EPA-600/3-77-061
May 1977
Ecological Research Series
TEMPERATURE CRITERIA FOR FRESHWATER FISH:
PROTOCOL AND PROCEDURES
Environmental Research Laboratory
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Duluth, Minnesota 55804
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series. These nine broad cate-
gories were established to facilitate further development and application of en-
vironmental technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The nine series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
6. Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
7 Jnteragency Energy-Environment Research and Development
8. "Special" Reports
9. Miscellaneous Reports
This report has been assigned to the ECOLOGICAL RESEARCH series. This series
describes research on the effects of pollution on humans, plant and animal spe-
cies, and materials. Problems are assessed for their long- and short-term influ-
ences. Investigations include formation, transport, and pathway studies to deter-
mine the fate of pollutants and their effects. This work provides the technical basis
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aquatic, terrestrial, and atmospheric environments.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
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EPA-600/3-77-061
May 1977
TEMPERATURE CRITERIA FOR FRESHWATER FISH:
PROTOCOL AND PROCEDURES
by
William A. Brungs
Bernard R. Jones
Environmental Research Laboratory-Duluth
Duluth, Minnesota 55804
ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY-DULUTH
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
DULUTH, MINNESOTA 55804
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Environmental Research Laboratory-
Duluth, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for publication.
Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement
or recommendation for use.
11
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FOREWORD
Our nation's fresh waters are vital for all animals and plants, yet our
diverse uses of water — for recreation, food, energy, transportation, and
industry — physically and chemically alter lakes, rivers, and streams. Such
alterations threaten terrestrial organisms, as well as those living in water.
The Environmental Research Laboratory in Duluth, Minnesota, develops methods,
conducts laboratory and field studies, and extrapolates research findings
—to determine how physical and chemical pollution affects
aquatic life;
—to assess the effects of ecosystems on pollutants;
—to predict effects of pollutants on large lakes through
use of models; and
—to measure bioaccumulation of pollutants in aquatic
organisms that are consumed by other animals, including
man.
This report discusses the history, procedures, and derivation of
temperature criteria to protect freshwater fishes and presents numerical
criteria for 34 species. It follows the general philosophical approach
of the National Academy of Sciences and National Academy of Engineering in
their Water Quality Criteria 1972 and is intended to make that philosophy
practically useful.
Donald I. Mount, Ph.D.
Director
Environmental Research Laboratory
Duluth, Minnesota
iii
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ABSTRACT
Temperature criteria for freshwater fish are expressed as mean and
maximum temperatures; means control functions such as embryogenesis, growth,
maturation, and reproductivity, and maxima provide protection for all life
stages-against lethal conditions. These criteria for 34 fish species are
based on numerous field and laboratory studies, and yet for some important
species the data are still insufficient to develop all the necessary
criteria. Fishery managers, power-plant designers, and regulatory agencies
will find these criteria useful in their efforts to protect fishery resources.
iv
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CONTENTS
Foreword ,,,.....ill
Abstract ,..,.,.,,., iv
Acknowledgments , ,..,., vi
1. Summary and Conclusions 1
2. Introduction 2
3. The Protocol for Temperature Criteria . . , 10
4. The Procedures for Calculating Numerical Temperature
Criteria for Freshwater Fish , 13
5. Examples , , . , , , , . . 20
References. , , , , , . . . 25
Appendices
A. The heat and temperature section from National Academy of
Sciences and National Academy of Engineering (1973J 28
B. The thermal tables from National Academy of Sciences and
National Academy of Engineering (1973) 51
C. Fish temperature data sheets , 62
v
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to express our appreciation for review of this report to
Dr. Charles C. Coutant (Oak Ridge National Laboratory), Mr. Carlos M.
Fetterolf, Jr. (Great Lakes Fishery Commission), Mr. William L. Klein (Ohio
River Valley Sanitation Commission), and Dr, Donald I. Mount, Dr. Kenneth E.
Hokanson and Mr. J. Howard McCormick (Environmental Research Laboratory-
Duluth).
vi
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SECTION 1
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The evolution of freshwater temperature criteria has advanced from the
search for a single "magic number" to the generally accepted protocol for
determining mean and maximum numerical criteria based on the protection of
appropriate desirable or important fish species, or both. The philosophy and
protocol of the National Academy of Sciences and National Academy of
Engineering (1973) were used to determine criteria for survival, spawning,
embryo development, growth, and gamete maturation for species of freshwater
fish, both warmwater and coldwater species.
The influence that management objectives and selection of species have
on the application of temperature criteria, is extremely important, especially
if an inappropriate, but very temperature-sensitive, species is included. In
such a case, unnecessarily restrictive criteria will be derived. Conversely,
if the most sensitive important species is not considered, the resultant
criteria will not be protective.
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SECTION 2
INTRODUCTION
This report is intended to be a guide for derivation of temperature
criteria for freshwater fish based on the philosophy and protocol presented
by the National Academy of Sciences and National Academy of Engineering (1973),
It is not an attempt to gather and summarize the literature on thermal effects.
Methods for determination of temperature criteria have evolved and
developed rapidly during the past 20 years, making possible a vast increase
in basic data on the relationship of temperature to various life stages.
One of the earliest published temperature criteria for freshwater life
was prepared by the Aquatic Life Advisory Committee of the Ohio River Valley
Water Sanitation Commission (ORSANCO) in 1956. These criteria were based on
conditions necessary to maintain a well-rounded fish population and to sustain
production of a harvestable crop in the Ohio River watershed. The committee
recommended that the temperature of the receiving water:
1) Should not be raised above 34° C (93°F) at any place
or at any time;
2) should not be raised above 23° C (73° F) at any place
or at any time during the months of December through
April; and
3) should not be raised in streams suitable for trout
propagation.
McKee and Wolf (1963) in their discus'sion of temperature criteria for the
propagation of fish and other aquatic and marine life refer only to the
progress report of ORSANCO's Aquatic Life Advisory Committee (1956).
In 1967 the Aquatic Life Advisory Committee of ORSANCO evaluated and
further modified their recommendations for temperature in the Ohio River
watershed. At this time the committee expanded their recommendation of a
93° F (33.9° C) instantaneous temperature at any time or any place to include
a daily mean of 90° F (32.2° C). This, we believe, was one of the first
efforts to recognize the importance of both mean and maximum temperatures
to describe temperature requirements of fishes. The 1967 recommedations also
included:
1) Maximum temperature during December, January, and February
should be 55° F (12.8° C);
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2) during the transition months of March, April, October and
November the temperature can be changed gradually by not
more than 7° F (3.9° C);
3) to maintain trout habitats, stream temperatures should not
exceed 55° F (12.8° C) during the months of October through
May, or exceed 68° F (20.0° C) during the months of June
through September; and
4) insofar as possible the temperature should not be raised
in streams used for natural propagation of trout.
The National Technical Advisory Committee of the Federal Water Pollution
Control Administration presented a report on water quality criteria in 1968
that was to become known as the "Green Book." This large committee included
many of the members of ORSANCO's Aquatic Life Advisory Committee. The committee
members recognized that aquatic organisms might be able to endure a high
temperature for a few hours that could not be endured for a period of days.
They also acknowledged that no single temperature requirement could be applied
to the United States as a whole, or even to one state, and that the requirements
must be closely related to each body of water and its fish populations. Other
important conditions for temperature requirements were that (1) a seasonal cycle
must be retained, (2) the changes in temperature must be gradual, and (3) the
temperature reached must not be so high or so low as to damage or alter the
composition of the desired population. These conditions led to an approach to
criteria development different from earlier ones. A temperature increment
based on the natural water temperature was believed to be more appropriate
than an unvarying number. The use of an increment requires a knowledge of
the natural temperature conditions of the water in question, and the size of
the increment that can be tolerated by the desirable species.
The National Technical Advisory Committee (1968, p. 42) recommended:
"To maintain a well-rounded population of warmwater fishes .... heat
should not be added to a stream in excess of the amount that will
raise the temperature of the water (at the expected minimum daily
flow for that month) more than 5° F."
A casual reading of this requirement resulted in the unintended generalization
that the acceptable temperature rise in warmwater fish streams was 5° F (2.8°
C). This generalization was incorrect! Upon more careful reading the key
word "amount" of heat and the key phrase "minimum daily flow for that month"
clarify the erroneousness of the generalization. In fact, a 5° F (2.8° C)
rise in temperature could only be acceptable under low flow conditions for a
particular month and any increase in flow would result in a reduced increment
of temperature rise since the amount of heat added could not be increased.
For lakes and reservoirs the temperature rise limitation was 3° F (1.7° C)
based "on the monthly average of the maximum daily temperature."
In trout and salmon waters the recommendations were that "inland trout
streams, headwaters of salmon streams, trout and salmon lakes, and reservoirs
containing salmonids should not be warmed," that "no heated effluents should
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be discharged in the vicinity of spawning areas," and that "in lakes and
reservoirs, the temperature of the hypolimnion should not be raised more
than 3° F (1.7° C)." For other locations the recommended incremental rise
was 5° F (2.8° C) again based on the minimum expected flow for that month.
An important additional recommendation is summarized in the following
table in which provisional maximum temperatures were recommended for various
fish species and their associated biota (from FWPCA National Technical Advisory
Committee, 1968).
PROVISIONAL MAXIMUM TEMPERATURES RECOMMENDED AS
COMPATIBLE WITH THE WELL-BEING OF VARIOUS SPECIES
OF FISH AND THEIR ASSOCIATED BIOTA
93 F: Growth of catfish, gar, white or yellow bass, spotted
bass, buffalo, carpsucker, threadfin shad, and gizzard
shad.
90 F: Growth of largemouth bass, drum, bluegill, and crappie.
84 F; Growth of pike, perch, walleye, smallmouth bass, and
sauger.
80 F: Spawning and egg development of catfish, buffalo, thread-
fin shad, and gizzard shad.
75 F: Spawning and egg development of largemouth bass, white,
yellow, and spotted bass.
68 F: Growth or migration routes of salmonids and for egg
development of perch and smallmouth bass.
55 F: Spawning and egg development of salmon and trout (other
than lake trout),
48 F: Spawning and egg development of lake trout, walleye,
northern pike, sauger, and Atlantic salmon.
NOTE: Recommended temperatures for other species, not listed
above, may be established if and when necessary
information becomes available.
These recommendations represent one of the significant early efforts to base
temperature criteria on the realistic approach of species and community
requirements and take into account the significant biological factors of
spawning, embryo development, growth, and survival.
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The Federal Water Pollution Control Administration (1969al recommended
revisions in water quality criteria for aquatic life relative to the Main
Stem of the Ohio River. These recommendations were presented to ORSANCO's
Engineering Committee and were based on the temperature requirements of
important Ohio River fishes including largemouth bass, smallmouth bass, white
bass, sauger, channel catfish, emerald shiner, freshwater drum, golden
redhorse, white sucker, and buffalo (species was not indicated). Temperature
requirements for survival, activity, final preferred temperature, reproduction,
and growth were considered. The recommended criteria were:
1. "The water temperatures shall not exceed 90° F
(32.2° C) at any time or any place, and a
maximum hourly average value of 86° F (30° C)
shall not be exceeded."
2. "The temperature shall not exceed the
temperature values expressed on the following
table:"
AQUATIC LIFE TABLE3
December-February
Early March-
Late March
Early April
Late April
Early May
Late May
Early June
Late June
July-September
October
November
Daily mean
c° n
48
50
52
55
58
62
68
75
78
82
75
65
Hourly maximum
(° F)
55
56
58
60
62
64
72
79
82
86
82
72
-
aFrom: Federal Water Pollution Control Administration
(1969a).
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The principal limiting fish species considered in developing these criteria
was the sauger, the most temperature sensitive of the important Ohio River
fishes. A second set of criteria (Federal Water Pollution Control
Administration, 1969b) considered less temperature-sensitive species, and the
criteria for mean temperatures were higher. The daily mean in July and
September was 84° F (28.9° C). In addition, a third set of criteria was
developed that was not designed to protect the smallmouth bass, emerald
shiner, golden redhorse, or the white sucker. The July-to-September daily
mean temperature criterion was 86° F (30° C).
The significance of the 1969 Ohio River criteria was that they were
species dependent and that subsequently the criteria would probably be based
upon a single species or a related group of species. Therefore, it is
extremely important to select properly the species that are important otherwise
the criteria will be unnecessarily restrictive. For example, if yellow perch
is an extremely rare species in a water body and is the most temperature-
sensitive species, it probably would be unreasonable to establish temperature
criteria for this species as part of the regulatory mechanism.
In 1970 ORSANCO established new temperature standards that incorporated
the recommendations for temperature criteria of the Federal Water Pollution
Control Administration (1969a, 1969.b). and the concept of limiting the amount
of heat that would be added (National Technical Advisory Committee, 1968).
The following is the complete text of that standard:
" All cooling water from municipalities or political
subdivisions, public or private institutions, or
installations, or corporations discharged or
permitted to flow into the Ohio River from the point
of confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers
at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, designated as Ohio River
mile point 0.0 to Cairo Point, Illinois, located at
the confluence of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, and
being 981.0 miles downstream from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,
shall be so regulated or controlled as to provide for
reduction of heat content to such degree that the aggregate
heat-discharge rate from the municipality, subdivision,
institution, installation or corporation, as calculated on
the basis of discharge volume and temperature differential
(temperature of discharge minus upstream river temperature)
does not exceed the amount calculated by the following
formula, provided, however, that in no case shall the
aggregate heat-discharge rate be of such magnitude as will
result in a calculated increase in river temperature of
more than 5 degrees F:
Allowable heat-discharge rate (Btu/sec) = 62.4 X
river flow (CFS) X (T - T ) X 90%
a r
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Where:
T = Allowable -maximum temperature (deg. F.)
in the river as specified in the following
table:
January
February
March
April
May
June
T
a
50
50
6Q
70
80
87
July
August
September
October
November
December
T
a
89
89
87
78
70
57
T = River temperature (daily average in deg. F.I
upstream from the discharge
River flow ~ measured flow but not less than
critical flow values specified in
the following table:
River reach Critical
flow
a
From To in cfs
Pittsburgh, Penn. (mi. 0.01 Willow Is. Dam (161.71 6,500.
Willow Is. Dam (161.7) Gallipolis Dam (279.21 7,400
Gallipolis Dam (279.21 Meldahl Dam (436.21 9,700
Meldahl Dam (436.2) McAlpine Dam (605.81 11,900
McAlpine Dam (605.8) Uniontown Dam (846.0) 14,200
Uniontown Dam (846.0) Smithland Dam (918.5) 19,500
Smithland Dam (918.5) Cairo Point (981.01 48,100
3Minimum daily flow once in ten years.
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Although the numerical criteria for January through December are higher
than those recommended by the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration,
they are only used to calculate the amount of heat that can be added at the
"minimum daily flow once in ten years." Additional flow would result in
lower maxima since no additional heat could be added. There was also the ^
increase of 5° F (2.8° C) limit that could be more stringent than the maximum
temperature limit.
The next important step in the evolution of thought on temperature
criteria was Water Quality Criteria 19.72 (NAS/NAE, 1973), which is becoming
known as the "Blue Book," because of its comparability to the Green Book (FWPCA
National Technical Advisory Committee, 1968). The Blue Book is the report of
the Committee on Water Quality Criteria of the National Academy of Sciences at
the request of and funded by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
The heat and temperature section, with its recommendations and appendix data,
was authored by Dr. Charles Coutant of the Oak Ridge National Laboratory. These
materials are reproduced in full in Appendix A and Appendix B in this report.
A discussion and description of the Blue Book temperature criteria will be
found later in this report.
The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 (Public
Law 92-500) contain a section [304 (al (11] that requires that the
administrator of the EPA "after consultation with appropriate Federal and
State agencies and other interested persons, shall develop and publish,
within one year after enactment of this title (and from time to time
thereafter revise) criteria for water quality accurately reflecting the
latest scientific knowledge (A) on the kind and extent of all identifiable
effects on health and welfare including, but not limited to, plankton,
fish, shellfish, wildlife, plant life, shorelines, beaches, esthetics, and
recreation which may be expected from the presence of pollutants in any
body of water, including ground water; (B) on the concentration and dispersal
of pollutants or their byproducts, through biological, physical, and
chemical processes; and (C) on the effects of pollutants on biological
community diversity, productivity, and stability, including information on
the factors affecting rates of eutrophication and rates of organic and
inorganic sedimentation for varying types of receiving waters."
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1976) has published Quality
Criteria for Water as a response to the Section 304(a)(l) requirements of
PL 22-500. That approach to-the determination of temperature criteria for
freshwater fish is essentially the same as the approach recommended in the
Blue Book (NAS/NAE, 1973). The EPA criteria report on temperature included
numerical criteria for freshwater fish species and a nomograph for winter
temperature criteria. These detailed criteria were developed according
to the protocol in the Blue Book, and the procedures used to develop those
criteria will be discussed in detail in this report.
The Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement (1972) between the United States
of America and Canada was signed in 1972 and contained a specific water
quality objective for temperature. It states that "There should be no change
that would adversely affect any local or general use of these waters." The
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International Joint Commission was designated to assist in the implementation
of this agreement and to give advice and recommendations to both countries
on specific water quality objectives. The International Joint Commission
committees assigned the responsibility of developing these objectives have
recommended temperature objectives for the Great Lakes based on the "Blue
Book" approach and are in the process of refining and completing those
objectives for consideration by the commission before submission to the two
countries for implementation.
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SECTION 3
THE PROTOCOL FOR TEMPERATURE CRITERIA
This section is a synthesis of concepts and definitions from Fry et al.
(1942, 1946), Brett (1952, 1956), and the NAS/NAE (1973).
The lethal threshold temperatures are those temperatures at which 50
percent of a sample of individuals would survive indefinitely after acclimation
at some other temperature. The majority of the published literature (Appendix
B) is calculated on the basis of 50 percent survival. These lethal thresholds
are commonly referred to as incipient lethal temperatures. Since organisms
can be lethally stressed by both rising and falling temperatures, there are
upper incipient lethal temperatures and lower incipient lethal temperatures.
These are determined by removing the organisms from a temperature to which
they are acclimated and instantly placing them in a series of other temperatures
that will typically result in a range in survival from 100 to 0 percent.
Acclimation can require up to 4 weeks, depending upon the magnitude of the
difference between the temperature when the fish were obtained and the desired
acclimation temperature. In general, experiments to determine incipient
lethal temperatures should extend until all the organisms in any test chamber
are dead or sufficient time has elapsed for death to have occurred. The
ultimate upper incipient lethal temperature is that beyond which no increase
in lethal temperature is accomplished by further increase in acclimation
temperature. For most freshwater fish species in temperate latitudes the
lower incipient lethal temperatures will usually end at Op C, being limited
by the freezing point of water. However, for some important species, such as
threadfish shad in freshwater and menhaden in seawater, the lower incipient
lethal temperature is higher than 0° C,
As indicated earlier, the heat and temperature section of the Blue Book
and its associated appendix data and references have been reproduced J.n this
report as Appendix A and Appendix B. The following discussion will briefly
summarize the various types of criteria and provide some additional insight
into the development of numerical criteria. The Blue Book (Appendix A)
also describes in detail the use of the criteria in relation to entrainment.
MAXD1UM WEEKLY AVERAGE TEMPERATURE
For practical reasons the maximum weekly average temperature (MWAT) is
the mathematical mean of multiple, equally spaced, daily temperatures over a
7-day consecutive period.
10
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For Growth
To maintain growth of aquatic organisms at rates necessary for sustaining
actively growing and reproducing populations, the MWAT in the zone normally
inhabited by the species at the season should not exceed the optimum temperature
plus one-third of the range between the optimum temperature and the ultimate
upper incipient lethal temperature of the species:
ultimate upper incipient optimum
WAT for growth = optimum temperature + lethal temperature temperature
The optimum temperature is assumed to be the optimum for growth, but other
physiological optima may be used in the absence of growth data. The MWAT need
not apply to accepted mixing zones and must be applied with adequate under-
standing of the normal seasonal distribution of the important species.
For Reproduction
The MWAT for reproduction must consider several factors such as gonad
growth and gamete maturation, potential blocking of spawning migrations,
spawning itself, timing and synchrony with cyclic food sources, and normal
patterns of gradual temperature changes throughout the year. The protection
of reproductive activity must take into account months during which these
processes normally occur in specific water bodies for which criteria are
being developed.
For Winter Survival
The MWAT for fish survival during winter will apply in any area in which
fish could congregate and would include areas such as unscreened discharge
channels. This temperature limit should not exceed the acclimation, or plume,
temperature (minus a 3.6° F (2.0° C) safety factor) that raises the lower
lethal threshold temperature above the normal ambient water temperature for
that season. This criterion will provide protection from fish kills caused
by rapid changes in temperature due to plant shutdown or movement of fish
from a heated plume to ambient temperature.
SHORT-TERM EXPOSURE TO EXTREME TEMPERATURE
It is well established that fish can withstand short exposure to temperatures
higher than those acceptable for reproduction and growth without significiant
adverse effects. These exposures should not be too lengthy or frequent or the
species could be adversely affected. The length of time that 50 percent of a
population will survive temperature above the incipient lethal temperature can
be calculated from the following regression equation:
log time (min) = a + b (temperature in °C);
or
temperature (°C) = (log time (min) - a)/b.
U
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The constants "a" and "b" are for intercept and slope and will be discussed
later. Since this equation is based on 50 percent survival, a 3.6° F (2-0° Cl
reduction in the upper incipient lethal temperature will provide the safety
factor to assure no deaths.
For those interested in more detail or the rationale for these general
criteria, Appendices A and B should be read thoroughly. In addition, Appendix
A contains a fine discussion of a procedure to evaluate the potential thermal
impact of aquatic organisms entrained in cooling water or the discharge
plume, or both.
12
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SECTION 4
THE PROCEDURES FOR CALCULATING NUMERICAL
TEMPERATURE CRITERIA FOR FRESHWATER FISH
MAXIMUM WEEKLY AVERAGE TEMPERATURE
The necessary minimum data for the determination of this criterion are
the physiological optimum temperature and the ultimate upper incipient lethal
temperature. The latter temperature represents the "breaking point" between
the highest temperatures to which an animal can be acclimated and the lowest
of the extreme upper temperatures that will kill the warm-acclimated organism.
Physiological optima can be based on performance, metabolic rate, temperature
preference, growth, natural distribution, or tolerance. However, the most
sensitive function seems to be growth rate, which appears to be an integrato-r
of all physiological responses of an organism. In the absence of data on
optimum growth, the use of an optimum for a more specific function related to
activity and metabolism may be more desirable than not developing any growth
criterion at all.
The MWAT's for growth were calculated for fish species for which appropriate
data were available (Table 1). These data were obtained from the fish temperature
data in Appendix C, These data sheets contain the majority of thermal effects
data for about 34 species of freshwater fish and the sources of the data. Some
subjectivity is inevitable and necessary because of variability in published
data resulting from differences in age, day length, feeding regime, or methodology.
For example, the data sheet for channel catfish (Appendix C) includes four
temperature ranges for optimum growth based on three published papers. It would
be. more appropriate to use data for growth of juveniles and adults rather than
larvae. The middle of each range for juvenile channel catfish growth is 29° and
30° C. In this instance 29° C is judged the best estimate of the optimum. The
highest incipient lethal temperature (that would approximate the ultimate
incipient lethal temperature) appearing in Appendix C is 38° C, By using the
previous formula for the MWAT for growth, we obtain
29° c + (38-29° Cl = ^ c_
The temperature criterion for the MWAT for growth of channel catfish would be
32° C (as appears in Table 1).
13
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TABLE 1. TEMPERATURE CRITERIA FOR GROWTH AND SURVIVAL OF SHORT EXPOSURES
(24 HR) OF JUVENILE AND ADULT FISH DURING THE SUMMER (° C (° F))
Species
Alewife
Atlantic salmon
Bigmouth buffalo
Black crappie
Bluegill
Brook trout
Brown bullhead
Brown trout
Carp
Channel catfish
Coho salmon
Emerald shiner
Fathead minnow
Freshwater drum
Lake whitefish
Lake trout
Largeaouth baas
Northern pike
Purapkinseed
Rainbow smelt
Rainbow trout
Sauger
Soallmouth bass
Smallmouth buffalo
Sockeye salmon
Striped bass
Threadfin shad
Walleye
White bass
White crappie
White perch
White sucker
Yellow perch
Maximum weekly averagea
temperature for growth
—
20 (68)
-
27 (81)
32 (90)
19 (66)
"
17 (63)
~
32 (90)
IB (64)
30 (86)
"
17 (63)C
-
32 (90)
28 (82)
-
-
19 (66)
25 (77)
29 (84)
-
18 (64)
-
—
25 (77)
-
28 (82)
—
28 (82)c
29 (84)
Maximum temperature for b
survival of short exposure
-
23 (73)
—
—
35 (95)
24 (75)
—
24 (75)
—
35 (95)
24 (75)
-
-
25 (77)
--
34 (93)
30 (86)
--
--
24 (75)
--
-
—
22 (72)
--
—
—
—
--
—
—
-
Calculated according to equation:
maximum weekly average temperature for growth - optimum for growth
+ (1/3) (ultimate incipient lethal temperature - optimum for growth).
Baaed on: temperature (° C) - (log time (rain) - a)/b - 2" C, acclimation
at the maximum weekly average temperature for summer growth, and data in
Appendix B.
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26.4204
17,7125
28.3031
-0.6149
-0.4058
-b.6554
SHORT-TERM MAXIMUM DURING GROWTH SEASON
In addition to the MWAT, maximum temperature for short exposure will
protect against potential lethal effects. We have to assume that the incipient
lethal temperature data reflecting 50 percent survival necessary for this
calculation would be based on an acclimation temperature near the MWAT for
growth. Therefore, using the data in Appendix B for the channel catfish, we
find four possible data choices near the MWAT of 32° C (again it is preferable
to use data on juveniles or adults):
Acclimation temperature (° C) ji b_
30 32.1736 -0.7811
34
30
35
The formula for calculating the maximum for short exposure is:
temperature (°C) - Clog time (min) - a}/b
To solve the equation we must select a maximum time limitation on this
maximum for short exposure. Since the MWAT is a weekly mean temperature
an appropriate length of time for this limitation for short exposure would
be 24 hr without risking violation of the MWAT.
Since the time is fixed at 24 hr (1,440 min), we need to solve for
temperature by using, for example, the above acclimation temperature of 30° C
for which a = 32.1736 and b = -0.7811.
,0 _ log 1.440 -a
temperature (° C) = —s—£
ro r^^ 3.1584 -32.1736 -29.0152
temperature (° C) - _Q>7811 = -0.7811 '= 37'146
Upon solving for each of the four data points we obtain 37,1°, 37.8°, 35.9°, and
38.4° C. The average would be 37.3° C, and after subtracting the 2° C safety
factor to provide 100 percent survival, the short-term maximum for channel
catfish would be 35° C as appears in Table 1.
MAXIMUM WEEKLY AVERAGE TEMPERATURE FOR SPAWNING
From the data sheets in Apendix C one would use either the optimum
temperature for spawning or, if that is not available, the middle of the range
of temperatures for spawning. Again, if we use the channel catfish as an example,
the MWAT for spawning would be 27° C (Table 2). Since spawning may occur over
a period of a few weeks or months in a particular water body and only a MWAT
for optimum spawning is estimated, it would be logical to use that optimum for
the median time of the spawning season. The MWAT for the next earlier month
15
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TABLE 2. TEMPERATURE CRITERIA FOR SPAWNING AND EMBRYO SURVIVAL OF
SHORT EXPOSURES DURING THE SPAWNING SEASON (° C (° F))
Maximum weekly average
Alewlfe
Atlantic salmon
BIgmouth buffalo
Black crappie
Bluegill
Brook trout
Brown bullhead
Brown trout
Carp
Channel catfish
Coho salmon
Emerald shiner
Fathead minnow
Freshwater drum
Lake herring (cisco)
Lake whitefish
Lake trout
Largemouth bass
Northern pike
Pumpkinseed
Rainbow smelt
Rainbow trout
Sauger
Smallmouth bass
Smallmouth buffalo
Sockeye salmon
Striped bass
Threadfin shad
Walleye
Uhite bass
White crappie
White perch
Unite sucker
Yellow perch
22
5
17
17
25
9
24
8
21
27
10
24
24
21
3
5
9
21
11
25
a
9
12
17
21
10
18
19
8
17
18
15
10
12
(72)
(41)
(63)
(63)
(77)
(48)
(75)
(46)
(70)
(81)
(50)
(75)
(75)
(70)
(37)
(41)
(48)
(70)
(52)
(77)
(46)
(48)
(54)
(63)
(70)
(50)
(64)
(66)
(46)
(63)
(64)
(59)
(50)
(54)
Maximum tei
embryo
28
11
27
20
34
13
27
15
33
29
13
28
30
26
8
10
14
27
19
29
15
13
18
23
28
13
24
34
17
26
23
20
20
20
survival
<82)C
(52)
(81)1-
(68)c
(93)
(55)
(81)
(59)
(91)
(84)c
(55)c
(82)c
(86)
(79)
(46)
(50)c
(57)
(SI)'
(66)
(84)c
(59)
(55)
(64)
(73)c
(82)°
(55)
(75)
(93)
(63)°
(79)
(73)
(68)c
(68)
(68)
The optimum or mean of the range of spawning temperatures reported for the
species.
The upper temperature for successful incubation and hatching reported for
the species.
Upper temperature for spawning.
16
-------
could approximate the lower temperature of the range in spawning temperature,
and the MWAT for the last month of a 3-month spawning season could approximate
the upper temperature for the range. For example, if the channel catfish
spawned from April to June the MWAT's for the 3 months would be approximately
21°, 27°, and 29° C. For fall spawning fish species the pattern or sequence
of temperatures would be reversed because of naturally declining temperatures
during their spawning season.
SHORT-TERM MAXIMUM DURING SPAWNING SEASON
If spawning season maxima could be determined in the same manner as those
for the growing season, we would be using the time-temperature equation and
the Appendix B data as before. However, growing season data are based usually
on survival of juvenile and adult individuals. Egg-incubation temperature
requirements are more restrictive (lower), and this biological process would
not be protected by maxima based on data for juvenile and adult fish. Also,
spawning itself could be prematurely stopped if those maxima were achieved.
For most species the maximum spawning temperature approximates the maximum
successful incubation temperature. Consequently, the short-term maximum
temperature should preferably be based on maximum incubation temperature for
successful embryo survival, but the maximum temperature for spawning is an
acceptable alternative. In fact, the higher of the two is probably the
preferred choice as variability in available data has shown discrepancies in
this relationship for some species.
For the channel catfish (Appendix C)_ the maximum reported incubation
temperature is 28° C, and the maximum reported spawning temperature is 29° C,
Therefore, the best estimate of the short-term survival of embryos would be
29° C (Table 2).
MAXIMUM WEEKLY AVERAGE TEMPERATURE FOR WINTER
As discussed earlier the MWAT for winter is designed usually to prevent
fish deaths in the event the water temperature drops rapidly to an ambient
condition. Such a temperature drop could occur as the result of a power-plant
shutdown or a movement of the fish itself. These MWAT's are meant to apply
wherever fish can congregate, even if that is within the mixing zone.
Yellow perch require a long chill period during the winter for optimum
egg maturation and spawning (Appendix A). However, protection of this species
would be outside the mixing zone. In addition, the embryos of fall spawning
fish such as trout, salmon, and other related species such as cisco require
low incubation temperatures. For these species also the MWAT during winter
would have to consider embryo survival, but again, this would be outside the
mixing zone. The mixing zone, as used in this report, is that area adjacent
to the discharge in which receiving system water quality standards do not
apply; a thermal plume therefore is not a mixing zone.
With these exceptions in mind, it is unlikely that any signficant
effects on fish populations would occur as long as death was prevented.
17
-------
In many instances growth could be enhanced by controlled winter heat addition,
but inadequate food may result in poor condition of the fish.
There are fewer data for lower incipient lethal temperatures than for
the previously discussed upper incipient lethal temperatures. Appendix B
contains lower incipient lethal temperature data for only about 20 freshwater
fish species, less than half of which are listed in Tables 1 and 2. Consequently,
the available data were combined to calculate a regression line (Figure 1)
which gives a generalized MWAT for winter survival instead of the species
specific approach used in the other types of criteria.
All the lower incipient lethal temperature data from Appendix C for
freshwater fish species were used to calculate the regression line, which had
a slope of 0.50 and a correlation coefficient of 0.75. This regression line
was then displaced by approximately 2.5° C since it passed through the middle
of the data and did not represent the more sensitive species. This new line
on the edge of the data array was then displaced by a 2° C safety factor, the
same factor discussed earlier, to account for the fact that the original data
points were for 50 percent survival and the 2° C safety factor would result
in 100 percent survival. These two adjustments in the original regression
line therefore result in a line CFigure 11 that should insure no more than
negligible mortality of any fish species. At lower acclimation temperatures
the coldwater species were different from the warmwater species, and the resultant
criterion takes this into account.
If fish can congregate in an area close to the discharge point, this
criterion could be a limit on the degree rise permissible at a particular site.
Obviously, if there is a screened discharge channel in which some cooling
occurs, a higher initial discharge temperature could be permissible to fish.
An example of the use of this criterion (as plotted in the nomograph,
Figure 1) would be a situation in which the ambient water temperature is 10°
C, and the MWAT, where fish could congregate, is 25° C, a difference of 15°
C. At a lower ambient temperature of about 2.5° C, the MWAT would be 10° C
a 7.5° C difference.
18
-------
30(86)
UJ
cr
25(77)
o:
UJ
Q.
UJ
I- 20(68)
UJ
UJ
CD
15(59)
10(50)
WARMWATER
FISH SPECIES.
COLDWATER
FISH SPECIES
5(41)
0(32)
5(41) 10(50)
AMBIENT TEMPERATURE
15(59)
Figure 1. Nomograph to determine the maximum weekly average
temperature of plumes for various ambient temperatures,
19
-------
SECTION 5
EXAMPLES
Again, because precise thermal-effects data are not available for all
species, we would like to emphasize the necessity for subjective decisions
based on common-sense knowledge of existing aquatic systems. For some
fish species for which few or only relatively poor data are available,
subjectivity becomes important. If several qualified people were to calculate
various temperature criteria for species for which several sets of hi&h quality
data were available, it is unlikely that they would be in agreement in all
instances.
The following examples for warmwater and coldwater species are presented
only as examples and are not at all intended to be water-body-specific
recommendations. Local extenuating circumstances may warrant differences, or
the basic conditions of the examples may be slightly unrealistic. More
precise estimates of principal spawning and growth seasons should be
available from the local state fish departments.
EXAMPLE 1
Tables 1 and 2, Figure 1, and Appendix C are the principal data sources
for the criteria derived for this example. The following water-body-specific
data are necessary and in this example are hypothetical:
1. Species to be protected by the criteria: channel catfish, largemouth
bass, bluegill, white crappie, freshwater drum, and bigmouth buffalo.
2. Local spawning seasons for these species: April to June for the
white crappie and the bigmouth buffalo; other species, May to July.
3. Normal ambient winter temperature: 5° C in December and January;
10° C in November, February, and March.
4. The principal growing season for these fish species: July through
September.
5. Any local extenuating circumstances should be incorporated into the
criteria as appropriate. Some examples would be yellow perch gamete
maturation in the winter, very temperature-sensitive endangered species,
or important fish-food organisms that are very temperature sensitive. For
the example we will have no extenuating circumstances.
20
-------
In some instances the data will be insufficient to determine each
necessary criterion for each species. Estimates must be made based on
available species-specific data or by extrapolation from data for species with
similar requirements for which adequate data are available. For instance, this
example includes the bigmouth buffalo and freshwater drum for which no growth
or short-term summer maxima are available (Table 1). One would of necessity
have to estimate that the summer criteria would not be lower than that for the
white crappie, which has a spawning requirement as low as the other two
species.
The choice of important fish species is very critical. Since in this
example the white crappie is as temperature sensitive as any of the species,
the maximum weekly average temperature for summer growth is based on the
white crappie. Consequently, this criterion would result in lower than
optimal conditions for the channel catfish, bluegill, and largemouth bass.
An alternate approach would be to develop criteria for the single most
important species even if the most sensitive is not well protected. The
choice is a socioeconomic one.
Before developing a set of criteria such as those in Table 3, the material
material in Tables 1 and 2 should be studied for the species of concern. It is
evident that the lowest optimum temperature for summer growth for the species
for which data are available would be for the white crappie (28° C). However,
there is no maximum for short exposure since the data are not available (Appendix
C) . For the species for which there are data, the lowest maximum for short
exposure is for the largemouth bass (34° C). In this example we have all
the necessary data for spawning and maximum for short exposure for embryo
survival for all species of concern (Table 2)..
During the winter, criteria may be necessary both for the mixing zone as
well as for the receiving water. Receiving-water criteria would be necessary
if an important fish species were known to have gamete-maturation requirements
like the yellow perch, or embryo-incubation requirements like trout, salmon,
cisco, etc. In this example there is no need for receiving-system water criteria.
At this point, we are ready to complete Table 3 for Example 1.
EXAMPLE 2
All of the general concerns and data sources presented throughout the
discussion and derivation of Example 1 will apply here.
1. Species to be protected by the criteria: rainbow and brown trout
and the coho salmon.
2, Local spawning seasons for these species: November through January
for rainbow trout; and November through December for the brown trout and coho
salmon.
3. Normal ambient winter temperature: 2° C in November through February;
5° C in October, March, and April.
21
-------
TABLE 3. TEMPERATURE CRITERIA FOR EXAMPLE 1
Month
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
•Jovember
December
Maximum weekly average temperature, (° C (° F))
Receiving water Heated plume Decision basis
— a 15(59) Figure 1
~a 25(77) Figure 1
— a 35(77) Figure 1
18(64)k — White crappie spawning
21(70) — Largemouth bass spawning
25(77) — Bluegill spawning and
white crappie growth
28(82) — White crappie growth
28(82) — White crappie growth
28(82) — White crappie growth
21(70) — Normal gradual seasonal
decline
— a 25(77) Figure 1
— a 15(59) Figure 1
Month
January
February
March
April
May
June
July-
August
September
October
November
December
Short-term maximum Decision basis
None needed Control by MWAT in plume
None needed Control by MWAT in plume
None needed Control by MWAT in plume
26(79) Largemouth bass survival
(estimated)
29(84) Largemouth bassb survival
(estimated)
34(93) Largemouth bass^ survival
34(93) Largemouth bass0 survival
3M93) Largemouth bassb survival
34(93) Largemouth bass survival
29(84) Largemouth ba3sb survival
(estimated)
None needed Control by MWAT in plume
None needed Control by MWAT in plume
If a species had required a winter chill period for gamete maturation or egg incubation,
receiving-water criteria would also be required.
No data available for fhe•slightly more sensitive white crappie.
22
-------
4. The principal growing season for these fish species: June through
September.
5. Consider any local extenuating circumstances: There are none in
this example.
At this point, we are ready to complete Table 4 for Example 2.
23
-------
TABLE 4. TEMPERATURE CRITERIA FOR EXAMPLE 2
Month
January
February
torch
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
December
Month
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Maximum weekly average temperature, (° C (° F).)
Receiving water Heated plume Decision basis
9(48) 10(50) Rainbow trout spawning
and Figure 1
13(55) 10(50). Normal gradual seasonal
rise and Figure 1
13(55) 15(59) Normal gradual seasonal
rise and Figure 1
14(57) 15(59) Normal gradual seasonal
rise and Figure 1
16(61) — Normal gradual seasonal
rise
17 (63) — Brown trout growth
17(63) — Brown trout growth
17(63) — Brown trout growth
17(63) — Brown trout growth
12(54) 15(59) Normal gradual seasonal
decline
Figure 1
8(46) 10(50) Brown trout spawning and
Figure 1
b s
rainbow trout and
co ho salmon
13(55) Embryo survival for
rainbow trout and
coho salmon
rainbow trout and
coho salmon
-
survival of all species
24(75) Short-term maximum for
survival of ail species
24(75) Short-term maximum for
survival of all species
24(75) Short-term maximum for
survival of all species
_.
13(55) Embryo survival for
rainbow trout and
coho salmon
13(55) Embryo survival for
rainbow trout and
coho salmon
24
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REFERENCES
Brett, J. R. 19_52. Temperature tolerance in young Pacific salmon, genus
Oncorhynchus. J. Fish, Res. Board Can. 9:265-323,
1956. Some principles in the thermal requirements of fishes.
Quart. Rev. Biol, 31:75-87.
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration. National Technical Advisory
Committee. 19.68. Water Quality Criteria. U.S. Department of the Interior,
Washington, B.C. 245 p.
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration. 1969a. FWPCA Presentations
ORSANCO Engineering Committee. U.S. Department of the Interior,
Sixty-Ninth Meeting, Cincinnati, Ohio (May 13-14, 19691.
. 1969b. FWPCA Presentations ORSANCO Engineering Committee.
U.S. Department of the Interior, Seventieth Meeting, Cincinnati, Ohio
CSeptember 10, 1969)..
Fry, F. E. J., J, R, Brett, and G. H, Clawson. 1942. Lethal limits of
temperature for young goldfish. Rev. Can, Biol. 1:50-56.
Fry, F. E. J., J. S. Hart, and K, F. Walker. 1946. Lethal temperature
relations for a sample of young speckled trout, Salvelinus fontinalis.
Ontario Fish. Res. Lab, Pub, No. 66. Univ. Toronto Press, Toronto,
Can. pp. 9-35.
Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement. 1972. With Annexes and Texts and
Terms of Reference, Between the United States of America and Canada.
TS 548;36Stat.2448. (April 15, 19.721. 69 p.
McKee, J. E., and H. W. Wolf. 1963, Water Quality Criteria 12nd ed.J.
The Resources Agency of California Pub. No. 3-A., State Water Quality
Control Board, Sacramento, Calif. 548 p.
National Academy of Sciences and National Academy of Engineering (NAS/NAE).
1973. Water Quality Criteria 1972. A Report of the Committee on Water
Quality Criteria. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Pub. No. EPA-R3-
73-033. Washington, D.C. 553 p.
Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Commission (ORSANCO). Aquatic Life Advisory
Committee. 1956. Aquatic life water quality criteria —-second progress
report. Sew. Ind. Wastes 28:678-690.
25
-------
. 1967. Aquatic life water quality criteria T-—fourth progress
report. Env. Sci. Tech. 1:888-897.
, 1970. Notice of requirements (standards number 1-70 and 2-70)
pertaining to sewage and industrial wastes discharged to the Ohio
River. ORSANCO, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Public Law 92-500. 1972. An Act to Amend the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act. 92nd Congress, S. 2770, October 18, 1972. 86 STAT. 816
through 86 STAT 904.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 19-76. Quality Criteria for Water.
Office of Water and Hazardous Materials, Washington, D.C. EPA 440/9-
76-023, 501 p.
26
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APPENDICES
A Heat and Temperature (from the National Academy of Sciences
and National Academy of Engineering, 1973) 28
B Thermal Tables (from the National Academy of Sciences and
National Academy of Engineering, 1973) 51
C Fish Temperature Data (° C) 62
27
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APPENDIX A*
HEAT AND TEMPERATURE
Living organisms do not respond to the quantity of heat
but to degrees of temperature or to temperature changes
caused by transfer of heat. The importance of temperature
to acquatic organisms is well known, and the composition
of aquatic communities depends largely on the temperature
characteristics of their environment. Organisms have upper
and lower thermal tolerance limits, optimum temperatures
for growth, preferred temperatures in thermal gradients,
and temperature limitations for migration, spawning, and
egg incubation. Temperature also affects the physical
environment of the aquatic medium, (e.g., viscosity, degree
of ice cover, and oxygen capacity. Therefore, the com-
position of aquatic communities depends largely on tem-
perature characteristics of the environment. In recent
years there has been an accelerated demand for cooling
waters for power stations that release large quantities of
heat, causing, or threatening to cause, either a warming of
rivers, lakes, and coastal waters, or a rapid cooling when the
artificial sources of heat are abruptly terminated. For these
reasons, the environmental consequences of temperature
changes must be considered in assessments of water quality
requirements of aquatic organisms.
The "natural" temperatures of surface waters of the
United States vary from 0 C to over 40 G as a function of
latitude, altitude, season, time of day, duration of flow,
depth, and many other variables. The agents that affect
the natural temperature are so numerous that it is unlikely
that two bodies of water, even in the same latitude, would
have exactly the same thermal characteristics. Moreover, a
single aquatic habitat typically does not have uniform or
consistent thermal characteristics. Since all aquatic or-
ganisms (with the exception of aquatic mammals and a
few large, fast-swimming fish) have body temperatures that
conform to the water temperature, these natural variations
create conditions that are optimum at times, but are
generally above or below optima for. particular physio-
logical, behavioral, and competitive functions of the species
present.
Because significant temperature changes may affect the
composition of an aquatic or wildlife community, an
induced change in the thermal characteristics of an eco-
*From:National Academy of Sciences (1973)
system may be detrimental. On the other hand, altered
thermal characteristics may be beneficial, as evidenced in
most fish hatchery practices and at other aquacultural
facilities. (See the discussion of Aquaculture in Section IV.)
The general difficulty in developing suitable criteria for
temperature (which would limit the addition of heat) lies
in determining the deviation from "natural" temperature a
particular body of water can experience without suffering
adverse effects on its biota. Whatever requirements are
suggested, a "natural" seasonal cycle must be retained,
annual spring and fall changes in temperature must be
gradual, and large unnatural day-to-day fluctuations
should be avoided. In view of the many variables, it seems
obvious that no single temperature requirement can be
applied uniformly to continental or large regional areas;
the requirements must be closely related to each body of
water and to its particular community of organisms,
especially the important species found in it. These should
include invertebrates, plankton, or other plant and animal
life that may be of importance to food chains or otherwise
interact with species of direct interest to man. Since thermal
requirements of various species differ, the social choice of
the species to be protected allows for different "levels of
protection" among water bodies as suggested by DoudorofT
and Shumway (1970)272 for dissolved oxygen criteria. (See
Dissolved Oxygen, p. 131.) Although such decisions clearly
transcend the scientific judgments needed in establishing
thermal criteria for protecting selected species, biologists can
aid in making them. Some measures useful in assigning
levels of importance to species are: (1) high yield to com-
mercial or sport fisheries, (2) large biomass in the existing
ecosystem (if desirable), (3) important links in food chains
of other species judged important for other reasons, and
(4) "endangered" or unique status. If it is desirable to
attempt strict preservation of an existing ecosystem, the
most sensitive species or life stage may dictate the criteria
selected.
Criteria for making recommendations for water tem-
perature to protect desirable aquatic life cannot be simply a
maximum allowed change from "natural temperatures."
This is principally because a change of even one degree from
. See pp. 151-171, 205-207.
28
-------
152/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
an ambient temperature has varying significance for an
organism, depending upon where the ambient level lies
within the tolerance range. In addition, historic tempera-
ture records or, alternatively, the existing ambient tempera-
ture prior to any thermal alterations by man are not always
reliable indicators of desirable conditions for aquatic
populations. Multiple developments of water resources also
change water temperatures both upward (e.g., upstream
power plants or shallow reservoirs) and downward (e.g.,
deep water releases from large reservoirs), so that "ambient"
and "natural" are exceedingly difficult to define at a given
point over periods of several years.
Criteria for temperature should consider both the multiple
thermal requirements of aquatic species and requirements
for balanced communities. The number of distance require-
ments and the necessary values for each require periodic
reexamination as knowledge of thermal effects on aquatic
species and communities increases. Currently definable
requirements include:
• maximum sustained temperatures that are con-
sistent with maintaining desirable levels of pro-
ductivity ;
• maximum levels of metabolic acclimation to warm
temperatures that will permit return to ambient
winter temperatures should artificial sources of
heat cease;
• temperature limitations for survival of brief exposures
to temperature extremes, both upper and lower;
• restricted temperature ranges for various stages of
reproduction, including (for fish) gonad growth and
gamete maturation, spawning migration, release of
gametes, development of the embryo, commence-
ment of independent feeding (and other activities)
by juveniles; and temperatures required for meta-
morphosis, emergence, and other activities of lower
forms;
• thermal limits for diverse compositions of species of
aquatic communities, particularly where reduction
in diversity creates nuisance growths of certain
organisms, or where important food sources or
chains are altered;
• thermal requirements of downstream aquatic life
where upstream warming of a cold-water source will
adversely affect downstream temperature require-
ments.
Thermal criteria must also be formulated with knowledge
of how man alters temperatures, the hydrodynamics of the
changes, and how the biota can reasonably be expected to
interact with the thermal regimes produced. It is not
sufficient, for example, to define only the thermal criteria
for sustained production of a species in open waters, because
large numbers of organisms may also be exposed to thermal
changes by being pumped through the condensers and
mixing zone of a power plant. Design engineers need
particularly to know the biological limitations to their
design options in such instances. Such considerations may
reveal nonthermal impacts of cooling processes that may
outweigh temperature effects, such as impingement of fish
upon intake screens, mechanical or chemical damage to
zooplankton in condensers, or effects of altered current
patterns on bottom fauna in a discharge area. The environ-
mental situations of aquatic organisms (e.g., where they
are, when they are there, in what numbers) must also be
understood. Thermal criteria for migratory species should
be applied to a certain area only when the species is actually
there. Although thermal effects of power stations are
currently of great interest, other less dramatic causes of
temperature change including deforestation, stream chan-
nelization, and impoundment of flowing water must be
recognized.
DEVELOPMENT OF CRITERIA
Thermal criteria necessary for the protection of species or
communities are discussed separately below. The order of
presentation of the different criteria does not imply priority
for any one body of water. The descriptions define preferred
methods and procedures for judging thermal requirements,
and generally do not give numerical values (except in
Appendix II-C). Specific values for all limitations would
require a biological handbook that is far beyond the scope
of this Section. The criteria may seem complex, but they
represent an extensively developed framework of knowledge
about biological responses. (A sample application of these
criteria begins on page 166, Use of Temperature Criteria.)
TERMINOLOGY DEFINED
Some basic thermal responses of aquatic organisms will
be referred to repeatedly and are defined and reviewed
briefly here. Effects of heat on organisms and aquatic
communities have been reviewed periodically (e.g., Bullock
1955,269 Brett 1956;253 Fry 1947,276 1964,278 1967;279 Kinne
1970296). Some effects have been analyzed in the context of
thermal modification by power plants (Parker and Krenkel
1969;308 Krenkel and Parker 1969;298 Cairns 1968;261 Clark
1969;263 and Coutant 1970c269). Bibliographic information
is available from Kennedy and Mihursky (1967),294 Raney
and Menzel (1969),313 and from annual reviews published
by the Water Pollution Control Federation (Coutant
1968,265 1969,266 1970a,267 1971270).
Each species (and often each distinct life-stage of a species)
has a characteristic tolerance range of temperature as a
consequence of acclimations (internal biochemical adjust-
ments) made while at previous holding temperature (Figure
III-2; Brett 1956253). Ordinarily, the ends of this range, or
the lethal thresholds, are defined by survival of 50 per cent
of a sample of individuals. Lethal thresholds typically are
referred to as "incipient lethal temperatures," and tem-
perature beyond these ranges would be considered "ex-
29
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Heat and Temperature/'153
treme." The tolerance range is adjusted upward by ac-
climation to warmer water and downward to cooler water,
although there is a limit to such accommodation. The
lower end of the range usually is at zero degrees centigrade
(32 F) for species in temperate latitudes (somewhat less for
saline waters), while the upper end terminates in an
"ultimate incipient lethal temperature" (Fry et al. 1946281).
This ultimate threshold temperature represents the "break-
ing point" between the highest temperatures to which an
animal can be acclimated and the lowest of the extreme
temperatures that will kill the warm-acclimated organism.
Any rate of temperature change over a period of minutes
Ultimate incipient lethal temperature
25 I
20
"»
3 10
«J
s.
I
1
lethal threshold 5%
^- — loading level
I (activity growth)
,
I inhibiting level
I (spawning)
10
15
20
25
Acclimation temperature—Centigrade
After Brett 1960 254
FIGURE 111-2—Upper and lower lethal temperatures for
young sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) plotted to
show the zone of tolerance. Within this zone two other zones
are represented to illustrate (1) an area b°\ond which growth
would be poor to none-at-all under the influence of the loading
effect of metabolic demand, and (2) an area beyond which
temperature is likely to inhibit normal reproduction.
100 1,000
Time to 50% mortality—Minutes
10,000
After Brett 1952 252
FIGURE III-3—Median resistance times to high tempera-
tures among young chinook (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha)
acclimated to temperatures indicated. Line A-B denotes
rising lethal threshold (incipient lethal temperatures) with
increasing acclimation temperature. This rise eventually
ceases at the ultimate lethal threshold (ultimate upper
incipient lethal temperature), line B-C.
to a few hours will not greatly affect the thermal tolerance
limits, since acclimation to changing temperatures requires
several days (Brett 1941).261
At the temperatures above and below the incipient lethal
temperatures, survival depends not only on the temperature
but also on the duration of exposure, with mortality oc-
curring more rapidly the farther the temperature is from
the threshold (Figure III-3). (See*Coutant 1970am and
1970b268 for further discussion based on both field and
laboratory studies.) Thus, organisms respond to extreme
high and low temperatures in a manner similar to the
dosage-response pattern which is common to toxicants,
Pharmaceuticals, and radiation (Bliss 1937).249 Such tests
seldom extend beyond one week in duration.
MAXIMUM ACCEPTABLE TEMPERATURES FOR
PROLONGED EXPOSURES
Specific criteria for prolonged exposure (1 week or longer)
must be defined for warm and for cold seasons. Additional
criteria for gradual temperature (and life cycle) changes
during reproduction and development periods are dis-
cussed on pp. 162-165.
30
-------
154: /Section Hi—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
SPRING, SUMMER, AND FALL MAXIMA FOR
PROLONGED EXPOSURE
Occupancy of habitats by most aquatic organisms is
often limited within the thermal tolerance range to tem-
peratures somewhat below the ultimate upper incipient
lethal temperature. This is the result of poor physiological
performance at near lethal levels (e.g., growth, metabolic
scope for activities, appetite, _food conversion efficiency),
• interspecies competition, disease, predation, and other
subtle ecological factors (Fry 195 1;277 Brett 197 1266). This
complex limitation is evidenced by restricted southern and
altitudinal distributions of many species. On the other hand,
optimum temperatures (such as those producing fastest
growth rates) are not generally necessary at all times to
maintain thriving populations and are often exceeded in
nature during summer months (Fry 1951 ;277 Cooper 1953 ;264
Beyerle and Cooper I960;246 Kramer and Smith I960297).
Moderate temperature fluctuations can generally be
tolerated as long as a maximum upper limit is not exceeded
for long periods.
A true temperature limit for exposures long enough to
reflect metabolic acclimation and optimum ecological per-
formance must lie somewhere between the physiological
optimum and the ultimate upper incipient lethal tempera-
tures. Brett (I960)254 suggested that a provisional long-
term exposure limit be the temperature greater than opti-
mum that allowed 75 per cent of optimum performance.
His suggestion has not been tested by definitive studies.
Examination of literature on performance, metabolic
rate, temperature preference, growth, natural distribution,
and tolerance of several species has yielded an apparently
sound theoretical basis for estimating an upper temperature
limit for long term exposure and a method for doing this
with a minimum of additional research. New data will
provide refinement, but this method forms a useful guide
for the present time. The method is based on the general
observations summarized here and in Figure 1 1 1-4 (a, b, c).
1 . Performances of organisms over a range of tempera-
tures are available in the scientific literature for a variety of
functions. Figures III-4a and b show three characteristic
types of responses numbered 1 through 3, of which types 1
and 2 have coinciding optimum peaks. These optimum
temperatures are characteristic for a species (or life stage).
2. Degrees of impairment from optimum levels of
various performance functions are not uniform with in-
creasing temperature above the optimum for a single species.
The most sensitive function appears to be growth rate, for
which a temperature of zero growth (with abundant food)
can be determined for important species and life stages.
Growth rate of organisms appears to be an integrator of all
factors acting on an organism. Growth rate should probably
be expressed as net biomass gain or net growth (McCormick
et al. 197 1)302 of the population, to account for deaths.
3. The maximum temperature at which several species
are consistently found in nature (Fry 1951;277 Narver
1970)306 lies near the average of the optimum temperature
and the temperature of zero net growth.
4. Comparison of patterns in Figures III-4a and b
among different species indicates that while the trends are
similar, the optimum is closer to the lethal level in some
species than it is in sockeye salmon. Invertebrates exhibit a
pattern of temperature effects on growth rate that is very
similar to that of fish (Figure III-4c).
The optimum temperature may be influenced by rate of
feeding. Brett et al. (1969)267 demonstrated a shift in opti-
mum toward cooler temperatures for sockeye salmon when
ration was restricted. In a similar experiment with channel
catfish, Andrews and Stickney (1972)242 could see no such
shift. Lack of a general shift in optimum may be due to
compensating changes in activity of the fish (Fry personal
observation).^6
These observations suggest that an average of the opti-
mum temperature and the temperature of zero net growth
[(opt. temp. + z.n.g. temp)/2] would be a useful estimate of
a limiting weekly mean temperature for resident organisms,
providing the peak temperatures do not exceed values
recommended for short-term exposures. Optimum growth
rate would generally be reduced to no lower than 80 per cent
of the maximum if the limiting temperature is as averaged
above (Table III-ll). This range of reduction from opti-
mum appears acceptable, although there are no quantita-
tive studies available that would allow the criterion to be
based upon a specific level of impairment.
The criteria for maximum upper temperature must allow
for seasonal changes, because different life stages of many
species will have different thermal requirements for the
average of their optimum and zero net growths. Thus a
juvenile fish in May will be likely to have a lower maximum
acceptable temperature than will the same fish in July, and
this must be reflected in the thermal criteria for a waterbody.
TABLE III-ll—Summary of Some Upper Limiting
Temperatures in C, (for periods longer than one week)
Based Upon Optimum Temperatures and Temperatures
of Zero Net Growth.
Cnarloc
species
Catostomus commersoni (white sucker) . . .
Coregonus artedii (Cisco or lake herring) . .
Ictalurus punctatus (channel catfish)
. . . ."
Lepomis macrochirus (bluegill) (year II). . . .
Micropterus salmoides (largemouth bass). .
Notropis atherinoides (emerald shiner). . . .
Salvelinus fontinalis (brook trout)
.. 27
. . 16
. 30
. 30
. 22
.. 27.5
. 27
. 15.4
growth
29.6
21.2
35.7
35.7
28.5
34
33
18.8
*
McCormick et al.
197iaoz
Strawn 1970»»
Andrews and Stickney
McComish1971"»
Strawn 1961s"
*
opt+z.n.g.
2
28.3
18.G
32.8
32.8
25.3
30.8
30.5
17.1
%of
optimum
86
82
94
88
82
83
83
80
"National Water Quality Laboratory, Duluth, Minn., unpublished data.1"
31
-------
Heat and Temperature/155
100
90 —
10 15
Acclimation Temperature C
20
After Brett 1971256
FIGURE III-4a—Performance of Sockeye Salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) in Relation to Acclimation Temperature
32
-------
156/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
While this approach to developing the maximum sus- sizeable body of data on the ultimate incipient lethal
tamed temperature appears justified on the basis of available temperature that could serve as a substitute for the data on
knowledge, few limits can be derived from existing data in temperature of zero net growth. A practical consideration
the literature on zero growth. On the other hand, there is a in recommending criteria is the time required to conduct
100
20
10 15
Acclimation Temperature C
After Brett 1971256
FIGURE IH-4b—Performance of Sockeye Salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) in Relation to Acclimation Temperature
33
-------
Heat and Temperature/'157
research necessary to provide missing data. Techniques for
determining incipient lethal temperatures are standardized
(Brett 1952)262 whereas those for zero growth are not.
A temperature that is one-third of the range between the
optimum temperature and the ultimate incipient lethal
temperature that can be calculated by the formula
ultimate incipient lethal temp.—optimum temp.
optimum temp. +
(Equation 1)
yields values that are very close to (optimum temp. +
z.n.g. temp.)/2. For example, the values are, respectively,
32.7 and 32.8 C for channel catfish and 30.6 and 30.8 for
largemouth bass (data from Table III-8 and Appendix II).
This formula offers a practical method for obtaining allow-
200 -
150 -
•5- 100 -
Temperature in C
Ansell 1968 243
FIGURE III-4c—M. mercenaria: The general relationship
between temperature and the rate of shell growth, based on
field measurements of growth and temperature.
•: sites in Poole Harbor, England; Q: North American sites.
able limits, while retaining as its scientific basis the require-
ments of preserving adequate rates of growth. Some limits
obtained from data in the literature are given in Table
111-12. A hypothetical example of the effect of this limit on
growth of largemouth bass is illustrated in Figure III-5.
Figure III-5 shows a hypothetical example of the effects
of the limit on maximum weekly average temperature on
growth rates of juvenile largemouth bass. Growth data as a
function of temperature are from Strawn 1961319; the ambi-
ent temperature is an averaged curve for Lake Norman,
N. C., adapted from data supplied by Duke Power Com-
pany. A general temperature elevation of 10 F is used to
provide an extreme example. Incremental growth rates
(mm/wk) are plotted on the main figure, while annual ac-
cumulated growth is plotted in the inset. Simplifying as-
sumptions were that growth rates and the relationship of
growth rate to temperature were constant throughout the
year, and that there would be sufficient food to sustain
maximum attainable growth rates at all times.
The criterion for a specific location would be determined
by the most sensitive life stage of an important species
likely to be present in that location at that time. Since
many fishes have restricted habitats (e.g., specific depth
zones) at many life stages, the thermal criterion must be
applied to the proper zone. There is field evidence that fish
avoid localized areas of unfavorably warm water. This has
been demonstrated both in lakes where coldwater fish
normally evacuate warm shallows in summer (Smith
1964)318 and at power station mixing zones (Gammon
1970;282 Merriman et al. 1965).304 In most large bodies of
water there are both vertical and horizontal thermal
gradients that mobile organisms can follow to avoid un-
favorable high (or low) temperatures.
The summer maxima need not, therefore, apply to
mixing zones that occupy a small percentage of the suitable
habitat or necessarily to all zones where organisms have
free egress to cooler water. The maxinja must apply, how-
ever, to restricted local habitats, such as lake hypolimnia or
thermoclines, that provide important summer sanctuary
areas for cold-water species. Any avoidance of a warm area
not part of the normal seasonal habitat of the species will
mean that less area of the water body is available to support
the population and that production may be reduced. Such
reduction should not interfere with biological communities
or populations of important species to a degree that is
damaging to the ecosystem or other beneficial uses. Non-
mobile organisms that must remain in the warm zone will
probably be the limiting organisms for that location. Any
recommendation for upper limiting temperatures must be
applied carefully with understanding of the population
dynamics of the species in question in order to establish
both local and regional requirements.
34
-------
158/Section Hi—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
250 —
Annual Accumulated Growth
Elevated (with limit)
Elevated (without limit)
2 4 6 8 10 12
Weeks
Ambient + 10 F
Average Ambient
(Lake Norman, N.C.)
Weekly Growth Rate
(Ambient + 10 F)
Weekly Growth Rate
(Ambient)
7 14 21 28 4 11 18 25 4 11 18 25 1
JAN. FEB. MAR.
15 22 29 6 13 20 27 3 10 17 24 1
APR. MAY JUNE
35
-------
Heat and Temperature /159
FIGURE III-5—A hypothetical example of the effects of the limit on maximum weekly
average temperature on growth rates of juvenile largemouth bass. Growth data as a function
of temperature are from Strawn 1961; the ambient temperature is an averaged curve for Lake
Norman, N.C., adapted from data supplied by Duke Power Company. A general temperature
elevation of 10 F is used to provide an extreme example. Incremental growth rates (mm/wk )
are plotted on the main figure, while annual accumulated growth is plotted in the inset.
Simplifying assumptions were that growth rates and the relationship of growth rate to tem-
perature were constant throughout the year, and that there would be sufficient food to sus-
tain maximum attainable growth rates at all times.
Max. Weekly Avg., largemouth bass
\
with limit
Incremental
Growth Rates
(mm/wk)
\ without limit
38
36
34
32
30
28
26
24
g
-------
160/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE 111-12—Summary of Some Upper Limiting Temperatures for Prolonged Exposures of Fishes Based on Optimum Tem-
peratures and Ultimate Upper Incipient Lethal Temperatures (Equation 1).
Species
Catostomus commersoni (white sucker)
Coregonus artedii (Cisco or lake herring)
Ictalurus punctatus (channel catfish)
Lepomis macrochirus (bluegill) (yr II)
Micropterus dolomieu (smallmouth bass) ....
Micropterussalmoides(largemouthbassXfry).
Notropis atherinoides (emerald shiner)
Oncorhynchus nerka (sockeye salmon)
(juveniles)
Pseudopleuronectes Americanus (winter
flounder)
Saimo trutta (brown trout)
Salvelinus tontinalis (brook trout)
Salvelinus namaycush (lake trout)
Optimum
C
27
16
30
22
26.3
28.3
ave 27.3
27.5
27
15.0
15.0
15.0
18.0
8 to 17
ave 12.5
15.4
13.0
15
ave 14.5
16
17
ave 16.5
F
80.6
60.8
86
71.6
83
83
81.1
81.5
80.6
59.0
59.0
64.4
54.5
59.7
55.4
59
58.1
60.8
62.6
61.7
— Function
growth
growth
growth
growth
growth
growth
growth
growth
growth
other (unctions
max. swimming
growtlf
growth
growth
growth
metabolic
scope
scope for activity
(2 metabolism)
swi mming speed
Reference
unpubl., NWQI.328
McCormlck et al. 1971 sm
Strawn 1970;"° Andrews and Stickney
19712"
McComish 19713"1
Anderson 1959s"
Horning and Pearson 1972281
Peek 1965'°"
Strawn 1961"'
unpubl., NWQL»2a
Brett et al. 196925'
Brett 1971256
Brett 19702"
Brett 19702"
unpubl, NWQL»2«
Baldwin 19572"
Graham 1949'"
Gibson and Fry 19542*3
Ultimate upper incipient
lethal temperature
C F
29.3
25.7
38.0
33.8
35.0
36.4
30.7
25.0
29.1
23.5
25.5
23.5
84.7
78.3
100.4
92.8
95.0
97.5
87.3
77.0
84.4
74.3
77.9
Maximum weekly average
Reference temperature (Eq 1)
C F
Hart 1947»
Edsall and Colby 1970"'
Allen and Strawn 1968"°
Hart 19522»5
Horning and Pearson 1972231
Hart 1952285
Hart 19522M
Brett 1952252
Holt and Westman 1966=»s
Bishai 19602"
Fry, Hart and Walker, 19462"
Gibson and Fry 1954™
27.8
19.2
32.7
25.9
29.9
30.5
28.2
18.3
21.8
16.2
18.2
18.8
82
66.6
90.9
78.6
85.8
86.7
82.8
64.9
71.2
61.2
64.8
65.8
Heat added to upper reaches of some cold rivers can be
retained throughout the river's remaining length (Jaske
and Synoground 1970).292 This factor adds to the natural
trend of warming at distances from headwaters. Thermal
additions in headwaters, therefore, may contribute sub-
stantially to reduction of cold-water species in downstream
areas (Mount 1970).305 Upstream thermal additions should
be evaluated for their effects on summer maxima at down-
stream locations, as well as in the immediate vicinity of
the heat source.
Recommendation
Growth of aquatic organisms would be main-
tained at levels necessary for sustaining actively
growing and reproducing populations if the maxi-
mum weekly average temperature in the zone in-
habited by the species at that time does not exceed
one-third of the range between the optimum tem-
perature and the ultimate upper incipient lethal
temperature of the species (Equation 1, page 157),
and the temperatures above the weekly average do
not exceed the criterion for short-term exposures.
This maximum need not apply to acceptable mix-
ing zones (see proportional relationships of mixing
zones to receiving systems, p. 114), and must be
applied with adequate understanding of the normal
seasonal distribution of the important species.
WINTER MAXIMA
Although artificially produced temperature elevations
during winter months may actually bring the temperature
closer to optimum or preferred temperature for important
species and attract fish (Trembley 1965),321 metabolic
acclimation to these higher levels can preclude safe return
of the organism to ambient temperatures should the
artificial heating suddenly cease (Pennsylvania Fish Com-
mission 1971;310 Robinson 1970)316 or the organism be
driven from the heat area. For example, sockeye salmon
(Oncorhynchus nerka) acclimated to 20 C suffered 50 percent
mortality in the laboratory when their temperature was
dropped suddenly to 5 C (Brett 1971:256 see Figure III-3).
The same population of fish withstood a drop to zero when
acclimated to 5 C. The lower limit of the range of thermal
tolerance of important species must, therefore, be main-
tained at the normal seasonal ambient temperatures
throughout cold seasons, unless special provisions are made
to assure that rapid temperature drop will not occur or that
organisms cannot become acclimated to elevated tempera-
tures. This can be accomplished by limitations on tempera-
ture elevations in such areas as discharge canals and mixing
zones where organisms may reside, or by insuring that
maximum temperatures occur only in areas not accessible
to important aquatic life for lengths of time sufficient to
allow metabolic acclimation. Such inaccessible areas would
include the high-velocity zones of diffusers or screened dis-
37
-------
Heat and Temperature /161
charge channels. This reduction of maximum temperatures
would not preclude use of slightly warmed areas as sites for
intense winter fisheries.
This consideration may be important in some regions at
times other than in winter. The Great Lakes, for example,
are susceptible to rapid changes in elevation of the thermo-
cline in summer which may induce rapid decreases in
shoreline temperatures. Fish acclimated to exceptionally
high temperatures in discharge canals may be killed or
severely stressed without changes in power plant opera-
tions (Robinson 1968).314 Such regions should take special
note of this possibility.
Some numerical values for acclimation temperatures and
lower limits of tolerance ranges (lower incipient lethal
temperatures) are given in Appendix II-C. Other data must
be provided by further research. There are no adequate
data available with which to estimate a safety factor for no
stress from cold shocks. Experiments currently in progress,
however, suggest that channel catfish fingerlings are more
susceptible to predation after being cooled more than 5 to
6 C (Goutant, unpublished data).324
The effects of limiting ice formation in lakes and rivers
should be carefully observed. This aspect of maximum
winter temperatures is apparent, although there is insuffi-
cient evidence to estimate its importance.
Recommendation
Important species should be protected if the
maximum weekly average temperature during win-
ter months in any area to which they have access
does not exceed the acclimation temperature
(minus a 2 C safety factor) that raises the lower
lethal threshold temperature of such species above
the normal ambient water temperatures for that
season, and the criterion for short-term exposures
is not exceeded. This recommendation applies es-
pecially to locations where organisms may be at-
tracted from the receiving water and subjected to
rapid thermal drop, as in the low velocity areas of
water diversions (intake or discharge), canals, and
mixing zones.
SHORT-TERM EXPOSURE TO EXTREME TEMPERATURE
To protect aquatic life and yet allow other uses of the
water, it is essential to know the lengths of time organisms
can survive extreme temperatures (i.e., temperatures that
exceed the 7-day incipient lethal temperature). Both
natural environments and power plant cooling systems can
briefly reach temperature extremes (both upper and lower)
without apparent detrimental effect to the aquatic life
(Fry 1951 ;277 Becker et al. 1971).245
The length of time that 50 per cent of a population will
survive temperature above the incipient lethal temperature
can be calculated from a regression equation of experi-
mental data (such as those in Figure 111-3) as follows:
log (time) =a+b (temp.) (Equation 2)
where time is expressed in minutes, temperature in degrees
centigrade and where a and b are intercept and slope,
respectively, which are characteristics of each acclimation
temperature for each species. In some cases the time-
temperature relationship is more complex than the semi-
logarithmic model given above. Equation 2, however, is
the most applicable, and is generally accepted by the
scientific community (Fry 1967).279 Caution is recom-
mended in extrapolating beyond the data limits of the
original research (Appendix II-C). The rate of temperature
change does not appear to alter this equation, as long as the
change occurs more rapidly than over several days (Brett
1941.251 Lgrnke 1970).30° Thermal resistance may be
diminished by the simultaneous presence of toxicants or
other debilitating factors (Ebel et al. 1970,273 and summary
by Coutant 1970c).269 The most accurate predictability can
be derived from data collected using water from the site
under evaluation.
Because the equations based on research on thermal
tolerance predict 50 per cent mortality, a safety factor is
needed to assure no mortality. Several studies have indi-
cated that a 2 C reduction of an upper stress temperature
results in no mortalities within an equivalent exposure
duration (Fry et al. 1942;280 Black 1953).248 The validity
of a two degree safety factor was strengthened by the results
of Coutant (1970a).267 He showed that about 15 to 20
per cent of the exposure time, for median mortality at a given
high temperature, induced selective predation on thermally
shocked salmon and trout. (This also amounted to reduction
of the effective stress temperature by about 2 C.) Un-
published data from subsequent predation experiments
showed that this reduction of about 2 C also applied to the
incipient lethal temperature. The level at which there is no
increased vulnerability to predation is the best estimate of a
no-stress exposure that is currently available. No similar
safety factor has been explored for tolerance of low tem-
peratures. Further research may determine that safety
factors, as well as tolerance limits, have to be decided
independently for each species, life stage, and water quality
situation.
Information needed for predicting survival of a number
of species of fish and invertebrates under short-term condi-
tions of heat extremes is presented in Appendix II-C. This
information includes (for each acclimation temperature)
upper and lower incipient lethal temperatures: coefficients
a and b for the thermal resistance equation; and information
on size, life stage, and geographic source of the species.
It is clear that adequate data are available for only a small
percentage of aquatic species, and additional research is
necessary. Thermal resistance information should be
obtained locally for critical areas to account for simul-
38
-------
162/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
taneous presence of toxicants or other debilitating factors,
a consideration not reflected in Appendix II-C data. More
data are available for upper lethal temperatures than for
lower.
The resistance time equation, Equation 2, can be
rearranged to incorporate the 2 C margin of safety and also
to define conditions for survival (right side of the equation
less than or equal to 1) as follows:
1 >
time
JQ[a+b(temp.+2)]
(Equation 3)
Low levels of mortality of some aquatic organisms are not
necessarily detrimental to ecosystems, because permissible
mortality levels can be established. This is how fishing or
shellnshing activities are managed. Many states and inter-
national agencies have established elaborate systems for
setting an allowable rate of mortality (for sport and com-
mercial fish) in order to assure needed reproduction and
survival. (This should not imply, however, that a form of
pollution should be allowed to take the entire harvestable
yield.) Warm discharge water from a power plant may
sufficiently stimulate reproduction of some organisms (e.g.,
zooplankton), such that those killed during passage through
the maximally heated areas are replaced within a few hours,
and no impact of the mortalities can be found in the open
water (Churchill and Wojtalik 1969;262 Heinle 1969).288
On the other hand, Jensen (1971)293 calculated that even
five percent additional mortality of 0-age brook trout
(Salvelinus fontinalis) decreased the yield of the trout fishery,
and 50 per cent additional mortality would, theoretically.
cause extinction of the population. Obviously, there can be
no adequate generalization concerning the impact of short-
term effects on entire ecosystems, for each case will be
somewhat different. Future research must be directed
toward determining the effects of local temperature stresses
on population dynamics. A complete discussion will not be
attempted here. Criteria for complete short-term protection
may not always be necessary and should be applied with an
adequate understanding of local conditions.
Recommendation
Unless there is justifiable reason to believe it
unnecessary for maintenance of populations of a
species, the right side of Equation 3 for that
species should not be allowed to increase above
unity when the temperature exceeds the incipient
lethal temperature minus 2 C:
1 >
time
JQ[u+6(temp.+2)]
Values for a and b at the appropriate acclimation
temperature for some species can be obtained from
Appendix II-C or through additional research if
necessary data are not available. This recommen-
dation applies to all locations where organisms to
be protected are exposed, including areas within
mixing zones and water diversions such as power
station cooling water.
REPRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT
The sequence of events relating to gonad growth and
gamete maturation, spawning migration, release of gametes,
development of the egg and embryo, and commencement
of independent feeding represents one of the most complex
phenomena in nature, both for fish (Brett 1970)265 and
invertebrates (Kinne 1970).296 These events are generally
the most thermally sensitive of all life stages. Other environ-
mental factors, such as light and salinity, often seasonal in
nature, can also profoundly affect the response to tempera-
ture (Wiebe 1968).323 The general physiological state of the
organisms (e.g., energy reserves), which is an integration of
previous history, has a strong effect on reproductive poten-
tial (Kinne 1970).296 The erratic sequence of failures and
successes of different year classes of lake fish attests to the
unreliability of natural conditions for providing optimum
reproduction.
Abnormal, short-term temperature fluctuations appear to
be of greatest significance in reduced production of juvenile
fish and invertebrates (Kinne, 1963).296 Such thermal
fluctuations can be a prominent consequence of water use
as in hydroelectric power (rapid changes in river flow rates),
thermal electric power (thermal discharges at fluctuating
power levels), navigation (irregular lock releases), and
irrigation (irregular water diversions and wasteway re-
leases). Jaske and Synoground (1970)292 have documented
such temperature changes due to interacting thermal and
hydroelectric discharges on the Columbia River.
Tolerable limits or variations of temperature change
throughout development, and particularly at the most
sensitive life stages, differ among species. There is no
adequate summary of data on such thermal requirements
for successful reproduction. The data are scattered through
many years of natural history observations (however, see
Breder and Rosen 1966250 for a recent compilation of some
data; also see Table 111-13). High priority must be assigned
to summarizing existing information and obtaining that
which is lacking.
Uniform elevations of temperature by a few degrees
during the spawning period, while maintaining short-term
temperature cycles and seasonal thermal patterns, appear
to have little overall effect on the reproductive cycle of
resident aquatic species, other than to advance the timing
for spring spawners or delay it for fall spawners. Such shifts
are often seen in nature, although no quantitative measure-
ments of reproductive success have been made in this
connection. For example, thriving populations of many
fishes occur in diverse streams of the Tennessee Valley in
which the date of the spawning temperature may vary in a
39
-------
Heat and Temperature/163
TABLE 111-13—Spawning Requirements of Some Fish, Arranged in Ascending Order of Spawning Temperatures
(Adapted from Wojtalik, T. A., unpublished manuscript)*
Fishes
Temp. (C) Spawning site
Range in spawning depth Daily spawning time
Egg site
Incubation period
days (Temp. C)
Sauger
Sfcostedion canadense 5.0 Shallow gravel bars 2-4feet
Walleye
S. vitreum vitreum 7.0 Gravel, rubble, boulders on bat 3-10leet
Longnose gar
Lepisosteus osseus 10.8 Flooded shallows Flooded shallows
White bass
Morone chrysops 11.7 Sand & rock shores 2-12teet
Least darter
Etheostoma microperca 12.0
Spotted sucker
Minytrema melanops 12.8
White sucker
Catostomus commersoni 12.0-13.0 Streams or bars
Silvery minnow
Hybognathus nuchalls 13.0 Coves
Banded pygmo sunlislt
Elassoma zonalum 13.9-16.7
White crappie
Pomoiis annuiaris 14.0-16.0 Submerged materials in shallows
Fathead minnow 14.4
Pimephales promelas 25.0 Shallows Nr.surtace
Bigmouth buffalo
Ictiobus cyprinellus 15.6-18.3 Shallows
Largemouth bass
Micropterus salmoides 15.6 Shallows near bank 30inches
Common shiner
Notropis cormitus 15.6-18.3 Small gravel streams
Golden shiner
Notemigonus crysoleucas 15. E Bays & shoals, weeds
Green sunfish
Lepomis cyanellus 15.6 Bank, shallows Inches to IK feet
Paddleflsh
Polyodon spathula 16.0 Over gravel bars Nr.surtace
Blackside darter
Percina maculate 16.5
Gizzard shad
Dorosoma cepedianum 16.7
Smallmouth bass
Micropterus dolomieui 18.7 Gravel rock shore 3-20 feel
Spotted bass
Micropterus punctulatus 17.8 Small streams, bar
Johnny darter
Etheostoma nigrum 18.0
Orange spotted sunfish
Lepomis humilis 18.3
Smallmouth buffalo
Ictiobus bubalus 18.9
Black buffalo
l.niger 18.9
Carp
Cyprinus carpio 19.0 Flooded shallows Nr.surfau
BluegiH
Lepomis macrochirus 19.4 Weeds, shallows 2-6 feet
Redbreast sunfish
L. auritis 20.0
Channel catfish 20.0
Ictalurus punctatus 26.7 BanKcavity <101eel
White catfish
l.catus 20.0 Sand gravel bar <10teet
Pumpkinseed
Lepomis gibnosus 20.0 Bankshallows <5feet
Black crappie
Pomoiis nigromaculatus 20.0
Brook silverside
Labidesthes sicculu) 20.0 Overgravel Surface
Brown bullhead
Ictalurus nebulosus 21.1 Shallows, weeds Inches to 6 leet
Threadfn shad
Dorosoma petenenie 21.1 Shallow and open water Surface
Warmouth
Lepomis gulosus 21.0 Bankshallows <5teet
River redhorse
Moiostomacarlnitum 21.7-24.4 Riffles,streims
Night
Day, night
Day
Day, long but esp. night
Day, night
Day
Day
Day
Day
Day
Day
Day
Day
Night, day
Day
Day
Day night
Day
Day, night
Day
Day
Day
Day
Day
D«y
Bottom
Bottom
Weeds
Surface
Bottom
Bottom
Bottom
Underside floating objects
Bottom
Bottom
Bottom
Weeds
Bottom
Bottom
Bottom
Bottom
25 (5.0)
Bottom '
Bottom
Bottom
Bottom
Bottom
Weeds, bottom
Weeds, bottom
Bottom
Bottom
6 (20.0)
2 (15.6)
1 (21.1-23.2)
9-10 (18.7)
5 (18.9)
4 (15.6+)
7 (15.0)
4-5 (20.0)
4-8 (16.7)
1^-3 (22.2)
9-10 (15.0)
6-7 (23.9-29.4)
3 (27.1)
5 (25.0)
3 (26.7)
\Vt (25.0-26)7)
40
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164/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
TABLE 111-13—Spawning Requirements of Some Fish, Arranged in Ascending Order of Spawning Temperatures—Continued
Fishes
Temp. (C) Spawning site
Range in spawning depth
Daily spawning time
Egg site
Incubation period
days (Temp. C)
. Blue catfish
Ictalurus turcatus 22.2
Flathead catfish
Pylodictis olivaris 22.2
Redear sunflsh
Lepomis microlophus 23.0 Quiet, various
Longear sunflsh
L. megalotis 23.3
Freshwater drum
Apiodinotus grunniens 23.0
River carpsucker
Carpoides carpio 23.9
Spotted bullhead
Ictalurus serracanthus 26.7
Yellow bullhead
I. natalis Quiet, shallows
Inches to 10 teet
Bottom
5-10 (18.9)
* T. A. Wojtalik, Tennessee Valley Authority, Muscle Shoals, Alabama.329
given year by 22 to 65 days. Examination of the literature
shows that shifts in spawning dates by nearly one month
are common in natural waters throughout the U.S. Popula-
tions of some species at the southern limits of their dis-
tribution are exceptions, e.g., the lake whitefish (Coregonus
clupeajormis) in Lake Erie that require a prolonged, cold
incubation period (Lawler 1965)299 and species such as
yellow perch (Percaflavescens) that require a long chill period
for egg maturation prior to spawning (Jones, unpublished
This biological plasticity suggests that the annual spring
rise, or fall drop, in temperature might safely be advanced
(or delayed) by nearly one month in many regions, as long
as the thermal requirements that are necessary for migra-
tion, spawning, and other activities are not eliminated and
the necessary chill periods, maturation times, or incubation
periods are preserved for important species. Production of
food organisms may advance in a similar way, with little
disruption of food chains, although there is little evidence to
support this assumption (but see Coutant 1968;265 Coutant
and Steele 1968;271 and Nebeker 1971).307 The process is
similar to the latitudinal differences within the range of a
given species.
Highly mobile species that depend upon temperature
synchrony among widely different regions or environments
for various phases of the reproductive or rearing cycle (e.g.,
anadromous salmonids or aquatic insects) could be faced
with dangers of dis-synchrony if one area is warmed, but
another is not. Poor long-term success of one year class of
Eraser River (British Columbia) sockeye salmon (Oncorhyn-
chus nerka) was attributed to early (and highly successful)
fry production and emigration during an abnormally warm
summer followed by unsuccessful, premature feeding
activity in the cold and still unproductive estuary (Vernon
1958).322 Anadromous species are able, in some cases, (see
studies of eulachon (Thaleichthys pacificus) by Smith and
Saalfeld 1955)317 to modify their migrations and spawning
to coincide with the proper temperatures whenever and
wherever they occur.
Rates of embryonic development that could lead to pre-
mature hatching are determined by temperatures of the
microhabitat of the embryo. Temperatures of the micro-
habitat may be quite different from those of the remainder
of the waterbody. For example, a thermal effluent at the
temperature of maximum water density (approximately
4 C) can sink in a lake whose surface water temperature
is colder (Hoglund and Spigarelli, 1972).290 Incubating
eggs of such species as lake trout (Salvelinus namaycusK) and
various coregonids on the lake bottom may be intermittently
exposed to temperatures warmer than normal. Hatching
may be advanced to dates that are too early for survival of
the fry in their nursery areas. Hoglund and Spigarelli
1972,290 using temperature data from a sinking plume in
Lake Michigan, theorized that if lake herring (Coregonus
artedii) eggs had been incubated at the location of one of
their temperature sensors, the fry would have hatched
seven days early. Thermal limitations must, therefore, apply
at the proper location for the particular species or life stage
to be protected.
Recommendations
After their specific limiting temperatures and
exposure times have been determined by studies
tailored to local conditions, the reproductive ac-
tivity of selected species will be protected in areas
where:
• periods required for gonad growth and gamete
maturation are preserved;
• no temperature differentials are created that
block spawning migrations, although some delay
or advancement of timing based upon local con-
ditions may be tolerated;
41
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Heat and Temperature /165
• temperatures are not raised to a level at which
necessary spawning or incubation temperatures
of winter-spawning species cannot occur;
• sharp temperature changes are not induced in
spawning areas, either in mixing zones or in
mixed water bodies (the thermal and geographic
limits to such changes will be dependent upon
local requirements of species, including the
spawning microhabitat, e.g., bottom gravels,
littoral zone, and surface strata);
• timing of reproductive events is not altered to
the extent that synchrony is broken where repro-
duction or rearing of certain life stages is shown
to be dependent upon cyclic food sources or other
factors at remote locations.
• normal patterns of gradual temperature changes
throughout the year are maintained.
These requirements should supersede all others
during times when they apply.
CHANGES IN STRUCTURE OF AQUATIC COMMUNITIES
Significant change in temperature or in thermal patterns
over a period of time may cause some change in the com-
position of aquatic communities (i.e., the species represented
and the numbers of individuals in each species). This has
been documented by field studies at power plants (Trembley
1956-1960)321 and by laboratory investigations (Mclntyre
1968).303 Allowing temperature changes to alter significantly
the community structure in natural waters may be detri-
mental, even though species of direct importance to man
are not eliminated.
The limits of allowable change in species diversity due to
temperature changes should not differ from those applicable
to any other pollutant. This general topic is treated in
detail, in reviews by others (Brookhaven National Lab.
1969)258 and is discussed in Appendix II-B, Community
Structure and Diversity Indices, p. 408.
NUISANCE ORGANISMS
Alteration of aquatic communities by the addition of heat
may occasionally result in growths of nuisance organisms
provided that other environmental conditions essential to
such growths (e.g., nutrients) exist. Poltoracka (1968)311
documented the growth stimulation of plankton in an
artificially heated small lake; Trembley (1965321) re-
ported dense growths of attached algae in the discharge
canal and shallow discharge plume of a power station (where
the algae broke loose periodically releasing decomposing
organic matter to the receiving water). Other instances of
algal growths in effluent channels of power stations were
reviewed by Coutant (1970c).269
Changed thermal patterns (e.g., in stratified lakes) may
greatly alter the seasonal appearances of nuisance algal
growths even though the temperature changes are induced
by altered circulation patterns (e.g., artificial destratifica-
tion). Dense growths of plankton have been retarded in
some instances and stimulated in others (Fast 1968;276 and
unpublished data 1971).325
Data on temperature limits or thermal distributions in
which nuisance growths will be produced are not presently
available due in part to the complex interactions with other
growth stimulants. There is not sufficient evidence to say
that any temperature increase will necessarily result in
increased nuisance organisms. Careful evaluation of local
conditions is required for any reasonable prediction of
effect.
Recommendation
Nuisance growths of organisms may develop
where there are increases in temperature or alter-
ations of the temporal or spatial distribution of
heat in water. There should be careful evaluation
of all factors contributing to nuisance growths at
any site before establishment of thermal limits
based upon this response, and temperature limits
should be set in conjunction with restrictions on
other factors (see the discussion of Eutrophication
and Nutrients in Section I).
CONCLUSIONS
Recommendations for temperature limits to protect
aquatic life consist of the following two upper limits for any
time of the year (Figure 111-6).
1. One limit consists of a maximum weekly average
temperature that:
(a) in the warmer months (e.g., April through
October in the North, and March through
November in the South) is one third of the range
between the optimum temperature and the
ultimate upper incipient lethal temperature for the
most sensitive important species (or appropriate
life stage) that is normally found at that location at
that time; or
(b) in the cooler months (e.g., mid-October to mid-
April in the North, and December to February in
the South) is that elevated temperature from which
important species die when that elevated tem-
perature is suddenly dropped to the normal
ambient temperature, with the limit being the
acclimation temperature (minus a 2 C safety
factor), when the lower incipient lethal tempera-
ture equals the normal ambient water temperature
(in some regions this limit may also be applicable
in summer); or
(c) during reproduction seasons (generally April-June
and September-October in the North, and March-
May and October-November in the South) is that
42
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166/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
temperature that meets specific site requirements
for successful migration, spawning, egg incubation,
fry rearing, and other reproductive functions of
important species; or
(d) at a specific site is found necessary to preserve
normal species diversity or prevent undesirable
growths of nuisance organisms.
2. The second limit is the time-dependent maximum
temperature for short exposures as given by the species-
specific equation:
1 >
time
10[a+b(temp.+2)]
Local requirements for reproduction should supersede
all other requirements when they are applicable. Detailed
ecological analysis of both natural and man-modified
aquatic environments is necessary to ascertain when these
requirements should apply.
USE OF TEMPERATURE CRITERIA
A hypothetical electric power station using lake water for
cooling is illustrated as a typical example in Figure III-7.
This discussion concerns the application of thermal criteria
to this typical situation.
The size of the power station is 1,000 megawatts electric
(MWe) if nuclear, or 1,700 MWe if fossil-fueled (oil, coal,
gas); and it releases 6.8 billion British Thermal Units
(BTU) per hour to the aquatic environment. This size is
representative of power stations currently being installed.
Temperature rise at the condensers would be 20 F with
cooling water flowing at the rate of 1,520 cubic feet/second
(ft3/sec) or 682,000 gallons/minute. Flow could be in-
creased to reduce temperature rise.
The schematic Figure 111-7 is drawn with two alternative
discharge arrangements to illustrate the extent to which
design features affect thermal impacts upon aquatic life
30 -- 86
ex
E
20--
10--
A
Time-Temperature
Limits for
Short Exposures
Time-Temperature History
for Short Exposures
A ^
^
Maximum Weekly Average, Summer
(Based on species or community)
\ _ \
Seasons of
Reproduction
Requirements
\
Maximum Weekly
Average, Winter
Maximum
Weekly
Average,
Winter
0 32
M A M J J AS
Annual Calendar
FIGURE HI-6—Schematic Summary of Thermal Criteria
O
N
D
43
-------
Heat and Temperature /167
Power
Plant
Intake
Canal (2 mi.)
A'
Modified
Temperature
(Example)
Historic \\
Average Temp, at D *\ \
JFMAMJJ ASOND
20
Plume Scale
0 5000
I i i i i I
Feet
FIGURE III-7—Hypothetical Power Plant Site For Application of Water Temperature Criteria
44
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168/Section Ill—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
Warm condenser water can be carried from the station to
the lake by (a) a pipe carrying water at a high flow velocity
or (b) a canal in which the warm water flows slowly. There
is little cooling in a canal, as measurements at several
existing power stations have shown. Water can be released
to the lake by using any of several combinations of water
velocity and volume (i.e., number of outlets) or outlet
dimensions and locations. These design features largely
determine the configuration of the thermal plumes illus-
trated in Figure III-7 resulting from either rapid dilution
with lake water or from slow release as a surface layer. The
isotherms were placed according to computer simulation
of thermal discharges (Pritchard 1971)312 and represent a
condition without lake currents to aid mixing.
Exact configuration of an actual plume depends upon
many factors (some of which change seasonally or even
hourly) such as local patterns of currents, wind, and bottom
and shore topography.
Analytical Steps
Perspective of the organisms in the water body and of the
pertinent non-biological considerations (chemical, hy-
drological, hydraulic) is an essential beginning. This
perspective requires a certain amount of literature survey
or on site study if the information is not well known. Two
steps are particularly important:
1. identification of the important species and com-
munity (primary production, species diversity, etc.) that are
relevant to this site; and
2. determination of life patterns of the important species
(seasonal distribution, migrations, spawning areas, nursery
and rearing areas, sites of commercial or sport fisheries).
This information should include as much specific informa-
tion on thermal requirements as it is possible to obtain
from the literature.
Other steps relate the life patterns and environmental
requirements of the biota to the sources of potential thermal
damage from the power plant. These steps can be identified
with specific areas in Figure III—7.
Aquatic Areas Sensitive to Temperature Change
Five principal areas offer potential for biological damage
from thermal changes, labeled A-E on Figure III-7. (There
are other areas associated with mechanical or chemical
effects that cannot be treated here; see the index.)
Area A The cooling water as it passes through the intake,
intake piping (Ai), condensers, discharge piping
(A2) or canal (A'2), and thermal plume (A3 or
A's), carrying with it small organisms (such as
phytoplankton, zooplankton, invertebrate larvae,
and fish eggs or larvae). Organisms receive a
thermal shock to the full 20 F above ambient
temperature with a duration that depends upon
the rate of water flow and the temperature drop
in the plume.
Area B Water of the plume alone that entrains both
small and larger organisms (including small fish)
as it is diluted (B or B'). Organisms receive
thermal shocks from temperatures ranging from
the discharge to the ambient temperature, de-
pending upon where they are entrained.
Area G Benthic environment where bottom organisms
(including fish eggs) can be heated chronically or
periodically by the thermal plurne (C or G').
Area D The slightly warmed mixed water body (or large
segment of it) where all organisms experience a
slightly warmer average temperature (D).
Area E The discharge canal in which resident or seasonal
populations reside at abnormally high tempera-
tures (E).
Cooling Water Entrainment
It is not adequate to consider only thermal criteria for
water bodies alone when large numbers of aquatic organisms
may be pumped through a power plant. The probability
of an organism being pumped through will depend upon
the ratio of the volume of cooling water in the plant to the
volume in the lake (or to the volume passing the plant in a
river or tidal fresh water). Tidal environments (both
freshwater and saline) offer greater potential for entrain-
ment than is apparent, since the same water mass will
move back and forth past the plant many times during the
lifetime of pelagic residence time of most organisms.
Thermal shocks that could be experienced by organisms
entrained at the hypothetical power station are shown in
Figure III-8.
Detrimental effects of thermal exposures received during
entrainment can be judged by using the following equation
for short-term exposures to extreme temperatures:
General criterion: 1>
time
Values for a and b in the equation for the species of aquatic
organisms that are likely to be pumped with cooling water
may be obtained from Appendix II, or the data may be
obtained using the methods of Brett (1952).252 The prevailing
intake temperature would determine the acclimation
temperature to be selected from the table.
For example, juvenile largemouth bass may frequent the
near-shore waters of this lake and be drawn into the intake.
To determine whether the hypothetical thermal discharges
(Figure III-7) would be detrimental for juvenile bass, the
following analysis can be made (assuming, for example,
that the lake is in Wisconsin where these basic data for bass
are available):
Criterion for juvenile bass (Wisconsin) when intake
45
-------
I
H
Modified after Coutant 1970c269
Heat and Temperature/'169
12 16 20
Time After Initial Heating (hrs.)
24
28
36
— 0
FIGURE III-8—Time Course of Temperature Change in Cooling Water Passing Through the Example Power Station with
Two Alternate Discharges. The Canal Is Assumed to Flow at a Rate of 3 Ft. Per Sec.
temperature (acclimation) is 70 F (21.11 C). (Data
from Appendix II-C).
—
time
Canal
Criterion applied to entrainment to end of discharge
canal (discharge temperature is 70 F plus the 20 degree
rise in the condensers or 90 F (32.22 C). The thermal
plume would provide additional exposure above the
lethal threshold, minus 2 C (29.5 G or 85.1 F) of more
than four hours.
1>
60
1Q[34. 3649-0. 97 8 9(32. 22+2)]
Conclusion:
Juvenile bass would not survive to the end of the
discharge canal.
Dilution
Criterion applied to entrainment in the system em-
ploying rapid dilution.
1 >-
1.2
1 1Q[34.3649-0.9789(32.22+2.0)]
1>
1.2
- 7.36
Travel time in piping to discharge is assumed to be
1 min., and temperature drop to below the lethal
threshold minus 2 C (29.5 C or$5.1 F) is about 10 sec.
(Pritchard, 1971).312
Conclusion
Juvenile bass would survive this thermal exposure:
1>0.1630
By using the equation in the following form,
log (time)=a+6 (temp.+ 2)
the length of time that bass could barely survive the
expected temperature rise could be calculated, thus
allowing selection of an appropriate discharge system.
For example:
log (time) =34.3649-0.9789 (34.22)
log (time) =0.8669
time =7.36
46
-------
170/Section III—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
This would be about 1,325 feet of canal flowing at
3 ft/sec.
It is apparent that a long discharge canal, a nonrecircu-
lating cooling pond, a very long offshore cioe, or delayed
dilution in a mixing zone (such as the one promoting surface
cooling) could prolong the duration of exposure of pumped
organisms and thereby increase the likelihood of damage to
them. Precise information on the travel times of the cooling
water in the discharge system is needed to conduct this
analysis.
The calculations have ignored changing temperatures in
the thermal plume, because the canal alone was lethal, and
cooling in the plume with rapid dilution was so rapid that
the additional exposure was only for 10 seconds (assumed to
be at the discharge temperature the whole time). There
may be other circumstances under which the effect of
decreasing exposure temperature in the plume may be
of interest.
Effects of changing temperatures in the plume can be
estimated by summing the effects of incremental exposures
for short time periods (Fry et al. 1946281). For example, the
surface cooling plume of Figures III-7 and III-8 could be
considered to be composed of several short time spans, each
with an average temperature, until the temperature had
dropped to the upper lethal threshold minus 2 G for the
juvenile bass. Each time period would be calculated as if
it were a single exposure, and the calculated values for all
time periods would be summed and compared with unity,
as follows:
timei
time,,
}Q[a+b(temp.i+2)]
[a+b(temp .
The surface cooling plume of Figure III-6 (exclusive of
the canal) could be considered to consist of 15 min at
89.7 F (32.06C), 15 min at 89.2 F (31.78 C), 15 min at
88.7 F (31.4 C), 15 min at 88.2 F (31.22C), 15 min at
87.8 F (31.00 C), until the lethal threshold for 70 F acclima-
tion minus 2 C (85.1 F) was reached. The calculation would
proceed as follows:
1 >
15
1Q [34.3649— 0.9789(32.06+2)]
15
4.364 9— 0.9789(31.78+2)]
In this case, the bass would not survive through the first
15-minute period. In other such calculations, several steps
would have to be summed before unity was reached (if not
reached, the plume would not be detrimental).
Entrainment in the Plume
Organisms mixed with the thermal plume during dilution
will also receive thermal shocks, although the maximum
temperatures will generally be less than the discharge
temperature. The number of organisms affected to some
degree may be significantly greater than the numbers
actually pumped through the plant. The route of maximum
thermal exposure for each plume is indicated in Figure
III-7 by a dashed line. This route should be analyzed to
determine the maximum reproducible effect.
Detrimental effects of these exposures can also be judged
by using the criterion for short-term exposures to extreme
temperatures. The analytical steps were outlined above for
estimating the effects on organisms that pass through the
thermal plume portions of the entrainment thermal pattern.
There would have been no mortalities of the largemouth
bass from entrainment in the plume with rapid dilution, due
to the short duration of exposure (about 10 seconds). Any
bass that were entrained in the near-shore portions of the
larger plume, and remained in it, would have died in less
than 15 minutes.
Bottom Organisms Impacted by the Plume
Bottom communities of invertebrates, algae, rooted
aquatic plants, and many incubating fish eggs can be
exposed to warm plume water, particularly in shallow
environments. In some circumstances the warming can be
continuous, in others it can be intermittent due to changes
in plume configuration with changes in currents, winds, or
other factors. Clearly a thermal plume that stratifies and
occupies only the upper part of the water column will have
least effect on bottom biota.
Several approaches are useful in evaluating effects on the
community. Some have predictive capability, while others
are suitable largely for identifying effects after they have
occurred. The criterion for short-term exposures identified
relatively brief periods of detrimental high temperatures.
Instead of the organism passing through zones of elevated
temperatures, as in the previous examples, the organism is
sedentary, and the thermal pulse passes over it. Developing
fish eggs may be very sensitive to such changes. A brief
pulse of high temperature that kills large numbers of orga-
nisms may affect a bottom area for time periods far longer
than the immediate exposure time. Repeated sublethal ex-
posures may also be detrimental, although the process is
more complex than straight-forward summation. Analysis
of single exposures proceeds exactly as described for plume
entrainment.
The criterion for prolonged exposures is more generally
applicable. The maximum tolerable weekly average tem-
perature may be determined by the organisms present and
the phase of their life cycle. In May, for example, the
maximum heat tolerance temperature for the community
may be determined by incubating fish eggs or fish fry on the
bottom. In July it may be determined by the important
resident invertebrate species. A well-designed thermal dis-
charge should not require an extensive mixing zone where
these criteria are exempted. Special criteria for reproductive
processes may have to be applied, although thermal dis-
47
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Heat and Temperature/'17'1
charges should be located so that zones important for
reproduction—migration, spawning, incubation—are not
used.
Criteria for species diversity provide a useful tool for
identifying effects of thermal changes after they have
occurred, particularly the effects of subtle changes that are
a result of community interactions rather than physiological
responses by one or more major species. Further research
may identify critical temperatures or sequences of tem-
perature changes that cannot be exceeded and may thereby
provide a predictive capability as well. (See Appendix
II-B.)
Mixed Water Body (or major region thereof)
This is the region most commonly considered in es-
tablishing water quality standards, for it generally includes
the major area of the water body. Here the results of thermal
additions are observed as small temperature increases over a
large area (instead of high temperatures locally at the dis-
charge point), and all heat sources become integrated into
the normal annual temperature cycle (Figure 111-6 and
Figure III-7 insert).
Detrimental high temperatures in this area (or parts of
it) are defined by the criteria for maximum temperatures
for prolonged exposure (warm and cool months) for the
most sensitive species or life stage occurring there, at each
time of year, and by the criteria for reproduction.
For example, in the lake with the hypothetical power
station, there may be 40 principal fish species, of which half
are considered important. These species have spawning
temperatures ranging from 5 to 6 C for the sauger (Stizo-
stedion canadense) to 26.7 C for the spotted bullhead (Ictalurus
serracanthus}. They also have a similar range of temperatures
required for egg incubation, and a range of maximum
temperatures for prolonged exposures of juveniles and
adults. The requirements, however, may be met any time
within normal time spans, such as January 1 to 24 for sauger
spawning, and March 25 to April 29 for smallmouth bass
spawning. Maximum temperatures for prolonged exposures
may increase steadily throughout a spring period. To
predict effects of thermal discharges the pertinent tempera-
tures for reproductive activities and maximum temperatures
for each life stage can be plotted over a 12-month period
such as shown in Fig. III-6. A maximum annual tempera-
ture curve can become apparent when sufficient biological
data are available. Mount (1970)305 gives an example of
this type of analysis.
Discharge Canal
Canals or embayments that carry nearly undiluted
condenser cooling water can develop biological communities
that are atypical of normal seasonal communities. Interest
in these areas does not generally derive from concern for a
balanced ecosystem, but rather from effects that the altered
communities can have on the entire aquatic ecosystem.
The general criteria for nuisance organisms may be
applicable. In the discharge canals of some existing power
stations, extensive mats of temperature-tolerant blue-green
algae grow and periodically break away, adding a decom-
posing organic matter to the nearby shorelines.
The winter criterion for maximum temperatures for
prolonged exposures identifies the potential for fish kills due
to rapid decreases in temperature. During cold seasons
particularly, fish are attracted to warmer water of an
enclosed area, such as a discharge canal. Large numbers
may reside there for sufficiently long periods to become
metabolically acclimated to the warm water. For any
acclimation temperature there is a minimum temperature
to which the species can be cooled rapidly and still survive
(lower incipient lethal temperature). These numerical
combinations, where data are available, are found in
Appendix II-C. There would be 50 per cent mortality, for
example, if largemouth bass acclimated in a discharge
canal to 20 C, were cooled to 5.5 C or below. If normal
winter ambient temperature is less than 5.5 C, then the
winter maximum should be below 20 C, perhaps nearer
15 C. If it is difficult to maintain the lower temperatures,
fish should be excluded from the area.
HEAT AND TEMPERATURE
240 Allen, K. O. and K. Strawn (1968), Heat tolerance of channel
catfish Ictalurus punctatus, in Proceedings of the 21st annual con-
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(The Association, Columbia, South Carolina), pp. 399-411.
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in selected Pennsylvania streams, Trans. American Fisheries Society
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-Anderson, R. O (1959) The influence of season and temperature ,„ Bishai; R M (,960) temperatures for larval sal-
on the growth of the bluegdl (Lepo^s rnacroch,^. Ph.D. thes*. monids j ^ ^ ^ 25(2): 129-133.
University of Michigan, Horace H. Rackham School of Graduate »« B]ar.k. K C HqW IT™- wL, .„„'.' _r „..=.=_,_
Studies. 133 p.
242 Andrews, J. W. and R. R. Stickney (1972), Interaction of feeding
rates and environmental temperature of growth, food conversion,
and body composition of channel catfish. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc.
101(l):94-99.
243 Ansell, A. D., 1968. The Rate of Growth of the hard clam Mer-
cenaria mercenaria (L) throughout the geographical range. Conseil
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364-409.
241 Baldwin, N. S. (1957), Food consumption and growth of brook
trout at different temperatures. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 86:323—
328.
48
Black, E. C. (1953), Upper lethal temperatures of some British
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210.
249 Bliss, C. I. (1937), Calculation of the time-mortality curve. Ann.
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fishes (The Natural History Press, New York), 941 p.
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of speckled trout. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 70:397-403.
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263 Brett, J. R. (1956), Some principles in the thermal requirements
of fishes. Quart. Rev. Biol. 31(2):75-87.
-------
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the development rate of bottom organisms, in Pacific Northwest
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Northwest, Richland, Washington.
272 Doudoroff, P. and D. L. Shumway (1970), Dissolved oxygen require-
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273 Ebel, W. J., E. M. Dawley, and B. Monk (1970), Thermal tolerance
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2.Q6/Section HI—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
274 Edsall, T. A. and P. J. Colby (1970), Temperature tolerance of
young-of-the-year Cisco, Coregonus artedii. Transactions of American
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276 Fast, A. W. (1968), Artificial destratification of El Capitan reser-
voir by aeration. I. Effects on chemical and physical parameters.
Calif. Dep. Fish Game Fish Bull. no. 141, 97 p.
276 Fry, F. E. J. (1947), Effects of the environment on animal activity.
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277 Fry, F. E. J. (1951), Some environmental relations of the speckled
trout (Salvelinas fontinalis). Proc. Northeast. Atlantic Fisheries
Conf. May, 1951.
278 Fry, F. E. J. (1964), Animals in aquatic environments: fishes
temperature effects (Chapter 44) Handbook of Physiology,
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Washington, D. C.
279 Fry, F. E. J. (1967), Responses of vertebrate poikilotherms to
temperature [review], in Thermobiology, A. H. Rose, ed. (Aca-
demic Press, New York), pp. 375-409.
280 Fry, F. E. J., J. R. Brett, and G. H. Clawson (1942), Lethal limits
of temperature for young goldfish. Rev. Can. Biol. l(l):50-56.
281 Fry, F. E. J., J. S. Hart, and K. F. Walker (1946), Lethal tempera-
ture relations for a sample of young speckled trout, Savelinus
fontinalis [University of Toronto biology series no. 54] (The
University of Toronto Press, Toronto), pp. 9-35.
282 Gammon, J. R. (1970), Aquatic life survey of the Wabash River, with
special reference to the effects of thermal effluents on populations of micro-
invertebrates and fish, 1967-1969 (DePauw University, Zoology De-
partment, Greencastle, Indiana), 65 p.
283 Gibson, E. S. an'd F. E. J. Fry (1954), The performance of the lake
trout, Salvelinus namaycush, at various levels of temperature and
oxygen pressure. Can. J.
-------
""Kinne, O. (1963), The effects of temperature and salinity on
marine and brackish water animals. I. temperature. Oceanogr.
Mar. Biol. Annul Rev. 1:301-340.
a6Kinne, O. (1970), Temperature—animals—invertebrates, in
Marine ecology, O. Kinne, ed. (John Wiley & Sons, New York),
vol. 1, pp. 407-514.
237 Kramer, R. H. and L. L. Smith Jr. (1960). First year growth of
the largemouth bass, Micropterns salmoides (Lacepde) and some
related ecological factors. Transactions American Fisheries Society
89(2):222-233.
298Krenkel, P. A. and F. L. Parker, eds. (1969), Biological aspects of
thermal pollution (Vanderbilt University Press, Nashville, Ten-
nessee), 407 p.
299 Lawler, G. H. (1965), Fluctuations in the success of year-classes of
white-fish populations with special reference to Lake Erie. J.
Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 22(5):1197-1227.
300 Lemke, A. L. (1970), Lethal effects of various rates of temperature
increase on Gammarus pseudolimnaeus and Hydropsyche betteni with
notes on other species. U.S. National Water Quality Laboratory,
Duluth, Minnesota.
201 McComish, T. S. (1971), Laboratory experiments on growth and
food conversion by the bluegill. Ph.D. dissertation, Univ. of
Missouri, Columbia, Mo.
302 McCormick, J. H. et, al. (1971), Temperature requirements for
growth and survival for Larvae Ciscos (Coregonus artedii). Jour.
Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 28:924.
303 Mclntire, C. D. (1968), Physiological-ecological studies of benthic
algae in laboratory streams. J. Water Pollut. Contr. Fed. 40(11
part 1): 1940-1952.
304 Merriman, D., et al. (1965), The Connecticut River investigation,
1965-1972. (A series of semi-annual progress reports). Connecti-
cut Yankee Atomic Power Company, Haddar, Connecticut.
306 Mount, D. I. (1970), Statement before hearing before the Joint
Committee on Atomic Energy, Congress of the United States,
Ninety-First Congress, first session [on environmental effects of
producing electric power.) part 1, pp. 356-373.
306Narver, D. W. (1970), Diel vertical movements and feeding of
underyearling sockeye salmon and the limnetic zooplankton in
Babine Lake, British Columbia. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 27(2):
281-316.
307Nebeker, A. V. (1971), Effect of temperature at different altitudes
on the emergence of aquatic insects from a single stream. J.
Kans. Entomol. Soc. 44(l):26-35.
308 Parker, FrL. and P. A. Krenkel, eds. (1969), Engineering aspects
of thermal pollution (Vanderbilt University Press, Nashville, Ten-
nessee), 351 p.
309 Peek, F. W. (1965). Growth studies of laboratory and wild popu-
lation samples of smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieu Lacepede)
with applications to mass marking of fishes. M.S. Thesis, Univ.
of Arkansas, Fayetteville.
310 Pennsylvania Fish Commission (1971), Water pollution report no.
4170.
311 Poltoracka, J. (1968), [Specific composition of phytoplankton in a
lake warmed by waste water from a thermoelectric plant and
lakes with normal temperature.) Ada. Soc. Bot. Pol. 37(2):297-
325.
312 Pritchard, D. W. (1971), Design and siting criteria for once-
through cooling systems. Presented at the American Institute of
Chemical Engineers 68th annual meeting, 2 March 1971,
Houston, Texas.
313Raney, E. C. and B. W. Menzel (1969), Heated effluents and effects
on aquatic life with emphasis on fishes: n bibliography, 38th ed. (U.S.
Department of the Interior, Water Resources Information Center,
Washington, D.C.), 469 p.
314 Robinson, J. G. (1968), Fish mortality report, Lake Michigan, Port
Sheldon, August 29, 1968 (Michigan Water Resources Commis-
sion, Lansing),' 2 p.
316 Robinson, J. G. (1970), Fish mortality report, Lake Michigan,
Port Sheldon. Michigan Water Resources Commission, Lansing,
Michigan.
316 Robinson, J. G. (1970), Fish mortality report, Lake Michigan,
Port Sheldon. Michigan Water Resources Commission Lansing,
Michigan.
317 Smith, W. E. and R. W. Saalfeld (1955), Studies on Columbia
River smelt Thaleichthys pacificus (Richardson). Wash. Dep. Fish.
Fish. Res. Pap. 1(3): 1-24.
318 Smith, S. H. (1964), Status of the deepwater cisco population of
Lake Michigan. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 93 (2): 155-163.
319 Strawn, K. (1961), Growth of largemouth bass fry at various
temperatures. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 90:334-335.
320 Strawn, K. (1970), Beneficial uses of warm water discharges in
surface waters. In: Electric power and thermal discharges:
thermal considerations in the production of electric power, M.
Eisenbud and G. Gleason (eds.) pp. 143-156.
321Trembley, F. J. (1965), Effects of cooling water from steam-elec-
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pollution. Third seminar, C. M. Tarzwell, ed. (U.S. Department of
Health, Education and Welfare, Public Health Service, Division
of Water Supply and Pollution Control, Cincinnati, Ohio), pp.
334-345.
322 Vernon, E. H. (1958), An examination of factors affecting the
abundance of pink salmon in the Fraser River [Progress report
no. 5] (International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission, New
Westminster, British Columbia).
323Wiebe, J. P. (1968), The effects of temperature and day length
on the reproductive physiology of the viviparous seaperch,
Cymatogaster aggregata Gibbons. Can. J. £ool. 46(6): 1207-1219.
References Cited
324Coutant, C. C., unpublished data, (1971) Oak Ridge Laboratory,
Oak Ridge, Tennessee.
326 Fast, A. W. (1971), Effects of artificial aeration on lake ecology.
Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State Univ., E. Lansing.
326 Fry, F. E. J., personal observation, (1971) University of Toronto,
Ontario, Canada, Dept. of Zoology.
327 Jones, B., unpublished data, (1971) National Water Quality Labora-
tory, Duluth, Minnesota.
328 National Water Quality Laboratory (1971) unpublished data, Duluth,
Minnesota.
829 Wojtalik, T. A., unpublished data, (1971) Tennessee Valley Authority.
50
-------
APPENDIX B*
THERMAL TABLES
THERMAL TABLES—Time-temperature relationships and lethal threshold temperatures for resistance of aquatic
organisms (principally fish) to extreme temperatures (from Coutant, in press75 7972). Column headings, where not self-
explanatory, are identified in footnotes. LD50 data obtained for single times only were included only when they amplified
temperature-time information.
Species Stage/age length Weight Sex
Abudefduf saxa- Adult
tils (Sargent
major)
Adinia xenica Adult
(diamond KM-
flsh)
(topsmelt)
Brevoortia tyran- Larval 17-34 mm Mixed
nus (Atlantic
menhaden)
nus (Atlantic year
menhaden)
Brevoortia tyran- Yearling
nus (Atlantic
menhaden)
Crassius auratus Juvenile 2gave. Mixed
(goldfish)
mersonrd (white (mode)
sucker)
Location
.. Northern Gulf
of California
Jefferson Co.,
Texas
LaJolla Calif
Beaufort Har-
bor, North
Carolina
(36°N)
Beaufort;
N.C.
. . Beaufort,
N.C.
Commercial
dealer
(Toronto)
Don River,
Thornhill,
Ontario
Reference Extreme
Heath, W. G. Upper .
(1967)«»
Strawnand Upper .
Dunn
(1967)99
Doudorotf Upper. .
(1945")
Lower..
Lewis (1965)" Lower
Lewis and Het- Upper
tier (1968)M
Lower
Lewis and Het- Upper
tier (1968)> 21.9337
(5°/oi>)' 27.7919
(10%o)« 26.8121
(20 »/oo> 28.3930
42 2531
-0.4667
0.9611/
0.7572
0.6602
0.5675
0.2620
(5°/«) 57.9980
(5°/oo) 85.1837
(26-30°/oo)
(10°/oo)
(5°/oo) 35.7158
(4-6°/»°) 21.8083
20.0213
21.9234
33.6957
19.9890
31.9007
27.0023
22.2209
b
-0.0934
-0.4866
-0.6159
-0.5899
-0.6290
-1.2215
0.3926
0.2564
0.2526
0.2786
0.2321
0.1817
-0.1643
-2.3521
-1.0468
-0.6342
-0.4523
-0.4773
-1.1797
-0.6410
-1.0034
-0.8068
-0.6277
N'
3
6
6
6
6
9
7
9
12
12
14
3
2
2
3
10
2
2
2
3
2
4
7
r°
-0.9945
-0.9930
-0.9841
-0.9829
-0.9734
-0.9836
0.9765
0,9607
0.9452
0.9852
0.9306
0.9612
-0.9174
-0.9216
-0.6857
-0.9606
-0.9888
Data limits
f0^
upper
37.0
43.0
43.5
43.5
43.5
33.5
11.0
4.0
5.0
5.5
7.0
4.0
35.0
35.0
7.0
7.0
34
35
41.0
43.0
27.5
29
30
31.5
32.5
lower
36.0
40.5
41.0
41.0
41.0
31.5
5.0
-1.0
34.0
34.5
3.0
3.0
33
31
39.0
41.0
27.0
28
29.5
30
29.5
LD50
30.5(24)
7.6(24)
8.8(24)
13.5(24)
28 (14)
31 (14)
34 (14)
36 (14)
39.2(14)
41.0(14)
1.0(14)
5.0(14)
15.5(14)
Lethal
threshold''
(°C)
31.0
10.5
5.0
6.0
>7.0
>8.0
6.5
6.5
32.5
41.0
26.3
27.7
29.3
29.3
29.3
2.5
6.0
• It is assumed in this table that the acclimation temperature reported is a true acclimation in the context of Brett
(1952)."
* Number of median resistance times used for calculating regression equation.
' Correlation coefficient (perfect fit of all data points to the regression line=1.0).
" = Incipient lathal temperature of Fry, et al., (1946)."
«Salinity.
' Log time in hours to 50% mortality. Includes 2-3 hr. required for test bath to reach the test temperature.
*pr0m:National Academy of Sciences (1973). See pp. 410-419, 444-445, Appendix II-C,
51
-------
Appendix H-C/4\\
THERMAL TABLES—Continued
Species Stage/age Length Weight Sex Location
Coregonus astedii Juvenile
(Cisco)
Coregonus hoyi Juvenile 60.0mm
(bloater) (age 1) 5.0. 5.8
Cyprinodon varie- Adult
gatus (sheeps-
head minnow)
Cyprinodon varie- Adult
gatus variegatus
(sheepshead
minnow)
Dorosoma cepedi- Underyearling
anum (gizzard
shad)
Dorosoma cepsdi- Underyearling
anum (gizzard
shad)
Esox lucius Juvenile Minimum
(Northern Pike) 5.0cm
Esox masquinongy Juvenile Minimum
(Muskellunge) 5.0cm
Esox hybrid Juvenile 5.0cm
(luciusx masqui- minimum
nongy)
Fundulus chryso- Adult
tus (golden top-
minnow
Fundulus diapha- Adult
nus (banded
killifish)
Fundulus grandis Adult
(gulf killifish)
Fundulus hetero- Adult
clitus (mummic-
hog)
Mixed Pickerel
Lake,'
Washtenaw
Co., Mich.
Mixed Lake Michi-
gan at/
Kenosha,
Wise.
Jefferson
County,
Texas
Galveston
Island, Gal-
Reference Extrems
Edsall and Upper
Colby,
1970102
Lower
Edsall, Rottiers Upper
& Brown,
1970»o
Strawn and Upper
Dunn
(1967")
Simmons Upper
(1971)"
Acclimation
Tempa Time
2
5
10
20
25
2
5
10
20
25
5
10
15
20
25
35
35
35
35
30
8 wks
4 wks
>2 wks
2 wks
3 wks
8 wks
4 wks
>2wks
2 wks
3 wks
11da»
5 da
5 da
5 da
5 da
(0 o/oo)
(5 °/oo)
(10 o/oo)
(20 o/on)
700 hrs.*
(from 21. 3 C)
log time=a+b (temp.)
a
16.5135
10.2799
12.4993
17.2967
15.1204
2.7355
2.5090
1.7154
15.8243
9.0700
17.1908
28.6392
21.3511
27.9021
35.3415
30.0910
30.0394
35.0420
b
-0.6689
-0.3645
-0.4098
-0.5333
-0.4493
0.3381
0.2685
0.1652
-0.5831
-0.2896
-0.5707
-0.9458
-0.6594
-0.6217
-0.7858
-0.6629
-0.6594
-0.8025
N'
4
3
6
8
7
5
6
9
5
6
4
4
5
6
6
6
4
2
r°
-0.9789
-0.9264
-0.9734
-0.9487
-0.9764
0.9021
0.9637
0.9175
-0.9095
-0.9516
-0.9960
-0.9692
-0.9958
-0.9783
-0.9787
-0.9950
-0.9982
Data limits
- ("C) LI
upper
23.0
24.0
28.0
30.0
30.0
1.5
1.0
3.0
4.5
9.5
26.0
30.0
28.0
29.0
30.0
43.0
43.5
43.5
43.5
41.4
lower
19.0 ....
20.0 ....
24.0
26.0 ....
25.5 ....
0.3 ....
0.5 ....
0.5 ...
0.5
0.5
22.0 ....
23.0
24.5
25.5 . ...
26.5
40.5
41.0
41.5
41.5
40.8
Lethal
350 threshold'
CO
19.7
21.7
24 2
26.2
25.7(1)
<0.3
<0.5
3.0
4.7
9 7
22.2
23.6
24.1
.... 26.2
26.7
.... 40.5
veston, Texas
Put-in-Bay
Ohio
Knoxville,
Tenn.
Maple, On-
tario, Canadi
Deerlake
Hatchery
Ontario,
Canada
Maple, On-
Hart(1952)88 Upper
Lower
Hart(1952)n» Upper
Scott (1S64)« Upper
i
Scott (1964)" Upper
Scott (1964)" Upper
tario, Canada
Jefferson
County,
Texas
Halifax Co.
and Annapo-
lis Co., Nova
Scotia
Jefferson
County,
Texas
Halifax Co.
and Annapo-
lis Co., Nova
Scotia
Strawn & Dunn Upper
(1967)»»
Garside and Upper
Jordan
(1968)"
Strawn & Upper
Dunn
(1967)»
Garside and Upper
Jordan
(1968)8<
25
30
35
25
30
35
25
30
35
25.0
27.5
30.0
25.0
27.5
30.0
25.0
27.5
30.0
35
35
35
15
15
15
35
35
35
35
15
15
15
field &
3-4 da
"
"
(0 o/oo)-
(50/00)-
(20 %)-
(0 o/oo)> .
(14 o/oo) .
(32 o/oo)
(0 %o)
(5Voo)
(10 o/oo)
(20 o/oo)
(0°/oo)' .
(14 o/oo) .
(32 o/oo) ,
47.1163
38.0658
31.5434
32.1348
41.1030
33.2846
17.3066
17.4439
17.0961
18.8879
20.0817
18.9506
18.6533
20.7834
19.6126
23.7284
21.2575
21.8635
22. 8809
27.6447
24.9072
23.4251
—1.3010
-0.9694
-0.7710
-0.8698
-0.0547
-0.8176
-0.4523
—0.4490
-0.4319
-0.5035
-0.5283
-0.4851
-0.4926
-0.5460
-0.5032
-0.5219
-0.4601
-0.4759
—0.5179
-0.6220
-0.5535
-0.5169
3
4
5
2
4
6
5
5
5
5
5
5
4
5
5
9
7
8
g
7
9
8
—0.9975
-0.9921
-9.9642
-0.9991
-0.9896
-0.9990
—0.9985
-0.9971
-0.9742
-0.9911
-0.9972
-0.9941
-0.9995
-0.9951
-0.9968
-ft 9969
-0.9905
—0.9782
-0.9967
-0.9926
-0.9970
35.5
38.0
39.0
35.5
38.0
39
34.5
35.0
35.5
34.5
35.0
35.5
34.5
35.0
35.5
43.0
43.5
43.5
42.0
42.5
43.0
43.0
34.5
36.5
37.0
35.0
36.5
36.5
32.5
33 0
33.5
32.5
33.0
33.5
33.0
33.0
33.5
39.0
40.0
40.0
38 5
39.5
39.0
39.5
34.0
.... 36.0
.... 36.5(11)
.... 10.8
.... 14.5
20.0
.... 34.5
.... 36.0
. . . . 36.5
.... 32.25
32.75
. . . . 33.25(11)
32.25
... 32.75
... 33.25
00
... 32.5
... 32.75
... 33.25
(u)
... 38.5
27.5
... 33.5
... 27.5
... 28.0
34.0
... 31.5
° It is assumed in this table that the acclimation temperature reported is a true acclimation in the context of Brett
(1952)."
6 Number of median resistance times used for calculating regression equation.
' Correlation coefficient (perfect fit of all data points to the regression line=1.0).
" = Incipient lethal temperature of Fry, et al., (1946).M
• Experimental fish were hatched from eggs obtained from adults from this location.
/ Experimental fish were reared from eggs taken from adults from this location.
a These times after holding at 8 C for >1 mo.
» Acclimated and tested at 10 o/oo salinity.
• Tested in three salinities.
i Tested at 3 levels of salinity.
52
-------
412/Appendix II—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
THERMAL TABLES—Continued
Snecies
StaffB/affR Lanrth Wpitrht
Reference
Extreme —
Acclimation
log time=a+b (temp.)
Data limits
c°r:i
11)50
Lethal
threshold''
Tempi'
Time
N'
upper lower
Fundulus par- Adult 6-7 cm
vipinnis (Cali-
fornia killiflsh)
(tested in seawater
except as noted)
Mixed Mission Bay,
Calif, (sea-
water)
Doudoroff
(1945)"
Upper
Lower
14
20
28
14
20
20
20
fintn 45%
sea water 1 day before
Fundulus pul- Adult
vereus (bayou
killifish)
Fundulus similis Adult
(longnose killi-
flsh)
Gambusia affinis Adult
affinis (mosquito-
fish)
Gambusia affinis Adult
(mosquitofish)
(freshwater)
Gambusia affinis Adult
(mosquitofish)
(saltwater)
Gambusia affinis Adult
holbrooki
(mosquitofish)
Jefferson
County,
Texas
Jefferson
County,
Texas
Mixed Knoxville,
Tenn.
Jefferson Co.,
Texas
Jefferson Co
Texas
Mixed Welaka,
Florida
Strawn and
Dunn
(1967)99
Strawn and
Dunn
(1967)9»
Hart (1952)"
Strawn &
Dunn
(1967)99
Strawn and
Dunn
(1967)9>
Hart(1952)8»
Upper
Upper
Upper
Upper
Upper
Upper
Lower
testing)
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
25
30
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
15
20
30
35
15
20
35
(OVoo)
(5 Voo)
(10 Voo)
(20 Voo)
(0 Voo)«
(5 Voo)
(10 Voo)
(20 Voo)
(0 o/oo>
(5 Voo)
(10 Voo)
(20 Voo)
(0 Voo)'
(5 Voo)
(10 o/00)
(20 Voo)
23.3781 -0.6439
50.6021 —1.3457
24.5437 —0.5801
2.1908 1.0751
2.7381 0.2169
2.5635 0.3481
2.6552 0.4014
28.1418 -0.6304
29.3774 -0.6514
25.0890 -0.5477
30.4702 -0.6745
22.9485 -0.5113
25.6165 -0.5690
26.4675 -0.5863
26.5612 -0.5879
39.0004 -0.9771
30.1523 -0.7143
23.8110 —0.5408
22.4434 -0.5108
23.1338 -0.5214
23.4977 -0.5304
22.1994 -0.5001
17.6144 -0.3909
18.9339 -0.4182
23.0784 -0.5165
22.8663 —0.5124
32.4692 -0.8507
38.3139 -0.9673
31.4312 -0.7477
28.1212 -0.6564
4
11
7
3
6
4
g
8
7
5
8
6
6
6
6
2
6
6
5
5
8
6
5
5
7
B
3
3
5
5
—0.9845
—0.9236
—0.9960
0.9449
0.9469
0.8291
0.7348
-0.9741
-0.9831
-0.9956
-0.9849
-0.9892
-0.9984
-0.9925
-0.9953
-0.9938
-0.9978
-0.9600
-0.9825
-0.9852
-0.9881
-0.9822
-0.9990
-0.9982
—0.9957
-0.9813
-0.9843
-0.9995
-0.9909
34.0
37.0
40.0
1.6
7.0
4.0
4.0
43.0
43.5
43.5
43.5
43.0
43.5
43.5
43.0
39
40
41.5
42.0
42.5
42.5
42.5
42.5
42.5
42.5
42.5
37
38.5
40
40
32.0
34.0
36.0
0 4
2.0
2.0
2.0
39.0
40.0
41.5
40.0
40.5
41.0
41.0 ..
40.5 ....
38
37.5
39
40.0
40.5
40.0
40.0
40.5
40.5
39.5
40.0
36
37.5
38
38.5
32.3
34.4
36.5
1 2
5.6
3.6
3.8
... 38.5
. 37.0
37.0
37.0(u)
.... 35.5
.... 37.0
37.0
.... 37.0(11)
1.5
5.5
.... 14.5
Garmannia Adult
chiquita (goby)
Gasterosteus acu-
leatus (three-
spine stickle-
back)
Girella nigricans
(opaleye)
Adult
Juvenile
37 mm aye. 0.50 gave. Mixed
7. 1-8. Ocm
Mixed
Ictalurus
(Amicurus) neb-
ulosus (brown
bullhead)
Northern Gulf Heath (1967)»»
of California
Coast
Columbia Blahm and
River near Parente
Prescott, (1970)™ un-
Oregon published
data
LaJolla, Call- Doudorofl
fornia(33°N) (1942)™
Florida to On- Hart (1952)8»
tario (4 lo-
cations) com-
bined
Upper
Upper
Upper
Lower
Upper
21.7179 -0.5166 3 -0.9905 37.0 36.0
19.3491 -9.5940 3 -0.9998 32
Ictalurus puncta- Juvenile
(us (channel (44-57 da
catfish) old)
Mixed
Centerton, Allen &
Ark. Strawn
(hatchery) (1968)"
Lower
Upper
12
20
28
12
20
28
5
10
15
20
25
30
34
20
25
30
26
30
34
21.
19.
1277
2641
24.7273
1.
1
-0.
14,
16
28.
23.
22.
24.
19.
4851
3878
1238
.6802
.4227
3281
9586
4970
2203
3194
-0.
-0.
—0.
0.
o.
.6339
.5080
6740
4886
6248
0.2614
-0
-0
-0.
—0.
-0,
-0,
-0,
.4539
.4842
8239
.6473
.5732
.5917
.4500
6
7
4
8
6
6
4
10
3
11
12
19
5
-0.
-0.
-0.
0.
9338
9930
9822
9556
0.9895
0.9720
-0.9782
-0,
-0.
.9526
9881
-0.9712
-0.
—0.
—0.
9794
9938
,9912
31.0
35.0
33.0
5.0
8.0
13.0
29.5
31.5
33.0
35.0
37.0
38.5
37.5
27.0
31.0
31.0
1.0
5.0
6.0
28.0
29.5
32.5
32.5
34.0
35.5
36.0
34.7119 -0.8816 13
32.1736 -0.7811 17
26.4204 -0.6149 20
-0.9793 39.0 36.6
-0.9510 40.6 37.4
-0.9638 42.0 38.0
" It is assumed in this table that the acclimation temperature reported is a true acclimation in the context ol Brett
(1952).'*
»Number ol median resistance times used tor calculating regression equation.
= Correlation coefficient (perfect Tit ot all data points to the regression line=1.0).
"=lncipient lethal temperature of Fry, et al., (1946).83
«Salinity.
25.8
28.7
31.4
31.4
5.5
8.5
13.5
27.8
29.0
31.0
32.5
33.8
34.8
34.8
0.5
4.0
6.8
36.6
37.8
38.0
53
-------
Appendix 7/-C/413
THERMAL TABLES—Continued
Species Stage/age Length
tus (channel (11. 5 mo)
catfish)
tus (1. lacustris)
(channel catfish)
chirus purpures-
cens (bluegill)
Lepomis macro- Adult
chirus (blueeill)
Lepomis megalotis Juvenile >12mm
(longear sunflsh)
metricus (ban-
tam sunllsh)
Lucania parva Adult
(rainwater killl-
flsh)
Menidia menidia 8. 3-9. 2 cm
(common silver- (average
side) for test
groups)
moldes flori-
danus (large-
mouth bass)
Micropterus sal-
moides (large-
mouth bass)
Micropterus sal- Under yearling
moides (large-
mouth bass)
Micropterus sal-
moides (large-
mouth bass)
Mysis relicts Adult
(Opposum
shrimp)
Weight Sex Location
Joe Hogan
State Fish
Hatchery,
Lonoke,
Arkansas
Mixed Welaka Fla
and Put-in-
Bay, Ohio
Mixed Welaka,
Florida
Mixed Lake Mendota,
Wisconsin
Mixed Middle Fork,
White River,
Arkansas
Jefferson Co.,
Texas
. . . Jefferson Co.,
Texas
4.3-5.2gm Mixed New Jersey
(average (40°N)
for test
groups)
Welaka
Florida
Put-in-Bay,
Ohio
Knoxville,
Tenn.
Lake Men-
dota, Wis-
consin
Mixed Trout Lake,
Cook
County,
Minnesota
Reference
Allen &
Strawn
(1968)"
Hart(1952)«8
Hart (1952)8*
Hart(1952)«»
Neill, Strawn &
Dunn
(1966)»
Strawn &
Dunn
(1967)»»
Strawn and
Dunn
(1967)"
Hoff 4 West-
man (1966)™
Hart (1952)"
Hart(1952)»»
Hart(1952)»»
Hart (1952)"
Smith (1970)'8
Extreme
Upper
Upper
Lower
Upper
Lower
Upper
Upper
Upper
Upper
Upper
Lower
Upper
Lower
Upper
Lower
Upper
Upper
Upper
Acclimation log tim«=a+b (temp.)
Temp"
25
30
35
15
20
25
15
20
25
15
20
25
30
15
20
25
30
20-23
30
25
30
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
7
14
21
23
7
14
21
28
20
25
30
20
25
30
20
25
30
20
30
30
35
22
30
7.5C
Time a
34.5554
17 7125
... . 28.3031
34.7829
39 4967
46.2155
25.2708
28 0663
23.8733
25.7732
38.6247
30.1609
35.4953
20.5981
30.7245
(Do/no)' 20.7487
(50/00) 23.5649
(20 Von) 10.4421
(OVoo> 21.2616
(50/00) 24.3076
(10 %o) 24.3118
(20o/oo) 21.1302
19.8801
18.7499
65.7350
37.6032
-9.8144
-1.2884
-1.4801
—8 23S6
35.5107
19.9918
17.5645
50.8091
26.3169
29.0213
36.0620
23.9185
34.3649
35.2777
>1wk 6.1302
b
0.8854
-0.4059
-0.6554
-1.0637
-1.1234
-1.2899
-0.7348
-0.7826
-0.6320
-0.6581
-1.0581
-0.7657
-0.9331
-0.4978
-9.7257
-0.4686
-0.5354
-0.2243
-0.4762
-0.5460
-0.5467
-0.4697
-0.7391
-0.6001
-2.0387
-1.0582
8.9079
2.5597
1.1484
1.3586
-1.0112
-0.5123
-0.4200
-1.4638
-0.6846
-0.7150
-0.9055
-0.5632
-0.9789
-0.9084
-0.1470
N'
5
4
4
3
4
5
5
6
10
5
4
4
14
22
43
7
6
5
9
8
8
7
5
6
6
5
5
6
6
5
5
8
8
2
3
4
4
6
4
4
3
r°
-O.OT6
-0.9^34
-0.9906
-0.9999
-0.9980
-0.9925
-0.9946
-0.9978
-0.9750
-0.9965
-0.8892
-0.9401
-0.9827
-0.9625
-0.9664
-0.9747
-0.9975
-0.9873
-0.9844
-0.9846
-0.9904
-0.9940
-0.9398
-0.9616
-0.9626
-0.8872
0.8274
0.8594
0.9531
0.9830
-0.9787
-0.9972
-0.9920
»'
-0.9973
-0.9959
-0.9788
-0.9958
-0.9789
-0.9845
0.9245
Data limits
(°C) LD!
upper
37.5
40.0
41.0
31.5
34.0
35.0
33.0
34.5
36.0
38
35.5
38.0
36.9
39.0
41.5
42.0
42.0
41.5
42.5
42.5
42.5
42.5
24.0
27.0
32.0
34.0
2
5
7
15
34
36.5
38
34
36.5
38.5
38.5
40
33.8
37.5
26
lower
35.5
37.5 ...
38.0
30.5
33.0 .
34.0
31.0
32.5
33.0
34.5
34.0
36 0
35.4
36.5
37.3
39.0
39 0
39.5
38.5
39.0
39.0
39.5
20
23.0
28.0
30
1
1
2
7
32
33
34.5 .
33
35
37
37
37.5
32.0
35 5
16
Lethal
iO threshold'
("0
.... 35.5
37 0
.... 38
.... 30.4
32 8
... 33.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
... 30.5
32 0
... 33.0
... 33.8
2.5
5 0
7 5
11.0
... 35.6
... 36.8
37 5
.... 22.0
.... 25.0
.... 30.4
.... 32.5
1.5
2.0
4.3
8.7
.... 32
.... 33
33.7(u)
5.2
7.0
10.5
32.5
.... 34.5
.... 36.400
5.5
11.8
.... 36.4
.... 36.4(U)
.... 31.5
.... 16
° It is assumed in this table that the acclimation temperature reported is a true acclimation in the context of Brett
(1952)."
* Number of median resistance times used for calculating regression equation.
' Correlation coefficient (perfect fit of all dab points to the regression line=1.0).
" = Incipient lethal temperature of Fry, et al., (1946)."'
• Salinity.
54
-------
414:/Appendix II—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
THERMAL TABLES—Continued
Species Stage/age Length Weight Sex
Neomysis awat- Adult >7 mm Mixed
schensis (opos-
sum shrimp)
Notemigonus Adult
crysoleucas
(golden shiner)
Notropis atheri- Juvenile 0-l.9g.mode Mixed
noides (emerald «1yr)
shiner)
(common shiner)
2
3
4
15
9
10
3
2
3
3
6
1
2
4
5
8
6
3
3
4
5
6
10
8
8
7
6
4
9
8
9
4
6
4
4
f
-0.9998
-0.9844
-0.9869
-0.9665
-0.9940
-0.9519
-0.9803
-0.9805
-0.9753
-0.9560
-0.9915
-0.9973
-0.9946
-0.9729
-0.9999
-0.9560
-0.9915
-0.9938
-0.9978
-0.9573
-0.9840
-0.9884
-0.9681
-0.9690
-0.9839
-0.8665
-0.9070
-0.9750
-0.9652
-0
-0
-0
.9927
.9972
.9995
Data limits
(°C) ID
upper
30.5
32.5
34.5
36.0
37.5
24.5
27.5
30.5
32.5
34.0
29.0
31.5
33.0
34.0
35.5
36.5
30.0
32.0
33.0
34.0
35.5
38.0
24.0
26.5
27.0
27.5
27.5
24.0
26.5
27.0
27.5
27.0
1
5
7
8
29
29
29
lewer
Lethal
50 threshold?
(°C)
73 (48)
72.5(48)
73.8(48)
76.1(48)
74.0(48)
24.2-25.4'
77.0(48) ...:,
77.5(48)
76.0(48)
29.5 29.5
31.0 30.5
32.0 32.0
34 33.5
35 34.5
1.5
4.0
7.0
11 2
23.5
27.0
29.5 ....
31.5
31.5
29.0
31.0
31.5
32.0
32.0 ....
34.0
29.0
31.0
31.5
32.0 .. .
33.0
34.5 ....
22.0
23.0
23.5
24.0
24.5 ....
22.0 ....
22.5 ....
23.0
23.5
24.0 ....
17 ....
17 ....
17 ....
.... 23.3
. .. 26.7
.... 28.9
.... 30.7
.... 30.7
1 6
5 2
8.0
.... 29.0
.... 30.5
.... 31.0
.... 31.0
.... 31.0
.... 31.0(U)
26.7
... 28.6
30 3
31.0
31.0
3.7
7.8
.... 33.0
33.500
.... 21.3±0.3
.... 22.5±0.3
.... 23.1±0.3
23.9±0.6
23.9
21.8
.. .. 22.6
23.1±0.4
23.7
.. . 23.8±0.4
0.5
4.7
6.5
7.3
22.0
23.2
23.6
Wash.* unpublished
i data
° It is assumed in Ibis table (bat the acclimation temperature reported is a true acclimation in the context of Brett
1952)."
4 Number of median resistance times used for calculating regression equation.
' Correlation coefficient (perfect (It of all data points to the regression line=1.0).
'=lncipient etlhal temperature of Fry, et al., (1946).»»
• All temperatures estimated from a graph.
.' For maximum of 48 nr exposure. The lower temperature is uncorrected for heavy mortality of control animals at
"acclimation" temperatures above about 21.6.
»The author concluded that there were no geographic dinerences. The Welaka, Florida subspecies was N.c. bosii,
the others N.c. auratus, based on morphology.
» Tested in Columbia River Water at Prescott, Oregon.
•' Mortality Value.
55
-------
Appendix 7/-C/415
THERMAL TABLES—Continued
Species Stage/age Length Weight Sex
Oncorhynchus Juvenile fresh- 4.78±0.6 1.37±0.62g Mixed
Kisutch (coho water fry cm
salmon) (5.2 mo.)
Oncorhvnchus Juvenile
kisutch (coho
salmon)
Acclimation
Location Reference Extreme
Tempa
Nile Creek, Brett (1952)" Upper 5
B.C. 10
(hatchery) 15
20
23
Lower 5
10
15
20
23
Kalama Falls, Blahm & Upper 10
Wash. McConnell
(hatchery)' (1970)1™
unpublished 14»
data
Time
21
19.
20.
20,
logtim
a
.3050
.5721
4066
.4022
18.9736
(10%X 15..-.-
JfilK
(50%) 18.4136
(90%) 15.
(10%) 8.
(50%) 8.
(90%) ....
9026
5307
5195
-0
-0,
-0,
e=a+b(temp.)
b N'-
.7970 2
.6820 4
.6858 6
-0.6713 4
-0,
—0
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
.6013 5
.5522 6
6410 6
5423 4
2969 10
2433 10
1
-0,
-0.
-0.
-0,
_o
•c
.9847
.9681
.9985
9956
.8533
-0.9705
-0.
-0.
9730
90E3
-0.8483
Data
• (°
upper
24.0
26.0
27.0
27.5
27.5
1
3
5
7
29
29
29
29
29
limits
C) LC
lower
23.
24
24,
25
.0
.5
.5 ....
.5
25.0
1.
1
17.
0
.7
,0
17.0 ... .
14.
0.
0
14
Lethal
150 threshold'
CC)
.... 22.9±0.3
23.7
.... 24.3±U
25.0±0.2
.... 25.0±0.2
0.2'
1.7
3 5
.... 4.5
6 4
23 2
23.5
.... 23.7
.. 14.0
.... 17.0
.... 22.0
Oncorhynchus
kisulch (coho
salmon)
Adult
3570 mm
ave.
a 2500 g ave. Mixed
Columbia Coutant
River at (1970)"
Priest Rap-
ids Dam
Upper
5.9068 -0.1630
-0.9767 30
Oncorhynchus Juvenile fresh- 4.49±0.84
nerka (sockeye water try cm
salmon) (4.7 mo)
).87±0.45g Mixed
Oncorhynchus Juvenile
nerka (sockeye (under
salmon) yearling)
67 mm ave.
Mixed
Issaquah,
Wash.
(hatchery)
Brett (1952)" Upper
Lower
National Fish McConnell &
Hatchery* Blahm
Leaven- (1970)'"
worth, unpublished
Wash. data
Upper
5
10
15
20
23
5
10
15
20
23
17.
14.
,7887
7319
-0.
-0.
. . 15.8799 -0.
10%;
50%
90%
10%
50%
90%
19.
20.
18,
18.
20.
17,
16
15,
,3821
,0020
.4771
.5833
6289
.5227
.7328
.7823
-0.
-0.
6623
4988
5210
6378
6496
-0.6458
-0.6437
-0.
-0.
7166
5861
-0.5473
-0.5061
4
a
7
5
4
6
6
6
6
6
6
-0.
-6.
-0.
-0.
-C.
-0.
-0
-0.
-0,
-0
-0
9383
9833
9126
9602
9981
.9671
.9750
.9553
.9739
.9552
.9539
24.0
26.5
27.5
27.5
26.5
0
4
5
5
7
29
29
29
29
29
29
22.5 . ..
23.5 ....
24.5 ....
24.5
24.5
0
0
0
0
1.
17
17
17
21
21
21
0
22.2±0.3
23.4±0.3
.... 24.4±O.J
24.8±0.3
24.8±0.3
0
3.1
4.1
4.7
6.7
21.5
22.5
23.0
23.5
... . 23.5
23.5
Oncorhynchus Juvenile 100-105 mm
nerka (sockeye (yearling) are lor test
salmon) groups
Mixed
Oncorhynchus Juvenile fresh- 4.44±0.40 1.03±0.27g Mixed
tshawytscha water fry cm
(Chinook (3.6 mo.)
salmon)
National Fish
Hatchery
Leaven-
worth,
Wash.'
Dungeness,
Wash.
(hatchery)
McConnell &
Blahm
(WO)'"'
unpublished
data
Upper
Brett (1952)"
10 rc (ic%)'
per day rise
to accl. temp.
(50%)
(90%)
12"
15.5"
17"
5
10
15
20
24
10
15
20
23
(10%)
(50%)
(90%)
(10%)
(50%)
(90%)
(10%)
(50%)
(90%)
6.
9.
9.
13.
18.
17.
12,
13.
12,
17
17.
17.
9.
.4771
0438
0628
2412
1322
5427
.1763
.6666
.7165
.4210
2432
2393
3155
16.4595
16.4454
22.9065
18.9940
-0.2118
-0.2922
-0.2859
-0.
-0.
-0.
—0,
-0.
-0.
-0,
-0.
-0.
-0.
4475
6178
5900
.4004
4432
4057
.6114
5885
5769
3107
-0.5575
-0.5364
-0.7611
-0.5992
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
4
5
4
4
6
5
4
7
9
-0,
-0.
-0.
.9887
9392
.9534
-0.9955
-0.
-0.
-0
-0,
Jl.
-0
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
.9598
.9533
.9443
.9720
.9748
.9549
.9450
.9364
9847
9996
9906
9850
9923
32
32
32
29
29
29
32
32
32
29
29
29
25.0
26.5
27.0
27.5
27.5
1.0
3.0
5.0
8 1)
14
14 ....
14 ....
17 ....
17 ....
17
17 . .
17
17 ....
20 ....
20 ....
20
22.5 ....
24.5
25 5
25.0
25.0
0 ....
0.5
0 5
1.0 ....
23.S
23.5
22.5
23.5
21-5'
24.3±0.l
25.0±».l
25.W-I
25.W.1
O.B
2.5
4.5
7.4
a It is assumed in this table that the acclimation temperature reported is a true acclimation in the context of Brett
(1952V
'' Number of median resistance times used for calculating regression equation.
' Correlation coefficient (perfect fit of all data points to the regression line= 1.0).
" = Incipient lethal temperature of Fry, et al., (1946).M
«10 C—acclimated fish came directly from the hatchery.
I Data were presented allowing calculation of 10% and 90% mortality.
56
Upper
Lower
»14 C—acclimated fish were collected from the Columbia River 4-6 wks following release from the haMiW
(and may have included a few fish from other upstream sources). River water was supersaturated with Nitriien,
and 14-C fish showed signs of gas-bubble disease during tests.
* River temp, during fall migration.
' Tested in Columbia River water at Prescott, Oregon.
.' Per cent mortalities.
-------
4\6/Appendix II—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
THERMAL TABLES—Continued
Species Stage/age Length Weight Sex
Oncorhynchus Juvenile 39-124 mm Mixed
tshawytscha averages
(Chinook for various
salmon) test groups
Oncorhynchus Juvenile 84 mm ave. 6.3gave. Mixed
tshawytscha
(Chinook salmon
spring run)
Jncorhynchus Juvenile 40mm. ave Mixed
tshawytscha
(Chinook salmon)
Incorhynchus Juvenile 90. 6 mm ave. 7. 8 gave. Mixed
tshawytscha
(Chinook salmon
(all run)
Incorhynchus "Jacks" 2500 mm ave. 2000 g. ave. Males
tshawytscha 1-2 yrs old
(Chinook
salmon)
erca flavescens Juvenile 49 mm ave. 1.2 gave. Mixed
(yellow perch)
erca flavescens Adult (4 yr 8. 0-9. 9 g Mixed
(yellow perch) mode) mode
stromyzon Prolarvae
marinus (sea
lamprey, land-
locked)
Location
Columbia
River at
Prescott,
Oregon
Little White
Salmon,
River
Hatchery,
Cook,
Washington
Eggs from
Seattle,
Wash.
raised from
yolk-sac
stage in
Columbia
River water
at Prescott,
Oregon
Little White
Salmon
Riverhatch-
ery, Cook,
Washington
Columbia
River at
Reference
Snyder &
Blahm
(1970)' "5
unpublished
data
Blahm &
McConnell
(1 970)1 °o
unpublished
data
Snyder &
Blahm
(1970)«»
unpublished
data
Blahm &
McConnell
(1970)™
unpublished
data
Coutant
(1970)"
Acclimation
Temp» Time
Upper 10«
00%')
(90°;)
10"
(10%)
(90%)
12
13
(10%)
(90%.)
18"
(10%)
(90^)
Upper 11 2-3-wks
10%'
50%
90%
20 IC/day rise
from IOC
10%
50%
90%
Upper 4
(10%X
(90%)'
Upper 11 2-3 wks
10%"
50%
90%
Upper 20 1C day rise
from IOC
10%
50%
90%
Upper 17' . .
19' ....
log tim
a
16.8109
18.9770
17.0278
15.7101
15.1583
15.2525
18.2574
12.4058
10.1410
12.7368
13.3175
11.5122
14.2456
13.3696
14.6268
19.2211
22.6664
21.3981
20.9294
13.5019
8.9126
10.6491
18.6889
20.5471
20.8960
21.6756
22.2124
20.5162
13.2502
9.4683
e=a+b(temp.)
b
-0.5787
-0
—0
-0
-0
-0,
-0,
-0,
-0,
-0,
-0,
-0
-0
—0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
.6621
.5845
.5403
.5312
.5130
.6149
.3974
.3218
.4040
.4240
.3745
.4434
4691
5066
,6679
.7797
7253
7024
4874
3198
.3771
6569
7147
7231
7438
7526
6860
4121
2504
N"
3
5
3
8
8k
8
5*
6
7
6
11
12
10
4
4
4
4
3
3
4
6
6
5
4
4
4
4
3
4
4
"
-0.9998
-0.9918
-0.9997
-0.9255
-0.9439
-0.9360
-0.9821
-0.9608
-0.9496
-0.9753
-0.9550
-0.9413
-0.9620
-0.9504
-0.9843
-0.9295
-0.9747
-0.9579
-0.9463
-0.9845
-0.9618
-0.9997
-0.9618
-0.9283
-0.9240
-0.9550
-0.9738
-0.9475
-0.8206
-0.9952
Data limits Lethal
(°C) LD50 threshold'2
upper
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
32
32
32
30
30
30
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
30
26
lower
25 . . .
23 ....
25 .. .
20
20
20
23
17 . .
17 ...
17
20
20
20
17 .. ..
17 . ...
17 .. ..
21
21
21
8
8
8
17
17
17 . .
21
21
21
26 . .
22 . .
\ "/
.... 24.5
.... 22.9
.... 24.5
.... 23.5
20.5
.... 23.5
.... 20.5
.. 20.0
.... 19.5
. . 23.0
. .. 20.5
. . 20.0
.... 23.5
.... 23.0
. .. 23.5
... 23.8
. .. 23.8
.... 24.7
. . 24.8
. . 20
.. . 13.5
?
. . 23.5
.. . 24.2
.. . 24.5
. .. 24.5
.... 24.5
. .. 24.5
.... ?
22
Grand Rapids
Dam
Columbia
River near
Prescotti
Ore.
Black Creek,
Lake Sim-
coe, Ontario
. Great Lakes
Blahm and
Parente
0970)"11
unpublished
data
Hart (1947)"
McCauley
(1963)"
Upper 19 field plus
4 da.
Upper 5
11 . ...
15
25
Lower 25
Upper 15 and 20™
15.3601
7.0095
17.6536
12.4149
21.2718
17.5642
-0.
-0.
-0.
4126
2214
6021
-0.3641
-0.
-0.
5909
4680
2
9
2
5
6
18
-0.9904
-0.9994
-0.9698
-0.9683
38
26.5
26.5
30.5
33.0
34
32 . .
22.0
26.0 ... .
28.5 ....
30.0 .
29 ..
?
.... 21.3
. .. 25.0
... 27.7
.. 29.7
3.7
.. . 28.5
" It is assumed in this table that the acclimation temperature reported is a true acclimation in the context of Bretl
952)."
* Number of median resistance times used For calculating regression equation.
* Correlation coefficient (perfect fit of all data points to the regression line=1.0).
* = Incipient lethal temperature oi Fry, et al., 0946).""
• Fish tested shortly after capture by beach seine.
i Data were also available for calculation of 10% and 90% mortality of June test groups.
a These were likely synergislic effects of high N2 supersaturation in these tests.
1 Excluding apparent long-term secondary mortality.
1 Data were available for 10% and 90% mortality as well as 50%.
' Data also available on 10% and 90% mortality.
* Data available for 10% and 90% mortality as well a; 50%.
1 River temperatures during fall migrations two different years.
"• No difference was shown so data are lumped.
57
-------
Appendix 7/-C/417
THERMAL TABLES—Continued
Species Stage/age Length Weigh! Sex
Pimephales Adult (mostly mostly 0-2 g Mixed
(Hyborhynchus) 1 yr)
notatus (blunt-
nose minnow)
Pimephales Adult (1 yr) 2 0-3 9 g Mixed
promelas (fat- mode
head minnow)
Poecilia latipinna Adult
(Sailfin molly)
Pseudopleuro- 6.0-7. 1cm 3.4-4.2g Mixed
nectes ameri- (averages (averages
canus (winter for test lor test
flounder) groups) groups)
Rhinichthys Adult
atratulus
(blacknose dace)
Rhinichthys Adult (?)
atratulus (black-
nose dace)
Rhinichthys Adult 2.0-3.9 Mixed
atratulus (Black- (mode)
nose dace)
Salmo gairdnerii Juvenile 4.5±0.4cm Mixed
(Rainbow trout)
Salmo gairdnerii Yearling
(rainbow trout)
Salmo gairdnerii Juvenile 9.4±6.0cm Mixed
(rainbow trout) and!5.5±
1.8cm
Location
Etobicoke Cr.,
Ontario
Don River,
Thornhill,
Ontario
Jefferson Co.,
Texas
Lake Superior
near Two
Harbors,
Minn.
New Jersey
(40°N)
Tenn.
. . Toronto,
Ontario
Don River,
Thornhill,
Ontario
Britain
Lake
Superior
London,
England
(Hatchery)
Reference
Hart (1947)8'
Hart (1947)"
Strawn and
Dunn
(1967)"'
Smith (1971)"»
unpublished
data
Hoff & West-
man (1966)>°
Hart(1952)ss
Hart(l952)««
Hart (1947)8'
Alabaster &
Welcomme
(1962)'"
Craigie, D.E.
(1963)"
Alabaster &
Downing
(1966)"
Acclimation
Temp" Time
Upper 5
10
15
20
25
20
25
Upper 10
20
30
30
Upper 35 (0 %o)«
35 (5 °/oo)
35 (10 %o)
35 (20 °/oo)
Upper 6
9
Upper 7
14
21
28
Lower 7
14
21
28
Upper 20
25
28
Upper 5
15
20
25
Upper 5
10
15
20
25
Lower 20
25
Upper W
18»
Raised in soft water
Upper 20 (tested in soft
water)
20 (tested in hard
water)
Raised in hard water
20 (tested in soft
water)
20 (tested in hard
water)
Upper 15
20
log Bme=a+b (temp.)
a
24.6417
55.8357
28.0377
34.3241
50.8212
60.7782
6.9970
41.3696
27.4296
25.6936
28.8808
27.1988
9.1790
28.2986
24.3020
49.0231
60.8070
2.4924
2.2145
21.2115
19.6451
21.336D
19.8158
24.5749
20.1840
77.1877
49.1469
19.6975
26.5952
23.5765
18.4654
13.6531
14.6405
15.0392
15.1473
12.8718
15.6500
19.6250
b
-0.8602
-1.8588
-0.8337
-0.9682
-1.4181
-2.0000
-0.1560
-1.1317
-0.6279
-0.5753
-0.6535
-0.6146
-0.5017
-1.1405
-0.8762
-1.6915
-1.9610
0.8165
0.2344
-0.5958
-0.5224
-0.5651
-0.5771
-0.7061
-0.5389
-2.7959
-1.6021
-0.5734
-0.7719
-0.6629
-0.5801
-0.4264
-0.4470
-0.4561
-0.4683
-0.3837
-0.500
-0.6250
N»
2
2
3
4
3
2
4
5
6
6
7
3
2
4
6
5
4
3
3
7
10
7
4
7
8
2
3
4
8
9
5
5
3
3
3
3
2*
2
r»
-0.9974
-0.9329
-0.9490
-0.744J
-0.9670
-0.9902
-0.9835
-0.9949
-0.9791
-0.9852
-0.9507
-0.9237
-0.9181
0.7816
0.9970
-0.9935
-0.9979
-0.9946
-0.9632
-0.9926
-0.9968
-0.8521
-0.9571
-0.9897
-0.9937
Data
- (°
upper
27.0
29.5
32.0
34.0
35.0
30 0
33.0
36.0
42.5
42.5
42.0
42.5
12
24.0
26.0
29.0
30.0
1.0
2.0
6.0
7.0
33
35
35.5
27
31.5
33
35
27.5
30.5
31.5
33.5
34.0
-0.9787^29.6
-0.9742 29.1
-0.9787 29
-0.9917 29
-0.9781 29
-0.9841 29
limits
'C) LD50
lower
26.5
29 0
31.0
32.5
34.0
29.5
28.5
34.0
38.5
39.0
39.0
39.5
10.8 ...
10.4
(30 da)
20.0
23.0
26.0
29.0
1.0
1.0
1.0 .
4.0
30
30.5
32.5
27 27(1 hr)
30.0
30.0
32.0
27.0
29 5
30.0
29.5
30.0
26.3
26.3
27
27
27
27
Lethal
threshold^
<°C)
26.0
28.3
30.6
31.7
33.3
10
4.2
7.5
28.2
31.7
33.2
1.5
10.5
10.5
22.0
23.7
27.0
29.1
1.0
1.0
14
6.0
29.3
29.3
29.3
29.3
29.3
29.3
26.5
28.8
29.6
29.3
29.3
2.2
5.0
26.5
26.5
»It is assumed in this table that the acclimation temperature reported is a true acclimation in the context of Brett
(1952)."
<• Number of median resistance times used for calculating regression equation.
' Correlation coefficient (perfect fit of all data points to the regression line=1.0).
if = Incipient lethal temperature of Fry, et al., (1946)."
«Salinity.
' Dissolved oxygen Cone. 7.4 mg/l.
»Dissolved oxygen Cone. 3.8 mg/l.
* See note (under Salmo salar) about Alabaster 1967."
58
-------
418/Appendix II—Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife
THERMAL TABLES—Continued
Salmo gairdnerll Adult 2650 mm 4000 g
(anadromous) ave.
(Steelhead
trout)
Salmo alar Smolts(1-2 About 16 cm
(Atlantic almon) yrs) ave.
Salmo alar Newly hatched
(Atlantic almon) lame
Salmo alar 30 da after
(Atlantic almon) hatching
(Atlantic almon) yrs)
(Atlantic almon) yrs)
Salmo trutta Newly hatched
(brown trout) fry
Salmotnitta 30 da after
searon)
Salmo trutta Smolts (2 yr.) About 21 cm
(brown trout. are.
searon)
trout)
in. Mind Columbia
River at
Priest
Rapids Dam
Mixed River Axe
Devon,
England
Mixed Cullercoats.
North
Shields,
England
(hatchery)
Mixed Cullercoats,
North
Shields
England
(hatchery)
Mixed River Axe
England
Mixed River North
Esk, Scotlani
Gloucester,
England
Mixed Culler-coats,
North
Shields,
England
(hatchery)
Mixed Cullercoats,
Shields,
England
(hatchery)
Mind River Axe,
Devon,
England
Hatchery,
Wayne Co.,
Penna. and
Chatsworth
Hatchery,
Ontario*
Reference
Coutant
(1970)"
Alabaster
(1967)"
Blshai (1960)"
Blshai (I960)'1
AUbaster
Alabaster
d (1967)"
AUbaster
0967)"
Bishai (I960)"
Blshai (I960)73
Alabaster L
Alabaster
(1967)"
Upper
Upper
Upper
Upper
Upper
Uooer
Upper
Upper
Uooir
Uppe
Acclimation
19-
9 2 (field)
9.3"
10.9"
Tested In 30% seawater
9. 2 (field)
Tested In 100% sea-
water
9 2 (field)
Acclimated 7 hr in sea-
water; tested in sea-
water
9 2 (field)
6 (brought up to
test temp, in
6 hours)
5
10
20
9 3 (field)
10 9 (field)
11 7
16 7
6 (raised to test
temp, over 6 hr
period)
5
10
20
6
15
9. 3 (field)
10.9"
log time=a+b (temp.) Data limits
(°C) LD5
upper lower
10.9677 -0.3329 7 -0.9910 29 21
43 6667 —1 6667 V (/) (I)
23.7273 -0.9091 2
126.5000 -5.000
44.6667 -1.6667 2
14.7369 -0.5263 2 '
36 9999 1 4266 2
13.59 -0.4297 6 -0.9678 29.0 20.0
9.9631 -0.2977 4 -0.9791 25.0 22
15.7290 -0.5396 3 -0.9699 26.0 22
11 5471 -0 3406 3 —0.9143 26.0 22
333750 -1.2500 2»
29 0000 1 0000 2
25.9091 -0.9091 2»
145909 —0.4545 2»
12.7756 -0.4010 6 -0.9747 29.0 20.0
15.2944 -0.5299 4 -0.9793 25.0 22.0
23 5131 0 9406 3 —0 9702 26.0 22.0 .
14.6979 -0.4665 3 -0.9797 26.0 22.0
36 1429 1 4296 2«
21 5714 0 7143 2
17 6687 0 5556 2
19.4667 -0.6667 2"
33.0000 -1.2500 2
17 5260 0 6033 6 0 9254 25 5 24 5
20 2457 0 6671 7 0 9723 27 0 25 0
Lethal
0 tbreihokM
f°C)
. 21
... 22.0
... 22.2
... 23.3
23.5
... 22.0
... 22.2
23.4
... 23.5
• It is assumed in this table that the acclimation temperature reported Is a true acclimation in tin context of Brett
(1952)."
6 Number ol median resistance times used for calculating regression equation.
• Correlation coefficient (perfect fit of all data points to trie regression line= l.OX
' = Incipient lethal temperature of Fry, at it, (1946)."
' River temp, during fall migration
1 Alabaster fitted by eye, a straight line to median death tiroes plotted on am'kig paper (tog time), then reported
only the 100 and 1000 min intercepts. These intercepts ire the basis for the eolation presented bere.
' See note for Alabaster 1967««
* Remits did not diner so data were combined.
59
-------
Appendix 7/-C/419
THERMAL TABLES—Continued
Species Stage/age Length Weight Set
nalis (brook range 2-
trout) 25 e
nalis (namaycush
hybrid)
namaycush (1 yr) 82. 8
(Lake trout) gm ave.
(2yr)
Scardinius Adult 10 cm Mixed
erythrophthala-
mus (rudd)
Semotilus alro- Adult 2.0-3.9gm Mixed
maculatus mode
(Creek chub)
maculatus
(Creek chub)
Sphaeroides annu- Adult
latus (Puffer)
Sphaeroides macu- 13. 8-15. 9 cm 62. 3-79. 3 gm Mixed
latus (Northern (average) (average)
puffer)
Thaleichthys Sexually 161 mm ave. 31gmave. Mixed
paciflcus Mature
(Eulachon or
Columbia River
Smelt)
Tilapia mossam- 4 months 8. 0-12. Ocm 10.0-17.0gm
bica (Mozam-
bique mouth-
breeder)
Tinea tinea Juvenile 4.6±0.4cm Mixed
(tench)
Location
Codrington,
On), (hatch-
ery
. Ontario,
Canada
Hatcheries in
Ontario
Britain (field)
Don River,
Thornhill,
Ontario
. Toronto,
Ontario
Knoxville,
Tenn.
. . Northern Gulf
of Calif.
Coast
New Jersey
(40 N)
Cowlitz River,
Wash.
. . Transvaal
Africa
England
Reference Extreme
Fry, Hart & Upper
Walker
(1946)»
Fry and Gib- Upper
son (1953)82
Gibson and Upper
Fry (1954)8*
Alabaster & Upper
Downing
(1866)"
Hart (1947)8' Upper
Lower
Hart (1952)88 Upper
Heath (1967)8° Upper
Hoff and West- Upper
man (1969)'°
Lower
Blahm & Upper
McConnell
(1970)"™
unpublished
data
Allanson & Upper
Noble
(1964)'i
Alabaster & Upper
Downing89
(1966)
Acclimation
Temp° Time
3
11
15
20
22
24
25
10
15
20
8 1wk
15 "
20
20
5
10
15
20
25
20
25
10 (Toronto only)
15 (Toronto only)
20 (Toronto only)
25
30
32.0
10
14
21
28
14
21
28
5 river temp.
22
26
28
29
30
32
34
36
15
20
25
log fime=a+b (temp.)
a
13.4325
14.6256
15.1846
15.0331
17.1967
17.8467
17.8467
13.2634
16.9596
19.4449
14.4820
14.5123
17.3684
26.9999
42.1859
31.0755
20.8055
21.0274
16.8951
20.8055
19.1315
19.3186
22.8982
25.4649
11.3999
35.5191
21.5353
23.7582
-1.7104
-3.9939
-7.4513
7.7440
313.3830
14.0458
41.1610
94.8243
41.3233
34.0769
123.1504
68.6764
33.2000
29.6667
27.1429
b
-0.4556
-0.4728
-0.4833
-0.4661
-0.5367
-0.5567
-0.5567
-0.4381
-0.5540
-0.6342
-0.5142
-0.4866
-0.5818
-0.7692
-1.6021
-1.0414
-0.6226
-0.5933
-0.4499
-0.6226
-0.5328
-0.4717
-0.5844
-0.6088
-0.2821
-1.0751
-0.5746
-0.6183
0.6141
0.7300
0.8498
-0.2740
-8.3878
-0.2800
-0.9950
-2.4125
-1.0018
-0.8123
-3.1223
-1.7094
1.0000
0.8333
0.7143
N»
3
6
9
7
6
10
3
6
8
9
4
5
5
2«
3
3
3
7
9
3
6
18
19
3
3
3
3
3
4
6
5
7
4
5
4
5
6
4
3
6
2«
3
2
r»
-0.9997
-0.9852
-0.9652
-0.9744
-0.9936
-0.9989
-0.9951
-0.9408
-0.8628
-0.9969
-0.9844
-0.9911
-0.9969
-0.9856
-0.9921
-0.9961
-0.9716
-0.9988
-0.9449
-0.9914
-0.9239
0.9760
0.9310
0.9738
-0.9142
-0.8898
-0.2140
-0.3107
S0.7781
-0.9724
-0.9209
-0.9938
-0.9053
Data limits
("0 LI
upper
26.0
28.0
28.5
29.0
29.0
30 0
29.0
26.5
28.0
28.0
26
27
27
26.0
29.0
31.0
33.5
35.0
29
31
33
36
37
37.0
30.0
32.0
32.0
33.5
10.0
12.0
16.0
29.0
37.10
37.92
38.09
38.10
38.50
38.4
38.4
38.77
lower
23.5 ....
25.0 ....
25 5
25.5 ....
26.5 ....
25 5
2G 0
24.0 ....
24.5 ....
24.5
23
24
24
25.0
28.0 ....
30 0
30.5
31.0
28
30
30.5
32
33
38.0
25.0
27.0
30.0
31.1
6.0
8.0
10.0
8.0
36 5
37 5
37.9
37.0 ....
37.6 ...-.
37.6 ....
38.2 ....
37.9 ....
Lethal
JM threshold
ft)
23.S
24 6
25 0
2S.3
25.5
25 5
25 S
23.5-24.0
?
24.0-24.5
22.7
23 5
23 S
.... 24.7
2J 3
293
30 3
.... 30.3
0 7
4.5
27 S
.... 29
.... 30.5
31.5
.... 31.5
.... 27.5
. 30.2
.... 31.2
.... 32.5
8.S
.... 10.7
13.0
10.5
. 36.94
.. 37.7
... 37.19
37.91
37.59
3J.6
38.2S
38.2
" It is assumed in this table that the acclimation temperature reported is a true acclimation in the context of Brett
(1952)."
11 Number of median resistance times used for calculating regression equation.
* Correlation coefficient (perfect fit of all data points to the regression line=1.0).
•>=Incipient lethal temperature of Fry, et al., (1946)."
• See previous note for Alabaster 1967."
60
-------
APPENDIX II-C
68 Alabaster, J. S. (1967), The survival of salmon (Salmo salar L.)
and sea trout (S. trulla L.) in fresh and saline water at high
temperatures. Water Res. 1(10):717-730.
69 Alabaster, J. S. and A. L. Downing (1966), A field and laboratory
investigation of the effect of heated effluents on fish. Fish. Min.
Agr. Fish Food (Great Britain) Ser. I Sea Fish 6(4): 1-42.
70 Alabaster, J. S. and R. L. Welcomme (1962), Effect of concentration
of dissolved oxygen on survival of trout and roach in lethal
temperatures. Nature 194:107.
"Allanson, B. R. and R. G. Noble (1964), The high temperature
tolerance of Tilapia mossambica (Peters). Trans. Amer. Fish.
Soc. 93(4):323-332.
"Allen, K. O. and K. Strawn (1968), Heat tolerance of channel
catfish Ictalurus punctatus, in Proceedings of the 21st annual conference
of the Southeastern Association of Game and Fish Commissioners (The
Association, Columbia, South Carolina), pp. 399-411.
73 Bishai, H. M. (1960), Upper lethal temperatures for larval sal-
monids. J. Cons. Cons. Perma. Int. Explor. Mer 25(2):129-133.
74 Brett, J. R. (1952), Temperature tolerance of young Pacific sal-
mon, genus Oncorhynchus. J. Fish. Res. Board of Can., 9(6):
265-323.
75 Coutant, C. C. (1972), Time-temperature relationships for thermal
resistances of aquatic organisms, principally fish [ORNL-EIS 72-27]
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee.
76 Coutant, C. C. (1970), Thermal resistance of adult coho salmon
(Oncorhynchus kisutcK) and jack chinook (O. tshawytscha) salmon
and adult steelhead trout Salmo gairdneri from the Columbia
River. AEC Rept. No. BNWL-1580, Batelle Northwest, Rich-
land, Wash.
77 Craigie, D. E. (1963), An effect of water hardness in the thermal
resistance of the rainbow trout, Salmo Gairdnerii, Can. J. %pol.
41(5):825-830.
78Doudoroff, P. (1942), The resistance and acclimatization of marine
fishes to temperature changes. I. Experiments with Girella
nigricans (Ayres). Biol. Bull. 83(2):219-244.
"Doudoroff, P. (1945), The resistance and acclimatization of marine
fishes to temperature changes. II. Experiments with Fundulus
and Atherinops. Biol. Bull. 88(2): 194-206.
"Edsall, T. A., D. V. Rottiers, and E. H. Brown (1970), Tempera-
ture tolerance of bloater (Coregonus hoyi). J. Fish. Res. Board Can.
27(11):2047-2052.
81 Fry, F. E. J., J. R. Brett and G. H. Clawson (1942) Lethal limits
of temperature for young goldfish. Rev. Can. Biol. 1:50—56.
82 Fry, F. E. J., and M. B. Gibson (1953), Lethal temperature ex-
periments with speckled trout x lake trout hybrids. J. Hered.
44(2):56-57.
83 Fry, F. E. J., J. S. Hart and K. F. Walker (1946), Lethal tem-
peratures relations for a sample young speckled trout, Salvelinus
fontinalis. Pbl. Ont. Fish. Res. Lab. No. 66; Univ. of Toronto
Stud., Biol. Ser. No. 54, Univ. of Toronto press.
84 Garside, E. T. and C. M. Jordan (1968), Upper lethal tempera-
tures at various levels of salinity in the euryhaline Cyprinodon-
tids Fundulus heteroclitus and F. diaphanus after isosomotic acclima-
tion. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 25(12):2717-2720.
86 Gibson, E. S. and F. E. J. Fry (1954), The performance of the
lake trout, Salvelinus namaycush, at various levels of temperature
and oxygen pressure. Can. J. ^ool. 32(3):252-260.
86 Hair, J. R. (1971), Upper lethal temperature and thermal shock
tolerances of the opossum shrimp, Neomysis awatschensis, from
the Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary, California. Calif. Fish
Gam«57(l):17-27.
87 Hart, J. S. (1947), Lethal temperature relations of certain fish of
the Toronto region. Trans. Roy. Soc. Can. Sec. 5(41):57-71.
88 Hart, J. S. (1952), Geographic variations of some physiological and
morphological characters in certain freshwater fish [University of
Toronto biology series no. 60] (The University of Toronto
Press, Toronto), 79 p.
89 Heath, W. G: (1967), Ecological significance of temperature tol-
erance in Gulf of California shore fishes. J. Ariz. Acad. Set.
4(3): 172-178.
90 Hoff, J. G. and J. R. Westman (1966), The temperature tolerances
of three species of marine fishes. J. Mar. Res. 24(2):131-140.
91 Lewis, R. M. (1965), The effect of minimum temperature on the
survival of larval Atlantic menhaden Brevoortia tyrannus. Trans.
Amer. Fish. Soc. 94(4):409-412.
92 Lewis, R. M. and W. F. Hettler, Jr. (1968), Effect of temperature
and salinity on the survival of young Atlantic menhaden, Bre-
voortia tyrannus. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 97(4):344—349.
93 McCauley, R. W. (1958), Thermal relations of geographic races of
Salvelinus. Can. J. fool. 36(5):655-662.
84 McCauley, R. W. (1963), Lethal temperatures of the develop-
mental stages of the sea lamprey, Petromyzon marinus L. J. Fish.
Res. Board Can. 20(2):483-490.
96Neill, W. H., Jr., K. Strawn, and J. E. Dunn (1966), Heat resist-
ance experiments with the longear sunfish, Lepomis miegalotis
(Rafmesque). Arkansas Acad. Sci. Proc. 20:39-49.
96 Scott, D. P. (1964), Thermal resistance of pike (Esox lucius L.)
muskellunge (E. masquinongy) Mitchill, and their Ft hybrids.
J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 21(5): 1043-1049.
97 Simmons, H. B. (1971), Thermal resistance and acclimation at
various salinities in the sheepshead minnow (Cyprinodon variegatus
Lacepede). Texas A&M Univ. Soc. No. TAMU-SG-71-205.
98 Smith, W. E. (1970), Tolerance of Mysis relicta to thermal shock
and light. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 99(2):418^22.
"Strawn, K. and J. E. Dunn (1967), Resistance of Texas salt- and
freshwater marsh fishes to heat death at various salinities,
Texas-T. Series, 1967:57-76.
References Cited
100 Blahm, T. H. and R. J. McConnell, unpublished data (1970),
Mortality of adult eulachon Thaleichthys pacificus chinook slamon
and coho salmon subjected to sudden increases in water tem-
perature, (draft). Seattle Biological Laboratory, U.S. Bureau of
Commercial Fisheries, Seattle.
101Blahm, T. H. and W. D. Parente, unpublished data (1970), Effects
of temperature on chum salmon, threespine stickelback and
yellow perch in the Columbia river, Seattle Biological Labora-
tory, U.S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Seattle.
I02Edsall, T. A. and P. A. Colby (1970), Temperature tolerance of
young-of-the-year cisco, Coregonus artedii. Trans. Amer. Fish.
Soc. 99(3):526-531.
103 McConnell, R. J. and T. H. Blahm, unpublished data (1970),
Resistance of juvenile sockeye salmon 0. nerka to elevated water
temperatures, (draft) Seattle Biological Laboratory, U.S. Bureau
of Commercial Fisheries, Seattle.
104 Smith, W. E. unpublished data (1971), Culture reproduction and
temperature tolerance of Pontoporeia qffinis in the laboratory.
(draft) National Water Quality Laboratory, Duluth, Minnesota.
106Snyder, G. R. and T. H. Blahm, unpublished data (1970), Mor-
tality of juvenile chinook salmon subjected to elevated water
temperatures, (draft Man.) Seattle Biological Laboratory. U.S.
Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Seattle.
61
-------
APPENDIX C (ALL DATA ARE IN ° C)
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA
Species: Alewife, Alosa pseudoharengus
1. Lethal threshold:
Upper
Lower
II. Growth:
Optimum and
[range]
III. Reproduction:
Migration
Spawning
Incubation
and hatch
IV. Preferred:
acclimation , ... . ,.
temperature larvae juvenile adult
5 15
10 20
15 23
20 23
*ultimate incipient 32*
larvae juvenile adult
optimum range month (s)
13*(3) <10(1)-?
lfi-?8M) Aor-Auq(5)
17 11-27
*peak run
acclimation
temperature larvae juvenile adult
24 23*
31 23*
18 20
21 22
*age unknown
reference1
5
5
5
5
2
1,3
lrfi
1
2
9
4
4
References on following page.
62
-------
Alewife
References
1. Edsall, T. A. 1970. The effects of temperature on the rate of development
and survival of alewife eggs and larvae. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 99:376-
380.
2. Carroll, E. W. and C. R. Norden. 1971. Temperature preference of the fresh-
water alewife, Alosa pseudoharengus. Abst. of paper presented at 33rd Midwest
Wildlife Conference.
3. Tyus, H. M. 1974. Movements and spawning of anadromous alewives, Alosa
pseudoharengus (Wilson) at Lake Mattamuskeet, North Carolina. Trans. Amer.
Fish. Soc. 103:392-396.
4. Meldrim, J. W., J. J. Gift, and B. R. Petrosky. 1974. Supplementary data
on temperature preference and avoidance responses and shock experiments
with estuarine fishes and macroinvertebrates. Ichthyological Associates,
Inc., Middletown, Delaware. 56 p. mimeo.
5. Graham, J. J. 1956. Observations on the alewife, Pomolobus pseudoharengus
(Wilson), in fresh water. Univ. of Toronto, Biol. Ser. No. 62:43 p.
63
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA
Species.' Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar
1. Lethal threshold:
Upper
Lower
II. Growth:
Optimum and
[range]
III. Reproduction:
Migration
Spawning
Incubation
and hatch
IV. Preferred:
acclimation . _. ,
temperature larvae juvenile adult
5 22*
6 22
10 23*
20 23*
27.5 27.8**
*30 days after hatch
**ultimate upper incipient t
larvae juvenile adult
10(9) 16-18(4)
optimum ranqe month (s)
adults 23 or less, smolt 10 or less
4-6(3) 2-10(11) Oct-Dec(7)
3(31-11(12)
acclimation
temperature larvae juvenile adult
4 14
Summer 17(51 14-16(6)
14
reference1
i
i
i
i
8
imp.
4,9
3
3.7.11
3,12
2
5.6
10
References on following page.
64
-------
Atlantic salmon
References
1. Bishai, H. M. 1960. Upper lethal temperatures for larval salmonids.
Jou. Du Consetl. 25:129-133.
2. Fisher, Kenneth C. and P. F. Elson. 1950. The selected temperature of
Atlantic salmon and speckled trout and the effect of temperature on the
response to an electrical stimulus. Physiol. Zoology. 23:27T34.
3. Dexter, R. 1967. Atlantic salmon culture. U.S. Bur. Sport Fish. Wildl.,
Mimeo.
4. Markus, H. C. 1962. Hatchery reared Atlantic salmon smelts in ten months.
Prog. Fish. Cult. 24:127-130.
5. Javoid, M. Y. and J. M. Anderson. 1967- Thermal acclimation and temperature
selection in Atlantic salmon, Salmo solar,, and rainbow trout, S. gairdneri.
J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. 24(7):1515-1519.
6. Ferguson, R. G. 1958. The preferred temperature of fish and their midsummer
distribution in temperate lakes and streams. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada.
15:607-624.
7. Carlander, K. D. 1969. Handbook of Freshwater Fishery Biology. Vol. 1.
Life History Data on Freshwater Fishes of the United States and Canada,
Exclusive of the Perciformes. Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames, Iowa. 752 p.
8. Garside, E. T. 1973. Ultimate upper lethal temperature of Atlantic salmon,
Salmo sola? L. Can. J. Zoo!. 51:898-900.
9. Marr, D. H. A. 1966. Influence of temperature on the efficiency of growth
of salmonid embryos. Nature (London). 212:957-959.
10. Legett, W. C. and G. Power. 1969. Differences between two populations of
landlocked Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in Newfoundland. J. Fish. Res. Bd.
Canada. 16:1585-1596.
11. Jones, J. W. 1959. The Salmon. Collins Press, London. 192 p.
12. Spaas, J. T. and M. J. Heuts. 1958. Contributions to the Comparative
Physiology and Genetics of the European Salmonidae. II. Physiologic et
Genetique du Developpement Embryonnaire. Hydrobiologia. 12:1-26.
65
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA
Species: Bigmouth buffalo, letiobus cyprinellus
acclimation
I. Lethal threshold: temperature larvae juvenile adult
Upper
Lower
II. Growth:
larvae
juvenile adult
Optimum and
[range]
III. Reproduction: optimum
Migration
Spawning 16-18(6)
Incubation
and hatch
range month (s)
14(1)-27(6) Apr(4)-June(3)
14(5)-17(2,5)
IV. Preferred:
acclimation
temperature larvae juvenile adult
31 -34*
*IoUobus sp. field
reference1
1,3,4,6
2.5
References on following page.
66
-------
Bigmouth buffalo
References
1. Canfield, H. L. 1922. Cited in: Johnson, R. P. 1963. Studies on the
life history and ecology of the bigmouth buffalo, lotiobus oyprinellus
(Valenciennes). J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. 20:1397-1429.
2. Eddy, S. and J. C. Underhill. 1974. Northern Fishes. University of
Minnesota Press, Minneapolis. 414 pp.
3. Walburg, C. H. and W. R. Nelson. 1966. Carp, river carpsucker, smallmouth
buffalo and bigmouth buffalo in Lewis and Clark Lake, Missouri River. U.S.
Bur. Sport Fish. Wildl., Washington, D.C. Research Report 69. 29 p.
4. Harlan, J. R. and E. B. Speaker. 1956. Iowa Fish and Fishing. State
Conservation Commission. 377 p.
5. Walker, M. C. and P. T. Frank. 1952. The propagation of buffalo. Prog.
Fish. Cult. 14:129-130.
6. Swingle, H. S. 1957. Revised procedures for commercial production of
bigmouth buffalo fish in ponds in the southeast. Proc. 10th Ann. Conf.
S.E. Assoc. Game and Fish Comm. 1956. p. 162-165.
7. Gammon, J. R. 1973. The effects of thermal inputs on the population of
fish and macroinvertebrates in the Wabash River. Purdue Univ. Water
Resources Research Center, Lafayette, Indiana. Tech. Rept. No. 32.
106 p.
67
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA
Species: Black crappie, Pomoxis nigramaoulatus
acclimation
I. Lethal threshold: temperature larvae juvenile adult
Upper
29
Lower
II. Growth;
larvae
33*
Optimum and
[range]
*intimate incipient level
juvenile adult
22-25
(11-30)*
Reproduction; optimum
Migration
Spawning
Incubation
and hatch
*Limits of zero growth
range month (s)
14(4)-20(3) Mar(4)-Ju1y(3)
IV. Preferred:
acclimation
temperature larvae
Summer
18-20(5)
juvenile adult
24-34(1)
27-29*
*50% catch/effort
reference
3,4
References on following page.
68
-------
Black crappie
References
1. Neill, W. H., J. J. Magnuson and G. G. Chipman. 1972. Behavioral thermo-
regulation by fishes - new experimental approach. Science. 176:1442-1443.
2. Hokanson, K. E. F., and C. F. Kleiner. Effects of constant and diel
fluctuations in temperature on growth and survival of black crappie.
Unpublished data, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Duluth, Minnesota.
3. Breder, C. M., and D. E. Rosen. 1966. Modes of reproduction in fishes.
Nat. History Press. Garden City, New York. 941 p.
4. Goodson, L. F. 1966. Crappie: In: Inland Fisheries Management, A.
Calhoun, ed., Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, p. 312-332.
5. Faber, D. J. 1967. Limnetic larval fish in northern Wisconsin lakes.
J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. 24:927-937.
6. Neill, W. H., and J. J. Magnuson. 1974. Distributional ecology and be-
havioral thermoregulation of fishes in relation to heated effluent from
a power plant at Lake Monona, Wisconsin. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., 103:
663-710.
69
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA
Species: Bluegill, Lepomis maeroeh-irus
\. Lethal threshold:
Upper
Lower
II. Growth;
Optimum and
[range]
III. Reproduction:
Migration
Spawning
Incubation
and hatch
IV. Preferred:
acclimation
temperature
15(2), 12(8)
20
25(2), 26(8)
30
33
15(2). 12(8)
20
25(2). 26(8)
30
33
larvae
optimum
25(5)
22-24
acclimation
temperature
26 Aua(ll)
8 Nov
3 Feb
26 June
30 June
larvae juvenile
27(8)
36(8)
34
37
3 (8)
10(8)
15
juvenile
30(10)
adult
31(2)
32
33(2)
azi.
5
11
adult
24-27(3)
(22-34)00) [16(1)-30(4)]
range
19(5)-32(fn
22-34
larvae juvenile
32(9.11)
18
16
31
32
month (s)
teb (6] -
Auq'lT;
adult
reference'
2,8
2
2,8
2
8
2,8
2
2,8
2
8
3,10
1,4,10
1,5,6
8
9,11
11
11
11
7
References on following page.
70
-------
Bluegill
References
1. Emig, J. W. 1966. Bluegill sunfish. In: Inland Fisheries Management.
A. Calhoun, ed., Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, p. 375-392.
2. Hart, J. S. 1952. Geographical variations of some physiological and
morphological characters in certain freshwater fish. Univ. Toronto,
Biol. Ser. No. 60. 78 p.
3. Anderson, R. 0. 1959. The influence of season and temperature on growth
of the bluegill, Lepomis macro-ohivus. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. Mich., Ann
Arbor. 133 p.
4. Maloney, John E. 1949. A study of the relationship of food consumption
of the bluegill, Lepomis macroehirus Rafinesque, to temperature. M.S.
Thesis, Univ. of Minn., Minneapolis. 43 p.
5. Snow, H., A Ensign and John Klingbiel. 1966. The bluegill, its life
history, ecology and management. Wis. Cons. Dept., Madison. Publ. No.
230. 14 p.
6. Clugston, J. P. 1966. Centrarchid spawning in the Florida Everglades.
Quart. J. Fla. Acad. Sci. 29:137-143.
7. Cherry, D. S., K. L. Dickson, and J. Cairns, Jr. 1975. Temperatures
selected and avoided by fish at various acclimation temperatures. J.
Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. 32:485-491.
8. Banner, A., and J. A. Van Arman. 1972. Thermal effects on eggs, larvae and
juveniles of bluegill sunfish. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Duluth,
Minnesota. Report No. EPA-R3-73-041.
9. Ferguson, R. G. 1958. The preferred temperature of fish and their midsummer
distribution in temperate lakes and streams. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada.
15:607-624.
10. Lemke, A. E. 1977. Optimum temperature for growth of juyenvle bluegills,
Lepomis macrochirus Rafinesque. Prog. Fish Culturist. In press,
11. Peterson, S. E., R. M. Schutsky, and S. E. Allison, 1974. Temperature pref-
erence, avoidance and shock experiments with freshwater fishes and crayfishes.
Ichthyological Associates, Inc., Drumore, PA. Bulletin 10.
71
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA
Species: Brook trout, Salvelinus fontinalis
1. Lethal threshold;
Upper
Lower
II. Growth;
Optimum and
[range]
III. Reproduction:
Migration
Spawning
Incubation
and hatch
IV. Preferred:
acclimation , ...
temperature larvae juvenile adult
3 23
11 25
12 20*, 25**
15 25
20 *Newly hatched 25
25 **Swimiip 25
larvae juvenile adult
12-15(2) 16(1)
(7-18)(2) (10-19)(1)
optimum range month (s)
<9(1) 4(fi)-l?(l) fifsfl*""
6 ?-13
acclimation
temperature larvae juvenile adult
6 12
24 19
reference1
3
3
2
3
3
3
1.2
1,2
1,5.6
1
4
4
References on following page.
72
-------
Brook trout
References
1. Hokanson, K. E. F., J. H. McCormick, B. R. Jones, and J. H. Tucker. 1973.
Thermal requirements for maturation, spawning and embryo survival of the
brook trout, Salvelinus fontinalis (Mitchill). J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada.
30(7):975-984.
2. McCormick, J. H., K. E. F. Hokanson, and B. R. Jones. 1972. Effects of
temperature on growth and survival of young brook trout, Salvelinus
fontinalis. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. 29:1107-1112.
3. Fry, F. E. J., J. S. Hart, and K. F. Walker. 1946. Lethal temperature
relations for a sample of young speckled trout, Salvelinus fontinalis.
Univ. Toronto Studies, Biol. Ser. 54, Publ. Ontario Fish Res. Lab.
66:1-35.
4. Cherry, D. S., K. L. Dickson, and J. Cairns, Jr. 1975. Temperatures
selected and avoided by fishes at various acclimation temperatures.
J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. 32:485-491.
5. McAfee, W. R. 1966. Eastern brook trout. In: Inland Fisheries
Management, A. Calhoun, ed. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game. p. 242-264.
6. Eddy, S., and J. C. Underbill. 1974. Northern Fishes. University of
Minnesota Press, Minneapolis. 414 p.
73
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA
Species: Brown bullhead, lotalicpus nebulosus
acclimation , ...
I. Lethal threshold: temperature larvae juvenile adult
Upper
30
Lower
II. Growth:
Optimum and
[range]
larvae
III. Reproduction: optimum
Migration
Spawning
Incubation
and hatch
IV. Preferred:
acclimdtion
temperature
18 May(2)
26 July
23 Sept
10 Mar
35
juvenile
adult
range
21(4)-27(3)
month (s)
Mar-$eot(3)
larvae
juvenile
21(2)
31
27
26
adult
29-31*0)
*fina1 preferendum
reference1
3,4
3,4
1,2
References on following page.
74
-------
Brown bullhead
References
1. Crawshaw, L. I. 1975. Attainment of the final thermal preferendum in
brown bullheads acclimated to different temperatures. Comp. Biochem.
Physiol. 52:171-173.
2. Meldrim, J. W., J. J. Gift, and B. R. Petrosky. 1974. Supplementary data
on temperature preference and avoidance responses and shock experiments
with estuarine fishes and macroinvertebrates. Ichthyological Associates,
Inc., Middletown, Delaware. 56 p. mimeo.
3. Carlander, K. D. 1969. Handbook of Freshwater Fishery Biology, Vol. 1.
Life History Data on Freshwater Fishes of the United States and Canada,
Exclusive of the Perciformes. Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames, Iowa. 752 p.
4. Scott, W. B., and E. J. Grossman. 1973. Freshwater Fishes of Canada. J.
Fish. Res. Bd. Canada, Ottawa, Ontario. Bull. 184. 966 p.
5. Hart, J. S. 1952. Geographical variations of some physiological and
morphological characters in certain freshwater fishes. Univ. Toronto
Biol. Ser. No. 60. 78 p.
75
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA
1. Lethal threshold:
Upper
Lower
II. Growth;
Optimum and
[range]
III. Reproduction;
Migration
Spawning
Incubation
and hatch
IV. Preferred:
acclimation , ...
temperature larvae juvenile
20(2) 23(2)
23
20
15
IU
5
*approx. ultimate upper
**age unknown
larvae juvenile
7-19*
*ages 0-IV
optimum range
6-7
adult
26*(5)
25**
25**
25**
24**
22**
incipient 1
adult
month (s)
7-9(11) 1(7)-13(8) Oct(9)-Jan(10
7-12(4) 5(4)-15(3)
acclimation
temperature larvae juvenile
adult
12-18
reference'
2,5
4
4
4
4
4
•thai
4
1
7,8,9,10,11
3,4
6
References on following page.
76
-------
Brown trout
References
1. Stuart, T. A. 1953. Water currents through permeable gravels and their
significance to spawning salmonids. Nature. 172:407-408.
2. Bishai, H. M. 1960. Upper lethal temperatures for larval salmonids.
Jour, du Conseil. 25:129-133.
3. Staley, J. 1966. Brown trout. In: Inland Fisheries Management, A.
Calhoun, ed. Calif. Dept. of Fish and Game. p. 233-242.
4. Frost, W. E., and M. E. Brown. 1967. The Trout, Collins Press, London.
286 p.
5. Spaas, J. T. 1960. Contribution to the comparative physiology and genetics
of the European salmonidae. III. Temperature resistance at different ages.
Hydrobiologia. 15:78-88.
6. Tait, J. S. 1958. Cited in: Ferguson, R. G. 1958. The preferred
temperature of fish and their midsummer distribution in temperate lakes
and streams. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. 15:607-624.
7. Vernidub, M. F. 1963. Cited in: Brown, H, W. 1974. Handbook of the Effects
of Temperature on Some North American Fishes. American Elect. Power Service
Corp., Canton, Ohio.
8. National Technical Advisory Committee. 1968. Water Quality Criteria.
Fed. Water Poll. Control Admin. U. S. Department of the Interior. 234 p.
9. O'Donnell, D. J., and W. S. Churchill. 1954. Cited in: Carlander, K. D.
1969. Handbook of Freshwater Fishery Biology, Vol. 1. Life History Data
on Freshwater Fishes of the United States and Canada, Exclusive of the
Perciformes. Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames, Iowa. 752 p.
10. Carl, G. C. 1938. A spawning run of brown trout in the Corvichan River
system. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada Progr. Rep. Pac. 36:12-13.
11. Scott, W. B., and E. J. Crossman. 1973. Freshwater Fishes of Canada.
J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada, Ottawa, Ontario. Bull. 184. 966 p.
77
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA
Species: Carp, Cyprinus oca>pio
1. Lethal threshold:
Upper
Lower
II. Growth;
Optimum and
[range]
III. Reproduction;
Migration
Spawning
Incubation
and hatch
IV. Preferred:
acclimation
temperature
20
26
25-27
larvae
(16-30)(9)
optimum
19-23(2)
17-22(7)
Limit for 10
is 35°
acclimation
temperature
25-35
Summer
10
larvae juvenile adult
31-34*
36*
40-41
*24 hr. TL50
juvenile adult
range month (s)
14(4)-26(2) Mar-Auq(5)
?-33(l)
min.. exposure of early embryo
larvae juvenile adult
31-32
33-35
17
reference1
3
3
10
9
2,4,5
1,7
1
6
8
6
References on following page.
78
-------
Carp
References
1. Frank, M. L. 1973. Relative sensitivity of different stages of carp to
thermal shock. Thermal Ecology Symposium, May 3-5, 1973, Augusta, Georgia.
2. Swee, U. B., and H. R. McCrimmon. 1966. Reproductive biology of the carp,
Cyprinus oarpio £._, in Lake St. Lawrence, Ontario. Trans. Amer. Fish.
Soc. 95:372-380.
3. Black, E. C. 1953. Upper lethal temperatures of some British Columbia
freshwater fishes. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. 10:196-210.
4. Sigler, W. F. 1958. The ecology and use of carp in Utah. Utah State
Univ., Ag. Experiment Station. Bull. 405. 63 p.
5. Carlander, K. 1969. Handbook of Freshwater Fishery Biology, Vol. 1.
Life History Data on Freshwater Fishes of the United States and Canada,
Exclusive of the Perciformes. Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames, Iowa. 752 p.
6. Pitt, T. K., E. T. Garside, and R. L. Hepburn. 1956. Temperature
selection of the carp (Cypvinus aarpio Linn.). Can. J. Zool. 34:555-557.
7. Burns, J. W. 1966. Carp. In: Inland Fisheries Management, A. Calhoun,
ed. Calif. Div. Game and Fish, p. 510-515.
8. Gammon, J. R. 1973. The effect of thermal inputs on the population of
fish and macroinvertebrates in the Wabash River. Purdue Univ. Water
Resources Res. Center, Lafayette, Indiana. Tech. Rept. No. 32.
9. Tatarko, K. I. 1965. Cited in Brown, H. W. 1974. Handbook of the
Effects of Temperature on Some North American Fishes. American Elect.
Power Service Corp., Canton, Ohio.
10. Horoszewicz, L. 1973. Lethal and "disturbing" temperatures in some
fish species from lakes with normal and artifically elevated temperatures
J. Fish. Biol. 5:165-181.
79
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA
Species: Channel catfish, Ietalia>us punetatus
1. Lethal threshold:
Upper
Lower
II. Growth:
Optimum and
[range]
III. Reproduction;
Migration
Spawning
Incubation
and hatch
IV. Preferred:
acclimation
temperature
15
25(2) 26(1)
29
30
34
15
20
25
larvae
29-30(3)
(27-31)(3)
optimum
27(5)
acclimation
temperature
Summer
2 Jan(ll)
22
29
larvae juvenile adult
30*
37(1) 34(2)*
31
37
38
*8fl-l?? gram*
3
6
juvenile adult
28-30(8)
(26-34H4)
range month (s)
21-29(5) Mar(10)-July(6)
24-28(5)
larvae juvenile adult
30-32*
11(11) 32**(9)
35
35 *field
**14-hr. photo
reference'
2
1,2
3
1
1
2
2
2
3.8
3.4
•5,6,10
5
7
9.11
11
11
>eriod
References on following page.
80
-------
Channel catfish
References
1. Allen, K. 0., and K. Strawn. 1968. Heat tolerance of channel catfish,
Ictalurus punctuatus. Proc. 21st Ann. Conf. S.E. Assoc. Game and Fish
Comm., 1967, p. 399-411.
2. Hart, J. S. 1952. Geographical variations of some physiological and
morphological characters in certain freshwater fish. Univ. Toronto, Toronto,
Ontario. Biological Series No. 60.
3. West, B. W. 1966. Growth, food conversion, food consumption, and survival
at various temperatures of the channel catfish, lotalurus punotatus (Rafinesque)
M.S. Thesis, Univ. Ark., Tuscon, Ark.
4. Andrews, J. W., and R. R. Stickney. 1972. Interaction of feeding rate and
environmental temperature of growth, food conversions, and body composition
of channel catfish. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 101:94-97-
5. Clemens, H. P., and K. F. Sneed. 1957. The spawning behavior of the channel
catfish, Ictaluvus punotatus. U. S. Fish. Wildl. Serv., Special Sci. Rept.
Fish No. 219.
6. Brown, L. 1942. Propagation of the spotted channel catfish, Ictalurus
laaustris punotatus. Kan. Acad. Sci. Trans. 45:311-314.
7. Gammon, J. R. 1973. The effect of thermal inputs 'on the populations of
fish and macroinvertebrates in the Wabash River. Purdue Univ. Water
Resources Res. Center, Lafayette, Indiana. Tech. Rept. 32. 106 p.
8. Andrews, J. W., L. H. Knight, and T. Murai. 1972. Temperature requirements
for high density rearing of channel catfish from fingerling to market size.
Prog. Fish. Cult. 34:240-241.
9. Kilambi, R. V., J. Noble, and C. E. Hoffman. 1970. Influence of temperature
and food conversion efficiency of the channel catfish. Proc. 24th Ann. Conf.
S.E. Assoc. Game and Fish Comm., 1969, p. 519-531.
10. Stevens, R. E. 1959. The white and channel catfishes of the Santee-Cooper
Reservoir and Tailrace Sanctuary. Proc. 13th Ann. Conf. S.E. Assoc. Game
and Fish. Comm., 1959, p. 203-219.
11. Peterson, S. E., R. M. Schutsky, and S. E. Allison. 1974. Temperature
preference, avoidance, and shock experiments with freshwater fishes and
crayfishes. Ichthyological Associates, Inc., Drumore, Pennsylvania.
Bull. 10.
81
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA
Species: C°no salmon, Oncorhynchus kisutah
1. Lethal threshold:
Upper
Lower
II. Growth-.
Optimum and
[range]
III. Reproduction;
Migration
Spawning
Incubation
and hatch
IV. Preferred:
acclimation
temperature larvae juvenile adult
5 23
in 24(1) 21*(^)
15 24
20 25
23 25
*Accl . temp.
5 0.2
10 2
15 3
20 5
23 6
larvae juvenile adult
15*
(5-17)**
*unlimited food
**depending upon season
optimum range month (s)
7-1fi
7-13 Fall
8(2) ?-ll(7)
acclimation
temperature larvae juvenile adult
Winter 13
reference1
i
1 3
1
1
1
unknown
1
1
1
1
1
2
6
5
3
2,7
4
References on following page.
82
-------
Coho salmon
References
1. Brett, J. R. 1952. Temperature tolerance in young Pacific salmon, genus
Oneorhynchus. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. 9:265-323.
2. Great Lakes Research Laboratory. 1973. Growth of lake trout in the
laboratory. Progress in Sport Fishery Research. 1971. USDI, Fish and
Wildlife Service, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, p. 100 and 107.
3. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1971. Columbia River thermal
effects study, Vol. 1. Biological Effects Studies. 95 p.
4. Edsall, T. 1970. U. S. Dept. of Int., Great Lakes Fishery Laboratory,
Ann Arbor, Michigan. Personal communication.
5. Burrows, R. E. 1963. Water temperature requirements for maximum
productivity of salmon. Proc. 12th Pacific N. W. Symposium on Water
Poll. Res., Nov. 7, 1963, Corvallis, Oregon, p. 29-38.
6. Averett, R. C. 1968. Influence of temperature on energy and material
utilization by juvenile coho salmon. Ph.D. Thesis, Oregon State Univ.,
Corvallis, Oregon.
7. Shapovalov, L. and A. C. Taft. 1954. Cited in: Schuytema, G. 1969.
Literature review, effects of temperature on Pacific salmon, Appendix A.
In: Thermal Pollution: Status of the Art, Parker, F. L. and R. A. Krenkel,
ed. Vanderbilt Univ., Nashville, Tennessee. Rept. No. 3. 317 p.
83
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA
Species: Emerald shiner, Notropis atheri-noides
1. Lethal threshold:
Upper
Lower
II. Growth:
Optimum and
[range]
III. Reproduction;
Migration
Spawning
Incubation
and hatch
IV. Preferred:
acclimation
temperature larvae juvenile adult
18 8
15 29
20 31
25 31
15 2
20 5
larvae juvenile adult
29
(24-31 )
optimum range month (s)
20(3)-28(5) May-Aug(l,4)
acclimation
temperature larvae juvenile adult
Summer 25*
*unknown age
reference1
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
2
9
1,3,4,5
3
References on following page.
84
-------
Emerald shiner
References
1. Carlander, R. D. 1969. Handbook of Freshwater Fishery Biology, Vol. 1.
Life History Data on Freshwater Fishes of the United States and Canada,
Exclusive of the Perciformes. Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames, Iowa. 752 p.
2. McCormick, J. H., and C. F. Kleiner. 1976. Growth and survival of young-
of-the-year emerald shiners (Notropis ather-Lnoides) at different
temperatures. J. Fish. Res, Bd. Canada. 33:839-842.
3. Campbell, J. S., and H. R. MacCrimmon. 1970. Biology of the emerald shiner
Notropis atherinoides Rafinesque in Lake Simcoe, Canada. J. Fish. Biol.
2:259-273.
4. Flittner, G. A. 1964. Morphometry and life history of the emerald shiner
Notropis atherinoides Rafinesque. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. of Mich., Ann Arbor,
Michigan.
5. Gray, J. W. 1942. Studies on Notropis atherinoides atherinoides Rafinesque
in the Bass Islands Region of Lake Erie. M.S. Thesis, Ohio State Univ.,
Columbus, Ohio.
85
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA
Species: Fathead minnow, Pimephales promelas
acclimation
I. Lethal threshold: temperature larvae juvenile adult
Upper
Lower
Growth;
Optimum and
[fange]
larvae
juvenile
adult
23.5-30
Reproduction; optimum
Migration
Spawning
Incubation
and hatch
23.5(1)
23-Z8
range
18(2)-30(1)
23.5-30
month (s)
May-Aug(2)
IV. Preferred:
acclimation
temperature larvae juvenile adult
reference1
1,2
References on following page.
86
-------
Fathead minnow
References
Brungs, W. A. 1971. Chronic effects of constant elevated temperature
on the fahead minnow (Pimephales promelas Rafinesque). Trans. Am. Fish.
Soc. 100:659-664.
Carlson, D. R. 1967. Fathead minnow, Pimephales promelas Rafinesque, in
the Des Moines River, Boon County, Iowa, and the Skunk River Drainage,
Hamilton and Story Counties, Iowa. Iowa State J. Science. 41:363-374.
87
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA
Species: Freshwater drum, Aplodinotus grunniens
acclimation , _, ,
I. Lethal threshold; temperature larvae juvenile adult
Upper
Lower
Growth;
Optimum and
[range]
larvae
III. Reproduction; optimum
Migration
Spawning
Incubation
and hatch
IV. Preferred:
juvenile adult
range month (s)
18-24(4) May(l)-Aug(3)
22(2)-26(l)
acclimation
temperature larvae
juvenile adult
29-31*
*Field
reference'
1.3.4
1,2
References on following page.
-------
Freshwater drum
References
1. Wrenn, B. B. 1969. Life history aspects of smallmouth buffalo and
freshwater drum in Wheeler Reservoir, Alabama. Proc. 22nd Ann.
Conf. S.E. Assoc. Game and Fish Comm., 1967. p. 479-495.
2. Davis, C. C. 1959. A planktonic fish egg from freshwater. Limn. Ocean.
4:352-355.
3. Edsall, T. A. 1967. Biology of the freshwater drum in Western Lake Erie.
Ohio J. Sci. 67:321-340.
4. Swedberg, D. V., and C. H. Walburg. 1970. Spawning and early life history
of the freshwater drum in Lewis and Clark Lake, Missouri River. Trans. Am.
Fish. Soc. 99:560-571.
5. Gammon, J. R. 1973. The effect of thermal inputs on the populations of
fish and macroinvertebrates in the Wabash River. Purdue Univ. Water
Resources Research Center, Lafayette, Indiana. Tech. Rept. 32. 106 p.
89
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA
Species: Lake Herring (cisco), Coregonus artedii
acclimation
1. Lethal threshold: temperature larvae juvenile adult
2(3), 3(2 20(2) 20(3) 20,4)*
Upper R h , 13 26
20 26
25 26
*accl . temp, u
Lowpr 2 0.3
5 0.5
10 3
20 5
25 10
II. Growth: larvae juvenile adult
Optimum and 1 6
[ranael (IS-IR)
III. Reproduction.- optimum range month(s)
Migration To spawning grounds at - 5
Spawning 3(6,7) 1-5(8) Nov-Dec(6)
Incubation
and hatch 6(1) 2-8(1) Nov(6)-May(8)
acclimation
IV. Preferred: temperature larvae juvenile adult
13
reference1
2,3,4
3,5
3
3
3
iknown
3
l
3
3
3
?
?
7
6,7,8
1,6,8
6
References on following page.
20
-------
Lake herring (cisco)
References
1. Colby, P. J., and L. T. Brooke. 1970. Survival and development of the
herring (Coregonus artedii] eggs at various incubation temperatures.
In: Biology of Coregonids, C. C. Lindsay and C. S. Woods, ed. Univ.
Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada, pp. 417-428.
2. McCormick, J. H., B. R. Jones, and R. F. Syrett. 1971. Temperature
requirements for growth and survival of larval ciscos (Coregonus artedii}.
J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. 28:924-927.
3. Edsall, T. A., and P. J. Colby. 1970. Temperature tolerance of young-of-
the-year Cisco, Coregonus artedii. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc, 99:526-531.
4. Frey, D. G. 1955. Distributional ecology of the cisco (Coregonus artedii}.
Investigations of Indiana Lakes and Streams. 4:177-228.
5. Colby, P. J., and L. T. Brooke. 1969. Cisco (Coregonus artedii} mortalities
in a Southern Michigan lake, July 1968. Limn. Ocean. 14:958-960.
6. Dryer, W. R., and J. Beil. 1964. Life history of lake herring in Lake
Superior. U.S. Fish. Bull. 63:493-530.
7. Cahn, A. R. 1927. An ecological study of southern Wisconsin fishes, the
brook siversides (Labidesthes sioculus} and the cisco (Leuciohthys artedii,
LeSueur). 111. Biol. Monogr.. 11:1-151.
8. Carlander, K. D. 1969. Handbook of Freshwater Fishery Biology, Vol. 1.
Life History Data on Freshwater Fishes of the United States and Canada,
Exclusive of the Perciformes. Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames, Iowa. 752 p.
91
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA
Species: Lake trout, Salvelinus namaycush
acclimation , , ,
I. Lethal threshold: temperature larvae juvenile adult
Upper
Lower
II. Growth;
larvae
Optimum and
[range]
III. Reproduction: optimum
Migration
Spawning
Incubation
and hatch
8(1)
IV. Preferred:
juvenile
range
3-14(3)
0.3-10(3)
acclimation
temperature larvae
adult
month (s)
Aug-Dec(2)
juvenile adult
12*
R-15**
*yearling
**age unknown
reference1
2,3
1,3
References on following page.
9.2
-------
Lake trout
References
1. Edsall, T. A., and W. E. Berlin. 1973. In: Progress in Fishery Research
1973, Eschmeyer, P. H., and J. Kutkuhn, eds. U. S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Great Lakes Fishery Laboratory. Ann Arbor, Michigan.
2. Carlander, K. D. 1969. Handbook of Freshwater Fishery Biology, Vol. 1.
Life History Data on Freshwater Fishes of the United States and Canada,
Exclusive of the Perciformes. Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames, Iowa. 752 p.
3. Royce, W. F. 1951. Breeding habits of lake trout in New York. Fishery
Bull. 52:59-76.
4. McCauley, R. W., and J. S. Tait. 1970. Preferred temperature of yearling
lake trout, Salvelinus namaycush. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. 27:1729-1733.
5. Ferguson, R. G. 1958. The preferred temperature of fish and their midsummer
distribution in temperate lakes and streams. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada.
15:607-624.
93
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA
Species: Lake white fish, Coregonus elupeaformis
acclimation
U^UIIIIUIIUII . ...
I. Lethal threshold: temperature larvae juvenile adult
reference
Upper
Lower
Growth;
Optimum and
[range]
larvae
juvenile
adult
Reproduction: optimum
Migration
Spawning
Incubation
and hatch
3-8
0.5-10
month (s)
Sept-Dec
IV. Preferred:
acclimation
temperature larvae
juvenile adult
year old
References on following page.
-------
Lake whitefish
References
1. Brooke, L. T. 1975. Effect of different constant incubation temperatures
on egg survival and embryonic development in lake whitefish (Coregonus
olupeaformis]. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 3:555-559.
2. Carlander, K. D. 1969. Handbook of Freshwater Fishery Biology, Vol. 1.
Life History Data on Freshwater Fishes of the United States and Canada,
Exclusive of the Perciformes. Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames, Iowa. 752 p.
3. Ferguson, R. G. 1958. The preferred temperature of fish and their mid-
summer distribution in temperate lakes and streams. J. Fish. Res. Bd.
Canada. 15:607-624.
95
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA
Species: Largemouth bass, Mieropterus salmoides
1. Lethal threshold:
Upper
Lower
II. Growth;
Optimum and
[range]
III. Reproduction:
Migration
Spawning
Incubation
and hatch
IV. Preferred:
acclimation
temperature
20
25
30
20
25
\J ^f
larvae
27(2)
(20-30)(2)
optimum
21(4)
20(5)
acclimation
temperature
larvae juvenile adult
33
35
36
5
7
12
juvenile adult
30(8)
(23-31 )(8)
29(10) 22(11)
range month (s)
16-27(4) Aor-June(3)
Nov-May(4)
13(6)-26(9)
larvae juvenile adult
30-32*
27-28**
*Lab. , small
**Field, larger
reference1
i
i
i
i
i
i
2,8
2.8
10,11
3,4
5,6,9
7
7
References on following page.
-------
Largemouth bass
References
1. Hart, J. S. 1952. Geographic variations of some physiological and
morphological characters in certain freshwater fish. Univ. Toronto,
Toronto, Ontario. Biological Series No. 60.
2. Strawn, Kirk. 1961. Growth of largemouth bass fry at various temperatures
Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 90:334-335.
3. Kramer, R. H., and L. L. Smith, Jr. 1962. Formation of year class in
largemouth bass. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 91:29-41.
4. Clugston, J. P. 1966. Centrarchid spawning in the Florida Everglades.
Quart. J. Fla. Acad. Sci. 29:137-143.
5. Badenhuizen, T. 1969. Effect of incubation temperature on mortality of
embryos of largemouth bass, Micropterus salmoides Lacepede. M.S. Thesis,
Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.
6. Kelley, J. W. 1968. Effects of incubation temperature on survival of
largemouth bass eggs. Prog. Fish. Cult. 30:159-163.
7. Ferguson, R. G. 1958. The preferred temperature of fish and their
midsummer distribution in temperate lakes and streams. J. Fish. Res.
Bd. Canada. 15:607-624.
8. Lee, R. A. 1969. Bioenergetics of feeding and growth of largemouth bass
in aquaria and ponds. M.S. Thesis, Oregon State University, Corvallis,
Oregon.
9. Carr, M. H. 1942. The breeding habits, embryology and larval development
of the largemouth black bass in Florida. Proc. New Eng. Zool. Club.
20:43-77.
10. Johnson, M. G., and W. H. Charlton. 1960. Some effects of temperature on
metabolism and activity of largemouth bass Micropterus salmoides Lacepede.
Prog. Fish. Cult. 22:155-163.
11. Markus, H. C. 1932. Extent to which temperature changes influence food
consumption in largemouth bass (Euro floridans). Trans. Am. Fish. Soc.
62:202-210.
97
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA
Species: Northern pike, Esox lueius
acclimation , , ,
Lethal threshold: temperature larvae juvenile adult
Upper
Lower
Growth;
Optimum and
[range]
25,28*
25
32
27
33
30
33**
*At hatch and free swimming, respei
**Ultimate incipient level
18
larvae
21
*At hatch and free swimming
juvenile adult
26
III. Reproduction: optimum
Migration
Spawning
Incubation
and hatch
12
range
4(4)-18(3)
7-19
month (s)
Feb-June(S)
IV. Preferred:
acclimation
temperature larvae juvenile adult
24.26*
*Grass pickerel and musky,
respectively
reference1
j
tively
3.4.5
References on following page.
98
-------
Northern Pike
References
1. Scott, D. P. 1964. Thermal resistance of pike (Esox lucius L.),
muskellunge (E. masquinongy3 Mitchell), and their Fx hybrid. J. Fish.
Res. Bd. Canada. 21:1043-1049.
2. Hokanson, K. E. F., J. H. McCormick, and B. R. Jones. 1973. Temperature
requirements for embryos and larvae of the northern pike, Esox lucius
(Linnaeus). Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 102:89-100.
3. Fabricus, E., and K. J. Gustafson. 1958. Some new observations on the
spawning behavior of the pike, Esox lucius L. Rep. Inst. Freshwater
Res., Drottningholm, Sweden. 39:23-54.
4. Threinen, C. W., C. Wistrom, B. Apelgren, and H. Snow. 1966. The northern
pike, its life history, ecology, and management. Wis. Con. Dept., Madison,
Publ. No. 235. 16 p.
5. Toner, E. D., and G. H. Lawler. 1969. Synopsis of biological data on the
pike Esox lucius (Linnaeus 1758). Food and Ag. Org. Fisheries synopsis
No. 30, Rev. 1. Rome. 37 p.
6. Ferguson, R. G. 1958. The preferred temperature of fish and their midsummer
distribution in temperate lakes and streams. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada.
15:607-624.
99
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA
Species: Pumpkinseed, Lepomis gibbosus
acclimation , ...
I. Lethal threshold: temperature larvae juvenile adult
Upper
reference
Lower
II. Growth;
Optimum and
[range]
larvae
juvenile
adult
30
Reproduction: optimum
Migration
Spawning
Incubation
and hatch
range
20-29
month (s)
May-Auq
IV. Preferred:
acclimation
temperature
19 May
24 June
26 Sept
8 Nov
larvae
juvenile
21
31
33
10
adult
References on following page.
100
-------
Pumpkinseed
References
1. Pessah, E., and P. M. Ppwles. 1974. Effect of constant temperature on
growth rates of pumpkinseed sunfish (Lepomis gibbosus). J. Fish. Res.
Bd. Canada. 31:1678-1682.
2. Peterson, S. E., R. M. Schtusky, and S. E. Allison. 1974. Temperature
preference, avoidance and shock experiments with freshwater fishes and
crayfishes. Ichthyological Associates, Inc., Drumore, Pennsylvania.
Bulletin 10.
3. Breder, C. M., Jr. 1936. The reproductive habits of the North American
sunfishes (family centrarchidae). Zoologica. 21:1-48.
101
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA
Species: Rainbow smelt, Osmerus mordax
acclimation , ... . -
I. Lethal threshold: temperature larvae juvenile adult
Upper
reference1
Lower
II. Growth;
Optimum and
[range]
larvae
juvenile
adult
III. Reproduction:
Migration
Spawning
Incubation
and hatch
optimum
4-5
range
0.6-15
5-15
month (s)
Apri 1
1
~2
IV. Preferred:
acclimation
temperature larvae juvenile adult
6-14
References on following page.
102
-------
Rainbow smelt
References
1. McKenzie, R. A. 1964. Smelt life history and fishery in the Miramichi
River, New Brunswick. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada, Ottawa, Ontario. Bull.
144. 77 p.
2. Hale, J. G. 1960. Some aspects of the life history of the smelt
(Osmerus mordax) in Western Lake Superior. Minn. Fish & Game Invest.
Fish Ser. 2:25-41.
3. Carlander, K. D. 1969. Handbook of Freshwater Fishery Biology, Vol. 1.
Life History on Freshwater Fishes of the United States and Canada, Exclusive
of the Perciformes. Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames, Iowa. 752 p.
4. Wells, L. 1968. Seasonal depth distribution of fish in southeastern Lake
Michigan. Fishery Bull. 67:1-15.
103
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA
Species: Rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri
acclimation
I. Lethal threshold: temperature
Upper
Lower
Growth;
Optimum and
[range]
III. Reproduction:
Migration
Spawning
Incubation
and hatch
IV. Preferred:
18
19
larvae
optimum
9(10)
5-7(9)
acclimation
temperature
Not given
18&24
larvae juvenile adult
27
21
juvenile
17-19
range
5-13(6)
5-13(4)
adult
month (s)
Nov-Feb(7
'Feb-June(7
larvae
13-20
juvenile adult
14
13-19
18&22. resp.
reference
i
8.11
6.7.10
4,9
n
12
References on following page.
104
-------
1.
Rainbow trout
References
Alabaster, J. S., and R. L. Welcomme. 1962. Effect of concentration of
dissolved oxygen on survival of trout and roach in lethal temperatures.
Nature (London). 194(4823):107.
2. Coutant, C. C. 1970. Thermal resistance of adult coho (Oncorhynohus kisutoh]
and jack Chinook (o. tshawytscha) salmon, and the adult steel head trout
(Salmo ga-irdnerii) from the Columbia River. Atomic Energy Commission, Battelle
Northwest Laboratory, Richland, Washington, publication No. 1508, 24 p.
3. Ferguson, R.
distribution
15:607-624.
4. McAfee, W. R.
Calhoun, ed.
G. 1958. The preferred temperature of fish and their midsummer
in temperate lakes and streams. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada.
1966. Rainbow trout. In:
Calif. Dept. Fish and Game.
Inland Fisheries Management, A.
pp. 192-215.
5. Hokanson, K. E. F., C. F. Kleiner, and T. W. Thorslund. 1976. Effects of
constant temperature and die! fluctuation on specific growth, mortality,
and yield of juvenile rainbow trout, Salmo gaivdneri (Richardson). MS
submitted to J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada.
6. Rayner, H. J. 1942. The spawning migration of rainbow trout at Skaneateles
Lake, New York. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 71:180-83.
7. Carlander, K. D. 1969. Handbook of Freshwater Fishery Biology, Vol. 1.
Life History Data on Freshwater Fishes of the United States and Canada,
Exclusive of the Perciformes. Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames, Iowa. 752 p.
8. Vojno, T. 1972. The effect of starvation and various doses of fodder on
the changes of body weight and chemical composition and the survival rate
in rainbow trout fry (Salmo gairdner-i, Richardson) during the winter.
Roczniki Nauk Rolniczych Series H - Fisheries 94, 125. In: Coutant, C. C.,
and H. A. Pfudarer. 1973. Thermal effects. J. Water Poll. Fed. 46:1476-1540.
9. Timoshina, L. A. 1972. Embryonic development of the rainbow trout (Salmo
gairdneri irideus, Gibb.) at different temperatures. Icthyol. (USSR).
12:425.
10. Johnson, Charles E. 1971.
Cons. Bull. July-Aug.
Factors affecting fish spawning. Wisconsin
11. Mantelman, I.I. 1958. Cited in: Brown, H. W. 1974. Handbook of the
Effects of Temperature on Some North American Fishes. American Elect.
Power Service Corp., Canton, Ohio.
12. Cherry, D. S., K. L. Dickson, and J. Cairns, Jr. 1975. Temperatures
selected and avoided by fish at various acclimation temperatures. J.
Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. 32:485-491.
105
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA
Species* Sauger, Stizostedion aanadense
I Lethal threshold:
Upper
Lower
II. Growth:
Optimum and
[range]
III. Reproduction;
Migration
Spawning
Incubation
and hatch
IV. Preferred:
acclimation , ... _, IA
temperature larvae juvenile adult
10 27
12 27
18 29
22 30
26 30
larvae juvenile adult
22
(16-26)
optimum range month (s)
9-15(4)* 6(1)-15(4) Apr(l)-June(3)
12-15 9-18
*for fertilization
acclimation
temperature larvae juvenile adult
19*
27-29
*field
reference'
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
1,3,4
4
2
5
1 References on following page.
106
-------
Sauger
References
1. Nelson, W. R. 1968. .Reproduction and early life history of sauger,
Stizostedion oanadense, in Lewis and Clark Lake. Trans. Amer. Fish.
Soc. 97:159-166.
2. Ferguson, R. G. 1958. The preferred temperature of fish and their
midsummer distribution in temperate lakes and streams. J. Fish. Res.
Bd. Canada. 15:607-624.
3. Carufel, Louis H. 1963. Life history of saugers in Garrison Reservoir.
J. Wild!. Manag. 27(3):450-456.
4. Smith, L. L., Jr., and W. M. Koenst. 1975. Temperature effects on eggs and
fry of percoid fishes. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Duluth,
Minnesota. Report EPA-660/3-75-017. 91 p.
5. Gammon, J. R. 1973. The effect of thermal input on the populations of
fish and macroinvertebrates in the Wabash River. Purdue Univ. Water
Resources Res. Center, Lafayette, Indiana. Tech. Rept. 32. 106 p.
107
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA
Species: Small mouth bass, Miaropterus dolomieui
1. Lethal threshold;
Upper
Lower
II. Growth;
Optimum and
[range]
III. Reproduction;
Migration
Spawning
Incubation
and hatch
IV. Preferred:
acclimation
temperature
15(3)
18
22
26
larvae
28-29(2)
optimum
17-18(5)
acclimation
temperature
Summer
Winter
18&30
larvae juvenile adult
38*(8) 35(3)
*acclimation not given
4(R)* 2(3)
4
7
10
*acclimation temperature not giv
juvenile adult
26(3)
range month (s)
13-23(9) Mav-June(7)
13-22
larvae juvenile adult
21-27
>8*(l)-28(4)
23&31 reso.
*juvenile and adult
reference1
8,3
3.8
3
3
3
;n
2.3
5.7.9
10
6
1,4
11
References on following page.
108
-------
Smallmouth bass
References
1. Munther, G. L. 1970. Movement and distribution of smallmouth bass in
the Middle Snake River. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 99:44-53.
2. Peek, F- W. 1965. Growth studies of laboratory and wild population
samples of small mouth bass, Micropterus dolomieui Lacepede, with
applications to mass marking of fishes. M.S. Thesis. Univ. Ark.,
Fayetteville. 115 p.
3. Horning, W. B., and R. E. Pearson. 1973. Growth temperature requirements
and lower lethal temperatures for juvenile smallmouth bass (Mioropterus
dolomieui}. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. 30:1226-1230.
4. Ferguson, R. G. 1958. The preferred temperature of fish and their
midsummer distribution in temperate lakes and streams. J. Fish. Res.
Bd. Canada. 15:607-624.
5. Breder, C. M., and D. E. Rosen. 1966. Modes of reproduction in fishes.
Natural History Press, Garden City, New York. 941 p.
6. Emig, J. W. 1966. Smallmouth bass. In: Inland Fisheries Management,
A. Calhoun, ed. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game. pp. 354-366.
7. Surber, E. W. 1943. Observations on the natural and artificial propaga-
tion of the smallmouth black bass, Miaropterus dolomieui. Trans. Amer.
Fish. Soc. 72:233-245.
8. Larimore, R. W., and M. J. Duever. 1968. Effects of temperature acclimation
on the swimming ability of smallmouth bass fry. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc.
97:175-184.
9. Tester, A. L. 1931. Cited in: Wallace, C. R. 1973. Effects of tempera-
ture on developing meristic structures of smallmouth bass, Micropterus
dolomieui Lacepede. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 102:142-144.
10. Webster, D. A. 1945. Relation of temperature to survival and incubation
of the eggs of smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieui}. Trans. Amer. Fish.
Soc. 75:43-47.
11. Cherry, D. S., K. L. Dickson, and J. Cairns, Jr. 1975. Temperatures
selected and avoided by fish at various acclimation temperatures. J. Fish.
Res. Bd. Canada. 32:485-491.
109
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA
Species: Smallmouth buffalo, lotiobus bubalus
, , , , acclimation . .. . ,.
I. Lethal threshold: temperature larvae juvenile adult
Upper
Lower
II. Growth;
larvae
juvenile adult
Optimum and
[range]
Reproduction: optimum
Migration
Spawning I7(i)-24(s)
Incubation
and hatch
range month (s)
14(1)-28(5) Mar(3)-Sept(5)
IV. Preferred:
acclimation
temperature larvae juvenile adult
31-34*
*'lotiobus sp. flel
reference'
1,3,5
1.2
d
References on following page.
no
-------
Smallmouth buffalo
References
1. Wrenn, W. B. 1969. Life history aspects of smallmouth buffalo and
freshwater drum in Wheeler Reservoir, Alabama. Proc. 22nd Ann. Conf.
S.E. Assoc. Game & Fish Comm., 1968. pp. 479-495.
2. Walburg, C. H., and W. R. Nelson. 1966. Carp, river carpsucker, small-
mouth buffalo and bigmouth buffalo in Lewis and Clark Lake, Missouri River.
U. S. Bur. Sport Fish. Wildl., Washington, D. C. Res. Rep. 69. 29 p.
3. Walker, M. C., and P. T. Frank. 1952. The propagation of buffalo. Prog.
Fish. Cult. 14:129-130.
4. Gammon, J. R. 1973. The effect of thermal input on the populations of
fish and macroinvertebrates in the Wabash River. Purdue Univ. Water
Resources Research Center, Lafayette, Indiana. Tech. Rept. 32. 106 p.
5. Jester, D. B. 1973. Life history, ecology, and management of the small-
mouth buffalo, lotiobus bubalus (Rafinesque), with reference to Elephant
Butte Lake. New Mexico State Univ., Las Cruces. Ag. Exp. Sta. Res. Rept.
261. Ill p.
Ill
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA
Species: Sockeye salmon, Onaorhynahus nerka
1. Lethal threshold:
Upper
Lower
II. Growth;
Optimum and
[range]
III. Reproduction:
Migration
Spawning
Incubation
and hatch
IV. Preferred:
acclimation
temperature
5
10
15
20
5
10
15
20
23
larvae
15(5)
optimum
acclimation
temperature
Summer
larvae juvenile adult
22
23
24
25
0
3
4
5
7
juvenile adult
15(2)*
(10-15)
(11-17)
*Max. with excess food
range month (s)
7-16
7-13 Fall
larvae juvenile adult
15
reference'
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
2,5
4
7
4
6
3
References on following page.
112
-------
Sockeye salmon
References
1. Brett, J. R. 19.52. Temperature tolerance in young Pacific salmon, genus,
Onaorhynehus. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. 9:265-323.
2. Griffiths, J. S., and D. F. Alderdice. 1972. Effects of acclimation and
acute temperature experience on the swimming speed of juvenile coho salmon.
J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. 29:251-264.
3. Ferguson, R. G. 1958. The preferred temperature of fish and their mid-
summer distribution in temperate lakes and streams. J. Fish. Res. Bd.
Canada. 15:607-624.
4. Burrows, R. E. 1963. Water temperature requirements for maximum productivity
of salmon. Proc. 12th Pacific N.W. Symposium on Water Poll. Res., Nov. 7, 1963,
Corvallis, Oregon, pp. 29-32.
5. She!bourn, J. E., J. R. Brett, and S. Shirahata. 1973. Effect of temperature
and feeding regime on the specific growth rate of sockeye salmon fry
(Onoorhynchus nerka] with a consideration of size effect. J. Fish. Res. Bd.
Canada. 30:1191-1194.
6. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1971. Columbia River thermal effects
study, Vol. 1. Biological Effects Studies. 95 p.
7. Donaldson, L. R., and F. J. Foster. 1941. Experimental study of the effects
of various water temperatures on growth, food utilization and mortality of
finger!ing sockeye salmon. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 70:339-346.
113
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA
Species: Striped bass, Morone saxatilis
1. Lethal threshold:
Upper
Lower
II. Growth;
Optimum and
[range]
III. Reproduction:
Migration
Spawning
Incubation
and hatch
IV. Preferred:
acclimation , ... . ,A
temperature larvae juvenile adult
not aiven 35* 28**
laboratory
**Field observation
larvae juvenile adult
optimum range month(s)
6-8
16-19(2) 12-22(1) Apr-June(l)
16-24
acclimation
temperature larvae juvenile adult
5 Dec 12
14 Nov 22
21 Oct 26
28 July 28
reference'
2
2
1,2
1
3
3
3
3
References on following page.
114
-------
Striped bass
References
1. Shannon, E. H. 1970. Effect of temperature changes upon developing
striped bass eggs and fry. Proc. 23rd Conf. S.E. Assoc. Game and
Fish Comm., October 19-22, 1969. pp. 265-274.
2. Talbot, G. B. 1966. Estuarine environmental requirements and limiting
factors for striped bass. In: A Symposium on Estuarine Fisheries.
Amer. Fish. Soc., Special Publ. No. 3. pp. 37-49.
3. Meldrim, J. W., J. J. Gift, and B. R. Petrosky. 1974. Supplementary
data on temperature preference and avoidance responses and shock
experiments with estuarine fishes and macroinvertebrates. Ichthyological
Associates, Inc., Middletown, Delaware. 56 p. mimeo.
115
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA
Species: Threadfin shad, Dorosoma petenense
acclimation , ... . ,,.
I. Lethal threshold: temperature larvae juvenile adult
Upper
Lower
II. Growth;
larvae
Optimum and
[range]
III. Reproduction:
Migration
Spawning
Incubation
and hatch
IV. Preferred:
optimum
9*
*lowest permitting
some survival
juvenile adult
range
14(3)-23(4)
23(4)-34(5)
month (s)
Apr-Aug(4)
acclimation
temperature larvae
juvenile adult
reference
3,4
4,5
References on following page.
116
-------
Threadfin shad
References
1. Strawn, K. 1963. Resistance of threadfin shad to low temperatures,
Proc. 17th Ann. Conf. S.E. Assoc. Game and Fish Comm., 1962. pp. 290-293.
2. Adair, W. D., and D. J. DeMont. 1970. Effects of thermal pollution
upon Lake Norman fishes. N. Carolina Wildlife Res. Comm., Div. Inland
Fisheries, Raleigh, North Carolina. Summary Report, Fed. Aid Fish
Restoration Project F-19-2. 14 p.
3. Carlander, K. D. 1969. Handbook of Freshwater Fishery Biology, Vol.
1. Life History Data on Freshwater Fishes of the United States and
Canada, Exclusive of the Perciformes. Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames,
Iowa. 752 p.
4. Shelton, W. L. 1964. The threadfin shad, Dorosoma petenense (Gunther):
Oogenesis, seasonal ovarian changes and observations in life history.
M.S. Thesis, Oklahoma State Univ., Norman. 49 p.
5. Hubbs, C., and C. Bryan. 1974. Maximum incubation temperature of the
threadfin shad, Dorosoma petenense. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 103:369-371
117
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA
Species: Hall eye, Stisostedion vitrewn
1. Lethal threshold:
Upper
Lower
II. Growth;
Optimum and
[range]
III. Reproduction:
Migration
Spawning
Incubation
and hatch
IV. Preferred:
acclimation , . ,
temperature larvae juvenile adult
12 29
16 31
22 31
26 31
larvae juvenile adult
22(1) 20(6)
(lfi-?fl)
optimum range month (s)
3-7
6-9(1)* 4(7)-17(5) Apr-May(4)
9-15
*for fertilization
acclimation
temperature larvae juvenile adult
23*
22-25(1) ?fi(3)*
*fie1d
reference1
i
i
i
i
1.6
1
4
1,5,7,4
1
2
1,3
References on following page.
118
-------
Walleye
References
1. Smith, L. L.» Jr., and W. M. Koenst. 1975. Temperature effects on eggs
and fry of percoid fishes. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Duluth
Minnesota. Report EPA-660/3-75-017. 91 p.
2. Ferguson, R. G. 1958. The preferred temperature of fish and their mid-
summer distribution in temperate lakes and streams. J. Fish. Res. Bd.
Canada. 15:607-624.
3. Dendy, J. S. 1948. Predicting depth distribution of fish in three TVA
storage reservoirs. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 75(1945):65-71.
4. Eddy, Samuel, and T. Surber. 1943. Northern Fishes with Special Reference
to the Upper Mississippi Valley. Univ. Minn. Press, Minneapolis. 276 p.
5. Niemuth, W., W. Churchill, and T. Wirth. 1959. The walleye, its life
history, ecology, and management. Wise. Cons. Dept., Madison. Pub. 227.
14 p.
6. Kelso, John R. M. 1972. Conversion, maintenance, and assimilation for
walleye, Stizostedion vitrewn vitreym, as affected by size, diet, and
temperature. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. 29:1181-1192.
7. Grimstead, Bobby G. 1971. Reproduction and some aspects of the early
life history of walleye, Stizostedion vitrewn (Mitchell), in Canton
Reservoir, Oklahoma. In: Reservoir Fisheries and Limnology. Amer.
Fish. Soc., Washington, D. C. Spec. Pub. No. 8. G. Hall, ed. pp. 41-51.
119
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA
Species: White bass,
ahrysops
, , acclimation . . 1A
I. Lethal threshold; temperature larvae juvenile adult
Upper
Lower
17
II. Growth:
larvae
Optimum and
[range]
Reproduction; optimum
Migration
Spawning
Incubation
and hatch
14*
*% mortality not given
juvenile adult
24-30
range
14-20 (north)
12-? (Tenn) Mar-May(Tenn)
16(2)-26(6)
month (s)
IV. Preferred:
acclimation
temperature larvae
Summer
juvenile adult
28-30*
*Field
reference'
i
2,6
References on following page.
120
-------
White bass
References
1. Webb, J. F., and D. D. Moss. 1967. Spawning behavior and age and growth
of white bass in Center Hill reservoir, Tennessee. M.S. Thesis, Tenn.
Tech. Univ.
2. Yellayi, R. R. 1972. Ecological life history and population dynamics
of white bass, Morone chrysops (Rafinesque) in Beaver Reservoir. Part
2. A contribution to the dynamics of white bass, Morone ohrysops (Rafinesque)
population in Beaver Reservoir, Arkansas. Report to Arkansas Game and Fish
Commission. Univ. of Arkansas., Fayetteville.
3. Duncan, T. 0., and M. R. Myers. Artificial rearing of white bass, Rocous
chrysopsj Rafinesque. Unpublished data. South Central Reservoir Inves-
tigations, Bureau Sport Fisheries and Wildl.ife, Fayetteville, Arkansas.
4. Ruelle, R. 1971. Factors influencing growth of white bass in Lewis and
Clark Lake. In: Reservoir Fisheries and Limnology. Amer. Fish. Soc.
Washington, D. C. Spec. Pub. No. 8. G. Hall, ed., pp. 411-423.
5. Gammon, J. R. 1973. The effect of thermal input on the populations of
fish and macroinvertebrates in the Wabash River. Purdue Univ. Water
Resources Research Center, Lafayette, Indiana. Tech. Rept. 32. 106 p.
6. McCormick, J. H. 1976. Temperature effects on white bass (Morone ohrysops}
embryo development, and survival of one-day-old larvae. U. S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Duluth, Minnesota. In preparation.
7. McCormick, J. H. 1976. Temperature effects on the growth of juvenile white
bass. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Duluth, Minnesota. In
preparation.
121
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA
Species: White crappie, Pomoxis annularis
I. Lethal threshold: temperature larvae juvenile adult
Upper 29 33
Lower
Growth;
Optimum and
[range]
larvae
I. Reproduction: optimum
Migration
Spawning
Incubation
and hatch
16-20(5)
19
juvenile
25
range
14-23(5)
14-23
adult
month (s)
Mar-Ju1v(3)
Hatch in 24-27-1/2 hrs. at 21-23
IV. Preferred:
acclimation
temperature larvae
27 Ju1y(6)
3 Jan
5 Mar
24 June
juvenile
28(6)
8
10
26
adult
28-29(1)
reference'
3.5
1.6
References on following page.
122
-------
White crappie
References
1. Gammon, J. R. 1973. The effect of thermal input on the populations of
fish and macroinvertebrates in the Wabash River. Purdue Univ. Water
Resources Research Center, Lafayette, Indiana. Tech. Rept. 32. 106 p.
2. Breder, C. M., and D. E. Rosen. 1966. Modes of Reproduction in Fishes.
Nat. History Press, Garden City, New York. 941 p.
3. Goodson, Lee F. 1966. Crappie. In: Inland Fisheries Management, A.
Calhoun, ed. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game. pp. 312-332.
4. Kleiner, C. F., and K. E. F. Hokanson. Effects of constant temperature
on growth and mortality rates of juvenile white crappie, Pomoxix annulavis
Rafinesque. Unpublished data. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Duluth, Minnesota.
5. Siefert, R. E. 1968. Reproductive behavior, incubation, and mortality
of eggs and post larval food selection in the white crappie. Trans.
Amer. Fish. Soc. 97:252-259.
6. Peterson, S. E., R. M. Schutsky, and S. E. Allison. 1974. Temperature
preference, avoidance, and shock experiments with freshwater fishes and
crayfishes. Ichthyological Associates, Inc., Drumore, Pennsylvania.
Bulletin 10.
123
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA
Species: White perch, Morone ameriaana
acclimation , ... . ...
I. Lethal threshold: temperature larvae juvenile adult
Upper
Lower
Growth;
Optimum and
[range]
larvae
Reproduction; optimum
Migration
Spawning
Incubation
and hatch
IV. Preferred:
acclimation
temperature
6
15
20
26-30
juvenile adult
range month (s)
11(3)-20(1) May-J une(3)
larvae
juvenile
10
20
25
31-32
adult
reference1
1,3
References on following page.
124
-------
White perch
References
1. Holsapple, J. G., and L. E. Foster. 1975. Reproduction of white perch in
the lower Hudson River. New York Fish and Game J. 22:122-127.
2. Meldrim, J. W., J. J. Gift, and B» R. Petrosky. 1974. Supplementary data
on temperature preference and avoidance responses and shock experiments
with estuarine fishes and macroinvertebrates. Ichthyological Associates,
Inc., Middletown, Delaware. 56 p. mimeo.
3. Sheri, A. N., and G. Power. 1968. Reproduction of white perch, Boocus •
americana, in the bay of Quinte, Lake Ontario. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada.
25:2225-2231.
125
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA
Species: White sucker, Catostomus aonmersoni
I Lethal threshold:
Upper
Lower
II. Growth;
Optimum and
[range]
III. Reproduction:
Migration
Spawning
Incubation
and hatch
IV. Preferred:
acclimation
temperature
15
20(2), 21(1)
25
25-26
?n
21
25
larvae
27
(24-27)
optimum
M0(5)
15
acclimation
temperature
larvae juvenile adult
28(1)* 28i'2j
31(1) 29(2)
30(1) 29(2)
29
31
*7-day TL50 for swimup
?-3
6*
6
*7-day TL50 for swimup
juvenile odult
ranqe month (s)
^4-18(5,6) Mar-June(2)
9-20
larvae juvenile adult
19-21
reference1
b
1,2
1,2
2
3
9
1
1
1
1
2,5,6
1
4
References on following page.
126
-------
White sucker
References
1. McCormick, J. H., B. R. Jones, and K. E. F. Hokanson. 1976. Temperature
effects on embryo development, early growth, and survival of the white
sucker, Catostomus commersoni (Lacepede). J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. In
press.
2. Carlander, K. D. 1969. Handbook of Freshwater Fishery Biology, Vol. 1.
Life History Data on Freshwater Fishes of the United States and Canada,
Exclusive of the Perciformes. Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames Iowa. 752 p..
3. Brett, J. R. 1944. Some lethal temperature relations of Algonquin Park
fishes. Publ. Ont. Fish. Res. Lab. 63:1-49.
4. Horak, D. L., and H. A. Tanner. 1964. The use of vertical gill nets in
studying fish depth distribution: Horsetooth Reservoir, Colorado. Trans.
Amer. Fish. Soc. 93:137-145.
5. Webster, D. A. 1941. The life history of some Connecticut fishes. In:
A Fishery Survey of Important Connecticut Lakes. Conn. Geol. and Nat.
Hist. Survey Bull. No. 63, Hartford, pp. 122-227.
6. Raney, E. C. 1943. Unusual spawning habitat for the common white sucker
Catostomus c. oonmerson-ii. Copeia. 4:256.
127
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA
Species: Yellow perch, Peroa flavesoens
1. Lethal threshold:
Upper
Lower
II. Growth;
Optimum and
[range]
III. Reproduction;
Migration
Spawning
Incubation
and hatch
IV. Preferred:
acclimation
temperature
5
10(1), 10(4)
15M) 20(4)
25
25
larvae
optimum
12(3}
10 UD l°/dav
to 20
acclimation
temperature
Winter
Summer
24
25
7
larvae juvenile adult
21
10(4)* 25(1)
19(4)* 28(1)
32
*swimup
q
juvenile adult
28
(?fi-3n^(in tl3(6)-20(7)]
range month (s)
2(R)-lf5(3) Mar-June(3)
7-20
larvae juvenile adult
21(2)
?4
20-23 18-20
22
19
reference1
i
1,4
1,4
10
10
11
6,7,11
3,5
4
2
?
9
8
8
References on following page.
20
128
-------
Yellow perch
References
1. Hart, J. S. 1947. Lethal temperature relations of certain fish of the
Toronto region. Trans. Roy. Soc. Can., Sec. 5. 41:57-71.
2. Ferguson, R. G. 1958. The preferred temperature of fish and their mid-
summer distribution in temperate lakes and streams. J. Fish. Res. Bd.
Canada. 15:607-624.
3. Jones, B. R., K. E. F. Hokanson, and J. H. McCormick. 1976. Winter
temperature requirements for maturation and spawning of yellow perch,
Perca flavescens (Mitchell). U. S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Duluth, Minnesota. In preparation.
4. Hokanson, K. E. F., and C. F. Kleiner. 1973. The effects of constant and
rising temperatures on survival and developmental rates of embryonic and
larval yellow perch, Perca flavescens (Mitchell). In: Early Life History
of Fish. Proceedings of an International Symposium, May 17-23, 1973,
Dunstaffnage Marine Research Lab., Oban, Scotland, pp. 437-448.
5. Muncy, R. J. 1962. Life history of the yellow perch, Perca flavescens,
in estuarine waters of Severn River, a tributary of Chesapeake Bay,
Maryland. Chesapeake Sci. 3:143-159.
6. Coble, D. W. 1966. Dependence of total annual growth of yellow perch on
temperature. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. 23:15-20.
7. Weatherley, A. H. 1963. Thermal stress and interrenal tissue in the perch,
Perca fluviatilus (Linnaeus). Proc. Zoo!. Soc., London. 141:527-555.
8. Meldrim, J. W., J. J. Gift, and B. R. Petrosky. 1974. Supplementary data
on temperature preference and avoidance responses and shock experiments with
estuarine fishes and macroinvertebrates. Ichthyological Associates, Inc.,
Middletown, Delaware. 56 p. mimeo.
9. McCauley, R. W., and L. A. A. Read. 1973. Temperature selections by juvenile
and adult yellow perch (Peroa flavescens} acclimated to 24 C. J. Fish. Res.
Bd. Canada. 30:1253-1255.
10. Hart, J. S. 1952. Geographic variations of some physiological and morphologi-
cal characters in certain freshwater fish. Univ. Toronto, Toronto, Ontario.
Biology Series No. 60. 78 p.
11. McCormick, J. H. 1976. Temperature effects on growth of young yellow perch,
Perca flavescens (Mitchell). U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Duluth,
Minnesota. Report EPA-600/3-76-057.
129
-------
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
/Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing]
1. REPORT NO.
>1
2.
|3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION>NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
TEMPERATURE CRITERIA FOR FRESHWATER FISH:
PROTOCOL AND PROCEDURES
5. REPORT DATE
May 1977 issuing date
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
William A. Brungs and Bernard R. Jones
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPO
|9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Environmental Research Laboratory-Duluth, MN
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Duluth, Minnesota 55804
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
1BA608
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
In-house
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Same as above
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Tn—house
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/03
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
The evolution of freshwater temperature criteria is discussed as it
rcilates to standards development by regulatory agencies. The present,
generally accepted philosophical approach to criteria development is explained
in detail and its use to protect various life stages of fish is demonstrated
by selected examples. Numerical criteria for survival, spawning, embryo
development, growth, and gamete maturation of fish species were calculated
and tabulated.
7.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
[b. IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS \C. COS AT I Field/Group
Temperature
Fresh Water Fishes
Growth
Reproduction (biology)
Mortality
Water Pollution
Water Quality Criteria
Water Quality Standards
Temperature Requirements
Thermal Pollution
06 S
06 F
06 C
B. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
RELEASE TO PUBLIC
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
UNCLASSIFIED
21. NO. OF PAGES
136
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
UNCLASSIFIED
22. PR:CE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
- GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1977-757-056/56^ R
egion No. 5-11
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