EPA-660/3-75-026
JUNE 1975
Ecological Research Series
Environmental Studies of an Arctic
Estuarine System-Final Report
National Environmental Research Center
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Corvallis, Oregon 97330
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, have been grouped into
five series. These five broad categories were established to
facilitate further development and application of environmental
technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in
related fields. The five series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
This report has been assigned to the ECOLOGICAL RESEARCH STUDIES
series. This series describes research on the effects of pollution
on humans, plant and animal species, and materials. Problems are
assessed for their long- and short-term influences. Investigations
include formation, transport, and pathway studies to determine the
fate of pollutants and their effects. This work provides the technical
basis for setting standards to minimize undesirable changes in living
organisms in the aquatic, terrestrial and atmospheric environments.
EPA REVIEW NOTICE
This report has been reviewed by the Office of Research and
Development, EPA, and approved for publication. Approval does
not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the views and
policies of the Environmental Protection Agency, nor does mention
of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or
recommendation for use.
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EPA-660/3-75-026
JUNE 1975
ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES OF AN ARCTIC ESTUARINE
SYSTEM - FINAL REPORT
by
V. Alexander, D. C. Burrell, J. Chang,
Ro T. Cooney, C. Coulon, J. J. Crane, J. A. Dygas,
G. E. Hall, P. J. Kinney, D. Kogl, T. C. Mowatt, A. S. Naidu,
T0 E. Osterkamp, D. M. Schell, R. D. Siefert, and R. W. Tucker
Institute of Marine Science
University of Alaska
Fairbanks, Alaska
Grant R801124-03
ROAP/Task 21ARY/002
Program Element 1BA022
Project Officer
Eldor W. Schallock
Arctic Environmental Research Laboratory
National Environmental Research Center
Fairbanks, Alaska 99701
NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH CENTER
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
UoS. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CORVALLIS, OREGON 97330
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402
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ABSTRACT
The Colville River estuarine system was studied over a period of
four years. Physical, chemical, geomorphological and biological features
were included. North slope river deltas differ significantly from those
elsewhere, due to climatological extremes and a long, cold, dark winter
with continuous ice-cover and continuous daylight during the summer with
melting ice or open water0 Basic information has been obtained on the
winds, waves and currents. Predominant current directions are from the
west, with wind drift currents with a periodicity of 4 to 5 days„ Beach
sediments are characterized as poorly sorted gravelly sandy sediment in
a relatively low energy environment. The ice-free biological regime is
strongly influenced by the river input of low salinity water containing
relatively high concentrations of nitrogen nutrients, An annual primary
2
production in the estuary is estimated at 10-15 g-C/m . Crustaceans,
molluscs and polychaetes characterize the macrofauna at depths exceeding
2 m, with but few species responsible for most of the biomass0 Interes-
ting features of the chemical regime are connected with the isolation of
hypersaline water in the shallow estuarine and river system. Fresh water
systems were included in the study„
This report was submitted in fulfillment of Grant R801124-03 by
the Institute of Marine Science, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, under
the sponsorship of the Environmental Protection Agency„ Work was com-
pleted as of April, 1975.
ii
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 SUMMARY j.
CHAPTER 2 INTRODUCTION: RATIONALE, OBJECTIVES, AND LOGISTICS
D.M. Schell
Background 5
Study Area 7
Ob j ective 9
Transportation and Logistic Support 11
Reference 13
CHAPTER 3 A STUDY OF WIND, WAVES AND CURRENTS IN SIMPSON LAGOON
J.A. Dygas
Introduction 15
Setting 15
Methods 18
Results and Discussion
introduction 20
winds 22
currents 25
waves 36
Conclusions. 41
References 43
CHAPTER 4 BEACH MORPHOLOGY AND SEDIMENTOLOGY OF SIMPSON LAGOON
D.C. Burrell, J.A. Dygas and R.W. Tucker
Introduction
objectives 45
previous work 49
Setting
general geology and climate 50
study area 53
iii
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Methods
beach deposits and dynamics 54
lagoon sediment sampling 55
textural analysis of lagoon sediments 56
heavy mineral analysis 60
carbon analysis 60
clay mineral analysis 62
computer techniques 62
trend surface analysis of lagoon sediments 64
error analysis. 66
Results and Discussion
wind analysis and longshore currents 66
long-term shoreline analysis 68
seasonal variations in beach profiles 78
quantitative nearshore sediment transport 87
sediment size distribution patterns in Simpson
Lagoon 89
heavy minerals 121
carbon analysis 124
clay mineralogy 129
Conclusions 131
References 134
CHAPTER 5 ASPECTS OF SIZE DISTRIBUTIONS, MINERALOGY AND GEOCHEMISTRY
OF DELTAIC AND ADJACENT SHALLOW MARINE SEDIMENTS, NORTH
ARCTIC ALASKA
A.S. Naidu and T.C. Mowatt
Introduction 143
Setting 143
Methods
general procedures 147
specific treatments and clay mineralogic
analysis 149
IV
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Results
textural analysis 155
heavy mineral analysis 159
clay mineral analysis 159
chemical analysis 170
Discussion
sediment transport and deposition 173
heavy mineral studies 177
causes and significance of clay mineral
variations 178
sediment geochemistry and element partition
patterns 190
Acknowledgements 197
References 197
APPENDIX
Results of Detailed Clay Mineral Studies 207
Comparative Mineralogy 216
Conclusions 222
CHAPTER 6 FAST ICE ON THE NORTHERN COAST OF ALASKA
T.E. Osterkamp and R.D. Seifert
Introduction 225
Methods 226
Results and Discussion 229
Acknowledgement 232
References 232
CHAPTER 7 SEASONAL VARIATION IN THE NUTRIENT CHEMISTRY AND
CONSERVATIVE CONSTITUENTS IN COASTAL ALASKAN
BEAUFORT SEA WATERS
D.M. Schell
Introduction 233
v
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Setting
geographic description 234
climatic conditions 236
Methods
sampling: locations and procedures. 237
chemical analysis 240
nitrification and ammonification
procedures 241
Results and Discussion
seasonal variations in nutrients and the
aqueous environment 242
nutrient addition to nearshore waters 271
regeneration of nitrogenous nutrients 276
Conclusions 293
References 296
CHAPTER 8 STUDIES OF PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY AND PHYTOPLANKTON
ORGANISMS IN THE COLVILLE RIVER SYSTEM
V. Alexander with C. Coulon and J. Chang
Introduction 299
Strategy and Schedule 300
Methods
sampling. 301
chemical determinations in the field 301
phytoplankton methods 301
nitrogen uptake. 303
nitrogen fixation 304
physical data 305
miscellaneous methods............................. 305
Results and Discussion
studies in the Simpson Lagoon-Harrison Bay area... 305
survey studies of the river system 347
1971 phytoplankton survey 356
VI
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new or unusual species descriptions 379
limnological studies in Wood' s Camp area 386
Conclusions 423
References 424
CHAPTER 9 THE NEARSHORE BENTHOS
J.J. Crane and R. T. Cooney
Introduction 427
Methods
general 428
equipment 428
field sampling procedures 433
laboratory methods 434
statistical methods 435
standing stock estimates 437
Results
the nearshore benthos 438
abundance 441
size classes 450
biomass 457
Conclusions
introduction 467
the nearshore benthos 467
environmental interactions 469
distribution patterns 472
life history and production.... 476
trophic relations 477
sources of error 478
References « 479
CHAPTER 10 COLVILLE RIVER DELTA FISHERIES RESEARCH
D. Kogl and D.M. Schell
Introduction 483
vii
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Preliminary List of Colville River Fishes 486
Methods 487
Results and Discussion 488
humpback whitef ish 494
broad whitef ish 500
arctic cisco 500
least cisco 502
burbot 502
four horn sculpin 503
References 503
CHAPTER 11 A SUMMARY OF OBSERVATIONS AT OLIKTOK POINT AND NOTES ON
BIRDS OBSERVED ALONG THE COLVILLE RIVER - SUMMER 1971
G.E. Hall
Introduction , 505
Anuoted List of Birds 506
Conclusion 532
References 533
CHAPTER 12 RECOMMENDATIONS 535
vzn
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This report is a result of research sponsored by several organizations.
Principal research support was provided by the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration, Office of Sea Grant,. Department of Commerce,
under Grant No. 04-3-158-41; by the Office of Research and Development,
Environmental Protection Agency - Arctic Environmental Research Laboratory,
under Program No. 16100EOM and by the University of Alaska with funds
appropriated to the Institute of Marine Sciences and the Alaska Sea
Grant Program by the State of Alaska. Additional support was provided
by the following companies: Amerada Hess Corporation, AMOCO, Atlantic
Richfield Company, BP Alaska Inc., Getty Oil Company, Humble Oil and
Refining Co., Louisiana Land and Exploration, Mobil Oil Corporation,
Marathon Oil Company, Phillips Petroleum Co., Placid Oil Company and
Standard Oil Co. of Calif., through coordination by the Prudhoe Bay
Environmental Subcommittee. Logistic support and laboratory space at
Barrow was provided by the Naval Arctic Research Laboratory, and the
Aerospace Defense Command provided logistic support and a field station
at DEWline Station POW-2 (Oliktok Point).
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CHAPTER 1
SUMMARY
The Colville River estuarine system has been studied with respect to
physical, chemical, geomorphological and biological factors in as great
detail as possible over a period of 4 years. Initially logistics
were the major emphasis, but as the program developed, a considerable
mass of baseline data was accumulated on this previously rather unknown
area. North slope rivers deltas differ significantly from deltas else-
where, particularly with respect to geological and biological aspects,
but also in the extreme importance of ice cover to the annual physical
regime. Climatological extremes are a major feature of the environment,
and the contrasting effects of the cold, dark winter months with nearly
complete ice cover and the continuous daylight summer period with melt-
ing ice or open water can be considered a major environmental factor in-
fluencing both the physical and biological systems.
Basic information has been obtained on the winds, waves and currents of
Simpson Lagoon. Predominant wind directions are from the east with a
trend towards higher wind speeds and westerly storms during the period
from July to October. Predominant current directions are from the west.
Linear correlation coefficients of +0.73 and -0.52 have been obtained
between wind speed and current velocity and between wind and current
directions respectively. Spectral analysis of low pass filtered (cutoff
period = 1 day) east to west and north to south components of the current
record indicates presence of wind drift currents with a periodicity of 4
to 5 days. It is suggested that current patterns in Simpson Lagoon are
controlled predominantly by prevailing wind patterns. Mean breaking
wave heights and periods along the Simpson Lagoon coast are about 17.7cm
and 2.2 seconds. Results of spectral analysis of wave records for the
period from 22 to 28 August 1972, indicates a significant wave period of
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1.87 to 2.14 seconds. Secondary energy peaks with periods of 7.5 to
15.0 seconds are interpreted as swell from the Beaufort Sea. A general
trend of increasing spectral wave energy with increasing significant
wave period, wind speed and duration has been observed in a comparison
of wave spectra with prevailing meterological conditions.
Beach sediments along the Simpson Lagoon coast and barrier islands are
characterized as poorly sorted gravelly sandy sediment in a relatively
low energy environment in contrast to generally well sorted unimodal
beach sediment in the higher energy environments typically found along
coasts with more temperate climates. Sub-freezing temperatures, shore-
fast ice and frozen beaches protect the nearshore environment from var-
ious processes of sedimentation 8 to 9 months annually. Between break-
up and freeze-up (June to October) thermal erosion of beach cliffs and
the effects of storm waves and currents have served to erode the Simpson
Lagoon coast at a mean annual rate of 1.4m. Longshore sediment transport
3
at volumetric rates of up to 36m /day occurs in a westerly direction
in response to wind, waves and currents which are predominantly from
the east. Spits and bars are oriented towards the west, generally, and
results of aerial photographic studies indicate the Thetis Island has
2
accreted at a mean rate of 1580m /yr. Pingok Island has been eroded
2
at its eastern end at a mean rate of 3000m /yr, with deposition occurring
at its western end. These results suggest a net sediment transport
towards the west both along the Simpson Lagoon coast and barrier islands
and in Simpson Lagoon.
Sand-gravel fluvial deposits underlie the mainland shore, Simpson Lagoon
and the barrier islands at approximately -8m elevation. The tundra
portions of Pingok-Cottle Islands are directly related to the lowest
soil surface on the mainland. The deposits are peats which have accum-
ulated in place on top of marine-fluvial sands and silts with some
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gravels. These deposits have been reworked in places by lacustrine
processes. An average rate of coastal retreat of 1.4m/yr for a time
span of 22 or 23 years is estimated. Rates ranged from relatively sta-
ble sand-gravel beaches to 4.7m/yr. The maximum rate occurred on a
very localized exposed section of lacustrine beds. Terrigenous input
is very important to the river and estuarine system.
The ice-free biological regime is strongly influenced by the river input
of low salinity water containing relatively high concentrations of ni-
trogenous nutrients. Strong salinity and thermal stratification in the
shallow delta waters results in a stratification of phytoplankton popu-
lations, with the deep water population dominated by diatoms and the
surface population containing a greater component of flagellates. Bot-
tom water often had the maximum primary productivity rates. In 1971,
3
maximum rates were 5.8 and 5.9mg-C/m «hr. Annual primary production
2
of 10 to 15g-C/m is estimated. Nitrate supplied by the river appeared
to be important in the nearshore nutrient regime. Information has also
been obtained on the distribution and activity of phytoplankton in the
river system and associated lakes.
Crustaceans, molluscs and polychaetes characterize the macrofauna of
the coastal area at depths exceeding 2m, with but few species respon-
sible for most of the abundance and biomass. The large euryhaline iso-
pod Mesi,dotea entomon and the coastal raysid Mysis oaulata were consis-
tantly the most common organisms sampled in the study. Both occurred
within the lagoon at most locations, although they were much more abun-
dant in samples taken seaward of the barrier islands. There was no
evidence that the nearshore shallow waters were critical to the repro-
ductive success of either the isopod or mysid populations. Evidence was
obtained which suggested that well established populations of nearshore
epifauna do occur in the coastal Beaufort Sea and that recruitment to
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the shallow lagoons is probably accomplished by small-scale onshore
seasonal migrations. Perhaps one of the most interesting biological
aspects of this study has been the investigation of overwintering fish
in the river system. Fish observed and studied include the humpback
whitefish, the broad whitefish, arctic Cisco, least cisco and burbot.
The nutrient regime of the offshore area is influenced strongly by the
river system. Freshwater input from the north slope drainages adds ni-
trogen; additional nitrate and ammonia are supplied through erosional
processes on the tundra shoreline. With the onset of winter and the
formation of ice, solute exclusion into the underlying water concen-
trates nutrients, and as the ice thickens circulation is restricted by
bottomfast ice in shallow bays and lagoons, and hypersalinity occurs.
Ammonification was detected in saline waters of the Colville delta, in
a delta lake, and in parts of Elson Lagoon, but was undetectable in the
fresh waters of the Colville River and in Simpson Lagoon. Nitrification
was also active in these waters. Oxygen utilization accompanies these
processes, and some reduction in oxygen levels was evident.
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CHAPTER 2
INTRODUCTION: RATIONALE, OBJECTIVES AND LOGISTICS
Donald M. Schell
BACKGROUND
Successful human occupation of the Alaskan arctic has hinged primarily
on the active and skillful utilization of the marine resources of the
region and secondarily on the utilization of terrestrial resources. To
a culture based on agrarian and industrial economies, the arctic in the
past has offered little. To the Alaskan Eskimos, however, the marine
resources have provided a stable and rich subsistence and their culture
is testimony to superb adaptation to a harsh climate and to the devel-
opment of specialized techniques required in harvesting these resources.
Due to the lack of an advanced technology, their past impact on land
and sea has been slight and their life style, in general, in harmony
with the environment. However, this state of affairs has changed
drastically during the twentieth century and the outlook for the arctic
in the near future is a period of radical change and for potentially
severe cultural, economic and environmental conflicts.
The first major intrusion of western culture into the Alaskan arctic
resulted from the need for a marine resource - the oil and later the
baleen of the bowhead whale (Balaena mystieetis). At the height of
arctic whaling near the turn of the century as many as 12 ships and
600 men wintered at Herschel Island and many more ships followed the
retreating pack ice northward each summer to risk lives and investments
in the hazardous winters in pursuit of the great mammals. With the
fortuitous development of plastics, the demand for baleen collapsed
before the bowhead whale was driven to extinction, but the severely
depleted stocks presented difficult times for the native villages that
normally relied substantially upon whaling for food and fuel.
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For several decades after the whalers departed, arctic Alaska relapsed
into obscurity and although the exploration of Naval Petroleum Reserve
Number 4 left scars across the landscape and significant quantities of
litter at Barrow and at Umiat on the Colville River, the slow restorative
processes managed to reduce the reminders of technological impact to a
minimum.
Following Alaska statehood and the leasing of arctic slope land by the
state for oil exploration, the die was irreversibly cast for major change
to reach the arctic. The major oil discoveries at Prudhoe Bay and the
prospects of impending competitive state leasing of additional north
slope lands spurred exploration and drilling programs between the Colville
River and the Canning River which bounds the Arctic National Wildlife
Refuge. Following the leasing which yielded nearly a billion dollars
to the State of Alaska, the arctic lands were no longer an unknown entity
but an extremely valuable piece of real estate. The value lay entirely
in the oil beneath the ground, however, with little concern as to the
potential of the biological resources, aesthetic resources, or as an
area for domestic human habitation. To those faced with the problem of
getting the crude oil to market, the marine and terrestrial environments
typified the "hostile wilderness". At large expense and effort, air-
fields were built and air traffic to the arctic was established as a
reliable, year-round mode of hauling freight and personnel. During the
short open-water season, barge lifts hauled the heaviest equipment
around Point Barrow and with difficulty through the loose pack ice to
Prudhoe Bay. In the few years between 1967 to present the arctic coastal
plain has undergone more technological impact than all the years previous
and with this development has come a myriad of environmentally related
problems. Unlike prior developments, however, this time an awareness
and concern for the aesthetic and other potential human values that lay
in aspects of the arctic wilderness previously ignored or neglected have
prompted a massive and continuing desire to ameliorate the impact of the
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oil and oil-related technology on the environment and the biota indigenous
to the land and sea. The development of Alaskan arctic resources has
become a novel experiment - can technology and a fragile ecosystem exist
in harmony or at least inconsequentially to each other. The implementing
of this experiment has been the source of much debate, litigation and
resolution and it has only begun. This experiment will require a thor-
ough knowledge of the arctic coastal ecosystem and the physical para-
meters of the environment and careful decision-making by those involved.
It is the purpose and desire of those involved in this study to present
environmental data that may be of value in making these decisions and
to suggest critical areas of research needed before further compromising
of the coastal resources and ecosystem is undertaken.
STUDY AREA
This study encompassed the Alaskan arctic coastal zone between Point
Barrow and Prudhoe Bay, representing a linear distance of approximately
300km (Fig. 1). Although the individual reports following this
section will provide details as to the specific locations of study, a
general description of the area is given here.
The nearshore area is characterized by shallow water sloping very gently
offshore with numerous bars and shoals derived from both ice action and
as remnants of past shoreline erosion. Two major lagoon systems -
Elson Lagoon near Point Barrow and Simpson Lagoon east of the Colville
River delta are separated by stretches of low coastline exposed to the
Beaufort Sea and two shallow bays, Harrison Bay and Smith Bay. Border-
ing the entire coastline is low-lying tundra with a general relief of
less than 3m and the 6m bluffs near Cape Simpson represent the extreme.
The entire coastal plain is underlain with continuous permafrost to
depths in places exceeding 1,000m although much less information exists
on the presence of permafrost offshore. Surface features of the tundra
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co
155'
150'
N
Point
/^ Barrow
BEAUFORT
SEA
o
50
Statute Miles
50
Kilome t e r s
approximate 3O ft. depth contour
SIMPSON LAGOON
77'
70'
155'
/5OC
Figure 1. General study area.
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reflect the permafrost base, being patterned or polygonal ground covered
with decumbent vegetation subject to extremes in density on a micro-
scale. The entire coastal tundra is broken with numerous thaw lakes
generally oriented about a NNW-SSE axis and showing signs of active
transitional stages between lake and tundra. Most are very shallow
(<2m) and freeze to the bottom during winter.
The Colville River is the largest river of the north slope, entering
the Beaufort Sea approximately 200km southeast of Point Barrow. The
remaining drainages are considerably smaller and differ in origin,
those east of the Colville descending from the northern drainages of the
Brooks Range which approaches to within 40km of the coastline at Barter
Island.
The currents in shallow waters of the nearshore are dominated by the
prevailing winds during the short open-water season. The astronomical
tides are small, ranging between 10 and 20cm but are overridden by
meterological tides which cause occasional variations of up to a meter;
exceptional storms can cause surges of several meters and result in
inundation of the low coastlines. Erosional effects during these
storms are drastic and produce changes equivalent to several years of
"normal" regime.
OBJECTIVES
In anticipation of the extensive developmental activity associated with
the Alaskan north slope oil resources and the reestablishment of native
communities consequent to the settlement of the Alaska Native Land Claims
Act, this project was designed to provide baseline information on both
fresh and estuarine environments along the Alaskan arctic coast. Because
of the scarcity of existing knowledge, this effort has included basic
descriptive work of the aquatic ecosystems. However, special effort was
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made to identify and understand quantitatively the dynamic environmental
processes that operate in this little known region through the annual
cycles. In specific terms our objectives were:
1. The establishment of logistic support and the training of personnel
in environmental work in the Alaskan coastal zone.
2. To determine physical circulation and flushing of the delta-lagoon
barrier island complex.
3. To determine seasonal variations in the conservative chemistry and
the nutrient chemistry of the Colville River and nearshore waters.
4. To determine ice structure and properties of ice in the zone of
interaction between marine and freshwaters.
5. To study the processes of primary production and interrelationships
with the nutrient chemistry of the marine, river and lakewater
environments in the Colville River area.
6. To survey the biota of the Simpson Lagoon-Harrison Bay area.
7. To study the clay mineralogy and heavy minerals of the Colville
River system and nearshore sediments.
8. To study the beach morphology and the sedimentology of Simpson
-Lagoon.
The remoteness and extreme climatic conditions of the study area
required that the projects funded by the EPA office of Research and
Monitoring, the NOAA-Sea Grant Office and the State of Alaska be
combined into a single coherent interdisciplinary effort, with no
distinction being drawn between the freshwater or marine environments
as to application of effort. This allowed an integrated program that
in several cases aided in understanding the interrelationships that
occurred across the marine-freshwater boundary. In many instances,
especially during the first 2 years, the combination of the logistic
difficulties in access to the study areas and the total lack of any
previous information on the physical and biological nature of the area
10
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required that a thorough reconnaissance be accomplished. As data were
acquired and the processes governing some of the basic biological and
environmental changes became apparent, attention shifted to attempting
to quantify these processes. Thus the initial surveying of chemical
nutrients and conservative constituents and sediments in nearshore
waters became supplemented by studies on the biological interactions
controlling the uptake and regeneration of nutrients and on climatolog-
ically governed physical processes such as shoreline erosion, brackish
ice formation and under-ice density currents.
TRANSPORTATION AND LOGISTIC SUPPORT
In 1970, the Colville delta area was a "remote" area, and all access
was, by necessity, via air support. Therefore our base of operations
was established at Point Barrow at the Naval Arctic Research Laboratory
(NARL). Lodging and logistic support in the form of light aircraft,
cargo aircraft, and small boats provided by NARL proved indispensable
to the accomplishment of much of our work. It was, however, desirable
to maintain a field camp capable of all-weather access and to provide
a reasonably secure and safe base from which to conduct field sampling.
Therefore the Aerospace Defense Command was contacted and through their
cooperation, we were able to establish a field laboratory, bunkhouse
and storage facility at DEWline Station POW-2 located at Oliktok Point.
The all-weather airstrip, lodging, heated buildings wherein equipment
could be repaired and maintained, ready communications with the "outside"
and the cooperative and friendly atmosphere of the POW-2 personnel
proved invaluable to much of our research efforts.
For sampling at other locations in the Colville delta, personnel were
based at either the NARL camp Putu at the head of the Colville delta
or at the homes of Mrs. George Woods on the Nechelik (west) Channel, or
Mr. Harmon Helmericks at Anachlik Island on the East Channel of the
11
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Colville delta. Operations from the last two sites were very space-
limited but at Camp Putu, facilites were adequate for three or four
personnel to work effectively. The fisheries research and the nutrient
regeneration studies were conducted primarily from Camp Putu while the
limnological research was based at Wood's Camp.
Transportation to the study area was by aircraft except for one tractor-
train traverse of the coastline between Barrow and Camp Putu. Actual
field sampling was accomplished through surface transportation in the
field consisting of small boats during the open water season and snow
machines with sleds from October to early June. Our small boats con-
sisted of a 17 foot Boston Whaler and two Zodiac inflatable boats. The
Boston Whaler proved an excellent boat for sampling operations in the
lagoon where working over the side with awkward equipment was routine.
In shallow waters or among floating ice, the Zodiac inflatables were
easier handling and had the added advantage that their light-weight
allowed them to be completely hauled up the beach when not in use.
This is a real advantage where wind-driven ice and freezing spray are
common occurrences. Some additional work was performed in the summer
of 1971 using the NARL vessel Natohik. This 42 foot vessel allowed
sample collecting in offshore Harrison Bay and beyond the barrier
islands where smaller boat operation was hazardous.
The relative freedom of movement and evenness of terrain made travel
by snow machine the most efficient method of transportation in areas
near Oliktok and the Colville delta during winter months although the
Dease Inlet survey was done entirely by using ski-equipped aircraft.
The snow machines were always used in pairs for safety reasons and
although the sleds pounded the gear unmercifully passing over the
sastrugi, we were able to successfully use such equipment as underwater
television systems and portable generators mounted on the sleds with
minimal problems. The fisheries research conducted in Fall 1972 by
12
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Dennis Kogl was accomplished using his own dog team for transportation,
a mode of travel perhaps safer if not faster than snow machines for
working alone in the arctic winter.
REFERENCE
1. Hume, J. D. and M. Schalk. Shorelines Processes Near Barrow,
Alaska; A Comparison of the Normal and Catastrophic. Arctic. 20;
86-103. 1967.
13
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CHAPTER 3
A STUDY OF WIND, WAVES AND CURRENTS IN SIMPSON LAGOON
Joseph A. Dygas
INTRODUCTION
The primary purpose of the work reported here is to describe coastal
wind, wave and current patterns in a coastal polar environment and to
provide an initial predictive capability for some future applied
problems; especially the transport of natural and man-made materials.
Prior to the initiation of oceanographic studies in the Harrison Bay -
Simpson Lagoon area (Fig. 1) by the Institute of Marine Science,
University of Alaska from 1970 to 1973, there had been a dearth of
coastal oceanographic information. Since the initiation of this
study, studies of physical processes along the Beaufort Sea coast have
increased significantly; the Symposium on Beaufort Sea Coastal and
Shelf Research summarizes some of these more recent studies. In
2
particular, Wiseman et al. have been concerned with a comparison of
physical procsses and geomorphology along the Chukchi and Beaufort
Sea coasts.
SETTING
The Harrison Bay - Simpson Lagoon study area is located about midway
across the northern arctic coast of Alaska (Fig. 1). The study area
consists of a shallow broad bay open to the Beaufort Sea and a
partially enclosed lagoon approximately 7km wide and 25km in length.
The Jones Islands, which are a series of low relief barrier islands,
form the northern boundary of the lagoon. To the west of Simpson
Lagoon lies the Colville River and its delta. The discharge of the
Colville River enters Harrison Bay to the west of Simpson Lagoon and
the discharge of the Kuparuk River enters Gwyder Bay to the east of
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PHYSICAL OCEAN08RAPHIC
STUDY AREA
Figure 1. Physical oceanographic study area.
-------
Simpson Lagoon. The bathymetry of Simpson Lagoon is quite shallow with
depths being generally less than 2m.
Climatic conditions in the arctic are characterized by (1) an alterna-
tion of long periods of daylight and darkness which are associated with
a relatively low sun angle and high radiation loss, (2) presence of
snow and ice covered water most of the year, (3) a distinctive tempera-
ture inversion with increasing-altitude, which is related to radiative
cooling, and (4) a relatively cold high pressure circumpolar vortex
of the upper atmosphere. Fluctuations in the boundaries of the circum-
polar vortex affect the movement of surface cyclones and anticyclones
which influence regional weather patterns. Surface weather patterns,
especially during summer months, along the Beaufort Sea coast are
significantly affected by the movement, intensity and frequency of
occurrence of cyclones and anticyclones.
The annual range of temperature in the arctic is about 55°C. Temperatures
3
fluctuate about -32°C during the winter and 0°C during the summer.
Summer temperatures generally average less than 10°C and July is typically
the warmest summer month.
After the thawing of the snow cover on the Alaskan arctic coastal plain
and the breakup of the rivers and shorefast ice, a strong temperature
gradient exists between the relatively warm land and cold pack ice. In
addition the open coastal waters during summer provide a source of
moisture which is generally lacking during the winter. Relative
humidity over water surfaces reaches a maximum during August. These
conditions are generally conducive to the formation of cyclones, which
are characterized by centers of low pressure, high winds, precipitation,
cloudiness, relatively warmer temperatures, and a sharp frontal
structure. Cyclonic storms that have been generated in the Beaufort
Sea are often characterized by a relatively cold to warm temperature
17
-------
gradient from the center to the periphery of the cyclone. The ratio of
cyclones to anticyclones in the arctic is 2:1. Point Barrow, for
3
example, experiences an average of 19 storms per year.
Cyclonic frequency is greatest in a line extending from south of
Greenland over Norway and Novaya Zemlya and on into the central arctic.
Baffin Bay in the Canadian arctic also has a high frequency of cyclonic
activity. The greatest frequency of anticyclones occurs in eastern
Siberia across the Beaufort Sea to northwest Canada, and also in
Greenland, southern Scandanavia and a northern extension of the main
western Siberian anticyclone. About one third of the cyclonic lows
occurring in the Beaufort Sea have originated in northern Siberia.
After breakup along the Alaskan arctic coast, surface air temperatures
tend to remain near freezing over the pack ice, whereas over land areas
on the coastal plain temperatures may rise considerably above freezing
(21° to 26°C). Moisture from the warm open coastal waters under
relatively mild wind speeds tends to aid the formation of low cloud
cover and fog tends to increase towards the end of the summer as the
surface of the coastal plain cools relatively more rapidly than the open
coastal water.
METHODS
Techniques used in the field to obtain wind, wave and current data have
progressed from visual and manual techniques during initial operations
in 1970 to continuous recording instrumentation during the summer of
1972. Table 1 summarizes field methods and periods of measurement of
wind direction and velocity, wave height and period and current direction
and velocity in Simpson Lagoon (Fig. 1). Specific field procedures for
4
the 1970 and 1971 field seasons have been discussed (Kinney et al. and
Dygas et al. ). Wind direction and velocity were recorded with a Rustrak
18
-------
Table 1. TYPE AND PERIOD OF FIELD OBSERVATIONS AT OLIKTOK POINT, ALASKA
Type of
Field
Technique
1970
July Aug. Sept.
1971
July Aug. Sept.
1972
July Aug. Sept.
Wind
A
B
Waves
C
D
Currents
E
F
G
H
7 days
38 days
Where A = Hand held wind meter
B = Recording anemometer and wind vane
C = Visual
D = Portable wave recorder and resistance wave staff
E = Drift cards
F = Drogues
G « Flowmeter
H = Aandera current meter digital recording at 10 minute interval
direction, velocity, temperature
19
-------
recorder coupled to an anemometer and wind vane (R.M. Young Co.).
The sensors were mounted about 10m above sea level at Oliktok Point.
Wind data in an analog form were recorded from 17 July to 20 October
1972, and subsequently digitized at 1 hour sample intervals and
processed by computer.
Current direction and velocity in Simpson Lagoon, were measured at 10
minute sample intervals with an Aandera current meter from 25 August to
1 September 1971, Dygas et at. and 11 August to 18 September 1972.
The current meter was moored 1m off the bottom of Simpson Lagoon in
water with a total depth of 2.5m. Subsequently, the digital data were
analyzed by descriptive statistical methods, linear correlation and
regression techniques and by a modified digital filtering and time
series analysis procedure as diagrammed in Figure 2.
Wave heights and periods were recorded from 22 August to 11 September
1972 with a portable wave recorder and a continuous resistance wire
wave staff, (Interstate Electronics Co.). From 22 August to 1
September 1972, the wave sensor was installed just outside the breaker
zone on the northeast facing shore of Oliktok Point. Over the period
1 to 11 September 1972, it was installed on the west facing shore. The
analog wave data were digitized at 0.3 second time intervals and
subsequently analyzed with a power spectral analysis computer program
developed by Fee. In order to check the precision of the output, an
interlaboratory experiment was conducted with Dr. Fee at the University
of Manitoba, Canada. Identical outputs were obtained from the same
wave data input to the program of Fee by Fee on an IBM 360/65 computer
and the author on an IBM 360/40 computer at the University of Alaska.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Introduction
In this study of wind, waves and currents of Simpson Lagoon, emphasis
20
-------
DATA PROCESSING PROCEDURE
DIGITAL CURRENT DATA
jfc
CURRENT ROSES
RESOLUTION INTO
N.ANDE. VECTORS
HIGH / LOW PASS
DIGITAL FILTERING
(cutoff frequency)
1/24 Hrs.
TIME SERIES
SPECTRAL ANALYSIS
CROSS SPECTRAL
CORRELATION OF
CURRENT vs. WIND
VECTORS
PROGRESSIVE
VECTOR
PLOT
ANALOG WIND DATA
WIND ROSES
I
DIGITIZATION
(AT= I HOUR)
RESOLUTION
INTO
N.AND E. VECTORS
LINEAR REGRESSION
AND CORRELATION
ANALYSIS
COMPUTER GRAPHICAL
DISPLAY
Figure 2. Data processing procedure,
21
-------
has been placed on a quantification of 1972 field data and presentation
of results in a form most useful for predictive purposes. In this
regard it is important to appreciate that a single season of field data
is not necessarily typical of long term conditions. For example, the
difference between the predominant WSW current direction for 1971, and
the WNW direction for 1972 shown in Figure 1, is an indication of the
annual variability of current records obtained from the same location
in Simpson Lagoon. However, 1972 wind direction data from Oliktok
Point differs only slightly from longer term wind data from Barter
Island (Fig. 3).
Winds
Wind directional values from Oliktok Point for the period July through
September 1972 are compared diagrammatically with published long term
wind data from Barter Island in Figure 3. Prevailing winds are from
east to northeast and west to northwest for both locations. Data in
Figure 3 for Oliktok Point indicate a slightly greater percentage of
winds from the northeast and northwest than the long term data which
consist of prevailing easterlies and westerlies.
The data of Table 2 indicate a general trend from relatively lower wind
speeds during the June to July period to higher wind speeds during
September and October at Oliktok Point. Table 2 further demonstrates
an increase in northwesterly winds from 7.6 percent in July to 25.5
percent in September with a corresponding increase in energy (variance)
from 16.4 percent in July to 45.3 percent in September. The tendency
for higher wind speeds in September reflects the higher frequency of
storm activity during this time of the year. The atmospheric tempera-
ture gradient over the land, ocean waters and the pack ice, in addition
to the source of heat and moisture from open water, provides conditions
22
-------
N3
20
WIND DIRECTION
10
o
-------
TABLE 2. WIND DIRECTION AND ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
FOR OLIKTOK POINT, ALASKA 1972
NJ
JULY
Wind
direction
N-E
E-S
S-W
W-N
Frequency,
Z
82.3
19.6
6.1
7.6
Energy,
%
45.0
19.9
18.6
16.4
AUGUST
Frequency,
%
57.9
12.0
15.1
15.2
Energy,
%
21.4
29.5
24.0
25.0
SEPTEMBER
Frequency,
%
57.6
6.8
10.0
25.5
Energy,
%
27.6
4.4
22.6
45.3
TOTAL
Frequency ,
%
62.9
8.9
11.1
16.9
Energy,
%
27.6
17.7
22.3
25.5
-------
that are conducive to the formation of cyclones along the Beaufort Sea
coast during summer months. One of these westerly cyclonic storms was
experienced in September 1970 during which wind speeds up to 70kt were
8 9
recorded at Oliktok Point and in the Canadian arctic. The resultant
storm surge in the vicinity of Oliktok Point was estimated to be 2 to
3m by DEWline personnel.
Currents
Initial studies and results of surface current directions and velocities
in Simpson Lagoon have been previously discussed in part (Kinney et al.
5 2
and Dygas et al. ). More recently, Wiseman et al. have studied current
directions and velocities via drogue measuring techniques on the seaward
side of Pingok Island.
Currents in Simpson Lagoon consist primarily of wind drift and tidal
currents. Matthews has indicated that the lunar tidal range at Point
5 2
Barrow is less than 30cm. Dygas et al. and Wiseman et al. have
recognized that the meteorological tidal range may be greater than the
lunar tidal range and these authors have also suggested that local
meteorological conditions control the prevailing current patterns in
Simpson Lagoon and on the seaward side of Pingok Island. An important
aspect of the present study has been to quantitatively test this
hypothesis.
In order to describe meteorological and tidal periodicities present in
the 1972 current record from Simpson Lagoon, a digital filtering and
spectral analysis procedure has been used. Results of these procedures
are presented in Figures 4 through 11 in terms of percent spectral
energy of north - south and east - west current vectors plotted against
frequency in cycles per hour. The low frequency (periods greater than
1 day) current records, given as Figures 8 through 11, have been
25
-------
49
4,.
CO
g"
o
UJ 25-
K
LU
or
o:
^
o
<
Q
16 2O 24 28 "32
RECORD PERIOD, days
Figure 4. North—South tidal current vectors.
36
40
44
48
-------
N3
o
0,00
0. 00
°'10 0,20 0.30 0,40 0.50 060
NORTH TIDAL CURRENT VECTORS, cycles/hour
0.70
Figure 5. Power spectrum of North-South tidal current vectors.
-------
cc
O
e
o
54
12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48
RECORD PERIOD, days
Figure 6. East—West tidal current vectors.
-------
K>
AC
UJ
CE 0.00
0.00
o
0.10 0!20 0.30 0.40 0,50
EAST TIDAL CURRENT VECTORS, cycles/hour
0.60
0.70
Figure 7. Power spectrum of East-West tidal current vectors.
-------
26 r
E
o
oo"
22
18
O
UJ
14
10 t
12
16 20 24 28 32
RECORD PERIOD, days
36
40
44 48
Figure 8. North—South wind drift current vectors.
-------
4 6 .6 71
40.00
< 33.33..
26.67..
20.00..
UJ
6.67
00
"oTTo oTao6730o'. 40 o.so
NORTH DRIFT CURRENT VECTORS, cycles/hour
Figure 9. Power spectrum of wind drift current vectors.
-------
38
N5
o
42
to 30 -
s
O
.. 22
-34
12 16 20 24 28 32
RECORD PERIOD, days
36 40
48
Figure 10. East-West drift current vectors.
-------
Ul
U)
46.67
O
LU
Q.
40.00
LJ
O
33.33
26.67
CC
LJ
20.00
a:
O 13.33
o
LJ
6. 67
LJ
Q^ 0.00
£E 0.00
O
0:10
0.20
0:30
0:40
o.so
o;eo
EAST DRIFT CURRENT VECTORS, cycles/hour
OTTO
Figure 11. Power spectrum of East-West drift current vectors.
-------
interpreted as essentially wind drift currents. The east - west vector
current record has approximately 80 percent of its spectral energy
occurring with a period of about 4 days or longer. From Figure 8, a
period of approximately 4 days has been interpreted as representative
of wind drift currents. Here the effects of tidal periodicities have
been eliminated by the filtering process. It is further suggested
that these low frequency wind drift currents are in response to weekly
occurrences of minor westerly storms. It should be noted in Figures 8
and 10 that this weekly periodicity is more pronounced in the east -
west component than in the north - south component. Current velocities
in an east - west direction are generally greater than those in a
north - south direction (Figs. 8 to 10).
The high frequency (periods less than 1 day) current records indicate
energy peaks with periods of 33 and 10 hours for the east - west
components (Fig. 7), and 20 to 24 hours and 8.3 hours for the north -
south component. The 20 to 24 hour peak in the north - south component
suggests the presence of diurnal tidal currents. The 33 hour peak in
the east - west component record is considered nontidal. Semi-diurnal
tidal periods range from 11.97 to 12.91 hours. Although approximately
5 percent of the spectral energy occurs in the range of semi-diurnal
periods, there are no distinctive energy peaks (Figs. 7 and 9).
The 10 hour and 8.3 hour peaks in the east - west and north - south
component record, respectively, are not interpreted as semi-diurnal
tidal currents. At present, it is tentatively suggested that the
10 hour and 8.3 hour peaks are related to corresponding fluctuations
in local meteorological conditions.
Currents in Simpson Lagoon may be further described in terms of a
progressive current vector diagram as illustrated in Figure 12. In this
diagram there is a general absence of regular oscillatory movement in
the progressive drift of the current vectors towards the northwest.
34
-------
OJ
Ui
140
120
o:
p 100
o
LU
>
80
LU
cr
(T 60
o
X
cc
o
40
20
-380 -300 -220 -140 -60 20 100 180
EAST CURRENT VECTORS, m, (Aug. I I-Sept. 18, 1972)
Figure 12. Progressive current vector diagram.
-------
This diagram is interpreted as an indicator of water transport over a
distance of 358km for 38 days at a mean vector current velocity of
10.6cm/sec. In contrast, the scalar mean velocity is 24.9cm/sec. The
ratio of the mean vector velocity to the mean scalar velocity X100 is
12
defined as a measure of the variability of the current record. The
stability for the 1972 Simpson Lagoon current record is 42*5 percent.
In comparison, the percent variation of the current velocity that can be
attributed to the wind velocity Figure 13, is 100 times the square of
the linear correlation coefficient. The variation for the 1972 current
record is 54 percent. It is suggested that the influence of surface
wind stress accounts for the stability or variability. The remainder of
the unexplained variation (46%) is attributed to the effects of tidal
currents, waves and other random variations.
Surface currents in Simpson Lagoon tend to flow towards the west under
easterly winds and east under westerly winds. In order to quantify this
relationship, results of the 11 August to 18 September 1972 current
record from Simpson Lagoon (Fig. 13), have been statistically correlated
with the wind direction and velocity. Results of this analysis (Figs.
13 and 14), have indicated a significant correlation of 0.73 between
wind speed and current velocity and a -0.52 correlation between wind and
current directions. These correlations further indicate that about 50
percent of the variability in current velocity is attributed to the wind
velocity and 25 percent of the variability in current direction is
attributed to the wind direction.
Waves
The primary purpose of this study of waves in Simpson Lagoon has been
to provide necessary data for other studies concerning the longshore
sediment transport as given in the geological section of this report.
In addition, this study of shallow water wind waves in a polar
environment has partially filled a gap in present knowledge of coastal
36
-------
74
Correlation r= .735
X=I3.4 mph Y= 24.9 cm/sec
10
14 18 22 26 30 34 38
WIND VELOCITY, mph
(I hr sample interval Aug II-Sept 18, 1972)
4-1
•rl
O
O
r-l
§
M
M
O
13
c
§
•H
0)
M
60
37
-------
360
40
80
120 160. 200 240 280 320 360
WIND DIRECTION, degrees
(I hr sample interval Aug 11-Sept 18, 1972)
Figure 14. Correlation of wind and current direction.
38
-------
physical oceanographic processes. This knowledge should also serve as
an aid to navigation in the Simpson Lagoon area.
Waves that impinge on the Simpson Lagoon coast consist of local wind-
generated waves and small amplitude swell which filters through the
barrier island inlets from the open Beaufort Sea. Except for severe
storm conditions, breaking waves along the Simpson Lagoon coast are
generally of the plunging variety (Dygas et al. ). Results of wave
observations during the 1971 and 1972 field seasons have indicated a
mean breaker height of 17.7cm, a significant breaker height of 27.3cm
and a mean wave period of 2.2 seconds.
Results of spectral analysis of wave records for the east shore of
Oliktok Point are summarized in Table 3. These data indicate that the
wave period corresponding to peak wave energy ranges from 1.87 to 2.14
seconds. Also present in the wave spectra are a number of relatively
low energy peaks with periods that range from 7.5 to 15.0 seconds.
These secondary peaks are interpreted as low energy swell from the
Beaufort Sea. The occurrence and observation of swell with any
visually distinctive amplitude in the Oliktok Point area is relatively
o 9
rare. Both the author and Wiseman et al. have contemporaneously
observed swell with a period of 8.5 to 10.0 seconds impinging on the
Jones Islands (Fig. 1) and the Simpson Lagoon coast. The height
of the swell on the north (Beaufort Sea) side of Pingok Island was
estimated to be from 1.5 to 2.0m and at Oliktok Point from 10 to
20cm. Unfortunately, sea level at Oliktok Point had dropped below the
operational depth of the wave sensor and the breaking waves on the
shore of Pingok Island had demolished the wave staffs of Wiseman et
2
al. As a result no useful wave records were obtained in this partic-
ular case.
39
-------
Table 3. RESULTS OF SPECTRAL ANALYSIS OF WAVES AT OLIKTOK POINT
Wind
Date/Time speed
1972 mph
Wind
duration,
hrs
Significant
wave period,
sec
Secondary
wave period,
sec
Wind Direction N60E
8/22/1315 10
8/22/2030 10
8/23/0900 11
8/23/1430 17.5
8/27/1600 7.5
8/28/1600 10
8/28/1930 12.5
8/29/1530 12.5
Wind Direction N30E
8/23/2030 16
8/24/1930 12.5
8/24/1515 10
Wind Direction N30W
8/25/2020 6
8/26/1600 7.5
8/30/0800 11
8/31/2230 20
25
32
45
50
1
6
15
35
to N45E
56
4
1
to N60W
7
27
6
4
1.87
1.87
1.87
2.14
1.07
—
1.87
1.87
2.14
1.87
1.07
_
-
1.87
2.5
5.0
7.5
7*t
7.5
-
—
7.5
•»
.9
-
1.15
0.9
7.5
-
Wind Direction SW
8/31/1620 13
9/11/2400 12.5
7
26
2.5
2.14
_
-
Wind Direction SE
8/29/1900 7.5
2
1.66
-
aThe dash (-) indicates infinite period in seconds.
40
-------
The wave spectra for the period 22 to 28 August 1972 indicate a general
trend of increasing relative wave energy with increasing wave period
(1.0 to S.Osec). The short period wind waves are considered to
have been generated in the lagoon where the N-S fetch is a constant.
Fetch in a northwesterly to westerly direction is not limited by the
barrier islands, but by the position of the edge of the arctic pack
ice. Wind speeds corresponding to wave spectra in Figure 15 indicate
increases from 3.5 to 7.8m/sec.
The effect of long duration and low wind speed in contrast to relatively
higher wind speed and shorter duration is indicated in terms of the wave
spectra in Figure 15 for 22 and 23 August 1972. The wave spectrum for
22 August indicates a higher level of wave energy at a significant period
of 1.5 seconds. The spectrum for 23 August indicates slightly less peak
wave energy but a longer significant period of about 2.0 seconds. These
results suggest that increasing duration increases peak wave energy but
not the significant period unless the wind speed also increases.
Increasing wind speed increases both peak wave energy and significant
13 2
wave period. Both Hunkins and Wiseman et at. have observed a
similar trend for increasing wave energy with increasing significant
wave period for waves in the Beaufort Sea.
CONCLUSIONS
It is concluded from the results of this study that wave and current
patterns in Simpson Lagoon are affected predominantly by prevailing local
meteorological conditions. Northeasterly and northwesterly winds are
responsible for predominantly northwesterly and northeasterly flowing
currents and the meteorological tidal range is generally greater than
the astronomical tidal range. Prevailing wind drift currents control
the general current pattern in Simpson Lagoon. Although lunar tidal
periodicities may be distinguished in current records from Simpson
41
-------
WAVE SPECTRA FOROLIKTOK
POINT, ALASKA 8/22-8/28/72
40
DATE TIME
LEGEND
WIND WIND
SPEED D 1RECTION
(M/SEC)
8/22
8/23
8/24
8/25
8/26
8/27
8/28
1000
2030
1515
0930
1600
1 60 0
1015
3.57
7.82
4.91
2.23
3.35
3.57
4.4 7
EN E
N E
NNE
N
WNW
E N E
EN E
00
1.5
1.0 .75
.6
D U R ATIO N
(HOURS)
2 0
I 2
2
5
24
I
5
PERIOD (SECON DS)
Figure 15. Wave spectra for Oliktok Point - 1972
42
-------
Lagoon, they are considered to be subsidiary to the wind drift currents
in controlling overall current patterns in Simpson Lagoon.
Wave energy in Simpson Lagoon consists predominantly of short period
wind waves generated in the lagoon. Presence of the offshore barrier
islands effectively reduces the energy level of swell from the Beaufort
Sea to negligible amplitudes in comparison with the wind waves in Simpson
Lagoon. The general trend for increasing energy with increasing
significant period of wind waves generated in Simpson Lagoon has been
observed. Fetch in the lagoon is limited to the north and east by the
barrier islands. However, to the northwest the fetch is limited by the
edge of the pack ice as well as dense concentrations of ice floes.
The arctic climate with its short open coastal water season, presence
of snow and ice cover, large temperature gradients between land, water
and ice and the circumpolar vortex set the general framework within which
regional weather patterns operate. It is within this framework that
the weather patterns along the Beaufort Sea coast, as exemplified by the
study of Simpson Lagoon, significantly affect coastal wave and current
patterns. The results of this study in conjunction with meteorological
information provide a basis for prediction of wave and current patterns
in Simpson Lagoon.
REFERENCES
1. Symposium on Beaufort Sea Coastal and Shelf Research. The Arctic
Institute of North America. San Francisco, California. January
7-9, 1974.
2. Wiseman, W. J., J. M. Coleman, A. Gregory, S. A. Hsu, C. D. Walters,
and L. D. Wright. Alaskan Arctic Coastal Processes and Morphology.
Coastal Studies Institute. Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge,
Louisiana. Tech. Report No. 149. 1973. 171 p.
43
-------
3. Sater, J. E., A. G. Ronhovde, and L. C. Van Allen. Arctic Environ-
ment and Resources. The Arctic Institute of North America, Wash-
ington, DC. 1971. 309 p.
4. Kinney, P. J., D. M. Schell, J. A. Dygas, R. Nenahlo and G. E. Hall.
Nearshore Currents. In: Baseline Data Study of the Alaska Arctic
Aquatic Environment. Univ. of Alaska. Institute of Marine Science.
R72-3. 1972. p. 29-48.
5. Dygas, J. A., R. Tucker and D. C. Burrell. Geological Report of
the Heavy Minerals, Sediment Transport and Shoreline Changes of the
Barrier Islands and Coast between Oliktok Point and Beechy Point.
In: Baseline Data Study of the Alaska Arctic Aquatic Environment.
Univ. of Alaska. Institute of Marine Science. R72-3. 1972.
p. 61-121.
6. Fee, E. J. Digital Computer Programs for Spectral Analysis of Time
Series. Center for Great Lakes Studies, Minneapolis, Minn. Special
Report No. 6. 1969.
7. Searby, H. W. and H. Hunter. Climate of the North Slope of Alaska.
NOAA Technical Memorandum. AR-4. 1971.
8. DiMaio, J. Personal Communication.
9. Hurst, C. K. Beaufort Sea Storm Investigation of Effects in the
Mackenzie Dalta Region. Engineering Programs Branch. Dept. of
Public Works Canada. 1971.
10. Matthews, J. B. Tides at Point Barrow. The Northern Engineer.
_2:12-13. 1970.
11. Neumann, G. and W. J. Pierson, Jr. Principle of Physical Oceanogra-
phy. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1966.
545 p.
12. Meyer, H. H. F. Die Oberflachenstromungen des Atlantischen Ozeans
im Februar. [The surface currents of the Atlantic Ocean in February],
Verof Veroff. Inst. f. Meereskunde. Univ. Berlin, N. F., Relhe A,
No. 20.
13. Hunkins, K. Waves on the Arctic Ocean. Jour. Geophys. Res. 67(6);
2477-2489, 1962.
44
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CHAPTER 4
BEACH MORPHOLOGY AND SEDIMENTOLOGY OF SIMPSON LAGOON
D. C. Burrell, J. A. Dygas, and R. W. Tucker
INTRODUCTION
Objectives
The principal objective of the geological investigations conducted as
part of the overall baseline study program has been to determine both
the static and dynamic sedimentological regime of the lagoon - barrier
island environment immediately east of the Colville River delta. We
wished in particular to characterize the surficial sedimentary deposits
within Simpson Lagoon (Figs. 1 through 3) and to evaluate both long
and short term sediment movements with particular emphasis upon the
beach and barrier island deposits.
This work has been of considerable importance in several respects. In
the first place, although shallow water environments have been worked on
for a number of years in lower latitude, there is a dearth of information
on equivalent areas subject to polar climatic conditions. For example,
the only place along the entire Alaska arctic coast where beach movements
have been previously studied with any degree of sophistication has been
at Point Barrow (Fig. 1). This region, being at the confluence of the
Chukchi and Beaufort seas, is unlikely to be typical of Beaufort Sea
coastline conditions in general, and certainly the potential shoreline
effects of major river inflow cannot be assessed at the latter locality.
From a basic science point of view, it was intended to evaluate the
characteristics of an arctic lagoonal environment: to compare processes
with those determined for more temperate regions and to look for features
which might be a function of the prevailing polar climatic conditions.
45
-------
ON
WESTERN
BROOKS
6g, RANGE
CENTRAL BROOKS RANGE
Figure 1. The arctic coastal plain showing the location of the western and central Brooks Range,
Ocean Point, and Sentinel Hill, and Simpson Lagoon.
-------
STUDY
AREAS
Miles
Figure 2. Study Areas.
-------
35'
oo
70'
30'\
50' 40' I49°3O'
Figure 3. Sample locations in Simpson Lagoon.
20
10
-------
In addition, from a short-term, more practical viewpoint, we wished to
obtain the necessary background information which would enable some pre-
diction of the potential effects of perturbations of this environment.
Coastal zone management has become a topic of considerable relevance in
more populous parts of the world. With the initiation of industrial
development in arctic regions - and specifically the oil extraction and
transportation operations which will shortly commence in this study
area - our work is both timely and urgent. Although the geological work
described in this section of the report may be considered as an entity,
evaluations with regard to resource utilization and perturbations should
be made within the context of the complete baseline program: physical,
chemical, geological and biological.
As noted above, the work described in this section relates only to the
lagoon complex (Simpson Lagoon, Fig. 2) immediately east of the Colville
River outfall. Data on Colville River sediments per se, and for the
areas seaward of the barrier islands are given elsewhere in this report
(Chapter 6), but complementary and distinguishing features are cross-
referenced where appropriate.
Previous Work
Studies of the geology of this arctic coastal plain region was initiated
1 2
with the reconnaissance work of Schrader. Leffingwell produced the
first detailed map of the Canning River (Fig. 1) area. Data for the
3
western coastal province given by Smith and Mertie are additionally
broadly applicable to this area since the Gubik is a relatively homoge-
4
neous deposit. Most published work on the north slope has been a result
of exploration of the Naval Petroleum Reserve (No. A). Particulary
relevant to this present study area are the data given by Robinson and
67 A
Black. 0'Sullivan and Lewellen have carried out subsequent
49
-------
Investigations and an excellent bibliography on the geology of the
o
arctic coastal plain has been issued by Maher and Trollman.
No concerted effort to analyse the sedimentological regime of the near-
9 10
shore regions has been attempted prior to this study (Tucker ). McCarthy
initiated specific studies concerning shore erosion rates in the Point
Barrow area. Subsequent investigations of beach dynamics at Point Barrow
have been published by Rex and Taylor, Rex, Hume, » ' and Hume
and Schalk. ' Work on the sedimentological aspects of the Colville
18
River have been authored by, for example, Reimnitz and Bruder and
Walker and McCloy.19
20 21
Carsola and Hoskin et al* have presented size fractionation data for
Beaufort Sea shelf and slope sediments collected from icebreakers. More
")j 7"\ TL 9S ")(\ 77
recently, Naidu, in a series of publications, '*'* * and else-
where in this report, has described size fractionation facies and the
clay mineralogy and geochemistry of the slope and shelf sediments of this
region and has compared these open ocean sediments with:arctic river and
coastal deposits.
SETTING
General Geology and Climate
The arctic coastal plain of Alaska (Fig. 1) is a broad, gently sloping
plain dissected by several major northward flowing rivers. It is' bounded
to tne south by the arctic foothills with elevations approaching 200m.
Further south, the eastern and central portions of the Brooks Range
28
(Wahrhaftig ) are the source areas for the rivers: chiefly the Colville,
Kuparuk, Sagavanirktok and Canning. All the latter rivers provide
possible transportation routes for sediments entering the Arctic Ocean.
50
-------
The major potential sediment sources for Simpson Lagoon - the area of
study for this section of the report - are the flanking Colville and
Kuparuk Rivers (Fig. 1). This area is part of the Teshekpuk section of
the Alaskan Arctic Coastal Plain Province. Landward from the coastal
margin, the low relief surface consists of perennially frozen ground
(permafrost) with numerous shallow oriented lake's and ice-wedge polygons.
Surficial deposits of the Teshekpuk section consist of reworked marine
sands, silts and gravels in an ice-cemented matrix. This is the Gubik
formation, which overlies Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits west and east
of the Colville River respectively. The extension of the arctic coastal
plain into the off-shore region forms the Alaskan arctic continental
shelf. This marine area is the Beaufort Sea; a sub-section of the Arctic
Ocean. The coastal waters of the Alaskan arctic coast are very shallow
(less than 10m) over broad areas (5 to 6 miles from shore) and are bounded
by long chains of barrier islands. Open ocean surface circulation
patterns are anti-cyclonic, but longshore currents depend upon wind and
wave directions. The surface salinities of the near-shore Beaufort Sea
29
waters range between 20 and 23 °/0o» with temperatures always close to
30
0°C (Johnson and Eartman ). Brackish water from the Colville River may
enter the lagoon with salinities as low as 1.5 °/0o, and a temperature of
29
around 12°C. Winter ice conditions restrict the circulation, and a
salinity of 65.9 °/0o has been measured in Simpson Lagoon during this
season. The tidal regime in this part of the Beaufort is relatively
31
simple, with a normal diurnal tide of around 20cm amplitude.
Temporal climatic effects on the sedimentological processes in the study
area are of major importance. The arctic climate provides only about
3 months (July to September) of open water conditions. At all other
times of the year, processes of erosion or transport are hampered by the
29
presence of as much as 2m of ice in the lagoon, by shore-fast ice and
51
-------
by frozen beaches. The effect of pack-ice push on the terrain seaward of
20 12
the barrier islands has been well documented. Both Carsola and Rex
have described micro-relief features associated with ice-gouging in this
32
region, and Hume and Schalk have noted the effects of ice push on the
Point Barrow beaches. Lagoonal beaches are protected from further wave
erosion early in the winter season via freezing spray deposits (kaimoo
structure). Much of the lagoon is frozen to the sediment surface during
the winter and the barrier islands protect the lagoonal sediment from
ice-push erosional effects.
Air temperatures are relatively cold year-round (-40°C to 10°C) and pre-
cipitation is less than 25cm/yr so that the coastal plain is considered
an arid region. The annual temperature cycle has a profound effect upon
the available sediment supply. Low temperatures prevent significant
erosion and expand the permafrost. Spring-summer temperatures allow
rapid thaw and surface water run-off and a retreat of the permafrost.
In the summer, beach cliffs are thermally eroded and the material may be
transported by wave action. The islands which are primarily affected in
the latter fashion, are those in the eastern section of the lagoon that
are capped with tundra material (see below). The permafrost table is
around 0.5m below the beach surface at Oliktok Point (Figs. 2 and 3)
33
during the summer. Reimnitz et al. believe that seismic profiling has
recorded massive ice beneath the lagoon floor at a depth of 20 to 30m.
Additionally, since more of the major reflections change character from
the shallow water - where permafrost is undoubtedly present - to deeper
water areas, these latter authors conclude that permafrost is continuous,
at least to the barrier islands.
The surface wind patterns are of supreme importance with regard to the
sedimentation dynamics as considered in detail below. The predominance
52
-------
of northeasterly and easterly winds has been a well appreciated phenom-
4
enon (Lewellen ) prior to the detailed analysis presented in this
report. However, there is also a westerly mode in the distribution
spectrum. Major storms come from the west and may bring winds of up to
70kt and storm surges of 2 to 4m. The sedimentological effects of
storms are of major importance inasmuch as, depending upon the time-frame
considered, the erosional effects may be cataclysmic rather than "steady-
state". Much of the published work on beach movements at Point Barrow,
1 x 09
(Hume and Schalk ' ) has been concerned with storm effects. Even
with the relatively short open-ocean fetch between shore and the pack
ice edge available during the summer months, storms of considerable
ferocity may act upon the beach and island sediments at relatively
frequent intervals. Much of the beach movement work reported in this
section relates to "normal" erosional process, but the periodic and
substantial movements produced by storm effects is obviously a very
relevant factor when considering shoreline changes over a decade or more
such as is given by comparisons between the various aerial photographic
surveys.
Study Area
Simpson Lagoon (Fig. 1) is located between 70°30' and 70°35'N and 149°10"
and 149°55'W. This embayment is approximately 24km E-W and between
1.5 and 5.0km N-S; wider at the western end. The long axis is parallel
to the coast and, except for a channel adjacent to Spy Island (Fig. 3),
the maximum depth noted is slightly in excess of 3m.
Two third-order rivers flow into the lagoon; the Ugnuravik and an unnamed
stream which empties into the bay between Milne and Kavearak Points.
There are three major outlets to the open ocean, one at each end, and the
53
-------
previously mentioned channel between Spy and Pingok islands. The rivers
are small and flow from them is not considered to be significant in
terms of sediment sources.
A chain of islands (the Jones Islands) forms the seaward margin of the
lagoon and protects it from action from the open Beaufort Sea. The four
most easterly of the major islands are all tundra capped and have perma-
frost close to the surface often visible in the beach cliffs. Spy Island
and the western extension of Pingok Island, together with one island to
the west of the lagoon, are composed of gravel with neither tundra nor
detectable permafrost. These latter gravel islands show storm wave and
sea-ice erosional effects whereas the vegetation and permafrost of the
eastern islands seem to protect the surfaces to some extent. Tundra
vegetation acts to insulate the ground and inhibit thermal erosion.
However, erosion does occur during the summer, and large mats of tundra
4
vegetation are common in shallow water areas. Lewellen has described
the potential effects of man's activities in this type of terrestrial
environment.
METHODS
Beach Deposits and Dynamics
Two beach study sites were selected at Oliktok Point at the western end
of Simpson Lagoon (Fig. 2; Site I) for the study of beach sediment
transportation. One locality faced northeast and four profiles at 30m
intervals were surveyed in"this locality via levelling from a fixed ref-
erence during the periods July to August 1971 and July to September 1972.
Four additional profiles, spaced at 122m intervals, were surveyed over
the same time periods on a northwest-facing portion in the same locality.
These detailed study sites at Oliktok Point were selected as being
-------
reasonably representative of beach conditions along Simpson Lagoon and
also because of their proximity to the base camp and the DEWline station.
During July to August 1971, breaking wave heights were recorded visually
with the aid of a graduated staff and stopwatch (U.S. Navy Hydrographic
Office, 1956). Wave heights during the July to September 1972 period were
recorded on an x,y recorder using a continuous resistance wire wave
staff (Interstate Electronics Corp.). Wind speed and direction data were
taken during the earlier sampling period by means of a hand-held indi-
cator and during the following year via continuous recording instrumenta-
tion. Longshore current velocities were evaluated by timing the movement
of dye patches released along the shore. The breaker angle was measured
with a Brunton compass. Beach sediment size analysis was performed using
conventional sieving techniques at 0.25 intervals and by pipet
34
analysis.
Sediment transport and shoreline changes along the entire Simpson Lagoon
coast and for the barrier islands have been determined by comparison of
aerial photographic coverage taken on 7 October 1971 and 4 October
1972, by personnel from the Naval Arctic Research Laboratory (N.A.R.L.)
at Point Barrow with similar surveys conducted in 1949 and 1955 by U.S.
federal agencies.
Lagoon Sediment Sampling
The ideal sampling procedure would have included the collection of
samples during both winter and summer on a grid system with the spacing
determined primarily by the size of the features being examined. In the
absence of any prior information on the area, sample localities were
selected on closely spaced transects determined by the very inaccurate
navigation aids available. Only dead-reckoning was possible in the
summer between the few available landmarks, and position location by
55
-------
compass-bearing during the winter season. Between the shores, samples
were taken at timed intervals traveling at a fixed speed. In this
fashion, sampling stations were well distributed throughout the lagoon
area, but were neither gridded nor entirely random. Sample locations are
shown in Figure 3.
It was not generally possible to collect from the same stations during
both winter and summer. All winter sampling was confined to the deeper
portions of the lagoon where the water was not frozen to the sediment
surface, since the auger used to drill through the ice was not capable of
extracting frozen sediment. It was also necessary to complete the winter
sampling in as short a time as possible on account of logistic and
climatic difficulties.
Summer samples were taken with a Wildco Ponar bottom grab which samples
2 35
an area about 0.05m (Crane ). Winter samples were collected
with a clam-shell snapper which collected about 250g per drop. The
differences in the sampling devices were due to the nature of the sampl-
ing method. The choice of winter sampler was predetermined by the size
of the hole the auger could drill in the ice. Summer sampling used a
different sampler to try to get a larger and more representative sample.
Approximately 200 to l.OOOg of sample were collected from each station
wherever possible; some of the stations did not yield this much despite
repeated sampling, especially at the winter stations, and as a result
were not useable for some aspects of this study.
Textural Analysis of Lagoon Sediments
The textural analysis of a sediment began with the separation of the
coarse and fine fractions from about 200g of sample. This was accom-
plished with a wet sieve of 230 mesh (61ym) openings, to separate the
56
-------
sand and gravel from the silt and clay. The coarse fraction was dried
and the gravel removed with a 2mm (-1 4>) sieve. Both fractions were
saved. The sand and mud fractions were treated with H_0_ to remove
organics. The dried sand fraction was then passed through a micro-
splitter until sub-samples of 2g were obtained for use in size analysis.
A flow chart of this procedure is shown in Figure 4.
Sand size analysis has for many years been a tedious process of sieving
at standard intervals, weighing fractions and calculating the percentages.
Recently, it has become possible to construct an apparatus that will
measure the hydraulic diameter of particles much more rapidly. J. A.
Dygas and R. W. Tucker constructed a settling tube of the type described
by Felix specifically for use in this study. This tube was used for
all sand size analyses presented here. The calibration of the tube was
accomplished by measuring fall times of known size particles. These
particles at first were derived from sieve analysis of natural sands.
Subsequently, another calibration was made using glass beads purchased
from the 3M Company. The calibration curves presented in Figure 5 were
compared with a theoretical fall time calculated from the formula:
43 22
[-rp (ira ) - pf]g = 6irauU + ira U p.. (1)
where a = particle radius in mm
u = pure fluid viscosity
U = settling velocity in mm/sec
g = gravitational acceleration
pf = fluid density
p = particle density
The precision varied with size but was greater than 0.95 for all sizes.
This compares favorably with the Emery tube and is close to the precision
claimed for sieves. Average time per analysis was less than 10 minutes.
57
-------
Figure 4. A flow chart of texture analysis.
58
-------
400
300
200
•8
«i
§
100
50
40
30
20
10
Glass Beads
Natural Sand
Rubey's Formula
\ \
\
o
PHI SIZE
Figure 5. Calibration curves for settling tube analysis.
59
-------
Gravel was present in a few samples although in small quantities. The
size analysis of gravel was done with standard Tyler sieves. This
portion of the curve was then added to the sand and mud curves for each
sample at the time of plotting.
34
Standard pipet analysis (Royse ) was carried out on all samples with a
5 percent mud fraction. After the mud fraction had been treated with
H2°2' ^t was heated gently to remove excess H-O-, poured into a settling
tube and the volume brought to 1,000ml after adding 2g of Calgon.
Standard grain size parameters of Folk and Ward, and the normalized
34
kurtosis after the method of Royse, were calculated.
Heavy Mineral Analysis
The sand fractions of 28 samples were separated by sieving to give 30 to
60, 60 to 120 and 120 to 230 mesh-size sub-samples. These three standard
size groups were selected to better evaluate size-density relationships.
Subsequent separation of the heavy mineral fractions was according to
the method of Krumbein and Pel
2.95) - as shown in Figure 6.
38
the method of Krumbein and PettiJohn - using tetrabromethane (density
Carbon Analysis
Both organic and inorganic carbon were determined for 10 sediment
samples. Organic carbon analysis was carried out using the procedure
39
outlined by Loder. A small fraction of the sample was ground to powder
in an agate mortar and' then treated with HCl (20% v/v) to remove to
carbonates. Approximately 60mg of sample was weighed into a porcelain
boat and run on a dry combustion carbon analyzer of the type described by
39
Loder. Carbonate carbon was determined by a manometric technique as
40
described by Hulsemann. Portions of the powder ground for the organic
60
-------
1-2
H202
SnCl2
CHBr4
SETTLE
REMOVE
HEAVIES
WEIGH
RAW SAMPLE
WASH & DRY
BOTH FRACTIONS
WET
SIEVE
DRY
SIEVE
2-3 0
WASH & DRY
BOTH FRACTIONS
WEIGH
WASH & DRY
BOTH FRACTIONS
WEIGH
Figure 6. A flow chart of heavy mineral seperation procedures,
61
-------
carbon analysis were separated before treatment with HC1 and used for
this analysis.
Clay Mineral Analysis
The 62pm fraction of each sample was treated overnight with H_0- to re-
move most of the organics, then placed in a settling tube (1000ml) and
allowed to stand up to 7 hours until the degree of flocculation could be
determined. If necessary, the sample was then treated with a drop or two
of Nil,OH to prevent flocculation. After standing for 7 hours* the top
10cm of liquid was siphoned off, centrifuged at 3300rpm for 20 minutes,
and the supernatant liquid removed. This treated sample (<2ym) was then
transferred to small vials for storage prior to slide preparation.
Slides for X-ray diffraction analysis were prepared from 10 samples (and
several duplicates) by the modified smear technique described by Naidu
9ft
and Mowatt. This Was done to obtain a relatively well oriented sample.
The slides were placed in an atmosphere saturated with ethylene glycol
24 hours prior to analysis. X-ray patterns were run on a Phillips X-ray
diffractometer using Cu Ka radiation at. 35KeV and 18ma. Patterns were
run from 2°6 to 28°26 on each glycolated sample. A scan speed of
2°26/min was used for the full pattern. Slow scan patterns of the peak
around 25°26 were run at l/4°28/min to differentiate kaolinite and chlor-
ite. A number of methods of quantitative analysis were considered and
41
eventually the weighted peak area percentages of Biscaye were
calculated.
Computer Techniques
The textural analysis computations presented in this report were per-
formed on an IBM 360/40 at the University of Alaska computer center. A
number of programs were written to calculate various parameters for the
62
-------
analyses. A linear least squares program was used when two variables
were being compared, and programs to calculate weight percentage values
37
from raw size analysis data, and to calculate Folk and Ward statistics
were also written. The program (Trenmain) used for trend surface analy-
42
sis (see below) was originally written by Harbaugh and adapted to the
43
University of Alaska computer by Heiner and Geller. This latter pro-
gram allows the input of x and y coordinates plus a z value for each set
of coordinates and calculates and contours the first through sixth degree
surfaces and prints the residuals for each surface.
A number of standard methods of mathematical geology are used in this
report. The calculation of mean, standard deviation, and correlation
coefficients were done by matrix algebra on the computer. Formulas used
for these calculations follow:
n X
Mean = I — (2)
1-1 n
-2 1/2
n (X - X)Z
Standard Deviation = I : (3)
1-1 n'1
_ , , COV(X.Y) ,..
Correlation = —v * ' (4)
O p
x y
where x and y = data values from different sets of data
S = the standard deviation
n = the number of data values
X = the mean value of x
COV = the covariance
For a complete tabulation of the method of calculations of these para-
9
meters see Tucker.
63
-------
Trend Surface Analysis of Lagoon Sediments
Trend surface analysis is a logical extension of linear least squares
analysis. A linear least squares fit produces a line fitting a two
dimensional array of points. A trend surface analysis produces a least
squares surface fitting a three dimensional array of points. The points
are actually values assigned to two orthogonal coordinates, hence their
three dimensional quality. A trend surface is a mathematical creation
determined by bivariate power series expansion. The degree of the sur-
face is denoted by the largest superscript on a term of the equation
defining that surface. For example, a first degree equation would be:
z = A + blX + b2y (5)
Where x and y = the coordinates
z = the value of the surface at
those coordinates
A fourth degree equation would be:
2 23
z » a + b..x * b_y + b«x + b.xy + b,y + b,x +
b?x y + bgxy 4- bgy + b[Qx + b^x y + b^x y +
(6)
The residuals of a surface are the differences between the calculated z
values and the actual value input for those coordinates (Koch and
44
Link ). One of the methods of determining the validity of a surface
is the Pearson Product Moment Coefficient of Correlation. This is cal-
culated by the Trenmain program as referenced in the previous section.
A prime problem in the use of trend surfaces has been finding a method to
determine if surfaces are significant. ' ' In general, the methods
proposed all deal with the sums of squares of the surface of the terms of
64
-------
the equation versus the residual sums of squares. One of the simpler
methods is expla:
for the surface:
49
methods is explained by Davis. It consists of calculating an F value
Where MS = the regression-mean-squares, or the sum
H
of squares due to the regression, divided
by the number of coefficients in the
general regression equation (i.e., b ;
eqns. 5 and 6, excluding the A
coefficient)
MS =» the deviat ion-mean-square of SS /(n-m-1)
SSD = (2iobs. * 'iobs/
Where SS = the deviation sum of squares
n =• the number of sample points
m = the number of coefficients in the
general regression equation
In the trend surface program used for this study, the regression sum of
squares was calculated from the following equation:
E = V - SSD (9)
Where E = the regression sum of squares
43
V = the total variance
Another method of testing the surfaces for significance tests only the
47
regression sums of squares added by the new terms in each equation.
45
Both these methods were used with confidence levels of 0.10 (Freund;
Tables from Selby ). Where higher confidence levels were significant,
they are reported. These methods provide a test of the statistical
significance of the surfaces which is standard but which been questioned
48
as to its validity.
65
-------
Error Analysis
The usual sources of error apply to this as to any similar scientific
study. Replicate samples, for example, were not collected, so that an
estimate of the local variability at any one sampling location is not
available. It is, however, expected to be small compared with parameter
variance over the total lagoon area. Statistical parameters calculated
from splits of the same sample were generally within ±5 percent. This
includes the rounding errors of the computer programs and operator error
in the analysis.
The clay mineral analysis procedure employed was only semi-quantitative
as noted previously. Precision for the carbon determinations was very
good; ±3 percent at the 95 percent confidence level for both organic
and carbonate carbon.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Wind Analysis and Longshore Currents
Published long-term meteorological data for the Alaska arctic coast are
available only for the geographical extremities at Point Barrow (Fig. 1)
and close to the Canadian Border at Barter Island. The wind direction
for the latter locality is predominantly bimodal; either from the north-
east or from the southwest. Figure 7 shows the cumulative probability
distribution for long-term (17 year) wind velocities for the months of
June-October at Barter, Island. There appears to be a progressive
increase in the probability of higher wind velocities (in excess of
9m/sec) from July through October.
66
-------
LONG TERMU7YR.) CUMULATIVE
DISTRIBUTIONS OF WIND SPEED
FOR BARTER ISLAND
9 9.99,-
1-
z
UJ
o
cr
LU
0.
UJ
L E G E N
JUNE
JULY
AUGUST
S E P T E M
= » ° ° 0 C TO B E
0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
.0 I
0 4.47 8.94 13.4 17.8 22.3 26.8 31.2 35.7 402
| L | ^ 1 1 1 [ ] (
M/ S E C
Figure 7. Long term (17 year) cumulative distribu-
tion of wind speed for Barter Island.
67
-------
Wind analysis data recorded at Oliktok Point (Figs. 2 and 3) for the
period 18 July to 14 September 1972, are given in Figure 8 and Tables 1 and
2. Where wind energy is represented as the statistical variance of wind
velocity per direction. Table 2 summarizes these data (% direction and
energy) for the four compass quadrants. September shows a larger propor-
tion of higher wind velocities than either July or August. For all three
months, the wind from the NE quadrant has a frequency of 57 to 82 percent
of the total spectrum and includes 21 to 45 percent of the total energy.
During July and August - i.e., the bulk of the summer period - the SE
quadrant contributes 20 to 30 percent of the energy, but this is decreased
to around 4 percent only in September. Southwesterly winds maintain a
relatively constant energy level (18 to 24%) over the 3 month period but
northwesterly winds increase from 16 to 45 percent. The frequency of
occurrence of northeasterly winds also increases from 8 to 25 percent from
July through September.
We have previously noted the relationship between prevailing wind direc-
29
tions and the coastal water movement patterns in this area. Figures
29
9 through 11 (Kinney et al. ) illustrate the water current velocity and
direction distributions and correlations between current and wind speeds
and* between current and wind directions in Simpson Lagoon. The wave
regime and associated longshore currents within the lagoon area are con-
sidered to be largely generated by the prevailing winds, and tidal
currents are felt to be less important than the wind generated currents.
This thesis has important implications for the movement of both beach and
lagoonal sediment material, as considered in more detail below.
Long-Term Shoreline Changes
Figure 12 shows linear m/yr erosional rates along the Simpson Lagoon
shoreline based upon long-term aerial photographic coverage. Figures 13
and 14 similarly demonstrate detailed shoreline changes on Pingok and
68
-------
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
OF WIND SPEED ANDDIRECTION
FOR OLIKTOK POINT, ALASKA
JULY -SEPT. 1972
99.99 _
99.9
Z 99.
^ 98.
O
tr 95.
UJ
Q- 90.
u 8 0.
>
- 70.
<"•
_, 50.
=> 40.
020.
I 0.
5.
2.
I
.5
.2
. I
.01
i_
N W
SW
JULY
A UG
N E
0 - 2 0 %
SEPT.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
M P H
_L
0 4.47 8.9 13.4 178 22.3 26.8 312 35.7 40.2
M /S E C
Figure S. Frequency distribution of wind speed and
direction for Oliktok Point, Alaska.
July through September 1972.
69
-------
Table 1. WIND DIRECTION AND ENERGY DISTRIBUTION FOR OLIKTOK POINT, ALASKA 1972
July
Direction
N
NNE
m
ENE
E
ESE
SE
SSE
S
SSW
SW
WSW
W
WNW
NW
NNW
Frequency
%
0.4
2.9
67.6
8.6
3.2
1.4
1.4
0.0
0.4
0.7
0.7
0.4
4.3
2.2
3.6
1.4
Energy
%
2.7
5.0
27.2
8.2
4.6
7.4
12.5
0.0
0.0
0.6
4.9
0.0
13.1
4.0
8.3
1.3
August
Frequency
%
3.4
5.8
17.6
20.2
14.3
2.6
3.5
2.0
3.9
1.9
5.0
5.1
3.1
2.3
7.1
2.4
Energy
%
5.4
2.3
2.8
4.2
12.1
14.4
3.6
6.3
5.1
8.9
6.8
5.4
2.9
7.0
6.6
6.1
September
Frequency
%
6.0
3.4
20.1
19.0
15.1
4.2
1.6
0.5
0.5
0.0
1.9
3.7
4.4
5.6
11.1
2.8
Energy
%
9.4
2.1
6.0
7.8
11.7
3.2
0.33
„
0.9
0.0
7.7
11.2
3.7
13.0
10.1
12.8
Total
Frequency
%
3.9
4.9
28.0
17.6
12.4
2.9
2.5
1.2
2.2
1.1
3.0
3.2
3.6
3al
7.9
1.9
Energy
%
6.6
2.6
7.9
6.3
10.8
8.9
3.6
2.7
2.6
3.97
6.9
6.9
4.8
9.0
8.3
8.2
Note: Percent wind energy equals percent of total statistical variance within a given month.
Variance is the difference between the mean square and the square of the mean.
-------
Table 2. WIND DIRECTION AND ENERGY DISTRIBUTION FOR OLIKTOK POINT, ALASKA 1972
July August September Total
Frequency Energy Frequency Energy Frequency Energy Frequency Energy
T)i -roffi fin °f "/ "/ "/ V V °/ "/
1-/JLJ. Cl^ L.JLU11 /o /Q /a /& /o /o fo /o
N-E
E-S
S-W
W-N
82.3
19.6
6.1
7.6
45.0
19.9
18.6
16.4
57.9
12.0
15.1
15.2
21.4
29.5
24.0
25.0
57.6
6.8
10.0
25.5
27.6
4.4
22.6
45.3
62.9
8.9
11.1
16.9
27.6
17.7
22.3
25.5
-------
PERCENT DISTRIBUTION OF
CURRENT DIRECTIONS AT
OLIKTOK POINT, 8.25-9.1.71
Figure 9,
B
MEAN CURRENT VELOCITY
DISTRIBUTION, cm/sec
Distribution of current velocities and directions in Simpson Lagoon.
72
-------
30
25
5 20
x.
e
o
t 15
O
O
10
UJ
cr
en
Z>
o
0
Y=IO.I + 078 X
0
0
SIMPSON LAGOON
10
15
20
25
WIND SPEED, mph
8.1 16.1 24.2
WIND SPEED , km/h
32.2
40.2
Figure 10. Correlation between recorded current velocities
and wind speed.
73
-------
360
270
O
a:
LU
CT
Q
Q
2
180
90
0
0
SIMPSON LAGOON
Y= 233- O.58X
90
270
180
X
CURRENT DIRECTION TO
360
Figure 11. Correlation between recorded current
directions and wind directions.
74
-------
Figure 12,
50' 40' I49'30' 20'
Linear (m/yr) rates of erosion along the south shore of Simpson Lagoon.
-------
P1NGOK ISLAND
LONG TERM
MEAN WIND DIRECTIONS
FOR
JULY, AUG. 8 SEPT.
LEGEND
— - 1949 SHORELINE
1955 SHORE LINE
1971 SHORELINE
3000 m2/ YR. NET RATE
OF EROS ION
0 300m
SCALE
Figure 13. Pingok Island long term mean wind directions for July, August and September.
-------
THETIS ISLAND
LONG TERM
MEAN WIND DIRECTIONS
FOR
JULY.AUG 8SEPT.
LEGEND
1949 SHOREL I NE
-197 I SHORELINE
NET RATE OF
ACCRETION
I 5 80M / Y R
0 300m
SCALE
Figure 14. Thetis Island long term mean wind directions for July, August, and September.
-------
Thetis Islands (areas V and VI of Fig. 2). The long-term mean wind
direction distributions included in these latter two figures are based on
Barter Island data. From a comparison of these wind and shoreline
data, it is suggested that erosion and transportation from the eastern
end of Pingok Island (Fig. 13) are a function of the prevailing south-
westerly and northwesterly winds. By contrast, the growth of Thetis
Island (Fig. 14) appears to be related to the northeasterly wind direc-
tion. The area of greatest accretion is at the western tip of this
island. In addition to the characteristic growth configuration of Thetis
Island, all the major promontories along the shoreward margin of Simpson
Lagoon (i.e., Oliktok, Milne, Kavearak, and Beechey Points; Fig. 3)
have sandy-gravel spits which are oriented in an east-to-west direction.
This orientation is interpreted as additional geomorphological evidence
for net east to west sediment transport along this particular section of
the arctic coast.
Seasonal Variations in Beach Profiles
Figure 15 illustrates grain-size characteristics for two representative
profiles on NE- and NW-facing beaches respectively at Oliktok Point.
These beaches are typically about 15 to 25m wide and are terminated landward
by either a 2m high permafrost beach scarp capped by a tundra surface or
the backshore of the beach may merge into tundra without the scarpment
feature. Beach slopes typically range from tan 6 = 0.044 to 0.066.
The locations of the NE beach profiles B-E and NW profiles N and 0 are
29
shown on Figure 16 (Kinney et al. ). All eight of the latter profiles
demonstrate net growth over the period 31 July 1971 to 29 August 1972
(Figs. 17 through 21). Similarly, the two additional profiles of Figure
22, which are located at the western end of the spit at Oliktok Point, dem-
onstrate pronounced growth over the same period. In sections N, 0 and Q
78
-------
1.5
1.0
0.5
O 0
I
LU
_l
LJ
0.5
0
v
Oliktok Beach
Profile B
-2.0 I.
-1.5 x 0-
-1.0 H z - I '
O LU
hO.5 w 2 _2-
i
ko i
-3-
Profile A
6 10 14
DISTANCE 'FROM SHORELINE, m
60
O
0)
0)
•H
cn
•H
n)
60
o
o
•H
4J
n)
cd
)-l
0)
^J
tti
1-1
D
6C
•H
CTi
-------
300
meters
OLIKTOK POINT
Figure 16. Oliktok Point.
80
-------
OLIKTOK POINT BEACH PROFILE B
00
6 -20
o
- 40
< -60
UJ
_l
u - 80
- I 00
-115
./*\
LEVEL
6 9
SIMPSON
12 15
LAGOON
8
21 m
LEGEND
8/2/71
8/8/71
8/17/71
7/22/72
oooo 8/27/72
Figure 17. Oliktok Point beach profile B.
-------
OLIKTOK
BEACH PROFILES
D
o *
-75
-100
0 r
8/8/71
•8/17/71
7/22/72
8/27/72
-25
-50
-75
-100
9 12
METERS
9 12
METERS
Figure 18. Oliktok beach profiles C and D.
-------
OLIKTOK BEACHPROFILE
Co
o
z
o
h-
<
>
UJ
_l
LJ
-25. L
-50.1-
0
SEA LEVEL
S. L.
LEGEND
— 8/8/71
-- 8/17/71
- - 8/22/71
° ° 8/27/72
6 9
METER S
15
Figure 19. Oliktok beach profile E.
-------
OLIKTOK BEACH PROFILE N
00
LEGEND
7/31/71
8/23/71
8/29/72
SEA LEVEL
SEA LEVEL
SEA LEVEL
24 27
METERS
Figure 20. Oliktok beach profile N,
-------
BEACH PROFILE P
oo
Z
o
-25
-75
-25
z
o
K
<-50
LJ
_l
UJ
-75
-100
8/5/71
8/23/71
8/29/72
• SEA LEVEL
SEA LEVEL
BEACH PROFILE Q
LEGEND
8/2/71
8/23/71
-- 8/29/72
SEA LEVEL
SEA LEVEL
SEA LEVEL
12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 METERS
Figure 21. Beach profile P.
-------
OD
0
OLIKTQKSPIT BEACH PROFILES
WEST END
o 0
> 4 0
tij
_j
LU 6 0
. 0
E
o
r 20
o
H 40
60
LJ
SEA LEVEL
SEA LEVEL
036 9 12
SIMPSON LAGOON
15 m
SEA LEVEL
SEA LEVEL
3 6 9 12
COLVILLE RIVER
15 m
LEGE N D
— 8/I3/ 71
— 7/28/72
— 8/26/72
— 8/13/71
— 8/23/71
— 7/28/72
Figure 22. Ollktok spit beach profiles-West end.
-------
(Figs. 20 and 21) there is a distinct pattern of erosion between profiles
measured between 8 May and 29 August 1971 and between 2 August and 23
August 1971. The period of accretion from 23 August 1971 to 29
August 1972, is attributed to northwesterly wind and wave effects which
occur three times as frequently in September as in July and twice as
frequently in August. Freeze-up usually occurs at the end of September
or October, and the beaches remain frozen until the following July. In
addition, the available wind energy is considerably greater in September
than in July (Table 2). Figure 22 shows definite growth at the
western end of the Oliktok spit from 13 and 23 August 1971 to 28 July
1972. This latter growth reflects both accretion due to NW September
storms and longshore transport along the length of spit due to NE wind-
generated waves. Similarly, sections B and C (Figs. 17 and 18) on the NE
facing Oliktok beach show significant growth from 17 August 1971 to 22
July 1972, which again is interpreted as build-up due to NE storms in
late August and September. It is further suggested that Oliktok Point
serves as a depositional site for sediment moving from east to west along
the Simpson Lagoon shore and also for sediment from the mouth of the
Colville River.
Quantitative Nearshore Sediment Transport
As noted above, quantitative studies of beach and nearshore sediment
transport for the Alaskan arctic coast have been previously carried out
only in the Point Barrow area. This present study was conducted at
Oliktok Point during the months of July and August in 1971 and 1972.
Most field and laboratory studies of nearshore sediment transport
(Grant, Watts, Caldwell, Savage, Bagnold, Inman and Bagnold,
58 59
Komar, and Komar and Inman ) relate long-shore sediment transport to the
longshore component of the energy flux of the breaking wave. Empirical
87
-------
correlations between sediment transport rates and nearshore wave param-
eters have been made by Caldwell, Watts, and Savage using the
following general relationship for the longshore wave power component, P:
P = (EC ), Sin 9, Cos 6, (10)
] n b b b
Where E = the wave energy density - defined as
(Pg H2/8)
p » water density
g = gravity acceleration
H = root-mean-square wave height
C = the shallow water group velocity and
n 1/2
is given by (gh, ) (h, =* depth
beneath the breaking wave)
6, = the angle between the breaker line and
the shoreline and the b subscript refers
to relationships in the breaker zone.
Empirical correlations between the longshore component of the wave power
and sediment transport rates are statistical estimates only and are not
dimensionally correct. A more basic approach has been proposed by Inman
and Bagnold in wh:
of immersed weight:
and Bagnold in which the sediment transport rate is expressed in terms
I - (PQ - P) ag S (11)
S Vr
Where S = the sediment transport volume
p = the sediment density
S
p = the water density
w
a = pore space correction factor (this
usually takes a value of 0.6)
The immersed weight sediment transport rate may be directly related to
the wave power component of Eqn. (10): I = kP. Inman and Bagnold
suggest that only net current in the littoral zone will produce a net
transport if the sediment has already been set in motion by wave action.
88
-------
Inman and Bagnold express the relationship between I to the longshore
current velocity and the maximum orbital horizontal component of the
near-bottom orbital wave velocity thus:
I = K' (EC ), Cos 6, V/U (12)
n b b m
Where U = the maximum horizontal wave velocity
m
V = the longshore current velocity
K1 = the non-dimensional proportionality constant
The advantage of this latter approach lies in the fact that V is not
necessarily completely dependent upon the angle of approach of the break-
ing waves but may be affected also by wind stress and tidal action.
Data for July and August 1971 breaking wave parameters are listed in Tables 3
and 4 for both the NE and NW Oliktok Point beach sites. In addition to
the observed mean breaker height (H.) and period (T, ), breaker angle (6, )
b b b
and mean longshore velocity (V), the root-mean-square wave height (H ),
inns
depth beneath the breaking wave (h, ), shallow water wave group velocity
(Cn, ) and the near-bottom maximum horizontal orbital velocity
(U = (IL/h, ) Cn,/2) are also included. Using these same parameters,
both the longshore energy flux (P) and the immersed weight energy flux
(ECn), Cos 9, (V/U ); Inman and Bagnold have been calculated and listed
b b m
in Tables 5 and 6 for comparison.
Sediment Size Distribution Patterns in Simpson Lagoon
Proportions of sand, silt, clay and gravel for the samples collected at
the Simpson Lagoon stations shown in Figure 3 are given in Table 7 and
are plotted within the triangular diagram given as Figure 23. Sandy muds
34
and sandy silts are the predominant sediment types (nomenclature of Royse )
and gravels occur in less than 10 percent of the samples. The general
absence of this sized material from the lagoon sediments is a striking
feature, since ice rafting from the beaches and gravelly barrier islands
89
-------
Table 3. NORTHWEST BEACH SITE OBSERVATIONS FOR OLIKTOK POINT, ALASKA 1971
VD
C
Date/Time
7/24/1440
7/29/0840
7/29/1315
7/29/1617
7/29/2100
7/30/0940
7/30/1424
7/30/1925
7/31/0930
7/31/1500
8/ 2/2030
8/ 3/0930
8/ 3/1550
8/ 3/2100
8/ 4/0900
8/ 4/1500
8/ 4/2030
8/ 5/0930
8/ 5/1500
8/ 5/2100
8/ 6/0930
8/ 6/1500
8/ 7/0930
8/ 7/1600
8/ 7/2230
8/10/0930
8/10/1530
8/10/2130
8/18/0930
8/18/1630
8/18/2130
8/19/2130
V
cm
14.1
20.4
30.7
32.3
9.8
10.8
16.9
24.4
14.7
8.7
26.6
27.8
21.9
29.8
28.3
30.5
27.9
22.7
15.2
12.3
11.4
13.5
16.5
18.4
6.9
13.7
13.4
12.7
14.6
21.3
21.0
17.6
H ,
rms
cm
15.9
23.0
34.6
36.4
11.1
12.2
19.1
27.5
16.6
9.8
30.0
31.4
24.7
33.6
31.9
34.4
31.5
25.6
17.1
13.9
12.9
15.2
18.6
20.8
7.8
15.5
15.1
14.3
16.5
24.0
23.7
19.8
V
sec
2.5
2.6
3.4
3.6
1.8
2.3
2.6
2.8
2.3
1.9
2.6
2.8
2.4
2.7
2.8
2.8
2.8
2.4
2.0
1.8
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.1
1.3
2.0
1.9
1.9
2.3
2.3
2.3
2.1
6b'
deg
15.0
24.0
25.0
5.0
0.0
25.0
25.0
15.0
5.0
5.0
0.0
10.0
0.0
0.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
5.0
8.0
25.0
15.0
0.0
15.0
10.0
0.0
5.0
2.5
0.0
4.0
30.0
5.0
2.0
V
cm
17.7
25.5
38.3
40.3
12.2
13.4
21.1
30.4
18.4
10.8
33.2
34.7
27.4
37.3
35.3
38.0
34.8
28.4
18.9
15.4
14.2
16.9
20.5
23.0
8.6
17.1
16.7
15.9
18.2
26.5
26.2
21.9
cv
cm/sec
131.7
158.1
193.9
198.9
109.3
114.9
143.9
172.8
134.2
102.9
180.5
184.6
163.9
191.3
186.3
193.3
184.7
166.9
136.6
123.0
118.1
128.6
142.0
150.4
91.9
129.4
127.9
124.9
133.8
161.4
160.4
146.8
V
cm/ sec
59.1
71.3
87.5
89.5
49.8
52.1
65.1
78.1
60.6
46.7
81.6
83.2
73.9
86.0
83.9
87.4
83.5
75.3
61.4
55.5
53.5
57.9
64.2
67.8
41.6
58.7
57.8
56.0
60.5
72.9
72.5
66.1
u sin 9. .
m b
cm/sec
15.3
29.0
36.9
7.8
0.0
22.0
27.5
20.2
5.3
4.1
0.0
14.4
0.0
0.0
14.6
15.2
14.5
6.6
8.5
23.5
13.9
0.0
16.6
11.7
0.0
5.1
2.5
0.0
4.2
36.4
6.3
2.3
v,
cm/sec
—
42.0
65.5
—
0.0
30.7
52.0
70.1
37.6
75.5
35.8
31.6
21.0
39.2
65.0
35.0
33.8
19.1
28.6
39.5
29.8
0.0
17.3
44.4
0.0
23.4
25.2
23.1
23.1
62.3
33.1
14.0
-------
Table 4. NORTHEAST BEACH SITE OBSERVATIONS FOR OLIKTOK POINT, ALASKA 1971
Date /Time
7/24/1100
7/24/1510
7/24/2035
7/25/1000
7/25/1630
7/25/2100
7/26/1100
7/26/1420
7/27/1030
7/27/1220
7/28/2120
8/ 1/1650
8/ 1/2100
8/ 2/1000
8/ 8/1650
8/ 8/2130
8/11/1500
8/11/2130
8/16/1415
8/19/0930
8/19/1530
8/20/0930
8/20/1545
8/20/2215
8/21/1030
8/21/1600
8/21/2200
8/22/1100
8/22/1900
V
cm
13.7
20.4
17.3
10.3
27.7
18.8
10.6
20.1
9.6
13.2
12.2
21.9
16.2
7.9
10.1
12.8
15.4
12.6
14.8
14.5
5.8
26.0
22.8
22.8
17.2
17.2
18.3
18.3
19.5
H ,
rms
cm
15.5
23.0
19.5
11.6
31.2
21.2
11.9
22.7
10.8
14.9
13.7
24.7
18.3
8.9
11.4
14.4
17.4
14.2
16.7
16.4
6.5
29.3
25.7
25.7
19.4
19.4
20.6
20.6
21.9
T
V
sec
2.1
2.1
2.3
2.3
2.4
2.5
1.8
2.1
1.6
1.9
1.7
2.1
1.9
1.5
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.9
2.1
2.0
1.6
2.4
2.4
2.4
1.9
2.0
2.1
2.1
2.1
V
deg
2.5
2.5
2.5
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
0.0
10.0
10.0
0.0
15.0
0.0
5.0
0.0
0.0
20.0
2.0
4.0
2.0
2.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
V
cm
17.0
25.4
21.6
12.9
34.6
23.5
13.2
25.1
11.9
16.5
15.2
27.4
20.2
9.9
12.6
16.1
19.2
15.8
18.4
18.1
7.2
32.5
28.4
28.4
21.4
21.5
22.9
22.8
24.3
cv
cm/ sec
129.4
157.9
145.7
112.3
184.3
151.9
113.8
157.1
108.2
127.2
122.2
164.0
140.9
98.5
111.3
125.6
137.1
124.4
134.6
133.3
84.2
178.6
167.1
167.1
145.1
145.4
149.9
149.7
154.5
V
cm/sec
58.7
71.5
65.7
50.7
82.9
68.5
51.3
70.8
48.9
57.5
54.9
73.8
63.7
44.3
50.3
56.3
62.3
55.9
60.8
60.4
37.9
80.3
75.3
75.3
65.6
65.4
67.5
67.6
69.8
u sin 9. ,
m b
cm/sec
2.6
3.1
2.9
4.4
7.2
5.9
4.5
6.2
4.3
5.0
0.0
12.8
11.1
0.0
13.0
0.0
5.4
0.0
0.0
20.6
1.3
5.6
2.6
2.6
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
v,
cm/sec
_
-
—
-
—
—
-
-
-
5.5
0.0
31.0
—
14.3
22.8
20.7
-
0.0
0.0
27.7
18.5
12.8
34.0
-
0.0
13.4
0.0
58.0
28.3
-------
Table 5. ESTIMATES OF LONGSHORE ENERGY FLUX FOR OLIKTOK POINT.
N.W. BEACH SITE.
Date
(1971)
7.29
7.29
7.29
7.30
7.30
7.30
7.31
7.31
8.3
8.4
8.4
8.4
8.5
8.5
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.7
8.10
8.10
8.18
8.18
8.18
8.19
Time Longshore energy (P)
(local) (ergs/cm-sec x 10")
0840
1315
16.5
0940
1424
1925
0930
1500
0930
0900
1500
2030
0930
1500
2100
0930
0930
1600
0930
1530
0930
1630
2130
2130
3.80
10.89
2.80
0.80
2.46
4.00
0.39
0.10
3.81
3.97
4.79
3.84
1.16
0.67
1.12
0.60
1.50
1.36
0.33
0.15
0.31
4.93
0.96
0.25
Immersed weight ener;
(ergs/cm-sec x 10(
5.51
19.29
1.11
0.89
4.65
13.87
2.79
1.94
8.33
17.71
11.05
8.94
3.38
2.25
1.87
1.29
1.56
5.13
1.51
1.55
1.69
8.42
5.01
1.49
iy (I) Ratio
5) (I/P)
1.45
1.77
0.39
1.11
1.89
3.46
7.15
19.40
2.18
4.46
2.30
2.32
2.91
3.35
1.66
2.15
1.04
3.77
4.57
10.33
5.45
1.70
5.21
5.96
92
-------
Table 6. ESTIMATES OF LONGSHORE ENERGY FLUX FOR OLIKTOK POINT.
N.E. BEACH SITE.
Date Time Longshore energy (P)
(1971) (local) (ergs/cm-sec x 10°)
Immersed weight energy (I) Ratio
(erga/cm-sec x 10°) _ (I/P)
7.24
7.24
7.24
7.25
7.25
7.25
7.26
7.26
7.27
7.27
8.
8.
.1
.1
8.8
8.11
8.19
8.19
8.20
8.20
8.20
1100
1510
2035
1000
1630
2100
1100
1420
1030
1220
1650
2100
1650
1500
0930
1530
0930
1545
22.5
0.16
0.44
0.29
0.16
1.90
0.72
0.17
0.86
0.13
0.30
2.09
0.98
0.44
0.44
1.41
0.02
1.30
0.47
0.47
0.33
5.07
0.77
1.89
0.21
2.98
6.10
1.10
2.42
1.75
1.34
10.50
2.29
12.97
93
-------
Table 7. SAltPLE LISTING WITH DEPTH AND PERCENTAGE GRAVEL,
SAND, SILT AND CLAY
Sample
BEK-1
BEK-2
BEK-3
BEK-4
BEK-5
BEK-6
BEK-7
BWB-1
CB-1
CB-2
CB-3
CB-4
Kli-1
Kti-2
MOE-1
MOE-2
MOE-3
MOE-4
OBO-1
OBO-2
OBO-3
OBO-4
OBO-5
OEL-1
OEL-2
OEL-3
OEL-4
OEL-5
OEL-6
OEL-7
OEL-8
OEL-9
OEL-10
OEL-11
OEO-1
OEO-2
OEO-3
PJ-1
PJ-2
PJ-3
PJ-4
PJ-5
PJ-6
PJ-7
PJ-8
D(m)
1.7
2.5
2.8
2.8
2.6
2.3
1.8
1.7
2.0
2.2
2.5
1.5
2.0
1.8
1.3
1.3
2.3
1.1
2.5
2.8
2.7
2.0
0.9
1.8
2.5
2.5
2.8
2.9
2.9
2.6
2.7
2.5
2.3
1.2
1.1
1.9
2.2
1.5
2.2
2.4
2.5
2.4
2.0
2.0
2.0
% Gravel % Sand
96.2
37.1
21.3
55.1
66.4
94.5
38.0 60.8
78.8
41.6
27.0
2.6
98.2
55.6
82.5
95.1
93.2
1.1 53.2
98.0
50.1
36.2
51.2
60.2
53.2 42.2
73.7
62.0
21.1
67.7
47.5
40.4
42.0
43.9
30.7
41.8
55.4 39.1
89.3
62.4
23.2
94.3
60.7
38.1
27.0
42.4
46.2
42.0
37.8
% Silt
1.7
44.74
53.5
28.0
18.0
1.6
0.5
11.6
33.5
49.0
62.9
1.5
31.0
7.1
2.5
3.2
24.7
1.7
27.6
42.7
33.3
24.3
3.0
5.7
19.4
50.8
21.8
37.3
39.3
38.4
37.1
52.5
34.5
2.8
1.7
21.6
63.8
2.0
17.7
38.8
41.7
33.5
31.8
40.0
39.4
% Clav
2.1
18.16
25.2
16.9
16.0
3.9
0.7
9.5
24.9
24.0
24.5
0.3
13.3
10.4
2.4
3.6
21.0
0.3
22.3
21.0
15.5
15.5
1.5
20.5
18.5
28.0
10.5
15.2
20.2
19.5
19.0
16.5
23.7
2.6
9.0
16.0
13.0
3.7
21.5
23.0
31.2
24.0
23.0
18.0
22.8
94
-------
Table 7. (continued) SAMPLE LISTING WITH DEPTH AND PERCENTAGE
GRAVEL, SAND, SILT AND CLAY
Sample
PJ-9
PJ-10
PJ-11
PM-1'
PH-1
PM-2
PM-3
Pli-4
PM-5
PM-6
PS-2
PS-3
PS-4
PS-5
PSS-1
PSS-2
PSS-3
PSS-4
PSS-5
PSS-6
RM-1
RM-2
RM-3
RM-4
RM-5
RM-6
SE-1
SE-2
SE-3
SiM-2
SM-3
Slffi-2
SME-4
Si-fE-5
SME-6
STO-1
STO-2
STO-3
STO-4
STO-5
STO-6
STO-7
STO-8
STO-9
STO-1
D(m)
2.0
1.0
0.7
2.8
1.0
2.2
2.8
2.5
1.9
0.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.2
2.0
2.0
1.9
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.2
0.8
0.9
1.8
2 2
1.5
2.5
2.8
3.1
3.0
2.0
2.4
2.1
2.1
2.7
2.4
3.1
3.1
3.0
3.0
3.0
2.9
2.8
0.9
2.2
% Gravel % Sand
9.5 42.0
12.6 78.8
4.5 90.9
19.0
73.5
63.1
96.1
21.0
60.8
65.0 32.7
36.3
26.8
28.6
25.0
56.8
40.1
36.7
38.0
48.8
16.1
39.5 53.2
89.4
74.3
41.0
24.9
34.9 54.0
45.0
24.0
38.0
28.0
36.5
34.0
30.1
42.0
36.3
12.8 26.1
33.3
28.8
38.3
35.5
5.3
52.8
16.0
91.0 8.6
59.7
% Silt
28.0
4.5
1.3
58.0
25.0
31.2
2.9
61.8
22.7
0.5
52.7
60.5
60.5
49.0
33.2
39.9
41.6
40.3
31.7
53.9
1.8
11.7
48.5
37.1
4.3
39.4
49.0
54.0
59.0
45.5
49.9
51.0
38.9
44.6
39.0
41.1
47.2
43.6
46.0
63.6
34.1
61.5
0.2
21.8
% Clay
21.0
4.0
3.1
23.0
21.0
5.6
0.9
17.1
16.5
1.8
12.0
12.5
12.0
26.0
10.0
20.0
21.7
21.7
19.5
30.0
5.4
(11.6)
14.0
10.5
38.0
6.8
15.5
27.0
8.0
13.0
18.0
24.0
18.8
19.0
19.0
22.0
25.5
24.0
18.0
18.5
31.0
13.1
22.5
0.2
18.5
95
-------
o-
CLAY-
5Q
SAND
9Q
1.2
Figure 23. A triangular diagram. X indicates that the gravel percentage
has been added to the sand percentage.
-------
79 7 fi
might reasonably be expected. Naidu and Naidu and Mowatt have
previously commented on the paucity of gravel in the shallow marine
sediments of this arctic coast as compared with the Beaufort Sea
21 22
shelf deposits ' in which gravel-sized material is a common
component. Naidu considers the latter to be of relict origin (see
Chapter 5).
A modal analysis of the Simpson Lagoon sediments, utilizing samples from
the southern end (shoreward) of several transects, indicates several
interesting size distribution characteristics. Sand-sized material pro-
vides a prominent mode in sample CB-4 (Fig. 24). This is the most
easterly sample. This sand mode then becomes finer in samples from the
more westerly portion of the lagoon. It is considered that this mode
represents "source" material involved in the east-to-west longshore trans-
portation along the lagoon shore as discussed above. A characteristic
and relatively constant silt mode at 6 to 7 <)> probably represents the
average energy of the "quieter" water.
Table 8 lists the standard sediment size parameter data. Sediment size
distribution median values are plotted on a standard CM diagram in
Figure 25. Passega ' and Passega et al. has exemplified the utility
of such plots in differentiating between various broad genetic sediment
types as illustrated in Figure 26. It may be seen that the near-shore
samples are predominantly segregated on the area characterized by
Passega as beach deposited material. The remaining pattern probably
corresponds to the "pelagic" suspension category. The use of the
settling tube for the coarse fraction analysis may have caused more
dispersion than would have been so had sieve analysis been used
(Passega ).
97
-------
60
50
40
30
2O
10
CB-4
-- — PM-5
---- -BEK-7
PHI SIZE
Figure 24. A plot of modes for three samples from Simpson
Lagoon.
98
-------
Table 8. SIZE ANALYSIS STATISTICAL PARAMETERS
Sample
BEK-1
BEK-2
BEK-3
BEK-4
BEK-5
BEK-6
BEK-7
BWB-1
CB-1
CB-2
CB-3
CB-4
KM-1
KM-2
MOE-1
MOE-2
MOE-3
MOE-4
OBO-1
OBO-2
OBO-3
OBO-4
OBO-5
OEL-1
OEL-2
OEL-3
OEL-4
OEL-5
OEL-6
OEL-7
OEL-8
OEL-9
OEL-10
OEL-11
OEO-1
OEO-2
OEO-3
PJ-1
PJ-2
PJ-3
PJ-4
PJ-5
PJ-6
PJ-7
Median
2.20
4.00
6.10
3.50
2.30
1.60
1.20
2.20
5.20
5.25
6.20
1.58
3.60
2.10
2.00
2.45
3.50
2.47
4.05
5.35
3.90
2.95
-1.30
1.50
2.90
6.00
3.50
4.10
4.50
4.60
4.50
4.10
4.80
-1.75
2.47
3.00
5.12
2.10
2.30
5.20
6.50
4.55
4.40
4.55
Mean
2.29
5.15
6.63
4.57
3.79
1.77
0.22
3.18
5.57
5.99
7.05
1.66
4.53
3.10
1.96
2.62
4.72
2.51
5.32
5.68
4.78
4.37
-1.03
3.85
4.53
6.40
4.13
4.92
5.6o
5.85
5.48
5.58
5.63
-0.90
2.63
4.33
5.44
2.07
4.58
5.68
6.50
5.68
5.70
5.20
Sorting
0.45
2.57
2.80
2.77
3.17
0.67
2.05
2.45
3.66
2.87
2.33
0.32
2.30
2.43
0.80
0.95
3.17
0.67
3.29
3.02
2.45
2.58
1.77
4.40
2.86
2.98
1.90
2.36
2.72
2.77
2.70
2.27
3.47
2.19
1.51
2.95
1.79
0.89
3.61
3.16
3.30
3.32
3.05
2.69
Skewness
0.30
0.66
0.25
0.60
0.70
0.62
-0.57
0.74
0.13
0.35
0.46
0.45
0.70
0.76
0.20
0.61
0.54
-0.05
0.49
0.21
0.59
0.82
0.29
0.63
0.78
0.21
0.71
0.60
0.58
0.60
0.52
0.42
0.30
0.59
0.67
0.64
0.46
0.26
0.80
0.23
0.04
0.43
0.56
0.43
Kurtosis
1.10
0.89
0.97
0.84
0.95
1.73
0.52
1.81
0.69
0.88
0.98
0.92
1.17
3.55
1.95
3.77
0.71
2.36
0.76
0.80
1.34
1.03
0.74
1.46
0.85
0.82
1.85
1.08
0.97
0.96
0.95
1.01
0.72
0.73
9.60
0.96
1.38
3.01
0.70
0.76
0.68
0.79
0.74
0.89
Nkurtosis
0.52
0.47
0.49
0.46
0.49
0.63
0.34
0.64
0.41
0.47
0.50
0.48
0.54
0.78
0.66
0.79
0.42
0.70
0.43
0.44
0.57
0.51
0.42
0.59
0.46
0.45
0.65
0.52
0.49
0.49
0.49
0.50
0.42
0.42
0.91
0.49
0.58
0.75
0.41
0.43
0.40
0.44
0.43
0.47
99
-------
Table 8. (continued) SIZE ANALYSIS STATISTICAL PARAMETERS
Sample
PJ-8
PJ-9
PJ-11
PM-1'
PM-1
PM-2
PM-3
PM-4
PM-5
PM-6
PS-2
PS-3
PS-4
PS-5
PSS-1
PSS-2
PSS-3
PSS-4
PSS-5
PSS-6
RM-1
RM-3
RM-4
KM-5
Rli-6
SE-1
SE-2
SE-3
SM-2
SME-2
SME-4
SME-5
SME-6
STO-1
STO-2
STO-3
STO-4
STO-5
STO-6
STO-7
STO-3
STO-9
SWE-1
Median
5.60
3.80
2.20
5.92
0.75
3.70
1.95
6.20
2.60
-1.80
4.70
5.10
5.40
5.85
3.70
4.65
5.05
4.85
4.10
6.27
1.30
2.32
5.65
7.05
1.45
4.55
5.62
4.72
5.00
5.50
5.60
4.65
5.55
5.10
5.65
5.40
4.90
5.00
6.20
3.90
5.90
-2.90
3.65
Mean
6.03
4.97
2.17
6.42
3.66
4.23
1.93
5.78
4.10
-1.15
5.20
5.25
5.53
6.22
4.38
5.80
5.87
5.98
4.98
6.82
0.38
3.65
4.57
6.98
0.55
5.04
6.49
4.o4
5.30
5.82
5.83
5.25
5.89
5.57
6.08
6.28
5.63
5.34
7.12
4.83
6.32
-2 . 90
4.63
Sorting
2.82
3.94
1.09
2.70
4.39
2.28
0.42
2.67
3.06
1.84
1.91
2.22
2.24
3.28
1.68
2.79
2.83
2.95
2.97
2.79
3.33
2.91
3.32
2.92
3.38
2.52
2.94
2.07
2.02
2.43
2.43
2.o5
3.34
4.06
3.18
2.75
2.29
2.17
2.48
2.17
2.56
1.33
2.56
Skewness
0.26
0.25
-0.29
0.24
0.78
0.49
-0.07
-0.08
0.70
0.53
0.53
0.20
0.20
0.15
0.87
0.54
0.39
0.51
0.45
0.22
-0.09
0.69
-0.28
0.02
-0.09
0.40
0.37
0.13
0.38
0.26
0.21
0.39
0.17
-0.01
0.22
0.44
0.55
0.37
0.44
0.72
0.22
0.19
0.62
Kurtosis
0.74
1.19
4.25
1.11
1.23
1.54
0.94
1.42
0.78
0.80
1.25
1.36
1.01
0.91
1.37
1.01
0.89
0.89
0.77
0.84
1.23
1.38
0.66
0.55
1.26
0.80
0.84
1.74
1.23
0.86
0.89
0.79
0.68
1.22
0.71
0.78
1.08
1.10
0.74
1.35
1.21
1.02
0.79
Nkurtosis
0.43
0.54
0.81
0.53
0.55
0.61
0.49
0.59
0.44
0.44
0.56
0.58
0.50
0.48
0.58
0.50
0.47
0.47
0.44
0.46
0.55
0.58
0.40
0.35
0.56
0.44
0.46
0.63
0.55
0.46
0.47
0.44
0.40
0.55
0.42
0.44
0.52
0.52
0.43
0.57
0.55
0.51
0.44
100
-------
-4
K-2
1
I
A
A
4 2
MEDIAN (phi)
-2
Figure 25. A C-M plot for Simpson Lagoon sediments.
-------
c
K;
M (PHI)
Figure 26.
A general C-M diagram showing the fields of different depositional agents.
1.) Uniform suspension. 2.) Turbidity currents. 3.) Pelagic suspension.
4.) Graded suspension. 4b.) Turbidity currents. 5.) Bed load.
6.) Beach deposits.
-------
The mean sediment size values for the samples from Simpson Lagoon range
from -2.40
-------
Table 9. SIZE ANALYSIS CORRELATIONS'
Depth X
1.00 -0.156
X 1.0
Y
MEDIAN
MEAN
SORTING
SKEWNESS
KURTOSIS
NORMALIZED KURTOSIS
Y
0.257
-0.283
1.0
Median
0.688
-0.141
0.178
1.0
Mean
0.550
-0.010
0.224
0.754
1.0
Sorting
0.226
-0.071
0.100
0.335
0.396
1.0
Skewness
0.072
0.150
0.129
-0.178
0.057
0.046
1.0
Kurtosis
-0.338
-0.046
-0.195
-0.208
-0.274
-0.360
0.090
1.0
Nkurtosis
-0.298
-0.041
-0.208
-0.254
-0.340
-0.455
0.135
0.835
1.0
underlined values are significant at the 0.01 level
(a - .01)
-------
Mean size is a parameter which lends itself well to trend surface analy-
44
sis (Koch and Link ). The surfaces are used primarily to characterize
broad regional areas while the residuals may emphasize detail in local
areas. As noted above, a major difficulty in utilizing this analytical
technique has been concerned with the delineation of the significance
of the surfaces generated (Baird et al. ). Figures 27 through 32
illustrate the first through the sixth degree surfaces of mean size.
49
All are significant at the 0.10 level using the standard F test.
46
Using the Chayes test, however, only the first two surfaces are signif-
icant at this confidence level. The first degree surfaces (Fig. 27)
indicate the predominance of silt size range sediment within the lagoon
with a trend to fineness toward the north. Residuals from the surface
(Fig. 33) add localized detail; for example, an area of fine sediment
extending easterly from Oliktok Point, the effects of the Kavearak and
Milne promontories in funneling coarser grained material into the deep
lagoon area, and a general coarsening of material adjacent to the barrier
islands. The second degree mean size surface (Fig. 28) relates the mean
size in a better fashion to the lagoon topographic character. This sur-
face is significant at the 0.0025 level. The lack of fine material from
Harrison Bay is evident, as also is the overall coarseness of the south
shore sediments. The residuals from this latter surface (Fig. 34) again
emphasize localized deposition effects around headlands, and also indi-
cate the presence of a lobe of finer grained sediment in deeper water at
the eastern end of the lagoon.
In the third degree surface (Fig. 29), which employs ten terms rather than
the six for the second degree surface, the character of the surface changes
little. The coefficient of determination changes only from 0.197 to 0.259
for the third degree surface. The fourth degree surface (Fig. 30) improves
this to 0.343; an improvement of 0.084. This latter map shows a
decided jag in the mean contours on the south side of the lagoon,
105
-------
10
Figure 27. Trend surface map of first degree mean trends,
-------
7O<
3O'
5O'
40'
I49°3O'
20
10'
Figure 28. Trend surface map of second degree mean trends.
-------
35'
O
OC
7O°
30'
50'
40'
149°30'
20
10
Figure 29. Trend surface map of third degree mean trends.
-------
so'
40
149°30'
2O'
Figure 30. Trend surface map of fourth degree mean trends.
-------
35
7O'
3O'
50'
40'
20
IO
Figure 31. Trend surface map of fifth degree mean trends.
-------
35'
7O'
3OJ
SO'
40'
I49°3O'
20
10'
Figure 32. Trend surface map of sixth degree mean trends.
-------
2O'
IO'
Figure 33. Residuals from First Degree Trend Surface Map. (0.1 (j>)
-------
35'
U>
7O<
3O'
50'
40'
I49°3O'
2O'
IO'
Figure 34. Residuals from Second Degree Trend Surface Map. (0.1
-------
possibly associated with Milne Point and associated shoals. Higher degree
surfaces (Figs. 31 and 32) add finer detail relating to the topography
of the area; streams, passes between islands and other such features.
37
The inclusive graphic standard deviation of Folk and Ward is a measure
of the sorting of the sediments. It measures the spread of the central
portion of the curve. The plot of sorting versus mean for all samples pre-
sented in Figure 35 shows the samples to be generally very poorly sorted.
37
There are, however, samples in every Folk and Ward category. The most
easterly sample (CB-4) is very well sorted. This represents the major
sand source for the longshore transport. The mean for this sample is
1.66 making it one of the coarser samples. It was noted above that
this sample represents one of the end members of the sand mode decay
process (Fig. 24). The characteristic sinusoidal relationship between
mean and sorting is also evident in Figure 35. Poor sorting in sediment
appears to be a result of changing competency of the transport media
indicating in this case the likelihood of changes in the energy of the
lagoon versus the surrounding areas. Considering that strong currents
are to be expected between the islands, that the flow rate from the
rivers and streams fluctuates seasonally and that a breaker zone exists
on the shore, a decrease in competency or energy level (entropy in
Greenwood and Davidson-Arnott ) in the area of the deep lagoon is
exceedingly likely. Another factor expected to result in poor sorting
may be the ice cover in winter. By creating very low energy conditions
in the lagoon, the winter ice cover allows deposition of fine material
which cannot be eroded the following summer.
The mathematical basis for the sorting parameter is the second moment
measure. The third moment measure is called skewness and was approxi-
37
mated by Folk and Ward as Inclusive Graphic Skewness. This parameter
114
-------
A
SORTING (a, )
O OJ
t_
1
0
_^
Gravel
_
-
•
\ -I
Sand
•
'
L • .
i
•
i
t"
I 0 2 A
Silt
9
•
'*: *. V..'
*"•.*" - ' :
• • i*
.
r ~~i
i
1- 6 6
Extremely
Poorly
Sorted
\
Very
Poorly
Sorted
Poorly
Sorted
Moderately
Sorted
~~9VeTSorted
Very We II
Sorted
PHI MEAN (Mz)
Figure 35. A binary plot of sorting versus mean.
-------
measures one deviation of the size distribution from normality. If the
distribution is peaked to one side or the other of the mean, it is skewed.
The size distribution of Simpson Lagoon sediments shows a pronounced
tendency toward positive and very positive skewness as shown in Figure 36.
£ Q
Cadigan considered that skewness measured the relationship between the
sorting of the two halves of the size distribution. Poorer sorting in
the finer half is termed positive skewness. Allen, in studying the
Gironde River estuary, found that skewness apparently differentiated
between the areas dominated by tidal and wave energy respectively. Skew-
ness is probably most useful in characterizing polymodal sediments where
it indicates the unequal mixing of two or more different populations.
The study of the Irish Sea sediments by Cronan is particularly illus-
trative in this respect. Sediments in the latter area are unequally
mixed with proportions determined by the velocities of the tidal currents.
This produces an alteration in the skewness sign.
As noted above, the Simpson Lagoon grain size distribution is predomi-
nantly positively skewed. With only two exceptions, the negatively
skewed samples represent nearshore environments, where poorer sorting of
the coarse end of the distribution would be expected. The two anomalous
samples (PM-3 and 4) were taken from off Milne Point, and this area is
likely to be strongly affected by the point itself. Such a predominantly
positively skewed size distribution would be expected to be a result of
fluctuating energy conditions and the mixing of a well sorted coarse and
a poorly sorted fine population. In Simpson Lagoon the energy fluctuates
strongly between winter and summer conditions and, as discussed pre-
viously, it would appear that (Fig. 24) a westward moving well sorted
coarse population is available from the Beechey Point area. Therefore,
it seems likely that the Simpson Lagoon sediment skewness is in fact a
116
-------
« L0
"v^.
^o
kj 0.5
$:
^
-^
\S!
Co 0
£
CL
-0 5
-1 0
Gravel
_
Sand
.
t ••
•
I
-
/
p
i • • *
i
1
i,l,
Silt
* • •
r . .*:.
'•v-./. '•
. •
Very
Positive
Skewed
•:.•/.'.•.••. ' Positive
•
•
i 1 i
Skewed
Nearly
Symmetrical
Negative
Skewed
Very
Negative
Skewed
-4-202468
PHI MEAN (Mz)
Figure 36. A binary plot of skewness versus mean.
-------
result of the mixing of two populations of this type. The binary plot of
skewness versus mean size (Fig. 36) very closely resembles - in terms of the
inflection points of the sinusoidal curve and the spread in the coarser
64
samples - the distribution given by Cronan for the Irish Sea samples
known to be deposited under fluctuating energy conditions.
Very little is understood about the environmental significance of inclu-
37
sive graphic kurtosis. Kurtosis measures deviations from the standard
normal distribution by measuring the relationship between the average
slopes of the center and ends of the distribution. The sorting of these
areas is by the slope of the curves, so a better sorted center gives a
/: o
leptokurtic value. Figure 37 shows the binary plot of kurtosis versus
mean. Kurtosis values cluster in the mesokurtic-platykurtic region,
although a few extremely leptokurtic values are encountered. Sorting and
kurtosis correlate well with a negative correlation (0.005 confidence
limits). It would appear that the better sorted samples are not better
sorted in the center of their distribution, and probably this indicates
that modes which are well sorted and subequal are not centered in the
distribution.
34
Normalized kurtosis, a parameter suggested by Royse, is shown in
Figure 38 as a binary plot with the mean. It exhibits a slight
sinusoidal curve. The plot of kurtosis versus mean for this study (Fig. 37)
64
does not clearly show the doubly peaked curve Cronan claims to discern
64
in his plot. Cronan suggests that kurtosis is related to the degree of
polymodality and that a small accessary mode increases the kurtosis.
Subequal modes produce low kurtosis values, and unimodal sediment tends
to be mesokurtic. Kurtosis in Simpson Lagoon is a measure of the rela-
tionships between the size modes, perhaps modified in an as yet unknown
manner by the energy conditions.
118
-------
5
Gravel
Sand
Silt
Extremely Leptokurtic
Very Leptokurtic
Leptokurtic
r Mesokurtic
o
-4
Figure 37,
Very P/atykurtic
rtyk
-20246
PHI MEAN (Mz)
A binary plot of kurtosis versus mean.
119
-------
1.0
1
0.6
0.2U
0
Gravel
Sand
Silt
-2
o
PHI MEAN (Mz)
Figure 38. A binary plot of normalized kurtosis versus mean.
-------
The third degree kurtosis trend surface proved to be the most significant,
with a significance level of 0.05 (standard F test, 0.10 for the Chayes
47
test ). This surface (Fig. 39) shows a very simple pattern with
kurtosis rising away to both sides of a central trough which cuts
diagonally across the lagoon from the northwest to southeast. The con-
tours are mesokurtic to very leptokurtic. The interpretation of kurtosis
by Greenwood would then indicate that velocity fluctuations within the
lagoon remain in the region capable of carrying particles within the
middle of the size distribution (between 25 and 75 percentile) for longer
than normal. This perhaps indicates a constancy of energy, with higher
values of kurtosis indicating a greater consistency. These interpreta-
tions would imply that the energy level of the depositional agent of the
lagoon is most consistent near the edges and least consistent along the
64
trough line of the third degree trend surface. Cronan interprets
kurtosis somewhat differently. In his study, kurtosis results from mode
relationships such that high kurtosis occurs when a small accessory mode
exists. By this interpretation, the high kurtosis values - especially
along the south shore - would be due to the small silt mode (see pre-
vious discussion), and the low kurtosis trough to subequal modes of sand
and silt in the central lagoon. Because of the modal nature of the sedi-
64
ment, the interpretation of Cronan may be more accurate for this area.
Heavy Minerals
The percent yield of heavy minerals is given in Table 10. Heavy minerals in
the study area are practically non-existent, due primarily to low source
area values. The mean value for the 1 to 2 fraction was 0.08 percent.
The other two fractions are not greatly different: 0.27 percent for the
2 to 3 <{> fraction and 0.55 percent for the 3 to 4 fraction.
121
-------
35
H
N>
N)
70'
30'
50'
4O'
I49°3O'
2O
IO
Figure 39. Trend surface map of third degree kurtosis trends.
-------
Table 10. HEAVY MINERAL PERCENTAGES
Sample
BEK-1
BEK-4
BEK-6
BEK-7
CB-1
CB-2
CB-4
KM-1
KM-2
OEL-1
OEL-2
OEL-3
OEL-5
OEL-8
OEL-11
OBO-1
OBO-3
OBO-5
PJ-2
PJ-5
PJ-10
PM-1
RM-2
RM-4
SE-1
STO-1
STO-4
STO-9
1-2*
0.1
0.03
0.03
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.1
1
0.03
0.05
0.1
0.1
-
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.3
0.02
0.1
0.2
0.04
0.1
0.04
-
0.1
-
0.1
2-3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.5
0.4
0.2
0.8
0.04
0.3
0.02
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.04
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.7
0.3
0.2
0.4
0.2
0.6
0.1
0.04
0.2
1.0
-
3-4*
0.6
-
0.2
1.7
0.2
0.1
0.3
1.1
2.0
1.7
0.7
0.9
0.3
-
0.2
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.4
0.1
1.3
0.2
-
0.3
1.1
1.6
0.01
-
123
-------
No linear correlations between any of the fractions and depth or position
within the lagoon were significant at the .05 level or above. High
values of the heavy minerals in the 3 to 4 fraction occur along the
south shore of the lagoon opposite Pingok Island (Fig. 40). The 1 to 2
fraction shows a different pattern of high values (Fig. 41) with the
northeast corner of the lagoon near Pingok Island being high as well as
the Oliktok east site. Another pattern appears when considering the 2 to
3 (j> fraction (Fig. 42); high values occur in the west, the Ugnuravik
River mouth and the east.
Carbon Analysis
Recent sediments contain two major sources of carbon: organically bound
carbon and carbonate carbon. The results of analysis of 10 samples for
both organic and carbonate carbon are presented in Table 11. Despite the
occurrence of tundra mats and other terrigenous detrital vegetable matter
in the water, the organic carbon values are very low, with a mean content
of 1.12 percent. This is probably due in large part to the energy conditions
within the lagoon as discussed previously. Low density organic matter is
easily kept in suspension. Carbonate values on the other hand are
surprisingly high - a range of 1.6 to 13.4 percent CO - considering the dis-
tance from the nearest known source of carbonate rocks in the eastern
Brooks Range. Some of the carbonate may be due to shells and other
biologic remains, but unfortunately information on benthic organisms has
been unavailable. A comparison of these values with other carbonate
Of!
analysis from the arctic coast area shows good agreement with the data
from the nearshore areas further east, but not with the values from the
Colville River and Harrison Bay area. Two possibilities are therefore
suggested. The major rivers to the east are carrying carbonates from the
Brooks Range into the marine environment and the Colville is not, or
124
-------
35
to
Ui
70*
30
*•,$-
BEAU FORT
SEA
ottle Is
50
40
I49°30
20'
10
Figure 40. A map showing the distribution of heavy minerals from the three to four 0 fraction.
-------
NS
ON
35'
70°
30'
O.I
50
40
I49°30
20
10
Figure 41. A map showing the distribution of heavy minerals from the one to two 0 fraction.
-------
35
S3
70°
30
50
40
149°30
20
10
Figure 42. A map showing the distribution of heavy minerals from the two to three 0 fraction.
-------
Table 11. CARBON ANALYSES
Sample
STO-5
STO-7
PJ-7
PJ-4
RM-3
BEK-4
KM-2
OBO-3
CB-1
CB-3
Organic
0.8
1.3
1.0
1.0
2.0
0.9
0.4
1.4
1.1
1.2
co3
12.8
12.9
12.2
8.4
11.3
8.3
1.6
12.5
9.3
13.4
CaC03
21.3
21.5
20.7
14.0
18.8
13.8
2.7
20.8
15.5
22.4
Total Carbon
3.4
3.9
3.4
2.7
4.3
2.6
0.7
3.9
3.0
3.9
All values are percents
128
-------
that the conditions for growth of small carbonate shelled organisms are
less favorable in the Harrison Bay area.
Clay Mineralogy
Table 12 gives the semi-quantitative clay mineral percentages for 10
samples from the lagoon (see Fig. 3 for localities). Illite predominates
followed by chlorite and comparable amounts of smectite and kaolinite.
n I f\ S
Naidu * has discussed the clay mineralogy of the fine grained sediment
fraction from the Colville River and various adjacent nearshore and
shelf areas. Comparison of these data with the lagoon proportions illus-
trated in Table 12 yields added evidence for long-term net transportation
through the lagoon from east to west. For example, smectite is rela-
tively impoverished in the lagoon and, in this respect, the sediment is
more comparable with the far off-shore areas. The Umiat Beds of the
Colville River basin appear to be a major source of smectite to the
23
local marine environment, and Naidu has demonstrated that sediments
discharged from the river are much in this component. Smectite from this
source is of major importance in the area off the Spy Islands (Fig. 3)
but it would appear that Colville River sediment has a negligible impact
on the lagoon.
We have been interested in determining whether the clay mineral regime of
this area would be diagnostic of high-latitude erosion-transportation-
deposition cycles (see also the various publications of Naidu and Chapter
5). Kaolinite and smectite are generally thought to be produced in
41
soils as weathering products (Biscaye ). Illite is considered to be
primarily a detrital product whereas chloride is a high-latitude mineral
72 73 41 74
of primary origin. ' The data of Biscaye and Lisitzin show
that while clay minerals may show general latitudinal trends they also
vary with changes in the source area. This appears to be the case here
129
-------
Table 12. CLAY MINERAL PERCENTAGES
Sample
STO-4
STO-7
CB-2
CB-3
RM-2
BEK-4
PJ-5
PJ-7
OBO-3
KM-2
Illite
61.5
65.7
72.0
69.2
72.5
66.0
74.0
66.7
69.0
70.0
Chlorite
18.0
17.4
17.5
13.3
18.1
14.6
12.2
13.4
17.7
16.7
Kaolinite
6.0
6.4
6.4
7.4
5.1
14.6
8.7
10.6
4.5
9.5
Smectite
10.9
9.7
4.0
7.2
4.7
4.9
5.1
9.4
9.1
3.9
130
-------
24
also (Naidu et al. ) i.e., that the specific source areas available
have a larger impact on the clay mineral ratios (Table 13) than does
the climatic environment on the erosion-transportation-deposition cycle.
The illite and chlorite percentage of Simpson Lagoon samples are compara-
74
ble to the data of Lisitzin, whereas the
and kaolinite concentrations are standard.
74
ble to the data of Lisitzin, whereas the smectite values are higher
CONCLUSIONS
This section of the report has attempted to evaluate both the static and
dynamic sediiaentological environment of Simpson Lagoon immediately east
of the Colville River delta. Reference should be made to previously
published work which has been referenced where appropriate for more
detail on particular aspects, and also to other sections within this
report.
The most important conclusion stemming from this work is that sediment
transport along this particular section of the Alaska arctic coast is
from east to west. This transportation appears to be predominantly a
function of the prevailing northeasterly wind regime which is the driving
force for the generation of both waves and currents. It is important to
note, therefore, that in this specific area the generation of longshore
currents is apparently significantly influenced by wind stress as well as
by the waves. Evaluation of long-term changes in the shorelines and
islands - chiefly from aerial photographic coverage analysis - has shown
that, e.g., the growth patterns on Thetis Island and at Oliktok Point are
due to transportation and deposition from the east along the lagoon and
barrier island chain. Empirical estimates of volumetric sediment trans-
3
port range from 0 to 42m /day.
131
-------
Table 13. PERCENT RATIOS CLAY MINERALS
Sample
STO-7
STO-4
CB-2
CB-3
RM-2
PJ-5
PJ-5
KM-2
BEK-4
OBO-3
Kaolinite
Chlorite
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.5
0.3
0.8
0.9
0.6
1.0
0.3
Smectite
Chlorite
0.6
0.6
0.2
0.5
0.3
0.4
0.7
0.2
0.3
0.5
Illite
Smectite
7
6
18
10
14
16
8
18
13
8
Smectite
Kaolinite
1.7
1.8
0.7
1.0
1.0
0.6
0.8
0.4
0.3
2.0
Illite
Kaolinite
11
10
12
10
14
8
6
7
4
14
Illite
Chlorite
4
4
4
5
4
6
6
4
4
4
132
-------
Analysis of the sediment size statistical parameters is also consistent
with net transportation in this direction. For example, the progressive
decay of the dominant sand-size mode of the most easterly nearshore
sample towards the west. The paucity of smectite in the fine fraction of
the lagoon sediments compared with the importance of this mineral in
sediments discharged from the Colville River is additional evidence for a
minimal impingement of the Colville River on this lagoon.
A majority of the Simpson Lagoon sediments lie in the silt-size range,
and the major statistical parameter trends (such as mean and sorting)
vary N-S along the short axis of the lagoon. The trend surface maps
given are particularly illustrative in this respect. The poorly sorted
characteristic of the sediments is indicative of changing competency of
the transporting media and we have advanced the concept of a predomi-
nating "quiet" water environment for the bulk of the lagoon, with a good
correlation between the mean size and depth. It has also been suggested
that poor sorting could be due to the effect of winter ice cover. By
this thesis, sediment deposited in the winter may not be eroded under
open water, summer conditions. This latter point is of some importance
since an initial objective of this study was to see if certain sedimen-
tological characteristics could be ascribed to the climatic environment.
Most of the work on such lagoon environments to date has been confined to
temperate areas. The potential effects of having a short open-water
season and approximately nine months of static ice-cover have not pre-
viously been evaluated. The positive skewness characteristic is of
interest in this respect, since this is consistent with fluctuating
summer and winter depositional environments with the westward moving
well sorted coarse population mixing with the lagoon silt. The environ-
ment described in this report is essentially the seasonal "steady-state"
sedimentological regime. It must be remembered that severe summer storms
133
-------
can severely distort this picture by, for example, transporting in one
cataclysmic event quantities of beach material which would normally be
accomplished only over many seasons of "normal" conditions. Also, such
storms need not act in the prevailing directions of transport. It is not
certain at present over how long a period conditions would need to be
studied to take account of transport of this type. We have been able, to
date, to look at shoreline changes over a period of only a couple of
decades.
It was expected initially that the effects of ice-rafting would be evi-
dent in the lagoon. This would have been a useful signature of high
latitude lagoons, but the absence of gravel from the lagoon has shown
that this mechanism is inoperative. Naidu believes that ice rafting of
material is not significant even on the shelf areas outside the lagoon;
gravels in these areas are believed to be relict. The lagoon is also
protected from pack-ice scour, and the barrier islands and frozen beaches
protect against ice-push. Heavy mineral distributions show a lack of a
definite point source. The south shore beaches are a possible source for
the small quantities of heavy minerals found.
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31. Matthews, J. B. Tides at Point Barrow. The Northern Engineer.
2^12-13, 1970.
32. Hume, J. D. and M. Schalk. The Effect of Ice-Push on Arctic
Beaches. Am. Jour. Sci. 262;267-273, 1964.
33. Reimnitz, E., S. C. Wolf, and C. A. Rodeick. Preliminary Investi-
gation of Seismic Profiles in the Prudhoe Bay Area, Beaufort Sea,
Alaska. U.S. Geol. Survey open file report. Report No. 548. 1972.
11 p.
34. Royse, C. F. An Introduction to Sediment Analysis. University of
Arizona Press. Tempe. 1970. 180 p.
137
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35. Crane, J. J. Ecological Studies of the Benthic Fauna in an Arctic
Estuary. M.S. Thesis. University of Alaska. 1973. Ill p.
36. Felix, D. W. An Inexpensive Recording Settling Tube for Analysis of
Sands. J. Sed. Pet. _39:777-780, 1969.
37. Folk, R. L. and W. C. Ward. Brazos River Bar: A Study of the
Significance of Grain Size Parameters. J. Sed. Pet. £7:3-26, 1957.
38. Krumbein, W. C. and F. S. Pettijohn. Manual of Sedimentary
Petrography. Appleton Century Co., Inc., New York. 1938. 549 p.
39. Loder, T. C. Distribution of Dissolved and Particulate Organic
Carbon in Alaskan Polar, Sub-Polar, and Estuarine Waters. Ph.D.
Dissertation, University of Alaska. University Microfilms, Ann
Arbor, Mich. 1971.
40. Hulsemann, K. On the Routine Analysis of Carbonates in
Unconsolidated Sediments. J. Sed. Pet. _36:622-625, 1966.
41. Biscaye, P. E. Mineralogy and Sedimentation of Recent Deep-Sea
Clays in the Atlantic and Adjacent Seas and Oceans. Bull. Geol.
Soc. Am. 76^:803-832, 1965.
42. Harbaugh, J. W. BALGOL Program for Trend-Surface Mapping Using an
IBM Computer. Kansas Geol. Survey Special Dist. Publ. 3. 1963.
17 p.
43. Heiner, L. and S. Geller. Fortran IV Trend Surface Program for the
IBM 360 Model 40 Computer. University of Alaska, Mineral Industries
Research Laboratory, Report 9. 1967. 69 p.
44. Koch, G. S., Jr. and R. F. Link. Statistical Analysis of
Geological Data. New York.. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Vol. 2.
1971. 438 p.
45. Freund, J. E. Modern Elementary Statistics. Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey, Prentice-Hall, Inc. 1967. 432 p.
46. Chayes, F. and Y. Suzuki. Geological Contours and Trend Surfaces:
A Discussion. J. Pet. 2^:307-312, 1963.
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47. Chayes, F. On Deciding Whether Trend Surfaces of Progressively
Higher Order are Meaningful. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. ($1:1273-1278,
1970.
48. Baird, A. K., K. W. Baird, and D. M. Morton. On Deciding Whether
Trend Surfaces of Progressively Higher Order are Meaningful. Bull.
Geol. Soc. Am. 82:1219-1234, 1971.
49. Davis, J. C. Statistics and Data Analysis in Geology. New York.
John Wiley and Sons, Inc. 1973. 550 p.
50. Selby, S. M. Standard Mathematical Tables. Cleveland. The
Chemical Rubber Co. 1968. 692 p.
51. Searby, H. W. and H. Hunter. Climate of the North Slope of Alaska.
NOAA Technical Memorandum. AR-4. 1971.
52. Grant, U. S. Waves as a Sand Transporting Agent. Am. Sci.
241:117-123, 1943.
53. Watts, G. M. Study of Sand Movement at South Lalee Worth Inlet,
Florida. Beach Erosion Board. U.S. Army Corps of Eng. Tech.
Memo 42. 1953. 24 p.
54. Galdwell, J. M. Wave Action and Sand Movement Near Anaheim Bay,
California. Beach Erosion Board. U.S. Army Eng. Tech. Memo 68.
1956. 21 p.
55. Savage, R. P. Laboratory Study of the Effect of Grains on the Rate
of Littoral Transport. Beach Erosion Board. U.S. Army Corps of
Eng. Tech. Memo 11A. 1959. 55 p.
56. Bagnold, R. A. Mechanics of Marine Sedimentation. In: The Sea.
M. N. Hill, Interscience, New York, jk529-533, 1963.
57. Inman, D. L. and R. A. Bagnold. Littoral Processes. In; The Sea.
M. N. Hill, Interscience, New York, _3:529-533, 1963.
58. Komar, P. D. The Mechanics of Sand Transport on Beaches. J.
Geophy. Res. 76:713-721, 1971.
139
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59. Komar, P. D. and D. L. Inman. Longshore Sand Transport on Beaches.
J. Geophys. Res. 75:5914-5927, 1970.
60. Passega, R. Grain Size Representation by CM Patterns as a
Geological Tool. J. Sed. Pet. 34:830-847, 1964.
61. Passega, R. Texture as a Characteristic of Clastic Deposition.
Bull. Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol. 41:1952-1984, 1957.
62. Passega, R., A. Rizzini, and J. Borghetti. Transport of Sediments
by Waves, Adriatic Coastal Shelf, Italy. Bull. Am. Assoc. Pet.
Geol. 51:1304-1319, 1967.
63. Friedman, G. M. Dynamic Processes and Statistical Parameters
Compared for Size Frequency Distribution of Beach and River Sands.
J. Sed. Pet. _37:237-354, 1967.
64. Cronan, D. S. Skewness and Kurtosis in Polymodal Sediments from the
Irish Sea. J. Sed. Pet. 42:102-106, 1972.
65. Folk, R. L. A Review of Grain Size Parameters. Sedimentology.
6:73-93, 1966.
66. Greenwood, B. and R. G. D. Davidson-Arnott. Textural Variation in
Sub-environments of the Shallow Water Wave Zone, Kouchibouguac Bay,
New Brunswick. Can. J. Earth Sci. 9:679-688, 1972.
67. Hjulstrom, R. Transport of Detritus by Moving Water. In; Recent
Marine Sediments, P. D. Trask (ed.) Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol., 1939.
Tulsa, Okla. pp. 5-31.
68. Cadigan, R. A. Geologic Interpretation of Grain Size Distribution
Measurements of Colorado Plateau Sedimentary Rocks. J. Geol.
69_: 121-144, 1961.
69. Allen, G. P. Relationship Between Grain Size Parameter Distribution
and Current Patterns in the Gironde Estuary (France). J. Sed. Pet.
41:74-88, 1971.
140
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70. Greenwood, B, Sediment Parameters and Environmental Discrimination:
An Application of Multivaricate Statistics. Can. J. Earth Sci.
(6:1347-1358, 1969.
71. Pierce, J. W. and F. R. Seigel. Quantification in Clay Mineral
Studies. J. Sed. Pet. _39:187-193, 1969.
72. Weaver, C. E. Geological Interpretation of Argillaceous Sediments.
Part 1, Origin and Significance of Clay Minerals in Sedimentary
Rocks. Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol. Bull. 42^254-271, 1958.
73. Keller, W. D. The Principles of Chemical Weathering. Columbia,
Missouri. Lucas Brothers Publishers, 1962. Ill p.
74. Lisitzin, A. P. Sedimentation in the World Ocean. Soc. of Economic
Paleontologists and Mineralogists Special Publication No. 17, 1972.
215 p.
141
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CHAPTER 5
ASPECTS OF SIZE DISTRIBUTIONS, MINERALOGY AND GEOCHEMISTRY OF DELTAIC
AND ADJACENT SHALLOW MARINE SEDIMENTS, NORTH ARCTIC ALASKA
A. S. Naidu and T. C. Mowatt
INTRODUCTION
Lately it has been realized that there exists, for a number of reasons,
a compelling need to preserve both the continental and marine environ-
ments in as unpolluted a state as possible. However, in order to detect
pollution in an environment it is necessary to have in hand baseline
ecological data of that environment in its pristine or unpolluted state.
The foregoing statement has special relevance to the north slope deltaic
and shallow marine environments of north Alaska. Although these envi-
ronments are now apparently free from any appreciable pollution, poten-
tial problems may arise in the future as a result of development in that
area of newly discovered large petroleum reserves. Realizing this,
several Federal, State and private agencies have undertaken to further
our knowledge of north arctic Alaska. This report presents preliminary
results of baseline studies on the size distributions, mineralogy and
chemistry of bottom sediments of the continental margin and the adjacent
shallow marine regime of this region.
SETTING
The deltaic region of north arctic Alaska is one of the few transitional
natural environments on earth of which we have very limited knowledge.
The area under study extends from Harrison Bay in the west to Maguire
Island in the east, and from the north slope coast oceanward to approxi-
mately the 18m line (Fig. 1).
The transitional environment between Cape Halkett and Canning River
mouth (Fig. 1) consists of a complex of several river estuaries,
143
-------
77'
69'
SEA
's) B E A U F O R T
I50C
148'
146'
Figure 1. Map of the North Slope of Alaska, showing the deltaic area of study and loca-
tions of sediment samples. The. depth contours are in meters.
-------
distributary channels, bays, lagoon, barriers, bars, coastal beaches and a
deltaic plain consisting of tundra. Several large rivers (e.g. Col-
ville, Kuparuk, Sagavanirktok and Canning) have built deltas which coa-
lesce laterally to form a complex of deltas. The most prominent of the
deltas in this region is that of the Colville River, and it greatly in-
fluences sedimentation in the nearshore. As such it merits special men-
tion.
The Colville River has a course of approximately 600km, and has built
2
a 560km delta at the mouth. Several distributaries break off from the
main channel at the delta head, and as a result several lobate islands
have formed in the far downstream end. Most of these islands in the
estuary are elongated parallel to the distributary channels. All river
channels of the north slope are highly braided, presumably because of
the great seasonal variations in sediment and water discharge. Arnborg
et al. have calculated that the most striking feature of the arctic
rivers is the great concentration of activity in a short period of time.
9 3
For example, in 1962, 43 percent of the annual discharge (16 x 10 m )
and 73 percent of the total inorganic suspended load (5.8 x 10 tons)
were discharged from the Colville River during a 3 week period
around the spring breakup. The bulk of this sediment-laden fluvial
discharge initially flows oceanward over sea ice situated off the river
mouths, and settles on the ice as a deposit up to 20mm thick. Finally
this sediment finds its way to the bottom through drain holes in sea
2 3
ice and/or by melting of the ice. According to Reimnitz and Bruder,
most of this fluvial sediment outfall is deposited on the steeper slopes
seaward of the 2m depth contour off the Colville River mouth; this area
represents the delta front.
Some detailed morphological and hydrographical attributes of the north
slope rivers deltas - especially that of Colville River - were recently
presented by Walker and McCloy, Lewellen, Kinney et al. and Walker,
145
-------
and therefore, particulars of these attributes will not be enumerated
here. However, it should be noted that the morphologies of the north
slope deltas do not exactly conform to any of the delta prototypes men-
tioned in the literature; the closest resemblance, at best, is probably
to the arcuate delta type. All north slope rivers are truly arctic riv-
ers inasmuch as they arise, flow and discharge in arctic Alaska, which
is characterized by permafrost terrain. All these rivers are partly or
wholly frozen almost 8 months of the year.
The mean lunar tidal range in the north Alaskan arctic coast is compara-
tively very low, roughly 0.3m. Kinney et al. have reported that in
the lagoons and nearshore during the summer, surface currents may range
from 0 to 37cm/sec (0 to 0.75kts). Dygas et al. (Chapter 3) while
observing a good correlation of strength and directions of water cur-
rents and wind, concluded that in the Simpson Lagoon the bottom cur-
rent velocity is in the order of 17.3cm/sec. However, as a result of
storm surge, sea level in the coastal area may vary as much as 1.5m
within a short time. ' Although tidal flats are not extensive in the
north coast of Alaska because of low tidal range, some low lying deltaic
areas may often become water-logged during the sea level rise resulting
from storm surge.
Salinities of waters in the Colville delta and adjacent continental mar-
f\ f Q
gin region range from 10 °/00 to 65.9 °/00. ' ' Presumably, the un-
usually high saline waters are formed as a result of great concentration
of ions in water bodies during formation of ice. The ionic supply arises
from solute segregation during freezing. Primary productivity in
9
the lagoonal area is relatively low, most values ranged around lyg C-hr.
The continental facies of the north slope deltas is dominated by the
coastal beaches, Harrison Bay, Simpson Lagoon, the far offshore and
146
-------
nearshore barriers. The lagoon and Harrison Bay are shallow, having a
depth range of 0.8 to 3.5m. The barriers and bars are oriented roughly
parallel to the deltaic coastline, and locations of all barriers in the
area of study are confined to the east of the Colville River confluence.
The barrier surfaces consist predominantly of gravels. With the except-
ion of the areas near river mouths, the coastal beach essentially has
gravelly and sandy deposits, the size distributions of which have been
described (Naidu et al. and Dygas et dl. ). The open marine deltaic
facies and the adjacent shelf surface is presently being, and/or has been
12
modified, by ice gouging, and some of the offshore bars seem to have
originated by ice push. Comparative aerial photographic studies re-
veal large scale morphological changes in the Pingok and Thetis Islands
over the past 20 years. The arctic deltaic environment under descrip-
tion differs from the low-latitude deltas in several ways. The more
notable differences are the absence of extensive sand dunes, flood
plains, tidal flats and mangrove swamps, together with the common pre-
sence of coastal beach gravel deposits, a deltaic plain dominated by
tundra, and subjection of the entire area to strong ice stress condi-
tions for the major part of the year, as well as to thermal erosion.
METHODS
General Procedures
Results presented in this report are based on analyses of surface sedi-
ment samples that were collected either by a van Veen/Shipek grab sam-
pler or a short gravity corer. Most of the samples from the continental
margin region were collected from the N.A.R.L. vessel R/V Natchik, and a
few from a Boston Whaler. Samples from the deep water open marine en-
vironment were collected during the WEBSEC-71 cruise of the USCGC
Glacier. Some additional samples included in this report (BBS Series)
comprise a part of the suite of short core sediments that were retrieved
from the USCGC Staten Island in 1968. A few of the textural parameters
147
-------
pertaining to open marine deltaic regime, Simpson Lagoon, coastal beach
and Harrison Bay have been extracted from Burrell et al., Dygas et
al., Tucker, and Barnes and Reimnitz.
Grain size distributions of sediments were analyzed by the combined
methods of sieving and pipetting. Grain size statistical parameters
were calculated using the formulae given by Folk and Ward. Heavy
minerals in three size grades of the sand fraction were separated in
bromoform (Sp. Gr. 2.85).
Clay mineral analysis was accomplished by X-ray diffraction techniques.
A Phillips Electronics Norelco X-ray diffractometer was employed, using
Ni filtered Cu K radiation. The instrumental parameters used routinely,
unless otherwise specified, were 2°20 per minute scan speed, time con-
stant 2, with 1°-0.006" slits. For bulk clay mineralogy, analysis was
routinely carried out on the <2ym e.s.d. (equivalent spherical diameter)
size material of sediments, following the method described by Naidu et
1 ft
al. Although gross clay mineralogy is normally characterized fairly
well by this analysis, often there are ambiguities left unresolved with-
out more detailed investigations. Therefore, clay mineral analyses were
also conducted on subfractions of <2ym e.s.d. particle size range for a
number of samples from the Colville River and Harrison Bay. The sample
preparation and analytical procedures for these subfractions were
slightly different than for the <2ym fraction and, therefore are elab-
orated upon as follows.
The bulk sample was wet-sieved with deionized water, using a 230 mesh
(62ym) stainless steel sieve. The resultant <62ym material was treat-
19
ed with H202, using the method described by Jackson in order to remove
20
organic matter. The pH was monitored during this treatment. The most
acidic value observed was 6.6, suggesting little likelihood of signifi-
cant clay mineral modification resulting from this treatment.
148
-------
The resultant sedimentary material was suspended in 1000ml graduated
cylinders, in deionized water, and all the <2ym e.s.d. size material was
removed by repeated stirring, resuspending and differential settling of
the coarser material (i.e. >2ym e.s.d.). The suspended <2pm material
was removed by siphoning.
Material less than 2ym was subjected to further particle-size fractiona-
tion, using centrifugal sedimentation, following the methods described
19
by Jackson. The <0.3ym e.s.d. size fraction was removed first, fol-
lowed successively by the 0.3 to <1.0pm e.s.d size fraction, and then the
1.0 to <2.0ym e.s.d. size fraction.
For the resultant materials from station CR-5 (Fig. 2), each of the
particle-size fractions obtained was divided into two portions. One
aliquot was reserved for analysis as described below, the second aliquot
was first subjected to the treatment dei
moval of free-iron-oxide from sediment.
19
was first subjected to the treatment described by Jackson, for the re-
For each particle-size fraction, for each sample location, seven speci-
mens were prepared by placing aqueous suspensions on porous ceramic
plates. By means of vacuum applied to the underside of each plate, the
suspended clay material was sedimented onto the surface of the plate in
such a manner that the basal planes of the layer silicate minerals are
predominantly aligned parallel to the surface of the plate.
Additional further treatments were performed on the various plate mounts
of each particle-size fraction of each sample, followed by X-ray dif-
fraction analysis.
Specific Treatments and Clay Mineralogic Analysis
1. Saturation with Ethylene Glycol - This permits the detection of the
149
-------
150°
mCLA74 •ElS593 'BSS-
BEAUFORT *G*^ SEA
.BSS62
,Ci-1,-5
tBSSS2
- 70°OO'
Figure 2. Map of the Colville Delta showing
the locations of bottom sediment
samples that were taken for clay
mineral analysis.
150
-------
presence of materials (e.g. smectites and some vermiculites, as well as
mixed-layered phases containing either of these as component layers) in-
to which molecules of glycol may associate themselves in interlayer
structural sites. The resultant interplanar basal repeat distance for
o
smectites is in the neighborhood of 17A.
2. Saturation with KC1 (IN) - This affords the opportunity for ex-
change of K onto such appropriate interlayer structural sites as may
exist in any of the mineral phases present. The present consensus of
opinion regarding this phenomenon seems to be that materials variously
described (often somewhat nebulously) as "stripped, weathered, degraded"
illites or micas, "soil verraiculites," etc. will readily accept K ions
into interlayer structural sites formerly occupied by K prior to the
"degradation" process. This results in the "collapse" of the degraded
structure, and is reflected in the X-ray diffraction analysis as a shift
o o
in basal spacings from somewhere >10A to approximately the 10A region.
The term "illite" might be used to collectively designate materials of
21
this sort, but other studies (Hower and Mowatt ) have indicated that
there are other aspects relative to this problem which are difficult to
distinguish in working with polyphase assemblages such as the present
study. In our present study illite has been adopted as a term of a
o
more descriptive nature, for all "10A material."
This further leads to the necessity here for a brief discussion of our
handling of the matter of "interstratified," or "mixed-layer" materials.
In view of the problems regarding the unraveling of diffraction effects
from polycomponent assemblages, it seems best to merely generalize in a
descriptive manner with respect to mixed-layer materials in our samples.
22
The matter of mixed-layering has been dealt with recently by Hower,
23 24
Reynolds, and Reynolds and Hower treating the problem of varying de-
grees of ordering within these materials, for simplified cases. The
natural assemblages are undoubtedly more complex, and thus even less
151
-------
amenable to clear understanding with our present methods. As pointed
o r:
out by Mills and Zwarich , the recognition and interpretations of inter-
stratifications in clay mineral assemblages are often extremely difficult,
and in the fine clay fractions attention must also be given to line-
broadening effects on diffraction maxima resulting from very small parti-
cle sizes.
Smectitic materials are those which possess residual interlayer charges
resulting from deviations from electrostatic neutrality within the "ba-
sic lattice" of the minerals such that equilibrium exchange of K coord-
inated with water molecules into the interlayer sites is manifested by a
O
basal spacing in the 12.5A region by X-ray analysis, under our experi-
mental conditions. In "degraded" micas, etc., this residual interlayer
charge is somewhat higher (i.e. of a more negative character) such that
K ions enter the exchange sites without the water molecules, leading to
o
the smaller (i.e. M.OA) interplanar distances observed. The other
treatments described in this section are further examples of this
approach.
3. Saturation with MaCl (IN) - This is done in order to ascertain the
effects of the interaction between Na ions, the various clay mineral
phases, and the aqueous phase. The Na ion as such is apparently not as
stable in the interlayer sites of degraded micas as the larger K ion,
and its relationship to degraded phases is not clearly defined under our
experimental conditions. However, smectitic materials effect an equili-
brium with Na and coordinated water molecules such that basal spacings
o
in the 12.5A region are observed by X-ray analysis.
4. Saturation with MgCl« (IN) - Although both vermiculitic and smecti-
I [
tic phases appear to adopt an equilibrium with Mg and water such that
o
a basal spacing of about 14A results, the smectitic materials will sub-
sequently re-equilibrate with ethylene glycol in such a manner that a
152
-------
basal spacing in the neighborhood of 17A results, whereas vermiculites
do not seem to show the same effect. "Degraded" chlorites, representing
the chloritic analogs of vermiculites and "degraded" micas, also readily
-
equilibrate with Mg
odicity the result.
-H- °
equilibrate with Mg ions and the aqueous phase, with a 14A basal peri-
5. Saturation with Ca(C H 0 ) (IN) - Smectites, Ca , and water equi-
_ z j ^ z _ o
librate in such a manner that a basal spacing of about 15A results,
whereas the behavior of vermiculites and degraded micas is somewhat in-
determinate. Although this treatment was not overly useful in itself in
delineating clay mineral species, it served as a necessary antecedent in
affecting exchange of the same ion onto smectite phases in all samples
prior to further heat treatments of these samples. The latter treat-
ments did prove to be quite informative.
6. Saturation with Filtered Sea Water - This treatment was performed
in order to investigate the mutual equilibrium relationships among the
major cations present in sea water, the aqueous phase, and the clay min-
eral phases, having analogous data from the other treatments described
above for individual cations.
7. Saturation with Ethylene Glycol of each Cation Saturated Sample,
after X-Ray Diffraction Analysis - In order to compare the effects of
the various cation treatments, each specimen was saturated with ethylene
glycol, and re-analyzed by X-ray diffraction. The resultant differences,
for a given sample, in peak positions and intensities, were quite inform-
ative with respect to characterizing the mineral phases.
8. Heat Treatment - After X-ray analysis, each calcium acetate treat-
ed specimen was heated in a muffle furnace for one hour at 300°C, and re-
analyzed by X-ray diffraction. This treatment drives off the loosely
bound interlayer water molecules from sraectitic and vermiculitic materials,
153
-------
but has no appreciable effect on illitic, kaolinitic, or chloritic
components. The resultant basal spacing for smectites and vermiculites
coincides, in general, with that of illites and micas, in the neighbor-
o
hood of 10A. A useful comparison is possible here between the efficacy
of KC1 treatment and 300°C treatment, for a given sample, in "collapsing"
the hydrated "expandable" smectitic-vermiculitic layers present to this
o
10A periodicity.
9. Heat Treatments, One Hour at 430°C Followed by One Hour at 550°C -
Such step-wise heat treatment helps to differentiate kaolinite from chlo-
9 f\ *) 7 I 4^
rite. ' The same Ca saturated specimens previously heated at
300°C and 430°C were utilized for the 550°C heat treatment.
10. Slow-Scanning, 20° to 28°29 - This was undertaken to resolve the
presence or absence of kaolinite and
saturated specimens were considered.
O Q
presence or absence of kaolinite and chlorite. For this treatment KC1
11. HC1 Treatment - Aliquots of each particle size from samples KR-1 and
CR-7 were subjected to treatment with IN HC1 at 80°C for 24 hours, and
then analyzed by X-ray diffraction, using "slow-scanning" procedure.
This method afforded the verification of the presence or absence of chlo-
28
rite and kaolinite in the clays.
29
Pierce and Siegel have discussed at length the problems encountered
with respect to attempts at quantifying clay mineral analyses. For sam-
ples under detailed study we determined, following the suggestion of
29
Pierce and Siegel, the areas of various diffraction peaks of interest,
*
and tabulated these as our basic data. We have also calculated various
ratios of peak areas of interest, and used these in attempting to
*
Basic data obtainable from the authors upon request.
154
-------
elucidate clay mineral relationships. However, in order to compare our
gross clay mineral data (in the <2um e.s.d. size) with those of other
areas of the world we have used the method of attempting to quantify clay
30
mineral analysis given by Biscaye.
Total Fe, Mn, Ca, Mg, K, Na, Li, Rb, Cu and Co were analyzed by atomic
absorption spectrometry, using a Perkin-Elmer, Model 303 unit. Sample
preparation and analytical procedure were similar to those described by
31
Naidu and Hood. Accuracy of the elemental analysis was checked by
analyzing U.S.G.S. standard rocks G-2 and AGV-1, and comparing the re-
32
suits with those compiled by Flanagan. The precision in the major
elemental analysis was better than + 4 percent, and for Cu and Co it was
about + 12 percent. Organic carbon was determined in a Beckman disperse-
beam infra-red analyzer, following the analytical steps outlined by
33
Loder. Precision and accuracy of the organic carbon analysis are better
than + 5 percent and 11 percent, respectively. Carbonate in sediments was
~ 34
analyzed by the rapid but accurate gasometric method.
RESULTS
Textural Analysis
Gravel, sand, silt and clay percentages of the sediments are presented
in Table 1. The majority of the sediments are either sands, silty-
sands or, have equal proportions of sand, silt and clay. There are
only a few samples that have more than 1 percent gravel; the weight
percentages of gravel in samples AJT-22, AJT-29 and KR-1 are 3.84, 24.1
and 12.7, respectively. No marked vertical variations in the lithology
were observed in short (1 to 2.5 ft) cores of Simpson Lagoon.
The proportions of gravel-sand, silt and clay in the deltaic sediments
of the north slope under study are plotted in a triangular diagram (Fig.
3). No significant difference exists between the field of plots of
155
-------
TABLE 1. STATISTICAL GRAIN SIZE PARAMETERS OF DELTAIC AND SHALLOW MARINE SEDIMENTS, NORTH ARCTIC ALASKA
Sample
No.
HB-1
HB-2
HB-3
HB-4
HB-5
HB-6
HB-7
AJT-31
AJT-32
CT-14
KR-1
AJT-1
AJT-2
AJT-3
AJT-4
AJT-6
AJT-8
AJT-10
AJT-12
AJT-13
AJT-14
AJT-15
AJT-37
AJT-38
AJT-39
Environment
HB
HB
HB
HB
HB
HB
HB
HB
HB
HB
LG
LG
LG
LG
LG
LG
LG
LG
LG
LG
LG
LG
LG
LG
LG
Water
depth,
m
3.2
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
2.8
2.3
7.6
8.5
0.5
3.2
2.5
8.5
11.3
4.6
6.7
5.0
5.2
4.0
4.9
2.6
2.1
1.5
2.1
Gravel
%
0.2
0.5
Sand
%
12.1
68.1
96.2
15.3
95.9
6.1
14.9
31.2
55.5
37.8
12.7
84.8
8.9
22.2
70.5
94.3
55.4
81.2
31.5
28.8
17.3
65.0
58.0
43.4
23.0
Silt
%
66.9
21.0
1.6
71.2
2.8
80.1
78.0
50.1
39.1
26.5
77.5
6.8
68.3
31.4
9.8
2.3
28.2
9.4
51.8
41.8
59.5
23.3
31.5
44.7
68.8
Clay
%
21.1
10.9
2.2
13.6
1.3
13.8
7.1
18.8
5.4
36.6
1.8
8.4
22.8
46.5
19.7
3.3
16.5
9.4
16.7
29.5
23.2
11.8
10.5
12.0
8.2
Median
(Md)
6.60
2.93
2.85
6.88
3.00
5.52
4.38
6.15
3.85
4.34
2.52
3.08
5.95
6.15
3.25
2.68
3.68
2.15
4.50
6.00
4.98
3.72
2.97
4.62
4.38
Mean
(Mz)
6.81
4.26
2.85
6.52
3.02
5.88
5.43
5.48
4.10
5.58
2.05
3.33
6.67
6.95
3.77
2.70
4.82
2.87
5.87
6.62
6.23
4.87
4.21
4.79
4.76
Sorting
<°I>
2.41
2.38
0.33
2.23
0.39
2.25
1.83
2.90
1.54
2.76
1.90
1.82
2.89
3.54
2.89
0.52
3.23
2.59
3.05
3.47
3.08
2.78
2.25
2.50
1.88
Skewness
(SKX)
0.10
0.83
0.16
-0.10
0.15
0.51
0.76
-0.20
0.49
0.45
-0.42
0.77
0.47
0.37
0.73
0.28
0.66
0.84
0.75
0.35
0.66
0.82
0.56
0.23
0.43
Kurtosi
-------
TABLE 1. (continued) STATISTICAL GRAIN SIZE PARAMETERS OF DELTAIC AND SHALLOW MARINE SEDIMENTS, NORTH ARCTIC ALASKA
Sample
No.
AJT-33
AJT-34
AJT-35
AJT-36
AJT-25
AJT-27
AJT-28
AJT-29
AJT-17
AJT-19
AJT-21
AJT-22
AJT-30
CR-1
CR-2
CR-3
CR-4
CR-5
CR-6
CR-8
CR-9
CR-10
Environment
OM
OM
OM
OM
OM
OM
OM
OM
OM
OM
OM
OM
OM
CR
CR
CR
CR
CR
CR
CR
CR
CR
Water
depth,
m
16.2
18.0
19.8
17.1
18.3
19.2
18.0
14.6
4.6
8.8
16.8
20.4
7.6
Gravel
%
0.6
0.9
24.6
24.1
81.5
47.1
0.3
69.4
12.0
Sand
%
34.6
59.3
34.0
92.9
50.7
49.3
49.3
56.1
7.1
45.5
85.7
45.2
76.7
16.8
50.7
97.2
83.9
25.6
24.0
79.2
91.2
90.3
Silt
%
26.9
20.2
27.5
3.0
26.2
24.7
34.6
12.6
45.4
28.3
4.9
11.5
19.7
1.0
1.9
2.1
10.5
1.0
51.0
4.8
2.8
1.1
Clay
7,
38.6
20.5
37.9
3.2
23.1
26.1
16.1
6.7
47.5
26.2
9.4
19.2
3.6
0.7
0.3
0.4
5.6
4.0
25.0
4.0
6.0
8.6
Median
(Md)
6.65
3.15
8.25
3.00
3.75
4.40
4.02
1.52
7.72
4.22
2.58
2.15
2.22
Mean
(Mz)
6.50
4.79
7.10
3.02
4.10
5.37
4.74
1.22
8.12
6.08
2.68
3.22
2.72
-2.38
-1.32
1.93
3.19
-1.78
5.86
1.93
2.63
3.26
Sorting
-------
00
D
CLAY
Open marine deltaic
Lagoon
Bay
SAND 3
GRAVEL
30.
IQ
.90
80
60
40
20
SILT
Figure 3. Sand-silt—clay perceiits in deltaic sediments of the North Slope
of Alaska.
-------
the lagoon and bay sediments, although plots of the open marine deltaic
facies can be discriminated. Comparison of the size analysis data in
14
Table 1 and that presented by Burrell et at. distinctly show that on
the basis of gravel contents offshore deltaic and nondeltaic shelf sedi-
ments have different lithologies. The deltaic sediments, as mentioned
earlier, rarely have gravels, whereas 72 percent of the shelf sediments of the
Beaufort Sea do contain gravels.
Grain-size statistical parameters of the sediments from Harrison Bay,
Simpson Lagoon and the adjacent shallow marine environment are similar
(Table 1).
The relationships between Phi Mean Size (M ), and Sorting (a ) and Skew-
Z X
ness (SK ) of sediments are illustrated in the form of scatterplots (Figs.
4, 5 and &). There are definite clusterings of plots for the different
environments, although some overlapping of field of the plots is dis-
cernible. The trends of the plots including all sediments except those
of the Colville River show that there are broad relationships between
Phi Mean Size and Sorting (Fig. 4) and Phi Mean Size and Skewness val-
ues of sediments for individual environments (Fig. 5). With decreased
sorting, the sediment size distributions appear to be less skewed on
the finer size grades (Fig. 6).
Heavy Mineral Analysis
There are no unusually high concentrations of heavy minerals in any of
the sand sizes (Table 2). In fact, the contents of heavy minerals are
quite low. Relatively higher percentages of heavy minerals are general-
ly observed in progressively finer size fractions of any one sand sample.
Clay Mineral Analysis
The weighted peak area percents (after Biscaye ) of clay minerals in
159
-------
/
6
5
4
3
2
1
i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i
D Open marine deltaic
* Lagoon
* Bay
+ Backshore Dn
o Foreshore
- • Colville River
D
* CP D
• LJ r~i
D ^
•*'•:?•*$?:'• °D o
o * ^ •* i • ^
• •* • tr0- * *•*
• + . • •• ?*"***
O ^U ^/ ^ ^ ^^
*+° *.*•>
1 1 1 1 1 1 (*" 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Extremely poorly
sorted
Very poorly
sorted
Poorly sorted
Moderately sorted
Well sorted
Very well sorted
-2
M7
6
8
IO
12
Figure 4. Scatterplot of phi mean size (M2) versus standard deviati
sediment size distributions, North Slope of Alaska.
of
-------
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.3
0.0
- 0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
1 ' 1 ' 1 ' 1 ' 1 1 ' 1
• ».•?
»••••*.
• ;/.•
. : «v *°
0 % *« .*
• •
*. * v v
o *- • D #*.'.* •""•
a *»i .*. . n
+ + ° + D 5 ' *' ' o
' °+o'+ + .« ." ,*t. . °
<*.. •:;.-*•
o " % •* D a
+ o . . D a a
+ * a # *
+ ° o D * . a,
2 ° -?o °* • '
o + 1- •
M + • *
*
+
+ *
a
+ + . •
+ ++ +
-H- +
-H-
0 a Cioi?/? marine dehaic
. " • Lagoon
<° *^
^° + Backshore
, °o o Foreshore
• C9/V///I? /9/i/er _
1,1,1,1,1.1.1
l/er/ Positive
Skewed
Positive
Skewed
Nearly
Symmetrical
Negative
Skewed
Very
Negative
Skewed
-20 2 4 6 8 10
Mz
Figure 5. Scatterplot of phi mean size (Mz) versus
skewness (Skj) of sediment size distri-
butions, North Slope of Alaska.
161
-------
t
0.8
D«
O.6
• /•
0.4
0.2
0^0 ••^jt« «Q
of
«
o
n D*
Very positive
Positive
skewed
.04,
-O.2
* D D
o
D
Nearly
symmetrical
Negative
skewed
-0.4
-O.6
-O.8
+ t
o +-H-
o
Very negative
skewed
a Open marine deltaic
• Lagoon
+ Backshore
o Foreshore
0
2
3
0
Figure 6. Standard deviation (aj) versus skewness (Sk ) of size dis-
tributions, North Slope of Alaska.
162
-------
TABLE 2. WEIGHT PERCENTAGES OF LIGHT AND HEAVY MINERALS IN THE DELTAIC
AND SHALLOW MARINE SEDIMENTS, NORTH ARCTIC ALASKA.
SAMPLE +6° BB8h (0'75 - 2'04))
NUMBER
AJT-2
AJT-6
AJT-10
AJT-12
AJT-37
AJT-38
AJT-39
AJT-17
AJT-19
AJT-21
AJT-23
AJT-40
AJT-43
4-B
9-A
HB-1
HB-2
HB-3
HB-4
HB-5
HB-6
HB-7
LIGHT
99.95
98.82
99.91
-
99.71
99.92
-
-
98.22
99.37
99.85
-
95.09
-
99.73
-
99.63
-
-
-
-
-
HEAVY
0.05
1.18
0.09
-
0.29
0.08
-
-
1.78
0.63
0.15
-
4.91
-
0.27
-
0.37
-
-
-
-
-
+120 mesh (2.0 - 3.0(|>)
LIGHT
99.20
97.30
95.21
-
—
99.63
-
-
97.56
98.42
99.37
99.69
97.47
99.92
98.69
97.94
99.64
98.90
-
99.91
-
-
HEAVY
0.80
2.70
4.79
—
—
0.37
-
-
2.44
1.58
0.63
0.31
2.53
0.08
1.71
2.06
0.36
1.10
—
0.09
-
-
+230 mesh
LIGHT
98.30
90.96
86.01
99.05
—
98.35
99.63
98.00
96.65
90.18
99.17
98.86
94.36
99.20
96.70
98.54
97.14
95.20
99.27
73.50
99.55
99.59
(3.0 - 4.0)
HEAVY
1.70
9.04
13.99
0.95
-
1.65
0.37
2.0
3.35
9.82
0.83
1.14
5.64
0.80
3.30
1.46
2.86
4.80
0.73
26.50
0.45
0.41
163
-------
the <2ym e.s.d. size of the deltaic sediments of north arctic Alaska are
presented, together with ratios of these percents, in Table 3. The per-
centages are classed according to depositional environments. Some lat-
eral variations in clay mineral assemblages and ratios are apparent. In
fact, a line of demarcation between two clay mineral facies can be drawn
somewhat arbitrarily from Oliktok Point and extending northward perpen-
dicular to the coast (Fig. 1). To the west of this line sediments are
relatively richer in smectite and kaolinite, whereas east of the line
relatively higher amounts of illite are encountered. This fact is well
exemplified by the presence of higher illite/smectite and illite/kaolin-
ite ratios east of Oliktok Point (Table 3). No progressive downstream
changes have been observed in clay mineral assemblages in the <2pm e.s.d.
size over the last 161km length of the Colville River (Fig. 7). The
clay mineral assemblages of samples CR-4 and CR-5 are unusually rich in
smectite. It may be noted that at the points where these two samples
were collected (Figs. 1 and 2) two tributaries - Ingaluat Creek and
Kogosukruk River respectively - flow into the Colville River. Sample 8,
which was collected at the point of confluence of the Itkillik River
tributary with the Colville River (Figs. 1 and 2), has a great paucity
of smectite and notably higher chlorite and kaolinite (Table 3). Typi-
cal X-ray diffraction traces of non-glycolated, <2um e.s.d. sizes of
Colville River clays, and to a lesser degree the nearshore deltaic clays
as well, show a broad shoulder on the low angle side of the illite
32
peak. The presence of this shoulder suggests that the illite in these
samples is associated with some other clay mineral components as mixed-
layer phases. Our detailed clay mineral studies indicate the presence
of mixed-layered illitic materials with associated interlayers of chlo-
rite and/or smectite components, as well as the possible occurrence of
degraded illite and/or chlorite in these sediments.
164
-------
TABLE 3. CLAY MINERAL COMPOSITIONS OF DELTAIC AND SHALLOW MARINE SEDIMENTS, NORTH ARCTIC ALASKA
Sample
Number
CR-1
CR-2
CR-3
CR-4
CR-5
CR-6
QR-7
CR-8
CR-9
CR-11
CR-12
CR-1 3
CR-14
CR-15
CR-16
CRWC
CR-1 7
CR-1 8
CR-10
12-A
4-B
HB-1
HE- 2
HB-3
HB-4
HB-5
Smectite
9
9
17
55
44
14
15
2
13
43
53
40
31
22
31
14
41
30
12
17
25
22
30
19
24
14
Illlte
61
59
51
32
38
54
53
51
47
38
29
36
43
51
49
56
36
49
48
60
52
52
40
54
50
61
Kaollnite
9
11
11
3
5
11
10
15
14
8
7
7
6
8
7
10
7
6
8
11
5
7
12
7
7
7
Chlorite
21
21
21
10
13
21
22
32
26
11
11
17
20
19
14
20
16
15
32
12
18
19
18
19
19
17
Kaollnite
Chlorite
Ratios
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.5
0.5
0.7
0.6
0.4
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.9
0.3
0.4
0.7
0.4
0.4
0.4
Smectite
Chlorite
Ratios
0.4
0.4
0.8
5.5
3.4
0.7
0.7
0.1
0.5
3.9
4.8
2.4
1.6
1.2
2.2
0.7
2.6
2.0
0.4
1.4
1.4
1.2
1.7
1.2
1.3
0.9
Illite
Smectite
Ratios
7
7
3
1
1
4
4
25
4
1
1
1
1
2
2
4
1
2
4
4
2
2
1
3
2
4
Smectite
Kaolin! te
Ratios
1.0
0.8
1.5
18.0
8.8
1.3
1.5
0.1
0.9
5.4
7.6
5.7
5.2
2.8
4.4
1.4
5.9
5.0
4.0
1.6
5.0
3.1
2.5
2.7
3.4
1.9
Illite
Kaolinite
Ratios
7
5
5
11
8
5
5
3
3
5
4
5
7
6
7
6
5
8
6
6
10
7
3
8
7
8
Illite
Chlorite
Ratios
3
3
2
3
3
3
2
2
2
3
3
2
2
3
4
3
2
3
6
6
10
.7
3
3
7
4
Environment
F(171)
F(136)
F(120)
F(107)
F(91)
F(74)
F(58)
F(45)
F(35)
F(33)
F(28)
F(24)
F(20)
F(15)
F(9)
F(8)
F(5)
F(0)
F(0)
HB
HB
HB
HB
HB
HB
HB
Cn
vJeighted peak area percents (see reference 30)
F: Fluvial Channel (figures in parenthesis indicate distance in km from Colville River mouth)
HB:
LG:
OM:
Tr:
Ab:
Harrison Bay
Lagoon
Open Marine
Trace
Absent
-------
TABLE 3. (continued) CLAY MINERAL COMPOSITIONS3 OF DELTAIC AND SHALLOW MARINE SEDIMENTS, NORTH ARCTIC ALASKA
Sample
Number
HB-6
HB-7
AJT-32
AJT-31
KR-1
AJT-30
AJT-33
AJT-1
AJT-2
AJT-3
AJT-4
AJT-6
AJT-8
AJT-10
AJT-12
AJT-13
AJT-14
AJT-15
AJT-3 7
AJT-38
AJT-39
AJT-29
AJT-36
AJT-2 8
BSS-7
AJT-27
Smectite
29
21
15
14
Tr
16
8
Tr
1
2
2
1
Tr
1
Ab
Ab
1
Ab
5
13
15
11
14
12
2
5
Illite
46
52
58
55
78
58
61
69
71
49
69
68
76
77
79
80
75
85
70
65
59
68
59
68
67
68
Kaolinite
6
5
11
11
8
9
15
13
7
12
11
13
6
7
6
9
7
4
7
8
12
7
11
7
9
11
Chlorite
19
22
16
20
14
17
16
18
21
37
18
18
18
15
15
11
17
11
18
14
14
15
16
14
22
16
Kaolinite
Chlorite
Ratios
0.3
0.2
0.7
0.6
0.6
0.5
0.9
0.7
0.3
0.3
0.6
0.7
0.3
0.5
0.4
0.8
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.4
0.7
0.5
0.4
0.7
Smectite
Chlorite
Ratios
1.5
1.0
0.9
0.7
0.9
0.5
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.3
1.0
1.1
0.7
0.9
0.9
0.1
0.3
Illite
Smectite
Ratios
2
2
4
4
>78
4
8
>69
71
24
35
68
>76
77
>79
>80
75
>85
14
5
4
6
4
6
33
13
Smectite
Kaolinite
Ratios
4.8
4.2
1.4
1.3
<0.1
1.8
0.5
<0.1
0.1
0.2
0.2
<0.1
<0.1
0.1
<0.1
0.7
1.6
1.3
1.6
1.3
1.8
0.2
0.5
Illite
Kaolinite
Ratios
8
10
5
5
10
6
4
5
10
4
6
5
13
11
13
9
11
21
10
8
5
10
5
10
7
6
Illite
Chlorite
Ratios
2
2
4
3
6
3
4
4
3
1
4
4
4
5
5
7
4
8
4
5
4
5
4
5
3
4
Environment
HB
HB
HB
HB
LG
HB
HB
LG
LG
LG
LG
LG
LG
LG
LG
LG
LG
LG
LG
LG
LG
OM
OM
OM
OM
OM
Weighted peak area percents (see reference 30)
F: Fluvial Channel (figures in parenthesis indicate distance in km from Colville River mouth)
HB: Harrison Bay
LG: Lagoon
OM: Open Marine
Tr: Trace
Ab: Absent
-------
TABLE 3. (continued) CLAY MINERAL COMPOSITIONS3 OF DELTAIC AND SHALLOW MARINE SEDIMENTS, NORTH ARCTIC ALASKA
Sample
Number
AJT-34
AJT-35
CT-14
BSS-5
BSS-6
BSS-24
GLA-79
GLA-71
BSSr23
BSS-14
BSS-88
GLA-72
BSS-87
BSS-62
BSS-85
BSS-22
GLA-74
BSS-93
BSS-91
AJT-17
AJT-19
AJT-21
AJT-22
AJT-25
AJT-26
AJT-40
AJT-43
Smectite
8
2
10
6
2
11
14
9
21
16
11
14
7
18
6
15
16
24
5
3
2
5
4
10
5
13
9
Illite
60
60
67
67
63
64
57
66
55
59
61
56
61
57
63
61
58
54
60
55
71
65
68
67
63
64
67
Kaolinite
14
11
7
12
7
8
11
9
8
8
11
10
14
9
12
6
10
9
10
12
11
10
6
7
10
6
10
Chlorite
18
27
17
15
28
17
18
16
17
17
17
20
18
16
19
19
17
14
25
30
16
20
22
15
21
17
14
Kaolinite
Chlorite
Ratios
0.8
0.4
oy.
0.8
0.3
0.5
0.6
0.6
0.5
0.5
0.7
0.5
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.3
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.7
0.5
0.3
0.5
0.5
0.3
0.7
Smectite
Chlorite
Ratios
0.4
0.1
0.6
0.4
0.1
0.7
0.8
0.6
1.0
1.0
0.7
0.7
0.4
1.1
0.3
0.8
1.0
1.8
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.3
0.2
0.7
0.3
0.8
0.6
Illite
Smectite
Ratios
8
30
7
11
32
6
4
7
3
4
6
4
9
3
11
4
4
2
12
18
36
13
17
7
12
5
8
Smectite
Kaolinite
Ratios
0.6
0.2
1.4
0.5
0.3
1.5
1.2
1.0
2.7
2.0
1.0
1.5
0.5
1.9
0.5
2.7
1.6
2.8
0.5
0.3
0.2
0.5
0.5
1.5
0.5
2.4
0.9
Illite
Kaolinite
Ratios
4
6
10
6
9
9
5
7
7
7
6
6
4
6
5
11
6
6
6
5
7
7
11
10
6
5
7
Illite
Chlorite
Ratios
3
2
4
5
2
2
3
4
3
4
4
3
3
4
3
3
4
4
2
2
4
3
3
4
3
4
5
Environment
OM
OM
OM
OM
OM
OM
OM
OM
OM
OM
OM
OM
OM
OM
OM
OM
OM
OM
OM
OM
OM
OM
OM
OM
OM
OM
OM
Weighted peak area percents (see reference 30)
F: Fluvial Channel (figures in parenthesis indicate distance in km from Colville River mouth)
HB: Harrison Bay
LG: Lagoon
OM: Open Marine
Tr: Trace
Ab: Absent
-------
TABLE 3. (continued) CLAY MINERAL COMPOSITIONS OF DELTAIC AND SHALLOW MARINE SEDIMENTS, NORTH ARCTIC ALASKA
Sample
Number
GLA-86
GLA-73
GLA-75
GLA-77
APB-68
SAG.R
Smectite
10
11
20
14
5
2
Illite
64
67
60
60
69
69
Kaolinite
6
8
7
10
9
6
Chlorite
20
13
13
17
17
24
Kaolinite
Chlorite
Ratios
0.3
0.6
0.5
0.6
0.6
0.3
Smectite
Chlorite
Ratios
0.5
0.8
1.5
0.8
0.2
0.1
Illite
Smect.i.te
Ratios
7
6
3
4
14
40
Smectite
Kaolinite
Ratios
1.6
1.3
2.9
1.3
0.5
0.2
Illite
Kaolinite
Ratios
11
8
9
6
7
12
Illite
Chlorite
Ratios
3
5
5
4
4
3
Environment
OM
OM
OM
OM
OM
F
CO
weighted peak area percents (see reference 30)
F: Fluvial Channel (figures in parenthesis indicate distance in km from Cclville River mouth)
HB: Harrison Bay
LG: Lagoon
OM: Open Marine
Tr: Trace
Ab: Absent
-------
VO
SAMPLE No.
100
UJ
or
UJ
a_
a:
LU
<
_i
o
oc.cn oc. a: cr a:
oo o o o o
I I..I..I I
90
DISTANCE, Km
Figure 7» Variations of clay mineral assemblages in the Colville River.
COLV/LLE R.
MOUTH
-------
Chemical Analysis
Results of chemical analysis of the deltaic sediments of north arctic
Alaska are presented in Table 4. For the purpose of comparison, the av-
erage elemental abundances of the deltaic sediments and those of the non-
35
deltaic shelf and extrashelf of the Beaufort Sea are included in Table
5.
Organic carbon contents in the deltaic sediments of north arctic Alaska
are significantly lower than those observed in tropical deltaic sedi-
O {_ O 7
ments. ' It is observed that there is a progressive seaward in-
crease in organic carbon and a decrease in carbonate contents of sedi-
ments from the delta to the extrashelf through the shelf (Table 5). In
fact there is a great enrichment of carbonate and Ca in the deltaic sedi-
ments under study.
38
When compared to sediments of the marine facies of tropical deltas, '
39 40 41
' ' the concentrations of Fe, Mn, and K are significantly lower
and those of Ca, Mg, Na, Co and Cu are higher in the deltaic sediments
of north arctic Alaska (Table 5). However, in the far offshore non-
deltaic shelf and extrashelf sediments the relative concentrations of
all elements except Ca and Co are significantly higher than those ob-
served in the north arctic Alaskan deltas (Table 5).
Within the delta, the order of average carbonate abundance in the vari-
ous environments is as follows: lagoon (12.06%) > open marine (7.48%) >
Harrison Bay (4.12%). On an average the contents of organic carbon are
similar in the Bay (0.77%) and lagoon (0.79%) sediments, but sediments
of the open marine deltaic facies have relatively lower organic carbon
(0.58%).
170
-------
Table 4.
CHEMISTRY OF DELTAIC AND SHALLOW MARINE SEDIMENTS, NORTH ARCTIC ALASKA.
(chemical parameters are In weight per cents.)
Sample
AJT 1
AJT 2
AJT 3
AJT 4
AJT 6
AJT 8
AJT 10
AJT 12
AJT 13
AJT 14
AJT 15
AJT 17
AJT 19
AJT 21
AJT 22
AJT 25
AJT 26
AJT 29
AJT 30
AJT 31
AJT 32
AJT 33
AJT 35
AJT 36
AJT 37
AJT 38
AJT 39
AJT 40
AJT 43
HB 1
HB 2
HB 3
HB 4
HB 5
HB 6
HB 7
Water
depth,
to
3.2
2.5
8.5
11.3
4.6
6.7
5.0
5.2
4.0
4.9
2.6
4.6
8.8
16.8
20.4
18.3
17.7
14.6
7.6
7.6
8.5
1-6.2
19.8
17.1
2.1
1.5
2.1
10.4
14.0
3.2
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
2.8
2.3
Gravel
7.
24.10
0.15
24.64
0.60
0.91
Sand
7.
84.78
8.92
22.19
70.48
94.34
55.39
81.22
31.53
28.75
17 .27
64.96
7.08
45.47
85.70
45.21
50.74
98.53
56.05
76.68
31.20
55.52
34.56
33.99
92.85
57.98
43.35
22.96
22.78
17.83
12.05
68.11
96.21
15.25
95.91
6.08
14.85
Silt
%
6.81
68.25
31.36
9.83
2.31
28.16
9,41
51.75
41,77
59.50
23.29
45.42
28,31
4.89
11.51
26.17
0.86
12.57
19.74
50.05
39.06
26.88
27.50
3,04
31.53
44.70
68.81
64.79
45.66
66.86
20.95
1.56
71.18
2.78
80.13
78.01
Clay
7.
8.40
22.81
46.47
19.68
3.34
16.45
9.37
16.72
29.48
23.23
11.75
47.50
26.22
9.41
19.16
23.09
0.46
6.74
3.58
18.77
5.41
38.57
37.92
3.20
10.49
11.95
8.24
12.44
36.52
21.09
10.94
2.23
13.57
1.31
13.79
7.13
Org.
carbon
0.22
0.98
0.89
0.19
0.30
0.49
0.33
0.84
0.78
0.59
2.23
1.36
0.70
0.36
0.38
0.83
0.09
0.36
0.42
1.32
0.19
0.67
0.61
0.19
1.22
1.51
0.53
2.25
0.60
1.13
0.67
0.17
1.40
0.15
1.15
0.80
co3=
17.2
16.6
13.9
14.2
5.8
12.5
3.0
16.9
11.7
15.2
15.3
14.2
14.2
4.6
11.2
4.1
4.5
2.3
7.5
4.0
5.7
6.8
4.2
5.7
8.1
10.0
8.5
12.1
11.8
2.4
7.8
0.9
2.4
1.2
3.1
9.6
Fe
1.30
1.94
0.91
1.30
1.30
1.72
1.51
2.14
2.15
2.36
2.22
3.14
1.85
1.41
2.09
3.20
0.99
1.45
1.54
2.95
1.42
2.80
3.10
1.52
2.10
1.80
2.80
2.60
3.00
3.21
2.50
2.65
3.65
3.10
2.50
2.20
Mn
0.022
0.026
0.019
0.020
0.028
0.022
0.029
0.027
0.032
0.032
0.029
0.046
0.031
0.026
0.033
0.045
0.015
0.019
0.022
0.051
0.017
0.030
0.042
0.024
0.029
0.021
0.032
0.036
0.042
0.058
0.051
0.029
0.051
0.051
0.050
0.032
Ca
10.560
8.960
7.040
7.640
9.400
6.960
2.288
8.720
8.200
9.480
8.200
9.080
6.640
2.440
6.440
5.560
1.912
1.516
5.600
2.668
5.520
5.080
5.840
6.320
2.100
6.960
5.920
1.280
0.496
0.820
1.280
2.380
5.880
0.808
Mg
0.488
1.100
1.604
1.820
0.880
1.524
0.644
1.660
1.604
2.044
1.150
1.708
1.044
2.680
1.876
1.000
0.680
0.784
1.060
0.884
1.572
0.980
1.004
1.120
1.400
2.604
2.010
1.388
0.568
1.004
1.004
1.160
0.508
K
0.604
1.225
0.802
0.762
0.564
1.090
0.955
1.347
1.329
1.612
0.958
2.013
1.122
0.825
1.230
1.429
0.519
0.618
0.658
1.270
0.555
1.338
0.924
0.870
1.068
1.608
1.144
1.194
0.865
0.604
1.491
1.180
0.888
0.537
Na
1.292
1.520
1.344
1.356
1.320
1.468
1.372
1.460
1.800
1.784
1.494
2.092
1.068
1.244
1.620
1.476
1.296
0.960
1.008
2.092
0.968
1.372
0.976
0.672
1.292
1.444
1.120
1.580
1.792
1.620
2.520
1.600
1.924
2.176
1.444
1.420
LI
0.0018
0.0033
0.0015
0.0015
0.0013
0.0023
0.0015
0.0033
U.0032
0.0036
0.0028
0.0048
0.0028
0.0019
0.0023
0.0038
0.0008
0 . 0018
0.0018
0.0035
0.0018
0.0038
0.0037
0.0016
0.0029
0.0026
0.0030
0.0033
0.0041
0.0038
0.0028
0.0018
0.0043
0.0036
0.0029
0.0018
Rb
0.0010
0.0045
0.0017
0.0015
0 . 0015
0.0025
0.0038
0.0039
0.0045
0.0058
0.0027
0.0078
0.0027
0.0016
0.0039
0.0053
0.0027
0.0024
0.0022
0.0050
0.0016
0.0056
0.0042
0.0020
0.0039
0.0038
0.0043
0.0042
0.0058
0.0042
0.0025
0.0015
0.0061
0.0045
0.0029
0.0016
Cu
0 . 0034
0.0010
0.0005
0.0020
0.0040
0.0010
0.0020
0.0145
0.0073
0.0055
0.0067
0.0075
0.0010
0.0020
0.0047
0.0040
0.0008
0 . 0015
0.0030
0.0032
0.0014
0.0025
0.0032
0.0013
0.0022
0.0025
010024
0.0025
0.0030
0.0032
0.0025
0.0007
0.0033
0.0025
0.0027
0.0013
Co
0.0025
0.0025
0.0017
0.0022
0.0022
0.0020
0.0021
0.0025
0.0042
0.0057
0.0032
0.0055
0.0030
0.0020
0.0022
SMTa
0.3
1
2
2
1
0.3
1
0
0
1
0
3
2
5
4
10
5
11
16
14
15
8
2
14
5
13
15
13
9
22
30
19
24
14
29
21
ILTa
69
71
49
69
68
76
77
79
80
75
85
55
71
65
68
67
63
68
58
55
58
61
60
59
70
65
59
64
67
52
40
54
50
61
46
52
KLTa
13
7
12
11
13
6
7
6
9
7
4
12
11
10
6
7
10
7
9
11
11
15
5
11
7
8
12
6
10
7
12
7
7
7
6
5
CLTa
18
21
37
18
18
18
15
15
11
17
11
30
16
20
22
15
21
15
17
20
16
16
27
16
18
14
14
17
14
19
18
19
19
17
19
22
SMT: Smectire; ILT: Illlte; KLT: Kaollnlte; CLT: Chlorite
-------
Table 5. AVERAGE ABUNDANCES OF ELEMENTS AND RATIOS IN DELTAIC AND MARINE
SEDIMENTS, NORTH ARCTIC ALASKA.
(all elemental abundances are expressed as weight percent.)
Chemical
component
Corg
CO -
Fe3
Mn
Ca
Mg
Na
K
Rb
Li
Co
Cu
Mn/Fe
Na/K
Ca/Mg
Delta
0.72
8.51
2.11
0.03
5.29
1.28
1.47
1.04
0.0035
0.0027
0.0029
0.0031
0.02
1.41
4.13
Nondeltaic
shelf
(<64m)a
0.95
4.80
3.57
0.03
0.42
2.22
1.59
2.30
0.0097
0.0047
0.0029
0.0057
0.01
0.69
0.19
Extrashelf
(>64m)a
1.19
2.75
3.52
0.09
0.22
1.73
1.97
2.03
0.0084
0.0043
0.0028
0.0059
0.02
0.97
0.13
See reference 31.
172
-------
DISCUSSION
Sediment Transport and Deposition
Spatial variations in gross texture and grain size parameters of sedi-
ments are powerful tools to a sedimentologist in the inference of the
sediment source, direction of transport, and deposition, as well as in
deducing the physical competency and fluctuation of sedimentation over
a depositional area. Research on the deltaic sediments of north arctic
Alaska is incomplete and, therefore, some of the following conclusions
should be considered tentative.
An interesting observation in the north arctic delta under study is
that the sediments of the lagoon, bay and adjacent shallow marine fac-
ies (Table 1) lack gravel-sized materials, or, at most contain only in-
significant amounts. A similar observation was made by Tucker. He
analyzed some 100 sediments from the Simpson Lagoon and found a signif-
icant amount of gravel only in about six samples, and most of these
samples were located near the gravelly coastal or barrier beaches. This
paucity of gravel in the deltaic sediments is contrary to expectation,
because in the barriers and coastal beaches there is a ready source of
gravel. It was expected that the shorefast ice of these areas during
spring breakup would pick up gravels, ice-raft them offshore, and de-
posit most of these gravels in the lagoon and shallow marine facies of
the delta subsequent to melting of the ice. The aforementioned dearth
of gravel in the lagoon, bay and adjacent shallow marine area may be
attributed to one or a combination of the following factors: (i) Con-
temporary transport of gravel from the coastal and barrier beaches to
the lagoon, bay and open marine environments of the delta, by ice-
rafting and/or currents may be insignificant; (ii) The rate and amount
of sand, silt and clay deposition in the deltaic area may be relatively
much higher than that of gravel and, therefore, the amount of gravel
would be quantitatively greatly "diluted"; (iii) There is a possibili-
ty of error arising from the sample collection and analytical methods
173
-------
used; generally about 0.5kg of a sediment sample was collected from
each location, and from this about lOOgm were taken for size analysis.
To consistently detect and measure small amounts of gravel, it might
well be deemed necessary to take and utilize larger amounts of sample
materials.
Comparison of the size analysis data in Table 1 and that presented by
Burrell et al. and Naidu clearly shows that, on the basis of gravel
contents offshore or the deltaic and the contiguous nondeltaic shelf
sediments of north arctic Alaska have different lithologies. Unlike
the deltaic deposits, the shelf sediments frequently (72% of the sam-
ples) do have gravels. These lithological differences naturally lead
to the question of origin of the gravel on the nondeltaic shelf, which
35
has been discussed at length by Naidu. It is concluded that the bulk
of the exposed shelf gravel is a relict sediment. The relict origin
for most of the gravel on the shelf is primarily ascribed on the basis
of the following premises: (i) Observations to date show that contemp-
orary transport of gravel by ice-rafting to the Beaufort Sea shelf is
O "I fL O O
insignificant; ' ' (ii) There is no coarse to fine sediment gra-
dation from the coast to the outer shelf. This fact may be considered,
as suggested by Emery, and Swift et aZ.., as well as by several oth-
ers, a reliable criterion in establishing the relict nature of marine
sediments; (iii) The shelf gravel appears to be in disequilibrium with
present hydrodynamic conditions. Although no long term data on water
currents are available, good reasons exist to believe that at present
there are no bottom currents of sufficient strength to transport gravel
on the shelf. This is inferred indirectly from the presence of ferri-
manganic coatings and of growths of encrusting Bryozoa and tube-forming
polychaetous annelids only on the gravel surfaces facing the sediment
35
top. Naidu has interpreted, based on sediment interstitial water
studies, that the ferrimanganic coatings are contemporary precipitates.
If at present there were strong currents on the shelf to transport
174
-------
these gravels intermittently, it would be expected that the ferri-
manganic and biogenic encrustations would not be restricted solely to
the present gravel tops. The lack of strong currents at the present
time is also substantiated by heavy mineral studies, results of which
will be discussed in detail later in this report.
The processes by which the shelf gravels were transported and deposited
in the past remains a matter of speculation. Several possible origins -
fluvioglacial, glacial, ice-rafting or residual - may be suggested.
There is also the possibility that these gravels were laid down under
high energy conditions, similar to those prevalent in many littoral en-
44 45
vironments. On the basis of available data * it is most improbable
that, during the height of the last two major glaciations (i.e. Illino-
ian and Wisconsin), the continental glacial advances extended into and
beyond the northern coastal province of Alaska. As such, a glacial
and/or fluvioglacial origin for the shelf gravel seems unlikaly. No
rock outcrop on the present shelf has ever been reported and, therefore,
any possibility that the gravel is a contemporary marine residual depos-
it is ruled out. Earlier it was observed that there is an absence of
any apparent size-density relationship in the heavy mineral distribu-
tions in the sand-size particles of the Beaufort Sea shelf. It is con-
cluded from this that these sands were patently not deposited - either
now or in the past - under high energy conditions, and most likely sim-
ilar depositional conditions prevailed when the gravel associated with
these sands was laid down.
By a process of elimination it is surmised that the bulk of the gravel
on the shelf of the Beaufort Sea is an ice-rafted relict deposit. Sub-
46
stantiating this conclusion McCulloch has stated that some gravels on
the edge of the northern coastal plain of Alaska were transported by
ice-rafting during the mid-Wisconsin (Woronzofian) transgression, about
25,300 + 2,300 years ago. It is suggested that these ice-rafted gravels
175
-------
together with those on the shelf - and inferred as relict - apparently
did not originate either in the Brooks Range or in other bedrock of
northern Alaska. This conclusion is based on inferred sea-level posi-
46 44 45
tion and the extent of the last two glaciations in the region, '
as well as from the exotic lithology of the Woronzofian gravels of
north arctic coastal Alaska. * Most probably these gravels were de-
posited by icebergs similar to the present-day "ice islands" that have
45
originated from ice shelves of Ellesmere Islands in Canada. Our pre-
liminary mineralogic and petrographic studies of 54 specimens of gravel
49
fragments of the Beaufort Sea shelf, together with several hundred
samples of bedrock materials from the Brooks Range, seem to further sub-
stantiate this concept, although we do plan to pursue further work a-
long these lines.
It is concluded that most of the relict gravel has remained exposed on
the middle and outer shelf regions, and has not been blanketed by mod-
ern deposits, presumably because of relatively low rates of subsequent
sedimentation of sand and mud.
The present study has shown that no single environment has characteris-
tic sediment sorting, skewness or kurtosis values (Table 1). As such,
grain-size parameters should be considered with great caution in at-
tempted interpretation of depositional environments of high latitude
paleodeltaic sediments. Mean size of sediments seems to be the only
size parameter that is different for the various environments (Table 1),
and presumably this is determined by the varying contents of gravel and
sand. Scatterplot diagrams between various grain-size parameters (Figs.
4, 5 and 6), however, do appear to have a potential use in paleogeo-
graphic studies. The trends of plots in Figures 4 and 5 suggest that,
except in the fluvial channel of the Colville River, the sorting and
skewness values of sediments in each environment is a function of the
Phi Mean Size. Although in three of the scatterplot diagrams some
176
-------
overlapping of field of the plots is discerned, the plots of the coast-
al deposits (especially of the backshore), can be effectively discrim-
inated. The slight overlapping may be explained on the basis that some
sediments, perhaps somewhat arbitrarily classed under a certain environ-
ment, in actuality do not belong to that environment. The other possi-
bility could be that such plots represent sediments that were deposited
at the transitional zone between discrete environments.
Heavy Mineral Studies
The low concentrations of heavy minerals in the deltaic sediments under
investigation (Table 2) may be related to: (i) low concentrations of
13
heavy minerals in Colville River sands, which presumably are an im-
portant primary source of the deltaic sands, and/or (ii) lack of pro-
longed hydraulic conditions sufficient to concentrate heavy minerals in
the sand fraction. Except during infrequent storms the continental mar-
gin and shallow marine environments of north arctic Alaska are essen-
tially low energy depositional areas, and as such it is believed that
sands of these regions are not exposed to extended mineral sorting by
hydraulic action.
The relatively higher percentages of heavy minerals that are observed
in successively finer sand size grades in almost any one of the sedi-
ments (Table 2) show that heavy mineral distributions in the present
deltaic environment conform to the hydraulic equivalent concept and
to the size-density relationships that usually exist in water-laid
, 51
sands.
Observations made on the heavy mineral distributions in the offshore
deltaic sediments (Table 2) are contrary to those made on the adjoining
fluvial sediments and on far offshore nondeltaic shelf sediments of
52
the Beaufort Sea, inasmuch as the size-density relationship does not
exist in sediments from the latter two environments. Considering these
177
-------
differences, it would seem that in the deltaic marine area mineral sort-
ing is brought about more effectively, presumably because of the pre-
valence there of stronger and prolonged hydraulic action. However, dif-
ferences in hydraulic action can not be invoked to explain the observed
differences between concentrations of heavy minerals in any one size
of sand in the shelf and the delta. The fact that there are relatively
higher contents of heavy minerals in sands of the shelf, in spite of
the presumed lower energy conditions prevailing there, suggests that
the bulk of the shelf sands have originated from somewhere else than
the delta. We hope to clarify this suggestion by detailed heavy min-
eral studies of sands from the delta and the shelf.
The preceding conclusions seem to support the earlier contention that
transportation of sand from the delta to the shelf by contemporary ice-
rafting is insignificant. If ice transport, and associated in toto de-
position of deltaic sands from the ice were important on the shelf, then
it would be expected that both in the delta and on the shelf the total
concentrations of heavy minerals and their distributional patterns in
various sand sizes would be similar. This, as mentioned earlier, is
not true however.
Causes and Significance of Clay Mineral Variations
Results of our study do not show any clear cut progressive downstream
changes in the bulk <2um size clay mineral assemblages over the lower
161km length of the Colville River (Fig. 7, and Table 3). These ob-
servations run counter to those made in low-latitude estuaries by sev-
41 53
eral investigators, ' who noted clay mineral changes with increased
salinities of water progressively downstream. These systematic down-
stream variations in clay minerals have been generally attributed
either to: (i) gradual reconstitution of one mineral to another through
exchange/adsorption of ions, or (ii) continuous regeneration of degrad-
ed clay minerals by an increase in interlayer ion adsorption commensu-
178
-------
rate with increasing salinities, or (iii) physical sorting of various
clay minerals because of differential settling of the various species
induced by changing salinities of water. Thus it would seem that down-
stream variations in clay mineral assemblages in the Colville River are
either not influenced by hydrographical factors or that there are other
agents which tend to overcompensate the effects of these factors. We
believe that clay mineral variations in the Colville River are largely
influenced by local influxes of various detrital clay minerals, rather
than to changes in the depositional environment. This is suggested by
the abrupt increase in smectite and an attendant decrease in other clay
minerals in samples 4 and 5 (Table 3; Fig. 7). Likewise in sample 8
a notable increase in kaolinite and chlorite, and an abrupt drop in
smectite concentration is observed. It is relevant to note that all
these samples were gathered at or immediately downstream of the conflu-
ence points of the tributaries Ingaluat Creek, Kogosukruk River, and
Itkillik River, respectively, with the Colville River. It is quite ob-
vious from this relationship that the Kogosukruk River and the Ingaluat
Creek flow through a smectite-rich terrain (presumably the Umiat Bento-
54
nite beds ), and that the Itkillik River drains a terrain - perhaps
the greywackes of the Torok Formation - relatively enriched in kaolin-
ite and chlorite and poor in smectite.
There is another possibility which merits mention in attempting to ex-
plain the apparent lack of systematic downstream changes in clay miner-
al compositions in the Colville River. This is related to the presence
of irregularly distributed and isolated pockets of highly saline waters
Q
(up to 40 °/0o salinity) in the lower Colville River channels. These
pockets of water are formed during winters by sealing off the shallow
portions of the river by the formation of bottom-fast ice, and appar-
ently have little or no connection with the saline water that is re-
ported to penetrate upstream at this time. The possibility does exJ
that some of our samples, which were collected in the summer, within
179
-------
the 50km Colville Estuary, were either deposited in or were in contact
at sometime with such pockets of brine. In view of the assumption that
o
salinities of these brines would vary haphazardly, it would be expected,
as seen in the present case, that there would not be any systematic
downstream changes in clay mineral types.
The data in Table 3 show that in the <2ym size of Colville deltaic
sediments there is a notable increase in the illite/smectite ratio and
an attendant decrease in smectite/kaolinite ratio, from the Colville
fluvial channels to the relatively more saline fluviomarine and open
marine regions off the river mouth. These changes in clay mineral
assemblages are at least in part presumably due to reconstitution in
the more saline environment, through K adsorption and/or cation ex-
change, of either degraded illites and/or mixed-layered illite-smectite
derived from the nonsaline Colville River channel. This inference is
supported by our detailed mineralogical studies on clay minerals with-
in subfractions of the <2pra e.s.d. particle size (Figs. 8 to 15), and
by the results of laboratory investigations on <2y size fresh and
brackish water clays of the Colville River with sea water and at
slightly above freezing temperatures. Detailed clay mineralogical
examination (refer to Appendix) shows that the Colville River clays are,
in fact, highly reactive. However, the changes in clay minerals,
especially the overall significant decrease in smectite from river to
open sea, cannot be adequately explained solely on the basis of the
processes mentioned above. Considering results of the detailed studies
54
by Anderson and Reynolds, as well as ours (refer to Appendix), it is
difficult to envision that a smectite such as the Umiat Bentonite will
undergo any significant reconstitution when passed on from fresh water
fluvial channel to the open marine saline environment. Thus, some
alternative mechanism must be invoked to explain the observed decrease
in smectite in the fluviomarine and marine facies of the Colville delta.
At this stage of our knowledge we suspect that an appreciable amount of
180
-------
14
10
f GLYCOL
a>
<-> 6
P
- 4
2
0
O i '4
PARTICLE SIZE. < O3u O 12
O 3- I.Ou Q
TREATMENT: < 0.3 a A
A Fa REMOVED O 3- I.Ou A
1 0 2 Ou ± 10
5 8
O
O
o 6
^
• P
~ 4
A
2
~ a •
8 u
... i... i .. i . i i i i Q o
-
PARTICLE size: < o.3u o
O3- /.Oil Q
io-eou •
TREATMENT: < O3u A
Ft REMOVED O 3- I.Ou A
IO?Ou A
-
O
,
0 •
? , , . § 9 , 9
CR 3 CR4
CR5 CH6 CR7 CR 8
SAMPLE LOCATION
CR3 CH4
CR5 CR6 CR7 CR 8
SAMPLE LOCATION
14
12
10
0 8
M
(J
" 6
pr
^
~~ 4
2
0
14
PARTICLE SIZE: < 03u O 12
O5- /.^K O
IO-fOu •
TREATMENT: < O3u A -J
Ft REMOVED O3-IOu A
-------
2 0
_J
O ,
0 1 6
CS
f
_j | 2
O
^
o
j-;
04
0
PAGTKLE SIZE: < O.3u O
0.3- I.Ou O
TREATMENT: < o.3u A
Fl REMOVED 03- I.Ou A
lOlOa A 20
O
5
0 1 6
*
O
• 8 il2
Q
x
0 * ° -
A « * °8
A Q 9
^ O
i o
0 0.4
1 — i , i i i 1 I o
PARTICLE SIZE: < 03u O
05- /0n g
TREATMENT: < o.3u A
Ft REMOVED O 3- I.Ou A
/.
-------
Oc
12.0
10.0
8.0
O
-------
12
10
GLYCOL
O>
* 6
§
= 4
2
14
PARTICLE SIZE: < O3u O 12
O3- I.Ou O
1.0-g.Ou •
TREATMENT: < O3u A
Ft REMOVED 03- I.Ou A
/.O 20« A 10
O
1.
o
Is
A -
8 ~ 4
A
2
5 8 § a
i i ,, i 9 i II o
r PARTICLE SIZE: < 03u O
O 3- /.On 6
lO-fOu •
TREATMENT: < o.s* A
FtRfMOVEO 03-1 Oa A
O /0*0i» A
O
" a ° *
' 1 . . . ' 8 ,
CRS CR6 CR7 CRS
SAMPLE LOCATION
CR3 CR4
CRS CRS CR7 CRS
SAMPLE LOCATION
co
14
12
O
» A \_ 10
*
t£
i'
UJ
O
-------
CO
2 8
24
2.0
16
_)
Sl.2
3
?:
~"o e
04
2 e
2 4
2 0
1 6
(_>
•
8 12
ro
O
^
£
~o e
0.4
c
PARTICLE SIZE:
TREATMENT:
Ft REMOVED
A °
8 • •
o ft o
"" i r\
* 8 °
A
i i i i i i
CR 3 CR 4 CR 5 CR 6 CRT CR 8
SAMPLE LOCATION
r
PARTICLE SIZE:
TREATMENT:
Ft REMOVED
.
.
-
A • O
• 8 •
§0
•
a
^ i i i i i
CB5 CR4 CDS CR6 CRT CRB
2.8
< 03u O 2.4
OS- 1.0 u 5
lO-fOti *
< O.Ji/ A
0.3-I.Ou A
I.OtOu A 2.0
1.6
_l
O
O
Z 1.2
s
8 6
t.e
f~\
0 1.4
1 1 o
CR9 KHI
2.8
< O.JJI O 24
03- /.On 0
la-e.Ou •
« <7J« A
O.3-I.O« A
lOfOa A 20
1 6
*>
o
5 12
^H.
O
g
"" o e
8
0 4
O
I i n
CR9 KRI
fwrricLe sae:
TREATMENT:
ft REMOVED
O
o e *
r 8 A o
0 °
A
i i i > i i
CR3 CR4 CR5 CR6 CRT CRB
SAMPLE LOCATION
r
PARTICLE size:
TREATMENT:
Ft REMOVED
0
Q
• « •
f 8 °
i P , ,
CR3 CH4 CR3 CR6 CRT CRB
< O.3u • O
O 3- lOit • O
lO-i.Ou • •
< O.3u- A
O.3-IJO*' A
ID 10* • A
O
•
l i
CR9 KRI
< O3u O
O.3- I.Ou O
lO-ZOu •
< OJu A
03-I.Ou A
/oeou A
•
O
o
1 1
CR9 *RI
SAMPLE LOCATION
SAMPLE LOCATION
Figure 12. Kaolinite + Chlorite (7A)/Illite (10A) ratios of clays from the Colville
River after treatment with various cations and subjection to heat.
-------
CC
Z 8
2 4
2 0
1 6
g"
5
it
0 8
0.4
-
2 8
-
PARTICLE SIZE: < 03a O 2 *
O 3- I.Ou 0
io-i.0u •
TREATMENT: < oiu A
Ft REMOVED 03- 1 On A , „
r /0£0u A 2-°
0.6
•
e
8 8 ° o si'2
6 ^ 0 §2
S • 2 §i
• ^^0 8
A
O
0.4
i i i • i i I I n
-
O
PARTICLE SIZE: < O3a O
OS- I.Ou O
O 1.0-1.0 u •
TREATMENT: < o.Sa A
Ft REMOVED O 3-1 On A
la iOu A
A
d 0
2 08
A •
A O
-
i i i i i i l i
CR3 CR4 CRS CR6 CR 7 CRS CR9 KRI CR 3 CR4 CRS CR6 CR 7 CRS CR9 KRI
SAMPLE LOCATION SAMPLE LOCATION
2.6
2.4
20
1 6
O
_J o
<->S i 2
o O '-e
Z K>
go
^ v.
f-r-
— 1—0.8
0.4
; °\
O PARTICLE SIZE. < O3u O
O.J- AO0 5
I.O-ZQu •
TREATMENT: < O3u A
Ft REMOVED O.3-IOa A
lOZOu A
A
fi
2
o
f\
• °
- • ° °
A •
O
-
i , i i i l i
° C.R3 CR4 CRS CRS Cfl 7 Cfl 8 CR9 KRI
SAMPLE LOCATION
Figure 13. 7A/10A ratios of clays for Had versus KC1 treated samples, and KC1 and
HaC! versus Heat treated samples of the Colville River.
-------
20
fj.,6
O
+
_J
O | 2
Z
O
§0..
0 4
Q
PARTICLE SIZE: < O3u O
O.3- I.Ou O
I.O-lOu t
TREATMENT: < o.3u A
Ft REMOVED O.3-I.Ou A
I.Ot.Ou A 10
08
O
•
o
10 06
0 s
o 1
» 0.4
. A I ft * °
O *-*
• o
02
i i i . i i 1 | Q
CR 3 CR4 CRS CR6 CR 7
SAMPLE LOCATION
7
5
0
S
ro
CM 3
IO
1
PARTICLE SIZE: < OJu O
O3- I.Ou O
TREATMENT: < O3u A
Fl REMOVED O 3- I.Ou A
loeou A
•
O
*
• o
Q 0
• A 0
A 00
o
'. 6
CR8 CR9 KRI " CR3 CR4 CRS CR6 CR 7 CRS CR9 KRI
SAMPLE LOCATION
°t
PARTICLE SHE: < Ola O
O3- I.Ou Q
lO-ZOu • •
TREATMENT: < o.3a A
Fl REMOVED O 3- I.Ou A
lOlOu A
A
•
o
A °
1 ' '
0 • 0
.0 0
8
A
i i j i i i 1 i
CR3 CR4 CRS CR6 CR 7 CR8 CR9 KRI
SAMPLE LOCATION
Figure 14.
7A/10A ratios of Colville River clays for NaCl versus KC1 treated
glycolated samples: I^X/IOA ratios after heating the clays to 550°C,
and ratios of 3.52A/3.58A after treating the clays with KC1.
-------
c;
Cc
I.H
1.2
1.0
_J
O
o
J"l
e>
_l
o
XL
O
^
O
O
>- 0.8
_J
e>
0
o 0.6
~Z-
0
f^:
~ 0.4
0.2
o
* PARTICLE SIZE: < O.3u= O
0. 3- I.Ou = O
I.O-2Ou= •
TREATMENT: < o.3u= A
Fe REMOVED 0.3-I.Ou= A
1 .0 2.Ou = A
8
- Q
^
O
-
p
• •
o
o
-
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
CR 3 CR4 CR5 CR6 CR 7 CR 8 CR9 KRI
SAMPLE LOCATION
Figure 15. Ratios of 17A/10A of Colville River Clays for KC1 versus NaCl glycolated
samples.
-------
the smectite in the Colville River is somehow deposited at the mouth of
the fluvial channels. Such a conclusion is supported by our detailed
clay mineralogical studies on subtractions of clays within the <2ym
e.s.d., and as well by the predominance of illite and chlorite with
subordinate smectite in the suspensates collected at sample location
CR-8 (Figs. 1 and 2). We are, however, not sure on the mechanism
which brings about such a deposition of smectite. On the basis of ex-
perimental data gathered by Whitehouse and Jeffrey differential set-
tling of smectite over illite, chlorite and kaolinite, induced by
flocculation would seem an improbable factor. However, mineral sorting
based purely on the primary nonflocculated size of detrital particles
of smectite could be an important process in this context.
Data in Table 3 bear out that there are two major clay mineral zones in
the shallow marine facies of the deltaic complex under study. Clays
west of Oliktok Point have markedly lower illite/smectite and illite/
kaolinite ratios than clays east of this point. These lateral varia-
tions in clay mineral types within contiguous areas are most probably
attributable to differences in terrigenous clay mineral sources and
their dispersal patterns, rather than to differences in depositional
environments. Sedimentation in the eastern lagoonal area well east
of Oliktok Point is chiefly influenced by the sediment outfall of the
Sagavanirktok River, whereas sedimentation in Harrison Bay and the off-
shore open marine deltaic area west of Oliktok Point is largely affected
by the Colville River discharge. The clay mineral compositions of these
two rivers are significantly different, inasmuch as the Colville River
transports far more smectite and kaolinite than the Sagavanirktok River
(Table 3). We feel that offshore dispersal of the clays discharged by
the Colville River is chiefly confined to the area west of Oliktok
Point and much of it does not move into the Simpson Lagoon. The
Sagavanirktok River sediment outfall does not seem to move far away
from the river mouth. Dispersal patterns of the above clays are largely
189
-------
supported by the known mean current directions of waters over the area,
which is towards the southwest. Such a prevalence of currents would
tend to push the Colville River flume away from the Simpson Lagoon area.
A similar dispersal of the Sagavanirktok River clay is largely inhibited
because of the fact that Simpson Lagoon lies sheltered between the main-
land coast and the barriers and thus is largely in the shadow area for
the open marine southwest prevailing currents.
Our studies on clay mineral compositions of sediments from the conti-
nental margin and open marine environments of north arctic Alaska have
not been completed. However, the preliminary results do indicate the
potential value of this approach in the interpretations of paleogeog-
raphy and paleocurrent of past depositional basins. The relevance of
our clay mineral studies in environment and pollution studies has been
,55
discussed.
Sediment Geochemistry and Element Partition Patterns
The contents of organic carbon in the deltaic and adjacent shallow ma-
rine sediments of north arctic Alaska are significantly lower (Table 4)
O f 07
than those observed in tropical deltaic sediments. ' This may be
due to the very low organic productivity in the Alaskan deltaic region
14
as supported by phytoplankton productivity and C primary productivity
9
studies, and low yearly supply of terrigenous detrital organic matter.
It seems improbable that low organic carbon in our sediments is a re-
sult of relatively higher oxidative decomposition of organic matter in
the region of our study. This conclusion is based on the fact that for
most of the year the continental margin environment of north Alaska is
covered with ice, and as such it would be expected that the environment
overlying the sediments will be less ventilated and thus less oxygenated
also.
190
-------
The progressive increase seaward of sediment organic carbon (Table 5)
is contrary to the commonly observed pattern of organic carbon distri-
O£ C"7 CO
butions in marine sediments. ' ' The generally observed seaward
decrease in organic carbon of marine sediments has been attributed to:
(i) seaward decrease of terrigenous organic supply, and (ii) seaward
CO
increase in organic decomposition. However, on the basis of the
above two factors obviously the observed seaward differences in organic
carbon contents in the Beaufort Sea (Table 5) cannot be explained. It
is believed that in the present situation the regional differences in
sediment organic carbon are determined by the variations in lithology.
Such a conclusion is supported by the strong negative correlation ob-
served between organic carbon and sand contents of the deltaic (Table 6)
31
and nondeltaic sediments. Presumably as a result of seaward decrease
31
in sand (Table 1; Naidu and Hood ) there is lesser seaward 'dilution1
of sediment organic matter by sand size inorganic mineral particles, as
well as concomitant decrease in oxidative decomposition of organic mat-
ter resulting from lower porosity of mud. From the correlations of
organic carbon and sediment size grades it is inferred that the bulk of
the organic carbon in the deltaic sediments is associated with the silt
fraction (Table 6) whereas in the nondeltaic marine sediments it is
31
concentrated in the clay fraction. Possibly this is related to the
differing hydrodynamical conditions of deposition, and the probable re-
sult of size fractionations of detrital organic particles as a function
of distance from the shore.
As compared to the nondeltaic shelf and extrashelf sediments of the
Beaufort Sea, there is a notable enrichment of Ca and carbonate in the
deltaic sediments (Table 5). Plausibly this is due to the presence of
relatively higher contents of calcareous lithogenous and bioclastic
components in the deltaic sediments. The bulk of the Ca appears to be
tied up in the carbonate, as attested by a strong covariance between
31
the two (Table 6; and Naidu and Hood ). However, there also seems to
191
-------
Table 6. CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS FOR CHEMICAL, TEXTURAL AND CLAY MINERAL COMPOSITIONS OF DELTAIC SEDIMENTS, NORTH ARCTIC ALASKA/
Depth
Sand
Silt
Clay
Corg
C0 =
Fe
Mn
Ca
Mg
K
Na
Li
Rb
Cu b
SMTu
ILTb
KLT£
CLTb
Depth
1.000
-
-0.406
-
-
-
-
-
-
0.37'.
-
-0.371
-
-
-
-
-
_
-
Sand
1.000
-0.915
-0.624
-0.569
-
-0.508
-0.420
-
-0.399
-0.578
-
-
-0.583
-
-
-
_
-
Silt
1.000
-
0.578
-
0.478
0.402
_
-
0.424
-
0.549
0.449
-
0.345
-
_
-
Clay
1.000
_
0.387
-
-
0.371
0.638
0.563
-
0.541
0.538
-
-0.343
-
_
0.471
Org.
carbon
1.000
-
0.406
0.350
-
-
0.478
-
0.513
0.403
-
-
-
-0.340
-
co3=
1.000
-
-0.333
0.763
0.329
-
-
-
-
0.380
-0.572
0.465
_
-
Fe
1.000
0.858
-
-
0.647
0.545
0.876
0.739
-
0.411
-
_
-
Mn
1.000
-
-
0.528
0.655
0.733
0.572
-
0.505
-0.436
_
-
Ca
1.000
-
-
-
-
-
0.433
-0.668
0.540
_
-
Mg
1.000
0.566
-
0.454
0.478
0.334
-
-
_
-
K
1.000
0.471
0.836
0.869
0.473
_
-
_
-
Na
1.000
0.531
0.498
-
-
-
_
-
Li
1.000
0.877
0.410
-
-
_
-
Rb
1.000
0.376
-
-
_
-
Cu
1.000
-
0.383
_
-
SMT
1.000
rO.798
_
-
ILT
1.000
-.
-0.488
KLT
1.000
-
CLT
1.000
VC
NJ
Only figures that are significant at 95% confidence
bSMT: Smectite, ILT: Illite, KLT: Kaolinite, and CLT
level (r = 3.325) cited
: Chlorite
in the table.
-------
be some sorting of calcium carbonate based on size in the different
environments. It is apparent (Table 6) that calcium carbonate in the
deltaic sediments is concentrated in the clay fraction, whereas in the
nondeltaic marine sediments most of it occurs in the sand fraction.
Interelement correlations (Table 6) have been used by us in attempting
to understand element partitions in these regions. The strong covari-
ance between all alkali metals (Table 6) is to be expected because of
their similar geochemical behavior. However, on the basis of the
existing correlations (Table 6) it would seem that except for Na all
the alkali metals are predominantly tied up with the clay fraction
(plausibly in adsorbed/exchangeable sites of clay minerals), and with
the organic matter. The association of alkali metals with organic mat-
ter is related to primary fixation of the metals by living organisms
through metabolic activities; such a fixation is now well-known and
appears to need no further elaboration here. It is apparent that the
bulk of the Na has been distributed in some other sediment phase than
the argillaceous or the biogenic fraction. The strong covariance of
all alkali elements, particularly Na, with both Fe and Mn is difficult
to explain unless the premise is made that the alkalies, Fe, and Mn
have, at least in part, a common derivation in interstitial water. So-
dium being a thallasophile element, a large amount of it can be account-
ed for in salts solidified from interstitial water, and to a smaller
extent this is also applicable to other alkali metals.
The strong covariance of Fe and Mn suggests that a significant part of
this element has either coprecipitated as ferrimanganic hydrate or is
associated in a common sediment phase. Assuming that this is true it
is suggested that a part of this precipitate has originated from inter-
stitial water. This does not seem untenable, in view of the fact that
a few inches of the surface sediment have been analyzed in this study,
and that post-depositional upward migration of soluble Fe and Mn, with
193
-------
oxidative precipitation of these elements at the sediment surface
35
would not be an unusual occurrence in this region. Naidu has shown
that in fact such a precipitation of Fe and Mn is taking place on the
adjoining shelf and extrashelf sediment surfaces of the Beaufort Sea.
However, it is strongly suspected, from the data in Table 6, that the
predominant part of the total Fe and Mn is tied up with organic matter,
and in the silt size fraction of sediments - in heavy minerals or dis-
crete ferrimanganic particles.
There are strong positive correlations between smectite, Fe and Mn
(Table 6), but we are not sure of the significance of these correla-
tions, because no significant covariance has been observed between Fe,
Mn and the clay size fraction (of which latter smectite is of course a
part). Assuming that the Fe-Mn-Smectite correlations are true, it fol-
lows that some of the Fe and Mn is associated with either adsorbed or
exchangeable sites of smectite, and/or in basic lattice (octahedral,
presumably) positions in smectites. The work of Anderson and Rey-
54
nolds with the Umiat Bentonite does not suggest any appreciable non-
tronitic character of that material. Of course, this does not preclude
the occurrence of nontronite clays elsewhere in the Colville River
drainage area. However, we have observed in our detailed work (refer
to Appendix for details) that the sediments at various sample locations
along the Colville River contain varying amounts of ferruginous materi-
als, much of it of an X-ray amorphous "limonitic" character, intimately
associated with the clay minerals.
It seems quite probable that Mg, along with Ca, is related to the argil-
laceous and/or carbonate fraction of the deltaic sediments. Preliminary
attempts made to understand the partition pattern of Co suggest that Co
is being scavenged by ferric hydroxide.
The geochemistry of Cu in the deltaic sediments is not well understood,
194
-------
especially because of its positive correlations restricted to Ca, Mg, K,
Li, Rb, illite, and carbonate fraction of sediments. A natural conclu-
sion of such an association would be that Cu is chiefly bound with the
carbonate phase, and possibly to a limited extent with the argillaceous
fraction. Limestone and dolomite grains of terrigenous origin probably
constitute the major portion of the carbonate material in these sedi-
ments. Copper is likely to be present in these grains as fine dissem-
inations, probably of discrete sulphide phases. Preliminary data from
a geochemical-mineralogical study of carbonate rocks in the Brooks
Range, presently being undertaken by the Alaska State Geological Survey
and others (Mowatt et al.t in progress), indicate the common presence
of copper associated with these rocks at levels slightly to moderately
above reported averages for analogous rocks elsewhere. This coupled
with the fact of known extensive, high-grade copper mineralization in
parts of Brooks Range (e.g. the Bornite-Ruby Creek deposits) in carbon-
ate rocks seems to corroborate the suggested correlations we observe in
the sediments of north arctic Alaska.
The possible argillaceous association of Cu is inferred indirectly from
the strong covariances of Cu with K, Li, Rb and illite, and the pre-
sumption that illite is the predominant clay mineral in the clay miner-
al in the clay fraction (Table 3). This further suggests that much of
this "illite" actually represents detrital micaceous materials, and,
further that a considerable portion of this may well be vermiculitic,
and represent altered/weathered trioctahedral mica, which would be an-
ticipated to be somewhat higher in octahedral copper than dioctahedral
micas. Illite resulting from the prograde reconstitutive sequence
(diagenetic and anchi-metamorphic) smectite -*• mixed-layer smectite/
illite -> illite, suggested by Hower and various coworkers ' '
would not be expected to contain as much Cu in octahedral sites as il-
lite representing "degraded" micas, due to the differing geologic envir-
onments associated with micas as opposed to smectites. Admittedly
195
-------
smectites associated with alteration zones proximal to hydrothermal Cu
mineralization would be exceptions to the foregoing generalizations.
Interelement correlations have a potential use in understanding differ-
ences in elemental abundances between different environments (Table 5),
provided the distributions of the elements are governed by similar geo-
chemical rules, and involve the same sediment phases. At this stage of
our study we can not conclusively say what the geochemical factors are
that determine the differences observed between the chemistry of the
deltaic, nondeltaic shelf and the extrashelf sediments (Table 5). It
is strongly suspected that lower rates of sedimentation, and higher
salinities of interstitial waters in the offshore nondeltaic area con-
tribute to the relatively higher alkali contents observed in that area,
as compared to the delta (Table 5).
Considering all factors, it is concluded that the seaward increase in
both Fe and Mn (Table 5) is most probably due to simultaneous seaward
decrease in the solubility of Fe and Mn. It is also concluded that the
differences observed in the Fe and Mn contents between the deltaic and
nondeltaic shelf sediments (Table 5) are not due to possible differences
in the rates and amounts of mobilization and precipitation of Fe and Mn
from interstitial waters in the above two environments. This conclusion
is arrived at after considering the factors that govern the mobilization
[TO
and precipitation of elements from interstitial waters. The factors
which point to the insignificant role of interstitial waters in this
context are the relatively higher contents of organic carbon and plaus-
ibly higher rates of sedimentation in the deltaic region, as compared
to the nondeltaic area.
The above interpretations on element partition patterns are chiefly
based on correlation coefficient calculations for the gross sediments,
and thus we present them with some reservations. However, in order to
196
-------
better understand the geochemistry, and to predict the partition pat-
terns of the elements with more confidence, it would be necessary to
analyze elements in different sediment phases. The lithogenous (lat-
tice-bound), nonlithogenous (adsorbed/exchangeable phases), and various
biogenous and chemogenous components of the sediments would have to be
analyzed. Our future plans call for such a detailed study.
Elemental concentrations cited in Table 4 and 5 should be useful as
baseline data to detect any chemical pollution in the deltaic and marine
environments of north arctic Alaska.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We wish to thank Joe A. Dygas for his help in analyzing the carbonate
contents in sediments. The statistical analysis and the X-ray analysis
were kindly conducted by Bob Tucker and Mrs. Namok C. Veach, respect-
ively .
Ice-breaker ship support was provided by the U. S. Coast Guard. The
help of Dr. Peter Barnes and Jim Trumbull of the U. S. Geological Sur-
vey, Joe Dygas, Bob Tucker and Terry Hall of the Institute of Marine
Science, University of Alaska, and Tom Furgatsch, Dave Mountain and
Officers and crew of the U.S.C.G.C. GLACIER and STATED ISLAND, in the
collection of samples is gratefully acknowledged.
This work was supported by the NOAA-Sea Grant (Contract NSF-1383); as
well by the Office of Marine Geology, U. S. Geological Survey (Contract
14-09-001-12559), and the Office of Research and Monitoring, U. S. En-
vironmental Protection Agency (Contract 16100 EOM).
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205
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APPENDIX
RESULTS OF DETAIL CLAY MINERAL STUDIES
Sample J?£^tion_C_R-3. (Figures 1 and 2)
Representing material furthest upstream of those sites investigated,
the mineralogic relationships were not clearly definable. This materi-
al was characterized by an unusually high amount of iron oxide/hydrox-
ide component, coating the other mineral particles and causing the X--
ray diffraction effects to be somewhat difficult to interpret. This
was due to the high background resulting from fluorescence of iron
caused by the copper K—a radiation employed, as well as to the poorly
crystalline nature of the ferruginous material, and the masking
effect of coatings on the grains of the clay minerals. In order to
deal with this problem, the treatment to remove free iron oxides de-
19
scribed by Jackson was resorted to. This procedure did indeed result
in improved X-ray diffraction effects from the residual materials, but
there was cause for concern regarding its effect on the clay mineral
phases present, notably the chloritic materials, particularly in the
finer particle-size ranges. Thus, we present these data with some
reservations with respect to their validity vis-a-vis the natural as-
semblages and with respect to comparison with materials from other
localities which were not subjected to this treatment. The data on
some of the CR-3 samples, as well as for those from locality CR-5, indi-
cate the likelihood that some modifications are effected in the clay
mineralogy as a result of this procedure. As the extent of these
changes is difficult to assess, the treatment was not used routinely in
the further course of this investigation.
Replicate analyses were made of samples selected at random, entailing
separate preparation of plates and separate treatments, in order to
207
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evaluate the reproducibility of the experimental procedures and allow
some estimation to be made regarding experimental error and analytical
precision. Given the other complexities of analyses of this sort, it
was not deemed appropriate to explore this matter in a more shopistica-
ted manner in the present study.
These data show that the glycol-expandable and non-expandable 2:1 layer
o o
lattice silicate componeiits (the smectite, 17A and "illite", 10A, re-
spectively) do not vary greatly within the particle size ranges exam-
ined. Furthermore, the 17/10 ratio does not exceed 2.0 (Figs. 9 and
10), which suggests that the smectite/illite ratio is rather low in
these materials. The 7/10 ratio in unglycolated specimens (Fig. 11),
which is interpreted to represent a measure of the amount of combined
o
chlorite plus koalinite (7A peak) relative to the amount of illite plus
o
vermiculitic material (10A peak) is lower for the finest particle size
fraction and somewhat higher and essentially constant for the two
coarser size intervals. This represents another example of the predom-
inance of chloritic and kaolinitic phases in the coarser size ranges of
sediments, which has been noted in many other studies reported in the
literature. Replicate analyses of the KC1 and NaCl treated specimens
(Figs. 11 and 12) provided a useful feeling for the significance of
variations in the ratios. On this basis, the 7/10 ratios of the glyco-
lated specimens (Fig. 11) appear to be significantly higher, for eacii
particle size fraction, which is most likely attributable to glycola-
tion and expansion of a certain amount of the components recorded as
o
"10A material" in the anglycolated specimens (Fig. 12). The sense of
trend is somewhat different for the glycolated specimens, in that the
coarsest fraction shows the highest 7/10 ratio, while the two finer
fractions are somewhat lower. However, the overall trend of increasing
7/10 ratio with increasing particle size is discernible in these glyco-
lated specimens (Fig. 11). It is notex/orthy that, in each instance,
208
-------
the 7/10 ratio is higher for the KC1 versus the NaCl treated samples,
for a given particle size interval, for each of the glycolated or non-
o
glycolated suites. This strongly suggests that the 10A component in
these materials does not contain appreciable amounts of vermiculitic
material. Indeed, if the differences in the data are significant, as
their consistency in sense seems to suggest, this behavior with K and
Na exchange is difficult to rationalize on theoretical grounds. It is
suggested that perhaps the treatment for removal of free iron oxide may
have had some effect here.
o o
The l/2°26 per minute scans endeavoring to resolve the 3.52A and 3.58A
(chlorite and kaolinite, respectively) peaks were intelligible only for
the two coarser size ranges (Fig. 14); neither of these peaks was dis-
cernible for the <0.3ym specimen. However the mere detection of kaolin-
ite in the coarser size intervals provides useful information within
the context of the present study.
In the case of CR-3 specimens, problems of interpretation of the X-ray
traces from these assemblages arise due to the rather ill-defined peaks
and low peak to background relationships, particularly in the <0.3ym
size range. It appears that "mixed-layered" phases resulting from in-
heritance-weathering-fluvial reconstitution effects are not dominant in
this sample. Rather, the minerals present tend to be more representa-
tive of "end-member" types, although the relationships are less than
well-defined, particularly in the finest size fraction, where line-
broadening effects combine with the iron oxide problem to complicate
interpretations.
Sample Location CR-5 (Figures 1 and 2)
As mentioned previously, materials from each particle size interval
from this locality were divided into two aliquots, in order to assess
the effects of the free iron oxide removal treatment.
209
-------
First the data from the routinely prepared specimens will be discussed,
next the analogous specimens which were treated for the removal of free
iron oxide will be dealt with, and then comparisons between the treat-
ments will be made.
o
The sinectite/lOA material component appears to decrease with increasing
particle size (Figs. 9 and 10). The materials in each of these part-
icle size ranges contain considerable amounts of smectite, ranging from
a predominant amount in the <0.3ym size, through dominant in the 0.3-
o
<1.0um range, to perhaps subequal amounts of smectite, 10A, and cora-
o
bined 7A materials in the 1.0-<2.0um range. Further emphasizing these
relationships are lower 7/10 ratios for the KCl+glycol specimens versus
the other cation+glycol specimens, for a given size fraction (Fig. 11).
This relationship is maintained for the KC1 versus the NaCl treated
non-glycolated specimens as well (Fig. 12), and strongly suggests that
o
an appreciable portion of the 10A component consists of "degraded
mica/verTTiiculite" material. As regards the relative proportions of
o o
3.52-3.54A/3.58A scattering phases present, essentially the ratio
appears to be fairly constant among the three particle size ranges, at
a value suggesting a considerably greater proportion of chloritic to
kaolinite material (Fig. 14).
In the analogous specimens which were subjected to the free iron oxide
removal procedure, the same sense of trends is shown, although there do
seem to be several differences in ratio values sufficiently great to
cause some concern regarding the effect of this treatment on clay min-
eral structures, particularly in the finest particle size range (Figs.
11 to 14). In particular, the WaCl and KC1 treated specimens appear to
have had their characteristics somewhat altered, and in a manner sug-
gesting that fine-grained chloritic phases may well be preferentially
susceptible to attack by the reagents employed to remove the "free iron
oxide". This might be anticipated, particularly for chlorites contain-
210
-------
iiig appreciable iron. Therefore, due to these effects, as well as un-
certainties regarding aspects relative to different clay mineral compo-
sitions, the free-iron oxide removal procedure was not utilized further
during the present study.
This sample station, CR-5, is located at the mouth of the Kogosukruk
River, where it enters the Colville River. The Kogosukruk River has
its headwaters some 24kni to the south, in the region northeast of the
settlement of Umiat. This is the area in which the "Umiat Bentonite", a
well developed montmorillonitic smectite, with certain beidellitic af-
finities, outcrops. This material has been studied by Anderson and
54
Reynolds, who thoroughly characterized its mineralogic, chemical, and
physical properties. Reference to this work, together with personal
communications between Reynolds and Mowatt, 1972, affirm that the ma-
terial represented at sample locality CR-5 contains an appreciable amount
of this bentonite component. Thus, an opportunity is affordad to moni-
tor the sedimentologic, mineralogic, and geochemical behavior of this
well-defined smectite during the course of its subsequent sojourn in the
sedimentary regime from this locality, downstream in the Colville River
and into the marine environment. It is felt that this is potentially a
valuable parameter to consider in any attempt to delineate trends and
mechanisms of sedimentation and sediment transport in this region, as
well as in endeavoring to elucidate mineralogic-geochemical relation-
ships regarding possible diagenetic effects in these environments. The
Colville is a truly Arctic river, having its drainage basin entirely
north of the Arctic Circle, and this furnishes uniqueness to the setting
which is of added interest to the present and planned detailed work.
Detectable amounts of mixed-layer materials appear to be present in each
of the particle size intervals, being particularly apparent in the heat-
treated specimens. The data suggest that these phases represent inter-
layered "illite/chlorite", "vermiculite/chlorite", and/or "smectite/
211
-------
chlorite" components, presumably representing materials resulting from
the effects of heritage and weathering prior to deposition at locality
CR-5. The large amount of well-defined smectite in these samples pre-
cludes clearer elucidation of the nature of the mixed-layer components
by the various cation exchange treatments in this instance. However,
there does seem to be noticeably less mixed-layer material in the
coarsest size fraction, which seems to further support the above conten-
tion as to the nature and origin of these components. The X-ray dif-
fraction manifestations of the: mixed-layer phases are, if anything,
somewhat more clearly defined in the specimens which were subjected to
the free iron oxide renoval treatment, presumably due to the "cleaning-
up" effect relative to the iron oxide. It is difficult to assess any
effect of the treatment on the mixed-layer materials themselves, al-
though such effects might be anticipated. It is also entirely possible
that an appreciable amount of mixed-layered illite/smectite, a com-
monly occurring material geologically, might be present in these sedi-
ments, but not be detectable due to the high content of discreet smect-
ite.
Sample Location Cll-7 (Figures 1_ and 2)_
o o
The relative amount of smectite to IDA and combined 7A materials is con-
siderably less at this sample station, as compared to location CR-5 up-
stream (Figs. 7 to 10). However, although less striking, the same
sense of trend of decreasing 17/10 and 17/7 ratios with increasing
particle size is seen at locality CR-7. Similarly, again the KCl+glycol
treated specimens show consistently lower 17/10 and 17/7 ratios than
their particle-size equivalents which have been treated with NaCl,
MgCl?, or sea water (Figs. 8 and 9). This again suggests the presence
of a significant component of "degraded mica/vermiculite" in each size
fraction of this sample. This is emphasized by the 7/10 relationships
for the KCl+glycol versus the other cation+glycol specimens. The X-ray
212
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data demonstrate a well-defined trend of increasing 7/10 ratios with
increasing particle size, again reflecting increased proportions of the
o
combined chlorite plus kaolinite component relative to the 10A materials
in the larger size ranges. Since the data indicate a predominant amount
of chlorite relative to kaolinite, the further interpretation of the 7/10
trend as primarily representing increased amounts of chloritic material
relative to "illitic" phases as a function of increasing particle size
suggests itself. This is further supported by the trend of the 14/10
ratios.
Again there are indications of the presence of a detectable amount of
mixed-layer material in each particle size range, although the propor-
tion is lowest in the coarsest interval. Due to the considerably lower
amount of smectite in these samples, as compared to those from CR-5, the
interstratified phases are discernible in some of the cation-treated
specimens, as well as in the heat-treated specimens. Again, the inter-
pretation is that the mixed-layer materials represent a vermiculite-
illite-smectite/chlorite phase, or combination of such phases. Due to
their low concentrations in these multicomponent samples, better defini-
tion of their nature does not seem feasible. The presence of inter-
stratified illite/smectite is also suggested by the X-ray traces, but
difficult to verify more substantially.
Sample Location CR-8 (Figures 2 and__3)_
Interestingly, the analyses portray a definable trend of increasing
17/10 and 17/7 ratios with increasing particle size (Figs. 3 and 9).
This might be interpreted as reflecting increasing amounts of expandable
"degraded mica/vermiculite" as a function of particle size, given the
relatively low amount of expandable conponent in the <0.3ym range, as
compared to the materials from locations CR-5 arid CR-7. However, this
trend might also be interpreted as representing a sediraentologic effect,
213
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resulting from non-deposition of finer grained smectitic materials at
locality CR-8. These relationships will be discussed in the present
paper, but must be appreciated at the present time in order to attempt
an evaluation of the clay mineral assemblage at this locality. The
data also suggest that a maximum in 7/10 ratios in the intermediate
particle size interval, 0.3—<1.0ym represents a greater proportion of
o
chloritic component relative to 10A phases. The KCl+glycol versus
NaCl+, or sea water+glycol relationships suggest that an appreciable
o
portion of this 10A material represents somewhat expansible degraded
illite-mica-vermiculite, the presence of which is most noticeable in
the coarsest size fraction, 1.0-<2.0um. Parallel 7/10 ratios of the
KCl+glycol versus HgCl +glycol and sea water+glycol specimens are
worthy of note, although a clearer understanding of the significance
of this demands further study, currently in progress. It is tentatively
suggested that an appreciable amount of "degraded" chlorite may be pre-
sent in the 0.3-<1.0um size range, with resultant "reconstitution" to a
better-defined chloritic material attendant upon MgCl saturation, and
that this material may show a degree of analogous behavior upon KC1
saturation. In other words, it may be difficult, with KC1 treatment
alone, to differentiate between some degraded micas and degraded chlo-
rites. If this interpretation is correct, the usefulness of the variety
of treatments used in the present work is further affirmed. The 14/10
ratios confirm the increased proportions of chlorite to illite+siaectite+
o
other 10A phases in the coarser size ranges.
The diffractometer traces indicate the presence of mixed-layer materials
in each of the particle size intervals. The phases are more readily
discernible in this sample as representing a vermiculite-illite-smectite/
chlorite component together with probably vermiculite-illite/smectite as
well.
214
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SamglfL Location KR—1 (Figures 2 and 3)
It is clear that these materials are quite low in smectite, as shown by
the 17/10 and 17/7 ratios (Figs. 8, 9 and 10). Any trends as a func-
tion of particle size might be felt to be more apparent than real. How-
ever, the data seem to indicate a similar sense of trend for the sea
water+glycol specimens, although the relationships for the KCl+glycol
and NaCl+glycol specimens are not as well defined. Due to insufficient
sample material, the MgCl? saturation treatments were not made of this
sample, but the relationships seem to be reasonably interpreted never-
theless. The general trend is one of increasing 7/10 ratio with in-
creasing particle size. The data suggest an appreciable decrease in
the relative proportions of chlorite to kaolinite in the 0.3-<1.0um
o
size range, together with roughly subequal amounts of total 7A/total
o
10A components in the 0.3-<1.0ym versus the 1.0-<2.0um size intervals.
Thus, a significant concentration of kaolinite is seen in the 0.3—<1.0um
size range, superimposed upon the afore—mentioned 7/10 trend as a
function of particle size. In the three-size intervals, the contribu-
o
tion to the total 10A components of any degraded mica/vermiculite ma-
terials is not detectable, which is not surprising, given the fact that
this sample station represents a marine locality and hence, a depart-
ure from the fluvial/deltaic materials previously discuseed. An appar-
ent slight maximum in smectite relative to the other phases is seen in
the 0.3-<1.0um size range, together with the somewhat more noticeable
maximum in kaolinite. As clearly demonstrated by the 550°C treated
o
materials, the chlorite/lOA materials proportions increase with in-
creasing particle size. This sense of trend is common to the other lo-
calities as well and appears to be a characteristic feature of these
assemblages.
The diffractometer traces indicate small but significant amounts of
mixed-layer components in each of the particle size ranges, again re-
presenting a vermiculite-illite-smectite/chlorite and a probable
215
-------
ermiculite-illite/smectite phase, apparently persisting in the marine
environment at this locality.
COMPARATIVE MINERALOGY
In this section, an attempt is made to demonstrate and discuss the ob-
served relationships among the clay mineral assemblages representing
the five sample sites investigated to date. Figures 8 through 14 il-
lustrate these relationships.
Certain trends are discernible from the figures, presumably reflecting
differences in clay mineral suites resulting from various sedimentologic
and geochemical factors. Careful scrutiny of some of these data appears
to warrant further, more specific comments.
Figures 9 and 10 portray the 17/10 ratios and Figure 9 compares
the 17/10 ratios for KCl+glycol versus HaCl+glycol specimens. The lat-
ter plot shows a decided trend towards a decrease in the values of this
parameter as one proceeds from locality CR—3 to KR-1. Interestingly,
this trend, as well as the absolute values for the parameter, in general
track quite nicely for the various particle sizes as well. Even the
three apparently somewhat "anomalous" hi"h values off this main trend
appear to define a sub-trend parallel to the primary one. Admittedly
the data are not that abundant to permit a vigorous defense of these
apparent relationships, but the trends do seem to be real. Close in-
spection of Figures 7 through 10 shows that, with the exception of the
materials from locality Clt-5, where the Umiat Bentonite smectite domi-
nates the assemblage, the 17/10 ratios range in value from a maximum of
2.2 on down to the 0.1 neighborhood. This certainly suggests that the
o
sediments studies are composed of a greater proportion of 10A materials,
relative to staectitic phases, for each of the particle size intervals.
This may be primarily a relection of non-deposition of smectite, due to
216
-------
various sedimentologic effects, since the abundance of expandable clay
minerals appears higher in marine sediments offshore from the Colville
River mouth than in sediments from the adjacent open marine portions of
the Beaufort Sea. Part of our further work, mw underway, involves
study of suspended load material from each of these sample sites, for
comparative purposes, in order to more clearly define the situation.
Regarding Figure 15 the fact that the value of the parameter 17/10 for
KCl+glycol versus NaCl+glycol specimens is less than 1.0 is strong evi-
O
dence for the presence of a significant amount of degraded 10A material,
in each of the particle size ranges, for every sample (the sole excep-
tion is the 1.0-<2.0um size at station CR-5). and the sense of trend
further suggests that this material increases in relative amount with
distance downstream. However, this may be illusory, in that the same
data might be interpreted as representing more effective exchange of
ions from saline water, given the fact that locality KR-1 is a marine
site, and shows the lowest values for this trend. In other words, de-
graded materials which had not yet been exposed to saline water may
behave in a somewhat different manner, under our experimental condi-
tions of attempted cation exchange, relative to materials which have had
a previous opportunity to effect (or at least approach) equilibrium
under saline conditions. This arguement is further strengthened by the
relationships shown on Figure 9, in which there appears to be a rather
abrupt difference in the 171'10 sea water+glycol specimens between lo-
calities CR-7 (fresh water) and CR-8 (which may have been periodically
exposed to influx of salt-water coming upstream from the river mouth).
Actually, in view of these complexities, it is apparent that a clearer
appreciation of the situation awaits the results of our further studies
now in progress. In concluding the comments on the 17/10 relationships
for the present, we might point out the consistent behavior of the 1.0-
<2.0ym size, relative to the finer size materials, at station CR-8 under
MaCl, MgCl9, and sea water exchange and reglycolation. The interpreta-
tion is tentatively advanced that the coarsest material here is com-
217
-------
posed of an unusually high amount of degraded micaceous-illitic mater-
ial, relative to the smaller particles at this site, when comparison of
its interaction with KCl+glycol is made. This might be further indica-
tive of the fresh/saline water relationships discussed above, in that
it would be anticipated that the finer particles would react more rapid-
ly in effecting exchange equilibrium with the environment of deposition.
Thus, this rather subtle feature may be quite important in gaining
added insight into the overall relationships. However, alternatively,
and perhaps likelier, it may merely represent influx of materials from
the Itkillik River, which enters the Colville River at site CR-8.
Figure 8 portrays the 17/7 ratios for the various cation+glycol treated
specimens, and are presented more for the sake of completeness of data
than for any particularly striking relationships discernible. The
trends are consistent with the 17/10 ratios just discussed. Note-
worthy is the similar behavior ot the coarsest size fraction of loca-
tion CR-8 with respect to the accompanying smaller particles in this
assemblage. The absolute values of the 17/7 ratio for station CR-5 show
the dominance of the smectite component in those materials, the remain-
ing stations investigated yield 17/7 ratios more indicative of subordi-
nate amounts of expandable components in proportion to total chlorite
plus kaolinite. Station KR-1, marine, shows the lowest value and may
result from various environmental differences. Winnowing and/or non-
deposition of smectite, as well as formation of authigenic chloritic
material in the marine environment are possible reasons, but differing
source materials is another potential factor to be considered.
In order to obtain the maximum amount of information from our data, we
have presented in Figures 11 through 13 quite a few of the available
7/10 relationships, for various treatments, and combinations thereof.
It is felt that unique definition of the relationships is more likely
the more thorough such graphical portrayal of data is attempted. Again,
218
-------
certain trends seem readily discernible, while some subtleties may be
variously interpreted, and will remain somewhat unclear until more
work is done.
Figure 12 shows the effects of K , Ha and heat treatments. Evident is
the consistently lower 7/10 ratio for the <0.3ym size range of a given
locality, denoting lesser amounts of chlorite plus kaolinite relative
o
to 10A material in this finest size fraction. Further, a trend of in-
creased 7/10 values progressively from CR—5 through KR—1 is seen, for
each size interval, which suggests increased chlorite plus kaolinite
proportions, with greatest amount in the marine sample location, KR-1.
At the latter site, the difference in 7/10 between the 300°C and 430°C
treatments of the finest arid intermediate particle size materials may
reflect a significant amount of authigenic chloritic material of lower
thermal stability than the more usual detrital chlorites, which are
generally of metamorphic or igneous heritage and thus, more stable
under the 430°C treatment than a chloritic material formed under sedi-
mentary conditions. It would be further anticipated that such authi-
genic phases as might be present would be predominantly in the finer
grain sizes, due to probable low growth rates in the temperature-pres-
sure regimen of the sedimentary environment.
The general subequal values for CR-3, CR-7, and CR-8 suggest that the CR-
5 assemblage is somewhat unusual and, in effect is a "diluent" to the
other suites represented by our sample sites upstream from the delta
proper. These latter materials appear to exhibit the "characteristic"
7/10 relationships of Colville River fluvial sediments.
Again, the relationships shown by Figure 13, which portrays the 7/10
ratios for KC1 versus HaCl treated specimens, indicates the presence of
o
an appreciable component of degraded 10A material in the samples stud-
ied. However, the fact that those values, except for the <0.3ym smec-
219
-------
tite-rich specimen from location CR-5, are mainly clustered in the 1.2-
O
1.0 region suggests that this degraded 10A contribution is relatively
minor. Figure 13 compares the 7/10 ratios for KC1 versus 300°C treated
specimens, and illustrates the general similarities for stations CR-3,
CR-7 and CR-8. The exceptions once again occur at CR-5, where the finer
size fractions show the dominance of the Umiat smectite, which is not
effected by KC1 as much as it is by heat treatment. Interestingly, the
KR-1 material departs in the same sense as those CR-5 finer materials,
from the main sequence of values on Figure 13. Also noteworthy is the
agreement, well within the experimental error, of the values for each
of the three particle size intervals at station KR-1. This degree of
similarity in behavior among the size ranges of one particular sample
may merely be fortuitous. However, it seems sufficiently unusual that,
in endeavoring to explain this situation, we tentatively suggest that
it may represent an effective equilibrium situation having been attained
with respect to K exchange at this site in the marine environment such
that similar responses (more precisely lack of response) to K exchange
under our experimental conditions has resulted. This is admittedly a
somewhat speculative suggestion. It is difficult to either corroborate
or contradict this assertion with respect to K specifically, upon exam-
ination of the data shown in Figure 12, which similarly portrays the
7/10 ratios for NaCl versus 300°C treated specimens. The overall trends
among the sample localities are analogous to those in Figure 13 but the
three particle size ranges at sample station KR-1 are no longer identical
in behavior to one another. This may mean that the NaCl saturation
under our experimental conditions was sufficient to disturb the postul-
ated equilibrium, although KC1 treatment did not have the same effect.
Data are not available for the 7/10 ratios of non-glycolated MgCl? or
sea water treated specimens, so comparisons are not possible at this
time, although this will be investigated further. Figure 11 shows the
7/10 ratios for the various cation+glycol treated specimens. The con-
o o
sistent dominance of the 7A phases with respect to 10A materials in the
220
-------
coarser size fractions of a given sample is apparent, with the sole ex-
ception of the sea water treated material in the <0.3ym interval at
station CR-7. It is difficult to discern any really well-defined trends,
o
although the coarser KR-1 materials appear to be somewhat enriched in 7A
components once again. It might be further gleaned from Figure 14, in
which the 7/10 ratios for KCl+glycol versus NaCl+glycol samples are com-
pared, that the relative amounts of combined chlorite plus kaolinite
o
versus 10A materials do not vary greatly among the samples studied, al-
though it would seem that the marine locality, KR-1, has characteristics
somewhat different from the fluvial sediments.
Figure 14 portrays the 14/10 ratios for specimens heated for one hour
at 550°C. The data from station CR-3 are somewhat suspect, in view of
the problems cited earlier regarding the presence of significant amounts
of ferriginous materials, attempts at its removal, and consequent un-
certainities regarding the nature of the residual assemblages vis—a-vis
the natural ones. Thus, we have not considered these data in the fol-
lowing discussion, although the data are shown on Figure 14 for com-
pleteness. Clearly seen is a trend toward increasing chlorite relative
o
to 10A materials (in this case, representing total smectite, illite,
and degraded micas-vermiculites) downstream, with the maximum value in
the marine locality, KR-1. This trend is well defined, and equally dis-
cernible for any given size range among the sample stations, as well as
in a broad sense for each entire assemblage. This is quite interesting,
and presumably represents the effect of sediment transport and deposi-
tion, combined with possible considerations of source material differ-
ences, as well as authigenesis in the marine environment. Although our
data are insufficient at present to lend strong support to any of these
variables, as shown earlier there are some suggestions that a moderate
amount of authigenic formation of chloritic material may in fact be oc-
curing in the marine milieu. The apparently lower 7/10 values for
MgCl +glycol and sea water+glycol specimens at KR-1, shown in Figure 11,
221
-------
may also suggest that some of this chloritic component may represent a
degraded chloritic component in the river, which subsequently has re-
equilibrated with Mg in the marine environment to form a "reconstituted"
chlorite. This is little more than speculation at the present stage of
our studies, and will be pursued further. Certainly, the relationships
are nicely delineated with the 550°C treatment, due to removal of the
o
"chlorite plus kaolinite = 7A material" problem.
Regarding this latter problem, Figure 14 portrays the data resultant
from our attempts to resolve the "3.52/3.58 doublet" resulting from X--
ray diffraction maxima for chloritic versus kaolinitic phases, respect-
ively. The lack of apparent trends might suggest little success in this
attempt, but, with one exception, the reproducibility represented by
the replicate samples shown indicates that the technique inherently has
a useful degree of precision. The values for the free iron oxide re-
moval treated <0.3ym fraction of sample CR.-5 suggest an appreciable de-
gree of destruction of fine grained chloritic material. No consistent
relationships are apparent from the data presently on hand, but the in-
formation portrayed in Figure 14 is felt to be valid in itself, within
a given sample site, as well as between sites.
CONCLUSIONS
Detailed studies of mineral assemblages in sedimentary materials seem
to be potentially quite useful in enabling an enhanced degree of cer-
tainty regarding characterization of the constituent phases. With this
knowledge more reliable predictions may be ventured as to the potential
behaviour, reactivity, etc. of these materials under various geologic-
geochemical conditions, as well as with regard to the probable reaction
of these materials in the context of the activities of man.
With regard to the materials discussed in this paper, the ubiquitous
222
-------
presence of smectitic and degraded 10A phases in the sediments suggests
a reasonably high degree of "activity" might be anticipated in their
natural environment, with respect to exchange of cations and/or foreign
organic matter. However, it must be remembered that the materials
studied required "removal" of organic material with hydrogen peroxide
in order to permit meaningful X-ray analysis. Thus, the sample data
represent material no longer in the natural state. However, the ease
of exchanging various cations, as well as ethylene glycol, onto the
clays in the laboratory suggests the likelihood of analogous behavior
in their natural state as well. Additionally, it should be noted that
although smectite is ubiquitous, it is not present in predominant pro-
portions in any of the localities downstream from station CR-5 studied
to date. Furthermore, the one marine locality studied, KR-1, is notably
lower in any expandable phases, which would lead one to predict a coin-
cidentally lower "activity" for these sediments relative to exchange
phenomena. Physical adsorption onto clay surfaces, rather than the ex-
change into interlayer structural sites discussed in the present work,
would be an additional mechanism potentially available to add to such
"activity" of a sediment, and, for the clay minerals, would be predict-
able primarily on the basis of a quantitative assessment of particle
sife distribution within a sediment. Greater activity, in general,
would be anticipated with sediments containing greater proportions of
finer-grained constituents.
The present study has resulted in a rather detailed characterization of
the sediments along the lower Colville River and delta and will be use-
ful in endeavoring to elucidate sedimentologic and geochemical relation-
ships in the adjacent areas offshore, along the Alaskan coast and into
the deeper Arctic Basin. This latter work is currently in progress,
utilizing the methods described in the present study.
223
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CHAPTER 6
FAST ICE ON THE NORTHERN COAST OF ALASKA
T. E. Osterkamp and R. D. Seifert
INTRODUCTION
The Impending industrial development on the northern coast of Alaska has
stimulated an interest in the fast ice. Since numerous rivers and
streams enter into the Beaufort Sea in this region, it might be expected
that large areas of the fast ice would be brackish ice rather than sea
ice. However, the drainage basins of these rivers and streams lie
entirely in areas of continuous permafrost and their flow nearly ceases
during the winter months. Therefore, this study was undertaken to
determine the distribution of brackish ice in the fast ice cover.
Our observations by light aircraft and snow machine during 1970, 1971,
2
and 1972, as well as long-term observations made by the native peoples,
indicate that extensive areas of fast ice exist along the northern coast
of Alaska each year. The extension of this ice seaward appears to be
governed by several factors - including the presence of offshore islands,
water depth, storms, and the presence of large grounded ice islands.
These factors usually limit the seaward boundary of the fast ice to a
distance of 10 to 15km from the coastline between Barrow and Flaxman
Island and much less than this from Camden Bay eastward to Herschel
Island. The variability of the fast ice is demonstrated by the fact that
in May, 1970, it extended 35km from Oliktok to a line of large ice
islands grounded in 30m of water and was almost non-existent at Barter
Island.
225
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METHODS
During April and May of 1971 and 1972, a total of 60 ice cores were taken
from the fast ice with a 7.5cm diameter SIPRE corer between Barrow and
Cross Island at the locations shown in Figure 1. These cores were trans-
ported by snow machine and aircraft to Fairbanks, Alaska, where they were
stored in a freezer at -25°C. The crystallographic structure of these
cores was determined by standard petrofabric techniques using a Rigsby
3
Universal Stage and the !
Beckman RB-3 Solu-Bridge.
3
Universal Stage and the salinity of each core was measured with a
In addition, absorption coefficients of the shore-fast ice were obtained
in eight core holes by suspending selenium photocells from an aluminum
rod at various depths within the ice cover to measure the relative light
intensity as a function of depth in the ice cover. A milli-ammeter was
4
used to monitor the photocells. Weller and Schwerdfeger have shown that
the errors introduced by this bore-hole installation are small. The
results were assumed to follow the well-known Bouger's law for absorption
and the absorption coefficients were determined from a semi-logarithmic
graph of relative light intensity versus depth in the ice cover.
Since the properties and structure of brackish ice are not well-known, it
was necessary to adopt criteria for its identification (see also Dykins,
1969 ). These criteria were developed from observations of laboratory-
grown brackish ice and sea ice and from fast ice cores. For the purpose
of this study, brackish ice was tentatively defined as first year ice
that had a salinity of 3 °/oo or less, an obscure or non-existent
platelet substructure, and small, discontinuous brine pockets (<0.03mm
in diameter) when compared to sea ice brine pockets. A horizontal thin
section of brackish ice from a depth of 35cm in the ice cover is shown
in Figure 2.
226
-------
Core locations
N5
Figure 1. Location of ice cores taken during April and May of 1971 and 1972. Each solid circle
represents one or more ice cores.
-------
NJ
oc
F Inure 2. Photograph of a Horizontal thin section of brackish Ice from
t>«c.ween c roesecJ polaro Id u . The KIT Id apac ±r»R la 1<- m .
a depth of 35cm ID Che Ice cover c«ken
-------
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The cores from the fast ice cover were sea ice except for those cores
taken from the Colville River estuary which contained brackish ice.
Since the petrofabrics of sea ice cores are well-known, these results are
3
not reported here (see Seifert, 1973 for details on the petrofabrics of
brackish ice and sea ice). A core taken 4km upstream from the mouth of
the East Channel of the Colville River in May 1972, was predominantly
brackish ice and cores taken from Harrison Bay near the Colville River in
May 1971, consisted of brackish ice in the top one-third (^60cm) and sea
ice in the lower two-thirds of the fast ice cover. An estimate of the
extent of brackish ice in Harrison Bay based on our limited core data is
given in Figure 3. All ice cores taken from areas other than Harrison
Bay were sea ice. Therefore, we expect that the shore-fast ice on the
north slope of Alaska is primarily sea ice.
Walker suggests that the layered ice cover is a result of sea water
encroachment up the Colville River because of cessation of flow in the
fall. It is assumed that the time of cessation of flow corresponds to
the time of the transition from brackish ice to sea ice in the ice cover.
A simple calculation of this time can be obtained using Stefan's equation
O
(Pounder, 1965 ) and Barrow weather data. It is calculated that this
transition from brackish ice to sea ice in the ice cover occurred in
November 1970 and in January 1971.
A typical graph of relative light intensity versus depth in the ice cover is
shown in Figure 4. The absorption coefficients of the fast ice ranged
from 0.006cm to 0.016cm except for two cases where they were 0.028cm~
and O.llcm . In these two cases, the cores taken from the ice
cover contained sediment near the surface. The above values of the
Q
absorption coefficients compare favorably with values obtained by Thomas
229
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THETIS
HARRISON BAY
NJ
W
o
WOOCL
CAMPS*
::•:::• > 80 cm of brackish ice
< 80cm of brackish ice
Figure 3.
Brackish ice in Harrison Bay.
shaded areas were entirely s
Ice cores taken outside of the
ice -
-------
o
^
c
c
0>
u.
w.
3
0 200
o
o
o
-------
for pack ice (O.OllcnT ) and fast ice near Barrow (0.0219cm ) which
also contained sediments. Our attempts to correlate the light absorption
coefficients with crystal size and orientation were unsuccessful.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research was sponsored by NOAA, Sea Grant Office, Department of
Commerce, Grant No. 1-36109.
REFERENCES
1. Arnborg, L., H. J. Walker and J. Peippo. Water Discharge in the
Colville River, Alaska, 1962. Geografiska Annaler. 48A(4):195-210,
1966.
2 Nelson, R. K. Hunters of the Northern Ice. Chicago, University of
Chicago Press, 1969.
3 Langway, C. C., Jr. Ice Fabrics and the Universal Stage. Cold
Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory. Hanover, New Hampshire.
TR-62, 1958.
4 Weller, G. and P. Schwerdtfeger. Radiation Penetration in Antarctic
Plateau and Sea Ice. Polar Meterology. Tech. Note No. 87, WMO-No.
211. TP. 111. 1967- 120 p.
5 Dykins, J. E. Tensile and Flexure Properties of Saline Ice. Jjn
Physics of Ice, N. Riehl, B. Bullemer and H. Engelhardt (ed.). New
York, Plenum Press, 1969. p. 251-270.
6 Seifert, R. The Structure of Shore-Fast Ice Off the North Slope of
Alaska. Unpublished M.S. Thesis, University of Alaska, 1973.
7. Walker, H. J. Coastal Studies Institute, Louisiana State University,
Baton Rouge, Louisiana, Private Communication
8. Pounder, E. R. Physics of Ice. New York, Pergammon Press, 1965.
9. Thomas, C. W. On the Transfer of Visible Radiation Through Sea Ice
and Snow. J. Glac. 4:481, 1963.
232
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CHAPTER 7
SEASONAL VARIATION IN THE NUTRIENT CHEMISTRY AND CONSERVATIVE
CONSTITUENTS IN COASTAL ALASKAN BEAUFORT SEA WATERS
Donald M. Schell
INTRODUCTION
In relation to the warmer waters of the earth, the marine environment
of the arctic is comparatively unknown. Also, by virtue of the fact
that most arctic oceanography has been accomplished from large plat-
forms such as icebreakers or floating ice stations (Fletcher's Ice
Island T-3), the preponderance of data collected to date has been
obtained from oceanic waters or at least well offshore. Minimal infor-
mation is available on the physical and chemical processes that occur
in the coastal environment of the arctic regions with its severe envi-
ronmental stresses.
This chapter reports the seasonal response of nutrient concentrations
and conservative parameters to the environmental extremes of winter and
summer along the Alaskan arctic coast. Information was obtained over
the period September 1969 to April 1973, although most data collected
was during late spring when conditions are good for travelling over the
ice and during the short open water period of late July and August.
Chemical data on the water column of the Beaufort Sea has been reported
in detail by Kinney et al. and isolated samplings have been made by
234 5
others. ' ' Codespoti and Richards, in describing the summer nutri-
ent concentrations of the East Siberian and Laptev Seas, noted that the
effects of the Lena River on phosphate and nitrate concentrations in
the Laptev Sea were pronounced with a severe phosphate deficiency in
the fresher waters. Variability in surface nutrients was ascribed
233
-------
primarily to phytoplankton utilization, although N:P ratios in the Laptev
Sea were much closer to 15:1 than in the East Siberian Sea where evi-
dence of nitrogen deficiency was found. Data concerning nearshore
Alaskan arctic waters is extremely sparse. Arnborg et al. presents
data on the major cations and anions entering Harrison Bay via the
Colville River and on the suspended sediment load. ' Data regarding
nutrient concentrations obtained by the author and colleagues have been
8 9
described in preliminary reports, ' and average nutrient concentra-
tions in Colville delta water samples beneath maximum winter ice has
also been reported.
SETTING
Geographic Description
The arctic coastline in the study area is characterized by low-lying
gently undulating tundra completely under-lain by continuous permafrost.
The relief at the edge of the water is gentle along most of the coast
with the 6m high bluffs in the vicinity of Cape Simpson representing
the extreme. Lagoons and shallow bays comprise most of the coastline
between Barrow and Beechey Point, and the approximate location of the 5
fathom (9m) contour varies from 5 miles offshore near Cape Simpson to
15 miles in Harrison Bay (Fig. 1). Much of the shoreline undergoes
active thermal and wave erosion during the summer months, and the
combined effects of ice push and wave action keep the shapes and relief
of the offshore islands in transit.
Freshwater addition to the coastal marine water comes primarily from
the various rivers and streams of the north slope which drain into the
Arctic Ocean. The largest of these is the Colville River, the major
river system in the study area. Colville River flow measurement for
234
-------
I55C
ISO1
to
to
Wn
Kilometer s
approximate 30 ft. depth
\
^HARRISON BA Y
155°
Figure 1. Baseline data study area, Alaska.
/50<
-------
9 3
the hydrologic year 1962 yielded an input of 16 x 10 m to the
6
Harrison Bay-Simpson Lagoon area.
The Meade River draining into Dease Inlet and the Ikpikpuk River drain-
ing into Smith Bay are the two next largest freshwater sources, but
these represent a much smaller volume than the Colville.
Climatic Conditions
The entire arctic coast of Alaska is typified by extremely cold mari-
time climatic conditions. The data for Barrow, although differing
slightly from Oliktok Point in response to the more peninsular setting
and higher latitude, are similar to locations along the coast and serve
to illustrate the environmental conditions. Air temperatures remain
below freezing for most of the year, reaching above 0°C on an average
of 109 days a year and reaching 0°C or below as a daily minima for 324
days. By February, the coldest monthly mean is attained, -27.9°C. Warm-
ing is rapid during May, and by mid-June the average daily temperature
reaches freezing. July, the warmest month, has a normal mean of 3.9°C.
Solar radiation is an extremely important climatic and biological fac-
tor in the arctic environment. Although the sunlight duration in-
creases rapidly in the spring and becomes continuous at Barrow between
10 May and 3 August, the increased radiation brings a corresponding
increase in fog and cloud cover. Solar angles are low and, when
coupled with the high albedo of the snow-covered ice, result in low
efficiency in heating. The low rate of heating is somewhat offset by
the long days, but the latent heat required to remove the ice of winter
results in a seasonal lag of over 30 days. Once ice-free, however, the
shallow waters respond rapidly to stretches of warm (or cold) weather.
By late October, incoming radiation drops to negligible levels, and the
sun disappears below the horizon in late November. By 21 December, the
236
-------
Barrow sun is -4°48' below the horizon at noon, and twilight conditions
persist for only 2 to 3 hours daily.
METHODS
Sampling: Locations and Procedures
The area chosen for study encompassed the nearshore region from Point
Barrow, Alaska, southeastward to the eastern end of Simpson Lagoon (Fig.
1). Detailed investigations throughout the annual cycle were made from
DEWline Station POW-2 at Oliktok Point and at Point Barrow (Fig. 2).
Intermittent year-round work was accomplished from the Naval Arctic
Research Laboratory's (NARL) Camp Putu and from the home of Mrs. George
Woods in the Colville River delta. A transect of the coastline between
Point Barrow and Camp Putu was made utilizing a tractor-train operated
by NARL during the maximum ice period of April to May 1971 (Fig. 3).
Additional sampling during winter and early spring of the Harrison Bay
area and the Colville delta was accomplished using ski-equipped Cessna
180 aircraft.
Water sampling was conducted primarily from either snow machines and
sleds or from small boats. Occasionally a dog team and ski or float
equipped aircraft were employed, depending upon the season. The open
water season was sufficiently short and the hazards of fog and floating
ice great enough so that snowmachines were the preferred transportation.
Water samples were taken with a 2 liter, plastic van Dorn bottle. If
sampling was through ice, a gasoline-powered 20cm diameter ice auger
was used to drill through the ice. When ice cores were desired, the
powerhead was used to drive a SIPRE corer. Two meters of seawater ice
could be drilled in 5 to 10 minutes, although freshwater ice took consid-
erably longer. At air temperatures of -10°C or warmer, transfer of the
237
-------
I491
CO
7O°30
7O°I5 \-
Spy
Islands Simpson
Oliktok
Point
Kilometer s
Contours in feet.
rH 7O°3O'
-\ 70°I5'
ISO1
Figure 2. Colville River delta vicinity.
-------
,13
TRACTOR TR AIM
TO PUTU
1971
Figure 3. Sample stations along arctic coastline, Spring 1971.
-------
water samples to oxygen bottles or sample bottles presented no diffi-
culties; at lower temperatures the valves and tubing often froze,
making accurate dissolved oxygen determinations a problem. At -40°C or
colder, ice formation during the rinsing of bottles was sufficient to
introduce appreciable error in salinity, and nutrient determinations and
collection of dissolved oxygen samples was not attempted. Since sev-
eral hours often elapsed between sampling and filtering, samples were
stored in a wooden box which was heated with pocket hand warmers in
cold weather. On returning to base camp, the samples were filtered
through glass fiber ultrafilters with gentle suction (<25cm Hg) and
the filtered water was frozen immediately. In summer, filtered samples
were preserved with HgCl9 (3ppm) if a freezer was not available.
Chemical Analysis
Silicate, phosphate, nitrate and nitrite analyses were determined by the
12 13
methods of Strickland and Parsons and ammonia by the methoa of Head.
All nutrient analyses were performed on a Technicon Autoanalyzer II
system.
12
Dissolved oxygen was determined with a modified Winkler method, and
most of the salinity determinations were made using a Beckman model
RS-7B salinometer. In situ measurements of salinity were determined
with a Beckman RS-5 salinometer.
Dissolved organic nitrogen was determined by the method of Strickland
and Parsons. Water samples were oxidized in 10ml quartz tubes by a
4 hour irradiation with a 1200 watt Hanovia ultraviolet lamp. Each sample
was treated with one drop of 30 percent HO prior to irradiation as this
was found to shorten the time required for complete photochemical com-
bustion. The irradiation apparatus held 24 tubes, allowing 12 samples
240
-------
to be run in duplicate. Dissolved organic nitrogen was determined by
subtracting the initial concentrations of nitrate, nitrite and ammonia
from the sum of these parameters following irradiation. Replication
between duplicate samples averaged about 5 percent unless large quantities
of nitrogen were present (>30yg-atoms N/l), in which case variability
between samples was sometimes as high as 15 percent.
Nitrification and Ammonification Procedures
The nitrification-ammonification experiments were all conducted through
direct measurement of changes in nutrient concentrations in samples in-
cubated in situ beneath the ice. Five or six 1 liter Pyrex bottles,
previously aged in seawater, were filled with a water sample and treated
as follows: Bottle 1, sample with nothing added; Bottle 2, sample
poisoned with HgCl2; Bottles 3 to 6, innoculated with various substrates
such as ammonia, glycine, glutamic acid, and urea in amounts of 5, 10,
or 20pg-atoms N/l.
Samples were incubated for periods ranging from between 30 to 160 days.
After filling and innoculating the bottles, they were secured to a length
of rope and lowered through a drill-hole in the ice. If the water depth
was shallow, the samples were lowered to the bottom and enough weighted
rope let down to insure sufficient length for recovery later. The sites
were then adequately flagged to allow locating the spot in the winter
darkness after several weeks of blowing snow.
Recovery of the samples after incubation was accomplished by drilling a
hole close beside the rope and then catching the line beneath the ice
with a pole and hook. Upon removal from the water, the samples were all
immediately poisoned with HgCl_ and refrigerated until analysis.
241
-------
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Seasonal Variations in Nutrients and the Aqueous Environment
Summer Conditions - Summer in the nearshore arctic is most easily defined
as the period of open or near open water. During June, the ice becomes
covered with standing water which then erodes melt-holes and drains
through and the ice cover breaks free of the beach. The melting ice is
of low salinity and low nutrient content and results in the formation of
extreme haloclines in the surface water. As melting progresses, the
amount of open water increases rapidly, and during the second or third
week of July the tides and/or offshore winds clear the remaining ice
from the lagoons. The shorefast sea ice outside the lagoons usually
melts somewhat slower and begins to move in late July. During any time
of the summer, onshore winds can bring pack ice in tight along beaches
exposed to the ocean, and this is often the case in the Cape Simpson and
Cape Halkett areas. The shallower waters of Smith and Harrison Bay are
relatively immune from pack ice intrusion as the larger pieces of ice
become grounded and act as barriers against further onshore movement.
The smaller pieces that do enter the bays are rapidly eroded by the
warmer water and wave action. The major lagoon systems of Elson Lagoon
and Simpson Lagoon are similarly subject to pack ice intrusion only in
the deeper passes between the barrier islands. Wind-driven mixing of
the nearshore waters is effective once the ice cover is removed.
The salinity-depth profiles shown in Figure 4 illustrate the effects
of wind-mixing in Simpson Lagoon near Oliktok Point. In spite of the
large amount of freshwater entering from the Colville River, the halo-
cline is readily attenuated by mixing. During a period of calm weather,
(e.g. 26 August) however, the stratification becomes pronounced, only to
be destroyed by the resumption of the winds.
242
-------
Simpson Lagoon — Station SL-I
Summer 1972
Salinity Profiles
Temperature Profiles
-29 July n - 19 August
- 5 August o-26 August
— 12 August D— 14 September
0.0
2.5
Figure 4. Salinity and temperature profiles, Simpson Lagoon, Summer, 1972.
-------
Salinities for the Harrison Bay-Simpson Lagoon area reflect the high
input of freshwater. The Beaufort Sea waters, with salinities near 30
°/0o outside the barrier islands, are represented by samples from near-
bottom depths (2.0 to 2.5m) in Simpson Lagoon. As Figure 4 shows, these
values are fairly constant throughout the open water period in spite of
the considerable variability of the surface layers. In Elson Lagoon near
Barrow, the input of freshwater from terrestrial sources is much less
than in the Harrison Bay area, and the salinity profiles show pronounced
haloclines only during the period of melting ice cover. By late July or
early August, the ice cover is gone and the unhindered wind action rapidly
mixes the water column to the bottom of the shallow lagoon.
The nutrient regimes of the freshwater and marine environments were
found to reflect and respond to the climatic extremes imposed by the
harsh climate. Thus, the nutrient chemistry is described below primarily
in context with the seasons rather than separately as freshwater or sa-
line environments. In general, the data presented are to describe pro-
cess effects on the nutrient chemistry rather than detail specific nutri-
ent concentrations at specific locations.
Nitrate-nitrite and ammonia - The information obtained from Elson Lagoon
and Simpson Lagoon indicate that the inorganic nitrogen present at the
start of summer is rapidly depleted through biological utilization, and
concentrations fall to levels that are limiting to many neritic
14 15
diatoms. ' By August, nitrate-nitrite concentrations represented
<0.2yg-atoms N/l and ammonia, less than l.Oyg-atom N/l. These values
offer no indication of the severity of nutrient limitation in themselves,
as the rate of ammonia supply through zooplankton regeneration was not
measured (see Chapter 8). In a mass balance context, however, the low
concentrations of inorganic nitrogen available during summer compared
244
-------
to phosphate availability indicate that nitrogenous nutrients are limiting
phytoplankton productivity.
Relative to nitrogen, the phosphate concentrations were extremely vari-
able, ranging from approximately 0.1 to l.Oyg-atoms PO,- P/l in Elson
Lagoon, yielding average N:P ratios of approximately 2.5:1. Samples
taken outside of the barrier islands of Simpson Lagoon indicated
even more severe nitrogen limitation, with a N:P ratio of approximately
0.5.
Phosphate and silicate - During the summer months, the silicate and
phosphate variations in the Harrison Bay-Simpson Lagoon area reflect
very strongly the effects of the freshwater addition by the Colville
River. Reactive phosphate was extremely low in the freshwater, ranging
between 0.04-0.15ug-atom PO -P/l, and averaged about O.OByg-atom
PO.-P/l. Many of the freshwater lakes and ponds sampled were below
these levels, and phosphate concentrations were near undetectable (see
Chapter 8). In the seawater, however, phosphate concentrations were
much higher, and ranged between 0.2-0.8yg-atoms/l PO -P/l. Simpson
Lagoon samples averaged approximately 0.3yg-atom PO -P/l or about
0. lug-atom P/l less than the average of samples taken outside the bar-
rier islands. Little variation in phosphate concentrations was noted
over the course of the open water period.
Silicate concentrations in the Colville River waters were markedly
higher than in any of the marine waters sampled. The river water con-
tained silicate at concentrations ranging between 21.0-57.6vig-atoms Si/1.
The highest values were found in zones of initial mixing with seawater
and may be due to reactions releasing silicate with clays or polymeric
silica in the freshwater.
245
-------
After mixing with seawater and being transported into Harrison Bay and
Simpson Lagoon, the overall silicate concentrations declined markedly.
This was due to mixing with the seawater and the increased utilization
by phytoplankton. The pronounced stratification that occurred during
calm periods as the river flowed out onto Harrison Bay was reflected in
the silicate concentrations. Station SL72-1 (26 August 1972) contained
Sl.lyg-atoms Si/1 in the surface water (1.46 °/00 salinity) and
6.1pg-atoms Si/1 at 2.0m depth (25.27 °/00).
Although the silicate concentrations are depleted in the offshore waters
and were as low as 3.0yg-atoms Si/1 beyond the barrier islands, it is
unlikely that silicate is a principal limiting nutrient to the diatom
populations in view of the severe nitrogen depletion in these waters.
Furthermore, the river water contains such high concentrations of
silicate that, upon mixing with the seawater, the resulting available
silicate would be in excess of that required by populations stimulated
by the input of the inorganic nitrogen contained in the freshwater.
The extreme stability of the summer water column that results from the
melting of ice and consequent low surface salinities, coupled with the
wind fetch limited by offshore pack ice, prevents effective advection
of nutrients from deeper waters. Thus, the only important sources of
"new" nitrogen to the nearshore surface waters (<5m) result from ter-
restrial input. The two major mechanisms contributing to the Simpson
Lagoon-Harrison Bay area will be considered below.
Freshwater systems - The nutrient data obtained from a survey of the Col-
ville River between Umiat and the Colville delta revealed that large dif-
ferences in nutrient concentrations existed when the river waters were
compared with the lake and pond waters along the river course. The Col-
ville River, and the Anaktuvuk, Chandler, and Itkillik Rivers at their
246
-------
confluences with the Colville, were compared with 10 lakes and ponds
sampled near the Colville. These data are presented in detail in Chap-
ter 10. In all cases, nutrient levels were much lower in the ponds
than in the turbid waters of the Colville and its tributaries. Most
remarkable were the contrasting high nitrate (+ nitrite) concentrations
in the Colville River and its tributaries (2.34 to 4.8yg-atoms NO -N/l)
with the almost undetectable nitrate concentrations in the lakes and
ponds (0.00 to 0.45ug-atoms NO--N/1). Two possible sources of the high
nitrate concentrations in the river and (1) a lack of biological
utilization downstream of high nitrate input at headwater sources (i.e.,
rain and snowmelt) or (2) derivation from the seepage of groundwater
containing high nitrate concentrations into the river. The high nitrate
concentrations persist until the water reaches Harrison Bay, whereupon
biological utilization removes all of the nitrate present soon after
mixing with seawater.
Winter Conditions; Bays and Lagoons - With the onset of freezing in the
coastal arctic, the aqueous habitat undergoes a radical shift in environ-
mental conditions. The continuous daylight, rapid temperature fluctua-
tions and wind-mixing that typify the open-water season are replaced by
increasing darkness, temperatures below 0°C and restricted circulation
of the water. For nearly 6 months the increase in ice thickness is
virtually linear with time as the thickening ice cover is further cooled
by the falling temperatures of winter. Along the coast, ice accretes at
approximately l.Ocm/day from about 25 September to 1 October to the end
of the following March. There is considerable variability as to actual
freeze-over dates due to weather conditions and wind stress. Often, 2
weeks will pass between the appearance of the first new ice around the
leeward shores to when the ice completes coverage. Once started, how-
ever, freezing can be very fast. On 1 October 1971, ice was forming on
Elson Lagoon and drifting before the wind in air temperatures of -4°C.
247
-------
On the windward side, ice crystals were forming in open water; on the
leeward side, very loose slush had accumulated to a depth of 10cm. When
the wind dropped on 2 October and temperatures continued downward, the
ice cover stiffened and consolidated. By 10 October, the entire lagoon
with the exception of thin ice in the passes, would support a man and
snow machine. Ice thickness was between 13 to 16cm. Figure 5 shows ice
measurements taken at various stations along the arctic coast over four
winters. These data include those stations away from the effects cf bluffs
and riverbanks and represent typical ice thicknesses. The variability
in thickness caused by differing snow cover and sub-ice conditions is
readily apparent as the season progresses. Figure 6 illustrates the pro-
cess of freshwater ice accretion during freeze-up in the west and east
channels of the Colville delta during fall 1972. The similarity during
the last three years in total ice accretion is illustrated in Figure 7
which shows the ice thickness of Imikpuk Lake at Barrow. Between freeze-
up and 31 March, an average ice accretion rate of 0.94mm/day was found,
remarkably close to the rate of seawater ice formation.
Freezing effects on seawater environments - The arctic winter, as in more
temperate latitudes, is a period of nutrient replenishment in the upper
water column primarily through advective mixing with deep or offshore
waters.
The mechanisms, however, are different from those usually responsible
for turnover in the water column in warmer climates. Unlike the near-
shore waters of southeastern Alaska, for example, the surface tempera-
tures of the coastal marine waters rarely exceed 10°C as summer maxima,
and the primary source of stability in the upper waters is the halocline
resulting from the melt of nearly 2m of sea ice. Thus, as autumn cooling
commences, the stability is not destroyed except in the shallow lagoons
where wind mixing is effective and even there formation of ice cover may
248
-------
NJ
O.O
OCT. NOV. DEC. JAN.
1 1 1
0.5
kj
A 5
2,O
FEB. MAR. APR. MAY
1 1 1
\
X
t
ICE THICKNESS -ARCTIC CO A S T
(Comp o sit e data I97O -1973)
o HARRISON BAY - SIMPSON LAGOON
+ ELS ON LAGOON-DEASE INLET
V
\
\
oo
00
•o-
Figure 5. Composite ice thickness data, Arctic Coast.
-------
UJ
cr
tr
UJ
CL
2
LL)
-5
-10
-15
-20
25
Mean Daily Air
Temperature
A/
X
A B /
\\/»
I I I
Thickness
* West Channel
> East Channel
II II
5O
40
20
o
CO
CO
UJ
o
UJ
o
10
20 25 30
SEPTEMBER
10 15 20
OCTOBER
25 30 I 5 10 15
NOVEMBER 1972
0
Figure 6. Ice formation and average air temperature at Putu, Colville delta.
A = first complete freeze-over of Nechelik (West) Channel,
B = first freeze—over of East Channel.
-------
Ui
0,0
0.5
1,5
2.0
OCT. NOV.
DEC. JAN. FEB. MAR. APR.
1 1 1 1
MAY
ICE THICKNESS - IMIKPUK LAKE, BARROW
(NOAA - NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE)
FIRST
o 1970-1971
* 1971 - 1972
x 1972-1975
COMPLETE*
ICE COVER
16 September
29 September
28 September
X X
X
Figure 7. Ice thickness, Imikpuk Lake, Point Barrow.
-------
precede halocline destruction. The appearance of ice radically alters
the water structure, however, for the solute segregation during freezing
results in a rapid increase in salinity at the surface where cooling is
also the fastest. Thus, shortly after the formation of the first new ice,
the salinity of the surface water exceeds that of the water below and
the process of mixing the water column begins. As temperatures fall and
winter progresses, the rapid increase of salinity continues and in the
nearshore areas, dynamic exchanges of water between the shallows and off-
shore balances the rates of freeze-induced salinity increases in the la-
goon and nearshore waters. Further offshore, the increase in surface
salinity alone serves to cause mixing.
The formation of 2m of ice over the course of the winter has a profound
effect on the biological environment of the shallow bays and lagoons of
the coastal Arctic. Approximately 80 to 85 percent of the solutes are
excluded in freezing; thus, the potential for rapid increases in salinity
is greatest in the shallow waters. As freezing progresses downward,
shallow bays become isolated by bottomfast ice or sufficiently restrict-
ed to prevent ready exchange of the hypersaline water. Examples of this
"psychrogenic hypersalinity" were evident in many water samples taken
along the coast during late winter. Figures 8 and 9 show under-ice salin-
ities for Elson Lagoon near Barrow and Dease Inlet, respectively. Off-
shore salinities under the ice were approximately 30 to 32 °/0o» yet the
restricting caused by the barrier islands was readily evident even though
the deep passes were open to the sea. The Elson Lagoon data (Fig. 8)
show the effect of a shallow bar on the salinity of the waters restrict-
ed behind it. Although the narrow channel was open to the lagoon and
hence the sea, salinities were nearly doubled progressing to the end of
the channel. The two dates of sampling illustrate the rapid rise in
salinity as the ice nears the bottom. A hole drilled to 1.0m in the
ice over the bar hit brine at the mud-ice interface with a salinity of
252
-------
N
Point Barrow
CHUKCHI
SEA
BEAUFORT
SEA
30.3
(32.0)
33.9
41 A
(48.9)..
SALINITY (%o)
3O.3 - 9 February 1975
(32,O)-9 April 1973
\ approximate 1,8m
\ depth contour
\ 43.3
^(,82.8)
Figure 8. Under-ice salinities, Elson Lagoon.
253
-------
BEAUFORT SEA
SALINITY
(32.1)
Figure 9. Under ice salinities, Dease Inlet, April 1973.
254
-------
182.8 °/0o. This brine was at a temperature of -12°C and illustrates
the severity of such habitat to benthic organisms.
The Dease Inlet data reflect the combination of active water exchange in
the deeper sections and the restriction to circulation in the shallower
sections. When the water beneath the ice shallows to less than 0.5m,
the effects of freezing are pronounced and psychrogenic hypersalinity
soon results as shown by the salinities at the head of the bay. Note
that saline intrusion had proceeded at least 20km up the channels of
the Meade River, and no fresh water was evident beneath the ice. Since
the drainage basin of the Meade River is considerably smaller than that
of the Colville River and drains tundra with gentle relief, freezup and
complete cessation of flow occurs earlier in the fall; and the river
probably has little or no effect on the waters of Dease Inlet after
October. Thus, the variations in salinity must be ascribed primarily to
freezing effects. Of interest is the small eastern arm of Dease Inlet,
Kurgorak Bay, which is shallower at its connection to Dease Inlet. Here
a sample of water taken at 1.4m had a salinity of 126.4 "/Oo« Only a
few centimeters separated the ice and mud.
Where the access to the open seawater is relatively unrestricted, such
as in the central portion of Dease Inlet, the circulation of less saline
water into the bay and the draining of the hypersaline water is quite
rapid. By assuming a simple vertical-sided shape for Dease Inlet, a
mean depth of 2.3m and using a freezing rate of l.Ocm/day, the time
required for the water to exchange can be approximated. The measurements
of salinity made at 1.6m ice cover show a progressive rise in under-ice
salinity from 36.9 °/00 at the entrance to 40.0 °/00 in the more re-
stricted waters near the head of the inlet. Assuming no water movement
and an 83 percent exclusion of solutes during freezing, the formation of
10cm ice (10 days) should be reflected in a salinity rise of about 4.3
255
-------
o
o
/00. Over the entire length of Dease Inlet (excepting Station 14 which
was very shallow), however, the measured under-ice salinity increase was
only 3.1 °/0o, which indicates that the exchange occurs throughout the
entire inlet in approximately seven days. A combination of tidal pumping
and density currents must account for the rapid exchange rate. Tidal
fluctuations, although averaging only 10 to 20cm, change a large percent-
age of the water volume beneath the winter's ice cover. In the case of
Dease Inlet, an average tidal amplitude of 15cm represents at least 21
percent of the water volume. Thus the diurnal tides over seven days serve
as ample mechanism to flush the high salinity waters from the head of
the bay. The currents induced beneath the ice by the tides must be ap-
preciable as the movement of water out of the inlet in seven days requires
a net current of 5.Sera/sec in the above situation. Larger fluctuations
in sea level (50 to 75cm). which are occasionally induced by wind and baro-
metric pressure changes, would also have very pronounced effects in flush-
ing hypersaline waters from coastal inlets and the shallow bays.
Examples of psychrogenic hypersalinity are obtainable beneath maximum
winter ice cover all along the shallow coast in waters of 2.5m or less.
Salinities of 60.4 °I00 were recorded in Smith Bay, 65.9 °/00 in Simpson
Lagoon and 72 °/00 in Prudhoe Bay. Figure 10 shows the location of
stations in Simpson Lagoon and Table 1 gives the salinity and nutrient
data for these stations for May 1971. The severe stress that this cold
and extremely saline water would place upon the benthic biota perhaps
explains the general dearth of benthic fauna and absence of macrophytes
in the nearshore habitats (see Chapter 9).
Seawater nutrient chemistry - The mixing of the under-ice waters during
winter serves to replenish the nutrients depleted during summer and to
supply oxygenated water to the shallower environments. The replenish-
ment of nitrogeneous nutrients occurs through several pathways in the
nearshore:
256
-------
K:
Ln
SPY PO--
-*^y
} is
TW-2 TW-I \
OT-3
TK-I ' OT-2
HARRISON' OT-,
BAY
*Zf**™^$ \OP-4
so t^ *' 'ps-'
\j{s — f /~tr> "3
' PO-2'OP-3 PS-2
so-
PINGOKS BEAUFORT
BERTQNCINI
15 BODFISH IS
n P^X-i . * SM-4 oiwc.-;y. r».10 o
O-Zpd-3 SIMPSON SME-6 SME-*sfc&£
°p-' ' PS-4' i LAGOON
COTTLE
SME-2^^
Kovearak SME-
' Pt
Figure 10. Salinities and nutrients, under-ice waters of Simpson Lagoon, May 1971,
See Table 1 for key.
-------
Table 1. Salinities and nutrients, under-ice waters of Simpson Lagoon,
May 1971. Key for Figure 10.
Station
Number
C-l
OP-1
OP-2
OP-3
OP-4
OT-1
OT-2
OT-3
PO-1
PO-2
PO-3
PS-1
PS-2
PS-4
PS-5
SM-1
SM-2
SM-3
SM-4
SM-5
SME-1
SME-2
SME-3
SME-4
SME-5
SME-6
SO-1
SO-2
SWE-1
TK-1
TK-2
TK-3
TK-4
TW-1
TW-2
Salinity
(V..)
33.7
37.9
36.8
34.0
41.4
27.8
32.8
34.8
32.0
39.1
40.2
45.3
57.8
51.5
45.6
45.6
57.1
56.1
58.3
45.4
42.1
55.4
65.9
49.0
59.5
35.6
34.8
46.5
32.3
32.6
34.1
36.5
32.0
30.4
Nitrate
(yg-at/1)
5.1
2.7
2.2
2.2
6.9
3.9
4.4
5.6
3.6
7.1
4.6
7.3
8.4
9.4
7.8
8.5
9.7
9.3
9.4
3.8
5.4
6.7
10.5
7.5
9.4
5.5
5.4
8.5
3.9
4.2
5.5
7.5
4.5
0.6
Phosphate
(Mg-at/1)
1.05
0.82
0.96
0.82
0.94
1.01
0.93
0.74
0.98
0.87
0.84
0.86
1.05
0.96
0.99
1.03
1.14
1.24
1.21
1.09
1.15
1.09
1.00
0.97
0.84
1.09
0.93
1.12
0.57
0.95
1.01
Silicate
(UR-at/l)
19.4
17.1
20.2
17.1
13.7
17.7
22.2
28.7
33.5
26.8
40.2
35.9
42.0
48.9
47.0
48.5
22.0
28.4
50.0
53.5
38.6
48.2
22.2
21.2
37.8
16.7
17.8
20.2
28.2
16.7
18.1
258
-------
1) Nitrate from deep water is mixed with surface waters.
2) Ammonia is released from zooplankton grazing and is not
reassimilated by phytoplankton.
3) Dissolved organic nitrogen is consumed heterotrophically
producing ammonia.
4) Nitrification processes convert fractions of the ammonia to
nitrate and nitrite.
5) Release of ammonia and dissolved organic nitrogen from detritus
and from the sediments is important in some areas.
The regeneration processes occurring in situ are discussed below in more
detail. The mixing of offshore deep water through exchange with more
saline water in the lagoons and inlets results in reasonably uniform
nutrient concentrations in waters having access to the open ocean. Fig-
ures 11 to 14 show the distribution of nitrate (+nitrite), ammonia, dissol-
ved organic nitrogen and total dissolved nitrogen in relation to salin-
ity in Dease Inlet (Fig. 9) during April 1973. Ammonia and nitrate +
nitrite in general reflected the increase in salinity up the inlet (about
5 to 8%), whereas the dissolved organic nitrogen concentrations doubled
over the length of the inlet. Thus, an input of dissolved organic nitrogen
must have been present and this is perhaps the reason for the observed
decline in dissolved oxygen (Fig. 15). This rapid increase in dissolved
organic nitrogen concentration is perhaps in part due to the shallowness
of the southern end of the inlet which would magnify a small rate of
addition in the deeper waters of the northern end. It is interesting to
note, however, that except for the southernmost sample, the ammonia con-
centrations were not very high. This implies that little ammonia was
being released in spite of the increased carbon respiration as evidenced
by the depletion of oxygen shown in Figure 15. The nitrogen may have
been converted to a lower molecular weight organic form such as urea.
259
-------
NITRATE -NITRITE
Figure 11. Nitrate and nitrite concentrations, Dease Inlet, April 1973.
260
-------
Figure 12. Ammonia concentrations, Dease Inlet, April 1973.
261
-------
DISSOL VED ORGANIC N
fug-atoms N/liter)
Figure 13. Dissolved organic nitrogen concentrations, Dease Inlet,
April 1973.
262
-------
TOTAL DISSOLVED NITROGEN
Figure 14. Total dissolved nitrogen concentrations, Dease Inlet.
April 1973.
263
-------
Figure 15. Dissolved oxygen concentrations, Dease Inlet, April 1973,
264
-------
Phosphate concentrations in Dease Inlet gave strong evidence of uptake
in the inlet, as shown by the pattern in Figure 16. This is somewhat
surprising although the dissolved oxygen consumption would indicate an
active population of heterotrophs present. The lowest phosphate concen-
tration of the Dease Inlet samples was in the low salinity waters of the
Meade River which is in line with the general phosphate regime of the
freshwaters. Silicate concentrations were conservative over the length
of Dease Inlet, generally reflecting the salinities.
Stations monitored over the winter months at Eluitkak Pass near Point
Barrow and data obtained from the tractor train traverse of the coastline
in April 1971 showed that the concentrations of nutrients in the offshore
waters rose to near maximum annual concentrations soon after freezeup in
the fall. Thus, although 1 October 1971 samples at Eluitkak Pass
yielded undetectable amounts of nitrate-N, by 23 November, the concentra-
tions had risen to 4.3Mg-atoms NO -N/l. Concentrations remained near
this level until biological uptake became evident the following spring.
Similar concentrations were determined from the offshore samples taken
on the tractor train, the range spanning 3.15 to 5.16Mg-atoms NO -N/l,
in part reflecting freeze concentration in the samples taken closest
to shore. Ammonia -N concentrations averaged less than l.Opg-atoms
NH.-N/l for almost all samples taken in offshore waters on the tractor-
train.
Under-ice oxygen - Following the formation of a shore-fast ice cover
during the fall, the underlying water is isolated from further input of
atmospheric oxygen for the winter. Photosynthetic oxygen production is
non-existent and remains so until the growth of epontic algal communi-
ties commences in the following late April or May. Although biological
oxygen demand might therefore be expected to result in a steadily de-
creasing oxygen concentration in the water column, such is occasionally
265
-------
ORTHOPHOSPHATE
Figure 16. Phosphate concentrations, Dease Inlet, April 1973,
266
-------
not the case in areas of low biological activity since during the freez-
ing process oxygen is excluded into the water below. Often, therefore,
oxygen tensions can remain high throughout the winter in nearshore arctic
waters. If the rate of utilization is very low, oxygen concentrations
can measurably increase during winter although, in most cases consumption
exceeds concentration by freezing and the oxygen levels decrease.
Oxygen data collected at stations along the coastal Beaufort Sea in late
April 1971 (Fig. 3) reflect the wide range of concentrations resulting
from the combination of biological consumption and freeze concentration
processes. At Stations 7, 8, and 10 to 14, in which the under-ice water
was in ready exchange with offshore waters, dissolved oxygen concentra-
tions were relatively high, ranging between 5.65 to 6.80ml 0_/1. At
stations in more restricted waters such as in Elson Lagoon (Stations
1 to 5) and nearshore Harrison Bay, (Stations 15 to 17) the range
dropped to between 4.33 to 5.72ml 0_/1 and the lowest values, from
either isolated hypersaline waters (Stations 6 and 9) or from the
channels of the Colville delta ranged from 1.79 to 3.73ml 0/1. It is
interesting to note, however, that at none of the stations in Figure 3
were anoxic waters encountered.
Oxygen tensions approaching undetectable concentrations were never found
in waters that were relatively unrestricted and in only one case in sa-
line waters, Kurgorak Bay on the eastern side of Dease Inlet (Fig. 15).
This instance represents an extreme case of isolation and freeze concen-
tration and is not typical of the lagoons or inlets where circulation,
however limited, occurs beneath the ice. In comparing the relative
concentrations of nitrate and ammonia in the Kurgorak Bay sample with
others in Dease Inlet, there are strong implications that nitrate re-
duction and the production of ammonia has also occurred.
267
-------
The overall pattern of oxygen concentrations in Dease Inlet reflects the
isolation of the seawater from atmospheric input of oxygen and the dis-
tance from the oxygenated waters derived from offshore. Although it is
tempting to speculate that if Dease Inlet were longer, the waters would
at some point become anoxic, the decrease in oxygen probably also re-
flects in part the decreasing depth and perhaps an increase in organic
content of bottom sediments at the southern end. It should be noted
that although saline intrusion had occurred at least 20km up the delta
channels of the Meade River, the average oxygen concentration was 3.6
ml 0_/1 in the one deep channel sampled.
Winter Conditions; Freshwater Systems - The data acquired on freshwater
systems during the winter months are extremely limited. The shallow
ponds freeze solid and few large lakes were readily accessible from
Oliktok. The Colville delta channels become totally saline during early
winter after the river flow ceases and the freshwater is replaced by
seawater. Freshwater could be obtained only by traveling several kilo-
meters upstream from the delta. However, Lake II near Woods Camp and
the Colville River were sampled during the early spring and late fall,
1972. The data thus obtained gives some insight into the nutrient chem-
istry during winter months. Nitrate (+nitrite) concentrations in the
freshwater of the Colville River increased over the course of the winter.
The range for freshwater samples taken during November 1972 at the con-
fluence of the Itkillik River and 6km further upstream was 8.48-9.90
yg-atoms NO -N/l, with an average concentration of 8.97 (n=10).
Ammonia-N concentrations were much lower, between 0.4 to 1.4yg-atoms/l,
averaging 0.5 (n=10). Phosphate concentrations ranged from unde-
tectable to 0.12ug-atoms P/l with the average value, 0.05.
Nitrogenous nutrient concentrations were higher in spring samples than
those from fall. Samples collected during April and May from the
268
-------
Colville at three locations upriver from the confluence with the Itkillik
River contained nitrate in the range 24.8-42.5yg-atoms NO--N/1 and
ammonia-N concentrations of 0.7 to 7.0ug-atoms/l. The higher levels
of inorganic N in the spring samples probably reflect concentration by
freezing processes over the winter. Since the above samples represent
different hydrologic years, however, the extent of the freeze-concentra-
tion effects cannot be ascertained.
The nutrient concentrations in lakewater samples from Lake II at Woods
Camp showed the effects of isolation and oxygen depletion during over-
wintering. In November 1971, the average nitrate-N concentration was
2.5yg-atoms/l, by 12 April 1972, 17.2; by 21 May, 3.6; and by 26 May,
3.1yg-atoras NO -N/l. The ammonia concentrations for the same dates,
in order: 3.1, 4.7, 8.8 and 12.5yg-atoms NH -N/l. Oxygen measurements
showed l.lml 0/1 on 12 April and one subsequent measurement (21 May)
gave near undetectable oxygen. Apparently nitrification and freeze
concentration increased nitrate concentrations over winter with concur-
rent oxygen depletion until at some point in April the lake became
anoxic. Nitrate reduction and the production of ammonia followed.
Unfortunately, no other lakes in the delta were investigated so it
cannot be determined if this shift to anoxic conditions is typical of
arctic lakes of this general size. Similar regimes have been described,
however in subarctic lakes of the Alaskan interior. Data on
oxygen concentrations in the freshwater system are largely confined
to the Colville River channels during late Fall with lesser comparative
data collected in the spring which probably represent oxygen minima
for these locations.
Table 2 shows oxygen concentrations in the East and Nechelik Channels of
the Colville delta at Putu during fall of 1972. At the end of the sam-
pling period, saline waters had intruded to this point and contained
269
-------
Table 2. DISSOLVED OXYGEN, COLVILLE DELTA, FALL 1972
^J
o
STATION PUTU -
Date
24 Sep
7 Oct
14 Oct
20 Oct
2 Nov
8 Nov
15 Nov
Depth,
m
0
2
4
0
2
4
0
2
4
0
2
4
6.5
0
2
4
6.5
0
2
4
6.2
0
2
4
6
Salinity
c o /
° / 0 O
<0.2
(Fresh
water)
__
—
—
__
—
—
__
— —
—
— •
—
—
7.67
9.67
0.42
0.18
5.31
8.59
0.14
0.16
6.85
8.62
EAST
, Oxygen,
ml/liter STP
4.87
5.12
4.91
4.94
4.94
4.98
4.87
4.87
4.91
4.71
4.56
4.56
4.49
4.52
4.52
4.21
4.07
4.52
4.70
4.14
4.10
4.59
4.63
4.35
3.96
STATION PUTU -
Date Depth,
m
24 Sep 0
2
4
7 Oct 0
2
5.5
14 Oct 0
2
5.5
20 Oct 0
2
4
5.5
2 Nov 0
2
4
8.8
9 Nov 0
2
4
8.2
15 Nov 0
2
4
9
Salinity
S °/oo
<0.2
— •
— ,
__
—
—
__
0.89
3.46
0.33
4.12
6.59
7.93
2.18
12.36
13.23
13.50
3.03
12.91
13.74
13.96
4.30
13.58
14.14
14.28
WEST
, Oxygen,
ml/liter STP
5.05
5.05
5.01
5.36
5.22
5.26
5.05
4.91
4.49
5.22
4.31
4.21
4.17
4.77
3.96
3.86
3.93
5.05
3.58
3.72
3.65
3.61
3.58
3.54
-------
sharply lower oxygen concentrations. By April and May, oxygen concentra-
tions in the freshwater environments became minimal although no river
samples were found to be anoxic. Lake II, as previously described, be-
came anoxic at this time but oxygen samples in freshwater of the Col-
ville River in April 1972 contained 3.91 0/1 at locations approx-
imately 12km and 17km upriver from the confluence with the Itkillik
River. In brackish water at the mouth of the Itkillik River, S °/
o
" o o
11.4 to 16.1) oxygen concentrations ranged from 3.78ml 0_/1 at the
under-ice surface to 3.50 at 5.5m depth. Sampling at the same site in
April 1973, however, yielded oxygen concentrations of only 1.61 to 2.30
ml 0-/1 indicating large year-to-year variability. Salinity values
in 1973 were higher (14.8 to 18.0 °/0o) but a downstream station at Putu
with salinities between 23.8 and 24.2 °/oo contained oxygen concentra-
tions of 3.85 to 4.27ml 0-/1 indicating that advection of more saline
water upstream was not the cause of lowered oxygen tensions. The pre-
sence of fish populations near the mouth of the Itkillik River was con-
firmed by netting efforts in April 1973 and may be the cause of the
lowered oxygen concentrations.
Nutrient Addition To Nearshore Waters
Nutrient Input from the Colville Drainage System - Considerable inorganic
nitrogen is added to the Harrison Bay area via the Colville River. The
turbidity and extreme phosphate deficiency of the river are apparently
sufficient to prevent much biological consumption of inorganic nitrogen
in the river waters and the nutrient levels entering the coastal waters
are relatively high, ranging between 3.6 to 6.9yg-atoms inorganic-N/1.
Phosphate concentrations remained very low, between 0.02 to 0.18)Jg-
atoms P/l and averaged only 0.08yg-atoms P/l. Thus the river water
had an average N:P ratio of 53:1. The seven sampling intervals ranged
from break-up until after new ice cover had formed in the fall and al-
though closely spaced sampling was not performed during the maximum
271
-------
flood at break-up, the variations in concentration were sufficiently
limited to feel the above values are representative. If the total
18
annual discharge for 1971 is taken using the volume given by Walker at
9.7 x 109m3 this implies an addition of 557 metric tons of inorganic
fixed nitrogen to the adjacent coastal environment. This nitrogen is
rapidly assimilated in the nearshore area as evidenced by the rapid de-
pletion in the low salinity waters of Simpson Lagoon and Harrison Bay.
Input of Nitrogen by Erosional Processes - Another source of nutrients
to the nearshore waters results from the active erosion of the shorelines
19
bordering much of the arctic coast. Leffingwell describes peak wave
and thaw induced erosional rates at near 9n»/year for Flaxman Island and
as high as 30.5m/year at Cape Simpson and Point Drew. These rates were
exceptionally rapid and most areas were either stable or eroding at rates
of only a few meters/year. Erosion of the Elson Lagoon shoreline aver-
2i
aged 1.3m/year over a 20 year period
the comparison of aerial photographs.
20
aged 1.3m/year over a 20 year period based on field measurements and
Studies of erosional rates in Simpson Lagoon and the resulting input of
nitrogenous nutrients were undertaken during the summer of 1972. Verti-
cal sections of actively eroding bluffs were taken and from the aerial
photography of the shoreline, an average shoreline retreat of 1.Am/year
was calculated for the previous 22 or 23 years at 62 stations between
Beechey Point and a location approximately 4km southwest of Oliktok.
The processes are in a sense constant and not catastrophic as major
storms are a normal component of the arctic environment. From shoreline
elevations, which ranged from stable beaches of very low relief to
bluffs of 2.5 to 4.4m in height, approximate volumes of eroded
material were calculated. In the 40.5km of coastline investigated, 9.7
km were stable sandy-gravel beaches, 1.3km of estuaries, 16.6km of
low ground lacustrine beds (0.4 to 2.0) and 12.9km of high ground
272
-------
(>2.0m). The composition of both the low-ground lacustrine beds and
the high-ground materials were essentially similar with the top 1 to
2m being peats, lacustrine silts and ground ice. Underlying the
peats and silt were usually coarse grained sandy soils of low nutrient
content. Analyses of a vertical section of the tundra bluff at Oliktok
Point are presented in Figure 17. Of particular interest are the high
nitrate concentrations in the top of Oliktok Soil Section //I. Apparent-
ly nitrification of ammonia derived from organic material is an impor-
tant process in well-drained arctic soils in spite of the low temperatures
present. Similar high nitrate concentrations were found at Milne Point
and Oliktok Soil Section #2 surface samples.
In order to estimate the input of nitrogen to the lagoon system, several
assumptions were made based on preliminary data obtained along the la-
goon coast.
1) There is no erosional input from stable gravel or sand beaches.
2) There is no input through erosional processes in the 1.3km of
estuaries. The drainages emptying into Simpson Lagoon between
Beechey Point and Oliktok are very small and the input via
these sources is probably insignificant during the open water
season.
3) The low tundra (old lacustrine beds) was estimated to have an
average relief above sea level of 1.5m.
4) The organic mat and peat layer was estimated at 1.0m thick
and below this depth was assumed to be mineral soils typical
of Oliktok Section 1.
5) Bulk densities of l.lg/cc for organic peats and 2.5g/cc
for mineral soils were assigned.
6) Once eroded, the soils were assumed to be worked to 0.5m
below mean sea level.
7) Nutrient concentrations of the Oliktok Section 1 are typical
for that area.
273
-------
0
20
40
60
8O
120
<;
\I4O
ISO
20O
22O
240
Soluble Nitrogen
OL/KTOK SOIL SECTION I
Particulate Nitrogen
Nitrate and nitriteN
Ammonia N
Soluble Organic N
mg N/kg wet soil
Organic Matter
Soil Moisture
Organic matter
(loss of ignition)
So/7 moisture
O 4 8 12 16 2O 24 28 32 36 O O.5O I.OO H2O-25 75
125 175 225
Org. matter-IO 2O 3O 4O
Figure 17. Nitrogen, water, and organic matter content of Oliktok soil.
-------
Similar assumptions were used in calculating the erosion of the 12.9km
of "high" tundra except the peat layer was taken at 1.5m thick and the
average relief above sea level was taken as 3.0m. Although these
assumptions leave considerable room for error, the uniformity of the
geomorphological processes acting on the low tundra of this section of
arctic coastline make these assumptions reasonable.
Using this data and calculating the eroded volume gives 50.3 x 10 m of
33 33
peat soils, 59.3 x 10 m of mineral soils or a total of 109.6 x 10 m
of tundra eroded during an "average" open water season. If the processes
are fairly uniform year-to—year and microbial degradation coupled with
the physical wave action and leaching processes returns all of the soil
nitrogen to the water column, then a maximum input of 252 metric tons is
added each year. In actuality, considerable nitrogen is probably lost
to the sediments through entrainment of peat and some may be lost through
denitrification processes. Appreciable loss of eroded nitrogen to the
lagoon system may also occur through transport of the peat out of the
lagoon by wind-driven currents.
Nitrogen Fixation - In spite of the apparent excess phosphate concentra-
tion in the nearshore marine waters, no known nitrogen fixing algae were
identified in the marine waters and no evidence of nitrogen fixation was
found in estuarine water samples taken near Wood's Camp. Although the
nearshore nutrient regime favors the occurrence of nitrogen fixing or-
ganisms, the extreme low temperatures may severely inhibit the nitrogen-
ase enzyme and prevent successful growth. The ponds and wet coastal
tundra, however, warm rapidly on sunny days and active nitrogen fixation
21 22
is a major input to arctic coastal tundra systems. ' Thus it appears
that terrestrial sources constitute the principal source of "new" nitro-
gen to the nearshore waters during summer months. The high discharge
columns in the rivers during the run-off season add needed inorganic
nitrogen to the surface layers and this is supplemented during the summer
275
-------
by nutrients contained in soils wave-eroded from the low coastline sub-
ject to thaw. The large amounts of organic nitrogen introduced by both
the river and through erosional processes probably do not contribute
directly to much phytoplankton nutrition. However, as discussed below,
this organic nitrogen may be important as a nutritional source for
heterotrophs during winter months.
Regeneration of Nitrogenous Nutrients
Due to the difficulties inherent in conducting winter water sampling
programs in the nearshore arctic, minimal data have been obtained from
the nearshore environments on the physical and chemical processes that
occur in response to the severe climatic regime. This section reports
findings on the nutrient regeneration processes governing the conversion
of organic nitrogen to ammonia (ammonification) and the further oxidation
of ammonia to nitrite or nitrate (nitrification) in the nearshore waters
of the Beaufort Sea.
The measurement of nitrite and nitrate formation in oceanic waters has
been severely hindered by the extremely slow rates of production and
direct measurements on incubated samples have been fruitless in the
past. Recently, however, a series of papers ' ' ' describing
nitrate-nitrite-ammonia interrelationships in northern Pacific waters
has yielded considerable insight into the processes governing the movement
of nitrate into the nitrite fraction. Through the use of new analytical
techniques capable of detecting changes in nitrite concentrations as low
23
as O.OOlMg-atom N02~N/1, the reduction of nitrate to nitrite by
phytoplankton assimilation and by nitrate-reducing bacteria in deep
waters, has been successfully measured. No significant production of
nitrite through ammonia oxidation was measured in tropical oceanic
waters but in the nearshore waters of Sagami Bay, ammonia oxidation was
of the same order of magnitude as nitrate reduction to nitrite. The
overall rates for nitrate assimilation by phytoplankton were several
276
-------
times greater than the rate of nitrite production from nitrate or through
ammonia oxidation. No measurements were obtained, however, on the rate
of ammonia oxidation to nitrate.
During the initial phases of investigation of the marine chemistry of
the Colville River delta, interesting and unexplained data concerning
oxidized nitrogen concentrations were obtained from winter samples of
Q
hypersaline waters collected from near the mouth of the west channel.
Nitrate and nitrite concentrations were in considerable excess of the
amounts which would have resulted from the solute segregation processes
during ice formation. Further sampling in other coastal locations, in-
cluding a lake in the Colville delta indicated that anomalously high
nitrate concentrations were not common but did occur in very dissimilar
environments. Thus during the winters of 1971 to 1972 and 1972 to 1973,
a series of experiments were conducted to determine rates and directions
of nitrogen oxidation-reduction processes within the aqueous environment.
Circumstantial evidence suggesting the occurrence of nitrification in
the nearshore underice waters of the arctic coast was obtained from
routine nutrient data taken during 1970. Figure 18 shows a plot of
salinity and nitrate + nitrite concentrations from spring samples of
underice waters of the Harrison Bay-Simpson Lagoon area and from Dease
Inlet near Barrow. The trend of the points was along a straight line
with concentrations directly proportional to the salinity indicating
solute exclusion during freezing. However, samples obtained from Wood's
Camp in the Colville delta were far out of line with excess nitrate.
The points from Dease Inlet were with one exception suggestive of nitri-
fication over most of the inlet. No values were obtained for nitrate
concentrations earlier in the fall and this conclusion is therefore not
certain. The data points from the Colville delta were so striking, how-
ever, that this location was selected for the first set of measurements.
277
-------
CO
30
I
(»
•
SPRING SALINITY
and
NITRATE-NITRITE CONCENTRATIONS
A Dease Inlet
• Harrison Bay-
Simpson Lagoon
1
1
3O
40 5O
SALINITY (%0)
6O
7O
Figure 18. Spring under—ice concentrations of nitrate and nitrite and salinity.
-------
Further evidence of nitrification was obtained from Elson Lagoon at
Point Barrow. A portion of this lagoon is nearly separated from the
rest by a shallow bar and during fall, the ice freezes down to the bar
completely restricting circulation to the small opening at the end of
the bar. In Figures 8 and 19 to 22 the nutrient concentrations and salin-
ities from open lagoon waters and locations behind the bar are compared.
Increases in salinity during the period of 28 days in the isolated chan-
nel were pronounced, amounting to an 18.1 percent rise in raid-channel
and a 29.8 percent rise near the end whereas samples from the less re-
stricted waters of the lagoon rose only 5.6 percent. A hole drilled
over the bar hit brine at 0.8m of 182.8 °/00 salinity indicating that
restriction of hypersaline water is essentially complete once the ice is
bottomfast or nearly so. The nitrogenous nutrient composition in the
water behind the bar shifted markedly during this same one month inter-
val. At mid-channel, nitrate and nitrite concentrations increased 44.1
percent and at the end of the channel, 58.1 percent. If the increase in
salinity is taken into account and the nutrient concentrations adjusted
to constant salinity, these increases amount to 36.2 percent at mid-
channel and 40.9 percent at the end. The ammonia and dissolved organic
nitrogen concentrations responded oppositely. In spite of freeze concen-
tration, ammonia concentrations decreased at both locations as did dis-
solved organic nitrogen. Nutrient analyses run on ice cores taken at
these stations indicated no preferential inclusion (or exclusion) of
these nutrients into the ice column in relation to conservative para-
meters. When a mass balance is calculated on the water, correcting for
freeze concentration, the nitrate increase at mid-channel amounts to
a gain of 3.7)jg-atoms of nitrate •*• nitrite-N/1 and a loss of 6.3yg-
atoms of trivalent N/l (D. 0. N. + ammonia). At the end of the chan-
nel, the gain of nitrate and nitrite-N is 3.8ug-atoms/l and the loss,
10.3yg-atoms/l of D. 0. N. and ammonia nitrogen. This indicates a
nitrification rate of about 0.13yg-atoms NO -N/l-day. The apparent
loss of N could be accounted for through 1) inclusion of nitrogen
279
-------
N
\
Point Barrow
CHUKCHI
SEA
BEAUFORT
SEA
6.68
(470)
NITRATE + NITRITE
u.g - atoms N/liter
6.68-9 February 1973
(4.7O) - 9 April 1973
\ 9.3O
approximate 1.8m
depth contour
Figure 19. Nitrate and nitrite concentrations, Elson Lagoon
under-ice waters.
280
-------
CHUKCHI
SEA
N
\
Point Barrow
BEAUFORT
SEA
AMMONIA
Hg-atoms/liter
approximate 1.8m
depth contour
Figure 20. Ammonia concentrations, Elson Lagoon under-ice waters,
281
-------
Point Barrow
CHUKCHI
SEA
BEAUFORT
SEA
DISSOLVED ORGANIC NITROGEN
/j.g-atoms N/liter
3.9 - 9 February 1973
\ (4.8)-9 April 1973
14.4
approximate 1,8m
depth contour
Figure 21. Dissolved organic nitrogen concentrations, Elson Lagoon
under-ice waters.
282
-------
CHUKCHI
SEA
N
t
Point Barrow
BEAUFORT
SEA
8.0O
DISSOL VED OXY GEN
ml/liter stp
APRIL 1972
(under ice)
approximate 1.8m
depth contour
Figure 22. Dissolved oxygen concentrations, Elson Lagoon under-ice
waters.
283
-------
into the particulate fraction, 2) loss through denitrification or, 3)
be due to errors induced by movement of hypersaline waters of differing
N concentrations under the sampling locations. Of these possibilities,
inclusion into the particulate fraction is felt to be most likely since
the nitrification would indicate actively growing populations of micro-
organisms that would be expected to incorporate a fraction of the nitro-
gen into cellular material.
Similar treatment of observational data has been performed on nutrient
concentrations found at Putu at the head of the west channel of the
Colville delta. Saline intrusion reached the bottom waters at the head
of the channel on 14 October 1972 and by 18 November all fresh water had
been displaced from the channel. During this period the channel became
isolated from the main (East) channel by bottomfast ice at the shallow
bar at its connection and the deep pool where the measurements were made
was isolated during the winter months. During the 158 day period between
the last fall sampling and the resumption of sampling in April 1973,
freeze concentration increased salinity from 14.1 °/0o to 27.6 °/0o» but
nitrate and nitrite concentrations increased from 4.0 to 44.4yg-atoms N/l.
In November 1972, of the 24.4pg-atoms/l of dissolved nitrogen, ammonia
comprised 36.0 percent, nitrate and nitrite 16.5 percent and dissolved
organic nitrogen, 47.5 percent. By April 1973, ammonia comprised only
9.7 percent, dissolved organic nitrogen, 30.4 percent and nitrate and
nitrite, 59.9 percent of a total pool of 73.8yg-atoms N/l. If these
concentrations are adjusted to constant salinity as shown in Figure 23,
the shift in proportions is readily evident. Of interest is the fact
that there appeared to be no change in the concentration of dissolved
organic nitrogen in spite of an apparent nitrification rate of 0.23yg-atoms
NO -N/l-day. However, unlike Elson Lagoon, a net gain of 37.7pig-atoms
N/l indicates that during this period, active input of nitrogen to the
water had occurred.
284
-------
PUTU WEST NUTRIENTS NOV.'72-APR.'73
^0
40
~ \x
35
J30
S.
z 25
M
E
f 20
1
0>
^ 15
10
5
0
1 1 DISSOLVED ORGANIC N
_
1 NH
+
4
- r .v/.i MO *
Kv>J NUj
r.i/.V- ri-
n TOTAL DISSOLVED N
NOV.
-
-
^•••••^
-
• • • • «
• • • <
• « • 4
APR.
• • *
» • * •
• • • •
» • • •
> • • •
• • •
• • • *
• • • •
• • • •
• • •
> • * •
> • • •
• • •
• • •
• * •
• • •
• • •
• • •
• • •
• • •
• • •
• • •
• • •
• • •
* • • 1
-
—
*«
—
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—
-
Figure 23. Nitrogenous nutrients in the under-ice water in the west channel
of the Colville delta at Putu. The April concentration values
have been adjusted to salinity equal to the November samples.
285
-------
The source of this additional nitrogen could not be quantitatively deter-
mined but evidence that direct biological input was active is based on
observational data obtained by an underwater television reconnaissance
in Spring 1972 and fishing information from both Fall 1972 and Spring
1973 (see Chapter 10). During fall, after freshwater flow had essen-
tially ceased and salt-water intrusion was active in the west channel,
gill netting at the head of west channel produced catches of arctic
cisco (Coregonus autumnalis), least cisco (C. eardinella) and occasional
four-horned sculpins (Myoxooephalus quadriooxmus). Previous to the sa-
line intrusion, spawning populations of humpbacked whitefish (C. pidsohian)
had also been present. Although* spring gill netting did not give evi-
dence of the presence of fish other than four-horned sculpin in the west
channel, both television viewing and hook-and-line fishing gave ample
evidence of abundant populations of these fish. Stomachs examined were
usually full of fish eggs which were eyed at this time (May). Thus, it
is felt that feeding and subsequent excretion of ammonia and urea is
very likely the major source of the nitrogen added to the total dissolved
pool over the course of the winter. Although diffusion from the sedi-
ments is another possible source, it is felt that this is minor both from
the observation that much of the deeper channels have gravel bottoms and
that the shallower mud bars are frozen by bottomfast ice. If diffusion
rates of ammonia were high from the sediments, it might be expected that
the Elson Lagoon stations would have also shown net increases in the
dissolved nitrogen factions.
The first definitive evidence of nitrification was obtained in the sa-
line waters at Wood's Camp in the Colville River delta. In March 1971,
a nitrification experiment was conducted on channel waters and the re-
sults are shown in Figure 24. Ammonia was the sole added substrate.
The maximum rate of nitrification which occurred in the bottle with
20yg-atoms NH -N/l added, gave an average rate of 0.15tig-atoms N0_
N/l-day and the bottle with lOyg-atoms NH -N/l added averaged
286
-------
COLVILLE DELTA NITRIFICATION MAR.-APR.'7I
30
25
£ 20
+-
x
z
i is
o
o
I
O>
10
Figure 24. Effects of ammonia addition on samples of saline water
at Wood's Camp, Colville delta. From left to right:
1) Control, poisoned with HgCl2, 2) water sample with
nothing added, 3) sample with 20 yg-atoms NH3~N/liter
and HgCl2 added, 4) sample with 20 yg-atoms NH_3-
N/liter added, 5) sample with 10 yg-atoms NHy-N/liter
added. Samples incubated 50 days in situ.
287
-------
0.068yg-atoms NO_-N/1-day. The sample with no ammonia added (channel
water) gave an average nitrification rate of 0.016yg-atoms NO -N/1-day.
During the same period, the channel water at Wood's Camp increased
by 3.9yg-atoms NO -N/l. If the effects of freeze concentration are
subtracted and it is assumed that no movement of water occurred in
the channel during this period, the rate of nitrification averaged
0.07iig-atoms NO_-N/l-day. Thus the unconfined channel water was
apparently nitrifying at a rate equal to the bottled river water with
lOiig-atoms NH -N added. This implied that either the bottled samples
were giving low values for nitrification rates or that a source of ammon-
ia was present in the channel water either through excretion of ammonia
from higher organisms or through heterotrophic bacterial consumption of
freeze-concentrated dissolved organic nitrogen.
To test for heterotrophic activity, the experiment was repeated during
Winter 1971 to 1972 in the saline waters at Wood's Camp and in a nearby
lake. In addition to ammonia, glutaraic acid, glycine and urea were added
as organic nitrogen sources. The results for the saline water (Fig. 25)
and for the lake water (Fig. 26) indicate that heterotrophic consumption
of the added amino acids and urea occurred and that a large fraction of
the nitrogen was further nitrified to nitrate.
During the 160'days of incubation, nitrification rates in the different
bottles of saline water varied by an order of magnitude with the maximum
rate, 0.09ug-atoms N/l-day, occurring in the sample with added ammonia.
Glutamic acid was converted to nitrate at about twice the rate of glycine,
(0.025 versus O.OlMg-atoms NO -N/l-day). The nitrification rates in
the bottles with urea added and with nothing added were similar,
0.009ug-atoms NO_-N/l-day, suggesting urea was a poor substrate for this
water.
288
-------
COLVILLE DELTA NITRIFICATION NOV.'7I-APR.'72
oo —
1
30-
25 ~
V
§20-
(0
E
o
•f
o 5 -
i
C7^
3
10-
5-FTJT
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LES
NHJ
M ^N~
= N02
lii NOJ
0
^
Q
Q
j~ <
J^
£
o
lO I
MvJ4"*»*1 * • •
*•*•*•* Jt-llll-
C
_r
c
'i J
^ <
w
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C C
c
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•» V
»> ;
• • •
*.*.• .'.•.
^ 4
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ef
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t
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ill
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-3
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-
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* • •
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Figure 25.
Effects of organic nitrogen and ammonia addition to saline
water at Wood's Camp, Colville delta. From left to right:
1) Initial nutrient concentrations, 2) control sample
poisoned with HgCl2, 3) sample with nothing added 4)
sample with 20 pg-atoms NH3-N/liter added, 5) sample with
10 yg-atoms glycine -N/liter added, 6) sample with 10 ug-
atoms glutamic acid -N/liter added, 7) sample with 10 Mg-
atoms urea -N/liter added, 8) nutrient concentrations in
channel waters, 12 April 72.
289
-------
LAKE H NITRIFICATION NOV'7I-APR.'72
60
^K,
DO
50
45
u. /in
<5 4U
±r
\ -ae
2 ^3
w ^O
Li O'W
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o 25
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UNO
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;
i
3
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•
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rf
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n
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-J CC ""
CD §
I il
— TV"*
— •••••"
- , , i,,, , .•.•.•.-.•
— •••••' ^'•*t'»*»'
Figure 26. Effects of organic nitrogen and ammonia addition to lakewater at
Wood's Camp, Colville delta. From left to right: 1) Initial
nutrient concentrations, November 1971, 2) nutrient concentra-
tions, April 1972, 3) sample with nothing added, 4) control
sample poisoned with HgCl2, 5) sample with 40 yg-atoms NH^-
N/liter added, 6) sample with 10 yg-atoms glycine -N/liter
added, 7) sample with 10 yg-atoms glutamic acid -N/liter
added, 8) sample with 10 yg-atoms urea -N/liter added.
290
-------
The lake water samples showed the highest rate of nitrification,
0.28wg-atoms N/l-day in the bottle with ammonia added. However, the
organic substrates were utilized in some bottles and appeared to inhibit
nitrification in other samples. The bottles with glycine and urea gave
the higher rates of nitrification, 0.088 and 0.027ug-atoms N/l-day
respectively, while glutamic acid gave a nitrification rate of only
0.008ug-atoras NO -N/l-day, a value equal to 25 percent of the rate
for lake water with nothing added. No reason for this effect was deter-
mined. Large increases in the ammonia fraction indicated that the added
organic carbon was being assimilated but was not being further oxidized
to nitrate-nitrite. Since the bottles with the organic substrates all
showed increases in ammonia concentrations during incubation, it was
suggested that the nitrification in these waters is at least in part
dependent upon prior heterotrophic assimilation of the organic nitrogen
and release of ammonia.
The source of the ammonifiers was next sought and in the fall of 1972,
two experiments were conducted, one in the fresh waters of the Colville
River and another at Oliktok Point in saline waters. The freshwater
samples were interesting in that almost no microbiological activity was
discernible. The bottle innoculated with ammonia showed no evidence of
nitrification and the samples with added amino acids and urea showed no
evidence of ammonification.
At Oliktok Point, however, the added organic substrates were actively
converted to ammonia. The results in Figure 27 are interesting in
another respect: the bottle of incubated seawater with nothing added
did not show any increase in ammonia concentration in spite of a measured
concentration of lO.Oyg-atoms N/l of dissolved organic nitrogen sug-
gesting that the dissolved organic nitrogen present in those waters
was resistant to microbiological degradation. The average ammonifica-
tion rates of the added organic substrates ranged from O.OApg-atoms
291
-------
OLIKTOK NITRIFICATION NOV.'72
CO
20
| 15
V)
2
f 10
?
5
O
I
1 NHi
+ <
3
2
Q
Q
O o»
~ 2 X
• • •
'•"«*< "**•*<
Figure 27. Addition of
• • *
*•*•* » •*•*
"•*•* • • •
J
V
_,_.— »v.
1J
0 =,
• * • • •
•*«*• "•"•*
c
'•'.* ''.''.*'.
'•'•' '.'.'.
J
0
<*a
LU
cc
D
^
•„*.* •*."•%*.'
•.•.* •'»*•*•*•*
ainmonia and organic nitrogen to Oliktok
seawater samples. From left to right: 1) Seawater
sample with nothing added, 2) control poisoned with
HgCl , 3) sample with 20yg-atoms NHg-N/liter added,
4) sample with 20yg-atoms glycine -N/liter added,
5) sample with 20yg-atoms glutamic acid -N/liter
added, 6) sample with Ayg-atoms urea -N/liter added.
292
-------
NH -N/l-day in the bottle with added urea to a maximum of 0.49ug-
atoms NH3-N/l-day in the bottle with glycine. Since the glycine and
glutamic acid substrates were almost completely ammonified by the time
the bottles were recovered (30 days), these rates are probably underesti-
mated. None of the bottles showed evidence of nitrification.
To test if the nitrifiers were present in the river water, the experi-
ment was repeated with Oliktok seawater, but 100ml of freshwater from
the Colville River was added to each sample bottle. The results were
virtually identical with those obtained with plain seawater - nearly
complete ammonification of added organic nitrogen but no nitrification
detectable, suggesting that nitrifers were not present in either the
seawater off Oliktok Point or in the freshwater of the Colville River
channel.
CONCLUSIONS
The biological and climatological influences on the nutrient chemistry
of arctic estuarine waters appear to be fully as complex, if not more
so, than in more temperate climates. As the data acquired over the
course of this project has been assimilated, the pronounced interactions
and responses of the biologically influenced chemical processes to the
environmental conditions has become more and more evident. In summary,
the several aspects of the variations in these processes over the arctic
seasons can be reviewed:
1) Phytoplankton uptake of nutrients in the coastal arctic commen-
ces well before the ice cover begins to melt. Uptake by epontic commun-
ities is followed by uptake throughout the water column resulting in the
exhaustion of the nitrogenous nutrient pool. Subsequent primary produc-
tion is probably limited thereafter by the regeneration rates of ammonia
until light limitation and freeze-up occur in late September due to the
extreme stability of the water column resulting from melting and the
pack-ice-limited wind fetch. Phosphate appears to be well in excess of
293
-------
limiting concentrations throughout the year in the marine environment.
2) In spite of an ice-cover that persists from late September to
the following June, biological oxygen depletion beneath the ice does not
appear to lower the concentration to critical values except in the lakes
and marine areas where the ice is nearly bottomfast and possibly in iso-
lated areas of the Colville River channels. In the Colville delta chan-
nels, the ecological implications may be of concern regarding the man-
agement of fishery resources.
Fish populations representing a valuable food resource to the native peo-
ple of the Arctic have been found to use the delta as spawning grounds
and as overwintering areas. When considering the duration of the ice
cover and the formation of bottomfast ice barriers in shallow channels,
these channels may comprise a delicately balanced environment in which
the nitrogenous excretion products of fish and other fauna are assimila-
ted and nitrified by microflora at expense to the oxygen necessary to
the survival of the biota in this temporarily closed community. It fol-
lows that any human activity that would appreciably increase the loading
of dissolved organic nitrogen into the water such as accelerated river-
bank erosion or the input of sewage, especially during fall periods of
low or non-existent water flow, could have deleterious effects on this
environment.
Available data regarding the circulation of offshore water beneath the
ice is insufficient, thereby prohibiting statements regarding the effects
that might be caused by the addition of nutrients in a form such as pri-
mary or treated sewage. It can be generalized that oxygen concentra-
tions seem to reflect good circulation in the deeper waters; much fur-
ther work on the circulation patterns induced by hypersaline water forma-
tion during winter freezing will be required before the mechanics of
pollutant dispersion can be approximated.
294
-------
3) Due to the aforementioned extreme water stability from melt and
limited wind-fetch, the principle sources of "new" nutrients to the sur-
face layers of the nearshore Beaufort Sea during summer arise from the
input of rivers and from the erosion of the low-lying coastline. These
two sources constitute a source of nitrogen to phytoplankton populations
showing strong evidence of nitrogen limitation. The relative importance
of river input to erosional input was not determined but they are be-
lieved to be approximately equal along the coastline between Barrow and
Prudhoe Bay.
4) In spite of psychrogenic hypersalinity and well below 0°C tem-
peratures, underice populations of microorganisms actively regenerate
nutrients in arctic Alaskan coastal waters throughout the winter months.
The rates of nitrification and ammonification determined through the use
of in situ experiments agree well with the rates calculated from observed
changes in nutrient concentrations in underice waters over the winter
season. However, the absence of nitrification in the seawater at Oliktok
Point is more difficult to explain in view of the physical similarity of
Simpson and Elson Lagoons and the active nitrifying populations in the
Colville delta not far away. The author feels that perhaps the underice
water contained dissolved organic nitrogen that was resistant to ammoni-
fication. Since this water was in ready exchange with offshore seawater
it further suggests that conditions for nitrification and ammonification
in offshore areas may be far from optimal.
The -nitrification and ammonification capacity of the underice microbial
populations has an environmental significance in that it enables the
conversion of dissolved organic nitrogen to ammonia and nitrate during
winter months. These nutrients are then available to epontic algae when
light intensities rise in the spring and photosynthesis resumes.
5) The formation of approximately a centimeter of ice per day be-
tween October and the end of March results in rapidly increasing salin-
ities and falling temperatures in nearshore lagoons and channels. Where
295
-------
open-ocean access to lagoon and inlet waters is readily available, the
density gradients formed by solute segregation during freezing when cou-
pled with tidal action, cause rapid flushing. If flushing is slight or
non-existent, salinities beneath the ice rise over the course of the
winter to final concentrations measured as high as 186 °/0o»
The freeze-induced rise in surface salinity appears to be the principle
driving force for turnover in the nearshore water column, contrasting
the Beaufort Sea with waters such as in southeastern Alaska where turn-
over is due primarily to cooling and wind-mixing. However, during au-
tumns marked by strong southwesterly storms with the pack-ice well off-
shore, the process of wind-mixing may become of primary importance.
REFERENCES
1. Kinney, P. J., M. E. Arhelger, and D. C. Burrell. Chemical Charact-
eristics of Water Masses in the Amerasian Basin of the Arctic Ocean.
J. Geophys. Res. 75:4097-4104, 1970.
2. Gudkovich, Z. M. Results of a Preliminary Analysis of the Deep-
Water Hydrological Observations, In; Observational Data of the
Scientific Research Drifting Station of 1950-51. M. M. Somov
(ed.) (Engl. Transl.) ASTIA Document AD 117133, American
Meterol. Soc., Boston, Massachusetts. 1955. Vols. 1-3, 170 p.
3. English, T. S. Some Biological Oceanographic Observations in the
Central North Polar Sea from Drift Station Alpha, 1957-58. Sci.
Rep. 15, AF-19-(604)-3073. 1961. 80 p.
4. Kusunok K., J. Muguruma, and K. Higuchi. Oceanographic Observations
at Fletcher's Ice Island (T-3) in the Arctic Ocean in 1959-60. Air
Force Cambridge Research Lab., Bedford, Massachusetts. AFCRL-62-479.
1962. 100 p.
5, Codispoti, L. A., and F. A. Richards. Micronutrient Distributions
in the East Siberian and Laptev Seas During Summer, 1963. Arctic.
21;67-83, 1963.
296
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6. Arnborg, L., U. J. Walker and J. Feippo. Water Discharge in the
Colville River, 1962. Geogr. Annaler. 4j3A:195-210, 1966.
7. Arnborg, L., H. J. Walker, and J. Peippo. Suspended Load in the
Colville River, Alaska, 1962. Geogr. Annaler. 49A;131-144, 1967.
8. Kinney, P. J., D. Schell, V. Alexander, S. Naidu, C. P. McRoy and
D. C. Burrell. Baseline Data Study of the Alaskan Arctic Aquatic
Environments. Eight month progress, 1970. Institute of Marine
Science Technical Report R71-4, University of Alaska, Fairbanks,
Alaska. 1971.
9. Kinney, P. J., D. Schell, V. Alexander, D. C. Burrell, R. Conney
and S. Naidu. Baseline Data Study of the Alaskan Arctic Aquatic
Environment. Institute of Marine Science Technical Report R72-3,
University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Alaska. 1972.
10. Walker, H. J. and C. Ho. Nutrient Distribution in the Sub-Ice Waters
of the Colville River Delta, Alaska. Abstract Volume, Second
National Coastal and Shallow Water Research Conference. Office of
Naval Research, Washington, D.C. 1971. p 248.
11. Lewellen, R. I. Permafrost Erosion Along the Beaufort Sea Coast.
University of Denver, Geography and Geology Dept, Denver, Colorado.
1970. 25 p.
12. Strickland, J. D. H. and T. R. Parsons. A Practical Handbook of
Seawater Analysis. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. Bulletin 167. 1968.
311 p.
13. Head, P. C. An Automated Phenolhypochlorite Method for the Deter-
mination of Ammonia in Sea Water. Deep Sea Res. 1*}:531-532, 1971.
14. Eppley, R. W., J. N. Rogers, and J. J. McCarthy. Half-Saturation
Constants for Uptake of Nitrate and Ammonium by Marine Phytoplankton.
Limnol. and Oceanogr. 14:912-920, 1969.
15. Maclsaac, J. J. and R. C. Dugdale. The Kinetics of Nitrate and
Ammonia Uptake by Natural Populations of Marine Phytoplankton.
Deep Sea Research. 16:45-57, 1969.
297
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16. Coyle, K. 0. The Ecology of the Phytoplankton of Prudhoe Bay,
Alaska, and the Surrounding Waters. M.S. Thesis, University of
Alaska University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1974. 106 p.
17. Alexander, V. and R. J. Barsdate. Physical Limnology, Chemistry
and Plant Productivity of a Taiga Lake. Int. Revue ges Hydrobiol.
56_:825-872, 1971.
18. Walker, H. J. Spring Discharge of an Arctic River Determined from
Salinity Measurements Beneath Sea Ice. Water Resources Res.
2:474-480, 1973.
19. Leffingwell, E. de K. The Canning River of Northern Alaska. U.S.
Geological Survey Professional Paper 109. Washington, D.C. 1919.
251 p.
20. Lewellen, R. T. Studies on the Fluvial Environment, Arctic Coastal
Plain Province, Northern Alaska. Published by author, Littleton,
Colorado, Vol. 1, 1972. 282 p.
21. Schell, D. M. and V. Alexander. Nitrogen Fixation in Arctic Coastal
Tundra in Relation to Vegetation and Microrelief. Arctic. 26;130-
137, 1973.
22. Alexander, V. and D. M. Schell. Seasonal and Spatial Variation of
Nitrogen Fixation in the Barrow, Alaska, Tundra. Arctic and Alpine
Research. _5:77-88, 1973.
23. Wada, E. and A. Hattori. Spectrophotometric Determination of Traces
of Nitrite by Concentration of Azo Dye on Anion-Exchange Resin,
Application to Sea Waters. Analytica Chimica Acta. J>6:233-240, 1971.
24. Wada, E. and A. Hattori. Nitrite Distribution and Nitrate Reduction
in Deep Sea Waters. Deep Sea Research. ^19:123-132, 1972.
25. Hattori, A. and E. Wada. Assimilation of Inorganic Nitrogen in the
Euphotic Layer of the North Pacific Ocean. In: Biological Ocean-
ography of the Northern North Pacific Ocean. Y. Takenovchi et al.
(eds.) Idemitsu Shoten, Tokyo. 1972. p. 279-287.
26. Miyazaki, T., E. Wada, and A. Hattori. Capacities of Shallow Waters
of Sagami Bay for Oxidation and Reduction of Inorganic Nitrogen.
Deep Sea Research. _20:571-577, 1973.
298
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CHAPTER 8
STUDIES OF PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY AND PHYTOPLANKTON
ORGANISMS IN THE COLVILLE RIVER SYSTEM
Vera Alexander with Christopher Coulon and John Chang
INTRODUCTION
The Colville River is a relatively unknown drainage system in terms of
its aquatic biological components. For this reason, biological studies
formed an important part of this baseline study. This portion of the
report deals specifically with phytoplankton organisms, which received
a considerable amount of attention because: 1) they form the basis upon
which the aquatic biological system exists, and 2) even the most elemen-
tary taxonomic work has not been done in this region.
Somewhat more information exists for the zooplankton of the Colville
River system and offshore Beaufort Sea than for phytoplankton. In the
case of microcrustacea, this is due to the work of Reed and the
2
offshore work of Johnson. No similar work has been done for phyto-
plankton. A basic study by the Environmental Protection Agency on the
neighboring Sag River included work on benthic invertebrates. Finally,
Alaska Department of Fish and Game personnel have studied fish in the
Colville River (summer of 1969, 1970), and we were fortunate to be able
to utilize their logistics and include some primary productivity and
water chemistry work. The fish data are included in an Alaska Depart-
ment of Fish and Game report, and we have followed up on this by inviting
the field biologist who had completed their fish field efforts to join
our project for a period of work closer to the delta region. These re-
sults are discussed elsewhere in this report (Chapter 10). This, then,
is about the extent of information available on the river system itself
at the time the present study was initiated. There was a similar dearth
of low trophic level biological information for the offshore area and the
3
river delta itself. Apart from the work of Horner and Horner and
299
-------
Alexander4 as well as Clasby, Horner and Alexander, very little work
has been accomplished on primary productivity in the nearshore arctic
coastal waters. Some phytoplankton distribution work had been done
earlier.6'7'8 The significance of the results reported here is
enhanced by comparison with parallel simultaneous work undertaken at
Prudhoe Bay under the direction of Dr. Rita Horner. The sum of these
studies should constitute a good beginning to the understanding of
Alaskan arctic nearshore productivity, and the influence of the major
river systems.
STRATEGY AND SCHEDULE
Simpson Lagoon and Harrison Bay primary productivity stations were
occupied the early spring ice-covered period in 1970 and during the
open water season in 1970, 1971 and 1972. Carbon-14 primary produc-
tivity and N uptake were the principle measures of phytoplankton
activity, with biomass and population composition also examined at
each sampling date. During the first two years, entire transects were
sampled only a few times, with a relatively large number of stations
occupied. These are shown on maps accompanying the data. During the
summer of 1972, two stations were visited with greater frequency to
obtain a seasonal picture.
For the river system, a preliminary survey was conducted during the
summer of 1970. Transportation was by river boat from Umiat, and
sampling was thus restricted by accessability. During the second
summer season (1971), two surveys were carried out encompassing a
large number of sampling stations in ponds, lakes and rivers and
streams. The first was a raft trip from Umiat to Woods Camp, carried
out in early July. The second, which also included lakes higher up
in the Brooks Range foothills, was a one-day sampling of carefully
selected lakes (by float plane). During this summer (1971), the intensive
work at the Wood's Camp lakes began. This was the major fresh water
300
-------
emphasis during the final summer, 1972.
The schedule followed is summarized below:
1970 - Initiate survey field work based at Umiat in conjunction
with ADF&G (Pedersen);
1971 - Survey work continues through
1) Raft trip from Umiat to Wood's Camp (Hall, Clasby,
Joeb Woods);
2) Survey of Colville River drainage lakes by air, primary
purpose taxonomy and distribution of phytoplankton
(Coulon, Holmgren);
Wood's Camp intensive limnological program initiated
(Chang);
1972 - Wood's Camp intensive limnological program continued and
completed (Chang).
METHODS
Sampling
Water samples were collected with a PVC water sampling bottle or
scooped from the surface with a plastic container. Nutrient samples
were stored frozen in previously aged polyethylene bottles following
filtration through glass micropore filters. All water for experimental
work was dispensed immediately into the experimental vessels.
Chemical Determinations in the Field
Total alkalinity was obtained by titrating with 0.01N HC1, using a
pH meter to determine the end-point. The azide modification of the
Winkler method was used for dissolved oxygen analysis.
Phytoplankton Methods
Chlorophyll was determined by extracting particulate material retained
301
-------
on a glass micropore filter with 90 percent acetone at 5°C for 24
hours and scanning the centrifuged extract using a Perkin-Elraer 202
9
recording spectrophotometer. The method of Strickland and Parsons
was used for the calculation. Phytoplankton samples were preserved
in a modified Lugol's solution (lOg 1^ 20g KI, 20ml acetic acid,
50ml distilled HO). Quantitative and qualitative observations were
made either using a Zeiss chamber and inverted microscope or using
the settling method of Coulon and Alexander.
14
Primary productivity was measured by the C method. One milliliter
14 -
of a 5pCi/ral solution of C-HCO was added to water samples in both
light and dark 125ml glass-stoppered bottles. Incubation was carried
out in situ. Following incubation, the samples were filtered through
0.45yM Millipore filters and dried. Counts were obtained on a gas-
9
flow counter, with calculation according to Strickland and Parsons.
Phytoplankton enumeration was conducted with a Carl-Zeiss inverted-
compound-phase microscope using a standard Carl-Zeiss 5ml counting
chamber. Samples were thoroughly mixed and resuspended by shaking the
sample bottles. Immediately, a portion of the sample was transferred
to the counting chamber which was then covered with a glass plate and
sealed with silicon stopcock grease. The samples were allowed to settle
overnight. Seventy-five fields of the counting chamber were counted at
500 x magnification.
It was necessary to assume that the phytoplankton were evenly and
randomly distributed on the bottom of the counting chamber, so that the
number of phytoplankton cells per liter of sample water could be calcu-
lated. Since different species differed greatly in dimensions, cell
numbers alone do not give a good description of the actual biomass.
Therefore, the phytoplankton biomass (in \i /I) was estimated by
multiplying the number of cells by the average cell volume for each
species.
302
-------
Nitrogen Uptake
Nitrogen uptake was measured using N labeled compounds. The procedure
15 — +
was as follows: 1) N-labeled nitrogen compounds (NO or NH, ) were
added to sea water samples enclosed in clear glass bottles (1000ml); 2)
the bottles were incubated under in situ or simulated in situ conditions;
3) the samples were filtered through glass micropore filters (Hurlburt
984H ultrafilters) to recover the particulate material; 4) nitrogen
compounds retained on the glass filter were converted to N by a Dumas
method ; and 5) the nitrogen isotope ratio ( N : N) was determined
by mass spectrometry. For this work, a modified Bendix Time-of-Flight
Model 17-210 mass spectrometer or an AEI MS-20 mass spectrometer was
used. Following mass spectrometry, the variables V - and V + were
JN \J ~ IN fl I
, . _, 34
obtained :
— 1
where V - = velocity of uptake of nitrogen in units of time
p , ™ absolute rate of transport of nitrogen from the inorganic
nutrient compartment, 4, (labeled) into the unlabeled
(initially) particulate nitrogen compartment, 1
N » concentration of nitrogen in the particulate nitrogen
fraction
a. ** atom percent excess N in the nutrient compartment
a = atom percent excess N in the particulate nitrogen
compartment
Then to obtain absolute uptake rates:
P14 - Nl (2)
Ammonif ication was measured by an isotope dilution method. Labeled
ammonia was added to a sample of water, and, after equilibration, a
subsample was removed (for zero time isotope ratio determination) .
preserved with HgCl and preferably rapidly frozen. The remainder of
303
-------
the sample was incubated either in situ or at an -in situ temperature,
and, following incubation was treated in an identical manner to the
"zero time sample" discussed above. The samples were kept frozen
pending further processing in the laboratory. The ammonia fraction
was recovered from the samples by vacuum distillation using MgO as a
buffer, and with a stream of air swept through the apparatus carrying
the distillate through the condenser into dilute H-SO.. The distillate
was then boiled down to a few milliliter volume, and converted to N-
with alkaline hypobromite in a vacuum manifold, cleaned with liquid
nitrogen and subjected to mass spectrometry as described above. The
difference in ammonia nitrogen isotope ration between the initial and
incubated sample gives a rate of dilution of the added labeled ammonia
by unlabeled ammonia from other nitrogen fractions in the water. From
this, the absolute ammonia supply rate is calculated, which represents
only the in situ internal regeneration rate, and excludes any consider-
ation of advection.
(af - af > NaAa
AN = —2^ ^ (3)
af a
o t
where AN = change of ammonia concentration during course of experiment
(pg-atom of ammonia nitrogen)
af = atom percent N at time zero
15
a = atom percent N at time t
N = amount of tracer added
a
A = atom percent of tracer added
3
Nitrogen Fixation
Nitrogen fixation was measured using the acetylene reduction method of
13
Stewart et ol. Incubation vessels were 40ml glass vials with rubber
septa, A 20ml water sample or a 1cm of soil sample from the sediment
surface from the lakes and channel were injected with 4ml C H using a
disposable syringe, and the samples were incubated in situ or in a tray
304
-------
T>
of water for 6 to 12 hours. Vacutainers were used to collect and
14
store gas samples as described by Schell and Alexander. An F and M
Model 700 gas chromatograph with a flame ionization detector and a 12
foot stainless steel column with Porapak-R gave excellent separation of
ethylene and acetylene at 40°C. A commercially prepared standard was
used for calibration.
Physical Data
For the Wood's Camp freshwater work, incoming solar radiation was
recorded by a pyranometer (Middleton & Co. Pty. Ltd., Model CN7-156)
and a portable recorder (TOA Electronic Ltd., Model EPR-2T) during the
14
C primary productivity incubation periods.
Water transparency was measured with a Secchi Disc. Water temperature
was measured with a portable YSI model 54 oxygen meter, which had a
temperature sensor inside the probe. Air temperature and wind speed
were measured with a pocket thermometer and a wind meter.
Miscellaneous Methods
Particulate nitrogen was measured using a Coleman nitrogen analyzer
on particulate material retained by a glass Millipore filter.
Nutrient chemistry (discussed in Chapter 7) will be only mentioned here
where relevant to discussion.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Studies in the Simpson Lagoon-Harrison Bay Area
Primary Productivity - Analysis of the primary productivity of an
estuarine system incorporates two important aspects. One is the near-
shore primary productivity regime of the particular geographical region
in question, and the second, and in this case highly revelant, the
305
-------
impact of the river system on the particular local situation studied.
It is essential, then, in discussing the specific Colville River area
results, to consider also the available data on arctic coastal primary
productivity where no major river system affects the regime. The
strategy in this report will be to present the data obtained during the
course of this three year study, and finally to discuss it in context
of available data.
During the survey period in this work (1970 and 1971) a large number of
stations were occupied (Figs. 1 and 2). We found that all indices of
primary productivity in the immediate offshore area were low, and that
there were no consistent trends along the transects (Figs. 3-6; Tables
1 and 2). In 1971, primary productivity rates seldom exceeded
2mg C/m «hr. Although very little had been done in terms of depth
series experiments for primary productivity during 1971, a possible
trend for increase with depth and toward the shore was observed. This
was confirmed in 1972, when intensive sampling of two stations (Fig. 7)
was carried out. The highest productivity rates clearly occurred in
the deeper cold, more saline water (Table 3). During the summer of
1971, the chlorophyll a levels were also low, with a maximum of 1.76
3
mg/m at 3m at a 28 July station. The maximum primary productivity
rates detected during that year were 5.80 and 5.88mg C/m *hr at the
surface at Station T-l on the same date and at 2m at SL-16 on 11
August 1971 respectively. These levels of activity and biomass agree
3
with the observations of Horner, who found a maximum chlorophyll
concentration of 3mg/m off Point Barrow. Note, however, that this
maximum level measured by Horner included the entire euphotic zone,
rather than just surface and below surface measurements. Clasby,
5 3
Horner and Alexander, on the other hand, found 4.41mg/m chlorophyll-
a on 8 June 1972 off Point Barrow, with a maximum productivity slightly
3
in excess of Irag/m «hr.
306
-------
LO
O
Beaufort Sea
B_l7Spy Is. SL_Pingok Is.
BS5
SLI5-
SLI6-
SLI7.
SLI2- .,.
Simpson
SLir Lagoon SL8
SLio*
BS4
BS3
Figure 1. Station locations - Harrison Bay.
-------
HB5
HB4
Harrison Bay
Beaufort Sea
HB3
HB2
BS8
HBI
ft
IP
Is.
T4 Qliktok
J2T5 D
• Colville Delta
Figure 2. Station locations - Simpson Lagoon.
-------
0
I 2 3
Thetis Is/and Transect, 1970
4
Figure 3. Chlorophyll a, salinity, and dissolved oxygen concentrations.
eastern Harrison Bay, 1970.
309
-------
u>
M
O
o
7 8
Spy Island Transect I,
Figure 4. Chlorophyll a, salinity, and dissolved oxygen concentrations,
Simpson Lagoon, 1970.
-------
Shore
II 12 13
Spy Is/and Transect n, 1970
Figure 5. Chlorophyll a, salinity, and dissolved oxygen concentrations,
Simpson Lagoon, 1970.
311
-------
Shore
Tl T4 T2
Thetis Island Transect, 1971
T5
Figure 6. Chlorophyll a, salinity, and primary productivity concentrations
eastern Harrison Bay, 1971.
312
-------
Temp.
Site °C
A
Thetis Island Transect
Station 1
70-HBE3
Station 2
70-HBE2
Station 3
£ 70-HSE4 —
w
Station 4
70-HBE5
Station 5
70-HBE6 —
B
Spy Island Transect I
Station 7
70-SL1 5.6
Station 8
70-SL2 5.6
Depth of
samples,
m
0
3.7
0
3.7
0
3.2
0
3.0
0
2.1
0
2.7
0
2.3
pH Dissolved 0 ,
mg/1
— 7.8
7.4
7.6
7.2
7.2 7.9
7.4 7.3
— 7.7
7.6
— 8.3
7.2
7.2 7.8
7.0 7.9
7.1 8.4
7.0 7.9
Chlorophyll a, Alkalinity,
yg/1 mgCaC03/l
0.78 —
2.14
0.67
1.87
0.58 78.9
1.12 99.6
1.74
1.12
1.03
7.20
0.46 105.28
1.04 105.28
0.72 104.34
1.74 105.28
Salinity,
0 /
loo
21.8
25.8
15.8
23.6
13.5
23.6
10.1
21.9
3.4
11.4
24.9
24.9
-------
Table 1. (continued) TABULATED DATA - SIMPSON LAGOON TRANSECTS 9 AUGUST-1 SEPTEMBER, 1970
Site
Station 9
70-SL3
Station 10
70-SL4
Spy Island Transect II
Station 11
70-SL24
Station 12
70-SL25
Station 13
70-SL26
Station 14
70-SL27
Range
Mean
Depth of
Temp. samples,
°C m
5.6 0
2.8
5.6 0
2.5
4.7 0
2.6
4.7 0
2.8
4.7 0
2.8
4.7 0
2.2
4.7° to —
5.6°
5.15 —
pH Dissolved 09,
mg/1
7.2
7.1
7.2
7.0
7.2
7.3
7.0
7.0
7.2
7.0
7.1
7.0 to
7.4
7.14
7.7
7.4
8.4
7.1
8.9
8.4
7.5
8.7
6.4
7.6
7.4
7.4
6.4 to
8.9
7.73
Chlorophyll a,
Mg/1
1.04
2.45
1.15
1.15
NIL
0.77
0.66
0.80
1.25
1.57
1.79
14.59
NIL to
14.59
1.86
Alkalinity, Salinity,
mgCaC03/l °/oo
104.81
105.28
105.28
104.81
111.86
83.66
95.41
76.14
86.01
74.73
87.42
62.98 to
111.86
93.62
22.1
16.5
13.8
25.4
13.9
22.7
12.2
22.3
11.4
19.7
3.4 to
15.8
17.7
-------
Table 2. PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY AND RELATED FACTORS - 1971
Station
T-l
T-2
T-3
1-4
1-5
BS-1
BS-2
BS-3
BS-4
BS-5
Date
28 Jul
28 Jul
28 Jul
11 Aug
11 Aug
1 Aug
1 Aug
15 Aug
1 Aug
15 Aug
1 Aug
9 Aug
1 Aug
Depth
m
0.0
1.0
2.2
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
0.0
1.0
0.0
2.5
0.0
2.5
0.0
2.0
4.0
0.0
2.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
2.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
2.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
2.0
4.0
Salinity
°/
/ o o
27.9
30.2
30.5
23.4
27.6
29.6
30.9
18.4
22.0
19.0
20.1
7.0
20.0
20.0
20.3
22.0
20.5
21.0
24.5
20.6
23.5
25.9
22.5
23.8
25.9
21.2
23.8
26.6
pH
6.8
6.6
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.7
6.7
6.7
6.7
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.6
6.6
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.6
6.3
6.6
6.6
6.3
6.3
6.3
Chlor. a,
mg/m3
.55
1.24
.63
1.76
.62
.22
.17
.22
.23
.09
.09
.05
.09
NIL
NIL
.09
.09
.21
NIL
.14
.02
NIL
NIL
-
Phaeo.
mg/m3
.15
.55
.12
2.31
.20
.03
.06
.07
.10
.27
.14
.21
.23
.29
1.42
.27
.04
NIL
.25
.06
.20
.39
.25
-
Primary
Productivity,
mgC/m3*hr
5.80
2.87
.37
.75
.63
1.39
1.62
.32
.46
.45
315
-------
Table 2. (continued) PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY AND RELATED FACTORS - 1971
Station
BS-6
BS-7
BS-8
SL-1
SL-2
SL-3
SL-4
SL-5
SL-6
SL-7
SL-8
SL-9
SL-10
Date
1 Aug
9 Aug
11 Aug
8 Aug
15 Aug
8 Aug
15 Aug
8 Aug
15 Aug
9 Aug
9 Aug
9 Aug
9 Aug
9 Aug
9 Aug
10 Aug
Depth
IQ
0.0
2.0
4.0
0.0
2.0
4.0
0.0
2.0
4.0
0.0
1.0
0.0
0.0
1.0
1.5
2.0
1.0
0.0
1.0
1.0
0.0
1.0
0.0
1.0
1.5'
0.0
1.0
0.0
1.0
0.0
1.5
0.0
1.5
0.0
1.0
Salinity
o/
/ o o
22.2
26.8
28.2
21.1
21.1
23.1
19.8
20.5
22.0
16.5
16.5
17.2
17.2
17.2
17.6
17.7
17.2
17.2
16.8
17.1
18.0
16.6
17.5
16.3
19.4
16.7
19.5
16.4
17.5
15.9
15.9
pH
6.2
6.3
6.3
6.7
6.6
6.5
6.6
6.6
6.5
6.8
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.5
6.6
6.5
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.6
Chlor. a,
mg/m3
, NIL
NIL
.14
.11
.07
.27
.21
.28
.48
.60
.43
.21
.32
.33
.26
.33
.46
.53
.53
.75
.81
1.07
.27
.75
.14
.24
.31
Phaeo.
mg/m3
.52
.71
.52
.02
.18
.17
NIL
.01
.09
.57
.25
.22
.24
.18
.66
.34
.21
.17
.17
.75
.31
.40
.42
.34
.32
.35
•27
Primary
Productivity,
mgC/m3»hr
.41
1.49
1.02
.53
1.07
.91
1.81
2.96
1.84
1.02
-------
Table 2. (continued) PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY AND RELATED FACTORS - 1971
—
Station
• •• ™
SL-11
SL-12
SL-13
SL-14
SL-15
SL-16
SL-17
HB-1
HB-3
HB-5
HB-6
Date
10 Aug
10 Aug
10 Aug
10 Aug
11 Aug
10 Aug
11 Aug
10 Aug
11 Aug
10 Aug
11 Aug
12 Aug
12 Aug
13 Aug
12 Aug
13 Aug
13 Aug
Depth
m
0.0
1.0
0.0
1.5
0.0
1.5
0.0
1.0
1.0
0.0
2.0
2.0
0.0
2.0
2.0
0.0
1.5
1.5
0.0
2.0
0.0
2.0
2.0
0.0
2.0
2.0
0.0
2.0
Salinity
°/
/ O 0
19.9
19.1
20.6
20.0
20.6
20.6
21.7
21.6
20.7
20.8
18.2
19.8
13.7
19.2
18.7
25.8
19.2
26.3
23.0
25.0
25.0
18.6
19.5
PH
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.6
6.7
6.7
6.7
6.7
6.7
6.7
6.7
6.8
6.7
6.7
6.7
6.7
6.8
6.8
6.7
6.7
6.7
6.7
Chlor. a,
mg/ra3
.18
.18
.18
.23
.18
.16
.35
.31
.20
.28
.32
.23
.64
1.07
.25
.65
.12
.19
.14
.33
.14
.47
Primary
Phaeo. Productivity,
mg/m3 ragC/m3«hr
.21
.21
.02
.06
.06
.29
.08
.18
.51
.13
NIL
2.32
.19
.26
5.88
.27
.69
2.16
.27
.33 1.59
.22
.25
.37
.15
.13
.24
.15
.19 .27
317
-------
Table 2. (continued) PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY AND RELATED FACTORS - 1971
Station
HB-7
OL-I
OL-II
OL-III
OL-IV
Wood's
Pond
Date
13 Aug
17 June
17 June
17 June
17 June
30 June
Depth
m
Salinity
°/oo
Chlor. a,
mg/m3
0.0
1.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
18.4
18.6
6.8
6.8
.25
.37
.21
.26
.43
.79
.92
Phaeo.
mg/m3
Primary
Productivity,
.19
.19
NIL
NIL
NIL
.11
NIL
.59
318
-------
Island
Beaufort Sea
_BFS72-I
Pingok Island
72-1
Harrison Bay
Simpson Lagoon
Cattle Island
Figure 7. Intensive study stations, Summer, 1972.
-------
Table 3. PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY AND CHLOROPHYLL a STANDING STOCK, 1972.
Depth,
m
Simpson Lagoon 72-1
July 29 0.0
2.0
August 5 0.0
2.0
August 12 0.0
2.0
August 19 0.0
2.0
£ August 26 0.0
2.0
Beaufort Sea 72-1
August 1 0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
August 15 0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
August 29 0.0
2.0
4.0
6.O
PH
7.68
7.95
8.16
8.26
8.12
8.05
7.78
7.78
7.54
8.00
8.02
7.86
7.84
7.91
8.01
7.94
7.97
8.00
8.15
8.08
8.07
8.27
Alkalinity,
meq/1
3.02
3.09
3.30
3.66
1.68
1.86
1.82
2.07
1.10
2.04
2.26
3.13
3.52
3.88
1.76
1.76
2.20
2.25
2.27
2.24
2.30
2.29
Available C,
mg/1
38.2
38.3
40.50
44.92
20.62
22.38
22.83
25.97
14.22
25.15
27.86
39.01
43.87
48.15
21.70
21.79
27.18
27.74
27.86
27.49
28.23
28. 1O
Net prim.
mgC/m3-hr
4.98
3.01
1.08
14.03
1.70
1.27
1.11
0.85
0.12
0.10
0.89
3.08
5.01
6.23
0.50
0.70
2.69
4.67
0.60
0.69
1.30
2.33
productivity
mgC/m2*hr
(11.98)
(22.66)
(4.45)
(2.94)
(0.33)
(23.30)
(11.95)
(6.91)
-------
In the Simpson Lagoon-Harrison Bay area, strong salinity and thermal
stratification complicates the picture. The intensity of stratification
varies depending on the volume of river flow and wind action. Probably
as a result of the salinity: depth gradient, a high proportion of the
phytoplankton in the deep water is composed of diatoms, whereas the
surface population contains flagellates in addition to diatoms.
The 1972 primary productivity results (Table 3) have clarified the
depth/productivity relationship, and also provided information on
seasonal trends. Relatively high primary productivity rates were found
offshore in the deeper layers. The Beaufort Sea station, immediately
off Pingok Island, invariably had the highest rates in the bottom
6m of water. These ranged from 2.33 to 6.23mg C/m «hr. At this
station, intergration of the primary productivity depth curves results
2
in 23.3, 12.0, 6.9mg C/m »hr on 1, 15 and 29 August respectively.
Assuming a 20 hour active day (not directly based on quantitative
information, and therefore to be considered an informed guess), and
2
taking the mean of the results of the three days (281.3mg C/m -day),
2
it is determined that 8.72g C/m fixed during the month of August.
These values are somewhat but not markedly lower than the primary pro-
ductivity rates reported for the Bering Strait region by McRoy et al.
Based on these results, we suggest that the productivity of this near-
shore Beaufort Sea may not be extremely low. The photosynthetic
organisms seem to prefer the high salinity deeper water over the more
brackish surface water. We may even further suggest that this river
enhancement of productivity is the result of a relatively high rate
of nutrient supply. As will be shown below, this is almost certainly
true for nitrogen nutrients.
The 1972 Simpson Lagoon station did not show the tendency for stratifi-
cation of primary production with depth except on 5 August. This day
was characterized by extremely low nitrate and ammonia concentrations
321
-------
at all depths, and even silicate levels were low in the bottom water.
This suggests intense removal of nutrients from the bottom water, but
does not in itself offer an explanation of the extremely high produc-
3
tivity rates measured (maximum 14mg C/m «hr).
The overall seasonal trend at both stations was a steady decline in
productivity both on a volume and a surface area basis. This, again,
may be related to nutrient input (discussed in Chapter 7).
Much of the low arctic ocean productivity has been attributable to the
lack of vertical stability of the water column. This is not a problem,
of course, in nearshore shallow regions. In the Colville delta area,
shallow depth coupled with nutrient supply by the river system results
in relatively high productivity levels in comparison with many arctic
regions previously described. We had totally underestimated pro-
ductivity based on the 1970 and 1971 sampling design. The complex
distribution pattern, whereby most of the nutrient input occurs in
low salinity water and most of the production occurs in higher salinity
bottom water may be a complicating factor in relating the dynamics of
nutrient input and primary productivity.
Phytoplankton Populations - While detailed taxonomic work was not
within the scope of our program, we did take a look at the phyto-
plankton populations in terms of major groups and principal species.
In common with many arctic observations, we found that a large propor-
tion of the cells are extremely small, within the size range generally
designated nannoplankton. The species composition in the Beaufort Sea-
Simpson Lagoon varied with depth and season, and indeed also between
seasons. The sampling was closely related with the primary productivity
sampling, such that we have a wider areal coverage for 1970 and 1971,
but more detailed observations on a limited number of stations for 1972.
322
-------
This makes ±t difficult to make comparisons from year to year, but
there did appear to be a real difference between 1971 and 1972, with a
relatively high diatom component in 1972 compared with 1971. In Simpson
Lagoon in 1971, cryptophytes and chrysophytes were relatively important
components of the populations. However, in 1971 there was a difference
in the relative proportions of diatoms from Simpson Lagoon toward
Harrison Bay. The populations in 1971 appeared to be somewhat lower
in total biomass. A similar pattern holds for the Beaufort Sea station.
A change in structure with depth is also apparent, with dinoflagellates
or silicoflagellates often increasing with depth, as well as diatoms.
Total biomass tends to increase with depth. A transect across Harrison
Bay is shown in Figure 8.
Tables 4 through 7 list the major phytoplankton species found in the
samples. Total cell numbers and total biomass for surface samples
and average total cell numbers and biomass for all depths are shown
in Figures 9 to 12. Total cell numbers varied between 10 to 10 /I,
7 93
and biomass between 10 and 10 ym /I. Phytoplankton composition in
terms of biomass and cell numbers is presented in Figures 13 to 18.
The change in composition along a transect from Simpson Lagoon to
Harrison Bay for 1971 is shown in Figure 19.
Some of the organisms present appear to be derived from the freshwater
environment. In particular, Rhodomonas minuta and Ckromulina sp. are
typically freshwater forms very abundant in northern Alaskan waters.
In 1972, such organisms dominated only on a couple of occasions, and
only in surface water; they may have been related to especially marked
salinity stratification. We do not know to what extent these organ-
isms photosynthesize and reproduce effectively in the marine environ-
ment. At one station (BFS-1) on 29 August 1972, unidentified,
light-green 2 to 3ym spherical cells were dominant in the 0, 4 and 6m
samples, but fewer were found in the 2m sample. Platymonas spp.,
323
-------
OJ
to
Total cell number/liter for surface sample \ \ Average total cell number/liter for all depths
Ch
I 1 I I I I I I
\ 1 I 1 I I T
^5 Co
Q
it
I I 1 I 1 I I
<3
"o
T] Total biomass/liter for surface sample L.'.'^.'i Average total biomass /liter for all depths
Figure 8. Biomass and number of cells, Harrison Bay transect.
-------
Baallariophyceoe
Cnoetoceros spp.
Nitrschia 5pp.
Nitzschia dosternjfn
Navicuta spp.
Others
Chtorophyta
Platymonas sp
Chrysophyta
Dinobryon spp
DtnotryOfi petio/otvm
Chromu/ma spp
Cryptophyta
Rhodomanas rmnufa
Cryptomonas spp.
Dinophyceae
Gymncdinium bhmanni
Pend/n/um spp.
Others
Si/icoffoge/iales
Flagellates
Mixed sizes
3p - 5y flagellates ^
Unidentified cells
Total
8 AUGUST
SL7I-I
Om
144.6*
144.6
30.7
483
4.5
48.2
4-5
10606
1325
IO6O6
132.5
96.4
21.0
964
21,0
24.1
221.7
2410
3.O
48.2
0.3
1928
27
1614.9
413.4
SL7I-2.
Om
"TpT-
72.3
27.3
96.4
9.1
96.4
9.1
313.2
205
3132
205
5292
106.7
50 5.1
63.1
24.1
43.6
1.5m
7?1
48.2
60.1
24.1
77
168.7
15.9
168.7
153
1205
79
120.5
79
746.9
97.8
746.9
978
723 48.2
15.8 : 25.2
723 482
158 ; 252
337.4 \ 3856
13.4 15 1
168.7 1928
2.3 2.5
168.7
1928
It 1 , 12.6
24 1 144.6
27
1444.9
1955
84.6
1686.8
3143
SL7I-3
Om
32.1
32.1
2.5
32.1
3.0
32.1
3O
Im
723
723
16.3
144.6
13.6
144.6
13.6
723
1.0
723
10
1928 1205
25.2 15.8
1928
252
322
478.4
16 1
1478
161
3306
120.5
158
24 1
221.7
48.2
43
161
2.2
321
2.1
337.4
173
168.7
6.2
168.7
111
216.9
72 5
3374 ' 9881
513.4
35S.2
9 AUGUST
SL7I-4
Om
43.2
48.2
18.8
24.1
2.3-
24.1
2.3
2650
34.7
265 O
347
4579
333
2892
22 2
1687
III
135.0
93.5
930.2
182.6
Im
378S
3788
19.2
24.1
2.3
24.1
23
313.2
410
3132
410
1687
102
723
4O
94.6
6.2
482
51.2
9330
123.9
SL7I-5
Om
24.1
24.1
6.9
48.2
12.6
241
23
650.1
85.2
65O.I
85.2
182.8
135
1105
88
723
4 7
24 1
1.5m
723
723
8.2
144.6
5.7
144.6
5.7
891.5
388.4
891.5
388.4
I2O.5
IO.5
72.3
7.3
48.2
3.2
96.4
10.5 25.8
9293 1325.3
128.7 .4386
SL7I-6
Om
24.1
24.1
84£
482
45
48.2
4.5
24.1
0.4
24.1
0.4
1951.7
2555
Im
723
72.3
56
144.6
3£
144.6
3.6
IIO83
f45.t
1951.7'' IIO8.3
255.5 145.1
48.2
9.7
482
97
433.8
21.0
289.2
11.5
144.6
9.5
53.8
723
25839
819.4
1435
674.8
134.0
1446
9.5
1927.6
1198
4072.2
4480 4/7.6
SL7I-7
Om
723
723
27.1
96.4
9.1
96.4
9.1
I783D
233.4
I783O
233.4
2169
47.2
2169
472
144.6
8.3
96.4
7.6
48.2
0.7
2313.9
325.1
Im
1205
4.7
1205
4.7
I526.O
303.9
I4O5.5
I84O
I2O.5
1/9.9
803
13.4
803
13.4
923.7
36.8
843.4
31.5
80.3
5.3
/I24.5
44.9
37750
403.7
SL7I-8
Om
24.1
24.1
6.9
48.2
1.9
48.2
13
48.2
2.7
48.2
27
6O2.4
788
6O2.4
788
241.0
3.8
192.8
2.7
48.2
If
361.4
95.6
1.5m
723
72.3
564
144.6
21
144.6
2.1
1132.4
1482
11324
148.2
48.2
4.1
48.2
4.1
216.9
9.8
1446
5.1
72.3
4.7
241.0
665
1325.3 1855.4
189.7 287.1
SL7I-9
Om
24.1
1.6
24.1
1.6
72.3
I.I
72.3
I.I
168.7
221
1687
22.1
385.6
IO.9
2892
9.5
96.4
1.4
24.1
15m
168.7
1205
26.4
48.2
278
24.1
3.1
24.1
3.1
723
3.1
48.2
2.7
24.1
O.4
265O
34.7
265O
34.7
482
55.4
482
554
216.9
18.8
168.7
15.6
482
3.2
96.4
6.5 52.0
6748
422
891.6
2213
IO AUGUST
SL7HI
Om
723
1100
723
110.0
6O2
2O
60.2
2O
84.3
6.0
84.3
6O
216.9
284
2169
28.4
12.1
110.9
144.6
7.5
36.2
04
108.4
7.1
590.4
264.8
SL7I-B
Om
482
32.1
49.8
16.1
3.1
1285
8.4
128.5
8.4
224.9
15.7
2O8B
14.8
161
0,9
64.3
8.4
64.3
84
112.4
2.4
80.3
19
321
05
578.3
87.8
SL7I-I4
Im
289.1
18.9
289.1
18.9
176.7
23.1
176.7
231
3374
125
241.0
ll.l
96.4
1.4
8O3.2
545
SL7I-I5
2m
96.4
63
96.4
63
144.6
13.3
144.6
13,3
289.1
37.9
2891
37.9
3373
8.5
289.1
5.3
48.2
3.2
8674
66.0
SL7I-I6
Om
361.5
723
23O
24.1
5£
265.1
1182
48.2
Z.I
48.2
2.1
144.6
8.2
144.6
8.2
5O6.0
Zm
192.8
246
24.1
O£
24.1
7.5
144.6
/6.5
168.7
1 1.0
168.7
I/.O
B2£
13.7
168.7
11.9
24.1
1.8
6747
662 88.3
506.O 674.7
66.2 88.3
2892
11.6
192.8
53
96.4
6.3
13495
3133
4.9
168.7
2.8
144.6
2.1
24.1
65
1566.4
234.9 1490
SL7I-I7
Om
353.6
15m
273.2
353.6
375.4
16.1
I.I
16.1
I.I
273.2
251.2
16.1
I.I
/6.1
I.I
208.8
27.3
208£
27.3
289.2
643
273.1
35.8
16.1
29.1
48.2
3.2
48.2
25
482
3.2
482
25
642
14
32.1
O5
32.1
0.9
32.1
05
32 1
05
48.2
IO.5
7391
4189
658.8
320 2
Cn
* cells (thousands/liter)
**biomass (m3/liter)
-------
Table 3. Phytoplankton numbers and biomass, Thetis Island and Harrison Bay station, 1971
Bocilloriephyceoe
Lhoetoceros spp
\"tzschio closter/um
Navicula spp
Others
CNorophyfa
P/afymonos sp
Chrysophyta
Dmobryon spp
Dinobryon petiolotum
ChrOfnuhno spp
Cryptophyto
Rhodomonos m/nuto
Crypfomonas spp
Dmophyceae
Gymnodtnium spp
Gymnodinium lohmonni
W
Unidentified cells
Total
II AUGUST
THE 71- 4
Om
16.1 *
13**
25/77
80.4
7.O
16.1
2.O
16.1 64.3
1.3 5.O
32.2 3O5.2
3.1 2O.O
16.1 3O5.2
I.I 2O.O
321.3 2O8.8
I5.O IO.8
2O8B ' 176.7
11.8 8. 7
32. 1
1.8
80.4
1.4
32.1
2.1
224.9 ' 96.4
29.4 665
224.9 64.3
29.4 8.4
8O.3
97.3
32.1
68.9
674.8
146.1
32.1
58.1
16.1
8O.I
16.1
8O.I
80.3
3.8
8O3
3.8
787.2
188.2
THE7I-5
Om
112.4
52.6
80.3
27.5
32 1
25.1
16.1
I.I
16.1
I.I
96.4
8.1
80.3
45
16.1
3.6
2O8.8
27.3
208.8
27.3
16.1
25O.6
48.2
0.7
48.2
O.7
32.2
11.9
53O.2
352.3
2.5m
128.5
26.0
128.5
26.O
594.3
38.9
594.3
38.9
96.4
2.9
32.1
1.8
16.1
O.4
46.2
0.7
224.9
29.4
224.9
29.4
16.1
498.9
128.5
5.1
128.5
5.1
16.1
18.5
I2O4.8
6197
12 AUGUST
HB7I-I
Om
I6O.7
97.6
16.1
56.4
144.6
41.2
96.4
6.3
96.4
6.3
192.7
6.7
112.4
6.4
80.3
O.3
321.3
69.1
305.2
40.0
16.1
29.1
16.1
73.9
16.1
73.9
48.2
1.4
48.2
1.4
32.1
98.1
867.5
353.1
2m
96.4
64.4
32.1
3.9
16.1
2.5
16.1
51.4
32.1
6.6
96.4
6.3
96.4
63
32.1
O.2
32.1
O.2
562.2
73.6
562.2
73.6
16.1
9.7
16.1
9.7
16.1
O.6
16.1
O.6
8/9.3
154.8
HB7I-Z
Om
96.5
48.9
64.4
47.2
32.1
1.7
241.0
15.8
241.0
15.8
128.5
16.8
128.5
16.8
16.1
48.2
16.1
48.2
48.2
15.5
48.2
15.5
16.1
I.I
546.4
1463
2m
96.4
46.7
32.1
IO.O
64.3
36.7
64.3
4.2
64.3
4.2
96.4
12.6
96.4
12.6
16,1
16.4
16.1
16.4
64.3
3.1
64.3
3.1
-~*
16.1
4.3
353.6
87.3
HB7I-3
Om
I6O.6
10.7
32.1
5.0
128.5
5.7
8O.3
5.3
80.3
5.3
48.2
O.2
48.2
0.2
48.2
6.3
48.2
6.3
32.2
148.2
16.1
145.5
96.4
18.6
96.4
18.6
K.I
4.3
482.O
193.6
2m
SO. 3
9.9
16.1
5.0
642
4.9
48.2
O.2
48.2
0.2
176.7
16.2
176.7
16.2
48.2
155.9
8O.5
8.4
8O.5
8,4
4333
I9O.6
HB7I-4
Om
8O.4
42.5
80.4
42.5
144.6
2.0
144.6
2.0
208.8
27.3
208.8
27.3
16.1
498.9
176,8
4.2
128.6
3.5
48.2
O.7
6267
574.9
2m
144.6
33.7
48.2
12.3
24.1
1.5
24.1
9.1
48.2
10.8
674.7
44.2
674.7
44.2
530.1
69.4
530.1
69.4
24.1
22.7
24.1
22.7
24.1
O.4
24.1
0.4
48.2
23.6
1445.8
I94.O
HB7I-5
Om
16.1
1.7
16.1
1.7
64.3
4.2
64.3
4.2
48.2
3.0
16.1
0.9
32.1
2.1
305.2
4O.O
305.2
4O.O
8O.3
3.9
64.2
3.7
16.1
O.2
514.1
523
2m
32.1
15.0
32.1
I5.O
6IO.4
4O.O
6IO.4
4O.O
96.4
1.8
16.1
0.7
8O.3
I.I
176.7
23.1
176.7
23.1
16.1
O.2
16.1
O.2
16.1
18.5
947.8
98.6
13 AUGUST
HB7I-6
Om
96.4
13.8
24.1
5.6
72.3
8.2
24.1
1.6
24.1
1.6
216.9
6.7
72.3
4.1
24.1
O.6
120.5
2.O
241.0
31.5
241.0
31.5
24.1
110.9
24.1
IIO.9
144.6
9.5
48.2
3.2
96.4
6.3
747.1
I74.O
2m
72.3
31.4
48.2
26.O
24.1
5.4
8433
55.2
8433
55.2
144.6
9.8
24.1
1.9
I20S
7.9
1180.6
154.5
1180.6
154.5
24.1
85.3
24.1
85.3
192.8
5.2
192.8
5.2
457.7
341.4
HB7I-7
Om
48.2
12.3
48.2
12.3
80.4
3.7
64.3
2.2
32.2
3.2
322
3.2
337.3
44.2
337.3
44.2
265.1
12.8
96.4
IO.4
168.7
2.4
763.2
76.2
1.5m
433.7
453.4
24.1
73.3
4O9.6
38O.I
192.8
12.6
192.8
12.6
939.7
I23.O
939.7
123.0
24.1
5.2
24.1
5.2
168.7
8.3
168.7
8.3
24.1
65
1783.1
6O9.O
u>
* cells (thousands/liter)
**t>iomass Cm3 /liter)
-------
Genus
Species
Bacillariophyceae
Chaetoaeros spp.
Nitschia clostepium
Navioula spp.
Thalass-iosipa sp.
Others
Chlorophyta
Platymonas sp.
Chrysophyta
Dinobryon spp.
D. petiolatum
Chromulina spp.
Station BFS71-6 - 1 Aug. Station BFS71-7 - 9 Aug.
Surf 2m 4m Surf
48.2* 64.3 120.1 16.1
202.0 22.7 206.7 15.9
32.1
83.6
16.1
8.2
16.1
15.9
16.1
118.4
48.2 120.1
14.5 206.7
313.3 32.1
88.0 2.1
120.5 32.1
4.7 2.1
32.1 530.1
1.8 18.7
32.1 530.1
1.8 18.7
2m 4m
48.2 32.1
114.0 5.8
32.1
5.8
48.2
114.0
64.3 417.6
4.2 27.3
64.3 417.6
4.2 27.3
32.2
1.8
16.1
1.2
16.1
0.6
Station
Surf
48.2
20.2
48.2
20.2
16.1
1.1
16.1
1.1
192.8
15.0
192.8
15.0
BFS71-8 -
2m
48.2
8.8
48.2
8.8
578.3
37.9
578.3
37.9
144.6
6.6
80.3
5.7
64.3
0.9
11 Aug.
4m
64.3
29.4
16.1
1.6
48.2
27.8
594.3
38.9
594.3
38.9
96.4
8.8
64.3
8.3
32.1
0.5
acells (thousands/liter)
biomass (y /liter)
-------
Table 6. (continued) SELECTED COUNTS OF MAJOR PHYTOPLANKTON SPECIES FOR BEAUFORT SEA (BFS), 1971
Genus
Species
Cryptophyta
Rhodomanas nrinuta
Dinophyceae
Gymnodiniion lohmanni
Peridiniim spp.
u>
to
co Silicoflagellates
Flagellates
Mixed Sizes
3-5 n flagellates
Unidentified cells
Total
Station
Surf
241.0
31.5
241.0
31.5
64.3
0.9
48.2
0.7
16.1
0.2
16.1
8.4
401.7
244.6
BFS71-6 -
2m
192.8
25.2
192.8
25.2
16.1
523.1
16.1
523.1
16.1
0.2
16.1
0.2
64.3
31.4
353.6
602.6
1 Aug.
4m
216.9
28.4
216.9
28.4
24.1
375.8
72.3
21.4
48.2
19.8
24.1
1.6
265.1
73.9
1011.8
794.2
Station
Surf
96.4
12.6
96.4
12.6
16.1
766.4
80.4
0.6
64.3
0.3
16.1
0.3
771.2
816.3
BFS71-7 -
2m
64.3
8.4
64.3
8.4
64.3
16.9
64.3
16.9
273.3
145.3
9 Aug.
4m
192.8
25.2
192.8
25.2
16.1
167.9
16.1
167.9
160.6
10.6
160.6
10.6
819.2
236.8
Station
Surf
64.3
8.4
64.3
8.4
32.1
2.1
32.1
2.1
353.5
46.8
BFS71-8 -
2m
417.6
54.7
417.6
54.7
128.5
1.5
32.1
0.1
96.4
1.4
32.2
57.5
1349.4
167.0
11 Aug.
4m
112.4
14.7
112.4
14.7
32.1
295.7
16.1
4.3
915.6
391.8
acells (thousands/liter)
biomass (m /liter)
-------
TABLE 7. SELECTED COUNTS OF MAJOR PHYTOPLANKTON SPECIES FOR SIMPSON LAGOON (SL), 1972.
Bacillariophyceae
Chaetoceros spp.
Ch, compressus
Ch. socialis
Nitzschia spp.
N. closterium
Navicula spp.
Thalassiosira spp.
Th. nordenskioldii
Others
Chlorophyta
Ankistrodesmus falcatus
29 July
Om 2m
753. 2f
243. ?
537.8
90.4
47.9
10.9
59.8
7.8
83.7
130.6
24.0
4.2
23.9
3.5
441.7
379.6
239.0
29.2
24.0
5.4
12.0
3.4
47.1
40.5
107.6
244.0
12.0
57.1
23.9
5.2
5 Aug.
Om 2m
47.9
20.6
23.9
1.8
24.0
18.8
4302.2
2435.7
669.2
361.5
23.9
63.4
2724.7
376.1
370.5
65.7
262.9
24.2
12.0
2.5
71.7
877.1
167.3
665.2
119.5
17.5
12 Aug.
Om 2m
490.1
993.1
35.9
6.2
322.7
34.2
23.9
61.9
59.8
494.9
47.8
395.9
394.5
546.1
59.8
14.9
23.9
0.3
251.0
36.0
59.8
494.9
107.6
4.5
19 Aug.
Om 2m
246.4
360.9
44.8
7.7
123.2
214.4
11.2
4.1
67.2
134.7
89.6
3.7
179.4
71.4
23.9
20.6
35.9
1.3
23.9
1.1
47.8
14.6
12.0
13.2
35.9
20.6
12.0
0.2
26 Aug.
Om 2m
191.4
186.7
12.0
1.7
12.0
99.0
167.4
86.0
72.0
34.4
12.0
1.6
12.0
3.4
48.0
29.4
47.9
5.3
19 Sept.
Om 2m
328.8
222.4
107.6
8.2
23.9
7.3
12.0
3.2
23.9
160.4
161.4
43.3
764.8
17.9
418.9
255.3
215.1
37.5
12.0
2.1
59.8
7.3
47.9
6.9
47.8
173.0
35.9
28.5
47.8
4.7
u>
cells (thousands/liter)
biomass (millions |.i /liter)
-------
TABLE 7. (continued) SELECTED COUNTS OF MAJOR PHYTOPLANKTON SPECIES FOR SIMPSON LAGOON (SL), 1972.
OJ
UJ
o
Oo cyst is sub marina
v . mirabilis
Platymonas sp .
Chrysophyta
Dinobryon spp .
Chromulina spp .
Cryptophyta
Rhodomonas mlnuta
Cryptoraonas spp .
Dinophyceae
Silicoflagellates
Flagellates
Unidentified cells
Total
29 July
Om 2m
233:95ba
12.0
0.1
12.0
0.1
59.8
14.7
35.9
4.7
23.9
9.9
24.0
1.3
872.9
263.4
23.9
5.2
59.8
24.8
59.8
24.8
23.4
5.9
548.8
415.5
5 Aug.
Om 2m
23.9
1.8
23.9
1.8
239.0
25.4
119.5
7.8
119.5
17.6
23.9
9.1
334.7
56.9
47,8
15.8
71.7
1.7
35.9
1.4
23.9
1.3
12.0
0.1
35.9
13.2
12.0
1.3
12.0
2.0
4505.5
2469.8
12 Aug.
Om 2m
490.1
993.1
107.6
4.5
227.1
39.6
179.3
22.8
47.8
16.8
47.8
1379.6
24.0
4.3
107.6
26.7
908.6
2000.8
19 Aug.
Om 2m
89.6
3.7
11.2
17.9
347.2
382.5
12.0
0.2
12.0
1.2
12.0
1.2
203.4
72,8
26 Aug.
Om 2m
12.0
2.6
203.4
189.3
35.9
4.0
12.0
1.3
95.6
10.8
95.6
10.8
23.9
1.8
259.4
52.3
19 Sept.
Om 2m
23.9
0.6
740.9
17.3
12.0
0.9
1105.6
241.2
23.9
4.1
23.9
0.6
83.7
9.2
83.7
9.2
12.0
13.2
24.0
7.4
12.0
1.0
598.4
290.8
cells (thousands/liter)
bblomass (millions JJ3/liter)
-------
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I I Total cell number /liter for surface sample
^ ^ \
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Average total cell number/liter for a/1 depths
{ | Total biomass/liter for surface sample
<0 N
Average total biomass/liter for all depths
9A. Biomass and number of cells, Simpson Lagoon transects.
-------
I I Totol cell number/liter for surface sample \ \ Average total cell number/liter for all depths
CO
Co
Total biomass/liter for ^^ * > -' -.7- ,- '<•-
J I I I I I I I
Average total biomass /liter for all depths
Figure 9B. Biomass and number of cells, Simpson Lagoon transects.
-------
LO
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TOTAL CELL NUMBER/LITER
FOR SURFACE SAMPLE
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FOR ALL DEPTHS
Figure 10. Biomass and number of cells, Simpson Lagoon Station SL-1, 1972.
-------
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Figure 12. Biomass and number of cells, Thetis Island transect stations, 1971.
-------
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SL-2 SL-3 SL-4 SL~5 SL'6 SL-? SL~8 SL~9
Figure 13A. Composition of phytoplankton biomass, Simpson Lagoon, 1971 and 1972.
-------
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EACH DIVISION REPRESENTS
10% OF TOTAL BIOMASS
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Figure 14A. Composition of phytoplankton cells, Simpson Lagoon, 1971 and 1972.
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Figure 1AB. Composition of phytoplankton cells, Simpson Lagoon, 1971 and 1972.
-------
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Figure 15. Composition of phytoplankton biomass, Harrison Bay, 1971.
-------
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Figure 16. Composition of phytoplankton cells, Harrison Bay, 1971.
-------
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Figure 17. Compostion of phytoplankton biomass, Beaufort Sea
stations, 1971 and 1972.
-------
1 AUG 9AUG IIAUG
AUG 15 AUG 29AUG
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Figure 18. Composition of phytoplankton cells., Beaufort Sea
stations, 1971 and 1972.
-------
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Figure 19. Colville River, Alaska, with raft trip station locations, 24-30 June 1971.
-------
Rhodomonas minuta, Dinobryon spp., Ckporrtulina and very small flagellates
(3 to 5ym) were very abundant in 1971, whereas in 1972 haetoaeros spp.,
Nitzschia closteriwm, Naviaula spp., Thalassiosira. spp. were abundant.
Although the data are insufficient to make definite correlations, the
higher biomass levels in 1972 did appear to be correlated with a higher
primary productivity. Also, the somewhat less stratification in 1971
as compared with 1972 may have played a role.
Nitrogen uptake results - Nitrate and ammonia uptake were measured
during the summer of 1972 at the Simpson Lagoon and Beaufort Sea primary
productivity stations. The experiments were conducted as described
above, with six (on occasion, eight) hour incubations. For ammonia,
isotope additions were made at several concentrations in order to
assess uptake versus concentration. This can give an idea whether
nitrogen is limiting and can also give information on the physiological
characteristics of the population. Nitrate was added at a single
concentration.
There was no consistent response of uptake to increasing ammonia
concentrations which suggests that uptake at the lowest level supplied
was already at V . Inorganic nitrogenous nutrient concentrations
nicix
found at Station SL-1 during the summer were very low indicating that
the nitrogen added by the Colville River has been completely assimilated
before the water is transported as far as Simpson Lagoon. The sole
observed exception to this was during a very calm period around 26
August 1972 when Colville River water spread over the surface into Simpson
Lagoon. Low uptake rates were measured in this fresh water and it is
likely that subsequent mixing with the deeper phosphate-rich water
would then result in assimilation by marine phytoplankton. The high
proportion of nitrate assimilated, especially in the case of Simpson
345
-------
Lagoon, suggests that the advection of nitrate by the river system
and by runoff from the adjacent tundra areas and the delta plays an
important role in nutrient supply, since it is extremely unlikely that
in situ regeneration to nitrate can occur at a sufficient rate to
account for the measured uptake. Beyond the barrier islands, nitrate
transport from the deeper waters is the major source of new nitrogen
to the euphotic system. Nitrate is always considered a "new" nitrogen
source which is provided by advection, whereas ammonia is frequently
supplied primarily by regeneration in situ. The percentage of nitrate
uptake in our experiments approaches that found for the Bering Sea by
McRoy et al. In the case of a river system, the situation is
somewhat different. Both nitrate and ammonia are supplied at high
concentration through the river water, in our case with the nitrate
levels considerably above the ammonia. There is, thus, an adequate
source of nitrate to account for the measured uptake. We have also
measured ammonification rates in the water at both stations, and find
relatively high rates compared with uptake, again sufficient to account
for the ammonia taken up.
The levels of nutrients in the river channel will be discussed elsewhere
in this report. However, a brief discussion of the relative proportions
of nitrate and ammonia advected by the river system to the offshore area
is included here.
The data shown in Table 8 are for surface waters of the various channels
of the Colville River. It is interesting to note that the percentage
nitrate remains high regardless of the overall total nitrogen in the
water. This supports the suggestion that nutrient input from the river
is important to the primary productivity of the offshore region. De-
clining offshore productivity as the season progresses may correlate
with declining levels of nitrogen nutrients supplied by the river. The
volume of river flow is usually greatest following break-up and declines
346
-------
during summer. Phosphate is always rather low in the river water, and
is probably the limiting nutrient in the freshwater system. The nitrogen
uptake data reflects the importance of the river as a source of nutrients
in that nitrate uptake is higher closer to the river mouth than outside
of Pingok Island. This is shown in the difference between station SL 72-
1 and BFS-1.
TABLE 8. NITRATE AND AMMONIA NITROGEN
LEVELS IN SURFACE WATERS OF THE
COLVILLE RIVER
Location Nitrate-N,
Hg/1
29 May - Nechelik Channel
27 June - Nechelik Channel
30 July - Nechelik Channel
16 August - Main Channel
23 August - Main Channel
23 September - Main Channel
18.2
45.5
67.8
30.0
28.0
44.8
P
Ammonia-N, —
yg/1 N
16.2
12.6
14.0
3.9
5.6
1.4
ercentage Nitrate-N
NO ~
-IT i nn
, X J.UU
0 ~ + NH.
3 4
52.9
78.3
83.3
88.5
83.3
96.9
Survey Studies of the River System
Preliminary data collected in cooperation with the Alaska Department of
Fish and Game during the summer of 1970 is shown in Table 9. The
picture which emerges from this preliminary work is one of low chloro-
phyll levels, high oxygen, and pH generally well above seven. Summer
temperatures were fairly high in most of the streams and parts of the
river (mean of 11.3°C). In the case of the lakes, chlorophyll levels
347
-------
Table 9. PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY AND RELATED FACTORS
Location
Lakes
1-Umiat Pond (6/24)
7-Ocean Pt. Lake (6/27)
8-Ocean Pt. Pond (6/27)
9-Ocean Pt. Polyg(6/27)
11-Lake A(6/28)
12-Pond nr. Lake A(6/28)
14-Lake B(6/28)
16-Putu Pond (6/29)
18-Woods Pond (6/30)
20-Nanuk Lake (6/30)
Rivers and streams
2-Colville (Umiat) (6/24)
3-Chandler R. (6/25)
4-Colville above
Anaktuvuk (6/25)
5-Anaktuvuk R. (6/25)
Air
temp
°C
18.5
7.0
7.0
7.0
5.0
-
5.0
2.0
3.5
8.0
14.5
13.5
20.5
20.5
Water
temp
°C
18.5
6.0
9.0
8.0
5.5
-
5.0
5.0
5.5
5.5
16.00
15.5
17.0
14.0
Alkalinity
pH meq/1
8.45 0.170
7.4 0.350
7.7 0.290
7.6 0.330
7.6 0.405
-
7.0 0.440
7.5 0.595
7.8 0.750
-
- -
-
- -
-
Net
Prod.
ygC/l-hr
1.69
0.49
1.27
0.51
1.11
-
0.99
0.54
1.12
-
-
-
-
-
Concentrations (ug-at/1)
N0~
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.30
0.09
0.45
0.30
3.30
2.91
2.34
2.85
4.71
N0~
0.13
0.00
0.02
0.07
0.08
0.07
0.05
0.06
0.11
0.17
0.09
0.07
0.08
0.06
SiO~2
2.0
8.9
2.6
6.5
15.0
-
11.3
-
-
17.9
31.0
27.9
30.6
30.7
<
0.04
0.10
0.01
0.03
0.06
-
0.06
-
-
0.07
0.12
0.06
0.10
0.09
Chlor. a
PS/1
0.232
-
0.926
0.890
0.922
0.572
1.966
0.649
-
-
-
0.028
-
—
Phaeo. ,
Pg/1
0.466
-
0.557
0.300
0.786
1.158
0.438
0.204
-
-
-
0.185
-
_
-------
Table 9. (continued) PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY AND RELATED FACTORS
Location
6-Colville
Sentinel
10 Colville
13-Colville
15-Itkillik
Air
temp
°C
at
Hill (6/26)
(Ocean Pt)
(6/27)
at Lake A
(6/28)
River (6/28)
7.
7.
5.
9.
0
0
0
0
Water
temp
°C pH
13.5
11.0
12.0
Net Concentrations
Alkalinity Prod.
meq/1 yg C/l-hr
3.
3.
4.
3.
3
57
60
08
78
NO
0.
0.
0.
0.
2
04
08
12
07
SiO
34
34
24
(Ug-at/l)
-2
3
.2
.0
.0
-3 Chlor. a Phaeo.,
4 PR/1 pg/1
0.34
0.03
0.06
17-Colville at Putu
(main channel) (6/29) 2.0 10.5
19-Colville at Wood's Camp
(3/30) 3.5 5.5
3.84 0.10 33.5 0.04
4.35 0.18 21.4 0.03
-------
were higher, with very high values on two occasions, in both cases at a
depth below the surface. In one of these, Tanigak Lake, we found
unusually high primary productivity rates also. In the other, Umiat
Lake, no primary productivity was run on the same date as the chlorophyll
but on two other sampling days (19 and 26 July 1971) reasonably high
rates were found here also.
A second survey of the river system with its adjacent lakes was carried
out on 24 June 1971 during a week-long trip from Umiat to Wood's Camp
by Messrs. Robert Clasby and G. E. Hall. A Zodiac and an Avon boat
were utilized for transportation, and Mr. Joeb Woods assisted during the
trip. Ten points along the river and ten lakes were sampled. Details
are given in Report R72-3. The following determinations were made,
using the methods described above: nutrients, temperature, plant
pigments and particulate nitrogen. Carbon-14 primary productivity was
measured in the lakes and ponds only. The results are given in Tables
10 and 11 with the station locations shown in Figure 19.
The primary productivity levels were similar to those obtained during
the previous summer. Once again, Umiat Pond had a relatively high rate.
Note the rather high nitrate concentrations in the river system, similar
in magnitude to those discussed in connection with the offshore primary
productivity and nitrogen uptake for 1972. Nitrate and phosphate are
both low in concentration in the lake and pond waters. Unfortunately,
we do not have ammonia data for these samples, and therefore cannot
make assumptions about nutrient limitation. However, it can be noted
that in the Barrow ponds studied by the U.S.I.B.P. Tundra Biome, nitrogen
limitation does not occur in spite of very low nitrate concentrations,
1 R
and phosphorus is the major limiting nutrient. The 1970 and 1971
surveys provided information on the primary productivity levels and
plant pigment concentrations, and served also to begin description on
the phytoplankton distribution. No great differences were apparent
350
-------
Table 10. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL DATA (LAKES)
Depth,
Location and date m
Umiak Lake
(Float plane
lake) 70-CR11
Tanigak
Lake 70-CR27
70-CR27
70-CR27
Umiat
Lake 70-CR11
70-CR11
70-CR11
Tulugak
Lake 70-CR34
Shainin
Lake 70-CR37
Noluck
Lake 70-CR40
Itkillik
Lake 70-CR38
Kurupa
70-CR39
Liberator
70-CR42
7/19 0.0
1.7
8/8 0.0
8/9 1.2
8/9 0.0
8/10 0.0
8/18 0.0
1.7
0.0
8/31
9/5
9/1
9/4
9/6
Temp., Dissolved 0 ,
°C mg/liter
17.8 8.4
17.8 7.9
11.1 9.3
11.1 8.1
9.0
10.6
12.2 9.4
9.1
6.1 11.8
8.9
3.9
8.3
6.7
3.9
Alkalinity
mgCaCO /liter
43.24
43.05
37.60
40.42
36.66
43.24
42.77
44.18
78.02
102.6
51.3
136.8
68.4
51.3
Chlorophyll a,
pH yg/1
7.6
7.5
7.4
7.7
7.5
7.6
7.6
7.8
7.8
8.5
7.0
9.0
8.0
7.0
1.15
1.30
3.74
18.12
3.72
0.66
0.86
3.96
-------
Table 11. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL DATA (RIVERS)
Ln
N)
Location and date
Seabee Creek
70-CR7
70-CR12
70-CR7
70-CR7
70-CR7
70-CR7
Killik River
70-CR8
70-CR8
70-CR35
Colville River
(above Killik
River) 70-CR9
70-CR26
(Umiat)
70-CR26
(Ocean Ft.)
70-CR28
70-CR30
70-CR26
(Umiat)
70-CR26
70-CR26
just above
Chandler
70-CR3
7/10
7/21
7/25
8/17
8/18
8/29
7/14
8/19
8/24
7/14
8/17
8/18
8/19
8/19
8/20
8/21
8/24
6/25
Depth,
m
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Temp.,
°C
13.9
15.0
12.7
10.9
10.0
14.4
12.7
5.6
15.0
11.1
11.1
13.3
12.7
8.9
12.8
Dissolved 0 ,
mg/1
8.76
8.22
9.00
6.48
8.41
9.54
7.92
9.30
8.82
9.24
8.94
9.00
9.00
Alkalinity
meq/1
42.77
40.89
51.70
56.40
119.70
56.40
50.76
68.40
52.83
47.94
49.82
62.98
48.88
50.76
48.41
102.60
Chlorophyll a
pH pg/1
7.5
7.3
8.0
7.2
8.0
8.2
7.7
7.5
8.1
7.8
7.6
7.9
7.6
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.5
0.48
2.05
0
0
0.26
1.08
0.92
0.24
0
Q
1.26
0.49
1.26
Colville/
Chandler mouth
7O-CR2 7/17
0.0
17.2
8.64
90.71
8.1
0.32
-------
Table 11. (continued) PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL DATA (RIVERS)
u>
Location and date
Chandler River
30 miles up
70-CR10
2 miles up
70-CR17
Mouth
70-CR2
Anaktuvik
River
70-CR1
2 miles up
70-CR16
70-CR1
70-CR31
70-CR32
Mouth
70-CR1
Ikagiak
Creek
70-CR13
70-CR14
Kiruktagiak
Creek
70-CR15
Etivluk River
70-CR18
Itkillik River
70-CR4
70-CR4
7/18
7/30
6/25
7/23
7/30
7/2
8/20
8/22
6/25
7/27
7/27
7/27
7/31
8/31
6/25
Depth,
m
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Temp., Dissolved O ,
°C mg/1
17.2 8.24
13.9 9.12
12.8
11.1 8.64
12.7 10.66
9.48
10.9 9.90
6.1 10.91
10.9
8.9
8.9
17.2
9.48
9.60
15.6
Alkalinity,
meq/1
89.23
105.28
102.6
108.57
120.52
123.14
114.21
136.77
102.6
39.48
30.55
133.95
62.51
85.54
85.5
Chlorophyll a
pH Ug/1
8.2
8.0
8.0
8.0
7.9
7.9
7.9
7.9
8.5
7.9
7.8
7.8
7.7
8.0
8.0
0.08
0.08
0.40
0.66
0.14
0
1.01
lost
0.21
0.20
0.10
-------
Table 11. (continued) PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL DATA (RIVERS)
Oi
Location and
date
Fossil Creek
70-CR20 8/6
Prince Creek
70-CR21 8/6
Oolamnavik
River
70-CR29 8/19
Greyling Creek
70-CR33 8/22
Unidentified
Creek near
Kurupa River
70-CR36 8/25
Kikiakrorak
River
70-CR5 6/25
Creek into
Noluck L.
70-CR41 9/5
Depth, Temp.,
m °C
0.0 13.3
0.0 10.0
0.0 9.6
0.0 3.3
0.0 6.1
0.0 17.8
0.6
Dissolved 0-, Alkalinity Chlorophyll a
mg/1 meq/1 pH Pg/1
9.96 81.78 7.8 0.88
9.00 56.40 7.5 0.35
9.48 43.24 7.5 0
10.32 84.6 7.9 0
34.20 6.5
85.5 8.0
102.6 7.5
-------
between the two seasons. Seasonal cycles and small scale distribution
variations were not attainable by the survey approach. We therefore
undertook intensive studies on the Wood's Camp area lakes to provide
more detailed information.
During the course of this study, three major freshwater habitats were
sampled in 1970 - ponds and lakes, rivers and the marine environment.
Of these, the lakes showed the greatest variety of plankton and also
the largest populations. The lakes behaved in a manner similar to the
offshore areas, in that diatoms were much higher in numbers at the
bottom than in the surface waters, and this accounts for the difference
in biomass (chlorophyll) between surface and bottom samples. This was
the case for Umiat and Tanigak Lakes, noted for their relatively high
productivities and chlorophyll content. This type of stratification
seems to be widespread among the relatively deep aquatic environments
in this coastal and coastal plain region. By the time the river water
reached Oliktok, many of the plankters were marine forms, and included
the following:
Chaetooeros wighami
Diatoma elongation
Gyrosigma spp.
Nitzsah-ia d&lioati.ss-Lma
Nitzsehia alosteriwn
Thalassiosira spp.
Various small pennate diatoms
Platymonas sp.
An unidentified 3\i flagellate
2\i flagellates
Several organisms appeared to be identical to those seen in the
Colville River, and they occupied a small fraction of many of the
samples. Examples of these fresh water forms are Ceratonies arous,
355
-------
Diatoma elongatum, Rhodomonas sp., Coemarium sp., Ankistrodesmus
falGatu8t Arthrodesmus sp., Chromulina sp., Cryptomonas sp., and
Dinobryon sp.
Sampling of the river was less systematic than .either the marine or
pond environments. A large area was covered with widely scattered
samples taken over a period of 37 days. Any comparison of plankton
abundance or even composition would, therefore, not be meaningful.
Generally, diatoms were the most numerous fraction in the river samples.
A variety of small pennate diatoms usually composed the largest fraction
of the diatom count. Only in three samples (Colville River below
Killik River, Fossil Creek, and Seabee Creek) were flagellates more
numerous than diatoms. In all three samples the major flagellate was
a small 3u organism (Kephyrion sp.?) common in all the lake
samples. All the organisms identified in the river samples were seen
in lake samples with the possible exception of Cevatonies arcus.
The 1971 Phytoplankton Survey
Study of the phytoplankton of Harrison Bay, Simpson Lagoon, and the
Colville River from the summer of 1970 had shown that a major contri-
bution to the phytoplankton of the Arctic Ocean in the area of the
Colville River delta were freshwater forms from the river itself.
Since the study of the river proved difficult and unreliable due to the
large amounts of sediment, another approach had to be used. It was
decided to study the source waters, i.e., the ponds and lakes that
contribute water to the Colville River, for an approximation of the
amounts of phytoplankton that could be contributed to the river. Since
there are hundreds, perhaps thousands, of such lakes, only a very small
percentage could be studied. Expenses limited the sampling period to
one day (27 July 1971).
356
-------
A total of ten lakes was selected In two transects. Seven of the lakes
lay in an approximately east-west line extending 140km immediately
north of the Brooks Range; they ranged between 600 and 1000m in alti-
tude. Four of the lakes lay in an approximately north-south transect
of 160km and ranged from 800m to 46m in altitude (Fig. 20).
A Hiller six-passenger turboprop float plane was chartered for the trip;
wind velocity and air temperature were measured with the airplane's
instruments. Even with such an efficient vehicle, a rigid sampling
schedule allowing only five minutes per lake had to be maintained in
order to complete the sampling of all ten lakes.
27 July 1971 was an unusually warm day with a partly cloudy sky (M3
to M5) and very uniform weather conditions prevailed throughout the
sampling area. A strong, gusty wind of 5 to lOm/sec from the south
south-west was recorded at each lake, which probably contributed to
good mixing of phytoplankton. Air temperature ranged from 12°C at the
highest altitude to 22°C close to sea level, with a mean of 15.7°C.
A number 20 plankton net was used for the net samples. Immediate
preservation was in 6 percent glutaraldehyde (adjusted to a pH of 7 with
NaOH). Live samples were later preserved in modified Lugol's after
observation. A total of seven samples was taken at each lake as follows:
(1) a quantitative sample of zooplankton taken by filtering 10 liters of
water through the net; (2) a larger net sample for rare forms which would
be missed in the counts; (3) an unpreserved net sample for observation of
live phytoplankton; (4) a 55ml sample of water for quantitative
phytoplankton counts; three chemistry samples for (5) nutrients,
(6) major cations, and (7) heavy metals. The chemistry samples were
frozen upon arrival in Prudhoe Bay for future analysis at Barrow.
Water temperatures were taken at the surface of each lake with a
357
-------
Figure 20. Lakes sampled by float plane, 27 July 1971.
358
-------
thermometer. Live samples were kept refrigerated and were observed the
following day in Fairbanks with inverted and phase microscopes for
positive identification of the major species.
Ten ml of the preserved quantitative phytoplankton samples were settled
2
on an area of 2.27cm on microscope slides. Permanent slides were
made of the settled material with a sliding chamber modification of
the UtermChl technique. . Permanent quantitative zooplankton slides
were also made using the same technique.
Counts were made with a phase contrast microscope at 200X and 320X
for phytoplankton and 20X and SOX for zooplankton. The dimensions of
each species of phytoplankton were measured during the counts and
cell volumes were estimated by assigning each species to one or a
combination of two of seven basic shapes (sphere, prolate spheroid,
oblate spheroid, cone, box, cylinder and ellipse X height) according
to the closest approximation of actual volumes. Volume estimates of
the larger species of zooplankton were taken from the volume estimates
19
given by Nauwerk for the species in the Swedish Lake Erken.
The species lists (phytoplankton, Table 12; zooplankton, Table 13)
were compiled from the counts, preserved samples and living samples.
The "LP" in the phytoplankton list shows the overlap with species
found in a more intensive study of Lake Peters, which lies 200km to
20
the east of Itkillik Lake. Phytoplankton and zooplankton biomass
(Figs. 21 and 22)and their relative composition (Fig. 23 and Table 14)
are presented in mg/m . Nutrient chemistry is presented in Table 15.
Species diversity indexes (Fig. 24) were calculated using numbers of
organisms per liter rather than biomass by the following formula:
ni
H = — Iog2 n±
359
-------
Table 12. PHYTOPLANKTON SPECIES FOUND IN LAKES OF THE
COLVILLE RIVER DRAINAGE AREA
Lake no. (see Figure 20)
LP = found also in
Species Lake Peters
CYANOPHYTA
CHROOCOCCALES
Aphanooapsa delioat-Lssi,rna W. et G. S. West 1,9,LP
sp. 1
Aphanotheoe clathrata W. et G. S. West 1,2,8,9,10,LP
Chroococaus turgidus (Kg.) Naeg. 1,2,10,LP
" varius A.Br. 10
" limnetieus Lemm. 3
Merissmopedia glauca (E) Naeg. 8,LP
" elegans A. Br. 1,5,7,8,10,LP
Euoapsis dlpina Clements et Shantz 10
Coelosphaerium kuetzinyianKm Naeg. 1,5,8,10
Gomphosp'naeria laoustris Chod. 9, LP
" robusta Skuja 8,9,LP
HORMOGONALES
Osaillatopia agardnii var. isothrix Skuja 1,9,10,LP
" rubesoens De Candolie 4
Pseudanabaena sp. 9,10
Anabaena lapponioa Borge 1,8,9,LP
" flos-aquae (Lyngb.) Breb. 1,8,9,10
" oiroinal-is R.B.H. 9
ifostoc kintmani Lemm. 9 10 LP
CHLOROPHYTA
360
-------
Table 12. (continued) PHYTOPLANKTON SPECIES FOUND IN LAKES OF THE
COLVILLE RIVER DRAINAGE AREA
Species
Lake no. (see Figure 20)
LP = found also in
Lake Peters
4,10
10
10
1
1,4,6,8,LP
PROTOBLEPHARIDIUAE
PROTOBLEPHARIUALES
Soourfieldia aordiformis Takeda
Pyramidornonas tetratnynaiius Scliraarda
Spermatozopsis exultans Korschik
Gyrornitus cordi-formis Skuja
deplirose Imis sp.
EUCHLOROPHYCEAE
VOLVOCALES
Carteria sp.
Chlamydomonas passiva Skuja
" earoleae sp. n.
" spp.
Volvox aureus E.H.R.
Chlorogonium cf. mini-mum Playf.
Gemellicystis neglecta Telling et. Skuja
Gloeoeystis plcmctonioa (W. et G. S. West) Lenm.
Gloeoeooaus sanroeteri, (Chod.) Lemm.
CHLOROCOCCALES
Paulsahulzia pseudovolvox (Schulz, Teil.) Skuja
Korshikoviella graailipes (Lambert) Silva
Pediastrurn duplex Meyen
" integmm Naeg.
" boryamm (Turp.) Menegh.
11 tetras (E.) Ralfs
1,2,3,4,5,6,7,10,LP
2,LP
1,9
8
4
3,5,LP
10
1,3,4,5,10,LP
8,10
4
8,9
8
9.10.LP
9,LP
-------
Table 12. (continued) PHYTOPLANKTON SPECIES FOUND IN LAKES OF THE
COLVILLE RIVER DRAINAGE AREA
Lake no. (see Figure 20)
LP = found also in
Species Lake Peters
Lager'neirnia eitriformis (Snow) G. M. Smith 5,6
11 subsalsa Lemm. 9,LP
Chodat&lla eitriformis Snow 1
C'rilorel'la pyrenoidosa Chick 1,2,5,LP
11 sp. 1,8,LP
Oooystis submarina var. variabilis Skuja 1,8,9,10,LP
" lacustris Chodat. 2,9,LP
Kirahneriella Iwiaris Moeb. 10
Tetra&dpon minimum fa. tetralobulatum Reinsch. 6,8,10,LP
" eaudatum (Corda) Hansg. 10
" limneti-aiffn Borge 10
Seenedesmus balatoniaus Hortob. 8
" cacaua'tus Lemm. 1
11 dentieulatus Lagerh. 1
" quadrioauda (Turp.) Breb. 8,9,10,LP
Tetraltantos minor sp. n. 1,8,10
Dictyosphaerium simplex Skuja 1,LP
" pulahellwn Wood. 10
Cruaigena reatangularis var. catena var. n. 1»5>9
" tetraped-ia (Kirshn.) W. et G. S. West 8,LP
Coetastrum cambricwn Arch. 9,10
Selenastmm minutwn (Naeg.) Collins 10
362
-------
Table 12. (continued) PHYTOPLANKTON SPECIES FOUND IN LAKES OF THE
COLVILLE RIVER DRAINAGE AREA
Lake no. (see Figure 20)
LP = found also in
Species Lake Peters
EJiaphidionema nivalis Lagerh. 2
Ankistrodesmus faloatus (Corda) Ralfs. 1,2,4,5,8,9,LP
" " var. setiformis 1,6
" spiralis (Turner) Lemm. 6,LP
Elakatotlirix gelatinosa Wille 4,LP
Quadrigula olosterioides (Bohlin) Printz 1,8,LP
ULOT1IRICHALES
Gloeotila pelagioa (N.Y.G.) 1>5,6
CONJUGATAE
DESMIDIALES
Genioularia spirotaenia De Bary 8
Gonatozygon monotaenium De Bary 10
Closterium intermedium Ralfs. 8
" pritcnardioaiim Ralfs. 8
" pseudoeunula Borge 8
CjLosteriwm rostratum Ehrenb. 8
Pleurotaeniion e'nreribergii
var. undulatum Schaarschm 8
Plei&otaenium trdbeaula (Ehrenb.) NMg. 8
Eaustrum ansatum Ralfs. 8
Miarasterias rotata (Grev.) Ralfs. 8
Xandthidiwn antilopaeum var. polymazim Nordst. 8
Arthrodesmus triangularis var. lirmetieus Teiling 8
Staurastrum anatinion fa. awptwn
(G.M. Smith) Brook 8
363
-------
Table 12. (continued) PHYTOPLANKTON SPECIES FOUND IN LAKES OF THE
COLVILLE RIVER DRAINAGE AREA
Lake no. (see Figure 20)
LP = found also in
Species Lake Peters
" arotisoon (Ehr.) Lund 8,10
" armigeruna var. furaigerum
(Breb.) Teiling 8
" petsamoense Jarnelelt 8
11 " var. minus
(Messik) Thomasson 8
Spondylosium korvum sp. n. 1
11 planwn (Wolle) W. et W. 1,5,8,10
TeiHngia granulata (Roy & et Biss) Bourr. 8,10
EUGLENOPHYTA
EUGLENALES
Euglena piso-Lformis Klebs. 8,10
" oxyuris Schmarda 9
" sp. 8,10
Phacus longiaauda (Ehr.) Duj. 9
Traahelomonas hispida var. duplex Defl. 8
" var. punatata Leram. 1,8
" oblonga var. attenuata Playf. 8
CHRYSOPHYTA
CHRYSOPHYCEAE
CHRYSOMONADIDAE
CHROMULINALES
Chromulina spp. 1 2 4 9 LP
P^naeaster aphanaster (Skuja) Bourr. 1,2,4,5,8,9,10,LP
Cfucysococous sp. i T-D
364 1>LP
-------
Table 12. (continued) PHYTOPLANKTON SPECIES FOUND IN LAKES OF THE
COLVILLE RIVER DRAINAGE AREA
Species
Lake no. (see Figure 20)
LP = found also in
Lake Peters
Kephyrion boreale Skuja
Mallomonas akrokomos Ruttner
" tonsitrata Telling
" eaudata Iwanoff
" elongata Rev.
" acaro~id.es Perty.
" pseudoaoronata Prescott
" pwn-i.Ho Harris et Bradley
" globosa Schiller
ISOCHRYSIDALES
Synura petersenii Korsch.
" uvella Ehr. et Korsch.
OCHROMONADALES
Oahrornonas spp.
Uroglena americana Calkins
Eusphaerella turfosa Skuja
Pseudok.ephyrion alaskanum Hilliard
Chrysosphaerella longispina Lauterb.
Dinobryon acuminatum Ruttner
" -ttenuatim Hilliard
" sertulari-a Ehr.
" " var. protuberans
(Lemm.) Krieger
" eylindrieum var. palustre Lemm.
365
2,LP
4.9.LP
1,2,3,5,6.LP
1,3,5,LP
1,2,5,6,LP
5,LP
1,2
3
1,6
8
2,LP
2,LP
2,3,8,10,LP
8
10
8
1,6,8,LP
6.LP
2,3,5,LP
2,LP
1,2,3,4,6,8,10,LP
-------
Table 12. (continued) PHYTOPLANKTON SPECIES FOUND IN LAKES OF THE
COLVILLE RIVER DRAINAGE AREA
Lake no. (see Figure 20)
LP = found also in
Species Lake Peters
" " var. alp'inwn (Imhof.) 'Bachm. 3,5,10,LP
" bavario-um Imof. 1,3,4,6,8,10,LP
" sooia'ie Ehr. 1,5,8,LP
" " var. amerloanum (Brunnth.)
Bachm. 6,LP
" divergens Imhof. 2,3,10,LP
" njakajaurense Skuja 5,6,10
Chrysoikos skujai (Nauw.) Willen 6,8,LP
Bi,ti"i.chia longisp-i-na (Lund) Bourr. 5,10
CHRYSOSPHAERALES
Stiohogloea doederleinii (Schmidle) 1,2,LP
RHIZOMASTIGALES
Bicoeoa ain-Lkkiae JMrnfelt. 6
" sp. 1
Mo-nosiga sp. 1
DIATOMEAE
CENTRALES
Cyalotella stelligera Cl. et Grun. 1,2,3,5,6
" aomens-is Grun. 10,LP?
oomta (Ehr.) Kuetz. 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,10,LP
" bodanioa Eulenst. 1,2,3,5,6,LP
SP- 5,6,10
Step'nanodiscus astraea (Ehr.) Grun? 1,2 356
nantzsch-li Grun. 1 LP
366
-------
Table 12. (continued) PHYTOPLANKTON SPECIES FOUND IN LAKES OF THE
COLVILLE RIVER DRAINAGE AREA
Species^
Lake no. (see Figure 20)
LP = found also in
Lake Peters
Rhizosolenia eviensis H.L. Smith
PENNALES
Tdbellcaria fenstrata (Lyngb.) Kuetz.
" " -intermedia Grun.
" floooulosa (Roth) Kuetz
Fragila arotonensis Kit ton
sp.
Diatona elongatum (Lyngb) A.G.
" sp.
Synedraaous var. angustissima Grun.
Cymbella sp.
Gomphonema sp.
Cooaoneis diminuata Pant.
Asterionella formosa Hass.
Gyrosigma cf. acuminatum (Kuetz.) R.B.H.
Mitzahia aatinastroides (Lemm.) Van Goor
Cymatopleura solea (Breb.) W. Sm.
Surirella sp.
HETEROKOKTAE
HETEROCOCCALES
Botvyocoacus braunii Kuetz.
Centritractus belonopliorus Lemm.
var. itkillikus var.n.
1,5,7,LP
9.LP
4,6
6
6
6,9,LP
1,2,4,5,6,8,9,10
9
4,6,10
1,3,4,5,6,8,LP
9
5
9,LP
9
8,10
1,2
PYRROPHYTA
367
-------
Table 12. (continued) PHYTOPLANKTON SPECIES FOUND IN LAKES OF THE
COLVILLE RIVER DRAINAGE AREA
Lake no. (see Figure 20)
LP = found also in
Species Lake Peters
CHLOROMONADOPHYCEAE
CHLOROMONADOPHYCEAE
CHLOROMONADALES
Vaeuolaria virescens var. praegnans Skuja 1
CRYPTOPHYCEAE
CRYPTOMONADALES
Rhodornonas lacustris Pascher et Ruttner 7,LP
" minuta Skuja all lakes
Cryptomonas spp. 1,2,3,4,5,6,8,9,10,LP
Katablephavis ovalis Skuja 1,2,3,4,5,6,8,9,10,LP
Senni-a parvula Pascher et Skuja 4,LP
DINOPHYCEAE
GYMNOLDINALES
Amgnidiniwn spp. 1,5,6,8,LP
Gymondin-injn 'tielveti-aum Penard fa. alaskanum
fa. n. 2,3,5,8,10,LP
" uberrimum (Allm.) Kofoid et Swezy 7,LP
" veris Lindem 10,LP
spp. 6,10
Pevidiniwn willei Huitf.-Kaas 2,3,4,5,7,10,LP
" oinotim (Mueller) Ehr. 1,3,LP
" i.nconspi.cuum Leram. 8,10,LP
Ceratiwn nirwidinella (O.F.M.) Schrank. 2,3,4,5,6,7,10
368
-------
Table 13. ZOOPLANKTON SPECIES FOUND IN LAKES OF
THE COLVILLE RIVER DRAINAGE AREA
Species
Lake no.
(see Figure 20)
Copepoda
Diaptomus sp.
Cyclops sp.
Cladocera
Bosminia eoregoni
Daphnia cf. longispina
Holopedium gibberum
Rotatoria
Conochilus unicorn-is
Kellooottia longispi-na
Keratella oochlearis
Keratella quadrat a
Polyarthra cf. vulgapi-s
Synahaeta sp.
Triohooeroa sp.
Ciliata
Difflugia lir/metiaa
Strombidium sp.
'intinnopsirS laoust^is
Vortiaella sp.
1-10
1-10
5
5
8,9
1, 2, 3, 8, 10
1-10
2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10
2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10
1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 10
8
3
8, 9
1
10
1, 6. 8. 9. 10
369
-------
mg/m3 PHYTOPLANKTON BIOMASS
200 -
374
100 -
1
8
10
UNNAMED ITKILLIK SHAININ TULUGAK NATVAK- CHANDLER WHITE AHALIORAK UNNAMED SHIRUKAK
LAKE LAKE LAKE RUAK LAKE LAKE LAKE LAKE
LAKE
Altitude 658m 789m 907m
Water
temp 13,9'C 13,3'C 8,6'C
658m 822m 954m 1086m
9,4'C 12,2'C 7,8'C 5,6'C
395 m 197 m 46 m
15,6'C 15,6'C 16,i'C
Figure 21. Phytoplankton biomass of lake waters sampled by float plane, 27 July 1971.
-------
u>
CILIATA
ROTATORIA
CLADOCERA,
COPEPODA
ZOOPLANKTON BIOMASS
mg/m3
12000 -
10000 -
sooo -
6000 -
4000 -
2000 -
V77/
Figure 22. Zooplankton species composition, of lake waters sampled by
float plane, 27 July 1971.
-------
PHYTOPLANKTON SPECIES COMPOSITION
Total volume 1
1000/. 1
10
u>
Cyan.
Chlor.
Chrys.
Diat.
*+*;
Crypt.
^
'. i ;
»*OGOO
o o oo o o
000 OOo
O o OOOO
Din.
Figure 23. Phytoplankton species composition of lake waters sampled by float plane, 27 July 1971,
-------
Table 14. LAKE ZOOPLANKTON COMPOSITION
Lakes
Copepoda
PHYLA (BIOHASS in mg/m3)
Cladocera
Rotatoria
Ciliata
Unnamed (1)
Itkillik
Shainin
Tulugak
Natvakruak
Chandler
White
Ahaliorak
Unnamed (9)
Shirukak
5829.1
5635.5 230.0
1341.3
4457.5 1124.0
7130.9 204.0
1093.5
1885.1
3817.2 690.0
11221.0 2210.0
646.7
3.7
24.6
2.9
1.2
4.3
9.3
13.4
21.1
5.4
70.1
0.1
-
-
-
-
1.2
-
184.5
29.3
22.9
373
-------
Table 15. LAKE NUTRIENT CHEMISTRY
Lake
Unnamed (1)
Itkillik
S ha in in
Tulugak
Natvakruak
Chandler
White
Ahaliorak
Unnamed (9)
Shirukak
SiO ~2
/ 3
mg/m
243.6
616.0
492.8
943.6
280.0
420.0
644.0
58.8
39.2
98.0
P°4~3
4 3
mg/m
2.79
2.48
2.79
3.10
353.40
3.41
93.93
9.30
6.51
4.34
NO ~
/ 3
mg/m
0.84
0.28
0.84
0.70
0.56
0.42
3.78
1.40
0.84
1.54
N°3~
mg/m
nil
nil
1.20
15.96
nil
2.10
176.40
nil
nil
nil
374
-------
PHYTOPLANKTON
U)
^j
Ui
SPECIES DIVERSITY
INDEX
=E^ log &
N y2 N
-3 -
-2 '
-1 -
10
10
—i—
20
30
—i—
40
—i—
50
—i—
60
—i—
70
NUMBER OF MICROSCOPE FIELDS COUNTED
Figure 24. Phytoplankton species diversity in lake waters sampled by float plane,
27 July 1971.
-------
where H = species diversity index
ni = number per liter of a given species
N = total number of organisms per liter
Since only one sample was taken from each lake, species diversity indexes
had to be plotted against the number of fields counted in order to compare
the slopes. Since equal volumes were settled on' equal areas for each
lake and only the 320X counts were used, the species diversity index/
number of fields slopes should be comparable, with the error being
proportional to the degree of departure of actual settled distribution
from an evenly distributed pattern.
Correlation coefficients were calculated as follows:
Altitude
Zooplankton biomass
Phytoplankton biomass
Chrysophyta biomass
Diatomeae biomass
Chlorophyta biomass
Pyrrophyta biomass
Cryptophyta biomass
Species diversity indices
Zooplankton
Phytoplankton biomass
Chrysophyta biomass
Diatomeae biomass
Phytoplankton biomass
Water temperature
Phytoplankton
SiO ~2
PO,
NO,
-3
NO,
0.86
0.37
0.72
0.71
0.69
0.35
0.02
0.34
0.46
0.23
0.80
0.56
0.53
0.24
0.25
0.48
The amount of phytoplankton varied from 30 to 324mg/m . In White
Lake, however, only Img/m of phytoplankton was found. This lake had
very turbid water and evidently not enough light could penetrate for
376
-------
any appreciable primary production to occur. This was probably not
always the case since a large zooplankton assemblage thrived in the lake.
The other lakes can be divided into two categories, the first being
3
near the Brooks Range with phytoplankton biomasses up to lOOmg/m
2
and the second on the northern slope with biomasses over 200mg/m .
Most of the lakes in the first category lie at higher altitudes and
have correspondingly harder climatic conditions than those in the
second. These two categories are probably generally valid in spite of
exceptions produced by differences in water chemistry and local edaphic
conditions. Lakes 2 to 7 belong to the first category and lakes 1, 8, 9
and 10 belong to the second. Lake 3 falls in between the two categories
but can still be included in the first group.
The chemical data do not correlate very well with the phytoplankton
biomasses, but too little information is obtained on only one sampling
occasion for any really meaningful interpretation. In the case of
White Lake the high nutrient concentrations can be explained by its low
production. The surprisingly high phosphate value in Natvakruak is
somewhat suspect. It may be an error in the analysis or a contamination.
If that is true the highest phosphate concentrations are found in the
lakes with the largest biomasses, i.e., 8, 9, and 10. No correlation
seems to exist between diatom biomass and concentrations of silicon.
20
A negative correlation is usually found.
Diatoms (Fig. 23) were dominant in most of the lakes (2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, 8 and 9). The most common genera were Cyolotella, Asterionella
and Synedra. A very substantial part, however, was contributed by
benthic forms that may have been washed up into the pelagic water by
the strong winds. In five lakes Stephanodiscus astreae were found.
This has been used as an indicator organism for eutrophic lakes, and
therefore the form found here is probably a new ecotype. Morphologi-
cally, no difference from Ehrenberg's description could be observed.
377
-------
A similarly surprising organism was Ceratium hirwidinella, which is
often considered a warm water form, occurred in seven of the ten
lakes. It normally survives the cold part of the year as cysts. There
seems to be an arctic ecotype, however, that is found all year. It has
been observed in lakes around Lake Peters and under ice in Char Lake
20
in northern Canada.
Cryptophyceae was an important algal group in. most of the lakes. The
dominant genera were Rhodomonas, Katablepharis and Cryptomonas.
Chlorophyta formed a substantial part of the biomass in lakes 1, 3,
4, 5, 6, 8 and 9. Important genera were Oocystis, Ankistrodesmus,
Scenedesmus and small forms of the order Chlorococcales. A fairly
rich desmid flora was found in the net samples from lake 8 and 10, but
it had no importance in the biomass.
Chrysophyceae were important in lakes 1, 2, 8 and 10. This is somewhat
surprising, since this group is usually the dominant one in arctic and
"~) t~\ '71 0 O 'J T O /
boreal lakes. »»»»*• jt ^s> of course, possible that Chryso-
phyta were common also in the other lakes earlier in the season. Most
of the biomass of this group was composed of small forms in the genera
Chromul-ina, Oani-omonas, Pseudokephyrion, Dinobryon, Mallomonas and
Uvoglena.
Dinophyceae were of importance only in lakes 3 and 10. Again it is
very possible that this group was more common at other times of the
year in the other lakes. Dinophyceae usually form an important part
of the phytoplankton in arctic lakes, especially early in the season
(Holmgren, unpublished). Important genera were Gymnodinium, Amphidinim,
Glenodinium and Peridinium.
Cyanophyta were insignificant in all lakes. That is to be expected
378
-------
since this phylum is typical of warm rich lakes. The genera that
occurred in the lakes all belonged to the oligotrophic forms of the
groups: Chroooooaus, Eueapsis, Merismopediaj Anabaena, Ap'nanocapsa,
and Aphanotheke.
It is difficult to draw conclusions from only one sampling occasion,
since there are large natural seasonal variations in the amount of algae
in such bodies of water. Usually there is a biomass increase during and
after ice melt followed by a decrease in the middle of the summer. In
late summer a new growth of the algal assemblage usually occurs again.
Since biomass can fluctuate by an order of magnitude during a cycle of
a season, it is necessary to know where in the cycle the samples were
taken before a comparison with other lakes can be made. Fortunately,
intensive studies were made in 1968 of the lakes at the headwaters of
the Sadlerochit River, about 200km east of this study. The biomasses
of phytoplankton there in late July and early August in 1968 were
>m nort
20,21,19
20
slightly higher than the average of the season. Works from northern
Scandinavia covering whole seasons reveal the same tendency.
It is therefore reasonable to assume that waters leaving the upper lakes
have concentrations of 50 to lOOmg/m of phytoplankton during the ice
3
free season as compared to 100 to 200mg/m from the lower lakes.
3
Lakes on the coastal plain have higher bioraasses (about 300mg/m ) but
their contribution to the river is insignificant because of the very
poor drainage there. If the water budget is known, the transport of
phytoplankton to the sea can be roughly estimated. This way of estimat-
ing the contribution is, of course, inaccurate; many organisms would
certainly not survive the journey to the ocean. Any such estimation
therefore, should only be used to predict theoretical maximum values.
New or Unusual Species Descriptions
Chlorophyta
Protoblepharidales
379
-------
1. Gyromitus aordiform-Ls Skuja (Plate 1)
Cells lly x lAy with two flagella arising from an interior
depression. Slightly smaller than Skuja's description.
Chlorococcales
2. Tetvallantos minor sp. n. (Plate 2)
Cells l.'Sy x 3.6u typically forming radially arranged groups
of four pairs of cells, but also forming arrangements in
groups of four cells joined by their ends to form a circle.
Short chains are formed by either arrangement or a combin-
ation of both. Cells have one pyrenoid, and vacuoles at or
near each end. Cells are kidney-shaped and held together by
gelatinous material at the point of contact. Some specimens
from Shirukak lake differed from the others by their lack of
kidney shape and by their rigidly square arrangement of four
cells. The Shirukak form may constitute another variety.
3. Crucigena peotangularis (A. Br.) Gay var. catena var. n. (Plate 2)
Cells 6-7VL x 12-15u, groups of four cells usually within the
parent cell wall. The cells are slightly larger than those
described in Prescott, 1951 and agree with the maximum size
22
given for Cruoi-gena irregularis Wille in Korschikov.
There is little variation in cell size, however, and the
cells consistently form long chains in orderly rows of pair-
ed cells by the end-to-end linking of the four-cell groups.
A. Kirsoimeriella lunaris Moeb. (Plate 2)
Cells 3.5jj thick in conspicuous mucilage forming partial
rings of 7y diameter. Parent cell wall retained for a time
after division.
5. Lagerheir/ria citri-formis (Snow) G. M. Smith (Plate 2)
Cells Ap x 9.5M occurring in twos within a parent wall of
8.5y x 16y. A single pyrenoid and a single chloroplast are
present in each cell. Setae are four per cell, 2Ay long.
380
-------
Ll i . . I
Scenedesmus arcuatus 5 p
Rhodomonas minuta
Gyromitus cordiformis
Plate 1.
381
-------
5u
Tetrallcntos minor
Tetrallantos minor
KirschntritUa lunaris
10 M
Crucigcna rectangularis var catena
Lagerhtimia citriformis
Spondylosium korvum
Plate 2.
382
-------
6. Soenedesmus arauatus Lemm. (Plate 1)
Cells 2.5y to 3.6p x 5y to 6y. Usually singly or in clusters
up to eight cells with no apparent order of arrangement.
Starch granules often numerous and variable in size but may
be lacking. Pyrenoid indistinct and often difficult to see.
Desmidiales
7. Spondylos-ium korvum sp. n. (Plate 2)
Half cells are 2.5y x 10.5y with the width of the isthmus
being equal to the width of the half cell. There was consist-
ently one pyrenoid per cell. The ends of the half cells have
one or sometimes two subterminal, bluntly tapering points.
The cells were most often observed singly.
Pyrrophyta
Cryptophyceae
8. Katableptiaris ovalis Skuja (Plate 3)
These conform in size to Skuja's description but have a more
angular outline, and consistently have large, clear,
posterior food vacuoles. Also, all the specimens observed
had a small anterior extension of the cell forming a flap
over the insertion of the flagella. A small percentage of
the cells were observed to have four flagella and a more
definite nucleus.
9. Rhodomonas mi-nuta Skuja (Plate 1)
These organisms are variable in individual characteristics
such as the presence or absence of a posterior leucosin body
and the general dimensions. However, they appear to fall
into two size ranges in the ponds of Alaska's north slope.
The smaller size group is from 4y to 5.5p x 8p to 12y and
corresponds closely to Rhodomonas minuta var. nannoplanktica
Skuja. It is in this smaller size group that the leucosin
body is commonly observed. The larger group consists of a
size range of 5y to 7p x 12y to 18y and appears to be
383
-------
Kotablepharis ovahs
5u
Centri-tractus btlonophorus var itkilliku
Cyclotella comta
Cyclotella bodanic
Gymnodinium hclvtticum
Plate 3.
384
-------
limited in distribution to the Barrow area. Both forms
differ from Skuja's descriptions in the more differentiated
nature of their posterior horns, the consistently different
appearance of preserved forms, and their pigments in life.
In these forms the posterior horn appears to be extra-
cellular in nature, perhaps of a gelatinous material. In
live specimens the pigments are of a pale blue-green color.
Dinophyceae
10. Gymodinium helvetiaum Penard fa. alaskanwn fa. n. (Plate 3)
Cell 30u x 50p with a deep longitudinal furrow in the epivalve
and a shallow groove in the hypovalve. Gelatinous threads
arising from trichocysts in the hypovalve and epivalval margin
of the equatorial furrow were observed in one specimen. The
dimensions and general characteristics fit the descriptions
of Penard and Skuja with the exception of the deep epivalval
longitudinal furrow.
Chyrsophyta
Heterokontae
11. Centritractus belonophorus Lemm. var. itkillikus var. n. (Plate 3)
Cells in twos overlapping within the parent cell wall. Cells
5y x 28y, parent cell wall ca. 40p exclusive of tapering ends.
Cells with two to three pyrenoids. The ends of the cells are
dissimilar, the proximal end being tapered to a narrow tip,
the distal end being folded and thicker. Junctures of the
wall sections lie at one and possibly both ends of the cell
but are very inconspicuous. The cells were consistently
23
thinner than those described in Prescott, and differed by
their occurrence in pairs and in the inconspicuous nature of
the cell wall junctures.
Diatomeae
12. Cyolotella oomta (E.) Kg. (Plate 3)
The cells are between 5.5M and 12y in diameter with 20 to 22
385
-------
striae per lOu. Cells occur singly or in short colonies of
either closely spaced or loosely spaced cells. Cells are
often irregularly distorted in cross section.
13. Cyolotella bondan-ica Eulenst. (Plate 3)
Cells around 30p in diameter with the striae occupying 2/3
of the diameter. The striae are differentiated into two
distinct areas; the outside area consists of uniform striae
of 16 per lOp and occupies almost 1/3 of the striated area.
The inner striae arise from every other one of the outside
striae, producing a ratio of 2 inner striae to 3 outer
striae. The inner striae are much less regular than the
outer and vary in thickness and in length. The outermost
center punctae have a 1 to 1 correspondence with the tips
of the longest inner striae.
Limnological Studies in the Wood's Camp Area
Intensive studies were conducted in two lakes (designated Lake I and
Lake II, see map in Figures 25 and 26 for locations) and Nechelik
Channel, all close to Woods Camp in the western part of the Colville
River delta. These studies were done during the summers of 1971 and
1972.
Three or four separate phytoplankton samples collected at different
sites on a transect across a lake or the river were pooled to form a
60ml phytoplankton sample. These were collected either by skimming
15 to 20ml of water from the surface with a 100ml graduated cylinder
or by pouring out 15 or 20ml of water from the water sampler.
The lakes selected for this study, designated Lake I and Lake II were
small with a surface area of about 6.5 x 10 m for Lake I, and about
10.5 x 10 m for Lake II. The surrounding land is typical arctic
tundra of low relief. Lake I is located on the west bank of Nechelik
336
-------
Ul
CD
70°3Cf
HARRISON BAY
70°3O'
151*
150'
Figure 25. Wood's camp vicinity and locations of lakes I and II, Colville River delta,
Alaska.
-------
00
00
Figure 26. Aerial views of Wood's camp and riverbank at Wood's camp.
-------
Channel, 100 yards southwest of Wood's Camp. Between Lake I and the
camp site there is a trash dump, which could possibly cause enrichment
of the lake during the time of the year when there is considerable
surficial runoff. The shape of the lake is irregular and its bank is
about 0.5 to 1 foot above the water level. The maximum depth of Lake I
is 1.5m, which is very shallow compared with Lake II (3.5m) and
Nechelik Channel (8m). Lake I was frozen to the bottom in May 1972
and therefore no data is available for this month. The bottom of Lake I
is composed of black-colored mud. The odor of H S was sensed and water
was light brown during the sampling period. Lake II is located east of
Nechelik Channel opposite Wood's Camp. The lake is circular and the
bank is 1 to 3 feet above the surface of the water. During the summer
emergent rooted plants grow on the east shore of Lake II. The bottom
of the east side of Lake II is a mixture of sand and dead plants. The
bottom of the west side is sandy. The water of Lake II is clear.
Nechelik Channel is about 1000 feet wide at Wood's Camp and the deepest
area, which is closer to the west bank of the channel, is 8m. The
east bank of Nechelik Channel is about 1 foot high and the west
bank is about 5 feet high. The east side of the channel bottom is
muddy and the west is sandy. Due to erosion of the channel, the west
bank collapses when the permafrost melts during the summer. The water
of the channel is turbid and transparency is low (Table 16).
The phytoplankton counts, biological data, salinity, inorganic nutrients
and physical parameters are all listed on Tables 17 to 21. All the
figures and the correlation coefficients in this report are calculated
from mean values of the data listed in Tables 16 to 21. Physical,
chemical and biological information for the lakes and channel are also
given in Figures 27 to 37.
The two habitats sampled, the lakes and the channel, were significantly
different (Tables 17, 18 and 19). The lakes had a greater variety of
389
-------
Table 16. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL DATA - WOOD'S CAMP STUDIES
Inc. solar rad. Transp. Depth,
Station Date langley min m m
Nechelik Channel 29 July 1971 0.127 1.0 0
1.5
3.5
5.5
4 Aug. 1971 0.75 0
1.0
2.5
9 Aug. 1971 1.5 0
3.5
7.0
w 22 May 1972 1.143 3.0
o 5.0
25 May 1972 0.946 3.0
5.0
27 June 1972 0.367 0.5 0
2
6
29 June 1972 0
2
4
6
8
1 July 1972 0.120 0
2
4
6
7
Temp.
°C
11.0
11.0
11.0
11.0
7.0
8.5
7.5
7.5
-1.0
-1.0
-1.0
-1.0
9.5
9.5
9.5
10.0
10.0
11.0
10.5
10.5
10.0
10.0
Dissolved
02 ppm
11.0
10.7
10.7
10.5
12.4
12.2
12.2
11.9
4.29
7.11
11.8
11.6
11.5
11.5
11.5
12.0
11.4
11.2
11.2
11.2
PH
7.85
7.95
7.95
7.95
7.7
7.9
7.9
7.9
7.9
8.0
7.07
7.20
7.13
7.07
7.7
7.45
7.41
7.71
7.77
7.91
Total alk. Part N,
meq/i yg-N/Jl
1.34 116.2
1.35 175.2
1.33 231.4
1.75 282.0
1.56
1.57
1.64
1.50
1.62
1.68
3.95
3.45
3.45
3.44
0.33
0.74
0.76
0.749 79.1
0.760 72.9
75.9
0.793 67.8
134.1
-------
Table 16. (continued) CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL DATA - WOOD'S CAMP STUDIES
Inc. solar rad. Transp. Depth,
Station Date langley min m m
Nechelik Channel 27 July 1972 0.245 0.25 0
2
4
6
7.5
3
30 July 1972 0.095 0.25 0
2
4
6
7.5
w 29 Aug. 1972 0.095 0.20 0
^D 0
l-> *-
4
6
7.5
31 Aug. 1972 0.067 0.20 0
2
4
6
7.5
Lake I 31 July 1972 0.127 0.75 0
(center)
1
0
(shore)
Temp.
°C
9
8.5
8.5
8.5
8.5
8.5
10.5
10.2
10.2
10.1
10.1
9.0
9.0
9.0
9.0
9.0
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.7
10.0
10.0
Dissolved
02 ppm
11.8
11.6
11.5
11.4
11.4
10.9
11.4
11.2
11.2
11.1
11.1
12.0
11.8
11.8
11.7
11.7
12.2
12.2
12.0
11.9
11.8
11.5
10.8
PH
7.7
7.7
7.8
8.0
7.7
7.7
7.6
7.65
8.2
8.3
8.3
Total alk.
meq/S.
1.129
1.097
1.162
1.184
1.021
1.010
0.977
0.977
2.69
2.73
2.69
Part N,
yg-H/s.
132.9
95.5
126.0
108.2
168.2
92.9
418.1
413.7
128.3
129.3
115.9
-------
Table 16. (continued) CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL DATA - WOOD'S CAMP STUDIES
Station Date
5 Aug. 1972
Lake I 28 Aug. 1971
2 July 1972
w
>JD
NJ
28 July 1972
31 July 1972
30 Aug. 1972
1 Sept. 1972
Lake II 2 Aug. 1971
Inc. solar rad. Transp.
11 • -1
langley rain m
1.0
0.458 1.5
(bottom)
0.156 1.5
(bottom)
0.128 1.5
(bottom)
0.128 1.0
0.135 1.0
1.0
0.402 2.0
Depth,
m
0
(center)
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.9
(bottom)
0
(shore)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.0
2.5
Temp.
°C
6.0
6.0
6.0
5.5
5.0
9.0
15.0
8.5
12.0
7.0
3.5
10.0
10.0
10.0
Dissolved
02 ppm
12.0
12.0
12.0
1.8
0.8
11.3
11.8
10.8
11.9
12.5
11.2
10.8
10.7
PH
8.15
8.10
8.20
7.91
8.19
8.23
8.20
8.15
8.10
7.40
7.35
7.35
Total alk. Part N,
meq/£ Mg-N/£
2.78
2.79
2.77 128.6
1.69 142.2
1.85
2.90 149.6
2.85
3.160 239.6
3.160
0.67
0.67
0.68
-------
Table 16. (continued) CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL DATA - WOOD'S CAMP STUDIES
Inc. solar rad. Transp.
Station Date langley min~ m
8 Aug. 1971 2.0
(Site I)
2.25
(Site II)
2.25
(Site III)
W
s
21 May 1972 0.333
Lake II 26 May 1972 0.944
28 June 1972 0.458 2.5
(bottom)
2 July 1972 0.156 2.5
(bottom)
28 July 1972 0.128 2.5
(bottom)
Depth,
m
0
1
2
0
1.0
2.5
0
1
2
3
2.0
2.5
2.0
0
0.5
0
0.75
Temp.
°C
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
0.0
2.0
2.0
11.0
10.5
9.0
8.5
Dissolved
0 ppm pU
12.2
12.1
12.1
12.3
12.3
12.3
12.3 7.4
12.3
12.4 7.4
12.4 7.15
0.28 7.0
0.31 7.1
6.6
7.16
11.0 7.69
10.7
11.5 7.65
11.0
Total alk. Part N,
meq/A yg-N/£
0.71 63.18
0.70
0.67
1.357 148.4
1.032 176.3
1.499 103.5
0.434 73.8
0.424
0.619 105.1
-------
Table 16. (continued) CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL DATA - WOOD'S CAMP STUDIES
Station Date
1 Aug. 1972
30 Aug. 1972
1 Sept. 1972
Inc. solar rad
langley min
0.261
0.135
Transp.
m
2.5
(bottom)
2.5
(bottom)
2.5
(bottom)
Depth,
m
0
0
0
Temp.
°C
10.0
6.0
4.0
Dissolved
02 ppm
11.3
11.4
11.9
PH
7.75
7.50
7.40
Total alk. Part N,
meq/H Ug-N/Ji
0.630
.0.630 84.5
0.630
-------
TABLE 17. SELECTED COUNTS OF MAJOR PHYTOPLANKTON SPECIES FOR LAKE I, COLVILLE RIVER DELTA
Bactllarlophyceae
Hitzechia closterium
Nitzschia spp.
Mavicula spp.
Tabellaria fenestrata
v. aa terionelloides
Diatoma elongatun
Cyclotella glomerata
Amphiprora gigantea
Chaetoceros spp.
Cocconeis spp.
Cyanophyta
Merismopedia glanea
1971
31 July 1971
Mix (0,1)
342. a;*
91. Ob
177.7
13.1
5.6
7.3
88.5
38.9
2.4
0.3
2.4
0.8
0.4
2.4
7.3
0.5
1024.9
4.5
978.8
3.0
5 Aug. 1971
Mix (0,1)
259.9
320.8
67.9
8.7
4.0
1.0
49.3
10.2
1.6
0.2
5.7
0.5
15.4
1.3
6.1
212.0
32.3
2.7
619.7
6.8
595.8
6.1
1972
28 June 1972
Om
9404.7
1090.7
8142.3
1073.3
1262.4
17.4
2 July 1972
Om
1167.8
112.0
725.9
95.7
252.5
5.2
28 July 1972
Om
2036.6
546.6
50.5
2.8
50.5
2.1
942.6
463.9
959.4
24.9
31 July 1972
Om
1161.3
343.6
25.3
1.7
1085.6
141.1
30 Aug. 1972
Om
429.1
193.6
126.2
139.4
277.7
30.7
580.7
5.2
303.0
1.3
1 Sept. 1972
Om
353.6
162.3
25.3
1.4
101.0
4.5
151.5
64.0
50.5
17.8
25.3
74.7
1868.4
32.9
1413.9
5.9
Co
cells (thousands/liter)
blomass (y /liter)
-------
TABLE 17. (continued) SELECTED COUNTS OF MAJOR PHYTOPLANKTON SPECIES FOR LAKE I, COLVILLE RIVER DELTA
Lyngbya limnetica
Chlorophyta
Ankistrodemus falcatus
v. spirilliformis
v. mirabilis
Oocystis submarine
v. variabilis
Chlorella spp.
Chlamydomonas spp.
Kirchneriella obesa
Dictyosphaorium simplex
Salenastrum bibraianum
Chrysophyta
Dinobryon petiolatum
1971
31 July 1971
Mix (0,1)
46. 1*
1.?
5.7
0.2
3.6
1.9
5 Aug. 1971
Mix (0,1)
17.4
0.6
81.2
11.3
52.1
0.6
7.3
0.4
2.0
0.2
16.2
0.4
1447.9
26.4
1972
28 June 1972
Om
63.1
4.0
63.1
4.0
13696.7
139.3
2 July 1972
Om
126.3
18.7
31.6
0.3
63.1
0.5
4323.6
90.5
189.4
27.9
28 July 1972
Om
302.9
35.6
84.2
1.0
134.6
11.4
50.5
20.9
10073.7
133.0
31 July 1972
Om
454.5
23.5
101.0
1.1
101.0
1.9
151.1
16.7
101.0
3.8
27873.2
320.5
30 Aug. 1972
Om
100408.8
969.6
25.3
2.7
328.2
2.2
353.5
39.0
101.0
4.2
101.0
5.6
99474.7
915.4
111012.7
2043.9
1 Sept. 1972
Om
50.5
0.5
6738.5
651.5
227.2
4.5
126.2
3.4
66905.5
615.7
126.2
27.8
92228.7
1819.9
U)
cells (thousands/liter)
bbiomass (u /liter)
-------
TABLE 17. (continued) SELECTED COUNTS OF MAJOR PHYTOPLANKTON SPECIES FOR LAKE I, COLVILLE RIVER DELTA
D. sertularia
D. spp.
Chromulina spp.
Chrysococeus spp.
Ochromonas spp.
Cryptophyta
Rhodomonas minuta
Cryptomonas spp.
Flagellates
Unidentified cells
Total
1971
31 July 1971
Mix (0,1)
4.8
0.8
1381.8
98.3
5 Aug. 1971
Mix (0,1)
4'4b
0.5b
1440.7
24.8
2.8
1.1
42.8
7.1
21.8
4.2
17.7
1.0
32.4
12.9
2502.4
386.9
1972
28 June 1972
Om
378.7
13.9
13128.6
120.8
189.4
4.6
2524.7
371.8
2524.7
371.8
2714.1
229.7
28403.3
1835.6
2 July 1972
Om
4008.0
61.9
126.2
0.8
852.1
230.4
789.0
116.2
63.1
114.2
189.3
10.4
6659.1
462.0
28 July 1972
Om
101.0
2.4
723.8
217.0
690.1
156.1
33.7
60.9
151.5
13.6
4174.3
203.5
17462.8
1149.1
31 July 1972
Om
303.0
1.3
303.0
22.3
631.2
6.9
1085.6
293.4
908.9
205.6
176.7
87.8
176.7
13.9
6008.9
55.3
36760.2
1050.3
30 Aug. 1972
Om
50.5
0.9
252.5
83.7
1136.2
221.2
454.4
193.3
214021.9
3651.0
1 Sept. 1972
Om
50.5
5.2
732.2
126.9
580.7
64.1
151.5
62.7
25.3
0.7
151.5
11.2
162770.1
2809.3
VO
cells (thousands/liter)
biomass (y /liter)
-------
TABLE 18. SELECTED COUNTS OF MAJOR PHYTOPLANKTON SPECIES FOR LAKE II, COLVILLE RIVER DELTA
Bacillariophyceae
Nitzschia closterlum
Nitzschia spp.
Navicula spp.
Tabellaria fenstrata
v. as terionelloides
Diatoma elongatun
Cyclotella glomerata
Amphlprora gigantea
Chaetoceros spp.
Cyanophyta
Merismopedia glanca
Lyngbya limnetica
Chlorophyta
1971
2 Aug.
Om 2 . 5m
597. 4;*
68. 3b
3.2
6.1
477.5
41.8
12.5
0.4
12.5
0.4
1758.2
254.8
180.3
23.0
1239.8
108.5
180.3
5.8
180.3
5.8
8 Aug.
Om 3m
393.3
41.7
85.6
13.1
5.7
2.5
264.1
23.1
83.2
0.4
9.7
0.3
246.3
2.1
1803.4
636.7
144.3
22.1
288.5
59.5
1100.1
375.3
144.3
4.7
144.3
4.7
306.6
1.3
6 Nov.
Om Bottom
(ice) (ice)
15.8
1.7
1972
21 May
Mix (1.5,2)
117.7
194.4
16.8
1.1
16.8
4.2
33.7
1.1
33.7
1.1
28 June
Om
555.4
73.2
555.4
73.2
33.7
1.1
33.7
1.1
100.9
8.6
2 July
Om
454.5
270.0
336.6
68.5
50.5
2.2
28 July
Om
168.3
22.1
16.8
2.8
84.2
14.8
67.3
4.6
1 Aug.
Om
101.0
9.7
33.7
2.3
16.8
3.4
33.7
3.5
101.0
10.2
30 Aug.
Om
84.2
1.9
1 Sept.
Om
25.3
24.1
25.3
24.1
bJ
\£>
03
cells (thousands/liter)
bbiomass (p3/liter)
-------
TABLE 18. (continued) SELECTED COUNTS OF MAJOR PHYTOPLANKTON SPECIES FOR LAKE II, COLVILLE RIVER DELTA
Ankistrodemus falcatus
Chlorella spp.
Chlamydomonas spp.
Chrysophyta
Dinobryon petiolatum
D. sertularia
Chromulina spp.
Chrysococcus spp.
Ochromonas spp.
Peudokephyrion spp.
Cryptophyta
Rhodotnonas minuta
1971
,2 Aug.
Om 2 . 5m
12.9
0.5
1.6
0.04
11.3
0.4
219.8
39.5
1258.0
25.1
1149.7
13.5
135.3
11.5
225.4
84.2
157.8
13.4
8 Aug.
Om 3m
1881.1
159.1
1745.4
143.9
96.9
13.3
238.3
106.4
107.4
6.6
2218.2
234.2
1731.3
142.7
396.7
90.9
234.4
78.2
108.2
16.5
6 Nov.
Om Bottom
(ice) (ice)
15.8
2.3
15.8
2.3
284.0
71.4
236.7
34.9
1972
21 May
Mix (1.5,2)
151.5
11.1
50.5
3.6
101.0
7.5
858.4
87.7
28 June
Om
a
16.8
0.2b
84.1
488.1
12.0
437.6
6.2
16.8
1.2
33.7
4.6
218.8
32.3
2 July
Om
50.5
134.6
20.0
117.8
7.6
16.8
12.4
185.1
31.8
168.3
24.8
28 July
Om
101.0
12618.9
405.5
1430.7
96.6
151.5
4.2
757.4
198.0
740.6
167.5
1 Aug.
Om
84.2
10493.3
330.7
1211.9
77.5
336.6
6.2
538.6
121.8
30 Aug.
Om
4780.2
7.5
33.7
3.7
101.0
7.4
33.7
3.7
589.1
24.7
521.8
14.8
1 Sept.
Om
25550.4
239.0
12.6
1.9
25499.9
234.7
37.9
2.5
883.7
57.7
cells (thousands/liter)
biomass (y /liter)
-------
TABLE 18. (continued) SELECTED COUNTS OF MAJOR PHYTOPLANKTON SPECIES FOR LAKE II, COLVILLE RIVER DELTA
Cryptomonas spp.
Flagellates
Unidentified cells
Total
1971
2 Aug.
Om 2 . 5m
6.4
3.3
16.0
22.9
865.0
134.8
67.6*
70. 8b
338.2
7.4
586.1
183.5
4373.2
560.8
8 Aug.
Om 3m
130.8
99.9
12.9
1.3
516.1
187.6
3371.1
498.6
126.2
61.7
2145.9
410.7
6582.9
1365.8
6 Nov.
Om Bottom
(ice) (ice)
47.3
36.5
47.4
45.1
347.2
118.8
15.8
5.2
6.9
31.6
1972
21 May
Mix (1.5,2)
286.1
36.6
1464.2
341.7
28 June
Om
117.8
5.6
639.6
150.3
2036.5
371.5
2 July
Om
16.8
7.0
235.6
43.1
488.1
110.9
1845.4
478.0
28 July
Om
16.8
30.5
16.8
1.8
101.0
0.9
13662.4
628.4
1 Aug.
Om
101.0
27.0
1582.2
338.0
12917.1
837.4
30 Aug.
Om
67.3
9.9
67.3
11.6
1767.3
212.1
7304.9
328.1
1 Sept.
Om
37.9
6.6
1350.7
335.6
27848.0
663.1
o
o
cells (thousands/liter)
biomass (y /liter)
-------
TABLE 19. CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS BETWEEN PHYTOPLANKTON BIOMASS, BIOLOGICAL, CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PARAMETERS.
(no. of stations = 3, degree of freedom = 14.)
Parameter
Total phytoplankton
biomass
Bacillariophyceae
biomass
Cyanophyta biomass
Chlorophyta biomass
Chrysophyta bioraass
Cryptophyta biomass
Flagellates biomass
14
C primary
productivity
Chlorophyll-a
0.7443
0.064
0.7893
0.786a
0.7833
0.222
-0.144
0.348
14
C primary
productivity
0.576b
0.6993
0.248
0.313
0.378
0.759a
0.306
Silicate-Si
-0.474
-0.431
-0.269
-0.218
-0.311
-0.555b
-0.354
-0.546b
Phosphate-P
-0.281
-0.291
-0.105
-0.073
-0.159
-0.356
-0.230
-0.340
Ammonia -N
-0.055
0.313
-0.051
-0.095
-0.148
0.178
0.362
-0.167
Nitrate-N
-0.243
-0.236
-0.144
-0.107
-0.158
-0.235
-0.068
-0.333
Incoming
solar radiation
-0.259
-0.183
-0.197
-0.177
-0.218
-0.133
-0.022
-0.403
Water
temperature
-0.029
0.160
-0.151
-0.143
-0.100
0.124
0.129
0.352
>0.497 significant at 5% level (from Snedecor 1967).
b>0.623 significant at 1% level.
-------
TABLE 20. PHYTOPLANKTON NUMBERS AND CARBON AND NITROGEN DYNAMICS IN FRESHWATER ENVIRONMENTS
Location
Nechelic
Channel
Date
29 July 1971
4 Aug. 1971
9 Aug. 1971
22 May 1972
25 May 1972
27 June 1972
1 July 1972
27 July 1972
30 July 1972
Depth
IL
0
1.5
3.5
5.0
0
1.0
2.5
0
3.5
7.0
3
5
3
5
0
2
6
0
2
6
0
6
0
6
Total phytoplankton
103/1 m3/l
469.4
235.4
972.6
303.0
437.7
387.1
572.4
206.6
227.1
706.8
1148.7
152.7
220.4
316.1
171.8
16.8
77.1
87.5
59.7
72.1
166.7
1686.1
Chlorophylls
mg/m3
a b c
2.22
4.06
4.26
6.23
1.44
2.69
2.25
1.13
2.24
2.88
0.12
0.06
0.12
0.08
0.30
0.10
0.19
0.25
0.40
0.36
0.32
0.15
0.13
1.43
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.15
0.05
0.14
0.09
0.33
0
0.23
0
0
0.09
0.05
0.18
0.15
0.14
0.94
1.43
1.04
2.08
0.64
1.36
0.93
0.46
1.14
1.00
0.41
0.54
0.40
0.25
1.43
0.42
0.64
0.60
0.66
0.95
1.27
0.51
0.43
1.06
14
C primary
productivity
pg C/l-hr
4.24
5.13
7.00
0
0
0
0
1.32
2.03
1.88
3.14
3.32
2.97
1.15
0.78
2.85
7.21
15N uptake
pg N/l-hr
N03 NH4
0.05
0.12
0.07
0.03
0.03
0.00
0.02
0.07
0.00
0.30
0.23
0.28
0.11
0.10
NH, supply
pg at/l-hr
0.37
0.56
0.00
Turnover time
for NH4+, hrs
34.1
3.4
—
-------
TABLE 20. (continued) PHYTOPLANKTON NUMBERS AND CARBON AND NITROGEN DYNAMICS IN FRESHWATER ENVIRONMENTS
Location
Nechelik
Channel
Lake I
Date
29 Aug. 1972
31 Aug. 1972
31 July 1971
5 Aug. 1971
28 June 1972
2 July 1972
28 July 1972
31 July 1972
30 Aug. 1972
1 Sept. 1972
Depth
m
0
6
0
6
0
(center)
1
0
(shore)
0
(center)
1
0
(shore)
0
0
0
0
0
0
Total phy toplankton
103/1 m3/!
140.2
189.2
189.4
126.2
1381.8
2502.4
28403.3
6659.1
17462.8
36760.2
214021.9
162770 1
105.1
99.2
57.2
100.6
98.3
386.9
1835.6
462.0
1149.1
1050.3
3651.0
2809.3
Chlorophylls
rag/m3
ate
0.67
0.41
0.74
0.69
1.08
4.70
1.56
1.12
8.44
0.96
0.89
0.43
0.92
0.90
3.14
3.13
0.43
0.48
0.85
0.63
0
0
0
0.06
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.13
0.09
2.44
1.36
2.87
2.41
0.48
1.48
0.59
0.70
2.98
0.43
0.36
0.33
0.90
0.40
1.25
1.80
14
C primary
productivity
Ug C/l-hr
0.18
0.17
0.17
0.23
3.70
5.05
2.14
3.63
9.04
3.60
9.65
16.26
8.95
4.48
N uptake
pg N/l-hr
N03- NH4+
0.06
0.50
0.13
0.11
0.09
0.08
0.00
0.01
0.06
0.08
0.27
0.01
0.02
0.08
0.01
0.38
0.66
0.67
NH, supply
yg at/l-hr
0.45
0.00
1.62
1.45
Turnover time
for NH4+, hrs
1.3
—
2.1
1.3
o
U)
-------
TABLE 20. (continued) PHYTOPLANKTON NUMBERS AND CARBON AND NITROGEN DYNAMICS IN FRESHWATER ENVIRONMENTS
Location
Lake II
Date
2 Aug. 1971
8 Aug. 1971
21 May 1972
26 May 1972
28 June 1972
2 July 1972
28 July 1972
1 Aug. 1972
30 Aug. 1972
1 Sept. 1972
Depth
m
0
1.0
2.5
0
(Site II)
2
3
1.5
2.0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
Total phytoplankton
103/1 m3/!
1145.2
4373.2
3371.1
6582.9
1464.2
2036.5
1845.4
13662.4
12917.1
7304.9
27848.0
348.6
560.8
498.6
1365.8
341.1
371.5
478.0
628.4
837.4
328.1
663.1
Chlorophylls
mg/m3
a b c
1.94
1.89
6.50
1.74
1.58
11.42
0.73
1.09
0.22
0.42
0.28
0.38
0.61
1.22
1.32
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.25
0.38
0.02
0.01
0
0.07
0.09
0.13
0.25
0.63
0.77
2.28
0.73
0.75
3.26
0.98
1.47
0.17
0.24
0.35
0.69
0.52
1.59
1.93
14
C primary
productivity
Ug C/I-hr
2.05
1.60
2.51
2.55
7.35
0.50
0.94
0.01
1.88
1.95
2.72
4.13
2.46
0.97
N uptake
pg N/l-hr
N03- NH4
0.15
0.17
0.25
0.13
0.00
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.02
0.06
0.02
0.03
0.25
0.33
0.32
NH, supply
Ug at/l-hr
0.98
0.42
0.36
0.02
Turnover time
for NH, , hrs
9.0
8.6
0.8
16.0
-------
TABLE 21. SALINITY AND INORGANIC NUTRIENT DATA
Station
Nechelik Channel
Date
30 June 1971
29 July 1971
4 Aug. 1971
9 Aug. 1971
23 Aug. 1971
5 Nov. 1971
15 May 1972
22 May 1972
Depth
m
0
0
1.5
3.5
5.0
0
1
1.5
0
3.5
7.0
0
3
4.5
0
2
4
6
7
1.8
4.0
6.0
7.0
3
5
Salinity
0 /
/ 0 0
-
3.45
9.92
12.04
-
9.93
9.99
10.48
6.14
9.38
10.09
6.33
6.17
9.26
17.16
20.55
24.14
24.52
24.65
36.23
39.22
41.40
40.95
36.23
35.71
Silicate-Si
Ug at/1
21.4
21.0
12.7
10.1
6.3
13.8
13.8
13.1
19.6
15.6
15.6
17.9
17.7
14.8
16.2
10.6
6.7
6.7
6.0
45.5
35.4
30.6
43.0
45.0
28.8
Phosphate-P
Ug at/1
0.08
0.04
0.56
0.08
0.04
0.07
0.07
0.08
0.18
0.07
0.09
0.15
0.15
0.11
0.11
0.34
0.15
0.19
0.19
0.30
0.35
0.47
0.31
0.32
0.42
Ammonia-N
Ug at/1
6.5
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.5
0.7
0.7
5.3
3.3
1.3
1.5
1.7
11.6
13.6
15.5
19.4
12.6
16.6
Nitrate-Na
VK at/1
4.3
1.3
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.3
0.2
0.3
0.8
0.4
0.5
1.0
1.1
0.6
-
30.5
18.7
16.7
22.4
29.8
15.4
Nitrite-N
US at/1
0.18
0.11
0.07
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.06
0.11
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.14
0.15
-
1.03
0.93
1.00
1.05
0.89
0.84
where nitrite is not reported, nitrate value = nitrate + nitrite
-------
TABLE 21. (continued) SALINITY AND INORGANIC NUTRIENT DATA
Station
Nechelik Channel
Date
27 June 1972
1 July 1972
27 July 1972
30 July 1972
29 Aug. 1972
31 Aug. 1972
Depth
m
0
2
4
6
7.5
0
2
4
6
7
0
2
4
6
7.5
0
2
4
6
7.5
0
2
4
6
7.5
0
2
4
6
7.5
Salinity
0 /
/ 0 0
_
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
—
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Silicate-Si
Ug at/1
36.5
36.3
36.6
36.5
36.0
38.8
38.0
38.7
38.8
38.1
47.5
23.8
27.0
35.8
45.0
43.7
37.8
45.8
38.7
30.4
69.2
73.7
73.6
73.0
74.5
57.2
53.1
56.0
57.1
57.6
Phosphate-P
yg at/1
0.18
0.10
0.20
0.20
0.32
0.16
0.29
0.21
0.24
0.18
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.18
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.02
0.04
0.03
0.04
0.04
0.08
0.11
0.06
0.10
0.06
Ammonia-N
US at/1
0.9
1.8
1.5
1.0
1.0
1.9
1.6
2.2
0.8
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.0
1.0
1.1
0.9
7.3
0.6
0.6
1.1
1.1
1.3
-
1.0
1.0
1.1
1.4
Nitrate-Na
yg at/i
3.25
2.90
3.15
3.23
3.30
2.84
3.00
2.86
2.76
2.84
5.84
5.36
5.28
5.32
4.80
4.84
5.32
5.86
4.12
2.6-2
3.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
2.54
2.56
2.56
2.56
2.80
Nitrite-N
yg at/i
_
_
-
-
_
-
-
-
-
_
_
-
-
-
_
-
-
-
-
_
-
-
-
-
_
-
_
-
-
o
cr-
where nitrite is not reported, nitrate value = nitrate + nitrite.
-------
TABLE 21. (continued) SALINITY AND INORGANIC NUTRIENT DATA
Station
Lake I
Lake II
Date
30 April 1971
31 July 1971
5 Aug. 1971
28 June 1972
2 July 1972
28 July 1972
31 July 1972
30 Aug. 1972
1 Sept. 1972
30 April 1971
2 Aug. 1971
Depth
m
2.1
0
(shore)
0
(center)
1
(center)
0
(shore)
0
(center)
1
(center)
0
0
0
0
0
0
2.1
0
1
2.5
Salinity
°/00
4.99
9.91
10.10
10.06
10.27
8.10
10.16
-
-
-
-
-
-
29.64
1.33
1.85
1.99
Silicate-Si
yg at/1
30.0
1.5
1.5
1.2
1.0
1.2
1.0
0.3
0.0
0.5
1.5
3.5
2.6
44.5
8.1
0.0
0.2
Phosphate-P
yg at/1
0.15
0.04
0.04
0.06
0.03
0.07
0.04
0.03
0.04
0.03
0.04
0.04
0.07
0.39
0.01
0.00
0.00
Ammonia— N
yg at/i
23.4
5.0
4.5
3.8
4.4
4.8
4.7
14.4
5.0
3.4
0.6
1.9
2.2
24.0
0.4
0.5
0.4
Nitrate-Na
yg at/i
4.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.0
4.8
2.3
0.1
0.1
0.8
0.9
10.9
0.0
0.0
0.0
Nitrite-N
yg at/i
0.27
0.03
0.05
0.07
0.10
0.12
0.12
-
-
-
-
-
-
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.00
where nitrite is not reported, nitrate value = nitrate + nitrite.
-------
TABLE 21. (continued) SALINITY AND INORGANIC NUTRIENT DATA
Station
Lake II
Date
8 Aug. 1971
6 Nov. 1971
12 April 1972
21 May 1972
26 May 1972
28 June 1972
2 July 1972
28 July 1972
1 Aug. 1972
30 Aug. 1972
1 Sept. 1972
Depth
m
0
1.5
3.0
0
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.0
1.5
2.0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Salinity
loo
1.22
1.90
1.94
2.26
2.22
2.23
2.23
4.23
3.42
4.37
-
-
-
-
-
-
Silicate-Si
yg at/1
_
-
0.0
0.7
0.7
0.5
0.7
20.0
21.6
26.9
4.3
2.8
2.8
2.2
1.5
1.5
Phosphate-P
yg at/1
_
-
0.0
0.15
0.07
0.08
0.06
0.20
0.10
0.10
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.00
0.00
0.00
Ammonia-N
yg at/i
0.2
0.2
0.5
4.3
3.0
2.8
3.3
4.7
8.8
12.5
3.6
1.5
0.3
0.1
0.3
0.5
Nitrate-Na
yg at/1
0.0
0.0
0.0
_
-
-
-
17.2
3.6
3.1
0.4
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Nitrite-N
yg at/i
0.02
0.02
0.05
_
_
-
-
0.14
0.31
0.22
-
-
-
-
-
-
o
-------
WATER TEMPERATURE, °C
.C-
c
1
-g >
-ro ro
Doi ro
-j
o2 S
-c •<
ro
^^1
c_ c_
c: c
r ^
-< rn
i
OJ ro
O -J
C- C_
c c
r~ ^.
-< m
i
OJ no
c: c
, 0 O
1
•o <
"
^ ro -^ CD oo o
1 1 I
i :
1 |
INCOMING SOLAR RADIATION,
longley min"1
p P p p
o ro i» b>
Figure 27. Water temperature and incoming radiation, Nechelik (West) Channel, Colville
River delta.
-------
C_ C_
OJ N>
— CD
c- c-
C C
o
V) >
me
_i i
ro
WATER TEMPERATURE,°C
4* oo O
ro
O
b
INCOMING SOLAR RADIATION,
longley min"'
p p 9
ro i» o>
Figure 28. Water temperature and incoming radiation, Lake I.
-------
»
ro
ro
-< m
i
ro
— CD
>c_
CC
OJ
o
o
fNJ
WATER TEMPERATURE ,°C
ro
INCOMING SOLAR RADIATION,
langley mln"1
p p o P
o ro "-*>• en
i I
Figure 29. Water temperature and incoming radiation, Lake II.
-------
P
b
£ 31 JULY-
-si 5 AUG
ro
28 JUNE-
2 JULY
28 JULY-
31 JULY
30 AUG
I SEPT-
SILICATE-SI,
ng-at/liter
ro
b
PHOSPHATE-P,
Kg-at/liter
CD
b
o
o
o
ro
AMMONIA - N,
\IQ- at/liter
p
b
PO
b
o
b
NITRATE- N,
JQ- at/liter
ro
b
Figure 30. Nutrient concentrations, Nechelik (West) Channel, Colville River delta.
-------
p
b
3 4 AUG
. 522 MAY -
M -M 25 MAY
uj po
27JUNE-
I JULY
27JULY
30u'ULY
29 AUG
31 AUG
SILICATE- SI,
ug-at/liter
ro
O
O
b
a>
p
b
CD
OJ
PHOSPHATE-P,
ug-at/liter
p
fv>
p
b
AMMONIA -l^,
ug-at/liter
NITRATE-N,
ug-at/liter
r° *
b b
P
b
Figure 31. Nutrient concentrations, Lake I.
-------
0
b
to 2 AUG -
-^ 8 AUG
*o 21 MAY
^ 26 MAY
28 JUNE- i'
2 JULY
28 JULY -
I AUG
30 AUG-
I SEPT
SILICATE-SI,
H.g-at/liter
PHOSPHATE-P,
ng-at/liter
ro
0
o
°>
o
b
o
00
N>
OJ
b
IV
p
o
AMMONIA- N,
u.g- at/liter
p
b
O
b
NITRATE-N,
ug-at/liter
o
o
Figure 32. Nutrient concentrations, Lake II.
-------
Ln
ESENTS EACH DIVISION REPRESENTS
OMASS 10% OF TOTAL CELL NUMBER
CC OQ
a.
UJ —1
^ h-
z °
CO LL
> 0
o Q
UJ
•£r- "£
1 ' f'
s * f^
* - j-
JL-,v*
1
f^,
" ^ ^
xx?/
xxx/
i
•• ^ Ss
•'- '-'-^
rj^X
"^
•*"j'\"-
£'-
w-V
—
—
—
A
" , V ".
"• •"•• V
^•-^
'.\\'>
1
|
^
. ^ >"\ ^
v\\ ^
1^
^-:
Vv .>
—
4AUG 22 MAY- 27 JUNE- 27 JULY- 29 AUG
1971 25 MAY JULY 30JULY 31 AUG
I07P .. »-
B
C
C
C
C
F
U
^
ACILLARIOPHYCEAE
Y- ' jV'''
r i7"£i!
MLOR
OPHYTA
HRYSOPHYTA
^
RYPTOPHYTA
a'.'-V-i
^ri:
YANOPHYTA
Pi
LAGELLATES
NIUE
MTIFIED
Figure 33. Phytoplankton composition in terms of cell numbers
and biomass, Lake I.
-------
EACH DIVISION REPRESENTS
0% OF TOTAL CELL NUMBER
—
—
i
ryr^
Tr-.'l'^i
•'.t'-*1.-''
'-" .. N \\
• >" *. i r*.
^ '^-O
11
III
* "l ^J * ^.
^x, X^
•"li'M1^
—
—
—
B
C
C
C
C
F
;CM^
•>MVN
ACILLARIOPHYCEAE
ry/jt.^
••", .•- *. ;••
O""1**"/ , 'j^.
HLOROPHYTA
HRYSOPHYTA
W/^
RYPTOPHYTA
t •>••>'
*> : A.:
YANG
^
PHYTA
LAGELLATES
lij O
tr 03
a.
u -J
CO u.
> o
LJ
31 JULY-
5 AUG
1971
^
/-r^.-
UNIDENTIFIED
28 JUNE-
2 JULY
1972 —
28 JULY-
31 JULY
30 AUG-
I SEPT
Pigure 34. Phytoplankton composition in terms of cell numbers
and biomass, Lake II.
416
-------
I4C PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY,
ug- C/liter-hr
P p ;£» en p
o b b b b
2 AUG -
8 AUG
21 MAY -
26 MAY
28 JUNE-
2 JULY
28 JULY-
I AUG
30 AUG -
I SEPT
CHLOROPHYLL,
mg/m3
o
ro
b
TOTAL PHYTOPLANKTON CELL NUMBER,
number/liter
O en
Y77//A
y////////.
O
oo
O
CD
O
to
O_
O
TOTAL PHYTOPLANKTON BIOM.ASS,
uVliter
Figure 35. Primary productivity and related data for Nechilik (West) Channel, Colville River delta
-------
I4C PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY,
Ug-C/liter-hr
00
CHLOROPHYLL,
mg/m
TOTAL PHYTOPLANKTON CELL NUMBER,
number/liter
(
<
^ 31 JULY -
^ 5 AUG
.0 28 JUNE -
3 2 JULY
28 JULY -
3! JULY
30 AUG -
1 SEPT
3 ro ^ o
3 'o b b
1 1 1
Fu
v \ °
•• -•" 'W^T?*
\\ :
\v
1 i 1
<
\
3 — K> O
D b b t
1
OJ
\\ •*>
\V :
\\...
\\
1
5<
5 0 O
o> -J a
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1
/////_
1 —
CT\
CO
__f_mn_ ! \ Vj,,,,
'//////7777/////A '"
1 1 1 i i i I M
o
03
O
(O
TOTAL PHYTOPLANKTON BIOMASS ,
jo,3/liter
Figure 36. Primary productivity and related data for Lake I, Colville River delta.
-------
C PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY,
ug-C/liter-hr
CHLOROPHYLL,
mg/m3
TOTAL PHYTOPLANKTON CELL NUMBER,
number/liter
c
c
5
5 22 MAY -
•g 25 MAY
•o
27 JUNE -
1 JULY
27 JULY -
30 JULY
29 AUG -
31 AUG
:>
D
*
•
:
b
1
|
b
1
I
a
c
•>
>
o
b
ii
'
b
1
1
ro c
b c
1
|
*i
D
O 0 C
m o>
1 1 1 1 1 Ml) 1 1 1 1 1 III
]
y//y///y/////y/
OJ
____ ro
-
i 1
y/////////
" i
~1
V////////X
1 1 1 I 1 I! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 II
o
CD
ZIZ3 TOTAL PHYTOPLANKTON BIOMASS,
, /liter
Figure 37. Primary productivity and related data for Lake II, Colville River delta.
-------
phytoplankton and also larger populations, often an order of magnitude
higher than the channel.
In general, Bacillariophyceae (diatoms) were the most numerous fraction
in the river. Nitssahia spp., Navicula spp., and Tabellaria fenestrata
V. asterionelloi-des composed the majority of the diatoms. The phyto-
plankton concentration in the surface and deep water samples of Nechelik
Channel were similar, except on 9 August 1971, when the phytoplankton
concentration of deep samples was much smaller than the surface. This
condition was reversed on 30 July 1972.
The lakes had a greater number of phytoplankton species. The most
abundant phytoplankton populations were usually some combination of
diatoms, Chrysophytes, and Cryptophytes. Tdbetlenria fenestrata v.
asterionelloideSj ChTomut-ina spp. Rhodomonas mi-nuta and Cpyptomonas
spp. were commonly found. Cyanophytes were usually observed in the
lakes in late summer, but hardly seen in the channel (Tables 17, 18 and
19). In general, most phytoplankton identified in the channel were
present in the lakes. Usually only surface samples were collected from
the lakes, except on 2 August and 8 August 1971 at Lake II. The data
collected from these two days showed the phytoplankton populations in
the surface samples were smaller than the deep samples (Table 18).
Correlation coefficients between phytoplankton biomass, and biological,
chemical, physical parameters are listed in Table 20. The total
phytoplankton bioraass has a significant correlation coefficient with
chlorophyll a (0.744, at 1% level) and with primary productivity (0.576,
at 5% level).
Chlorophyll a values range from 0.06 to 11.42ug/l, chlorophyll b values
range from 0 to 0.85 and chlorophyll o values range from 0.17 to
3.26 (Table 21). The average concentrations of chlorophyll a in
420
-------
Nechelik Channel were generally lower than in the lakes.
Primary productivity rates in Nechelik Channel and Lake I, Lake II
during the summer of 1971 and 1972 may give an indication of the
productivity levels of the summer season. These range from 0 to
16.26pg-C/l-hr (Table 21). The highest average value of primary
productivity was observed in Lake I. The primary productivity of
Nechelik Channel is usually lower than the lakes (Figs. 35, 36 and
37).
Ammonia uptake in Nechelik Channel was more important than nitrate.
In 1971 the nitrate uptake in the lakes was more important, while
in 1972 ammonia was more important. The turnover times for NH.-N
+ 24
were estimated by means of the NH.-N supply rate using the formula :
NH.-N cone, present (pg-atoms/1)
Turnover time (in hours) =
NH.-N supply rate (ug-atoms/1-hr)
The turnover times for NH.-N were less than 24 hours during the summer,
with a range between 0.8 to 16 hours. Ammonia turnover times are only
valid if no significant change in the ammonia concentration in the
24
water occurs. The ammonia concentrations were appreciably fluctuating
during the sampling period, but during the summer they were relatively
constant (Figs. 30, 31 and 32). Therefore, the ammonia turnover times
were reasonable estimated values.
Nitrogen fixation was not detectable in any of the samples of the
summer of 1971 and 1972. Phytoplankton enumerations indicated the
reason. Nitrogen-fixing blue-green algae were not found in the two
lakes or the channel (Tables 13, 19 and 20).
The salinity of the channel under the ice was high in May (between
35.72 to 41.40 °/0o). In summer, it was between 3.456 to 24.66 °/
o
o o <
421
-------
Since the phytoplankton were exposed to a drastic change in salinity in
moving down the channel, this may be the major factor causing reduction
of phytoplankton population. The salinity of the lakes, which ranged
from 1.23 °/oo to 29.64 °/oo (Table 21), is higher than that of the
30
average fresh water lake. The high salinity was probably due to the
flooding of the lower delta during the spring and fall of 1970. This
brought in coastal water of a higher salinity to the lakes.
Nechelik Channel had relatively high silicate, phosphate and nitrate
concentrations, but ammonia concentrations were generally higher in the
lakes than in the channel (Fig. 30 and Table 21). It appears that
inorganic nutrients are not limiting factors for phytoplankton popula-
tions in the channel, but silicate and phosphate may be the limiting
factors in the lakes. Inorganic nutrients were negatively correlated
with total phytoplankton biomass, but they were not significant (Table
20). It may be too little information was obtained for a valid
interpretation.
Incoming solar radiation ranged from 0.067 to 1.143 langley/min. During
the summer, light is probably not a limiting factor in the lakes because
the water is shallow and clear; however the channel is deep and has
very turbid water and possibly not enough light can penetrate for any
appreciable primary production to occur.
The level of dissolved oxygen in the lakes and the channel appeared to
be near saturation in the summer. This was probably due to the low
water temperature and mixing action of the wind (a wind speed as high
as 30mph was recorded on 29 July 1971). The dissoved oxygen ranged
from 10.5 to 12.5ppin. The readings taken on 5 August 1971 at the
bottom of Lake I were exceptions; they were O.Sppm and 1.8ppm at
1.5m and 2m. The depletion of oxygen may have been caused by oxi-
dation of organic materials by bacteria. During the winter, the
422
-------
dissolved oxygen under the ice was low, between 0.28 to 7.11ppm
Values for pH of the water ranged from 6.6 to 8.3 and total alkalinity
ranged from 0.424 to 3.95meq/l. In general, Lake II had relatively
lower pH and alkalinity than Lake I and Nechelik Channel.
Lake I and Lake II were more productive than the channel and had a
greater variety of phytoplankton species. Inorganic nutrients did
not appear to be limiting factors for the growth of phytoplankton
populations in the channel. The low productivity in the channel may
be caused by the high turbidity and the drastic change in salinity.
Silicate and/or phosphate may be the limiting factors in Lake I and
Lake II. In order to more fully understand the inorganic nitrogen
cycle, primary productivity and phytoplankton fluctuations, a more
closely spaced sampling program is necessary and wider range of
lake types should be studied.
CONCLUSIONS
The aims of this study were primarily to obtain baseline data on a
relatively unknown area, where increased human use requires such
background information. A wide variety of environments were encom-
passed, and clearcut conclusions are not possible. Primary produc-
tivity rates are low in the offshore area, but are considerably
higher than those found in the open Arctic Ocean, possibly in part
as a result of nutrient supply by the Colville River. Inorganic
nitrogen compounds brought down by the river are removed rapidly
in Simpson Lagoon. Relatively high nitrate uptake rates suggest
that there is significant utilization by the offshore phytoplankton
of nitrate brought down with the river water. Maximum offshore
productivity rates are usually found in the deeper, colder, more
saline waters. An especially high rate in deep water outside
Pingok Island at the Beaufort Sea station may be related to upwelling
in this area, and thus nutrient enrichment.
423
-------
The offshore area shows strong salinity and thermal stratification,
and this results in stratification of phytoplankton populations.
There usually exists a clear increase in biomass with depth, but also
there is a qualitative change. Surface populations contain a com-
ponent derived from the fresh water environment, presumably carried
down by the river. Studies of the river system indicate that a
considerable biomass of phytoplankton probably do get into the river
in the further upstream region. The river system itself has phyto-
plankton populations dominated by diatoms, and most of the organisms
found in the river occur in the lakes also. The phytoplankton
biomasses in the lakes of the drainage increase as the ocean is
approached. A considerable amount of taxonomic information has
been obtained during this study, and some interesting new forms
described.
REFERENCES
1. Reed, E. B. Freshwater Plankton Crustacea of the Colville
River Area, Northern Alaska. Arctic 15. 1902. p. 27-50.
2. Johnson, M. W. The Plankton of the Beaufort and Chukchi Sea
Areas of the Arctic and Its Relation to the Hydrography. Arctic
Institute of North America. Washington, D.C. Tech. Pap. No. 1
1956. 32 p.
3. Horner, R. Phytoplankton Studies in Coastal Waters near Barrow,
Alaska. Ph.D. Thesis. University of Washington. 1969.
4. Horner, R. and V. Alexander. Algal Populations in Arctic Sea
Ice: An Investigation of Heterotrophy. Limnol. Oceanogr.
3J:454-458, 1972.
5. Clasby, R. C., R. Horner and V. Alexander. An i-n situ Method
for Measuring Primary Productivity of Arctic Sea Ice Algae.
J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. _30:835-838, 1973.
6. Bursas A. S. Phytoplankton in Coastal Waters of the Arctic
Ocean at Point Barrow, Alaska. Arctic. ]L6:239-262, 1963.
424
-------
7. Bursa, A. The Annual Oceanographic Cycle at Igloollk in the
Canadian Arctic II. The Phytoplankton. J. Fish. Res. Bd.
Can. 18:563-615, 1961.
8. Dawson, W. A. Phytoplankton Data from the Chukchi Sea
1959-1962. Univ. of Washington Dept. of Oceanography. Tech.
Rep. No. 117. 1965. 112 p.
9. Strickland, J. D. H. and T. R. Parsons. A Practical Handbook of
Seawater Analysis. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Bull. No. 167. 1968.
311 p.
10. Coulon, C. and V. Alexander. A Sliding-Chamber Phytoplankton
Settling Technique for Making Permanent Quantitative Slides
with Applications in Fluorescent Microscopy and Antoradiography.
Limnol. Oceangr. JJ: 149-152, 1972.
11. Vollenweider, R. A. A Manual on Methods for Measuring Primary
Production in Aquatic Environments. IBP Handbook No. 12 Oxford,
Blackwell Scientific Publications. 1969. 213 p.
12. Barsdate, R. J. and R. C. Dugdale. Rapid Conversion of Organic
Nitrogen to N_ for Mass Spectrometry: An Automated Dumas Pro-
cedure. Anal. Biochem. L3:l-5, 1965.
13. Stewart, W. D. P., G. P. Fitzgerald and R. H. Burris. In situ
Studies on N Fixation Using the Acetylene Reduction Technique.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Science M3:2071-78, 1967.
14. Schell, D. M. and V. Alexander. Improved Incubation and Gas
Sampling Techniques for Nitrogen Fixation Studies. Limnol.
Oceanogr. 15_: 961-962, 1970.
15. McRoy, C. P., J. J. Goering and W. E. Shiels. Studies of
Primary Production in the Eastern Bering Sea. In; Biological
Oceanography of the North Pacific Ocean. Takenouti, A. Y.,
et al. (eds.) 1972. 200-218 p.
16. English, T. S. Some Biological Oceanographic Observations in
the Central North Polar Sea, Drift Station Alpha, 1957-1958.
Arctic Institute of North America. Scientific Report No. 15.
1961. 79 p.
425
-------
17. Dugdale, R. C. and J. J. Goering. Uptake of New and Regenerated
Forms of Nitrogen in Primary Productivity. Limnol. Oceanogr.
12_: 196-200, 1967.
18. Alexander, V., R. Clasby and C. Coulon. Primary Productivity
and Phytoplankton Studies in the Barrow Tundra Ponds. Tundra
Biome Symposium, U.S. Tundra Biome. 1972. p. 169-173.
19. Nauwerck, A. Die Beziehungen Zwischen Zooplankton und Phyto-
plankton im see Erken. Symb. hot. Uppsala J-_7_:5, 1963.
20. Holmgren, S. Phytoplankton Production in a Lake North of the
Arctic Circle. Unpublished Fil. Lie. Thesis, Uppsala University.
1968. 145 p.
21. Holmgren, S. Unpublished. University of Uppsala, Sweden.
22. Korschikov, 0. Viznatjnik Prisnovodnich Vodorostei Ukrainskoi
RSR.V- [Checklist of the Freshwater Algae of the Ukraine.] 1953.
23. Prescott, G. W. Algae of the Western Great Lakes Area. Dubuque,
Iowa, William C. Brown, 1951.
24. Alexander, V. Relationships Between Turnover Rates in the Bio-
logical Nitrogen Cycle and Algal Productivity. Proc. 25th Ind.
Waste Cent. Purdue Univ. Eng. Ext. Ser. 137:1-7, 1970.
426
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CHAPTER 9
THE NEARSHORE BENTHOS
James J. Crane* and R. Ted Cooney
INTRODUCTION
Although comprehensive benthic invertebrate surveys have been conducted
in certain arctic nearshore regions of the world (Greenland, northeast-
ern Canada, Scandinavia), almost no work has been carried on in the
uu
2
nearshore lagoons of arctic Alaska. In contrast, the Russians have
extensively surveyed their arctic coastal lagoons in Siberia.'
In Alaska most studies have been carried out south of the Bering
Strait. Work originating north of the strait generally has been
associated with the Naval Arctic Research Laboratory at Point Barrow,
Alaska; consequently, most of these studies are of the Barrow region.
One of the most complete surveys of this portion of the arctic coast
was made by MacGinitie from 1948 to 1950 using dredges, nets, and beach-
combing. From the material collected, a fairly complete picture of
the species present in the region was obtained. Before 1948, a few
ships and expeditions, the Yukon, a USCGS schooner under Dall (1880),
the Conn.n under Healy (1884 to 1885), and the Canadian Arctic Expedition
(1913 to 1918), collected some of the marine fauna in the Barrow region.
Taxonomic studies of the local molluscs and polychaetes were reported
int
5
3 4
by MacGinitie and Pettibone. A limited study of mysids was conducted
near Point Barrow in 1961."
In 1953, the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey aboard the LCM Red sampled
18 stations of the nearshore arctic coast from Barter Island to Barrow
*
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Science in Biological Oceanography, University of Alaska,
Fairbanks.
427
-------
collecting by hand, basket dredges, and otter trawls (Fig. 1). The
faunal composition of this material was described as benthic Tanai-
fi ~j Q Q
dacea and Isopoda, Cumacea, Pelecypoda, and Bryozoa.
In 1959, a nearshore area from Cape Seppings to Point Hope on the
northwest coast of Alaska was examined using dredges and otter trawls
(Fig. 2). A species checklist emerged from this investigation.
In 1970, the University of Alaska, supported jointly by the National
Sea Grant Program and the Environmental Protection Agency began an
investigation of the Simpson Lagoon, Colville River delta area. This
study, an extension of the University's original effort, was designed
to quantitatively evaluate the status of the nearshore benthic fauna in
the lagoons at the mouth of the Colville River and outside the barrier
islands. Apparently no investigation of this type has previously been
made on the Alaskan arctic nearshore benthos.
METHODS
General
Most sampling was carried out from the Naval Arctic Research Laboratory's
R/V Natchik, a fishing boat equipped with an A-frame and two power winches.
Some supplementary samples were taken from a skiff (Fig. 3).
Equipment
The shallow waters of the Colville region restrict sampling to gear that
is small and light enough to be handled easily from a small boat.
Epifauna was collected using a 2m benthic trawl (Fig. 4). The trawl
consisted of two steel strap runners held together by three 2m angle-
iron sections. A knotless nylon net with 2.8mm mesh was attached to
eyelets on the frame forming an opening approximately 2 x 0.5m. The
lower and upper edges of the net were tied on the frame to provide a
428
-------
180°
I60«
140*
120°
\ CANADA
140*
Figure 1. Map of Alaska showing the study area in relation
to the Alaskan coast.
429
-------
Figure 2. Map of Arctic Alaska showing the locations of previous
Arctic Alaskan studies of the benthos.
Upper: Early studies of the arctic coast by
MacGinitie (A), Sparks and Pereya (ii), and the
L,Ci4 liea Expedition (C).
Lower: Recent studies of the Colville River delta
estuarine benthos.
430
-------
GRAB STATION
TRAWL STATION Q 5 IO 15 20
I I I I I
Figure 3. Stations occupied in August 1971. Arrows mark henthic
trawl stations, dots indicate grab stations.
431
-------
I PIP£
%'STRAP
Figure 4. Rplbenthlc trawl (2m X .5m).
432
-------
constant opening. A tickler chain was stretched across the runners 15cm
ahead of the lower edge of the net and a chain was tied to the footrope.
The height of the lower edge of the net above the bottom was adjustable.
A steel cable bridle was attached to eyelets on the front of the runners
by shackles.
Infauna was collected using a Wildco Ponar bottom grab that sampled an
2
area about .05m . The grab had screen panels to prevent washout and
reduce shock waves, and side panels and a lower edge plate that pre-
vented loss of sediment during retrival. A total weight of 28kg
provided good penetration except in coarse sediments.
Field Sampling Procedures
The number of stations occupied was dependent on availability of
boat time, the duration of the ice-free season (mid-July to mid-
September), and the daily weather. As many stations as permitted
by the above limitations were sampled. These included 12 trawl
stations in deep Simpson Lagoon (1.8 to 2.8m), 12 in shallow Simpson
Lagoon (<1.8m), 11 in Harrison Bay, and 18 in the nearshore Beaufort
Sea. Three grab stations were occupied in Harrison Bay and 11 in
Simpson Lagoon (Fig. 3). Replicate grabs were taken at each station.
A tow of five minutes duration at about 1.5m/sec covering an area
of about 1125m was found suitable to capture the organisms known to
be in the area, yet did not provide more material than could be
adequately handled on the boat. The height of the lower edge of the
net above the bottom was adjusted until attached hydroids and shallow
burrowing molluscs were collected indicating the trawl was actually
fishing the bottom.
The starting point of a run was first determined within each area
using a grid and random number table. The direction of tow was then
433
-------
chosen by selecting direction cards in a similar manner. When the
direction chosen was impossible to follow because of hazards, or the
tow would terminate outside the study area, new directions were chosen.
When the net was overturned by bottom obstacles or some part of the
sampling procedure varied, the haul was repeated.
The ratio of tow-cable length to fishing depth was approximately
10:1. A stopwatch was utilized to time cable out, towing, and cable
retrieval. Following a haul, the sample was placed in labelled plastic
bags, preserved in 10 percent formalin, and sealed. Later onshore the
solutions were changed and the bags were resealed.
A grid and random number table were used to choose the location of
grab stations in Simpson Lagoon (Fig. 3). Initially from the Hatohik
the grab was lowered rapidly by a power winch; later in the skiff it was
lowered by hand. The material collected was poured into a measuring
bucket to determine the volume of sediment taken and then the sample was
sieved through a 3mm screen. Silty-clay sediments and the lack of
running water made it impractical to use a smaller mesh. Organisms
were preserved in 10 percent formalin and labeled. Samples for sediments
were taken at most stations.
Laboratory Methods
Organisms from all samples were sorted into taxonomic categories
and keyed to species; a list was compiled for each area. Three
numerically dominant species were chosen for additional study, the
isopods Mesidotea entornon and 14. sibirica, and the mysid Mysis oeulata.
In trawl samples, only Mesidotea entomon and Mysis ooulata were counted.
Samples of Mysis oculata were split down to a subsample of 100 to 200
organisms using a mechanical zooplankton subsampler. Total mysids
for each station were estimated by multiplying subsample counts by
434
-------
2 where n is equal to the number of half-splits required to produce
the final subsample. All organisms in grab samples were counted.
Morphometric measurements consisted of telson length for all M.
entomon and total length (base of split notch on the middle of the head
to the end of the telson) for some representative sizes. The total
length (tip of head to end of telson) of all the M. sibi-rica was
recorded. For Mi/sis oculata, the total length from the middle of the
eyes to the tip of the uropods was measured.
M. entomon were categorized male, female, or juvenile. Males are
recognized by an opening in the median pair of papillae on the ventral,
12
posterior segment of the thorax; females have no papillae. Juveniles
were designated as those animals with telson lengths less than 9mm
that could not be sexed. Brood pouches and their contents were also
recorded for t-L entomon.
Formalin dry weights of Mesi-dotea entomon and Mysis oaulata were
measured for some individuals in each size class, and for all organisms
in grab samples. Specimens were dried in an oven for a minimum of 16
hours at 60°C or until a constant weight was reached.
Carbon analysis of a number of organisms was determined using a
Perkin-Eliaer Model 240 Elemental Analyzer. Specimens of M. entomon
and Mi/sis ooulata from representative size classes were ground in a
mortar, analyzed, and an average carbon content for each species
calculated. For comparative purposes seven other local species were
also analyzed to determine their average carbon content.
Statistical Methods
Statistical analyses were performed to test hypotheses and relationships
between variables, and to provide estimates of variability. For trawl
435
-------
data, a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine if
the abundance of organisms was similar at different depths within areas.
In cases where these subareas were similar (P>0.05), station counts
were combined for further comparisons. After the areas to be compared
were determined, another analysis of variance for one-way design was
utilized to test the significance of abundance differences between
areas. A computer program using untransformed and base-ten logarithmic
13
transformed data was used for this analysis. This procedure was also
used for grab abundance and biomass data except that only untransforraed
14
counts were used and only standard deviations derived. Snedecor
explains the use and value of the analysis of variance for testing
hypothese and developing confidence limits.
To compare trawl abundance data between areas, geometric means were
plotted with confidence limits (.P=0.05) and ranges for each category
of organism. Confidence limits were determined by the equation:
CL = x x/v[antilog (t — )]
geo n
Where CL = upper and lower confidence limit
t = Student's t at P_ = 0.05
MSE = within cell variance
n = number of observations
When the mean of one area fell within the confidence limits of another,
the two were not considered to be different in terms of average
abundance.
The model used for all regression relationships was:
Y = a + 3x
Where Y = dependent variable
a = intercept on vertical axis by plot line
6 = slope of plot line
x = independent variable
Regression equations were compared by a test outlined in Lark.15
436
-------
The test compares error variances using the F test and regression
coefficients using the t test. When the equations compared were
found to be the same, the equations were combined.
Standard deviations were calculated for trawl data, grab data, telson-
length versus total length regression equations, dry weight grab data,
dry weight versus telson length regression equations, and carbon
versus length regression equations.
To determine the distributional patterns of the fauna collected in grabs,
a coefficient of dii
using the equation:
a coefficient of dispersion was used. The coefficient is calculated
F t ~\2
CD = -_JX"X;— (3)
x (n-1)
Where CD = coefficient of dispersion
x = number of individuals per grab
x = mean number of individuals per grab
n = number of grabs
A CD>1 points to aggregations; CD=1 indicates a random dispersion;
and CD<1 points to uniform dispersion of organisms.
Standing Stock Estimates
Standing stock values for the two dominant species collected by trawling
were estimated by the equation:
s s = CF Il&^l (4)
b'b' ° x T-A ^ }
2
Where S.S. = standing stock in mgC/m
CF = conversion factor for dry weight to carbon
x
N = number of organisms in a size class
D = average formalin dry weight
T = number of hauls taken in an area
2
A = area in m covered by any single five minute haul
437
-------
For M. entomon N was determined directly. For Mysis oou1atat the number
of animals in each size class was determined from size frequency
information and the total number of mysids sampled.
RESULTS
The Nearshore Benthos
Forty-seven species were identified from 53 trawl hauls and 33 grab
samples taken in three study areas; 15 species were common to all
(Table 1). In the trawl samples, Simpson Lagoon and Harrison Bay
had 18 species in common, Simpson Lagoon and the nearshore Beaufort
Sea shared 19 species, and Harrison Bay and the nearshore Beaufort
Sea were characterized by 18 species in common. In the grab samples,
3 species were common to both Harrison Bay and Simpson Lagoon.
The fauna collected by the trawl was dominated numerically by isopods,
amphipods, mysids, and cumaceans; crustaceans were of lesser importance
in the grab samples. In the context of this investigation, a species
is considered: 1) ubiquitous (U), if it occurs in 67 percent to 100
percent of the samples taken within an area; 2) common (C), if it occurs
in 34 percent to b6 percent of the samples; and 3) rare (R), if it occurs
in fewer than 34 percent of the samples. The isopod Mesidotea entomon,
the mysid, Mysis ooulata, and the amphipod, Aoanthostepneia behringiensis
(?), were ubiquitous in all three areas investigated by trawl. The
amphipod Garnmarocantnus lorioatus was ubiquitous within two of the
three areas while tiie amphipods Pseudalibrotus litoralis and Gammarus
locustus and the cumacean Diastylis sp. were common in two of the
three areas trawled. On the basis of occurrence, Mesidotea entomon
and Mysis oau'Lata were chosen for additional studies of size, bioraass,
and distribution. Two additional species of Mesidotea were examined,
since, they sometimes were found in the same haul with M. entomon.
This consequence led to a closer investigation of these closely
related isopods.
438
-------
Table 1. ORGANISMS COLLECTED AND THEIR OCCURRENCE IN THE STUDY AREAS, 1971.
Category
Porifera
Echinoclathria beringensis
Hydroidea
Tubularia indivisa
Filellum serpens?
Grammar ia imraersa?
Nemertea
Species I
Species II
Cerebratulus marginatus
Polychaeta
H. extenuata
Sphaerodorum minutum
Spio filicornis
Ampharete vega
Terebellides stroerai
Chone duneri
Bryozoa
Eucratea loricata
Priapulida
Priapulus caudatus
Mollusca
Liocyma fluctuosa
Yoldia arctica
Axinopsis serricata
Mya pseudoarenaria
Cyrtodaria kurriana
Mytilus edulis
Cylichna occulta
Harrison
Bay
R
R
R
R
R
C
R
R
R
R
TRAWL
Beaufort
Sea
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
C
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
Simpson
Lagoon
U
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
GRAB
Harrison Simpson
Bay Lagoon
R
R
C R
C
R
R
C
R
C
439
-------
Table 1. (continued) ORGANISMS COLLECTED AND THEIR OCCURANCE IN THE STUDY
AREAS
Category
Pycnogonida
Mymphon grossipes
Isopoda
Mesidotea entomon
M. sibirica
M. sabini
TRAWL GRAB
Harrison Beaufort Simpson Harrison Simpson
Bay Sea ^fLS0..01! Bay
U
R
R
R
U
C
R
U
R
R
R
Cumacea
Diastylis sp. U
Amphipoda
Acanthostepheia
behringiensis? U
Pseudalib ro tus litoralis? C
Gammaracantlius loricatus R
Ganunarus locustus R
Byblis gainiardii? R
Acanthonotozoma inflaturn? -
Hyperia medusarum -
Pseudalibrotus sp. -
Weyprechtia pinguis -
Amphipod A R
Amphipod B R
Amphipod C —
Amphipod D -
Amphipod E -
Mysidacea
Mysis oculata U
Chordata
Molgula oregonia -
Tunicate sp. I -
Tunicate sp. II -
Total 22
U
U
C
C
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
34
U
C
C
C
R
R
R
R
R
U
R
R
26
C
U
16
440
-------
Dominate species occurring in grab samples' were the polychaetes Spio
filieornis and Ampharete vega, the pelecypod Cyrtodaria kurriana,
the priapulid Priapulus caudatus, the isopod M. entomon, and an
amphipod designated amphipod E. Five of the above species were common
in at least one of the two areas investigated while M. entomon was
ubiquitous within one of the two areas.
Abundance
The three major study areas were examined to determine whether they
could be divided into subareas on the basis of distribution patterns
related to depth. The Beaufort Sea nearshore was treated as a whole
since no attempt was made to stratify the sampling outside the barrier
islands while Simpson Lagoon and Harrison Bay were subdivided. Four
zones were considered in Harrison Bay: 1) deep water (>6.5m);
2) intermediate water (1.8 to 6.5m); 3) shallow water (<1.8m); and
4) a zone close to the river channel where salinities were lower than in
the other subareas. Simpson Lagoon was divided into deep water (>1.8m),
and shallow water (<1.8m).
Catches within subareas for these two locations were compared using
an analysis of variance for one-way design (Table 2).
Logarithmically transformed data were used since the standard deviations
of untransformed observations appeared strongly correlated with
arithmetic means. This relationship was not apparent in the trans-
formed observations (Fig. 5). The null hypothesis of no depth effect
was accepted (P>0.05) for both Mesidotea ent-omon and My sis oaulata
in Harrison Bay, and the data pooled for further analyses. In Simpson
Lagoon, a depth effect was significant (P<0.05) for juvenile, female,
and total Mesidotea entornon, yet not statistically a factor (_P>0.05)
for males and My sis ooulata. These data were not pooled. Following
the evaluation of differences within study areas, the four primary
441
-------
Table 2. THE STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF SUBAREAS (DEPTHS)
ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF M. EiJTOMOH AND M. OCULATA.
Location Source of Variation
Sub-areas
Harrison Bay F_ df_
Mesidotea entomon
Juveniles NS 3, 7
Males NS 3, 7
Females NS 3, 7
Total NS 3, 7
Mys-is oaulata NS 3, 7
Simpson Lagoon
Mesidotea entomon
Juveniles c 1, 22
Males NS 1, 22
Females d 1, 22
Total e 1, 22
Mysis oQulata NS 1, 22
H : subarea effect = 0
o
bNS = P>0.05
°NS = P<0.01
dNS = P<0.05
442
-------
c: io
10'
S io2
IO1
1
1
1
10° io1 io2 io3 io4
g Arithmetic Mean Individuals/Haul
"S i.o
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
io" io io io io io
Geometric Mean Individuals/Haul
Figure 5. Abundance data showing linear relationship
between the standard deviation and the
arithmetic mean (upper) and the non-linear
relationship after logarithmic conversion
(lower).
443
-------
study units, Harrison Bay, nearshore Beaufort Sea, deep Simpson
Lagoon, and shallow Simpson Lagoon were compared. Significant
differences (P
-------
Table 3. THE STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENCES IN CATCH
BETWEEN AREAS FOR MESIDOTEA ENTOMON AND MYSIS OCVLATA
Categories Source of Variation
a
, Areas
F^ df
Mesidotea entomon
Juveniles c 3, 49
Males c 3, 49
Females c 3, 49
Total c 3, 49
Mysis ooulata c 3, 49
tt. : Area effect = 0
o
bNS = P>0.05
CNS = P<0.01
445
-------
I03
I02
1,0'
1,0°
ID'1
H
ARRISON BAY
(II) (II) (II) (II)
J M F T
— 1
-
- E
—
3[
L
]
j
SIMPSON LAGOON
DEEP
(12) (12) (12) (12)
JMFT
E
]]
E
NONE
]
SIMPSON LAGOON BEAUFORT SEA
SHALLOW
(12) (12) (12) (12) 08) (18) (18) (18)
JMFT JMFT
E
In
E
E
]
]
E
E
]
__ —
IE
] tl
Figure 6. Abundance of juvenile (J), male (M), female (F),
and total (T) Mesidotea entomon entomon in four
study areas during August 1971. Data presented as
geometric mean, range, and 95% confidence interval
about the mean. Lower limits of range are zero
unless otherwise indicated.
446
-------
10'
(18)
> I0
0'
(ID
Harrison Bay Beaufort
Sea
(12)
Simpson
Lagoon
Deep
(12)
Simpson
Lagoon
Shallow
Figure 7. Abundance of My sis ooulata in four study areas
during August 1971. Data presented as in
Figure 6.
447
-------
Table 4, THE DISTRIBUTION OF ABUNDANCE (N/ra2) AND BIOMASS (DRY WEIGHT g/m2) OF ORGANISMS
TAKEN IN GRAB SAMPLES; AUGUST 1971.
^££cie_£
Tubularia indivisa
Cerebratulus marginatus
Amp'f-iarete-vega
Terebe Hides stroerrrii
Spi-o fili-oorn'is
Cnofie duneiri
Priapu'Lus oaudatus
Cyrtodaria 'Kurriana
loldia arotiaa
iiesidotea entomon
Mesidotea saD'lni,
LH-astyli-s sp.
Gammaracanthus loricatus
PseudaliDPotus 1-i.toral-is
Amphipod X
Amphipod Z
Molgula oregon-ia
Total
Harrison Bay Simpson
22 2
W/m g/m N/m
4+17
CH-4
101+105
0+4
6+14 0.03+.00 1+5
3+17
11+18
112+167
7+20
2+7 0.09+.23 6+11
2+7 0.32+.95
2+9
0+4
1+5
35+65
11+33 0.03+.00 16+22
4+8
22+33 0.48+.94 313+230
Lagoon Deep
g/m
0.10+.48
0.04+.17
0.19+.17
0.02+.10
0.01+.00
0.02+.10
0.21+.36
9.61+13.69
0.66+2.04
0.08+.24
O.OO+.OO
0.02+.10
O.OO+.OO
0.10+.20
0.04+.00
0.29+.85
11.74+13.58
Simpson Lagoon Shallow
N/m g/m
18+19 0.44+.43
10+14 0.02+.00
28+29 0.46+.44
-------
Table 5. THE STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF AREAS ON THE DISTRIBUTION
OF ABUNDANCE AND BIOMASS OF ORGANISMS TAKEN IN GRAB SAMPLING.
Location
Source of Variation
Subareas'
Harrison Bay, Shallow Simpson Lagoon, F
Deep Simpson Lagoon
Total organisms c
Total biomass
Harrison Bay, Shallow Simpson Lagoon
Total organisms NS
Total biomass NS
Harrison Bay, Deep Simpson Lagoon
Total organisms c
Total biomass
Deep Simpson Lagoon, Shallow Simpson
Lagoon
Total organisms c
Total biomass c
df
2, 38
17, 1
17, 1
1, 29
1, 29
1, 30
1, 30
aH : Area effect = 0
o
NS = P>0.05
"NS = P<0.01
449
-------
Lagoon Shallow and only one organism, a tube polychaete Spio filicorms,
was collected in Harrison Bay.
A distributional index, the coefficient of dispersion, was used to
investigate whether organisms collected by grab were aggregated
(Fig. 8). A coefficient greater than unity points to aggregation of
the organisms. Infaunal species exhibited this characteristic while
the epifaunal organisms appeared to be more dispersed.
Size Classes
Length-frequency plots were made for a collection of /«/. entomon taken
in August 1970, in Harrison Bay, Simpson Lagoon, and nearshore Beaufort
Sea (Fig. 9). A similar plot was drawn for the M. entomon sampled in
the same areas in August 1971 (Fig. 10). The 1970 juveniles are not
comparable with the 1971 juveniles because a larger mesh otter trawl
was used in the first survey. The Simpson Lagoon information is limited
by the small numbers of isopods collected in 1970. Harrison Bay and
Beaufort Sea males and females seem to exhibit similar size distribu-
tions both years. Males in all areas reach much longer lengths than
the females.
Length-frequency distributions were plotted for all M. si~b-iriaa sampled
in 1971 (Fig. 11) and Mysis ooulata (Fig. 12). Two large female M.
sib-irica (58 to 60mm total length) were collected as well as 40 to 50
smaller size (16mm). An intermediate size class appears not to be in
the area or at least was not collected.
All three species appear to have three size classes or modes into which
most of the organisms fall (Fig. 13). For Af. entomon, the first mode
(0 to 2mm) represents recently released juveniles, the second, the one-
year-olds, and the third (very low), the two-year-olds. Three size
classes are vaguely seen in the distribution of M. sibiriea although
450
-------
64
5.6
oo
GJ
ho
.§
I
&
Q
v.
o
.| 2.4
.
-------
100 -
LL.
13
20 -
JUVENILE
MALE
n=70
i i i i
FEMALE
n = !64
Qo "
C; o
^*
£g 60 -
is:
z
qj
•^ 20 -
n = l
;
"
i i i i
n = 2
-,
;
~*
1 1 1 I
n = l
1
i i
100 -
03
o 60 -
in
cE
(E
X
20 -
None
_
-
—
1 1 f 1
n=!4
/
[
r
1
i :
L
_
-
V
i i
nf
n=!4
1
1
|
1
(III
0 20 40 20 40 20 4C
Tel son Length (mm)
Figure 9. Distribution of size classes for M. entomon
categories in the study areas taken August
1970; n is the number of organisms in the
size class with the greatest number of
organisms.
452
-------
100 -n
4
UJ
60 H
I
2
CD
20 -
100 -n
60 -
o
1C
5 20
Q)
Q; 100
5
CO
5
tt
2 20 H
0
Figure 10.
JUVENILE
n=299
TIT
n=394
n=56
i I i i
n = 4l
i r T
n=72
n=4
20 40 20 40
Tel son Length (mm)
20
Distribution of size classes for M. entomon
categories in the study areas taken August
1971; n is the number of organisms in the
size class with the greatest number of
organisms.
453
-------
100
60
20
100
60
20
j I
100
60
20
J I
BEAUFORT SEA
n = !9
54 60
SIMPSON LAGOON
n=!7
HARRISON BAY
n = I
0 6 12 18 24 30 36
Total Length (mm)
Figure 11. Distribution of Mesidotea sibipiea size
classes in study areas taken in August
1971.
454
-------
100
60
20
J I
BEAUFORT SEA
n = 772
i i i
&IOO
I
,5 60 -
20 -
00
60
20
-
\ I
SIMPSON LAGOON
i
i
n = M6l
i I i i i i i i i i
HARRISON BAY
n=8!3
0 6 12 18 24 30 36
Total Length (mm)
Figure 12. Distribution of My sis oculata size classes
in study areas taken in August 1971.
455
-------
100
60
20
^100
60
20
100
60
20
Mesidotea entomon
= 744
Tel son Length (mm)
Mesidotea sibirica
n-37
I I I I I I I <•<=.! I I I
54 60
Mysis oculata
n=2746
I I I 1 I
0 6 12 18 24 30 36
Total Length (mm)
Figure 13. Distribution of Mesidotea entomont
Mesidotea sibiricat and Mysis oeulata
size classes in the Colville study area.
456
-------
some sizes may be missing which could change the position of the modes.
ifysis ooulata is characterized by animals of three distinct sizes
with the two-year-olds again in very small numbers.
In M. entomon and M. sibirica the very large two-year-olds often
had brood pouches with eggs, no eggs, or small isopods which form the
first size class when released.
Telson length was measured for all M. entomon and plotted against the
total length of selected specimens. The equation for the regression
of total length on telson length is:
Y = 2.602 + 2.532x (5)
Where Y = total length in millimeters
x = telson length in millimeters
Using this relationship plotted in Figure 14, the total lengths of
individuals whose telsons have been measured can be determined. Telson
length was considered the most representative measure because the
telson apparently does not change its length with preservation. Of
the three species of I4esi,dotea found, two are similar as adults,
but easily distinguished when very young. The paper by Menzies and
Mohr describes the differences between the juveniles of all three
species, but does not separate the adults adequately. Gurjanova
has written a key to arctic isopod adults but this work is in German
and the use of terras is confusing. To identify these isopods, a key
based on Gurjauova and the observations noted here is proposed (Table
6). The ratio of the telson length to total length is used as an
identifying characteristic in this key.
Biomass
Formalin dry weights were measured for Mesidotea entomon juveniles,
males, females, and for an aggregate of Mi/sis ooulata. These weights
457
-------
100
80
60
40
20
0
12 18 24
Tel son L ength (mm)
30
36
Figure 14. Relationship between total length and telson length
for Mesidotea entomon entomon. Regression line and
one standard deviation about the line for juveniles,
sub-adults, females, and males plotted.
458
-------
Table 6. KEY TO THE ISOPOD GENUS MESIDOTEA IN THE NEAR-SHORE COLVILLE
REGION, BEAUFORT SEA
1(2) Eyes lacking Mesidotea sabini. sabini
2(1) Eyes present 3
3(6) Telson short and broad, flagellum has less
than 12 segments 4
4(5) Epimere 1 or 2 has hairs on margin,
telson: total length = approx. (.27) . . . M. si-birioa adult
5(4) Epimeres bare and smooth,
telson: total length = approx. (.30+) . .M. sibirica juvenile
6(3) Telson long and thin, flagellum has
12 or more segments 7
7(8) Telson: total length = approx.
(.35 to .40) M. entomon entomon adult
8(7) Telson: total length = approx.
(.25 to .32) M. entomon entomon juvenile
459
-------
were Chen regressed on measures of length for purposes of converting
size-class information to estimates of dry weight:
Log YT = (-1.9867 + 0.3372 X)-2; Juveniles ...... (E)
J
Log Y = (0.1132 + 0.0697 X)-2; Females ....... (F)
Log Y = (0.339 + 0.055 X)-2; Males ......... (G)
Where Y = predicted formalin dry weight in milligrams for size class X
(telson length)
the integer (2) corrects for coding
Using Lark's test, the regressions were found to differ significantly
by category (Fig. 15).
Two equations are necessary to describe the relationship between formalin
dry weight and length for My sis oculata :
Log Yj. = (-2.3310 + 0.2012X)-3 . ........... (H)
Log Y = (0.1946 + 0.037D-3 ............. (I)
Where Y = predicted weight for a mysid in size class X
H = mysids of total length from 7 to 15mm
I = total lengths of 15 to 39mm (Fig. 16)
Mesidotea entomon and Mysis oaulata were further analyzed for carbon
content and equations calculated relating the organisms size and carbon
content (Fig. 17) :
Ymo = 5°*92 ~ °*039 X; t4ysis oculata
Y = 31.34 + 0.0295 X; Mesidotea entomon ....... (K)
fflc
Where Y = percentage carbon per unit dry weight
X = telson length (isopod) or total length
(mysid) in millimeters
This data was also used to convert dry weight to carbon for standing
stock estimates.
460
-------
icV
io
-2
0
i i i
6 12 18
Tel son Length (mm)
i i i
24
10'r-
io-
io
-2
0
I I I I 1 1
12 18 24
Telson Length (mm)
30
36
Figure 15. Relationship between dry weight and telson length for
Meeidotea entomon entomon males (G), females (F) and
juveniles (E). Regression line and one standard
deviation about the line plotted.
461
-------
10
-2
Q
IO
10"
'3
0
H
12 18 24
Total Length (mm)
30
36
Figure 16. Relationship between dry weight and total length for
Mysis oculata. Repression line and one standard
deviation about the line plotted.
462
-------
1001-
£ 50|
8-
J
K
I I I I I I I
12 18 24
Length (mm)
30
36
Figure 17. Carbon content as a percentage of the dry weight
in relation to total length for Hi/sis oculoto. (J)
and to telson length for Mesi-dotea entomon
entomon (K).
463
-------
Selected other common species were analyzed for carbon (Table 7).
Carbon content of these organisms ranged from a low of about 16 percent
for juvenile M. sibiriaa and Aaanthostepheia sp. (amphipod) to about
51 percent for My sis oaulata and 31 percent for M. entomon; the content
for other species fell within this range (Table 7).
Estimates of standing stock carbon were made for male, female and
juvenile Mesidotea entomon, and Mysis oaulata using data from trawl
2
samples (Table 8). The highest mysid standing stock, 28.26mgC/m ,
occurred in the nearshore Beaufort Sea while the stock in Harrison Bay
and Simpson Lagoon was much lower. For most Mesidotea entomon, the
nearshore Beaufort Sea also exhibited the highest stock; juveniles
were the sole exception. The biomass of all M. entomon outside the
2
barrier islands averaged 9.24mgC/m . The standing stock of Mysis
oaulata was consistently higher than that of M. entomon in all areas.
In Harrison Bay, the total raysid stock was approximately six times
greater than that of isopods, while in the nearshore Beaufort Sea
the mysids were three times greater. In Simpson Lagoon the mysid
stock exceeded the isopods by an order of magnitude.
Dry weights were also determined for all organisms collected in the
grab samples (Table 4). For deep Simpson Lagoon the average biomass
was 11.74 + 13.58g/m (dry weight); for shallow Simpson Lagoon
0.46 + 0.44g/m^; and for Harrison Bay 0.48 + 0.94g/m2. The total
organism biomass in deep Simpson Lagoon differed significantly (P<0.05)
from that in the other two areas; shallow Simpson Lagoon and Harrison
Bay were similar in biomass. The pelecypod Cyrtodaria kurriana
2
with its shell accounted for the largest average biomass (9.61 + 13.69g/m )
in deep Simpson Lagoon. This organism was not collected in either of
the other areas. Another pelecypod, loldia aratiaa and a tunicate,
Molgula oregonia account for a large portion of the weight of the
*~) O
infauna of deep Simpson Lagoon at 0.66 + 2.04g/m and 0.29 + 0.85g/m
464
-------
Table 7. AVERAGE CARBON CONTENT OF SOME COMMON SPECIES COLLECTED
IN THE COLVILLE REGION.
(percent)
pecies
Carbon Content
Mysis oculata
Ampjiarete vega
Gammarus locustus
Gammaracanthus loricatus
Cyrtodaria kurriana
Yoldia arctica
Pseudalibrotus litoralis
ties id o tea entomon
Mesidotea sibirica (juveniles)
Acanthostepheia behringiensis
50.12
46.54
46.05
46.05
43.98
37.52
37.39
31.35
17.39
16.46
465
-------
Table 8. ESTIMATED STANDING STOCK OF M. ENTOMON AND MYSIS OCULATA
(mg C/nrO
Harrison
Bay
Mysis oculata 3.36
M. entomon
Juveniles . 01
Males .52
Females .02
Total .58
Deep
Beaufort Simpson Simpson
Sea Lagoon Lagoon
28.26 1.99
.01 .02 .001
6.61 .07 .04
2.60 .02 0
9.24 .18 .04
Shallow
Simpson
Lagoon
.07
.20
.05
.31
466
-------
respectively. No infaunal animals occurred in shallow Simpson Lagoon
and only one infaunal species, a polychaete Spio fi-l-ioornla, was found
in samples from Harrison Bay. In both of these areas, the epifaunal
amphipods and isopods made up the bulk of the meager biomass.
CONCLUSIONS
Introduction
The northernmost arctic coast of the United States is characterized
by numerous shallow lagoons and bays where ice is present at least 11
18
months of the year, sometimes all year round. Due to the shallow
nature of these estuaries, the shorefast ice in many areas is frozen
into the sediments for much of the year. The bottom water remaining
in isolated deeper areas is high in salinity, sometimes "ultrasaline,"
19
is generally below 0°C, and may be deficient in oxygen. As the
ice breaks up, the bottoms of the estuaries near shore are ground and
scoured by the moving flows.
In the months of open water, melting sea ice and runoff from adjacent
streams and rivers produces turbid, low salinity water near the
coast subject to occasional drastic wind influenced changes in sea
i i 20
level.
The Nearshore Benthos
The shallow nearshore environment would seem to be unfit for any kind
of biota; indeed, the beaches surrounding the Colville estuarine
complex bear out this contention as they are seemingly barren of
macroscopic life. On the other hand, the deeper waters (>2m) of
Simpson Lagoon, Harrison Bay, and especially the nearshore Beaufort
Sea support a biota in which a number of species are present in some
abundance. Organisms living in the region must be able to cope with
low temperatures, salinities varying over a wide range, being frozen
467
-------
in and scoured by ice, and perhaps subjected to conditions of low
oxygen.
Crustaceans, molluscs, and polychaetes characterize the fauna of
the area with a few species responsible for most of the abundance
and biomass. This is to be expected since the population encountered
21 22 23
is representative of the biota of most arctic environments. ' '
Physical factors here are probably more important in determining the
composition of the biota than biological interactions such as compe-
O / O cr *? f\
tition and predation. ' In nearshore Antarctic studies it was
demonstrated that biological competition and predation is almost
non-existent in the ice scour zone. Similarly, in arctic environments
the number of predators is few, biological competition is at a
spec
23
minimum and species diversity in terms of an absolute number of
species is low.'
In this general context, pressures from the physical environment appear
to mediate the species composition, abundance, and biomass of the
nearshore community of the Colville River estuary. The physical
harshness of this nearshore region is evidently responsible for a
low number of predator-prey relationships. Only two epifaunal
27
predators occurred in samples, the sea spider Nyrnphon '
2 S
and Mesidotea entomon, and only one of them, the former, is partially
carnivorous. However, ifyrnpnon grossipes is rare in the region and
M. entomon is usually classified as a scavenger. Two infaunal pre-
dators were present, the priapulid Priapulus earn-datus and one
27
specimen of a nemertean, Cerebratulus rnarginatus.
Harsh physical conditions may also be responsible for the low
species diversity observed in samples; only 47 species were collected
using a trawl and grab. In order to compare the number of species
observed in the Simpson Lagoon-Harrison Bay area with Sanders,29
468
-------
2
we chose data from six randomly selected grab samples (each 0.05m ).
A total of 17 species occurred in our combined sample, while a second
composite of six additional grabs contained no organisms. In
comparison with values published by Sanders for other marine and
2
estuarine environment where between 0.3 and 0.8m of sea bed were
examined, this arctic estuary exhibits very few species (Table 9).
Environmental Interactions
Three factors—ice, salinity variations, and perhaps concentrations
of dissolved oxygen—affect the organisms in the region. Simpson
Lagoon would appear to be the most physically stressed area because,
its shallow depths are subject to severe current fluctuations in the
ice-free season. In the winter when the water in Simpson Lagoon
is isolated from both Harrison Bay and the Beaufort Sea by bottom
fast ice, the pools of high salinity water (up to 68 °/00) that
form beneath the ice undoubtedly have a detrimental effect on the
fauna. Since the average depth of this lagoon is but 2m, only
a small portion, a narrow trough running the length of the lagoon,
would not be frozen to the bottom. It is also quite probable that
dissolved oxygen values drop to very low levels in these isolated
pockets; areas of this type (very low dissolved 0 values) have been
found in the nearby Colville delta.
Since Mesidotea entomon is known to be tolerant of salinities
31
ranging from very dilute (even freshwater) to normal salinity,
it is easy to understand why this species occurs in Simpson Lagoon
during the ice-free season. However, since the literature on M.
entomon places its upper range of salinity tolerance at "normal"
32
oceanic seawater, we would not expect the organism to survive
in ultra-saline pockets of water under the ice. We suspect that
Mesodotea entomon migrates outside the barrier islands or into
deeper Harrison Bay where "more" oceanic salinities are found
469
-------
Table 9. A COMPARISON OF THE NUMBER OF SPECIES OCCURRING FOR VARIOUS
MARINE AND ESTUARINE ENVIRONMENTS IN 0.3-0.8 m2 OF SEA-BED
Type
Arctic estuary
Boreal estuary
Tropical estuary
Stress shallow tropical marine
Boreal shallow water
Tropical shallow marine
Outer continental shelf
Deep sea (slope)
No. species/station
0-17
10-30
21-26
30-33
16-21
39-11
51-75
47-96
Author
This Study
Sanders, 1968
Sanders, 1968
n
ii
M
n
n
470
-------
during the period of ice cover. My sis ooulata also exhibits a
salinity tolerance range from very dilute water to oceanic salin-
ities, and so this species probably migrates offshore as the ice
forms. Thus, in areas where ice extends into the bottom, the
mobile organisms either migrate to deeper oceanic water or perish.
Holmquist has noted that individuals of the genus Mysis cannot
survive freezing. We believe it is unlikely that Mesi-dotea could
survive for extended periods in the ice. In the Antarctic, epifaunal
species were found to migrate from the zone of ice scour until open
9 A
water occurred. A third stress, that of low oxygen values, perhaps
even anoxic conditions in the isolated deeper pockets in Simpson
Lagoon, would also be an incentive promoting seasonal migration.
The infauna constitute another situation since they are not highly
mobile. These organisms either survive high salinity, possibly
near anoxic conditions, and being frozen into the ice, or die and
are replaced by recruitment from deeper water. Certain molluscs
are known to survive in ice without ill effects. In addition living
Cyptodaria kurriana, Yoldia aratica, and tube polychaetes were found
living in the shallow water just under the ice. Similar fauna were
found existing in anoxic conditions under 1m of ice in Safety
1 Q
Lagoon near Nome, Alaska. It may be reasonable to suppose then
that at least some molluscs and tube dwelling polychaetes can survive
the stressed environment under and in the ice.
It is apparent that in the very shallow parts of the lagoon, ice
scouring prevents organisms from establishing populations. No infaunal
species were found in either Simpson Lagoon or Harrison Bay in the
grab samples taken at depths of less than two meters. Only mobile
epifaunal species occurred in these shallow depths. This pattern
may also be influenced by the quality of the substrate since sand
and gravel predominated in the shallower depths while sandy mud
471
-------
(more suitable for burrowing) was found in the deeper zones. However,
it is most probable that the shallows are rarely populated by infauna
or non-motile epifauna because of the effects of bottom-fast ice over
most of the year and scouring during breakup. Even hydroids which
attach to gravel were absent.
Distribution Patterns
Three species of Mesidotea, M. entomon^ M. sibd-rica, and M. sdbini
were found together at at least 2 stations, and M. entomon and
M. sibirica occurred in common at 12 stations. According to
21
Dunbar, arctic areas have a small number of niches, so it seems
curious that three species of the genus Mesi-dotea, all thought to be
scavengers or detritus feeders, would be found in the same environment.
Gurjanova, reports that M. sabini is a deep water form. However,
this species was found in Harrison Bay and Simpson Lagoon in less than
3m of water. The LCM Red expedition also found M. sabini in
33
Harrison Bay. M. s^b'i,p^.ea) considered a more oceanic form, was
not very abundant although they were more numerous than M. sabini, and
because of their low numbers, they probably do not enter into direct
compition with the M. entomon. Simpson Lagoon and the river delta area
also have a great deal of peat and organic detritus deposited in them.
Such high concentrations of detritus could support a large variety of
28
omnivorous scavengers.
The distribution of organisms within the areas examined was very
patchy. Trawl catch values ranged from zero at one station to hundreds
at another for isopods, and from approximately 1,600 to 120,000
individual mysids. Grab catches were variable from station to station
indicating the patchy nature of the benthos. An index of dispersion
has shown the infauna to be more patchy than the epifauna.
472
-------
Abundance and biomass data determined from trawling for Mysis oeulata,
M. entomon (males, females, total excluding juveniles), and amphipods
show that both are many times more numerous in the zone outside the
barrier islands (>4.8m) than in either Harrison Bay or Simpson Lagoon.
Catch records from the Colville region for the summer of 1970, although
not quantitative due to varying times of tows and the use of a wide-mesh
otter trawl, indicate that only a few M. entomon were collected within
Simpson Lagoon while hundreds were found just outside of the barrier
islands. This information indicates that at least for adult M.
entomon, our results are supported by the data from the previous summer.
Due to their smaller size, My sis oaulata were not compared since the
1970 trawl mesh was too large.
Although MacGinitie suggested that M. entomon preferred very dilute
salinity water, we found the greatest numbers of this species in the
higher salinity waters outside of the barrier islands. The only M.
entomon found in the lagoon in any abundance were the recently released
juveniles which occurred in the same number as juveniles found in the
off-island areas. M. entomon generally were more abundant in the
shallower parts of the lagoon than in the deeper areas. This
distribution may be related to substrate preference, or to reproductive
or developmental processes.
The grab survey revealed that the biomass and abundance of infauna
in Simpson Lagoon and Harrison Bay was very low. These values
correspond closely to the barren zone of 0 to 5m found in other arctic
areas of Eastern Canada and Scandinavia. The next deeper zone
starting at about 5m, has much higher biomass and abundance values.
The Soviets also consider 5m to be the depth at which the littoral
2
zone of the Chukotsk Sea begins to be populated by benthic organisms.
The survey of the western Alaskan arctic coast above the Bering Strait
10
473
-------
concluded that benthic invertebrate populations are probably not
established in water less than 20 feet due to the effects of ice scour,
and that only highly motile forms that move in and out with the seasons
occur there. The low salinity lagoons behind the barrier beaches did
not contain large populations of invertebrates. The animals present in
these lagoons were either euryhaline forms or those washed in from
the sea. In general, these distribution patterns were also observed
in the Colville area. Our results of much greater abundance of benthos
beyond the 5m depth come from trawl data only, but it is likely that
a grab survey outside the barrier islands would demonstrate larger
populations of infauna than were found in either Harrison Bay or Simpson
Lagoon. Estimates of standing stock from this arctic estuary are
probably comparable only to other high latitude estuaries, some areas
of the deep sea, and some polluted areas (Table 10).
The molluscs Ei,a.te1'la arot-Loa and Nuaula tenu'is were the most common
nearshore pelecypods found by MacGinitie, in the Barrow region. These
species were not found in either our samples or in those of the LMC Red.
On the other hand, Cyrtodcaria suniana and Yoldia aratiaa, the most
abundant species found in this investigation and that of the LCH Red
were not reported by MacGinitie at all.
Comparing size-frequency histograms for M. entomon sampled in 1970
and 1971 (Figs. 9 and 10), it appears that the size distributions
are not significantly different except that some smaller isopods are
missing from the 1970 data presumably because of the otter trawl
mesh size. Since both sets of data were taken in August and the
results are seemingly similar, and a 2+ year life span is indicated,
it is possible to estimate the productivity of the M. entomon as
biomass at the time of collection divided by the turnover time of
the population assuming steady state conditions. Since arctic species
generally reproduce non-pelagically and recruitment is at a low uniform
474
-------
Table 10. ABUNDANCE AND BIOMASS VALUES OF BENTHIC ORGANISMS THROUGHOUT
THE WORLD
Abundance
Area
Simpson Lagoon-Harrison Bay
Elbe Estuary
North Baffin Island (0-3m)
Frustration Bay (5m)
Buzzards Bay
Sargasso Sea abyss
Gulf Stream abyss
Continental slope
No/m
22+33-313+230
7,025-20,100
381
282
39,628
30-130
150-270
120-750
Author
This Study
Hedgpeth, 1957
Ellis, 19
Ellis, 19
Sanders, 1958
Sanders et a!L., 1965
Sanders et^ al., 1965
Sanders e£ al., 1965
Biomass
Simpson Lagoon-Harrison Bay
North European estuary
Puget Sound
Chukchi Sea sublittoral
Chukchi Sea littoral
Pacific deep sea (950-6000 m)
Antarctic benthos
Bering Sea Strait
North Baffin Island (0-3m)
North Baffin Island (5-14m)
Frustration Bay (5m)
Frustration Bay (15m) _____ _
*Wet wt. = 2 to 3 X dry wt. "
.46+.44-11.74+13.58
(dry wt.)*
16 (rough weight)
8-19 (dry wt.)*
200 (wet wt.)
24 (wet wt.)
0.01-6.94 (wet wt.)
400-500 (wet. wt.?)
500+ (wet. wt.)
31 (wet wt.)
201 (wet wt.)
35 (wet wt.)
210 (wet wt.)
This Study
Hedgpeth, 1957
Lie, 1968
Zenkevitch, 1963
Zenkevitch, 1963
Zenkevitch, 1963
Knox, 1970
Zenkevitch, 1963
Ellis, 1960
Ellis, 1960
Ellis, 1960
Ellis, 1960
475
-------
rate, and the annual turnover appears to be small, the annual production
7 "3 1 C
will probably be less than the standing stock at any one time. '
This is in contrast to more temperate regions where the productivity
34
may be 2 to 5 times greater than the standing crop at any one time.
Therefore the standing crop figures found in Table 8 must be considered
2
maximum vales for productivity in g* C/m /yr since the population
turnover probably exceeds one year; reducing these values by a factor
of 2.0 would perhaps provide more realistic estimates of isopod annual
productivity. Similar reasoning can also be applied to the populations
of My sis ooulata.
Life History and Production
Mesidotea etitomon, Mesidotea sibivioa, Mesidotea sabini and My sis
27
ooulata all brood their young. The eggs are spawned in a pouch
where they develop to juveniles. These organisms, as is characteristic
22
for most arctic species, do not have pelagic larval stages.
M. entomon appears to have continuous egg laying and development
throughout the year according to MacGinitie. This statement is
based on the fact that he found young isopods in the brood pouches
in mid-July and newly spawned eggs in late October. Generally the
eggs are spawned from late August to at least late October and the
young develop in the brood pouches until they are released the follow-
ing summer. Other species of isopods have been found to hold their eggs
for as long as 102 days depending on the temperature. The arctic
21 22 21
species probably have slower development. ' Dunbar states that
many arctic species spawn in late fall or early winter when the food
supply is supposed to be at a minimum. In August 1971, young Mysis
ooulata were collected as well as adult females with empty brood
pouches. The young appear to be released in summer as with the isopods.
476
-------
Three size classes are noted on the length frequency diagrams for
M. entomon and Mysis oculata. This indicates that the organisms
probably live fewer than three years. The smallest group is the
recently hatched juveniles, the second size class corresponds to the
one-year olds, and the third group is comprised of two-year old
individuals. Only two size classes are found for M. sibi-rica, but a
large gap occurs in the frequency distribution suggesting that an
intermediate mode exists somewhere, perhaps outside of the sampling
21
area. Dunbar suggests that the two year life span is actually
quite common in the arctic. Growth and development are retarded
such that a species that has a one year life span and spawns more
than once a year in temperate zones may have a two year or prolonged
21 35
life span and spawn only once a year in the arctic. '
Trophic Relations
2
Standing stock as gC/m has been calculated for Mesidotea entomon
and Mysis oaulata (Table 10), and the carbon content of other species
O f.
presented measured (Table 7). Curl discussed the analysis of carbon
and its significance. Unfortunately carbon values give only a rough
indication of how much value a species may be to predators since it
is not known how much of the carbon can be utilized. However,
it is known though that mysids, isopods, and amphipods are a part of
he diet of various arctic fish such as arctic char (Salvelinus malma),
the sculpin (Myoxocephalus quadricornis), and the "white fish",
37
Coregonus spp. Since most of the benthic organisms in the region
are scavengers, and deposit or suspension feeders, they probably
have an adequate supply of food. Suspended organics are supplied in
great quantity by the river; large lumps of peat occurred in trawl
samples taken inside the barrier islands.
477
-------
Sources of Error
Experimental error in sampling procedure, measurements, and computa-
tion of standing stock estimates could account for some of the
variability in the abundance and biomass values, but care was taken
to minimize those sources that could be practically lessened.
Other sources of variability are inherent in the methods used and
are difficult if not impossible to overcome.
2 2
The use of a .05m grab rather than a .1 or .2m sampler introduces
•JO
sampling error, but the size and weight of the gear was governed
by the type of vessel which was available to work the very shallow
lagoons. Attempts were made to keep only samples that collected
three or more liters of sediment. With the smaller sampler, certain
deep burrowing organisms may be missed such as Mya spp. or Eehuirus
spp. However, since over 90 percent of the organisms occur in the
upper 15cm or so, most of the organisms present were probably sampled.
To reduce a source of error that could affect the comparison of
mysid and isopod abundance differences between areas, geometric rather
than arithmetic means were examined. Arithmetic means of data sets
are in most instances much higher than geometric means, an effect
observed when extremely wide ranges of values are encountered. The
geometric mean, already slightly negatively biased, lessens the effect
of the very divergent values.
The estiiaates of isopod and rays id standing stocks are variable
depending on the deviations of dry weight values from the mean that
was used for the calculation, the loss of weight reflected in the dry
weight values caused by preservation in formalin, the effect of formalin
preservation on average carbon contents of the organisms, and for the
mysids the variability inherent in the splitting of samples into
subsampleso The effect of formalin preservation on the carbon content
478
-------
is not known; formalin leaching reduces dry weights by 10 percent or
more. The variability caused by subsampling is relatively minimal.
REFERENCES
1. MacGinitie, G. Distribution and Ecology of the Marine Inverte-
brates of Point Barrow, Alaska. Smithsonian Misc. Coll.
128/9):1-201, 1955.
2. Zenkevitch, L. Biology of the Seas of the USSR. New York, Inter-
science Publishers, 1963. 955 p.
3. MacGinitie, N. Marine mollusca of Point Barrow, Alaska. Proc.
U.S. Nat. Mus. 109(3412):59-208, 1959.
4. Pettibone, M. Marine Polychaete worms from Point Barrow, Alaska,
with additional records from the North Atlantic and North Pacific.
Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. HO (3324):203-355, 1954.
5. Holmquist, C. Some Notes on Mysis relicta and its Relatives in
Northern Alaska. Arctic JL6(2):109-128, 1963.
6. Menzies, R. and J. Mohr. Benthic Inaidacea and Isopoda from the
Alaskan Arctic and the Polar Basin. Crustaceana 3_(3) :192-212,
1963.
7. Given, R. Five collections of Cumacea from the Alaskan Arctic.
Arctic _18_(4): 213-229, 1965.
8. Hulsemann, K. Marine Pelecypoda from the north Alaska Coast.
The Veliger 5_(2): 67-73, 19o2.
9. Hulsemann, K. and J, Soule. Bryozoa from the Arctic Alaska
Coast. Arctic 1.5:228-230, 1962.
10. Sparks, A. and W. Pereyra. Benthic Invertebrates of the South-
eastern Chukchi Sea. In: Environment of the Cape Thompson Region,
Alaska. Wilimovsky, H. and I. Wolfe (eds.) 1966. p. 817-838.
11. Cooney, R. T. Zooplaiikton and Micronekton Associated With a
Diffuse Sound-Scattering Layer in Puget Sound, Washington. Ph.D.
Dissert., Univ. Washington. 1971.
479
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12. Kaestner, A. Invertebrate Zoology III. Crustacea. New York,
Wiley Interscience Publ, 1970. 523 p.
13. Dixon, W. J. BMD Biomedical Computer Programs. Health Sciences
Computing Facility, Dept. Preventive Medicine and Public Health,
School of Medicine, Univ. Calif., Los Angeles. 1965. 620 p.
14. Snedecor, G. Statistical methods. The Iowa State Univ. Press,
Ames, Iowa, 1962. 534 p.
15. Lark, P. Chemical Calculations. New South Wales Univ. Press,
Sydney, 1965. 101 p.
16. Ellis, D. Marine Infaunal Benthos in Arctic North America.
Arctic Inst. N. Amer., Tech. Paper No. 5, 1960. 53 p.
17. Gurjanova, E. Die Marinen Isopoden der Arktis [The Marine Isopods
of the Arctic]. Fauna Arctica 6/5):392-488. 1933.
18. McRoy, C. P. Eelgrass Under Arctic Winter Ice. Nature
2Z4(5221):818-819, 1969.
19. Faas, R. Inshore Arctic Ecosystems With Ice Stress. In: Coastal
Ecological Systems of the United States: A source book for
Estuarine Planning. Odum, H., J. Copeland and E. McMahan (eds.).
Univ. of North Carolina, Institute of Mar. Sci. Kept. 68-128. 1969.
20. Kinney, P., D. Schell, J. Dygas, R. Nenahlo, and G. Hall.
Nearshore currents. In: Baseline Data Study of the Alaskan Arctic
Aquatic Environment, 1971. Inst. Mar. Sci., Univ. of Alaska.
Fairbanks, Alaska. Kept. R-72-3. 1972. p. 29-48.
21. Dunbar, M. Ecological Development in Polar Regions. New Jersey.
Prentice Hall, 1968. 119 p.
22. Thorson, G. The Larval Development, Growth, and Metabolism of
Arctic Marine Bottom Invertebrates Compared With Those of Other
Seas. Medd. on Grn. 100(6):1-147, 1936.
23. Thorson, G. Bottom Communities. In: Treatise on marine Ecology
and Paleoecology. Vol. I. Geol. Soc. Amer. Mem., 67:461-534.
1957.
480
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24. Fischer, A. Latitudinal Variations in Organic Diversity.
Evolution ,14_: 64-81, 1960.
25. Pianka, E. Latitudinal Gradients in Species Diversity: a
Review of Concepts. Amer. Natur. 100(910):33-46, 1966.
26. Dayton, P., G. Robilliard, and R. Paine. Benthic faunal
Zonation as a Result of Anchor Ice at McMufdo Sound, Antarctica.
In: Antarctic ecology I. Holdgate, M. (ed.). New York,
Academic Press. 1970. p. 244-258.
27. Barnes, R. Invertebrate Zoology. Philadelphia, W. B. Saunders
Co., 1966. 632 p.
28. Green, J. The Feeding Mechanism of Mesidotes entomon (Limn.)
Proc. Zool. Soc. Loud. .129:245-254, 1957.
29. Saunders, H. Marine Benthic Diversity: a Comparative Study.
Amer. Natur. _102_(925) :243-281, 1968.
30. Kinney, P., D. Schell, V. Alexander, S. Naidu, C. P. McRoy,
and D. Burrell. Baseline Data Study of the Alaskan Arctic
Aquatic Environments: 8 month Progress Report 1970. Inst.
Mar. Sci., Univ. of Alaska, Fairbanks. Rept. 71-4. 1971.
176 p.
31. Lockwood, A. and P. Croghan. The Chloride Regulation of the
Brackish and Fresh-Water Races of Mesidotea entomon (L.) J,
exp. Biol. 34:253-258, 1957.
32. Green, J. The Biology of Estuarine Animals. Seattle. Univ.
Wash. Press, 1963. 401 p.
33. Ekman, S. Zoogeography of the sea. London. Sidgwick & Jackson,
1967. 417 p.
34. Sanders, H. Benthic Studies in Buzzards Bay I. Animal-Sediment
Relationships. Limnol. Oceangr. _3(3):245-258, 1958.
35. Geiger, S. Distribution and Development of Mysids (Crustacea,
Mysidacea) from the Arctic Ocean and Confluent Sea. Bull. So.
Calif. Acad. Sci. 38(2):103-111, 1969.
481
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36. Curl, H. Analysis of Carbon in Marine Plankton Organisms.
J. Mar. Res. 2£(3):181-188, 1962.
37. Schmitt, W. Schizopod Crustaceans. Kept. Canad. Arctic Exped.
1913-1918. 7(B), 1919.
38. Holme, N. and A. Mclntyre. Methods for the Study of Marine
Benthos. IBP Handbook No. 16. Blackwell Scientific Publications,
Oxford. 1971. 334 p.
482
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CHAPTER 10
COLVILLE RIVER DELTA FISHERIES RESEARCH
Dennis Kogl and Donald Schell
INTRODUCTION
The rivers emptying into the Arctic Ocean along the coast of Alaska have
been utilized for their fisheries resources by the Eskimos since pre-
historic times. During the initial exploration of the coast, Simpson
purchased char from natives who were gill-netting with nets made from
2
fine strips of bowhead whale baleen. Leffingwell describes the gill-
netting of whitefish and char in the coastal waters near Flaxman Island
and the seining of grayling from the Sagavanirktok River by natives.
Further references to the fisheries of the arctic coast, especially in
3
the Colville River delta area, are made by Jenness, who observed that
under-ice gill-netting was continued into December with sufficient suc-
cess to support both families and dog teams. Thus, for perhaps centuries
past and continuing until the present, the fisheries resources of the
rivers and estuaries have been a valuable supplement to the marine
mammal resources of the sea.
The Colville River, as the largest river on the Alaska north slope, has
perhaps the most extensive and commercially valuable fishery resources.
Nevertheless, by virtue of its remote location from Barrow, the closest
population center, this fishery has never been intensively exploited.
The often severe summer ice conditions in the Cape Simpson and Cape
Halkett areas prevent ready access to Barrow by water, and the load limi-
tation imposed in the past by dog sled travel have made winter hauling
marginally feasible. In recent years, however, the situation has
changed as the population of Barrow has grown to the point that the
pressure by local subsistence hunters and fishermen is severe. Better
483
-------
modes of transportation have become available. Fishermen on the Meade,
Chipp, and Colville rivers are now flying their catches to Barrow where
the consumption is primarily local with a fraction being purchased by the
Naval Arctic Research Laboratory for animal food. Some fish of lower
value have been back-hauled on aircraft bringing fuel and "outside"
supplies to the Helmericks camp in the delta. These found utilization
primarily as dog food in the Fairbanks area.
The fall 1972 commercial fishery in the Colville delta consisted of the
Woods family on the Nechelik Channel, the Tukle and Ahvakana families on
the Kupigruak Channel and the Helmericks family on the Anachlik Channel
(easternmost). Most of the fishing is done in the immediate vicinity of
the family dwellings although utilization of choice net sites near the
divergence of the eastern channels has been shared (Fig. 1).
The immediate future promises a rapidly increased exploitation of Col-
ville River fisheries. The re-establishment of the village of Nuitsaq
on the west channel of the Colville delta during spring of 1973, as a re-
sult of a village land allotment by the Alaska Native Claims Act, has
brought several new families into the delta. Their livelihood will
depend heavily upon fishing; and the choice locations for net sites are
limited and have already proved a source of contention among the few
families that have been inhabiting the delta. The need for information
regarding Colville fisheries resources sufficient to allow realistic
harvest limits for sustained yield is urgent and beyond the scope of this
project. Our intent was to utilize our logistic base to provide data
relating the existing environmental conditions to fish populations in the
delta channels.
484
-------
70° 30'
70° 15'
I5/C
HARRISON BA Y
I5O°3O'
Nuilsaq
village
ACTIVE
COMMERCIAL
FISHING
• NARL CAMP
+ RESEARCH NET SITES _
10 km.
N
7O°30'
7O°I5'
I5O°3OW
Figure 1. Fisheries study area.
485
-------
PRELIMINARY LIST OF COLVILLE RIVER FISHES
Fishes that (are known to) occur in the Colville River are: Arctic
cisco (Coregonus autumnalis), least cisco (C. sardinella), broad
whitefish (C. nasusj, humpback whitefish (C. pidsahian), round whitefish
(Prosopium oylindraceim), Arctic grayling (Thyrnallus arcticus), lake
char (Salvelinus namayausn), (Arctic) char (Salvelinus alpinus complex),
chum salmon (Oncorynohus keta), pink salmon (Onaorynchus gorbusaha),
burbot (Lota Iota), long nose sucker (Catostomus oatostorrus), nine
spine stickleback (Pungiti-us pwigitius ), four-horn sculpin (Myoxoaeph-
alus quadrioom-is ), rainbow smelt (Osmerus mordax), Arctic flounder
(Liopsetta glacial-is), and slimy sculpin (Cottus oognatus).
The Arctic char complex will likely be split into two or possibly three
species: an anadromous form which is similar to the Dolly Varden char
(Salvelinus alpinus); and a poorly known char that has a very restricted
range (springs entering Tulugak Lake, Anaktuvuk River drainage).
A lamprey occurs in the Colville but it has not been identified. It is
probably the Arctic Lamprey (Lampetra japoniaa).
Shee fish (Stenodus leuo-iahthys nelma) and sturgeon (Aaipenser sp.) have
been reported both in early writings, pertaining to the waters of the
North Slope and the Colville River, and in recent oral communication with
natives. None of these reports are documented although McPhail and
4
Lindsey cite a shee fish record from the Ikpikpuk River which is the
first drainage west of the Colville.
Aside from sporadic fish collecting by taxonomists, little information on
the fish biota of the Colville River has been available until 1969 when
the Alaska Department of Fish and Game monitored the summer commercial
486
-------
fishery, and 1970 when the department made a more comprehensive, albeit
preliminary survey of the river with emphasis on life history of sport
and commercial species. '
METHODS
The initial fishing effort involved an underwater television reconnais-
sance of the Colville delta in spring 1972 and an aerial survey of the
headwaters of the Chandler River, in which a light aircraft was chartered
to fly tributary streams of the Colville River in spring prior to ice
breakup to.determine the extent and quality of potential fish overwinter-
ing sites.
Fish were caught with gill nets and hook and line. The net most fre-
quently used was 24.4m x 2.4m with 89mm stretch mesh. A 15.3m x 1.8m
net with 127mm stretch mesh and 38.1m x 1.8m variable mesh net composed
of five monofilainent panels ranging in size from 25mm to 127mm stretch
mesh were used to a lesser extent. Nets were set perpendicular to
channels in depths of about 3m in open water and 4 to 7m for fishing
under ice cover.
Fish were measured to the nearest millimeter in fork length. Scales were
taken from fish and mounted dry between glass microscope slides for exam-
ination with a binocular microscope to determine age. Gonads and stomach
contents were examined on fresh specimens. Egg diameters were measured
on a millimeter rule.
Fish that were soon to spawn or were ripe were designated "potential
spawners." Those that had completed spawning were termed "spawned out."
Other fish were termed either "immature," or as having "some development,"
or as being "non-spawners."
487
-------
Gill netting was begun on 23 September and continued intermittently until
15 November 1972. Most fishing was done in the main channel of the Col-
ville River immediately east of the NARL Camp Putu cabins (PE). Addi-
tional stations were in the Nechelik Channel about 1.5km downstream from
its head (PW) and in the main river about 0.2km below the mouth of the
Itkillik River (ITK) (Fig. 1).
At the completion of fall fishing, the nets were removed and the net
lines left in place after being weighted to hold them on the bottom.
These same lines were used for spring fishing.
Fishing was resumed from 18 April to 24 April 1973. The method of line
retrieval and setting gill nets in spring was as follows: four contigu-
ous holes were drilled with a Hoffco 8 inch power auger next to the line
passing through the ice; the line was caught with a hook below the ice
and pulled to the surface; a gill net was fixed to an end of the line and
pulled beneath the ice from the other end. To decrease the rate of
freezing, four auger holes were equally distributed around the net holes
and placed at about three inches from it. As added protection, snow
blocks were placed over all holes.
During fishing operations, water samples were collected for dissolved
oxygen and nutrient chemistry. Water temperatures were taken at net
locations.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Between 11 May and 15 May 1972, an underwater television system was used
to view the channel bottom at various locations in the delta in an
attempt to determine if the channels are used by over-wintering fishes.
The area sampled included the Colville east channel at Putu, several
488
-------
sites along the west channel, and upriver at the mouth of the Itkillik
River. No whitefish were observed although four-horn sculpin were abun-
dant in the saline waters of both channels. In most cases, the presence
of these fish was correlated with a gravel bottom. Many of these fish
were taken on hook and line. The predominant item in sculpin stomachs
was fish eggs, which at this time were eyed. The eggs were approximately
the same size as humpback whitefish eggs. Amphipods and shrimp occurred
to a lesser extent. Freshwater sample sites above the Itkillik River
were too shallow to use the underwater television.
Due to inclement flying weather, only the Chandler River, from its
headwaters to its mouth, was flown. A single area of open water due to
ground water seepage was observed at a point approximately 72km from its
mouth. Digging with a shovel and net for eggs or alevins of char gave
negative results. However, several juvenile grayling were seen.
A fall catch of 834 fish was made in 1,131 net-hours. The catch consist-
ed mainly of humpback whitefish (Coregonus pidschian) (HWF), broad white-
fish (C. nasus) (BWF), Arctic cisco (C. autwrrnalis) (ACi), and least
cisco (C. savdinella) (LCi). Fishes taken in lesser numbers were burbot
(Lota lota) (BB) , char (Salvelinus alpinus complex) (AC), four-horn
sculpin (Myoxocephalus qiiadr'icoYn'is) (FSc), and long nose sucker (Catos-
tomus oatostomus) (S) (Table 1). Nine spine stickleback (Pungitius
pungitius), a small char, and the remains of a lamprey were recorded from
burbot stomachs.
The catch of humpback whitefish was high in late September and early
October and rather sharply declined to a stable level for the duration
of fishing. Much the same pattern was observed with broad whitefish
although they were not present in sizeable numbers. Nets set in the main
489
-------
Table 1. FALL 1972 CATCH
Date
24 Sept.
25 "
25 "
3 Oct.
4 "
4 "
5 "
5 "
6 "
14 "
15-
16 "
18 "
19 "
19 "
20 "
22 .,
23 "
25 "
26 "
27 "
28 "
Station
PE
PW
Putu
Channel
PE
PE
PE
PE
PE
PE
PE
PE
ITK
ITK
PE
PE
PW
PE
PW
PW
PE
PE
Depth
m
3
4
2
2
4.5
2
4.5
2
4.5
4.5
4.5
7
7
4.5
4.5
6
6.5
6
6
6.5
6.5
Net
80
80
80
50
80
50
80
50
80
80
80
80
80
50
80
80
80
80
80
80
80
Net
hrs
21
26
24
22
24
24
24
24
24
24
48
24
26
24
20
21
48
20
21
24
24
HWF
2
23
1
1
61
50
2
122
38
40
53
30
12
14
1
9
9
Species and No. Captured
BWF ACi LCi BB AC FSc S
1
2
1 1
532
1
11 4
4
111
4
412
19 1
1
2 1
5
10
113
21 6
11
1
490
-------
Table 1. (continued) FALL 1972 CATCH
Date
29 Sept.
30 "
31 "
1 Nov.
2 "
2 "
3 "
4 "
4 "
5 "
5 "
6 "
6 "
9 "
10 "
10 "
11 "
11 "
13 "
13 "
14 "
15 "
15 "
Totals
Station
PW
PW
PE
PE
PE
PE
PE
PW
PE
PE
PW
ITK
PE
PE
PW
PE
PW
PE
PW
PE
PW
PW
PE
Depth
m
6
6
6.5
4.5
4.5
6.5
6.5
6
6.5
6.5
6
7
6.5
6.5
6
6.5
6
6.5
6
6.5
6
6
6.5
Net
80
80
80
80
80
Exp
Exp
80
Exp
Exp
80
80
80
Exp
80
Exp
80
Exp
80
Exp
Exp
Exp
80
Net
hrs
24
24
20
23
24
24
24
22
24
24
22
22
22
28
24
24
26
25
48
48
24
24
24
1,131
Species and No. Captured
HWF
6
8
7
12
17
6
9
9
5
6
6
3
6
3
571
BWF ACi
1
4
3 2
1 3
1 5
2
2
1
1
12
1
1
1
2
2
2
68 69
LCi BB AC FSc S
1
1
71 1
14 1
3
13 4
7 2
2
1
6 1
511
1
4 4
4
4 2
1 1
6 2
86 21 1 16 2
491
-------
channel rarely took more than a few Arctic cisco even when the variable
mesh net was employed. Arctic cisco were more abundant near the head of
the west channel (PW) where the process of seawater incursion was more
advanced.
Stenohaline forms, i.e., grayling, lake char, round whitefish, and
sucker, have apparently left the delta by October for upriver spawning or
overwinter areas.
In spring, 1973, three gill nets were fished for 299 hours. An average
of 10 manhours was required to set a net when two augers were in simul-
taneous use. Ice formation in net holes was negligible despite air
temperatures of -12°C to -23°C. At the Itkillik River, six least cisco
and one humpback whitefish were taken. One four-horn sculpin was caught
at Putu-west, and no fish were taken at Putu-east. Baited fry traps
fished at Putu-west and at Itkillik River for 14 hours were empty.
Stonachs of least cisco were empty while the humpback whitefish stomach
contained a moderate amount of amphipods and shrimp. The four-horn
sculpin was feeding on unidentified eggs. Water quality characteristics
at the fishing sites are presented in Table 2.
In view of the number of hours fished at Putu-west and Putu-east in com-
parison with the Itkillik site, there is a strong likelihood that few
if any whitefish frequent the relatively colder, saltier waters found at
the former. More extensive sampling effort is needed to determine if
this preliminary finding can be generalized for the whole delta. Pre-
sumably, the abundance of whitefish would increase with fresher water
upriver from the Itkillik site.
492
-------
Table 2. SPRING SALINITY, AND DISSOLVED OXYGEN - COLVILLE DELTA FISHING
SITES
.Date Station
28 April 1971 Wood's Camp
17 April 1972 ITK
17 April 1972 PE
19 April 1973 PE
21 April 1973 PW
21 April 1973 ITK
Depth (m)
2
4
6
7
2
4
5.5
2
4
5
2
4
6
2
4
6
7
2
4
7.3
Oxygen (mg/£)
4.8
4.3
3.6
3.3
5.4
5.7
5.0
7.3
6.2
7.1
5.5
6.0
6.1
2.4
2.3
-
2.3
2.3
3.4
3.3
Salinity (°/00)
39.6
38.8
40.5
40.8
11.4
15.3
16.1
20.3
21.1
23.2
23.8
24.0
24.2
27.2
27.6
27.7
27.7
27.7
15.8
18.0
493
-------
o
Based on tag recoveries, Wohlschlag believes that least cisco enter
streams of Admiralty Bay to spawn and probably to overwinter. However,
Yukheva9 indicates that least cisco have the capability for overwintering
in the sea (Gulf of Tazov) if plankters are available.
Humpback Whitefish
Humpback whitefish spawned in the east channel at Putu as well as in the
commercial fishery area of the Kupigruak Channel at the mouth of the
Colville. It is likely that spawning occurred at the mouth of the
Itkillik River as well. No direct information is available for Hechelik
Channel, although in April 1972, eyed whitefish eggs were found in the
stomachs of four-horn sculpin at Woods Camp.
The first ripe female was taken under ice in the east channel on 3
October, but presumably spawning had been occurring for some time and was
diminishing by 4 October when the first large sample of fish was ob-
tained. Very few immature fish were taken at Putu and none were seen in
an inspection of the Helmericks' commercial catch although their nets had
a smaller mesh and were, therefore, more likely to select smaller
individuals.
There was a large proportion of females which had only gome gonadal de-
velopment yet fell within the length range of potential spawners. Some
of these fish had eggs of a previous spawning on the gonads. Egg rem-
nants appeared as broken and atrophied chorii. For comparison, retained
eggs of females one month past spawning were turgid and without gross
indication of degeneration. Approximate egg diameters for three classes
of females were 2.3mm - ripe, 0.9mm - some development, and 0.2mm -
spawned out. Immature fish had eggs less than O.lmm. The length range of
six confirmed non-spawners was 362 to 444mm with a mean egg diameter of
494
-------
0.9ram. Although some females appeared to be non-spawners with respect
to fork length and egg diameter, no resorbing eggs could be found; and,
hence, it was possible that they were not mature fish. Nonconsecutive
spawning apparently does not occur in males. The length and maturity
data on humpback whitefish appears in Tables 3 and 4 and Figure 2.
During spawning, humpback whitefish consumed large quantities of their
own eggs. Feeding on eggs diminished after spawning but was still occur-
ring two weeks after the last ripe female was taken. Amphipods were the
predominant item in stomachs. Few fish had empty stomachs. Feeding con-
tinued actively despite a water temperature of 0.1°C and a salinity of
about 9 °/0o at the termination of fishing.
The spawning habits of whitefishes in Alaskan waters are essentially
unknown. The opinion is frequently held that they ascend river systems
to the middle reaches or higher and spawn at night over gravel bottoms
in velocities of about 6km/hr and in sufficient depth to prevent
freezing of the spawn.
Although broad and humpback whitefish ascend the Colville River over
200km from the mouth to spawn (beyond Umiat), they also spawn in the
delta. The significance of delta spawning is that eggs are deposited in
a freshwater environment, just as they are upstream, but hatching and
most of incubation occurs in brackish or marine conditions. At Putu-
east two months after egg deposition, the river current is essentially
nil, and much of the freshwater has been replaced by saltwater (Table 2).
By April, bottom water temperature is approximately -1.1°C with a salin-
ity of 24 °/00. Near the mouth of Kupigruak Channel, where spawning is
known to occur, the salinity in April is about 32 °/00, and the whitefish
eggs apparently hatch in what is essentially the Arctic Ocean,
495
-------
Table 3. HUMPBACKED WHITEFISH REPRODUCTIVE DATA
Sex
Male
Date
4 Oct. 72
5 "
6 "
14 "
16 "
18 "
19 "
20 "
24 "
27 "
£ 28 "
<" 31 "
1 Nov. 72
2 "
3 "
4 "
5 "
6 "
6 "
9 "
10 "
11 "
13 "
15 "
Station
PE
n
n
"
"
ITK
ITK
PE
"
M
n
n
n
n
ii
n
"
PE
ITK
PE
ti
n
M
II
Potential
Spawner
5
8
5
31
36
35
20
10
9
6
5
4
4
11
7
5
5
2
2
2
3
2
4
1
Spawned
Out
0
-
2
1
0
1
3
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
Female
Potential
Spawner
4
3
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Spawned
Out
29
17
3
4
3
4
4
1
5
1
0
2
2
2
3
1
1
1
0
2
2
1
0
0
Some
Development*
23
22
14
2
1
13
3
1
0
1
4
0
2
5
6
0
3
1
7
2
1
0
2
2
Male: Female
Ratio
1:11.2
1:5
1:3.4**
5.3:1
9:1
2.1:1
3.3:1
5:1
1.8:1
3.5:1
1.3:1
2:1
1:1
1.7:1
1:1.1
5:1
1.3:1
1.5:1
1:3.5
1:2
1:1
2:1
2:1
1:2
*coiisists mostly of non-spawners but a few were obviously immature
**a 31 fish subsample of 122 fish total catch
-------
Table 4. AGE, LENGTH AND SEX COMPOSITION OF 87 HUMPBACK WHITEFISH, COLVILLE
DELTA, FALL, 1972
Age
Groug_
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
No . in
Samples
1
1
1
9
27
24
19
5
Length
range (ram)
245
300
330
310-399
357-406
371-432
405-463
431-469
Mean
length (mm)
245
300
330
360
382
399
429
452
Male
1
0
0
3
12
6
4
1
SEX
Female
0
1
1
6
15
18
15
4
Male
Number
Percentages
Female
Number
Immature 0
Some development 8
Potential
spawner 4
Spawned out 7
Non-spawner 41
_Pe rcentage
0
13.3
6.7
11.7
68.3
Length range (mm)
Immature
Some development
Potential
spawner
Spawned out
Non-spawner
1
7
14
5
0
3.7
25.9
51.9
18.5
~~
245
356-379
370-436
372-463
Length range (mm)
300-382
358-449
365-443
362-469
497
-------
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
LENGTH FREQUENCY
C. pidschian
n= 333
x =403mm
I
O
if)
to
O
CD
ro
to
O
CD
to
O
O)
ro
O
O
o o o o o o
CM ro <3~ m co r*-
mm
Figure 2. Length frequency (histogram) - humpback whitefish.
498
-------
Summer samples of humpback whitefish taken at Umiat, although composed
exclusively of potential spawners had a mean length of 381mm (N=105),
while for the east channel at Putu, in the present study the mean length
of spawning fish was 403mm (N=282).
Fifty-five percent of all female humpback whitefish which were within
the range of mature fish (360 to 470mm) were non-spawners. Such a high
proportion of non-spawners, although possibly including some females
which were developing toward their first spawning in 1973, probably is
due to the presence of females in the delta that had spawned upriver in
1971. Further research is needed to determine whether two stocks of
humpback whitefish are present or simply that it is a highly adaptable
species.
The pattern of fish movements in the delta in response to winter ice
formation, the cessation of flow, and the change from river water to sea-
water is unclear. A local native fisherman believes that the humpback
whitefish are coming down the river in October since he had spent several
weeks fishing at a point approximately 23km upstream from Putu. This
opinion has some support from catch data giving the apparent direction of
movement. There appeared to be a slight movement of humpback whitefish
downstream during October as most fish entered the net from upstream.
However, the east channel at Putu is several hundred meters across and
more gear would have been necessary to adequately monitor movements.
A complete reversal of sex ratio in humpback whitefish early in October
indicates strong movements of males and females into and out of the fish-
ing area at Putu-east. Ho upstream movement was detected.
499
-------
Broad Whitefish
The broad whitefish is the target species of the summer fishery in the
Nechelik Channel. Broad whitefish in small numbers were spawning in the
delta and apparently in close proximity to humpback whitefish. A few
specimens had phenotypes that were intermediate between C. pidsahian and
C. nasus, and may be hybrids.
Broad whitefish had a length range of 271 to 584mm with a mean length
of 467mm. The male to female ratio was 2:3. Nonconsecutive spawning,
although it may occur, is not typical. Few immature broad whitefish were
taken in the delta. Stomachs of spawning and post spawning fish were
empty.
Arctic Cisco
The arctic cisco is the most important commercial species in the Colville
delta. This species is ubiquitous in coastal Alaskan arctic waters from
Point Barrow to Demarcation Point during summer months. Arctic cisco is
considered the best table fare by the Eskimos with the broad whitefish
ranking a close second. In fall, arctic cisco congregate in the river
mouths where they support small commercial fisheries. Fishing is con-
ducted under the ice and the catch flown or sledded to Barrow.
The length range for arctic cisco taken in the Colville River delta,
fall, 1972, was 228 to 452mm, with a mean length of 356mm. The age struc-
ture of the catch is depicted in Figure 3. Twelve mature females were
taken; ten of these were non-spawners and two were spawned out. Arctic
cisco younger than age IV were not caught (at Putu) and were apparently
not present.
500
-------
20
16
12
0
AGE GROUP AND
LENGTH FREQUENCY
C. autumnalis
n = 70
x = 358mm
4 —
Iff
3C F
VTTT
1
01
QOO oooooooooooooo
JS
-------
Least Cisco
These fish occurred in small numbers during the course of fall fishing.
Unlike the whitefishes and arctic cisco, juvenile least cisco were
present. The low abundance of least cisco at Putu in the fall as com-
pared with the mouth probably reflects their affinity for brackish water.
Least cisco make up a significant part of the fall commercial catch, not
only in the Colville River but in other arctic rivers. Least cisco are
utilized in the animal colony at NARL and as domestic animal food else-
where.
Burbot
Burbot occur in fair numbers in the Colville delta. They are taken on
hook and line throughout the year. Eskimos relish burbot livers which
are rich in oil. This species, due to its predaceous nature and willing-
ness to take a lure has potential for supporting a limited sport fishery.
We took six burbot on hook and line in 10 minutes at the Putu-east gill
net station. These burbot were attracted to the fish struggling in the
net which they adeptly extract from the mesh while eluding capture
themselves.
During 72 hours of spring ice fishing in 1972, a single burbot was
taken by set line approximately 1km downstream from the Itkillik
River on the Colville. The bottom temperature was -1.3°C with a salinity
of 20.5 °/00. This particular location is common knowledge to all delta
natives and apparently has some unique characteristic that causes burbot
to congregate there.
502
-------
Twenty-two burbot were taken by gill net, although only four were gilled,
and nine were taken on hook and line. The mean length of these fish
was 739mm and they averaged about 2kg each.
Four-horn, Sculpin
These fish are probably widely distributed and abundant in the delta
although gill net results did not indicate this. Angling and television
reconnaissance during spring 1972 revealed four-horn sculpin at most lo-
cations investigated and as many as four individuals were in television
view at one time. They apparently have little difficulty avoiding a net.
REFERENCES
1 Simpson, T. Narrative of the Discoveries on the North Coast of
America Effected by the Officers of the Hudson's Bay Company During
the Years 1836-1339. London, Bentley, 1843. 419 p.
2 Leffingwell, E. de K. The Canning River Region Northern Alaska.
U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 109. Washington, 1919.
251 p.
3 Jenness, D. Dawn in Arctic Alaska. Minneapolis, Univ. of
Minneapolis, 1957. 222 p.
4 McPhail, J. D. and C. C. Lindsey. Freshwater Fishes of Northwestern
Canada and Alaska. Fis. Res. Board Can. Bui. 173, 1970.
5 Winslow, P. C. and E. A. Roguski. Monitoring and Evaluation of Arctic
Waters with Emphasis on the North Slope Drainages. Alaska Dept. of
Fish and Game - Fed. Aid in Fish Restoration, Ann. Rep. of Prog.,,
1969-1970, Project F-9-2. 11:279-301, 1970.
6 Kogl, D. Monitoring and Evaluation of Arctic Waters with Emphasis on
the North Slope Drainages: Colville River Study. Alaska Dept of Fish
and Game - Fed. Aid in Fish Restoration, Ann. Rep. of Prog., 1970-1971,
Project F-9-3, 1971.
503
-------
7 Alt, K. T. and D. R. Kogl. Notes on the Whitefish of the Colville
River, Alaska. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 30:554-556, 1973.
8 Wohlschlag, D. E. Information from Studies of Marked Fishes in the
Alaskan Arctic. Copiea. 4:237-242, 1956.
9 Yukheva, V. S. The Yearly Food Cycle of the Tazov Whitefish
(Coregonus sardinella Val.) Zoologicheskii Zhurnal, Moscow.
34:158-161, 1955.
504
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CHAPTER 11
A SUMMARY OF OBSERVATIONS OF BIRDS AT OLIKTOK POINT AND NOTES
ON BIRDS OBSERVED ALONG THE COLVILLE RIVER - SUMMER 1971
George E. Hall
INTRODUCTION
As part of a continuing program to gather baseline data from the Alaskan
Arctic environment, the Institute of Marine Science of the University of
Alaska supported field work in the area of the Colville River delta and
Simpson Lagoon for the 1971 summer season. An integral part of this
survey deals with the macrofauna of the area, with a particular emphasis
on waterfowl and other birdlife. An increasing amount of field work is
being carried on with regard to waterfowl breeding and migration in this
area. Most surveys of this nature are done by aircraft over a large
area, with little actual ground work in one location or habitat.
Institute of Marine Science personnel had a unique opportunity to do a
more intensive evaluation of a small area, as the sampling program for
oceanography was based at Oliktok Point, with facilities at the DEWline
site POW-2. This peninsula is just east of the Colville delta, and juts
out into Simpson Lagoon. Major habitat types in the area include sedge-
grass marsh, tundra-lacustrine water edge, lacustrine water itself, wet
tundra, and some small areas of alluvial deposits and dry tundra (on
knolls). A total of forty-three species was recorded at Oliktok Point
in an area of a circle with a radius of three miles, the center of which
was the tower at the DEWline site. One additional species, surf
scoter, was recorded in Harrison Bay but not seen within the circle.
Any species recorded in Simpson Lagoon or the Jones Islands were also
recorded at Oliktok.
505
-------
The period of observations covered approximately seven weeks from
12 June until 23 August, and covered the courtship and nesting season,
and then the pre-migration period, with some species having left the
area by the time observations ended. Major waterfowl movements take
place in September and October, and will be studied more closely by air-
craft next season. In addition to daily field notes taken at Oliktok
Point, several trips either on foot across the tundra, or in skiffs in
the Simpson Lagoon and Harrison Bay area, resulted in a broader under-
standing of species distribution and movements in the area. A riverboat
trip was taken from Umiat to NARL Putu camp in the delta in late June to
sample the Colville River and some tributaries for water chemistry as
well as provide additional data on bird distribution. Twenty-one addi-
tional species not recorded at Oliktok Point were seen along the river,
bringing the total number of species treated in the annotated list to
sixty-five. The following annotated list will sum up the various data
on courtship, nesting, post-breeding movements and migration schedules,
as well as notes on relative abundance and some unusual occurrences of
several species at Oliktok Point in 1971.
ANNOTATED LIST OF BIRDS
An annotated list of species seen in the Oliktok Point area, as well as
those noted on the riverboat trip from Umiat to Putu:
Gavia adamsii. Yellow-billed Loon
Seen only on two occasions, both the same day (13 June), this species
apparently does not breed in the immediate vicinity of Oliktok, but
rather further inland on larger lakes. One bird was seen flying east,
the other west; possibly even the same bird. This movement was appar-
ently pre-breeding migration, and no other birds of this species were
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seen later at Oliktok; one bird seen at Ocean Point 26 June was the only
sighting on the Colville.
Gavia arctica. Arctic Loon
The commonest nesting loon at Oliktok Point, this species was seen or
heard daily. On 17 June, eight pairs were counted on tundra ponds along
a seven mile hike. Nesting had not commenced at that time, but on 25
July, a nest was discovered just west of the hangar at POW-2, with the
adults incubating two eggs. Young were seen a week later. By 20 August
only one young survived, and as of then had not left the pond. Thirteen
arctic loons were seen 16 August in Simpson Lagoon between Spy Island
and Cottle Island, all flying singly or in pairs between Beaufort Sea
and their tundra nesting sites. This species was also noted on seven
occasions at various points along the Colville River from Umiat to Putu,
especially at Ocean Point and in the delta.
Gavia stellata. Red-throated Loon
Seen more frequently than either preceding species, this bird was not
found nesting nor seen on the water as often as the arctic. The birds
were noted daily in flight, heading out to feed, and on 17 June, ten
were counted while on a field trip; only one was on a pond. At least
one pair nested in the area as an immature, unable to fly, was found on
a pond 19 August. Presumably the bird prefers to nest somewhat further
inland than the arctic loon, which was commoner right on the coast.
While in Simpson Lagoon 16 August, sixteen red-throated loons were seen
in flight, several carrying fish and headed inland. Only four of £hese
birds were noted on the riverboat trip, and again all were in flight
along the river.
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Olor aolianb'ianus. Whistling Swan
This is a bird of the delta area, and was seen only once at Oliktok
Point. On 16 June, three swans, including two adults and one first year
bird, stayed on the smaller ponds on the point all day. They were not
seen before or after that day. The species was observed in numbers at
Putu in April on the open river, waiting for the ponds to open up. It
has nested in the past at Oliktok Point, but on the larger ponds more
inland. Only one bird was seen upriver from the delta, just below Ocean
Point on a large lake being sampled 28 June. Several swans were seen in
the delta while flying from POW-2 to Barrow 23 August, and five were at
Putu camp on the pond 30 June.
Branta ccu-iadensis. Canada Goose
This species was not recorded at Oliktok Point. A total of forty-seven
birds were seen along the Colville River from Umiat to Ocean Point.
Most were in pairs along gravel bars, but two groups of seven and twelve
were seen 25 and 26 June. The bird nests along the bluffs of the river
and appears restricted to these situations.
Branta nigriaans. Black Brant
This species was moving in considerable numbers in mid-June, but did not
remain in the area to nest. On 12 June, two birds were seen; 13 June -
fourteen fed on the mud flats, and several more flocks were seen in
flight; 14 June - one pair on the ponds and forty-five more in flight;
15 June - one flock of thirty-five, six more flocks of ten to twenty
birds, all in flight going either east or west. By 16 and 17 June, only
a few birds were seen on the ground feeding, or in flight. No birds
were seen on the Colville River between 23 June and 1 July. By
mid-August, brant were again showing up flying west at Oliktok Point.
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Between 16 and 20 August, flocks of eight or a dozen birds were seen
each morning and evening, and on 21 August, over seventy-five birds were
counted.
Anser alb-ifrons. White-fronted Goose
Like the whistling swan, this is another species that is a common breed-
er, but more locally in the delta area, and was therefore noted
infrequently at Oliktok. On 17 June, while on a tundra field trip, two
small groups totaling eight birds flew very close to me and landed a
short distance off to watch. A curious species by nature, they were
presumably attracted by the water sampling gear. No nesting was
noticed, and the species was next seen in August during the post-breed-
ing movements. A flock of six landed at the point 14 August, and
twenty-two more were seen 27 June below Ocean Point on the Colville
trip. Presumably non-breeders, these birds were feeding along the
river bank.
Anas platyrhynohos. Mallard
This species was noted only at Umiat on 23 June. Three birds, one male
and two females, were seen on a pond at Umiat. No birds were seen down
river or at Oliktok Point.
Anas aauta. Pintail
A very common and widespread species, this bird was resident at the DEW
line compound all season and bred within 20 feet of the driveway. Seen
daily at Oliktok, and on the Colville River from Umiat to Putu. Seven
non-breeding birds were at Oliktok Point from 12 June until mid-August,
when they left the area and dispersed. One pair that bred at the site
had four eggs by 16 June, and seven by 18 June. However, the nest was
located by foxes and destroyed before the clutch was hatched. It is not
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known whether this pair laid a second clutch. They were not seen in the
area after 23 July.
Anas ggpolinensis. Green-winged Teal
A male of this species was seen on the pond west of the hangar at POW-2
on 12 June. Apparently the bird was out of its normal range and habitat
as it is not known to breed in the area and is more commonly found at
Umiat and further inland. A bird of brushy sloughs and marshes, this
male was not seen again and presumably returned inland. Four pairs were
seen in the Umiat area 23 and 24 June.
Mareoa amer-Lcana. American Widgeon
Two males seen on the small pond at Umiat were the only birds of this
species noted on the trip 23 June to 1 July. This is another inland
bird and was not noted at Oliktok Point.
Aythya rnari~ia. Greater Scaup
Another species seen only at Umiat on 23 and 24 June, this bird may have
been expected further down river where it has been recorded by Kessel
2
and Cade. A group of nine birds, which included two of the following
species, was noted.
Ay thya affinis. Lesser Scaup
The -presence of two of these birds with a flock of seven greater scaup
3
at Umiat is significant, in that Gabrielson and Lincoln reports the
range as north only to Anaktuvuk Pass. This bird is rare on the north
slope and not reported at all by Kessel and Cade on the Colville River.
The birds were seen well, both on the water and in flight, so that head
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shape and wing markings were noted with certainty. They were both
males. The date of sighting was 23 June.
Clanfjula kyemails. Oldsquaw
This species was abundant during the entire observation period and must
be considered the commonest waterfowl species in the Simpson Lagoon,
Harrison Bay area, as well as an abundant breeder and migrant. Flocks
of up to twenty-five birds were seen daily on the small ponds at the
point, or in the lagoon. At least one pair nested within the POW-2 com-
pound, although the nest of the particular pair could not be located.
Two other pairs were resident all summer near the airstrip. On a tundra
hike 17 June, eighteen birds, all in pairs, were seen on the ponds over
a seven mile transect. Every moderately sized pond had at least one
pair. More significantly, a count was made of the non-breeding birds
resident in Simpson Lagoon between Spy Island and Cottle Island on
16 August. One flock of five thousand birds was noted near the middle
of the lagoon, and an additional twenty-eight flocks consisting of from
five to five hundred birds totaled 2725 in all. The smaller flocks were
all near the islands, on both the lagoon side and the Beaufort Sea side.
Most were resting either on shore or among the ice floes, and would fly
or dive at the approach of the skiff. These birds increase in number so
that by late August the entire lagoon is littered with the feathers from
molted birds. The majority of birds had not started to move in numbers
by the 23 August when observations ceased. According to Gabrielson
3
and Lincoln, these birds will arrive in May and not depart until October
when the sea ice is forming and the ponds are already deep with ice.
Observations along the Colville were apparently all of resident breed-
ers, and a total of thirty-six birds were seen. These were paired
birds, on ponds from Umiat to Putu.
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Somateria moll'i-saima. Common Eider
This bird was noted very infrequently at Oliktok Point during the obser-
vation periods 12 to 18 June and 23 July to 23 August. Apparently, they
migrate earlier and are settled down by mid-June. Five were seen flying
east 13 June, and three more 14 June. None were noted as breeding in
the area, and there was no movement by 23 August. None were seen on the
Colville River in late June. These birds stage spectacular migrations
past the Barrow area, but in general this movement is quite late, into
October. They may not be nearly as abundant in the area east of Barrow,
or are sufficiently scattered as to be seen only infrequently.
Somateria speatabi.'iis King Eider
In contrast to the above species, this eider was very common and the
only one apparently breeding in the area or seen other than in migration.
Several pairs were noted daily in the small ponds and lagoons at the
point from 12 to 18 June. Occasional flocks of ten or twelve were seen
moving by, headed east. On 17 June, this species proved to be the most
abundant waterfowl seen on the seven mile tundra hike with a total of
twenty-six birds, all in pairs on ponds. As no nests were located, the
actual breeding of these birds was not substantiated, but it appeared as
though these pairs were courting and on territory. No birds were seen
on the Colville River trip, but a block of six males and one female was
seen in Simpson Lagoon 16 August, outside of Pingok Island. It would be
significant to study the actual breeding record of this species in the
area, as the concentration of paired birds was very high at Oliktok
Point; it may prove to be a center of breeding abundance.
Lcanpronetta fisoheri. Spectacled Eider
This is one of those species that appears very hard to pin down with
regard to distribution. One pair only was noted at Oliktok Point, and
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that on 17 June. A male arid female flew very low past the observer
while at a pond on the tundra. No others were seen in the lagoon or
2
delta region. Kessel and Cade reports this bird as commonly seen west
of the delta and later in the delta itself. Perhaps this species is
like the common eider, in that it moves around earlier and later than
the observers were present; this would account for its not being seen
3
more frequently. Gabrielson and Lincoln places the center of breeding
abundance as east of Point Barrow, so the bird should be noted more
frequently.
Melanitta deglandi. White-winged Scoter
The only occurrence of this bird was on 17 June when a pair flew over a
tundra pond at Oliktok Point, headed east. Not considered a common bird
on the arctic coast, this species is overshadowed by the more abundant
surf scoter. One small flock of eight white-winged scoters was seen
27 June near Ocean Point on the Colville River.
Melanitta perspi-oillata. Surf Scoter
This bird was not seen at Oliktok Point, but numbers were seen in two
locations near the Colville delta. On 27 June, two rafts totaling
twenty-six birds were seen in mid-river at Ocean Point. In August,
while sampling from a launch in Harrison Bay, a very large raft was
encountered, and numbered between two and three hundred birds. The boat
passed through them for some time and they continued to fly off or dive
so that actual counting proved very difficult. The location was four
miles north of the Nechelik Channel of the delta in Harrison Bay.
Oidemia nigra. Common Scoter
This bird has been recorded only once from the Colville delta region by
3
Gabrielson and Lincoln, and so must be considered quite scarce in the
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region. A single bird was recorded this past season at Oliktok and
unfortunately was a female picked up dead at the base of a radar tower
at Oliktok Point. The specimen was very dessicated and somewhat
decomposed, and so not salvageable, but the field marks were unmistak-
able, especially the large white cheek patch and dark legs and feet.
It was discovered 14 June, but had been there several days.
Mergua serratcr. Red-breasted Merganser
On 17 June, a pair of mergansers flew past the observer on the tundra
going east across Oliktok Point. This proved the only sighting of the
species in the area and no evidence of breeding was noted. On the
Colville River, red-breasted mergansers were seen three times. Six were
seen at the confluence of the Chandler and Colville, a pair at Umiat,
and another near Ocean Point, all between 23 and 27 June.
Buteo lagopus. Rough-legged Hawk
The most commonly seen raptor while on the Colville River between 23 and
29 June, rough-legs were encountered along all the bluff areas. Two
nests were found at Umiat; one behind the pond being sampled, with three
eggs, and one a mile downriver on the bluff of Umiat Mountain. Seven
more pairs were seen at intervals as far down as Ocean Point, but no
more nests were located. When the air was still, as in four instances
and especially at Umiat, the adults could be heard crying at the intrud-
ing humans, and this helped to locate the nests that were found, as well
as some birds in flight. This species was recorded twice at Oliktok
Point in 1970 by Institute of Marine Science personnel; and, therefore
wanders to the coast to hunt on occasion, but was not seen this summer
(1971) during the observation periods.
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Circus _ayaneu8. Marsh Jigwk
One marsh hawk was seen in flight 25 June between the Anaktuvuk and
Chandler Rivers on the Colville. No others were seen, and it was not
noted on the coast at Oliktok Point.
Falco vustioolus._ Gyrfalcon
A bird believed to be this species was watched at length 25 June while
perched on a high bluff ten miles north of Umiat. The bird did not fly,
but the color and size were indicative of this species rather than
F. peregrinuSj and the species is to be expected regularly along the
4
bluffs. Cade saw several pairs the same week, but our party made no
other observations along the Colville and none were seen in the delta
or Oliktok Point area.
Faloo_ peregrinus. Peregrine Falcon
Much concern over this and the preceding species as to the future suc-
cess of their nesting has generated intensive research and survey work
in the known nesting areas. The bluffs along the Colville are prime
areas for nest sites, therefore a careful watch was kept. This species
was seen on three occasions only; in each case a bird was in flight
along the upper crest of a high bluff. No aeries were found, but one
bird landed and perched on a spot that was used frequently due to the
abundance of droppings. Undoubtedly they were nesting in the area, as
Cade had some success at locating active nests in these same spots
between Umiat and Ocean Point. Our observations were made 25 and 26
June. This hawk, as well as all preceding species of raptors, were
absent from the coast region around Oliktok Point and Simpson Lagoon
during the observation periods in 1971.
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Lagopus lagopus. Willow Ptarmigan
When observations began on 12 June at Oliktok Point, two males of this
species were in active courtship display in the tundra around the air-
strip. They were very conspicuous in their flights and calling, one
male frequently chasing another. They were seen for two more days, and
then a single male was in the area until 18 June. No females were seen,
nor were any nests discovered or family groups noted later in the
season. This species is widely scattered along the coast and common
further inland as well. They were seen in Umiat 23 June, and one bird
at Ocean point on the tundra, 27 June.
Charadrius semipalmatus. Semipalmated Plover
On 24 July, a bird of this species was seen at the edge of a sandy pool
behind the warehouse of POW—2. None were seen in the area before or
after this one sighting and presumably the individual was a post or
non-breeding wanderer. Plovers were seen at Umiat (one pair) at the
campsite on the river edge, and Kessel and Cade reports it to be a
common breeder in that area. It apparently did not breed down to the
coast area, at least not at Oliktok Point.
Pluvialis dominiaa. Golden Plover
When observations started in mid-June, these plovers were among many
species of shorebirds actively courting. At lease two pairs were seen
the first day at the DEW site and each day thereafter for a week, the
courtship flight and call could be heard around the airstrip. A count
was made 17 June along a seven mile transect. Nine pairs were seen and
two nests found on the tops of dry knolls. Each contained four eggs
and both adults indulged in distraction displays around the nest area.
On 10 August, two flocks of plovers were seen in flight, suggesting
flocking for migration. Fifteen birds were counted in two flocks on
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Pingok Island on 17 August and were the only ones seen on a skiff sur-
vey of the Jones Islands that day. Two more were seen with S.
squatarola on 22 August on Oliktok Point. This species was also re-
corded at two places on the Colville River in June; on the tundra at
Ocean Point and at Putu, a total of four pairs was counted.
Squatcopolg. squatccPo'ia. Black-bellied Plover
Not normally encountered in wet tundra situations, this species was re-
corded only twice from the Oliktok area as a post-breeding migrant.
17 August, on Pingok Island, two birds were seen on the beach, and on 22
August, two more were seen on the tip of Oliktok Point with two P.
dominiaa. The bird nests on the sandy islands of the delta, according
2
to Kessel and Cade , but none wen
and Putu, 23 June through 1 July.
2
to Kessel and Cade , but none were seen on the Colville between Umiat
Apenaria iees. Ruddy Turnstone
At Oliktok Point, turnstones were found commonly right along the beach
areas, where at least four pairs were resident breeders. They were not
encountered back on the tundra at all, but by 25 July, two families each
containing four downy young were living at the POW-2 site, feeding
around the gravel areas and beach. It was the second commonest shore-
bird encountered 16 August on the beaches of the Jones Islands, where
six groups totaling twelve individuals were counted. They had not left
Oliktok by 23 August and were apparently among the last shorebirds to
leave.
Gallinago gallinago. Common Snipe
The species was heard once and seen twice at Umiat and on four other occa-
sions on the Colville River as far down as Ocean Point, where an individual
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was flushed from beside a marshy pond, 27 June. This species was not
found at Oliktok Point, nor in the delta.
Numenius phaeopus. Whimbrel
The only whimbrels seen were four individuals at Ocean Point, 26 and 27
June. Each acted like it was on territory, becoming very disturbed as
we walked across the tundra. No nests were found, but these birds were
almost certainly breeding there.
Erolia rnetanotos. Pectoral Sandpiper
This was one of several sandpipers actively courting in mid-June when
observations started at Oliktok. Little activity was noted 12 June, but
by 14 June, several males could be seen at the site in courtship flight,
giving the distinctive "boo-boo-boo" sound from the inflated air sacs.
On the tundra hike 17 June, ten pairs were counted, each with a male on
territory. Not as much courting behaviour was noted then. By 23 July,
very few birds were seen around the Oliktok area and presumably most
birds had moved to other areas. Twelve were seen on Pingok Island 16
August, the last to be seen ^n the area. Efforts to find nests were un-
successful at the Point, although it was one of the commonest breeders;
therefore, no egg counts could be obtained. The birds were not seen at
Umiat or along the river until at Ocean Point, 26 June, six pairs were
counted on the tundra among the ponds being sampled. The males were on
territory, but were not courting; incubation was presumably rather far
along by that time.
tirolia fuseicpllis. White-rumped Sandpiper
A rare bird on the arctic slope, this bird was found only once at Olik-
tok, as a pair was seen near the shore on tundra 17 June. Whether or
not the pair bred could not be determined, and no courtship was noticed.
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They were found at Point Barrow, but apparently did not breed according
to Norton. Flock reported seeing three white-rumps near Oliktok on
4 August, leading to the conclusion that perhaps a pair or two may have
stayed to breed in the area.
Ero lia bairdi.i. Baird's Sandpiper
As many as four males in simultaneous courtship flight were seen at
Oliktok between 12 and 18 June. On 15 June, a male was watched hovering
and calling at about 150 feet for ten minutes before descending to
the ground. They preferred the more open, gravelly areas along the
beaches and driveways, in contrast to the semipalmated which was seen in
wetter spots in courtship. One nest of E. bairdii was found with four
eggs 14 June, on a dry knoll just east of the garage at POW-2. The in-
cubating bird was flushed off the nest initially, when it gave a broken
wing display. Subsequently, the bird would not display, but flew off
rapidly and stayed some distance away. Eight pair were counted 17 June
along the seven mile transect. They all were on territory in the drier
areas of tundra. The species apparently disperses early, as no birds
were found at Oliktok after 23 July and only two were seen 17 August on
Pingok Island during the skiff survey of the Jones Islands. Six Baird's
were seen at Putu in the delta 30 June, but none upriver from the
Colville delta.
alpina. Dunlin
Common at Oliktok Point throughout the observation periods, this bird
nested at the site and was the most abundant shorebird on the tundra
17 June; sixteen pairs were counted over a seven mile transect around
Oliktok Point. Males were actively courting 13, 14, and 15 June - the
flight call and glide being very characteristic. A nest containing four
eggs was found and photographed 15 June, by watching the adult from a
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distance as it returned and settled in the grass. Very well hidden, the
nest was in a broad area of wet tundra grass about five inches deep.
Thirty-five dunlins were feeding in the shallow lagoon at the tip of
Oliktok 17 August; six were seen the previous day in various spots along
the Jones Island group. This shorebird was the last migrant in any
numbers to be found at Oliktok Point.
Lirmodromus saolopaaeus. Long-billed Ppwitcher
A species that was not seen in the area of Oliktok Point, but on one
occasion only along the Colville River, at Ocean Point, 26 and 27 June.
A flock of seven landed at the edge of a tundra pond and fed the evening
of 26 June and three were seen in the same spot the following day.
Ereiaietes pusillus. Semipalmated Sandpipe_r
Another common peep, this small sandpiper was courting in numbers be-
tween 12 and 18 June at Oliktok. It frequented the wetter edges of
muddy ponds and marshes exclusively, and was found only in these loca-
tions along the tundra hike 17 June, when twenty-four individuals were
counted. No nests could be located around Oliktok, although it must
have bred abundantly. By 23 July, this bird was generally absent from
the area and a total of seven birds were seen between that date and
1 August. None were seen after that date. While on the Colville River
at Putu, E. pusillus was seen feeding in the muddy areas 28 and 29 June.
A total of eighteen birds was counted, but no nesting was documented in
the delta.
Tryngites subrufiaollis. Buff-breasted Sandpiper
This is another rare species of the arctic slope and is to be found
more abundantly to the east. Some years, they appear to show up in
greater numbers and usually in conjunction with stilt sandpipers,
520
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according to Kessel. Both species were reported by Norton in the
Deadhorse area the first week of June, but only T. subrufiaollis was
noted at Oliktok. On 17 June, while returning on the last mile of the
tundra hike, one bird was spotted near the end of the airstrip. It was
very wary and could not be approached. Later, five more were seen in a
large open and dry area of tundra near the airstrip. Soon, all six
birds could be counted as they performed an elaborate and far-flung dis-
play of courtship flights and postures covering an area of hundreds of
square yards. When a bird landed, it would raise one or both wings,
look about, and usually soon fly toward another individual. The only
vocalizations heard were "clicking" sounds when the birds were on the
ground. It could not be determined which were females, if any; males
are known to display and posture frequently to members of their own sex.
This species displays one of the most elaborate and interesting court-
ships known among shorebirds, and it proved delightful to watch. They
were not seen subsequently, and presumably did not stay to breed at
Oliktok. No others were seen in the area.
Limosa lappon-Loa. Bar-tailed Godwit
2
Kessel and Cade reports this species as occurring in the delta of the
Colville, but we observed it only at Ocean Point while on the river. On
26 and 27 June, males on territory were very noisy whenever observers
were on the tundra. Five birds were counted near the sampling ponds,
and a flock of seven birds flew over 26 June. They were the first birds
seen in the area and continued to be the most conspicuous species due
to the incessant alarm call uttered on territory. No nests were located
and the bird was not seen down river or at Oliktok Point.
521
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Fhalafopus fuliearius. Red Phalarope
When observations commenced 12 June, this bird was the most abundant
shore bird at the POW-2 site. Every melt pond had at least a pair
feeding. On 13 June, forty-seven individuals were counted along the
mile long spit at the point. They were dispersed onto the tundra within
a week, and on 17 June thirty paired individuals were counted on the
tundra around the site. Although many suitable localities were search-
ed, no nests could be found and no fledglings noted later in the
season. By 23 July and until 23 August, these birds had dispersed and
were not found as commonly as L. lobatus. The reverse was true earlier,
in June. While surveying the Jones Islands, only nine P. fuliaajfius
were seen along the shallows. This species becomes pelagic in the fall,
and presumably most had moved further out to sea by late July. Red
phalaropes were noted commonly at Umiat and along the river to Putu.
More than a dozen were present at Ocean Point alone, on 26 and 27 June.
Eight were seen at Putu the following two days and a total of thirty-
five, between 23 June and 1 July, along the entire Colville River area.
Lobipes lobatus. Northern Phalarope
This species was not nearly as abundant as the preceding, as a breeder at
Oliktok Point; the maximum number seen in one day in June was six, in
pairs on the tundra 17 June. It apparently overlaps P. fuliccarius in
this coastal region, and is the more common phalarope further inland.
However, in July and August, this species is found in numbers while
flocking for migration. During a survey of the Jones Islands on 17
August, twenty-five L. lobatus were counted. It was the only phalarope
seen at Oliktok after the middle of August, with two seen on the end of
the point 16 August. Two pair were found at Umiat 23 June, and six
birds at Ocean Point plus an additional five at Putu were the total seen
along the Colville River by the end of June.
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pomarinus. Pomarine Jaeger
Jaeger populations are affected by the abundance of lemmings which are
the staple food along the coast and in the absence of these microtenes,
jaegers will be scarce. This was apparently the case at Oliktok Point
in 1971, as only two of this species was seen in June, on the 12th,
13th, and 15th. They may have still been in migration and did not stay
to breed due to lack of food supply, as no birds were seen the rest of
the season. A very high population of lemmings at Barrow created an
equally high population of breeding S. pomarinns to the exclusion of the
other two species. No lemmings were seen at Oliktok Point during the
periods of observation, and this must account for a nearly total lack of
predatory birds, including hawks, jaegers, or owls. This species was
not encountered anywhere along the Colville River, but would not be
expected far inland as readily as S. longiaaudus .
Steraorarius parasi.tiaus . Parasitic Jaeger
With the absence of the larger and more aggressive pomarine species, this
bird often fills the gap as a breeder. At Oliktok, S. parasitious was
seen flying over tundra 17 June, and a dark-phased bird was at the air-
strip for four days the week before. This was the only jaeger seen in
July or August, as five birds (three groups) were found among the Jones
Islands 17 August while taking a survey by skiff. Parasitic jaegers
were also found on four occasions along the Colville; one at Umiat 24
June, two (apparently a breeding pair) at Ocean Point 27 June, and one
at Putu the following day.
longioaudus . Long- tailed Jaeger
This jaeger is more at home further inland than Oliktok Point where it
does not have to compete with its more aggressive cousins. However,
523
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ry
Kessel and Cade reports it out to the Colville delta, and one bird was
seen 17 June on the tundra three miles from the POW-2 site. Several un-
identified jaegers were seen out over the tundra between 13 and 16 June,
which could have been any one of the three species; it was during the
period of general movement of these birds and was more than likely not
this species. Long-tails were found at Umiat 24 June, and one bird near
the Chandler River 25 June was the only other one seen on the riverboat
trip.
LOTUS hyperboreus. Glaucous Gull
An abundant resident species both as breeder and non-breeder, this gull
is ever present along the coast and the outer islands of Simpson Lagoon
and Oliktok Point. In mid-June, between the 12th and 18th, at least
fifty gulls were in evidence around the site, attracted mainly to the
dump area and the mess hall where they would congregate for handouts.
Birds in passage overhead, in small groups, were seen constantly. Most
of these birds were non-breeders and the same population appeared
stable throughout the season. On trips to the Jones Islands, or in
Simpson Lagoon, glaucous gulls in breeding pairs were found at eighteen
separate locations, in each case in sandy, exposed spits or narrow
islands. On 17 June, while on the tundra hike, only three birds were
seen as far as three miles from the coast and they were all over the
largest ponds; a total of eighteen were seen that day, the rest being
near shore and excluding the resident site population. la August, along
the Jones Islands, one hundred twenty glaucous gulls were counted in
twenty-eight separate groups, one of which contained twenty-nine birds.
The species was second in abundance only to the oldsquaws. Along the
Colville River, this gull was also seen commonly from Umiat to Putu
between 23 June and 1 July. At least one pair was nesting at the larg-
est pond at Putu, with nineteen more counted at Putu alone.
524
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Xema sgbini. Sabine's Gull
Compared to the preceding species, this bird was quite scarce at Olik-
tok; five seen on 14 June was the highest number at one time, and two
birds appeared to take up residence at the edge of a pond on the point,
but breeding was not. substantiated and they had left the area by 23
July. One bird was seen over the tundra 17 June and three were counted
in the Jones Islands 16 August. Apparently restricted to the coast, this
gull may not be an abundant species at any time in the area; Kessel and
2
Cade reports this bird in small numbers also and none were seen in
June 1971 along the Colville or delta by Institute of Marine Science
personnel.
Sterna paradisaea. Arctic Tern
Another widely scattered species, but not abundant in the area of Olik-
tok Point, arctic terns were seen on three days in June - the 12th,
14th, and 17th. No more than two birds were seen at once, and these may
have been a resident pair. It was not known if nesting took place, but
the species was more numerous in August among the Jones Islands, where
twelve birds, in five separate groups, were seen on the 16th. Another
pair was seen at Umiat 23 and 24 June, and a total of five more were
seen along the Colville River and at Putu between 24 June and 1 July.
Cepphus grylle. Black Guillemot
3
Gabrielson and Lincoln is not explicit with the range of this
bird except to say that it occurs as a straggler off the arctic coast of
Alaska. It is seen regularly in Barrow in the summer, and winters in the
leads off the coast. The presence of one individual on 16 August in
Simpson Lagoon just off Oliktok Point is not unusual, but was unique in
that it remains the only record for the area of any Alcidae seen by the
observers during the periods in June, July, and August 1971. More
525
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offshore work would undoubtedly turn up more occurrences of this and per-
haps other species like Uria sp. The water in Simpson Lagoon is very
shallow, less than ten feet in most places, and quite turbid, making the
area apparently less attractive to this species than beyond the Jones
Islands in the Beaufort Sea.
ifyotea soandiaoa. _Snpwy__Qwl
A single owl was present at the DEWline site POW-2 from late July
through the first week in August and was joined by a second bird 6
August. The species was not present for the breeding season, perhaps
due to a lack of microtenes, and was not seen between 23 June and 1 July
along the Colville River. One bird was spotted from a Cessna as the
plane crossed the delta 1 July, and the species was seen in abundance as
we approached Point Barrow along the coast.
H-irundo rust-Log. Barn Swallow
At 1445 hours on 15 June, a swallow was observed flying around the
buildings and site POW-2. As it passed overhead several times, all
field marks were noted, especially the dark and continuous band across
the breast. This mark suggests the possibility that the bird seen was
the European barn swallow, H. r. rustiaa, which has been recorded once
o
in Alaska at Point Barrow. According to Gabrielson and Lincoln,
Brower took a bird in June of 1934 which proved to be this race. The
bird at Oliktok could not be collected, so the race cannot be sub-
stantiated. The range of the American race extends to the Yukon valley,
but does not include the arctic slope except for a few isolated records.
Corvus aovax. Common Raven
Between 23 and 27 June, while on the Colville River, ravens were conspic-
uous sights along the bluffs. Fourteen were seen between Umiat and
526
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Ocean Point, mostly singly and apparently not on territory. Kessel and
2
Cade reports this species as nesting along the bluff areas, but we were
not able to determine if any we counted were nesting. A single bird
appeared at Oliktok Point in early August and was present intermittently
until 23 August when observations ceased. Personnel at the site reported
that ravens, attracted by the dump, have stayed quite late into the fall.
Tuvdus mJcjmtoy^ius . Robin
This species was not recorded at Oliktok Point, but was found only at
Umiat on 23 and 24 June. Two birds were seen, apparently not a mated
pair, in brushy undergrowth, and a singing bird was heard on 24 June.
Hylociehla minima . Gray-cheeked Thrush
2
Kessel and Cade reports this bird as far down the Colville River as
Ocean Point, and so careful record was kept of observations below this
point. The bird was commonly found all along the brushy areas from
Umiat down, and the last sighting was on a bluff at the confluence of
the Itkillik River and the Colville about six miles above the delta, 28
June. They doubtless occur wherever heavy brush is present; the species
is known to wander north to the coast as many records from Barrow to the
Bering Sea are extant, but the bird was not recorded at Oliktok Point
this season.
Phyllosaopus bprealis. _Ajrjct.ic_ Warbler
The voice of this species is very distinctive, and once learned serves
to identify it at a distance without having to see the bird. Again,
records were kept of the distribution of arctic warblers below Umiat on
the Colville and they were last heard about five miles above Ocean Point.
Whenever we camped or stopped in suitable brushy habitat, the voice
527
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could be heard; they may be present to or below Ocean Point, but we were
not in the right habitat to hear them. One individual (the last one
found) was attracted by a swishing sound and was observed at very close
range in the brush to varify the identity. Not normally recorded out of
its specific habitat range, arctic warbler was not seen, or expected, at
Oliktok Point.
Motaoilla flava. Yellow Wagtail
On 15 June, an individual wagtail was observed flying about the tundra
near the DEWline site at Oliktok. A distinctive and conspicuous bird
when present, the one bird was the only record for the season at Oliktok
Point. They were common along the Colville River from Umiat down to
Ocean Point. Preferring the taller brush interspersed with open areas,
they would hover at 50 feet uttering the incessant alarm call. As
many as five males could be seen at one time on 28 June between Ocean
Point and the Itkillik River, at the sampling location and campground.
None were recorded from the delta at Putu.
Lanius exeubitor. Northern Shrike
One shrike was seen on the Colville River, halfway between the conflu-
ence of the Anaktuvuk and Ocean Point, about opposite Sentinel Hill.
The bird flew across the river from some high brush on 26 June. Kessel
2
and Cade recorded the species from Umiat, but no further north. There-
fore, this sighting may be significant; doubtless the bird is widely
scattered throughout the high brush habitat and hard to pin down to a
specific distribution. No other sightings were made.
Oendpoi-ca aoronata. Myrtle Warbler
Being a very common and widespread species in the interior, and having
o
wandered to Barrow at least twice according to Gabrielson and Lincoln,
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the presence of a single bird at Oliktok was not extraordinary. On 17
June, a small bird was seen flitting around the tundra near shore. Very
plain brownish and heavily streaked, with prominent wing bars, the
yellowish patch on the rump and crown, with less distinct yellowish wash
on the shoulder was diagnostic and left no doubt as to the identity
being a female D. ooronata. It shortly flew some distance away and
could not be secured for a specimen; it was not subsequently seen in the
area, nor was this species found in Umiat or along the Colville River.
Aeanthis hormemanni. Hoary Redpoll
2
Following the example of Kessel and Cade, the references to redpolls
on the arctic slope will assume that this species is the one found
almost exclusively as far north as the coast at Oliktok Point. Redpolls
were seen at Oliktok 15 June, when three birds were feeding at the base
of a radar antenna, and 17 June on the tundra two miles from the site.
The status, age, or sex could not be determined and speculation as to
the birds' breeding in the area remains unsolved. Redpolls are common
breeders in all brushy areas along the Colville and were seen and heard
from Umiat to Putu between 23 June and 1 July. They would respond to
swishing notes and could be coaxed to investigate the sound at close
range, often appearing out of the brush six at a time. From close obser-
vation, it appeared as though all individuals seen were A. hornemanni
rather than A. flammea. No actual nests were found.
Passeraulus sandiJichensis. Savannah Sparrow
Not recorded at Oliktok Point at all, but seen sporadically along the
Colville River from Umiat to Putu between 23 June and 1 July. The birds
were heard at Umiat on 24 June and ten more were heard or seen at the
Chandler River, Ocean Point, and Putu in the delta. Not as conspicuous
as some other small passerines, it may be more abundant than these
529
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records show for the habitat was ideal all along the river and Kessel
2
and Cade report the species in several locations as common.
Spi,ze11a arborea. Tree Sparrow
Another species that is more restricted to brush areas and small trees,
tree sparrows were not encountered at Oliktok Point, but in small
numbers at several locations along the Colville River from Umiat as far
down as the lake on the east side of the river between Ocean Point and
the Itkillik River. A total of thirteen birds were seen or heard; five
at Umiat and two at the above-mentioned spot 28 June.
Zonotviohia leuaophrys. White-crowned Sparrow
Found as far north as Putu camp in the delta of the Colville, this con-
spicuous bird was searched for in particular to determine how far down
(north) the river it might occur. One bird was seen at Putu 30 June,
several between the Itkillik and Ocean Point, but none at Ocean Point
itself. Two were seen and heard at the Chandler River and several more
heard at Umiat, especially up Bear Paw Creek, with a pair residing near
the camp spot along the Colville. The species was not recorded at
Oliktok Point.
Passerella iliaea. Fox Sparrow
Closely associated with other brush-loving passerines, this bird was not
found in the vicinity of Oliktok Point, but rather commonly along the
Colville River from Umiat to Ocean Point between 23 and 27 June. It was
heard all along Bear Paw Creek at Umiat, seen and heard near the Anak-
tuvuk and Chandler Rivers, and two were heard at Ocean Point 27 June.
The fox sparrows were found in denser brush than the other species and
could not be attracted by swishing noises as readily as tree sparrows,
530
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redpolls, and white-crowned sparrows. Although apparently breeding as
far downriver as Ocean Point, no nests were located.
Calogpius lappon-icus. Lapland Longspur
Wherever one went on the arcitic slope, with the exception of very exten-
sive brushy areas or the barren outer islands off Simpson Lagoon, this
ubiquitous species was the abundant breeder and resident. On the tundra
at Oliktok Point, it far outnumbered any other passerine species. On 17
June, thirty-eight birds were counted along a seven mile transect, which
included some beach area that was not suitable habitat. All the males
were engaged in courtship displays which consist of long flights and
glides while singing. One nest containing six eggs was found at the
base of a dwarf willow on a hummock. The height of courtship appeared
to be at the onset of our observation period, 12 June, and continued for
the next week. In late July and August, the birds were not as conspic-
uous, although several large flocks of up to fifty or sixty birds were
seen in mid-August as they gathered for migration. Wo longspurs were
seen after 22 August, but observations ceased at Oliktok at that time,
and there may have been some late migrants. As was expected, the long-
spurs were seen commonly on the tundra above Umiat and in all open
areas along the river up to Ocean Point and at Putu between 23 June and
1 July. These birds were all in the process of incubation and very
little display activity was noted.
Fleetrophenax nivalis.Snow Bunting
At Oliktok Point, this species was restricted to the extreme beach areas
of the coast and there they were abundant breeders. From 12 June when
observations started, the song of this bird was heard constantly around
the site; by 16 June, seven nests had been located within one-half
mile of the DEWline modules. Egg dates were kept on record cards and
531
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the final clutch sizes ranged from five to a maximum of seven in one
nest. At least three more pairs were nesting at the site; the unusual
concentration of these nests must be attributed solely to available
habitat, as every nest found was under a discarded fifty gallon barrel
imbedded in the sand, providing protection. In other areas along the
coast, where the same protection was not available, buntings were
scarce. One nest was situated eight inches from a water valve at a
storage tank, under a barrel, and was disturbed almost daily by person-
nel for maintenance. Irregardless, all seven young were raised sucess-
fully, as were all other clutches apparently. Observers were not
present for the hatch period, and undoubtedly some mortality did occur;
from 23 July into August, bunting families were feeding and molting down
feathers all around the site. A conservative count revealed twenty-five
birds within a thousand feet of the modules on 30 July. Site personnel
were aware of the nests and respected these conditions, taking personal
pride in the numbers of these attractive birds. By mid-August, most of
the families had dispersed and occasional large flocks would be seen
feeding around the tundra near shore. Only three birds were counted in
the Jones Islands on 16 August and birds were still present 23 August
when observations ceased. Presumably, the species stays on the tundra
at least until September, when migrations are noted further inland
2
according to Gabrielson and Lincoln. Snow buntings were not recorded
anywhere along the Colville River or at Putu between 23' June and 1 July.
CONCLUSION
The birds noted at Oliktok Point are typical of the avifauna found on
the arctic slope of Alaska, and the abundance of certain species of
waterfowl and shorebirds points out the tremendous value of this region
as a breeding area. This report cannot serve as a comprehensive survey
of the birds of the entire region as the areas covered were too small
532
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and observation periods limited to seven weeks out of the whole season.
However, methods learned this year will be employed and expanded to in-
clude a broader scope of future surveys in the area next year. This
data should supplement and corroborate much that is known about the dis-
tribution of birds in the region, as well as give clues to species that
may require more intensive work.
Each season is different with regard to weather patterns and species
distribution or abundance. Several species known to occur either as
breeders or migrants were not observed by Institute of Marine Science
personnel in 1971; field work in the Colville delta itself would have
turned up some of these species, as would surveys just east or inland of
Oliktok Point. Hopefully, next season will include extensive aircraft
surveys combined with ground work to round out a somewhat sketchy
picture, as the main value of this report will be found in its treatment
of those species found in the immediate area of Oliktok Point.
REFERENCES
1 Walker, H. J., Personal communication, July 1971
2 Kessel, Brina, and Cade, Tom J. Birds of the Colville River,
Northern Alaska, Biol. Pap. Univ. Alaska, No. 2, University of
Alaska, Fairbanks, 1958
3 Gabrielson, Ira N., and Lincoln, Frederick C. The Birds of Alaska.
Washington, D. C.; Wildlife Mgmt. Inst. 1959
4 Cade, Tom J., Personal communication, July 1971
5 Norton, David L., Personal communication, June 1971
6 Flock, Warren, Personal communication, August 1971
7 Kessel, Brina, Personal communication, June 1971
533
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CHAPTER 12
RECOMMENDATIONS
The primary purpose of this study was to obtain baseline data for a
previously inadequately studied area, which would then be available for
interpretation in the light of increased human activity in the region.
Such data now exist as a result of these efforts, and the effects of
increased usage can be monitored with reference to this information.
In many of the areas of study, it is difficult to make recommendations,
and the data and their interpretation must speak for themselves at this
stage. However, there are some aspects in which strong suggestions can
be made realistically:
1) The development of isolated pockets of hypersaline water during
the winter, and the importance of these to fish survival sug-
gests that organic loading would be a serious problem in the
lower portions of the Colville River. Already, biological
activity reduces oxygen concentrations in the winter, and this
activity is remarkably high considering the low temperatures
extant. Any increase in rate of oxygen utilization could re-
sult in total depletion, with resultant fish kills. The im-
portance of the fish resource as a supplement to coastal marine
mammal resources for the native population is well-understood,
and increased utilization of freshwater fishes for subsistence
and commercial purposes is expected in response to settlement
of the Alaska Native Claims Act, which has brought several new
families to the area. Waste disposal is thus a potential prob-
lem.
2) The influence of man on benthic and planktonic components of
the biota is less likely to be extreme, although oil spill
hazards are considerable and could change or reduce the popu-
lations. In particular, we know nothing of the behaviour of
oil with respect to ice cover, and of the possible effects of
spills on the ice algae and associated fauna, which form an
535
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important part of the annual primary and secondary productivity
regime. We strongly recommend studies along these lines.
3) There is a relatively active movement of beach and barrier up-
land material from east to west and this will, to a large ex-
tent, dictate areas of exploitation. However, considerably
larger volumes of sediment may be transported on a sporadic,
cataclysmic basis as a result of storm action emanating pre-
dominantly from the northwest.
4) Of all the shore zones, the area where submarine/subsurface
construction could be accomplished with the greatest facility
would be within the lagoon complex. These areas are pre-
dominantly frozen to the sediment surface during the winter
months and protected from ice scour by the seaward uplands.
Potential ecological damage would have to be assessed in each
individual case.
536
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(/'lease read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. RtlPORT NO.
EPA-660/3-75-026
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION-NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
5. REPORT DATE
Environmental Studies of an Arctic Estuarine
System
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7.AUTHOR1S) v_ Alexander5 D.C. Burrell, J. Chang, R.T.
Cooney, C. Coulon, J.J. Crane, J.A. Dygas, G.E. Hall,
P..T. Kinnpv- Ti. Kogl. T.C. Mowatt. A.S. Naidu.
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORG ^NIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS rp -g OsterkaffiD D M
University of Alaska Schell, R.D. Seifert
Institute of Marine Science and R.W. Tucker
Fairbanks, Alaska 99701
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
1BA022
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
R80112V-03
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Environmental Protection Agency
Arctic Environmental Research Laboratory
Fairbanks, Alaska 99701
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
The Colville River estuarine system was studied over a period of four years.
Physical, chemical, geomorphological and biological features were included.
North slope river deltas differ significantly from those elsewhere, due to
climatological extremes and a long, cold, dark winter with continuous ice-cover
and continuous daylight during the summer with melting ice or open water. Basic
information has been obtained on the winds, waves and currents. Predominant
current directions are from the west, with wind drift currents with a periodicity
of 4 to 5 days. Beach sediments are characterized as poorly sorted gravelly
sandy sediment in a relatively low energy environment. The ice-free biological
regime is strongly influenced by the river input of low salinity water containing
relatively high concentrations of nitrogen nutrients. An annual primary
production in the estuary is estimated at 10-15 g-C/m^. Crustaceans, molluscs
and polychaetes characterize the macrofauna at depths exceeding 2 m, with but
few species responsible for most of the biomass. Interesting features of the
chemical regime are connected with the isolation of hypersaline water in the
shallow estuarine and river system. Fresh water systems were included in the
s tudy.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
aquatic environment
Beaufort Sea
estuary
currents (water)
biological studies
physical oceanography
Arctic
b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
baseline studies
environmental assessment
Colville River
c. COS AT I Field/Group
13. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
21. NO. OF PAGES
20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1975—698-965 IS REGION 10
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