,
May 4,
June 3 ,
June 4 ,
July 1,
July 2,
July 3,
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
Location
MC
IF
MC
IF
D
MC
MC
D
MC
IF
D
D
MC
MC
0V
IF
IF
IF
IF
IF
IF
IF
Water
10.
7.
7.
7.
2.
1.
0.
2.
1.
2.
2.
2.
1.
2.
1.
3.
6.
15.
15.
13.
11.
11.
T
3
3
0
0
0
7
5
0
9
0
1
0
6
0
6
2
0
4
6
6
2
2
Air T
8.0
-0.5
6.0
-1.0
7.0
1.5
-3.0
-0.5
-0.5
0.0
-3.0
1.5
2.5
2.2
1.8
5.0
1.8
12.2
14.2
15.0
16.0
15.0
Sediment
Surf T
12.0
2.5
7.5
1.0
2.0
1.6
-1.2
-0.5
-0.5
0.0
-1.1
2.0
-
3.2
4.9
4.0
2.2
18.8
19.2
20.0
17.0
15.0
1cm
10.5
3.0
7.5
2.0
1.0
0.8
-0.8
-0.3
-0.4
0.1
-1.0
2.1
-
3.2
4.0
4.0
2.5
18.0
19.9
19.5
16.8
15.6
2cm
10.2
3.0
7.8
2.1
1.0
1.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.3
0.1
-1.0
2.4
-
3.2
3.8
4.0
2.0
17.8
18.7
19.0
16.0
15.5
3cm
10.0
3.5
8.0
2.1
1.2
1.2
0.0
-0.2
-0.3
0.2
-0.7
2.5
-
3.2
3.2
4.0
2.0
16.8
18.2
18.5
15.5
15.2
4cm
10.0
4.0
8.0
2.4
1.2
1.4
0.2
0.0
-0.3
0.3
-0.5
2.5
-
3.2
3.0
4.0
2.0
16.2
17.0
18.0
15.0
15.1
5cm
10.0
-
8.2
2.6
2.0
1.6
1.2
0.0
-0.4
0.3
0.1
2.5
-
3.2
2.9
4.0
2.0
15.5
16.6
18.0
15.5
15.0
-------
TABLE 3 (Continued)
TEMPERATURES IN DEGREES CENTIGRADE
N3
00
Date
July 4,
July 14,
July 29,
July 30,
Aug 1,
Aug 2,
Sept 13,
Sept 14,
Sept 15,
Sept 29,
Oct 2,
Nov 10,
Nov 12,
Dec 7,
Dec 8,
Jan 7,
Feb
Mar 6.
Mar 23,
Mar 24,
Mar 25,
Mar 26,
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
Location
IF
IF
IF
IF
IF
IF
IF
IF
IF
0V
0V
MC
IF
IF
IF
IF
-
if
IF
IF
IF
IF
Water
11.
13.
12.
11.
10.
9.
12.
11.
11.
5.
5.
0.
4.
-
-
0.
-
2.
1.
3.
2.
3.
T
6
0
0
2
2
0
0
5
8
5
8
5
0
0
0
0
3
5
5
Air T
15.4
13.2
12.6
15.0
13.5
17.5
9.0
10.6
10.3
6.0
10.0
-2.0
-3.5
2.0
2.0
-3.0
-
1.5
3.0
1.2
1.0
5.5
Sediment
Surf T
15.6
13.0
12.6
15.0
14.0
16.2
11.0
10.0
10.5
5.0
7.0
-1.0
-
1.5
1.3
-0.8
-
2.0
0.0.
3.0
4.0
5.2
1cm
15.0
13.0
12.4
15.6
14.5
16.4
11.2
10.0
10.6
5.5
7.2
-0.5
-
-
-
-0.2
-
2.1
0.5
2.9
4.0
4.8
2cm
15.0
13.0
12.3
15.5
14.5
16.3
11.8
10.3
10.7
6.0
7.8
0.0
-
-
-
0.0
-
2.4
0.2
3.0
4.0
4.5
3cm
14.8
12.8
12.2
15.2
14.0
16.0
12.0
10.7
10.9
6.3
8.0
0.5
-
-
-
0.0
-
2.5
1.0
3.4
4.0
4.5
4cm
14.8
12.4
12.2
15.1
14.0
16.0
12.0
11.0
11.0
6.5
8.0
0.8
-
-
-
0.0
-
2.5
1.0
3.8
4.0
4.2
5cm
14.8
12.2
12.0
15.0
14.0
16.0
12.0
11.0
11.0
6.8
8.0
1.0
-
2.0
1.7
0.0
-
2.5
-
4.0
4.0
4.0
-------
TABLE 3 (Continued)
TEMPERATURES IN DEGREES CENTIGRADE
Date
Mar
Mar
Apr
Apr
May
May
June
June
June
June
June
June
June
June
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
27,
28,
23,
24,
21,
22,
19,
20,
21,
22,
23,
24,
24,
26,
2,
3,
4,
5,
6,
7,
16,
18,
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
Location
IF
IF
IF
IF
IF
IF
IF
IF
IF
IF
IF
D
IF
IF
IF
IF
IF
IF
IF
IF
IF
IF
Water T
3
4
1
4
7
7
7
7
8
8
8
7
8
8
8
8
7
10
8
8
6
6
.0
.0
.0
.0
.5
.0
.8
.8
.0
.0
.0
.6
.0
.1
.8
.0
.8
.0
.0
.0
.1
.2
Sediment
Air T Surf T 1cm 2cm 3cm 4cm 5cm
1
2
3
4
7
13
14
14
12
13
12
9
17
15
10
12
12
13
16
13
12
12
.5 3.5
.0 4.0
.0 0.0
.0 12.0
.0 10.5
.0 14.8
.0
.0
.0
.3
.2
.8 7.4
.0
.3
.7
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.2
.0
2.0 2.1 2.5 3.0 3.2
4.1 4.1 4.1 4.2 4.2
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.0
12.8 13.0 13.5 13.8 14.0
11.0 11.0 11.0 11.0 11.0
15.0 15.0 14.5 14.0 13.5
_____
_
_____
_____
_____
7.4 7.6 7.6 7.6 7.6
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_
_____
_____
_____
-------
TABLE 3 (Continued)
TEMPERATURES IN DEGREES CENTIGRADE
Date
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
Aug
Aug
Aug
Aug
Aug
Aug
Aug
Aug
Aug
Sept
Oct
Nov
Aug
19,
20,
21,
22,
23,
23,
24,
25,
31,
2,
16,
16,
17,
17,
18,
18,
19,
20,
15,
31,
29,
24,
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1972
Location
IF
IF
IF
IF
IF
D
IF
IF
IF
D
D
IF
IF
D
D
IF
IF
IF
IF
D
D
GB*
Water T
6.
6.
6.
6.
6.
8.
6.
6.
7.
7.
9.
9.
7.
9.
9.
8.
7.
10.
9.
6.
3.
13.
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
5
0
8
8
3
8
8
2
9
0
0
0
8
0
Sediment
Air T Surf T 1cm 2cm 3cm 4cm 5cm
11
11
11
10
11
11
13
12
11
11
6
6
7
6
6
7
6
10
11
4
1
.0 - -
.3 - -
.6 - _____
.0 _____
.4 - _____
.0 8.6 8.4 8.4 8.2 8.2 8.2
.7 _____
.2 - _____
• D -~ ~" ~™ ™~ ~~ ™*
.0 - _____
.0 - _____
.1 _____
.2 _____
.0 - _____
.0 - _____
7 — _ —
• /
.9 - _____
.3 - -
.0 - _____
.5 8.0 _____
.5 2.9 _____
12.2 12.2 12.0 11.5 11.5 11.3
-------
TABLE 3 (Continued)
TEMPERATURES IN DEGREES CENTIGRADE
Date
Sept 25,
Jan 21,
Nov 9,
1972
1973
1973
Location
GB*
GB*
GB*
Water T
10.
-1.
6.
3
5
5
Air T
8.0
-8.3
-0.5
Sediment
Surf T 1cm
12.0
-7.8
0.5
10.5
-4.0
1.3
2cm
10.2
-2.0
2.0
3cm
10.0
-1.8
2.6
4cm
10.0
-1.5
3.0
5cm
10.0
-
3.6
D = Dayville
MC = Mineral Creek
0V = Old Valdez
IF = Island Flats
GB*= Galena Bay; outside of Port Valdez
-------
NJ
TABLE 4
MEAN MONTHLY WATER AND AIR TEMPERATURES IN DEGREES CENTIGRADE OF SAMPLES FROM THE
PORT VALDEZ AREA. POOLED TEMPERATURES FROM DAYVILLE FLATS, MINERAL CREEK AND ISLAND FLATS (SEE
TABLE 3 FOR ALL TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS)
Date
May 16,
June 19,
July 21,
Aug 10,
Sept 15,
Oct 6,
Nov 4,
Dec 6,
Jan 4,
Feb 4,
Mar 9,
Apr 5,
May 4,
June 4 ,
July 12,
Aug 2,
Sept 18,
Oct 2,
Nov 11,
Dec 8,
Water T
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
7
11
10
10
9
7
1
1
2
2
1
3
6
15
12
9
10
5
2
.6
.2
.8
.4
.8
.1
.9
.3
.0
.1
.8
.2
.0
.5
.Q
.6
.2
.8
.25
-
Air T
6.2
12.8
13.7
12.6
9.5
1.5
4.3
-1.8
-0.3
-3.0
2.0
5.0
1.8
13.2
14.6
15.5
9.0
10.0
-2.75
2.0
Surface
-
14.0
14.6
16.1
10.1
3.7
1.8
-0.9
-0.3
-1.1
3.4
4.0
2.2
19.0
15.5
15.1
9.1
7.0
-1.0
1.4
1cm
13
14
15
9
4
0
-0
-0
-1
3
4
2
19
15
15
9
7
-0
.0
.2
.1
.9
.2
.9
.6
.2
.0
.1
.0
.5
.0
.4
.5
.3
.2
.5
-
2cm
-
12.8
13.4
14.3
10.0
4.3
1.1
-0.3
-0.2
-1.0
3.1
4.0
2.0
18.3
15.2
15.4
9.7
7.8
0.0
-
3cm
-
12.0
12.6
13.6
10.0
4.5
1.2
-0.1
-0.1
-0.7
3.0
4.0
2.0
17.5
14.9
15.0
10.0
8.0
0.5
-
4cm
-
11.8
12.5
12.8
10.6
4.8
1.3
0.1
0.0
-0.5
2.9
4.0
2.0
16.6
14.7
15.0
10.1
8.0
0.8
-
5cm
-
11.6
11.7
12.9
11.7
5.4
1.8
0.6
0.0
0.1
2.9
4.0
2.0
16.1
14.6
15.0
10.2
8.0
1.0
1.9
-------
UJ
TABLE 4 (Continued)
MEAN MONTHLY WATER AND AIR TEMPERATURES IN DEGREES CENTIGRADE
Date
Jan 7,
Feb 14 ,
Mar 23,
Apr 24,
May 22,
June 24,
July 16,
Aug 16,
Sept 15,
Oct 31,
Nov 29,
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
Water T
0.0
-
2.8
2.5
7.3
7.9
7.1
8.8
9.0
6.0
3.8
Air
-3.
-
2.
3.
10.
13.
12.
7.
11.
4.
1.
T
0
2
5
0
5
0
5
0
5
5
Surface
-0.
-
3.
6.
12.
7.
8.
-
-
8.
2.
8
1
0
7
4
6
0
9
1cm
-0.2
-
2.9
6.7
13.0
7.4
8.4
-
-
-
-
2cm
0.0
-
2.9
7.0
13.0
7.6
8.4
-
-
-
-
3cm
0.0
-
3.1
7.5
12.8
7.6
8.2
-
-
-
-
4cm
0.0
-
3.2
7.9
12.5
7.6
8.2
-
-
-
-
5cm
0.0
-
3.7
8.0
12.3
7.6
8.2
-
-
-
-
-------
TABLE 5
SALINITY OF SURFACE WATER AND INTERSTITIAL WATER OF SEDIMENTS IN
PORT VALDEZ. SAMPLES TAKEN AT EITHER ISLAND FLATS OR DAYVILLE.
Date
Jan
Mar
Apr
May
June
July
Aug
Sept
Nov
Jan
Mar
Apr
May
June
July
July
Aug
Sept
Surface
Water
Salinity
6,
7,
4,
5,
4,
7,
1,
15,
10,
7,
25,
24,
24,
24,
4,
20,
19,
15,
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
12
1
13
20
2
18
28
30
30
20
12
1
0
8
6
13
-
.8
.6
.0
-
.7
.1
.6
.1
.5
.0
.0
.0
.7
.3
.9
.9
.8
Salinity of Interstitial water
(Sediment Depths)
1 cm 2 cm 3 cm 4 cm
29
27
27
29
24
19
36
32
34
16
18
.5
-
.3
.9
.2
.1
.0
-
-
-
.2
.8
.0
.0
-
-
-
.0
29
35
28
28
22
32
19
22
36
34
32
18
.6 35.2 33.1
.4 - -
.3 - -
.5
,6 31.7
.8 22.0
.5 19.2
.6 22.0
21.1
_
.7 39.0
.5 35.8
.1 30.6
.6 11.8
_ _ _
_
_
— _ _
34
-------
TABLE 6
SALINITY OF TIDAL WATERS IN PORT VALDEZ, ALASKAC
to
(Jl
Date
Oct 13,
Oct 26,
Nov 1,
Nov 7,
Nov 15,
Nov 22,
Nov 29,
Dec 10,
Mar 10,
Apr 6,
Apr 18,
Surface
Location Water
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1975
1975
1975
D
D
MC
D
MC
D
MC
D
D
MC
D
MC
D
M
D
MC
D
MC
D
MC
1.
1.
3.
28.
26.
28.
24.
-
29.
29.
23.
23.
31.
29.
33.
32.
31.
30.
7.
15.
6
2
3
2
0
6
0
6
9
9
8
3
8
5
6
6
9
0
2
0.1 0.
6.2 24.
1.5
-
28.
26.
30.
27.
28.
29.
30.
29.
26.
31.
29.
33.
32.
33.
32.
32.
31.
Water Depth in Meters
5 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0
ob
2
1
1
0
8
8
1
8
1
7
7
7
9
1
4
0
9
25
27
24
28
26
30
27
28
29
30
30
27
31
29
33
33
33
32
32
32
.3C -
.7C
.oc - - -
.9 - 29.4
.1 - 27.2
.4
.7 - - -
.9 - 29.4 29.5
.9
.1
.2
.9 - 30.6
.7 - 31.9 31.9
.9 - 31.0 31.1
.8 - 33.8
.3 - 33.4
.2 - 33.5
.6 - 33.0
.6
.6
Bottom
27.3
28.0
24.7
30.0
29.6
31.0
31.1
30.3
30.3
30.6
31.9
31.3
33.5
33.5
33.0
32.8
32.8
d
(2.
(1.
(2.
(2.
(1.
-
-
(1.
(2.
(2.
(2.
(4.
(3.
-
(3.
(2.
(2.
(1.
(1.
1 m)
8 m)
4 m)
5 m)
5 m)
9 m)
0 m)
0 m)
2 m)
0 m)
3 m)
0 m)
5 m)
4 m)
8 m)
5 m)
-------
o\
TABLE 6 (Continued)
SALINITY OF TIDAL WATERS IN PORT VALDEZ, ALASKA3
Date
Apr 24,
Apr 30,
May 6,
May 23,
May 30,
Jun 8,
Jun 17,
Jun 25,
Jul 3,
Jul 9,
Surface
Location Water
1975
1975
1975
1975
1975
1975
1975
1975
1975
1975
D
MC
D
MC
D
MC
MC
D
D
MC
D
MC
D
MG
MC
D
D
MC
D
MC
30.
26.
7.
19.
26.
7.
10.
13.
1.
19.
0.
7.
0.
7.
11.
6.
0.
1.
1.
4.
5
8
0
5
7
7
4
8
9
3
6
1
1
9
4
4
2
2
0
9
Water Depth in Meters
0.1 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.
31.4
29.9
30.3
31.7
30.0
29.1
18±1
- 21.3±5
2.6
-
1.2
7.6
2.1
11.7
11.1
5.9
0.0
1.4
1.2
3.4
31.8
31.8
30.8
32.0
30.6
29.7
25.8
24.6
20.0
19.2
12.6
8.5
10.8
12.6
12.0
6.4
1.6
1.5
1.4
4.4
32.
-
31.
32.
30.
30.
27.
28.2 28.
22.5
21.
14.9 18.
12,7 18.
19.2 23.
14.2 18.
21.
8.
8.4
17.7
0 3.0
1
-
8 —
2
3
0
4
5
•
0
9
1
7
5
6 28.2
8
•
-
Bottom
32.5
31.8
32.1
32.2
30.4
31.3
27.5
28.9
22.5
-
25.0
22.8
24.5
24.0
-
9.0
9.1
21.4
1.9 3.2 4.5
6.1 24.1 28.3
(2.
(1.
(2.
(2.
(2.
(2.
(3.
(2.
(1.
(2.
(2.
(2.
(2.
(2.
(3.
(2.
(2
(1.
2 m)
3 m)
6 m)
5 m)
2 m)
3 m)
0 m)
8 m)
9 m)
1 m)
8 m)
8 m)
4 m)
5 m)
1 m)
9 m)
m)
,8 m)
(3.1 m)
(3.5 m)
-------
TABLE 6 (Continued)
SALINITY OF TIDAL WATERS IN PORT VALDEZ, ALASKA*
Date
Jul 16, 1975
Jul 31, 1975
Surface
Location Water 0.1 0.
D
MC
D
MC
- 0.
-2.
3.5 - 0.
2.8 - 2.
5
4
2
6
7
Water
1.0
1
2
1
2
.4
.3
.5
.7
Depth in
1.5
13.
2.
~3
2.
6
2
9
Meters
2.0
25.2
2.5
8.5
22.0
3.0
~27.2
-20.0
~22.5
25.0
Bottom
27.2 (3
20.4 (3
- (2
- (3
.0 m)
.0 m)
.8 m)
.2 m)
Data supplied by George Perkins, National Marine Fishery Service. All salinity data in %
b = 0-0.6 m
C = 0.6-1.2 m
= Depth not recorded
D = Dayville
MC = Mineral Creek
-------
The results of Fe and Mn analyses on interstitial water samples
squeezed from various sections of a limited number of sediment cores are
included in Table 7. It would seem that there are no significant vertical
trends in the Fe concentrations. This suggests that the physicochemical
conditions (temperature, pH, and Eh principally) that control the solubility
of Fe are similar from a few centimeters below the tidal flat surface to
about 16 cm depth, and that the content of Fe in the solid phase throughout
the subsurface sediment section is quite homogenous. However, in case of
Mn analyses conflicting data have been obtained; data from four cores show
a net increase while those from another two cores indicate an overall
decrease in Mn toward the core tops. On the basis of the limited data
available, it would seem that there is postdepositional dissolution and
upward migration of Mn from the subsurface reduced layers. However, there
is probably very little oxidative precipitation of this dissolved Mn near
or at the sediment top. As such, the bulk of the dissolved Mn is apparently
being discharged into the overlying waters at the sediment-water interface.
The pH of all sediment core sections was quite similar; to a depth of
16 cm from the top the pH varied irregularly from 7.2 to 7.4.
Attempts to assess, via geochemical means, the oxic and anoxic anaerobic
state of the surface and subsurface sedimentary regime of Island Flats
met with some success. It would seem that except for those areas over
which decaying marine algae existed, the surficial portions (0 to 3 cm) of
the tidal flat sediments were well oxygenated and are, therefore, considered
oxic. The concentrations of dissolved oxygen in interstitial waters of
these surficial sediments varied froni 40 to 55 yg atom/A. However, below
the 3 cm level from the top, the concentrations of dissolved oxygen in the
sediments were either zero or less than the detectable amounts. This
suggests that the subsurface sedimentary regime in the tidal flats is
essentially anoxic. Additional studies on H S content in sediments support
this conclusion. The concentrations of dissolved H S in interstitial waters
of tidal flat sediments were not the same everywhere. In areas where de-
caying marine algae were abundant, especially in the tidal flat regime
behind Ammunition and adjacent islands (Figure 2), dissolved as well as
38
-------
TABLE 7
IRON AND MANGANESE CONCENTRATIONS IN SEDIMENT INTERSTITIAL WATERS
OF TIDAL FLATS, PORT VALDEZ AREA.
Area and
Sample No.
Island Flats
No. 1
Island Flats
No. 2
Island Flats
No. 3
Island Flats
(H2S-rlch)
Mineral Creek
No. 1
Mineral Creek
No. 2
Dayville Flats
Core Length (in cm)
0-4
4-8
8-12
12-16
0-4
4-8
8-12
12-16
16-20
0-4
8-12
0-2
0-4
4.3
0-4
4-8
0-1
1-2
3-4
8-12
12-16
Fe ppm
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.1
-
-
-
3.7
3.9
Mn ppm
1.0
0.5
0.3
0.2
0.5
1.0
1.4
2.3
2.5
0.2
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.1
1.3
0.2
6.6
2.0
0.2
6.4
2.2
39
-------
precipitated H S were encountered in profusion both in the surface and
subsurface sediments. In the tidal-flat regions free of decaying marine
algae, dissolved and precipitated sulfide were not detected in surface
and subsurface sediments. No H9S was found in the surficial sediments
(0-3 cm) at the Maooma balfhica habitat (Figure 2 and Section XI). The
presence of small amounts of precipitated sulfide in the subsurface sedi-
ments (below 3 cm from the top) was quite apparent but not dissolved H S.
The oxic-anoxic status of surface and subsurface sediments in some
tidal flat areas is further manifested by vertical changes in sediment
colours and the distributional patterns of major meiofaunal communities
(Section VI) and Maooma balthica populations (Section XI). Along vertical
sections of the tidal flat deposits at the 0.3 m tidal height, situated
north of Ammunition Island (Figure 2); there is an^ upper 2 to 3 cm
lighter grey sediment layer (oxic and densely populated with M. balthica),
which is sharply demarcated from a subsurface greyish black layer (anoxic
and devoid of any M. balth-ica}. At the mid-tide level of the tidal flat,
which is south of Ammunition Island, the presence of about 98% of the
major meiofaunal groups is restricted to the upper 3 cm (see Section VI).
It is believed that the presence of an anoxic environment in the sub-
surface delimits the distribution of the organisms predominantly to the
surficial sediments.
The typical absence of dissolved H S and precipitated sulfide in sub-
surface sediments of Island Flats, at the mid-tide level (0.0 m tide mark),
was contrary to our expectation, in view of the fact that there is an
abundant potential source of sulfur in the area and there is also a reducing
sub-surface environment. Marine algae, some marsh plants and terrestrial
plant debris, and meiofauna are observed on the above tidal flats. It may
be expected that the remains of these plants and animals after death would
become incorporated into the sediments, and as a result of bacterial decay
would give forth H S. In addition to the dead organic residue it would
seem that the presence of adequate amounts of sulfate — associated with
sediment interstitial waters — would also be a ready source of sulfur for
H S generation within the subsurface anaerobic sediment regime. However,
40
-------
it now appears that the remains of these organisms are either very quickly
oxidized on the tidal flat surface or are winnowed out swiftly from the
tidal flat regime by the ebb tide. Further, the possibility of significant
amounts of colloidal organic residues being held by the fine mineral particles
of the tidal flat muds would seem quite improbable. Admittedly, the tidal
flat sediments at the mid-tide region are essentially muddy, and therefore
are very likely to be constituted predominantly of layered silicates with
possible high capacity to fix organics in their structures. However, detailed
clay mineral studies — to be discussed later — indicate that the type of
layered silicates present in the tidal flat sediments of Port Valdez probably
would not sequester significant amounts of organics. Thus, it is believed
that very little particulate or colloidal organic matters become available
in the subsurface sediments for anaerobic bacterial degradation. Most
likely an abundance of H S could be generated, provided the organic resi-
dues were to become preserved in the subsurface sediments, because colonies
of bacteria that can produce H S from an organic source have been found
to occur in the tidal-flat sediments (see Section IX; Norrell and Johnston,
20
1975 ). The lack of accumulation of organic matter in the Island Flat
deposits is well exemplified by the notably low content of organic carbon
in almost all sediments of the flats (Tables 8 and 9). The presence of
very low amounts of biogenic material in the sediments is also strongly
supported by the bacterial studies conducted by Norrell and Johnston
20
(1975) . The lack of H S in the subsurface anoxic sediments at the
mid-tide site, in the presence of adequate amounts of sulfate in inter-
stitial waters, may be attributable to the general paucity of sulfate-
reducing bacteria in those sediments (Section IX; Norrell and Johnston,
20
1975) and to the paucity of organic matter present.
The lower tidal flats (i.e., the entire intertidal regime beyond the
mid-tide strip marineward) constitutes a distinct depositional subfacies
and is delineated as SUBFACIES III in Figure 2. It is distinguished
from the tidal flat areas mentioned earlier by the predominance of sandy
deposits (sample numbers 15 to 21, Table 1) and relatively small amounts
of gravel, silt and clay. Presence of macrofauna was not apparent here.
41
-------
TABLE 8
ORGANIC CARBON PERCENTS (BY DRY WT.) IN CARBONATE-FREE
SEDIMENT CORE SAMPLES ON TIDAL FLATS OF PORT VALDEZ
FOR SAMPLES TAKEN SUMMER OF 1973
Location Tide Ht.
Island Flats (W) 0
Island Flats (E) 0
Dayville -1.0
Dayville -0.5
Dayville 0
Core Depth
(cm)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
1
2
3
4
5
6
Carbon
wt.%
0.298
0.258
0.215
0.226
0.230
0.192
0.179
0.184
0.460
0.463
0.451
0.414
0.450
0.449
0.320
0.240
0.218
0.319
0.246
0.267
0.228
0.349
0.331
0.353
0.262
0.277
0.304
0.309
0.329
0.423
0.275
0.317
0.308
0.238
0.268
0.290
0.296
0.298
42
-------
TABLE 8 (Continued)
ORGANIC CARBON PERCENTS
Location Tide Ht.
Dayville 0
(cont. )
Dayville 0
Old Valdez 0
Mineral Creek -1.0
Mineral Creek 0
Mineral Creek +2.2
Core Depth
(cm)
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
2
3
Carbon
wt.%
0.268
0.244
0.251
0.266
0.263
0.284
0.280
0.330
0.322
0.294
0.303
0.348
0.316
0.329
0.319
0.294
0.609
0.958
0.441
0.308
0.368
0.354
0.319
0.279
0.254
0.258
0.321
0.323
0.701
0.369
0.336
0.297
0.275
0.259
0.330
0.378
0.354
0.316
43
-------
TABLE 8 (Continued)
ORGANIC CARBON PERCENTS
Location Tide Ht.
Mineral Creek +2.2
Core Depth
(cm)
4
5
6
7
Carbon
wt.%
0.311
0.293
0.280
0.256
Millard Creek 0 1 0.800
(Galena Bay) 2 1.231
3 0.370
4 0.419
5 0.403
6 0.338
7 0.394
8 0.333
9 1.002
10 0.258
44
-------
TABLE 9
CARBONATE, ORGANIC CARBON, AND TOTAL CARBON CONTENTS IN BASELINE SEDIMENTS
OF ISLAND FLATS TAKEN IN THE WINTER OF 1973. ALL PERCENTAGES ARE ON
GRAVEL-FREE, DRY WEIGHT BASIS.
Sample No.
VLDZ10/73-lb
VLDZ10/73-2
VLDZ10/73-7
VLDZ10/73-8
VLDZ10/73-9
C°3 %
0.76
1.02
1.64
1.01
1.90
Org. C %
0.268
0.060
0.070
0.023
0.105
Total C %a
0.420
0.300
0.398
0.225
0.485
Organic plus inorganic carbon content.
See Table 12 for additional data for these samples.
45
-------
It would seem that because of the more severe tidal current agitation,
relatively more of the silt and clay size particles are winnowed out
of this zone, and dense settlement of macrobenthos is precluded.
Lying immediately seaward of Ammunition Island on the lateral flanks
are intertidal sediments that are generally gravelly sand or sandy gravels
(Figure 2). These coarse sediments are believed to be old tidal channel
lag deposits, originally laid down under high energy conditions. The
presence of these deposits outside the channel beds has apparently resulted
from lateral migration of tidal channels — a phenomenon quite common to
many tidal flat areas of the world. Because the gravels constitute a
suitable anchoring device, an abundance of the bivalve Mytilus edulis was
observed to colonize these coarse deposits.
North of the chain of hillocks (Figure 2) mos-t of the tidal flat en-
vironment is dominated by tranquil conditions of sedimentation. This
situation has resulted primarily because of relatively less current agita-
tion and turbulence, the hillocks acting somewhat as a buffer to the effects
of direct tidal action. Under the relatively tranquil environment the de-
position of muddy sediments is favored.
There are, however, a few exceptional environments within the above
tranquil area where turbulence prevails because of local intense action of
tidal flow and ebb. One of these environments is a tidal channel (Figure 2)
where fine particles are winnowed out, leaving a residual channel deposit
consisting of a poorly sorted complex of broken shells (mostly of reworked
Maooma balthiea and small Mytilus edulis), gravels, and coarse sands. The
extensive tidal flat behind the chain of hillocks (Figure 2) is criss-
crossed by a network of highly meandering tidal channels. Some of these
channels are in fact marineward extensions of freshwater streams arising
from the high mountains north of the supratidal region. The upper reaches
of these channels may be as deep as 0.9 to 1.2 m and 0.9 to 1.8 m wide,
but in the lower reaches the channels are relatively wider (3 to Am) and
invariably less than 0.3 m deep. Low mounds of coarse debris are ob-
served in some places at a tidal height of 1 m in the vicinity of these
tidal channels. These sediments are poor to very poorly sorted, are
constituted predominantly of medium to fine sands with subordinate amounts
46
-------
of fine gravels, silts, and clay, and have fine skewed and leptokurtic
size distributions (Table 2, sample numbers 22 to 28). As discussed
earlier, these elevated areas of coarse debris are presumed to be old tidal
channel sediments, stranded where they are now as residual deposits fol-
lowing lateral migration of earlier channels. Subsequent to the channel
migration, deposition of muddy particles have been favored in these areas.
As a consequence, the original coarse channel deposits have come to have
additional mud. The silty-clayey sands of these areas appear to afford
an ideal substratum for the establishment of dense groups of the bivalve
Maooma balth'ica, for in no other place on the tidal flats are these clams
found in such abundance. In Figure 2 the M. balt-hica habitat is delineated
as SUBFACIES IV.
Significant lateral changes in faunal facies are noticed within the
intertidal areas of the Island Flats. Toward the landward margin, where
spread of tidal water is limited, growth of a dense saline marsh vegetation
is promoted. However, in tranquil regions over muddy deposits — SUBFACIES V,
Figure 2 — the establishment of the chlorophytes Monostroma and Ulva is
favored, whereas on rocky substratum around the high tide mark the phaeophyte
Fuous is generally supported. There was only one spot in the entire Island
Flats area (i.e., in the lower reaches of a tidal channel) where a few stalks
of the eelgrass Zostepa were seen growing.
Dayville Flats
The Dayville Flats (Figure 1) are directly exposed to tidal current
action. The progressive changes observed in the lithofacies from the
upper to the lower reaches of the flats are largely a function of the sediment
source. Progressively marineward from the foot of the high mountains, the
sediments grade into finer particles. Nearer the foot of the mountains
there is an abundance of stray gravels intercalated with mud. However, at
the mid-tide level where meiofaunal sampling was accomplished (Section VI),
the sediments consist of poorly to very poorly sorted plastic, dark grey
muds (mean size around fine silt or coarse clay; 2 to 16 y), that have
fine skewed and leptokurtic size distributions (Table 2). Such a texture
47
-------
is similar to the intertidal sediments situated at the mid-tide level at
Island Flats. As elsewhere, dense beds of the mussel Mytilus eduti-s are
found to grow favorably only on gravel pavements.
Mineral Creek Flats
This area (Figure 1) was not investigated as intensively as the other
two. The tidal flats have developed on the lower reaches of fluvial out-
washes of the Mineral Creek — a significant melt-water stream. The tidal-
flat sediments are invariably constituted of very poorly sorted coarse to
medium sands (4 y to 2.5 mm) with subordinate muds and little amounts of
gravels; with fine skewed and leptokurtic size distributions (Table 2).
Strictly speaking, Mineral Creek Flats should be classed under tidal sand
flats rather than mud flats. In the lower reaches as well as the subtidal
shallow-marine areas an abundance of healthy stalks of the eelgrass Zosteva
are noticed. Mussels are abundant over most of this area.
LITHOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SEDIMENTS
Sediment Texture
Results of the grain-size analyses on tidal flat sediments of the
Island Flats, Dayville Flats, and Mineral Creek Flats are included in Tables
1 and 2. The lateral variations in surficial lithology of the Island Flats
are graphically represented in Figure 2, and have been elaborated upon in
the previous section on "Depositional Environments...". No significant
vertical variations, either in lithology or structure, were observed to
a depth of 16 cm from the top, at the mid-tide region (0.0 m high tide
mark) of the flats; the sediments were uniformly muddy with subordinate
amounts of sand and traces of gravel.
Clay Mineralogy
Results of the clay mineral analysis on oriented grains of less than
2 my size fraction of 9 sediment samples, collected in vicinity of the
mid-tide (0.0 high tide mark) of Island Flats, are included in Table 10.
48
-------
TABLE 10
WEIGHTED PEAK AREA PERCENTAGES OF CLAY MINERALS
IN TIDAL FLAT SEDIMENTS, PORT VALDEZ
Sample Illite Chlorite
VLDZ3/74-1 45 55
VLDZ3/74-2 40 60
VLDZ3/74-3 43 57
VLDZ74-4 44 56
VLDZ74-5 46 54
VLDZ74-10 43 57
VLDZ74-11 43 57
VLDZ74-12 58 42
VLDZ74-14 48 52
49
-------
The clay mineral assemblages are very similar in all the samples and
consist almost entirely of chlorite (42 to 60%; average: 49%), and illite
(40 to 58%; average: 46%). Kaolinite and smectite were sought but were
not detected. The presence of very sharp X-ray diffractogram peaks of
both chlorite and illite basal d reflections for the oriented grains
suggest that the atomic lattice of these minerals are very well ordered,
and presumably also mean that the minerals are detrital, primary grains
which have been subjected to very little chemical weathering. The basal d
reflection intensities further suggest that the so-called illites are
essentially dioctahednal, aluminion mica (e.g., muscovite). Further insight
into the polytype compositions of the minerals are rendered possible by
means of detailed X-ray analysis on randomly oriented grains of three of the
above nine clay samples (Figure 3). The presence essentially of the 2M poly-
type mica is inferred from the well-defined (023)', (025) , and (116) d reflec-
o
tions at 3.74A, 3.00A, and 2.80A d spacings, respectively (Yoder and Eugster,
21 °
1955) . Further, the near absence of the very characteristic 3.66A peak
(Figure 3), representing the (112) d reflection, suggests the near absence
of the 1M and IMd mica polytypes. Likewise, the plausible occurrence of
22
the lib polytype chlorite (Hayes, 1970 ) in the intertidal clays of Tidal
Flats, Port Valdez, is inferred from the presence of the fairly well-defined
(202) and (201) d reflections (Figure 3), which are a manifestations of the
o o
characteristic 2.59A and 2.54A d spacings, respectively (Bailey and Brown,
1962)23.
Sediment Chemistry
The concentrations of organic carbon in tidal flat sediments of the
three type areas have been cited elsewhere (Feder, 1973 ; Tables 8 and 9).
No systematic vertical variations in the organic carbon contents are evident
in any of the sediment cores. In addition, in the three type areas the
organic carbon contents are notably low and quite similar. Table 9 includes
the concentrations of carbonate, organic carbon, and total carbon in base-
line sediment samples. It is clear that in all sediment samples examined,
the organic carbon and total carbon values are comparative and quite low.
50
-------
VLDZ374-13
Figure 3. Typical x-ray diffractogram traces of randomly oriented, less than 2 micron fraction of inter-
tidal sediments, Port Valdez.
-------
The baseline chemical data, indicating the semiquantitative analysis
of trace elements on surface and subsurface sediments of tidal flats of the
three type areas of Port Valdez, are shown in Table 11. Except in case of
a few exceptions, relatively higher concentrations of all elements are noted
in the subsurface sediments of all cores. Generally, there are relatively
smaller concentrations of most elements in the sediments of Mineral Creek
Flats, as compared to tidal flat sediments of Dayville and Island Flats.
In Table 12 are shown the baseline concentrations of Cu, Pb, Zn, Ni,
and V in four gravel-free gross sediments, as well as in the mud fraction
(less than 62 my) of nine sediment samples from Island Flats. It is evident
that there is no preferential partitioning of heavy metals based op. sedi-
ment grain size, except as in case of V which appears to be relatively
concentrated in the coarser fraction. It is important to note that the
baseline sediment sample VLDZ6/73-7 was collected from the immediate
vicinity of the standard reference stake established at the beginning of
the present study at mid-tide mark. The remaining baseline gravel-free
samples, were collected near the mid-tide reference point but further sea-
ward than sediment sample VLDZ6/73-7.
In Table 13 are listed the baseline concentrations of some heavy metals
in a selected group of faunal and floral species that thrive on the Island
Flats.
The trace metal data in Tables 11 and 12 should be considered as useful
baselines to detect any chemical pollution of the tidal flat ecosystem, and
the data in Table 13 should be of particular interest in this respect rela-
tive to some indicator faunal and floral communities analyzed. The sig-
nificant differences of Cu and Pb contents between various samples of
Mytilus tissues are probably a function of the presence of varying amounts
of particulate matter in the alimentary canals of the three samples of the
bivalve. It is suggested that for meaningful baseline trace element data,
analysis should only be made on bivalves that have been previously purged
of intestinal contents.
52
-------
TABLE 11
TRACE ELEMENT CONCENTRATIONS (IN PPM) IN TIDAL FLAT CORE
SEDIMENTS, PORT VALDEZ AREA
Element
Cr
Sr
Co
Ni
Sc
Zn
La
Y
Ag
Zr
Cu
Cd
Sn
Mo
Be
V
Bi
Pb
B
Nb
Island
Flats
Core Top/Core Bottom
220
275
30
180
40
ND
ND
35
ND
350
80
ND
ND
4
1
310
ND
30
30
15
380
300
30
170
45
ND
ND
50
2
350
85
ND
ND
5
1
320
ND
25
35
20
Dayville Flats
Core
220
315
25
130
35
ND
ND
40
ND
370
85
ND
ND
6
1
210
ND
20
20
15
Top/Core Bottom
260
250
35
260
50
ND
ND
45
ND
250
120
ND
ND
7
1
240
ND
25
30
20
Mineral Creek
Core
105
280
10
130
25
ND
ND
30
ND
140
40
ND
ND
3
1
230
ND
20
50
15
Top/Core Bottom
140
215
15
120
30
ND
ND
35
ND
180
50
ND
ND
4
1
240
ND
20
35
20
NOTE: ND indicates elements sought for but found to be below the limits
of detection. The results are semiquantitative, at best.
Precision of analysis: ± 50% of the value at 95% confidence level.
53
-------
TABLE 12
BASELINE CONCENTRATIONS (IN PPM) OF HEAVY METALS IN THE GRAVEL-FREE
GROSS SEDIMENTS AND MUD FRACTIONS OF TIDAL FLAT DEPOSITS,
ISLAND FLATS, PORT VALDEZ
Sample No.
VLDZ6/73-1
VLDZ6/73-2
VLDZ6/73-7a
VLDZ6/73-9
VLDZ3/74-1
VLDZ3/74-2
VLDZ3/74-3
VLDZ3/74-4
VLDZ3/74-5
VLDZ3/74-10
VLDZ3/74-11
VLDZ3/74-12
VLDZ3/74-14
Average
Average
Sediment Fraction
Gravel-free gross
Gravel-free gross
Gravel-free gross
Gravel-free gross
Mud
Mud
Mud
Mud
Mud
Mud
Mud
Mud
Mud
Gravel-free gross
Mud
Cu
60
61
36
56
63
63
61
62
66
59
65
63
60
53
62
Pb
34
36
29
33
30
26
30
31
32
23
27
26
30
33
28
Zn
130
130
95
115
122
129
135
139
132
122
131
132
153
117
133
Ni
85
85
62
81
85
89
87
85
88
81
83
83
81
79
85
V
290
280
225
265
220
230
230
220
220
230
230
230
230
265
227
Sediment sample collected in the immediate vicinity of the reference stake
at mid-tide (0.0 m high tide level) horizon of Island Flats.
The rest of the Samples were collected from farther away from the Sample
VLDZ6/73-7 but near the mid-tide level.
54
-------
TABLE 13
BASELINE TRACE ELEMENT DATA ON SOME FAUNAL AND FLORAL TISSUES,
ISLAND FLATS, PORT VALDEZ. ALL VALUES ARE ON FREEZE-DRIED
WEIGHT BASIS.
Sample
Myt-ilus A
Mytilns B
Mytilus C
Monostroma A
Monostroma B
Monostroma C
Ulva
Maooma
Fuous
Cu ppm
3.6
2.8
1.2
1.4
1.2
1.0
6.6
2.0
8.0
Pb ppm
2.4
2.4
1.1
3.7
1.6
1.6
0.4
1.1
0.4
Zn ppm
86
92
88
11
6
10
17
200
31
Cd ppm
10.0
10.0
10.0
0.3
0.5
0.5
0.7
0.6
0.04
Ni ppm Mo ppm
3 <1
3 <1
3 <1
2 <1
1 <1
1 <1
<1 <1
3 1
10 <1
Hg ppm
0.3
NAa
NAS
0.4
NAa
NA3
0.9
0.6
0.1
o
NA: Not analyzed
55
-------
SECTION V
GENERAL MICROBIOLOGY OF MARINE SEDIMENTS OF PORT VALDEZ, ALASKA
INTRODUCTION
Decomposition and recycling of organic remains is the major role per-
formed by soil and sediment microorganisms. One of the major steps in
nutrient recycling is the consumption of microflora by selected micro,
meio, and macrofauna. No study of marine sediment productivity and general
ecology can be complete without giving consideration to the distribution,
abundance and role of resident microorganisms and their interaction with
associated fauna. Since virtually nothing is known about the microflora
occurring naturally in Port Valdez marine sediments, it was the purpose of
this research to isolate the microorganisms present and to gain some in-
sight into their distribution and abundance with respect to particular
sites and various depths in the sediment profile.
METHODS
Sediment samples were taken from three mid-tide horizons in the Port
Valdez, Alaska area (Section IV, Figure 1) on July 28-29, 1972: Old Valdez
(a beach with a persistent percolation of oil from tanks ruptured during
the earthquake of 1964), Island Flats, and Mineral Creek. Cores of the sedi-
ments were extracted with a sterile plastic cylinder 4.5 cm inside diameter.
The sample was placed on a wooden cutting board (sterilized with alcohol)
and sections of the sediments cut into desired lengths to correspond to
particular depths in the profile. Each section was then placed in a whirl-
pak bag. The unprocessed samples were stored overnight in a refrigerator
and placed in ice chests for transport to Fairbanks.
One gram of each of the twelve sediments was placed in 99 ml of sterile
sea water together with glass beads and set on a mechanical shaker for a
period of 15 minutes. From this suspension, 1 ml of the solution was taken
to make further dilutions as were necessary. Media used were as follows:
05
ZoBell's 2216e Aaronson, (1970) for aerobic bacteria, modified ZoBell's
2216e Aaronson, (1970)25 for anaerobic bacteria, Glucose-Peptone (Fell and
56
-------
9 f\
Van Uden, 1963) for yeasts, Yeast-Extract Glucose Johnson and Sparrow,
27
(1961) and Czapex Box for filamentous fungi. The Starch-Casein-Actinomycete
9 Q
medium used successfully by Grein and Meyers (1958) was utilized as well
as Bacto-Actinomycete Isolation agar. Aged sea water was used in media
and dilution blanks. Water was prepared by filtering freshly collected
water to remove particulate matter and the water was then stored in the
dark in five-gallon carboys. Media were not acidified as many salt water
fungi are reported to be inhibited by acidified media as are many marine
bacteria. Cyclohexamide and streptomycin were routinely used as fungal
and bacterial inhibitors.
One milliliter of the appropriate sediment dilution was placed in
petri dishes and cooled but still molten media poured over the sample.
Plates were swirled to distribute the sample and incubated at room tempera-
ture and in a few instances at 5°C. Each sample from a given depth was
plated in triplicate for subsequent use in making plate counts and obtain-
ing organisms for identification. Transfers to tube slants were made
from plates containing filamentous fungi and yeasts. After an incubation
period of 14 days, the tube cultures were sorted into presumptive species
groups.
GasPak anaerobic jars were used for all anaerobic incubations.
RESULTS
The numbers of bacteria per gram varied from site to site as well as
with depth in the profile. As shown in Table 14, when incubated at room
temperature numbers of aerobic bacteria were highest at the Island Flats
site from the surface to 3 cm deep (8.2 x 10 /g of sediment). Dilution
plates from the Old Valdez sediments incubated at 5°C yielded higher num-
bers (6.9 x 10 /g) than were found on plates incubated at room temperature
(2.7 x 10 ). A general decrease in numbers with increased depth was ex-
hibited with the notable exception at the 16 to 20 cm depth at the Old
Valdez site. This was true of plates incubated both at room temperature
and 5°C. Anaerobic bacteria were found in greatest numbers at the Mineral
Creek site; 1.1 x 10 /g.
57
-------
TABLE 14
NUMBER OF ORGANISMS PER GRAM OF SEDIMENT OBTAINED
FROM THREE SITES IN PORT VALDEZ.
Location
ISLAND FLATS
Aerobic
(Room temperature
incubation)
Anaerobic
(Room temperature
incubation)
MINERAL CREEK
Aerobic
(Room temperature
incubation)
Anaerobic
(Room temperature
incubation)
OLD VALDEZ
Aerobic
(Room temperature
incubation)
(5°C incubation)
Anaerobic
(Room temperature
incubation)
Depth (cm)
0-3
4-6
7-12
0-3
4-6
7-12
0-3
4-6
7-9
10-12
0-3
4-6
7-9
10-12
0-3
4-9
10-12
13-15
16-20
0-3
4-9
10-12
13-15
16-20
0-3
4-9
10-12
13-15
16-20
Number
Bacteria
820,000
490,000
112,000
46,000
15,000
8,000
540,000
145,000
232,000
140,000
109,000
9,000
11,000
30,000
270,000
118,000
75,000
68,000
180,000
690,000
250,000
235,000
62,000
240,000
8,000
-
-
13,000
-
of Organisms
Fungi
700
100
100
_
-
—
400
100
100
100
_
—
-
—
2,800
3,700
600
1,100
500
1,800
3,700
100
200
200
—
-
-
-
-
per Gram
Yeasts
1,000
6,100
800
_
-
—
1,400
400
1,400
1,000
„
_
-
—
1,800
100
4,600
300
2,500
3,500
4,100
1,800
600
2,800
_
-
-
_
_
58
-------
Numbers of filamentous fungi and yeasts were found to be low and
there was a general decrease in numbers with increased depth. The highest
numbers of both filamentous fungi and yeasts were obtained from the Old
Valdez site, 3700 and 1800/g, respectively. All profiles were checked for
the possible presence of anaerobic fungi but none were isolated.
Actinomycetes were not isolated from the Mineral Creek and Island
Flats sites and were found rarely and in such small numbers at Old Valdez
that no numerical data is included on them in this report. A total of
five species were encountered and all occurred at the 4 to 9 cm depth.
Percent density of filamentous fungi and yeasts within sites for
the three areas is shown in Table 15. Percent density was calculated
according to the following formula:
Number of isolates of a particular species Y ion
Total isolates
Yeast distribution did not appear to follow a pattern, i.e., V-l was not
isolated from the 0 to 3 cm sample of any of the three sites; V-2 was
isolated from the surface to 20 cm deep while V-23 and V-92 were isolated
only from 0 to 3 cm samples. Numbers of species of yeasts did not appear
to decrease with increased depth and actually increased at the 16 to 20 cm
depth in the Old Valdez site. It is interesting to note that no yeasts
were isolated from Old Valdez at a depth of 4 to 9 cm, the only cores which
yielded Actinomycetes.
Filamentous fungi were somewhat restricted in distribution as to loca-
tion in the profile and numbers of species decreased with increasing depth.
V-47, V-42, V-20 and V-19 were restricted to the upper horizons and V-9,
V-71, V-68 were isolated from mid-horizons. While eight species were
isolated from the 16 to 20 cm depth at Old Valdez, none were restricted
to that depth. V-36, a pycnidial form, made up 52.6% of the total iso-
lates from this depth. At Island Flats, no filamentous fungi were re-
covered from the 4 to 6 cm depth and the 7 to 12 cm depth yielded only
one species.
High density species which are characteristic of terrestrial fungal
populations were not found in the Valdez samples. Cultures numbered V-47,
26, 64, 8, 9, 66, 36, 37, were the only species occurring with densities
59
-------
TABLE 15
PERCENT DENSITY OF FILAMENTOUS FUNGI AND YEASTS WITHIN SITES.
THE SYMBOL V = UNIDENTIFIED SPECIES
ISLAND FLATS
Culture No.
YEASTS
V-l
V-2
V-3
V-4
V-5
V-ll
V-54
V-56
V-61
V-92
FILAMENTOUS FUNGI
V-6
V-7
V-14
V-17 Ph-ialophora sp.
V-55 Cladosporium sp.
V-5 7
V-6 6 Chpysosporium sp.
V-59
V-60 Phialophora sp.
V-20
V-8 Cyl-indroaarpon sp.
V-62
V-75
V-79
V-21 MUOOT sp.
V-91
V-26
MINERAL CREEK
Culture No.
YEASTS
V-2
V-3
V-53
V-54
V-65
V-4
V-5
0-3
a
11.1
-
-
-
-
-
55.5
11.1
22.2
3.0
9.0
3.0
30.3
3.0
6.0
3.0
3.0
9.0
3.0
9.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
-
0-3
14.2
-
-
21.4
7.1
-
14.2
Depth (cm)
4-6 7-12
71.4 71.4
9.5 14.2
2.3 7.1
11.9
2.3 3.5
2.3
3.5
- -
_ _
-
— _
_ _
_ _
- _
- _
_ _
- _
_ _
_ _
_ _
— —
_ _
_ _
__
_ _
_ _
100.0
Depth (cm)
4-6 7-9
5.2 84.6
10.5
5.2
73.6
-
-
5.2
10-12
_
6.2
_
3.1
68.7
6.2
3.1
60
-------
TABLE 15 (Continued)
PERCENT DENSITY OF FILAMENTOUS FUNGI AND YEASTS WITHIN SITES
MINERAL CREEK (cont.)
Culture No.
YEASTS
V-70
V-73
V-l
V-38
V-25
V-23
V-34
V-89
V-20
Depth (cm)
0-3 4-6 7-9
_ _ _
_ _ _
_ _ _
7.6
7.1 - 7.6
14.2
7.1
7.1
7.1
10-12
3.1
6.2
3.1
-
-
-
-
-
-
FILAMENTOUS FUNGI
V-18
V-19
V-20
V-21
V-27
V-29
V-30
V-31
V-33
V-42
V-90
V-35
V-45
V-9
V-22
V-32
V-64
V-8
V-66
OLD VALDEZ
Culture No.
YEASTS
V-25
V-l
V-4
V-38
V-2
Tri-choderma polysporwn
Sphaeropsidales
Peni-oill-itm sp.
Penioillium sp.
Peni-c-illi-um sp.
Cy 1'indr>ooaTrpon sp .
ChrysospoT-iim sp.
15.7
10.5
15.7
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.2
10.5
5.2
5.2
25.0 50.0
25.0
25.0
25.0
50.0
— — —
Depth (cm)
0-3 4-9 10-12 13-15
_
_
12.5 - _ _
_
37.5 - - 50.0
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
50.0
-
50.0
16-20
21.2
12.1
9.0
3.0
21.2
61
-------
TABLE 15 (Continued)
PERCENT DENSITY OF FILAMENTOUS FUNGI AND YEASTS WITHIN SITES
OLD VALDEZ (cont.)
Depth (cm)
Culture No .
YEASTS
V-41
V-54
V-3
V-36
V-61
V-87
V-44
V-56
V-58
V-86
V-73
V-74
V-78
V-53
0-3
-
12.5
-
-
-
—
—
-
-
-
12.5
12.5
12.5
-
4-9
-
-
-
-
-
_
_
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
10-12 13-15
- -
- -
8.0
- -
8.0 12.5
12.5
12.5
16.6
8.0 12.5
58.3
_ _
- -
- -
- -
16-20
3.0
15.1
3.0
6.0
-
_
_
—
—
—
—
-
_
3.0
FILAMENTOUS FUNGI
V-18
V-28
V-22
V-35
V-36
V-8
V-10
V-43
V-37
V-39
V-40
V-9
V-42
V-27
V-46
V-45
V-7
V-47
V-48
V-49
V-64
V-80
V-77
V-82
V-66
TT-Lchodevma polysporum
Pen-io-ill-ium sp.
Pen-lo-llli-wn. sp.
Sphaeropsidales
Cylindrooarpon sp.
Chrysospovium sp.
PhialophoTa sp.
Peni-c'i'll'iwn sp.
Pen-iG'Ltt'iwn sp.
Chm/sospori-um sp.
5.5
-
-
-
1.8
1.8
5.5
1.8
-
3.7
_
_
11.0
_
7.4
_
5.5
5.5
-
_
7.4
-
5.5
_
1.8
-
1.4
_
4.3
_
-
24.6
_
5.7
4.3
1.4
_
_
_
_
4.3
1.4
1.4
7.2
1.4
1.4
4.3
1.4
1.4
15.9
— _
- -
_ _
2.9
_ _
— _
3.1
6.2
47.3 46.8
3.1
3.1
3.1
6*2
3.1
3.1
_ _
- -
— —
-
-
-
-
3.1
5.2
10.5
5.2
5.2
52.6
5.2
5.2
10.5
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
-
_
-
-
_
_
_
62
-------
TABLE 15 (Continued)
PERCENT DENSITY OF FILAMENTOUS FUNGI AND YEASTS WITHIN SITES
FILAMENTOUS FUNGI (cont.)
V-69
V-63
V-68
V-71
V-75
V-81 Tr-iohodexma v-Lride var.
V-84 Tr-Lohoderma wiride var.
V-88
V-60
V-76
V-6
V-83 Sphaeropsidales
V-19
V-85 MUOOT miarosporus
V-93
V-99
V-44
V-100
V-97
V-62
V-98
V-101
0-3
7.4
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1.8
3.7
1.8
1.8
5.5
1.8
1.8
3.7
1.8
1.8
-
-
-
-
Depth (cm)
4-9 10-12
11.5
5.2
5.2
10.5
5.2
5.2
15.7
5.2
1.4
— —
— -
-
-
_
_
— -
— —
- -
1.4
1.4
- -
- -
13-15 16-20
_ _
- -
3.1
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
— _
— —
-
_
_
-
- -
- _
- -
- -
- -
3.1
6.2
Dash Indicates non-occurrence of species at particular depth.
63
-------
of over 30% and these eight organisms were distributed between three sites
and 12 depths.
Tables 16 and 17 illustrate percent density of fungi and yeasts between
sites with no regard to depths of occurrence. When microfungal populations
were compared in this manner definite differences emerged. Among the 63
species of filamentous fungi isolated, only two, V-8 and V-66 occurred in
all three sites. Of the 63 species isolated 46 were restricted to parti-
cular sites (see below). The highest density recorded for any one fungal
organism was 29.4% for V-47, a Phialophora sp. The majority of the organ-
isms occurred in low densities (less than 5%) and tended to be site specific.
A total of 47 species of fungi and 19 yeasts were obtained from the
Old Valdez site. Thirty species of fungi and 8 yeasts were unique to that
site. Mineral Creek sediments yielded 19 species of fungi; 7 unique to
that site and 15 yeasts, 5 of which were not isolated elsewhere. Eight-
teen species of fungi were isolated from Island Flats, 9 not found else-
where and 10 species of yeast, 4 of which were not isolated from the other
two sites. Yeast species appeared to be more cosmopolitan in distribution
as evidenced by V-l, V-2, V-3, V-4 and V-54. V-65 was the only yeast
occurring in a high density (29.8%) which was restricted to one site.
It was not within the scope of this preliminary survey to attempt a
detailed taxonomic study of the organisms isolated or to try to determine
their possible roles in decomposition. Nothing is known about the yeasts
isolated in this study other than that they fall into both "red" and
27
"white" color groups. Johnson and Sparrow (1961) report a large number
of yeasts and yeast-like fungi have been collected from marine waters or
isolated from marine materials of various sorts. Most fall into two
categories, ones identified as non-marine species and ones merely identi-
fied to genus or to color groups.
Of 41 bacterial isolates, 92.6% proved to be gram negative rods, many
somewhat pleomorphic. This concurs with findings reported by Murchalana
29
and Brown (1970) on bacteria obtained from marine water samples.
Mueor microsporus, a Muaor sp., two Tm-ehoderma wi-ride variants,
Triohoderma polysporum, four species of Penicillia and species belonging
to the genera: Cladosporiwn, Fhialophora, Chrysosporium, Cyl-indr-ocarpon,
64
-------
TABLE 16
PERCENT DENSITY OF MICROFUNGI BETWEEN SITES.
THE SYMBOL V = UNIDENTIFIED SPECIES
Culture
No.
V-6
V-7
V-8
V-9
V-10
V-14
V-17
V-18
V-19
V-20
V-21
V-22
V-26
V-27
V-28
V-29
V-30
V-31
V-32
V-33
V-35
V-36
V-37
V-39
V-40
V-42
V-43
V-44
V-45
V-46
V-47
V-48
V-49
V-55
V-57
V-59
V-60
V-62
V-63
V-64
V-66
V-68
Name
Cylindrocarrpon sp.
Chmjsospor"ium sp.
Triohoderma polysporum
MUOOT sp .
Penici,11i-wn sp.
Sphaeropsidales
Pen-ici-ll-lim sp.
Sphaeropsidales
Phialophova sp.
T?eni,oi,11iMm sp.
Cladosporium sp.
PenisQ'ill-iim sp.
Phi-alophopa sp.
Penicilli-wn sp.
Chm/sospor-ium sp.
Island
Flats
2.9
8.8
8.8
-
-
2.9
2.9
-
-
2.9
2.9
-
2.9
-
—
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
29.4
-
-
2.9
5.8
2.9
8.8
2.9
-
-
2.9
-
Mineral
Creek
a
—
3.7
7.4
-
-
-
11.1
7.4
11.1
3.7
3.7
-
3.7
-
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
-
-
-
-
3.7
-
-
3.7
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
7.4
3.7
-
Old
Valdez
.5
2.0
1.0
.5
11.4
-
-
2.0
1.0
-
-
.5
-
-
1.5
-
-
-
-
-
1.0
7.2
15.1
3.1
1.0
4.1
2.6
.5
2.0
2.6
2.0
2.6
.5
-
-
-
1.0
.5
.5
2.6
6.7
1.0
65
-------
TABLE 16 (Continued)
PERCENT DENSITY OF MICROFUNGI BETWEEN SITES
Culture Island
No . Name Flats
V-69 -a
V-71
V-75 2.9
V-76
V-77
V-79 2.9
V-80
V-81 Triohoderma wiride var.
V-82
V-83
V-84 Tr-iohoderma wiride var.
V-85 Muoor> m-iarosporus
V-88
V-90
V-91 2.9
V-93
V-97
V-98
V-99
V-100
V-101
Mineral Old
Creek Valdez
6.2
1.0
.5
1.0
2.0
- -
1.5
.5
.5
.5
1.5
.5
.5
7.4
_ _
.5
.5
.5
1.0
.5
1.0
Total Species 18 19 47
Dashes indicate non-occurrence of species at particular depth.
66
-------
TABLE 17
PERCENT DENSITY OF YEASTS BETWEEN SITES.
THE SYMBOL V = UNIDENTIFIED SPECIES
Culture No.
V-l
V-2
V-3
V-4
V-5
V-ll
V-23
V-24
V-25
V-36a
V-38
V-41
V-44
V-53
V-54
V-56
V-58
V-61
V-65
V-70
V-73
V-74
V-78
V-86
V-87
V-89
V-92
Island Flats
63.2
11.2
3.7
6.3
2.5
1.2
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1.2
6.3
-
1.2
-
-
-
-
-
—
-
-
2.5
Mineral Creek
1.2
18.1
5.1
2.5
5.1
-
2.5
1.2
2.5
-
1.2
-
-
1.2
23.3
-
_
-
29.8
1.2
2.5
-
-
-
-
1.2
-
Old Valdez
6.5
22.9
3.2
6.5
a
-
-
-
11.4
3.2
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
9.8
3.2
3.2
4.9
-
-
1.6
1.6
1.6
11.4
1.6
-
-
i>ashes indicate non-occurrence of species at particular depth.
67
-------
as well as three pycnidial forms (Sphaeropsidales) make up a part of the
microfungal population. Species in the above genera are often isolated
27
from Alaskan soils. Johnson and Sparrow (1961) indicate that species of
Penicillia seem to occur in abundance in marine muds and in lesser abundance
one may find species of Aspergillus, Cephalosporiwn, Trichoderma, Chae-
tomiim, Alternca"iat Cladosporiim, and Rhizopus. None of these genera is
typically marine.
DISCUSSION
Sediment samples were taken from three mid-tide horizons in the Port
Valdez area. By means of dilution plating on selective media, the
filamentous fungi, bacteria, actinomycetes, and yeasts were obtained for
future identification and at the same time information was gathered on
numbers of different types of organisms with respect to particular sampling
site and to depth in the profile.
Preliminary observations were as follows: Numbers of filamentous fungi
and yeasts were low, 100-3700/gram of sediment; 100-6100/gram respectively.
Numbers of filamentous fungi decreased rapidly with an increase in depth
of sample. On two of the three beaches sampled yeast numbers were lower
from the surface to a depth of 3 cm, increased at mid depths and decreased
with depth thereafter. Numbers of aerobic bacteria ranged from 6.2 x 10
to 8.2 x 10 /g of sediment and in general exhibited a decrease in numbers
with increased depth. However, at one sampling site numbers decreased from
10 to 15 cm deep and showed a marked increase from 16 to 20 cm deep. Num-
3 5
bers of anaerobic bacteria ranged from 8 x 10 to 1.1 x 10 /g and again
decreased in numbers with increased depth.
The sampling site in the area of Old Valdez appears to be the richest
in fungal flora both in numbers per gram and variety of species. Forty-seven
species of microfungi were isolated from this site as opposed to 19 from
the site at Mineral Creek and 18 from Island Flats. Five species of
Actinomycetes were recovered from the Old Valdez site and none were recovered
from sediments from the other two sites. Aerobic bacteria were most numerous
at the Island Flats site (8.2 x 10 /g) and anaerobic bacteria were most
abundant at Mineral Creek (1.1 x 10 /g).
68
-------
Ninety-two percent of the bacterial isolates subjected to gram
staining proved to be gram negative rods.
Taxonomy of the fungi isolated is by no means complete but the known
genera do not include any typically marine organisms. Sampling was only
carried out once during the summer so no information was obtained on
seasonal variations if these sediment populations do indeed exhibit fluc-
tuation in numbers. Since microorganisms were found at all depths sampled,
future cores should be taken to greater depths in the profile. When petri
dishes were incubated at 5°C rather than at room temperature, some inter-
esting results were obtained and this indicates that future work might
well be carried out at temperatures which approach field conditions.
The increase in numbers of organisms at the 16 to 20 cm depth at the Old
Valdez site should be investigated to determine whether the increase was
due to sampling error or to some parameter such as structure or chemistry
of that particular sediment related to the continuing presence of oil here.
69
-------
SECTION VI
SEASONAL OBSERVATIONS OF THE INTERTIDAL MEIOFAUNA
INTRODUCTION
The food web of any marine environment is very complex. Although many
examples of portions of such food webs are available from various parts of
the world (see Green, 1968 for review), most of these food interrelationships
are incompletely understood even in areas where such studies have been in
31
progress for many years (Thorson, 1957) . Such a situation is especially true
in Alaskan waters where little work has been accomplished on the trophic rela-
tionships between various elements of food chains, and is certainly true in
Prince William Sound where the only intensive studies available are those of
32
the pink salmon (Helle et al., 1964) . The President's Panel on Oil Spills
33
(1969) states that "Effects of oil on birds, larger wildlife, and natural
beauty are easy to observe, but effects on unobtrusive animals, microorganisms,
and the net effects on the food chain and the ecological habitats of marine
wildlife are poorly known". This is a statement that emphasizes the need for
such studies in Alaska. The Panel also emphasizes the fact that most of our
present knowledge of oil-spill damage is derived from observations on acciden-
tal oil spills and that we lack good data on organisms and their interrelation-
ships before as well as after oil spills. It stated that, "A final assessment
of the effects of oils and dispersants should be done in natural environments
suited for comparative experiments. Monitoring of these experiments should be
followed at least for one year to detect long-range effects".
Port Valdez is an area for which little biological baseline information
was available at the time of its selection as a pipeline terminus. The need
for knowledge of seasonal and long-term fluctuations as well as variations
in species abundance for an area as necessary prerequisites for a biological
f\ i
baseline program has been stressed by Lewis (1970) . It was with the latter
need in mind that in 1972 an investigation of one component of the intertidal
sediment ecosystem, the meiofauna (small organisms between 0.2 and 1.0 mm),
of Port Valdez was initiated. The meiofauna is generally restricted to the
upper few centimeters in fine sediments of the type found in Port Valdez
o c o£
(Barnett, 1968 ; Mclntyre, 1969 ; also see Section IV), and should be
70
-------
vulnerable to oil layering on intertidal sediments following accidental spills
as well as to the continuing presence of soluble fractions in the overlying
sea water. Thus, basic information on the sediment meiofauna should be useful
in the development of a monitoring program for Port Valdez.
No published work is available for Alaska concerning the small organisms
(microflora, microfauna, meiofauna) that inhabit sediments. However, some
assessment of the importance of these organisms in sediment systems can be
extrapolated from work accomplished in other areas. The importance of bac-
teria as food for animals dwelling in sediments was emphasized by Zobell and
37
Feltham (1938) who calculated that in a cubic foot of mud there would be
about a gram dry weight of bacteria with a production of at least 10 grams
dry weight per day (also see Section IX for literature review). Green flagel-
lates, diatoms and blue-green algae may also be abundant in and on estuarine
muds and some diatoms and blue-green algae may form mats on the mud surface
1 8
(Barnes, 1974) . Bacteria and diatoms are eaten directly by many small
members of the microfauna and meiofauna such as ciliate protozoans, turbel-
larian flatworms, nematodes, polychaetous annelids (young), ostracods and
18 38
harpacticoid copepods (Barnes, 1974 for review; Boaden, 1962 ; Fenchel,
1967 ; Mclntyre, 1969 ; Mclntyre and Murison, 1973 ; Muus, 1967) , and
are themselves consumed by other ciliates, flatworms, nematodes and halacarid
mites. The microfauna and meiofauna are in turn fed upon by deposit feeding
and predatory macrofauna such as various species of polychaete worms, crus-
on 1 o
tacea, clams and small fishes (see Green, 1968 and Barnes, 1974 for re-
42 40 41
view; Kaczynski et al., 1973 ; Mclntyre and Murison, 1973 ; Muus, 1967)
Some of the latter organisms in many marine areas form part of the food for
18 ^0
bottom fishes and wading birds (Barnes, 1974 ; Green, 1968 ; Mclntyre and
40
Murison, 1973) . Damage to the meiofaunal components of the Port Valdez
sediment system could seriously affect similar food-web interactions here at
all trophic levels with possible alteration of species composition and abun-
dance.
This section presents baseline data on meiofaunal as well as selected
macrofaunal species on four beaches in Port Valdez and one beach in Galena
Bay, Prince William Sound from July 1972 through July 1974. Aspects treated
in this section include: general composition and density, vertical distribu-
tion, seasonal fluctuations, and reproductive biology of organisms on the
above beaches.
71
-------
METHODS
Three mid-tide sites (at 0.0 m), 4 m x 4 m, were selected for monthly
sampling on beaches termed Dayville Flats, Island Flats (two sampling areas)
and Mineral Creek Flats (see Section IV, Figure 1 for location of areas).
Two additional beaches were sampled when time and logistics permitted, Galena
Bay Flats (+ 0.8 m; adjacent to Millard Creek, Galena Bay) and Old Valdez
(+ 0.9 m; adjacent to the site of Old Valdez). The latter site was available
for one year only; the beach was markedly altered by activities associated
with the razing of Old Valdez in the summer of 1973.
Core samples were taken monthly with a 3.5 cm internal diameter plas-
2
tic core liner that sampled 10 cm of sediment surface to a maximum depth of
8 cm. The core was held in a brass jacket with a threaded cap, and was split
lengthwise to facilitate core removal. Five replicate cores were taken with
the position of the first core selected randomly; the remaining cores were
taken 35 cm apart in a line at right angles to the shore. In the field, five
successive layers, each 1 cm thick, were sliced from four of the cores; three
additional 1 cm layers were sliced from the fifth core. Each of the layers
were placed in a separate jar and preserved in 10% neutral formalin with
Rose Bengal (1 g/Jl) added. Occasionally, living material was extracted by
swirling fresh sediment with sea water, decanting the water through a 64 y
Nitex screen, and washing the organisms into a glass container for microscopic
examination at the field station in Port Valdez.
Sediment, air, and water temperatures were taken routinely at each col-
lection period and at other times whenever possible. Surface-water and
sediment salinities were determined for most collection periods (see Section
IV for data tables).
Preserved samples were elutriated and animals collected on 64 micron
Nitex screening. Periodic microscopic examination for meiofaunal organisms
in the residue after elutriation showed the procedure to be more than 95%
efficient.
To facilitate counting, elutriated material from each core was divided
into four subsamples with an aliquot sampler (R. T. Cooney, Inst. of Marine
Science, University of Alaska, unpublished). Monthly counts of meiofauna
and macrofauna from a single subsample were made. Periodically, a standard
one-way analysis of variance was used on log transformed counts of the
72
-------
subsamples from a single core to demonstrate that the subsampling processes
were unbiased for meiofauna; no significant differences between subsamples
were typically detected (P = 0.05). Occasionally the subsampling method
overestimated one species of copepod, the relatively large Harpaotieus
un-iremis (see Section VII for detailed treatment of this species).
In February and June 1973 the Dayville sampling site (at 0.0 m) was
divided into four quadrants, and twenty equally-spaced cores (four groups of
five cores) were taken. Core counts of all nematodes and copepods were trans-
formed to logarithmic values, and a One-Way Analysis of Variance used to test
for significance. There was no significant difference between the population
means for the four quadrants within the sampling site (P = 0.05).
Seasonal fluctuations are plotted as the mean number of animals counted
per month in five cores.
RESULTS
Environment
Detailed environmental characteristics of the areas are included in
Section IV.
Surficial sediment in the study areas vary somewhat, but, in general,
can be described as a poorly sorted mud with a particle size range of
4 to 16 microns. The sediment texture is relatively uniform to 8 cm, the
maximum depth sampled for meiofauna. The organic carbon content of the
sediment is about 0.3%.
There are typically two low tides per day; lower tides occur during
the day in spring and summer and at night in the winter. The study sites
were exposed between 10 and 15 times per month.
Air temperatures in Port Valdez during the study period ranged from
17.5°C in August 1973 to -3.5°C in November 1973. Water temperatures
during the period of investigation ranged from 15.6°C in June 1973 to
0.0°C in January 1974. Sediment temperatures roughly paralleled air
temperatures at low tide and water temperatures at high tide; a minimum
sediment surface temperature of -1.2°C was recorded at low tide in
December 1972 (see Section IV, Tables 1, 2; Figures 4 and 5 this chapter).
73
-------
20
15
O
o
uf
I0
cc
UJ
CL
2
UJ 5
-5
SURFACE
WATER
AIR
MJSNJ M M J SNJ M M J SNJM
1972
1973
1974
Figure 4. Sediment surface, water, and air temperatures in Port Valdez during the baseline study
period.
-------
20
Ui
15
o
o
UJ"
£ 10
UJ
CL
UJ 5
0
_5L__L
/cm DEPTH
3cm DEPTH
5cm DEPTH
i i i i i i
M
SNJ MMJ SN
M M
S N J M
1972
1973
1974
Figure 5. Sediment temperatures in Port Valdez during the baseline study period.
-------
Winds are common at all seasons in Port Valdez, and contribute to low winter
sediment temperatures at low tide as well as to the generation of small,
high-frequency waves.
Surface ice occurs in winter and early spring, but thick sea ice rarely
forms in Port Valdez. However, snow becomes saturated with water on the
flats at low tide, freezes and forms sheets of ice varying in thickness from
1 cm to 1 m or more. This ice impinges upon and scours the tidal flats
during slack water.
The salinity of surface water in Port Valdez varied from 0.3 °/00 to
30.5 °/oo for the period during which meiofaunal baseline collections were
made. Interstitial salinities for the upper two centimeters of sediment
ranged from 16.0 °/00 in June 1974 to 36.2 in March 1974. Sediment salinities
were consistently higher than that of the overlying sea water.
General Composition and Density of Organisms on all Study Beaches
The meiofauna consisted primarily of nematodes and harpacticoid copepods
(Tables 18 through 22). Nematodes were not determined taxonomically. Eleven
copepods were identified either to genus or species, or type but only eight
species were sufficiently abundant to be followed quantitatively. Macrofaunal
species were not systematically examined, and, with the exception of Maooma
balt-h-iea (see Section XI) and some species of polychaetous annelids, are only
listed as present in Port Valdez. All species collected are included in
Table 23, the species examined quantitatively with time are included in Tables
24 through 43 and plotted in Figures 6 through 13.
A hydrozoan (Protohydra sp.), ostracods (two types), cumaceans (three
types with the most common one Cumel^a vulgafis), and three types of uniden-
tified mites occurred in smaller numbers on all beaches. At least five types
of turbellarian flatworms and several species of nemerteans were observed alive
in fresh sediment but none could be extracted quantitatively. Occasional for-
aminiferans, young amphipods, insect larvae, young clams (Maooma balthica)
and young mussels (Mytilus edulis) occurred, but numbers of individuals were
generally small. One species of meiofaunal polychaetous annelid, Micpophthal-
mus sazelkowii,, was observed on one occasion on Dayville Flats. One species*
Note: Continuation of text on page 109.
76
-------
TABLE 18
DENSITIES OF TOTAL MEIOFAUNA, TOTAL NEMATODES AND TOTAL COPEPODS PER 10 CM FROM AN INTER-
TIDAL SAMPLING STATION AT 0.0 M, DAYVILLE, PORT VALDEZ, ALASKA
Date of Sample
July 10,
July 26,
Aug 9,
Sept 8,
Oct 7,
Nov 11,
Dec 6,
Jan 2,
Feb 4,
Mar 7,
Apr 4,
May 5,
June 4 ,
July 1 ,
July 30,
Sept 13,
Dec 7,
Jan 7,
Mar 25,
Apr 24,
June 24,
July 23,
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
Total Meiofauna
X SD
1636
192-7
2064
2421
1977
1695
2636
3669
2097
2285
2657
1788
1646
2792
3875
3280
1746
802
2429
1274
1752
2050
135
1015
605
1441
353
572
738
554
950
470
198
502
1323
778
406
782
1031
454
2324
448
510
493
Total Nematodes
X SD
1310
1586
1703
2110
1703
1413
2306
3426
1896
2226
2050
1548
1395
2521
3496
2940
1699
762
2083
951
1259
1681
303
927
569
1169
343
474
620
621
111
482
256
436
1119
736
436
751
1005
437
2179
308
402
434
Total Copepods
X SD
256
309
351
307
255
252
293
216
132
46
135
126
242
206
284
252
26
26
251
207
387
298
107
82
132
274
52
116
160
85
102
16
41
56
204
67
72
98
22
22
156
104
102
71
X = mean number of individuals from five cores.
SD = standard deviation.
-------
TABLE 19
00
DENSITIES OF TOTAL MEIOFAUNA, TOTAL NEMATODES AND TOTAL COPEPODS PER 10 CM FROM AN
SAMPLING STATION AT 0.0 M, MINERAL CREEK, PORT VALDEZ, ALASKA
INTERTIDAL
Date of Sample
July 13,
July 28,
Aug 9,
Sept 7,
Oct 6%
Nov 4,
Dec 6,
Feb 5,
Mar 20,
Apr 5,
May 3,
June 3 ,
July 14,
Aug 1,
Sept 15,
Nov 10,
Dec 8,
Jan 7,
Mar 26,
Apr 4,
May 22,
June 24 ,
July 24,
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1974
1974
1974
1974a
1974
1974
Total Meio fauna
X SD
656
839
909
2635
1360
1377
1625
1208
954
1645
2548
3862
2394
4682
1518
529
714
442
629
763
1638
873
1483
135
253
964
1071
563
237
367
362
353
519
1010
1149
591
962
834
217
414
528
181
352
280
327
260
Total Nematodes
X SD
307
429
704
1635
965
858
1007
802
750
1362
1736
2849
1561
2753
1272
429
363
346
377
467
858
396
997
102
153
783
532
294
220
301
171
348
316
684
852
46
581
754
199
205
431
117
202
71
165
189
Total Copepods
X SD
230
286
151
781
292
374
446
285
140
185
416
718
554
1248
174
83
265
86
186
181
704
377
415
42
81
135
517
163
45
76
180
23
191
212
294
171
245
93
29
201
96
97
78
226
230
122
X = mean number
a = mean number
of individuals from five cores.
of individuals from two cores.
SD = Standard Deviation
-------
TABLE 20
DENSITIES OF TOTAL MEIOFAUNA, TOTAL NEMATODES AND TOTAL COPEPODS PER 10 CM FROM TWO
INTERTIDAL SAMPLING STATIONS AT 0.0 M, BASELINE AND ALTERNATIVE STUDY BEACHES ON
ISLAND FLATS, PORT VALDEZ, ALASKA
Date of Sample
a. Baseline
July 29,
Nov 5,
Apr 4,
May 4,
June 2 ,
June 29,
July 4 ,
July 29,
Sept 14,
Nov 11,
Mar 25,
Apr 23,
Beach
1972
1972
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973a
1973
1973
1973
1974b
1974b
Total Meiofauna
X SD
858
1997
1674
1082
1870
1562
4243
3357
209
1220
302
278
483
403
548
500
1862
1086
140
304
Total Nematodes
X SD
474
1479
917
617
888
768
2682
2202
172
765
196
254
294
233
289
253
1167
1065
107
387
Total Copepods
X SD
318
427
289
282
922
695
1329
907
29
364
148
97
145
15
43
161
358
257
629
302
37
121
48
36
b. Alternative Beach
July 29,
Nov 5,
1972
1972
829
740
208
379
342
299
160
211
427
386
221
176
X = mean number of individuals from five cores.
SD = standard deviation.
a = mean number of individuals from five cores with counts made from the upper two centimeters of sediment only.
b = mean number of individuals from six unsplit cores with counts made from the upper first centimeter only.
Only copepods counted.
-------
00
o
TABLE 21
DENSITIES OF TOTAL MEIOFAUNA, TOTAL NEMATODES AND TOTAL COPEPODS PER 10 CM2 FROM AN
INTERTIDAL SAMPLING STATION AT 0.0 M, OLD VALDEZ, PORT VALDEZ, ALASKA
Date of Sample Total Meiofauna Total Nematodes Total Copepods
X SD X SD X SD
July 26, 1972 1119 610 1034 567 48 28
Mar 10, 1973 2997 663 2749 638 104 66
X = mean number of individuals from five cores.
SD = standard deviation.
TABLE 22
DENSITIES OF TOTAL MEIOFAUNA, TOTAL NEMATODES AND TOTAL COPEPODS PER 10 CM2 FROM AN
INTERTIDAL SAMPLING STATION AT 0.0 M, GALENA BAY, PORT VALDEZ, ALASKA
Date
Nov
Jan
Feb
Nov
of Sample
11,
21,
22,
9,
1972
1973
1973
1973
Total Meiofauna
X SD
1078
494
322
252
313
182
99
104
Total Nematodes
X SD
993
478
179
97
298
176
27
45
Total Copepods
X SD
16
10
56
75
13
7
19
35
X = mean number of individuals from five cores.
SD = standard deviation.
-------
TABLE 23
LIST OF SPECIES COLLECTED ON ALL STUDY BEACHES IN PORT VALDEZ
Major Taxa
Species
PROTOZOA
CNIDARIA
PLATYHELMINTHES
NEMERTINEA
NEMATHELMINTHES
ANNELIDA
PHYLLODOCIDAE
GONIADAE
SYLLIDAE
SYLLIDAE
SPIONIDAE
CIRRATULIDAE
CAPITELLIDAE
GLYCERIDAE
SABELLIDAE
ORBIINIDAE
MOLLUSCA
PELECYPODA
PELECYPODA
GASTROPODA
TARDIGRADA
ARTHROPODA
CRUSTACEA
COPEPODA
COPEPODA
COPEPODA
COPEPODA
COPEPODA
COPEPODA
COPEPODA
COPEPODA
COPEPODA
COPEPODA
COPEPODA
COPEPODA
COPEPODA
COPEPODA
COPEPODA
Unidentified Foraminifera
Protohydra sp.
Approx. five unidentified species
Unidentified species
Numerous unidentified species
Eteone longa
Glyai-nde picta
Exogone lourei
M-icTophthalmus
Polydora qtuxdrilobata
Tharyx moni-lcwls
Cap-ltella cap-itata
Glyoeva oap-itata
Potcon'i'lla sp.
Haploscoloplos sp.
Macoma batth-ioa
Mytitus edut-is
Aglaja sp.
Hypsibius appelloefi
Harpaeticus superflexus
Harpaeticus uniremi-s (Type 1)
Nannopus palustT-is (Type 2)
Rhizothrix sp.a
Mesochra pygmaea? (Type 3)
Halectinosoma gothiceps (Type 4)
Halectinosoma f-inmaFohiown (Type 8)
HeteTolaophonte sp. (Type 10)
Paralaophonte perplexa3-
I'Lttor'ale (Type 12)
Unidentified species
Stenheli-a sp.a
Paradactylopodia latipes
Tisbe inflata? (Type 15)
81
-------
TABLE 23 (Continued)
LIST OF SPECIES COLLECTED ON ALL STUDY BEACHES
Major Taxa Species
OSTRACODA Unidentified species
AMPHIPODA Unidentified species
CUMACEA Unidentified species; Cumella vulgaris?
ARACHNIDA Unidentified species of mites
INSECTA Unidentified species
Species collected infrequently and in low numbers; not recorded in data
tables by specific names.
The number in parenthesis after taxonomic names are type numbers given
during the study and prior to taxonomic determinations. These numbers
occur in Tables 29 through 33.
82
-------
TABLE 24
DENSITIES
oo
OF HARPACTICOID
AT 0
COPEPODS PER 10 CM FROM AN INTERTIDAL SAMPLING STATION
,0 M, DAYVILLE, PORT VALDEZ, ALASKA
Date of Sample
July 10,
July 26,
Aug 9,
Sept 8,
Oct 7,
Nov 11,
Dec 6,
Jan 2,
Feb 4,
Mar 7,
Apr 4,
May 5,
June 4 ,
July 1,
July 30,
Sept 13,
Dec 7,
Jan 7 ,
Mar 25,
Apr 24,
June 24,
July 23,
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
Harpaot-ious
uni-Tem'is
X SD
98
143
203
94
18
7
18
32
5
0
6
31
46
51
39
42
4
2
84
77
73
40
27
50
112
112
13
8
10
24
4
0
2
14
45
15
27
13
3
2
78
51
68
11
Halecti-nosoma
gothi,ceps
X SD
121
110
94
98
95
134
37
31
8
3
10
17
45
24
28
19
11
7
60
78
195
147
88
35
54
110
60
57
36
26
9
4
5
11
55
23
22
16
11
7
35
42
32
43
Hetero laophon te
sp.
X SD
20
47
8
11
80
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
12
2
54
48
2
0
7
9
25
13
13
7
7
8
81
7
0
0
0
0
0
0
26
2
73
96
4
0
8
5
10
7
Unidentified
Copepodites
X SD
-
-
-
-
17
2
-
2
26
60
-
-
-
8
2
1
33
8
21
-
-
-
-
-
23
4
-
2
17
73
-
-
-
11
2
2
49
9
28
-
Unidentified
Nauplii
X SD
-
-
5
6
2
10
58
10
424
6
-
-
10
-
-
-
-
-
1
1
-
-
9
5
2
17
120
23
194
7
-
-
6
-
-
-
-
-
2
2
Other
Copepods
X SD
15
9
47
105
61
106
236
151
119
41
119
79
138
128
165
143
9
16
101
44
94
98
9
8
11
39
48
36
105
54
42
18
32
25
45
40
86
66
4
6
35
13
26
26
X = mean number of individuals from five cores.
SD = standard deviation.
-------
oo
TABLE 25
DENSITIES OF HARPACTICOID COPEPODS PER 10 CM2 FROM AN INTERTIDAL SAMPLING STATION
AT 0.0 M, MINERAL CREEK, PORT VALDEZ, ALASKA
Date
July
July
Aug
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
June
July
Aug
Sept
Nov
Dec
Jan
Mar
Apr
May
June
July
of Sample
13,
28,
9,
7,
6,
4,
6,
5,
20,
5,
3,
3,
14,
1,
15,
10,
8,
7,
26,
4,
22,
24,
24,
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1974
1974
1974
1974a
1974
1074
Harpaot-ious
uri'irem-is
X SD
14
11
12
74
9
1
106
2
3
8
86
26
15
12
4
1
0
2
3
21
60
13
6
19
9
8
40
11
1
63
2
3
7
41
18
8
5
5
1
0
2
*
5
15
11
15
4
Raleatinosoma
goth-iaeps
X SD
91
75
54
458
103
193
171
125
78
102
166
527
416
927
119
48
158
22
115
93
400
273
333
39
24
45
391
51
28
15
115
30
63
89
257
127
192
83
21
122
23
78
59
136
150
101
Heterolaophonte
sp.
X SD
106
133
10
121
100
0
0
0
0
1
0
61
88
162
20
10
81
7
15
26
150
63
41
35
38
5
81
81
0
0
0
0
1
0
59
41
32
11
2
80
12
14
17
37
113
20
Unidentified Unidentified Other
Copepodites Nauplii Copepods
X SD X SD X SD
- - - 19
- 66
- - - 76
- - 42 90 124
- - 7 9 78
- - 15 24 180
11 17 47 167
10 11 21 22 158
4 3 - - 59
4 22 2 2 74
108 83 8 11 163
- - - - 105
34
- - 3 4 148
- - 4 8 31
2 2 25
8 11 27
2 4 - - 55
1 3 - - 54
38 27 - - 40
14 20 - - 94
- - - - 27
- - - - 35
7
34
35
32
23
34
42
44
20
46
36
19
9
29
9
6
6
22
13
7
19
8
10_
X = mean number of Individuals
SD = sta.nda.ird deviation,
SL = Tneaix Tiunibe^Ts £:rrom two core
from five cores.
-------
00
Ln
TABLE 26
DENSITIES OF HARPACTICOID COPEPODS PER 10 CM2 FROM TWO INTERTIDAL SAMPLING STATIONS
AT 0.0 M, BASELINE AND ALTERNATIVE STUDY BEACHES ON ISLAND FLATS, PORT VALDEZ, ALASKA
Date of Sample
Earpaot-'lous
untrem-is
X SD
Haleotinosoma
goth-iceps
X SD
Hetevolaophonte
sp.
X SD
Unidentified
Copepodites
X SD
Unidentified
Nauplii
X SD
Other
Copepods
X SD
a. Baseline Beach
July 29, 1972
Nov 5, 1972
Apr 4, 1973
May 4, 1073
June 2, 1973
June 29, 1973
July 4, 1973a
July 29, 1973
Sept 14, 1973
Nov 11, 1973
Mar 25, 1974b
Apr 23, 1974b
b. Alternative
July 29, 1972
Nov 5, 1972
107
10
0
52
217
41
106
44
0
1
2
17
Beach
45
3
74
8
0
42
155
16
67
33
0
2
2
5
34
5
93
182
134
94
362
345
690
469
18
216
105
45
155
153
65
107
34
59
138
209
295
222
21
67
32
22
69
90
0
0
0
2
48
138
263
142
5
28
13
25
0
0
0
0
0
4
53
36
128
66
8
19
10
8
0
0
-
1
15
113
5
7
6
31
-
-
2
13
76
11
11
13
33
-
14 5
unknown
unknown
-
-
-
-
-
6
423
55
6
6
7
25
-
2
2
5
-
14
269
33
9
12
7
29
-
4
4
7
119
234
155
134
297
173
270
254
6
119
28
11
228
229
77
66
28
45
44
27
46
53
6
22
10
4
37
63
X = mean number of individuals from five cores.
SD = standard deviation.
a = mean numbers from five cores with counts taken from the upper two centimeters of sediment only.
b = mean numbers from six unsplit cores with counts taken from the upper first centimeter of sediment only.
Only copepods counted.
-------
TABLE 27
DENSITIES OF HARPACTICOID COPEPODS PER 10 CM2 FROM AN INTERTIDAL SAMPLING STATION
AT 0.0 M, OLD VALDEZ, PORT VALDEZ, ALASKA
Date of Sample
July 26, 1972
Mar 10, 1973
Harpactieus
uniremis
X SD
8 17
10 12
Haleetinosoma
gothioeps
X SD
8 7
42 34
Eeterolaophonte
sp.
X SD
0 0
0 0
Unidentified Unidentified Other
Copepodites Nauplii Copepods
X SD X SD X
- - - - 30
- 53
SD
22
28
X = mean number of individuals from five cores.
SD = standard deviation.
oo
TABLE 28
DENSITIES OF HARPACTICOID COPEPODS PER 10 CM FROM AN INTERTIDAL SAMPLING STATION
AT 0.0 M, GALENA BAY, PORT VALDEZ, ALASKA
Date
Nov
Jan
Feb
Nov
of Sample
11,
2,
22,
9,
1972
1973
1973
1973
HaTpaoti-ous
uniremis
X SD
4
0
7
9
2
0
*
8
10
Halect'inosoma
gothioeps
X SD
1
1
38
21
2
2
17
21
Hetevo laophonte
sp.
X SD
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
3
Unidentified Unidentified Other
Copepodites Nauplii Copepods
X SD X SD X SD
- - - - 12
1 2 - - 9
25 1 2 12
41
13
7
5
16
X = mean number of individuals from five cores.
SD = standard deviation.
-------
oo
TABLE 29
DENSITIES OF "OTHER COPEPODS"a PER 10 CM2 FROM AN INTERTIDAL SAMPLING STATION
AT 0.0 M, DAYVILLE, PORT VALDEZ, ALASKA
Date of Sample
July 10,
July 26,
Aug 9,
Sept 8,
Oct 7,
Nov 11,
Dec 6,
Jan 2,
Feb 4,
Mar 4,
Apr 4,
May 5,
June 4 ,
July I,
July 30,
Sept 13,
Dec 7,
Jan 7,
Mar 25,
Apr 24,
June 24 ,
July 22,
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
Other
Q
Copepods
X SD
15
9
47
105
61
106
236
151
119
41
119
79
138
128
165
143
9
16
101
44
94
98
9
8
11
39
48
36
105
54
42
18
32
25
45
40
86
66
4
6
35
13
26
26
Type 2
X SD
7
-
2
3
-
69
193
105
8
7
13
9
14
-
-
2
3
2
-
1
-
2
13
-
4
3
-
49
135
62
17
12
7
4
14
-
-
2
7
2
-
2
-
4
Type
X
6
9
11
2
-
2
1
20
4
-
6
2
10
3
-
2
2
2
13
15
18
23
3
SD
4
8
6
4
-
3
2
42
5
-
4
3
17
4
-
4
4
4
12
19
17
14
Type
X
2
-
8
22
2
-
-
-
68
5
49
13
9
11
8
5
2
2
78
22
10
12
8 Type 9 Type 11
SD X SD X SD
3 - -
- - - -
8 3 7 10 17
31 - -
4 _
- 24 15
- 17 27
- 24
55 12
3 _
27 - -
16 - -
9 _
5 _ _
10 - -
5 _
4 _ _ _ _
4 12
38 - - - -
11 -
6 - -
10 -
Type 12 Type 13 Type 15
X SD X SD X SD
-
-
13
78
59
11
25
24
38
29
51
55
105
114
157
134
2
9
10
6
66
61
_ _
_ _
19 _ _
39 - - - -
54 - - - -
8 - - - -
50 - -
19 _ _
52 - - -
23 - - -
44 _ _ _ _
21 _ _
123 - - -
41 _ _
60 - -
118 - - -
2 - - -
11 - - - -
10 - - 23
5 _ _
17 _ _
18 - - -
X = mean number of individuals from five cores. SD = standard deviation.
a = Other identified copepods include: Type 2 Nannopus palustvis, Type 3 Mesochra pygmaea?,
Type 8 Haleotinosoma f-Lnmapcliieum, Type 12 Mieroar't'krid-ion littorale, and Type 15 Tisbe -inflata?
-------
TABLE 30
00
00
DENSITIES OF "OTHER COPEPODS"3 PER 10 CM2
AT 0.0 M, MINERAL CREEK,
Date of
July 13,
July 28,
Aug 9,
Sept 7,
Oct 6,
Nov 4,
Dec 6,
Feb 5,
Mar 20,
Apr 5,
May 3,
June 3 ,
July 14,
Aug 1,
Sept 15,
Nov 10,
Dec 8,
Jan 7,
Mar 26,
Apr 4,
May 22,
June 24,
July 24,
Sample
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1974
1974
1974
1974b
1974
1974
Other
Copepods
X SD
19
66
76
127
78
180
167
158
59
74
163
105
34
48
31
25
27
55
54
40
94
27
35
7
34
35
32
23
34
42
44
20
46
36
19
9
29
9
6
6
22
V
7
19
8
10
Type 2
X SD
3
-
58
61
19
72
105
28
24
4
23
9
4
7
2
-
3
1
1
1
10
3
5
4
-
67
46
9
14
28
34
36
8
35
5
5
6
4
-
5
2
3
2
8
3
5
Type 3
X SD
3
17
9
28
8
14
15
16
6
7
40
20
2
41
6
11
6
-
11
8
44
7
9
1
14
8
35
9
11
12
15
8
9
23
13
2
39
6
12
7
-
11
7
6
3
12
FROM AN INTERTIDAL SAMPLING STATION
PORT VALDEZ, ALASKA
Type 8 Type 9
X SD X SD
13
2
1
6
1
-
-
64
14
21
34
28
-
5
2
2
3
23
19
11
18
1
2
7 - -
2 - -
2 - -
6 - -
2 - -
_ _
- -
53
9
11
40
16
_
10
2
2
4 - -
37
22
5
14
2 - -
3 — —
Type
X
-
49
3
10
11
25
32
2
-
-
-
2
15
24
-
3
6
5
13
6
20
11
1
11
SD
-
47
7
10
16
23
19
3
-
-
-
3
12
21
-
3
6
8
16
6
28
17
2
Type 12 Type 13
X SD X SD
-
-
5
23
39
69
15
43
15
42
65
45
13
71
21
9
9
26
3
3
2
5
18
_
_
8 - -
9 - -
40 - -
30 - -
14 - -
31 54
12 - -
15 - -
40 12
28 -
11 - -
31 -
14 - -
2 -
11 - -
28 -
5 - -
4 -
3 - -
8 - -
12 - -
Type 15
X SD
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
7 14
11 11
-
-
X = mean number of individuals from five cores. SD = standard deviation.
a. = Other identified copepods include: Type 2 Nannopus palustx'-i-ss Type 3 M&soahva pygmaea?,
Type 8 Hatea't'L.nosoma. f-i.-nmcapcihi
-------
00
TABLE 31
DENSITIES OF "OTHER COPEPODS"3 PER 10 CM2 FROM TWO INTERTIDAL SAMPLING STATIONS
AT 0.0 M, BASELINE AND ALTERNATIVE STUDY BEACHES ON ISLAND FLATS, PORT VALDEZ, ALASKA
Date of Sample
Other
Copepods
X SD
Type
X
2
SD
Type 3
X SD
Type
X
8 Type 9
SD X SD
Type 11 Type
X SD X
12 Type 13 Type 15
SD X SD X SD
a. Baseline Beach
July 29,
Nov 5,
Apr 4,
May 4,
June 2 ,
June 29,
July 4,
July 29,
Sept 14,
Nov 11,
Mar 25,
Apr 23,
1972
1972
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973b
1973
1973
1973
1974°
1974°
b. Alternative
July 29,
Nov 5,
1972
1972
119
234
155
134
297
173
270
254
6
119
28
11
Beach
228
229
77
66
28
45
44
27
46
53
6
22
10
4
37
63
78
78
24
27
46
33
38
69
5
11
6
1
65
50
30
32
14
30
15
20
22
34
8
9
3
2
46
20
2
93
35
15
83
12
101
21
-
32
5
1
107
23
2
123
28
23
47
12
67
14
-
16
3
1
145
21
-
6
71
7
32
18
33
3
-
8
3
3
-
-
_
14
30
10
47
9 - -
54
3 - -
_
7 - -
4 - -
4 - -
_
_ _
11 38
22 55
- - 25
- - 85
2 4 134
8 9 102
11 14 87
15 11 146
— — 1
77 61
- - 14
- - 6
34 15 22
138 81 1
19 - - -
39 - - -
9 _ _
59 _ _ _ _
42 - - -
20 - -
50 - - - -
65 - - - -
2 - - - -
26 - - - -
21 - -
6 - - -
11 _ _
2 17 38 - -
X = mean number of individuals from five cores. SD = standard deviation.
a = Other identified copepods include: Type 1 Nannopus palustris, Type 3 Mesochra pygmaea?,
Type 8 Ealeoti.nosoma finmarchiaum, Type 12 Miaroarthridion littorale, and Type 15 Tisbe inflata?
b = mean number of individuals from five cores with counts made from the upper 2 centimeters of sediment only.
c = mean number of individuals from six unsplit cores with counts made from the upper first centimeter of
sediment only. Only copepods counted.
-------
TABLE 32
DENSITIES OF "OTHER COPEPODS"3 PER 10 CM2 FROM AN INTERTIDAL SAMPLING STATION
AT 0.0 M, OLD VALDEZ, PORT VALDEZ, ALASKA
Other Type 2 Type 3 Type 8 Type 9 Type 11 Type 12 Type 13
Date of Sample Copepods
July
Mar
X =
SD =
a =
Date
Nov
Jan
Feb
Nov
X SD X SD X SD X SD X SD X SD X SD X SB
26, 1972 31 22 20 20 - - - - - 10 15 - - - -
10, 1973 53 28 30 27 - - - - - - - - 23 31 -
mean number of individuals from five cores .
standard deviation.
Other identified copepods include: Type 2 Nannopus palustris , Type 3 Mesochra pygmaea?,
Type 8 Ealeatinosoma finmarchiawn , Type 12 Microarthridion littorale, and Type 15 Tisbe inflata?
TABLE 33
DENSITIES OF "OTHER COPEPODS" PER 10 CM FROM AN INTERTIDAL SAMPLING STATION
AT 0.0 M, GALENA BAY, PORT VALDEZ, ALASKA
Other Type 2 Type 3 Type 8 Type 9 Type 11 Type 12 Type 13
of Sample Copepods
X SD X SD X SD X SD X SD X SD X SD X SD
11, 1972 12 13 12 13-- -- -- -- - - --
21, 1973 97 88-- 12-- -- -- --
22, 1973 12 5 93 24 12-- -- -- --
9, 1973 41 16 32 11 25-- -- 12 -- _ _
Type 15
X SD
-
-
Type 15
X SD
-
-
-
6 13
X = mean number of individuals from five cores.
SD = standard deviation.
a = Other identified copepods include: Type 2 Nannopus palustris, Type 3 Mesock?a pygmaea?3
Type 8 Haleotinosoma finmarchicitm, Type 12 Microarthridion littoTale, and Type 15 Tisbe -inflata?
-------
TABLE 34
DENSITIES OF OTHER MEIOFAUNA PER 10 CM2 FROM AN INTERTIDAL SAMPLING STATION
AT 0.0 M, DAYVILLE, PORT VALDEZ, ALASKA
Date of Sample
July 10,
July 26,
Aug 9,
Sept 8,
Oct 7,
Nov 11,
Dec 6,
Jan 21,
Feb 4,
Mar 7,
Apr 4,
May 5,
June 4 ,
July 1,
July 30,
Sept 13,
Dec 7,
Jan 7,
Mar 25,
Apr 24,
June 24,
July 24,
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
Forami- Proto-
nlfera hydra
X SD X SD
- - 1
- - 2
_ _
- - 3
- - 7
- - 5
- - 3
- - 2
- -
64 3
- - 2
- - 3
- - 14
- - 15
- - 32
- - 10
12 2
- - 42
- - 70
- - 3
- - 11
2
2
-
3
5
9
7
2
-
4
4
3
8
12
19
11
4
26
63
4
3
Ostracods
Type 1 Type 2
X SD X SD
;
-
i
i
2
-
-
-
1
-
la
-
1
2
-
-
-
1
11
7
-
-
2
2
2
-
-
-
2
-
2
-
2
2
-
-
-
2
9
5
-
-
-
4
5
-
1
-
1
-
-
-
6
5
-
1
3
2
7
4
-
-
-
4
6
-
2
-
2
-
-
-
5
5
-
2
4
4
6
4
Cumaceans
Type 1 Type 2 Typ
X SD X SD X
12 - - 63
12 - - 26
_ _ _ _ 3
- - - - 6
- - - - 10
- - - -
25 - - 2
- - 22
_ _ _ _
- - 52
_ _ _ _ i
- - - -
- - 3 4 31
- - - - 30
- - - - 26
_ _ _ _ i
- - 66 2
- - 12 1
35 33
- - - - 37a
- - - - 27a
e 3
SD
83
18
5
4
10
-
4
-
-
-
2
-
22
22
11
2
2
2
-
15
7
Arophi- Mites
pods Ty_pe 1 Type 2 Ty_pe 4
X SD X SD X SD X SD
12 122
_ _ _ _ 4
34 - - 5
_ _ _ _ 2
- - 123
- - 242
12 - - 6
12 - - 6
_ _ _ _ 3
- - 24-
_ _ _ _ 4
12 - - 2
- - - - 59
- - 1 2 12
12 2 4 28
- - - - 14
_ _ _ _ 7
_ _ _ _ 2
- - - - 16
- - - - 28
12 - - 23
- - - - 21
3 - -
6 - -
3 - -
2 - -
7 - -
2 - -
2 - -
8 - -
3 - -
_ _
6 22
5 38b71b
- -
3 47
8 - -
18 - -
7 - -
2 - -
15 - -
7 - -
11 - -
5 - -
X = mean number of individuals from five cores.
a = species type unknown
b = species Type 6
SD = standard deviation
-------
TABLE 35
DENSITIES OF OTHER MEIOFAUNA PER 10 CM2 FROM AN INTERTIDAL SAMPLING STATION
AT 0.0 M, MINERAL CREEK, PORT VALDEZ , ALASKA
Date of Sample
July 13,
July 28,
Aug 9,
Sept 7,
Oct 6,
Nov 4,
Dec 6,
Feb 5,
Mar 20,
Apr 5,
May 3,
June 3 ,
July 14,
Aug 1,
Sept 15,
Nov 10,
Dec 8,
Jan 7,
Mar 26,
Apr 4,
May 22,
June 24,
July 24,
X = mean
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1972
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973
1974
1974
1974
1974a
1974
1974
number
Forami-
nif era
X SD
50 68
38 40
5 4
66 35
14 13
37 22
17 18
16 13
20 17
11 7
161 101
171 56
150 96
390 122
24 14
- -
5 7
- -
33 41
32 39
- -
59 22
- -
Proto-
hydra
X SD
12 8
8 2
2 4
12 9
13 13
14 9
21 21
2 2
- -
2 2
3 3
1 2
6 7
27 19
2 3
2 4
7 6
- -
2 3
-
- -
8 9
11 9
of individuals from
Ostracods
Type 1
X
7
18
5
10
15
23
4
18
9
5
5
16
6
22
10
2
2
2
6
9
2
5
11
five
SD
5
7
8
17
16
7
2
8
9
5
4
11
7
13
7
3
4
3
4
11
3
5
5
cores,
Type 2
X SD
5 3
12 4
9 10
5 5
5 3
10 2
27 19
9 5
3 7
2 7
6 8
7 7
21 10
17 8
8 8
2 3
3 3
2 3
2 3
4 5
6 8
-
7 6
SD = standard deviation
a = mean
number
of individuals from
two cores .
Cumaceans
Type 1 Type 2
X SD X SD
_ _ _
_ _ _ _
- - 12
9 12 - -
- - 8 13
_ _ _ _
- - 12
- - 35
_ _ _ _
- - - -
89 68
24 - -
- - 10 10
- - 7 11
_ _ _ _
- - - -
_ _ _ _
_ _ _ _
_ _ _ _
_ _ _ _
_ _ _ _
_ _ _ _
- - - -
b = species
c = species
d = species
Amphi-
Type 3 pods
X SD X SD
28 17 - -
34 24 23
28 23 - -
50 29 - -
26 24 - -
38 22 - -
64 - -
12 31
55 - -
- - - -
12 - -
24 8 11
23 18 - -
24 20 - -
24 - -
- - - -
22 - -
_ _ _ _
12 - -
22 - -
40 23
14 10 22
12b 6
type unknown
type 3
type Isopod
Type 1
X
3
2
-
SD
7
4
-
19°23
-
-
1
2
14
1
-
-
-
-
1
-
-
-
1
-
2
-
-
-
-
2
3
20
2
-
-
-
-
3
-
-
-
d2
-
d3
-
-
Mites
Type 2
X SD
13 14
10 7
2 5
6 8
15 15
7 6
80 40
36 21
10 12
51 42
90 58
88 44
64 52
190 75
20 7
8b 7
59 58
3 4
20 21
32 22
46 14
12 17
30 16
Type 4
X SD
- -
- -
- -
1 2
- -
2 3
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
-
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
-------
TABLE 36
DENSITIES OF OTHER MEIOFAUNA PER 10 CM2 FROM TWO INTERTIDAL SAMPLING STATIONS
AT 0.0 M, BASELINE AND ALTERNATIVE STUDY BEACHES ON ISLAND FLATS, PORT VALDEZ, ALASKA
Date of Sample
Forami-
nif era
X SD
a. Baseline Beach
July 29, 1972 - -
Nov 5,
Apr 4,
May 4,
June 2 ,
June 29,
July 4,
July 29,
Sept 14,
Nov 11 ,
1972
1973
1973
1973
1973
1973a
1973
1973
1973
b. Alternative
July 29,
Nov 5,
1972
1972
-
2
-
6
9
30
7
-
8
Beach
2
18
-
2
-
10
10
24
5
-
6
4
14
Proto-
hydra
X SD
42
11
4
1
3
6
2
8
2
6
9
5
25
9
5
2
5
7
4
5
5
10
7
5
Ostracods
Type 1 Type 2
X SD X SD
1 2
18 12
3 5
3 4
6 4
17 15
55 26
34 27
1 2
27 20
5 5
5 4
6 5
12 10
4 5
5 7
13 14
17 15
49 39
37 28
- -
10 15
7 4
5 5
Cumaceans
Type 1 Type 2 Type 3
X SD X SD X SD
- - 22 75
- - - - 77
23 - - 35
- - - - - -
- - 25 - -
- - - - 55
- - 2 4 14 12
- - 2 2 36 30
_ _ _ _ _ _
- - - - lb 2
22 - - 22 12
- - - - 65
Amphi- Mites
pods Type 2 Ty_pe 4
X SD X SD X SD
- - 8
- - 29
- - 11
- - 6
12 17
- - 29
- - 67
- - 67
- - 3
- - 23
- - 11
- - 10
9 - -
4 12
7 - -
6 - -
18 - -
14 - -
36 - -
20 - -
4 - -
15 12
10 - -
5 - -
Tardi-
grades
X SD
- -
1 2
- -
1 2
2 5
1 2
1 2
- -
- -
- -
- -
X = mean number of individuals from five cores.
SD = standard deviation
a = mean number of individuals from five cores with counts made from the upper two centimeters of sediment only.
b = species type unknown.
-------
TABLE 37
DENSITIES OF OTHER MEIOFAUNA PER 10 CM2 FROM AN INTERTIDAL SAMPLING STATION
AT 0.0 M, OLD VALDEZ, ALASKA
Date of Sample
July 26, 1972
Mar 10, 1973
X = mean number
Forami-
nif era
X SD
- -
-
Proto-
hydra
X SD
9 13
-
of individuals from
Ostracods
Type 1 Type 2
X SD X SD
12 23
31 13 - -
five cores.
Cumaceans Mites
Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 Type 1 Type 2 Type 4
X SD X SD X SD X SD X SD X SD
-- -- -- 12 47 23
__ __ __ 67 44 - -
Tardi-
grades
X SD
16 8
102 77
SD = standard deviation.
TABLE 38
DENSITIES OF OTHER MEIOFAUNA PER 10 CM2 FROM
Date of Sample
Nov 11, 1972
Jan 21, 1973
Feb 22, 1973
Nov 9, 1973
Forami-
nifera
X SD
- -
2 4
6 8
- -
AT 0.0
Proto-
hydra
X SD
- -
- -
5 7
- -
M, GALENA BAY, PORT
Ostracods
Type 1 Type 2
X SD X SD
12 8 47 45
_ _ _ _
23 37 12
79 - -
AN INTERTIDAL SAMPLING STATION
VALDEZ, ALASKA
Cumaceans Mites
Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 Type 1 Type 2 Type 4
X SD X SD X SD X SD X SD X SD
-- -- Ia2 12 -- --
-- -- -- 24 24 --
--49 25 -- -- -- --
14S18 8 10 31 29 - - - - - -
Tardi-
grades
X SD
7 5
1 2
1 2
19 27
X = mean number of individuals from five cores.
SD = standard deviation.
a = species type unknown.
-------
TABLE 39
MEAN DENSITIES OF OTHER FAUNA PER 10 CM FROM AN INTERTIDAL SAMPLING STATION AT 0.0 M, DAYVILLE, PORT VALDEZ, ALASKA
Date
July
July
Aug
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
June
July
July
Sept
Dec
Jan
Flat-
of Sample worms
10,
26,
9,
8,
7,
11,
6,
2,
A,
7,
4,
5,
4,
1,
30,
13,
7,
7,
1972 6
1972
1972 2
1972
1972
1972
1972
1973
1973 2
1973 2
1973 2
1973
1973 1
1973 16
1973 3
1973 1
1973
1974
Macoma
balthioa
1
6
1
-
-
-
-
16
-
-
7
-
1
many
young
513
young
24
5
2
Other Larvae
6
1
5
2
3
1
1
1
1
1
8
3
9
33
2
2
3
2
-
Collembola
Collembola
-
-
insect larvae
mussels
Collembola
unid . larva
-
-
-
insect larva
mussel
insect larva
mussel
insect larva
mussels
insect larva
mussels
larvae
mussels
larvae
mussels
Unknowns
10
33
52
28
4
11
15
10
-
2
10
2
1
-
4
2
9
-
Polychaetes
Exogone Polydova Capitella Thavyx Others
8 6
19 1
-
2
-
-
3
4 2
1 1
1
2
17 2
20
11
29
_ _
4
_
- -
- 1 Glysinde
_
_
_ _ _
- -
_
1 Eteone
- 1 Eteone
1 Glysinde
12 Eteone
2 Glyoinde
_
- 1 Glyoinde
1 21 Eteone
1 Potamella
- _ _
_ _
Frags. Total
24
53
52
28
7
11
15
1 13
6 6
1 4
3 12
6
25
1 20
9 16
1 36
9
2 4
-------
TABLE 39 (Continued)
MEAN DENSITIES OF OTHER FAUNA PER 10 CM2 FROM AN INTERTIDAL SAMPLING STATION AT DAYVILLE
Date
Mar
Apr
June
July
of
25,
24,
24,
23,
Flat-
Sample worms
1974
1974
1974
1974
Macoma
baUhica
11
2
-
Other Larvae
1
1
2
1
insect larva
larvae
mussels
Collembola
Polychaetes
Unknowns Exogone Polydova Capitella
11
- 1 1
-
_
Tharyx
3
1
Others
1
5
6
Haploscoloplos
Potamella
Potamella
Frags. Total
20
9
NONE RECORDED
- - - NONE RECORDED
-------
MEAN OKN.SITIKS
TAHU': 40
OF OTHER FAUNA I'EK 1.0 CM" KKOM AN INTKKTIIMl. SAMJ'U.NC STATION AT 0.0 M, MINERAL CHEEK, PORT VALDEZ, ALASKA
2
D/ite of :
July 13,
July 28,
Aug 9,
Sept 7,
Or. t 6,
Nov 4 ,
Dec 6,
Feb 5,
Mar 20,
Apr 5,
May 3,
June 3,
July 1 4 ,
Aug I.,
Sept 15,
Nov .1.0,
Dec 8,
i.'imple wormy
1.972 ',
1972 2
1972 I
'If 72
1972 1
1972
1972
1973 14
1973 1
1973 6
1973 f,
1973 7
1973 1
1973 2
1973 5
1973 5
1973 3
Macorna
-
-
2
-
-
2
-
I
-
-
2
1
135
young
5
181
young
2
2
3
Other Lnrv.'te
6
5
1
3
1
6
1
1
3
10
5
^
4
11
3
1
1
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Insect larva
Co) lembola
Insect larva
Insect larva
Col lembola
insect larva
larva
mussel
medusa
insect larva
mussels
snails
insect larva
mussels
ana :IJ s
insect larvg
-
insect larva
PoJ ychoete.';
Unknown.'-! Kmr/rms Polydora Capitella Vl'mijr, Others Frags.
38 - f,
1 7 6 31
Z j -* —
1.1 - 2
12
9 3
37
20 3 14
93 - 16
10 - 97
78 6 42
2 6 39
24 'j 47
46 1 42
3-17
1 1
1 1 15
_ _
-
-
-
-
- 2
-
7
1
14 6
23 3
4
2 88
12 23 1
13
2
1 38 1
1
1
1
3 14 1
3
9
4 - 1
2
1
1
1
1
1
_ _
_ 2
-
-
-
Glycinde
-
tttevne 81
Glycinde
Glycinde f>
Eteone 8
Glycinde
Eteone 27
Eteone 32
Glycinde
Poiamella
TSteone 28
Glycinde
HaploBcoloploe
Potcmella
Eteone 15
Glycinde
Potcmella
Ebeone 5
Glycinde
Hap loeco lop los
-
Ebeone
Glycinde
Potvmella
Total
44
54
25
13
12
14
37
45
129
137
144
98
119
119
28
3
20
-------
TABLE 40 (Continued)
MEAN DENSITIES OF OTHER FAUNA PER 10 CM2 FROM AN INTERTIDAL SAMPLING STATION AT MINERAL CREEK
Date
Jan
Mar
Apr
May
June
July
Flat-
of Sample worms
7,
26,
24,
22,
24,
24,
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
Macoma
balthica Other Larvae Unknowns
1 1
1 4
2 1
3
6 2
1
-
insect larva 1
mussels 1
insect larva 12
mussels
mussels 30
pycnogonid
-
Polychaetes
Exogone Polydora Capitella
35
11 5
21 3
- -
NONE RECORDED
NONE RECORDED
Tharyx Others Frags.
2
1
1
13 1
15 1
1
2
Eteone 1
GZyeiwde
fotamella
Glyainde 1
G'Lya'Lnde
Haploseoloplos
Potamella
Total
13
22
35
32
WO
00
-------
TABLE 41.
MEAN DENSITIES OF OTHER FAUNA PER 10 CM2 FROM TWO INTERTIDAL SAMPLING STATIONS AT 0.0 METERS, BASELINE AND ALTERNATIVE
STUDY BEACHES, ON ISLAND FLATS, PORT VALDEZ, ALASKA
Date
Flat-
of Sample worms
Maooma Polychaetes
balthica Other Larvae Unknowns Exogone Polydora Capitella Tharyx Others Frags.
Total
a. baseline beach
July
Nov
Apr
May
June
June
July
July
Sept
Nov
b.
July
Nov
29,
5,
4,
4,
2,
29,
4,
29,
14,
11,
1972
1972
1973 4
1973 2
1973 10
1973 1
1973 26
1973 17
1973
1973 2
-
2
2 1
2
2
1
1 2
1
19 1
3
2
1 4
399 2
young
441 11
young 6
-
8 3
2
_
insect larva 8 1 -
insect larva 6 21
insect larva 13 1 -
hydroids
jellyfish
insect larva 2 16 -
mussel
snail 1 13 3
insect larva
mussels
insect larva 10 107
mussels
insect larva 17 39 4
mussels
- 3 1
insect larva - -
mussels
-
1 - 1
- 1
2
- 2
2
1 - 3
1
21
2
3
1 - 2
4
1
1
-
- 1
-
Glyoinde
Eteone 2
Eteone
Eteone 2
Glyoinde
Eteone 7
Glyeinde
Eteone 3
Glyoinde
Potomella
Eteone 1
Glyoinde
Haplosaoloplos
Potamella
-
Glyoinde
0
11
10
16
22
22
125
69
4
1
alternative beach
29,
5,
1972
1972
1
-
scyphozoan 2 - -
3 - -
-
-
-
-
2
3
-------
o
o
TABLE 42
MEAN DENSITIES OF OTHER FAUNA PER 10 CM2 FROM AN INTERTIDAL SAMPLING STATION AT 0.0 METERS,
OLD VALDEZ, PORT VALDEZ, ALASKA
Date
July
Mar
Date
Nov
Jan
Feb
Nov
of Sample
26, 1972
10, 1973
of Sample
11, 1972
21, 1973
22, 1973
9, 1973
Flat- Maooma Polychaetes
worms balth-iaa Other Larvae Unknowns Exogone Polydova Capitel'la. Tharyx Others
7-1 insect larva 63 - - - - -
39 cypris larva
5-2 Insect larva - - - -
1 cypris larva
TABLE 43
MEAN DENSITIES OF OTHER FAUNA PER 10 CM FROM AN INTERTIDAL SAMPLING STATION AT 0.0 METERS,
GALENA BAY, PORT VALDEZ, ALASKA
Flat- Maeama Polychaetes
worms balthiaa Other Larvae Unknowns Exogone Polydora Capitella Tharyx Others
__ _ i_____
6- - 10-- ___
36 - 216 - - -
- 1 2 mussels - 2 - - -
Frags. Total
9 63
-
Frags. Total
1
3 10
216
2
-------
TOTAL MEIOFAUNA
1972
1973
JULY
o o>
JULY
AUG.
SEPT.
1973
NOV.
DEC.
1974
OCT. NO SAMPLE TAKEN
JAN.
FEB
DAYVILLE
MINERAL CREEK
ISLAND FLATS
NUMBER OF HUNDREDS OF INDIVIDUALS /10cm2
Figure 6. Seasonal variations of melofauna from 0.0 m at all baseline sampling
sites, Port Valdez. Island Flats sampled sporadically; see Tables
20, 26, 31, 36 and 41 for sampling dates. MC-NST = Mineral Creek,
no sample taken. D-NST = Dayville, no sample taken.
101
-------
TOTAL NEMATODES
1972
1973
JUNE
JULY
JULY
AUG.
1973
1974
DAYVILLE
MINERAL CREEK
ISLAND FLATS
NUMBER OF HUNDREDS OF INDIVIDUALS/10cm2
Figure 7. Seasonal variations of Nematodes from 0.0 m at all the baseline
sampling sites, Port Valdez.
102
-------
TOTAL COPEPODS
P , r°
1972
1973
DAYVILLE
MINERAL CREEK
ISLAND FLATS
JULY
NUMBER OF HUNDREDS OF INDIVIDUALS /10cm2
Figure 8. Seasonal variations of Copepods 0.0 m at all the baseline sampling
sites, Port Valdez.
103
-------
CM
O
O
<
Q
400
200
O
•
O
0
HARPACTICUS UN IRE MIS
HALECTINOSOMA GOTHICEPS
HETEROLAOPHONTE Sp.
ALL OTHERS
A 0 D ' F
1972
i i i i i i i i ir i i r i i i i
A J A 0 D I F
1973
A J A
1974
Figure 9. The cumulative percentages of numbers of copepods collected at the baseline
site at Dayville, Port Valdez.
-------
I400r
HARPACTICUS UNIREMIS
HALECTINOSOMA GOTHICEPS
HETEROLAOPHONTE Sp.
ALL OTHERS
A
Figure 10. The cumulative percentages of numbers of copepods collected
at the baseline site at Island Flats, Port Valdez.
105
-------
1200
1000
CM
E
o
— 800
Q 600
>
Q
n_ 400
cc
UJ
CD
200
HARPACTICUS UNIREMIS
I I HALECTINOSOMA GOTHICEPS
HETEROLAOPHONTE Sp.
i::j;;:| ALL OTHERS
AOD'FA JAOD'FA JA
1972
1973
1974
Figure 11. The cumulative percentages of numbers of copepods collected
at the baseline site at Mineral Creek, Port Valdez.
106
-------
Dayville
Mineral Creek
Island Flats
Figure 12. The number of polychaetous annelids collected monthly at the three baseline sampling
sites in Port Valdez.
-------
550r-
500
45°
o
O
\
CO
DAYVILLE
MINERAL CREEK
• ISLAND FLATS
\
\
200
QL
UJ
CD
150
100
50
M
Figure 13. The number of young clams (Maooma 'balfhi-oa) collected monthly
at the three baseline sampling sites in Port Valdez.
108
-------
of tardigrade, Eypsi-bius appelleefi, was collected at Mineral Creek Flats,
Island Flats, Old Valdez and Galena Bay Flats.
In addition, juvenile stages (frequently meiofaunal in size) of nine
species of macrobenthic polychaetes were also encountered in samples.
The small, black macrofaunal opisthobranch Aglaja sp. was occasionally
taken in cores; this species was common on Dayville Flats, Old Valdez and
Island Flats in late spring and throughout most of the summer. In the
spring this mollusk and its gelatinous egg masses were widely dispersed
over the flats.
Nematodes comprised 85.8% of the total number of organisms present
on Dayville Flats, 65.8% in Mineral Creek Flats and 60.7% on the Island
Flats Baseline Beach. Harpacticoid copepods were next in importance on the
three beaches with values of 10.0%, 24.3% and 30.8% of the total meiofaunal-
2
organisms on each beach respectively. Total meiofaunal density per 10 cm
on each of the study beaches over the year was as follows - Dayville: 802
to 3875 individuals with a mean of 2205; Mineral Creek: 442 to 4682 with
a mean of 1534; Island Flats Baseline Beach: 209 to 4243 with a mean of
2
1807. Nematodes ranged from 762 to 3426 individuals per 10 cm at Dayville
Flats with a mean of 1892, from 307 to 2849 on Mineral Creek Flats with a
mean of 1010, and from 172 to 2682 on the Island Flats Baseline Beach with
2
a mean of 1096. Copepods ranged from 26 to 387 individuals per 10 cm on
Dayville Flats with a mean of 221; from 83 to 1248 on Mineral Creek Flats
with a mean of 373; from 29 to 1329 on the Island Flats Baseline Beach with
a mean of 484 (see Tables 18 through 22 for summarization of data).
Interstitial protozoans and metazoans were rare.
Vertical Distribution
Most of the organisms were restricted to the upper three centimeters
of sediment (e.g., Dayville Flats: July 1972-97.4% present; September 1972-
96.2% present; January 1973-94.5% present; April 1973-97.8% present; see
Table 44 for other study beaches). In cores taken to a depth of 8 cm, it was
rare to encounter meiofaunal organisms below 5 cm; occasional nematodes were
found. No seasonal differences in vertical distribution were noted on any of
the study beaches (Table 44).
109
-------
TABLE 44
VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF TOTAL MEIOFAUNA IN THE SEDIMENTS.
REPRESENTS THE MEAN OF FIVE CORES PER 10 CM2.
EACH VALUE
Depth Number of
(cm) Individuals
a. Dayville
1
2
3
4
5
Total
b. Mineral
Creek
1
2
3
4
5
Total
c. Island
Flats
1
2
3
4
5
Total
7/26/72
972
749
158
35
14
1928
7/28/72
404
246
94
59
36
839
7/29/72
730
97
18
10
3
858
Percent
of Total
50.4
38.8
8.2
1.8
0.7
100.0
48.2
29.3
11.2
7.0
4.3
100.0
85.1
11.3
2.1
1.2
0.3
100.0
Number of Percent
Individuals of Total
1441
610
278
53
39
2421
1655
733
150
66
31
2635
1545
333
56
43
20
1997
9/8/72
59.5
25.2
11.5
2.2
1.6
100.0
9/7/72
62.8
27.8
5.7
2.5
1.2
100.0
11/5/72
77.4
16.7
2.8
2.2
1.0
100.0
Number of Percent
Individuals of Total
2142
920
404
149
54
3669
696
329
78
62
43
1208
No
1/2/73
58.4
25.1
11.0
4.1
1.5
100.0
2/5/73
57.6
27.2
6.5
5.1
3.6
100.0
Sample
Available
Number of Percent
Individuals of Total
4/4/73
1762
702
136
50
7
2657
4/5/73
769
518
222
98
38
1645
4/4/73
1522
107
22
13
10
1674
66.3
26.4
5.1
1.9
0.3
100.0
46.7
31.5
13.5
6.0
2.3
100.0
90.9
6.4
1,3
0.8
0.6
100.0
-------
Seasonal Fluctuations in Density
Regular monthly sampling at three sites provided information on sea-
sonal changes in the meiofauna. The data are included in Tables 18 through
43 and Figures 6 through 13, and are reported separately here for each study
beach.
Dayville Flats: Densities for total meiofauna during the first year
of the investigation (July 1972 through June 1973) were lowest in early July
2
with 1636 individuals per 10 cm . The numbers increased to a peak of 2421
individuals in September followed by a decline through November. During
2
January, 3669 organisms per 10 cm were recorded; this was the highest
value for the first year. A decrease in numbers then took place, followed
by another peak of 3875 individuals in July of the second year of invest-'
igation. The latter density value was the highest recorded for the two-
year period of investigation. The peak densities for each year are
2
primarily a reflection of nematode abundance. Large numbers (513/10 cm )
of a temporary meiofaunal species, Maooma loalfhi-oa, occurred in the July 30,
1973 sample. Similar increases in numbers of this clam for the summers of
1972 and 1973 are reported for Dayville by R. Myren (personal communication;
National Marine Fisheries Service Baseline study). An overall increase in
density of some of the harpacticoid species took place in the winter of 1972
and slimmer of 1974 (Tables 29 through 31), but most species reached their
abundance peaks in late summer and early fall. No clearcut trends can be
noted in number of polychaetes taken, but a general increase in numbers in
the summer is apparent. Insect larvae were collected in samples throughout
the year. Meiofaunal peaks, in general, occurred during periods of highest
water and sediment temperatures (Figures 4 through 8). Water temperatures
were somewhat higher in the winter of 1972 and 1973 than that recorded for
the winter of 1973 and 1974, and meiofaunal increases occurred in the former
period even though organisms were subjected to freezing conditions at low-
tide exposure (Figures 4 and 5).
Mineral Creek: Densities for total meiofauna during the first year
of the investigation (July 1972 through June 1973) were lowest in early July
2
with 656 individuals per 10 cm . The numbers increased to a peak of 2635
individuals in September followed by a decline through November. During
111
-------
2
December, an increase to 1625 individuals per 10 cm recorded. Weather
conditions prevented collection of a January sample. A decrease in numbers
then took place followed by a peak in June (3862 individuals) with another
larger peak in August (4682 individuals). The latter value represented the
greatest density recorded at any of the stations during the two-year study
period. As in the Dayville study site, the high densities were primarily a
reflection of nematode abundance. However, increases in numbers of the
copepod Halect'inosoma gothi>eeps in September 1972 and June and August 1973
also contributed to abundance peaks at these times. Only a few copepod
species showed density maxima in summer. No clearcut trends in polychaete
densities occurred, although some spring and summer increases took place.
Large numbers of recently settled Macoma balthi-oa were collected in July
and August 1973. All other meiofaunal species demonstrated erratic changes
in density with no obvious trends. Insect larvae were collected throughout
the year. Meiofaunal peaks, in general, occurred during periods of highest
water and sediment temperatures (Figures 4 and 5). An increase in numbers
of meiofauna occurred in December 1972 at the time of lowest water and sedi-
ment temperatures for the year.
Island Flats: Logistics problems resulted in a reduced sampling
schedule for this area. Two beach sites were initially sampled, but one
beach (Baseline Beach) was ultimately selected for baseline counts and
experimental-oil addition studies (Sections VIII, IX, X and XI). An alter-
native beach was sampled periodically when time permitted.
The initial density of all meiofauna recorded for July 1972 was 858
2
organisms per 10 cm . No additional samples were taken until November
2
1972 at which time the density was 1997 individuals per 10 cm . Slightly
lower densities were recorded at the next four sampling periods. The
highest meiofaunal count for the year occurred on 4 July 1973 when 4243
individuals were counted. The numbers of meiofauna remained high through-
out July and then dropped precipitously in September. Numbers, as reflected
by copepods only, began to increase again in the spring of 1974. The high-
density peaks throughout the sampling period were primarily a reflection of
nematode abundance, although a large increase of copepods, mainly Hateatinosoma
gothiseps, occurred simultaneously with nematode increments during the July 1973
112
-------
surge in meiofaunal density. Increases in Foraminifera, flatworms, poly-
chaetes, ostracods, cumaceans, mites and young Maooma bal'kh'ica were also
noted in July 1973. Protohydra and insect larvae occurred throughout the
year. The July 1973 meiofaunal peaks coincided with periods of highest
water and sediment temperatures (Figures 4 through 8).
Meiofaunal collections made at Old Valdez and Galena Bay were sporadic,
and data collected here are only useful as the basis for development of
future monitoring programs in the areas.
Reproductive Biology of Harpacticoid Copepods
Limited information on the reproductive biology of several harpac-
ticoid copepod species was collected in conjunction with meiofaunal
counting activities. Only one species, Harpaetiaus uniremis, was subjected
to detailed analysis; it is treated in detail in Section VII. The months
in which egg-bearing and copulating individuals of all copepod species were
noted are summarized in Table 45. Although the data in Table 45 are not
complete (with the exception of H. unirem-is; see Section VII), they represent
preliminary indications of sensitive periods in the life histories of the
species involved. It is apparent that the washing process employed to sep-
arate meiofauna from sediment also removed egg clutches from females and
pulled apart copulating individuals. However, the limited data does empha-
size the fact that many of the harpacticoid species carry eggs through the
winter and that larvae are released no later than midsummer. Only one species,
Haleot'inosoma goth'iceps, appears to be actively reproducing throughout most
of the year. The relatively high densities of this species at all of the
Baseline study sites for all collection periods also reflect the continuing
reproductive activity; however, densities are somewhat reduced in midwinter.
Peak densities for H. goth-ioeps far exceeded that counted for any other in-
43
dividual copepod species (Tables 24 through 28). Coull and Vernberg (1975)
report that dominant meiobenthic harpacticoid copepods studied in South Caro-
lina appear to be in a reproductive state all year round whereas less abun-
dant species have distinct reproductive periods. Examination of our data
indicates a similar situation (Tables 24 through 33 and Table 45). Coull and
/ O
Vernberg (1975) found Miepoorthpidi-on littorale to be abundant and ovigerous
113
-------
TABLE 45
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF THE COMMON COPEPOD SPECIES ON BEACHES IN PORT VALDEZ , ALASKA.
DATA POOLED FOR THE YEARS 1972-1975: E = EGG-BEARING INDIVIDUALS:
C = COPULATING INDIVIDUALS.
H
-P~
Copepod
Species
Harpaeticus unipemis
Nannopus palustv-is
Mesoohra pygmaea
Halecti-nosoma
JAN
E,C
E
E
FEE MAR APR
E,C E,C E,C
a
- - E
E E,C E,C
MAY
E,C
E
E,C
JUNE
0
E
E,C
JULY AUG
0 0
C
E,C E,C
SEPT OCT NOV DEC COMMENTS
000 E,C
- - E
no copulati
observed
E,C 0 0 E
Haleatinosoma
firmca'c'h-icim
Heterolaophonte sp.
Type 11
0
0
0 0 E E E E,C E
E E E E E E 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
E
0 E
E
l-Lttorale
no copulation
observed
no copulation
observed
no copulation
observed
Dash represents: no data.
-------
throughout the year. This species was not abundant in Port Valdez, and
appears to have a seasonal reproductive period (Tables 29 through 33; Table
45).
DISCUSSION
The intertidal sediment-dwelling meiofauna and some macrofaunal species
of Port Valdez have been examined over a two-year period, and the former group
of organisms has been shown to be relatively diverse in types as well as num-
bers of organisms present. The faunal abundance and general composition of
the major taxonomic groups collected, in general, compare with that found for
the few intertidal mudflats examined in north temperate regions (see Mclntyre,
O (i
1969 for review of work elsewhere). No published work for mudflats at lati-
tudes similar to Port Valdez is available, however, an intensive investigation
of the interstitial fauna of sandy beaches of northern Norway is available
44
(Schmidt, 1972) . Although meiofaunal representatives of nine phyla were
found in Port Valdez, species with adaptations for an interstitial way of
45
life were uncommon (see Swedmark, 1964 for review of interstitial faunal
adaptations). Ciliate protozoans, common to sediment beaches elsewhere, were
rarely observed in freshly extracted Port Valdez sediments, and those few
observed did not appear to be interstitial types (unpublished data). Turbel-
larian flatworms, although not common, were observed in fresh sediments of
all beaches investigated, but only a few of the species showed features typical
45
of interstitial forms (Swedmark, 1964) . Presumably the fine sediments
characteristic of the Port Valdez beaches investigated selected against an
interstitial way of life in favour of burrowing activity for species present.
Nematodes were the most abundant organisms encountered, with harpac-
ticoid copepods second in overall abundance. Similar observations of copepod
44
abundance have been made on sediment shores elsewhere (Norway: Schmidt, 1972 ;
Afi 41 47
Denmark: Fenchel et al., 1967 ; Muus, 1967 ; Straarup, 1970 ; British Isles:
Barnett, 1968 ; Harris, 1972 ; Mclntyre and Murison, 1973 ). The copepods
species observed in Port Valdez appeared to be primarily burrowing rather
than the interstitial types.
Since little information is available for meiofaunal densities of north
temperate or subarctic intertidal mudflats, comparison with other areas is
115
-------
35
difficult. However, in England, Barnett (1968) observed harpacticoid
2
densities ranging from 100 to 1021 individuals per 10 cm , and Capstick
(1959) reported 228 to 2830 nematodes per 10 cm in the Blyth Estuary in
England. Rees (1940) recorded 70 to 10,440 nematodes, 0 to 500 cope-
2
pods, and 90 to 11,820 total meiofaunal organisms per 10 cm on a mudflat
of the Bristol Channel in England. In the present study, harpacticoid
2
copepod densities ranged from 26 to 1329 individuals per 10 cm , nematodes
2
from 172 to 3496 per 10 cm , and total meiofauna from 209 to 4682 indivi-
2
duals per 10 cm .
In soft deposits meiofauna generally occurs in the upper few centi-
meters (Barnett, 1968 for review; Tietjen, 1969 ; Mclntyre, 1969 ; Rees,
1940 ), and it is suggested that restriction of copepods to the upper layers
may be due to a lack of oxygen which is generally considered to be absent
o cr o fl
below 1 cm (Barnett, 1968 ; Mclntyre, 1969 ). The majority of meiofaunal
organisms in Port Valdez occurred in the upper three centimeters; below
this depth only small numbers of nematodes were typically encountered.
Dissolved oxygen in interstitial waters in Port Valdez sediments was only
detected in the upper three centimeters of sediment (Section IV). It is
probable that the presence of an anoxic environment in the subsurface
sediments restricts meiofaunal organisms primarily to the surficial sedi-
ments in Port Valdez.
The three major study areas chosen for examination differ somewhat in
physical (Section IV) and biological (Sections V, VII, XI, and this chapter)
characteristics, although generalizations concerning common processes
operating in all of the areas can be made. Some of the differences in
meiofaunal composition (species content and numbers of individuals of
each species) appear to be related to the sediment characteristics of
each area (see Section IV for discussion of sediment properties of the study
areas). Thus, the somewhat coarser sediments of the sampling sites at
Mineral Creek and Island Flats harbor a greater percentage of harpacticoid
copepods as well as a greater number of individuals of each species than
that found in the finer sediments of Dayville Flats; nematodes were the
more successful meiofaunal organisms in the latter area (Tables 18 through 22).
Of the three species of copepods (Halectinosoma goth-iceps, HeteTolaophonte sp.,
116
-------
and Harpact-iaus uniremis) chosen as monitoring organisms for the oil
experiments conducted on Island Flats (see Section X for discussion of
experiment), Halect'inosoma. gothioeps was the most successful species col-
lected in the baseline collections in this study area (Table 26); it was
also very common in the other two baseline study beaches (Tables 24 and
25). Heterolaophonte sp. was successful at Island Flats and Mineral Creek.
Harpact-lcus un-lvem-is appears to be most successful at Dayville and Island
Flats. The latter species is found on all of the sediment beaches examined
in Port Valdez, and is primarily restricted to the intertidal flats with
relatively few individuals occurring in the shallow subtidal (see Section VII
for an account of this species in Port Valdez).
Foraminifera were most abundant in the more coarse sediments of Mineral
Creek, and were essentially absent in the fine sediments of Dayville. The
cnidarian polyp Protohydra sp., although never very common, was about equally
abundant in all of the study areas with sporadic increases of density re-
corded during the study period. Protohydra leukhavti feeds on harpacticoid
copepods on sediment beaches in Denmark, and its fluctuations in abundance
there are related to fluctuations in the density of harpacticoid copepods on
52 41
these beaches (K. Muus, 1966 ; B. Muus, 1967 ). The presence or absence
of Protohydra. sp. in Port Valdez sediment beaches may likewise be related to
the availability of selected copepod-food species.
In general, on temperate intertidal mudflats, little or no seasonal
35
changes in vertical distribution of meiofauna occur (Barnett, 1968 ;
o/:
Mclntyre, 1969 ). This was also true for the Alaskan mudflats described
in this chapter where most of the organisms were restricted to the upper
three centimeters of sediment at all seasons of the year. As indicated
above, oxygen deficiency below this depth presumably deters deeper vertical
incursions of the meiofaunal organism into the sediment; the restrictive
features of oxygen in meiofaunal vertical distribution has likewise been
35
suggested by Barnett (1968) for an English mudflat.
35
Interstitial salinities measured by Barnett (1968) on an exposed mud-
flat, showed considerable reductions in salinity during periods of heavy
rain, but were never less than 18.2 °/00. Conversely, conditions of warm
sun and strong breezes produced interstitial salinity increases on the
117
-------
exposed mudflat. Interstitial salinities in Port Valdez fluctuated through-
out the study period, but typically occurred at values higher than that re-
corded for adjacent tidal waters (Section IV). Interstitial salinities were
never lower than 16 °/00 during the study period; this salinity is close to
the value suggested as a lower limit of tolerance for most marine species
l ft
that might penetrate estuaries (Barnes, 1974) . The sediment-dwelling harpac-
ticoid copepods of Port Valdez cannot tolerate the very low salinities
characteristic of overlying waters there during the spring and summer (see
Section IV and Hood et al., 1973 for salinity data), and will die rapidly
if exposed to salinities less than 6 °/00 (Feder, unpublished observations).
Thus, the relative stability of the interstitial salinity of the surficial
sediments in Port Valdez makes survival possible here; alteration of inter-
tidal sediments by industrial activity could alter the salinity-stability
characteristics of the sediments with resultant loss of intolerant species
-1 O 1Q
in the area (see Barnes, 1974 for review; Leppakoski, 1968 ).
The high winter meiofaunal densities recorded for Dayville Flats in
the winter of 1972 and 1973 have not been previously reported for north tem-
perate or sub-arctic intertidal areas. Investigations of intertidal meio-
fauna along the British and Scandinavian coasts have shown that densities
41
are normally lowest during the winter months. In Denmark, Muus (1967)
noted little seasonal fluctuation in the number of nematodes although summer
decreases occurred. He reported a spring maximum for harpacticoid copepods
in the same area. Harris (1972) working on a sand beach in England observed
high meiofaunal densities in summer and fall, and low densities from December
to March. In Scotland the meiofaunal populations of an intertidal sand area
during September were two to three times that of winter levels (Mclntyre
40
and Murison, 1973) . In the Danish Waddensea, nematodes and harpacticoids
were least abundant during the winter and most abundant in June (Smidt,
53
1951) . Seasonal examination of subtidal meiofauna on a soft bottom along
the Swedish west coast demonstrated a maximum abundance of organisms (nema-
todes, kinorhynchs, ostracods, harpacticoid copepods) in the autumn (Nyholm
and Olsson, 1973)54.
Smidt (1951) suggested that freezing temperatures may have catas-
trophic effects on intertidal meiofaunal populations. However, the high
118
-------
meiofaunal densities on the Dayville mudflat corresponded with sub-zero
air temperatures and frozen surface sediment in the winter of 1972 and
35
1973. Barnett (1968) working in England demonstrated the survival of
two species of harpacticoids frozen at -9.0°C for 9 hours, and he theorized
that freezing temperatures would not seriously affect populations of those
copepods. It would appear that Barnett's comments also apply to the inter-
tidal meiofauna of Port Valdez but that the number of surviving organisms
during the cold season here varies from year to year.
It is possible that the high-winter meiofaunal densities observed for
Dayville Flats and Mineral Creek in the winter of 1972-73 (Tables 18, 19,
29 and 30) are not typical of long-term annual meiofaunal variations in
Port Valdez. The low densities of meiofaunal species noted for all study
beaches in the following winter are more typical of findings on northern
beaches elsewhere (see above discussion). The somewhat higher water tem-
peratures recorded in Port Valdez during the winter of 1972 and 1973 may
represent a partial explanation for the high-winter densities at this time.
A subtidal meiofaunal investigation in the Mediterranean by de Bovee and
Soyer (1974) likewise demonstrated winter increase in all organisms examined.
These authors reported slight increases in water temperatures during this
period, and also suggested that the increase in meiofaunal numbers might
be due to unusually favourable conditions. On the other hand, Coull (1970)
reported a maximum abundance of nematodes and one species of harpacticoid
copepod in a shallow subtidal area on the Bermuda platform during a period
with minimum water temperatures for the year. He suggests that the abundant
forms were the only ones able to cope with the alterations in the habitat
during the winter. An explanation for meiofaunal fluctuations in Port Valdez
can best be resolved with further sampling in the area to determine seasonal
variations over a long-time base.
119
-------
SECTION VII
BIOLOGY OF THE HARPACTICOID COPEPOD, HARPACTICVS UNIREMIS KROYER
ON DAYVILLE FLATS, PORT VALDEZ
INTRODUCTION
Harpacticoid copepods are conspicuous members of the sediment meio-
fauna of Dayville Flats, Port Valdez (Section IV, Figure 1), and Hai>paeticus
un-iremis Kroyer, a relatively large (total length up to 1.5 mm) olive-
green copepod, is one of the most obvious of the species present. Although
Sars (1904) originally described H. uniremis as a subtidal species found
r O
only on muddy bottoms ranging from 36 to 182 m in depth, Lang (1948 ,
59
1965 ) more recently reported it as a widely distributed species of the
North Pacific intertidal region. Little biological information is avail-
able for H. uniremis and nothing is known for the species in Alaska. A
brief account of the nauplius and copepodite stages of H. umrem-Ls is found
in Brian (1919) , and Ito (1971) includes preliminary biological studies
of the copepod from Hokkaido, Japan as well as detailed descriptions of all
copepodid stages. General information on benthic marine copepods is rela-
tively limited, but a number of excellent papers are available for comparative
43
field studies on a variety of species (Coull and Vernberg, 1975 ; Mclntyre,
196936; and Mclntyre and Murison, 197340).
Port Valdez is an area for which little biological baseline data was
available at the time of its selection as the marine terminus for a pipe-
line to transport oil from northern Alaska. It was with this data de-
ficiency in mind that an investigation of the intertidal ecosystem of Port
Valdez was initiated in 1972 (Feder, 1971) . In view of a need for
selection of species in Port Valdez that could be readily monitored, it
became apparent early in the investigation that Harpactieus uniremis might
be one species that could serve this need. A rather restricted reproductive
period, indicated by initial qualitative studies, suggested that this copepod
might demonstrate vulnerability to oil by way of anomalies in reproductive
activities. Furthermore, the species is widely distributed on beaches in
the area, and is readily identifiable. In addition, the seasonal occurrence
of large numbers of salmon fry along the shores of Port Valdez suggests the
120
-------
possibility that H. wvlTemts might serve as a food for these fishes (see
/ O
Kaczynski et at., 1973 for data on use of harpacticoids as food by pink,
Oneorhynchus gorbusoha, and chum, 0. keta, salmon elsewhere; also see
40
Mclntyre and Murison, 1973 ), and could represent an important trophic link
for the young salmon here.
This section presents biological baseline data on the harpacticoid
copepod Harpaoti-Gus uni-fends from one sediment shore in Port Valdez, Day-
ville Flats. Aspects treated include growth, reproduction and density
relationships.
METHODS
Preliminary exploratory surveys of the meiofauna of Dayville Flats in
March through June of 1972 suggested that year-round sampling at a baseline
site in the harsh environment of Port Valdez could best be accomplished at a
mid-tide (0.0 m) location. Thus, most samples available to the investigation
of Harpact-ious un-iremis are from the baseline site. In addition, two transects
were sampled in order to examine the general distribution of H. un-iremis on the
tidal flat - one transect was occupied early in the investigation (July 1972)
and the other was taken in the final year of the study (March 1975).
Copepod samples were obtained by three methods: (1) a qualitative
sample was taken by means of a sediment sweep in May 1972, and copepods were
removed from a small portion of the collected material; (2) individuals were
quantitatively extracted monthly (July 1972 through January 1974) from the
2
upper three centimeters of all of the available core (10 cm ) taken from
the Dayville Flats baseline sampling (see Section VI for details on sampling
methodology); additional cores taken at this time were examined for reproduc-
2
tive work; (3) samples were taken monthly from a larger area (100 cm plots
to a depth of 2 cm) from March 1974 through May 1975 in order to increase
the number of Harpact-ious un-iremis available for reproductive studies; typically
three plots were examined each month. All copepods in each core or plot
were counted.
All samples were preserved in 10% formalin and stained with Rose
Bengal to facilitate sorting. All adult and copepodid specimens were re-
moved and examined in the laboratory with a Wild dissection microscope.
121
-------
Lengths used throughout this section were obtained by measuring
f> ^
cephalothorax length inclusive of the rostrum (Maly, 1973) . Variable
bending and telescoping of the body precluded accurate measurement of total
length. At least 25% of those specimens found in each sample was measured.
The growth of HaTpactiaus unirem-is over a three-year period (May 1972 to
May 1975) is described by analyzing monthly cephalothorax-length distributions.
Nauplii were not identified, but copepodites as small as 0.20 mm
were determined. Males were easily distinguished from females by way of
the antennal modification of the male for grasping the female (ltd, 1971)
Small copepodites (Stages I-III) could not be sexed, but the sexes of all
larger copepodites (Stages IV-V) were readily distinguishable. Copepodite
sex ratios were examined in May 1972 and March 1974 when copepodites were
most abundant.
The number of mating pairs (males grasping females) and gravid females
(females with egg sacs) was counted. The number of eggs per sac was count-
ed in a random sample of measured gravid females taken from the samples of
March 1974 and February, March and April 1975. Length measurements were
made on all egg sacs examined.
The transect data obtained on 27 March 1975 was compared using the
Newman-Keuls multiple comparison test with equal sample sizes (Zar, 1974)
2
Three 100 cm plots were sampled at each of eight tidal levels.
GROWTH
Table 46 lists the monthly frequency of occurrence by number and per-
centage of copepodites, adult males and females at appropriate cephalothorax
lengths. Copepodites were sexed when possible, and measure4 from samples
taken from the two months demonstrating major abundance peaks of copepodites
— 15 May 1972 and 27 March 1974 (Table 47). Copepodites that could not be
sexed ranged from 0.20 mm to 0.40 mm with a mean of 0.29 ±0.5 mm. Copepodid
males ranged from 0.32 mm to 0.46 mm with a mean of 0.41 ± 0.03 mm, and
copepodid females ranged from 0.36 mm to 0.58 mm with a mean of 0.45 ± 0.04 mm.
Length-frequency histograms for copepodites, and adults (males and females)
are presented in Figure 14.*
~r
Note: Continuation of text on page 143.
122
-------
ho
OJ
TABLE 46
MONTHLY FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE BY NUMBER AND PERCENT OF HARPACTICUS UNIREMIS COPEPODITES,
ADULT MALES AND FEMALES AT APPROPRIATE CEPHALOTHORAX LENGTHS FROM MAY 1972 THROUGH MAY 1975
Sample Dates
Cephalo-
thorax
length
(mm)
0.20
0.22
0.24
0.26
0.28
0.30
0.32
0.34
0.36
0.38
0.40
0.42
0.44
0.46
0.48
0.50
0.52
0.54
Copepodites
No. %
3
4
10
23
22
22
8
11
16
10
24
15
14
27
19
12
1
_
0.9
1.2
3.0
6.9
6.6
6.6
2.4
3.3
4.8
3.0
7.2
4.5
4.2
8.2
5.7
3.6
0.3
_
15
May 1972
Adult Adult
Males Females
No. % No. %
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1
2
1
7
19
27
6
5
_ _ _
- - -
_
- - -
_
_ _ _
- - -
- - -
_
_ _ _
0.3
0.6
0.3
2.1
5.7 1 0.3
8.2
1.8
1.5 2 0.6
-*•
10 July 1972
Adult
Females
No. %
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1 0.5
1 0.5
11 5.7
27 14.2
45 23.6
48 25.2
9 August 1972 8 September 1972
Adult Adult Adult
Females Copepodites Males Females
No. % No. % No. % No. %
___ _____
___ _____
___ _____
___ _____
___ _____
___ _____
___ _____
___ _____
___ _____
- - I 0.6
___ _____
___ _____
___ _____
3 1.5 - - 1 0.6
8 4.2 - 1 0.6 10 6.3
14 7.3 1 0.6 32 20.2
42 22.1 - - 31 19.6
64 33.6 - 1 0.6 34 21.5
-------
TABLE 46 (Continued)
MONTHLY FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE BY NUMBER AND PERCENT OF HARPACTICUS UNIREMIS COPEPODITES
Sample Dates
Cephalo-
thorax
length Copepodites
(mm) No. %
0.56
0.58 1 0.3
0.60
0.62
0.64
0.66
TOTALS 242 73.5
Mean length 0.37
Cephalo-
thorax
Standard 0.09
Deviation
15 May 1972 10 July 1972 9 August 1972 8 September 1972
Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult
Males Females Females Females Copepodites Males Females
No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %
7 2.1 28 14.7 26 13.6 - - - - 29 18.3
- - 6 1.8 19 10.0 15 7.8 - - - - 9 5.7
1 0.3 - - 5 2.6 13 6.8 - - - - 8 5.1
- - 1 0.3 5 2.6 5 2.6 - _____
_ _ 1 0.3 - - ___ _____
______ ___ _____
69 20.9 18 5.5 190 100 190 100 2 1.2 2 1.2 154 97.4
0.49 0.57 0.54 0.54 - - 0.53
OJ)3 0.03 0.03 0.03 - - 0.03
-------
TABLE 46 (Continued)
MONTHLY FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE BY NUMBER AND PERCENT OF HARPACTICUS UNIREMIS COPEPODITES
Sample Dates
Cephalo-
thorax
length
(mm)
7 October 1972
8 November 1972
6 December 1972
Copepodites
No. %
Adult
Females
No. %
Copepodlte
No. %
Adult
Males
No. %
Adult
Females
No. %
Copepodites
No. %
Adult
Males
No. %
Adult
Females
No. %
Ln
0.20
0.22
0.24
0.26
0.28
0.30
0.32
0.34
0.36
0.38
0.40
0.42
0.44
0.46
0.48
0.50
0.52
0.54
0.56
0.58
9.5
2
2
3
4
2
9.5
9.5
14.2
19.0
9.5
11.1
11.1
1
1
3
11.1
3
1
11.1
11.1
11.1
33.3
1.1
3.5
1.1
1
3
2
1
1.1
3.5
2.3
1.1
10
13
17
17
11
11.7
15,2
20.0
20.0
12.9
-------
TABLE 46 (Continued)
MONTHLY FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE BY NUMBER AND PERCENT OF HARPACTICUS UNIHEMIS COPEPODITES
Sample Dates
Cephalo-
thorax
length
(mm)
0.60
0.62
0.64
0.66
7 October
Copepodites
No. %
-
-
-
_
1972
Adult
Females
No. %
2
3
1
-
9.5
14.2
4.7
-
8 November 1972
Adult Adult
Copepodite Males Females
No. % No. % No. %
_
_
_
_
6 December 1972
Adult Adult
Copepodites Males Females
No. % No. % No. %
5 5.8
_____
_
_____
TOTALS
Mean length
Cephalo-
thorax
Standard
Deviation
9.5 19
90.4
11.1
1 11.1
77.7
5.8
8.2 73
85.8
0.57
0.50
0.47
0.55
0.04
0.06
0.02
0.03
-------
Cephalo-
thorax
length
(mm)
TABLE 46 (Continued)
MONTHLY FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE BY NUMBER AND PERCENT OF EARPACTICUS UNIREMIS COPEPODITES
Sample Dates
2 January 1973
Copepodltes
No. %
Adult
Males
No. %
Adult
Females
No. %
4 February 1973
Adult
Females
No. %
5 May 1973
Copepodites
No. %
Adult
Males
No. %
Adult
Females
No.
N3
0.20
0.22
0.24
0.26
0.28
0.30
0.32
0.34
0.36
0.38
0.40
0.42
0.44
0.46
0.48
0.50
0.52
0.54
0.56
1.4
1.4
3
9
14
18
14
4.2
12.6
19.7
25.3
19.7
1.4
1.4
100
4.4
2
7
16
14
11
2.9
10.2
23.5
20.5
16.1
-------
ho
00
TABLE 46 (Continued)
MONTHLY FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE BY NUMBER AND PERCENT OF HARPACTICUS UNIREMIS COPEPODITES
Sample Dates
2 January 1973
Cephalo-
thorax Adult
length Copepodites Males
(mm) No. % No. %
0.58 - -
0.60 - -
0.62 - -
0.64 - -
0.66 - -
TOTAL 1 1.4 1 1.4
Mean length — —
Cephalo-
thorax
Standard — —
Deviation
4 February 1973 5 May 1973
Adult Adult Adult Adult
Females Females Copepodites Males Females
No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %
6 8.4 - 1 1.4 7 10.2
3 4.2 1 1.4
----- ___45.8
_____ _____
_____ _____
69 97.1 1 100 2 2.9 4 5.8 62 91.1
0.54 - - - 0.54
0.03 - - - 0.03
-------
TABLE 46 (Continued)
MONTHLY FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE BY NUMBER AND PERCENT OF HARPACTICUS UNIREMIS COPEPODITES
Sample Dates
Cephalo-
thorax
length
(mm)
0.20
0.22
0.24
0.26
0.28
0.30
0.32
0.34
0.36
0.38
0.40
0.42
0.44
0.46
0.48
0.50
0.52
0.54
0.56
0.58
4 June 1973
Adult
Copepodites Females
No. % No. %
1 0.6 - -
1 0.6 - -
3 2.0
4 2.7
- 6 4.0
9 6.1
- 25 17.0
31 21.0
31 21.0
- 19 12.9
1 July 1973
Adult
Females
No. %
2 5.8
3 8.8
6 17.6
10 29.4
8 23.5
1 2.9
31 July 1973
Adult
Copepodites Females
No. % No. %
3 2.6
2 1.7
1 0.8 7 6.1
- 17 14.9
- 22 19.2
- 33 28.9
15 13.1
13 Sept. 1973
Adult
Females
No. %
2 2.5
2 2.5
2 2.5
11 14.1
23 29.4
15 19.2
7 8.9
7 December 1973 7 Jan. 1974
Adult Adult Adult
Copepodites Males Females Females
No. % No. 7, No. % No. %
1 5.9 1 5.9
1 5.9 2 11.7 -
1 5.9
1 5.9 1 5.9 - - - -
2 11.7 1 5.9 1 50.0
-- 2 11. 7
3 17.6 1 50.0
1 5.9
-------
TABLE 46 (Continued)
MONTHLY FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE BY NUMBER AND PERCENT OF HARPACTICUS UNIREMIS COPEPODITES
4 June 1973 1 July 1973
Cephalo-
thorax Adult Adult
length Copepodites Females Females
(mm) No. % No. % No. %
0.60 - 9 6.1 1 2.9
0.62 - - 7 4.7 3 8.8
0.64 - 1 0.6
0.66 - _____
TOTAL 2 1.3 145 98.6 34 100
Mean length - 0.55 0.54
Cephalo-
thorax
Standard - 0.04 0.04
Deviation
Sample Dates
31 July 1973 13 Sept. 1973
Adult Adult
Copepodites Females Females
No. % No. % No. %
- 6 5.2 9 11.5
5 4.3 5 6.4
2 1.7 2 2.5
1 0.8
1 0.8 113 99.1 78 100
- 0.59 0.55
0.26 0.04
7 December 1973 7 Jan. 1974
Adult Adult Adult
Copepodites Males Females Females
No. % No. % No. % No. %
_______
_______
_______
_______
3 17.7 7 41.1 7 41.1 2 100
0.45 0.55 -
- 0.04 0.03 -
-------
TABLE 46 (Continued)
MONTHLY FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE BY NUMBER AND PERCENT OF HASPACTICVS UNIREMIS COPEPODITES
Sample Dates
27 March 1974
Cephalo-
thorax
length
(mm)
0.20
0.22
0.24
0.26
0.28
0.30
0.32
0.34
0.36
0.38
0.40
0.42
0.44
0.46
0.48
0.50
0.52
0.54
0.56
0.58
Copepodites
No. %
2
4
5
7
8
9
3
5
11
10
11
8
8
12
8
7
-
-
-
_
0.8
1.6
2.0
2.9
3.3
3.7
1.2
2.0
4.5
4.1
4.5
3.3
3.3
5.0
3.3
2.9
-
-
-
-
Adult
Males
No. %
-
-
-
-
-
-
2 0.8
17 7.0
29 12.0
6 2.4
6 2.4
-
24 April
1974
Adult Adult
Females Copepodites Males
No. % No. % No. %
-
1
-
-
-
1
1
6
8
8
15
8
1
3
0.4 4
8
11
6
0.4
0.4
2.4
3.3
3.3
6.2
3.3
0.3
1.0
1.4
2.8 2
3.9 1
2.1 2
5
12
15
10
5
1
-
-
-
0.7
0.3
0.7
1.7
4.2
5.3
3.5
1.7
0.3
-
21, 22 May 1974
Adult Adult
Females Copepodites Females
No. % No. % No. %
-
-
1
1
1
4
13
13
39
52
31
18
2
1
2
-
0.3
0.3
0.3
1.4
4.6
4.6 1
14.0
18.4
11.0
6.3
0.9
0.4
0.9
-
-
-
-
-
6
0.4 12
26
60
53
23
-
-
-
-
-
-
2.6
5.3
11.6
26.9
23.7
10.3
-------
TABLE 46 (Continued)
MONTHLY FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE BY NUMBER AND PERCENT OF HASPACTICUS UNIREMIS COPEPODITES
Sample Dates
27 March 1974
Cephalo-
thorax Adult
length Copepodites Males
(mm) No. % No. %
0.60 - -
0.62 - -
0.64 - -
0.66 - -
TOTAL 118 48.9 60 24.9
Mean length 0.37 0.52
Cephalo-
thorax
Standard 0.08 0.02
Deviation
24 April 1974 21, 22 May 1974
Adult Adult Adult Adult
Females Copepodites Males Females Copepodites Females
No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No.
10 4.1 - - 18 6.3 - 21 9
4 1.6 - 3 1.0 - 13 5
1 0.4 2 0.7 -31
___ ______ -10
63 26.1 33 11.7 53 18.8 196 69.5 6 2.7 218 97
0.55 0.40 0.49 0.54 - 0.56
0.04 0.04 0.03 0.04 - 0.03
%
.4
.8
.3
.4
.3
-------
u>
LO
TABLE 46 (Continued)
MONTHLY FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE BY NUMBER AND PERCENT OF EAKPACTICVS UNIHEMIS COPEPODITES
Sample Dates
Cephalo-
thorax
length
(mm)
0.20
0.22
0.24
0.26
0.28
0.30
0.32
0.34
0.36
0.38
0.40
0.42
0.44
0.46
0.48
0.50
0.52
0.54
0.56
0.58
24 June 1974
Adult
Copepodites Females
No. % No. %
I III
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
1 0.7
2 1.4
7 5.1
4 2.9
12 8.8
1 0.7 17 12.5
- 16 11.7
29 21.3
20 14.7
13 9.5
23 July 1974
Adult
Copepodites Females
No. % No. %
I I I I
_
_
1 0.4
1 0.4 - -
_
_
-
_
_
_
_
1 0.4 3 1.2
- 9 3.8
- 26 10.9
34 14.3
1 0.4 54 22.7
- 48 20.2
30 12.6
19 August 1974 16 Sept. 1974
Adult Adult
Copepodites Females Females
No. % No. % No. %
I
_____
_____
_
_
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
1 0.9 1 0.9 -
_____
-----
1 0.9 11 10.0 2 1.3
- 23 20.9 11 7.4
1 0.9 34 30.9 25 17.1
- 18 16.3 43 29.4
8 7.2 25 17.1
29 Nov. 1974
Adult
Females
No. %
I
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
_
-
-
-
-
_
-------
TABLE 46 (Continued)
MONTHLY FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE BY NUMBER AND PERCENT OF HARPACTICUS UNIREMIS COPEPODITES
Sample Dates
Cephalo-
thorax
length
(mm)
0.60
0.62
0.64
0.66
TOTAL
Mean length
Cephalo-
thorax
Standard
Deviation
24 June 1974
Adult
Copepodites Females
No. % No. %
10 7.3
2 1.4
- 2 1.4
- - -
1 0.7 135 99.2
- 0.53
- 0.05
23 July 1974
Adult
Copepodites Females
No. % No. %
16 6.7
7 2.9
6 2.5
-
4 1.7 233 98.3
0.55
0.04
19 August 1974 16 Sept. 1974
Adult Adult
Copepodites Females Females
No. % No. % No. %
6 5.5 27 18.4
- 3 2.7 9 6.1
3 2.7 4 2.7
_
3 2.7 107 97.2 146 100
- 0.55 0.57
- 0.03 0.03
29 Nov. 1974
Adult
Females
No. %
1 100
-
-
-
1 100
-
-
-------
TABLE 46 (Continued)
MONTHLY FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE BY NUMBER AND PERCENT OF HARPACTICUS UNIREMIS COPEPODITES
Sample Dates
28 December 1974 28 January 1975 24 February 1975
Cephalo-
thorax Adult Adult Adult Adult
length Females Females Copepodites Males Females
(mm) No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %
0.20 -- ___ _____
0.22 - - ___ _____
0.24 -- ___ _____
0.26 -- ___ _____
0.28 -- ___ _____
0.30 -- ___ _____
0.32 -- ___ _____
0.34 -- ___ _____
0.36 -- ___ _____
0.38 -- ___ _____
0.40 -- ___ _____
0.42 -- ___ _____
0.44 -- ___ _____
0.46 -- ___ _____
0.48 -- ___ _ i 5.8 - -
0.50 - - - 1 5.8 - - 1 5.8
0.52 -- ___ _ _ _ 2 11.7
0.54 -- ___ _ _ _ 2 11.7
0.56 - - 1 16.6 - - - - 2 11.7
0.58 1 100 2 33.3 - - - - 7 41.1
28,
Copepodites
No. %
-
-
-
2
3
3
2
3
4
4
3
3
3
3
2
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1.4
2.2
2.2
1.4
2.2
2.9
2.9
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
1.4
-
-
-
-
-
29 March 1975
Adult
Males
No. %
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1 0.7
1 0.7
2 1.4
5 3.6
7 5.1
5 3.6
2 1.4
-
_ _
Adult
Females
No. %
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
2 1.
5 3.
5 3.
10 7.
16 11.
13 9.
13 9.
4
6
6
3
7
5
5
-------
TABLE 46 (Continued)
MONTHLY FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE BY NUMBER AND PERCENT OF EASPACTICUS UNIREMIS COPEPODITES
Sample Dates
28 December 1974 28 January 1975 24 February 1975
Cephalo-
thorax Adult Adult Adult Adult
length Females Females Copepodites Males Females
(mm) No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %
0.60 - 1 16.6 - 1 5.8
0.62 - 2 33.3 - _____
0.64 - - ___ _____
0.66 -- ___ _____
TOTAL 1 100 6 100 1 5.8 1 5.8 15 88.2
Mean length — — — — 0.56
Cephalo-
thorax
Standard - — - - 0.03
Deviation
28, 29 March 1975
Adult Adult
Copepodites Males Females
No. % No. % No. %
- - 10 7.3
4 2.9
_____
_____
35 25.7 23 16.9 78 57.3
0.37 0.49 0.55
0.07 0.03 0.04
-------
TABLE 46 (Continued)
MONTHLY FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE BY NUMBER AND PERCENT OF HARPACTICUS UNIREMIS COPEPODITES
Sample Dates
Cephalo-
thorax
length
(mm)
0.20
0.22
0.24
0.26
0.28
0.30
0.32
0.34
0.36
0.38
0.40
0.42
0.44
0.46
0.48
0.50
0.52
0.54
0.56
0.58
28
Copepodites
No. %
-
-
-
-
-
1 0.4
2 0.9
2 0.9
5 2.2
7 3.1
9 4.0
9 4.0
6 2.6
2 0.9
-
-
-
-
-
_
April 1975
Adult
Males
No. %
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1 0.4
2 0.9
2 0.9
6 2.6
16 7.1
19 8.4
13 5.7
6 2.6
-
-
Adult
Females
No. %
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
2 0.9
7 3.1
7 3.1
22 9.7
33 14.6
19 8.4
14 6.2
Copepodites
No. %
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1 0.2
1 0.2
2 0.5
3 0.8
4 1.1
3 0.8
-
-
-
-
30 May 1975
Adult
Males
No. %
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1 0.2
1 0.2
3 0.8
6 1.7
8 2.3
5 1.4
3 0.8
1 0.2
-
Adult
Females
No. %
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
8 2.3
17 4.8
37 10.5
86 24.5
75 21.4
32 9.1
-------
TABLE 46 (Continued)
MONTHLY FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE BY NUMBER AND PERCENT OF HARPACTICUS UNIREMIS COPEPODITES
Sample Dates
28 April 1975
Cephalo-
thorax Adult Adult
length Copepodites Males Females
(mm) No. % No. % No. %
0.60 - 11 4.8
0.62 - 1 0.4
0.64 - 1 0.4
0.66 - _____
TOTAL 43 19.1 65 28.9 117 52.0
Mean length 0.40 0.49 0.54
Cephalo-
thorax
Standard 0.04 0.03 0.03
Deviation
30 May 1975
Adult Adult
Copepodites Males Females
No. % No. % No. %
- - - 30 8.5
- - 18 5.1
4 1.1
1 0.2
14 4.0 28 8.0 308 88.0
0.46 0.50 0.56
0.03 0.03 0.03
-------
TABLE 47
SIZE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF HARPACTICVS UNIREMIS COPEPODITES ON DAYVILLE FLATS
FROM 15 MAY 1972 AND 27 MARCH 1974
Sample Dates
15 May 1972
Cephalo-
thorax
length
(mm)
0.20
0.22
0.24
0.26
0.28
0.30
0.32
0.34
0.36
0.38
0.40
0.42
0.44
0.46
0.48
0.50
0.52
Copepodite
Males
No. %
1
-
3
1
9
8
6
2
-
-
_
0.4
-
1.2
0.4
3.7
3.3
2.4
0.8
-
-
-
Copepodite
Females
No. %
-
-
6
7
10
7
8
25
19
12
1
-
-
2.
2.
4.
2.
3.
10.
7.
4.
0.
Copepodite-sex
not determined
No. %
3 1.2
4 1.6
10 4.1
23 9.5
22 9.0
22 9.0
7 2.8
11 4.5
4 7 2.8
8 2 0.8
1 5 2.0
8 - -
3 - -
3 - -
8 - -
9 - -
4 - -
Copepodite
Males
No. %
-
-
2
2
3
4
3
1
-
-
-
-
-
1.6
1.6
2.5
3.3
2.5
0.8
-
-
-
27 March 1974
Copepodite
Females
No. %
-
-
4
4
4
4
5
11
8
7
-
3
3
3
3
4
9
6
5
-
-
.3
.3
.3
.3
.2
.3
.7
.9
-
Copepodite-sex
not determined
No. %
2 1.6
4 3.3
5 4.2
7 5.9
8 6.7
9 7.5
3 2.5
5 4.2
5 4.2
4 3.3
4 3.3
-
-
-
-
-
-
-------
Cephalo-
thorax
length
(mm)
TABLE 47 (Continued)
SIZE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF HARPACTICUS VNIREMIS COPEPODITES ON DAYVILLE FLATS
____ Sample Dates
15 May 1972
27 March 1974
Copepodite
Male
No. %
Copepodite
Females
No. %
Copepodite-sex
not determined
No. %
Copepodite
Males
No. %
Copepodite
Females
No. %
Copepodite-sex
not determined
No. %
0.54
0.56
0.58
0.4
TOTALS
30
12.4
96
39.6
116
47.9
15
12.7
47
39.8
56 47.4
Mean length
Cephalo-
thorax
Standard
Deviation
0.41
0.03
0.45
0.04
0.29
0.05
0.41
0.03
15 May 1972 and 27 March 1974
0.44
0.04
Copepodite
Males
No. %
Copepodite
Females
No. %
Copepodite-sex
not determined
No. %
TOTALS 45
12.5
143
39.7
172
47.7
Mean length
Cephalothorax
Standard Deviation
0.41
0.03
0.45
0.04
0.29
0.05
0.30
0.06
-------
6 DECEMBER 1972
N-85
6 NOVEMBER 1972 - - • 7 ADULT FEMALES,
1 ADULT MALE,
& 1 COPEPODITE
I20
OL
£ 15
7 OCTOBER 1972
S SEPTEMBER 1ST?
N=t58 [~~|-
: _ _[
9 AUGUST 1972
N=190
10 JULY 1972 r
N= i9o r
: r
-j-
-
-Tl
-i
-i
-
JUNE 1972 - NO SAMPLE OBTAINED
31 JUL Y 1973
N= 114
Ik,
4 JUNE 1973
/V= M7
SM/lf I97J
N-68
rci
4 APRIL 1973 - - - 6 ADULT FEMALES
7 MARCH 1973 - - - 0 SPECIMENS
2 FEBRUARY 1973 - - - 9 ADULT FEMALES, 2 w
2JANUARY 1973
N-71
01 0.2 03
LENGTH. (
05 0.6 07
LEGEND:
0 Copepodites [Q] Cop«podites Not Sewed
d Adult Males Q Copepodite Moles
n Adult F«mal« (V| Copepodite Females
Figure 14. The percent length-frequency distribution of Horpacticus un-ivem-is
collected on Dayville Flats from May 1972 through May 1975.
Lengths plotted are cephalothorax measurements (continued on next
page).
141
-------
30 MA Y 1975
N = 35O
21, 22 MAY 1974
24 APRIL 1974
N = 282
Copepodites
FEBRUARY 1974 - NO SAMPLE OBTAINED
7 JA'NUARY 1974 - - - 2 ADULT FEMALES
7 DECEMBER 1973 - - - 7 ADULT FEMALES,
7 ADULT MALES,
&3COPEPODITES
NOVEMBER 1973- NO SAMPLE OBTAINED
OCTOBER 1973 - NO SAMPLE OBTAINED
13 SEPTEMBER 1973
N = 78
28 APRIL 1975
N = 225
28, 29 MARCH 1975
N* 136
24 FEBRUARY 1975---15 ADULT FEMALES, 13 w/eggs,
1 ADULT MALE,
& 1 COPEPODITE
28 JANUARY 1975 - - - 6 ADULT FEMALES; 3 w/egg*
28 DECEMBER 1974 - - -1 ADULT FEMALE
29 NOVEMBER 1974 1 ADULT FEMALE
OCTOBER 1974 - O SPECIMENS
16SEPTEMBER 1974
N= 146
19 AUGUST 1974
N = 110
R
23 JULY 1974
N = 237
: J
_-.
In
1 Q.2 03 Ofl 0.5 06 0.7
LENGTH, mm
Figure 14 (Continued). See Figure 14, previous page.
142
-------
Egg-bearing females occurred from December through May with most in-
dividuals occurring in February and March. Copepodites were most abundant
in March, April and May (Table 48). We conclude that the time interval from
virtually the last appearance of egg sacs to the virtual disappearance of
copepodites is that needed for growth to adult, i.e., from March to May,
or two to three months. Supporting this supposition is the data from two
full years of sampling (1974 and 1975) in which the time interval between
the major appearance of female copepodites (March) and the appearance of
the largest modal-length group of females (0.54 mm) in May is also two to
three months. The period between the major appearance of male copepodites
(March) and the appearance of the largest modal-length group of adult males
(0.50 mm, April) suggests that they develop to adults in one to one and one-
half months.
SEX RATIO
In a number of harpacticoid species, males reach maturity before
females, and grasp only copepodid females (ltd, 1971 ; Barnett, 1970 ;
Lasker et at., 1970 ). This situation is also true for Harpact-icus
uni-Temis, Female copepodites (39.7% of the copepodid population) in the
collections of 15 May 1972 and 27 March 1974 outnumbered male copepodites
(12.5% of the copepodid population) three to one. On these two dates there
were nearly twice as many adult males as copepodid males; conversely, female
copepodites were more abundant than adult females (Table 47; Figure 14).
These data demonstrate that males of the year reach maturity first and mate
with copepodid females of their own generation.
Copepodites with sex not determined (Stages I-III) from the samples
of May 1972 and March 1974 accounted for 47.7% of the copepodid population.
REPRODUCTION
Approximately three years of sampling is represented in Figure 15 and
Table 48 which show the numbers and percentages of copepodites, adult males
and females, females with eggs and clasping individuals collected during
this period.
143
-------
TABLE 48
SEASONAL CHANGES IN THE MONTHLY COMPOSITION OF HARPACTICUS VNIREMIS ON DAYVILLE FLATS FROM MAY 1972 THROUGH MAY 1975
Number of
samples Females
Date
15 May
June
10 July
9 Aug.
8 Sept.
7 Oct.
6 Nov.
6 Dec.
2 Jan.
4 Feb.
7 Mar.
4 Apr.
5 May
4 June
1 July
31 July
examined Number %
'72
'72
'72
'72
'72
'72
'72
'72
'73
'73
'73
'73
'73
'73
'73
'73
Qual.
Sample 70(18)c
5.3[25]d
Females w/eggs
of Total Female
Population
Males
Number
275(69)
%
20.9[25]
Copepodites
Number
970[242]
%
73.8[25]
TOTAL
MEASURED
329
SAMPLE
TOTAL
1315
Number
5
%
7.1
Clasping In-
dividuals of
Total Population
Number
18
%
1.3
NO SAMPLE OBTAINED
2(C)£
4(C)
5(C)
6(C)
5(C)
7(C)
12(C)
5(C)
6(C)
4(C)
5(C)
6(C)
2(C)
5(C)
190(190)
380(190)
309(154)
20(20)
7(7)
72(72)
69(69)
9(1)
0
6
62(62)
145(145)
34(34)
114(114)
100[100]
100 [50]
98.7[50]
95.2[100J
77.8[100]
84.7[100]
97.1[100]
lOOtll.l]
0
100
87.3[100]
98.6[100]
100 [100]
lOOflOO]
0
0
2(2)
0
KD
7(7)
1(1)
0
0
0
5(4)
0
0
0
0
0
0.6[100]
0
ll.ltlOO]
8.2[100]
1.4[100]
0
0
0
7.0[80]
0
0
0
0
0
2(2)
KD
1(1)
5(5)
1(1)
0
0
0
4(2)
2(2)
0
0
0
0
0.6[100]
4.8[100]
11.1[100]
5.8[100]
1.4[100]
0
0
0
5.6[50]
1.3[100]
0
0
190
190
158
21
9
85
71
9
0
0
68
147
34
114
190
380
313
21
9
85
71
9
0
6
71
147
34
114
0
0
0
0
0
KD
6(6)
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.4[100]
8.7[100]
22.2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
6(6)
0
0
0
0
2(2)
0
0
0
0
0
0.6
0
0
7.0[100]
0
0
0
0
2.8[100]
0
0
0
-------
TABLE 48 (Continued)
SEASONAL CHANGES IN THE MONTHLY COMPOSITION OF MRPACTICUS UNIREMIS
Date
13 Sept. '
Oct. '
Nov. '
7 Dec. '
7 Jan. '
Feb. '
27 Mar. '
24 Apr. '
21,22 May1
24 June '
23 July '
19 Aug. '
16 Sept. '
31 Oct. '
29 Nov. '
28 Dec. '
73
73
73
73
74
74
74
74
74
74
74
74
74
74
74
74
Number of
samples
examined
5(C)
NO SAMPLE
NO SAMPLE
5(0
4(C)
NO SAMPLE
7(P)f
2(P)
2(P)
2(P)
6(C)
2(P)
6(P)
3(P)
3(P)
3(P)
Females w/eggs
of Total Female
Population
Females
Number
78(78)
OBTAINED
OBTAINED
7(7)
2(2)
OBTAINED
252(63)
392(196)
875(218)
135(135)
233(233)
107(107)
146(146)
0
1(1)
1(1)
%
100[100]
41.1[100]
100 [100]
26.2[25]
69.6[50]
99.3[25]
98.5[100]
97.9[100]
97.2[100]
100[100]
0
100[100]
100 [100]
Males
Number
0
7(7)
0
236(60)
106(53)
1(1)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
%
0
41.1[100]
0
24.6[25]
18.8[50]
0.1[100]
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Copepodites
Number
0
1 3(3)
0
472(118)
65(33)
5(5)
1(1)
5(4)
3(3)
0
0
0
0
%
0
17.6[100]
0
49.1[25]
11.5[50]
0.5[100]
0.7[100]
2.1[80]
2.7[100]
0
0
0
0
TOTAL SAMPLE
MEASURED TOTAL
78
17
2
241
282
224
136
237
110
146
0
1
1
78
17
2
960
563
881
136
238
110
146
0
1
1
Number
0
0
0
121(30)
5(5)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
%
0
0
0
48.0[25]
1.3[100]
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Clasping In-
dividuals of
Total Population
Number %
0
0
0
50
42(4)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5.1
7.4[9.5]
0
.0
0
0
0
0
0
0
-------
TABLE 48 (Continued)
SEASONAL CHANGES IN THE MONTHLY COMPOSITION OF HARPACTICUS UNIREMIS
Number of
samples Females
Date
28 Jan.
24 Feb.
28,29 Mar
28 Apr.
30 May
'75
'75
.'75
'75
'75
examined
3(P)
3(P)
6(P)
3(P)
3(P)
Number
6(6)
15(15)
78(78)
468(117)
1235(308)
%
100[100]
88.2[100]
57.3[100]
52.0[25]
96.7[25]
Females w/eggs
of Total Female
Population
Males
Number
0
1(1)
23(23)
258(65)
28(28)
%
0
5.8[100]
16.9[100]
28.7[25]
2.1 [100]
Copepodites
Number
0
1(1)
35(35)
173(43)
14(14)
%
0
5.8[100]
25.7[100]
19.2[25]
1.0[100]
TOTAL SAMPLE
MEASURED TOTAL
6
17
136
225
350
6
17
136
899
1277
Number
3(3)
13[13]
61(61)
14(14)
0
%
50.0[100]
86.6[100]
78.2[100]
2.9[100]
0
Clasping In-
dividuals of
Total Population
Number
0
0
4(4)
86
0
%
0
0
2.9[100]
9.5
0
a Core (C) = 10 cm2; Plot (P) = 100 cm2
Individuals in clasping pairs included in the male and copepodite totals
0 Values within ( ), refer to number of individuals measured
Values within [ ], refer to the percent of individuals measured
6 Density data used for July 1972 through January 1974 and July 1974 are taken from available archived cores
f 2
Density data used for March 1974 through May 1975 were derived from 100 cm plots specifically selected to increase the number of copepods available
-------
COPEPODITES
-t i
JASONDJ FMAMJ JASONDJFMAMJJA S-0 N D J FMAM
H 1972 4- 1973 .+. ,9M 4, 1975 H
ADULT MALES
JASONDJ FMAMJ JASONOJFMAMJJASONDJ FMAM
ASONDJ FMAMJJASONDJ FMAMJJ ASONDJ FMAM
FEMALES W/EGGS AS PERCENT OF TOTAL FEMALES
_l 1 I
I I I I I
_l—I tfcl. .1
JASONDJ FMAMJ JASONOJ FMAMJ JASONDJ FMAM
1 1972 4 1973 4- 1974 4- 1976 -I
Figure 15. Seasonal variation in numbers of Harpact-Lous uni-ieemis copepodites,
adult males and adult females and the percentage of ovigerous fe-
males from the total number of adult females. Dotted lines indicate
months where no sample was obtained, and is an approximation only.
See Figure 16 for total copepod densities for all months.
147
-------
Adult males were found clasping Stage IV and V female copepodites
but never adult females. Juvenile males were never observed in a mating
pair. The most frequent combination was an adult male and a Stage V
copepodid female. Willey (1931) discussed the phenomenon of precocious
mating and concludes that it is probably a common occurrence. However,
mating pairs between adults have been observed in other harpacticoid species
(Eraser, 193668; Barnett, 196669). Lasker et al. (1970) 6 suggested that
spermatophore transfer does not take place until the female is mature.
Fraser (1936) and Barnett (1966) also observed precocious mating, but
did not comment on spermatophore transfer. We observed spermatophores
attached only to adult females (observations of July 1974 and March 1975).
It seems unlikely that spermatophore transfer takes place during precocious
coupling, as the spermatophore would be lost at the molt to maturity.
Therefore, it is assumed that the adult male grasps the Stage V copepodid
female until she molts to maturity, after which time the spermatophore is
transferred to the seminal receptacle of the female (see also Meglitsch,
1972 for discussion of reproductive behavior in copepods). Other authors
have noted adult males grasping copepodites smaller than Stage V (Barnett,
1966 ; Lasker et al,, 1970 ), but the advantage to this early coupling is
not known.
HaTpaoticus uniremis has a relatively distinct reproductive period
during which time copepodites, adult males and females, and ovigerous
females are found in the population. Mating pairs occurred from September
through May with maximum numbers of clasping individuals appearing in April
(Table 48). Generally, mating pairs were not abundant, but, it is probable,
that additional pairs were present, and were separated during the extrac-
tion process. The presence of copepodites and adult males in the same
months that mating pairs were observed (Table 48; Figure 15) further empha-
sizes this period as an important one for reproductive activity in this
species. During April, while clasping was still taking place, the number
of ovigerous females tended to be greatly reduced with all egg-bearers
gone from the population by May or June. Thus, it is apparent that sperm-
atophore transfer during this period does not result in immediate fertiliza-
tion and egg production. Instead, adult females bearing egg sacs begin to
148
-------
appear around December or January. Therefore, it appears that egg production
occurs approximately nine to ten months after copulation, as exemplified by
the time between maximum density peaks of copulating pairs (males and copepo-
dites) and ovigerous females (i.e., a period of approximately nine months
from the peak of clasping in May 1972 through the peak of ovigerous females
in February 1973; ten months from the clasping peak in May 1973 through the
ovigerous female peak in March 1974; ten months from the April 1974 clasping
peak through the peak of ovigerous females in February 1975). It is, thus,
apparent that adult females live for at least ten months and probably longer.
Males are present in the population for not longer than six months per year
(Figures 14 and 15; Tables 46 and 48).
An increase in copepod activity was apparent in late fall and
early winter of 1972 and 1973, a period when meiofauna generally become
less abundant (see discussion on meiofaunal density fluctuation in Section
VI) . This increase in activity was also reflected by an increment of meio-
fauna at Dayville Flats and Mineral Creek at this time, and has been related
to a water temperature increment (Section VI). The winter surge of meiofauna
on both of these beaches indicates that temporary increases in these organ-
isms can occur at the coldest period of the year when primary productivity
is lowest.
Harpaeti-eus uniremis evidently produces a single brood each year.
In late winter and early spring, ovigerous females, copepodites, adult
males and females, and copulating pairs are present in the population.
By June only non-gravid females are typically present, and they are the
only ones typically found for the balance of the year until ovigerous
females appear once again in December (Figures 14 and 15; Table 48).
Females carrying eggs are then found from December through May.
In February and March of 1975, the percent of females with eggs from
the total female population was 86.6 and 78.2 respectively. These were the
highest values for ovigerous females noted during the entire study period
(Table 48). The fecundity of Harpaotious univem-is is greater than that re-
71 72
ported for other harpacticoid copepods. (Harris, 1972 ,1973 ; Lasker et
/• /• n f
al.y 1970 ; Mclntyre, 1969 .) The harsh environmental conditions typical
of sediment beaches in Port Valdez and the resultant selective pressures
149
-------
acting on H. uni-remis there apparently have resulted in a higher fecundity
for this copepod species than that found for harpacticoids elsewhere (Barnett,
196835; Lasker et al., 1970 ). The mean number of eggs counted in 85 E.
un-ivem-ts egg sacs was 119 ± 36.3 with the mean length of these egg sacs
0.63 ± 0.08 mm. It6 (1971) examined ten egg sacs of E. uniremis from
the northern Japanese province of Hokkaido, and found the mean number of eggs
to be as much as 229 ± 35.4.
A transect made on 10 July 1972 demonstrated that adult females were
widely dispersed intertidally on Dayville Flats at this time. Another
transect made on 29 March 1975 also demonstrated no difference (a = 0.05)
between mean numbers of Earpaotious umTemi-s at each of eight tide levels
(Newman-Keuls multiple comparison test with equal sample size; Table 49) (Zar,
1974 ). The number of ovigerous females taken from all of the stations
along the transect of 29 March 1975 were then compared using the Newman-
2
Keuls multiple comparison test with equal sample sizes (three 100 cm
plots) (Table 49). In this test, the mean number of ovigerous females
at 0.0 m did not equal or was greater than the mean number of ovigerous
females at the other tidal levels of -4.0 m, -2.4 m, -1.0 m, -0.5 m,
0.5 m, 1.5 m and 3.0 m (a = 0.05; Table 49); approximately 70% of the
egg-bearing individuals occurred at 0.0 m on this transect. The baseline
collection (at 0.0 m) made 28 and 29 March 1975 (Table 48) indicated
that 78% of the total females collected at this station were ovigerous.
These data indicate that ovigerous females mainly occupy the mid-tide level.
POPULATION DENSITY RELATIONSHIPS
Densities of harpacticoid copepods have been reportei by others as
numbers per 10 cm2 (Harris, 197271, 197273, 197274; Mclntyre, 196936;
Wigley and Mclntyre, 1964 ) and number per m (Barnett, 1968 ; Muus,
1967 ; Perkins 1974 ). All sample densities in this chapter are simil-
2 2
arly presented (i.e., counts per 10 cm and m ) for comparative purposes.
Densities are examined in conjunction with changes in water temperature,
sediment surface temperature and salinity (Figure 16; Table 50).
A pattern of high densities of Harpaetieus uni-remis during spring and
summer months and low numbers during fall and winter months generally persisted
150
-------
TABLE 49
NEWMAN-KEULS MULTIPLE COMPARISON TEST WITH EQUAL SAMPLE SIZES. DATA ARE OVIGEROUS FEMALES COLLECTED
FROM THREE 100 cm2 PLOTS TAKEN AT EACH OF EIGHT DIFFERENT TIDAL LEVELS. AT DAYVILLE FLATS, PORT VALDEZ
ON 29 MARCH 1975. MEAN NUMBER OF OVIGEROUS FEMALES AT EACH TIDAL HEIGHT IS RANKED IN ASCENDING ORDER:
(-4.0m) (-1.0m) (-0.5m) (-2.4m) (1.5m) (3.0m) (0.5m) (0.0m)
Comparison
(B vs. A)
8 vs.
8 vs.
8 vs.
8 vs.
8 vs.
8 vs.
8 vs.
7 vs .
7 vs.
7 vs.
7 vs.
7 vs.
7 vs.
6 vs.
6 vs.
6 vs.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
X..-0.0
0 x =
Difference
15.
15.
14.
14.
14.
13.
11.
3.
3.
3.
3.
2.
2.
1.
1.
1.
00
00
67
33
00
33
33
67
67
34
00
67
00
67
67
34
0.00 x3=0.
SEa
2.79
2.79
2.79
2.79
2.79
2.79
2.79
2.79
2.79
2.79
2.79
2.79
2.79
2.79
2.79
2.79
33 x4=0.67 x5=1.00
b
q
5.37
5.37
5.25
5.13
5.01
4.77
4.06
1.31
1.31
1.07
1.07
0.95
0.71
0.59
0.59
0.48
c
P
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
7
6
5
4
3
2
6
5
4
x,=1.67
O
q (0.05
4
4
4
4
4
3
2
4
4
4
4
3
2
4
4
4
xy=3.67
, 16, P)d
.897
.741
.557
.333
.046
.649
.998
.741
.557
.333
.046
.649
.998
.557
.333
.046
xQ=15.00
o
Conclusion
Reject
Reject
Reject
Reject
Rej ect
Rej ect
Reject
Accept
Accept
Accept
Accept
Accept
Accept
Accept
Accept
Accept
H
o
H
o
H
0
H
o
H
o
H
o
H
o
H
o
H
o
H
o
H
o
H
o
H
o
H
o
H
o
H
f\
v8 - yx
y8 = y2
y8 = y3
y8 = y4
y8 = y5
yQ = V,-
O D
yQ = u7
O /
y? = U-L
y7 = U2
y7 = y3
y7 = y4
U7 = P5
/ O
D 1
D 2.
Vf- = v«
-------
ro
TABLE 49 (Continued)
NEWMAN-KEULS MULTIPLE COMPARISON TEST WITH EQUAL SAMPLE SIZES.
Comparison
(B vs. A)
6 vs
6 vs
5 vs
5 vs
5 vs
5 vs
4 vs
4 vs
4 vs
3 vs
3 vs
2 vs
a SE
b
q
. 4
. 5
. 1
. 2
. 3
. 4
. 1
. 2
. 3
. 1
. 2
. 1
•^
n =
XT3 ~
= B
Difference
1.00
0.67
1.00
1.00
0.67
0.33
0.67
0.67
0.34
0.33
0.33
0.0
where SE =
the number
x.
A
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
standard
of data
SEa
.79
.79
.79
.79
.79
.79
.79
.79
.79
.79
.79
.79
error;
in each
b
q
0.35
0.24
0.35
0.35
0.24
0.11
0.24
0.24
0.12
0.11
0.11
0
s2 = the
of groups
c
P
3
2
5
4
3
2
4
3
2
3
2
2
error mean
A and B.
q (0.05
3
2
4
4
3
2
4
3
2
3
2
2
square
, 16,
.649
.998
.333
.046
.649
.998
.046
.649
.998
.649
.998
.998
from
P) Conclusion
Accept
Accept
Accept
Accept
Accept
Accept
Accept
Accept
Accept
Accept
Accept
Accept
the analysis of
H : y
o
H : y
o
H : u
o
H : y
o
H : y
o
H : y
o
H : y
o
H : y
o
H : y
o
H : v
o
H : p
o
V *
6 = y4
6 = y5
= y
5 = y2
5 = U3
^ *-• \
ft T
A 2
1 '«s 11
A j
'3 = yl
'3 = y2
12 = yl
variance;
SE
f\
p = Number of means in the range of means being tested.
qa, v, p is obtained from Table D.12 (Zar, 1974): v = the error degrees of freedom.
e If calculated q is equal to or greater than the critical value, qa, v, p, then H = p is rejected.
O A.
-------
Ui
« • MEAN DENSITY OF HAHPACTICUS UNIHEUIS
•- • —• MEAN SEDIMENT SURFACE (0 1 cml TEMPERATURE
•— — • MEAN WATER TEMPERATURE
f. -• NO SAMPLE OBTAINED
JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY
U 1972 .f. 1973 •+• 1974
Figure 16. Seasonal population density-temperature relationships of Ha^paot^GUS un-LTemi-s on
Dayville Flats, Port Valdez, Alaska.
-------
TABLE 50
DENSITIES OF EARPACTICUS UNIREMIS ON DAYVILLE FLATS AS RELATED TO MEAN WATER TEMPERATURE, SEDIMENT
SURFACE TEMPERATURE, WATER SALINITY AND SEDIMENT SURFACE SALINITY
Date
July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Area
72
72
72
72
72
72
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
Q
Sampled
(cm2)
20(C)
40(C)
50(C)
60(C)
50(C)
70(C)
120(C)
50(C)
60(C)
40(C)
50(C)
60(C)
20(C)
50(C)
50(C)
NSOb
NSO
50(C)
Mean
No. 10 cm2
95
95
63
4
2
12
6
2
0
2
14
24
17
23
16
—
3
Mean
No. M2
95,000
95,000
63,000
4,000
2,000
12,000
6,000
2,000
0
2,000
14,000
24,000
17,000
23,000
16,000
—
3,000
Mean H20
Temp.
10.7
10.4
9.8
7.1
1.9
1.3
2.0
2.1
1.8
3.2
6.0
15.5
12.0
9.6
10.2
5.8
2.3
—
Mean Sediment
Surface Temp.
14.5
16.0
10.1
3.6
1.8
-0.85
-0.25
-1.1
3.3
4.0
2.2
19.0
16.1
14.4
10.5
6.0
-1.0
1.4
Surface
H20 Sal.
NSO
NSO
NSO
NSO
NSO
NSO
NSO
NSO
12.8
1.6
13.0
NSO
20.7
2.1
18.6
NSO
NSO
NSO
Sediment
Surface Sal.
NSO
NSO
NSO
NSO
NSO
NSO
29.5
NSO
NSO
27.3
27.9
29.2
24.1
19.0
NSO
NSO
NSO
NSO
-------
TABLE 50 (Continued)
Date
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May
«a
Area Sampled
(cm2)
74
74
74
74
74
74
74
74
74
74
74
74
75
75
75
75
75
40(C)
NSOb
700(P)
200(P)
200(P)
200(P)
60(C)
200(P)
600(P)
300(P)
300(P)
300 (P)
300(P)
300 (P)
600(P)
300(P)
300 (P)
Mean
No. 10 cm2
1
14
28
44
7
40
6
2
0
<1
<1
<1
<1
2
30
43
Mean
No. M2
1
14
28
44
7
40
6
2
2
30
43
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
0
30
30
200
600
,000
,000
,000
Mean H20
Temp.
0
2.6
2.5
7.3
7.9
7.1
8.8
9.0
6.0
3.8
-1.4
-1.0
2.0
3.5
6.6
9.0
Mean Sediment
Surface Temp.
-0.
3.
6.
12.
7.
8.
—
—
8.
2.
—
—
—
—
—
—
8
1
0
6
4
6
0
9
Surface
H20 Sal.
30.
NSO
30.
20.
12.
1.
4.
6.
13.
2.
26.
30.
NSO
NSO
33.
21.
13.
5
0
0
0
7
6
9
8
0
7
5
0
0
3
Sediment
Surface Sal.
NSO
NSO
36.2
32.8
34.0
16.0
NSO
NSO
18.0
18.0
NSO
NSO
NSO
NSO
NSO
NSO
NSO
aCore (C) = 10 cm2; Plot (P) = 100 cm2
NSO = No sample obtained
-------
throughout this study. Harpaoticus uni-vemis was typically most abundant
from April to October with the highest numbers recorded in July and August
1972 (95 per 10 cm2 in both months) (Figure 16; Table 50). By October 1972
2
the total number of copepods had dropped to 4 per 10 cm and remained low,
2
with a slight increase in December 1972 (12 per 10 cm ), until May 1973
when numbers began to rise again. No samples were obtained during October
and November 1973 and February 1974 due to adverse weather conditions.
Based on the scarcity of H. uniremis during the latter months in other
years and the low densities in December 1973 and January 1974, it is assumed
the numbers were also low in the months not sampled. Harpaoti-cus uniremis
was not found in March 1973 and October 1974. A decline in density occurred
2 2
in June and August 1974 (7 per 10 cm and 6 per 10 cm respectively), two
months when densities are normally highest. Densities were lowest between
2
October 1974 and February 1975. During the latter months, when 300 cm was
2
examined each month, densities ranged from 0 per 10 cm in October 1974 to
2
less than 1 per 10 cm in February 1975.
Seasonal fluctuations of harpacticoid copepods are probably the re-
sult of the interaction of various ecological factors, e.g., temperature,
salinity, and primary productivity. Muus (1967) emphasized that water
temperature is important in controlling reproduction in harpacticoid copepods
Marshall and Orr (1955) considered that the temperature of seawater plays
an important part in determining the number of generations of the calanoid
copepod, Calanus. Harris (1972) suggested that water temperature change
is the most important environmental factor affecting copepod reproduction.
Densities of harpacticoids have been observed to be directly proportional
to water temperature (de Bovee and Soyer, 1974 ; Harris, 1972 ; Muus,
196741; Perkins, 197476; Schmidt, 196878; and Straarup, 1$7047). However,
It6 (1971) in a study on Harpaotious uni-Temls in Hokkaido, Japan, reported
that the population of the copepod gradually began to increase while tempera-
tures were still dropping but then the population dropped markedly at the
highest temperature recorded (10°C). In marked contrast, the months of
highest densities of H. uniremis at Dayville Flats were typically those
months with highest water temperatures and highest sediment surface temp-
eratures (Figure 16). Typically, sediment surface temperatures at low tide
156
-------
were higher than water temperatures during the summer and lower than
water temperatures during the winter. Mean sediment surface tempera-
tures for the months of high H. unirenrLs densities were as follows:
July through September 1972: 13.5 ± 3.07°C; May through October 1973:
11.4 ± 6.38°C; and April through July 1974: 8.7 ± 2.84°C. An excep-
tion to densities being directly proportional to temperature was
observed in December 1972 and January 1973. In December 1972, a
month when densities are normally at a minimum, the count rose to
2
12 per 10 cm while water temperature and sediment surface temperature
were 1.3°C and -0.85°C respectively. Conversely, densities of H.
univemis declined in August, September and October 1974, months when
temperatures were still high.
2
The density of Earpaot-icus unirem'is fell from 44 per 10 cm in
2 2
May 1974 to 7 per 10 cm in June and rose again in July to 40 per 10 cm .
Although there was little change in water temperature, this abnormal
density drop in June may be reflective of the drop in sediment surface
temperature and/or surface water salinity and/or sediment surface salinity
(Table 50; Figure 16). The increase in numbers of copepods from June
to July cannot be explained at present. Sediment surface temperatures
fell to the lowest values in December 1972 (-0.85°C), January 1973
(-0.25°C), February 1973 (-1.1°C), November 1973 (-1.0°C), and January
1974 (-0.8°C). Copepods were present in all collections made on the
above dates, and numbers of individuals were lowest at these periods with
the exception of January 1973 (see comments above for this month). In
general, changes in densities of ff. un-irem-is were observed to be more
reflective of the changes of sediment surface temperatures than changes
of water temperatures.
The harpacticoid genus Platychel-ipus is reported to have a mid-range
IT 0
of salinity tolerance. Lang (1948) found Platyohelipus laophontaides
35
able to withstand salinities as low as 8°/00. Barnett (1968) reported
fluctuation in salinities of interstitial waters following periods of hot
sun or heavy rains at low tide. He reported P. laophontoides able to
tolerate salinities between 18-56.5°/00 on a mudflat, and P. littoralis
able to tolerate very low salinities. Harpact-icus wvlTem.'is is apparently
157
-------
also tolerant to low salinities, but this species does not withstand
salinities approaching that of freshwater (l-7°/00; Feder, unpublished
data). This copepod is found primarily in the first few centimeters of
sediment in Port Valdez where salinities are consistently higher than that
found in the overlying sea water and, in fact, sediment salinities never
fell below 18°/00 during our investigation (Table 50; also see Green, 1968 °
19
and Lepp'akoski, 1968 for discussions on similar sediment-overlying sea
water relationships). The limited salinity data available suggests that
this parameter is not a limiting factor in the biology of H. uniremis in
Port Valdez.
The seasonal cycle of primary productivity in Port Valdez appears
to resemble other marine systems of similar latitudes. In general, a
large bloom of phytoplankton and a maximum amount of organic matter are
79 41
produced in the spring (Goering et al., 1973) . Muus (1967) observed
an increase in production of benthic diatoms in Danish estuaries in the
spring and summer; in general, this increase followed temperature rather
closely. A similar increase of benthic diatoms was noted in Port Valdez
in the spring (Feder and Jewett, unpublished observations). Nearly all
harpacticoid copepods feed on diatoms (Green, 1968 ; Mclntyre, 1969 ;
Muus, 1967 ; Perkins, 1974 ; R. Hamond, Zoology Department, Melbourne
University, Australia, personal communication), and Harpaetious uniremis
was observed feeding on chain-forming diatoms on 29 March 1975 (personal
observation) . The greatest densities of H. umremis found on Dayville
Flats were associated with increased production of diatoms and filamentous
algae on the mudflat surface. Thus, abundance and distribution of harpac-
ticoid copepods seem to be closely associated with seasonal abundance and
distribution of primary producers.
DISCUSSION
The only intensive investigations of reproductive cycles of inter-tidal
harpacticoids elsewhere were carried out on sediment beaches in the British
Isles (Barnett, 197065; Lasker et al., 197066; Harris, 197271). In a study
/* r
of an intertidal mudflat, Barnett (1970) found that two species of Platy-
cheli-pus had distinct breeding periods in the spring. Lasker et al. (1970)
158
-------
found a distinct seasonal reproductive cycle in the benthic harpacticoid,
Asellopsis inteTmedi-a, with the maximum percent of ovigerous females
occurring in May. Harris (1972) found distinct reproductive periods
in most of the ten harpacticoid species he examined with the majority of
43
them breeding in summer months. Coull and Vernberg (1975) examined
shallow-subtidal harpacticoid copepods from a North Carolina estuary.
They found that the dominant copepods were in a reproductive state all
year whereas the less abundant species had distinct seasonal reproductive
periods. The most common harpacticoid species found in Port Valdez,
Ealectinosoma gothi,ceps, also appeared to be in a reproductive state through-
35
out the year (Section VI). Other authors (Barnett, 1968 ; de Bovee and
Soyer, 197455; Mclntyre, 196936; Muus, 196741; Perkins, 197476; Straarup,
47
1970 ) have examined seasonal density cycles of harpacticoids, and found
the copepods to be most abundant in summer months and less dense in winter
months. HaTpacti,cus un^Temls, a less common species in Port Valdez (see
Section VI), has a distinct seasonal reproductive period with the maximum
number of ovigerous females occurring in late winter and early spring
(Figures 15 and 16). In the months with the greatest densities of cope-
pods (summer), primarily adult, non-ovigerous females were present. Con-
versely, the months with lowest copepod densities (fall and winter, and
early spring) typically had a more heterogeneous composition (Table 48;
Figure 15). Copepodid maturation, the appearance of males in the popula-
tion, and copulation took place primarily in late winter and early spring.
Males typically disappeared from the population in May. Only adult females,
presumably carrying spermatophores, remained throughout the summer. The
numbers of these females declined precipitously in the fall, and the popu-
lation of copepods generally remained low throughout the winter.
Most intertidal harpacticoids demonstrate some degree of differential
horizontal distribution of specific life-history stages and/or members of
the entire population. The selection process is undoubtedly a complex one,
and presumably involves interactions with such factors as sediment-particle
size, temperature, salinity, exposure time at low tide, diatom production,
35
biological competition and predation. Barnett (1968) studied the harpac-
ticoid copepods of a mudflat in Southhampton, England and found a distinct
159
-------
zonation of species with tidal height. He took regular quantitative
core samples from three sites in the intertidal zone. Two species of
Platyahelipus were found with P. littoralis most abundant at the upper
level and P. laophontoides at the lower intertidal site. Both species
were found at the mid-tidal site in roughly equal numbers. Other species
of harpacticoid copepods have also been shown to be more abundant at
on
specific tidal heights (Eltringham, 1971) ; for example, Sterihelia
palustfis is most frequently found high up on the shore while Harpaottcus
flexus and Canuella fuvcigera have their centers of abundance at the lower
levels . Harris (1972) examined the horizontal distribution of the
harpacticoid Evansula pygmaea on a beach in Whitsand Bay. He observed no
significant difference in the numbers of this copepod along a 175 m
transect extending to mean low water spring tide but numbers were somewhat
greater in the vicinity of mean low water neap. Results obtained in a
Newman-Keuls multiple comparison test on mean numbers of H. uni-Temi-s at
each of eight tidal levels at Dayville Flats on 29 March 1975 likewise
showed no significant difference (a = 0.05) between means. This analysis
indicates that this species is widely dispersed on the mudflat. However,
somewhat greater numbers were recorded between +0.5 m and -2.4 m (Table 51),
The apparent contradiction of the test of significance for the transect
data with the finding of greater numbers of copepods at certain stations
along the transect is explained by the patchiness of the harpacticoid
fauna in the area (Section VI). Such patchiness resulted in high varia-
bility between samples at each level. That some significant aggregation of
one life-history stage (ovigerous females) of H. un-iremis does take place
on Dayville Flats has been demonstrated previously (see Reproduction in
this Section). Harris (1972) reported a similar difference in reproduc-
tive activity with tidal height for two species of harpacticoid copepods
on a beach in England. He showed that the percentage of ovigerous females
of each species tended to decrease at the upper and lower limits of their
intertidal range. The selection of particular tidal levels by egg-bearing
harpacticoids is probably an important factor in controlling the optimum
intertidal distribution of the adults.
160
-------
TABLE 51
TOTALS, MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF HARPACTICUS UNIREMIS
COLLECTED AT EIGHT TIDAL HEIGHTS AT DAYVILLE FLATS,
PORT VALDEZ ON 29 MARCH 1975. THREE 100 cm2
SAMPLES ARE REPRESENTED AT EACH TIDE LEVEL.
-4.0 m -2.4 m -1.0 m -0.5 m 0.0 m 0.5 m 1.5 m 3.0 m
Total 15 52 32 72 93 42 16 11
Mean 5.0 17.3 10.6 24.0 31.0 14.0 5.3 3.6
Standard
Deviation 2.65 23.12 3.06 18.03 16.70 6.56 1.53 2.31
161
-------
Seasonal effects tend to be more marked in the intertidal zone since
the fauna there is exposed to greater stresses than that encountered
elsewhere in the marine environment. The drastic decrease in copepod
numbers on the Dayville tidal flat at certain seasons probably reflects
such stresses, and organisms there may undergo considerable mortality
and/or move out of the region of stress at this time. Subtidal samples
obtained at Jackson Point in Port Valdez from September 1970 through
September 1972 (using multiplates and rock-filled baskets exposed for two
to four months) yielded low densities of Earpaotious un-ivem-is during cold
months (J. W. Nauman and D. R. Kernodle, U.S. Geological Survey, personal
communication). These data suggest that H. uniremis does not undergo
substantial subtidal migration during this period. Harpacticoid copepods
studied elsewhere undergo vertical migration into the sediment during cold
periods of the year (Harris, 1972) . Surface sediments in Port Valdez
freeze at low water in the winter, but samples taken monthly to 8 cm in
depth consistently demonstrated that approximately 95% of the meiofauna
inclusive of copepods, were located in the upper three centimeters (Table
44, Section VI). A similar shallow distribution of harpacticoids at all
seasons of the year was shown for individuals living on an English mudflat
35
(Barnett, 1968) . Presumably in both situations, copepods were restricted
to the surface layers because of a rapid decrease in the interstitial
oxygen below the mud surface; in sediments of Port Valdez interstitial
oxygen is restricted to the upper three centimeters only (Section IV).
Thus, it appears that the drastic decrease in numbers of copepods on
the Dayville Flats in fall and winter can be best explained in terms of
seasonal mortality only.
162
-------
SECTION VIII
CRUDE OIL IMPACT ON PORT VALDEZ TIDAL FLAT SEDIMENT CHEMISTRY
INTRODUCTION
As part of the experimental program designed to assess the impact of
Prudhoe Bay crude oil on sediment chemistry, meiofauna and the clam Macoma
balthica in Port Valdez, a series of oil-additive experiments were performed
on the tidal flats south of Ammunition Island (Section IV, Figure 1). The
methodology and biological results of these experiments are described in
Sections IX, X and XI; the depositional and geochemical environment of the
experimental area are characterized in Section IV. It is primarily the pur-
pose of this chapter to describe the perturbations on the sediment geochemistry
at the mid-tide (0.0 m) experimental site following additions of varying concen-
trations of Prudhoe Bay crude oil.
METHODS
A total of 16 sediment samples, taken from plots exposed to Prudhoe Bay
crude oil at various concentrations and lengths of time in conjunction with
biological experiments in the field (for details of oil ammendment procedures
refer to Sections IX, X and XI), were chemically analyzed to assess the short-
term impact of oil on the sediment trace-element chemistry and organic carbon
content. The procedure for the quantitative elemental analysis of oil-
impacted sediments was identical to that adopted for the baseline element
analysis on gravel-free sediments (Section IV).
RESULTS - DISCUSSION
One of the significant outcomes of the present study is the establish-
ment of the fact that the surficial and near surficial (up to 16 cm from
the top) sediments of the Port Valdez tidal flats at the site of our in-
tensive studies (0.0 m tide level) are generally poor in organic carbon,
and thus plausibly also in organic matter (see Section IV for further dis-
cussion) - This finding was somewhat of a surprise, taking into account
the ready source of organic matter to most of the tidal flat area. Some
163
-------
possible explanations for this unusual situation have been dealt with
in Section IV. It has also been observed, contrary to expectations,
that there is no significant increase in organic carbon in the sediments
of the above tidal flat region following the exposure of the latter to
various dosages of Prudhoe crude oil (Table 52). This may be explained
in terms of two possibilities: (1) first, it is possible that there has
been rapid physical removal of crude oil from the sediment surfaces,
chiefly by the ebbing tide. Presumably, such a process of crude oil scav-
enging from the tidal flat is favored by the low air temperatures generally
prevalent in the Valdez area. It is believed that, under low temperatures,
the rate of evaporation of crude oil from the tidal flat will be relatively
slow. As a result of this, it might be expected that the viscosity of
Prudhce Bay crude oil would be maintained sufficiently low so that it would
float out with the ebbing tidal waters. Further, it is held that because of
the prevalence of an extensive tidal range, it would be expected that high
turbulence at the mid-tide level would frequently occur, which in turn would
favor resuspension and eventual tidal removal of any Prudhoe Bay crude oil
that might have initially deposited on the tidal-flat surface; (2) the second
explanation concerns the possible prompt bacterial degradation of crude oil.
On the basis of the low organic carbon contents documented in the baseline
tidal flat sediments of the mid-tide regions of all beaches examined (Section
IV, Tables 8 and 9; this Section, Table 52), it would first seem that bacter-
ial degradation of any additional influxes of hydrocarbon, at least on a
limited scale, might be expected to take place. However, it is doubtful if
Ql
such biodegradation does, in fact, take place. Norrell and Johnson (1975 )
(also see Section IX) have shown in the study area south of Ammunition Is-
land (Section IV, Figure 1) that a low bacterial biomass is present and that
this biomass does not respond to in situ additions of Prudhoe Bay crude oil,
although the bacteria do respond to in vitro oil additions (sediments mixed
mechanically with oil in the laboratory). Further, it might be expected that
bacterial sulfate reduction would be enhanced by crude oil in the presence of
the abundant dissolved interstitial sulfate and the existence of anoxic con-
ditions in the subsurface tidal flat sediments. The fact that no measurable
increase in dissolved H_S was observed, subsequent to oiling of the sediments,
164
-------
TABLE 52
CARBONATE, ORGANIC CARBON, AND TOTAL CARBON CONTENTS IN BASELINE AND
OIL-IMPACTED SEDIMENTS OF ISLAND FLATS. ALL PERCENTAGES ARE ON A
GRAVEL-FREE, DRY WEIGHT BASIS. FOR DETAILS ON THE DOSAGES OF
PRUDHOE CRUDE OIL WHICH WERE ADDED TO VARIOUS SEDIMENTS REFER
TO TABLE 53.
Sample No.
VLDZ10/73-1
VLDZ10/73-2
VLDZ10/73-7
VLDZ10/73-8
VLDZ10/73-9
VLDZ-OIL-1
VLDZ-OIL-2
VLDZ-OIL-3
VLDZ-OIL-4
VLDZ-OIL-5
VLDZ-OIL-6
VLDZ-OIL-7
VLDZ-OIL-8
VLDZ-OIL-9
VLDZ-OIL-10
VLDZ-OIL-11
VLDZ-OIL-12
VLDZ-OIL-1 3
VLDZ-OIL-14
VLDZ-OIL-15
VLDZ-OIL-16
VLDZ-OIL-17
co;%
0.76
1.02
1.64
1.01
1.90
1.64
1.01
0.76
0.63
1.14
1.25
0.89
1.01
1.38
1.14
1.25
1.14
1.72
1.60
1.75
2.95
1.15
Org. C %
0.268
0.060
0.070
0.023
0.105
0.057
0.053
0.201
0.054
0.110
0.060
0.037
0.153
0.077
0.146
0.080
0.150
0.075
0.085
0.018
0.180
0.130
Total C %a
0.420
0.300
0.398
0.225
0.485
0.385
0.255
0.355
0.180
0.338
0.310
0.215
0.355
0.353
0.368
0.330
0.378
0.420
0.405
0.400
0.410
0.360
a
Organic plus inorganic carbon content. VLDZ-OIL series of samples were oil-
impacted; the rest of the 5 samples are baseline representative sediments.
165
-------
is considered strong additional evidence suggesting lack of bacterial degra-
dation of Prudhoe crude oil on the tidal flats. In conclusion, the lack of
any increase in organic carbon in sediments following their exposure to var-
ious dosages of Prudhoe Bay crude oil is most plausibly attributable to prompt
physical removal of the oil from the tidal ecosystem by ebb tides.
Comparison of the sediment chemical data prior to and subsequent to the
oiling of sediments (Section IV, Tables 11 and 12; this Section, Table 53),
does not show any increase in trace element contents in the oiled sediments.
Surprisingly, on the other hand, most of the oiled sediments have slightly
lower values of trace elements than in the baseline samples. Besides, for any
suite of sediments to which Prudhoe Bay crude oil was added, the same number
of times no progressive increase in trace element contents were noticed in
those sediments which were subjected to relatively higher dosages of crude
oil. The sample VLDZ-OIL-16 was the only oiled sediment which showed a
slight relative increase over other oiled sediments in the contents of
Cu and Zn (Table 53). A slight overall increase in Cu and Zn concentra-
tions in sample VLDZ-OIL-16 is understandable as this sediment was the
only one exposed to a continuing chronic oil dosage over the experimental
period.
The general lack of an increase in heavy metal concentration in the
tidal flat sediments, subsequent to the oiling experiments, may be explained
in either or both of the following ways: (1) As suggested earlier, it
would seem plausible that the portion of crude oil which initially deposits
on the tidal flat surface is promptly removed by subsequent ebb tides.
Thus, any heavy metals chemically complexed with the crude oil are also
quickly removed from the tidal flat ecosystem; (2) the second explanation
takes into consideration the possibility that at least some portions of
the total heavy metals associated with the crude oil would be dissociated,
subsequent to the deposition of the oil on the tidal flat and prior to
complete removal of it by tides. In the freed state the heavy metals
would then be exposed to the surrounding muddy sediments, with possibilities
of getting fixed by the predominant constituent of the muds, the clay
minerals, via adsorption/ion exchange process. As a result of this it
would seem probable that any additional influxes of heavy metals, released
166
-------
TABLE 53
CTi
TRACE METAL CONCENTRATIONS (IN PPM) OF GRAVEL-FREE TIDAL FLAT SEDIMENTS OF PORT VALDEZ,
SUBSEQUENT TO IMPACTION WITH PRUDHOE CRUDE OIL ( SEE FIG. 2 FOR STATION LOCATIONS)
Sample No.
VLDZ-OIL-1A
VLDZ-OIL-1B
VLDZ-OIL-1C
VLDZ-OIL-2
VLDZ-OIL-3
VLDZ-OIL-4
VLDZ-OIL-5
VLDZ-OIL-6
VLDZ-OIL-7
VLDZ-OIL-8
VLDZ-OIL-9
VLDZ-OIL-10
VLDZ-OIL-11
VLDZ-OIL-12
VLDZ-OIL-13
VLDZ-OIL-14
VLDZ-OIL-15
VLDZ-OIL-16a
VLDZ-OIL-17
Cone, (ppm) of
oil added
500
500
500
1000
2000
500
1000
2000
500
1000
2000
500
1000
2000
500
1000
2000
200
0
No. Times oil
added
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
5
5
5
b
0
Collection date
7-08-74
7-08-74
7-08-74
7-08-74
7-08-74
7-19-74
7-19-74
7-19-74
8-02-74
8-02-74
8-02-74
8-18-74
8-18-74
8-18-74
9-15-74
9-15-74
9-15-74
9-15-74
9-15-74
Cu
34
33
32
38
36
38
35
32
34
37
39
42
37
41
45
40
40
53
66
Pb
21
21
19
20
20
21
16
23
19
21
25
22
20
22
27
22
21
26
22
Zn
110
90
90
90
90
90
80
90
80
100
90
100
90
100
100
105
90
125
97
Ni
58
60
61
67
62
63
58
63
59
70
69
67
60
68
65
67
67
77
85
V
185
185
175
190
195
185
195
195
200
215
190
195
190
210
190
180
215
205
255
Sediment was subjected to a number of oil dosages
June 19,20,21,22, and 23 July 3,4,5,<
of 200 ppm on the following dates:
1,7,20,21,22,23,24, and 25 August 16,17,18,19, and 20
-------
from the crude oil degradation, will eventually be immobilized within the
tidal flat deposits. Assuming that there is some such dissociation of
metals from the crude oil, it is felt that any subsequent heavy metal-clay
mineral bonding probably would be of no significant consequence quantita-
tively. This contention is based on the fact that the clay mineralogy of
the tidal flat muds at the site where crude oil was added, consist solely
of chlorite and mica (or so-called "illite"). As mentioned earlier both
of these minerals are presumably of the most stable high temperature/pressure
polytypes, which probably have been subjected to almost no chemical weather-
ing. Such a clay mineral suite is typically encountered in contemporary
82
glacial flour derived from primary rocks (Kunze et al., 1968 ; Mueller and
Q O
Naidu, in press )- It is contended that a sediment suite dominated by a
clay mineral assemblage similar to the above will be expected to have rela-
tively high electrostatic charges per unit-cell-layer, and as such presumably
will also have limited capacities for interlayer ion exchange for heavy
metals as well as hydrocarbons. In fact ethylene glycol solvation of all
the above clay samples has shown no detectable interlayer expansions. In
such a situation it would seem improbable that any such heavy metals that
are dissociated from Prudhoe crude oil will be incorporated by the tidal flat
muds to a significant extent. Therefore, it is not surprising to note that
there is no increase in heavy metal concentrations in the oiled sediments.
It is assumed that any heavy metals not sequestered by the clays are swiftly
removed from the tidal flat ecosystem by the ebb tide. Those portions of
the metals which escape such tidal removal are believed to be eventually in-
corporated within the sediment interstitial spaces. However, the amounts,
if any, of these immobilized metal portions in case of all, except possibly
one, of the oiled sediments (i.e. the chronically oiled deposit VLDZ-OIL-16)
are too small to be quantitatively assessed and are, therefore, not exemp-
lified in the chemical data of oiled sediments.
168
-------
SECTION IX
THE EFFECTS OF OIL ON THE MICROBIAL COMPONENT OF
AN INTERTIDAL SILT-SEDIMENT ECOSYSTEM IN PORT VALDEZ, ALASKA
VALDEZ SEDIMENT BACTERIOLOGY
Bacteria are often considered to be the basis of food chains in marine
sediments. Zobell and Feltham (1938) showed that certain marine inver-
tebrates used bacteria as food. Perkins (1958) concluded that many mud
I
ingesting feeders were, in fact, feeding upon bacteria adhering to sand
O C
grains and to detritus, and Mclntyre et at. (1970) reported on the role of
bacteria as a source of the protein and energy flowing through a sand
ecosystem. In their studies of a flatfish nursery ground, Mclntyre and
40
Murison (1973) concluded that the meiofauna feed mainly on bacteria and
diatoms attached to sand grains and in the interstitial water. They were
able to show that a substantial part of the meiofaunal carbon budget was
supplied by bacteria and that a crucial factor in maintenance of the eco-
system was the delivery of soluble organics to the bacteria by movement
86
of water through the sediment. Fenchel (1969) details the interrelation-
ships that exist between various biotic compartments, including bacteria,
in oxidized sand in marine ecosystems.
The attachment of bacteria to sand grains and the relative populations
of bacteria on the grains and in the interstitial water has been extensively
87
studied by Meadows and Anderson (1968) . Their studies suggest that,
because most of the bacteria are attached to the sand grains in micro-
colonies, the sediment acts to hold the bacterial population in place and
that movement of fluid through the sediment is necessary for the delivery
QQ
of nutrients to the bacteria. Furthermore, Steele et al. (1970) report
that drainage and sublittoral pumping through sand beaches with mean grain
diameter of 250 y may be the dominant mechanism for supplying oxygen and
soluble organic matter to the bacteria adhering to the sand grains.
In a well sorted, wave-washed, and oxidized beach ecosystem, the size
of the bacterial poplulation was strongly, but negatively, correlated with
mean grain size. Although bacterial biomass was strongly correlated with
total carbon and nitrogen, the bacterial carbon was estimated to account
169
-------
for only 1.2% of the total carbon, and 2.5% of the total nitrogen, and
no correlation was observed between bacterial biomass and oxidation state
89
(as Eh) of the sediment (Dale, 1974) . Dale further concluded that the
strong statistical relationships are ultimately traceable to the dominant
influence of the waves and tides on the properties of the intertidal sedi-
ments and that a statistically simple relationship may exist between bac-
terial biomass and sediment properties.
90
Cummins (1974) presents evidence that, in a fresh water system, the
microbes on particulate organic matter not only play a role in reducing
the size of the particles, but also serve as the major food source for
stream invertebrates. He concluded that the microbial biomass layer is at
least as important a food source as the particles themselves, and that
development of the bacterial layer is dependent upon the chemical proper-
ties of the particles. The final embedding of these particles in sediment
appears to be necessary for their eventual conversion to dissolved organic
matter and for return to the water ecosystem as dissolved, rather than
particulate, nutrients.
The ability of crude oil to supply oxidizable soluble organic material
to bacterial populations in marine sand ecosystems has been shown in several
studies. Generally, the oil is able to cause an increase in bacterial bio-
mass when added over prolonged periods, but does not permanently affect
the size of, or composition of, the bacterial population when added only
once, as would occur from a spill. Laboratory studies using artificially
91
produced sand systems with a mean grain size of 350 y (Bloom, 1970) and
92
250 v (Johnston, 1970) , as well as studies of spills on natural beach
93
systems at San Francisco Bay (Cobet and Guard, 1973 ; Guard and Cobet,
94
1973 ) and in beach communities affected by the Torrey Canyon spill on
95
the Cornish Coast (Gunkel, 1968) , are in agreement with the reports of
o o Q7
Steele et al. (1970) and Meadows and Andersen (1968) discussed above.
Increased oxygen uptake in sand columns made with Nobska Beach, Woods Hole,
Massachusetts, sand of 350 y mean particle diameter was shown when the
columns were flushed with sea water contaminated with Kuwait Crude oil
plus the dispersant "Corexit 7664" (Enjay Chemical Company) and with dis-
91
persant alone (Bloom, 1970) . This suggests that the dispersant alone,
170
-------
or in combination with oil, had no obvious deleterious effects on either
the meiofaunal population or the bacteria. Bleakley and Boaden (1974) ,
however, report that the dispersant Lissapol N produces some morbidity in
copepods (Order: Harpacticoida) at as little a concentration as 1 ppm,
although an observed decline in morbidity may "reflect the recovery of the
surviving meiofauna probably associated with the bacterial degradation of
surfactant."
The sediment ecosystem on some sediment beaches studied in Port Valdez
is of different physical and physiological characteristics than those re-
ported on above, and is extensively characterized in this report (Section IV).
The surficial sediment is composed of fine glacial silt, deposited at an
annual rate of about 1.67 cm/year, and having a mean particle size of only
4 to 16 y. The particle size is uniform to a depth of 5 cm and, because there
is typically no effective wave action, there is no apparent sorting of the
particles on the surface. The salinity of the interstitial water is always
higher than the overlying tidal waters, often by a factor of at least two,
even under conditions of heavy rainfall (up to 2 m of rain may occur during
the period from July to October). The study area is traversed by several
streams from nearby snowfields and surface runoff of the rainwater is con-
stant and typical. The sediment contains no dissolved or precipitated
sulfide (except under heavy algal mats), from 0.1 to 0.3 ppm iron (with no
gradient with depth). There is typically less than 0.2% by weight of
organic matter in the sediment, and the interstitial water has a constant
pH of between 7.2 and 7.4. The low organic content and the absence of
animal remains in the sediment suggest that deposited organisms are either
removed by rapid digestion on the surface or by tidal action. Thus, very
little of the organic matter becomes embedded in the sediment. The absence
of detectable sulfide suggests a highly oxidized and aerobic environment
(Fenchel, 1969)86 (Section IV).
The upper two to three centimeters of the sediment in Port Valdez
appear to be the biologically active layers. Examination of the meiofaunal
component of the ecosystem in the study area at Island Flats (see below for
location of area) indicates that most of the organisms are located in the
upper three centimeters of sediment and that the numbers of organisms contained
171
-------
2
in the upper horizon range from 845 to 1934 per 10 cm . Sixty-one percent
of these meiofaunal organisms were nematodes with 31% of them harpacticoid
copepods (Section VI).
A major objective of this study was to estimate the size and activity
of the bacterial population in Valdez intertidal sediments and to determine
the effect of oil on this population. The presence of various sulfur bac-
teria was also examined because of their association with both marine
environments and with oil deposits. Typically, in highly oxidized marine
sediments, they form ecosystems that are of great complexity and of almost
86 97
universal distribution (Fenchel, 1969 ; Fenchel and Riedl, 1970 ).
Sulfur bacteria axe almost always associated with oil deposits, although
their actual role in the oxidation of oil or in oil synthesis is not known
98 99
(Guarraia and Ballentine, 1972) . Kusnetzov (1967) does report an
instance in which oil became the source of energy for sulfate reducing
bacteria, with hydrogen sulfide sometimes being produced at the rate of
0.2 mg/Jl/24 hrs.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Sampling and Site Preparation
Sampling for bacterial analysis were collected during the summer months
of 1973 and 1974 from an intertidal zone near Port Valdez, Alaska, located
on Valdez Arm of Prince William Sound, in conjunction with the meiofaunal
studies described in Sections VI and X. Specifically, samples were, taken
from the undisturbed site at Island Flats (Section IV, Fig. 1), an oil
seepage site at Old Valdez, Alaska (produced by the burial of an oil tank
during the 1964 earthquake), and from under algal mats on the Island Flats
Site.
The 1973 samples were collected to determine the comparative size
of the bacterial populations in open sediment, sediment directly under
(decaying) algal mats, and in sediment exposed to continuous oil seepage
from the buried oil tank at Old Valdez.
On 18 June 1974, four sets of 25 glass rings (see Section X for further
details on methodology) approximately 15 cm in diameter and 4 cm in height
172
-------
were placed in the sediment of the intertidal study area on Island Flats.
These rings, while only slightly immersed in the sediment, were not dis-
placed by daily tides. Each set of 25 rings comprised a separate "site",
designated as Control (C), 500 ppm, 2000 ppm, and Chronic (CH). The rings
in the 500 ppm site each received two equal applications of 500 ppm of
Prudhoe Bay Crude Oil on two consecutive days during each low tide series
of the summer of 1974 (for a total of 1000 ppm at each tidal series).
Similarily, the rings of the 2000 ppm site received 4000 ppm of oil at
each tidal series. Each ring in the Chronic (CH) Site received 200 ppm
of oil on each of five consecutive days during each low tide series, for
a total of 1000 ppm oil per tide series. The rings within the Control (C)
Site were never oiled.
During each low tide interval throughout the sampling periods, five
to six sediment cores were taken to a depth of 2 cm from each site. Not
more than one core was taken from each ring and the sediment within any
one ring was only sampled once for bacterial analysis. (The remaining
sediment was used for meiofaunal studies.) When sampling was outside the
sites containing the glass rings, cores were taken randomly from apparently
homogenous areas.
Sampling dates were dependent upon tide levels, and specific samples
were taken at least one tide series after the previous addition of oil.
For example, sediments samples on 3 July 1974 received only one series of
oil application (on 19, 20 June) while those sampled late in the season
(15 September 1974) had been oiled on five previous low tide exposures.
The samples taken from the Old Valdez site were considered to represent
constantly oiled sediments. The sampling and oil application schedule is
shown in Table 54.
The individual cores, from replicate rings, were taken using a steel
corer approximately 4 cm in diameter and the contained sediment immediately
expressed into a sterile Whirlpak bag in such a way that no fluid or sedi-
ment was lost. The samples were transported and stored on ice or under
refrigeration (4°C) for analysis in the laboratory at Fairbanks. In all
cases, processing of the cores was begun no later than 48 hours after
sampling. Each of the five replicate cores was analyzed separately and the
results averaged for each site.
173
-------
TABLE 54
OIL AMMENDMENT AND SAMPLING PROTOCOL FOR
EXPERIMENTS OF SUMMER 1974
DATES ON WHICH OIL WAS ADDED
Control
Sites
Chronic
Sites
500 & 2000
Sites
DATES ON WHICH
SAMPLES WERE
TAKEN
Samples taken for baseline - control data,
no previously oiled samples.
None Added
None Added
None Added
None Added
None Added
19-23 June
19-23 June
3-7 July
19-23 June
3-7 July
20-24 July
19-23 June
3-7 July
20-24 July
1-5 August
19-23 June
3-7 July
20-24 July
1-5 August
16-20 August
19, 20 June
19, 20 June
3, 4 July
19, 20 June
3, 4 July
20, 21 July
19, 20 June
3, 4 July
20, 21 July
2, 3 August
10, 20 June
3, 4 July
20, 21 July
2, 3 August
16, 17 August
6/18
7/3
7/20
8/5
8/26
9/15
500 or 2000 ppm oil added, in equal amounts, on the dates shown. See
Section X for further details on oil ammendment procedure.
200 ppm oil added on each day, inclusive of the dates shown. See Section
X for further details on oil ammendment procedures.
174
-------
Total Bacterial Population
Total aerobic bacterial populations were estimated by standard plate
count-dilution methods (Meynell and Meynell, 1965 ; Parkinson et al,
1971 ) using Tryptone Glucose Extract Agar (Difco) prepared with filtered
sea water taken from Port Valdez offshore waters and supplemented with
8 mg/1 cycloheximide. All dilutions were made with filtered, sterile sea
water from the same source. In every case, except the initial samples
the sediment was allowed to settle for five minutes prior to dilution.
All samples were counted in triplicate after ten days incubation at 10°C
in the dark. Unless otherwise noted all incubations were aerobic and are
reported as total "aerobic" counts. (See Sulfate reducer counts.)
Sulfur-Cycle Bacteria
Two methods were used to test for the presence of sulfate reducing
bacteria. One method involved plating appropriately diluted samples from
single cores, following the procedure described for total aerobic popula-
tion counts except that, in this case, the medium consisted of Tryptone
Glucose Extract Agar (Difco), 24 g/fc; Na9SO., 5 g/£; FeSO.-7H 0; 0.09 g/fc;
25
and filtered sea water to 1000 ml (Aaronson, 1970) . Plates were incubated
in BBL Anaerobe Jars using C02 + H2 gas packs. After 10 days incubation
in the dark at 10°C, the plates were examined for blackened colonies
(sulfate reducers) and total "facultative counts."
The second method of determining the presence of sulfate reducing bac-
25
teria involved using a liquid medium (Aaronson, 1970) , consisting of
KH2P04, 0.5 g/£; NH^Cl, 1.0 g/fc; sodium lactate, 6.0 g/fc; CaCl2-6H20,
60.0 mg/£; MgS04-7H20, 60.0 mg/fc; yeast extract, 1.0 g/£; FeS04-7H20,
0.1 g/Jl; sodium citrate 2H20, 0.3 g/fc; (NH,)2SC>4, 7.0 g/£; and filtered
sea water to 1000 ml. The pH of the medium was adjusted to 7.5, before
autoclaving. 1.0 g sediment samples from separate cores were placed in
70 ml sterile glass stoppered bottles or 5.0 g sediment samples from single
cores were placed in 275 ml sterile glass stoppered bottles. The bottles
were then filled to the brim and stoppered to exclude air. Samples were
incubated in the dark at 10 °C and examined periodically for blackening of
the medium.
175
-------
The production of H-S by heterotrophic bacteria from organic sources
was examined by subculturing heterotrophs on appropriate medium to detect
hydrogen sulfide production. Every colony growing on or breaking the
surface of the agar in selected plates used for total counts was picked and
inoculated into sterile deeps of a solid medium consisting of Tryptone
Glucose Extract Agar, 24 g/A; L-cystine, 0.1 g/A; Na7SO,, 0.5 g/&; lead
25
acetate, 0.3 g/£; and filtered sea water to 1000 ml (Aaronson, 1970)
Tubes were incubated at 10°C in the dark and were examined periodically
for areas of black precipitation in the region of growth.
The presence of green photosynthetic sulfur bacteria was determined
102 25
using the following medium (Larsen, 1952 ; Aaronson, 1970 ): NH.C1,
1.0 g/A; KH2P04, 1.0 g/A; Na2S-9H20, 1.0 g/fc; MgCl2> 0.5 g/A; NaCl,
2.0 g/£; and filtered sea water to 975 ml. The pH was adjusted to 7.0,
before autoclaving. After autoclaving and cooling of the medium, 2.0 g
NaHCO_ in 25 ml filtered sea water, previously sterilized by millipore
filter, was added. Sterile glass stoppered bottles were inoculated with
sediment and medium was added as described for use of the liquid sulfate
reducer medium. Bottles were incubated in the light at 10°C and examined
periodically for green colonies.
The presence of purple photosynthetic sulfur bacteria was determined
as for green photosynthetic sulfur bacteria, except, in this case, 2.1 g/£
Na2S-9H20 was used and the pH of the medium was adjusted to 8.0, before
102 25
autoclaving (Larsen, 1952 ; Aaronson, 1970 ). Bottles were examined
periodically for purple colonies.
86
A modified Winogradsky-type column technique (Fenchel, 1969) was used
to simultaneously determine the presence of "white sulfur" chemoautotrophic,
sulfur oxidizing bacteria and of green and purple photos^gnthetic sulfur
bacteria. The solid phase, consisting of CaSO,, 10 g/&; glucose, 1 g/fc;
peptone, 1 g/Jl; agar, 15 g/£; and filtered sea water to 1000 ml, was
added to large test tubes to a depth of about 4 cm. The liquid phase and
inoculum, consisting of 20 ml of a 10~ dilution of sediment in sterile
filtered sea water, was added to the tubes, covering the solidified medium.
Two sets of tubes were set up; in one set the sediment in the dilution was
not allowed to settle before the 20 ml was dispensed over the medium; in
176
-------
the other set, the sediment in the dilution was allowed to settle for 10
minutes and only the resultant supernatent was dispensed over the medium.
Tubes containing the unsettled dilution of sediment were incubated at 10°C
in the dark and periodically examined for the presence of "white sulfur"
bacteria. Tubes containing both unsettled and settled dilutions of sediment
were incubated at 10°C in the light and were periodically examined for the
the presence of "white sulfur" bacteria, and later for the presence of
green and purple photosynthetic sulfur bacteria.
The presence of non-sulfur, photosynthetic bacteria (Athiorhodaceae)
103
was determined using a liquid medium (Pratt and Gorham, 1970) , consisting
of NH4C1, 1.0 g/A; KH2P04; 1.96 g/fc; K2HP04-3HO, 3.33 g/A; MgCl2,
0.2 gM; NaCl, 2.0 g/Jl; Bacto-Yeast Extract, 0.2 g/£; Bacto-Peptone,
2.9 g/&; and filtered sea water to 975 ml. After the medium was auto-
claved for 20 minutes at 15 psi and cooled, 5.0 g NaHCO,, in 25 ml filtered
sea water, previously sterilized by millipore filtration, was added.
Sterile glass stoppered bottles were inoculated with sediment and medium
added as previously described. Bottles were incubated at 10°C in the
light and were examined periodically for pink, orange or straw-colored
pigmentation of the medium, or for pigmented colonies growing on the sur-
face of the sediment.
A Most Probable Number (MPN) statistical dilution estimate of the
number of Athiorhodaceae was made following standard MPN methods. The
medium and culture conditions were as described above, except that, for
each sample tested, triplicate aliquots of 10 ml, 1 ml, and 0.1 ml of a
1:1 dilution of sediment to medium were added to separate 16 x 125 mm
test tubes. The tubes were then filled to the brim with medium and capped
to exclude air. Incubation was as previously described for Athiorhodaceae.
An attempt was made to determine what percentage of colonies develop-
ing on total aerobic population plates were Athiorhodaceae. Colonies were
picked from plates as previously described for bacteria producing hydrogen
sulfide from organic sources and were inoculated into tubes containing
liquid Athiorhodaceae medium. The tubes were incubated as previously
described for Athiorhodaceae.
177
-------
Oxygen Uptake by Sediment
Oxygen consumption rates of unamended, glucose supplemented, and oil-
supplemented sediment were obtained by incubating homogenized sediment with
appropriate supplements in Gilson Respirometer flasks. Sediment was pre-
pared by removing visible remains of meiofauna and mixing with filtered
sea water. In one experiment, the oxygen consumption rates were determined
both before and after addition of glucose and oil, and calculated in such
a way that the oxygen uptake obtained under each experimental condition
could be compared directly. Specific experimental conditions are given
with the results. Various combinations of sediment and sterile sea water
were used in attempts to obtain maximum uptake rates. In all cases,
triplicate flasks were run, the results averaged, and oxygen uptake reported
as microliters of oxygen consumed per hour per gram of sediment (yl 0~/hr/g).
The temperature coefficient (Q-, n) was determined by comparing the rate of
oxygen uptake at both 10°C and 20°C. Unless noted as otherwise, equilibra-
tion of flasks prior to uptake determination was between 12 and 18 hours,
at the experimental temperature.
RESULTS
Table 55 shows the counts obtained, in colony-forming-units/cc of sed-
iment (CFU/cc), for five replicate samples taken in 1973, with the standard
deviations of the replicate counts shown in parentheses. The differences
in counts of bacteria between the algae-covered site in the August sampling
and the Oil Seep Site in the September sampling, when compared to controls,
were found to be highly significant (P = less than 0.001); however, no
other significant differences were observed, including the counts obtained
from sediment that had been lightly oiled two months (four tide series)
previously. Interestingly, the algae-covered site, which by the September
sampling period had been subjected to freezing, no longer supported a
larger bacterial population when compared to the bare sediment controls.
The data in Table 56 show the estimated size of the aerobic and facul-
tatively anaerobic heterotrophic bacterial population, in colony forming
units per gram of sediment, for all samples taken during the 197A field
178
-------
TABLE 55
PRELIMINARY SURVEY OF BACTERIAL BIOMASS IN SEDIMENTS FROM ISLAND
FLATS STUDY AREA AND OIL SEEP SITE FROM OLD VALDEZ PRE-EARTHQUAKE
OIL STORAGE AREA DURING 1973 SAMPLING SEASON
Sampling Dates
Sampling Sites 8/27/73 9/27/73
Bacterial Count,
CFU/cca of Sediment (x 103)
Control Site 70 (34) 46 (37)
Oiled Site (Surface Application on 6/27/74) 70 (32) NDb
Algae Covered 189 (43) 6 (16)
Old Valdez Seep NDb 179 (59)
o
CPU = Colony forming units/cubic centimeter.
ND = Not determined.
179
-------
TABLE 56
HETEROTROPHIC BACTERIAL COUNTS ON SEDIMENT SAMPLES FROM OILED AND
CONTROL ISLAND FLATS SITES TAKEN DURING 1974 SAMPLING SEASON
oo
o
NUMBER OF
SAMPLING PREVIOUS
DATES OIL APPLICATIONS
6/18/74 None
7/3/74 la
7/20/74 2
8/5/74 3
8/16/74 4
9/15/74 5
Overall Season
Means
DAILY SAMPLING
MEANS
COUNT
CONDITION
Sediment
Suspended
Settled
30 Min.
Aerobic
Anaerobic
Aerobic
Anaerobic
Aerobic
Anaerobic
Aerobic
Anaerobic
Aerobic
Anaerobic
Aerobic
Anaerobic
HETEROTROPHIC BACTERIAL CFU/gm xlO
CONTROL
675
361
34
3
245
21
125
6
724
113
87
5
243
30
500 PPM
41
10
301
16
37
7
460
40
201
4
208
15
2000 PPM
41
8
289
27
370
10
247
16
137
9
216
14
CHRONIC
106
41
315
35
380
40
386
26
194
25
276
33
TOTAL
55
15
287
25
228
16
454
49
154
11
235
23
OILED
ONLY
63
20
302
26
262
19
364
27
177
13
233
20
Numbers of times oil was applied to sediment surface prior to sampling. In all cases sampling occurred
at the next tide series after the oil application (see Material and Methods, Table 54).
Refers to incubation of plates. Anerobic counts were obtained from sulfate reducing counts and are all
colonies that grew, whether or not they produced blackened zones around the colonies (see Methods).
-------
season. The results of a determination of the effects of sediment settling
are also shown (18 June sample). These figures indicate that there is a
loss of almost 50% of bacteria when the sediment is allowed to settle for
30 minutes before the dilution series is completed, suggesting that the
major proportion of the bacterial population may be found on the sediment
grains, rather than in the interstitial water. However, at the dilutions
used, the amount of sediment present prevented accurate counting and the
sediment was allowed to settle for 15 minutes in subsequent counting experi-
ments. Also, the ratio of "aerobic" to "facultatively anaerobic" organ-
isms is, with the exception of the 3 July sample, relatively constant at
about 10:1 (from 8.1:1 to 15.4:1). Interestingly, the addition of oil
to surface of the sediment, at all concentrations tested, including the
chronic additions, had a small but consistent enriching effect on the size
of the bacterial populations that could be detected, but not statistically
supported, by plate counting methods. In fact, the lack of differences
observed in the overall season means is striking, while, on the other hand,
the change in the daily sampling means over the season suggests a seasonal
pattern for the size of the bacterial biomass. The population seems to
peak during August, followed by a gradual decline through September.
Sulfur Cycle Bacteria
Hydrogen Sulfide Producers - Sulfate Reducing Bacteria —
When the plating method for determining the presence of sulfate-reducing
bacteria was used to estimate the presence of these organisms in Control
Site sediment taken on 18 June 1975, no blackened colonies were observed
on any of the plates (containing approximately 1,000 colonies) after 10 days
of incubation at 10°C. When the same sediment samples were enriched for these
organisms with selective media, similarly negative results were obtained.
Three glass-stoppered bottles containing 275 ml of medium and two containing
70 ml of medium were inoculated with 5.0 and 1.0 g of sediment, respectively.
After seven weeks of incubation at 10°C, all bottles showed heavy turbidity,
but none showed blackening due to the production of hydrogen sulfide. At
181
-------
the end of 11 weeks incubation, only one bottle containing 275 ml of
medium and 5.0 g of medium, showed evidence of hydrogen sulfide production.
Hydrogen Sulfide Producers - Aerobic Hydrogen Sulfide Production —
Table 57 shows, for four of the sampling days, the percent of cultures
from each of the sampling sites which were able to produce hydrogen sulfide
from an organic source. The mean number of colonies sampled from each
series was 66, and the cultures were maintained until no change in the
percent of positives was observed, or until approximately eight weeks, when
dehydration precluded further use. Between 60 and 97% of the colonies sampled
produced hydrogen sulfide within 52 days. While there is no significant dif-
ference between the control cultures and the cultures from the oiled sites,
a slight seasonal increase is apparent. This is shown by the increase in
the percentage of cultures showing H_S production, and the time needed for
that production to become visible.
Photosynthetic Sulfur Bacteria - Chromatiaceae (Formerly Thiorhodacae)
and Chlorobiaceae (Formerly Chlorobacteriaceae) —
The photosynthetic sulfur bacteria were generally found to be present
in only small numbers. Only two of three enrichments for the green sulfur
bacteria (Chlorobiaceae) prepared with 5.0 g sediment were positive after
seven weeks of incubation. After 11 weeks, all five-gram enrichments showed
positive results, but the one-gram enrichments produced only three colonies
of bacteria on the surface of the settled sediment. Enrichments for the
purple sulfur bacteria (Chromatiaceae) were even less successful, producing
only one colony of purple bacteria after 11 weeks enrichment from a total of
13 g of sediment. The long enrichment times precluded examination of late
season samples and only the sediment collected on 18 June was enriched for
the photosynthetic sulfur bacteria.
Purple Nonsulfur Bacteria - Rhodospirillaceae (Formerly Athiorhodaceae) —
In enrichment for the nonsulfur purple bacteria from 18 June sediment
samples, all enrichments were positive within four weeks, and a Most Probable
182
-------
TABLE 57
PERCENT OF COLONIES PRODUCING
H0S FROM ORGANIC SOURCES
PERCENTAGE OF COLONIES PRODUCING H2S
o
Sampling
Date
6/18
7/3
7/20
8/5
Incubation,
Days
14
31
42
14
35
52
10
28
42
14
28
35
Control
34
67
68
42
74
74
25
95
97
94
97
97
500 ppm
-
-
-
40
56
60
17
94
95
79
84
84
2000 ppm
-
-
-
41
47
64
37
94
96
72
82
82
Chronic
-
-
-
42
70
74
33
79
79
83
88
88
a
Samples taken from Island Flats in Summer of 1974.
183
-------
Number Analysis was completed on sediment collected at the 20 July
sampling period. After three weeks of incubation, most of the 10 ml in-
oculated tubes were positive, and after four weeks, tubes at all dilutions
showed positive results. Table 58 shows the Most Probable Number Analysis
for Rhodospirillaceae after four weeks incubation of enrichment cultures
inoculated with aliquots of 1:1 suspension of sediment in filter-sterilized
sea water. No attempt was made to determine if the enrichments were oxygen
tolerant or if any were capable of converting sulfide into sulfur. Since
the medium contained only organic additives, the sulfur transitions that
may have occurred would be of sulfide contained either in the sea water
or the sediment. However, since these .sediments are especially low in
sulfides (Section IV) it is doubtful that these organisms play any role
in the sulfur cycle in Valdez silt sediments.
Micro-Aquaria Model Ecosystems
The ability of the microbial population in Valdez sediments to estab-
Qf-
lish a sulfur cycle system, as described by Fenchel (1969) , was verified
using Fenchel's micro-aquarium technique. The micro-aquaria were inoculated
with both suspended sediment and aliquots of supernate from which sediment
had been allowed to settle out. As suggested by the reduction in counts
due to the settling of the sediment reported above, the aquaria inoculated
with clear aliquots showed much delayed, if any, activity. Only one of
five cultures showed any evidence of bacterial activity after three months
incubation. However, cultures inoculated with suspended sediment produced
changes consistent with those reported by Fenchel, although the changes
were consistently delayed. After four weeks incubation in the light, the
medium throughout the tube turned black, and by six weeks a dense band of
growth was observed approximately one-third of the way down the liquid
part of the column. This band slowly moved down the liquid column, causing
the medium above the band to lighten to a cloudy gray color, while the
medium below remained black. After 12 weeks, the band had moved to the
bottom of the liquid phase and the entire liquid part of the column had
lightened to a light gray. The solidified lower part of each column re-
mained black, except for a thin layer of clear agar at the agar-liquid
184
-------
TABLE 58
MOST PROBABLE NUMBER ANALYSIS OF ENRICHMENT
CULTURES FOR RHODOSPIRRILLACEAE (FORMERLY ATHIORHODACEAE)
Sample
Control
500 PPM
2000 PPM
Chronic
Number of
Tubes Positive
10:1.0:0.1
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
3
3
3
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
1
3
2
3
3
2
1
3
3
3
2
2
3
2
1
2
1
0
2
2
1
3
1
2
2
2
0
1
3
1
3
0
1
MPN
Per 100 ml
of 1:1 Dilut.
1100
460
1100
460
210
210
460
150
1100
1100
15
460
21
460
Mean, 95%
Mean MPN Confidence
50 gm Sed Limits
672 95 - 3140
257 140 - 945
668 94 - 3011
314 47 - 1616
185
-------
interface. Identically prepared cultures, when incubated in the dark
followed similar, but slower, patterns of changes, and after the 12 weeks
of incubation the band of bacterial growth had only moved approximately
three-fourths of the way down the liquid column. At no time, however,
were bands of green or purple pigmented bacteria observed in the liquid
column, although some pigmented forms were apparent in the settled sediment.
86
The significance of these transitions are discussed by Fenchel (1969) and
in the Discussion.
Micro-Respirometry
Oxygen uptake was found to be very low; the observed rates being
consistent with that which would be expected because of the observed low
biomass present in the sediments. Initially, uptake rates were determined
for 3 g of sediment at 10°C, but were later determined for 8 g of sediment
at 20°C. To increase diffusion of gases into the sediments, they were
routinely mixed with sterile sea water, bringing the volume up to that which
could safely be used in the manometric flasks. Nevertheless, the rates ob-
tained and reported here approach the lower limits of machine sensitivity
and are included only because they are consistent with other data and with
expected changes due to sediment amount, temperature effects, and added
organic materials.
Oxygen uptake was found to be proportional to the amount of sediment
used, over a range of 3 to 8 g of sediment, but constant when converted to
oxygen uptake per hour per gram (yl 0 /hr/g) of sediment. The experiments
s
reported in Table 59 indicate that sediments that have been chronically
exposed to oil do not show increased 0- uptake when compared to unoiled
sediment control samples (Figure 17). However, the mixing of glucose with
sediment -in vitro did cause an increase in the rate of oxygen uptake (Fig-
ure 18). The increase in the rate of Q consumption was observed for each
core and when averaged showed a doubling of uptake (Table 59).
When oil was mixed with sediment in vitro (as opposed to surface
application in situ) and oxygen uptake measured 24 hours later, a two-fold
increase in the rate of uptake was observed. Table 60 shows the results of
186
-------
TABLE 59
OXYGEN UPTAKE BY SEDIMENTS ENRICHED IN VITRO
WITH GLUCOSE AND BY IN SITU SURFACE APPLICATION OF OIL
Sample
Date
6/18/74
(10°C)C
7/20/74
(20°C)
Sediment Core
Source Number
Control
Site 1
2
3
Ave. of
Cores
Control 1
Site
2
Ave.
Chronically 1
Oiled Site
2
Ave.
Supplement
None
2
1.8 mg Glucose
None
1.8 mg Glucose
None
1.8 mg Glucose
None
1.8 mg Glucose
None
None
-
None
None
o
Rate of Uptake
yl 02/hr/gm
0.56
0.78
0.45
0.89
0.12
0.33
0.37
0.66
0.55
1.00
0.77
0.46
0.89
0.67
Rate determined by averaging triplicate flasks prepared from each core.
0.5 ml of 0.02 M glucose added to reaction flasks containing 3.0 gms
sediment and 3.0 ml sterile sea water after unsupplemented rate was
determined. Final glucose concentration was 1.8 mg glucose/flask, or
0.277 mg/ml in reaction mixture.
Q
Temperature at which oxygen uptake rate was determined.
Reaction mixture of 7/20 samples contained 5.0 gm sediment plus 3.0 ml
sterile sea water.
187
-------
00
00
CN
O 30
3
LU"
LU
20
X
O
10
0
8
TIME, hours
Figure 17. Oxygen uptake by unsupplemented sediments. C
CH = chronically oiled sediment. Sample date:
5 g sediment and 3 ml of water per flask.
control sediment,
20 July 1974.
-------
CO
Figure 18. Oxygen uptake by glucose - supplemented control sediment samples (3 g of sediment and
3.0 m sea water per flask).
-------
TABLE 60
OXYGEN UPTAKE BY CONTROL SITE SEDIMENTS
ENRICHED IN VITRO WITH GLUCOSE AND OIL
EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS
Series 1: Series 2: Series 3:
Control Control Control
Sediment Sediment Sediment
a.
Reaction Mixture
Sediment, gm.
Sterile sea water, ml.
Average Initial Rate,
before organic supplement.
5.0
3.0
RATES
Series 1
1.14
8.0
None
OF 02 UPTAKE
Series 2
0.88
5.0
3.0
, y/02/HR/GM
Series 3 Series
0.88 0.96
4
(N = 6 per series)
Average Glucose Enhanced
Rateb
(N= 3 per series)
Average Oil Enhanced
Rate0. (N = 3 per series)
After 2 hours
After 24 hours
1.66
1.80
1.06
2.53
1.00
2.07
1.76
1.08
1.54
1.74
1.04
2.04
Shows reaction mixture before addition of supplements. All samples were
collected on 8/16/74.
Glucose (10 mg/flask: Final concentration to 1.25 mg/ml) was added to
three reaction vessels and the uptake rate determined for three hours,
following a two-hour equilibration.
The rates shown were determined over two three-hour periods, beginning
at 2 hours and again at 24 hours after the addition of 0.5 ml Prudhoe
Bay Crude to the reaction mixture.
190
-------
experiments designed to test the response of the sediment microbial pop-
ulation to "mixed-in" oil and glucose. In the experiments reported here,
the glucose and oil was added to sediments after approximately four hours
incubation in the respirometer and the resulting changes in uptake recorded.
When the uptake was measured two hours after mixing glucose and oil with
separate sediment samples, the glucose was observed to cause an increase
in the rate of oxygen uptake, but the uptake rate of the oil-amended
sediment did not change significantly. After 24 hours, however, the oxygen
uptake rate for the oil-amended sediments surpassed the enhanced rates
observed for the glucose-amended sediments (Figures 19 and 20). As before,
similar increases in respiratory activity were observed for all samples.
Temperature coefficients were calculated for both unamended and
glucose-supplemented samples by using data from Tables 59 and 60 and Figure 21.
The Qin for unsupplemented and supplemented sediments was 2.405 and 2.636,
respectively.
DISCUSSION
The dominant distinguishing characteristics of the glacial silt
intertidal ecosystem studied at Port Valdez, Alaska, as compared to sedi-
ment intertidal systems studied by others, appear to be comparatively small
mean grain size of the sediment particles, the lack of significant wave
action, or of significant input of organic material derived from external
sources.
Although the relatively small grain size of 4 to 16 y provides ample
89
surface area for establishment of bacterial microcolonies (Dale, 1974) ,
their close packing greatly reduces the size of the interstitial spaces
through which nutrients might be delivered to the sediment-bound bacteria.
While the total surface area on the particles might be larger than in sand
systems, the small physical size precludes the growth of more than a few
bacterial cells on any one sediment grain. The smaller interstitial
spaces would be expected to clog rapidly, providing little or no opportunity
for migration of microorganisms or for the movement of nutrients through
the sediment. Clearly, the bulk of any organic material that might be
191
-------
80 _
70
60
SERIES 2
CN
Q.
X
o
50
40
INITIAL, UNSUPPLEMENTED RATE
MEANS LOPE 0.595
30
20
10
GLUCOSE SUPPLEMENTED RATE
MEAN SLOPED 1.05
4 0 1
TIME, hours
Figure 19. Effect of added glucose on oxygen uptake by control sediment.
Conditions as in Table 59.
192
-------
OJ
90
80
70
60
-------
CM
o
ll
Q_
=)
X
o
10
3 4
TIME, hours
Figure 21. Effect of reaction temperature on oxygen uptake by unsup-
plemented sediment samples. All samples from control sites.
194
-------
deposited on the sediment, whether soluble or particulate, will be removed
at the surface, probably by tidal action. The low mean temperatures and
expected reduced metabolic activity (Q10_2n° = 2-5)s fairly rapid tidal
surface flushing, almost continuous surface washing by precipitation, and
the compactness of the sediment itself preclude rapid digestion of organic
material at the surface by bacteria or extensive movement of dissolved
organics into the sediment for retention and slower digestion. The relatively
gentle tidal changes (as shown by the stability of the test rings: See
Section X) would also preclude physical burial of detritus. It is apparent
that no significant enrichment of the bacterial population occurs or, if
it does, it is removed from the surface by ebb tide along with any deposited
organic material.
The low bacterial counts, the failure of field populations to respond
to in situ addition of organics, and the low number of anaerobic sulfur
reducers support the conclusion that the sediments at Valdez intertidal
zones do not support even a modest microbial biomass, and would not
respond to surface applied organics, such as would occur following an oil
spill. On the other hand, the in vitTO experiments reported here suggest
.that the bacterial population will respond to added organic material if the
nutrients can be delivered to the organisms by careful mixing with sediment.
The increased uptake of oxygen and the succession of changes in micro-
aquaria support the hypothesis that this ecosystem is organically poor,
but that it will respond when organic nutrients are made available to the
microorganisms by mixing either glucose or oil with the sediment. The
microaquaria technique of Fenchel (1969) demonstrated that a relatively
normal succession of bacterial types, with expected modification due to
the paucity of photosynthetic and chemoautotrophic forms, will occur under
appropriate environmental conditions.
The initial blackening of the medium in the microaquaria is due to
the production of hydrogen sulfide from organic sources by the large pro-
portion of the population that are able to digest sulfur containing amino
acids. As the chemoautotrophic and small numbers of photosynthetic bacteria
develop, the hydrogen sulfide is oxidized, resulting in a lightening of the
medium, and, as the redox discontinuity point moves down through the liquid
195
-------
phase, the chemoautotrophic bacterial growth band similarly moves, resulting
in eventual removal of hydrogen sulfide from the entire liquid phase.
The modest growth of pigmented organisms in the sediment at the bottom of
the liquid phase represents response of the Rhodospirillaceae (Athiorhodaceae)
to the organic components of the medium and the anerobic conditions that
exist below the redox discontinuity level. In contrast, the failure to
detect even modest numbers of sulfide-oxidizing bacteria (chemoautotrophic
or photoautotrophic) is consistent with the reported low sulfide content
and aerobic conditions of the sediment.
It should be noted, however, that the procedures used in this report
do not measure dynamics in the bacterial populations, but, instead, measure
the standing crops at any given time. The plate count data and the res-
pirometry data measure only the numbers or activity of the bacterial
population, but give no indication of the turnover of the biomass (see
Strickland, 1971 , and Gray and Williams, 1971 , for a discussion of
this relationship) or of changes in the proportional distribution of
certain species within the population. It is not unreasonable to expect
changes in the species represented and/or increased turnover due to grazing
without noting changes in the size of the standing crop. There are, indeed,
some indications that this might be the case. For example, the percentage
of bacterial colonies able to produce hydrogen sulfide from organic sources
was observed to change seasonally, from a low of 34% from the 18 June sample
to a high of 94% from the 5 August sample (both after 14 days incubation).
Furthermore, the application of the oil resulted in a slight reduction in
the sulfide producers, when compared to the control sediments (Table 57).
However, during these same sampling periods no change was observed in the
total heterotrophic bacterial counts (Table 56). Finally, a statistically
significant increase in two species of harpacticoid copepods (Halectinosoma
gothieeps and Heterolaophonte sp.) in sediments taken from oiled sites has
been demonstrated (Section X). Harpacticoid copepods have been described
as bacterial feeders, and may be cropping bacteria at the same rate as
they are produced.
196
-------
SECTION X
EFFECT OF PRUDHOE BAY CRUDE OIL ON THREE SPECIES OF SEDIMENT-DWELLING
HARPACTICOID COPEPODS ON ISLAND FLATS, PORT VALDEZ
The effect of oil on sediment-dwelling fauna is little understood, and
field-generated experimental data on the effects of petroleum products on
meiofauna is non-existent in the published literature. Several authors have
quantitated oil concentrations in sediments, and have noted their persistence
(Scarratt and Zitko, 1972 ; Blumer and Sass, 1972 ; Tissier and Oudin,
-1 no 1 r\n
1973 ; Evans and Rice, 1974 for review). A number of studies have been
concerned with the ability of crude oil to supply oxidizable soluble organic
material to bacterial populations in marine sand ecosystems (see Section IX
for review), but none of these studies has examined the interrelationships
with meiofauna in these systems. All previous studies reported have been
accomplished on relatively coarse sediment systems which were pervious to oil
residues. The study reported here is unique in the fact that the sediment of
the experimental area is of recent glacial origin with a mean particle size
of 4 to 16 microns, contains little natural organic material, and potentially
has a low capacity to sequester hydrocarbons (see Section IV and VIII for dis-
cussion on the relationship of oil to sediment parameters on Island Flats).
The meiofaunal organisms in this system are restricted primarily to the upper
three centimeters (see Section VI for a description of the meiofauna of
Island Flats). Most coarse sediment systems of the type alluded to above
would be vulnerable to oil spills layering on the surface, but the geological,
bacterial and hydrocarbon studies reported in Section VIII, IX, and X suggest
that small sediment organisms may not be significantly affected by oil addi-
tions to the sediment surface in Port Valdez.
It was the purpose of the field experiments described here to deter-
mine the effect of Prudhoe Bay crude oil on three species of harpacticoid
copepods (Harpaatious uniremis^ Ealeotinosoma gothiceps, and Heterolaophonte
sp.) living in the sediment on a mudflat in Port Valdez (see Section VI for
baseline data on these species).
197
-------
GENERAL MATERIALS AND METHODS
All procedures were accomplished during the summer months of 1974 on
an intertidal (0.0 m) sampling site on Island Flats, Port Valdez (Section
IV, Figure 1). All experiments were carried out in conjunction with a
geological, microbiological, meiofaunal, and hydrocarbon sampling program
in the same area. A complete description of the study site is found in
Section IV.
Two types of experiments were performed, and are described separately
below.
EXPERIMENT 1 - A test of the immediate effect of three concentrations of
Prudhoe Bay crude oil on the density of three species of sediment-dwelling
harpacticoid copepods.
Experimental Procedure and Sampling
One hundred and twenty (120) glass rings each 3 1/2 cm high with a
radius of 7.25 cm were placed on the tidal flat at the 0.0 m tidal level
and pressed gently into the mud. Figures 22 and 23 illustrates the arrange-
ments of the rings. At low tide on 19 and 20 June, 1974 the rings were
filled to a height of 3 cm with sea water, and 0.25 ml (500 ppm) of Prudhoe
Bay crude oil added to rings 31 through 60, 0.50 ml (1000 ppm) to rings
61 through 90, and 1.0 ml (2000 ppm) to 91 through 120. A volumetric pipette
was used for all oil additions. Rings 1 through 30 served as controls. The
oil formed a slick which floated on the sea water in each ring. The water
percolated through the sediment and the oil slick spread over the sediment
surface as the water drained from the rings.
On the following tide series, 20 cores were taken from rings 1 through 6,
31 through 36, 61 through 66, and 91 through 120. The cores were collected
with a 2 cm glass coring tube. The first centimeter of the core was removed,
and immediately preserved with 10% buffered formalin. The remaining rings
were again subjected to additional oil treatments as described above. This
procedure was followed throughout the experiment. The dates for oil addi-
*
tions and collections of samples are included in Table 61. All preserved
A
Note: Continuation of text on page 211.
198
-------
20cm
CONTROLS
OOOOOO
(Rings 1-6)
OOOOOO
(Rings 7-12)
OOOOOO
(Rings 13-181
OOOOOO
(Rings 19-24)
OOOOOO
H
7.25 cm 2 cm
500 ppm
OOOOOO
I Rings 31-36)
OOOOOO
(Rings 37-42)
OOOOOO
(Rings 43-48)
OOOOOO
(Rings 49-54)
OOOOOO
(Rings 55-60)
1000 ppm
OOOOOO
I Rings 61-66)
OOOOOO
(Rings 67-72)
OOOOOO
(Rings 73-78)
OOOOOO
(Rings 79-84)
OOOOOO
(Rings 85-90)
2000 ppm
OOOOOO
(Rings 91-96)
OOOOOO
(Rings 97-102)
OOOOOO
(Rings 103-108)
OOOOOO
(Rings 109-114)
OOOOOO
. (Rings 115-120)
Figure 22. The experimental arrangement of glass rings used to test the effect of three
concentrations of Prudhoe Bay crude oil on three species of harpacticoid copepods
at Island Flats.
-------
Figure 23. View of glass rings in place during oiling procedures used to test the
effect of three concentrations of Prudhoe Bay crude oil on three species
of harpacticoid copepods at Island Flats.
-------
TABLE 61
PRUDHOE BAY CRUDE OIL ADDITIONS AND COLLECTIONS
SEDIMENT, BACTERIAL, MEIOFAUNAL AND OIL STUDIES, SUMMER - 1974.
C = CONTROL CORE, 0 = OIL CORE
o
Ring No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
31
32
33
34
35
36
61
62
Dates Oiled
b
June
June
b
June
June
June
June
June
June
b
June
b
June
June
June
b
June
T b
June
Concentration
of oil (ppm)
0
(control)
0
(control)
0
(control)
0
(control)
0
(control)
0
(control)
500
500
500
500
500
500
1000
1000
Core No. for
meiofauna;
other samples
C 1-20
C 21-40
C 41-60
C 61-80
Sed. Sam.
Bact. Cores
0 1-20
0 21-40
0 41-60
0 61-80
Sed. Sam.
Bact. Cores
0 81-100
0 101-120
Date Col-
lected
July 3
July 4
July 4
July 4
July 4
July 3
July 3
July 3
July 3
July 3
July 3
July 3
July 4
July 4
201
-------
TABLE 61 (continued)
PRUDHOE BAY CRUDE OIL ADDITIONS AND COLLECTIONS
0
Ring No.
63
64
65
66
91
92
93
94
95
96
7
8
9
10
Dates Oiled
June
T b
June
June
June
June
June
June
June
June
June
June
July
June
July
June
July
June
July
Concentration
of oil (ppm)
1000
1000
1000
1000
2000
2000
2000
2000
2000
2000
0
(control)
0
(control)
0
(control)
0
(control)
Core No. for
meio fauna;
other samples
0 121-140
0 141-160
Sed. Sam.
No Sam. Taken
0 161-180
0 181-200
0 201-220
0 221-240
Sed. Sam.
Bact. Sam.
C 81-100
C 101-120
C 121-140
C 141-160
Date Col-
lected
July 4
July 4
July 4
July 5
July 5
July 5
July 5
July 5
July 3
July 18
July 18
July 18
July 18
202
-------
TABLE 61 (continued)
PRUDHOE BAY CRUDE OIL ADDITIONS AND COLLECTIONS
o
Ring No.
11
12
37
38
39
40
41
42
67
68
69
70
71
72
Dates Oiled
June
July
June
July
June
July
T c
June
July
June
July
June
July
June
July
June
July
June
July
June
July
June
July
June
July
June
July
June
July
Concentration
of oil (ppm)
0
(control)
0
(control)
500
500
500
500
500
500
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
Core No. for
me io fauna;
other samples
Sed. Sam.
Bact. Sam.
0 241-260
0 261-280
0 281-300
0 301-320
Sed. Sam.
Bact. Sam.
0 321-340
0 341-360
0 361-380
0 381-400
Sed. Sam.
No Sam. Taken
Date Col-
lected
July 18
July 20
July 19
July 19
July 19
July 19
July 19
July 20
July 20
July 20
July 20
July 20
July 20
203
-------
TABLE 61 (continued)
PRUDHOE BAY CRUDE OIL ADDITIONS AND COLLECTIONS
Ring No.
97
98
99
100
101
102
13
14
15
16
17
18
43
44
Dates Oiled
June
July
June
July
June
July
June
July
June
July
June
July
June
July
June
July
June
July
June
July
June
July
June
July
June
July
June
July
Concentration
of oil (ppm)
2000
2000
2000
2000
2000
2000
0
(control)
0
(control)
0
(control)
0
(control)
0
(control)
0
(control)
500
500
Core No. for
meio fauna;
other samples
0 401-420
0 421-440
0 441-460
0 461-480
Sed. Sam.
Bact. Sam.
C 161-180
C 181-200
C 201-220
C 221-240
Sed. Sam.
Bact. Sam.
0 481-500
0 501-520
Date Col-
lected
July 20
July 20
July 20
July 20
July 20
July 20
Aug. 2
Aug. 2
Aug. 2
Aug. 2
Aug. 2
Aug. 5
Aug. 5
Aug. 5
204
-------
TABLE 61 (continued)
PRUDHOE BAY CRUDE OIL ADDITIONS AND COLLECTIONS
3.
Ring No.
45
46
47
48
73
74
75
76
77
78
103
104
105
106
Dates Oiled
June
July
June
July
d
June
July
d
June
July
June
July
d
June
July
June
July
June
July
June
July
June
July
June
July
June
July
June
July
June
July
Concentration
of oil (ppm)
500
500
500
500
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
2000
2000
2000
2000
Core No. for
meio fauna;
other samples
0 521-540
0 541-560
Sed. Sam.
Bact. Sam.
0 561-580
0 581-600
0 601-620
0 621-640
Sed. Sam.
No Sam. Taken
0 641-660
0 661-680
0 681-700
0 701-720
Date Col-
lected
Aug
Aug
Aug
Aug
Aug
Aug
Aug
Aug
Aug
Aug
Aug
Aug
Aug
. 5
. 5
. 5
. 5
. 5
. 5
. 5
. 5
. 5
. 5
. 5
. 5
. 5
205
-------
TABLE 61 (continued)
PRUDHOE BAY CRUDE OIL ADDITIONS AND COLLECTIONS
0
Ring No.
107
108
19
20
21
22
23
24
49
50
51
Dates Oiled
June
July
June
July
June
July
August
June
July
August
June
July
August
June
July
August
June
July
August
June
July
August
June
July
August
June
July
August
June
July
August
Concentration
of oil (ppm)
2000
2000
0
(control)
0
(control)
0
(control)
0
(control)
0
(control)
0
(control)
500
500
500
Core No. for
meiof auna ;
other samples
Sed. Sam.
Bact. Sam.
C 241-260
C 261-280
C 281-300
C 301-320
Sed. Sam.
Bact. Sam.
0 721-740
0 741-760
0 761-780
Date Col-
lected
Aug
Aug
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
. 5
. 5
16
16
16
16
16
26
26
26
26
206
-------
TABLE 61 (continued)
PRUDHOE BAY CRUDE OIL ADDITIONS AND COLLECTIONS
f\
Ring No.
52
53
54
79
80
81
82
83
84
109
110
Dates Oiled
June
July
August
June
July
August
T e
June
July
August
June
July
August
T e
June
July
August
June
July
August
June
July
August
June
July
August
June
July
August
June
July
August
June
July
August
Concentration
of oil (ppm)
500
500
500
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
2000
2000
Core No. for
meiof auna;
other samples
0 781-800
Sed. Sam.
Bact. Sam.
0 801-820
0 821-840
0 841-860
0 861-0880
sed. sam.
No sam. taken
0 881-900
0 901-920
Date Col-
lected
Aug. 26
Aug. 26
Aug. 26
Aug. 26
Aug. 26
Aug. 26
Aug. 26
Aug. 26
Aug. 26
Aug. 26
207
-------
TABLE 61 (continued)
PRUDHOE BAY CRUDE OIL ADDITIONS AND COLLECTIONS
Ring No.a
111
112
113
114
25
26
27
28
29
30
55
Dates Oiled
June
July
August
T e
June
July
August
June
July
August
June
July
August
June
July
August
T e
June
July
August
June
July
August
June
July
August
June
July
August
June
July
August
June
July
August
Concentration
of oil (ppm)
2000
2000
2000
2000
0
(control)
0
(control)
0
(control)
0
(control)
0
(control)
0
(control)
500
Core No. for
meio fauna;
other samples
0 921-940
0 941-960
Sed. Sam.
Bact. Sam.
C 321-340
C 341-360
C 361-380
C 381-400
Sed. Sam.
Bact. Sam.
0 961-980
Date Col-
lected
Aug. 26
Aug. 26
Aug. 26
Aug. 26
Sept. 15
Sept. 15
Sept. 15
Sept. 15
Sept. 15
Sept. 15
Sept. 15
208
-------
TABLE 61 (continued)
PRUDHOE BAY CRUDE OIL ADDITIONS AND COLLECTIONS
Q
Ring No.
56
57
58
59
60
85
86
87
88
89
90
Dates Oiled
June
July
August
June
July
August
June
July
August
June
July
Augus t
June
July
August
June
July
August
June
July
August
June
July
August
June
July
Augus t
June
July
August
June
July
August
Concentration
of oil (ppm)
500
500
500
500
500
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
Core No. for
meiof auna;
other samples
0 981-1000
0 1000-1020
0 1021-1040
Sed. Sam.
Oil-Sed. Sam.
0 1041-1060
0 1061-1080
0 1081-1100
0 1101-1120
Sed. Sam.
Oil-Sed. Sam.
Date Col-
lected
Sept.
Sept.
Sept.
Sept .
Sept.
Sept.
Sept.
Sept.
Sept.
Sept.
Sept.
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
209
-------
TABLE 61 (continued)
PRUDHOE BAY CRUDE OIL ADDITIONS AND COLLECTIONS
Ring No.3
115
116
117
118
119
120
Dates Oiled Concentration
of oil (ppm)
f
June
July 2000
August
June
July 2000
August
June
July 2000
August
June
July 2000
August
June
July 2000
August
June
July 200
August
Core No. for
meiofauna;
other samples
0 1121-1140
0 1141-1160
0 1161-1180
0 1181-1200
Sed. Sam.
Oil-Sed. Sam.
Date Col-
lected
Sept
Sept
Sept
Sept
Sept
Sept
. 15
. 15
. 15
. 15
. 15
. 15
See Methods Section for use of rings in experimental procedures.
DJune 19 and 20, 1974.
"June 19, 20, and July 3, and 4, 1974.
June 19, 20, and July 3, 4, 20, and 21, 1974.
"June 19, 20, and July 3, 4, 20, 21, and August 2, and 3, 1974.
June 19, 20, and July 3, 4, 20, 21, and August 2, 3, 16 and 17, 1974.
210
-------
samples were taken to the laboratory at the Marine Sorting Center (University
of Alaska), Rose Bengal was added to each sample container, the material
washed through 64 micron-mesh Nitex screen, and examined with a dissection
microscope. Three copepod species (Harpaeticus uniremis} Haleoti-nosoma
gothiceps, and HeteTolaophonte sp.) were then counted under the microscope.
A one-way analysis of variance (Olivetti Underwood Programa 101,
program 6.10) was used to examine the copepod population in 15 cores (three
rows of five cores, each row 10 m apart) taken at the study site on 2 June 1973
and 11 November 1973 prior to the oil experiment. This same analysis was also
used to compare the numbers of each copepod species on the test rings and
the control rings.
Concurrent with the copepod collections, sediment chemistry and bacter-
ial populations were monitored from sediments of separate rings placed adja-
cent to the meiofaunal test rings (see Section VIII and IX). Analysis of
sediments for hydrocarbons was made at the beginning and the end of the
experiment (Section XI).
Results
The one-way analysis of variance performed on the three rows of five
cores prior to the oil-addition experiments showed that no significant
difference (a = .01) could be detected between the numbers of each of
three copepod species, Happact-ieus umrem-is3 Ealeo-bi-nosoma gofhiaeps, and
Eeterolaophonte sp. found in any of the 15 cores. Therefore, the distribu-
tion of the three species on the study site was considered random.
As water drained from the rings with contained oil, the slick settled
to the sediment. Multicolors were visible on the bottom; black aggregates
of oil settled in low places with some attaching to the sides of the glass
rings. The oil was visible at the sediment surface for two to three days
after oil addition when observed at low tide. The color of the substratum
returned to a normal gray appearance after this period of time. This situa-
tion was true for all cumulative additions of oil on the rings at all con-
centrations.
211
-------
At the 500 ppm oil concentration, Happaottous unipenris was not adversely
affected by the addition (Table 62; Figure 24). In all cases there was
either no significant difference (a = .01) in numbers of copepods in the
control and oil plots or else there was a greater number of copepods in the
oiled areas. Ealectinosoma gothioeps was likewise not adversely affected
by the addition of oil at 500 ppm. Throughout the experiment there was
either no significant differences (a = .01) in the number of individuals
in the controls and the oiled rings or there were more individuals in the
oiled plots (Table 62; Figure 25). There were significantly (a = .01) more
copepods present in one oiled ring on July 4, one oiled ring on July 18, and
two oiled rings on August 2. The numbers of Heterolaophonte sp. in the con-
trol and test rings generally showed no significant difference (a = .01)
following oil additions at 500 ppm. In the July 18 collection more (a = .01)
animals appear in a control ring (Table 62; Figure 26).
At 1000 ppm the numbers of HaTpaoti-ous un-lvem-ls were generally unaffected
by the addition of oil (Table 63; Figure 24). When significant differences
(a = .01) did occur, there was an increased number of copepods in one of
four oiled rings (July 18 and September 15) and once in one of the control
rings (August 2).
Haleot-inosoma gothioeps exhibited the same general pattern of response
at 1000 ppm as it did at 500 ppm crude oil addition. There was either no
difference in number of animals in the controls and the oiled plots or
there were more copepods in the oiled plots. There were significantly
(a = .01) more copepods present in two oiled rings on July 18, four oiled
rings on August 2, and two on August 16. In only one control ring (July 4)
were theresignificantly more copepods present than in the oiled rings
(Table 63; Figure 25). The response of Heterolaophonte sp. to 1000 ppm
of crude oil was somewhat similar to that found for H. got-hiceps (Table 63;
Figures 25 and 26).
In the test area subjected to 2000 ppm of crude oil, Harpaoticus unive-
mis showed no significant (a = .01) difference in numbers in the test rings
&
and the controls in July. There were significantly more H. uniremis in
Note: Continuation of text on page 225.
212
-------
TABLE 62
RESULTS OF OIL ADDITION AT 500 ppm ON THREE SPECIES
OF INTERTIDAL HARPACTICOID COPEPODS FROM
PORT VALDEZ, ALASKA, SUMMER - 1974
Cores with prefix 0 are experimental cores subjected to oil addition;
those with prefix of C are unoiled Prudhoe Bay crude oil controls.
See Methods Section for oil amendment and statistical procedures.
Dates of
oil ad-
dition to
experi-
mental
areas
June
June
June
June
July
July
June
June
July
July
July
July
June
June
July
July
July
July
Aug.
Aug.
June
June
July
July
July
July
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
19
20
19
20
3
4
19
20
3
4
20
21
19
20
3
4
20
21
2
3
19
20
3
4
20
21
2
3
16
17
Dates of Cores with
collec- no significant
tion difference between
number of copepods
(a = .01)
July 3-5 0
0
0
July 18 0
0
0
Aug . 2 0
0
0
0
Aug. 16 0
0
0
0
Sept. 15 0
1-20 (C l-20)b
21-40 (C 21-40)
Hcu*pacticus univem-is (Type 1)
Cores with signi- Cores with signi-
ficantly more cope- ficantly more cope-
pods in oiled sample pods in unoiled
(a = . 01) sample
(a = .01)
0 41-60 (C 41-60) None
61-80 (C 61-80)
241-260
261-280
301-320
481-500
501-520
521-540
541-560
721-740
741-760
761-780
781-800
961-980
(C
(C
(C
(C
(C
(C
(C
(C
(C
(C
(C
(C
81-100)
101-120)
141-160)
161-180)
181-200)
201-220)
221-240)
241-260)
261-280)
281-300)
301-320)
321-340)
0 281-300 (C 121-140) None
None None
None None
0 981-1000 (C 341-360) None
0 1001-1020 (C 361-380)
0 1021-1040 (C 381-400)
Multiple dates (at each oil-addition period) represent cumulative additions of oil to
rings on the dates listed.
Control cores in parentheses represent data used in the statistical tests for significance
(one-way analysis of variance).
213
-------
TABLE 62 (continued)
RESULTS OF OIL ADDITION AT 500 ppm ON THREE SPECIES
OF INTERTIDAL HARPACTICOID COPEPODS
Dates of Dates of
oil ad- collec-
dition to tion
experi-
mental
areas
June 19 July 3-5
June 20
June 19 July 18
June 20
July 3
July 4
June 19 Aug. 2
June 20
July 3
July A
July 20
July 21
June 19 Aug. 16
June 20
July 3
July 4
July 20
July 21
Aug. 2
Aug. 3
June 19 Sept. 15
June 20
July 3
July 4
July 20
July 21
Aug. 2
Aug. 3
Aug. 16
Aug. 17
Ealeoti-nosoma gothieeps (Type
Cores with Cores with signi-
no significant f icantly more cope-
difference between pods in oiled sample
number of copepods (a = . 01)
(a = .01)
0 1-20 (C l-20)b 0 61-80 (C 61-80)
0 21-40 (C 21-40)
0 41-60 (C 41-60)
0 241-260 (C 81-100) 0 301-320 (C 141-160)
0 261-280 (C 101-120)
0 281-300 (C 121-140)
0 481-500 (C 161-180) 0 521-540 (C 201-220)
0 501-520 (C 181-200) 0 541-560 (C 221-240)
0 721-740 (C 241-260) None
0 741-760 (C 261-280)
0 761-780 (C 281-300)
0 781-800 (C 301-320)
0 961-980 (C 321-340) None
0 981-1000 (C 341-360)
0 1001-1020 (C 361-380)
0 1021-1040 (C 381-400)
4)
Cores with signi-
ficantly more cope-
pods in unoiled
sample (a = .01)
None
None
None
None
None
Multiple dates (at each oil-addition period) represent cumulative additions of oil to
rings on the dates listed.
Control cores in parentheses represent data used in the statistical tests for significance
(one-way analysis of variance).
214
-------
TABLE 62 (continued)
RESULTS OF OIL ADDITION AT 500 ppm ON THREE SPECIES
OF INTERTIDAL HARPACTICOID COPEPODS
Dates of Dates of
oil ad- collec-
dition to tion
experi-
mental
areas
June 19 July 3-5
June 20
June 19 July 18
June 20
July 3
July 4
June 19 Aug. 2
June 20
July 3
July 4
July 20
July 21
June 19 Aug. 16
June 20
July 3
July 20
July 21
Aug. 2
Aug. 3
June 19 Sept. 15
June 20
July 3
July 4
July 20
July 21
Aug. 2
Aug. 3
Aug. 16
Aug. 17
Heterolaophonte sp. (Type 10)
Cores with Cores with signi-
no significant ficantly more cope-
difference between pods in oiled sample
number of copepods (a = .01)
(a = .01)
0 1-20 (C l-20)b None
0 21-40 (C 21-40)
0 41-60 (C 41-60)
0 61-80 (C 61-80)
0 241-260 (C 81-100) None
0 261-280 (C 101-120)
0 301-320 (C 141-160)
0 481-500 (C 161-180) None
0 501-520 (C 181-200)
0 521-540 (C 201-220)
0 541-560 (C 221-240)
0 721-740 (C 241-260) None
0 741-760 (C 261-280)
0 761-780 (C 281-300)
0 781-800 (C 301-320)
None None
Cores with signi-
ficantly more cope-
pods in unoiled
sample (a = .01)
None
0 281-300 (C 121-140)
None
None
None
Multiple dates (at each oil-addition period) represent cumulative additions of oil to
rings on the dates listed.
Control cores in parentheses represent data used in the statistical tests for significance
(one-way analysis of variance).
215
-------
40r-
CSJ
E 30
o
ro
Q
O
Q_
UJ
Q.
O
O
U. 20
O
tr.
UJ
CD
10
o
Control
5OO ppm oil
lOOOppmoil
20OOppmoil
• Chronic oil
JULY
AUG.
SEPT.
1974
Figure 24. The number of Harpact'Lcus un-iremis during an oil-addition
experiment on Island Flats, Port Valdez. See methods for
oil ammendment and other procedures used in experiment.
216
-------
70
50
CVJ
E
u
ro
O
O 40
Q_
LU
Q_
O
O
U.
O
a:
LL)
OQ 30
20-
/' \
Control
\ 5OOppmoil
x \ lOOOppmoil
x v 2OOOppmoil
Chronic oil
v...
JULY
AUG.
SEPT.
1974
Figure 25. The number of Edleoti-nosoma gothioeps during an oil-addition
experiment on Island Flats, Port Valdez. See methods for oil
ammendment and other procedures used in experiment.
217
-------
40
cvi
£ 30
o
fO
2
UJ
Q_
O
O
V)
cc.
UJ
GO
20
10
Control
5OO ppm oil
lOOOppm oil
2O OO ppm oil
Chronic oil
JULY
AUG.
SEPT.
1974
Figure 26. The number of Hetevolaophonte sp.. during an oil-addition
experiment on Island Flats, Port Valdez. See methods for
oil ammendment and other procedures used in experiment.
218
-------
TABLE 63
RESULTS OF OIL ADDITION AT 1000 ppm ON THREE SPECIES
OF INTERTIDAL HARPACTICOID COPEPODS FROM
PORT VALDEZ, ALASKA, SUMMER - 1974
Cores with prefix 0 are experimental cores subjected to oil addition;
those with prefix of C are unolled Prudhoe Bay crude oil controls.
See Methods Section for oil amendment and statistical procedures.
Dates of Dates of
oil ad- collec-
dition to tion
experi-
mental
areas
June 19 July 3-5
June 20
June 19 July 18
June 20
July 3
July 4
June 19 Aug. 2
June 20
July 3
July 4
July 20
July 21
June 19 Aug. 16
June 20
July 3
July 4
July 20
July 21
Aug. 2
Aug. 3
June 19 Sept. 15
June 20
July 3
July 4
July 20
July 21
Aug. 2
Aug. 3
Aug. 16
Aug. 17
Harpaatiaus un-iremis (Type 1)
Cores with Cores with signl-
no significant ficantly more cope-
difference between pods in oiled sample
number of copepods (a = . 01)
(a = .01)
0 81-100 (C l-20)b None
0 101-120 (C 21-40)
0 121-140 (C 41-60)
0 141-160 (C 61-80)
0 321-340 (C 81-100) 0 361-380 (C 121-140)
0 341-360 (C 101-120)
0 381-400 (C 141-160)
0 581-600 (C 181-200) None
0 601-620 (C 201-220)
0 621-640 (C 221-240)
0 801-820 (C 241-260) None
0 821-840 (C 261-280)
0 841-860 (C 281-300)
0 861-880 (C 301-320)
0 1041-1060 (C 321-340) 0 1061-1080 (C 341-360)
0 1081-1100 (C 361-380)
0 1101-1120 (C 381-400)
Cores with signi-
ficantly more cope-
pods in unoiled
sample (a = .01)
None
None
0 561-580 (C 161-180)
None
None
Multiple dates (at each oil-addition period) represent cumulative additions of oil to
rings on the dates listed.
Control cores in parentheses represent data used in the statistical tests for significance
(one-way analysis of variance).
219
-------
TABLE 63 (continued)
RESULTS OF OIL ADDITION AT 1000 ppm ON THREE SPECIES
OF INTERTIDAL HARPACTICOID COPEPODS
Haleatinosoma gothioeps (Type 4)
Dates of Dates of
oil ad- collec-
dition to tion
experi-
mental
areas
June 19 July 3-5
June 20
June 19 July 18
June 20
July 3
July 4
June 19 Aug. 2
June 20
July 3
July 4
July 20
July 21
June 19 Aug. 16
June 20
July 3
July 4
July 20
July 21
Aug. 2
Aug. 3
June 19 Sept. 15
June 20
July 3
July 4
July 20
July 21
Aug. 2
Aug. 3
Aug. 16
Aug. 17
Cores with
no significant
difference between
number of copepods
(a = .01)
0 81-100 (C l-20)b
0 101-120 (C 21-40)
0 141-160 (C 61-80)
0 321-340 (C 81-100)
0 361-380 (C 121-140)
None
0 801-820 (C 241-260)
0 841-860 (C 281-300)
0 1041-1060 (C 321-340)
0 1061-1080 (C 341-360)
0 1081-1100 (C 361-380)
0 1101-1120 (C 381-400)
Cores with signi-
ficantly more cope-
pods in oiled sample
(o = .01)
None
0 341-360 (C 101-120)
0 381-400 (C 141-160)
0 561-580 (C 161-180)
0 581-600 (C 181-200)
0 601-620 (C 201-220)
0 621-640 (C 221-240)
0 821-840 (C 261-280)
0 861-880 (C 301-320)
None
Cores with signi-
ficantly more cope-
pods in unoiled
sample (a = .01)
0 121-140 (C 41-60)
None
None
None
None
Multiple dates (at each oil-addition period) represent cumulative additions of oil to
rings on the dates listed.
Control cores in parentheses represent data used in the statistical tests for significance
(one-way analysis of variance).
220
-------
TABLE 63 (continued)
RESULTS OF OIL ADDITION AT 1000 ppm ON THREE SPECIES
OF INTERTIDAL HARPACTICOLD COPEPODS
Dates ofa Dates of
oil ad- collec-
dition to tion
experi-
mental
areas
June 19 July 3-5
June 20
June 19 July 18
June 20
July 3
July 4
June 19 Aug. 2
June 20
July 3
July 4
July 20
July 21
June 19 Aug. 16
June 20
July 3
July 4
July 20
July 21
Aug. 2
Aug. 3
June 19 Sept. 15
June 20
July 3
July 4
July 20-
July 21
Aug. 2
Aug. 3
Aug. 16
Aug. 17
EeteTolaophonte sp. (Type 10)
Cores with Cores with signi-
no significant ficantly more cope-
difference between pods in oiled sample
number of copepods (a = . 01)
(a = .01)
0 81-100 (C l-20)b None
0 101-120 (C 21-40)
0 121-160 (C 41-60)
0 321-340 (C 81-100) None
0 341-360 (C 101-120)
0 361-380 (C 121-140)
0 381-400 (C 141-160)
0 561-580 (C 161-180) 0 581-600 (C 181-200)
0 601-620 (C 201-220)
0 621-640 (C 221-240)
0 801-820 (C 241-260) 0 861-880 (C 301 320)
0 821-840 (C 261-280)
0 841-860 (C 281-300)
0 1041-1060 (C 321-340) None
0 1061-1080 (C 341-360)
0 1081-1100 (C 361-380)
0 1101-1120 (C 381-400)
Cores with signi-
ficantly more cope-
pods in unoiled
sample (o = .01)
0 141-160 (C 61-80)
None
None
None
None
Multiple dates (at each oil-addition period) represent cumulative additions of oil to
rings on the dates listed.
Control cores in parentheses represent data used in the statistical tests for significance
(one-way analysis of variance).
221
-------
TABLE 64
RESULTS OF OIL ADDITION AT 2000 ppm ON THREE SPECIES
OF INTERTIDAL HARPACTICOID COPEPODS FROM
PORT VALDEZ, ALASKA, SUMMER 1974
Cores with prefix 0 are experimental cores subjected to oil addition;
those with prefix of C are unoiled Prudhoe Bay crude oil controls.
See Methods Section for oil amendment and statistical procedures.
Harpaeticus uni-remis (Type 1)
Dates ofa
oil ad-
dition to
experi-
mental
areas
June 19
June 20
Dates of
collec-
tion
July 3-5
Cores with
no significant
difference between
number of copepods
(a = .01)
0 161-180 (C l-20)b
0 181-200 (C 21-40)
0 201-220 (C 41-60)
0 221-240 (C 61-80)
Cores with signi-
ficantly more cope-
pods in oiled sample
(a = .01)
None
Cores with signi-
ficantly more cope-
pods in unoiled
sample (a = .01)
None
June 19
June 20
July 3
July 4
June 19
June 20
July 3
July 4
July 20
July 21
June 19
June 20
July 3
July 4
July 20
July 21
Aug. 2
Aug. 3
June 19
June 20
July 3
July 4
July 20
July 21
Aug. 2
Aug. 3
Aug. 16
Aug. 17
July 18
Aug. 2
Aug. 16
0 401-420 (C 81-100)
0 421-440 (C 101-120)
0 441-460 (C 121-140)
0 461-480 (C 141-160)
0 681-700 (C 201-220)
0 881-900 (C 241-260)
0 921-940 (C 281-300)
Sept. 15 0 1181-1200 (C 381-400)
None
0 641-660 (C 161-180)
None
None
0 661-680 (C 181-200)
0 701-720 (C 221-240)
0 921-920 (C 281-300)
0 941-960 (C 301-320)
0 1121-1140 (C 321-340)
0 1141-1160 (C 341-360)
0 1161-1180 (C 361-380)
None
Multiple dates (at each oil-addition period) represent cumulative additions of oil to
rings on the dates listed.
Control cores in parentheses represent data used in the statistical tests for significance
(one-way analysis of variance).
222
-------
TABLE 64 (Continued)
RESULTS OF OIL ADDITION AT 2000 ppm ON THREE SPECIES
OF INTERTIDAL HARPACTICOID COPEPODS
Dates of" Dates of
oil ad- collec-
dition to tion
experi-
mental
areas
June 19 July 3-5
June 20
June 19 July 18
June 20
July 3
July 4
June 19 Aug. 2
June 20
July 3
July 4
July 20
July 21
June 19 Aug. 16
June 20
July 3
July 4
July 20
July 21
Aug. 2
Aug. 3
June 19 Sept. 15
June 20
July 3
July 4
July 20
July 21
Aug. 2
Aug. 3
Aug. 16
Aug. 17
Ealeatinosoma gothioeps (Type
Cores with Cores with signi-
no significant ficantly more cope-
difference between pods in oiled sample
number of copepods (a = .01)
(a - .01)
0 161-180 (C l-20)b None
0 181-200 (C 21-40)
0 401-420 (C 81-100) None
0 421-440 (C 101-120)
0 441-460 (C 121-140)
0 461-480 (C 141-160)
0 641-640 (C 161-180) 0 701-720 (C 221-240)
0 681-700 (C 201-220)
0 881-900 (C 241-260) None
0 901-920 (C 261-280)
0 921-940 (C 281-300)
0 941-960 (C 301-320)
0 1121-1140 (C 321-340) None
0 1161-1180 (C 361-380)
0 1181-1200 (C 381-400)
0 1141-1160 (C 341-360)
4)
Cores with signi-
ficantly more cope-
pods in unoiled
sample (a = .01)
0 201-220 (C 41-60)
0 221-240 (C 61-80)
None
0 661-680 (C 181-200)
None
None
3 Multiple dates (at each oil-addition period) represent cumulative additions of oil to
rings on the dates listed.
Control cores in parentheses represent data used in the statistical tests for significance
(one-way analysis of variance).
223
-------
TABLE 64 (Continued)
RESULTS OF OIL ADDITION AT 2000 ppm ON THREE SPECIES
OF INTERTIDAL HARPACTICOID COPEPODS
Dates of Dates of
oil ad- collec-
dition to tion
experi-
mental
areas
June 19 July 3-5
June 20
June 19 July 18
June 20
July 3
July 4
June 19 Aug. 2
June 20
July 3
July 4
July 20
July 21
June 19 Aug. 16
June 20
July 3
July 4
July 20
July 21
Aug. 2
Aug. 3
June 19 Sept. 15
June 20
July 3
July 4
July 20
July 21
Aug. 2
Aug. 3
Aug. 16
Aug. 17
Heterolaophonte sp. (Type 10)
Cores with Cores with signi-
no significant ficantly more cope-
difference between pods in oiled sample
number of copepods (a = .01)
(a = .01)
0 161-180 (C l-20)b None
0 181-200 (C 21-40)
0 201-220 (C 41-60)
0 401-420 (C 81-100) None
0 421-440 (C 101-120)
0 441-460 (C 121-140)
0 461-480 (C 141-160)
0 641-660 (C 161-180) 0 661-680 (C 181-200)
0 681-700 (C 201-220) 0 701-720 (C 221-240)
0 881-900 (C 241-260) None
0 901-920 (C 261-280)
0 921-940 (C 281-300)
0 941-960 (C 301-320)
0 1121-1140 (C 321-340) 0 1161-1180 (C 361-380)
0 1141-1160 (C 341-360)
0 1181-1200 (C 381-400)
Cores with signi-
ficantly more cope-
pods in unoiled
sample (a = .01)
0 221-240 (C 61-80)
None
None
None
None
Multiple dates (at each oil-addition period) represent cumulative additions of oil to
rings on the dates listed.
Control cores in parentheses represent data used in the statistical tests for significance
(one-way analysis of variance).
224
-------
one oiled ring at the August 2 collection. At the August 16 collection,
there were significantly more E. uniremis in two of the control rings.
In the final collection there were significantly more E. uniremis in three
of the oiled rings (Table 64; Figure 24).
Ealectinosoma gothiceps in the experimental rings subjected to 2000 ppm
of crude oil were not adversely affected. As was the case for 500 and 1000
ppm of oil, the numbers of E. gothiceps were generally higher within the
oiled rings throughout the experimental period (Figure 25; Appendix A Tables 1
through 5). However, throughout the period, significantly (a = .01) more
E. gothiceps occurred in only one of the oiled rings (August 2) and two
control rings (July 4 and August 2) (Table 64; Figure 25). The response
of Eeterolaophonte sp. 2000 ppm of crude oil was similar to that found for
E. gothiceps. One control ring collected on July 4 showed significantly
(a = .01) more individuals. Two oiled rings collected on August 2 and one
on September 15 showed significantly (a = .01) more Heterolaophonte sp.
(Table 64; Figure 26).
Analyses of variance for all data discussed above are presented in
Appendix A Tables 1 through 5. Levels of significance at the 95% confidence
limits are also included in these Tables for further comparison; frequently
oiled rings showed significantly more individuals at this confidence level.
EXPERIMENT 2 - Chrome oil-addition experiment of the long-range effect
of a low concentration of Prudhoe Bay crude oil (200 ppm) on the density
of three species of sediment-dwelling harpacticoid copepods.
Experimental Procedure and Sampling
Eleven glass rings, each of the same dimensions as that used in
Experiment 1, were pressed gently into the sediment site adjacent to the
rings situated for the former study. Four of these rings served as
controls; the rest of the rings were subjected to oil additions at a
concentration of 200 ppm.
During the low tides of June 19 through 23, July 3 through 7, July
20 through 25, August 1 through 5, and August 16 through 20, 1974, the
experimental rings were filled to a height of 3 cm with sea water, and
225
-------
0.10 ml (200 ppm) of Prudhoe Bay crude oil was added with a volumetric
pipette. The oil formed a slick which floated on the sea water in each
ring. The sea water percolated through the sediment, and the oil slick
settled on the sediment. The controls received sea water only.
No samples were taken during the entire period of oil additions. On
15 September 1974, 20 cores (2 cm in diameter) were taken from each of
the four control rings and four of the test rings. The upper centimeter of
sediment from each of these cores was preserved in 10% buffered formalin
and returned to the laboratory in Fairbanks. Rose Bengal was added to each
sample container, the material washed through 60 micron-Nitex screen, and
examined with a dissection microscope. The copepods Harpaeticus uniremis,
Balectinosoma gothiceps, and Heterolaophonte sp. were separated and counted.
An analysis of variance (Olivetti Underwood Programa 101, program 6.10) was
used to compare the number of copepods in the test and control rings. The
first centimeter of sediment was removed from the three additional rings
for trace metal analysis (Section VIII).
Results
Significantly more (a = .01) Harpaet'ious univem-is occurred in two of
the oiled test rings than in the corresponding controls. In the other sets
of oil rings no significant differences could be detected, although more
copepods were found in them as compared to the controls (Table 65; Figure 24).
There were significantly more (a = .01) Ealeotinosoma gothioeps in
all four of the oiled test rings as compared to the control rings (Table 65;
Figure 25). Heterolaophonte sp. showed significantly (a = .01) more copepods
in one of the control rings, and more copepods were found in two of the other
control rings as compared to the oiled rings (Table 65; Figure 26). Signifi-
cance at the 95% level is included for comparison.
General Results of All Meiofaunal Oil Experiments
A summarization of the basic data from the oil experiments is found
in Table 66. The great increase of Harpaoti-aus unirenrLs and Halectinosoma
gothioeps in most of the oiled rings as compared to the controls at the
termination of the experiments can be clearly seen there.
226
-------
TABLE 65
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF THE NUMBERS OF EACH OF THREE SPECIES
OF COPEPODS, IN CONTROL AND TEST (OIL AMENDED) RINGS.
CHRONIC OIL-ADDITION EXPERIMENT. COLLECTION OF SEPTEMBER 15, 1974.
C = control, unoiled cores; X = experimental, oiled cores;
chronic addition dosage; df = degrees of freedom; F = F ratio.
Harpaatiaus uniremis (Type 1)
Core
Numbers
C 321-340
X 1-20
C 341-360
X 21-40
C 361-380
X 41-60
C 381-400
X 61-80
Significant
Concen,
of Oil
(PPM)
0
200
0
200
0
200
0
200
at 95%
- 1- nna/
Mean No .
of Copepods
6.5
10.3
3.2
10.0
5.0
9.9
6.5
12.0
level; F (2)1,
1 1. T> f <~l\ ~\
Source of
Variation
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ . Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
38=5.44
oo_o on
df
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
Mean Signif. at
Square F 95% Level3
140.6
55.1 2.5 No
455.6
21.6 21.0 Yes
245.0
17.4 14.0 Yes
302.5
35.6 8.4 Yes
Signif. at,
99% Level
No
Yes
Yes
No
227
-------
TABLE 65 (Continued)
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF THE NUMBERS OF EACH OF THREE SPECIES
OF COPEPODS, IN CONTROL AND TEST (OIL AMENDED) RINGS.
CHRONIC OIL-ADDITION EXPERIMENT.
Haleatinosoma qofhi-eeps (Type 4)
Core
Numbers
C
X
C
X
C
X
C
X
a
b
321-340
1-20
341-360
21-40
361-380
41-60
381-400
61-80
Significant
Concen.
of Oil
(PPM)
0
200
0
200
0
200
0
200
at 95%
„*- nn=7
Mean No .
of Copepods
22.
54.
20.
73.
22.
81.
22.
73.
level;
6
7
0
6
5
9
8
5
Fa(2)l,
T? f '~l\ 1
Source of
Variation
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
38=5.44
oo_ o on
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
df
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
Mean Signif. at
Square F 95% Level&
10304.
458.
28729.
670.
35224.
257.
25704.
634.
1
5 22.4 Yes
6
6 42.9 Yes
2
3 136.8 Yes
9
3 40.5 Yes
Signif. at
99% Level
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
228
-------
TABLE 65 (Continued)
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF THE NUMBERS OF EACH OF THREE SPECIES
OF COPEPODS, IN CONTROL AND TEST (OIL AMENDED) RINGS.
CHRONIC OIL-ADDITION EXPERIMENT.
Core
Numbers
C 321-340
X 1-20
C 341-360
X 21-40
C 361-380
X 41-60
C 381-400
X 61-80
Concen.
of Oil
(PPM)
0
200
0
200
0
200
0
200
Eetevolaophonte sp.
Mean No.
of Copepods
11.5
8.6
10.1
6.9
10.0
11.5
10.4
7.1
Source of
Variation
Sample Means
Individ . Means
Sample Means
Individ . Means
Sample Means
Individ . Means
Sample Means
Individ . Means
df
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
Mean
Square
84.1
30.5
102.4
16.0
22.5
29.5
108.9
9.0
(Type 10)
Signif. at
F 95% Level3
2.7 No
6.3 Yes
0.7 No
12.0 Yes
Signif. at
99% Level
No
No
No
Yes
Significant at 95% level; F (2)1,38=5.44
Significant at
level; F (2)1,38=8.89
229
-------
TABLE 66
EFFECTS OF OIL ON COPEPOD POPULATIONS FROM AN AREA OF 3.14 CM2 IN PORT VALDEZ
u>
o
Date
Total3
Number
Copepod
Control 500 ppm oil
9 with Copulating Total ° with
Mean eggs pairs Number Mean eggs
Copepod
a. Havpact'Laus univemis
July 3, 1974 386* 5.9
July 18, 1974 379 4.7 -
Aug 2, 1974 679 8.5
Aug 16,
Sept 15,
1974
1974
583
426
7.3
5.3
-
1
637C
5242
647
675
733
8.
6.
8.
8.
9.
1
6
1
4
2
1000 ppm oil
Copulating Total ° with
pairs Number Mean eggs
Copepod
477
463
484
621
595
6
5
6
7
7
.0
.8
.1
.8
.4
Copulating
pairs
-
-
-
b. Haleotinosoma gofh-ioeps
July 3 ,
July 18,
Aug 2,
Aug 16,
Sept 15,
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
2448b
2866
2022
1984
1759
37.7
35.8
25.3
24.8
22.0
40 68
22 55
13 5
22
24 21
3162°
3838°
3354
2619
2361
40.
48.
41.
32.
29.
0 17
6 13
9 3
7 66
5 17
40 2343
24 3535
4152
1 3241
21 1759
29
44
51
40
22
.3 28
.2 22
.9 3
.5 43
.0 20
37
21
1
3
3
c. Hetevolaophonte sp.
July 3 ,
July 18,
Aug 2,
Aug 16,
Sept 15,
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
2058b
2099
1056
838
841
31.7
26.2
13.2
10.5
10.5
a = Unless otherwise noted,
= 65 samples
= 79 samples
counted
counted
149 2
6
-
-
- -
80 samples were
2082°
1489C
1457
1114
841
counted.
26.
18.
18.
13.
10.
4 23
8
2
9
c _
2002
1865
1619
1115
859
25
23
20
13
10
.0 76
.3 6
.2
.9
.7 1
-
-
-
-
-
-------
TABLE 66 (Continued)
2
EFFECTS OF OIL ON COPEPOD POPULATIONS FROM AN AREA OF 3.14 CM IN PORT VALDEZ,
SEE METHODS FOR OIL-AMMENDMENT PROCEDURES.
2000 ppm
Totala
Date Number Mean
Copepod
a. Earpaot-Lous un-vr em-Is
July 3, 1974 499 6.2
July 18, 1974 455 5.7
Aug 2, 1974 384 4.8
Aug 16, 1974 299 3.7
Sept 15, 1974 803 10.0
b. Ealeat-inosoma gothi-ceps
July 3, 1974 2306 28.8
July 18, 1974 3271 40.9
Aug 2, 1974 2826 35.3
Aug 16, 1974 2221 27.8
Sept 15, 1974 2065 25.8
c. Heterolaophonte sp.
July 3, 1974 2127 26.6
July 18, 1974 1834 22.9
Aug 2, 1974 1408 17.6
Aug 16, 1974 977 12.2
Sept 15, 1974 1148 14.4
oil Chronic oils
9 with Copulating Total ? with Copulating
eggs pairs Number Mean eggs pairs
Copepod
-
-
-
-
844 10.6
12 46
18 34
2
44 2
12 18 5775 72.2 101 109
48
2
-
-
5 - 683 8.5 7
-------
An analysis of the percent composition of copepod species with time
after oil additions is presented in Table 67 and Figure 27- Essentially
no change in percent composition of Harpaetious univemis occurs until
August 2 at which time a considerable increase in percent composition is
noted in the control and the 500 ppm cores. A slight increase in percent
composition of this species is noted in the oil cores at the last collec-
tion in September 15. A general increase in percent composition of
H. gothiceps is noted throughout the initial phases of the experiment with
a decrease in percent composition noted at 1000 and 2000 ppm in the Septem-
ber 15 collection. A general decrease in percent composition is noted for
Heterolaophonte sp. for much of the experimental period with a slight up-
ward trend for the controls and the oiled plots (1000 and 2000 ppm).
Data on the affect of oil on all species of copepods observed in re-
productive activity (bearing eggs, copulating) are presented in Tables
66 and 68. Table 68 shows the number of cores sampled in which no repro-
ductive activity was noted. A low number of copepods in the table in-
dicates a high rate of reproductive activity. Throughout most of the
experiment the controls showed a higher rate of activity than that found
for the oil cores. Only in the Chronic Oil cores were there a greater
number of copepods undergoing reproductive activity. This was true primar-
ily for H. goth-ioeps and to a lesser extent for Eeterolaophon-be sp. A
prolongation of the egg-laying period through September may have occured
for Eeterolaophonte sp. living in oiled sediments (Table 66).
DISCUSSION
The three species of copepods exposed to various levels of oil in
the field increased in density within a variable number of oiled plots.
Such increases in numbers were especially obvious in the experiments where
copepods were subjected to chronic low-level doses of crude oil (Tables 62,
63 and 64: Figs. 23, 24 and 25). Two of the species, Ealeotinosoma gothiceps
and HeteTolaophonte sp., also demonstrated an increase in reproductive
activity in oiled sedinfents, although the former only showed this in the
chronically oiled plots. The statistically significant (a = .01) increase
232
-------
N>
TABLE 67
POPULATIONS OF COPEPODS EXPRESSED AS A % OF THE TOTAL NUMBER PRESENT IN CONTROL
AND OIL SAMPLES. SEE METHODS FOR OIL-AMMENDMENT PROCEDURES.
Date of Collection Control
a. Harpaotieus uniremis
July 3, 1974 7.89
July 18, 1974 7.09
Aug 2, 1974 18.07
Aug 16, 1974 17.12
Sept 15, 1974 14.08
b. Ealeotinosoma goth-iceps
July 3, 1974 50.04
July 18, 1974 53.63
Aug 2, 1974 53.82
Aug 16, 1974 58.27
Sept 15, 1974 58.13
c. Heterolaophonte sp.
July 3, 1974 42.07
July 18, 1974 39.28
Aug 2, 1974 28.11
Aug 16, 1974 24.61
Sept 15, 1974 27.79
500 ppm oil
10.83
8.96
11.85
15.31
18.63
53.77
65.60
61.45
59.41
60.00
35.40
25.45
26.69
25.27
21.37
1000 ppm oil
9.89
7.90
7.74
12.48
18.52
48.60
60.29
66.38
65.12
54.75
41.52
31.81
25.88
22.40
26.74
2000 ppm oil
10.12
8.18
8.32
8.55
20.00
46.76
58.83
61.20
63.51
51.42
43.13
32.99
30.49
27.94
28.59
-------
70p-
60
.\
Halectinosoma / / ..^'-^ \\
gothiceps j /..-••'" ""• ~~*
50
°-40
CO
o
o
Qu
UJ
Q.
8 30
Control
5OO ppm oil
1000 ppm oil
20OOppm oil
O
h-
20
Heterolaophonte sp.
Harpacticus
uniremis
10
0
JUNE
JULY AUG.
1974
SEPT.
Figure 27. The* percent composition of each of three species
of copepods at the oil sampling site on Island
Flats. See Methods for oil-ammendment and col-
lection dates.
234
-------
u>
TABLE 68
OIL EXPERIMENT. NUMBER OF CORES3 WITH NO EGGS OR COPULATING COPEPODS
PRESENT (COMBINED SPECIES). A LOW NUMBER IN THE TABLE INDICATES A HIGH RATE
OF REPRODUCTIVE ACTIVITY.
Date
July 3,
July 18,
Aug 2,
Aug 16,
Sept 15,
1974
1974
1974
1974
1974
Control
14b
43
66
66
53
500 ppm oil
43C
60°
77
46
51
1000 ppm oil
21
52
77
51
63
2000 ppm oil Chronic oil
38
39
78
49
53 22
= total number of cores counted equals 80 unless otherwise noted.
= total of 65 cores
= total of 79 cores
-------
in numbers of individuals in conjunction with the increase in reproductive
activity for H. gothi-aeps suggest that the density increments in the oil
rings are a reflection of this heightened reproductive activity. On the
other hand, the slight increase in numbers of H. un-iremis in some of the
oiled plots may be the result of an attraction of the copepod to oil since
this species was not reproducing during the experimental period (see Section
VII for an analysis of the life history of H. un-iremis). The modest increases
in density of Heterolaophonte sp. in some of the oiled rings may also be due,
in part, to the attraction of this copepod to oil. Further laboratory work
designed to test the responses of the three species of copepods to oil
in sediments is suggested to verify the field data. The only published
information on the attraction of a crustacean to oil is discussed by Blumer
(1972) in which he cites evidence for the attraction of the lobster
(Homca'us) to crude oil distillates. He suggests that an oil spill may
attract the lobster away from their normal food, and guide it to the spill
area where it is likely to be contaminated or killed.
A possible attraction to and nutritive relationship between Prudhoe
Bay crude oil and two of the species of copepods studied (Hatect-inosoma
gothioeps and Heter>o1aophonte sp.) are suggested by the data on increased
reproductive activity following a period of chronic oil addition. Several
species of pelagic copepods have been shown to ingest small particles of
oil from the water column without harm (Conover, 1971 ; Parker et at.,
112
1971 ), although all of the copepods examined apparently passed the oil
through their digestive tracts in an unchanged condition. However, bacteria,
a major source of food for sediment-dwelling copepods (see Sections VI and
IX for discussions and review of the literature), are able to degrade oil,
and the continuing presence of available oil generally results in an in-
crease in bacterial biomass in the marine environment. Furthermore, an
enrichment of hydrocarbon degrading bacteria has been found to occur in
intertidal sediments within four to sixteen days after an oil spill (Pierce
et al., 1975) . No increase in bacterial numbers was observed in the
experimentally oiled plots in Port Valdez. However, it is suggested in
Section IX that changes in bacterial species present and/or increased turn-
over due to grazing might occur without noting changes in bacterial standing
236
-------
crop. Thus, the increases in copepod populations noted in our experiments
in Port Valdez might be explained in terms of direct cropping by these
copepods on bacteria.
Our investigations indicate that oil applied at low tide to beaches
in Port Valdez will not readily penetrate the fine sediments there, and,
in fact, will be rapidly removed by tidal waters (Section VIII). Harpac-
ticoid copepods live primarily in the upper two centimeters of sediment
(Section VI), and are therefore present in the same strata that oil-bacterial
interactions are taking place. Thus, copepods could take immediate advantage
of any rapid growth of bacteria occurring in the sediments before the oil
is physically removed. (See Sections VIII and XI for comments on oil degra-
dation rates in Port Valdez sediments.) Direct utilization of oil as a
carbon source cannot be totally excluded as a possibility.
The sediment-dwelling copepods considered here were not adversely
affected by the concentrations of Prudhoe Bay crude oil added to the sedi-
ments in the course of experiments described above. In work accomplished
in British Columbia, harpacticoid copepods, and meiofauna in general, on
a beach were also apparently unaffected directly after an oil spill and
for up to one year later. These results are in contrast to data derived
from laboratory experiments that have shown crude oil and crude oil fractions
114
to be toxic to various species of copepods (Barnett and Kontogiannis, 1975 ;
Evans and Rice, 1974109; Mironov, 1968115; Nelson-Smith, 1972 ). Further
experimental work is essential to comprehend the results of our copepod-oil
experiments in Port Valdez. In addition, long-term information is needed
to determine the effects of the continued presence of soluble oil fractions
on sediment-dwelling copepods and other meiofauna.
237
-------
SECTION XI
HYDROCARBON STUDIES ON SEDIMENT BEACHES IN PORT VALDEZ
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
This chapter describes a study of the uptake and release of inten-
tionally added oil by intertidal sediments and by the bivalve mollusk
Maooma balthioa. This study was undertaken to gain knowledge of how these
elements of the intertidal environment in Port Valdez respond to light,
occasional strandings of petroleum. The approach used here is essentially
a chemical one. Chemical measurements of the concentrations of petroleum
in sediment and in depurated M. balthica. were made at intervals following
a series of intentional oilings. From these measurements we know that the
petroleum concentration first rises, then declines following the applica-
tion of oil. We do not know from this work whether that decline is due
to the chemical breakdown of the oil or to its transfer unchanged to other
parts of the environment. Nor has this work revealed in any great detail
the effects of the oiling on M. balth'Loa.. Answers to these questions
await other studies. However, this study has produced important and use-
ful information about how long petroleum, when applied in a specific way,
is retained by sediments and by an organism that feeds directly on that
sediment.
SEDIMENT STUDIES
Introduction
The interaction of petroleum and its constituent hydrocarbons with
sediments is a subject which has recently been the focus of considerable
scientific attention. Impetus has come from concern about the ability
of sediment to function as a sink and reservoir of petroleum following
actual and potential oil spills. There exists a large body of literature
which describes ambient levels of hydrocarbons in the surficial benthic
sediments of marine and aquatic environments subject to various degrees
of pollution. Typical of these are the reports of Clark and Blumer
(1967)117, Farrington and Quinn (1973)118, Giger et at. (1974)119, and
238
-------
120
Zafiriou (1973) . These studies have used a synoptic approach to get
at hydrocarbon distribution. In each case a suite of samples has been
collected over a given geographic area in a short (relative to the usual
rates of hydrocarbon accumulation in sediments) period of time. Sources,
sinks, and transport processes of hydrocarbons are then inferred from
their geographic distribution. Detailed discussions of criteria for dis-
tinguishing biogenic from petroleum hydrocarbons have appeared (Clark,
121 17?
1974 ; Blumer and Sass 1972 ).
Another approach to understanding the interaction of petroleum with
123
sediments has been to study the chemical (Meyers and Quinn, 1973) and
92
biological (Johnston, 1970) factors which influence this interaction.
Here we report results of yet another approach to understanding the
interaction of petroleum and sediments: an experiment in which the uptake
and release of a crude petroleum by an intertidal sediment following a
series of intentional oilings has been measured. Uptake and release
experiments are not new. This approach has been used to study the inter-
action of hydrocarbons with biota both in the laboratory (Lee et al.,
1972124; Stegeman and Teal, 1973125) and in the field (Morris, 1973)126
This same time series approach has been used to follow the uptake and
release of petroleum by sediments following unintentional oil spills
122 127
(Blumer and Sass, 1972 ; Mayo et al., 1974 ). In our experiment, oil
was intentionally spread in a manner which simulated the stranding of a
light oil slick on an intertidal mud flat. The experiment was carried
out during the summer of 1974 at Valdez, Alaska. This site was of parti-
cular interest because this previously non-industrialized area will soon
become the location of the southern terminus of the trans Alaska oil pipe-
line and a supertanker port. However, we believe that conclusions can be
reached from the results of this experiment that are of much more general
applicability than to the location at which the observations were made.
Methods
Site -
All experiments were carried out on Island Flats, an embayed portion
of Port Valdez; specifically the area of study was located on Flats north
239
-------
of Ammunition Island (see Sect. IV for details and location of the
study area.
Experimental Design -
The objective of the experiment was to simulate a pollution event
in which a sheen of oil was stranded on a mud flat by each receeding tide
for several days. To contain added oil and to designate control areas,
a number of rectangular containment frames (topless and bottomless boxes)
constructed of sheet aluminium were placed on the flat. Each frame measured
28 cm wide by 62 cm long by 5 cm high. The total volume of each was 8.7 £.
The frames were placed directly on the sediment in an area of the flat
which had no marked inhomogeneity. One-half of the frames were considered
controls and to these no oil was added. To the others oil was added once
daily for five successive days while the frames were exposed by low tide.
In the oiling operation a frame was filled with sea water from a lower
portion of the flat, and then a volume of Prudhoe Bay crude oil was added
by syringe. Over a period of a few minutes the water trickled out around
the bottom of the frame. Some of the oil escaped with the water but an
apparently uniform film of oil was deposited on the surface of the sediment.
In controls, only water was added to the frame. Of the oiled frames one
half received 2.2 ml of oil daily (Experiment A - Table 69). The other
half received 8.6 ml daily (Experiment B - Table 69). If the added oil
had dispersed uniformly through water in the entire volume of the frame,
the concentrations of oil would be 250 ppm and 1000 ppm, respectively.
However, under the experimental conditions, dispersion was incomplete;
most of the oil remained as surface slicks. If all of the oil had remained
_2
in the surface slicks, they would have contained 1.2 yl oil cm and 5.0 yl
_2
oil cm , respectively. These rates of oiling correspond (if the density
of the oil is assumed to be 0.8 g ml ) to one ton per 100 square kilo-
meters and one ton per 20 square kilometers. These are light rates of
oiling; in both cases the slicks of oil were multi-colored, indicating
that they were only a faw molecules thick.
240
-------
TABLE 69
CONCENTRATIONS OF HYDROCARBONS ISOLATED FROM SEDIMENTS. EXPERIMENT A
CONSISTED OF OILING AT THE RATE OF 1.2 yl cm2, EXPERIMENT B
CONSISTED OF OILING AT THE RATE OF 5.0 yl cm2.
Day
0
3
5
7
15
29
44
60
No. of Oil
Applications
0
2
4
5
5
5
5
5
Concentration of Oil
Experiment A
7a
12
33
76a
22
31
5a
14
in Sediments yg g
Experiment B
6
530
420
1700a
640
3900
760a
14
Chromatogram shown in Figure 29.
241
-------
Sampling -
Samples of sediment and Maooma balth'ica were taken before oiling be-
gan and on the third, fifth, seventh, fifteenth, twenty-ninth, forty-fourth,
and sixtieth days after the first oiling. On each occasion four samples
were taken, one for each level of oiling and a blank for each of those.
Each sediment sample consisted of all the sediment in a 5.0 cm square ex-
cavated to a depth of 1.0 cm. The sediment was placed in a pre-cleaned
glass jar and frozen until analysis. Each sampling in the time series was
made from a different containment frame. The remaining sediment in each
was collected to a depth of 4 cm and screened to obtain M. balthiea.
Analysis of Sediments -
Solvents were redistilled prior to use. Purity was established by
concentrating in vaouo 400 ml of the redistilled solvent to approximately
1.0 ml. Five yl of the resulting solution was analysed by gas chroma-
tography under the same conditions used for hydrocarbon samples. Only
solvents which demonstrated little or no evidence of contamination by
this method were used. Distilled HO was redistilled in glass from
KMnO. and assayed for contamination by a procedure similar to that used
for sediment samples.
A Varian 1520 gas chromatograph with dual column flame ionization
detector was used in all analyses. The carrier gas (Helium) had a flow
rate of 40 ml/min. All chromatograms were temperature programmed: the
column was isothermal at 60°C for four minutes following injection, and
then approached 270°C at 15°C min~ . The columns were one-eighth inch by
six feet stainless steel, packed with 1.5% OV-101 on 80/100 mesh Chromo-
sorb W-HP.
Soxhlet extractions were done with 500 ml flat bottom flasks and 5
cm soxhlet extractors. Cellulose thimbles (Whatman 43x123 mm) were pre-
extracted with 300 ml benzene/methanol 1/1 (v/v). Thimble extraction was
continued until the -in vacua concentrated extract showed no evidence of
contaminants on analysis by gas chromatography.
Silica gel and alumina were each activated at 250° C for two days and
then deactivated with HO, 5% and 6% respectively. Hexane washed, oven
242
-------
dried glass wool was used to plug a nine inch pasteur pipet. The pipet
and glass wool were rinsed with hexane before adding a hexane slurry of
silica gel to approximately 3.5 cm above the glass wool. The column was
completed by topping with another 3.5 cm of alumina in a hexane slurry.
At least one column volume of hexane was flushed through the column before
any sample was added.
Partially thawed sediment samples were loaded into dry-tared, pre-
extracted cellulose extraction thimbles. While loading, the sediment was
examined and obvious organisms removed with forceps. The sediment was
extracted for 48 hours with 300 ml of an equal parts mixture of benzene
and methanol. At least once midway through the extraction period, the
sediment was stirred with a glass rod to preclude channeling effects.
The benzene/methanol solution was extracted in a 1000 ml separatory
funnel with three 100 ml portions hexane. The combined hexane extracts
were washed with 100 ml saturated aqueous NaCl and then dried with
anhydrous Na_SO, overnight.
The hexane solution was concentrated in Vaouo to approximately 1.0 ml.
During the final stages of concentration, powdered copper metal in hexane
was added to remove elemental sulfur. After concentration the sample was
loaded on a chromatography column and eluted with hexane. Two 4.0 ml
fractions were collected. Chromatography of knowns showed that petroleum
hydrocarbons were eluted in the first 4.0 ml fraction. The hexane frac-
tions were evaporated to no less than 0.2 ml under a stream of nitrogen
and analysis by gas chromatography was performed. Because of high concen-
trations of hydrocarbons, some samples were left at 4.0 ml volume.
Total weights of hydrocarbons extracted were determined by transfer-
ring the hydrocarbon solution to a tared sample vial and determining the
solution volume from the density of hexane (0.66 g/ml). An aliquot of the
solution was withdrawn (usually 100 yl) , evaporated in air, and weighed on
an electrobalance. These weights are expressed in yg of hydrocarbon ex-
traced per gram of dry sediment.
243
-------
Results
Table 69 shows the weights of hydrocarbons (and other non polar lipids)
from sediments collected at various times after oiling. The weights are
of the first column chromatographic fraction, which includes any petroleum
hydrocarbons that are present. Figure 28 shows graphically the data of
Table 69 for each of the rates of oiling. Figure 29 shows selected gas
chromatograms of extracts from the two experiments.
Discussion
The weights of hydrocarbons extractable from sediments show a general
trend of uptake and release during the course of the experiments. However,
in neither Experiment A nor B is there a single maximum in the hydrocarbon
concentration curve; both sets of data show considerable scatter. We feel
that this scatter is inherent to the experimental design, which called for
each sediment sample to be taken from a different containment frame. Although
all of the frames were set out on an area of the mud flat that appeared uni-
form, it may be that non-apparent differences in the substratum affected its
ability to take up and release hydrocarbons. Thus the various frame sites
may have had inherently different characteristics.
In both experiments the hydrocarbon concentrations are high on day 29.
Random scatter is a sufficient but unpleasing explanation for this result.
Another line of evidence gives us confidence in the 3900 yg/g of hydrocarbon
observed for day 29 of Experiment B (Table 69). The frame examined on day
29 of Experiment B showed the highest mortality of the clam Maooma balthioa
observed during the entire experiment (Table 70). In general, we found
that high M. balthioa mortality correlated well with high concentrations
of hydrocarbons in the sediment. Details of studies of the uptake and re-
lease of hydrocarbons by M. balthiaa are reported in part two of this
Section.
The five chromatograms reproduced in Figure 29 show the uptake and
release of hydrocarbons in more detail than the weight data of Table 69.
Chromatogram 1 shows the pre-experiment hydrocarbon content of the sediments.
The peak assignments have been made on the basis of retention times using
244
-------
0
Figure 28.
10
30
DAYS
40
50
60
Concentrations of hydrocarbons isolated from sediments: dashed
line is experiment A (250 ppm oil addition); full line is experi-
ment B (1000 ppm oil addition).
245
-------
-28
Figure 29. Selected gas chromatograms from experiments A and B: 1) pre-
experiment hydrocarbon content of the sediments; 2) day 7 of
experiment A; 3) day 7 of experiment B; 4) day 44 of experiment
B; 5) day 44 of experiment A.
246
-------
TABLE 70
NUMBER OF DEATHS OF MACOMA BALTHICA IN INTERTIDAL TEST
FRAMES SUBJECTED TO 1.2 AND 5.0 y£ oil/cm2 FOR 5 DAYS
AT PORT VALDEZ, ALASKA IN THE SUMMER OF 1974
Days after Rate of
first oiling oiling
0 0
0
3 1.2
0
3 5.0
0
5 1.2
0
5 5.0
0
7 1.2
0
7 5.0
0
9 1.2
0
9 5.0
0
Total number
of M. balthiaa
367
357
464
567
418
382
431
343
340
213
466
357
329
325
427
415
441
353
Significant
Number of difference (95%
mortalities confidence level)
0
0
0 No
0
0 No
0
0 No
0
3 No
0
0 No
0
21 Yes
7
0 No
3
17 Yes
0
247
-------
TABLE 70 (Continued)
NUMBER OF DEATHS OF MACOMA BALTHICA
Days after Rate of Total number
first oiling oiling of M. balthioa
15 1.2 482
0 391
15 5.0 494
0 411
29 1.2 450
0 273
29 5.0 428
0 407
44 1.2 356
0 295
44 5.0 461
0 209
60 1.2 223
0 262
60 5.0 263
0 329
Significant
Number of difference (95%
mortalities confidence level)
0 No
0
8 Yes
0
0 No
1
49 Yes
1
0 No
0
40 Yes
0
6 No
0
3 No
2
248
-------
internal and external standards. The chromatogram is typical of biogenic
hydrocarbons in recent shallow marine sediments. It consists of a rela-
tively few large peaks and lacks the stair step pattern of n-alkanes and
large unresolved envelope characteristic of petroleum. Chromatogram 1
shows the presence of pristane but not phytane, another indication of
-j o o
recent biogenic origin (Blumer and Snyder, 1965) .
Chromatogram 2 is from day 7 of Experiment A (Table 69). The general
aspect of this chromatogram is of petroleum: large unresolved envelope and
stair stepping n-alkane peaks. Pristane is not resolved from heptadecane
leading to the tallest peak in the chromatogram. Phytane is now present,
eluting immediately after octadcane. Two other peaks, those tentatively
assigned to heneicosane and octacosane also rise above the general stair
step pattern of the n-alkanes. These two peaks represent contributions
from the background hydrocarbons as well as the added petroleum. This
chromatogram shows a situation where the individual hydrocarbons of the
added petroleum are in comparable concentration with the pre-existing
hydrocarbons.
Chromatogram 3 is from day 7 of Experiment B (Table 69). The general
aspect is, as in chromatogram 2, of petroleum. The heavier rate of oiling
in Experiment B has made contributions to the heneicosane and octacosane
peaks by the background biogenic hydrocarbons of chromatogram 1 undetectable.
Chromatogram 3 is essentially that of the added Prudhoe Bay crude oil.
Chromatogram 4 is from day 44 of Experiment B (Table 69). The appear-
ance here is of a petroleum which has undergone biological and physical
degradation. Two factors indicate biodegradation. The ratio of areas of
resolved peaks to unresolved envelope in chromatogram 4, as determined by
planimetry, is 0.08. The comparable ratio for chromatogram 3 is 0.19.
That is, there is a preferential diminution of the resolved peaks (largely
n-alkanes) relative to the unresolved envelope. Given the general micro-
bial preference for n-alkanes among possible hydrocarbon substrates, (John-
129
son, 1964) , the drop in the ratio suggests microbial consumption of the
oil. Further evidence of selective loss of n-alkanes comes from the phy-
tane, octadecane ratios in chromatograms 3 and 4. In 3 this ratio is
249
-------
0.73; in 4 it is 1.26. Octadecane is being lost more rapidly than phytane.
This is a second example of preferential consumption of n-alkanes. Not
all of the loss of petroleum is from biodegradation. The decrease in total
hydrocarbons from 1700 yg/g~ to 760 yg/g indicates that physical removal
via evaporation and tidal action is also occurring.
Chromatogram 5 is for day 44 of Experiment B (Table 69). The chroma-
togram is quite similar to chromatogram 1. Petroleum residues are no
longer detectable. The chromatograms for day 60 of both experiments are
similar to 1 and 5.
Under the conditions of our experiment at the Maooma balthiea site,
biological and physical processes combined to remove most stranded oil from
the top 1.0 cm of sediment during a period of about two months. Our condi-
tions were such that the oil was very gently applied to the sediments. There
was no wave action at the study site. No storms occurred during the course
of the experiment. There was a general absence of mechanical forces pushing
the oil into the sediment. From a nearby site in Port Valdez (Old Valdez)
we have evidence (R. Gritz and Feder, unpublished observations) that petro-
leum can remain in similar sediments for several years. Oil, which had
entered intertidal sediments when a large fuel storage tank at Valdez rup-
tured in 1964, was still detectable in 1974. Other workers (Blumer and
122 127
Sass, 1972 ; Mayo et al., 1974 ) have similarly found that petroleum
which has penetrated into sediment is released over a period of years.
We estimate that the concentration of petroleum remaining in the sediment
at the end of the experimental period (day 60) to have been less than 1 yg g
We suggest that a key difference is that in the experiment reported here,
the oil remained on, or very near the surface of the sediment from which
it was rapidly removed by biodegradation, evaporation, and a gentle rinsing
action of tidal waters. We cannot positively rule out the possibility that
petroleum penetrated into the sediment to a depth greater than 1.0 cm.
However, based on an experiment carried out simultaneously in an adjacent
location, we doubt that such penetration occurred.
In the experimental plots used for the bacterial (Section IX) and
meiofaunal (Section X) studies, Prudhoe Bay crude oil (2.5, 5.0, and 10 yl
_2
cm ) was added daily for five days. This regime of oil addition was repeated
250
-------
five times at bi-weekly intervals for three months. Twenty-six days after
the final addition, sediment samples were collected from 1, 2, and 3 cm
depths. Analysis of these samples showed hydrocarbon values at or near
the background level (Table 71). Thus, under these oiling conditions,
which were considerably more intense than any used in the main experiments,
the penetration of added petroleum was slight.
A plot of the data of Table 69, assuming that the release of petroleum
by the sediments is a first order process depending only on the concentra-
tion of the petroleum, indicates that the half life of oil in sediment under
these conditions is on the order of a few weeks. Scatter in the data pre-
vent a more precise measurement of this half life. We believe that the
observed scatter is, at least in part, real and reflects non-uniformities
in the sediment. The existence of such non-uniformities should surprise
no one familiar with intertidal biology. Population densities of intertidal
organisms often vary markedly in response to environmental changes that
are not readily apparent.
MACOMA BALTEICA STUDIES
Simultaneously with the sediment studies described above, the effect
*
of added oil on the intertidal bivalve mollusk Macoma balthioa was inves-
tigated. Judging from the results of one summer of field experimentation,
it appears that M. 'bal'tlnioa has potential as an indicator species for oil
pollution.
It is not suggested that Macoma balth-ioa be used as a universal approach
to oil pollution assessment. Clearly, there are many situations where the
use of M. balth-loa (or species of Maeoma) or the entire concept of indicator
species may be inappropriate. However, we do believe that our initial re-
sults warrant a detailed examination of the genus Maaoma for use along with
present indicator organisms.
The taxonomy of M. loalfhi-oa remains an area of active research: E. V. Coan,
VeligeT, 14 (Supplement), 44-46 (1971). There is some indication that the
Pacific and Atlantic populations are separate although closely related species,
However, the bulk of available data favors a single species.
251
-------
TABLE 71
HYDROCARBON CONCENTRATIONS IN SEDIMENT DEPTH PROFILES
TAKEN AT ISLAND FLATS3
Sediment
Depths
1 cm
2 cm
3 cm
2.5 yl cm
(500 ppm)
6.4
3.0
2.4
Application Rates
-2 -2
5.0 yl cm 10 yl cm
(1000 ppm) (2000 ppm)
Hydrocarbon Concentrations
4.2
5.6
19
7.0
5.7
5.5
Sediment samples taken at the termination of the oiling experiment from
plots used for meiofaunal (Section X) and bacterial (Section IX) studies.
Prudhoe Bay crude oil was added to the plots for a period of three months.
Concentration units are yg hydrocarbon per g of dry sediment.
252
-------
The theory and practice of indicator organisms have been discussed
in detail (Butler et al, 1972) . Two groups of bivalves which have re-
ceived considerable attention are oysters and mussels. The characteristics
of these organisms which make them suitable as indicators throughout most
of their range include the knowledge of their taxonomy, the wealth of back-
ground knowledge of their general biology, and their filter feeding habit
which causes them to concentrate hydrocarbons from the water column. The
qualities that recommend Maooma balthioa as an indicator are different and
thus would make its use complementary to oysters or mussels. Maooma balth'ioa
131
is in large part a deposit feeder (Brafield and Newell, 1961) and thus
can be expected to concentrate oil which is in or on bottom sediments. The
relationship between oil in sediment and Af. balth-ioa mortality lets the
latter provide an easily measured indication of the presence of polluting
oil.
Methods
Mortalities of Maooma balth'ioa which had been subjected to the exper-
imental procedures described above, were measured. Gaping individuals and
valves with elastic hinges were counted as mortalities in both oiled and
control frames. The number of living individuals in a frame ranged from
132
209 to 567 with a mean of 370 (Snedecor, 1956) . A t-test was used to
determine the significance of the differences in the percentage of mortali-
ties in test frames and controls. Observations of mortality were restric-
ted by the screening process to M. balthioa of 5 mm and larger shell length.
Mortalities in newly settled spat and other small individuals were not
investigated. Sediments were extracted in a Soxhlet apparatus for 48 hours
with a one to one mixture of benzene and methanol. The extract was parti-
tioned into hexane, dried, concentrated, and subjected to column chroma-
tography on alumina packed over silica. Soft parts of M. balthioa were
analysed similarly but with the addition of saponification of the extract
before column chromatography. A hydrocarbon fraction obtained by this
procedure was quantitated gravimetrically. Gas chromatography clearly
showed that the increase in hydrocarbons was due to uptake of crude oil.
253
-------
Results
Significant mortalities did not occur in the test frames subjected
-2 -2
to 1.2 u£ oil cm . At the 5.0 y& oil cm oiling rate significant
mortalities were observed two days after the last oiling and remained
significant until the last collection (Tables 70 and 72). Data showing
the concentration of oil in the sediment and in flesh of Maooma balthica
at the time of collection are shown in Tables 73 and 74. The highest
concentration of oil in sediment which did not produce significant mortal-
ity was 530 ygm g of dry sediment. The four highest oil concentrations
in sediment recorded in Table 74 are the highest found in the course of
the experiment. Among these increasing oil concentration is generally
reflected in increasing percentage mortality.
The fact that the data in Table 74 does not show a steady decrease in
oil concentrations with time requires explanation. We believe that this
reflects the fact that each collection in the time series was made from a
separate containment frame at a different location in the experimental
area. We attribute the scatter in the data to inhomogenity in the sediment
with regard to its ability to sorb petroleum. Whatever the source of
scatter, the important relationship is the increase in Maooma balthica
mortality as the concentration of oil in the sediment and in the animal's
tissue increases. The data from day 44 further suggests that duration of
exposure also plays a role in determining mortality rate.
Discussion
A significant increase in Maooma balthica mortality has been shown
to accompany an application of crude oil to sediments which approximates
the stranding of a light oil slick. We suspect that this relationship
between M. balthica mortality and the concentration of oil in the top 1 cm
of sediment is a result of the animal's deposit feeding habit. Thus, we
hypothesize that other deposit feeding species of the genus Maooma will
have similar potential as indicators of oil pollution. If our hypothesis
is correct, Macoma may prove to be a valuable indicator, since it has wide
254
-------
TABLE 72
PERCENTAGE MORTALITIES OF MACOMA BALTHICA IN INTERTIDAL TEST
FRAMES SUBJECT TO 5.0 yX, cm"2 FOR FIVE DAYS AT PORT VALDEZ, ALASKA
Percentage
Duration of Mortality Significant difference
Exposure (days) Oiled/Control (95% confidence level)
0/0-
3 0/0 No
5 0.88/0 No
7 6.4/2.2 Yes
15 1.6/0 Yes
29 11.4/0.2 Yes
44 8.7/0 Yes
60 1.1/0.6 No
255
-------
TABLE 73
CONCENTRATION OF OIL IN SEDIMENTS EXPRESSED AS yg oil/g OF DRY
SEDIMENT, CONCENTRATION OF OIL IN SOFT PARTS OF MACOMA BALTHICA
EXPRESSED AS yg oil/g OF WET TISSUE, AND PERCENT MORTALITY
OF M. BALTHICA. EXPERIMENT A (1.2 yg oil cm"2).
Day
0
3
5
7
9
15
29
44
60
*3
Concentration of
Hydrocarbon in
Sediment
7.1
12.0
33.0
76.0
-
22.0
31.0
5.2
14.0
Concentration of
Hydrocarbon in
M. balthiea
14.0
21.0
c
-
-
48.0
22.0
7.0
7.5
% Mortality of
M. balthiaa
exptl/control
-/O
0/0
0/0
0/0.01
0/0
0/0
0/0.004
0/0
0.03/0
yg oil per gram of dry sediment
yg oil per gram of wet tissue; all animals were depurated for 6 days
dashes indicate data not obtained
256
-------
TABLE 74
CONCENTRATION OF OIL IN SEDIMENTS EXPRESSED AS yg oil/g OF DRY
SEDIMENT, CONCENTRATION OF OIL IN SOFT PARTS OF MACOMA BALTEICA
EXPRESSED AS yg oil/g OF WET TISSUE, AND PERCENT MORTALITY
OF M. BALTEICA. EXPERIMENT B (5.0 yg oil cm"2).
Day
0
3
5
7
9
15
29
44
60
Q
Concentration of
Hydrocarbon in
Sediment
6.2
530.0
420.0
1720.0
-
640.0
3890.0
760.0
14.0
Concentration of
Hydrocarbon in
M. balth-ioa
14.0
190.0
c
-
-
280.0
320.0
88.0
12.0
% Mortality of
M. balth-ica
exptl/control
-/o
0/0
0.88/0
6.4/2.2
0.04/0
1.6/0
11.4/0.2
8.7/0
1.1/0.6
yg oil per gram of dry sediment
yg oil per gram of wet tissue; all animals were depurated for 6 days
dashes indicate data not obtained
257
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133
geographic distribution (Shaw e~k al., 1976) . Maooma balth'Loa itself
is circum-arctic and occurs in numerous regions of present or contemplated
petroleum production and transport.
258
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SECTION XII
GENERAL DISCUSSION
The tidal flat environment of the Port Valdez region displays several
laterally varying subfacies. These subfacies are delineated by the
presence of unique physicochemical attributes, lithology, and biological
communities. The environmental characteristics of a site at the mid-tide
(0.0 m) tide level of Island Flats - the most extensive tidal flat region
of Port Valdez - have been documented prior and subsequent to the simula-
tion of small-scale, short-term oil spills via addition of Prudhoe Bay
crude oil. The sediment studies have demonstrated that, except in local
areas supporting dense marine algal populations, all of the tidal flats
of Port Valdez have low organic carbon contents in their sediments.
This paucity of naturally occurring organic carbon in an area of high
potential organic sources is attributable to a ready tidal removal of the
organic detrital particles.
There were no detectable changes in the concentrations of several
common heavy metals (e.g., Cu, Ni, V, Pb, and Zn) and organic carbon in
almost all sediment samples subsequent to the oiling of the tidal flat
surfaces. Only the sediment exposed to relatively chronic dosages of
Prudhoe Bay crude oil (i.e., 200 ppm oil added 21 times from 19 June
through 17 August 1974; Section X), displayed a slight increase in the
concentrations of Cu and Zn. In addition, no differences in the concen-
trations of dissolved H S and 0? were documented in the oiled sediments
as compared to the baseline samples.
It is believed that the lack of any significant increase in the
heavy metals as well as organic carbon content in almost all oiled sedi-
ments is attributable to the swift physical removal of the crude oil from
the tidal flat surface by the ebb tide. Bacterial degradation of the
crude oil seems an unlikely explanation for the lack of increase in organic
carbon. It would seem that the muddy tidal flat sediments, presumably
constituted chiefly of primary hydrated phyllosilicates of glacial flour
derivative, have limited capacity to sequester hydrocarbons and heavy
metals which are either associated with the hydrocarbon or present in an
259
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inorganically bound state. This may be an important factor in precluding
the immobilization of the Prudhoe crude oil as well as heavy metals either
associated or dissociated from the oil in the tidal-flat sediments. As
such, it is believed that tidal removal of the oil and the metals is rendered
with relative ease.
The sediment studies reported here indicate that in the mid-tide horizon
of the Port Valdez tidal flats, insignificant physicochemical perturbations
are to be expected in the sedimentary regime as a consequence of small-
scale, short-term oil spills. However, a chronic oil spill on a sustained
basis may elevate the Cu and Zn concentrations of sediments in the above
environment. These conclusions must be considered tentative as they are
not based on an exhaustive study nor on a geographically extensive scale,
Therefore, any application of the outcome of this study to all the tidal
flat areas of Port Valdez or to similar areas elsewhere must be made with
extreme caution.
Bacteria are often considered to be the basis of marine sediment food
chains. The sediment meiofauna has been shown to feed mainly on bacteria
and diatoms attached to sand grains and suspended in the interstitial waters.
A substantial portion of the meiofaunal carbon budget is supplied by bacteria,
and a crucial factor in the maintenance of the ecosystem appears to be the
delivery of soluble organics and dissolved oxygen to the bacteria by move-
ment of water through the sediment. It has been suggested by several studies
on sandy shores that drainage through the sediment as well as wave-generated
sublittoral pumping may be the dominant mechanism for supplying oxygen and
dissolved nutrients to the sediment ecosystem. Additionally, the wave action
is necessary for sorting and distribution of the variously sized sediment
grains. The lack of wave action in certain areas of Port Valdez would be
expected to result in deposition of the silt sediments, compaction from
lack of the sorting effect of waves, and increasing impermeability of the
sediment. The sediment ecosystem in Port Valdez is, indeed, quite different
from those described in the above studies (Section IV). Port Valdez sediments
are typically composed of fine glacial silt, and the sediment grains have a
mean particle size of from four to sixteen microns with the particle size
being uniform to a depth of 5 cm. There appears to be little exchange of
260
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fluids between the interstitial water and the overlying tidal waters.
The salinity of the interstitial water is always higher than the tidal
waters, often by a factor of at least two, even under conditions of heavy
rainfall (up to 2 m of rain may occur in Port Valdez during the period
from July to October). The Island Flats study site is transected by several
streams draining nearby snow fields, and surface runoff of the rainwater is
constant and typical. There is no measurable dissolved or precipitated
sulfide (except under heavy agal mats), and from 0.1 to 0.3 ppm of iron,
with no apparent gradient with depth. The sediment contains less than 0.2%
by weight of organic carbon and the interstitial water has a pH of between
7.2 and 7.6, which remains constant to a depth of 16 cm. The low organic
content, the lack of sulfide, and the absence of animal remains in the
sediment suggest that both endogenous and deposited animal and plant remains
are either removed by rapid digestion on the sediment surface or by the
action of tidal waters. The lack of sulfide and the presence of measurable
amounts of dissolved oxygen indicate an aerobic environment.
Many in witTO and in situ studies have shown that crude oil is able
to provide oxidizable soluble organic nutrients to bacterial populations
in marine sand ecosystems. Generally, oil is able to cause an increase
in bacterial biomass when added over prolonged periods, but does not appear
to permanently affect the size of the population when added only once,
as would occur from a spill. Additionally, increased respiratory oxygen
uptake has been reported in sand columns enriched with oil, oil disper-
sants, and with mixtures of oil and dispersant. Using the standard plate
count techniques, the only significant change (99.9% confidence levels)
observed in the size of the bacterial populations in Port Valdez was in
the samples taken from the Old Valdez seepage site and from algal covered
sites. The addition of oil to the surface of sediments at concentrations
up to 2000 ppm applied on two consecutive days during each low-tide series
of one summer, and 200 ppm applied on five consecutive days during each
low-tide series of one summer, had no measurable effect on the size of
the bacterial population. No attempt was made to differentiate between
species or types of bacterial forms. Coincidentally, sediment oxygen uptake
rates were similarily unaffected, although when the sediment was supplemented
261
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-In vLtr>o, with glucose or oil, increased oxygen uptake was observed. When
the uptake of oxygen was measured two hours after mixing glucose and oil
in separate sediment samples, the glucose was observed to cause an immediate
increase in the rate of oxygen uptake, but the rate of the oil ammended
sediment did not change significantly until after 24 hours. At that time
the rate of oxygen consumption surpassed that observed with glucose. No
significant seasonal trends were observed in either the plate count data
or in the oxygen uptake in unammended sediments, although a Q (10-20°)
of 2.4 and 2.6 was observed for the unsupplemented and supplemented sedi-
ments, respectively.
Sulfur-cycle bacteria including sulfate-reducers and photosynthetic
sulfide-oxidizers were present in very low numbers, if at all. For example,
in a differential plating technique no sulfide producing colonies were
observed (out of about 1,000), and only one heavily innoculated enrichment
showed positive results. Similarily, the number of photosynthetic sulfur
bacteria isolated from similar enrichments were too low to estimate. In
contrast, when randomly picked colonies were tested for the ability to
produce sulfide on organic medium supplemented with sulfur-containing amino
acids, up to 97% of the colonies from control sites and 88% of colonies
from oiled sites produced hydrogen sulfide. The low numbers of sulfate
reducing bacteria, the high percentage of sulfide producers from organic
sources, and the measured low sulfide content of the sediment are consis-
tent with the concept that organic material does not penetrate very deeply
into the sediment.
Micro-aquaria, containing sulfate and organic substrate, when innocu-
lated with sediment samples showed normal sulfur cycling activity, although
the length of time needed for the model ecosystems to stabilize were con-
siderably longer than those reported for samples from active, sulfide rich
sediments. Typically, sulfide was rapidly produced (from added sulfate) as
evidenced by blackening the medium. This was followed by a gradual utiliza-
tion of hydrogen sulfide, probably by photosynthetic and chemoautotrophic
bacteria, as shown by a gradual clearing of the sulfide precipitate and
appearance of distinct bands of growth. These results, in addition to
those showing increased oxygen uptake by in vit-TO enriched sediments, and
262
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the increased counts from seepage and algae enriched sediments further
support the hypothesis that the low level of biological activity found
in these sediment ecosystems is due to the relative impermeability of
the sediment and the resulting lack of penetration of dissolved or part-
iculate organic material.
We conclude from our microbiological data that the addition of oil
to most Valdez intertidal sediment areas on an intermittent basis will
not materially affect the sediment ecosystem in areas with similar physical
and biological properties. Surface removal by tidal currents, coupled to
digestion in the water column will be a major factor in the biological
degradation of accidentally spilled oil. However, more permeable sediments
within the Port Valdez area might be expected to show considerable changes
from even small, intermittent spills.
A two-year survey of intertidal sediment-dwelling meiofauna and
some selected macrofaunal species has demonstrated that the species com-
position is relatively diverse, and the abundance of organisms as well
as general composition of the major taxonomic groups compares with that
found in mudflats examined in north temperate regions elsewhere. The
fine sediments of Port Valdez presumably preclude the presence of most
interstitial forms, and burrowing meiofaunal organisms are the pre-
ponderant ones found. Nematodes represent the invertebrate group most
common to the sediments of all beaches studied. Over 90% of the meio-
faunal organisms were located in the upper three centimeters of the
sediment, and this has been explained in terms of the anoxic environment
below this depth. No seasonal vertical migration of species was noted
during the study period.
Although low salinities occur in waters overlying the sediments during
the period of thaw in the spring, sediment salinities remain relatively
stable, Meiofaunal copepods do not tolerate the very low salinities of
the surface waters, but the much higher salinity of the interstitial waters
was always apparently well within the limits of tolerance of the meiofaunal
organisms.
263
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Densities of meiofauna generally varied directly with water and
sediment temperature. However, high winter densities were noted for
the winter of 1972 and 1973, and this is apparently related to the
relatively high water temperature recorded for this period.
A general understanding of the fluctuations of meiofauna of Port
Valdez is now available. Although the values noted for individual groups
of organisms are primarily indications of trends to be expected, it is
apparent that this short study has given us a reasonable understanding of
density patterns for major groups present in Port Valdez. The winter
surge of meiofauna on both the Dayville and Mineral Creek Flats in the
winter of 1972 and 1973 indicates that temporary increases of these organ-
isms can occur at the coldest period of the year when primary productivity
is at its lowest ebb. The dramatic decrease in meiofaunal numbers im-
mediately after this density peak suggests that these individuals are
not important to the general recruitment of meiofauna to the beaches,
and do not contribute to the reproductive activities on these beaches
later in the year.
Meiofauna has rarely been used as an indicator for oil pollution.
134
Green et al (1974) qualitatively monitored meiofauna of a sediment
shore after a fuel oil spill, and found that oil did not affect these
organisms on any of the beaches investigated. Although it is probable
that much of the sediment meiofauna in Port Valdez will also have to be
monitored qualitatively if species and density composition on a beach is
to be assessed following an oil spill, it is clear that trends documented
in our baseline study will make it possible to recognize gross changes in
meiofaunal composition with time. However, our field experiments de-
signed to examine the effects of Prudhoe Bay crude oil on sediment-
dwelling harpacticoid copepods indicated that at the concentrations
used (200, 500, 1000 and 2000 ppm), three species were either not adver-
sely affected or increased in numbers in the presence of oil. It is
suggested that these density increases are the result of attraction by
the copepods to oil and/or an increase in their reproductive activity.
In addition, success in the investigation of the reproductive cycle of
264
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one species of harpacticoid copepod, Harpactious uniremis, and preliminary
data on reproduction for other harpacticoid species further suggests that
this biological parameter might be a useful one for monitoring the effect
of oil on beaches in Port Valdez.
In July and August 1975, experiments were carried out to determine
the uptake and release of oil by intertidal sediments during a simulated
oil spill at Port Valdez and to investigate the effect of oil on a popula-
tion of the clam Macoma balthioa resident in that sediment. The experimen-
tal oiling regime was intended to approximate a pollution event in which
a thin sheen of oil was stranded by each ebbing tide for a few days. Thus,
our results probably relate to a minor transient pollution incident but
not to chronic or heavy pollution. Following the intentional oilings, the
kinds and amounts of hydrocarbons in the sediments and in the tissue of
M. balthica were monitored. The mortality rate of M. balthioa in oiled
and unoiled plots was also measured. The results of our study of sediments
indicate that under the experimental conditions used, petroleum was no
longer detectable after two months. Other work elsewhere has shown petro-
leum to be much more persistent. We conclude that the conditions of oil
application and the character of the sediment strongly influence the rate
at which the oil is released by the sediment. Thus, extrapolation and
generalizations about sediment interactions with petroleum should be made
with considerable caution.
Our study of Macoma balthioa showed that a relationship exists be-
tween the concentration of oil in sediment and the mortality of M. balthioa.
We feel that this is a consequence of M. balthioa's deposit feeding be-
havior. This result is particularly important because M. balthioa may be
useful as an indicator of oil pollution in intertidal sediments (Shaw et
133
al., 1976) and because M. balthica, at least in the area of Prince
William Sound, Alaska, is extensively used for food by migrating birds.
Thus, there probably exists a two step food chain that transfers petroleum
from sediment to birds.
It can be concluded from the experimental sediment, biological and
hydrocarbon studies that the surface addition of oil to most of the Valdez
intertidal beaches will not materially effect these sediment ecosystems.
265
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It is suggested that tidal action coupled with digestion of oil in the water
column will probably be the major factors in removal of oil from the waters
of Port Valdez. In contrast, certain areas of the Valdez intertidal zone,
such as the well-protected salt marsh in back of the Island Flats study area
with its coarser sediments, might be expected to show effects of oil contam-
ination.
266
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SECTION XIII
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276
-------
APPENDIX A
Analysis of variance of the numbers of each of three species of copepods
in control and test (oil-ammended) rings. Collections of 3 July to 15 September
1974. See Section X for experimental methodology and results.
277
-------
APPENDIX A - TABLE 1
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF THE NUMBERS OF EACH OF THREE SPECIES OF
COPEPODS, IN CONTROL AND TEST (OIL-AMMENDED) RINGS. COLLECTION
OF JULY 3 AND 4, 1974.
C = control, unoiled cores; 0 = experimental, oiled cores;
df = degrees of freedom; F = F ratio.
Harpaeticus uniremis (Type 1)
Core
Numbers
C 1-20
0 1-20
C 21-40
0 21-40
C 41-60
0 41-60
C 61-80
0 61-80
C 1-20
0 81-100
C 21-40
0 101-120
C 41-60
0 121-140
C 61-80
0 141-160
C 1-20
0 161-180
C 21-40
0 181-200
C 41-60
0 201-220
C 61-80
0 221-240
a
Significant
b
Concen
of Oil
(PPM)
0
500
0
500
0
500
0
500
0
1000
0
1000
0
1000
0
1000
0
2000
0
2000
0
2000
0
2000
at 95%
Mean No.
of Copepods
3.8
6.4
7.6
7.3
5.2
9.6
6.7
9.0
3.8
6.2
7.6
6.1
5.2
5.4
6.7
6.4
3.8
6.3
7.6
7.1
5.2
7.7
6.7
4.3
level; Fa(2)l,
Source of
Variation
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ . Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ . Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ . Means
Sample Means
Individ . Means
Sample Means
Individ . Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
38=5.44
df
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
Mean Signif. at
Square F 95% Level3
70.2
11.8 5.9 Yes
1.2
32.9 0.0 No
198.0
22.2 8.8 Yes
50.6
25.1 2.0 No
57.6
10.4 5.4 No
24.0
29.0 0.8 No
0.4
9.5 0.0 No
0.9
16.3 0.0 No
62.5
12.1 5.1 No
3.0
30.5 0.0 No
65.0
9.8 6.5 Yes
57.6
15.5 3.7 No
Signif. at,
99% Level
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Significant at 99% level; F (2)1,38=8.89
278
-------
APPENDIX A - TABLE 1 (Continued)
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF THE NUMBERS OF EACH OF THREE SPECIES
OF COPEPODS, IN CONTROL AND TEST (OIL-AMMENDED) RINGS.
Halectinosoma gothioeps (Type 4)
Core
Numbers
C 1-20
0 1-20
C 21-40
0 21-40
C 41-60
0 41-60
C 61-80
0 61-80
C 1-20
0 81-100
C 21-40
0 101-120
C 41-60
0 121-140
C 61-80
0 141-160
C 1-20
0 161-180
C 21-40
0 181-200
C 41-60
0 201-220
C 61-80
0 221-240
a
Significant
Concen.
of Oil
(PPM)
0
500
0
500
0
500
0
500
0
1000
0
1000
0
1000
0
1000
0
2000
0
2000
0
2000
0
2000
at 95%
„+- QQ"/_
Mean No.
of Copepods
40.5
34.3
31.3
39.3
38.2
37.5
30.5
46.9
40.5
31.5
31.3
27.8
38.2
25.7
30.5
25.1
40.5
33.4
31.3
36.7
38.2
24.1
30.5
19.9
level; Fa(2)l,
i oAroi • v f?~n .
Source of
Variation
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
38=5.44
1R=R RQ
df
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
Mean Signif. at
Square F 95% Level3
384.4
379.4 1.0 No
640.0
176.2 3.6 No
4.9
303.4 0.0 No
2706.0
207.3 13.0 Yes
801.0
258.8 3.0 No
126.0
135.5 0.9 No
1575.0
186.4 8.4 Yes
286.2
152.9 1.8 No
497.0
244.1 2.0 No
286.2
225.8 1.2 No
1998.1
165.4 12.0 Yes
1113.0
120.1 9.2 Yes
Signif. at,
99% Level
No
No
No
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
279
-------
APPENDIX A - TABLE 1 (Continued)
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF THE NUMBERS OF EACH OF THREE SPECIES
OF COPEPODS, IN CONTROL AND TEST (OIL-AMMENDED) RINGS.
Core
Numbers
C 1-20
0 1-20
C 21-40
0 21-40
C 41-60
0 41-60
C 61-80
0 61-80
C 1-20
0 81-100
C 21-40
0 101-120
C 41-60
0 121-160
C 61-80
0 141-160
C 1-20
0 161-180
C 21-40
0 181-200
C 41-60
0 201-220
C 61-80
0 221-240
Concen.
of Oil
(PPM)
0
500
0
500
0
500
0
500
0
1000
0
1000
0
1000
0
1000
0
2000
0
2000
0
2000
0
2000
Eeterolaaphonte sp. (Type 10)
Mean No. Source of Mean Signif. at
of Copepods Variation df Square F 95% Level
28.3
34.6
31.2
27.1
32.6
26.5
35.2
26.4
26.3
23.2
31.2
24.4
32.6
27.8
35.2
23.5
28.3
31.2
31.2
30.5
32.6
24.9
35.2
23.5
Sample Means
Individ . Means
Sample Means
Individ . Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ . Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ . Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
396.9
909.8 0.4 No
164.0
142.4 1.1 No
372.1
136.4 2.7 No
765.6
91.1 8.3 Yes
255.0
125.8 2.0 No
462.4
92.7 4.9 No
225.6
145.5 1.5 No
1368.9
77.3 17.6 Yes
87.0
140.2 0.6 No
4.2
113.1 0.0 No
585.2
138.0 4.2 No
1368.9
77.3 17.6 Yes
Signif. at,
99% Level
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
Significant at 95% level; F (2)1,38=5.44
Significant at 99% level; F (2)1,38=8.89
280
-------
APPENDIX A - TABLE 2
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF THE NUMBERS OF EACH OF THREE SPECIES
OF COPEPODS, IN CONTROL AND TEST (OIL-AMMENDED) RINGS.
Harpaotious uniremis (Type 1)
Core
Numbers
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
a
b
81-100
241-260
101-120
261-280
121-140
281-300
141-160
301-320
81-100
321-340
101-120
341-360
121-140
361-380
141-160
381-400
81-100
401-420
101-120
421-440
121-140
441-460
141-160
461-480
Significant
Cone en.
of Oil
(PPM)
0
500
0
500
0
500
0
500
0
1000
0
1000
0
1000
0
1000
0
2000
0
2000
0
2000
0
2000
at 95%
_4- OQ"/
Mean No. Source of
of Copepods Variation
4.
7.
6.
5.
3.
5.
3.
6.
4.
6.
6.
4.
3.
6.
4.
5.
4.
5.
6.
5.
3.
5.
4.
6.
7
9
1
8
4
9
6
7
7
9
1
3
3
5
7
9
7
3
1
9
4
3
7
0
level;
1 ^nTdl
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Fa(2)l,38=5.44
V ("9M "}R=R RQ
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
df
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
Mean Signif. at
Square F 95% Level3
102.
15.
0.
28.
60.
7.
54.
20.
48.
14.
30.
23.
99.
12.
14.
13.
3.
10.
0.
22.
34.
15.
18.
15.
4
1 6.7 Yes
9
3 0.0 No
0
0 8.4 Yes
0
3 2.6 No
4
9 3.2 No
6
7 1.2 No
2
2 8.9 Yes
4
6 1.0 No
6
3 0.3 No
4
6 0.0 No
2
0 2.2 No
2
1 1.1 No
Signif. at,
99% Level
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
281
-------
APPENDIX A - TABLE 2 (Continued)
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF THE NUMBERS OF EACH OF THREE SPECIES
OF COPEPODS, IN CONTROL AND TEST (OIL-AMMENDED) RINGS.
Haleotinosoma c/othioeps (Type 4)
Core
Numbers
C 81-100
0 241-260
C 101-120
0 261-280
C 121-140
0 281-300
C 141-160
0 301-320
C 81-100
0 321-340
C 101-120
0 341-360
C 121-140
0 361-380
C 141-160
0 381-400
C 81-100
0 401-420
C 101-120
0 421 -440
C 121-140
0 441-460
C 141-160
0 461-480
Significant
b c. ...
Concen
of Oil
(PPM)
0
500
0
500
0
500
0
500
0
1000
0
1000
0
1000
0
1000
0
2000
0
2000
0
2000
0
2000
at 95%
Mean No. Source of
of Copepods Variation
48.5
52.7
32.7
46.3
41.6
47.6
20.8
46.3
48.5
51.2
32.7
46.0
41.6
40.7
20.8
38.2
48.5
44.2
32.7
41.7
41.6
40.7
20.8
20.8
level; Fa(2)l
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
,38=5.44
df
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
Mean Signif. at
Square F 95% Levela
180.6
322.7 0.5 No
1849.6
321.6 5.7 Yes
354.0
169.2 2.0 No
6528.0
185.6 35.1 Yes
75.6
375.4 0.2 No
1768.9
190.2 9.2 Yes
9.0
229.8 0.0 No
3045.0
123.0 24.7 Yes
180.6
153.0 1.1 No
801.0
121.9 6.5 Yes
9.0
229.8 0.0 No
0.0
199.9 0.0 No
Signif. at
99% Level
No
No
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
No
No
No
Significant at 99% level; F (2)1,38=8.89
282
-------
APPENDIX A - TABLE 2 (Continued)
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF THE NUMBERS OF EACH OF THREE SPECIES
OF COPEPODS, IN CONTROL AND TEST (OIL-AMMENDED) RINGS.
Core
Numbers
C 81-100
0 241-260
C 101-120
0 261-280
C 121-140
0 281-300
C 141-160
0 301-320
C 81-100
0 321-340
C 101-120
0 341-360
C 121-140
0 361-380
C 141-160
0 381-400
C 81-100
0 401-420
C 101-120
0 421-440
C 121-140
0 441-460
C 141-160
0 461-480
a
Significant
n • • r- ,
Concen.
of Oil
(PPM)
0
500
0
500
0
500
0
500
0
1000
0
1000
0
1000
0
1000
0
2000
0
2000
0
2000
0
2000
at 95%
Mean No.
of Copepods
25.6
20.2
28.0
21.1
25.3
17.1
26.0
17.1
25.6
21.4
28.0
24.9
25.3
26.8
26.0
20.1
25.6
20.5
28.0
26.2
25.3
23.7
26.0
23.4
level; Fa(2)l,
T «-,r«1 • V C9M
Heterolaophonte sp. (Type 10)
Source of Mean Signif. at
Variation df Square F 95% Level3
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ . Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ . Means
Sample Means
Individ . Means
Sample Means
Individ . Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
38=5.44
1R=A SQ
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
291.6
67.5 4.3 No
476.1
88.3 5.3 No
672.4
71.3 9.4 Yes
792.1
91.0 8.6 Yes
176.4
52.0 3.3 No
96.0
73.1 1.3 No
22.5
118.6 0.1 No
348.1
63.9 5.4 No
260.1
40.9 6.3 Yes
30.6
50.7 0.6 No
27.2
101.4 0.2 No
67.6
69.2 0.9 No
Signif. at
99% Level
No
No
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
283
-------
APPENDIX A - TABLE 3
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF THE NUMBERS OF EACH OF THREE SPECIES
OF COPEPODS, IN CONTROL AND TEST (OIL-AMMENDED) RINGS.
COLLECTION OF AUGUST 2, 1974
C = control, unoiled cores; 0 = experimental, oiled cores;
df = degrees of freedom; F = F ratio.
Harpacticus uni-Temis (Type 1)
Core
Numbers
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
161-180
481-500
181-200
501-520
201-220
521-540
221-240
541-560
161-180
561-580
181-200
581-600
201-220
601-620
221-240
621-640
161-180
641-660
181-200
661-680
201-220
681-700
221-240
701-720
Concen.
of Oil
(PPM)
0
500
0
500
0
500
0
500
0
1000
0
1000
0
1000
0
1000
0
2000
0
2000
0
2000
0
2000
Mean No. Source of
of Copepods Variation
9.
7.
7.
10.
9.
9.
7.
5.
9.
4.
7.
6.
9.
6.
7.
6.
9.
17.
7.
4.
9.
22.
7.
4.
6
3
5
0
1
3
6
6
6
8
5
3
1
4
6
4
6
0
5
4
1
5
6
3
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
df
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
Mean Signif. at
Square F 95% Level3
55.
20.
62.
36.
0.
28.
42.
27.
235.
10.
14.
13.
72.
17.
14.
21.
156.
12.
99.
12.
184.
26.
112.
13.
2
5 2.6 No
5
3 1.7 No
6
2 0.0 No
0
4 1.5 No
2
9 21.3 Yes
4
5 1.0 No
9
4 4.1 No
4
9 0.6 No
0
2 12.7 Yes
2
2 8.1 Yes
9
8 6.8 Yes
2
5 8.2 Yes
Signif. at
99% Level
No
No
No
No
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
No
No
No
Significant at 95% level; F (2)1,38=5.44
Significant at 99% level; F (2)1,38=8.89
284
-------
APPENDIX A - TABLE 3 (Continued)
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF THE NUMBERS OF EACH OF THREE SPECIES
OF COPEPODS, IN CONTROL AND TEST (OIL-AMMENDED) RINGS.
Haleetinosoma gothioeps (Type 4)
Core
Numbers
C 161-180
0 481-500
C 181-200
0 501-520
C 201-220
0 521-540
C 221-240
0 541-560
C 161-180
0 561-580
C 181-200
0 581-600
C 201-220
0 601-620
C 221-240
0 621-640
C 161-180
0 641-660
C 181-200
0 661-680
C 201-220
0 681-700
C 221-240
0 701-720
Significant
Significant
Concen.
of Oil
(PPM)
0
500
0
500
0
500
0
500
0
1000
0
1000
0
1000
0
1000
0
2000
0
2000
0
2000
0
2000
at 95%
at 99%
Mean No. Source of
of Copepods Variation
28.3
38.5
31.9
33.7
23.3
49.6
17.4
40.6
28.3
46.6
31.9
57.1
23.3
54.6
17.4
49.2
28.3
39.3
40.9
31.1
23.3
29.7
17.4
31.4
level; Fa(2)
level; F (2)
a
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ . Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
1,38=5.44
1,38=8.89
df
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
Mean Signif. at
Square F 95% Level3
1030.2
178.5 5.7
32.4
204.9 0.1
6943.2
174.4 39.7
5359.2
281.6 19.0
3348.9
173.0 19.3
6350.4
127.6 49.7
9828.2
230.7 42.5
10080.6
209.4 48.13
1199.0
167.3 7.1
810.0
93.0 8.7
409.6
118.3 3.4
1946.0
104.9 18.5
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Signif. at,
99% Level
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
285
-------
APPENDIX A - TABLE 3 (Continued)
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF THE NUMBERS OF EACH OF THREE SPECIES
OF COPEPODS, IN CONTROL AND TEST (OIL-AMMENDED) RINGS.
Core
Numbers
C 161-180
0 481-500
C 201-220
0 521-540
C 221-240
0 541-560
C 161-180
0 561-580
C 181-200
0 581-600
C 201-220
0 601-620
C 221-240
0 621-640
C 161-180
0 641-660
C 181-200
0 661-680
C 201-220
0 681-700
C 221-240
0 701-720
Significant
b
Concen
of Oil
(PPM)
0
500
0
500
0
500
0
1000
0
1000
0
1000
0
1000
0
2000
0
2000
0
2000
0
2000
at 95%
- i. n n °l
Heterolaophonte sp. (Type 10)
Mean No. Source of Mean Signif . at
of Copepods Variation df Square F 95% Level
13.8
18.9
15.0
19.1
11.8
17.4
13.8
18.2
12.0
20.1
15.0
21.1
11.8
21.2
13.8
18.6
12.0
18.2
15.5
13.8
11.8
19.2
level; F (2)1,
1 I _ T-l / «•» \ -1
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ . Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ . Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ . Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
38=5.44
on rt r\ i-i
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
265.2
42.4 6.2 Yes
11.8
17.4 3.8 No
319.2
80.1 3.9 No
193.6
1810.4 4.0 No
656.1
27.6 23.7 Yes
366.0
44.6 8.1 Yes
893.0
78.4 11.3 Yes
230.4
35.1 6.5 Yes
384.4
32.7 11.7 Jes
15.6
29.0 0.5 No
547.6
27.1 20.1 Yes
Signif. at
99% Level
No
No
No
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
Significant at 99% level; F (2)1,38=8.
286
-------
APPENDIX A - TABLE 4
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF THE NUMBERS OF EACH OF THREE SPECIES
OF COPEPODS, IN CONTROL AND TEST (OIL-AMMENDED) RINGS.
COLLECTION OF AUGUST 16, 1974.
C = control, unoiled cores; 0 = experimental, oiled cores;
df = degrees of freedom; F = F ratio.
Harpaatiaus uniremis (Type 1)
Core
Numbers
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
241-260
721-740
261-280
741-760
281-300
761-780
301-320
781-800
241-260
801-820
261-280
821-840
281-300
841-860
301-320
861-880
241-260
881-900
261-280
901-920
281-300
921-940
301-320
941-960
Concen.
of Oil
(PPM)
0
500
0
500
0
500
0
500
0
1000
0
1000
0
1000
0
1000
0
2000
0
2000
0
2000
0
2000
Mean No. Source of
of Copepods Variation
5.
9.
6.
17.
10.
10.
7.
7.
5.
6.
6.
6.
10.
14.
7.
10.
5.
3.
5
5
4
5
4
1
3
4
5
1
4
4
4
1
3
9
5
1
6.4
4.
3
10.4
4.0
7.3
2
.8
Sample
Individ.
Sample
Individ .
Sample
Individ.
Sample
Individ .
Sample
Individ .
Sample
Individ.
Sample
Individ.
Sample
Individ.
Sample
Individ.
Sample
Individ.
Sample
Individ.
Sample
Individ
Means
Means
Means
Means
Means
Means
Means
Means
Means
Means
Means
Means
Means
Means
Means
Means
Means
Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
df
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
Mean Signif. at
Square F 95% Level3
160.
26.
0.
14.
0.
26.
0.
11.
3.
11.
0.
14.
75.
21.
126.
26.
60.
8.
42.
12.
403.
19.
0
5 6.0 Yes
9
8 0.0 No
9
3 0.0 No
0
1 0.0 No
0
0 0.2 No
0
0 0.0 No
6
4 3.5 No
0
9 4.6 No
0
3 7.1 Yes
0
5 3.3 No
2
4 20.7 Yes
Signif. at
99% Level
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
202.5
8.0 507.6 Yes
Yes
Significant at 95% level; Fa(2)1,38=5.44
Significant at 99% level; F^(2)1,38=8.89
287
-------
APPENDIX A - TABLE 4 (Continued)
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF THE NUMBERS OF EACH OF THREE SPECIES
OF COPEPODS, IN CONTROL AND TEST (OIL-AMMENDED) RINGS.
Haleotinosoma qoth-iceps (Type 4)
Core
Numbers
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
a
b
241-260
721-740
261-280
741-760
281-300
761-780
301-320
781-800
241-260
801-820
261-280
821-840
281-300
841-860
301-320
861-880
241-260
881-900
261-280
901-920
281-300
921-940
301-320
941-960
Significant
•f
Concen
of Oil
(PPM)
0
500
0
500
0
500
0
500
0
1000
0
1000
0
1000
0
1000
0
2000
0
2000
0
2000
0
2000
at 95%
^ +- n (W
Mean No. Source of
of Copepods Variation
26.
31.
23.
32.
25.
38.
26.
28.
26.
35.
23.
36.
25.
38.
26.
51.
26.
23.
23.
28.
25.
26.
26.
31.
level;
6
2
8
5
9
3
5
9
6
4
8
9
9
6
5
1
6
6
8
7
9
7
5
9
F
a
Ti
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
(2)1,38=5.44
/ o \ i n o_ o nn
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
df
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
Mean Signif. at
Square F 95% Level3
211.
112.
748.
122.
1537.
247.
57.
104.
774.
156.
1716.
170.
1612.
193.
6027.
186.
87.
84.
235.
147.
7.
193.
291.
100.
6
6 1.8 No
2
9 6.0 Yes
6
5 6.2 Yes
6
9 0.5 No
4
5 4.9 No
1
7 10.0 Yes
9
5 8.3 Yes
0
6 32.2 Yes
0
6 1.0 No
2
1 1.5 No
2
9 0.0 No
6
7 2.8 No
Signif. at
99% Level
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
No
No
No
Significant at 99% level; F (2)1,38=8.
288
-------
APPENDIX A - TABLE 4 (Continued)
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF THE NUMBERS OF EACH OF THREE SPECIES
OF COPEPODS, IN CONTROL AND TEST (OIL-AMMENDED) RINGS.
Core
Numbers
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
241-260
721-740
261-280
741-760
281-300
761-780
301-320
781-800
241-260
801-820
261-280
821-840
281-300
841-860
301-320
861-880
241-260
881-900
261-280
901-920
281-300
921-940
301-320
941-960
Concen.
of Oil
(PPM)
0
500
0
500
0
500
0
500
0
1000
0
1000
0
1000
0
1000
0
2000
0
2000
0
2000
0
2000
Eetero'iaophonte sp. (Type 10)
Mean No. Source of Mean Signif. at
of Copepods Variation df Square F 95% Level3
9.
14.
11.
12.
11.
15.
11.
13.
9.
11.
11.
14.
11.
14.
11.
16.
9.
12.
11.
12.
11.
11.
11.
12.
9
5
1
1
2
9
3
2
9
1
1
2
2
1
3
2
9
1
1
4
2
9
3
4
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
207.
34.
10.
27.
216.
70.
34.
29.
13.
31.
99.
36.
84.
50.
240.
26.
46.
28.
18.
33.
4.
46.
11.
0
0 6.0
0
5 0.3
2
3 3.0
2
2 1.1
2
5 0.4
2
1 2.7
1
8 1.6
1
4 9.0
2
7 1.6
2
2 0.5
2
.4 0.0
,0
25.4 0.4
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
No
No
No
No
Signif. at
99% Level
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
No
No
No
No
Significant at 95% level; Fa(2)1,38=5.44
Significant at 99% level; FQ(2)1,38=8.89
289
-------
APPENDIX A - TABLE 5
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF THE NUMBERS OF EACH OF THREE SPECIES
OF COPEPODS, IN CONTROL AND TEST (OIL-AMMENDED) RINGS.
COLLECTION SEPTEMBER 15, 1974.
C = control, unoiled cores; 0 = experimental, oiled cores;
df = degrees of freedom; F = F ratio.
Harpaatious unirem-is (Type 1)
Core
Numbers
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
321-340
961-980
341-360
981-1000
361-380
1001-1020
381-400
1021-1040
321-340
1041-1060
341-360
1061-1080
361-380
1081-1100
381-400
1101-1120
321-340
1121-1140
341-360
1141-1160
361-380
1161-1180
381-400
1181-1200
Concen.
of Oil
(PPM)
0
500
0
500
0
500
0
500
0
1000
0
1000
0
1000
0
1000
0
2000
0
2000
0
2000
0
2000
Mean No. Source of
of Copepods Variation
6.
6.
3.
9.
5.
9.
6.
11.
6.
7.
3.
8.
5.
7.
6.
7.
6.
9.
3.
12.
5.
10.
6.
7.
5
0
2
1
0
7
5
8
5
1
2
1
0
3
5
2
5
8
2
4
0
3
5
6
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Sample
Individ
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
Means
. Means
df
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
Mean Signif. at
Square F 95% Level3
3.
10.
348.
21.
220.
27.
280.
30.
3.
13.
235.
11.
55.
19.
5.
24.
105.
10.
837.
36.
286.
12.
12.
14.
0
8 0.2 No
1
2 16.4 Yes
9
6 7.9 Yes
9
6 9.1 Yes
6
0 0.2 No
2
3 20.7 Yes
2
4 2.8 No
6
7 0.2 No
6
5 10.0 Yes
2
3 23.0 Yes
2
3 23.1 Yes
1
9 0.8 No
Signif. at
99% Level
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Significant at 95% level; F (2)1,38=5.44
Significant at 99% level; F (2)1,38=8.89
290
-------
APPENDIX A - TABLE 5 (Continued)
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF THE NUMBERS OF EACH OF THREE SPECIES
OF COPEPODS, IN CONTROL AND TEST (OIL-AMMENDED) RINGS.
Haleatinosoma gothiceps (Type 4)
Core
Numbers
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
321-340
961-980
341-360
981-1000
361-380
1001-1020
381-400
1021-1040
321-340
1041-1060
341-360
1061-1080
361-380
1081-1100
381-400
1101-1120
321-340
1121-1140
341-360
1141-1160
361-380
1161-1180
381-400
1181-1200
Concen.
of Oil
(PPM)
0
500
0
500
0
500
0
500
0
1000
0
1000
0
1000
0
1000
0
2000
0
2000
0
2000
0
2000
Mean No. Source of
of Copepods Variation
22.
27.
20.
25.
22.
32.
22.
32.
22.
23.
20.
23.
22.
19.
22.
22.
22.
27.
20.
26.
22.
22.
22.
26.
6
8
0
2
5
4
8
6
6
3
0
3
5
2
8
0
6
7
0
3
5
8
.8
,2
Sample
Individ.
Sample
Individ.
Sample
Individ.
Sample
Individ.
Sample
Individ.
Sample
Individ.
Sample
Individ.
Sample
Individ.
Sample
Individ.
Sample
Individ.
Means
Means
Means
Means
Means
Means
Means
Means
Means
Means
Means
Means
Means
Means
Means
Means
Means
Means
Means
Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample
Individ.
Means
. Means
df
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
Mean Signif. at
Square F 95% Level&
270.
73.
270.
75.
980.
119.
960.
170.
4.
49.
112.
56.
108.
77.
5.
91.
260.
50.
4
9 3.6 No
4
5 3.5 No
1
7 8.1 Yes
4
7 5.6 Yes
9
0 0.0 No
2
3 1.9 No
9
4 1.4 No
6
4 0.0 No
1
9 5.1 No
403.2
46.6 8.6 Yes
0.6
112.0 0.0 No
119.0
116.1 1.0 No
Signif. at,
99% Level
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Significant at 95% level; Fa(2)l,38=5.44
Significant at 99% level; FO(2)1,38=8.89
291
-------
APPENDIX A - TABLE 5 (Continued)
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF THE NUMBERS OF EACH OF THREE SPECIES
OF COPEPODS, IN CONTROL AND TEST (OIL-AMMENDED) RINGS.
Core
Numbers
C 321-340
0 961-980
C 341-360
0 981-1000
C 361-380
0 1001-1020
C 381-400
0 1021-1040
C 321-340
0 1041-1060
C 341-360
0 1061-1080
C 361-380
0 1081-1100
C 381-400
0 1101-1120
C 321-340
0 1121-1140
C 341-360
0 1141-1160
C 361-380
0 1161-1180
C 381-400
0 1181-1200
a „ . . _ .
Significant
b
Concen.
of Oil
(PPM)
0
500
0
500
0
500
0
500
0
1000
0
1000
0
1000
0
1000
0
2000
0
2000
0
2000
0
2000
at 95%
~ 4- n rw
Mean No.
of Copepods
11.5
9.3
10.1
10.5
10.0
8.4
10.4
13.6
11.5
11.3
10.1
9.4
10.0
11.4
10.4
10.8
11.5
12.1
10.1
15.7
10.0
16.9
10.4
12.6
level; F (2)1,
a
T „,,„ i . -ri f i "\ i
Heterolaophonte sp. (Type 10)
Source of Mean Signif. at
Variation df Square F 95% Level
Sample Means
Individ . Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ . Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ. Means
Sample Means
Individ . Means
38=5.44
O O O On
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
1
38
50.6
21.7 2.3 No
2.0
23.7 0.0 No
24.0
24.6 0.9 No
102.4
27.8 3.6 No
0.6
16.8 0.0 No
4.9
27.1 0.1 No
19.6
29.3 0.6 No
2.0
20.6 0.0 No
3.0
22.1 0.1 'No
319.2
39.9 7.9 Yes
483.0
27.0 17.8 Yes
48.4
12.6 3.8 No
Signif. at,
99% Level
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
No
292
-------
APPENDIX B
RESPONSE OF THE CLAM, MACOMA BALTHICA (LINNAEUS), EXPOSED TO PRUDHOE BAY
CRUDE OIL AS UNMIXED OIL, WATER-SOLUBLE FRACTION, AND SEDIMENT-
ADSORBED FRACTION IN THE LABORATORY1
by
Tamra L. Taylor and John F. Karinen
Northwest Fisheries Center, Auke Bay Fisheries Laboratory
NMFS, NOAA, P.O. Box 155, Auke Bay, Alaska 99821
Howard M. Feder
University of Alaska
Institute of Marine Science
Fairbanks, Alaska 99701
The laboratory studies on Macoma balfh-ica reported in this section were con-
ducted by the National Marine Fisheries Service at the Auke Bay Fisheries
Laboratory. Tamra L. Taylor completed the studies with the assistance of
personnel of the Physiology-Bioassay Section under the direction of John F.
Karinen. Dr. Howard Feder, University of Alaska suggested the research
problem, assisted in the design and evaluation of the initial aquarium ex-
periment, and participated in final manuscript preparation.
293
-------
ABSTRACT
The small clam, Maooma balth-ioa (Linnaeus, 1758), occurs throughout
the coastal areas of Alaska in the upper 4 to 8 cm of intertidal mudflats.
Because it is both a deposit and suspension feeder, M. balthtoa is poten-
tially susceptible to oil slicks layered on the mud and to water-soluble
or sediment-adsorbed fractions of crude oil. Settling of unmixed Prud-
hoe Bay crude oil on the mud during five simulated low tides (2 to 3 h
each) had negligible effects on buried adult M. balth-ioa observed for 2
months. However, the water-soluble fraction (WSF) of Prudhoe Bay crude
oil had an effect on M. balfh-ica both in static and flow-through bio-
assays. In static bioassays, WSF's prepared from a 1% oil-water mixture
in concentrations of 11% and 87% of the saturated WSF, (naphthalene
equivalents, 0.036 and 0.331 ppm respectively) caused many buried clams
to come to the surface. The greatest response occurred within 3 days
at the high concentration (0.331 ppm) and 9 days at the low concentration
(0.036 ppm). Although at the lower concentration the response took longer
to occur, more clams came to the surface. In flow-through bioassays WSF's
prepared from 1% oil-water mixtures in concentrations ranging from 7 to
80% of the saturated WSF (naphthalene equivalents, 0.019 to 0.302 ppm)
inhibited burrowing of some unburied clams and caused other buried clams
to come to the surface. The ECm is 0.233 and 0.222 ppm naphthalene
equivalents respectively for ability of unburied clams to burrow into
the sediment within 60 and 170 min from start to exposure. The ECm is
0.361 ppm naphthalene equivalents for response of buried clams to move to
the surface within 3 days from start of exposure. Oil adsorbed on sediment
and allowed to settle over buried M. ba'ith'Loa also stimulated movement to
the surface. The proportion of clams that moved to the surface increased
as the depth of oil-contaminated sediment increased. We calculated that
under conditions of our laboratory experiment it would take a layer of
oil-contaminated sediment 0.668 cm deep to cause 50% of the buried clams to
move to the surface within 1 day. In our tests many of the clams recovered
from exposure but in nature they might have fallen to predators or adverse
environmental conditions. Data on the response of M. balth-ica to oil can
294
-------
be used in the evaluation of the organism as an indicator of the effect
°f °il in the sediment environment.
INTRODUCTION
When the trans-Alaska oil pipeline is completed, the port of Valdez
in Prince William Sound will become the staging area for loading crude oil
into tankers for transport to refineries. It is during oil transporting
activities here that the highest risk of oil contamination will occur.
Several scientists have been involved in projects near the terminal
site which are aimed at determining how such activities might affect the
marine resources in the area. Since the fall of 1968, Dr. Richard T. Myren
and the Environmental Impact Investigation at ABFL (Auke Bay Fisheries
Laboratory) have been gathering quantitative data on the intertidal com-
munities near Valdez (unpublished). John Karinen, Dr. Stanley Rice, and
the Physiology-Bioassay Section at ABFL have run a series of experiments
on key marine species to determine the effects of oil under varying con-
ditions. Dr. Howard M. Feder, Institute of Marine Science, University of
Alaska, Fairbanks, has conducted a project funded by the Environmental
Protection Agency to determine the effects of oil on the sediment environ-
ment of Port Valdez and Galena Bay (Feder, this report).
Emphasis in the studies by Myren and Feder, has been on intertidal
organisms of the sediment environment, especially on the tiny clam,
Maooma balthioa (Figure 1), which is abundant on the low-gradient mudflat
at Dayville, 1 mile east of the tanker terminal in Valdez and on other
suitable mudflats throughout Alaska. Maooma balthiea buries itself in
soft sediments just below the surface and reaches out with separate siphons
to feed and respire at the surface (Brafield 1961, 81-82 ; Rasmussen, 1973,
2
308-309 ). Since it feeds on both deposited and suspended matter, it is
likely to be a good indicator of the effect of oil in a sediment environ-
ment.
This paper is a summary of the laboratory work done with M. 'balthiea
in 1975 at ABFL. The objective was to measure the response of the clam
to exposure to Prudhoe Bay crude oil.
295
-------
H9C
Figure 1. Photograph of the experimental animal, Macoma bdlthica. Note the
separate siphons. The incurrent siphon is the longer and more
frequently seen of the two; the excurrent siphon is shorter and
normally held beneath the sediment surface.
296
-------
The effect of oil on the clams was tested three ways, which involved
three methods of mixing Prudhoe Bay crude oil into the environment of M,
balth-ioa. Experiment 1, representing a low level of mixing energy, was
designed to simulate a crude oil spill stranded on a tideflat under calm
conditions. Experiment 2, representing a moderate level of mixing energy,
consisted of exposing clams to water-soluble fractions (WSF) of oil.
Experiment 3, representing a high level of mixing energy, consisted of
exposing clams to oil-contaminated sediments. Mortality and behavior were
observed and recorded in all three experiments; burrowing was the primary
response observed in the second and third experiments.
Organization of the report is as follows: methods common to all ex-
periments are presented first, then each type of experiment is described
separately, followed by a general discussion and evaluation of M. balthi-oa
as a bioassay organism and baseline indicator of the effect of oil in the
sediment environment.
METHODS COMMON TO ALL EXPERIMENTS
The Maooma bdlthio'a and marine mud used in the experiments were col-
lected from a mudflat 183 m south of the public launching ramp at Amalga
Harbor near Eagle River northwest of Juneau. The area has had only limited
use and is regarded as relatively free of oil contamination.
Techniques of chemical analyses of the water and tissue samples were
the same for all experiments. Water samples were analyzed for hydrocarbons
by IR (infrared) and UV (ultraviolet) spectrophotometric procedures.
Infrared water analysis to determine paraffinic hydrocarbons followed the
3
technique of Gruenfeld (1973) using tricholorotrifluoroethane (Freon 113)
as a solvent and reading at a wave number of 2930 cm . This method
detects paraffins in concentrations greater than 0.25 ppm (Loren Cheatham,
personal communication). Water analysis was also accomplished by an ultra-
violet spectrophotometric technique using hexane as the extracting solvent
and estimating naphthalene concentration by reading OD (optical density)
at 221 nm (Neff and Anderson, 1975, p. 122-128) . This method is accurate
for concentrations greater than 0.005 ppm equivalents of naphthalene
297
-------
(Loren Cheatham, personal communication). Efficiency of naphthalene ex-
traction ranged from 91 to 95%. Concentrations were expressed as naph-
thalene equivalents, relating them to a naphthalene standard. Oil con-
tamination in clam tissues was measured with UV by a similar method but
modified to include tissue digestion with papain (Neff and Anderson, 1975,
p. 122-128)4.
UNMIXED CRUDE OIL SPILL - EXPERIMENT 1
This experiment is similar to an earlier experiment conducted in
Port Valdez in which tidal stranding of an oil slick on a mudflat was
simulated (Shaw et aZ-., 1976) . Shaw et al. put crude oil in aluminum
frames (topless and bottomless boxes) placed on a Valdez mudflat, and
sampled the enclosed M, balthiaa regularly to determine how many were alive
and how much hydrocarbon they had in their tissues. The hydrocarbon con-
tent of living clams and percentage of empty valves indicated that the
oil had killed M. batthioa, but more information regarding the response
of the clams to the oil was needed. We designed laboratory experiments
with provisions for gradual draining and refilling of tanks to simulate
the tidal ebb and flow on a mudflat. We determined survival, behavior,
and uptake of oil by M. ba1thi,oa.
Apparatus and Experimental Procedure
2
Our experiment was conducted in four rectangular tanks (10,000 cm
each). The tanks were constructed of marine plywood painted with two
coats of Woolsey Caulux marine paint and the seams sealed with silicone
caulk. Six centimeters of mud was placed on the bottom of each tank
except in the areas of the inflow and outflow, which were kept clear of
mud by wooden partitions flush with the mud surface (Figure 2). The tanks
were inclined at a slight angle (5°) to allow water drainage.
The mud used in the experiment was collected in three steps designed
to preserve natural conditions as much as possible. First, an area the
size of the tanks was marked on the mudflat. Next, the top 3 cm of mud
was removed from the area and put into buckets. Last, the next 3 cm of
298
-------
INCOMING SEAWATER HOSE WITH VALVE FOR FLOW ADJUSTMENT
PLYWOOD TANK
MUD AND MACOMA BALTHICA
\p
REMOVABLE
STAN DP IPE
IN DRAIN
INFLOW
END
PARTITIONS TO RETAIN MUD (6 CM HIGH)
OUTFLOW
END
Figure 2. Diagram and photograph of outflow tank used in the simulated
on Spill. Note the mud (6 cm) layer centered in the bottom
of the tank held by the wood portions, with the water flowing
over the mud and draining via the standpipe in the drain. Water
depth over the mud was approximately 7 cm.
299
-------
mud was removed and held separately. The mud was not screened nor were
any organisms removed from it. The two layers were placed in their orig-
inal order in the tanks and leveled. The mud contained many M. balfhica
and other organisms, especially the polychaete worm, Areni-oola sp.
Several hundred M, balthioa were later added so that each tank contained
2
approximately one clam to every 5 cm or about 2000 clams - a density
comparable to that found in Port Valdez (Feder and Myren, unpublished
data).
Fresh seawater from Auke Bay flowed continually into the tanks and
was maintained 13 cm deep over the mud by a removable standpipe in the
drain. To simulate a low tide the standpipes were removed, the water
turned off and the tanks allowed to drain. The water level fell at the
rate of 0.1 cm min . The mud was exposed for 2 to 4 hrs and then the
stand-pipes were replaced and the tanks refilled with a gentle flow of
water (1.2 £ min ), which did not disturb any sediment. The water was
calm and clear throughout the experiment. Water temperatures gradually
increased during the course of the experiment and ranged from 7°C in May
to a maximum of 12°C in late summer.
Description of Simulated Oil Spill
The experimental set-up was put into operation on 1 May, 1975 - four
weeks before the first exposure to oil to allow time for the clams to be-
come acclimated to the apparatus. The first oil was added on 27 May and
continued daily for 5 successive days. Three tanks were treated with oil,
and the fourth untreated tank was maintained as a control. Three doses of
-2 -1
oil (1.2, 2.4, and 5 yl cm day ) were added as the "tide" was falling
when the water was about 5 cm deep. The oil was gently poured onto the
water and it spread unevenly on the surface. As the water receded the oil
settled unevenly on the mud where it remained during low tide. As the water
returned on the incoming tide, it lifted the oil from the mud and carried
it out through the overflow. A small amount of oil remained on the sides
of the tanks, making visible sheens for a few days during subsequent tide
manipulations. There were no visible signs that oil had adhered to the
sediment surface or had been incorporated into the sediments.
300
-------
Sampling Method
The effect of the oil on Maooma balth-iaa was measured in two ways:
(1) by counting live and dead clams, and (2) by measuring the amount of naph-
thalene in clam tissues. In addition, water analyses were conducted to
determine oil content in the water.
Several pieces of apparatus were used to obtain samples. To collect
clams, a hollow drill (10 cm inside diameter and beveled at the end) was
used to cut mud. The drill was removed and a glass cylinder (6 cm high by
10 cm inside diameter) was twisted into the space left by the drill and
sediment spooned out from inside the cylinder. The cylinders were left in
place for the duration of the experiment to prevent mud from caving in
and changing the water flow patterns.
The live and dead clams were counted and tissue samples taken begin-
ning 2 days after the oil exposure ended. Three replicate samples of clams
were taken from each tank once a week for 4 weeks; the tanks were visually
monitored for 2 months longer. Water samples were collected from each tank
once a day during the oil additions and once a week thereafter for 4 weeks.
2
The samples were obtained by washing the mud from a 160 cm area (two
adjacent glass spacers) through a 1.68 mm screen. Live and dead clams were
then segregated from the samples. Clams were considered dead from oil
exposure if they were gaping and contained tissue or if they contained no
tissue but the valves were intact and the hinge elastic. The live clams
were counted and placed in running seawater for 24 hrs to clear their diges-
tive tracts. They were then frozen to await tissue analysis. Two grams
of whole clams (wet weight) were used in tissue analyses.
Results and Discussion
No significant mortality of control or exposed clams occurred during
the two-month period after exposure to oil. The only indication that the
exposed clams experienced any stress was evidenced by reduced siphon activity
noticed during the time the oil slicks were on the mud. The quantity of
oil in the water and naphthalene in the clam tissues was below the detection
limits of our methods. However, water samples were collected after most
301
-------
of the water had drained and what was left was slowly percolating through
the mud under the end board into the effluent end drain. Since this water
was essentially filtered through the mud, any small amount of oil in the
water may have been adsorbed as the water passed through the sediment. No
sediment analyses were done to verify this, however.
Our results with respect to clam mortality and accumulation of hydro-
carbons within the clams are contrary to the results of a field application
of oil reported by Shaw et al. (1976) . In our experiment oil did not
measurably affect the clams', but Shaw et al. found significant mortality
_2
at the oiling rate of 5 yl oil cm
Differences in the behavior of oil under field conditions versus
our aquarium situation may help to explain the different results. In
contrast to what occurs in a field situation, virtually no mixing energy
was applied to the oil/water/sediment mixtures in the aquaria. Therefore,
one would expect a minimum amount of oil to dissolve into the water phase.
A second difference noted in the aquaria which contrasts to a field situa-
tion was that because of the slight incline of the tanks, most of the water
drained slowly across the surface of the sediment rather than moving through
it. Only a small amount of the water percolated through the sediment and
under the endboards as the water level in the outflow buffer zone dropped
below the sediment surface. Movement of water under the endboards was
restricted enough that all of the water did not drain completely from the
sediment surface and, therefore, the oil simply settled on the elevated
portions and rested on a thin layer of water in the depressions of the
sediment surface. Close contact of the oil with the sediment was not
uniformly achieved in the aquaria.
The discrepancy between our experiment and that of Shaw et al. (1976)
is attributed to the fact that virtually no mixing energy was applied to
our system; thus, little of the oil was dissolved in the water or adsorbed
to the sediments. Analysis of oil in the sediment is needed to verify the
latter point, but lack of clam response supports the idea that little or
no oil remained in the sediment of our aquaria. Although Shaw et al. (1976)
did not attempt to quantify mixing energy on the Valdez mudflat during their
tests, calm weather prevailed (Feder, personal communication). However, the
302
-------
water in that area carries a heavy sediment load (R. Myren and N. Calvin,
personal communication; Section IV of this report) which would have mixed
with the oil even during normal tidal and surf action, and would have re-
sulted in transport of the adsorbed oil to the sediment surface. A study
by Clark and Finley (1975) gives evidence that direct contact of Mytilus
edulis with oil causes higher mortality and greater uptake of hydrocarbons
than contact with the dissolved fractions.
ACUTE BIOASSAY WITH WATER-SOLUBLE FRACTION - EXPERIMENT 2
Experiments with the WSF and Maeoma balth'loa. were conducted to measure
the effect of dissolved oil on the clams. The response of the clams to
the Water Soluble Fractions (WSF) was measured in two ways. First, clams
already buried in sediment were exposed to WSF and observed for burrowing
activity. Second, clams were placed on top of the sediment and observed as
they burrowed. We had two basic types of experimental design with our WSF
tests. The first was a static situation in which water temperature and
oxygen content were not controlled but were essentially the same for con-
trol and exposed clams within tests. The second type of design was a flow-
through system where recycled seawater flowed continually, was aerated, and
was cooled to a constant temperature to reduce experimental variables. WSF
for use in exposures were always prepared in the same manner.
Preparation of the WSF for Use in Exposures
One-percent Prudhoe Bay crude oil in seawater (1 £ oil:100 & seawater)
was mixed slowly and nonviolently at about 200 R min for 20 hrs at
ambient water temperatures (10° to 12°C). The mixture was allowed to sep-
arate for 20 hrs before the virtually saturated WSF was siphoned from below
the slick (Anderson et at.,, 1974, p. 79) . Since the naphthalene equivalents
of the WSF vary from mix to mix, we analyzed the initial mixture using the
ultraviolet spectrophotometric technique and diluted it with seawater to
concentrations that correspond to percentages of saturated solution (de-
signated 100% solution) containing 0.379 naphthalene equivalents. After
303
-------
the dilutions were made the water was analyzed by IR and UV to verify the
concentrations to which the clams were actually exposed.
Design of Static Water System Experiment
Clam exposure in the static water system experiment which tested the
response of buried clams to WSF's was conducted in two stainless steel
trays (26 cm wide by 40 cm long by 3 cm deep) completely filled with scre-
ened mud and submerged in a larger seawater tank (160 cm long by 37 cm wide
by 8 cm deep). Water temperature was 8°C at the time of its addition and
gradually warmed to a maximum of 18°C. No attempt was made to circulate or
aerate the water during exposure, but it was oxygenated at the time of
introduction.
There was a seawater control and two WSF dose levels in the experiment.
The sample size in each case was 400 initially buried clams. The number
used to identify the strength of WSF dose is the average of the ppm of
naphthalene equivalents measured on day 0 and day 2 when the water in the
tanks was changed. The average for the lower dose is 0.036 ppm and for the
higher dose is 0.331 ppm, which is 11.7% and 87% respectively of the 100%
WSF containing 0.379 ppm naphthalene equivalents. Concentrations of n-
paraffins determined by IR for these same doses were 1.24 and 7.76 ppm.
Design of Flow-Through Water System Experiment
The set-up for the flow-through water system experiment which tested
the response of both buried and unburied clams to WSF's was somewhat more
elaborate than the static water system experiment because it was designed
to accommodate greater water capacity, continued water circulation, aeration,
and cooling. Each exposure was conducted in a glass tray (25 cm wide by
45 cm long by 3 cm deep) completely filled with screened mud and submerged
in a seawater tank (37 cm wide by 53 cm long by 8 cm deep) similar to the
trays and tanks used in the static system test. In addition, there was a
separate water-holding tank in association with each seawater tank. The
holding tank was filled with 100 £ of seawater or WSF which was pumped at
the rate of 1.2 I min via a submersible pump into the tank containing the
304
-------
clam trays which overflowed through a standpipe into a drain tube leading
back into the holding tank. Water aeration occurred at this point. Each
holding tank was equipped with a cooling coil which kept the water temper-
ature between 7° and 9°C.
A seawater control and five WSF dose levels were used in this ex-
periment. The sample size in each case was 200 initially buried clams and
40 initially unburied clams. The number used to identify the strength of
WSF dose was the average of the naphthalene equivalents in ppm measured on
days 0, 2, and 4 when the water in the tanks was changed. The average was
0.019, 0.036, 01081, 0.160, and 0.302 ppm which is 7.5%, 11.6%, 23%, 44%,
and 80% respectively of a 100% WSF containing 0.379 ppm naphthalene equi-
valents. Concentrations of n-paraffins in these doses as measured by IR
were 0.378, 1.040, 1.661, 2.480, and 5.809 ppm.
Experimental Methods
The method for measuring response of buried clams to WSF's was dif-
ferent from the method for unburied clams. To test the response of buried
clams, trays of mud were held in plain seawater and seeded with M. balth-Lea
which buried themselves prior to later introduction of WSF's into the .same
tanks. To test the response of unburied clams, marked clams were held in
similar mud trays in fresh seawater separate from the experimental tanks
until just before their exposure. At that time the clams were gently
screened out of the mud and moved to the surface of mud trays in WSF ex-
posure and control tanks. Time of response for both exposures was measured
from the time that oil exposure started.
Doses of the WSF were replaced at various intervals within the ex-
periments in an attempt to compensate for the natural loss of the aromatics
(mostly from bacterial growth or volatility) in the WSF over the time period
of the experiment. There is evidence that after 48 h the loss is rapid, and
varies from one dose to another even under the same conditions (Jeffrey W.
Short, personal communication).
The static water system experiment began 6 October 1975, and lasted
11 days. The water-changing schedule in the experiment was as follows:
305
-------
(1) To start the exposure the plain seawater was drained from the tanks
and refilled with 50 & of WSF dose for the exposures and seawater for the
control. This water was left in the tanks 48 hrs. (2) At 48 hours the
water was drained from the tanks and the exposure tanks were refilled
with the same amounts of newly prepared WSF's of the same approximate
concentration; the control tank was refilled with seawater. This water
was left in the tanks 144 hrs. (3) At 192 hrs, the water was drained from
the tanks, and they were all refilled with seawater. This water was left
in the tanks for 3 days to constitute the recovery period.
The flow-through water system experiment began 10 November 1975, and
lasted 10 days. The water-changing schedule was as follows: (1) To start
the exposure the plain seawater was drained from the tanks and the holding
tanks refilled with 100 £ of WSF dose for the exposures and clean seawater
for the control. This water was left in the tanks 48 hrs. (2) At the 48
hrs the water was drained from the tanks and the exposure holding tanks
refilled with the same amounts of newly prepared WSF of the same approxi-
mate oil concentration as was initially applied; the control holding tank
was refilled with seawater. This water was left 48 hours. (3) At the
96 hours step 2 was repeated. This water was left for the duration of
the 10-day period.
In addition to testing the response of buried clams to WSF's this
experiment included provisions for testing the response of unburied clams
to WSF's. The marked clams for this test were placed on the surface of the
mud immediately after the introduction of the first dose of WSF. Response
was defined as clams burying themselves.
Water analyses by UV and IR techniques were conducted at each WSF
dose change to verify the actual dose applied. Water samples were taken
from each tank within 10 min of the dose change to obtain data of hydrocarbon
content at its highest concentration.
Responses to WSF's are recorded in numbers dead and unburied clams.
A dead clam was defined as a clam that was gaping and did not close in
response to probing. Dead clams were removed from the exposures at least
every other day. Unburied clams were counted as a half if they were partly
visible yet vertical in position and partly buried and as a whole if they
were lying flat on the surface and totally visible.
306
-------
In the static water system experimeiit counts of clams that had res-
ponded by burrowing to the surface or dying were made on days 1, 2, 3, 8,
9, 10, and 11.
In the flow-through water system experiment, initially unburied clams
were counted for number still at the surface at 10 min intervals from the
time of introduction through 170 min, then daily for the remainder of the
10-day experimental period. Counts of initially buried clams that had res-
ponded by burrowing to the surface were made daily throughout the 10-day
experimental period.
Response statistics were analyzed by a computerized probit analysis
Q
program (Finney, 1971) . Results of the initially unburied clam test are
expressed as the calculated dose (naphthalene equivalents) at which 50%
of the clams will fail to burrow within a specified period of time (ECm)
together with the 95% confidence interval of that dose level. In addition,
the slope function predicted by the probit analysis program is used to
calculate the dose (naphthalene equivalents) with a 95% confidence interval
at which the burrowing rates of 10% of exposed clams would be significantly
reduced from the normal rate of control clams at 60 min. Results of the
initially buried clam tests are expressed as the calculated dose (naph-
thalene equivalents) at which 50% of the clams will come to the surface
(ECm) within a specified period of time together with the 95% confidence
interval of that dose level. The data were adjusted through Abbott's
Q
formula (Finney, 1971, p. 125) to correct for partial response from the
control clams.
Results and Discussion of WSF Exposures
The major observation in the experiments testing the response of
initially buried clams to WSF's was that it caused some of the clams to
come out of the sediment.
The data from the static water system test indicate that at an average
concentration of 0.331 ppm naphthalene equivalents (87% of saturated WSF)
the greatest response occurs within 72 hrs and involves 35% of the indivi-
duals (Figure 3c). At an average concentration of 0.036 ppm naphthalene
307
-------
3a. CONTROL
UNBURIED
\\\\\\V1
BURIED
DEAD
23456789
3b. 0.036 PPM AS NAPHTHALENE
10 11
o
u_
o
CJ
CZ-
UJ
Q_
4 ' 5' 6'
3c. 0.331 PPM AS NAPHTHALENE
DAYS IN EXPERIMENT
Figure 3. Results of static water system WSF experiment. Each graph repre-
sents the clams in one exposure or control. The experiment was
11 days long. The graphs are plotted so that the percentage of
clams buried, unburied, or dead are accounted for. Observations
were made on days 1, 2, 3, 8, 9, 10, and 11. The dotted line be-
tween days 3 and 8 is connecting known point 3 to known point 8
and is not necessarily representative of how many clams were un-
buried. The arrow in Fig. 3b indicates the area of solid shading
that represents the percentage of dead clams not visible at the
surface. Control clams made virtually no response.
308
-------
equivalents (11% of the saturated WSF) the greatest response is delayed to
9 days and involves 57% of the individuals (Fig. 3b). In contrast to the
oil exposed clams, 98% of the control clams remain buried during the 11-day
monitoring period (Figure 3a). The calculated dose (ppm of naphthalene
equivalents) at which 50% of the clams would respond by burrowing to the
surface within 3 days under static water system conditions (ECm) is 0.436,
with 95% confidence intervals of 0.484 and 0.392.
The data from the flow-through water system test show response pro-
portional to dose clearly for the higher doses (Figure 4). The control
clams remain 100% buried throughout the exposure while all of the lower
doses show some response. The calculated dose in naphthalene equivalents
at which 50% of the clams would respond by burrowing to the surface within
3 days under flow-through water system conditions (ECm) is 0.367, with 95%
confidence intervals of 0.411 and 0.317. Under the same conditions the ECm
for response within 5 days is 0.323, with 95% confidence intervals of 0.363
and 0.288.
Death as a result of exposure involved 22% of the clams exposed to 11%
WSF in the static water system test (Figure 3b). Surprisingly, few of
the clams exposed to the higher dose had died at the end of the 11-day
observation period. The reason for this unproportional response is not
clear; one possibility is that components of the WSF enhanced the growth
of bacteria, which may be pathogens to the clams. Higher concentrations
of WSF might inhibit such bacterial growth. Another possibility is that
various oil doses in connection with enhanced growth of microrganisms may
also differentially affect aeration of the sediment and thereby cause
toxic conditions to develop. Apparently no such toxic conditions devel-
oped with the flow-through water system experiment since there were no
9
actual deaths at any dose. Stegeman and Teal (1973, p. 39) have data for
oysters which suggest that for concentrations up to 450 yg hydrocarbon
1~1 there is a direct relationship between the hydrocarbon concentration
in the water and uptake rate, while at higher concentrations the rate of
uptake falls. The oysters remained tightly closed when exposed to 900 yg
hydrocarbon 1~ ; thus, they concluded the observed drop in uptake rate at
that concentration was probably the result of the oysters avoiding contact
309
-------
bU
50 .
40 -
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en
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S-
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D-
10 -
\
. \
/ \
» *
/ \/ \
/ »
\
/
/ \!
; \
/ s
; \
/ »\
/ ' "^ --. 2 \
X / \ .-' ^.2 \
/ / *' N X
• "' ' ^^
/ s " ~* o 5 ~— -^
te^^rrLr-^^^z*-- - *- I:? ^ .
TANK 1 0.302 ppm
TANK 2 0.160 ppm
TANK 3 0.081 ppm
TANK 5 0.036 ppm
TANK 6 0.019 ppm
CONTROL 0.000 ppm
^6
^
<— ^ . i
3456
TIME IN DAYS
10
Figure 4.
Response of buried M. balthisa to exposure to WSF in flow-through
water system type set-up. The control clams made 0 response through-
out. The percentage of clams that responded by coming to the sur-
face is graphed; the area above each line would correspond to the
percentage of clams still buried at any time. Concentrations of oil
in WSF is expressed as equivalents of naphthalene.
310
-------
with the oil. It is possible that our high dose of WSF caused the clams
to "close up" and isolate themselves from toxins.
The major observation in the flow-through system experiment testing
the burrowing response of initially unburied clams to the WSF was that
it inhibited the rate of burrowing of some clams. Burrowing rate decreased
in proportion to WSF concentration for the higher two doses (Figure 5).
There was a decrease at the lower concentrations, although it was not
clearly in proportion to dose. The calculated dose (naphthalene equivalents)
at which the rate of burrowing of 10% of exposed clams would be signifi-
cantly reduced from the rate of the control clams at 60 min is 0.044, with
95% confidence intervals of 0.088 and 0.010. The calculated dose at which
50% of the initially unburied clams will fail to burrow within 60 min (ECm)
is 0.234, with 95% confidence intervals of 0.310 and 0.175. At the end
of the observation period (170 min) the calculated dose at which 50% of
the initially unburied clams will fail to burrow (ECm) is 0.222, with 95%
confidence intervals of 0.272 and 0.181.
By day 7 in the experiment, at least 97% of all the clams in all the
doses were buried. None died within the 10-day period.
In both static and flow-through water system experiments with initially
unburied clams, the clams show trends of recovering from exposure and re-
burying themselves (Figures 3 and 4). We attribute this recovery to loss of
toxicants by the WSF and relief from stress for the clams. Recovery occur-
red without transfer into clean seawater except in the case of the 11%
concentration in the static water system test where response was delayed.
The depression in the curves at day 4 of the flow-through test (Figure 4)
is related to the decrease in potency of the WSF concentration prior to
replenishment of a fresh dose of the WSF later that same day.
OIL-CONTAMINATED SEDIMENT TEST - EXPERIMENT 3
The intertidal zone receives energy from wind, waves, and tidal action,
and surface sediments and detritus are raised and held in suspension. If
oil is present in the intertidal zone, it will probably mix with suspended
particles and adsorb to them. The particles of sediment and adsorbed oil
311
-------
___ __._--,_ 0.019 PPM
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170
TIME IN MINUTES
Figure 5. Response of unburied clams put into WSF of Prudhoe Bay crude oil at
time 0. The points after time 0 record the progress of each group
of clams in burrowing themselves into the sediment. The experiment
was conducted in a flow- through system with marked clams. Concen-
trations are expressed as naphthalene equivalents.
312
-------
will later settle, forming a surface layer of contaminated sediment. We
tested the effect of such sediments on Maeoma balthioa. In our experiment
oil-contaminated sediment is suspended in seawater and later allowed to
settle over the surface of an established clam bed.
Experimental Design
Each exposure in this experiment was conducted in a stainless steel
tray (26 cm wide by 40 cm long by 8 cm deep) completely filled with non-
oiled screened mud and submerged in a larger seawater tank (37 cm wide
by 53 cm long by 8 cm deep). Water temperature ranged between 9° and 12°C.
Fresh seawater from Auke Bay flowed continually at the rate of 1.2 £ min~
throughout the experiment except on day 0 when the water flow was inter-
rupted for 24 hrs while sediment was added.
Oil-contaminated sediment for exposures or uncontaminated sediment
for controls was allowed to settle over the trays of clams on day 0 to
constitute exposure. The depth of the contaminated sediment allowed to
settle over the trays was varied experimentally to form three different
doses: 0.1 cm, 0.25 cm, and 0.5 cm. There was a control of the same
depth of uncontaminated sediment corresponding to each of the three oil-
contaminated sediment doses. The sample size was about 200 clams for each
exposure.
Preparation of Oil-Contaminated Sediment for Use in Exposures
Oil-contaminated sediment was prepared by mixing 1 part Prudhoe Bay
crude oil with 2 parts dry sediment (collected at Amalga Harbor, the source
of experimental clams) and 10 parts seawater (1/2 £ oil: 1 I sediment: 5 £
sw) in 1-gallon bottles and mixing in an oscillating shaker for 1 hr.
The mixture was allowed to separate for 1 hr and the liquid decanted and
discarded. The containers with the retained sediment were refilled with
seawater and mixed for an additional 30 min and then allowed to separate
for 1 hr, at which time the liquid was again decanted and discarded.
Uncontaminated sediment for control was made in the same manner, with the
exception that no oil was put in the mix. The mixture was made just prior
to its use in exposure.
313
-------
Experimental Methods
The trays of untreated mud were set up 3 days prior to the start of
the experiment in the seawater tanks and seeded with 200 clams. Clams
that did not bury themselves within 3 days were removed, which reduced
the sample size to about 190.
On day 0 in the experiment (3 September 1975), the water in the tanks
was turned off and drained. An appropriate amount of sediment was shaken
with seawater into suspension and poured into the tanks. It was allowed
to settle 24 hrs and then the water flow was continued. Temperature did
not exceed 12°C at the end of the 24 hr period, but oxygen concentrations
were not determined.
Before sediment was added, a small Petri dish was placed in each
tank beside the clam trays to catch an equivalent layer of sediment and
confirm the actual depth of sediment added.
Counts of clams that had responsed by burrowing to the surface or
dying were made on days 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 19,
20, 21, 23, 26, 29, and 30.
Response statistics were analyzed by computerized probit analysis
Q
(Finney, 1971) and a comparison of two observed proportions analysis
made (Natrella, 1966, p. ORDP 20-111)10. Results of the probit program
are expressed as the calculated depth of sediment (cm) at which 50% of
the clams will move to the surface within a specified period of time (ECm)
together with the 95% confidence interval of that dose level. These data
Q
were adjusted through Abbott's formula (Finney, 1971, p. 125) to correct
for partial response from the control clams.
Results and Discussion
Death as a result of oil-contaminated sediment exposure was signifi-
cant (Natrella, 1966) in the 0.5 cm dose of oil-contaminated sediment
(Figure 6), but death of clams at the 0.25 cm dose was only slightly greater
than death in the controls. Death of clams in the 0.1 cm dose was similar
to that of the controls. Most clams came to the surface before dying and
only a small portion of dead clams were found buried (Figure 6).
314
-------
UNBURIED
YTTTA
BURIED
25 30
CONTROL LOW-LEVEL RECEIVED 1/10
CM LAYER OF PLAIN MUD
DEAD
0
10 15
25 30
EXPOSURE LOW-LEVEL RECEIVED 1/10
CM LAYER OF OIL-CONTAMINATED MUD
10 15 20 25 30
CONTROL INTERMEDIATE-LEVEL RECEIVED
1/4 CM LAYER OF PLAIN MUD
0
10 15
30
EXPOSURE INTERMEDIATE LEVEL
RECEIVED 1/4 CM LAYER OF OIL
CONTAMINATED MUD
10
15 20 25 30
0 5
CONTROL HIGH-LEVEL RECEIVED 1/2
CM LAYER OF PLAIN MUD
-DAYS IN EXPERIMENT^
15 20 25 30
EXPOSURE HIGH-LEVEL RECEIVED 1/2
CM LAYER OF OIL-CONTAMINATED MUD
Figure 6. Results of oil-contaminated sediment experiment. Each graph below
represents a control or exposure dose; each dose has a corres-
ponding control: Low level exposure-low level control. The graphs
are plotted so that the percentage of clams buried, unburied, or
dead are accounted for. Observations were taken on days 1, 2, 3,
5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 19, 20, 21, 23, 26, 29, and 30.
The arrows in the lower graphs indicate the areas of solid shading
that represent the percentage of dead clams not visible at the
surface.
315
-------
In both control and exposure doses, increasing numbers of clams came
to the surface and died over the 30-day experimental period. The gradual
increases in both the controls and exposures indicate to us that there is
stress either from the addition of sediment, experimental set-up, or initial
condition of the clams. Responses occurring in the three control doses
of non-oiled sediment were approximately equal and therefore not dependent
on depth of sediment added.
The major observation in oil-contaminated sediment tests was that many
clams moved to the surface after exposure but did not die. Numbers of
individuals at the surface were proportional to the depth of the oil-
sediment film added (Figure 6). Response after 24 hrs was linear with
respect to sediment depth squared (Figure 7). In our heaviest dose (oil-
contaminated sediment approximately 0.5 cm deep) 29% moved to the surface
within 24 hrs (Figure 8). In the intermediate dose (oil-contaminated
sediment approximately 0.25 cm deep) 10% moved to the surface within 24
hrs, while 6% of the clams at the lowest dose (0.10 cm) surfaced. Less
than 2% of the control clams came to the surface within this period of
time.
The depth of sediment calculated by probit that it would take under
conditions of the experiment to stimulate 50% of the clams to move to the
surface within 1 day is 0.668 cm, with 95% confidence intervals of 0.758
and 0.579.
OVERALL DISCUSSION
From the results of these three types of experiments, it seems appar-
ent that the impact of an oil spill on Macoma balthi-oa depends on the
amount and location of mixing energy applied to the sediments and/or sea-
water. If there is essentially no mixing energy associated with a spill,
such as we had in our unmixed crude oil spill, effects will probably be
negligible. If there is enough mixing energy offshore to form WSF's of
oil, these may move in over the clam beds and if concentrated enough affect
the burrowing activities of clams. If there is mixing energy in the inter-
tidal zone, both WSF and oil-contaminated sediment may form. Such con-
taminants will result in inhibited clam burrowing activity, movement to
316
-------
Q
LU
QC
—)
ca
(S)
UJ
CJ
o;
DEPTH OF SEDIMENT (CM AND CM )
0.6
0.7
Figure 7.
Percentage of clams responding to oil-contaminated sediment by
coming to the surface at 24 hours versus depth of sediment
(solid circles) and depth of sediment squared (x's). Open
circles represent ECm values calculated by probit.
317
-------
Figure 8. Photograph of clams in high level exposure (1/2 cm) to oil-
contaminated mud, taken 24 hours after start of exposure. No
clams appeared on the surface of control sediments.
318
-------
the surface, and presumably death of exposed clams either from toxicity
of the oil, exposure to adverse environmental conditions, or increased
predation.
In our experiments there was a trend of clams first coming to the
surface and a portion of them later dying (Figures 3 and 6). A very small
percentage of the clams that died were not immediately visible at the
surface, but were later discovered when the mud was screened at the end of
the experiment. If this trend is the same under natural conditions, it is
possible that there was a much greater effect of the oil on the clams in
the Valdez field experiment of Shaw et al. (1976) than is indicated by their
data, since the aluminum containment frames used in their study were not
designed to retain clams that might come to the surface. Many clams may
have come to the surface after oil exposure and could have died, floated
away, or been taken by predators while still living but exposed on the
sediment surface.
Throughout our work with M. balthi-oa we observed deposit-feeding
activities only during April, May, and June, when Experiment 1 was under-
way. In late summer, fall, and winter no deposit-feeding was observed
in either control or exposed clams. Because we conducted our WSF and
sediment experiments during this later period and still got a response
to oil, we conclude that the response is not only dependent on direct
ingestion but also hydrocarbons must enter or affect the clams through
respiration or direct transport through membranes.
Although several questions regarding the responses of M. balth'ica
to hydrocarbon remain to be answered, the results of this study lead us
to agree with Shaw et al. (1976) that M. balthica shows potential as
an indicator of oil pollution. Our results suggest that the actual and
ecological death of M. balthioa upon exposure to oil-contaminated sedi-
ments and dissolved oils may be even greater than is indicated by the
mortality reported by Shaw et al. (1976) . The responses of clams
proportional to oil dose as observed in our study over both short- and
long-term exposures suggest that these small clams are a good bioassay
organism and well suited for use in baseline studies. Even though few of
the clams die upon short-term exposure to the water-soluble fractions of
319
-------
crude oil or oil-contaminated sediments, their immediate behavioral res-
ponse to oil in their environment may result in ecological death.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
These experiments were funded jointly by an Environmental Protection
Agency grant through Dr. Howard Feder of the University of Alaska and by
the Outer Continental Shelf Energy Assessment Program of the Environmental
Research Laboratories and the Bureau of Land Management through the National
Marine Fisheries Service.
We thank Dr. Richard Myren for assistance in designing the aquaria
for the intertidal exposures and providing suggestions relative to the
biology of Maooma balth-ica; Jeffrey Short and D. Loren Cheatham for
assistance in analytical procedures; Dr. Stanley Rice for providing and
coordinating assistance, and others for assisting in the construction
and mud collection phase of these experiments.
320
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APPENDIX B
REFERENCES
1. Brafield, A. E., and G. E. Newell. The behaviour of Macoma balthioa (L.).
J. mar. biol. Ass. U. K. 41:81-87, 1961.
2. Rasmussen, Erik. Systematics and ecology of the Isefjord marine fauna
(Denmark). Ophelia 11:1-507, 1973.
3. Gruenfeld, M. Extraction of dispersed oils from water for quantitative
analysis by infrared spectrophotometry. Environ. Soi. Teohnol.
7:636-639, 1973.
4. Neff, J. M. , and J. W. Anderson. An ultraviolet spectrophotometric method
for the determination of naphthalene and alkylnaphthalenes in the tissues
of oil-contaminated marine animals. Bull. Environ. Contain. Toxiool. 14:
122-128, 1975.
5. Shaw, D. G., A. J. Paul, L. M. Cheek and H. M. Feder. Maooma balthica:
An indicator of oil pollution. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 7(2):29-31, 1976.
6. Clark, Robert C. Jr., and John S. Finley. Uptake and loss of petroleum
hydrocarbons by the mussel, Mytilus edulis, in laboratory experiments.
Fish. Bull., U.S. 73:508-515, 1975.
7. Anderson, J. W., J. M. Neff, B. A. Cox, H. E. Tatem, and G. M. Hightower.
Characteristics of dispersions and water-soluble extracts of crude and
refined oils and their toxicity to estuarine crustaceans and fish. Mar.
Biol. 27:75-88, 1974.
8. Finney, D. J. Probit analysis. Cambridge University Press, New York,
1971. 333 p.
9. Stegeman, J. J., and J. M. Teal. Accumulation, release and retention of
petroleum hydrocarbons by the oyster Crassostrea virginica. Mar. Biol.
22:37-44, 1973.
10. Natrella, M. G. Experimental statistics. U.S. Nat. Bur. Stand. Handb.,
1966. 91 p.
321
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(I'lcasc read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. RLPORT NO.
EPA-600/3-76-086
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
The Sediment Environment of Port Valdez, Alaska:
The Effect of Oil on this Ecosystem
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
5. REPORT DATE
July 1976
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
H. M. Feder, L. M. Cheek, P. Flanagan, S. C.
Jtwett, M. H. Johnston, A. S. Naidu, S. A. Norrell, A. J
Paul, A. Scarborough, and D. Shaw
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO
9. PERFORMING ORG >NIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
University of Alaska
Institute of Marine Science
Fairbanks, Alaska 99701
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
1BA201
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
R800944-02-0
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Environmental Protection Agency
Arcitic Environmental Research Laboratory
Fairbanks, Alaska 99701
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
final
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/ORD
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT T^e port Valdez intertidal sediment system was studied for three years.
Physical, geological, geochemical, hydrocarbon, and biological features were examined.
Sediments were poorly sorted gravels to plastic clays, and had low amounts of organic
matter. Bacterial numbers varied from site to site, and decreased in numbers with depth.
Meiofauna consisted primarily of nematodes and harpacticoid copepods. Most meiofaunal
species were restricted to the upper three centimeters throughout the year. Meiofauna!
densities were typically highest in summer and lowest in winter. Reproductive activit: es
of copepods tended to be seasonal with only one species reproducing throughout the yeai
Bacterial populations were unaffected by single applications of up to 2000 ppm of Prudl oe
Bay crude oil or by chronic applications. It is concluded that oil is removed rapidly
tidal action. Three species of copepods exposed to oil in the field significantly in-
creased in density in experimentally oiled plots. Uptake and release of added oil by
intertidal sediments and the clam Ma coma balt'h'iaa were examined in the field. Petroleim
was not detectable two months after application to sediments. Penetration of oil into
sediments to depths beyond one centimeter does not appear to be an important process.
During the experimental period, a significant increase in mortality was noted for M.
balthi-ca exposed to oil. It is suggested that this widely distributed clam may be a
valuable indicator for oil.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
aquatic environment
Prince William Sound,
Alaska
biological studies
geological studies
geochemical studies
hydrocarbon studies
intertidal
sediment shores
bacterial studies
meiofaunal studies
b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
baseline studies
environmental assessment
Port Valdez
meiofauna
experimental oil studies
Prudhoe Bay crude oil
Macoma balthi-oa
bioassay organism
c. COSATI Field/Group
08/A,L
IBUTION STATEMENT
RELEASE TO PUBLIC
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
UNCLASSIFIED
21. NO. OF PAGES
348
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
UNCLASSIFIED
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
322
ir U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1976-697-992(126 REGION 10
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