United States Office of Emergency and Environmental
Environmental Protection Remedial Response Response
Agency Emergency Response Division Team
vvEPA
Emergency Response
to Hazardous Material
Incidents
Environmental Response
Training Program
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-------
FOREWORD
This manual is for reference use of students enrolled in scheduled training courses of the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. While it will be useful to anyone who needs information on
the subjects covered, it will have its greatest value as an adjunct to classroom presentations
involving give-and-take discussions among the students and the instruction staff.
This manual has been developed with a goal of providing the best available current information.
Individual instructors may provide additional material to cover special aspects of their
presentations.
Due to the limited availability of the manual, it should not be cited in bibliographies or other
publications.
References to products and manufacturers are for illustration only; they do not imply
endorsement by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Constructive suggestions for the improvement in the coverage, content and format of the manual
are welcomed.
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EMERGENCY RESPONSE TO
HAZARDOUS MATERIAL INCIDENTS
(165.15)
5 DAYS
This course provides those personnel who are, or will be operating as a member
of a hazardous materials response team with the basic skills needed to evaluate
and mitigate an incident involving the release of hazardous materials.
The objectives of the course are to teach participants:
• Methods and procedures for evaluating and controlling a
hazardous materials incident.
• Guidelines and principles for protecting the health and
safety of response personnel.
• The fundamentals of response team organization and
operations.
• The proper use of chemical protective clothing and direct-
reading instruments.
• Confinement and containment techniques.
After completing the course, attendees will be more knowledgeable about
evaluating and controlling an incident, incident response operations, chemical
protective clothing, and response equipment.
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Emergency and Remedial Response
Environmental Response Team
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION NAME SECTION NUMBER
INTRODUCTION AND EMERGENCY RESPONSE TO HAZMAT
RESPONSE OPERATIONS: SAFETY PLANS AND STANDARD
OPERATING PROCEDURES
THE INCIDENT COMMAND SYSTEM 3
CHARACTERISTICS OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 4
TOXICOLOGY 5
INFORMATION RESOURCES 6
IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS ...'.' 7
RESPONSE OPERATIONS: SIZE UP, STRATEGY, AND TACTICS 8
LEVELS OF PROTECTION 9
CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING 10
INITIAL SITE SURVEY AND RECONNAISSANCE 11
INCIDENT CONTROL: CONFINEMENT AND CONTAINMENT 12
REGULATORY OVERVIEW 13
DIRECT-READING INSTRUMENTS AND RADIATION SURVEY
INSTRUMENTS 14
DECONTAMINATION 15
APPENDIX I: RESPIRATORY PROTECTION 16
GLOSSARY 17
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ACRONYMS
AAR - Association of American Railroads
ACGIH - American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
AIHA - American Industrial Hygiene Association
ANSI - American National Standards Institute
APF - Assigned Protection Factor
APR - Air-Purifying Respirator
ASR - Atmosphere Supplying Respirator
ASTM - American Society of Testing and Materials
ATTIC - Alternative Treatment Technology Information Center
BBS - Bulletin Board System - Dataport
BEI(s) - Biological Exposure Indices
B of M - Bureau of Mines
BOD - Biological Oxygen Demand
C - Ceiling
CAG - Carcinogen Assessment Group
CAMEO - Computer Aided Management of Emergency Operations
CCIRS - Chemical Carcinogenesis Research Information System
CDC - Center for Disease Control
CEPP - Chemical Emergency Preparedness Program
CERCLA - Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act (1980)
CESARS - Chemical Evaluation Search and Retrieval System
CFR - Code of Federal Regulations
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ACRONYMS
CGI - Combustible Gas Indicator
CHEMTREC - Chemical Transportation Emergency Center
CHLOREP - Chlorine Emergency Plan
CHRIS - Chemical Hazard Response Information System
CIS - Chemical Information System
CMA - Chemical Manufacturers' Association
CPC - Chemical Protective Clothing
CPE - Chlorinated Polyethylene (Chloropel)
CPM - Counts Per Minute
CRC - (CRC Press) - A publisher of scientific reference books
CRC - Chemical Referral Center
CRGS - Chemical Regulations and Guidelines Systems
CRP - Community Relations Plan
CSIN - Micro-Chemical Substances Information Network
CTC - Canadian Transport Commission
dBA - Decibels-A-weighted
DBCP - Dibromochloropropane
DBIR - Directory of Biotechnology Information Resources
DDT - Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
DECQN - Decontamination
DFM - Diesel Fuel Marine
DHHS - Department of Health and Human Services
DMSO - Dimethyl sulfoxide
POD - Department of Defense
3/94 9
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ACRONYMS
DOE - Department of Energy
DPI - Department of the Interior
POL - Department of Labor
DOT - Department of Transportation
DRI - Direct-Reading Instruments
EERU - Environmental Emergency Response Unit
EL - Exposure Limit
EMICBACK - Environmental Mutagen Information Center Backfill
EPA - Environmental Protection Agency
ERGS - Emergency Response Cleanup Services, under EPA contract
ERT - Environmental Response Team
ETICBACK - Environmental Teratology Information Center Backfill
eV - Electron Volt
FEMA - Federal Emergency Management Agency
FES - Fully Encapsulating Suit
FID - Flame lonization Detector
FIT - Field Investigation Team, under contract to EPA
FM - Factory Mutual
FR - Federal Register
GC - Gas Chromatograph or Gas Chromatography
GEMS - Graphical Exposure Modeling System
GFCI - Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter
HACS - Hazard Assessment Computer System
HazCom - Federal Hazard Communication Standard
3/94 1
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ACRONYMS
HEPA - Common use: "HEPA Filter" High Efficiency Paniculate Air
filter.
HIT - Hazardous Information Transmission
HMIS - Hazardous Materials Identification System
HMRT - Hazardous Materials Response Team
HSDB - Hazardous Substance Data Bank
1C - Incident Commander
ICC - Interstate Commerce Commission
IDLH - Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health
IMP - International Maritime Organization
IP - lonization Potential
IPY - Inch per Year
IR - Infrared Radiation
IRAP - Interagency Radiological Assistance Plan
IRIS - Integrated Risk Information System
IUPAC - International Union of Pure and Applied Chemists
LCj0 - Lethal Concentration, 50%
LD.n - Lethal Dose, 50%
LEL - Lower Explosive Limit
LFL - Lower Flammable Limit
MACs - Maximum Allowable Concentration
MESA - Mining Enforcement and Safety Administration
mg/cm3 - Milligrams per Cubic Centimeter
mg/kg - Milligrams per Kilogram
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ACRONYMS
mg/L - Milligrams per Liter
mg/m3 - Milligrams per Cubic Meter
MIRAN - Trade name for series of Foxboro Miniature Infrared Analyzers
MOS - Metal Oxide Semiconductor
Mr/hr - Milliroentgens per Hour
MSDS - Materials Safety Data Sheets
MS HA - Mine Safety and Health Administration
MUC - Maximum Use Concentration
MUL - Maximum Use Limits
NBR - Nitrile-Butadiene Rubber (syn. Buna-N)
NCP - National Contingency Plan
NEC - National Electric Code
NFPA - National Fire Protection Association
NIOSH - National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
NOAA - National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
NOS or n.o.s. - Not Otherwise Specified
NPIRS - National Pesticide Information Retrieval System
NPL - National Priorities List
NRC - Nuclear Regulatory Commission
NRR - Noise Reduction Rating
NRT - National Response Team
NSF - National Strike Force (U.S. Coast Guard)
QCIS - Occupational Safety and Health Administration Computerized Information System
OHSMSDS - Occupational Health Services Material Safety Data Sheets
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ACRONYMS
OHMTADS - Oil and Hazardous Materials Technical Assistance Data System
QRM - Other Regulated Material. Various specific classes such as ORM-A, ORM-E, etc.
OSC - On-Scene Coordinator
OSHA- Occupational Safety and Health Administration
OSWER - Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response
OVA - Organic Vapor Analyzer
PCB - Polychlorinated Biphenyl
PEL - Permissible Exposure Limit
PF- Protection Factor
PIP - Photoionization Detector
PPE - Personal/Personnel Protective Equipment
ppb - Parts Per Billion
ppm - Parts Per Million
pp_t - Parts Per Trillion
PTD - Programmed Thermal Desorber
PVA- Poly Vinyl Alcohol
PVC - Poly Vinyl Chloride
OA/OC - Quality Assurance/Quality Control
RCRA - Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
REL - Recommended Exposure Limits
REMFIT - Field Investigation Team for remedial actions under contract to EPA
RI/FS - Remedial Investigation/Feasibility Study
ROD - Record of Decision
RO - Reportable Quantity (SpG of Water = 1)
3/94 fi
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ACRONYMS
RRP - Regional Response Plan
RRT - Regional Response Team
RTECS - Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemicals
SBR - Styrene-Butadiene Rubber
SCBA - Self Contained Breathing Apparatus
SOPs - Standard Operating Procedures
SOSGs - Standard Operating Safety Guides
SpG - Specific Gravity
SPHERE - Scientific Parameters for Health and the Environment, Retrieval and Estimation
STARA - Studies on Toxicity Applicable to Risk Assessment
STEL - Short Term Exposure Limit
TAT - Technical Assistance Team, under contract to EPA
TC - Testing and Certification
TCDD - Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin
TCE - Trichloroethylene
TDI - Toluene-2,4,-diisocynate
THR - Toxic Hazard Rating
TIP - Total lonizables Present
TLVs - Threshold Limit Values
TNT - Trinitrotoluene
TOXNET - Toxicology Data Network
TRI - Toxic Release Inventory
TSCA - Toxic Substances Control Act
TWA - Time Weighted Average
3/94 7
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ACRONYMS
2. 4. 5-T - 2, 4, 5-Trichlorophenoxyacetic acid
UEL - Upper Explosive Limit
UFL - Upper Flammable Limit
UL - Underwriters Laboratories
UN - United Nations
USCG - United States Coast Guard
USGS- United States Geological Survey
UST - Underground Storage Tank
WEEL - Workplace Environmental Exposure Levels
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Section 1
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INTRODUCTION AND EMERGENCY
RESPONSE TO HAZMAT
PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lesson, participants will be able to:
• Identify the four major components of an effective response
organization
• Identify at least three components of EPA's emergency
response model
• Describe EPA's purpose in providing this training
• Describe the authority under which this training program
falls.
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NOTES
INTRODUCTION AND
EMERGENCY RESPONSE TO
HAZMAT
COMPONENTS OF AN EFFECTIVE
RESPONSE ORGANIZATION
Response organization
Personnel
Training
Equipment
THE U.S. EPA
INCIDENT RESPONSE MODEL
• Recognition
• Evaluation
• Control
• Information
• Safety
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Introduction and Emergency Response to HazMat
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EMERGENCY RESPONSE TO HAZARDOUS MATERIAL INCIDENTS
TOPIC PAGE NO.
I. INTRODUCTION 1
II. RECOGNITION 2
III. EVALUATION 3
IV. CONTROL 4
V. INFORMATION 4
VI. SAFETY 5
VII. RELATIONSHIP OF ELEMENTS 5
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EMERGENCY RESPONSE TO HAZARDOUS MATERIAL INCIDENTS
I. INTRODUCTION
A hazardous materials incident is a situation in which a hazardous material is or may be
released into the environment. Hundreds of thousands of different chemicals are produced
stored, transported, and used annually. Because of the hazardous nature of many of them,
safeguards are established to prevent them from causing harm. If these safeguards are
accidentally or purposefully disregarded, the material is no longer under effective control and
a situation is established that can have dangerous effects. Hazardous material incidents vary
considerably including chemicals and quantities involved, types of hazard, response efforts
required, number of responders needed, and effects produced. They may require immediate
control measures (emergency) or long term cleanup activities (remedial action) to restore
acceptable conditions.
All activities that are required when responding to incidents can be divided into five broad,
interacting elements.
• Recognition: identification of the substance involved and the characteristics
which determine its degree of hazard.
« Evaluation: impact or risk the substance poses to public health and the environment.
• Control: methods to eliminate or reduce the impact of the incident.
• Information: knowledge acquired concerning the conditions or circumstances
particular to an incident. Information is oftentimes called intelligence. In a
response you gather intelligence and disseminate it. Information is
intelligence.
• Safety: protection of responders from harm.
These elements comprise a system - an orderly arrangement of components that interact to
accomplish a task (Figure 1, page 2). In response work, the task is to prevent or reduce the
impact of the incident on people, property, and the environment, and to restore conditions
to as near normal as possible. To achieve this goal response personnel undertake a variety
of activities, for example, firefighting, sampling, developing safety plans, erecting fences,
installing a physical treatment system, record keeping, evaluation, etc. These activities are
all related; what occurs in one affects or is affected by the others.
Five elements classify all response activities. Recognition, evaluation, and control describe
performance-oriented elements. There is an outcome - a sample is collected, a treatment
system installed, a chemical identified or a risk determined. Information and safety are
supportive elements. They are inputs to and/or outcomes from recognizing, evaluating, and
controlling.
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EMERGENCY RESPONSE TO HAZARDOUS MATERIAL INCIDENTS
INFORMATION
RECOGNITION
EVALUATION
CONTROL
SAFETY
FIGURE 1
THE INCIDENT RESPONSE SYSTEM
Understanding the system provides some insight into how response activities relate to each
other. It helps explain, in broad terms, the processes involved in responding to a hazardous
material incident.
II. RECOGNITION
Recognizing the type and degree of the hazard present is usually one of the first steps in
responding to an incident. The substance involved must be identified. Then the physical and
chemical properties which may make it hazardous - capable of causing harm - can be
determined. These inherent properties can be used, on a preliminary basis, to predict the
behavior and anticipated problems associated with a material.
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EMERGENCY RESPONSE TO HAZARDOUS MATERIAL INCIDENTS
Recognition may be easy, for example, the placard on a railroad tank car carrying a
hazardous material can be used to quickly identify its content. At a hazardous waste site
which may contain hundreds of different chemicals, complete identification is more difficult.
The element of recognition involves using all available information, sampling results,
historical data, visual observation, instruments, package labels, shipping manifests, existing
documentation, witnesses, and other sources to identify the substance(s).
An incident involves more than just the presence of a hazardous material. It is a situation
in which the normal safeguards associated with the materials are compromised, creating the
possibility of undesirable effects. Gasoline can do harm because its vapors can ignite and
explode, but the usual safety techniques for handling gasoline prevents this from happening.
Problems caused by the release of gasoline into the environment can be anticipated based on
its chemical and physical properties. The harm that gasoline will do if released, however,
depends on site-specific conditions.
Thousands of substances exhibit one or more characteristics of flammability, radioactivity,
corrosiveness, toxicity, or other properties which classify them as hazardous. For any
particular hazardous category, the degree of hazard varies depending on the substance. The
degree of hazard is a relative measure of how hazardous a substance is. For instance, the
Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health (IDLH) concentration of Butyl acetate in air is
10,000 parts per million (ppm); the IDLH for Sulfur dioxide is 100 ppm. Sulfur dioxide is
therefore much more acutely toxic (has a higher degree of hazard) when inhaled at IDLH
concentrations than butyl acetate. Vapors from Butyl acetate, however, have a higher degree
of explosive hazard than Tetrachloroethane vapors, which are not explosive.
Once the substance(s) has been identified, its hazardous properties and its degree of hazard
can be determined using reference material. Although appropriate references give information
about the substance's physical/ chemical properties and may give indications of its
environmental behavior, additional data is required. Most frequently, monitoring and
sampling is needed to identify substances, to determine concentrations, to confirm dispersion
patterns, and to verify the presence of material.
III. EVALUATION
Recognition provides basic data concerning the substance. Evaluation is determining its
effects or potential impact on public health, property, and the environment. A hazardous
substance is a threat due to its physical and chemical characteristics. Its actual impact
however, depends on the location of the release, on weather, and other site-specific
conditions. One measure of impact is the adverse effects that have occurred. Another is the
potential impact if the substance is released. Risk is the probability of harm being done, a
measure of the potential impact or effect. The presence of a hazardous substance constitutes
a risk, but if the material is under control, the risk is low; if uncontrolled, the risk increases.
For harm to be done, a critical receptor must be exposed to the uncontrolled material, as
when people live in the area, property will be impacted, or a sensitive ecological habitat will
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EMERGENCY RESPONSE TO HAZARDOUS MATERIAL INCIDENTS
be affected. Chlorine gas, for instance, is highly toxic and represents a risk. If Chlorine gas
is released in a densely populated area, the risk to people is very great, while the human risk
associated with a release of Chlorine gas in an unpopulated area is very low. If the substance
were Carbon dioxide rather than Chlorine, the human risk in bom situations would be
substantially less, since Carbon dioxide is much less toxic than Chlorine.
Evaluating risk in these two examples is relatively simple. Much more complex are those
episodes where many compounds are involved and a higher degree of uncertainty exists
regarding their behavior in the environment and their contact with and effects on receptors.
For instance: what is the risk if a few thousand people drink from a water supply obtained
from an aquifer underlying soil containing a few parts per billion of styrene?
The completeness of information must also be assessed. Is additional sampling and
monitoring of air, water, and soil necessary to provide more comprehensive information on
what the material is, where it is, how it moves through the environment, what it will contact,
and what is the associated risk? To completely evaluate the effects of a hazardous materials
incident, all substances must be identified, their dispersion pathways established, and for
toxic chemicals, concentrations determine. Risk is then assessed based on exposure (or
potential exposure) to the public or other critical receptors.
Identifying the materials involved in an incident and evaluating the impact the incident may
have, is frequently termed site characterization. Site characterization may be easy and rapid,
or as in the case of an abandoned waste site, a process that may take a long time to
completely accomplish.
IV. CONTROL
Control is those methods which prevent or reduce the impact of the incident. Preliminary
control actions are generally instituted as rapidly as possible in emergency situations. As
additional information is developed through recognition and evaluation, initial control actions
are modified or others instituted. Releases that do not require immediate action allow more
time for planning and instituting remedial measures. Control measures include physical,
chemical, and biological treatment and cleanup techniques for restoring the area to prerelease
conditions. It also includes public health countermeasures, for example, evacuation or the
shutdown of a drinking water supply, to prevent contact of people with the substance.
V. INFORMATION
An integral component of response is information. All response activities are based upon
having information that is readily available or subsequently obtained. Information is a
support element to recognition, evaluation, and control. It is an input to these performance
elements, providing data for decision-making. It is also an outcome of these elements. A
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EMERGENCY RESPONSE TO HAZARDOUS MATERIAL INCIDENTS
sample is collected and analyzed. The results provide an input to determine treatment
options, an outcome. Information comes from three sources:
• Intelligence: Information obtained from existing records or documentation,
placards, labels, signs, special configuration of containers, visual
observations, technical reports, and others.
• Direct-reading instruments: Information relatively quickly obtained from
instruments.
• Sampling: Information obtained from collecting representative portions of
appropriate media or material and subsequent laboratory analysis.
Information acquisition, analyses, and decision-making are iterative processes that define the
extent of the problem and the array of possible response actions. For incident response to
be effective, an information base must be established which is accurate, valid, and timely.
Throughout the lifetime of the incident, a continuous stream of information is collected,
processed, and applied. Sound decisions are predicated on having good information and
developing a knowledge base concerning the situation.
VI. SAFETY
All hazardous material responses pose varying dangers to responders. An important
consideration in all response activities is to protect the health and safety of the responders.
To do this requires that the chemical and physical hazards associated with each operation be
assessed and methods implemented to prevent or reduce harm to responders. Safety
considerations are an input to every activity that is undertaken and are an outcome of each
response activity. For example, an outcome of identifying a specific chemical may be
changes in safety requirements. Each response organization must have an effective health
and safety program including medical surveillance and health monitoring, appropriate safety
equipment, standardized safety procedures, and an active training program.
VII. RELATIONSHIP OF ELEMENTS
Recognition, evaluation, control, information, and safety describe the five elements of
response. Each includes a variety of activities or operations. Elements are not necessarily
sequential steps for responding. In some situations, control measures may be started before
the substances are completely identified. In others, a more thorough evaluation of the
material's dispersion is needed before effective control actions can be determined. Likewise,
safety measures for responders may be instituted before the materials are identified or all the
hazardous conditions fully known.
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EMERGENCY RESPONSE TO HAZARDOUS MATERIAL INCIDENTS
Each element and activity is interrelated. A dike (control), to contain the runoff water from
fighting a fire at a warehouse suspected of containing pesticides, is built. Once it has been
determined that the runoff contains no hazardous chemicals (recognition), or that
concentrations in the runoff are below acceptable values (evaluation), no treatment is
necessary and the dike can be removed. This knowledge (information) also changes the
safety requirements for responders (safety).
A constant flow of information is needed to characterize the incident and to make decisions.
For example, an option to use carbon absorption for water treatment may require additional
sample collection and analysis to completely identify the substances involved. In turn, this
would require reevaluating the effectiveness of carbon absorption for the identified chemicals.
Additional information regarding where and how the substance is migrating may change the
requirements for sampling.
The response system is a concept explaining, in general terms, the processes involved in
incident response. All responses require the performance elements of recognizing,
evaluating, and controlling. To support these, information is needed and responder safety
must be considered.
The material in this training manual and the lectures given in the course are directed toward
a more thorough treatment of selected elements and activities in the response system. The
course provides basic information upon which students can build their expertise and
competence through additional training, study, and experience.
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Section 2
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RESPONSE OPERATIONS: SAFETY PLANS
AND STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES
PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lesson, participants will be able to:
• Identify the components of an effective safety program
• Identify the items included in a set of safety plans and
standard operating procedures
• Identify the regulation governing the necessity for a scene
safety plan
• Discuss the importance of a safety briefing prior to taking
action.
Note: Safety plans and standard operating procedures are
located in U.S. EPA's Standard Operating and Safety
Guidelines
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RESPONSE OPERATIONS,
SAFETY PLANS, AND SOPs
KEYS TO A SAFE RESPONSE
Safety program
Standard operating procedures
Development of a scene safety plan
SAFETY PROGRAM
PERSONNEL
Medical surveillance
Physical fitness
Training and education
NOTES
3/94
Response Operations, Safety Plans, and SOPs
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NOTES
SAFETY PROGRAM
EQUIPMENT
Equipment selection and maintenance
Operator training
Protective clothing program
STANDARD OPERATING
PROCEDURES
Organizational directives that
establish a standard course of action
Should address the major aspects of
a hazardous materials response
STANDARD OPERATING
PROCEDURES
• Command
• Delegation of authority
• Scene safety officer
• Communications
Response Operations, Safety Plans, and SOPs
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NOTES
STANDARD OPERATING
PROCEDURES
Tactical priorities
Support functions
Scene safety plan
STANDARD OPERATING
PROCEDURES
• Written
• Official
• Applied to all situations
• Enforced
SCENE SAFETY PLANS
• A detailed plan that addresses all safety
issues
• Must resemble the SOPs
• Must describe the known and unknown
hazards present
• Must identify incident-specific variations in
the SOPs
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Response Operations, Safety Plans, and SOPs
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NOTES
ADVANTAGES OF A
SAFETY PLAN
• Hazardous conditions are less likely to be
overlooked
• Personnel will be trained to perform
hazardous tasks safely
• Response groups will function more
efficiently and consistently
Response Operations, Safety Plans, and SOPs
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Section 3
-------
THE INCIDENT COMMAND SYSTEM
PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lesson, participants will be able to:
• Identify the law that requires the use of the incident
command system at a hazardous materials incident
• List three advantages of using an incident command system
• Diagram the command staff and functional unit positions that
are used in the incident command system
• Explain the expansion features of the incident command
system
• Explain two major steps in the transfer of command
authority
• Explain the impact of the incident command system on
communications
• Describe the ICS and how it interfaces with Local, State,
and Federal Contingency Plans
• Identify your agencies position on the incident response chart
• Explain how the Federal OSC functions within the ICS
• Explain three general responsibilities of the OSC in an
emergency response
• Describe the three levels of contingency plans
• Describe the funding levels of the ICS.
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NOTES
THE INCIDENT
COMMAND SYSTEM
INCIDENT COMMAND SYSTEM
Definition
A system for organizing a response in a
manner that is systematic and easily
expandable to meet incident requirements
THE COMMAND STRUCTURE
Unify command
Maintain a reasonable span of control
Clearly define the chain of command
Be adaptable to a variety of situations
Be familiar to each participant
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The Incident Command System
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NOTES
COMMAND ORGANIZATION
• Single
- One person has command authority
- OSHA 1910.120(0)
• Unified
- Decision process shared with others
- One person serves as incident
commander per OSHA 1910.120 (0)
COMMAND STAFF
Public
Informati
Incident
Commander
|
Safety I
on Officer
.iaison
Officer
OPERATIONS STAFF
Operations
Officer
The Incident Command System
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NOTES
PLANNING STAFF
Plai
Ofl
Planning
ining
ficer
1
Resources
LOGISTICS STAFF
Logistics
Officer
Equipment
Facilities
Personnel
Admin.
FINANCE STAFF
Finance
Officer
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The Incident Command System
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INCIDENT COMMAND SYSTEM
Incident Commander
Command Staff
Operations
NOTES
The Incident Command System
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9
r&
£>
I
Incident
Occurs
Oil or
Hazardous
Substance
Spill
NRC Notifies
Federal OSC
NRC
Notified
INCIDENT
RESPONSE
CHART
OSC
Assesses
/ \ ^
r
Can/Will
Responsible
Party Handle
Incident
YesN
OSC
Monitors
T
Incident
Cleaned up
OSC
Takes
Charge
Local/
State
Officals
Notified
Federal
Response
Respurces
Activated
Further
Special
Assistance
Needed?
Special
Federal
Teams
Can/Will
Locality or
State Handle
Incident
Yes
Fgrther
Assistance
Needed?
-------
NATIONAL RESPONSE SYSTEM CONCEPT
3
TO
I
Discharge or
Release Incident
NRC
300.125
Local Responders
300.180
State Responders
300.180
Planning &
Preparadness
Planning &
Preparadness
LEPCs
300.205
SERCs
300.205
Response
Support
Federal OSC/RPM
300.120
Response
Support
Special Teams
300.145
RRT
300.115 &
300.205
Planning &
Preparadness
Policy
Guidance
Area
Committees
300.205
NRT
300.110 &
300.205
NSF
ERT
SSC
RAT
PI AT
State Government
300.180
Local Government
300.180
Reference
40 CFR 300 - 399
Participating Federal Agencies
300.170 & 300.175
membership
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THE INCIDENT COMMAND SYSTEM
TOPIC PAGE NO.
I. INTRODUCTION 1
II. CONTINGENCY PLANS FOR EMERGENCY RESPONSE 1
HI. ORGANIZING THE RESPONSE EFFORT 2
IV. TABLE OF ORGANIZATION 3
V. KEY PERSONNEL AND THEIR FUNCTIONS 3
VI. THE INCIDENT COMMAND SYSTEM 4
VII. IMPLEMENTING RESPONSE OPERATIONS 8
VIII. INTERFACING THE INCIDENT COMMAND SYSTEM WITH
LOCAL, STATE, AND FEDERAL HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
CONTINGENCY PLANS TO ASSIST THE INCIDENT COMMANDER .... 9
IX. SUMMARY 16
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THE INCIDENT COMMAND SYSTEM
I. INTRODUCTION
The number of personnel needed to respond to a hazardous materials incident can vary
greatly. Regardless if few or many responders are involved they must be organized.
Without a coordinated, organized effort the primary reason for responding, to protect the
public's health, the environment and property, may be ineffective.
Every hazardous material incident is unique. The materials involved, their effect as well as
the operations (activities) required to prevent or reduce the effect of their release, are incident
specific. Common, however, to all incidents is the need for planning, organizing, locating
resources (personnel, equipment and funds), and implementing response operations.
II. CONTINGENCY PLANS FOR EMERGENCY RESPONSE
When an incident involving hazardous materials, or any other kind of man-caused or natural
disaster occurs, people in the affected area will attempt to control and alleviate the situation.
Some sort of organization, comprised of all who are available, will naturally evolve. Its
capability however, to efficiently manage the situation may be severely restricted.
Experienced personnel, equipment, and other necessary resources may not be readily
available, causing the prompt actions needed to abate the situation to be delayed.
Without a community emergency contingency plan, the ability to effectively manage any
crisis is diminished. Chaos may exist for a considerable period of time before control is
gained and the situation is restored to as near normal as possible. Time is wasted defining
the problem, organizing personnel, locating resources and taking action. These obstacles
impede response activities creating additional problems that might have been avoided if
prompt actions were taken.
A more effective response to any kind of manmade or natural disaster, including hazardous
materials accidents, ensues when a contingency plan exists. In general, contingency plans
anticipate the myriad of problems faced by responders and through the planning process
develop, in advance, solutions. A functional response organization is developed and
resources are identified. Notification systems are determined and arrangements made to
obtain technical as well as other kinds of assistance.
When the plan is activated, the organization can rapidly begin to function. Control activities
are initiated with less confusion and fewer delays than are encountered in implementing
operations in a "no-plan" response. A pre-existing plan also reduces the risk to both the
responders and the public by establishing, in advance, procedures for protecting their health
and safety.
A contingency plan can lessen many of the problems encountered in a response to hazardous
materials. However, even a good, tested plan can not anticipate and address all the
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THE INCIDENT COMMAND SYSTEM
circumstances created by a release of chemicals. Modifications may be needed to
accommodate unforseen events. A well-written plan acknowledges that incident-specific
adaptations are necessary and is written to provide flexibility.
Hazardous materials contingency plans to be effective they must be:
• Well-written • Flexible
• Continuously reviewed and modified • Frequently tested
• Agreed upon by all involved • Current
III. ORGANIZING THE RESPONSE EFFORT
The number of people responding to an incident may range from a few to hundreds, and
represent a variety of sources from government as well as private industry. Some incidents
are readily managed by trained responders from local jurisdictions. Others may require
additional responders from state and federal agencies and from private industries. These
groups, each with diverse functions and responsibilities, must be organized into a cohesive -
a response team - unit capable of conducting the required remedial activities.
Hazardous material emergency response plans exist at each level of government - local, state
and federal. Each plan defines how that level of government will respond, establishes the
response organization, and provides operational procedures. The federal response plan
recognizes the role of local and state responders in a federal response effort. It contains
provisions for incorporating local and state authorities into its response organization as well
as providing a mechanism for coordinating response efforts for all levels of government.
Likewise, state plans contain their role, responsibilities and relationship with local
government response activities.
In general, federal, state and local response plans vary considerably in detail and scope.
Local plans are usually more specific; state and national plans not as definitive. Typically
however, whichever plan is in effect, the organization delineated is adapted and modified to
meet the needs of the incident.
To function efficiently, the organization which is established must:
Provide a leader
Establish authority
Develop policy and procedures
Determine objectives
Assign responsibilities
Manage resources (money, equipment and personnel)
Plan and direct operations
Establish internal communications
Establish communications with outside organizations
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Without an emergency contingency response plan, an ad hoc functional organization must be
created, for that specific incident, with those who are available.
IV. TABLE OF ORGANIZATION
In any organization, involving more than a few responders, it is necessary to define its
structure. This structure the Table of Organization defines the relationship between the
various components (divisions, branches, or sections) of the organization. It delineates a
chain of command and establishes internal communication channels.
Organization tables are complemented by functional statements which describe the authority,
responsibilities and duties of the organization's components. To a large degree, the form and
complexity of the organization chart and the functional statements, depend on the magnitude
of the incident, the operations needed and the number of people or agencies involved. The
key requirements of an organization chart are:
• Delineating a chain-of-command
• Assigning responsibilities and functions
• Specifying personnel requirements
• Establishing internal communications
V. KEY PERSONNEL AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
The response team is an organized group of people each with assigned tasks and
responsibilities. Key personnel and their assignments are normally specified in the response
plan. As operations commence adaptations may be needed in the preplanned structure of the
organization. During the incident, unanticipated operations may be required, necessitating
functional additions to the organization.
The positions, functions, and responsibilities at incidents vary. Major incidents require many
people with a diversity of expertise and skills. For less severe incidents, fewer people and
resources are needed. Key personnel and the functions they execute should be tailored to
meet the needs of a particular hazardous materials incident.
Key personnel and functions that may be needed are:
SITE LEADER. ON-SCENE-COORDINATOR OR INCIDENT MANAGER: Has clearly
defined authority and responsibility to manage and direct all response operations.
SCIENCE OFFICER: Directs and coordinates scientific studies, sample collection, field
monitoring, analysis of samples and interpretation of results. Recommends remedial actions.
Provides technical guidance to the Incident Manager in those areas.
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THE INCIDENT COMMAND SYSTEM
SAFETY OFFICER: Advises the Incident Manager on all matters related to the health and
safety of those involved in site operations. Establishes and directs the safety program. May
halt operations if unsafe conditions exist. Coordinates activities with the Science Officer.
PUBLIC INFORMATION OFFICER: Releases information to news media and the public
concerning site activities.
SECURITY OFFICER: Manages the site's physical security. Provides liaison with local
law enforcement and fire departments. Controls site access.
RECORD KEEPER: Maintains official record of site activities.
OPERATIONS OFFICER: Directs activities of team leaders. Coordinates these activities
with the scientific advisor and safety officer.
SECTOR LEADERS: Manage specific assigned tasks such as:
• entry team(s) • decontamination • sampling
• monitoring • staging • photography
• communications • suppression
FINANCIAL OFFICER: Provides financial and contractual support.
LOGISTICS OFFICER: Provides necessary equipment and other resources.
MEDICAL OFFICER: Provides medical support. Acts as liaison with the medical
community.
VI. THE INCIDENT COMMAND SYSTEM
An example of an organization to which the criteria for organizing, outlined in preceding
sections is apropos, is the Incident Command System (ICS). It is an in-place command
system used by the Fire Service when responding to fires, medical emergencies, rescue
operations, hazardous material incidents, and other operations. The ICS designates who is-
in-charge (Incident Commander), establishes a chain-of-command, and lists key personnel
and their functions.
The Incident Command System is automatically activated when an incident, to which the fire
service responds, occurs. The first arriving officer is the Incident Commander and remains
so throughout the incident unless succeeded by a higher ranking officer. Using the
preexisting ICS as a framework, the Incident Commander adapts it to provide the
management and organizational structure necessary to control the situation.
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The size and complexity of the organization needed is dictated by the magnitude of the
particular incident. Smaller incidents require fewer responders and activities (Figure 1).
A major incident requires a larger response force with individuals performing many
specialized functions (Figure 2, page 6). The Incident Command System is designed to be
flexible enough to permit the Incident Commander to adapt it to any situation and still
maintain management control over responding personnel.
INCIDENT
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COMMAND STRUCTURE FOR A SMALL RESPONSE
COMMAND STAFF AND RESPONSIBILITIES
INCIDENT COMMANDER: Directly responsible for the overall incident activities.
Determines manpower and other resources needed. Develops strategy for controlling the
incident.
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COMMAND STRUCTURE FOR A MAJOR RESPONSE
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THE INCIDENT COMMAND SYSTEM
OPERATIONS OFFICER: Responsible for management of the incident. Supervises attack
operations. Briefs and receives direction from the Incident Commander.
SAFETY OFFICER: Is responsible for all safety activities. Identifies hazards and hazardous
situations. Has emergency authority to stop operations or activities due to unsafe conditions.
PUBLIC INFORMATION OFFICER: Is the liaison between the Incident Commander, the
news media and the public. Prepares and releases news releases and other types of material.
RESOURCE OFFICER: Responsible for obtaining all the resources needed to control the
incident. Collects and stores information and prepares reports on incident activities.
STAGING OFFICER: Determines where and arranges for areas to be used for staging
(locating) equipment, supplies, additional units and arriving personnel.
WATER SUPPLY OFFICER: Assesses water needs and is responsible for maintaining an
adequate supply of water.
MEDICAL OFFICER: Responsible for all the needed medical services. Provides on-site
triage, treatment, hospital transport and medical monitoring services needed at the site.
LIAISON OFFICER: Is the liaison between the Incident Commander and other
governmental and private organizations.
SECTOR OFFICER: Technical manager and supervisor for the various sectors (activities)
that may be needed, for example, evacuation of people from the immediate area, monitoring
or collecting samples and others.
In cases where the Fire Service is not in charge of the incident, for example, a large scale
natural disaster, the ICS as entity becomes part of the organization developed in the
community's disaster contingency plan. Likewise when a hazardous material incident occurs,
the fire department's hazardous materials team is integrated into the overall Incident
Command System.
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS RESPONSE TEAM
On the local level, the Hazardous Material Response Team (HMRT) is generally associated
with the Fire Service. It may be a dedicated team responding only to incidents involving
hazardous materials, but usually has other associated specialized functions, for example,
heavy rescue operations. Depending on the incident, the HMRT may be the only fire service
unit responding. In this situation the commander of the team may also be the Incident
Commander. If other units are involved, or if it is an incident of major proportions, the
HMRT becomes part of the overall ICS as one of the sectors in the Table of Organization.
The response team, as an entity and aside from the ICS, must be organized such that they
can effectively function to control and restore the situation.The HMRT needs to have a table
of organization and personnel function statement for their team paralleling the command
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structure of the ICS. Section V describes the key personnel and functions that may be
required by the response team. Not all are needed at every incident and in many cases the
functions listed are not done by members of the HMRT, but by others in the Incident
Command System.
VII. IMPLEMENTING RESPONSE OPERATIONS
The release or potential release of a hazardous material requires operations that will
eventually restore the situation to as near as possible to pre-incident conditions. Although
each incident establishes its own operational requirements, there is a general sequence of
response operations common to all responses.
Planning and implementing a response, as a minimum, requires the responders to:
ORGANIZE: Establish an organization. Select key personnel. Assign responsibilities.
Modify as operations proceed.
EVALUATE THE SITUATION: Based on available information, make preliminary hazard
evaluation. Determine impact of incident with or without intervention.
DEVELOP A PLAN OF ACTION: Develop preliminary operations plan for collecting
information, implementing immediate countermeasures and rescue operations and instituting
emergency actions. Continually reevaluate the situation as supplemental information becomes
available.
MAKE PRELIMINARY OFF-SITE SURVEYS: Collect additional data to evaluate situation
(use direct-reading instruments, collect sample, make visual observations). Institute
emergency actions to protect public health and the environment. Identify requirements for
on-site reconnaissance. Determine Level of Protection, if necessary, for off-site personnel.
Establish boundaries for contaminated areas.
MAKE INITIAL ON-SITE RECONNAISSANCES: Collect data (use direct-reading
instruments, collect samples, make visual observations) to determine or verify hazardous
conditions and make an overall assessment of the incident. Modify initial entry safety
procedures as more data is obtained. Determine Levels of Protection for initial entry team(s)
and subsequent operations. Plan and implement site control and decontamination procedures.
MODIFY ORIGINAL PLAN OF ACTION: Modify or adapt original plan based on
additional information obtained during initial entries. Revise immediate emergency measures.
Plan long term actions including:
• Additional monitoring and sampling
« Cleanup and restoration measures
• Resource requirements
• Site safety plan
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• Legal implications and litigation
• Site activity documentation
Of paramount importance in any response is the safety and health of the responders. Their
risk increases as they get closer to the hazardous materials. Operations on-site, must be
carefully planned and executed. Before entering the immediate area of a release or potential
release, as much information as possible should be collected, for example, shipping papers,
transportation placards, existing records, container labels and other visual observations (in
the time available) concerning the types, degree of hazard and risks which may exist.
Available information is used to determine:
• Whether off-site measurements are needed.
• The need to go on-site.
• The types of equipment available.
• What data is needed to evaluate hazards.
organic vapors/gases
inorganic vapors/gases
particulates
oxygen concentration
radiation
samples needed for laboratory analysis
The Levels of Protection entry team(s) need.
What equipment is needed.
The number and size of entry team(s).
Frequency of briefings for the response team.
The need for site control procedures including:
designation of work zones
access control
physical barriers
What decontamination procedures are required.
The need for having backup medical resources.
Taking emergency actions/countermeasures.
The priority for collecting data and samples.
VIII. INTERFACING THE INCIDENT COMMAND SYSTEM WITH LOCAL,
STATE, AND FEDERAL HAZARDOUS MATERIALS CONTINGENCY
PLANS TO ASSIST THE INCIDENT COMMANDER
A. If the incident exceeds the training and/or the equipment of the local jurisdiction, or
the incident is more than the jurisdiction can handle, the Incident Commander should
then turn to the local and state Contingency Plans for assistance.
As of passing of the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986
(SARA) or Public Law 99-499, all states were required to establish State Emergency
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THE INCIDENT COMMAND SYSTEM
Response Commissions (SERC) and Local Emergency Planning Committees (LEPC).
The SERCs are responsible for designating an official to serve as coordinator of all
SERC and LEPC actives in the respective state. The SERCs were required to
establish procedures for receiving and processing the facilities Tier I and II reports.
The Tier I and II reports are used to help establish Contingency Plans to which can
be utilized at emergency responses and for information for public access regarding
the facility. The SERCs must review all plans to make sure these plans follow the
National Contingency Plan (NCP). This information should be part of the Local
Emergency Response Standard Operation Procedures so it may be utilized at any
emergency.
Some incidents are so serious that local authorities must call in additional help. State
agencies can provide expertise and management over a wider area. If additional help
is still needed, or if several states are involved, a single call to the National Response
Center (NRC) will activate the National Response System (NRS).
The National Response System (NRS) is the mechanism for coordinating response
actions by all levels of government in support of the Federal On-Scene
Coordinator/Remedial Project Manger (OSC/RPM). The NRS is composed of the
National Response Team (NRT), Regional Response Team (RRT), Federal
OSC/RPM, Area Committees (AC), and Special Teams and related support entities.
During oil spill response or a hazardous substance removal action, the NRS functions
as an incident command system (ICS) under the direction of the Federal OSC,
Typical of an ICS, the NRS is capable of expanding or contracting to accommodate
the response effort required by the size or complexity of the discharge or release.
Notice of an oil discharge, or a release of a hazardous substance in an amount equal
to or greater than the Reportable Quantity (RQ), notification must be made
immediately to the NRC in accord with 33 CFR part 153, subpart B, and 40 CFR
part 302, respectively.
The NRC acts as the Single point of contact for all pollution incident reporting and
as the National Response Team (NRT) communications center.
The NRC receives and immediately relays telephone notices of discharges or releases
to:
1. The appropriate predesignated Federal OSC and/or RPM.
2. Advises Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) of a
potential major disaster or evacuation situation.
The first federal official affiliated with an NRT member agency to arrive at the scene
of a discharge or release should coordinate activities under the National Contingency
Plan (NCP). The federal official is authorized to initiate, in consultation with the
predesignated OSC, any necessary action normally carried out by the Federal
OSC/RPM until the arrival of the predesignated Federal OSC/RPM.
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THE INCIDENT COMMAND SYSTEM
B. There are three levels of the Federal Contingency Plans (FCP) that an Incident
Commander must beware of. A Federal OSC/RPM, depending on incident status,
may act as a resource, or may take charge of the incident and activate Federal
Response Resources as needed.
1. The National Contingency Plan is officially called, the National Oil and
Hazardous Substance Pollution Contingency Plan or the (NCP). It provides
the organizational structure and procedures for preparing for and responding
to discharges of oil and releases of hazardous substances, pollutants, and
contaminants. The NCP is a guidance document for EPA and other federal
agencies with response authorities and responsibilities under the
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
of 1980 (CERCLA), and certain portions of the Clean Water Act (CWA).
The plan is comprehensive as to these agencies and involves a spectrum of
pre-event planning and on-scene response, study, analysis and remediation,
financing, and accountability.
2. The Regional Contingency Plans (RCP) are developed by the RRT, working
with the states. RCPs were developed for each RCP standard federal region,
Alaska, oceanic in the pacific, and the Caribbean to coordinate timely,
effective response by various federal agencies,and other organizations to
discharges of oil or releases of hazardous substance, pollutants, or
contaminants. RCPs shall, as appropriate, include information on all useful
facilities and resources in the region, from government, commercial,
academic, and other sources. To the greatest extent possible, RCPs shall
follow the format of the NCP, the ACP Contingency Plans, and coordinate
; with SERF, and SARA Title III LERPs. RCPs shall contain lines of
demarcation between the inland and coastal zones, as mutually agreed upon
by USGC and EPA.
3. The Area Contingency Plans. (ACP) Under the direction of an OSC and
subject to approval by the lead agency, each Area Committee, in consultation
with the appropriate RRTs, Coast Guard DRGs, the NSFCC, SSCs, SERCs,
and LEPCs,shall develop an ACP for its designated area. This plan, when
implemented in conjunction with other provisions of the NCP, shall be
adequate to remove a worst case discharge under 300.324, and to mitigate or
prevent a substantial threat of such a discharge, from a vessel, offshore
facility, or onshore facility operating in or near the area.
The areas responsibility may include several title III local planning districts,
or parts of such districts. In developing the ACP, the OSC shall coordinate
with affected SERCs and LEPCs. The ACP shall provide for a well
coordinated response that is integrated and compatible, to the greatest extent
possible, with all appropriate response plans of state, local, and non-federal
entities, and especially response plans.
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THE INCIDENT COMMAND SYSTEM
The available resources to respond to multi-media incident, where such resource can
be obtained, waste disposal methods and facilities consistent with local and state plans
developed under the Solid Waste Disposal Act (SWDA),and local structure for
responding to discharges or releases.
C. Multi-regional Responses:
1. If a discharge or release moves from the area covered by one ACP or RCP
or into another area, the authority for response actions should likewise shift.
If a discharge or release affects areas covered by two or more ACPs or
RCP's, the response mechanisms of each applicable plan may be activated.
In this case, response actions of all regions concerned shall be fully
coordinated as detailed in the ACPs and RCP's.
2. There shall be only one OSC and/or RPM at anytime during the course of a
response operation. Should a discharge or release affect in a two or more
area, EPA, the USCG, DOD, DOE, or other lead agency, as appropriate,
shall give prime consideration to the area vulnerable to the greatest threat, in
determining which agency should provide the OSC and/or RPM. The RRT
shall designate the OSC and /or RPM if the RRT member agencies who have
response authority within the affected area unable to agree on the designation.
The NRT shall designate the OSC and/or RPM if members of one RRT or
two adjacent RRTs are unable to agree on the designation.
3. Where the USCG has initially provided the OSC for response to a release
from hazardous waste management facilities located in the coastal zone,
responsibility for response action shift to EPA or another federal agency, as
appropriate.
D. Once the Federal OSC has been contacted by the NRC, you can expect the OSC to
follow these general guidelines. When the OSC receives a report of a discharge,
actions normally should be taken in the following sequence:
1. Investigate the report to determine pertinent information such as the threat
posed to public health or welfare or the environment, the type and quantity
of polluting material, and the source of the discharge.
2. Officially classify the size (i.e.,minor,medium,major) and type (i.e.,
substantial threat to the public health or welfare, worst case discharge) of the
discharge and determine the course of action to be followed to ensure
effective and immediate removal, mitigation, or prevention of the discharge.
Some discharges or spills may be further classified as a national significance
by the Administrator of EPA or the Commandant of the USCG.
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THE INCIDENT COMMAND SYSTEM
3. When the reported discharge is an actual or potential major discharge,
immediately notify the RRT, including the affected state, if appropriate, and
the NRC, and ensure notification of the natural resource trustees, as required
by 300.305(d).
4. When the investigation shows that an actual or potential medium discharge
exists, the OSC shall recommend activation of the RRT, if appropriate.
5. When the investigation shows that an actual or potential minor discharge
exists, the OSC shall monitor the situation to ensure that proper removal
action is being taken.
6. If the OSC determines that effective and immediate removal, mitigation, or
prevention of a discharge can be achieved by private party efforts, and when
the discharge does not pose a substantial threat to the public health or welfare
of the United States, determine whether the responsible party or other person
is properly carrying out removal. Removal is being done properly when:
a. The cleanup is fully sufficient to minimize or mitigate threat(s) to
public health and welfare, and the environment. Removal efforts are
improper to the extent that federal efforts are necessary to minimize
further or mitigate those threats.
b. The removal efforts are in accordance with applicable regulation,
including the NCP.
7. Where appropriate, determine whether a state or political subdivision thereof
has the capability to carry out response actions and or all removal actions. If
so, the OSC may arrange funding to support these actions.
8. Ensure prompt notification of the trustees of affected natural resources in
accordance with the applicable RCP and ACP.
9. Removal shall be considered complete when so determined by the OSC in
consultation with the Governor or Governors of the affected states. When the
OSC considers removal complete, OSLTF removal funding shall not preclude
applicable state law.
E. SPECIAL RESPONSE TEAMS:
1. On-Scene Coordinator (OSC): manages these Federal Responses.
2. Remedial Project Managers (RPM): directs response efforts and coordinates
all other efforts at the scene of a discharge or release. RPM shall be assigned
by the lead agency to manage remedial or other response actions.
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THE INCIDENT COMMAND SYSTEM
3. National Response Team (NRT): a body of 14 Federal agency
representatives with expertise related to handling incidents, coordinates the
system. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA)
Scientific Support Coordinators (SSC): serve as members of the coastal zone
OSC's staff as technical and scientific advisors. They also serve as the
principal contact point for members of the scientific community. EPA
supplies SSC for the inland regions.
4. EPA's Office of Radiation Programs (ORP) Radiological Assistance Teams
(RAT): provide response and support for incident or sites containing
radiological hazards. Expertise is available in radiation monitoring,
radionuclide analysis, radiation health physics, and risk assessment. RAT can
provide on-site support including mobile monitoring laboratories for field
analysis of samples and fixed laboratories for radiochemical sampling and
analysis. The team provides multi-media sampling and analysis, hazard
evaluation, environmental assessment, and cleanup technique information.
5. The Coast Guard's Public Information Assist Team (PIAT): is a unit of
public affairs specialists. The team concentrates on maintaining a flow of
timely information from the OSC to the public.
6. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA) Scientific
Support Coordinators (SSC): serve as members of the coastal zone OSC's
staff as technical and scientific advisors. They also serve as the principal
contact point for members of the scientific community. EPA supplies SSC for
the inland regions.
F. The National Response Team (NRT) is comprised of representative of 15 Federal
agencies which are as follows:
1. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
2. United States Coast Guard (USCG)
3. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)
4. Department of Justice (DOJ)
5. Department of Defense (DOD)
6. Department of Interior (DOI)
7. Department of Commerce (DOC)
8. Department of Agriculture (USDA)
9. Research and Special Programs Administration (RSPA)
10. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC)
11. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS)
12. Department Of State (DOS)
13. Department of Energy (DOE)
14. Department of Labor (DOL)
15. General Service Administration (GSA)
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THE INCIDENT COMMAND SYSTEM
G. CONCLUSION
An Incident Commander must be well aware of the LEPC, SERC, and Federal
Contingency Plans (FCP) that apply to their jurisdiction and how the federal agencies
interface with the Incident Command System (ICS).
As the incident exceeds the capabilities of the local authorities and they must call for
additional assistance, they must turn to the NRS for assistance. The NCP is there to
provide efficient, coordinated, and effective response to discharge of oil and releases
of hazardous substances, pollutants, and contaminants in accordance with the
authorities of CERCLA and CWA.
In implementing the NCP, consideration shall be given to international assistance
plans and agreements, security regulations and responsibilities based on international
agreement, federal statutes, and executive orders. Actions taken pursuant to the NCP
shall conform to the provisions of international joint contingency plans, where they
are applicable. The Department of State shall be consulted, as appropriate, prior to
taking any action which may affect its activities.
During all phases of response, the lead agency shall complete and maintain
documentation to support all action taken under the NCP and to form the basis for
cost recovery. All information and reports must be transmitted to the chair of the
RRT, in addition the OSC is required to submit reports of the incident.
The OSC/RPM shall submit to the NRT or RRT a complete report on the removal
operation and the actions taken. The OSC report shall record the situation as it
developed, the actions taken, the resources committed, and the problems encountered.
The RRT shall review its comments or recommendations within 30 days after the
RRT has received the OSC report.
Response actions undertaken by participating agencies shall be carried out under
existing programs and authorities when available. Federal agencies are to make
resources available, expend funds, or participate in response to discharge and releases
under their existing authority. Inter agency agreements may be signed when necessary
to ensure that the federal resources will be available for a timely response to a
discharge or release.
EPA OSCs have access to very large amounts of equipment and working capital to
be used to control a discharge or release. OSC's have approximately $150,000.00
available immediately to use as necessary in a discharge or release, If the OSC
expends these funds on the incident, the OSC, after completing an "Action Memo",
has access to $2,000,000.00 to use on site. If circumstances show a need for more
funds to stabilize the incident, through a justification to EPA headquarters in
Washington D.C., the OSC can obtain unlimited funds.
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THE INCIDENT COMMAND SYSTEM
If the discharge or release is some type of oil, the OSC can access the Oil Pollution
Act funds through the USCG, and receive all the necessary funding required to
stabilize the incident immediately.
Additional information, may be found in the following references:
National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan March 8,1990 40
CFR 300 to 399
Occupation Safety and Health Agency's (OSHA) 29 CFR 1910.120 (q) Hazardous
Waste Operation and Emergency Response (HAZWOPER) March 1989
Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986 (SARA) Public Law 99-499
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980
(CERCLA)
Public Law 96-5120 40 CFR 355.103
IX. SUMMARY
To effectively prevent or reduce the impact of a hazardous materials incident on people or
the environment, the personnel responding must be organized into a structured operating unit
or a response organization. For the response organization to be effective it must be
developed in advance, be tested and be an integral part of a Hazardous Materials
Contingency Plan. To a large degree, the success of the response is dependent upon how
well the response personnel are organized. The more organized, the more rapid it (the
organization) can begin to function. However an organization (specified in a contingency
plan or as an "ad hoc" incident specific group) is developed, it must be flexible enough to
adapt to the ever changing conditions created as the incident progresses.
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16
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Section 4
-------
CHARACTERISTICS OF
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lesson, participants will be able to:
• Describe the difference between the fire triangle and the fire
tetrahedron
• Define the following terms relative to flammability:
Flash point
Upper explosive limit (UEL)
Lower explosive limit (LEL)
Flammable range
Ignition temperature
LEL/UEL
• Determine whether an unknown hazardous material is acidic
or basic when given the pH value
• Explain how the following characteristics can affect the
behavior of a hazardous material:
Boiling point
Melting point/freezing point
Vapor pressure
Specific gravity
Vapor density
Solubility.
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NOTES
CHARACTERISTICS OF
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
TYPES OF HAZARDS
Toxic
Flammable
Carcinogenic
Reactive
Radioactive
Teratogenic
Irritation
Sensitization
Explosive
Biological
Corrosive
Mutagenic
FIRE TRIANGLE
Energy
Ignition Source
Fuel
Oxygen
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Characteristics of Hazardous Materials
-------
NOTES
FIRE TETRAHEDRON
Heat
Fuel
Oxygen
Uninhibited
Chemical Reaction
FLASH POINT
The temperature at which a liquid gives
off flammable vapors just above its
surface
FLAMMABLE LIMITS
0%
100%
LEL
UEL
TOO LEAN
FIRE OR EXPLOSION
TOO RICH
Characteristics of Hazardous Materials
3/94
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NOTES
IGNITION TEMPERATURE
The minimum temperature to which a
substance must be raised in order to
ignite.
CORROSIVITY
The ability of a substance to generate
hydronium (+) or hydroxyl (-) ions
in sufficient concentrations to
cause material or tissue degradation
pH - SCALE
Strong
Acid
3.5
Coke
Pepsi
Strong
Base
11 14
Neutral
3/94
Characteristics of Hazardous Materials
-------
NOTES
J^ EXAMPLES OF CORROSIVES
+
Acids
Bases
Acetic acid Sodium hydroxide
Hydrochloric acid Potassium hydroxide
Sulfuric acid Calcium carbonate
HpT PHYSICAL STATES
s
Liquid
. • • .
olid
• * •
*
• • •
-^ •*.•.*"„•
• .> . • . % *
to • •
* t % •
Gas <^; *• • ^>
HpT SPECIFIC GRAVITY
A relative measure of the density of a liquid in
comparison to water given that water has a
relative value of 1
Characteristics of Hazardous Materials
3/94
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NOTES
MELTING POINT
The temperature at which a substance's
liquid phase is in equilibrium with its solid
phase
• Freezing point
• With a flammable solid, may be the
same as flash point or ignition
temperature
BOILING POINT
The temperature of a liquid at which its vapor
pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure
• Condensation point
VAPOR DENSITY
The relative measure of the density of a
vapor compared to air given that air has a
relative value of 1
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Characteristics of Hazardous Materials
-------
NOTES
VAPOR PRESSURE
The pressure exerted by a vapor at a given
temperature, usually expressed in millimeters
of mercury (mmHg) at a specific temperature
SOLUBILITY
The ability of a substance to blend uniformly
with another, usually expressed as a percent
by volume (%) or ppm or ppb
Characteristics of Hazardous Materials
3/94
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CHARACTERISTICS OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
TOPIC PAGE NO.
I. INTRODUCTION 1
II. BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS 1
III. RADIATION HAZARDS 2
IV. CHEMICAL HAZARDS 2
A. FIRE HAZARDS 2
1. COMBUSTIBILITY 2
2. FLAMMABILITY 5
3. GAS OR VAPOR EXPLOSIONS 5
4. PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS 6
B. EXPLOSIVE HAZARDS 7
1. EXPLOSIVES 7
2. TYPES OF EXPLOSIVE HAZARDS 7
3. PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS 7
C. TOXIC HAZARDS 8
D. CORROSIVE HAZARDS 8
1. CORROSION 8
2. PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS 9
E. HAZARDS DUE TO CHEMICAL REACTIVITY 10
1. REACTIVITY HAZARDS 10
2. CHEMICAL REACTIONS 10
•—v
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CHARACTERISTICS OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
3. COMPATIBILITY 10
4. PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS 11
F. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CHEMICALS 12
1. SOLUBILITY 12
2. DENSITY/SPECIFIC GRAVITY 13
3. VAPOR DENSITY 13
4. VAPOR PRESSURE 13
5. BOILING POINT 13
6. MELTING POINT 14
7. FLASHPOINT 14
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CHARACTERISTICS OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
I. INTRODUCTION
At an incident, response personnel may be exposed to a number of substances that are
hazardous because of their biological, radiological, or chemical characteristics.
Biological agents are living organisms (or their products) that can cause sickness or death to
exposed individuals.
Radiological materials are considered hazardous because of their ability to emit various types
of radiation at intensities that may be harmful if response personnel are either inadequately
shielded from the radiation source or exposed to the radiation for too long a time.
Chemical hazards are classified into several groups, including fire, toxic, corrosive, and
reactive hazards. A material may elicit more than one chemical hazard during an incident.
For example, toxic vapors can be released during chemical fires. The hazards can be a result
of the physical/chemical properties of a material or of its chemical reactivity with other
materials or the environment to which it is exposed.
Many hazards may be present at any one incident. It is important to understand the
fundamentals of each and their relationships so that effective safety practices may be
employed to reduce the risk to the public and response personnel.
II. BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS
There are five general categories of biological agents that are capable of causing infection
or disease in exposed individuals. They are: viral, rickettsial/chlamydial, bacterial, fungal,
and parasitic. These agent types may be present at hazardous waste sites and hazardous
material spills. Like chemical hazards, they may be dispersed throughout the environment
via wind and water.
Many biological agents have complex life cycles that require host and intermediate (carrier)
host organisms to complete their growth cycles. Rodents, for example, which are commonly
found at landfills, act as carriers for the rabies virus. Likewise, the Rocky Mountain Spotted
Fever tick can carry the bacillus that produces this disease in man.
The same personnel protective requirements that are used against a hazard can be applied to
biological hazards. Body coverings and respiratory protective equipment should be utilized.
Personal cleanliness is especially important. Showering after removing protective clothing
and thoroughly washing exposed body parts, including hands and face, should help remove
any residual contamination.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
III. RADIATION HAZARDS
Radioactive materials that may be encountered at a site can emit three types of harmful
radiation: alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma waves. All three forms harm living
organisms by imparting energy which ionizes molecules in the cells. Hence, the three are
referred to as ionizing radiation. lonization may upset the normal cellular function causing
cell dysfunction or death.
An alpha particle is positively charged. The beta is an electron possessing a negative charge.
Both particles have mass and energy. Both are emitted from the nucleus. They travel short
distances in material before interactions with the material causes them to lose their energy.
The outer layers of the skin and clothing generally protect against these particles. Therefore,
they are considered hazardous primarily when they enter the body through inhalation or
ingestion.
Gamma radiation is pure electromagnetic energy and is wave-like rather than paniculate.
Gamma waves pass through all materials to some degree. Clothing, including protective
gear, will not prevent gamma radiation from interacting with body tissue.
Unlike many hazardous substances that possess certain properties which can alert response
personnel to over-exposures, (odor, irritation, or taste) radiation has no such warning
properties. Hence, preventing the radioactive material from entering the body or protecting
against external radiation is the best protection. As with biological and chemical hazards,
the use of respiratory and personnel protective equipment, coupled with scrupulous personal
hygiene, will afford good protection against radioactive particulates.
IV. CHEMICAL HAZARDS
A. Fire Hazards
1. Combustibility
Combustibility is the ability of a material to act as a fuel. Materials that can
be readily ignited and sustain a fire are considered combustible, while those
that do not are called noncombustible. Three elements are required for
combustion to occur: fuel, oxygen, and heat. The concentration of the fuel
and the oxygen must be high enough to allow ignition and maintain the
burning process. Combustion is a chemical reaction that requires heat to
proceed. Heat is either supplied by the ignition source and is maintained by
the combustion, or supplied from an external source. The relationship of
these three components of fire is illustrated by the triangle in Figure 1,
page 3.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
Most fires can be extinguished by removing one of these components. For
example, water applied to a fire removes the heat, thereby extinguishing the
fire. When a material by itself generates enough heat to self-ignite and
combust, spontaneous combustion occurs, either as a fire or explosion.
Fuel / \ Heat
Oxygen
FIGURE 1
THE FIRE TRIANGLE
While oxygen is the usual oxidizing agent during the combustion process,
there are chemicals that can burn without oxygen's being present. For
example, Calcium and Aluminum will burn in Nitrogen. So, the first side of
the tetrahedron (Figure 2, page 4) is an oxidizing agent that permits the fuel
to burn.
The fuel is the material that is oxidized. Since the fuel becomes chemically
charged by the oxidizing process, it is called a reducing agent. This makes
the second side of the tetrahedron. Fuels can be anything from elements
(Carbon, Hydrogen, Magnesium) to compounds (Cellulose, Wood, Paper,
Gasoline, Petroleum compounds).
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CHARACTERISTICS OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
HEAT
FUEL
(Reducing agent)
OXYGEN OR
OXIDIZER
UNINHIBITED
CHEMICAL REACTION
FIGURE 2
FIRE TETRAHEDRON
Some mixtures of reducing agent and oxidizing agent remain stable under
certain conditions. However, when there is some activation energy, a chain
reactjon is started, which causes combustion. The factor that can trigger this
chemical reaction can be as simple as exposing the combination to light. Once
the chain reaction begins, extinguishment must take place by interrupting the
chain reaction.
Scientists have known for many years that certain chemicals act as excellent
extinguishing agents. However, they were at a loss to explain how these
chemicals actually accomplished extinguishment, given the triangle of fire
model. With the development of the tetrahedron model and the inclusion of
the uninhibited chain reaction, a scientifically sound theory could be
postulated. With this as a basis, the extinguishing capabilities of the halons
and certain dry chemicals were possible.
The final side of the tetrahedron is temperature. The fact that temperature
is used instead of heat is deliberate. Temperature is the quantity of the
disordered energy, which is what initiates combustion. It is possible to have
a high heat as indicated by a large reading of Btu and still not have
combustion. Temperature, therefore, is the key ingredient and the one that
influences the action of the tetrahedron.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
2. Flammability
Flammability is the ability of a material (liquid or gas) to generate a sufficient
concentration of combustible vapors under normal conditions to be ignited
and produce a flame. It is necessary to have a proper fuel-to-air ratio
(expressed as the percentage of fuel in air) to allow combustion. There is a
range of fuel concentrations in air for each material that is optimal for the
ignition and the sustenance of combustion. This is called the Flammable
Range. The lowest concentration of fuel in this range is the Lower
Flammable Limit (LFL). Concentrations less than the LFL are not flammable
because there is too little fuel - that is, the mixture is too "lean". The highest
ratio that is flammable is the Upper Flammable Limit (UFL).
Concentrations greater than the UFL are not flammable because there is too
much fuel displacing the Oxygen (resulting in too little oxygen). This
mixture is too "rich". Fuel concentrations between the LFL and UFL are
optimal for starting and sustaining fire. Example: the LFL for Benzene is
1.3% (13,000 ppm), the UFL is 7.1% (71,000 ppm). Thus the flammable
range is 1.3% to 7.1%. UFL and LFL are the same as UEL and LEL
(UEL - Upper Explosive Limit, LEL - Lower Explosive Limit).
A flammable material is considered highly combustible if it can burn at
ambient temperatures (Table 1, page 6). But a combustible material is not
necessarily flammable, because it may not be easily ignited or the ignition
maintained. Pyrophoric materials will ignite at room temperature in the
presence of a gas or vapor or when a slight friction or shock is applied.
3. Gas or Vapor Explosions
A gas or vapor explosion is a very rapid, violent release of energy. If
combustion is extremely rapid large amounts of kinetic energy, heat, and
gaseous products are released. The major factor contributing to the explosion
is the confinement of a flammable material. When vapors or gases cannot
freely dissipate, they enter the combustion reaction more rapidly.
Confinement also increases the energy associated with these molecules, which
enhances the explosive process. Poorly ventilated buildings, sewers, drums,
and bulk liquid containers are examples of places where potentially explosive
atmospheres may exist.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
TABLE 1
FLAMMABLE COMPOUNDS AND ELEMENTS
FLAMMABLE LIQUIDS
FLAMMABLE SOLIDS
Aldehydes
Ketones
Amines
Ethers
Aliphatic hydrocarbons
Aromatic hydrocarbons
Alcohols
Nitroaliphatics
Water-Reactive Flammable Solids
Potassium
Sodium
Lithium
Phosphorus
Magnesium dust
Zirconium dust
Titanium dust
Aluminum dust
Zinc dust
Pyrophoric Liquids
Organometallic compounds
Dimethyl zinc
Tributyl aluminum
NOTE: The U. S. Department of Transportation (DOT), the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA), the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), and the
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) have established strict definitions for flammability
based on the flash point of a material.
4. Practical Considerations
Fires and explosions require fuel, air (oxygen), and an ignition source (heat).
At a hazardous materials incident, the first two are not easily controlled.
Consequently, while working on-site where a fire hazard may be present, the
concentration of combustible gases in air must be monitored, and any
potential ignition source must be kept out of the area.
Most dangerous flammable substances:
• are easily ignited (e.g., pyrophorics).
• require little Oxygen to support combustion.
• have low LFL/LEL and a wide Flammable/Explosive range.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
Hazards related to fires and explosions:
• physical destruction due to shock waves, heat, and flying objects.
• initiation of secondary fires or creation of flammable conditions.
• release of toxic and corrosive compounds into the surrounding
environment.
B. Explosive Hazards
1. Explosives
An explosive is a substance which undergoes a very rapid chemical
transformation producing large amounts of gases and heat. The gases
produced, for example, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Carbon monoxide, Carbon
dioxide, and steam, due to the heat produced, rapidly expand at velocities
exceeding the speed of sound. This creates both a Shockwave (high pressure
wave front) and noise.
2. Types of explosive hazards
• High or detonating: Chemical transformation occurs very rapidly
with detonation rates as high as 4 miles per second. The rapidly
expanding gas produces a shock wave which may be followed by
combustion.
Primary high explosive: detonating wave produced in an
extremely short period of time. May be detonated by shock,
heat, or friction. Examples are Lead azide, Mercury
fulminate, and Lead styphnate.
Secondary high explosive: generally needs a booster to cause
them to detonate. Relatively insensitive to shock, heat, or
friction. Examples are Tetryl, Cyclonite, Dynamite, and
TNT.
• Low or deflagrating: Rate of deflagration up to 1250 feet per second.
Generally combustion followed by a shock wave. Examples are
Smokeless powder, Black powder, and solid rocket fuel.
3. Practical considerations
High or low does not indicate the explosion hazard (or power) but only the
rate of chemical transformation.
Explosions can occur as a result of reactions between many chemicals not
ordinarily considered as explosives. Ammonium nitrate, a fertilizer, can
explode under the right conditions. Alkali metals and water explode; as will
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CHARACTERISTICS OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
water and Peroxide salts. Picric acid and certain Ether compounds become
highly explosive with age. Gases, vapors, and finely divided particulates,
when confined, can also explode if an ignition source is present.
C. Toxic Hazards
Toxicity
Toxic materials cause local or systemic detrimental effects in an organism.
Exposure to such materials does not always result in death, although that is
often the most immediate concern. Types of toxic hazards can be categorized
by the physiological effect they have on the organism. A material may
induce more than one physiological response that may include: asphyxiation,
irritation allergic sensitization, systemic poisoning, mutagenesis, teratogenesis
and carcinogenesis.
The likelihood that any of these effects will be experienced by an organism
depends not only on the inherent toxicity of the material itself (as measured
by its lethal dose) but also by the magnitude of the exposure (acute or
chronic) and the route of exposure (ingestion, inhalation, skin absorption).
These concepts will be described in greater detail in a later chapter.
D. Corrosive Hazards
1. Corrosion
Corrosion is a process of material degradation. Upon contact, a corrosive
material may destroy body tissues, metals, plastics, and other materials.
Technically, corrosivity is the ability of material to increase the Hydrogen ion
or Hydronium ion concentration of another material. It may have the potential
to transfer electron pairs to, or from, itself or another substance. A corrosive
agent is a reactive compound or element that produces a destructive chemical
change in the material upon which it is acting. Common corrosives are the
halogens, acids, and bases (Table 2, page 9). Skin irritation and burns are
typical results when the body contacts an acidic or basic material.
The corrosiveness of acids and bases can be compared on the basis of their
ability to dissociate (form ions) in solution. Those that form the greatest
number of hydrogen ions (H+) are the strongest acids, while those that form
the most hydroxide ions (OH') are the strongest bases. The H+ ion
concentration in solution is called pH. Strong acids have a low pH (many H+
in solution) while strong bases have a high pH.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14 as follows:
Strong
Acid
+
0 3
Strong
Base
11 14
I I
3.5
Coke Neutral
Pepsi
Measurements of pH are valuable because they can be quickly done on-site,
providing immediate information on the corrosive hazard.
TABLE 2
CORROSIVES
HALOGENS
Bromines
Chlorine
Fluorine
Iodine
Oxygen (ozone)
BASES (CAUSTICS)
Potassium hydroxide
Sodium hydroxide
ACIDS
Acetic acid
Hydrochloric acid
Hydrofluoric acid
Nitric acid
Sulfuric acid
2. Practical Considerations
When dealing with corrosive materials in the field, it is imperative to
determine:
• How toxic is the corrosive material? Is it an irritant or does it cause
severe burns?
• What kind of structural damage does it do, and what other hazards
can it lead to? For example, will it destroy containers holding other
hazardous materials, releasing them into the environment?
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CHARACTERISTICS OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
E. Hazards Due to Chemical Reactivity
1. Reactivity Hazards
A reactive material is one that can undergo a chemical reaction under certain
specified conditions. Generally, the term "reactive hazard" is used to refer
to a substance that undergoes a violent or abnormal reaction in the presence
of water, or under normal ambient atmospheric conditions. Among this type
of hazard are: (1) the pyrophoric liquids which will ignite in air at or below
normal room temperature in the absence of added heat, shock, or friction,
and (2) the water-reactive flammable solids which will spontaneously combust
upon contact with water (Table 1, page 6).
2. Chemical Reactions
A chemical reaction is the interaction of two or more substances, resulting in
chemical changes. Exothermic chemical reactions, which give off heat, can
be the most dangerous. A separate source of heat is required to maintain
endothermic chemical reactions. Removing the heat source stops the
reaction.
Chemical reactions usually occur in one of the following ways:
• Combination A + B > AB
• Decomposition AB > A + B
• Single replacement A + BC > B + AC
• Double replacement AB + CD > AD + CB
The rate at which a chemical reaction occurs depends on the following
factors:
• Surface area of reactants available at the reaction site - for example,
a large chunk of coal is combustible, but coal dust is explosive.
• Physical state of reactant - solid, liquid, or gas
• Concentration of reactants
• Temperature
• Pressure
• Presence of a catalyst
3. Compatibility
If two or more hazardous materials remain in contact indefinitely without
reaction, they are compatible. Incompatibility, however, does not necessarily
indicate a hazard. For example, acids and bases (both corrosive) react to
form salts and water, which may not be corrosive.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
Many operations on waste or accident sites involve mixing, or unavoidable
contact between, different hazardous materials. It is important to know ahead
of time if such materials are compatible. If they are not, then any number
of chemical reactions could occur. The results could range from the
formation of an innocuous gas to a violent explosion. Table 3, page 12
illustrates what happens when some incompatible materials are combined.
The identity of unknown reactants must be determined by chemical analysis
to establish compatibility. On the basis of their properties, a chemist then
should be able to anticipate any chemical reactions resulting from mixing the
reactants. Judging the compatibility of more than two reactants is very
difficult; analysis should be performed on a one-to-one basis.
Response personnel who must determine compatibilities should refer to "A
Method for Determining the Compatibility of Hazardous Wastes" (EPA
600/2-80-076), published by EPA's Office of Research and Development.
Final decisions about compatibilities should only be made by an experienced
chemist.
Sometimes the identity of a waste is impossible to ascertain due to money and
time constraints. In mis event, simple tests must be performed to determine
the nature of the material or mixture. Tests such as pH, oxidation-reduction
potential, and flashpoint are useful. In addition, very small amounts of the
reactants may be carefully combined to determine compatibility.
4. Practical Considerations
If materials are compatible they may be stored together in bulk tanks or
transferred to tank trucks for ultimate disposal. It is necessary, then, to
establish the compatibility of the materials through analyses prior to bulking
them. Compatibility information is also very important in evaluating an
accident involving several different hazardous materials. The ultimate
handling and treatment of the materials may be partially based on such
information.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
TABLE 3
HAZARDS DUE TO CHEMICAL REACTIONS (INCOMPATIBILITIES)
Heat Generation
Fire
Explosion
Toxic Gas or Vapor Production
Flammable Gas or Vapor Production
Formation of a Substance with Greater
Toxicity than the Reactants
Formation of Shock or Friction Sensitive
Compounds
Over-pressurization of Closed Vessels
Solubilization of Toxic Substances
Dispersal ofToxic Dusts and Mists
Violent Polymerization
Acid and Water
Hydrogen Sulfide and Calcium Hypochlorite
Picric Acid and Sodium Hydroxide
Sulfuric Acid and Plastic
Acid and Metal
Chlorine and Ammonia
Peroxides and Organics OR
Liquid Oxygen and Petroleum Products
Fire
Hydrochloric Acid and Chromium
Sodium or Potassium Cyanide and Water or
Acid Vapor
Ammonia and Acryonitrile
F. Physical Properties of Chemicals
Chemical compounds possess inherent properties which determine the type and degree
of the hazard they represent. Evaluating risks of an incident depends on
understanding these properties and their relationship to the environment.
1. Solubility
The ability of a solid, liquid, gas or vapor to dissolve in a solvent is
solubility. An insoluble substance can be physically mixed or blended in a
solvent for a short time but is unchanged when it finally separates. The
solubility of a substance is independent of its density or specific gravity.
The solubility of a material is important when determining its reactivity,
dispersion, mitigation, and treatment. Solubility can be given in parts per
million (ppm) or milligrams per liter (mg/L)
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12
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CHARACTERISTICS OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
2. Density/Specific Gravity
The density of a substance is its mass per unit volume, commonly expressed
in grams per cubic centimeter (g/cc). The density of water is 1 g/cc since 1
cc has a mass of 1 g.
Specific gravity (SpG) is the ratio of the density of a substance (at a given
temperature) to the density of water at the temperature of its maximum
density (4°C).
Numerically, SpG is equal to the density in g/cc, but is expressed as a pure
number without units. If the SpG of a substance is greater than 1 (the SpG
of water), it will sink in water. The substance will float on water if its SpG
is less than 1. This is important when considering mitigation and treatment
methods.
3. Vapor Density
The density of a gas or vapor can be compared to the density of the ambient
atmosphere. If the density of a vapor or gas is greater than that of the
ambient air, then it will tend to settle to the lowest point. If vapor density is
close to air density or lower, the vapor will tend to disperse in the
atmosphere. Vapor density is given in relative terms similar to specific
gravity.
In settling, dense vapor creates two hazards. First, if the vapor displaces
enough air to reduce the atmospheric concentration of Oxygen below 16%,
asphyxia may result. Second, if the vapor is toxic, then inhalation problems
predominate even if the atmosphere is not Oxygen deficient. If a substance
is explosive and very dense, the explosive hazard may be close to the ground
rather than at the breathing zone (normal sampling heights).
4. Vapor Pressure
The pressure exerted by a vapor against the sides of a closed container is
called vapor pressure. It is temperature dependent. As temperature
increases, so does the vapor pressure. Thus, more liquid evaporates or
vaporizes. The lower the boiling point of the liquid, the greater the vapor
pressure it will exert at a given temperature. Values for vapor pressure are
most often given as millimeters of mercury (mm Hg) at a specific
temperature.
5. Boiling Point
The boiling point is the temperature at which a liquid changes to vapor - that
is, it is the temperature where the pressure of the liquid equals atmospheric
pressure. The opposite change in phases is the condensation point.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
Handbooks usually list temperatures as degrees Celsius (C°) or Fahrenheit
(°F). A major consideration with toxic substances is how they enter the body.
With high-boiling-point liquids, the most common entry is by body contact.
With low-boiling-point liquids, the inhalation route is the most common and
serious.
6. Melting Point
The temperature at which a solid changes phase to a liquid is the melting
point. This temperature is also the freezing point, since a liquid can change
phase to a solid. The proper terminology depends on the direction of the
phase change.
If a substance has been transported at a temperature that maintains a solid
phase, then a change in temperature may cause the solid to melt. The
particular substance may exhibit totally different properties depending on
phase. One phase could be inert while the other highly reactive. Thus, it is
imperative to recognize the possibility of a substance changing phase due to
changes in the ambient temperature.
7. Flashpoint
The minimum temperature at which a substance produces sufficient flammable
vapors to ignite is its flashpoint. If the vapor does ignite, combustion can
continue as long as the temperature remains at or above the flashpoint. The
relative flammability of a substance is based on its flashpoint. An accepted
relation between the two is:
Highly flammable: Flashpoint less than 100°F
Moderately flammable: Flashpoint greater than 100°F but
less than 200°F
Relatively inflammable: Flashpoint greater than 200°F
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Section 5
-------
TOXICOLOGY
PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lesson, participants will be able to:
• List the four most common routes of exposure to hazardous
materials
o Define the following terms:
- LD50
LCJO
- LDLO
TLV-TWA
TLV-STEL
TLV-C
IDLH
• Describe the difference between an acute and a chronic
exposure to a hazardous material
• List four factors that may account for the response variances
in humans to toxic materials
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PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES (Continued)
• Describe the following reactions caused by the exposure to
combinations or mixtures of chemicals:
Additive
Synergistic
Potentiation
Antagonistic
Mutagenic
Teratogenic
Carcinogenic
• Define dose-response relationship
• Define toxicity.
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NOTES
f
TOXICOLOC
3Y
W TOXICITY
The capacity of a substanc
harm an organism
eto
IP* DOSE
The quantity of a substance
administered to an organism
by a specific route
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Toxicology
-------
NOTES
If" DOSE-RESPONSE
I
RELATIONSHIP
A quantitative relationship
between dose and effect
<&
|
LD50
LC
50
»
DOSE-RESPONSE
TERMS
The amount of a substance expected to
cause death in 50% of a test
population
The concentration of a substance in air
that is expected to cause death in 50% of
a test population
j| DOSE-RESPONSE TERMS
LDLO
LCLO
The lowest amount of a substance
that has been reported to cause
death in humans or animals
The lowest concentration of a
substance in air that has been
reported to cause death
or animals
in humans
Toxicology
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NOTES
FACTORS INFLUENCING TOXICITY
• Duration and frequency
- Acute
- Chronic
- Latent effect
INFLUENCING FACTORS
• Route of entry
- Inhalation
- Ingestion
- Absorption
- Injection
INFLUENCING FACTORS
• Interspecies variation
- Human vs. mouse
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Toxicology
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NOTES
INFLUENCING FACTORS
Intraspecies variation
- Age
- Gender
- Genetic makeup
INFLUENCING FACTORS
Environment
- Past exposure
- Daily exposure
INFLUENCING FACTORS
• Chemical interactions
- Addition (2+2=4)
- Synergism (2+2=6)
- Potentiation (0+2=4)
- Antagonism (2+2=2)
Toxicology
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NOTES
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
OF EXPOSURE
Respiratory tract
- Simple asphyxiants
- Chemical asphyxiants
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
OF EXPOSURE
• Respiratory tract
- Irritants
- Necrosis producers
- Fibrosis producers
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
OF EXPOSURE
• Central nervous system
- Anoxia
- Direct action on neurons
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Toxicology
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NOTES
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
OF EXPOSURE
Target organ effects
- Liver
- Kidneys
- Blood
- Reproductive system
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
OF EXPOSURE
• Toxic effects
- Teratogenic
- Mutagenic
- Carcinogenic
EXPOSURE GUIDELINES
Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA)
- Permissible exposure limits (PEL)
- Enforces standards
Toxicology
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NOTES
EXPOSURE GUIDELINES
National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health (NIOSH)
- Research agency
- Recommendations to OSHA
- Health hazard alerts
- Immediately dangerous to life
and health (IDLH)
EXPOSURE GUIDELINES
• United States Environmental Protection
Agency (U.S. EPA)
- Enforces standards in non-OSHA
states, 40 CFR 311
THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV)
• Airborne concentrations of substances
in work areas
- Workers may be exposed to daily
without adverse effects
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Toxicology
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NOTES
YTHRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE
• Based on:
- Industrial experience
- Experimental human studies
- Experimental animal studies
- Combination of all three
•
100
TLV-
TWA
0
THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE
Time-Weighted Average
TLV-TWA
- The time-weighted average
concentration for an 8-hour work day,
40-hour work week
/^\ J^\
Bam 12 noon 5pm
THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE
Short-Term Exposure Limit
• TLV-STEL
- Maximum concentrations
- Continuous worker exposure for
up to 15 minutes without suffering:
- Irritation
- Chronic or irreversible tissue
change
- Narcosis
Toxicology
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NOTES
SHORT-TERM EXPOSURE LIMIT
Worker limitations
- No more than four excursions per
day into concentration level
- At least 60 minutes between
excursions
- TLV-TWA must not be exceeded
THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE
Ceiling
• TLV-C
- The concentration that should
not be exceeded even instantaneously
100
TLV-C
Sam
12 noon
5 pm
IMMEDIATELY DANGEROUS TO
LIFE AND HEALTH
IDLH
- Maximum concentration level
workers could escape from within
30 minutes without any escape-
impairing symptoms or irreversible
health effects
Reference: NIOSH/OSHA Pocket Quide to Chemical
Hazards
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PRINCIPLES OF TOXICOLOGY
TOPIC PAGE NO.
I. INTRODUCTION 1
II. ROUTES OF EXPOSURE 1
III. DOSE-RESPONSE RELATIONSHIP 2
A. DOSE TERMS 2
B. DOSE-RESPONSE CURVES 3
C. DOSE-RESPONSE TERMS 3
D. LIMITATIONS OF DOSE-RESPONSE TERMS 5
E. FACTORS INFLUENCING TOXICITY 6
1. DURATION AND FREQUENCY OF EXPOSURE 6
2. ROUTES OF EXPOSURE 6
-3. INTERSPECIES VARIATION 7
4. INTRASPECIES VARIATION 7
a. AGE AND MATURITY 7
b. GENDER AND HORMONAL STATUS 8
c. GENETIC MAKEUP 8
d. STATE OF HEALTH 8
5. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS 8
6. CHEMICAL COMBINATIONS 8
a. SYNERGISTS 8
b. POTENTIATION 8
c. ANTAGONISTS 9
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PRINCIPLES OF TOXICOLOGY
IV. SOURCES OF TOXICITY INFORMATION 9
A. TOXICITY TESTS 9
B. EPIDEMIOLOGICAL AND CLINICAL STUDIES 10
V. USES OF TOXICITY INFORMATION 10
A. COMPARISON OF TOXICITY DATA 10
B. ESTABLISHING EXPOSURE GUIDELINES 11
VI. HEALTH EFFECTS 13
A. RESPIRATORY TRACT 13
1. STRUCTURE 13
2. PARTICLE DEPOSITION 14
3. TYPES OF INHALED TOXICANTS 14
B. SKIN 16
1. STRUCTURE 16
2. NATURAL DEFENSES 16
3. ABSORPTION CHARACTERISTICS 17
C. EYES 18
D. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 19
1. ANOXIA AS A BASIC ACTION 19
2. DIRECT ACTION ON NEURONS 19
E. LIVER 20
F. KIDNEYS 21
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PRINCIPLES OF TOXICOLOGY
G. BLOOD 22
1. BONE MARROW 22
2. BLOOD COMPONENTS 22
3. OXYGEN TRANSPORT 23
4. SPLEEN 23
H. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 24
VII. TYPES OF TOXIC EFFECTS 24
A. TERATOGENIC 24
1. CAUSES OF CONGENITAL MALFORMATIONS 24
2. GESTATION PERIOD 25
3. ANIMAL STUDIES 25
4. TERATOGENS KNOWN TO AFFECT HUMANS 26
B. MUTAGENIC 26
C. CARCINOGENIC 27
VIII. REFERENCES 29
APX. I EXPOSURE GUIDELINES 31
I. INTRODUCTION 31
II. GENERAL GUIDELINES 31
III. SOURCES FOR SPECIFIC GUIDELINES FOR AIRBORNE
CONTAMINANTS 32
A. AMERICAN CONFERENCE OF GOVERNMENTAL
INDUSTRIAL HYGIENISTS (ACGIH) 32
B. AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARDS INSTITUTE (ANSI) 33
C. OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH
ADMINISTRATION (OSHA) 33
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PRINCIPLES OF TOXICOLOGY
D. NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY
AND HEALTH (NIOSH) . . 33
E. AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE ASSOCIATION (AIHA) ... 34
IV. TYPES OF EXPOSURE GUIDELINES 34
A. TIME WEIGHTED AVERAGE (TWA) 34
B. SHORT-TERM EXPOSURE LIMIT (STEL) 35
C. CEILING (C) 36
D. PEAKS 37
E. "SKIN" NOTATION 37
F. IMMEDIATELY DANGEROUS TO LIFE OR HEALTH (IDLH) ... 38
V. MIXTURES 38
VI. APPLICATION OF EXPOSURE GUIDELINES 39
A. ENGINEERED CONTROLS AND WORK PRACTICES 39
B. PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT 39
C. MEDICAL SURVEILLANCE 40
VII. LIMITATIONS AND RESTRICTIONS OF USE 40
VIII. DISPERSION OF CHEMICALS IN THE ENVIRONMENT 40
A. INTRODUCTION 40
B. INFORMATION NEEDED TO DETERMINE DISPERSION
PATHWAYS 41
1. CHARACTERISTICS OF CHEMICALS INVOLVED 41
2. LAND USE 41
3. PHYSICAL SETTING 41
4. BIOLOGICAL SETTING 42
5. CLIMATE 42
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PRINCIPLES OF TOXICOLOGY
C. BASIC DISPERSION PATHWAYS 43
1. ATMOSPHERE 43
2. SURFACE WATER 43
3. SOIL AND UNDERLYING ROCK 44
4. GROUNDWATER 44
D. FATE OF CHEMICALS IN THE ENVIRONMENT 45
1. DILUTION AND DEGRADATION 45
2. ENVIRONMENTAL ISOLATION 45
3. CHEMICAL TRANSPORT 46
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PRINCIPLES OF TOXICOLOGY
I. INTRODUCTION
"All substances are poisons; there is none which is not a poison. The right dose
differentiates a poison and a remedy."
This early observation concerning the toxicity of chemicals was made by Paracelsus (1493-
1541). The classic connotation of toxicology was "the science of poisons." Since that time,
the science has expanded to encompass several disciplines. Toxicology is the study of the
interaction between chemical agents and biological systems. While the subject of toxicology
is quite complex, it is necessary to understand the basic concepts in order to make logical
decisions concerning the protection of personnel from toxic injuries.
Toxicity can be defined as the relative ability of a substance to cause adverse effects in living
organisms. This "relative ability" is dependent upon several conditions. As Paracelsus
suggests, the quantity or the dose of the substance determines whether the effects of the
chemical are toxic, non-toxic or beneficial. In addition to dose, other factors may also
influence the toxicity of the compound such as the route of entry, duration and frequency of
exposure, variations between different species (interspecies) and variations among members
of the same species (intraspecies).
To apply these principles to hazardous materials response, the routes by which chemicals
enter the human body will be considered first. Knowledge of these routes will support the
selection of personal protective equipment and the development of safety plans. The second
section deals with dose-response relationships. Since dose-response information is available
in toxicology and chemistry reference books, it is useful to understand the relevance of these
values to the concentrations that are actually measured in the environment. The third section
of this chapter includes the effects of the duration and frequency of exposure, interspecies
variation and intraspecies variation on toxicity. Finally, toxic responses associated with
chemical exposures are described according to each organ system.
II. ROUTES OF EXPOSURE
There are four routes by which a substance can enter the body: inhalation, skin (or eye)
absorption, ingestion, and injection.
• Inhalation: For most chemicals in the form of vapors, gases, mists, or particulates,
inhalation is the major route of entry. Once inhaled, chemicals are either exhaled or
deposited in the respiratory tract. If deposited, damage can occur through direct
contact with tissue or the chemical may diffuse into the blood through the lung-blood
interface.
Upon contact with tissue in the upper respiratory tract or lungs, chemicals may cause
health effects ranging from simple irritation to severe tissue destruction. Substances
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PRINCIPLES OF TOXICOLOGY
absorbed into the blood are circulated and distributed to organs which have an affinity
for that particular chemical. Health effects can then occur in the organs which are
sensitive to the toxicant.
• Skin (or eye) absorption: Skin (dermal) contact can cause effects that are relatively
innocuous such as redness or mild dermatitis; more severe effects include destruction
of skin tissue or other debilitating conditions. Many chemicals can also cross the
skin barrier and be absorbed into the blood system. Once absorbed, they may
produce systemic damage to internal organs. The eyes are particularly sensitive to
chemicals. Even a short exposure can cause severe effects to the eyes or the
substance can be absorbed through the eyes and be transported to other parts of the
body causing harmful effects.
• Ingestion: Chemicals that inadvertently get into the mouth and are swallowed do not
generally harm the gastrointestinal tract itself unless they are irritating or corrosive.
Chemicals that are insoluble in the fluids of the gastrointestinal tract (stomach, small,
and large intestines) are generally excreted. Others that are soluble are absorbed
through the lining of the gastrointestinal tract. They are then transported by the
blood to internal organs where they can cause damage.
• Injection: Substances may enter the body if the skin is penetrated or punctured by
contaminated objects. Effects can then occur as the substance is circulated in the
blood and deposited in the target organs.
Once the chemical is absorbed into the body, three other processes are possible: metabolism,
storage and excretion. Many chemicals are metabolized or transformed via chemical
reactions in the body. In some cases, chemicals are distributed and stored in specific organs.
Storage may reduce metabolism and therefore, increase the persistence of the chemicals in
the body. The various excretory mechanisms (exhaled breath, perspiration, urine, feces, or
detoxification) rid the body, over a period of time, of the chemical. For some chemicals
elimination may be a matter of days or months; for others the elimination rate is so low that
they may persist in the body for a lifetime and cause deleterious effects.
III. THE DOSE-RESPONSE RELATIONSHIP
In general, a given amount of a toxic agent will elicit a given type and intensity of response.
The dose-response relationship is a fundamental concept in toxicology and the basis for
measurement of the relative harmfulness of a chemical. A dose-response relationship is
defined as a consistent mathematical and biologically plausible correlation between the
number of individuals responding and a given dose over an exposure period.
A. Dose Terms
In toxicology studies the dose given to test organisms is expressed in terms of the
quantity administered:
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PRINCIPLES OF TOXICOLOGY
• Quantity per unit mass (or weight). Usually expressed as milligram per
kilogram of body weight, (mg/kg)
• Quantity per unit area of skin surface. Usually expressed as milligram per
square centimeter, (mg/cm2)
• Volume of substance in air per unit volume of air. Usually given as
microliters of vapor or gas per liter of air by volume (ppm). Particulates and
gases are also given as milligrams of material per cubic meter of air.
(mg/m3)
The period of time over which a dose has been administered is generally specified.
For example, 5 mg/kg/3 D is 5 milligrams of chemical per kilogram of the subject's
body weight administered over a period of three days. For dose to be meaningful it
must be related to the effect it causes. For example, 50 mg/kg of chemical "X"
administered orally to female rats has no relevancy unless the effect of the dose, say
sterility in all test subjects, is reported.
B. Dose-Response Curves
A dose-response relationship is represented by a dose-response curve. The curve is
generated by plotting the dose of the chemical versus the response in the test
population. There are a number of ways to present this data. One of the more
common methods for presenting the dose-response curve is shown in Chart 1,
page 4. In this example, the dose is expressed in "mg/kg" and depicted on the "x"
axis. The response is expressed as a "cumulative percentage" of animals in the test
population that exhibit the specific health effect under study. Values for "cumulative
percentage" are indicated on the "y" axis of the graph. As the dose increases, the
percentage of the affected population increases.
Dose-response curves provide valuable information regarding the potency of the
compound. The curves are also used to determine the dose-response terms that are
discussed in the following section.
C. Dose-Response Terms
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) defines a number
of general dose-response terms in the "Registry of Toxic Substances" (1983, p.
xxxii). A summary of these terms is contained in Table 1, page 5.
• Toxic dose low (TD^): The lowest dose of a substance introduced by any
route, other than inhalation, over any given period of time, and reported to
produce any toxic effect in humans or to produce tumorigenic or reproductive
effects in animals.
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PRINCIPLES OF TOXICOLOGY
TOO
O
00
O co
~i CU
50
INCREASING DOSE
DOSE (MG/KG)
CHART 1
HYPOTHETICAL DOSE-RESPONSE CURVE
Toxic concentration low (TCLo): The lowest concentration of a substance in
air to which humans or animals have been exposed for any given period of
time that has produced any toxic effect in humans or produced tumorigenic
or reproductive effects in animals.
Lethal dose low (LD^): The lowest dose, other than LD50, of a substance
introduced by any route, other than inhalation, which has been reported to
have caused death in humans or animals.
Lethal dose fifty (LD50): A calculated dose of a substance which is expected
to cause the death of 50 percent of an entire defined experimental animal
population. It is determined from the exposure to the substance by any route
other than inhalation.
Lethal concentration low (LC^): The lowest concentration of a substance in
air, other than LC50, which has been reported to have caused death in humans
or animals.
Lethal concentration fifty (LC50): A calculated concentration of a substance
in air, exposure to which for a specified length of time is expected to cause
the death of 50 percent of an entire defined experimental animal population.
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PRINCIPLES OF TOXICOLOGY
TABLE 1
SUMMARY OF DOSE-RESPONSE TERMS
CATEGORY
TDLO
TCLo
LDuj
LD50
LCLo
LCSo
EXPOSURE
TIME
Acute or chronic
Acute or chronic
Acute or chronic
Acute
Acute or chronic
Acute
ROUTE OF
EXPOSURE
All except inhalation
Inhalation
All except inhalation
All except inhalation
Inhalation
Inhalation
TOXIC EFFECTS
HUMAN ANIMAL
Any non-lethal
Any non-lethal
Death
Not applicable
Death
Not applicable
Reproductive,
Tumorigenic
Reproductive,
Tumorigenic
Death
Death
(statistically
determined)
Death
Death
(statistically
determined)
D. Limitations of Dose-Response Terms
Several limitations must be recognized when using dose-response data. First, it is
difficult to select a test species that will closely duplicate the human response to a
specific chemical. For example, human data indicates that Arsenic is a carcinogen,
while animal studies do not demonstrate these results. Second, most lethal and toxic
dose data are derived from acute (single dose, short-term) exposures rather than
chronic (continuous, long-term) exposures. A third shortcoming is that the LDJO or
LC50 is a single value and does not indicate the toxic effects that may occur at
different dose levels. For example, in Chart 2, page 6, Chemical A is assumed to
be more toxic than Chemical B based on LD50, but at lower doses the situation is
reversed. At LD20, Chemical B is more toxic than Chemical A.
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PRINCIPLES OF TOXICOLOGY
INCREASING DOSE
DOSE (MG/KG)
CHART 2
COMPARISON OF DOSE-RESPONSE CURVES FOR TWO SUBSTANCES
Factors Influencing Toxicity
Many factors effect the reaction of an organism to a toxic chemical. The specific
response that is elicited by a given dose varies depending on the species being tested
and variations that occur among individuals of the same species. These must be
considered when using information such as that found in Table 2, page 7.
1. Duration and Frequency of Exposure
There is a difference in type and severity of effects depending on how rapidly
the dose is received (duration) and how often the dose is received
(frequency). Acute exposures are usually single incidents of relatively short
duration - a minute to a few days. Chronic exposures involve frequent doses
at relatively low levels over a period of time ranging from months to years.
If a dose is administered slowly so that the rate of elimination or the rate of
detoxification keeps pace with intake it is possible that no toxic response will
occur. The same dose could produce an effect with rapid administration.
2. Routes of Exposure
Biological results can be different for the same dose, depending on whether
the chemical is inhaled, ingested, applied to the skin, or injected. Natural
barriers impede the intake and distribution of material once in the body.
These barriers can attenuate the toxic effects of the same dose of a chemical.
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PRINCIPLES OF TOXICOLOGY
The effectiveness of these barriers is partially dependent upon the route of
entry of the chemical.
3. Interspecies Variation
For the same dose received under identical conditions, the effects exhibited
by different species may vary greatly. A dose which is lethal for one specie
may have no effect on another. Since the toxicological effects of chemicals
on humans is usually based on animal studies, a test species must be selected
that most closely approximates the physiological processes of humans.
TABLE 2
CLASSIFICATION OF FACTORS INFLUENCING TOXICITY
TYPE
Factors related to the
chemical
Factors related to exposure
Factors related to person
exposed
Factors related to
environment
EXAMPLES
Composition (salt, free base, etc.); physical characteristics
(particle size, liquid, solid, etc.); physical properties
(volatility, solubility, etc.); presence of impurities; break
down products; carrier.
Dose; concentration; route of exposure (ingestion, skin
absorption, injection, inhalation); duration.
Heredity; immunology; nutrition; hormones; age; sex; health
status; pre-existing diseases.
Carrier (air, water, food, soil); additional chemical present
(synergism, antagonism); temperature; air pressure.
4. Intraspecies Variation
Within a given species, not all members of the population respond to the
same dose identically. Some members will be more sensitive to the chemical
and elicit response at lower doses than the more resistant members which
require larger doses for the same response.
a. Age and Maturity
Infants and children are often more sensitive to toxic action than
younger adults. Elderly persons have diminished physiological
capabilities for the body to deal with toxic insult. These age groups
may be more susceptible to toxic effects at relatively lower doses.
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PRINCIPLES OF TOXICOLOGY
b. Gender and Hormonal Status
Some chemicals may be more toxic to one gender than the other.
Certain chemicals can effect the reproductive system of either the
male or female. Additionally, since women have a larger percentage
of body fat than men, they may accumulate more fat-soluble
chemicals. Some variations in response have also been shown to be
related to physiological differences between males and females.
c. Genetic Makeup
Genetic factors influence individual responses to toxic substances. If
the necessary physiological processes are diminished or defective the
natural body defenses are impaired. For example, people lacking in
the G6PD enzyme (a hereditary abnormality) are more likely to suffer
red blood cell damage when given aspirin or certain antibiotics than
persons with the normal form of the enzyme.
d. State of Health
Persons with poor health are generally more susceptible to toxic
damage due to the body's decreased capability to deal with chemical
insult.
5. Environmental Factors
Environmental factors may contribute to the response for a given chemical.
For example, such factors as air pollution, workplace conditions, living
conditions, personal habits, and previous chemical exposure may act in
conjunction with other toxic mechanisms.
6. Chemical Combinations
Some combinations of chemicals produce different effects from those
attributed to each individually:
a. Synergists: chemicals that, when combined, cause a greater than
additive effect. For example, hepatotoxicity is enhanced as a result
of exposure to both Ethanol and Carbon tetrachloride.
b. Potentiation: is a type of synergism where the potentiator is not
usually toxic in itself, but has the ability to increase the toxicity of
other chemicals. Isopropanol, for example, is not hepatotoxic in
itself. It's combination with Carbon tetrachloride, however, increases
the toxic response to the Carbon tetrachloride.
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PRINCIPLES OF TOXICOLOGY
c. Antagonists: chemicals, that when combined, lessen the predicted
effect. There are four types of antagonists.
• functional: Produces opposite effects on the same physiologic
function. For example, Phosphate reduces Lead absorption in
the gastrointestinal tract by forming insoluble Lead phosphate.
• chemical: Reacts with the toxic compound to form a less
toxic product. For example, chelating agents bind up metals
such as Lead, Arsenic, and Mercury.
• dispositional: Alters absorption, metabolism, distribution, or
excretion. For example, some Alcohols use the same
enzymes in their metabolism:
Ethanol > Acetaldehyde > Acetic acid
Methanol > Formaldehyde > Formic acid
The Aldehydes cause toxic effects (hangover, blindness).
Ethanol is more readily metabolized than Methanol, so when
both are present, Methanol is not metabolized and can be
excreted before forming Formaldehyde. Another dispositional
antagonist is Antabuse which, when administered to
alcoholics, inhibits the metabolism of Acetaldehyde, giving
the patient a more severe prolonged hangover.
• receptor: Occurs when a second chemical either binds to the
same tissue receptor as the toxic chemical or blocks the action
of receptor and thereby reduces the toxic effect. For
example, Atropine interferes with the receptor responsible for
the toxic effects of Organophosphate pesticides.
IV. SOURCES OF TOXICITY INFORMATION
Information on the toxic properties of chemical compounds and dose-response relationships
is obtained from animal studies, epidemiological investigations of exposed human
populations, and clinical studies or case reports of exposed humans.
A. Toxicity Tests
The design of any toxicity test incorporates:
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PRINCIPLES OF TOXICOLOGY
• A test organism, which can range from cellular material and selected strains
of bacteria through higher order plants and animals.
• A response or biological endpoint, which can range from subtle changes in
physiology and behavior to death.
• An exposure or test period.
• A dose or series of doses.
The objective is to select a test species that is a good model of humans, a response
that is not subjective and can be consistently determined for a given dose, and a test
period that is relatively short.
B. Epidemiological and Clinical Studies
Epidemiological investigations and clinical cases are another means of relating human
health effects and exposure to toxic substances. Epidemiological investigations are
based upon a human population exposed to a chemical compared to an appropriate,
non-exposed group. An attempt is made to determine whether there is a statistically
significant association between health effects and chemical exposure. Clinical cases
involve individual reports of chemical exposure.
V. USES OF TOXICITY INFORMATION
A. Comparison of Toxicity Data
Comparing the LD50 of chemicals in animals gives a relative ranking of potency or
toxicity of each. For example, DDT (LD50 for rats = 113 mg/kg) would be
considered more toxic than Ethyl alcohol (LD50 for rats = 14,000 mg/kg). Using the
LD50 (mg/kg) for a test species and multiplying by 70 kg (average mass of man)
gives a rough estimate of the toxic potential of the substance for humans, assuming
that humans are as sensitive as the subjects tested.
Since the extrapolation of human data from animal studies is complex, this value
should only be considered as an approximation for the potency of the compound and
used in conjunction with additional data (Table 3, page 11; Table 4, page 12).
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PRINCIPLES OF TOXICOLOGY
TABLE 3
TOXICITY RATING TABLE
TOXICITY RATING OR CLASS
ORAL ACUTE LD™ FOR RATS
'50
Extremely toxic
Highly toxic
Moderately toxic
Slightly toxic
Practically nontoxic
1 mg/kg or less (Dioxin, Botulinum toxin)
1 to 50 mg/kg (Strychnine)
50 to 500 mg/kg (DDT)
0.5 to 5 g/kg (Morphine)
5 to 15 g/kg (Ethyl alcohol)
B. Establishing Exposure Guidelines
Toxicity data from both animal experimentation and epidemiological studies is sued
to establish exposure guidelines. The method for deriving a guideline is dependent
upon the type of chemical as well as duration and frequency of exposure. It is also
important to make the distinction between an experimental dose (mg/kg) and an
environmental concentration (mg/m3 or ppm). In order to make safety decisions,
exposure guidelines are presented as concentrations so that these values can be
compared to concentrations measured by air monitoring instrumentation.
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PRINCIPLES OF TOXICOLOGY
TABLE 4
TABLE OF LDso VALUES FOR RATS FOR A
GROUP OF WELL-KNOWN CHEMICALS
CHEMICAL
Sucrose (table sugar)
Ethyl alcohol
Sodium chloride (common salt)
Vitamin A
Vanillin
Aspirin
Chloroform
Copper sulfate
Caffeine
Phenobarbital, Sodium salt
DDT
Sodium nitrite
Nicotine
Aflatoxin Bl
Sodium cyanide
Strychnine
LDso (mg/kg)
29,700
14,000
3,000
2,000
1,580
1,000
800
300
192
162
113
85
53
7
6.4
2.5
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PRINCIPLES OF TOXICOLOGY
VI. HEALTH EFFECTS
Human health effects caused by exposure to toxic substances fall into two categories: short-
term and long-term effects. Short-term effects (or acute effects) have a relatively quick onset
(usually minutes to days) after brief exposures to relatively high concentrations of material
(acute exposures). The effect may be local or systemic. Local effects occur at the site of
contact between the toxicant and the body. This site is usually the skin or eyes, but includes
the lungs if irritants are inhaled or the gastrointestinal tract if corrosives are ingested.
Systemic effects are those that occur if the toxicant has been absorbed into the body from its
initial contact point, transported to other parts of the body, and cause adverse effects in
susceptible organs. Many chemicals can cause both local and systemic effects.
Long-term (or chronic) effects are those with a long period of time (years) between exposure
and injury. These effects may occur after apparent recovery from acute exposure or as a
result of repeated exposures to low concentrations of materials over a period of years
(chronic exposure).
The health effects manifested from acute or chronic exposure are dependent upon the
chemical involved and the organ it effects. Most chemicals do not exhibit the same degree
of toxicity for all organs. Usually the major effects of a chemical will be expressed in one
or two organs. These organs are known as target organs which are more sensitive to that
particular chemical than other organs. The organs of the body and examples of effects due
to chemical exposures are listed below.
A. Respiratory Tract
The respiratory tract is the only organ system with vital functional elements in
constant, direct contact with the environment. The lung also has the largest exposed
surface area of any organ on a surface area of 70 to 100 square meters versus 2
square meters for the skin and 10 square meters for the digestive system.
1. Structure
The respiratory tract is divided into three regions:
• Nasopharyngeal: Extends from nose to larynx. These passages are
lined with ciliated epithelium and mucous glands. They filter out
large inhaled particles, increase the relative humidity of inhaled air,
and moderate its temperature.
• Tracheobronchial: Consists of trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles and
serves as conducting airway between the nasopharyngeal region and
alveoli.
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• These passageways are lined with ciliated epithelium coated by
mucous, which serves as an escalator to move particles from deep in
the lungs back up to the oral cavity so they can be swallowed. These
ciliated cells can be temporarily paralyzed by smoking or using cough
suppressants.
• Pulmonary acinus: is the basic functional unit in the lung and the
primary location of gas exchange. It consists of small bronchioles
which connect to the alveoli. The alveoli, of which there are 100
million in humans, contact the pulmonary capillaries.
2. Particle deposition
Inhaled particles settle in the respiratory tract according to their diameters:
• 5-30 micron are deposited in the nasopharyngeal region.
• 1-5 micron are deposited in the tracheobronchial region.
• less than 1 micron are deposited in the alveolar region by diffusion
and Brownian motion.
In general, most particles 5-10 microns in diameter are removed.
However, certain small inorganic particles, settle into smaller regions
of the lung and kill the cells which attempt to remove them. The
result is fibrous lesions of the lung.
3. Types of inhaled toxicants
Many chemicals used or produced in industry can produce acute or chronic
diseases of the respiratory tract when they are inhaled (Table 5, page 15).
The toxicants can be classified according to how they affect the respiratory
tract.
• Asphyxiants: gases that deprive the body tissues of oxygen
simple asphyxiants are physiologically inert gases that at high
concentrations displace air leading to suffocation. Examples:
Nitrogen, Helium, Methane, Neon, Argon.
chemical asphyxiants are gases that prevent the tissues from
getting enough Oxygen. Examples: Carbon monoxide and
Cyanide. Carbon monoxide binds to Hemoglobin 200 times
more readily than Oxygen. Cyanide prevents the transfer of
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oxygen from blood to tissues by inhibiting the necessary
transfer enzymes.
Irritants: chemicals that irritate the air passages. Constriction of the
airways occurs and may lead to edema (liquid in the lungs) and
infection. Examples: Hydrogen fluoride, Chlorine, Hydrogen
chloride, and Ammonia.
TABLE 5
EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL TOXICANTS THAT PRODUCE
DISEASE OF THE RESPIRATORY TRACT
TOXICANT
Ammonia
Arsenic
Asbestos
Chlorine
Isocyanates
Nickel carbony
Ozone
Phosgene
Toluene
Xylene
SITE OF
ACTION
Upper airways
Upper airways
Lung parenchyma
Upper airways
Lower airways,
alveoli
Alveoli
Bronchi, alveoli
Alveoli
Upper airways
Lower airways
ACUTE EFFECT
Irritation, edema
Bronchitis, irritation,
pharyngitis
Cough, irritation, asphyxiant
(by muscle cramps in larynx)
Bronchitis, pulmonary
edema, asthma
Edema (delayed symptoms)
Irritation, edema,
hemorrhage
Edema
Bronchitis, edema,
bronchospasm
Edema, hemorrhage
CHRONIC
EFFECT
Bronchitis
Cancer, bronchitis,
laryngitis
Fibrosis, cancer
Emphysema,
bronchitis
Bronchitis, fibrosis,
pneumonia
Necrosis producers: Chemicals that result in cell death and edema.
Examples: Ozone and Nitrogen dioxide.
Fibrosis producers: Chemicals that produce fibrotic tissue which, if
massive, blocks airways and decreases lung capacity. Examples:
Silicates, Asbestos, and Beryllium.
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• Allergens: Chemicals that induce an allergic response characterized by
bronchoconstriction and pulmonary disease. Examples: Isocyanates and
Sulfur dioxide.
• Carcinogens: Chemicals that are associated with lung cancer.
Examples: cigarette smoke, coke emissions, Asbestos, and Arsenic.
Not only can various chemicals affect the respiratory tract, but the tract is also
a route for chemicals to reach other organs. Solvents, such as Benzene and
Tetrachloroethane, anesthetic gases, and many other chemical compounds can be
absorbed through the respiratory tract and cause systemic effects.
B. Skin
The skin is, in terms of weight, the largest single organ of the body. It provides a
barrier between the environment and other organs (except the lungs and eyes) and is a
defense against many chemicals.
1. Structure
The skin consists of the epidermis (outer layer) and the dermis (inner layer). In
the dermis are sweat glands and ducts, sebaceous glands, connective tissue, fat,
hair follicles, and blood vessels. Hair follicles and sweat glands penetrate both
the epidermis and dermis. Chemicals can penetrate through the sweat glands,
sebaceous glands, or hair follicles.
Although the follicles and glands may permit a small amount of chemicals to
enter almost immediately, most pass through the epidermis, which constitutes the
major surface area. The top layer is the stratum corneum, a thin cohesive
membrane of dead surface skin. This layer turns over every 2 weeks by a
complex process of cell dehydration and polymerization of intracellular material.
The epidermis plays the critical role in skin permeability. Below the epidermis
lies the dermis, a collection of cells providing a porous, watery, nonselective
diffusion medium.
2. Natural Defenses
Intact skin has a number of functions:
• Epidermis: Prevents absorption of chemicals and is a physical barrier to
bacteria.
• Sebaceous glands: Secrete fatty acids which are bacteriostatic and
fungistatic.
• Melanocytes (skin pigment): Prevent damage from ultraviolet radiation
in sunlight.
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• Sweat glands: Regulate heat.
• Connective tissue: Provides elasticity against trauma.
• Lymph-blood system: Provide immunologic responses to infection.
3. Absorption Characteristics
The ability of skin to absorb foreign substances depends on:
• Properties and health of the skin.
• Chemical properties of the substances.
Absorption is enhanced by:
• Breaking top layer of skin by abrasions or cuts.
• Increasing hydration of skin.
• Increasing temperature of skin which causes sweat cells to open up and
secrete sweat, which can dissolve solids.
• Increasing blood flow to skin.
• Increasing concentrations of the substance.
• Increasing contact time of the chemical on the skin.
• Increasing the surface area of affected skin.
• Altering skin's normal pH of 5.
• Decreasing particle size of substance.
• Adding agents which will damage skin and render it more susceptible to
penetration.
• Adding surface-active agents or organic chemicals. DMSO, for example,
can act as a carrier of the substance.
• Inducing ion movement by an electrical charge.
Absorption of a toxic chemical through the skin can lead to:
• Local effects, such as irritation and necrosis, through direct contact.
• Systemic effects.
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Many chemicals can cause a reaction with the skin resulting in inflammation
called dermatitis. These chemicals are divided into three categories:
• Primary irritants: Act directly on normal skin at the site of contact (if
chemical is in sufficient quantity for a sufficient length of time). Skin
irritants include: Acetone, Benzyl chloride, Carbon disulfide,
Chloroform, Chromic acid and other soluble Chromium compounds,
Ethylene oxide, Hydrogen chloride, Iodine, Methyl ethyl ketone,
Mercury, Phenol, Phosgene, Styrene, Sulfur dioxide, Picric acid,
Toluene, Xylene.
• Photosensitizers: Increase in sensitivity to light, which results in
irritation and redness. Photosensitizers include: Tetracyclines, Acridine,
Creosote, Pyridine, Furfural, and Naphtha.
• Allergic sensitizers: May produce allergic-type reaction after repeated
exposures. They include: Formaldehyde, Phthalic anhydride, Ammonia,
Mercury, Nitrobenzene, Toluene diisocyanate, Chromic acid and
Chromates, Cobalt, and Benzoyl peroxide.
C. Eyes
The eyes are affected by the same chemicals that affect skin, but the eyes are much more
sensitive. Many materials can damage the eyes by direct contact:
• Acids: Damage to the eye by acids depends on pH and the protein-combining
capacity of the acid. Unlike alkali burns, the acid burns that are apparent during
the first few hours are a good indicator of the long-term damage to be expected.
Some acids and their properties are:
Sulfuric acid: In addition to its acid properties, it simultaneously
removes water and generates heat.
Picric acid and Tannic acid: No difference in damage they produce in
entire range of acidic pHs.
Hydrochloric acid: Severe damage at pH 1, but no effect at pH 3 or
greater.
• Alkalies: Damage that appears mild initially but can later lead to ulceration,
perforation, and clouding of the cornea or lens. The pH and length of exposure
have more bearing on the amount of damage than the type of alkali. Some
problem alkalies are:
Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) and Potassium hydroxide.
Ammonia penetrates eye tissues more readily than any other alkali;
Calcium oxide (lime) forms clumps when it contacts eye tissue and is
very hard to remove.
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• Organic solvents: Organic solvents (for example, Ethanol, Toluene, and
Acetone) dissolve fats, cause pain, and dull the cornea. Damage is usually slight
unless the solvent is hot.
• Lacrimators: Lacrimators cause instant tearing at low concentrations. They are
distinguished from other eye irritants (Hydrogen chloride and Ammonia) because
they induce an instant reaction without damaging tissues. At very high
concentrations lacrimators can cause chemical burns and destroy cornea! material.
Examples are Chloroacetophenone (tear gas) and Mace.
In addition, some compounds act on eye tissue to form cataracts, damage the optic nerve,
or damage the retina. These compounds usually reach the eye through the blood system
having been inhaled, ingested or absorbed rather than direct contact. Examples of
compounds that can provide systemic effects damaging to the eyes are:
• Naphthalene: Cataracts and retina damage.
• Phenothiazine (insecticide): Retina damage
• Thallium: cataracts and optic nerve damage.
• Methanol: Optic nerve damage.
D. Central Nervous System
1. Anoxia as a Basic Action
Neurons (nerve cells) have a high metabolic rate but little capacity for anaerobic
metabolism. Subsequently, inadequate Oxygen flow (anoxia) to the brain kills
cells within minutes. Some may die before Oxygen or glucose transport stops
completely.
Because of their need for Oxygen, nerve cells are readily affected by both simple
asphyxiants and chemical asphyxiants. Also, their ability to receive adequate
Oxygen is affected by compounds that reduce respiration and thus reduce Oxygen
content of the blood (barbiturates, narcotics). Other examples include
compounds that reduce blood pressure or flow due to cardiac arrest, extreme
hypotension, hemorrhaging, or thrombosis such as Arsine, Nickel, Ethylene
chlorohydrin, Tetraethyl lead, Aniline, and Benzene.
2. Direct Action on Neurons
Some compounds damage neurons or inhibit their function through specific action
on parts of the cell. The major symptoms from such damage include: dullness,
restlessness, muscle tremor, convulsions, loss of memory, epilepsy, idiocy, loss
of muscle coordination, and abnormal sensations. Examples are:
• Fluoroacetate: Rodenticide.
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• Triethyltin: Ingredient of insecticides and fungicides.
• Hexachlorophene: Antibacterial agent.
• Lead: Gasoline additive and paint ingredient.
• Thallium: Sulfate used as a pesticide and oxide or carbonate used in
manufacture of optical glass and artificial gems.
• Tellurium: Pigment in glass and porcelain.
• Organomercury compounds: Methyl mercury used as a fungicide; is also
a product of microbial action on Mercury ions. Organomercury
compounds are especially hazardous because of their volatility and their
ability to permeate tissue barriers.
Some chemicals are noted for producing weakness of the lower extremities and
abnormal sensations (along with previously mentioned symptoms):
• Acrylamide: Soil stabilizer, waterproofer.
• Carbon disulfide: Solvent in rayon and rubber industries.
• n-Hexane: Used as a cleaning fluid and solvent. Its metabolic product,
Hexanedione, causes the effects.
« Methyl butyl ketone: Same as for Hexane.
• Organophosphorus compounds: Often used as flame retardants
(Triorthocresyl phosphate) and pesticides (Leptofor and Mipafox).
Agents that prevent the nerves from producing proper muscle contraction and
may result in death from respiratory paralysis are DDT, Lead, Botulinum toxin,
and Allethrin (a synthetic insecticide). DDT, Mercury, Manganese, and
Monosodium glutamate also produce personality disorders and madness.
E. Liver
Liver injury induced by chemicals has been known as a toxicologic problem for hundreds
of years. It was recognized early that liver injury is not a simple entity, but that the type
of lesion depends on the chemical and duration of exposure. Three types of response to
hepatotoxins can be identified:
• Acute:
Cell death from:
Carbon tetrachloride: solvent, degreaser.
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- Chloroform: Used in refrigerant and the manufacture of solvent.
— Trichloroethylene: solvent, dry cleaning fluid, degreaser.
— Tetrachloroethane: Paint and varnish remover, dry cleaning fluid.
~ Bromobenzene: solvent, motor oil additive.
Tannic acid: Ink manufacture, beer and wine clarifier.
Kepone: pesticide.
• Chronic:
Cirrhosis: a progressive fibrotic disease of the liver associated with liver
dysfunction and jaundice. Among agents implicated in cirrhosis cases
are Carbon tetrachloride, Alcohol, and Aflatoxin.
Carcinomas: malignant, growing tissue. For example, Vinyl chloride
(used in Polyvinyl chloride production) and Arsenic (used in pesticides
and paints) are associated with cancers.
• Biotransformation of toxicants: the liver is the principal organ that chemically
alters all compounds entering the body. For example:
Ethanol—> Acetaldehyde—> Acetic acid—> Water+Carbon dioxide
This metabolic action by the liver can be affected by diet, hormone activity, and
alcohol consumption. Biotransformation in the liver can also lead to toxic
metabolites. For example:
Carbon tetrachloride—> Chloroform
F. Kidneys
The kidney is susceptible to toxic agents for several reasons:
• The kidneys constitute 1 percent of the body's weight, but receive 20-25 percent
of the blood flow (during rest). Thus, large amounts of circulating toxicants
reach the kidneys quickly.
• The kidneys have high Oxygen and nutrient requirements because of their work
load. They filter 1/3 of the plasma reaching them and reabsorb 98-99% of the
salt and water. As they are reabsorbed, salt concentrates in the kidneys.
• Changes in kidney pH may increase passive diffusion and thus cellular
concentrations of toxicants.
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• Active secretion processes may concentrate toxicants.
• Biotransformation is high.
A number of materials are toxic to the kidneys:
• Heavy metals, may denature proteins as well as produce cell toxicity. Heavy
metals (including Mercury, Chromium, Arsenic, Gold, Cadmium, Lead, and
Silver) are readily concentrated in the kidneys, making this organ particularly
sensitive.
• Halogenated organic compounds, which contain Chlorine, Fluorine, Bromine, or
Iodine. Metabolism of these compounds, like that occurring in the liver,
generates toxic metabolites. Among compounds toxic to the kidneys are Carbon
tetrachloride, Chloroform, 2,4,5-T (a herbicide), and Ethylene dibromide (a
fumigant).
• Miscellaneous, including Carbon disulfide (solvent for waxes and resins) and
Ethylene glycol (automobile antifreeze).
G. Blood
The blood system can be damaged by agents that affect blood cell production (bone
marrow), the components of blood (platelets, red blood cells, and white blood cells), or
the oxygen-carrying capacity of red blood cells.
1. Bone marrow
Bone marrow is the source of most components in blood. Agents that suppress
the function of bone marrow include:
• Arsenic, used in pesticides and paints.
• Bromine, used to manufacture gasoline antiknock compounds, Ethylene
dibromide, and organic dyes.
• Methyl chloride, used as a solvent, refrigerant, and aerosol propellant.
• Ionizing radiation, produced by radioactive materials and x-rays is
associated with leukemia.
• Benzene, a chemical intermediate associated with leukemia.
2. Blood components
Among platelets (thrombocytes) are blood components that help prevent blood
loss by forming blood clots. Among chemicals that affect this action are:
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• Aspirin, which inhibits clotting.
• Benzene, which decreases the number of platelets.
• Tetrachloroethane, which increases the number of platelets.
Leukocytes (white blood cells) are primarily responsible for defending the body
against foreign organisms or materials by engulfing and destroying the material
or by producing antibodies. Chemicals that increase the number of leukocytes
include Naphthalene, Magnesium oxide, Boron hydrides, and Tetrachloroethane.
Agents that decrease the number of leukocytes include Benzene and Phosphorous.
Erythrocytes (red blood cells) transport Oxygen in the blood. Chemicals that
destroy (hemolyze) red blood cells include Arsine (a gaseous Arsenic compound
and contaminant in Acetylene), Naphthalene (used to make dyes), and Warfarin
(a rodenticide).
3. Oxygen Transport
Some compounds affect the Oxygen carrying capabilities of red blood cells. A
notable example is Carbon monoxide which combines with hemoglobin to form
Carboxyhemoglobin. Hemoglobin has an affinity for Carbon monoxide 200
times greater than that for Oxygen.
While Carbon monoxide combines reversibly with hemoglobin, some chemicals
cause the hemoglobin to change such that it cannot combine reversibly with
Oxygen. This condition is called methemoglobinemia. Some chemicals that can
cause this are:
• Sodium nitrite, used in meat curing and photography.
• Aniline, used in manufacture of rubber accelerators and antioxidants,
resins, and varnishes.
• Nitrobenzene and Dinitrobenzene, used in manufacture of dyestuffs and
explosives.
• Trinitrotoluene (TNT), used in explosives.
• Mercaptans, used in manufacture of pesticides and as odorizers for
hazardous odorless gases.
• 2-nitropropane, used as a solvent.
4. Spleen
The spleen filters bacteria and paniculate matter (especially deteriorated red
blood cells) from the blood. Iron is recovered from the hemoglobin for
recycling. In the embryo, the spleen forms all types of blood cells. In the adult,
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however, it produces only certain kinds of leukocytes. Examples of chemicals
that damage the spleen are:
• Chloroprene, used in production of synthetic rubber.
• Nitrobenzene, used as chemical intermediate.
H. Reproductive System
Experimental results indicate that certain agents interfere with the reproductive
capabilities of both sexes, causing sterility, infertility, abnormal sperm, low sperm count,
and/or affect hormone activity in animals. Many of these also affect human
reproduction. Further study is required to identify reproductive toxins and their effects.
Some examples of chemicals that have been implicated in reproductive system toxicity
include:
• Male: Anesthetic gases (Halothane, Methoxyflurane), Cadmium, Mercury, Lead,
Boron, Methyl mercury, Vinyl chloride, DDT, Kepone, Chlordane, PCB's,
Dioxin, 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T, Carbaryl, Paraquat, Dibromochloropropane, Ethylene
dibromide, Benzene, Toluene, Xylene, Ethanol, radiation, heat.
« Female: DDT, Parathion, Carbaryl, Diethylstilbestrol (DES), PCB's, Cadmium,
Methyl mercury, Hexafluoroacetone, Anesthetic gases.
VII. TYPES OF TOXIC EFFECTS
A. Teratogenic
Teratology is derived from Latin and means the study of monsters. In a modern context,
teratology is the study of congenital malformations. Teratology is a relatively new
discipline that started in 1941 with the correlation of German measles to birth defects.
In the 1960's, the first industrial link to teratogens was discovered. The chemical
involved was methyl mercury.
1. Causes of congenital malformations
The following conditions have been associated with congenital malformations:
• Heredity.
• Maternal diseases such as German measles and viral infections during
pregnancy.
• Maternal malnutrition.
• Physical injury.
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• Radiation.
• Exposure to chemicals.
2. Gestation period
Most major structural abnormalities occur during the embryonic period, 5-7
weeks, while physiologic and minor defects occur during the fetal period, 8-36
weeks. Studies using lab animals show the need to evaluate exposure of
chemicals for each day of pregnancy. Thalidomide, for example, caused birth
defects in rats only when administered during the 12th day of gestation.
A number of chemicals are reactive or can be activated in the body during the
gestation period. The degree and nature of the fetal effects then depend upon:
• Developmental state of embryo or fetus when chemical is administered.
• Dose of chemical, route, and exposure interval.
• Transplacental absorption of chemical and levels in tissues of
embryo/fetus.
• Ability of maternal liver and placenta to metabolize or detoxify chemical.
• Biologic half-life of chemical or metabolites.
• State of cell cycle when chemical is at toxic concentrations.
• Capacity of embryonic/fetal tissues to detoxify or bioactivate chemicals.
• Ability of damaged cells to repair or recover.
3. Animal Studies
Teratogenic potential has been suggested by animal studies under various
conditions:
• Dietary deficiency: Vitamins A, D, E, C, Riboflavin, Thiamine,
Nicotinamide, Folic acid, Zinc, Manganese, Magnesium, Cobalt.
• Hormonal deficiency: Pituitary, Thyroxin, Insulin.
• Hormonal excess: Cortisone, Thyroxin, Insulin androgens, Estrogens,
Epinephrine.
• Hormone and vitamin antagonists: 3-acetylpyridine, 6-
aminonicotinamide, Thiouracils.
• Vitamin excess: Vitamin A, Nicotinic acid.
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PRINCIPLES OF TOXICOLOGY
• Antibiotics: Penicillin, Tetracyclines, Streptomycin.
• Heavy metals: Methyl mercury, Mercury salts, Lead, Thallium,
Selenium, chelating agents.
• Azo dyes: Trypan blue, Evans blue, Niagara sky blue 6B.
• Producers of anoxia: Carbon monoxide, Carbon dioxide.
• Chemicals: Quinine, Thiadiazole, Salicylate, 2,3,7,8-TCDD, Caffeine,
Nitrosamines, Hydroxyurea, Boric acid, insecticides, pesticides, DMSO,
Chloroform, Carbon tetrachloride, Benzene, Xylene, Cyclohexanone,
Propylene glycol, Acetamides, Formamides, Sulfonamides.
• Physical conditions: hypothermia, hyperthermia, radiation, anoxia.
• Infections: Ten viruses (including German measles and
cytomegalovirus), syphilis, gonorrhea.
4. Teratogens Known to Affect Humans
Far fewer agents have been conclusively shown to be teratogenic in humans:
• Anesthetic gases.
• Organic mercury compounds.
• Ionizing radiation.
• German measles.
• Thalidomide.
B. Mutagenic
Mutagens are agents that cause changes (mutations) in the genetic code, altering DNA.
The changes can be chromosomal breaks, rearrangement of chromosome pieces, gain or
loss of entire chromosomes, or a changes within a gene.
Among agents shown to be mutagenic in humans are:
• Ethylene oxide, used in hospitals as a sterilant.
• Ethyleneimine, an alkylating agent.
• Ionizing radiation.
• Hydrogen peroxide, a bleaching agent.
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PRINCIPLES OF TOXICOLOGY
• Benzene, a chemical intermediate.
• Hydrazine, used in rocket fuel.
The concern over mutagenic agents covers more than the effect that could be passed into
the human gene pool (germinal or reproductive cell mutations). There is also interest in
the possibility that somatic cell mutations may produce carcinogenic or teratogenic
responses.
C. Carcinogenic
Two types of carcinogenic mechanisms have been identified.
• Genotoxic: Electrophilic carcinogens that alter genes through
interaction with DNA. There are three types:
direct or primary carcinogens: Chemicals that act without any
bioactivation - for example, Bis (chloromethyl) ether, Ethylene
dibromide, and Dimethyl sulfate.
procarcinogens: Chemicals that require biotransformation to activate
them to a carcinogen - for example, Vinyl chloride and 2-naphthylamine.
inorganic carcinogen: Some of these are preliminarily categorized as
genotoxic due to potential for DNA damage. Other compounds in the
group may operate through epigenetic mechanisms.
Epigenetic: These are carcinogens that do not act directly with genetic
material. Several types are possible:
•• cocarcinogen: Increases the overall response of a carcinogen
when they are administered together - for example, Sulfur
dioxide, Ethanol, and Catechol.
•• promoter: Increases response of a carcinogen when applied after
the carcinogen but will not induce cancer by itself - for example,
Phenol, Dithranol.
•• solid-state: Works by unknown mechanism, but physical form
vital to effect (asbestos, metal foils).
•• hormone: Usually is not genotoxic, but alters endocrine
balance; often acts as promoter (DES, estrogens).
•• immunosuppressor: Mainly stimulates virally induced,
transplanted, or metastatic neoplasms by weakening host's
immune system (antilymphocytic serum, used in organ
transplants).
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PRINCIPLES OF TOXICOLOGY
Genotoxic carcinogens are sometimes effective after a single exposure, can act in a
cumulative manner, or act with other genotoxic carcinogens which affect the same
organs. Some epigenetic carcinogens, however, only cause cancers when concentrations
are high and exposure long. The implication is that while there may be a "safe"
threshold level of exposure for some carcinogens, others may have "zero" threshold - that
is, one molecule of the chemical can induce a cancer.
1. RoleofDNA
Various considerations indicate that DNA is a critical target for carcinogens:
• Many carcinogens are or can be metabolized so that they react with
DNA. In these cases, the reaction can usually be detected by testing for
evidence of DNA repair.
• Many carcinogens are also mutagens.
• Inhibitors and inducers of carcinogens affect mutagenic activity.
• Chemicals often are tested for mutagenic and carcinogenic activity in the
same cell systems.
• Defects in DNA repair predispose to cancer development.
• Several inheritable or chromosomal abnormalities predispose to cancer
development.
• Initiated dormant tumor cells persist, which is consistent with a change
in DNA.
• Cancer is inheritable at the cellular level and, therefore, may result from
an alteration of DNA.
• Most, if not all, cancers display chromosomal abnormalities.
Although cancer ranks as the second most common cause of death in the United States, the
process of carcinogenesis is not yet clearly defined. As a result, there are several problems
encountered when evaluating the carcinogenic potential of various agents in the environment.
First, human health can be affected by a wide range of factors including the environment,
occupation, genetic predisposition and lifestyle (i.e., cigarette smoking, diet). Therefore, it is
often difficult to determine the relationship between any one exposure and the onset of cancer.
Second, many cancers are latent responses - that is, the disease may not be manifested until many
years after the initial exposure. Third, the mechanisms for carcinogenesis may differ according
to the type and the site of cancer.
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PRINCIPLES OF TOXICOLOGY
VIII. REFERENCES
1. Aliens, Everhard, A.M. Simonis, and J. Offermeir. Introduction to General Toxicology.
Academic Press, New York, NY. (1976).
2. Doull, John, Curtis D. Klaassen, Mary O. Amdur. Casarett and Doull's Toxicology:
The Basic Science of Poisons. Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., New York, NY. (1986).
3. Loomis, Ted A., Essentials of Toxicology. Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia, PA. (1970).
4. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Registry of Toxic Effects of
Chemical Substances. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 83-107, volumes 1-3, U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1983.
5. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. The Industrial Environment - Its
Evaluation and Control. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC(1973).
6. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Occupational Diseases: A Guide
to Their Recognition. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. (1977).
7. Proctor, Nick H., and James P. Hughes. Chemical Hazards of the Workplace. J.B.
LippincottCo., Philadelphia, PA. (1978).
8. U.S. Department of Labor. Occupational Safety and Health Toxicology Training Course
100-124-9, December 8-16, 1981, Chicago, IL.
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APPENDIX I
EXPOSURE GUIDELINES
I. INTRODUCTION
During response activities involving hazardous materials, it is necessary to acknowledge and
plan for the possibility that response personnel will be exposed to the materials present at
some time and to some degree. Since most materials have levels of exposure which can be
tolerated without adverse health effects, it is important to determine not only the identity of
the materials involved, but also the type and extent of exposure, possible health effects from
overexposure, and most important, the exposure levels that are considered safe for each
material encountered.
There are several reference sources available which contain information about toxicological
properties and safe exposure limits for many different materials. These sources can be
grouped into two general categories: 1) Those sources that provide toxicological data and
general health hazard information and warnings and 2) references that describe specific legal
exposure limits or recommended exposure guidelines. Both source categories, when
considered together, provide useful information that can be used to assess the exposure
hazards that might be present at a hazardous materials incident. In the following discussion,
these source categories are described in greater detail.
II. GENERAL GUIDELINES
The effects of chemical exposure with the route and dosage required can be found in
NIOSH's Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances. However, because most of the
data is for animal exposures, there may be problems in trying to use the data for human
exposure guidelines.
Other sources give some general guides on chemical exposure. They may say that the
chemical is an irritant or corrosive, or they may give a warning like "AVOID CONTACT"
or "AVOID BREATHING VAPORS". This gives the user information about the possible
route of exposure and effects of the exposure. However, this does not give a safe exposure
limit. One may question if the warning means to "AVOID ANY POSSIBLE CONTACT"
or if there is a certain amount that a person can contact safely for a certain length of time.
Two sources of information go a little further and use a ranking system for exposure to
chemicals. Irving Sax, in Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, gives a Toxic Hazard
Rating (THR) for certain chemicals. These ratings are NONE, LOW, MODERATE, and
HIGH. The route of exposure is also given. For example, Butylamine is listed as a HIGH
toxic hazard via oral and dermal routes and a MODERATE toxic hazard via inhalation.
HIGH means that the chemical is "capable of causing death or permanent injury due to the
exposures of normal use; incapacitating and poisonous; requires special handling".
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In their book, Fire Protection Guide on Hazardous Materials, the National Fire Protection
Association (NFPA) also uses a ranking system to identify the toxic hazards of a chemical.
These numbers are part of the NFPA 704 M identification system, which is discussed further
in Hazard Recognition - Part I. The numbers used range from 0 to 4 where 0 is for
"materials which on exposure under fire conditions would offer no health hazard beyond that
of ordinary combustible material" and 4 is for materials where "a few whiffs of the gas or
vapor could cause death; or the gas, vapor, or liquid could be fatal on penetrating the fire
fighters' normal full protective clothing which is designed for resistance to heat". The
degree of hazard is based upon the inherent properties of the chemical and the hazard that
could exist under fire or other emergency conditions. This rating is based on an exposure
of "a few seconds to an hour" and the possibility of large quantities of material being present.
Thus it is not completely applicable to long-term exposure to small quantities of chemicals.
It is more useful for spills or fires where a person could come in contact with a large amount
of the chemical.
The Sax and NFPA sources provide information about the routes of exposures and some
effects along with a rating system which indicates which chemicals require extra precaution
and special protective equipment.
III. SOURCES FOR SPECIFIC GUIDELINES FOR AIRBORNE CONTAMINANTS
While there are many sources for general exposure guidelines, there are only a few that give
more specific information about what is considered a safe exposure limit. Many of the
following organizations have exposure guidelines for exposures to hazards other than airborne
contaminants (e.g., heat stress, noise, radiation). This part will deal only with chemical
exposures.
A. American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH)
One of the first groups to develop specific exposure guidelines was the American
Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH). In 1941, ACGIH
suggested the development of Maximum Allowable Concentrations (MACs) for use
by industry. A list of MACs was compiled by ACGIH and published in 1946. In
the early 1960's, ACGIH revised those recommendations and renamed them
Threshold Limit Values (TLVs®).
Along with the TLVs®, ACGIH publishes Biological Exposure Indices (BEIs). BEIs
are intended to be used as guides for evaluation of exposure where inhalation is not
the only possible route of exposure. Since the TLVs® are for inhalation only, they
may not be protective if the chemical is ingested or is absorbed through the skin.
Biological monitoring (e.g., urine samples, breath analysis) can be used to assess the
overall exposure. This monitoring uses information about what occurs in the body
(e.g., metabolism of Benzene to Phenol) to determine if there has been an unsafe
exposure. The BEIs serve as a reference for biological monitoring just as TLVs®
serve as a reference for air monitoring.
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The TLVs® are reviewed yearly and are published in their booklet, Threshold Limit
Values and Biological Exposure Indices.
B. American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) has published standards that are
a consensus of the people who have a concern about the subject the standard covers
(e.g., hardhats, respirators). An ANSI standard is intended as a guide to aid
manufacturers, consumers, and the general public. ANSI has standards covering
many aspects of the working environment. Many of these have been adopted by
OSHA (see later discussion) as legal requirements.
Some of the standards were exposure guidelines. They gave "acceptable
concentrations" which were "concentrations of air contaminants to which a person
may be exposed without discomfort or ill effects". These exposure limits were
withdrawn in 1982. However, some were adopted by OSHA before the withdrawal
and still may be in use.
C. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
In 1971, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) promulgated
Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs). These limits were extracted from the 1968
TLVs®, the ANSI standards, and other Federal standards. The PELs are found in
29 CFR 1910.1000 (see Appendix I). Since then, additional PELs have been adopted
and a few of the originals have been changed. These have been incorporated into
specific standards for chemicals (e.g., 29 CFR 1910.1028 - Benzene). There are also
standards for thirteen carcinogens in which there is no allowable inhalation exposure.
In 1989, OSHA published major revisions to the PELs. Since only a few of the
PELs had been updated since 1971, it was decided to updated the entire list of PELs
by changing existing ones and adding new ones. Again, OSHA looked to the TLVs,
but also considered recommendations from the National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health (NIOSH).
Since OSHA is a regulatory agency, their PELs are legally enforceable standards and
apply to all private industries and Federal agencies. They may also apply to state and
local employees depending upon the state laws.
D. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) was formed at
the same time as OSHA to act as a research organization. It is changed in part, with
making recommendations for new standards and revising old ones as more
information is accumulated. The exposure levels NIOSH has researched have been
used to develop new OSHA standards, but there are many Recommended Exposure
Limits (RELs) that have not been adopted. Thus, they are in the same status as the
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exposure guidelines of ACGIH and other groups. The RELs are found in the
"NIOSH Recommendations for Occupational Health Standards".
E. American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA)
The American Industrial Hygiene Association has provided guidance for industrial
hygienists for many years. In 1984, AIHA developed exposure guidelines that it calls
Workplace Environmental Exposure Level Guides (WEELs). These are reviewed and
updated each year. Appendix III has the current list of WEELs. While the list is not
as large as others, AIHA has chosen chemicals for which other groups do not have
exposure guidelines. Thus, they are providing information to fill the gaps left by
others.
IV. TYPES OF EXPOSURE GUIDELINES
While there are different organizations that develop exposure guidelines, the types of
guidelines they produce are similar.
A. Time Weighted Average (TWA)
A time weighted average exposure is determined by averaging the concentrations of
the exposure with each concentration weighted based on the duration of exposure.
For example, an exposure to acetone at the following concentrations and durations:
1000 ppm for 3 hours
500 ppm for 2 hours
200 ppm for 3 hours
would have an 8 hour time weighted average exposure of
(3 hrs)(lOOQ ppm + (2 hrs)(50Q ppm) + (3 hrs)(200 ppm) = ^ + IQQQ + ^ ppm = ^
8 hrs 8
This exposure would be compared to an 8 hour TWA exposure limit.
While a TWA can be the average concentration over any period of time, most TWAs
are the average concentration of a chemical most workers can be exposed to during
a 40-hour week and a normal 8-hour work day without showing any toxic effects.
NIOSH TWA recommendations, on the other hand, can also be based on exposures
up to 10 hours. The time weighted average permits exposure to concentrations above
the limit, provided they are compensated by equal exposure below the TWA.
Chart 1, page 35 shows an example that illustrates this point for a chemical with a
TWA exposure limit of 750 ppm.
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B 750
o
N
TIME WEIGHTED AVERAGE
(TWA)
A- TWA
6 AW
-SPM
CHART 1
EXAMPLE OF AN EXPOSURE COMPARED TO A TWA EXPOSURE LIMIT
B. Short Term Exposure Limit (STEL)
Because the excursions allowed by the TWA could involve very high concentrations
and cause an adverse effect, but still be within the allowable average, some
organizations felt there was a need for some limit to these excursions. In 1976,
ACGIH added STELs to its TLVs®. The STEL is a 15 minute time-weighted
average exposure. Excursions to the STEL should be at least 60 minutes apart, no
longer than 15 minutes in duration and should not be repeated more than 4 times per
day. Because the excursions are calculated into the 8-hour TWA, the exposure must
be limited to avoid exceeding the TWA. Chart 2, page 36 illustrates an exposure
that exceeds the 15 minute limit for an STEL of 1000 ppm.
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APPENDIX I: EXPOSURE GUIDELINES
c
o
N
C
E
N
T
R
A
T
I
O
N
SHORT TERM EXPOSURE LIMIT
(STfiL)
/ \ ~
750
10AM
TIME
4 PM
CHART 2
EXAMPLE OF AN EXPOSURE COMPARED TO A STEL AND A TWA
The STEL supplements the TWA and reflects an exposure limit protecting against
acute effects from a substance which primarily exhibits chronic toxic effects. This
concentration is set at a level to protect workers against irritation, narcosis, and
irreversible tissue damage. OSHA added STELs to its PELs with the 1989 revisions.
AIHA has some short-term TWAs which are similar to the STELs. The times used
vary from 1 to 30 minutes. These Short-Term TWAs are used in conjunction with,
or in place of, the 8-hour TWA. There is no limitation on the number of these
excursions or the rest period between each excursion.
C. Ceiling (C)
Ceiling values exist for substances which exposure results in a rapid and particular
type of response. It is used where a TWA (with its allowable excursions) would not
be appropriate. ACGIH and OSHA state that a ceiling value should not be exceeded
even instantaneously. They denote a ceiling value by a "C" preceding the exposure
limit.
NIOSH also uses ceiling values. However, their ceiling values are more like a
STEL. Many have time limits (from 5 to 60 minutes) associated with the exposure.
Chart 3, page 37 illustrates an exposure that does not exceed a ceiling value of 5
ppm.
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APPENDIX I: EXPOSURE GUIDELINES
c
0
N
C
E
N
T
R
A
T
I
O
N
CEILING
(C)
Ceiling
6AM
10AM
TIME
4PM
CHARTS
EXAMPLE OF AN EXPOSURE COMPARED TO A CEILING EXPOSURE LIMIT
Peaks
Until recently ANSI, and OSHA where they have adopted ANSI standards, had used
a peak exposure limit. This peak exposure is an allowable excursion above their
ceiling values. The duration and number of exposures at this peak value is limited.
For example, ANSI allowed the 25 ppm ceiling value for Benzene to be exceed to
50 ppm but only for 10 minutes during an 8 hour period. ANSI withdrew its
exposure limit standards in 1982. With the revision of the PELs in 1989, OSHA has
dropped most of its peak values.
"Skin" Notation
While these exposure guidelines are based on exposure to airborne concentrations of
chemicals, the organizations recognize that there are other routes of exposure in the
workplace. In particular, there can be a contribution to the overall exposure from
skin contact with chemicals that can be absorbed through the skin. Unfortunately,
there is very little data available that quantifies the amount of allowable skin contact.
But some organizations provide qualitative information about skin absorbable
chemicals. When a chemical has the potential to contribute to the overall exposure
by direct contact with the skin, mucous membranes or eyes, it is given a "skin"
notation.
This "skin" notation not only points out chemicals that are readily absorbed through
the skin, but also notes that if there is skin contact, the exposure guideline for
inhalation may not provide adequate protection. The inhalation exposure guidelines
are designed for exposures only from inhalation. If additional routes of exposure are
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APPENDIX I: EXPOSURE GUIDELINES
added, there can be detrimental effects even if the exposure guideline is not exceeded.
F. Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health (IDLH)
In the May 1987 "NIOSH Respirator Decision Logic", IDLH is defined as a
condition "that poses a threat of exposure to airborne contaminants when that
exposure is likely to cause death or immediate or delayed permanent adverse health
effects or prevent escape from such an environment. The purpose of establishing an
IDLH exposure level is to ensure that the worker can escape from a given
contaminated environment in the event of failure of the respiratory protection
equipment." Other organizations, such as ANSI, OSHA, and the Mine Safety and
Health Administration (MSHA), have defined IDLH similarly. It is accepted by all
of these groups that IDLH conditions include not only toxic concentrations of
contaminants, but also Oxygen deficient atmospheres and explosive, or near-
explosive, (above, at, or near the lower explosive limits) environments.
At hazardous material incidents, IDLH concentrations should be assumed to represent
concentrations above which only workers wearing respirators that provide the
maximum protection (i.e., a positive-pressure, full-facepiece, self-contained breathing
apparatus [SCBA] or a combination positive-pressure, full-facepiece, supplied-air
respirator with positive-pressure escape SCBA) are permitted. Specific IDLH
concentrations values for many substances can be found in the NIOSH "Pocket Guide
to Chemical Hazards". Guidelines for potentially explosive, Oxygen deficient, or
radioactive environments can be found in the U.S. EPA "Standard Operating Safety
Guidelines" and the NIOSH/OSHA/USCG/EPA " Occupational Safety and Health
Guidance Manual for Hazardous Waste Site Activities.
V. MIXTURES
The exposure limits that have been discussed are based upon exposure to single chemicals.
Since many exposures include more than one chemical, values are adjusted to account for the
combination. When the effects of the exposure are considered to be additive, a formula can
be used to determine whether total exposure exceeds the limits. The calculation used is:
Em = (Q-HL! + C2+LJ + . . . (C.-5-LJ
Where: £„, is the equivalent exposure for the mixture.
C is the concentration of a particular contaminant.
L is the exposure limit for mat substance.
The value of Em should not exceed unity (1).
An example using this calculation would be as follows.
Chemical A C = 200 ppm L = 750 ppm
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Chemical B C = 100 ppm L = 500 ppm
Chemical C C = 50 ppm L = 200 ppm
£» = 200+750 + 100+500 + 50+200
Em = 0.27 + 0.20 + 0.25
Em = 0.72
Since £„, is less than unity, the exposure combination is within acceptable limits.
This calculation applies to chemicals where the effects are the same and are additive. If the
combination is not additive, the calculation is not appropriate.
VI. APPLICATION OF EXPOSURE GUIDELINES
In 29 CFR 1910.120, "Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response" standard,
OSHA specifies the use of certain exposure limits. The exposure limits specified are
OSHA's permissible exposure limits (PELs) and "published exposure levels". The
"published exposure levels" are used when no PEL exists. A "published exposure level" is
defined as "the exposure limits published in 'NIOSH Recommendations for Occupational
Health Standards' dated 1986 incorporated by reference. If none is specified, the exposure
limits published in the standards specified by the American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists in their publication 'Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure
Indices for 1991-92' dated 1991 incorporated by reference."
A. Engineered Controls and Work Practices
29 CFR 1910.120 (g) (1) (i) states "Engineering controls and work practices shall be
instituted to reduce and maintain employee exposure to or below the permissible
exposure limits for substances regulated by 29 CFR Part 1910, to the extent required
by Subpart Z, except to the extent that such controls and practices are not feasible."
(emphasis added) Whenever engineering controls and work practices are not feasible,
personal protective equipment shall be used to reduce and maintain exposures.
For those substances or hazards where there is no PEL, the published exposure
levels, published literature and MSDS will be used for evaluation. In these
circumstances, a combination of engineering controls, work practices and PPE shall
be used to reduce and maintain exposures.
B. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
Since PPE must be selected based on the hazards present at the site, the exposure
limits are used to evaluate the effectiveness of the PPE. Comparing the actual or
expected exposure to the PEL or other exposure limits gives the wearer information
on selection of the proper PPE. A discussion of the use of exposure limits for the
selection of PPE is found in Section 3 of this manual.
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APPENDIX I: EXPOSURE GUIDELINES
C. Medical Surveillance
29 CFR 1910.120(f)(2)(i) requires a medical surveillance program for all employees
exposed to substances or hazards above the PEL for 30 or more days per year. If
there is no PEL, then the published exposure levels are used for evaluation. The
exposures are considered even if a respirator was being used at the time of exposure.
VII. LIMITATIONS AND RESTRICTIONS OF USE
The exposure guidelines discussed in this part are based on industrial experience,
experimental human studies, experimental animal studies, or a combination of the three. The
guidelines were developed for workers in the industrial environment. Thus, they are not
meant to be used for other purposes. ACGIH in its Threshold Limit Values and Biological
Exposure Indices for 1991-1992 states -
These limits are intended for use in the practice of industrial hygiene as
guidelines or recommendations in the control of potential health hazards and
for no other use, e.g., in the evaluation or control of community air pollution
nuisances, in estimating the toxic potential of continuous, uninterrupted
exposures or other extended work periods, as proof or disproof of an existing
disease or physical condition, or adoption by countries whose working
conditions differ from those in the United States of America and where
substances and processes differ. These limits are not fine lines between safe
and dangerous concentration nor are they a relative index of toxicity, and
should not be used by anyone untrained in the discipline of industrial
hygiene".
As can be seen from this qualifier, these exposure limits are not intended as exposure limits
for exposure by the public.
There is the limitation on the use of the exposure guideline as a relative index of toxicity.
This is because the exposure limits are based on different effects for different chemicals. For
example, the TLV®-TWA for Acetone is chosen to prevent irritation to the eyes and
respiratory system. The TLV®-TWA for Acrylonitrile is chosen to reduce the risk to cancer.
Exposures to these chemicals at other concentration levels could lead to other effects. Thus,
when evaluating the risk of chemical exposure, all lexicological data should be consulted.
VIII. DISPERSION OF CHEMICALS IN THE ENVIRONMENT
A. Introduction
Whether a chemical is accidentally spilled or is slowly leaking from an old rusty
drum, it is important to determine its dispersion characteristics and its ultimate fate
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in the environment. In general, the pathways for dispersion are air, surface water,
groundwater, and soil. If the specific pathways of various materials can be identified
from their chemical/physical characteristics, potential threats to human health and the
environment can be anticipated and appropriate response actions taken. The
interaction of the natural setting of an incident and the specific compounds involved
will ultimately determine dispersion and dictate the response actions needed.
B. Information needed to determine dispersion pathways
1. Characteristics of Chemicals Involved
The more important dispersion pathways can be determined, at least
tentatively, from the identity of the chemical(s) if known. The
physical/chemical properties such as reactivity, physical state, phase-change
temperatures, vapor pressure, density, specific gravity, and viscosity, will
help to determine how a chemical behaves when released into a specific
environment. The physical/chemical properties of the receiving environment
are equally important. In addition to the above considerations, both the
amount of material released and the rate of release factor into the
determination of potential pathways.
Determining specific pathways will require a further evaluation of factors
such as land use, physical setting, biological setting, and climate. All these
factors are interrelated and should be evaluated as a whole.
2. Land Use
Land use of the site and adjoining properties can affect dispersion of the
materials from the site. If the site is located near a town or large
metropolitan area, the number of potential pathways of dispersion may be
greater than in an agricultural or natural setting. Urbanized areas may
contain natural as well as manmade (e.g. storm or sanitary sewers) pathways
of dispersion. A spill in or adjacent to an irrigated field could result in the
eventual spreading of the spill across the whole field. Without irrigation, it
would tend to converge due to natural drainage patterns.
3. Physical Setting
The physical setting of the site controls what pathways a chemical may
follow. There are four major aspects to consider: topography, geology,
surface hydrology, and groundwater hydrology. A topographic map of the
area is very useful, not only in discerning variations in surface elevation, but
also in locating surface water features and patterns. The topography of an
area affects how fast material disperses and the primary direction of transport.
A topographic map may also serve as an indicator of regional groundwater
flow patterns.
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The geology of the area, including soil and underlying rock, may dictate the
speed and direction of dispersion of a material released to the ground. Sandy
soil permits faster infiltration than does a tightly packed clay soil. Previously
undetected zones of variable permeability, solution channels, and fractures in
underlying soil and rock may divert the material in directions not originally
anticipated.
Geological and hydrologic maps of the area may assist in estimating depth to
the water table and regional groundwater flow patterns. Local water well
drillers may provide valuable information when assessing local groundwater
conditions.
4. Biological Setting
The ecosystem in which an incident occurs may considerably affect dispersion
pathways. Many contaminants may be dispersed through the food chain. As
an example, vegetation which has absorbed a contaminant could be consumed
by a rodent which in turn may be eaten by a bird of prey. The concentration
of the contaminant may progressively increase in the tissues of the organisms
at each successive step in the food chain. Such a phenomenon, known as
bioaccumulation, can be detected particularly when the chemicals tend to be
environmentally and biologically persistent.
The ecosystem type can also affect the rate of dispersion. A sparsely
vegetated area will not contain a spill as well as a densely vegetated area.
5. Climate
The local climatological and meteorological conditions influence dispersion
of a contaminant in the environment. Temperature has a direct effect on a
chemical's physical/chemical behavior. For example, an increased
temperature may cause a volatile chemical to vaporize faster and the reaction
rate among chemicals to increase.
Changes in precipitation patterns and volumes can affect surface runoff and
soil absorption rates. Dispersion is also affected by wind direction, wind
speed, and atmospheric conditions.
General climatic conditions can impact the rates and pathways of dispersion.
A hot, arid climate and a temperate, wet climate would cause the same
chemical to behave differently during transport. When studying a local
weather forecast, the general climate of the area should also be considered.
For example, a different evaluation of the situation is needed when 2 days of
rain are forecast in a season when rain is expected every day, as compared
to 2 days of rain in a relatively dry season.
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C. Basic dispersion pathways
1. Atmosphere
In order for a material to become airborne, it must be gaseous or paniculate.
Particulates are microscopic (less than 100 micrometers in size) solid or liquid
particles dispersed in air. As a material is emitted to the atmosphere,
dispersion of the material is influenced by local atmospheric phenomena (e.g.
effects of air currents around buildings) as well as larger scale wind
circulation phenomena such as land/sea breezes and terrain effects.
A volatile liquid (one which has a high vapor pressure) will vaporize more
rapidly as the ambient temperature approaches the boiling point of that liquid.
If the vapor density of contaminant is greater than that of air, it will tend to
sink and follow the terrain, flowing downhill and collecting in valleys. A
substance with a vapor density less than air will tend to rise and disperse
readily. The dispersion of a substance in the atmosphere is dependent on
many factors, including the change in atmospheric temperature with
increasing altitude.
When a substance becomes airborne, it may behave in several different ways.
It may react with other contaminants in the air, forming a new substance (e.g.
photochemical smog). It may react with or dissolve in water droplets, which
will ultimately return to the earth as precipitation (one theory of acid rain
formation). If the substance is either a large particle or a collection of
particles (an agglomerate), its weight may cause it to fall back to the earth's
surface as fallout (a process known as dry deposition). Finally, if it is
chemically or physically unstable, its presence in the atmosphere may be
localized and shortlived (for example, Carbon monoxide).
Therefore, the fate of substance emitted to the atmosphere is dependent on
both the characteristics of the substance and the local atmosphere.
2. Surface Water
A chemical can be introduced to surface water directly via spills and/or
runoff or indirectly by contaminated groundwater via surface expressions of
groundwater such as springs and seeps, or by groundwater recharge to larger
bodies of water. Climate can affect the size and number of streams, rivers,
lakes, and marshes in a region. An area with high annual precipitation rates
will tend to have a greater number of these while a more arid area may have
just one large river, originating in the mountains, carrying runoff and snow
melt towards lower elevations.
The transport of a material in water is based primarily on its solubility
(tendency to dissolve in water) and specific gravity (its weight relative to
water). A highly soluble solid or liquid will readily dissolve and disperse in
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the water. An insoluble material may remain intact and travel downstream
as a concentrated slug. A material having a specific gravity of one will be
suspended in the body of water. The material will float if its specific gravity
is less than one, and sink it its specific gravity is greater than one. This
tendency to float or sink can be very important when determining how to
contain or remove a material from a body of water.
To help characterize the dispersion of a material in surface water, the volume
and flow rate of the body of water should be known. That information, along
with the amount of substance released, permits a good estimate of its
dispersion pattern.
The movement of materials that sink will be affected by other physical
characteristics of the stream in addition to flow rate. The presence of natural
barriers (i.e. dams, sandbars, large rocks, fallen trees) will inhibit a uniform
dispersion of the contaminants along the stream bed and may facilitate
containment.
3. Soil and Underlying Rock
A material spilled or released into the environment may enter the soil and be
dispersed both vertically and horizontally. A solid must be dissolved or
suspended in a liquid to be transported into the subsurface. An insoluble
solid can be broken into smaller pieces or particulates and be dispersed by
wind. Eventually, these particles may find their way into the soil.
A liquid spilled onto the ground may penetrate the soil and disperse quickly
if it has low viscosity. A liquid with a higher viscosity, such as motor oil,
may take many years to disperse a few feet in the ground as it tends to adhere
or "stick to" soil particles. The solubility of the liquid also affects the rate
of dispersion. Highly soluble materials will disperse more rapidly.
Substances can also have an affinity for soil particles due to their
physical/chemical properties (e.g. Dioxin).
The type of soil can directly control the rate and degree of infiltration of a
chemical. Less permeable geologic formations such as clay slow down
penetration rates and can alter the direction of dispersion. Solution channels,
fractures and faults in the rock can further alter dispersion pathways. Rates
of groundwater flow and subsequent contaminant dispersion in unconsolidated
formations (sand, gravel, clay) depend upon the permeability of each
formation.
4. Groundwater
Eventually, a chemical introduced to the soil may reach groundwater. How
that chemical disperses in groundwater is based on its chemical and physical
characteristics such as solubility, Ph, temperature and specific gravity, as well
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as the chemistry and hydrology of the area. Some behavior patterns in
groundwater are similar to those in surface water, however the rate of
dispersion in groundwater is generally much slower. The nature of
groundwater flow tends to be laminar (streamlined and even) whereas surface
water flow is more turbulent. Also, fluids in groundwater must flow around
individual particles in the geologic formation whereas surface water flow is
relatively unimpeded. The combination of these factors results in slower
dispersion in groundwater.
The hydrology of the area is dependent upon subsurface strata, topography,
and source of water. The depth to groundwater is variable and is influenced
by local geology and local rate of groundwater recharge. The proximity to
bodies of water also influences location, velocity, and direction of
groundwater flow. Groundwater and bodies of surface water can interact
directly. Streams and lakes can be fed by groundwater discharge in addition
to surface runoff from precipitation.
D. Fate of chemicals in the environment
Knowing how a chemical disperses is essential. Even more important is to be able
to predict where the chemical is transported to at the end of a specified tie period,
how it affects the environment, and what are its potential impacts to human health.
Being aware of the ultimate fate of chemicals in the environment helps prevent
adverse effects by facilitating effective management of the problem. The following
sections describe potential fates of chemicals in the environment.
1. Dilution and Degradation
Once a chemical enters and interacts with the environment it may undergo
physical and/or chemical changes, such as dilution or degradation, so that
either its concentration is diluted or its chemical composition is altered
irreversibly. Dilution may reduce the potential threat to human health and the
environment. A change in chemical composition (that is, the formation of a
new chemical) may or may not reduce the impact on human health. A new
chemical may be formed that is either more or less toxic than the original
chemical.
2. Environmental Isolation
Another scenario is environmental isolation of a chemical. Once released, the
material may not be able to disperse readily due to the transport limitations
of the setting. A chemical introduced into an environment that has severely
restricted flow patterns may not be able to move anywhere after its initial
introduction. In this case, the chemical's potential hazard to human health
may be localized.
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APPENDIX I: EXPOSURE GUIDELINES
3. Chemical Transport
Chemicals which persist in the environment are those which resist
degradation. Barring environmental isolation, persistent chemicals will be
transported. Persistent chemicals which are toxic or produce adverse effects
when present at certain concentrations are of great concern. Their pathways
should be well defined, based on their inherent properties and the setting in
which they are released.
The most direct pathway to humans is by atmospheric dispersion. Some
substances can be easily dispersed in the air and eventually be inhaled.
Winds can carry contaminated air a great distance before the contaminant is
diluted to a safe concentration.
Direct consumption of contaminated water is another exposure path for
humans. Contaminated streams or wells should be identified and their use as
a drinking water source halted. If a persistent chemical is released and finds
its way into a storm sewer or sanitary sewer, problems may result. A storm
sewer may lead to a stream which is used for drinking water. Hazardous
chemicals in a sanitary sewer system can render the treatment system
inoperable.
Chemicals which are allowed to disperse in the environment may eventually
enter the food chain. A chemical entering a lake or stream may be ingested
by a fish, which may become sick or die. If the chemical accumulates in the
fish and that fish is caught and eaten, the chemical is ingested in a
concentrated form. If a chemical is spilled on a field, vegetation can take up
the chemical and accumulate it. If an animal eats a large amount of the
contaminated vegetation, the person consuming that animal will also be
ingesting a food source containing an increased concentration of that
chemical. The effects of the contaminant may be immediate and severe
unless the chemical is excreted or inactivated.
Chemicals released at a hazardous waste site or spill may cause adverse
impacts on humans and the environment. Prevention of such damage requires
immediate action. All potential pathways of dispersion must be identified.
Overlooking just one can have severe repercussions. Pathways can be
properly evaluated only if the behavior of the chemical is known and a
thorough description of the setting is available.
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Section 6
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INFORMATION RESOURCES
PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lesson, participants will be able to:
• Recognize the various response reference resources available
for use in the field at hazardous materials incidents/accidents
• Recognize the various information resources available in the
field for use at hazardous materials incidents/accidents
• Describe the use of computer databases in emergency
response
• List five reference books that could be included in a basic
reference library.
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NOTES
INFORMATION
RESOURCES
U.S. DOT EMERGENCY
RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK
Useful in identifying hazardous materials
involved in transportation incidents
Contains an indexed listing of identification
numbers (UN/NA)
Contains an indexed listing of DOT
regulated materials
U.S. DOT EMERGENCY
RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK
Emergency action guidelines are provided
for indexed listings
Guidelines summarize potential health and
fire hazards
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Information Resources
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NOTES
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS IN
SURFACE TRANSPORTATION
• Commodity-specific emergency response
information for each hazardous material
regulated by DOT
• Enviromental considerations:
- Land and water spills
- Air emissions
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS IN
SURFACE TRANSPORTATION
Standard transportation commodity codes
(STCC)
DOT identification numbers
NIOSH POCKET GUIDE
• Organized, concise, alphabetical format
• Physical/chemical properties of 398
chemicals
• Carcinogen listing
• Identifies IDLH
Information Resources
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NIOSH POCKET GUIDE
• Chemical incompatibilities/reactions
• Trade names and synonyms
• Health hazard data
• Respirator selection criteria
• lonization potential
EMERGENCY ACTION GUIDE
• Chemical emergency planning information
• Accident assessment
• Evacuation recommendations
EMERGENCY ACTION GUIDE
• Personal protective clothing requirements
• General spill site safety precautions
• Subscription Action Guide updates for
chemical data sheets
NOTES
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Information Resources
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NOTES
CHEMICAL HAZARD RESPONSE
INFORMATION SYSTEM
• Volume 1
- Condensed Guide to Chemical
Hazards
- First responders
• Volume 2
- Hazardous Substance Data Manual
- The most useful of the manuals
CHEMICAL HAZARD RESPONSE
INFORMATION SYSTEM
• Volume 3
- Hazard Assessment Handbook
• Volume 4
- Response Methods Handbook
FIRE PROTECTION GUIDE ON
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
Hazardous chemical data - health, fire,
and reactivity hazards for approximately
325 chemicals (49)
Fire hazard properties of flammable
liquids, gases, and volatile solids (325M)
- Greater than 1300 substances
- Alphabetical order
Information Resources
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NOTES
FIRE PROTECTION GUIDE ON
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
• Manual of Hazardous Chemical Reactions
(491M)
- 3550 reactive mixtures of two or more
chemicals in alphabetical order
• Recommended system for implementation
of fixed facility hazard marking (704M)
FARM CHEMICAL HANDBOOK
• Provides information on farm chemicals
used in the United States
• Published annually
• Compounds listed by chemical and trade
names
CONDENSED CHEMICAL
DICTIONARY
Chemical compounds, raw materials, and
processes
Physical/chemical properties
Health hazards, brief description
I.D. by trade name of many products used
in the chemical industry
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Information Resources
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NOTES
DANGEROUS PROPERTIES OF
INDUSTRIAL MATERIALS "SAX"
• Hazard description for 18,000 industrial
and laboratory materials
• Emphasis on toxicological information
• Synonyms
• First-aid information
RAPID GUIDE TO HAZARDOUS
CHEMICALS IN THE WORKPLACE
• Provides information on 700 common
chemicals
• Synonym listing provides information on
over 1000 chemicals
• Condensed and limited information
INFORMATION SOURCES
• U.S. Geological Service survey maps
• On-line computer systems
• Aerial photography
• Remote sensing
Information Resources
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NOTES
INFORMATION SOURCES
Technical assistance organizations
- IRAP
- U.S. Coast Guard National Strike
Force
- U.S. EPA Emergency Response Team
- CHEMTREC
- CHLOREP
- Pesticide Safety Team Network
- TEAP
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SOURCES OF INFORMATION AND RESPONSE ASSISTANCE
TOPIC PAGE NO.
I. INTRODUCTION 1
II. BASIC REFERENCES 1
A. A COMPENDIUM OF SUPERFUND FIELD OPERATIONS
METHODS 1
B. CHRIS 1
1. CONDENSED GUIDE TO CHEMICAL HAZARDS 2
2. HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE DATA MANUAL 2
C. CONDENSED CHEMICAL DICTIONARY 2
D. DANGEROUS PROPERTIES OF INDUSTRIAL MATERIALS 2
E. DOCUMENTATION OF THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUES 3
F. EMERGENCY ACTION GUIDESHEETS (AAR) 3
G. EMERGENCY HANDLING OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS IN
SURFACE TRANSPORTATION (AAR) 3
H. U.S. DOT EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK 3
I. FARM CHEMICAL HANDBOOK 4
J. FIREFIGHTERS HANDBOOK OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS .... 4
K. FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE ON HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
(NFPA) 4
L. GATX TANK CAR MANUAL 4
M. HANDBOOK OF CHEMICAL PROPERTY ESTIMATION
METHODS 5
N. HANDBOOK OF ENVIRONMENTAL DATA ON ORGANIC
CHEMICALS
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O. HANDBOOK OF REACTIVE CHEMICAL HAZARDS 5
P. HAZARDOUS MATERIALS INJURIES: A HANDBOOK FOR
PREHOSPITAL CARE 5
Q. THE MERCK INDEX 5
R. NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND
HEALTH 6
1. NIOSH POCKET GUIDE TO CHEMICAL HAZARDS 6
2. NIOSH/OSHA OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH GUIDELINES
FOR CHEMICAL HAZARDS 6
S. OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH GUIDANCE
MANUAL FOR HAZARDOUS WASTE SITE ACTIVITIES 6
T. OHMTADS 6
U. RAPID GUIDE TO CHEMICAL HAZARDS IN THE
WORKPLACE 7
V. REGISTRY OF TOXIC EFFECTS OF CHEMICAL
SUBSTANCES 7
HI. TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE 7
A. ON-LINE DATABASES 7
1. ALTERNATIVE TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY
INFORMATION CENTER (ATTIC) 7
2. CHEMICAL EVALUATION SEARCH AND RETRIEVAL
SYSTEM (CESARS) 7
3. CHEMICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (CIS) 8
4. CHEMICAL REGULATIONS AND GUIDELINES
SYSTEMS (CRGS) 8
5. DATAPORT BULLETIN BOARD 8
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6. HAZARD ASSESSMENT COMPUTER SYSTEM (HACS) ... 8
7. HAZARDLINE 8
8. ICI/ICIS/CIS 9
9. INTEGRATED RISK INFORMATION SYSTEM (IRIS) 9
10. NATIONAL PESTICIDE INFORMATION RETRIEVAL
SYSTEM (NPIRS) 9
11. OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH SERVICES MATERIAL
SAFETY DATA SHEETS (OHSMSDS) 10
12. OIL AND HAZARDOUS MATERIALS-TECHNICAL
ASSISTANCE DATA SYSTEM (OHM-TADS) 10
13. OFFICE OF SOLID WASTE AND EMERGENCY
RESPONSE BULLETIN BOARD (OSWER) 10
14. SCIENTIFIC PARAMETERS FOR HEALTH AND THE
ENVIRONMENT, RETRIEVAL AND ESTIMATION
(SPHERE) 10
15. STUDIES ON TOXICITY APPLICABLE TO RISK
ASSESSMENT (STARA) 10
16. TOXICOLOGY DATA NETWORK (TOXNET) 11
17. TSCA INITIAL INVENTORY AND TSCA PLUS 11
B. ASSISTED DATA BASE SERVICES AND MICROCOMPUTER
SERVICES 12
1. COMPUTER AIDED MANAGEMENT OF EMERGENCY
OPERATIONS (CAMEO) 12
2. GRAPHICAL EXPOSURE MODELING SYSTEM (GEMS) . . 12
3. MICRO-CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES INFORMATION
NETWORK (CSIN) 12
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4. OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH
ADMINISTRATION COMPUTERIZED INFORMATION
SYSTEM (OCIS) 12
C. AGENCIES (PUBLIC AND PRIVATE) 12
1. CHEMICAL EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS
PROGRAM (CEPP) 12
2. CHEMICAL REFERRAL CENTER (CRC) 13
3. CHEMICAL TRANSPORTATION EMERGENCY
CENTER (CHEMTREC) 13
4. CHLOREP/CHLORINE EMERGENCY PLAN 13
5. COAST GUARD NATIONAL STRIKE FORCE (NSF) 13
6. ENVIRONMENTAL PHOTOGRAPH INTERPRETATION
CENTER/ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND
SUPPORT LABORATORY 13
7. ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSE TEAM (ERT) 13
8. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION (DOT) .... 14
9. INTERAGENCY RADIOLOGICAL ASSISTANCE PLAN
(IRAP) 14
10. SUPERFUND AND RESOURCE CONSERVATION AND
RECOVERY ACT INFORMATION (CERCLA) 14
11. U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY (USGS) 14
IV. REMOTE SENSING AND MAP INTERPRETATION 15
A. AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY 15
1. ENVIRONMENTAL PHOTOGRAPH INTERPRETATION
CENTER 15
2. EROS DATA CENTER 15
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B. U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY MAPS 15
1. TOPOGRAPHIC QUADRANGLE MAPS 15
2. HYDROLOGIC MAPS 16
3. LAND USE AND LAND COVER MAPS 16
4. SOURCES OF MAPS 16
V. FEDERAL HAZARD COMMUNICATION STANDARD
(HAZCOM) 16
A. 29 CFR 1910.1200 HAZCOM 16
1. DETERMINING CHEMICAL HAZARDS IN THE
WORKPLACE 17
2. LABELING REQUIREMENTS 17
3. MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEETS 18
4. WRITTEN TRAINING PROGRAM 18
B. HAZCOM IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS 18
1. NFPA 704 SYSTEM 19
2. HAZARDOUS MATERIALS IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM
(HMIS) 19
3. US DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION (DOT)
LABELS 19
APX. I REFERENCES AND RESOURCES 21
I. INTRODUCTION 21
II. REFERENCES 21
A. INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE 21
B. CHEMICAL DATA 22
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SOURCES OF INFORMATION AND RESPONSE ASSISTANCE
C. EPA METHODS MANUALS FOR SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS . . 24
D. SAFETY AND PERSONNEL PROTECTION 24
E. PLANNING GUIDES .25
III. TECHNICAL INFORMATION AND POTENTIAL
RESPONSE/INFORMATION SOURCES 27
APX. II PROPERTIES AND REFERENCE SOURCES 35
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SOURCES OF INFORMATION AND RESPONSE ASSISTANCE
I. INTRODUCTION
Many reference texts and organizations can provide response personnel with technical data
and physical assistance regarding both the hazards associated with an incident and methods
to deal with them. It is necessary to be aware of these resources and know how to use them.
The information, which may include data on sites, topography, meteorology,
physical/chemical properties of the material, applicable treatment methods, and available
cleanup resources, can be provided by various agencies, maps, reference books, and
manuals. It is advisable to get data from at least two sources and use the latest edition of any
reference, especially when searching for hygienic standards or toxicological data.
Access to on-line computer files may be possible at the site if a telephone, portable terminal,
and 120-volt outlet are available. Aerial photographs can also provide useful information
when properly interpreted.
II. BASIC REFERENCES
A. A Compendium of Superfund Field Operations Methods: Developed by the U.S.
EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response, EPA/540/P-87/001.
The compendium was written primarily to assist the site manager as he/she conducts
site investigations and assessments. It discusses record keeping, site safety,
sampling, laboratories, geology, hydrology, quality assurance and a number of other
important topics. The information is presented in an easy to understand format, but
is not arranged for quick reference (an index is not included).
B. CHRIS: Chemical Hazard Response Information System, developed by the U.S.
Coast Guard. Access through the National Response Center, telephone 800/424-
8802.
CHRIS consists of four manuals, a regional contingency plan, a Hazard Assessment
Computer System (HACS), and an organizational entity at Coast Guard Headquarters.
Volume 1 (CG-446-1) is designed to be used by the first responders at an incident.
Volumes 2, 3, and 4 (CG-446-2, CG-446-3, and CG-446-4, respectively) are
intended for use by the On-Scene Coordinator's (OSC) office along with the Regional
and National Response Centers. Main Coast Guard stations will usually have these
manuals.
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SOURCES OF INFORMATION AND RESPONSE ASSISTANCE
1. Volume 1: Condensed Guide to Chemical Hazards
Volume 1 is intended for use by the first responders on the scene of an
incident. The chemicals involved must be known, however, before the
appropriate information can be obtained from the manual. This volume also
contains a list of questions needed to access Volume 3. All information in this
volume can be found in Volume 2.
2. Volume 2: Hazardous Substance Data Manual, (also available from the U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402, GPO stock number
050-012-00147-2)
Volume 2 is probably the most useful in responding to spills/ waste sites. It
contains information on hazardous chemicals shipped in large volume by
water and is intended to be used by port security personnel and others who
may be first to arrive at the scene. The easily understood information
regarding chemical, physical, and toxicological properties can help quickly
determine the actions to be taken immediately to safeguard life, property, and
the environment.
C. Condensed Chemical Dictionary. Gessner G. Hawley, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.,
135 W. 50th St., NY, NY 10020
This book, a compendium of technical data and descriptive information covering
many thousands of chemicals and reactions, is designed for use in industrial situations
and can be helpful in assessing a hazardous waste site or spill. However, information
pertaining to environmental behavior of chemicals is limited and can be misleading.
Three distinct types of information are presented:
1. Technical descriptions of compounds, raw materials, and processes.
2. Expanded definitions of chemical entities, phenomena, and terminology.
3. Description or identification of a wide range of trade-name products used in
the chemical industry.
D. Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, edited by N. Irving Sax, Van Nostrand
Reinhold, Co., 135 W. 50th St., NY, NY 10020
This book provides a single source of concise information on the hazards of nearly
13,000 common industrial and laboratory materials. Descriptive information and
technical data are given in the three sections of the book. The main section "General
Information" is designed to expedite retrieval of hazard information. The three
sections are:
1. "General Information": synonyms, description, formula, physical constants.
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SOURCES OF INFORMATION AND RESPONSE ASSISTANCE
2. "Hazard Analysis": toxicity, fire hazard, explosive hazard.
3. "Countermeasures": handling, storage, shipping, first aid, firefighting,
personnel protection.
This book is not intended for use on site. It can be useful later, however, to verify
hazards associated with the emergency.
E. Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values (TLV®'). ACGIH Publications Office,
6500 Glenway Avenue, Building D-5, Cincinnati, OH 45211
This reference includes pertinent scientific information about each substance with
references to literature sources used to determine each TLV. Each documentation
also defines the type of toxic response for which the limit is used. This book should
be consulted for a better understanding of TLVs.
F. Emergency Action Guidesheets. Hazardous Materials Systems, Association of
American Railroads, 50F Street, NW; Washington, DC, 20001.
Contains detailed information on the 134 hazardous commodities most often shipped
by volume. The commodities listed make up 95% of all hazardous material
shipments, by volume, in North America. The book is available either on Tyvek,
or paper.
G. Emergency Handling of Hazardous Materials in Surface Transportation. Hazardous
Materials Systems, Association of American Railroads, 50 F Street, NW;
Washington, D.C. 20001.
Provides commodity specific response information for over 3,900 hazardous
materials. The book also includes emergency environmental mitigation procedures
for each EPA-named hazardous substance. This book is considered one of the
standards used by emergency response personnel for dealing with incidents involving
hazardous materials.
H. U.S. Dot Emergency Response Guidebook: developed under the supervision of the
Office of Hazardous Materials Transportation, Research and Special Programs
Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation.
The guidebook is intended to assist first responders in making informed judgements
during the initial phases of a transportation incident involving hazardous materials.
It lists the UN/NA numbers designated for hazardous materials, identifies potential
hazards associated with the materials and recommends emergency actions to be taken
following a spill. It also makes recommendations as to when areas should be
evacuated or isolated in the event of a spill. The guidebook is available through
UNZ&CO, 190 Baldwin Avenue, Jersey City, NJ 07306.
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SOURCES OF INFORMATION AND RESPONSE ASSISTANCE
I. Farm Chemical Handbook. Meister Publishing Company, 37841 Euclid Avenue,
Willoughby, OH 44094.
This reference provides information on pesticides and chemicals used in agriculture.
It also provides information by both generic and trade names.
J. Firefighters Handbook of Hazardous Materials. Maltese Enterprises, Inc., 8309 W.
Morris Street, Indianapolis, IN 46231, 317/243-2211.
Provides chemical and physical properties of common and brand name chemicals.
The potential hazards and immediate action for chemicals are cross-referenced under
the "Remarks" column. The immediate action guidelines provide general
recommendations for the hazard; actions to be taken in the event of a fire, spill or
leak; and general first aid information.
K. Fire Prevention Guide on Hazardous Materials. National Fire Protection Association
(NFPA), Quincy, MA 02269
The NFPA has combined four manuals into one comprehensive guide on hazardous
materials. These four present information on:
1. Fire hazards of 1,300 flammable liquids, gases, and solids are listed in
alphabetical order with appropriate firefighting information. Various
properties listed include flashpoint, specific gravity, water solubility, hazard
identification, and boiling point.
2. Toxicity data on 416 chemicals.
3. Hazardous reactions of over 3,550 chemicals. Reactions may involve two or
more chemicals and cause fires, explosions, or other problems. A chemical
is listed, followed by those chemicals which can cause a hazardous reaction.
4. Recommended system for identification of fire hazards of materials. The
NFPA labeling system is described in detail, with a careful explanation of the
ratings.
This manual presents a large amount of information, but deals with pure
chemicals, not mixtures. Some experience is required to interpret the manual
properly.
L. GATX Tank Car Manual. General American Transportation Corporation, 120 S.
Riverside Plaza, Chicago, IL 60606.
This reference provides information on railroad tank car shape, design and DOT
specifications. Also, the common materials carried in each type of railcar.
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SOURCES OF INFORMATION AND RESPONSE ASSISTANCE
M. Handbook of Chemical Property Estimation Methods: by Warren J. Lyman. William
F. Reehl and David H. Rosenblatt, published by McGraw-Hill Book Company, New
York, NY.
This handbook is designed to assist environmental scientists in estimating the fate of
specific chemicals when they are released into the environment. The properties
covered by this book include a variety of conventional properties of pure materials
such as density, boiling point, and refractive index, and some properties that describe
how a chemical behaves with a second substance. The fate of trace concentrations
of certain chemicals in specific environmental situations is also discussed.
N. Handbook of Environmental Data on Organic Chemicals: by Karen Verschueren,
published by Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, Inc. 115 Fifth Avenue, New York,
NY 10003.
This handbook provides information on: properties of organic chemicals; air
pollution factors; water pollution factors; and biological effects. Where entries are
not complete, it may be assumed that no reliable data were provided by the
references utilized. The author uses numerous abbreviations which are explained in
the first section of the book. Individuals who are not familiar with the abbreviations
will find themselves referring to the first section frequently in order to understand
listings of specific chemicals.
O. Handbook of Reactive Chemical Hazards: by L. Brethrerick, published by
Butterworths of London.
The information presented on reactive hazards is of two main types, specific or
general, and these types of information have been arranged differently in their
respective separate sections. Specific information on instability of individual
chemical compounds, and on hazardous interactions of elements and/or compounds,
is contained in the main formula-based section of the handbook. General information
relating to classes or groups of elements or compounds possessing similar structural
or hazardous characteristics is contained in a separate section. Both theoretical and
practical hazard topics, are included.
P. Hazardous Materials Injuries: A Handbook for Prehospital Care. Bradford
Communications Corp., 7500 Greenway Center Drive, Greenbelt, MD 20770.
This reference provides information on prehospital care. The handbook is set-up
similar to the US DOT Guidebook.
Q. The Merck Index. Merck and Co.. Inc.. Rahwav. NJ 07065
The Merck Index is a comprehensive, interdisciplinary encyclopedia of chemicals,
drugs, and biological substances. It describes 9,856 chemicals in a structured format.
An extensive index and cross index make the manual easy to use. It is designed to
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SOURCES OF INFORMATION AND RESPONSE ASSISTANCE
serve a variety of purposes. For response personnel, it provides information on
physical/chemical properties of chemicals and their toxicity.
R. National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health
1. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. U.S. Government Printing
Office, Washington, DC 20402
Information in this pocket guide comes from the NIOSH/OSHA Occupational
Health Guidelines. Presented in a tabular format, it is a reference for
industrial hygiene and medical surveillance practices. Included are chemical
names and synonyms, permissible exposure limits, chemical and physical
properties, signs and symptoms of overexposure, environmental and medical
monitoring procedures, recommended respiratory and personal protective
equipment, and procedures for treatment.
2. NIOSH/OSHA Occupational Health Guidelines for Chemical Hazards. U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402
This three-volume document provides technical data for most of the
substances listed in the "NIOSH/OSHA Pocket Guide". The information is
much more detailed and is designed primarily for use by industrial hygienists
and medical surveillance personnel. In addition to the information found in
the "Pocket Guide", "Occupational Health Guidelines" includes recommended
medical surveillance practices, air monitoring and measurement procedures,
protective equipment, and spill and disposal techniques.
S. Occupational Safety and Health Guidance Manual for Hazardous Waste Site
Activities: developed by NIOSH/OSHA/USCG/EPA, U.S. Government Printing
Office, Washington, DC 20402.
This manual is a guidance document for managers responsible for occupational safety
and health programs at inactive hazardous waste sites. It is intended for federal,
state, and local officials and their contractors. It may be used: as a planning tool
by government or private individuals; as a management tool by upper level or field
managers; as an educational tool to provide a comprehensive overview of all aspects
of safety and health protection at hazardous waste sites; or as a reference document
for site personnel who need to review important aspects of health and safety.
T. OHMTADS: Oil and Hazardous Materials Technical Assistance Data System,
developed by the EPA. Access through EPA Regional Offices.
OHMTADS is a computerized data retrieval system available in the form of a
computer printout, manuals, or microfiche. For each of more than 1,000 oil and
hazardous substances, there are 126 possible information segments on, for example,
toxicity and associated hazards, personnel safety precautions, cleanup and disposal
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methods, materials handling, and fire fighting. However, not all information is
available for all materials.
U. Rapid Guide to Chemical Hazards in the Workplace, edited by N. Irving Sax and
Richard J. Lewis, Sr. Published by Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 115 Fifth
Avenue, New York, NY 10003.
This book provides a concise summary of the harmful health effects of almost 700
common chemicals. It also includes over 1,000 synonyms.
V. Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances. U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, DC 20402.
This annual publication is sponsored by NIOSH and contains toxic dose data with
references to source documents and major standards and regulations for 35,000
chemicals.
III. TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE:
Technical assistance is available from many sources and in a variety of forms. Listed below
are on-line databases, where you can dial into a host-computer and search for information
and database services where you call and ask someone to search their computer for you.
Addresses and phone numbers of several access providers are listed at the end of this section.
A. On-line Databases
1. The Alternative Treatment Technology Information Center (ATTIC):
ATTIC is a comprehensive automated information retrieval system that
integrates existing hazardous waste data sources into a unified, searchable
resource. Through ATTIC the user will be able to central resource to collect
information on various hazardous waste treatment technologies. ATTIC
contains several resident databases such as the RREL Treatability Database,
and the Hazardous Waste Collection Database. Attic can also access the
Record of Decision (ROD) Database, the OSWER Bulletin Board and EPA
DIALCOM system for access into E-Mail. At present, over 600 technical
reports have been evaluated, summarized, and entered into the ATTIC
system. Presently, the system is distributed on floppy diskette. In December
'90, the full system should be accessible by modem.
2. Chemical Evaluation Search and Retrieval System (CESARS):
Contains toxicological data on approximately 195 chemicals. Data items
covered include physical and chemical properties, toxicity, carcinogenicity,
mutagenicity, teratogenicity and environmental fate. This database is updated
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on a quarterly basis. The data are obtained from literature, textbooks,
journals, documents and computerized information searches.
3. Chemical Information System (CIS):
This data base provides cross-reference to all citations of a chemical or class
of chemicals cited in the Federal Register (FR) since January 1, 1978. Each
mention of a substance in the Register results in a citation in the data base,
with a description of the FR article as it concerns the cited substance or
substances, the agency or agencies involved, the actions being taken or
proposed, significant dates and the affected section of the CFR (Code of
Federal Regulations).
4. Chemical Regulations and Guidelines System (CRGS):
CRGS provides an index to U.S. Federal regulatory material on the control
of chemical substances and covers federal statutes, promulgated regulations,
available federal guidelines, standards and support documents. CRGS follows
the regulatory cycle and includes an up-to-date reference to each document,
including main documents and revisions published in the Federal Register.
Each chemical cited in a regulatory document is indexed by name, CAS
Registry Number and a chemical role tag. The latter shows the context in
which the substances appear in the document. Citations show publication
title, date, abstract, index terms and chemical identifiers.
5. Dataport Bulletin Board:
Dataport is an electronic bulletin board system (BBS) operated by EPA's
Environmental Response Team (ERT). The purpose of Dataport is to serve
as a means of communications and information transfer among OSC's,
RPM's and other Superfund response personnel. Dataport serves as a forum
for exchanging technical information such as computer programs used in the
field, EPA Standard Operating and Safety Guidelines and chemical
information databases.
6. Hazard Assessment Computer System (HACS):
HACS is the computerized version of the CHRIS manual which makes it
possible to obtain very detailed hazard evaluations through the computer at
Coast Guard Headquarters. 1-800-424-8802.
7. HAZARDLINE:
HAZARDLINE contains regulatory, health, and precautionary data on about
5000 hazardous chemicals. Users can retrieve data on specific chemical
substances by searching on various criteria, including chemical name,
synonym, keyword, chemical formula, CAS Registry Number, RTECS
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NUMBER, DOT UN/PLACARD number or symptoms of exposure.
HAZARDLINE includes a chemical database and the Material Safety Data
Sheets system developed for the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA). In addition, it includes the Environmental Health
Newsletter. It contains extensive information on regulatory requirements and
first responder guidance such as protective clothing and respiratory
protection. Sources of data include OSHA and EPA standards and
regulations, National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
criteria documents, important and relevant court decisions and selected
relevant standards and guidelines from such other organizations as the
American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
8. ICI/ICIS/CIS:
Information Consultants, Inc.'s Chemical Information System (ICIS) and
Chemical Information System, Inc.'s (Fein Marquart Associates) System
(CIS) are two competing companies which offer approximately 35 databases
each, some similar, others different. Databases available for searching
include, for example: Oil and Hazardous Materials Technical Assistance
Data Systems (OHMTADS); Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical
Substances (RTECS); Chemical Carcinogenesis Research Information System
(CCRIS); GENETOX with genetic assay studies; AQUIRE with aquatic
toxicity information; DERMAL with dermal toxicity information.
9. Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS):
The EPA developed IRIS to assist in risk assessment and risk management
activities. IRIS is an on-line database of chemical specific risk information
the relationship between chemical exposure and estimated human health
effects. The database presents a summary of information on chemical hazard
identification and dose-response assessment, and provides quantitative risk
values and qualitative health effects information. The quantitative risk values
and supporting explanations are based upon available studies on a substance
and have been reviewed and agreed upon by scientists from across the
Agency. Currently IRIS includes over 380 chemical risk summaries. The
database is updated monthly.
10. National Pesticide Information Retrieval System (NPIRS):
NPIRS contains information on about 60,000 pesticide products registered by
the EPA and with U.S. state agencies that have registration programs. The
system also covers some pest control products that have been canceled by the
EPA and are no longer legally sold or used. Full text of the newsletters
(since 1984) of the EPA Office of Pesticide Programs (OPP) are available.
Also contains EPA fact sheets, providing summaries on a pesticide product
formulation and Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) providing information
on hazardous chemical substances. The system is soon to include EPA's
Pesticide Data Management System Database which will contain information
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on 160,000+ different scientific studies and related documents submitted to
EPA by companies seeking pesticide production registration.
11. Occupational Health Services Material Safety Data Sheets (OHSMSDS):
This database contains chemical and safety information required by OSHA for
more than 75,000 substances. Includes substance identification, physical
data, fire and explosion data, toxicity and health effects and spill and leak
procedures.
12. Oil and Hazardous Materials - Technical Assistance Data System (OHM-
TADS):
OHM-TADS was developed in 1971 by the EPA to aid spill response teams
by providing rapid retrieval of chemical-specific resource information for the
identification, containment, and disposal of oil and hazardous materials. The
original emphasis was on harmful effects to water quality, but now all media
and biota are included. It also provides general information about each
chemical. It contains all types of chemical substances, with no exclusions,
based on spill history, high volume production, exposure data and toxicity
data. OHM-TADS data records contain 126 data elements and currently
present 1,402 chemical profiles. The system has somewhat limited
application given that the data is several years out of date.
13. Office of Solid Wastes and Emergency Response Bulletin Board (OSWER):
The OSWER electronic bulletin board is intended to facilitate communications
and the dissemination of information among EPA Regional staffs, OSWER
headquarter and EPA's research laboratories. It includes specialized
information in eight mini-bulletin boards. A few of these deal with field
operations, QA/QC, groundwater, treatment methods, enforcement practices
and risk assessment.
14. Scientific Parameters for Health and the Environment, Retrieval and
Estimation (SPHERE):
SPHERE was developed to support risk assessment of chemicals under
Sections 4, 5, 6 and 8 of the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA). It
contains three databases under its umbrella. AQUIRE deals with data
pertaining to toxic effects of over 2500 chemical substances on aquatic
organisms. DERMAL contains information on the qualitative and quantitative
health effects of approximately 650 chemical substances administered to
humans and test animals via the dermal route. GENETOX database includes
those chemicals for which mutagenicity assays have been performed and
published.
15. Studies on Toxicity Applicable to Risk Assessment (STARA):
STARA has been created to aid in the development of risk assessment
methodology and to facilitate the evaluation of potential public health dangers
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due to uncontrolled hazardous waste site releases and chemical spills.
STARA focuses on toxicity studies containing quantitative as well as
descriptive information on a test animal or human study group, exposure and
type of effects. It is specifically designed for easy access by statistical
routines and mathematical modelling programs. Thus, it is especially suitable
for development on testing or risk assessment algorithms and extrapolation
models.
16. Toxicology Data Network (TOXNET): A component of the National Library
of Medicine's database, TOXNET is a computerized collection of
toxicological oriented data banks, the TOXNET files include:
Hazardous Substances Data Bank (HSDB) - A scientifically reviewed and
edited data bank containing toxicological information and other data related
to environmental, emergency, safety and handling and regulatory issues for
over 4200 chemicals.
Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemicals (RTECS) - RTECS contain toxic
effects data on 90,000 chemicals. Both acute and chronic effects are covered
and skin/eye irritation, carcinogenicity, mutagenicity and reproductive
consequences.
Chemical Carcinogenesis Research Information System (CCRIS) - A
scientifically evaluated and fully referenced data bank developed and
maintained by the National Cancer Institute containing carcinogenicity, tumor
promotion and mutagenicity test results for over 100 chemicals.
Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) - Contains information on the annual estimated
releases into the environment and is based upon data collected by EPA on
SARA Title Ill's form Rs.
Environmental Teratology Information Center Backfile (ETICBACK) -
ETICBACK is a you database covering literature on teratology and
developmental and reproductive toxicology. It contains approximately 46,000
citations to literature published from 1950 - 1988.
Environmental Mutagen Information Center Backfile (EMICBACK) -
EMICBANK is a bibliographic database on chemical biological and physical
agents that have been tested for genotoxic activity. It contains approximately
67,000 citations to literature published from 1950 - 1988.
Directory of Biotechnology Information Resources (DBIR) - DBIR contains
information on a wide range of resources related to biotechnology. Among
these are online databases and networks, publications, organizations,
collections and repositories of cells and subcellular elements.
17. TSCA Initial Inventory and TSCA Plus: Contains information on the
approximately 56,000 chemical substances in commerce in the U.S. covered
in the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) initial inventory published June
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1, 1979. TSCA Plus includes the additional chemicals listed in the inventory
since 1981.
B. Assisted Data Base Services and Microcomputer Services
1. Computer-Aided Management of Emergency Operations (CAMEO):
CAMEO is a computer program designed by the National Atmospheric and
Oceanic Administration (NOAA) to help emergency planners and first
responders plan for, and safely handle, chemical accidents. CAMEO II
contains response information and recommendations for 2,629 commonly
transported chemicals; an air dispersion model to assist in evaluating release
scenarios and evacuation options; and several easily adaptable databases and
computational programs that address the emergency planning provisions of
Title II, the Emergency Planning and Community Right-To-Know Act of
1986.
2. Graphical Exposure Modeling System (GEMS):
GEMS supports exposure and risk assessments by providing access to single
medium and multimedia fate and exposure models, physical/chemical property
estimation techniques, and statistical analysis, graphics, and mapping
programs with related data on environments, sources, receptors and
populations. Available model types include atmospheric, surface water, land
unsaturated and saturated zones, and multimedia models.
3. Micro-Chemical Substances Information Network (CSIN):
The Micro-CSIN Workstation is designed to translate a user's request for
bibliographic, factual/numeric, and/or chemical identification information into
the proper form for interaction with a large number of commercial database
vendors.
4. Occupational Safety and Health Administration
Computerized Information System (OCIS):
OCIS is designed to aid OSHA, State OSHA and OSHA Area office staff in
responding by maintaining quick access to various computerized information.
Current OCIS files include Chemical Information File, Standards
Interpretations File, Hazard Abatement File, Hazard Waste Site File, Federal
Register Reference File and Memorandums of Understanding/Speeches.
C. Agencies (Public and Private)
1. Chemical Emergency Preparedness Program (CEPP): A toll free hotline to
provide technical assistance for chemical emergencies; 1-800-535-0202.
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2. Chemical Referral Center (CRC): The Chemical Manufacturers Association
(CMA) makes available to the general public information that pertains to non-
emergency health and safety related issues on chemicals. 1-800-CMA-8200.
3. Chemical Transportation Emergency Center (CHEMTREC):
The Chemical Manufacturers Association set up the CHEMTREC system to
provide immediate assistance to those at the scene of an accident, 24 hours
a day. CHEMTREC requires an immediate response and the manufacturer
is unable to respond promptly, CHEMTREC can activate CHEMNET.
CHEMNET is an industry wide mutual aid program established to provide
chemical expertise at the scene of more than 77 chemical producers, their
response teams, and more than 50 private contractor emergency response
teams. It can also provide emergency responders with a product during
emergencies. The HIT (Hazardous Information Transmission) program
requires that response personnel be preregistered and have access to a
personal computer with a modem and printer. CHEMTREC 1-800-424-9300.
4. CHLOREP/Chlorine Emergency Plan:
CHLOREP was established by the Chlorine Institute to handle chlorine
emergencies in the U.S. and Canada. The system operates through
CHEMTREC. Upon receiving an emergency call, CHEMTREC notifies the
nearest manufacturer in accordance with a mutual aid plan. This
manufacturer then contacts the emergency response scene to determine if a
technical team should be sent to assist. Each participating manufacturer has
trained personnel and equipment available for emergencies.
5. Coast Guard National Strike Force (NSF):
The NSF is a part of the National Response Team. It consists of high seas
oil cleanup equipment and trained personnel available to assist the OSC upon
request during the containment and countermeasures phase, the cleanup,
mitigation and disposal and the documentation and cost recovery phase of
cleanup. Access through the National Response Center; 1-800-424-8801.
6. Environmental Photograph Interpretation Center (Regions I-IV);
Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory (Regions V-X):
Aerial photography can provide a means to monitor facilities that produce or
store chemicals. Once photographs have been interpreted, spill prevention
personnel can use the results to inspect areas or facilities in a minimum
amount of time because they can concentrate on those areas with the spill
problem.
7. Environmental Response Team (ERT)
The National Contingency Plan directed EPA to establish the ERT to advise
OSC's and Regional Response Teams on environmental issues related to spill
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containment, cleanup and damage assessment. The Team provides expertise
in biology, chemistry and engineering of environmental emergencies. The
Team is EPA's focal point for technical assistance to the Regions and
Program Offices during emergency episodes involving hazardous substances.
ERT is located in Edison, NJ and Cincinnati, OH. ERT is responsible for
coordinating the Environmental Emergency Response Unit (EERU), a
cooperative effort between the Team, die Office of Research and
Development's Oil and Hazardous Materials Spills Branch and contractor
personnel. Services available through the Response Unit include prototype
spill control equipment such as the mobile flocculation/sedimentation system,
contract laboratory analytical services and pilot plant treatment studies.
8. U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT):
A hotline was established to assist those requesting information on
interpreting U.S. DOT regulations, as defined in Chapter 49 of the Code of
Federal Regulations. 1-202-426-2975.
9. Interagency Radiological Assistance Plan (IRAP):
IRAP is designed to assist in coping with radiation emergencies. It operates
through DOE, but works closely with other Federal, State, military and
regional groups. If a spill or leak is serious, IRAP assistants will contact the
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). The main functions of the response
team are to assess the hazard, inform the public, and recommend emergency
actions to minimize the hazard. 1-800-424-9300.
10. Superfund and Resource Conservation and Recovery Act Information
(CERCLA):
EPA established the toll free technical assistance hotline in 1980 to answer
questions and provide documents to those needing information on the
Superfund and Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. 1-800-424-9346.
11. U.S. Geological Survey (USGS):
The U.S. Geological Survey is responsible for using remote-sensing
techniques to inventory, manage and monitor natural resources. This can
provide a chronological overview of an area, thereby establishing the extent
of damage over time. The U.S. Geological Survey also provides several
types of maps: topographical, hydrological, land use and land cover.
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IV. REMOTE SENSING AND MAP INTERPRETATION
A. Aerial Photography
1. Environmental Photograph Interpretaion Center, Warrenton, VA 22186,
telephone 703/557-3110 (EPA Regions I-IV).
Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory, Las Vegas, NV 89114,
telephone 702/798-2237 (EPA Region V-X).
Aerial photography can also provide a means to monitor facilities that
produce or store chemicals. Spill and spill-threat conditions that exist in
many such facilities may also be photographically documented. Aerial
photographers can assist with the monitoring of chemical facilities for
compliance with the spill prevention regulations issued under the Federal
Water Pollution Act as amended in 1977. Aerial reconnaissance missions
effectively and economically augment compliance monitoring efforts of EPA
Regions or other regulatory agencies. An airplane can fly over a large
number of areas and facilities in a brief period of time. Once the
photographs have been interpreted, spill prevention personnel can use the
results to inspect areas or facilities in a minimum amount of time because
they can concentrate on those areas with the spill problem.
2. EROS Data Center, User Services, Sioux Falls, SD 57198
The EROS system, run by the U.S. Geological Survey, uses remote-sensing
techniques to inventory, monitor, and manage natural resources. EROS
includes research and training in the interpretation and application of remotely
sensed data and provides these data at nominal cost.
At the heart of the EROS Data Center is a central computer complex which
controls a data base of over 6 million images and photographs of the earth's
surface features, searches for geographic data on areas of interest, and serves
as a management tool for the entire data reporduction process. The
computerized data storage and retrieval system is based on latitude and
longitude, supplemented by information about image quality, cloud cover, and
type of data.
Information received from the EROS Data Center can be used in much the
same way as information received from the Environmental Monitoring and
Support Laboratory. EROS data provide a chronological overview of an
area, thereby establishing the extent of damage over time.
B. U.S. Geological Survey Maps
1. Topographic quadrangle maps
Topographic maps are useful in that they show the contours of the land, the
network of water features, and elevations. They also show cities and urban
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areas and can be used to determine the proximity of a spill or waste site to
a lake, river, stream, or population centers.
2. Hydrologic maps
Hydrologic maps show water in or beneath the land surface. They are very
useful when evaluating water supply and water related hazards such as
flooding. They also show drainage areas, depth to ground water, and the
thickness of water bearing formations. In the case of a spill or waste site, a
hydrologic map can indicate any possible contamination of the ground water
and/or drainage area.
3. Land use and land cover maps
Land use and land cober maps have been prepared by using the standard
topographic quadrangle maps or larger-scale low altitude aerial photographs
as a base. These maps provide detailed information about the use of land or
about the vegetation cover. This information could be useful at a spill or
waste site. For example, if chemicals enter an area being used for crops,
authorities should be advised of the chemical(s) involved and their possible
effects.
4. Sources of maps
Maps are available in areas east of the Mississippi River, including
Minnesota, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands, from:
Branch of Distribution
U.S. Geological Survey
1200 South Eads St.
Arlington, VA 22202
Telephone: 703/557-2751
Maps of areas west of the Mississippi River, including Alaska, Hawaii,
Louisiana, Guam, and American Somoa, available from:
Branch of Distribution
U.S. Geological Survey
Box 25286, Federal Center
Denver, CO 80225
Telephone: 303/234-3832
V. FEDERAL HAZARD COMMUNICATION STANDARD (HazCom)
A. In 1983, OSHA announced its Federal Hazard Communications Standard, 29 CFR
1910.1200, referred to as HazCom. The Occupational Safety and Health
Administration administers this program. The law guarantees the right to information
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about hazardous chemicals in the workplace. This law is referred to as the "Right
to Know" law.
The Federal Hazard Communication Standard, HazCom, establishes requirements in
the following areas:
• Determining the chemical hazards in a workplace.
• Labeling chemicals that are hazardous.
• Maintaining Material Safety Data Sheets that provide information about the
hazardous chemicals.
• Providing a written hazardous chemical training program.
1. Determining chemical hazards in a workplace
There are many different hazardous chemicals. HazCom groups hazardous
chemicals into two (2) types: physical hazards and health hazards.
Chemicals that are physical hazards are flammable, corrosive, or reactive.
Flammable chemicals can cause fires; corrosive chemicals can cause chemical
burns; and reactive chemicals can cause explosions or release toxic fumes.
Chemicals that are health hazards are toxic chemical poisons. Overexposure
to these chemicals can cause acute, or immediate, effects such as nausea or
vomiting. Overexposure to some of these chemicals can cause chronic, or
long-term, effects such as liver damage or cancer.
2. Labeling requirements
HazCom requires that all containers of hazardous chemicals entering or
leaving the workplace must be labeled. The label must show the identity of
the hazardous chemical, appropriate hazard warnings (i.e. flammable,
corrosive), and the name and address of the manufacturer, distributor or
importer.
The label may also include picture symbols that help to identify the hazard
and show the proper personal safety equipment to use when working with the
chemical.
Labeling is also required for portable containers filled with chemicals from
other containers. Tanks and other non-movable containers may be labeled by
using the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) fire diamonds or the
Hazardous Materials Identification System (HMIS) labels.
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3. Material Safety Data Sheets
Material Safety Data Sheets required by HazCom must contain the following
information:
• The identity of the material
• Am emergency telephone number
• A list of hazardous ingredients
• Fire and explosion data
• Health hazard data
• Precautions for safe handling and use
• Proper employee protection measures
4. Written Training Program
Written training programs are required by HazCom. The training program
details how a company intends to implement HazCom, and the type and kinds
of training the company intends to conduct.
B. HazCom Identification Systems
Labeling for hazardous chemicals entering or leaving the workplace are governed by
federal regulations. HazCom and Department of Transportation (DOT) regulations
govern labels, placards, and warning signs for shipping hazardous chemicals.
Each of the different types of signs and labels serves a purpose. One type of
chemical labeling are written warnings such as:
• Corrosive - Chemicals that cause chemical burns
• Flammable - Chemicals that can cause fires
• Toxic - Poisonous chemicals
• Oxidizer - Chemicals that support combustion
• Dangerous when wet - Chemicals that react with water and explode or
produce toxic fumes
Another type of labeling is color coding. Three systems that are used in color coding
are the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), the Hazardous Materials
Identification System (HMIS) and Department of Transportation (DOT).
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1. NFPA 704 System (NFPA) labels are referred to as the fire diamonds
because they are in the shape of a diamond. Four small diamonds make up
a fire diamond label. The smaller diamonds are colored red, blue, yellow,
and white. Numbers inside these diamonds are used to identify the severity
of different types of hazards. The numbers range from "0" to "4". The
higher the number, the more severe the hazard. For example:
• The red diamond identifies the fire hazard. A "0" in the red diamond
indicates that the material in the tank or vessel will not burn, while
a "4" indicates that the material may explode when heated.
• The blue diamond indicates a materials health hazard. A "0"
indicated that a material is non-toxic, while a "4" indicates a material
that can be lethal.
• The yellow diamond indicates a materials reactivity. A "0" indicates
a material that is non-reactive, while a "4" indicates a material that
is unusable at normal temperatures.
• The white diamond provides special information about a hazardous
chemical. Letters or symbols are used instead of numbers to indicate
the hazard. For example: COR in the white diamond indicates a
corrosive, while a "W" with a line through it means no water,
because the material reacts with water and explodes or produces toxic
fumes.
2. The Hazardous Materials Identification System (HMIS) labels also use the
colors red, blue, yellow and white and number 0 through 4. HMIS labels are
rectangular, with the colors in horizontal stripes. As with the NFPA system,
the red, blue, and yellow stripes indicate fire, health, and reactivity
respectively, and higher numbers show more severe hazards. The white
section is used to show the proper personal protection gear to be used when
working with the hazardous chemical.
3. U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) labels are similar to the picture
symbols discussed earlier. DOT labels are color coded squares or diamonds
that are attached to hazardous chemicals being shipped. Some examples of
DOT labels are:
• Red Flammable liquid or gas Flame
• Yellow Oxygen or oxidizer Flame circled at base.
• Orange Explosive Explosion
• Green Compressed gas Gas cylinder
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• Black & White Corrosive/ Drops eating a hole in
Miscellaneous a person's hand/
vertical black and
white stripes
• Blue Dangerous when wet Flame
U.S. DOT placards are fixed to the outside of the vehicles that carry
hazardous chemicals. They are similar to the warning labels, but they may
not carry a written warning. Instead, they may contain a four-digit number
that is the United Nations identification code for that material being shipped.
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APPENDIX I
REFERENCES AND RESOURCES
I. INTRODUCTION
This list provides the titles of references and organizations which may be of value to those
responding to hazardous material incidents. Other resources are available which are not
names here. This list can be expanded based on personal preferences and requirements.
The references are categorized by subject. The title, author, publisher, and place of
publication are given for each. The year of publication is not always given because many
are revised annually. The user should attempt to obtain the most recent edition.
The last section lists sources of these references as well as other information that might be
useful. Usually, these agencies or associations will provide a catalogue on request. Where
available, phone number are listed.
Items identified with an asterisk (*) may be particularly useful in "emergency response"
situations.
II. REFERENCES
A. Industrial Hygiene (Air Sampling and Monitoring, Respiratory Protection,
Toxicology).
1. Air Sampling Instruments for Evaluation of Atmospheric Contaminants.
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Cincinnati, OH.
2. Basic Industrial Hygiene. Richard Brief, American Industrial Hygiene
Association, Akron, OH.
3. Direct Reading Colorimetric Indicator Tubes Manual. American Industrial
Hygiene Association, Akron, OH.
4. Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values (TLV). American Conference
of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Cincinnati, OH.
5. Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene. National Safety Council, Chicago, IL.
6. Health Aspects of the Disposal of Waste Chemicals. Grisham, J.W.,
Pergamon Press.
7. The Industrial Environment - It's Evaluation and Control. National Institute
for Occupational Safety and Health, Rockville, MD.
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APPENDIX I: REFERENCES AND RESOURCES
8. Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology. Frank A. Patty, John Wiley and Sons,
Inc., New York, NY.
9. Industrial Toxicology - Safety and Health in the Workplace. Williams and
Burson, ACGIH.
10. Manual of Recommended Practice for Combustible Gas Indicators and
Portable. Direct Reading Hydrocarbon Detectors. American Industrial
Hygiene Association, Akron, OH.
11. NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods. Volumes 1-7. NIOSH, Department
of Health and Human Services, Cincinnati, OH.
*12. NIOSH/OSHA Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. DHHS No. 85-114,
NIOSH, Department of Health and Human Services, Cincinnati, OH.
13. Occupational Health Guidelines for Chemical Hazards. DHHS No. 81-123,
NIOSH, Department of Health and Human Services, Cincinnati, OH.
14. Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances. DHHS No. 83107,
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Rockville, MD.
15. Respiratory Protective Devices Manual. American Industrial Hygiene
Association, Akron, OH.
16. TLVs Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure Indices (Threshold
Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents in the Workroom
Environment). American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists,
Cincinnati, OH.
17. Toxicology - The Basic Science of Poisons. John Doull, Curtis D. Klaasen
and Mary O. Amdur, Macmillan Publishing Co., New York, NY (1980).
B. Chemical Data
*1. Chemical Hazard Response Information System (CHRIS). U.S. Coast Guard,
Washington, DC. Commandant Instruction M. 16565.12A.
2. CHRIS - A Condensed Guide Chemical Hazards. U.S. Coast Guard,
Commandant Instruction M16565.11a.
3. Chemical Hazards of the Workplace. Proctor and Hughes, J.B. Lippincott
Company.
4. Chemistry of Hazardous Materials. Eugene Meyer, Prentice-Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ.
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APPENDIX I: REFERENCES AND RESOURCES
5. Clinical Toxicology of Commercial Products. Gosselin. R.E., William and
Wilkins.
*6. The Condensed Chemical Dictionary. G. Hawley, Van Nostrand
Reinhold Co., New York, NY.
7. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. CRC Press-Boca Raton, FL.
*8. Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials. N. Irving Sax, Van Nostrand
Reinhold Co., New York, NY.
*9. Effects of Exposure to Toxic Gases. Matheson.
*10. Emergency Handling of Hazardous Materials in Surface Transportation.
Student, P.J., Bureau of Explosives, Association of American Railroads.
*11. Farm Chemicals Handbook. Farm Chemicals Magazine, Willoughby, OH
*12. Firefighter's Handbook of Hazardous Materials. Baker, Charles J., Maltese
Enterprises, Indianapolis, IN.
*13. Fire Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials. National Fire Protection
Association, Boston, MA.
14. Handbook of Chemical Property Estimation Methods. Lyman. W.J.,Reehl,
W.F., and Rosenblatt, D.H.; McGraw Hill Book Company.
15. Handbook of Environmental Data on Organic Chemicals. Verschueren, K.,
Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.
16. Handbook of Reactive Chemical Hazards. Bretherick, L., Butterworths,
Boston, MA.
17. Handbook of Toxic and Hazardous Chemicals. Sittig, Marshal, Noyes
Publications.
18. Hazardous Materials Handbook. Meidl, J.H., Glencoe Press.
19. Hygienic Guides. American Industrial Hygiene Association,
Akron, OH.
20. The Merck Index. Merck and Co., Inc., Rahway, NJ.
21. Toxic and Hazardous Industrial Chemicals Safety Manual. The International
Technical Information Institute, Tokyo, Japan.
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APPENDIX I: REFERENCES AND RESOURCES
C. EPA Methods Manuals for Sampling and Analysis
1. Biological Field and Laboratory Methods for Measuring the Quality of
Surface Water and Effluents. EPA-670/4-73-001.
2. (Draft) Emergency Drum Handling at Abandoned Dump Sites. EPA Contract
No. 68-03-3113.
3. EPA Solid Waste Manual. Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste.
Physical/Chemical Methods. SW-846 (May 1980).
4. Handbook for Analytical Quality Control in Water and Waste-water
Laboratories. EPA-600/4-79-019 (March 1979).
5. Methods of Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes. EPA-600/479020
(March 1979).
6. Microbiological Methods for Monitoring the Environment. Water and Wastes.
EPA-600/8-78-017 (December 1978).
7. Procedures Manual for Groundwater Monitoring at Solid Wastes Disposal
Facilities. EPA-530/SW-611 (August 1977).
D. Safety and Personnel Protection
1. Best's Safety Directory. A.M. Best Co., Oldwick, NJ.
2. CRC Handbook of Laboratory Safety. Norman V. Steere, CRC Press, Boca
Raton, FL.
3. Fire Protection Handbook. National Fire Protection Association, Quincy,
MA.
4. Flammable Hazardous Substances Emergency Response Handbook: Control
and Safety Procedures. EPA Contract No. 68-03-3014.
5. FM Approval List, Factory Mutual, Norwood, MA.
*6. Guidelines for the Selection of Chemical Protective Clothing. Vol. 1: Field
Guide. A.D. Schwope, P.P. Costas, J.O. Jackson, D.J. Weitzman, Arthur
D. Little, Inc., Cambridge, MA (March 1983).
7. Guidelines for the Selection of Chemical Protective Clothing. Volume 2:
Technical and Reference Manual. A.D. Schwope, P.P. Costas, J.O. Jackson,
D.J. Weitzman, Arthur D. Little, Inc., Cambridge, MA (March 1983).
8. Handling Radiation Emergencies. Purington and Patterson, NFPA.
3/94 24
-------
APPENDIX I: REFERENCES AND RESOURCES
9. Hazardous Materials Injuries. A Handbook for Pre-Hospital Care. Douglas
R. Stutz, Robert C. Ricks, Michael F. Olsen, Bradford Communications
Corp., Greenbelt, MD.
10. National Safety Council Safety Sheets. National Safety Council, Chicago, IL.
11. NIOSH Certified Equipment List. U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services.
12. Personal Protective Equipment for Hazardous Materials Incidents: A Selection
Guide. NIOSH, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
13. Protecting Health and Safety at Hazardous Waste Sites: An Overview. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency.
14. Radiation Protection - A Guide for Scientists and Physicians. Shapiro, Jacob,
Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
15. Radiological Health Handbook. U.S. Dept. of Health, Education and Welfare.
*16. Radiological Health - Preparedness and Response in Radiation Accidents.
U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services.
17. A Review of the Department of Transportation Regulations for Transportation
of Radioactive Materials. U.S. Department of Transportation.
*18. SCBA-A Fire Service Guide to the Selection. Use. Care, and Maintenance of
Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus. NFPA, Batterymarch Park, Quincy,
MA.
*19. Standard First Aid and Personal Safety. American Red Cross.
20. Underwriters Laboratories Testing for Public Safety. Annual Directory.
Underwriters Laboratories, Inc., Northbrook, IL.
E. Planning Guides
1. Chemical Emergency Planning Program. U.S. EPA.
2. Detoxification of Hazardous Wastes. Exner, Jurgen H., Ann Arbor Science.
*3. Federal Motor Carrier Safety Regulations Pocketbook. (U.S. Dept. of
Transportation) J.J. Keller and Associates, Inc.
4. Handbook for Remedial Action at Waste Disposal Sites. EPA 625/682-006
(June 1982).
3/94 25
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APPENDIX I: REFERENCES AND RESOURCES
5. Hazardous and Toxic Materials: Safe Handling and Disposal. Fawcett, H.H.,
John Wiley and Sons.
6. Hazardous Chemical Spill Cleanup. Noyes Datat Corporation, Ridge Park,
New Jersey.
7. Hazardous Materials Emergency Planning Guide. National Response Team,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 401 M. Street S.W., Washington,
DC 20460(1987).
8. Hazardous Materials Spills Handbook. Gary F. Bennett, Frank S. Feates, Ira
Wilder, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, NY.
9. Hazardous Waste Regulation - An Interpretive Guide. Mallow, Alex, Van
Nostrand Reinhold Company.
10. Occupational Safety and Health Guidance Manual for Hazardous Waste Site
Activities. NIOSH/OSHA/USCG/EPA, U.S. Dept. of Health and Human
Services, NIOSH.
11. Standard Operating Safety Guides. Environmental Response Branch, Office
of Emergency and Remedial Response, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency.
12. State Decision-Makers Guide for Hazardous Waste Management. SW 612,
U.S. EPA (1977).
*13. 1984 Emergency Response Guidebook - Guidebook for Hazardous Materials
Incidents. DOT P 5800.3 USDOT, Materials Transportation Bureau, Ann:
DMT-11, Washington, DC 20590.
3/94 26
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APPENDIX I: REFERENCES AND RESOURCES
III. TECHNICAL INFORMATION AND POTENTIAL RESPONSE/INFORMATION
SOURCES
1. AFX Rail Car Mfgr.
314/724-7850
2. Agency for Toxic Substances Disease Registry
Centers for Disease Control
Shamlee28 S., Room 9
Atlanta, GA 30333
404/452-4100
3. American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
6500 Glenway Avenue, Building D-5
Cincinnati, OH 45211
513/661-7881
4. American Industrial Hygiene Association
475 Wolf Ledges Parkway
Akron, OH 44311-1087
216/762-7294
5. American Insurance Association (AIA)
(National Board of Fire Underwriters)
Engineering and Safety Service
85 John St.
New York, NY 10038
212/533-4400
6. American National Standards Institute, Inc.
1430 Broadway
New York, NY 10018
212/354-3300
7. American Petroleum Institute (API)
1220 L Street N.W., 9th Floor
Washington, DC 20005
202/682-8000
8. American Society of Mechanical Engineering (ASME)
United Engineering Center
345 East 47th Street
New York, NY 10017
212/644-7722 .
9. ARMY ORDINANCE UNIT
3/94 27
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APPENDIX I: REFERENCES AND RESOURCES
10. Ashland Chemical Company
3849 Risher Road
Columbus, OH 43228
614/276-6143
11. Association of American Railroads (AAR)
50 F Street N.W.
Washington, DC 20001
202/639-2100
12. Association of American Railroads (AAR)
59 East Van Buren Street
Chicago, IL 60650
312/939-0770
13. BOMB HANDLERS
14. Bureau of Explosives
American Association of Railroads
1920 L Street, N.W.
Washington, DC 20036
202/293-4048
15. Center for Disease Control
Atlanta, GA
404/633-5313
16. CHEMICAL INFORMATION
17. CHEMICAL RESPONSE INFORMATION
18. Chemical Manufacturer's Association
2501 M St. N.W.
Washington, DC 20037
202/877-1100
19. CHEMISTS
20. Chemtrec
Washington, DC
800/424-9300
21. CIVIL DEFENSE CLEANUP CONTRACTORS
3/94 28
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APPENDIX I: REFERENCES AND RESOURCES
22. The Clorine Institute
342 Madison Avenue
New York, NY 10017
212/682-4324
23. The Compressed Gas Association, Inc. (CGA)
500 Fifth Avenue
New York, NY 10036
212/354-1130
24. CONSTRUCTION COMPANIES (HEAVY EQUIPMENT)
25. CRC Press, Inc.
2000 Corporate Blvd., N.W.
Boca Raton, FL 33431
305/994-0555, Ext. 330
26. DEPARTMENTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY (STATE, LOCAL)
27. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION (STATE)
28. Dow Chemical Company
Midland, MI 48640
517/636-4400
29. DuPont Company
1007 Market Street
Wilmington, DE 19898
302/774-7500
30. Energy Research Development Admin.
Albuquerque Office
Albuquerque, NM 87101
505/264-4667(8)
31. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
32. EPIDEMIOLOGISTS
33. Factory Mutual Engineering Corp. Lab
1150 Boston-Providence Turnpike
Norwood, MA 02062
617/762-4300
3/94 29
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APPENDIX I: REFERENCES AND RESOURCES
34. The Fertilizer Institute (TFI)
1015 18thSt.,N.W.
Washington, DC 20036
202/861-4900
35. FIRE DEPARTMENTS
36. GAS COMPANIES
37. GATX RAIL CAR MFGR.
312/621-6200
38. HAZARDOUS MATERIALS EXPERTS
39. HAZARDOUS MATERIALS TEAMS
40. HEALTH DEPARTMENT
41. HIGHWAY DEPARTMENT
42. HOSPITALS
43. Institute of Makers of Explosives (IME)
420 Lexington Avenue
New York, NY 10017
212/986-6920
44. J. T. Baker Chemical Company
Phillipsburgh, NY 08856
201/859-2151
45. Kerr-McGee Chemical Corp.
Kerr-McGee Center
Oklahoma City, OK 73125
405/270-1313
46. LAW ENFORCEMENT AGENCIES
47. Mallinckrodf, Inc.
P.O. Box 5439
St. Louis, MO 63147
314/895-0123
48. Manufacturing Chemists Association, Inc.
1825 Connecticut Avenue N.W.
Washington, DC 20009
202/483-6126
3/94 30
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APPENDIX I: REFERENCES AND RESOURCES
49. MANUFACTURERS REPRESENTATIVES
50. MOTOR CARRIER SAFETY
51. National Bureau of Standards
U.S. Department of Commerce
Washington, DC 20234
301/921-1000
52. National Fire Protection Association
Batterymarch Park
Quincy, MA 02269
617/328-9290
53. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
Division of Technical Services
46765 Columbia Parkway
Cincinnati, OH 45226
513/684-8302
54. National Response Center (USCG and EPA)
800/424-8802
55. National Safety Council
444 North Michigan St.
Chicago, IL 60611
312/527-4800
56. National Tank Truck Carriers, Inc.
1616 P St.
Washington, DC 20036
202/797-5426
57. National Transportation Safety Board
800 Independence Avenue
Washington, DC 20594
202/655-4000
58. NATX Rail Car Mfgr.
312/648-4000
59. Occupational Safety and Health Administration
U.S. Department of Labor
Washington, DC
202/523-9700
3/94 31
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APPENDIX I: REFERENCES AND RESOURCES
60. Oil and Hazardous Material Technical Assistance Data System 202/245-3045
61. Poison Control Center
Charleston, SC
502/432-9516
62. PORT AUTHORITIES
63. PUBLIC INFORMATION MEDIA
64. PUBLIC WORKS
65. RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL HAULERS
66. Radiological Assistance Zone 3
Savannah River Operations Office
Aiken, SC 29801
803/725-6211,x3333
67. RADIO STATIONS
68. RAILROAD DIVISION SUPERINTENDENT
69. RAILROAD MATERIAL HANDLERS
70. RAILROADS
71. REGIONAL RESPONSE TEAMS
72. SANITATION AGENCIES
73. SHERIFF'S OFFICE
74. SHIPPER REPRESENTATIVES
75. STATE FIRE MARSHAL
76. STATE POLICE
77. STEVEDORING COMPANIES
78. STREET DEPARTMENT
79. STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS
3/94 .32
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APPENDIX I: REFERENCES AND RESOURCES
80. Superintendent of Documents
U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, DC 20402
202/783-3238
81. TELEVISION STATIONS
82. TOXICOLOGISTS
83. Underwriters' Laboratories
207 East Ohio St.
Chicago, IL 60611
312/642-6969
84. Union Carbide Corp.
Linde Div.
51 Cragwood Road
S. Plainfield, NJ 07080
201/753-5800
85. U.S. Army Explosive and Ordnance Disposal
301/677-5182
86. U.S. COAST GUARD
87. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
88. U.S. Department of Defense
Nuclear Accident Center
505/264-4667
89. U.S. Department of Energy
Washington, DC 20545
202/252-5000
90. U.S. Department of Transportation
Materials Transportation Bureau
Office of Hazardous Materials Operations
400 7th St. S.W.
Washington, DC 20590
202/366-4555
91. U.S. EPA
Office of Research and Development
Publications - CERI
Cincinnati, OH 45268
513/684-7562
3/94 33
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APPENDIX I: REFERENCES AND RESOURCES
92. U.S. EPA
Office of Solid Waste
(WH-562)
Superfund Hotline
401 M. St. SW
Washington, DC 20460
800/424-9346
93. U.S. Mine Safety and Health Administration
Department of Labor
4015 Wilson Blvd. Room 600
Arlington, VA 22203
703/235-1452
94. U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Hazardous Materials Response Branch
N/OMS 34
7600 Sand Point Way, N.E.
Seattle, WA 98115
206/527-6317
95. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
Washington, DC 20555
301/492-7000
96. UTLX Rail Car Mfgr.
312/431-3111
97. UTILITIES
98. WASTE DISPOSAL COMPANIES
99. WATER COMPANIES
100. WRECKING COMPANIES
3/94 34
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APPENDIX II
PROPERTIES AND REFERENCE SOURCES
PROPERTY
VALUE
SOURCE
Solubility
Vapor Density
Specific Gravity
Boiling Point
Melting Point
Flash Point
Ignition Temperature
Flammable Limits
LD50
LC50
TLV
IDLH
3/94
Useful in determining if the substance will mix
with water.
Determines if the vapor will rise or fall in
relation to air.
Determines if the substance will float on the
surface or sink in water.
Determines if the substance will be found as a
gas or liquid.
Determines if the substance will be found as a
liquid or a solid.
Most important indicator of relative
flammability. Temperature at which sufficient
vapors are produced to allow for momentary
ignition if an ignition source is present.
The temperature at which a substance will
ignite without the presence of an ignition
source. Important when pyrophoric material
are involved.
Determines the degree of flammability hazard
present. Includes LEL, UEL, and the
flammable range.
Dose in mg/kg required to kill 50% of a test
population.
Concentration in ppm required to kill 50% of a
test population.
The lowest concentration known to produce an
adverse reaction.
Threshold Limit Value
Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health
35
EAG, NFPA,
CHRIS, CCD
SAX/1, EAG,
CCD, NFPA,
NIOSH
SAX/1, EAG,
CCD, CHRIS,
NFPA
NIOSH, EAG,
CHRIS, CCD,
NFPA, SAX/1
NIOSH, EAG,
CHRIS, CCD,
MERCK
NFPA,
CHRIS,
NIOSH, CCD,
EAG, SAX/1
NFPA,
CHRIS, CCD,
EAG
NFPA, EAG,
NIOSH, CCD,
CHRIS
SAX/1
SAX/1
SAX/1
SAX/1, SAX/2
NIOSH
-------
APPENDIX II: PROPERTIES AND REFERENCE SOURCES
REFERENCE SOURCES
BAG
NIOSH
SAX/1
SAX/2
CCD
MERCK
CHRIS
Emergency Action Guides. Bureau of Explosives
NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials (N. Irving Sax)
Rapid Guide to Hazardous Chemicals in the Workplace (N. Irving
Sax)
Condensed Chemical Dictionary
Merck Index
Chemical Hazard Response Information System. U. S. Coast Guard
3/94
36
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Section 7
-------
IDENTIFICATION OF
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lesson, participants will be able to:
• Describe the use of preplans in relation to buildings,
property, and transportation routes
• List six types of specification containers used in
transportation of hazardous materials
• Explain the use of U.S. Department of Transportation
placards and labels in transportation of hazardous materials
• Describe the NFPA 704M marking system and its use
• List various types of shipping documents used in the
transportation of hazardous materials by rail, air, water, and
highway
• Discuss the use of direct-reading instruments in determining
the presence of hazardous materials
• Explain the advantages and disadvantages of using the five
senses to determine the presence of hazardous materials
• List five clues used to determine the presence of hazardous
materials.
3/94
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NOTES
IDENTIFICATION OF
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
IDEM
Low Risk
High Risk
TIFICATION CLUES
Occupancy and location
Container shapes
Markings and colors
Shipping papers
Direct-reading instruments
Senses
Low Risk
OCCUPANCY AND LOCATION
High Risk
3/94
Identification of Hazardous Materials
-------
NOTES
Low Risk
CONTAINER SHAPES
High Risk
Low Risk
MARKINGS AND COLORS
High Risk
Low Risk
A
SHIPPING PAPERS
High Risk
Identification of Hazardous Materials
3/94
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NOTES
Low Risk
1
High Risk
DIRECT-READING INSTRUMENTS
Low Risk
High Risk
SENSES
3/94
Identification of Hazardous Materials
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
TOPIC PAGE NO.
I. INTRODUCTION 1
II. CONTAINER IDENTIFICATION 1
III. HIGHWAY CARGO TANKS 2
IV. RAILROAD TANK CARS 12
V. DRUMS AND CYLINDERS 17
A. DRUMS 17
B. CYLINDERS 18
C. TON CONTAINER 20
VI. BULK STORAGE TANKS 20
VII. MARKINGS AND COLORS 23
VIII. INTRODUCTION: IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS 24
IX. NFPA 704M HAZARD IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM 24
A. DESCRIPTION 24
B. SUMMARY OF HAZARD RANKING SYSTEM 25
1. HEALTH HAZARD (BLUE) 25
2. FLAMMABILITY HAZARD (RED) 26
3. REACTIVITY HAZARD (YELLOW) 26
4. SPECIAL INFORMATION (WHITE) 27
X. U.S. DOT HAZARD IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM 27
3/94
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
XI. UNITED NATIONS CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM 33
A. LABELING 39
B. PACKAGE IDENTIFICATION .- 39
C. CONTAINERS OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL 40
XII. SHIPPING PAPERS 40
A. TRANSPORTATION BY HIGHWAY 41
B. TRANSPORTATION BY RAIL 41
C. TRANSPORATION BY AIR 41
D. TRANSPORTATION BY VESSEL . 42
XIII. SENSES 42
A. SMELL 43
B. HEARING 43
C. VISUAL 43
APX. I HAZARDOUS MATERIAL TABLE 49 CFR 172.101 45
APX. II BILL OF LADING 47
APX. Ill CONSIST OR WHEEL REPORT 49
APX. IV UNIFORM HAZARDOUS WASTE MANIFEST 51
APX. V RAILROAD FREIGHT WAYBILL 53
APX. VI IATA AIRBILL 55
3/94
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
I. INTRODUCTION
All the activities required to control a hazardous materials emergency are based upon
identifying the hazardous substance or substances involved. How easy this is to do and how
rapidly it can be done varies considerably.
In some cases placards, labels, shipping papers, knowledge about chemicals stored at the
facility, or an eyewitness's report, assuming this information can be believed, may make the
identification process relatively easy. In other cases determining the identity of a hazardous
substance may take a considerable amount of time. Also single chemicals that might become
mixed in an accident or combustion products present special problems in determining the
hazards that may be encountered.
Without knowing the materials involved, it must be assumed that a worst case situation exists
and maximum precautions taken to prevent any undesirable effects to responders or any other
people in the area. Once the material has been identified, the hazards associated with it can
be determined and an evaluation made of its potential impact. Control measures can be
instituted more appropriate to that type of material and its hazards. Also safety measures for
both responders and the general public, relative to the hazards involved can then be
instituted.
11: CONTAINER IDENTIFICATION
One way to initially screen, if hazardous materials are involved, is to look at the containers
in which the suspected material is stored or transported. For example, highway cargo tanks,
railcars, drums, and bulk storage tanks are commonly used to transport or store materials.
Many types of highway cargo tanks, railcars, drums and bulk storage tanks exist, but each
type is designed for specific materials or group of products. Inherent container features may
provide clues regarding the product it might contain. Possible hazardous materials may be
identified from such features as whether the container is made of steel, aluminum or plastic,
is jacketed or uninsulated, is bottom or top loading or discharging, is pressurized or
nonpressurized. Even the shape of the container provides information. In many cases, a
visual inspection made from a safe distance will reveal a characteristic or an identifiable
silhouette which might indicate the presence of hazardous materials. Familiarity with the
shape and features of various containers can increase responders' ability to identify hazardous
materials.
The design of highway cargo tanks, railcars, drums and bulk storage tanks is standardized
(or uniform). Their design and performance characteristics are regulated or controlled by
several federal agencies or design recommendations made by trade organizations. The U.S.
Department of Transportation (U.S. DOT) regulates the design of highway cargo tanks,
railcars and drums. Recommended rules and guidelines for the design of bulk storage tanks
3/94 1
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
are provided by the American Petroleum Institute and the American National Standards
Institute.
Railroad tank cars are constructed to transport either nonhazardous materials or hazardous
materials. These bulk containers are built to precisely defined standards. Several agencies
have authority over specifications including:
• U.S. DOT United States Department of Transportation
• AAR Association of American Railroads
• ICC Interstate Commerce Commission (regulatory authority
assumed by U.S. DOT in 1966)
• CTC Canadian Transport Commission
In addition to the features and shapes of containers as clues for determining whether
hazardous materials are present, placards, labels and shipping papers are used to verify the
possible presence of hazardous materials. Information such as a product's shipping name and
hazard classification is listed on the shipping papers. Also, a U.S. DOT identification
number listed on shipping papers is useful in determining the hazardous materials that are
present.
III. HIGHWAY CARGO TANKS
Highway cargo tanks are used to transport a variety of products and are defined by U.S.
DOT as:
"A bulk packaging which is a tank, intended for the carriage of
liquids or gases, that is permanently attached to or forms a part of a
motor vehicle, or is not permanently attached to a motor vehicle but
which by reason of its size, construction or attachment to a motor
vehicle is loaded or unloaded without being removed from the motor
vehicle."
Currently U.S. DOT specifies eleven (11) different designs for highway cargo tanks, the
Motor Carrier (MC) series. A brief description, including materials which they are designed
to contain, is provided in Tables 1 and 2, page 3.
Five current design types have in most cases superseded earlier specifications, but several
earlier designs may continue in service. As appropriate, superseded design numbers are
provided in Table 2, page 3.
3/94
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
Highway cargo tanks built to current specifications will vary considerably in construction detail,
shape and configuration. For example, MC306 highway cargo tanks fabricated by two different
manufacturers are most likely not identical, but the general design and features will be consistent.
TABLE 1
EARLY MOTOR CARRIER SERIES CARGO TANKS
Design Number
MC300
MC301
MC302
MC303
MC304
MC305
Materials) Transported
Primarily
Primarily
Primarily
Primarily
for
for
for
for
flammable
flammable
flammable
flammable
liquids
liquids
liquids
liquids
Flammable liquids or poisonous
Primarily
for
flammable
liquids
or
or
or
or
poisonous
poisonous
poisonous
poisonous
liquids
liquids
liquids
liquids
(B)
(B)
(B)
(B)
liquids, vapor pressure of 18 psi +
or
poisonous
liquids
(B)
Note: These cargo tanks are no longer authorized for manufacturer, but still may be in-service when
properly maintained. (Specification requirements are found in 49 CFR 78 for Table 1 Cargo Tanks.)
TABLE 2
CURRENT MOTOR CARRIER SERIES CARGO TANKS
Design Number
MC306/406
MC307/407
MC312/412
MC331
MC338
Materials) Transported
Flammable and combustible
Flammable and combustible
with a vapor pressure of 18
40 psi at 70°F
liquids and Class B poisons
liquids and Class B poisons and chemicals
psi at 100°F or greater but not more than
Corrosive liquids
Liquefied gases such as LPG, Chlorine and Anhydrous ammonia
Cryogenic gases
MC306/406 tanks (Figure 1, page 5) carry flammable and combustible liquids such as Gasoline and
Diesel fuel, and class B poisons such as Magnesium arsenate, Mercuric arsenate, Calcium arsenate
and Copper cyanide, or "white water" solvents. They are considered non-pressure tanks and are
3/94
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
hydrostatically tested to 3 psi. Typically, they are constructed of Aluminum. Other important design
features include:
• The capacity to carry from 2,000 to 9,500 gallons of product;
• A multicompartmented design feature to carry different commodities, which if
combined will cause dangerous conditions. The compartments are separated by
double bulkheads, and each double bulkhead is separated by an air space with a vent
and drain provided;
• The ability to be unloaded from the bottom;
• Spring loaded valves that remain closed during transport. These valves are either
mechanically, pneumatically or hydraulically operated and must be equipped with an
automatic heat activated closure system (usually fusible links, nut or bolts) which
operates at a temperature not more than 250°F;
,• In addition to normal means of closure, each internal or external self-closing stop
valve must be fitted with a remotely activated means of closure located more than 10
feet from the stop valve; These remotes are generally found towards the front or rear
of the tanks opposite the side of the outlet piping.
• Piping must be protected from breakage by accident protection devices (structural)
or shear sections located no more than 4 inches from stop valves.
• A rear bumper to protect piping and valving in event of a collision;
• Manhole covers that make a secure closure and include a safety device that prevents
the cover from opening fully when internal pressure is present;
• Both pressure and vacuum relief systems designed to operate and have sufficient
capacity to prevent tank rupture or collapse due to over-pressurization or vacuum
resulting from tank heating, cooling, loading or unloading. Each pressure relief
system must be designed to prevent loss of loading from the system in case of
pressure surges, vehicle upset or accident, regardless of vehicle orientation.
• Overturn protection for fittings, manway covers, and vacuum or pressure vents. If
these devices are mounted on the surface of the container, overturn protection may
be accomplished by providing guards that protect these devices, or these devices may
be inherently protected if they are located within the body of the container;
3/94
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
JJU.
Vihrt Opcnur ' -
\
Emerjcncy "
ViKc \
Remote Control
FIGURE 1
MC 306/406 CARGO TANKS
Description: Oval or round cross-section, smooth lines (may have external rigs),
with what appears to be a catwalk on top.
MC307/407 tanks (Figure 2, page 6) carry products with vapor pressures not more than 40
psi at 70°F. Common products that are carried include flammable liquids and mild
corrosives such as Acrylic acid, Liquid coal, Tar dye and Monomethylamine solutions.
MC307 tanks are considered low pressure tanks with a minimum design pressure of 25 psi.
Typically, they are constructed of steel. Other important design features include:
• The capacity to carry from 2,000 to 8,000 gallons of product;
• The tank may be multi-compartmental with double bulkheads, air spaces, vents and
drains as required.
• The ability to be unloaded from the bottom and spring loaded mechanically,
pneumatically or hydraulically operated valves equipped with automatic heat activated
closure system. This feature is identical to MC306;
• An internal and external self-closing stop valves have a secondary closure system
located at least 10 feet from the stop valves. The remote device will usually be
located at either end of the cargo tank opposite the side off the tank outlet piping.
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
• A rear bumper to protect the tank and piping in the event of a collision. Manhole
covers that meet the same requirements of a MC406 except that each manhole must
be capable of withstanding internal fluid pressures of 40 psi's or estimated pressure
of the tank, whichever is greater.
• Vents that are designed to limit internal pressure to 150 percent of maximum
allowable working pressure. These vents must be pressure activated (spring loaded).
Also, fusible and/or frangible (breakable) venting may be provided with fusible vents
operating at 250°F and frangible discs bursting at not less than 110 percent or more
than 120 percent of maximum allowable working pressure;
• Overturn protection for fittings, manway covers and vents.
• Discharge piping that is designed to break away from emergency valves or be
protected by guards.
• The insulation provided by heater coils in a jacket that allows loading and unloading
of viscous products.
FIGURE 2
MC307/407 CARGO TANK
Description: The MC307/407 tank has a horse-shoe shaped tank with a ladder and
platform located along the top of the container.
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
MC312/412 tanks (Figure 3, page 8) carry high density liquids and corrosives such as
Acetyl chloride, Hydrochloric acid and Sodium hydroxide solutions. Typically, they are
constructed of steel, stainless steel or aluminum and are often lined with a material suitable
to resist degradation or reaction to its contents. An MC312 has a design pressure at least the
pressure required for unloading and is hydrostatically tested at 1.5 times the maximum
allowable working pressure, but not less than 5 psi. Other important design features include:
A multicompartmented design feature that allows for separate compartments.
The ability to be unloaded from the top, frequently by air pressure. Top discharging
valves must be located as close as practical to the discharge point. Piping from the
top discharge with an outlet below the top liquid level in the container requires an
additional valve or blank flange or sealing cap to prevent siphoning in event of top
discharge valve failure;
Bottom outlets located with the valve seat inside the container or immediately
adjacent to the outlet if bottom discharge is provided;
An additional or secondary closure system that does not require heat activated
system;
A rear bumper to protect the tank and piping in the event of a collision.
Manhole covers that are structurally different in design, but must meet the same
requirements of the MC306, MC307, MC406, MC407 cargo tanks.
Vents that are either mechanical pressure relief vents or frangible discs;
Overturn protection for fittings, manway covers and vents that is the same as featured
for MC306 and MC307, MC406, MC407;
Discharge piping that is designed to either break away from emergency valves or be
protected by guards. This is the same as featured for MC306, MC307, MC406 and
MC407.
The insulation with heater coils in a jacket that allows loading and unloading of
viscous products. This is a feature that is associated with MC306 and MC307.
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
Dfactaarge Piping
Rapture DUk tod Air Connection
FIGURE 3
MC312/412 CARGO TANKS
Description: Cylindrical rear cross-section, narrow diameter, external ribs with
ladder and platform located along top of container.
Because of the materials an MC312/412 carries, it is usually smaller than MC306/406 and
MC307/407 containers.
MC331 tanks (Figure 4, page 9) carry gases which are liquefied by the application of
pressure.
Products usually transported are compressed gases and some very hazardous liquids such as
Anhydrous ammonia, Chlorine, Liquefied petroleum gas, Liquefied carbon dioxide, Liquid
methyl parathion and motor fuel antiknock compound. Typically, an MC331 is constructed
of steel and has a design pressure of at least 100 psi, but not more than 500 psi. MC331
containers are never filled completely; some outage or vapor space is necessary for product
expansion during transit and overfilling can cause hydrostatic failure. Also, venting is
provided, but it is only effective for venting vapor. In an overturn situation, venting of
liquid will not lower internal pressure. Other important features include:
• An internal pressure gauge, thermometer for product temperature, and gauging device
to determine liquid level;
• Insulation or a jacket of aluminum or stainless steel, or a coating of white or
aluminum paint on at least the upper two thirds of the container to prevent heating
by the sun;
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
• Excess flow shutoff valves on product discharge openings which are designed to stop
product flow in the event of a failure in downstream piping or hoses;
• Internally seated valves that provide for discharges;
• An additional or secondary closure system (emergency controls) and a heat activated
system; on semi-trailers 30 feet in length or more, emergency controls will be located
at both ends of the trailer;
• A rear bumper;
• A bolted manhole that is usually located in the rear head of the container;
• Vents that are either mechanical pressure relief vents or frangible discs;
• Overturn protection for fittings, manway covers and vents;
• Discharge piping that is designed to break away from emergency valves or be
protected by guards.
(After October 1, 1984 construction of cryogenic gas service containers must conform to this
specification.)
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FIGURE 4
MC331 TANKS
Description: Cylindrical rear cross-section (usually larger diameter than MC312/412)
hemispherical heads, and smooth surface without external ribs.
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
MC338 tanks (Figure 5) carry cryogenic gases (cryogenic gases are liquefied by refrigeration
as opposed to pressurization) such as liquid helium (i.e., liquid at -425°F). From the
outside, these containers have the same basic design as other tank containers, for example,
the MC331 container. The MC338 tank, however, is constructed as a container within a
container, similar to a thermos bottle, with annular (totally surrounding the inner container)
space. The annular space is evacuated and insulated with a multilayered mylar film. The
outer container is typically steel with the inner container constructed of special steel alloys
due to extremely cold temperatures. They have a design pressure of at least 23.5 psi, but
not more than 500 psi.
MC338 containers are designed to prevent heat transfer of product, but are not refrigerated;
therefore, over time heat transfer will occur and pressure in the tank will rise. This will
cause the relief valve to operate. Due to the properties of cryogenic gases, venting
refrigerates the load, thus lowering the internal pressure and subsequently allowing closing
of the relief valve once pressure returns to normal. Other important features include:
• Annular space with a safety relief device, often a frangible disc, to prevent tank
rupture from overpressure in the event of a leak in the internal tank;
• The same safety devices as the previously described containers: safety relief valves,
protected discharge valves, collision protection, automatic heat activated valve
closures, remotely located emergency valve operating system, etc.
Discharge/Fill Piping, Valves and Pump Located Within Cabinet
FIGURE 5
MC338 TANKS
Description: Cylindrical rear cross-section, hemispherical heads, and smooth surface
without external ribs.
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
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FIGURE 6
TUBE TRAILER
Description: Tube trailer is the common name for a semi-trailer that transports bulk
non-liquified compressed gases.
The tube trailer (Figure 6) consists of a group of seamless cylinders, nine to forty-eight
inches in diameter, permanently mounted on a semi-trailer. The tube trailer may have as few
as three larger cylinders or over twenty of the smaller ones. Cylinder service pressures
range from 3,000 to 5,000 psi. Examples of materials shipped in tube trailers are Helium,
Hydrogen, Nitrogen and Oxygen.
The intermodal tanks (Figure 7, page 12) do not normally exceed 6,300 gallons. The tanks
are anchored by pins in each corner. These types of tanks are used so that they may be
transported by all modes of transportation.
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
mniiiiaii.iiiii
FIGURE?
INTERMODAL TANK CONTAINER
Description: Intermodal tank containers may carry a wide variety of hazardous
materials. They may be non-pressure, pressure and cryogenic.
IV. RAILROAD TANK CARS
There are three categories or classes of railroad tank cars: (1) nonpressure tank cars; (2)
pressure tank cars; and (3) miscellaneous tank cars. The miscellaneous class includes
cryogenic liquid tank cars, multi unit tank car tanks, high pressure tank cars, pneumatically
unloaded covered hopper cars and wooden tank cars.
A tank car specification marking will be prominently stencilled on the right hand side of the
tank car and is composed of three letters and three numbers such as "U.S. DOT-103" or
"AAR-208". The letters indicate the agency with authority over the container's design or
standards. The numbers indicate the class of the container. In addition, these letters and
numbers may be followed by more letters and numbers such as "U.S. DOT-111A60ALW1".
These letters and numbers indicate specific design considerations such as tank test pressures,
materials of construction (other than steel) and linings.
Nonpressurized Tank Cars (U.S. DOT-103,104,111,115 and AAR-201,203,206,211)
Non-pressured tank cars (Figure 8, page 13) carry flammable and "combustible liquids,
flammable solids, oxidizers and organic peroxides, poison B and corrosive materials. Solids
are often loaded in the molten state. Also, certain nonhazardous materials such as edible and
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
inedible tallow, fruit and vegetable juices, tomato paste and caramel are transported in
nonpressurized railroad tank cars. They are considered nonpressurized although test
pressures range from 35 to 100 psi. They are constructed of steel, aluminum or alloy steel
(stainless or nickel steel). Other important design features include:
• The capacity to carry 4,000 to 45,000 gallons of product. (Since 1970 the maximum
capacity of new tank cars for regulated commodities -- hazardous materials - has
been limited to 34,500 gallons);
• The division into compartments which may be of differing capacity and may transport
different commodities;
• One manway (newer nonpressure tank cars) or one expansion dome (older
nonpressure tank cars). A manway allows access to the interior;
• External fittings as necessary for loading and emptying the container (optional bottom
outlet or bottom washout);
• Appropriate safety devices (either a safety relief valve or safety vent or both);
• A container within a container for one type (U.S. DOT-115 or AAR-206); the tank
containing the product is supported by foam within a heavier outer tank.
External Fittings and Manway (visible)
! Expansion Dome (older models)
FIGURES
NON-PRESSURIZED TANK CARS
Description: Cylindrical rear cross-section, convex heads and visible fittings or an
expansion dome.
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
Pressure Tank Cars (U.S. DOT, 105,109,112,114 and 120)
Pressurized tank cars (Figure 9) carry nonflammable gas and flammable gas or poison A.
Also, used to transport products such as Ethylene oxide, Pyrophoric liquids (N.O.S.),
Sodium metal, motor fuel antiknock compound, Bromine, Anhydrous hydrogen fluoride and
Acrolein inhibited. Tank test pressures range from 100 to 600 psi. They are constructed of
steel or aluminum. Other important design features include:
• The capacity to carry from 4,000 to 45,000 gallons;
• Top loading;
• Various combinations of bottom opening and washout (i.e. a bottom opening and
washout, only bottom opening, only bottom washout or none);
• A manway of sufficient size to permit access to the interior;
• Manway cover plate designed for the mounting of all valves and gauging and
sampling devices (covered by protective housing);
• Insulation and/or thermal protection;
• At least top two-thirds of container painted white, if not insulated or protected;
• Head puncture resistance (head shields) for containers that are used to transport
flammable gases and anhydrous ammonia. These shields protect the lower portion
of the heads against punctures and can be built into a jacket while others are visible.
If visible they appear as "half head" or trapezoidal shaped plates mounted on both
ends of container.
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FIGURE 9
PRESSURIZED TANK CARS
Description: Cylindrical rear cross-section, convex heads and a protective housing
(called manway bonnet) 18 to 24 inches high and 30 to 36 inches in diameter located
at top center of the container.
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
Miscellaneous (U.S. DOT-113, 106, 107, 110 and AAR-207, 208, and 204)
There are a number of rail cars listed under this class. Two examples of the railcars in this
class are described below.
Cryogenic Liquid Tank Cars
Cryogenic liquid tank cars (Figure 10) are used to transport low pressure, very cold
refrigerated liquefied gases. Common products that are carried include Hydrogen, Ethylene,
Argon, Nitrogen and Oxygen. These tanks are usually constructed as a container within a
container with the space between the inner container and outer container filled with
insulation. Also, a vacuum is pulled in this area (designed to protect the product for 30
days). The outer container is made of steel and the inner container is usually made of steel
alloy (stainless or nickel steel). They are tested to pressures ranging from 60 to 175 psi.
Other important design features include:
Loading and unloading fittings that are located in cabinets at diagonal corners of the
railroad car or on the end of the car at ground level or center;
Safety relief devices including safety relief valves and safety vents.
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Vtlvet ud Fittings Located Within Cibioet
FIGURE 10
CRYOGENIC LIQUID TANK CARS
Description: Cylindrical rear cross-section, ellipsoidal heads and fittings on sides or
ends.
Tank type covered hoppers (Figure 11, page 16) are used to transport granular products such
as Caustic soda. These rail cars are considered a nonpressure container although pressure
is used during unloading. Tank test pressures range from 20 to 80 psi.
Typical materials contained and design features are described in the Drums and Cylinders
section below.
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
FIGURE 11
TANK TYPE COVERED HOPPER
Description: Covered hopper car.
Rail box cars (Figure 12, page 17) are enclosed rail Freight Cars usually with doors in the
middle of both sides. Box cars are built primarily of steel although some have wooden
interior linings. Box cars range in size up to 85 feet long with capacities up to 8000 cubic
feet. Box cars may be refrigerated posing a cryogenic hazard. Refrigerated Box cars may
carry as much as 360 gallons of Diesel fuel in a tank underneath the car.
Box cars are built primarily of steel although some have wooden interior linings. Box cars
range in size up to 85 feet long with capacities up to 8,000 cubic feet. Box cars may be
refrigerated posing a cryogenic hazard. Refrigerated box cars may carry as much as 360
gallons of diesel fuel in a tank underneath the car.
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
FIGURE 12
RAIL BOX CAR
Description: Rail box cars are enclosed rail freight cars usually with doors in the
middle of both sides.
V. DRUMS AND CYLINDERS
A. Drums
Generally, the requirements for types of containers, maintenance of containers and
containment structures are found in the EPA regulations 40 CFR Parts 264 and 265.
The precise specifications for the inside and outside walls of a container used for
shipment of hazardous materials are provided in the U.S. DOT regulations 49 CFR
Parts 171 through 178.
In many instances, responders may be unaware of the contents of drums involved in
an incident. Initially, a visual inspection should be conducted to determine whether
there is any corrosion, leaks, swelling or missing bungs. Drums that appear to be
in a deteriorated or heavily damaged should be approached with caution.
When drums have been determined to be safe to handle, personnel should visually
inspect the drums for symbols, words, or other marks which may reveal a clue as to
a drum's contents, and may indicate whether the contents are hazardous, e.g.,
radioactive, explosive, toxic or flammable. A visual inspection may also reveal other
markings that may indicate whether the drum contains discarded laboratory
chemicals, reagents or other potentially dangerous materials in small-volume,
individual containers.
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
Unlabelled drums must be presumed to contain hazardous materials until their
contents are characterized. Moreover, even labelled drums may not accurately
describe the drums' contents. Thus, drums should be approached with caution until
their contents are determined.
The contents of a drum may also be identified from the drum type that is present.
Special drum types have associated hazards as illustrated below:
• Polyethylene or PVC-lined, metal drums — Often contain strong acids or
bases. If the lining is punctured, the substance usually quickly corrodes the
steel, resulting in a significant leak or spill.
• Exotic metal drums (Aluminum, Nickel, stainless, steel, or other unusual
metal) ~ Very expensive drums that usually contain an extremely dangerous
material.
• Single-welled drums used as a pressure vessel - These drums have fittings for
both product filling and placement of an inert gas, such as Nitrogen. May
contain reactive, flammable, or explosive substances.
• Laboratory packs - Used for disposal of expired chemicals and process
samples from university laboratories, hospitals, and similar institutions.
Individual containers within the lab pack are often not packed in absorbent
material. They may contain incompatible materials, radioisotopes, shock-
sensitive, highly volatile, highly corrosive, or very toxic exotic chemicals.
Laboratory packs can be an ignition source for fires at hazardous waste sites.
Also, information about the contents of a drum may be provided by the drumhead
configuration as illustrated in Table 3.
TABLE 3
DRUM HEAD CONFIGURATION
Configuration
Whole lid removable/open head
Has a bung or removable-lid type
bung/closed head
Contains a liner
Information
Designed to contain solid material
Designed to contain a liquid
May contain a highly corrosive or otherwise
hazardous material
B. Cylinders
Gas under high pressure is stored, shipped and transported in cylinders. When
compressed gas in cylinders is present at an incident, response personnel must
approach the cylinders with extreme caution. The condition of the cylinder should
be determined from a safe distance using binoculars before approaching or handling.
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
Gas in a cylinder may be identified by the following: cylinder labeling, odors, or
flames. Sometimes a label can be read on the sloping top of the cylinder near the
outlet valve.
However, only a few gas suppliers place labels on cylinders. Personnel may have
to determine the contents of a cylinder using other methods. Often, the odors of
some gases may be recognized even in very low concentrations, and may therefore
give a clue as to the identity of the gas. For example, Ammonia, Hydrogen sulfide,
Chlorine, and Sulfur dioxide are sufficiently characteristic to be recognized by their
odors. Because some gases are highly toxic, extreme caution must be exercised if
odors are detected. In certain instances, some flammable gases burning at the needle
valve may be identified by the appearance of the flame. For example, a yellow flame
indicates the presence of saturated hydrocarbons such as Methane and Butane; a
smoky yellow flame indicates the presence of gases such as Acetylene and Ethylene;
a pale blue flame indicates the presence of Carbon monoxide; a very pale, almost
invisible flame indicates the presence of Hydrogen, and a blue flame with the odor
of burning Sulfur indicates the presence of Hydrogen sulfide.
Gases in cylinders may be identified by several means in emergencies. Cylinder
labeling is required by 49 CFR 172.400. However, suppliers are allowed to deviate
from standard labels and utilize labels listed in CGA Pamphlet C-7, Appendix A
(Figure 13). The labels are attached to the sloping top of the cylinder near the outlet
valve. Because there are exceptions even to the labeling requirements of Title 49
CFR, Personnel may have to use alternative methods to identify these gases. In a
fire situation, some flammable gases burning at the needle valve may be identified
by the appearance of the flames. For example, a yellow flame indicates the presence
of saturated hydrocarbons such as Methane and Butane; a smokey yellow flame
indicates the presence of gases such as Acetylene and Ethylene; a pale blue flame
indicates the presence of Carbon Monoxide; a very pale, almost invisible flame
indicates the presence of Hydrogen, and a blue flame with the odor of burning Sulfur
indicates the presence of Hydrogen sulfide. Some bases may be detected by odor.
Because of the toxicity of the materials involved, we would remind you not to make
it a practice of using your olfactory senses to detect the presence of materials. Often,
the odors of some gases may be recognized even in a very low concentration.
FIGURE 13
CYLINDER LABEL
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
Odors may also give a clue to the identity of the gas. For example, Ammonia,
Hydrogen sulfide, Chlorine and Sulfur dioxide are sufficiently characteristic to be
recognized by their odor.
C. Ton Container
Ton containers are used to transport gases like Chlorine, Anhydrous ammonia, Sulfur
dioxide, Butadiene, refrigerant gases, and Phosgene (Figure 14). Tank test pressures
range from 500 to 1000 psi. Other important design features include:
• Specifications stamped on each ton container or metal plate attached to the
container;
• Liquid capacity ranges from 180 to 312 gallons;
• Fittings located in the heads; and
• A safety relief device that is a fusible plug located in the head.
FIGURE 14
TON CONTAINER
VI. BULK STORAGE TANKS
Bulk storage tanks are used to store a variety of products including, both flammable and
combustible liquids. The products these tanks store dictate certain design features.
Generally, there are three types of bulk storage tanks: cone roof; open floating roof; and
covered, internal floating roof.
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
A cone roof tank (Figure 15) is used primarily to store crude oil stocks. Other important
design features include:
• A weak seam or weak tank to shell attachment designed to allow the roof to separate
in the event of an internal explosion; and
• A heating system for handling Class III liquids such as asphalt or heavy crude oil.
VENT
MANHOLE
CONE ROOF TANK
FIGURE 15
CONE ROOF TANK
Open floating roof storage tanks (Figure 16, page 22) are used to store low flash point
liquids and crude oil. Other important design features include:
• Roof drains—caution must be used since excess water or foam (weight) will sink the
roof during firefighting; and
• A geodesic dome cover in some areas in consideration of weather and vapor
emissions.
The roof is supported by pontoons or a double deck design and includes legs to support roof
during periods of low product. Since the roof floats on the product there is no vapor space.
A fabric/flexure ring or resilient foam tube seals the space between the roof rim and tank
shell.
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
Sol
Plotting Roof
Dr«inPipe
FIGURE 16
OPEN FLOATING ROOF STORAGE TANK
Description: Round with roof that floats on the surface of the product.
Covered internal floating roof storage tanks (Figure 17, page 23) are used to store low flash
point/high vapor pressure liquids such as low flash volatile stocks and crude oil. Other
important design features include:
Vents at the roof to shell joint to allow for "breathing" in the open space above the
floating roof during loading and unloading.
In addition, there is a pitched or conical roof installed at the top of the tank. Commonly,
these are cone roof tanks which have been retrofitted with a floating roof or pan; essentially
weak seam roof tanks with internal floating roof.
Underground Storage Tanks
An underground storage tank system (UST system) is any one or a combination of tanks
containing either petroleum or hazardous substances as defined under the Comprehensive
Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980, as amended (CERCLA).
Most UST systems are found in retail service stations (gas stations) and contain petroleum.
Some of the design features of an underground storage tank regulated as an UST system
include cathodic protection of the tank to protect against leaks due to corrosion, and leak
detection devices to protect against leaks from spills and overfills.
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
Ccour Veal
Vcali
Plotting Deck
Mubole
FIGURE 17
COVERED INTERNAL FLOATING ROOF STORAGE TANK
Description: Round with roof that floats on the surface of the product.
VII. MARKINGS AND COLORS
More than 1,400 hazardous materials are regulated by U.S. DOT's Hazardous Materials
Transportation Administration. Under U.S. DOT's regulations, found in Title 49, Code of
Federal Regulations, Part 172, Subpart F, specific markings and colors are required on
placards that must be placed on tanks and trailers that transport hazardous materials, and
labels must be placed on the packages (containers) that are transported. U.S. DOT
regulations apply to both interstate and intrastate transportation of hazardous materials.
Placards and labels indicate the nature of the hazard presented by the cargo. The
classification used for the placards and labels is based on the United Nations Hazard Classes.
The UN hazard class number is found in the bottom corner of a U.S. DOT placard or label.
Refer to the Placard Chart following this page.
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
VIII. INTRODUCTION: IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS
Hazardous materials are frequently stored and transported in large quantities. An accidental
release of these materials presents a potential hazard to the public and environment. Such
an incident can be managed more expeditiously when the hazardous material is specifically
identified and characterized. Unfortunately, the contents of storage tanks or trucks may not
be specifically or properly identified. Records or shipping papers may be inaccessible. Even
with such information, an experienced person is needed to define the hazards and their
seriousness.
Because of the immediate need for information concerning a hazardous material, two
systems for hazard identification have been developed. Both help responders to deal with
a hazardous material incident quickly and safely, and both were devised for persons untrained
in chemistry.
The first is the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 704M System, which is used
on storage tanks and smaller containers (fixed facility). The second system is used
exclusively on containers and tanks transported in interstate commerce. The U.S.
Department of Transportation (U.S. DOT) is responsible for this system. Its use, by way
of placards and labels, is required under U.S. DOT regulations found in the Code of Federal
Regulations 49 (49 CFR).
IX. NFPA 704M HAZARD IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM
A. Description
NFPA 704M is a standardized system which uses number and colors on a sign to
define the basic hazards of a specific material. Health, Flammability, and Reactivity
are identified and rated on a scale of 0 to 4 depending on the degree of hazard
presented (Figure 18, page 25).
The ratings for individual chemicals can be found in the NFPA "Guide to Hazardous
Materials". Other references such as the U.S. Coast Guard Manual, CHRIS Volume
2 and the National Safety Council's "Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene" contain the
NFPA ratings for specific chemicals. Such information can be useful not only in
emergencies but also during long-term remedial activities when extensive evaluation
is required.
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
(YELLOW)
Reactivity
Hazud
FIGURE 18
NFPA 704M HAZARD IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM
B. Summary of Hazard Ranking System
1. Health Hazard (BLUE)
Rank Number Description
0
Materials that on very short
exposure could cause death or
major residual injury even though
prompt medical treatment was
given.
Materials that on short exposure
could cause serious temporary or
residual injury even though prompt
medical treatment was given.
I
Materials that on exposure would
cause irritation but only minor
residual injury even if no treatment
was given.
Materials that on exposure under
fire conditions would offer no
hazard beyond that of ordinary
combustible material.
Examples
Acrylonitrile
Bromine
Parathion
Aniline
Sodium hydroxide
Sulfuric acid
Acetone
Methanol
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
2. Flammability Hazard (RED)
Rank Number Description
0
Materials that (1) rapidly or
completely vaporize at atmospheric
pressure and normal ambient
temperatures and burn readily or
(2) are readily dispersed in air and
burn readily.
Liquids and solids that can be
ignited under almost all ambient
temperature conditions.
Materials that must be moderately
heated or exposed to relatively
high ambient temperatures before
ignition can occur.
Materials that must be preheated
before ignition can occur.
Materials that will not burn.
3.
Reactivity Hazard (YELLOW)
Rank Number Description
Materials that in themselves are
readily capable of detonation or of
explosive decomposition or
reaction at normal temperatures
and pressures.
Materials that (1) in themselves
are capable of detonation or
explosive reaction but require a
strong initiating source or (2) must
be heated under confinement
before initiation or (3) react
explosively with water.
Materials that (1) in themselves
are normally unstable and readily
undergo violent chemical change
but do not detonate or (2) may
react violently with water or (3)
may form potentially explosive
mixtures with water.
Examples
1,3-Butadiene
Propane
Ethylene
Phosphorous
Acrylonitrile
2-Butanone
Kerosene
Sodium
Red phosphorous
Examples
Benzoyl peroxide
Picric acid
Diborane
Ethylene oxide
2-Nitropropadene
Acetaldehyde
Potassium
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
1 Materials that in themselves are Ethyl ether
normally stable but which can (1) Sulfuric acid
become unstable at elevated
temperatures or (2) react with
water with some release of energy
but not violently.
0 Materials that in themselves are
normally stable, even when
exposed to fire, and that do not
react with water.
4. Special information (WHITE)
The white block is designated for special information about the chemical.
For example, it may indicate that the material is radioactive by displaying the
standard radioactive symbol, or unusually water-reactive by displaying a large
W with a slash through it (W): For more complete information of these
various hazards, consult Table 4, Special Information Designators.
TABLE 4
SPECIAL INFORMATION DESIGNATORS
Designator
W
OXY
COR
4*i
m
Special Hazard
Water Reactive
Oxidizer or Oxidizing Properties
Corrosive
Radioactive
X. U.S. DOT HAZARD IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM
The U.S. DOT's Hazardous Materials Transportation Administration regulates over 1,400
hazardous materials. The regulations require labels on small containers and placards on tanks
and trailers. These placards and labels indicate the nature of the hazard presented by the
cargo. The classification used for the placards and labels is based on the United Nations
Hazard Classes (Table 5, page 28). The UN hazard class number is found in the bottom
corner of a U.S. DOT placard or label. The various hazards are defined in Table 6, pages
30-32.
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
TABLE 5
UN HAZARD CLASS SYSTEM
United Nations
Hazard
Class Number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Description
Explosives
Nonflammable/flammable/poison compressed gases
Flammable/combustible liquids
Flammable solids, spontaneously combustible substances,
reactive substances
and water-
Oxidizing materials, including organic peroxides
Class B poisons, irritants, and etiologic (disease-causing)
materials
Radioactive materials
Corrosive materials (acids, alkaline liquids, and certain corrosive liquids
and solids)
Miscellaneous hazardous materials not covered by any of
classes
the other
To facilitate handling a hazardous material incident some placards are being altered to accept
a 4-digit identification number (Figure 19, page 29). This number comes from the
Hazardous Material Table in the U.S. DOT regulations, 49 CFR 172.101. (See Appendix
I, page 44, for an example of the Hazardous Materials Table. This ID number also must
be written on the shipping papers or manifest. In the event of an incident, the ID number
on the placard will be much easier to obtain than the shipping papers. Once the number is
obtained, the U.S. DOT's "Emergency Response Guide Book" can be consulted. This book
describes the proper methods and precautions for responding to a release of each hazardous
material with an ID number. The U.S. DOT system goes one step further in aiding response
personnel than the NFPA system. However, using both systems when responding to
hazardous material incidents will help to properly identify and characterize the materials
involved.
The following definitions (Table 6, pages 30-32) have been abstracted from the Code of
Federal Regulations, Title 49-Transportation, Parts 100-177. Refer to referenced sections
for complete details. NOTE: Rulemaking proposals are outstanding or are contemplated
concerning some of these definitions.
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
Hazard Symbol
ID Number
UN Hazard Class Number
FIGURE 19
MODIFICATION OF U.S. DOT PLACARD
HAZARDOUS MATERIAL - Means a substance or material which has been determined by
the Secretary of Transportation to be capable of posing an unreasonable risk to health, safety,
and property when transported in commerce, and which has been so designated. (Sec. 171.8)
MULTIPLE HAZARDS - A material meeting the definition of more than one hazard class
is classed according to the sequence given in Sec. 173.2.
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
TABLE 6
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS DEFINITIONS
Hazard Class
CLASS A EXPLOSIVE
CLASS B EXPLOSIVE
BLASTING AGENT
COMBUSTIBLE LIQUID
CORROSIVE
MATERIAL
FLAMMABLE LIQUID
FLAMMABLE GAS
NON-FLAMMABLE
GAS
FLAMMABLE GAS
ORGANIC PEROXIDE
OXIDIZER
Definitions
An Explosive - Any chemical compound, mixture, or device, the primary or
common purpose of which is to function by explosion, i.e., with substantially
instantaneous release of gas and heat, unless such compound, mixture, or device is
otherwise specifically classified in Parts 170-177. (Sec. 173.50)
Detonating or otherwise of maximum hazard. The nine types of Class A
explosives are defined in Sec. 173.53.
In general, function by rapid combustion rather than detonation and include some
explosive devices such as special fireworks, flash powders, etc. Flammable
Hazard. (Sec. 173.88)
A material designed for blasting which has been tested in accordance with Sec.
173.114a(b) and found to be so insensitive that there is very little probability of
accidental initiation to explosion or of transition from deflagration to detonation.
(Sec. 173.144a(a))
Any liquid having a flash point above 100T and below 200°F as determined by
tests listed in Sec. 173.115(d). Exceptions are found in Sec. 173.115(b).
Any liquid or solid that causes visible destruction of human skin tissue or a liquid
that has a severe corrosion rate on steel. (See Sec. 173.240(a) and (b) for details.)
Any liquid having a flash point below 100°F as determined by tests listed in Sec.
173.115(d). For exceptions, see Sec. 173.115(a).
Pvroforic Liquid - Any liquid that ignites spontaneously in dry or moist air at or
below 130°F. (Sec. 173.115(c))
Compressed Gas - Any material or mixture having in the container a pressure
exceeding 40 psia at 70°F. or a pressure exceeding 104 psia at 130°F: or any liquid
flammable material having a vapor pressure exceeding 40 psia at 100°F. (Sec.
173.300(a))
Any compressed gas meeting the requirements for lower flammability limit,
flammability limit range, flame projection, or flame propagation criteria as
specified in Sec. 173.300(b).
Any compressed gas other than a flammable compressed gas.
Any solid material, other than an explosive, which is liable to cause fires through
friction, retained heat from manufacturing or processing, or which can be ignited
readily and when ignited burns so vigorously and persistently as to create a serious
transportation hazard. (Sec. 173.150)
An organic compound containing the bivalent -0-0 structure and which may be
considered a derivative of Hydrogen peroxide where one or more of the Hydrogen
atoms have been replaced by organic radicals must be classed as an Organic
peroxide unless - (See Sec. 173.151(a) for details).
A substance such as Chlorate, Permanganate, Inorganic peroxide, or a Nitrate, that
yields Oxygen readily to stimulate the combustion of organic matter. (See sec.
173.151)
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
TABLE 6 (CONT'D)
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS DEFINITIONS
Hazard Class
POISON A
POISON B
IRRITATING
MATERIAL
ETIOLOGIC AGENT
RADIOACTIVE
MATERIAL
ORM-OTHER
REGULATION
MATERIALS
ORM-A
ORM-B
ORM-C
ORM-D
Definitions
Extremely Dangerous Poisons - Poisonous gases or liquids of such nature that a
very small amount of the gas, or vapor of the liquid, mixed with air is dangerous
to life. (Sec. 173.326)
Less Dangerous Poisons - Substances, liquids, or solids (including pastes and semi-
solids), other than Class A or Irritating materials, which are known to be so toxic
to man as to afford a hazard to health during transportation; or which, in the
absence of adequate data on human toxicity, are presumed to be toxic to man.
(Sec. 173.343)
A liquid or solid substance which upon contact with fire or when exposed to air
gives off dangerous or intensely irritating fumes, but not including anv poisonous
material. Class A. (Sec. 173.381)
An "etiologic agent" means a viable micro-organism, or its toxin which causes or
may cause human disease. (Sec. 173.386)
Any material, or combination of materials, that spontaneously emits ionizing
radiation, and having a specific activity greater than 0.002 microcuries per gram.
(Sec. 173.389) NOTEi See Sec. 173.389(a) and (1) for details.
(1) Any material that may pose an unreasonable risk to health and safety or
property when transported in commerce; and (2) does not meet any of the
definitions of the other hazard classes specified; or (3) has been reclassed an ORM
(specifically or permissively) according to this subchapter (Sec. 173.500(a)).
NOTE: A material with a flashpoint of 100°F may not be classed as an ORM if it
is a hazardous waste or is offered in a packaging having a rated capacity of more
than 110 gallons.
A material which has an anesthetic, irritating, noxious, toxic, or other similar
property and which can cause extreme annoyance or discomfort to passengers and
crew in the event of leakage during transportation. (Sec. 173 .SOO*^!))
A material (including a solid when wet with water) capable of causing significant
damage to a transport vehicle or vessel from leakage during transportation.
Materials meeting one or both of the following criteria are ORM-B materials: (i)
A liquid substance that has a corrosion rate exceeding 0.250 inch per year (IPY) on
Aluminum (nonclad 7075-T6) at a test temperature of 130°F. An acceptable test is
described in NACE Standard TM-01-69, and (ii) specifically designated by name in
Sec. 172.101. (Sec. 173 .5Q(P\2))
A material which has other inherent characteristics not described as an ORM-A or
ORM-B but which makes it unsuitable for shipment, unless properly identified and
prepared for transportation. Each ORM-C material is specifically named in Sec.
172.101. (Sec. 173.500^(2))
A material such as a consumer commodity which, though otherwise subject to the
regulations of this subchapter, presents a limited hazard during transportation due
to its form, quantity and packaging. They must be materials for which exceptions
are provided in Sec. 172.101. A shipping description applicable to each ORM-D
material or category of ORM-D materials is found in Sec. 172.101. (Sec.
173.500(b)(4))
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
TABLE 6 (CONT'D)
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS DEFINITIONS
Hazard Class
Definitions
ORM-E
A material that is not included in any other hazard class, but is subject to the
requirements of this subchapter. Materials in this class include (i) Hazardous waste
and (ii) Hazardous substances as defined in Sec. 171.8. (Sec. 173.500^(5))
THE FOLLOWING ARE OFFERED TO EXPLAIN ADDITIONAL TERMS USED IN PREPARATION
OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS FOR SHIPMENT. (SEC. 171.8)
CONSUMER
COMMODITY (See
ORM-D)
Means a material that is packaged or distributed in a form intended and suitable for
sale through retail sales agencies or instrumentalities for consumption by
individuals for purposes of personal care or household use. This term also includes
drugs and medicines. (Sec. 171.8)
FLASHPOINT
Means the minimum temperature at which a substance gives off flammable vapors
which in contact with a spark or flame will ignite. For liquids, see Sec. 173.115;
for solids, see Sec. 173.150.
FORBIDDEN
Means that the material is prohibited from being offered or accepted for
transportation. NOTE: This prohibition does not apply if these materials are
diluted, stabilized, or incorporated in devices and they are classed in accordance
with the definitions of hazardous materials. (Sec. 172.101(d)(l))
HAZARDOUS
SUBSTANCES
For transportation purposes, means a material, and its mixtures or solutions, that is
identified by the letter "E" in Column 2 of the Hazardous Materials Table to Sec.
172.101 when offered for transportation in one package, or in one transport vehicle
if not packaged, and when the quantity of the material therein equals or exceeds the
reportable quantity (RQ). For details, refer to Sec. 171.8 and Sec. 172.101,
Hazardous Materials table.
HAZARDOUS WASTES
For transportation purposes, means any material that is subject to the hazardous
waste manifest requirements of the Environmental Protection Agency in CFR, Title
40, Part 123, Chapter F. (Sec. 171.8) For details on the Hazardous Waste and
Consolidated Permit Regulations, refer to CFR, Title 40, Parts 260-267 and Parts
122-125. Questions regarding these regulations, call Toll Free: 800/424-9346 or
202/554-1404.
LIMITED QUANTITY
Means the maximum amount of a hazardous material; as specified in those sections
applicable to the particular hazard class, for which there are specific exceptions
from the requirements of this subchapter. See Sec. 173.118, 173.118(a), 173.153,
173.244, 173.306, 173.345 and 173.364.
REPORTABLE
QUANTITY
For transportation purposes, means the quantity of hazardous substance and/or
hazardous waste specified in the Hazardous Material Table, Column 2 and
identified by the letter "E" in Column 1. (Sec. 171.8)
SPONTANEOUSLY
COMBUSTIBLE
MATERIAL (SOLID)
Means a solid substance (including sludges and pastes) which may undergo
spontaneous heating or self-ignition under conditions normally incident to
transportation or which may, upon contact with the atmosphere, undergo an
increase in temperature and ignite. (Sec. 171.8)
WATER REACTIVE
MATERIAL (SOLID)
Means any solid substance (including sludges and pastes) which, by interaction with
water, is likely to become spontaneously flammable or to give off flammable or
toxic gases in dangerous quantities. (Sec. 171.8)
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION
RESEARCH AND SPECIAL PROGRAMS ADMINISTRATION
(Revised February 1981)
NOTE: This handout is designed as a training aid for all interested parties who may become
involved with hazardous materials. It does not relieve persons from complying with the Department
of Transportation Hazardous Materials Regulations. Final authority for use of these hazard classes
and definitions is found in CFR, Title 49, Parts 100-177.
Information Services Division, DMT-11
Office of Operations and Enforcement
Materials Transportation Bureau
Research and Special Programs Administration
Department of Transportation
Washington, DC 20590
NOTE: This material may be reproduced without special permission from this Bureau and any
questions or comments concerning this handout should be directed to the address above.
XI. UNITED NATIONS CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
Each hazardous material must be assigned an identification number. Those numbers that are
preceded by a "UN" (United Nations Class) are associated with descriptions considered
appropriate for international shipments as well as domestic shipments. Those hazardous
materials that are preceded by an "NA" are associated with descriptions that are not
recognized for international shipment except to and from Canada. Each label, placard or
shipping paper must contain the UN and IMO (International Maritime Organization) hazard
class number and, when appropriate, the division number. The number must be Black or
another authorized color, located in the lower corner of the placard or label or in the
hazardous materials description on shipping papers. The number must be one-half inch (12.7
mm.) or less in height. In certain cases, the Class or Division number may replace the
written name of the hazard class in the shipping paper description. The United Nations Class
and Division numbers have the following meanings:
Class 1 Explosives
Division 1.1 Explosives with a mass explosion hazard
Division 1.2 Explosives with a projection hazard
Division 1.3 Explosives with predominantly a fire hazard
Division 1.4 Explosives with no significant blast hazard
Division 1.5 Very insensitive explosives
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
Class 2 Gases
Division 2.1
Division 2.2
Division 2.3
Flammable gases
Nonflammable gases
Poison gases
Class 3
Division 3.1
Division 3.2
Division 3.3
Flammable liquids
Flashpoint below -18°C (0°F)
Flashpoint -18°C and above but less than 23°C (73°F)
Flashpoint of 23°C and up to 61°C (141 °F)
Class 4
Division 4.1
Division 4.2
Division 4.3
Flammable solids; Spontaneously combustible materials; and.
Materials dangerous when wet
Flammable solids
Spontaneously combustible materials
Materials that are dangerous when wet
Class 5
Division 5.1
Division 5.2
Oxidizers and Organic peroxides
Oxidizers
Organic peroxides
Class 6
Division 6.1
Division 6.2
Poisonous and Etiologic (infectious) materials
Poisonous materials
Etiologic (infectious) materials
Class 7
Radioactive materials
Class 8
Corrosives
Class 9
Miscellaneous hazardous materials
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
Placarding
Under U.S. DOT's requirements, each end and each side of a motor vehicle, rail car, freight
container or portable tank containing hazardous materials must have a diamond-shape placard
for the hazardous materials that are transported.
For Table 1 materials illustrated in Table 7 and Table 7A, page 36, any quantity transported
in a motor vehicle freight container or rail car must be placarded as illustrated.
TABLE 7
U.S. DOT TABLE 1 PLACARDING TABLE 49 CFR 172.504
United Nations
Hazard Class Number
1
1
2
4
7
Hazardous Material Described As
Class A explosives
Class B explosives
Poison A
Flammable solid
Radioactive material:
Uranium hexafluoride, fissile
(containing more than 0.7 pet. U235)
Uranium hexafluoride, low specific
activity (containing 0.7 pet. or less
U235)
Placards
EXPLOSIVES
EXPLOSIVES B
POISON GAS
FLAMMABLE SOLID
(DANGEROUS WHEN
WET label only)
RADIOACTIVE AND
CORROSIVE
RADIOACTIVE AND
CORROSIVE
The placarding shown in Table 7A, page 36 may be used as of January 1, 1991. If it is
used, all U.S. DOT hazard communications must be in compliance with it.
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
TABLE 7A
U.S. DOT TABLE 1 PLACARDING TABLE 49 CFR 172.504
Category of Material
(Hazard or Division Number)
1.1
1.2
1.3
2.3
4.3
6.1 (PGI, Inhalation
Hazard Only)
7 RAD (Yellow III
Labeling)
Placard to be Utilized
Explosives 1.1
Explosives 1.2
Explosives 1.3
Poison Gas
Dangerous When Wet
Poison
Radioactive
Reference Number for
Placard Design
172.522
172.522
171.522
172.540
172.542
172.554
172.556
For Table 2, materials illustrated in Table 8, page 37 and Table 8A, page 38, motor
vehicles, freight containers or rail cars are not required to be placarded until the aggregate
total weight of the hazardous materials reaches a weight of 1000 pounds or more. If 5000
pounds or more of any Table 2 materials illustrated in Table 8, page 37 is loaded in a motor
vehicle, freight container or rail car at one facility, then the appropriate placard for that
material must be attached to the container, regardless of what placards may already be on the
units.
The placarding shown in Table 8A, page 38 is in effect as of January 1, 1991. If it is used,
all U. S. DOT hazard communications must be in compliance with it.
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
TABLE 8
U.S. DOT TABLE 2 PLACARDING TABLE 49 CFR 172.504
United Nations
Hazard Class Number
3
1.5
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
4
5
5
6
8
9
Hazardous Material Described as
Class C explosives
Blasting agent
Nonflammable gas
Nonflammable gas
Nonflammable gas (Chlorine)
Nonflammable gas (Fluorine)
Nonflammable gas (Oxygen),
pressurized liquid)
Flammable gas
Combustible Liquid
Flammable liquid
Flammable solid
Oxidizer
Organic peroxide
Poison B
Corrosive material
Irritating material
Placards
DANGEROUS
BLASTING AGENT
NONFLAMMABLE GAS
NONFLAMMABLE GAS
CHLORINE
POISON
OXYGEN
FLAMMABLE GAS
COMBUSTIBLE
FLAMMABLE
FLAMMABLE SOLID
OXIDIZER
ORGANIC PEROXIDE
POISON
CORROSIVE
DANGEROUS
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
TABLE 8A
U.S. DOT TABLE 2 PLACARDING TABLE 49 CFR 172.504
United Nations
Hazard Class Number
1.4
1.5
1.6
2.1
2.2
3
Combustible Liquid
4.1
4.2
5.1
5.2
6.1 (PGIorll
other than PGI
Inhalation
Hazard)
6.1 (PGIII)
6.2
8
9
ORM-D
Hazardous Material Described as
Explosives 1.4
Explosives 1.5
Explosives 1.6
Flammable gas
Nonflammable gas
Flammable
Combustible
Flammable Solid
Spontaneously Combustible
Oxidizer
Organic peroxide
Poison
Keep Away From Food
(NONE)
Corrosive
Class 9
(NONE)
Placards
172.523
172.524
172.525
172.532
172.528
172.542
172.544
172.546
172.547
172.550
172.552
172.554
172.553
172.558
172.560
In many instances, a placard will contain a 4-digit identification number rather than a
descriptive term (Figure 19, page 29). This 4-digit number comes from the Hazardous
Material Table in the U.S. DOT regulations, 49 CFR 172.101. This ID number must also
be written on the shipping papers or manifest. To identify the hazardous material,
responders should look for the ID number in the U.S. DOT's "Emergency Response Guide
Book." This book provides Basic Response Guidelines and precautions that should be
utilized during an initial response to a release of hazardous materials.
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
A. Labeling
U.S. DOT also requires the labelling of individual packages containing hazardous
materials. When labelling is required, each label must be affixed to or printed on the
surface of the package near the marked proper shipping name. Also, each label must
either be affixed to a background of contrasting color or have a dotted or solid line
outer border. For hazardous materials that meet the definition of one or more
hazards, warning labels representing each hazard are required and must be displayed
next to each other. For example, a material classed as a flammable solid, that also
meets the definition of a water reactive material, must have both FLAMMABLE
SOLID and DANGEROUS WHEN WET labels affixed to the package. When two
or more packages containing hazardous materials are packaged within the same
overpack, the outside container must be labelled as required with each hazardous
material that is contained within the overpack. Reference Label Chart, following
page.
In addition, each label that is affixed to or printed on a package must be durable and
weather resistant. The colors on a label must be able to withstand without substantial
change: (1) a 72 hour fadeometer test; or (2) a 30-day exposure to conditions
incident to transportation that reasonably could be expected to be encountered by the
labeled package (e.g., differing weather conditions, temperature changes, and
handling by numerous persons).
B. Package Identification
Packages or containers that are used for the shipment of hazardous materials must be
manufactured, assembled, and marked in accordance with the U.S. DOT
requirements. Each package or container must identify the U.S. DOT specification
in effect on the date that the package or container was manufactured. In addition,
each specification container must be marked in an unobstructed area with letters and
numerals identifying the container specification (e.g., U.S. DOT-1A, U.S. DOT-17E-
304HT, U.S. DOT-23G40). The name and address or symbol of the person making
this mark must be registered with the Director, OHMT. These markings must be at
least one-half inch high and should be stamped, embossed, burned, or printed on the
package to ensure that the markings can be seen and are understood. Tank cars and
appurtenances may only be used for the transportation of hazardous materials where
the tank cars have been approved by the Association of American Railroads'
Committee on Tank Cars for use in transporting hazardous materials. Each tank car
that has been approved by the Committee on Tank Cars can be identified by a U.S.
DOT specification number that has been embossed or marked in the tank car by the
manufacturer. Likewise, packages may be identified by numbers which are printed
on the package by the manufacturer. For example, the EPA regulations required that
all pesticides be registered with the EPA. This pesticide registration number is useful
for identifying the particular pesticide and the manufacturer.
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
C. Containers of Radioactive Material
Radioactive materials may be packaged in drums, tanks, or other suitable packages.
A container of gamma radioactive material generally includes some additional
"shielding" material such as lead or iron to prevent the radiation from being emitted
through the container. Alpha and beta radioactive material may be packaged in
containers that are of sufficient quality to hold a hazardous material.
Containers of radioactive material must be clearly labelled. Each label must be
durable, clearly visible, bear the radiation caution symbol, and the words:
"CAUTION, RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL" or "DANGER, RADIOACTIVE
MATERIAL." In addition, the label should provide sufficient information to permit
individuals handling the containers to take adequate precautions to avoid or minimize
exposures.
XII. SHIPPING PAPERS
When hazardous materials are transported, the materials must be specifically identified on
the shipping paper. A shipping paper should describe the shipping name of the hazardous
material, its classification and its ID number. With certain exceptions, shipping papers
identifying hazardous materials are required to be:
• in the cab of the motor vehicle;
• in the possession of a train crew member;
• kept in a holder on the bridge of a vessel; and
• in an aircraft pilot's possession.
The U.S. DOT regulations require that a (shipping) description on the shipping paper
include:
• the shipper's name and address;
• the consignee's name and address;
• the proper shipping name as shown in the commodity list;
• the proper hazard classification of the shipment (e.g., oxidizing material, flammable
liquid);
• the identification number (preceded by "UN" or "NA") that has been assigned to the
hazardous material;
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
• the total quantity by weight or volume; and
• a certification by the shipper that the shipment has been properly prepared.
• emergency response information (MSDS or ERG or equivalent) and 24-hour
emergency response telephone number.
A. Transportation by Highway
Typically, the shipping paper that accompanies a shipment of hazardous materials that
is transported by highway is called a Bill of Lading (Appendix II, page 47). A Bill
of Lading is a receipt that is issued by the trucker that lists all materials of shipment
as well as the hazardous materials that are being transported. A Bill of Lading must
be prepared in accordance with the U.S. DOT requirements for shipping papers that
are described above. The driver of the motor vehicle or truck containing the
hazardous material must clearly make this shipping distinctive and recognizable from
other shipping papers by tabbing it or having it appear first. Also, the driver of the
motor vehicle at the vehicle's controls must be certain that the shipping paper is
either within his immediate reach or visible to a person entering the driver's cab.
When the driver is not at the controls, the shipping paper may be either in a holder
which is mounted to the inside of the door on the driver's side of the vehicle, or on
the driver's seat.
B. Transportation by Rail
Generally, the shipping paper that is used to ship hazardous materials by rail must
be prepared in accordance with the general U.S. DOT requirements for shipping
papers. The shipping papers used for transporting hazardous materials by rail may
also include a document known as a "consist" or wheel report (Appendix III, page
49).
A consist is a computer generated printout that describes the make-up or composition
of a train by classes, types of grades. Many times it is difficult to figure out from
the consist what classes or quantities of hazardous materials are being shipped by rail.
The common shipping paper used to transport hazardous materials by rail is called
the waybill (Appendix V, page 53). A waybill is prepared by the rail carrier from
bills-of-lading, shipping orders or other shipping papers and contains specific
information on the shipment of hazardous materials. Each waybill represents an
individual car.
C. Transportation by Air
Shipping papers that are used to transport hazardous materials by air must be
prepared in duplicate in accordance with the U.S. DOT requirements for all shipping
papers. The aircraft operator must retain one copy of each shipping paper for 90
days.
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IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
One copy of the shipping papers must accompany the shipment of hazardous
materials that it covers during the flight of the aircraft. Typically, the shipping paper
used for transporting hazardous materials by air is an airbill. An airbill is prepared
by the shipper and contains the details of the shipment of hazardous materials.
D. Transportation by Vessel
Shipping papers that are used to transport hazardous materials by barge must be
prepared in accordance with the general U.S. DOT requirements for shipping papers.
The shipping paper commonly used for transporting hazardous materials by barge is
a manifest. The carrier or towboat pilot is required to prepare a dangerous cargo
manifest that contains the following information in order to transport hazardous
materials:
• the name of the vessel and the official number;
• the nationality of the vessel;
• the shipping name and identification number of each hazardous
material on board;
• the number and description of packages (e.g., barrels, drums,
cylinders, and gross weight for each type of packaging);
• the hazardous materials classification in accordance with the U.S.
DOT regulations or the International Maritime Organization's
Dangerous Goods Code;
• the stowage location of the hazardous material on board the vessel;
and
• any additional description.
This manifest must be kept in a designated holder on or near the vessel's bridge.
Copies of the shipping paper or manifest are also carried on the individual barge.
Note: See Appendix II, III, IV, V & VI, (pages 47-55), for shipping document
examples.
XIII. SENSES
The human senses of smell, hearing, and sight can provide clues on the presence of
hazardous materials or hazardous conditions which might be present.
3/94 42
-------
IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
A. Smell
Odors detected at the scene are indicators that gases or vapors are probably being
released due to the incident and may be indicative of what chemicals are involved.
Unusual odors also provide a warning that atmospheric hazards may exist; responders
(and the public) may have to be protected from toxic, or otherwise harmful, vapors
and gases. The sense of smell can detect the presence of gases and vapors at
significantly lower levels (odor threshold) than available direct-reading, air-
monitoring instruments. Odor thresholds may be significantly lower (or for some
chemicals - higher) than applicable protection guides (threshold limit values). Other
identification processes, must therefore, be used to substantiate and quantify clues
detected by the sense of smell.
B. Hearing
Noises emitted by wreckage, leaking containers, etc. may provide additional
information to the emergency responder as to the situation at hand (e.g., condition
of a container). Sounds such as gas escaping (from pressure relief valves), pinging
sounds in containers (due to differential expansion or settling), audible instrument
alarms and voice communications can be the first indication of impending disaster.
Extreme caution must be taken not to rely entirely upon sound as a sole warning
signal. High ambient noise levels, and protective equipment may interfere with the
ability to communicate (hear and speak). Fire situations, especially those involving
bulk containers of liquid, can result in little to no audible warning (pinging or relief
valves operating) before catastrophic failure.
C. Visual
Visual clues will likely present emergency responders with their earliest indication
of impending trouble. These clues may include: observation of the type of
vehicle/structure involved in an incident, placards or warning signs, odd colored
smoke, vapor, and reactions of bystanders are all indications of a potential hazardous
materials incident. Long term or acute incidents may involve large areas of
devastation, fish and game kills, and dead vegetation; further indication of a
hazardous materials release.
Human senses can offer the emergency responder valuable insight into the type,
nature and progress of a hazardous materials incident response. Each sense, taken
by itself, may not be sufficient to completely characterize an incident, however, used
in conjunction with each other and monitoring instrumentation can provide responders
with sufficient information to successfully and safely respond to a hazardous materials
emergency.
3/94 43
-------
APPENDIX I
HAZARDOUS MATERIAL TABLE
49 CFR 172.101
§ 172.101 HAZARDOUS MATERIALS TABLE—Continued
Sym-
bols
(D
D
D
Hazardous materials descriplions and
proper shipping names
(2)
Aldohydns, n.o.s
Aldehydes, toxic, n.o.s
Aldol
Aldrin. liquid.
Aldrin. solid.
Alkali melal alloys, liquid, n.o.s
Alkali metal amalgams
Alkali melal amides
Alkali melal dispersions, of Alkaline
eanh melal dispersions.
Alkaline corrosive liquids, n.o s.. see
Caustic alkali liquids, n.o.s..
Alkaline eanh metal alloys, n.o.s
Alkaline earth melnl amalgams
Alkaloids, liquid, poisonous, n.o.s.. or
Alkaloid salts, liquid, poisonous, no s..
Alkaloids, solid, n.o.s. or alkaloid
sails, solid, n.o.s. poisonous.
Haz-
ard
class
or
Divi-
sion
(3)
3
3
6.1
6.1
6.1
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
43
4.3
6,1
6.1
Identifi-
cation
Num-
bers
(4)
UNinng
UN198B
UN2839
NA2762
NA2761
UN1421
UN 1389
UN 1390
UNI391
UN 1393
UN1392
UN3I40
UN1544
Pack-
ing
group
(5)
1
II
III
1
II
II
II
II
1
1
It
1
II
1
1
II
III
1
Label(s)
required (it not
excepted)
(6)
FLAMMABLE
LIQUID.
FLAMMABLE
LIQUID.
FLAMMABLE
LIQUID.
FLAMMABLE
LIQUID.
POISON.
FLAMMABLE
LIQUID.
POISON.
POISON
POISON
POISON
DANGEROUS
WHEN WET.
DANGEROUS
WHEN WET.
DANGEROUS
WHEN WET.
DANGEROUS
WHEN WET.
DANGEROUS
WHEN WET.
DANGEROUS
WHEN WET.
POISON
POISON
KEEP AWAY
FROM FOOD.
POISON
Special provisions
m
1 B. 1 3 1 .
T8 T31
81. T7. T30
T8 T31
T8 T31
T8
A2 A3 N34
A2. A3. N34
A6. A7. A8. A19. A20..
A2. A3
A19
A19. N34. N40
A4. T42
T14
T7
r(8)
Packaging
authorization
(§ 173."*)
Excep-
tions
(8A)
Noun
150
ISO
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
153
None
Non-
bulk
pack-
aging
(88)
?0t
202
203
201
202
202
202
212
201
201
212
201
212
211
201
202
203
211
s
Bulk
pack-
aging
(8C)
242
242
243
243
243
243
242
244
244
241
244
241
242
243
243
241
242
(9)
Quantity limitations
Passenger
aircrall or
railcar
(9A)
1 1.
Cargo
aircraft
only
I9B)
301. .
5 L 60 L
60 L
Forbidden
1 L..
5 L
5L
25 kg
Forbidden
Forbidden ..
15 kg
Forbidden...
15kg.
Forbidden ..
1 L.
220 L
30 L
60 L
60 L
60 L.. ..
100 kg
1 L
1 L
50 kg
1 L
50kg
15 kg
no t
5 L 60 L
60 L
5 kg ,
220 L
50 ka
(10)
Vessel stowage
requirements
Ves-
sel
slow-
age
(10A)
r . .
8
A
E
B
A...
B
A
0
E
D
E
D
A
A
A
A
1 Other
stowage
provi-
sions
(108)
40
40
48
40
40
W
3/94
45
-------
APPENDIX II
BILL OF LADING
ALTERNATE STRAIGHT BILL Of LADING • SHORT FORM
Original — Noi Nt9Oinblt
ABC Trucking _
Sniper' Nc._
Cirtirr he
zoo;
(r*«mc o' C»H*«r:
TO:
HM] in Manufacturing
iFROM:
TCDD Cnemicel Co.
Su«i 3280 River Road
Is.
Z37E Dixon Roai
.. Cint;; . OH
Truck. !--70. 1-74. 50
Z.pCoor 45204 |o,.0.n St. LOUiS. HO
: VtmcK
Z.C.COQ, "OOP
ftouie:
321
No.
Shippii
Unili
Kino of f-»ck«pin;. Octcriplion ol Aniclci,
&0eci»1 M»rki and Exctplioni
Wnohl I
(SuDirci 10 |
Cof'fClton) j
Rue
CHARGES
I IIO' Cfiri uir o^iyi
JLCL
Drum hexane. r1imniable Liquid. UN 1208
i 4400 lb<
20
Cylinder, Helium. Non-Flammable Gas, UN 1046
400 Ibs
Druir,, Flammable Solid, n.o.s., UN 1325
! 450 Ibs
t,
Boxes, Printed material. Paper ] 20C Ibs , .;
i i i
i ! i
i ! i
i ! i
i ! i
I 1.1
i ! i
REMIT
C.O.D. TO:
ADDRESS
title ID*CI<*C«NV *n **tnir»9 tm a^rrC o* o*ci»f»tf v»txn o< the proocnv.
I1«ltd Dv 1^* mC AOI «&CrtO*A(.
s ~.
CODAm, s
SubttCl to Sect «on ~l ol irtt ConO'ltoni. '1
ihit shitx^vnt it to o* Of«iv«rtc ir> int
Th* c"(**r irv»1l not rrukr oti'^r'* o'
(&*pnaiw'f ol Conttono't
C.O.D. FEE:
PREPAID 3 s
COLLECT [j
Tol.l Ch»9r> S
FREIGHT CHARGES
D F,..9M7r.Z.C "n Coli^l
d jubjeci 10 me cl»uiticiliom >nd unHs in effect on the Oaie of me uiue of Ihit Bill ol Lidmc. Ihe proofiy
Or*criD«J at>ove in jpDvrm 9000 Ofdef. txccoi at noted (conienu >nd condition of conicnu o! Dicka^tt unknown), mirvfd,
contigne-O. >no Oenmed ji indiciied Jbove which laid carrier (ttie word carrier being unoerstooc xnrouphout This contrjci it
meaning >ny Derson or corporation in ooneinon ot the property under The coniraci) >0'tti 10 carry 10 Hi usual place of
Delivery t\ uio desiinjiion. if on in route, otherwise to deliver to another carrier on the route to said destination, i: it
mutually agreed a) lo cacn earner of all or jny ol. said pro Deny over all or any pomon ot s»'d rouie to destination and n to
each parry ai any time interested in all or any uid property, that every service to be performed hereunoer shall be to all the Dill
o' lading terms and conditions m the Governing classification on the dale of shipment.
Shipper hereby certif»es that he is tamilur with all the bill of lading terms a no conditions m the governing classificatio
tne saio terms and conditions are hereby agreed to by the sh<>p«r »r><3 accepted 1or himself and hit as^gni.
SHIPPER TCDD Chemical Company
(CARRIER ABC Truckinc
PER
PER
DATE
3/94
47
-------
APPENDIX III
CONSIST OR WHEEL REPORT
U3 R2M17 S 249 S 156 12170655
U4- R2i417 S 24V S 156 121706:3
TI R21417
0 CODF: AA GRAHAM ON DUTY 515 AM
15BDA 6068LD126
1 SBDA 8069 INSPECTION
1 SBDA 954LD1 12
BSBDA 964 INSPECTION
1SBDA 3591LD126
BSBDA 3591 INSPECTION
1SBDA 4744LDM2
8SBDA 4744 INSPECTION
1SBDA 3629LD127
6SBDA 3629 INSPECTION
U4 R21417 S 249 S 171
1LN
12170545
12V7G543
SHH3093520755CH
1707 0
17071
DATE 050116
DATE C50M3
DATE fa«1229
DATE 650113
DATE E50103
12170655 1217.0!
8LN
8LN
1LN
8LN
1SCL
8SCL
1BO
8BO
1BO
BEG
1BO
1 Bu
8BO
6 BO
SBO
8BO
1BO
6BO
1SCL
1SCL
1LN 102524.EA4326GO
1RTCX 37610ET3&9C-00
1RTCX 37€-63ET3890w
-------
APPENDIX ffl: CONSIST OR WHEEL REPORT
35207580
U3 R21417 5 249 I \3t 12170655 12170545 0 S HHL M6
HAZARDOUS COMMODITY 491B310
LH 453153 CAfc 1 IN CONSIST
AMMONIUM NITRATE FERTILIZER (CONTAINING NO MORE THAN 0.22 CARBON)
OXIDIZER UN2067
THERMALLY UNSTABLE
AnrtONIUM HITRATE FERTILIZER IS A GREYISH WHITE SOLID 1H THE FORM
OF PRILLS. IT IS rOLUBLE IN UATER. THE MATERIAL ITSELF DOEI NOT
READILY BURN BUT UILL READILY DO SO IF CONTAMINATED BY COMBUSTIBLE
MATERIAL. IT WILL ACCELERATE THE BURNING, OF COMBUSTIBLE MATERIAL.
TOXIC OXIDES OF NITROGEN ARE PRODUCED DURING COMBUSTION OF THIS MATERIAL.
IF MATERIAL ON FIRE OR INVOLVE!; IN FIRE
FLOOD UITH WATER
COOL ALL AFFECTED CONTAINERS UITH FLOODING QUANTITIES OF UATER
APPLY WATER FROM. AS FAR A DISTANCE AS POSSIBLE
IF MATERIAL NOT ON FIRE AND NOT INVOLVED IN FIRE
KEEP SF-ARKS. FLAMES. AND OIHEFc SOURCE! OF IGNITION AUA 1
KEEP MATERIAL OUT OF UATER SOURCES AND SEUERS
PERSONNEL PROTECTION
UEAR BOOTS. PROTECTIVE CLOVES. AND GOGGLES
DO NOT HANDLE BROKEN PACKAGES UITHOUT PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
WASH AUAY ANY MATERIAL UHICH MAY HAVE CONTACTED THE BODY WITH COPIOUS
AMOUNTS OF WATER OR SOAP AND WATER
WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS
WHEH FIGHTING FIRES INVOLVING THIS MATERIAL
APPROACH FIP.E WITH CAUTION
EVACUATION
IF FIRE BECOMES UNCONTROLLABLE - EVACUATE FOR A RADIUS 0? 5000 FEET
HAZARDOUS COMMODITY 49252*0
PPCX 2275 CAR 46 IN CONSIST
SODIUM HYDROXIDE LIQUID
CORROSIVE MATERIAL. BASIC UN1824-
ENVlRONrtENTALLY HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE (Ru-1OOO/454 )
SODIUH HYDROXIDE LIQUID IS THE WATER SOLUTION OF SODIU.-. HYDROXIDE. IT IS
USED IN CHEMICAL HANUFACTUAING. PETROLEUM REFIK1NC. PAPER MnKINC. CLEANING
COMPOUNDS. AND FOR MAHY OTHER USES. THE CONCENTRATED 50LUTIOHS "ILL DISSOLVE
IN ADDITIONAL WATER UITH THE EVOLUTION OF HEAT. IT IS CORROSIVE TO METALS AN
TISSUE.
IT UEIGHS 12.7 POUNDS PER GALLON.
3/94
50
-------
APPENDIX IV
UNIFORM HAZARDOUS WASTE MANIFEST
Pl«n* PMII c* ryfx (Form ? to' uie on elite (l?-pilc>»)
Fomi AQQiov.a. Qua "0.3COO-CU&J. e>p;r«i ?Oi-M
UNIFORM HAZARDOUS
WASTE MANIFEST
i. Generator's US EPA-h.-;;of- •
rtnmiresl
(Document No.
2. Page I
fcl-
Inlormation in me shaded ar
is no1, required by Federal law
3. Generator's Name and Mailing Address
'. Generator's Phone ('
A. Slale Manilesl Document Number
D. Slale Generator's 10
5. Transporter 1 Company Name
US EPA ID Number
C. Stale Transporter's 10
0. Transporter's Phone
!? Transporter 2 Company Name
US EPA ID Number
E. Slale Transport's ID
F. Transporter's Pnone
9 Designated Facility Name and Site Address
10. US EPA ID Number
G. State Facilit/s 10
H. Facilil/s Phone
1. US DOT Description (Including Ptopet Shipping tJsme. Hazard Class and ID Number)
12. Containers
No. Type
13.
Tola]
Quantity
.
Unit
Wi/VcJ
I.
Wasie No.
J. Additional Descriptions (or Materials Listed Above
K. Handling Codes lo; Wastes Listed Above
15. Special Handling Instructions and Additional Inlormalion
16. GENERATOR'S CERTIFICATION: I hereby declare'that Ihe conlenls o! Ms consignment are lully and accurately described
above by proper shipping name and are classilied. packed, marked, and labeled, and are in all respecls in proper condition lor
transport by highway according lo applicable international and national governmental regulations.
Date
Primed/Typed Name
Signature
Month Day Year
17. Transporter I Acknowledgement ol Receipt of Materials
| Dale
PrinledrTyped Name
Signature
Wonl/i Day Year
16. Transporter 2 Acknowledgement ol Receipt o( Materials
Dam
Printed/Typed Name
Signature
Mon/n Day Yit,
I I I
19. Discrepancy Indication Space
20. Facility Owner or Operator: Certilicalion ol receipt ol hazardous materials covered by this manilesi except as noted in Item 19.
I Dale
Printed/Typed Namt
Signature
Month Off Yn
I I I
e. ll.606«6 IJ1JI
-------
APPENDIX V
RAILROAD FREIGHT WAYBILL
FREIGHT WAYBILL
-O »4 trtJO 'O-i »—iOt_I CO-o-O—•« -n, O'v.O'-O *<-o vcM C-"-*».O-O
HO
HO
NA i A c 9 i vj /
THIS
CAR ^
1 7^, ; *«e-' •.!.-( IE. ii -.•i^i—.
TANX | °~ '- j — |APRIL 2i. 1985 12915
^.c /<^\ """1 — : ! """" 1 — : i
\ ^ k^*^ '^ ' II";OCL/III«< M9
-. (liOl UU JCAT»«t.-<7>I'A 2011
.-— ( )ORAJH fTtOCOOiilQ COHf. D. VOOtBUXK
Hr."j tr •°"t
DO HOT >
At
"£Z-££~~ -To,Er«E,.,cr
«0«HVI»T
<^ou
I**t
•uo-.xt
••n
. D JC
i^^j^— -\~
__ x^_.C
^^"jc^r^i;; "'
fix. ; AitJ_ o. >0(X~-^<
«,„ V.E. CANADY
WtlOHI
9
193219
IUTC
85
FUClOKT
AOV^CO
16
"*""-
12. iS
O-»C^O-X. fr*C»^C*C r^^f^H) tr^ U&.MHl, »rt« *^» * (k'tW
IrkrxoO^lM^OO *OOVO*'^ to Pw *aD**C*OW f>Qji*l<»N» O* ff1^
1 r» • fcOo" «T%O*%.
i — ,
——
•s— ,
• —
OC>T»-iAnO- *A«»O^
^-^O-T KJ. MO
'•^•i ^*^
^rt^irrr^rr
MOO^) >^-CTX>.
*0y C1AAA<>M<. |
oo>xm t». |
O-O-^IT— M Ot J
a *oooo*»i '
-FOR CMEMICAI. EMEflCUNCY 1PU.U LEAK. FmE.
EXrCSURE OR ACCIOEKT CALL CHEKTWEC
DAY OR NKJKT KXM24-»X»
cj , .
~^
MH
T>^ j *, » J ^
D4.
n
HA*
rr>-L*ro- A^*n w^j,
**-• i •»***• nvtro-
>< «^o &*r» >»«H,M i •_
3/94
53
-------
APPENDIX VI
IATA AIRBILL
A^PP.ER'S.DECLARATION FpR DANGEROUS GOODS
J;Shlpoer:.
(.'rvvlde at lea.s.l two copies to;the.olrllne.i
f-onsiqnec
Ai.r Wa'ybi.M No
Page :--.-..:-p.r :-.ii-;,P.ages
Shipper's ^eleVVncc'Nymbcr
•••••••' ••"•••''••• "'
•Jyto templetcd and tigKedjopiet of lh':t L'^fhral'ion r.ufl be
•jiondtdJo theppefoIo/. .
•JThls fh\ptnen\.Ij'jjthin the
limitations'prescribed lor:
} >:i!/-r-: "••:•» r.f — * • -. • •
•P/SSEHCCR
AHO CAR CO
AIRCRAFT
CARGO
AJRCRAFT
.OKuir
Airoon of D.eparture
Airport .of Destination:
WARNIrVG
Failur^ to comply .in all resp.ects .with the applicable
Dangerpus Gopds Regulations may be in br.eachpl
the. applicable Jaw, subject-to .legal penalties. -This
Declaration must not, .in any circumstances, ^e
cprnpleted and/or signed by a consolidator, a
(orwarder or.an IATA cargo agent
Shipment type: 11.1,1
( NON-RADIOACTIVE | aADIOACTIVE |
NATURE AND QUANTITY OF DANGEROUS GOODS
Dangerous Goods Identification
Proper Shipping Name
Class
or
Divi-
sion
UN
or
ID
No.
Subsi-
diary
Risk
Quantity and
type ol packing
Packing
Inst.
Authorization
Additional Handling Information
I hereby declare that the contents of this consignment arc fully and
accurately described above by proper shipping name and are classi-
fied, packed, marked and labelled, and arc in all respects in the proper
condition for transport by air according to the applicable International
and National Government Regulations.
Name/Title ol Signatory
Place and Dale
Signature
i... ....i., <>•••)
.'EC-u-HIl ml rioci II
3/94
55
-------
Section 8
-------
RESPONSE OPERATIONS: SIZE-UP,
STRATEGY, AND TACTICS
PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lesson, participants will be able to:
• Define size-up
• Identify the four incident factors to be considered in sizing-
up a hazardous materials incident
• Explain the importance of proper size-up
• Explain the importance of preplans in the size-up process
• Explain why being on scene is important to size-up and give
two examples
• Explain the significance of exposures in the size-up process
• Explain the significance of personnel in the size-up process
• Explain the significance of equipment in the size-up process
• Define "strategy" and "tactics"
• Explain the importance of establishing tactical objectives
• Describe five different tactical actions for controlling an
incident
• Describe the behavior of compressed-gas, hazardous
materials containers and their contents under heat stress
3/94
-------
PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES (Continued)
• Describe two major considerations when performing rescue
of a contaminated person/victim
• List two concerns when fire is involved in a chemical spill
• Describe five considerations when evacuating a large
populated area
• Identify the time and need for termination of the incident.
3/94
-------
NOTES
RESPONSE OPERATIONS:
SIZE-UP
SIZE - UP
An estimation or an evaluation of the
condition from which an opinion or
judgment can be formed.
Size-up is never completed until the
situation is mitigated and completely
under control.
Size-up and evaluation is the job of all
personnel. What one person can see
another may not.
INITIAL CONSIDERATIONS
• Predispatch
• Dispatch
• Enroute
• On scene
3/94
Response Operations: Size-Up, Strategy, and Tactics
-------
NOTES
FACTORS
• Stage of incident
• Resources available
• Exposures
• Nature of the hazardous material
INCIDENT TYPE
Spill, large or small
Container, intact or ruptured
Fire, yes or no
Response Operations: Size-Up, Strategy, and Tactics
3/94
-------
CONTAINER TYPES
• Drums
• Bags
• Semi-trailer
• Rail car
• Barge
• Aircraft
• Bottles
• Cans
• Fixed tanks
• Piping
• Tank truck
• Ship
• Private vehicles
• Intermodal containers
• Carboys
• Cylinders
NOTES
3/94
Response Operations: Size-Up, Strategy, and Tactics
-------
NOTES
CONTAINER PROBLEMS
• Flame impingement
• Mechanical damage
• Access to container
• Protection of uninvolved containers
Response Operations: Size-Up, Strategy, and Tactics
3/94
-------
MATERIAL HAZARDS
Toxic
Corrosive
Etiologic
Radioactive
Asphyxiating
Oxidizing
• Reactive
• Unstable
• Explosive
• Cryogenic
• Flammable
NOTES
3/94
Response Operations: Size-Up, Strategy, and Tactics
-------
NOTES
MATERIAL STATES
• Solid
• Liquid
• Gaseous
• Mitigation/migration considerations
MODIFYING CONDITIONS
• Time
• Location response time
- Occupancy location
• Exposures
• Weather
Response Operations: Size-Up, Strategy, and Tactics
3/94
-------
NOTES
RESPONSE OPERATIONS:
STRATEGY AND TACTICS
STRATEGY & TACTICS
INCIDENT OBJECTIVES
Confinement
Containment
Mitigation
Recovery
Clean-up contractors
RESOURCES
• Personnel
• Equipment
• Chemical information
- Manufacturer/reference material
Preplans
Local, state, and federal
3/94
Response Operations: Size-Up, Strategy, and Tactics
-------
NOTES
RESCUE
• No undue personnel risk
• Protective clothing requirements
• First-aid requirements
• Resources available
EXPOSURES
• Personnel and vehicle placement
• Uninvolved materials
• Unmanned water streams
• Type of damage possible
EVACUATION
Have SOPs prior to incident
No undue personnel risk
Quick coordinated effort
Multiagency responsibility
Restrict reentry
Shelter in place
Response Operations: Size-Up, Strategy, and Tactics
3/94
-------
NOTES
FIRE
Remove ignition sources
Use proper extinguishment methods
Use proper protective clothing
May have to let burn
TRAFFIC
Designated routes
Allow for emergency vehicles
Identify in SOPs
Who is in charge?
COMMUNICATIONS
• Central dispatch
• Frequencies outlined in SOPs
• Common response net
• Plain language vs. 10-code
• Follow ICS structure
3/94
Response Operations: Size-Up, Strategy, and Tactics
-------
NOTES
DECISION TREE
Size-up of
incident factors
t
Reevaluate
t
Does incident
change favorably
Make decision on
actions/strategy
i
Specify goals
and objectives
I
Implement the
tactical operation
Response Operations: Size-Up, Strategy, and Tactics
3/94
-------
RESPONSE OPERATIONS: SIZE UP, STRATEGY, AND TACTICS
TOPIC PAGE NO.
I. INTRODUCTION TO SIZE-UP 1
II. PRELIMINARY SIZE-UP 1
A. PRELIMINARY DATA GATHERING, EVALUATION, AND
REVIEW 2
B. OFF-SITE RECONNAISSANCE:
DATA GATHERING AND REVIEW 2
C. ON-SITE SURVEY: DATA GATHERING AND REVIEW 3
III. ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR SIZE-UP 4
A. THE PROBLEM 4
1. STAGE OF THE INCIDENT 4
2. HAZARDOUS NATURE OF THE MATERIAL 5
3. TYPE, CONDITION, AND BEHAVIOR OF CONTAINER ... 6
IV. POTENTIAL LOSSES IN SIZE-UP 6
V. RESOURCES AND CONTROL MEASURES FOR SIZE-UP 7
VI. SUMMARY TO SIZE-UP 7
VII. INTRODUCTION TO STRATEGY AND TACTICS 8
A. MODIFYING CONDITIONS 9
1. LOCATION 9
2. TIME 9
3. WEATHER CONDITIONS 10
VIII. RESPONSE OBJECTIVES TO STRATEGY AND TACTICS 10
IX. STRATEGY 10
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X. TACTICS 12
A. LIFE SAVING OPERATIONS 12
1. RESCUE 12
2. EVACUATION 13
B. PREVENT CONTAINER FAILURE 14
1. COOL CONTAINERS 14
2. USE STRESS BARRIERS 15
3. REMOVE UNINVOLVED MATERIALS 15
C. CONTAIN OR CONFINE THE HAZARD 15
1. CONTAINMENT-STOP THE LEAK 15
2. CONFINEMENT-CONSTRUCT A BARRIER 16
3. REMOVE IGNITION SOURCES 16
4. CONTROLLED BURNING . . . 16
D. EXTINGUISH FIRES 17
1. USE PROPER EXTINGUISHING AGENT 17
2. REMOVE FUEL SUPPLY/REMOVE OXYGEN
SOURCE/LET THE SUBSTANCE BURN 17
E. EXPOSURE PROTECTION 17
1. PROTECT PERSONNEL, EQUIPMENT AND VEHICLES . . 17
2. TACTICAL WITHDRAWAL 18
3. EXPLOSION-RESISTANT BARRIERS 18
XI. SUMMARY TO STRATEGY AND TACTICS 19
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I. INTRODUCTION TO SIZE-UP
Before effective response actions can be undertaken at a hazardous materials incident, a great
deal of information about the incident must be obtained. Size-up is the process of gathering
and analyzing information. It is an attempt to get a general picture or impression of the
nature and severity of the event so that rational, informed decisions can be made on how to
proceed. Size-up involves obtaining and evaluating as much information as time permits
about the situation, including:
• the identity of the material(s);
• the hazards associated with each material(s);
the effects and risks on the public, property and the environment;
whether the release (or potential release) is into the air, onto the land, into surface
waters, and/or into groundwater;
the most appropriate and effective measures for controlling the release and thereby
preventing or reducing the impact on public health, property and the environment;
and
the safety measures, a primary concern during initial size-up, that must be
implemented to protect all response personnel.
II. PRELIMINARY SIZE-UP
Prior to arriving at the scene, responders must evaluate the nature of the incident and develop
a preliminary action plan to control the situation from information (often sketchy) that is
received when notified. At the scene, an initial size-up is made in order to obtain a more
accurate appraisal of the incident. The preplan for emergency response (and safety
procedures) is then adjusted to meet the needs of the situation. As more information about
the incident is obtained or conditions change, the response action plans and safety procedures
are modified, if necessary, to reflect the conditions of the incident. Size-up, to be effective,
is a continuous process.
Size-up provides information upon which decisions regarding strategy and tactics are based
and to make certain that response personnel or individuals in the surrounding area are not
endangered. To provide useful information, response personnel must continually monitor and
analyze the incident for changes, and adjust tactics, as appropriate, as changes occur.
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A. Preliminary Data Gathering, Evaluation and Review
As much information as possible should be collected prior to arrival, or immediately
upon arrival, at the incident. Each incident is unique. The amount of information
needed, or that is rapidly available, varies from incident to incident. The following
list contains the type of information that is needed for most responses.
• Brief description of incident and circumstances
Exact location.
Date and time of occurrence.
Materials involved and their physical, chemical and hazardous
properties.
Habitation - population centers, proximity of people, population at
risk.
• Terrain and site conditions
Accessibility of incident - reference aerial photographs, if available.
Pathways of dispersion (whether the release is into the air,
groundwater, onto the land or into surface waters).
Economically sensitive areas - industrial and/or agricultural.
• Present status of incident and who may have been involved (whether others
have become involved with the incident prior to responders)
State/local police.
Industrial response team(s).
• Communications (whether communication with information sources will be
available or difficult)
• Current weather and forecast.
• Any other related background information (from preplanning data; especially,
permanent facilities).
B. Off-Site Reconnaissance: Data Gathering and Review
When there is no urgent need to go immediately on-site, or required information is
lacking, information about the hazardous materials incident is first gathered (and
evaluated) from off-site. Response personnel should make visual observations (using
binoculars or field glasses) and monitor atmospheric conditions near the release. In
addition to gathering information, as determined appropriate, and that is included in
the preliminary assessment outlined above, information from an off-site
reconnaissance might include:
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• General layout and map of the site.
Monitoring ambient air adjacent to the incident for:
organic vapors, gases, and particulates;
oxygen deficiency;
specific materials, if known;
combustible gases;
inorganic vapors, gases, and particulates; and
radiation.
• Visual observations of types and numbers of containers, buildings, and
impoundments.
• Visual observations for placards, labels, markings on containers, or
transportation vehicles.
• Visual observations of vapors, clouds, run-off, or suspicious substances.
Biological indicators - dead vegetation, animals, insects, and fish.
• Visual observations of the physical condition of containers.
• Unusual odors.
• Off-site samples:
surface water;
drinking water;
site run-off; and
groundwater (wells).
• Interviews of people in the area.
C. On-Site Survey: Data Gathering and Review
A more thorough size-up is generally obtained when response personnel enter the site
of the release. Information about an incident that may be gathered from an on-site
survey is listed below. Again, the specifics of the incident will dictate the availability
and need for information. An on-site survey may consist of:
• Monitoring on-site ambient air for:
organic vapors, gases, and particles;
Oxygen deficiency;
specific materials, if known;
combustible gases;
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inorganic vapors, gases, and particulates; and
ionizing radiation.
• Types of containers, impoundment, or other storage systems.
Numbers, types, quantities of material and locations.
Condition of storage systems, state of repair, or deterioration.
• Physical condition of material.
solids, liquids, or gases
color and turbidity (not clear, clouded as if with sediment)
behavior - foaming, vaporizing, or corroding
• Leaks or discharges from containers, tanks, ponds, vehicles, etc.
• Potential pathways of dispersion:
air,
surface water,
ground water,
land surface,
biological routes.
• Labels, markings, identification tags, or other indicators of material.
• Samples of various on-site areas as determined appropriate by responders.
As subsequent information is obtained and assessed, both the initial strategy based on
preliminary evaluations, and environmental changes resulting from initial response activities,
as well as the tactics for conducting an effective response operation are adjusted. Size-up
is a continuous process, lasting throughout the lifetime of the incident.
III. ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR SIZE-UP
A. The Problem
1. Stage of the Incident
In order to properly size-up an incident, responders must carefully consider
the present condition of the incident. For example, if during size-up a
container is determined to be in danger of failure, but no product has yet been
released, the appropriate response might be to attempt to prevent container
failure from occurring. Conversely, if during size-up, it is determined that
the container has failed, and the product has been released, the appropriate
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response effort will focus on controlling the release (unless an ignition or
reaction has occurred). Control measures might include confinement and
containment actions and vapor suppression efforts. Efforts are also needed
to prevent ignition of vapors from volatile materials. If an ignition or
reaction has, in fact, occurred, and the released material is burning or a
chemical reaction has occurred, response personnel must then concentrate
their efforts in controlling the discharge, possibly by extinguishing the fire
and initiating measures to control the reaction.
Often, when an ignition or reaction has occurred as a result of a container
failure, it is likely that additional fires or reactions will also occur, presenting
the strong possibility that the incident will escalate. To prevent escalation,
response personnel must reexamine the incident and consider possible effects
on the public and other response personnel, as well as the effectiveness of the
control measures that were initially used. It is only when the incident has
stabilized that response personnel may consider other measures such as
collecting and transporting the spilled material and the failed container for
proper disposal. Because it may be very difficult to determine whether an
incident has stabilized, the situation must be continually monitored until
response personnel are confident that the situation has stabilized. Responders
must always be careful to guard against prematurely judging an incident as
stabilized because additional releases or reactions may present a further threat
to the health and safety of the response personnel and the public.
2. Hazardous Nature of the Material
The process of size-up involves both identifying the materials involved and
evaluating all of their hazardous characteristics. These hazardous
characteristics include:
a. Toxicity (whether the material is a poison).
b. Corrosiveness (whether the material will eat away or gradually
destroy another material).
c. Radiation hazards (whether the material emits radiation).
d. Etiological hazards (whether the material may potentially cause some
type of disease in exposed humans).
e. Asphyxiating hazards (whether the material may potentially kill or
make unconscious humans or animals by replacing or depleting
oxygen).
f. Flammable hazards (whether the material may ignite and burn).
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g. Oxidizing capabilities (whether the material may change after
combining with oxygen and become more dangerous).
h. Reactive hazards (whether the material may interact with other
chemicals yielding an undesired change or reaction).
i. Instability (whether the material has a lack of resistance to chemical
change - may undergo unwanted and dangerous alterations).
j. Explosive hazards (whether the material may explode).
k. Cryogenic hazards (whether the material is very cold).
3. Type, Condition, and Behavior of the Container
During size-up, response personnel should always consider the type, size,
condition and possible behavior of any containers used to store or ship
hazardous materials. Behavior of the container involves the manner in which
a container may rupture, leak or explode, thereby releasing its contents, and
why and how these conditions may occur. Considering the type, size,
condition and behavior of a container may yield valuable information about
the possible products in the container, the possible damages to humans,
environment and property that may result from a failure of the container, and
the possible techniques for controlling the materials released from the
container.
There are primarily two types of containers: bulk and individual. A bulk
container is generally a large tank. An individual container is smaller,
usually a 55 gallon drum or less. Drums and bulk containers in the same
general area may contain different or incompatible materials. During an
incident that does not initially involve container failure, there may be a
potential for container failure. For example, during size-up it may be
determined that a container may fail because:
a. it is under stress from heat or fire.
b. it is under stress from mechanical damage.
c. it is under stress from chemical reactions.
IV. POTENTIAL LOSSES IN SIZE-UP
The potential losses of life, property and equipment, and damage to the environment are most
important considerations in size-up. The top priority in responding is preventing or reducing
the effect of the incident on the health and safety of bom the responders and the public.
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Potential losses to property must also be considered. In addition to any damages related to
fire and explosion, response personnel should consider long-term property damage related
to contamination of the soil and/or groundwater. Because the response personnel's
equipment is important for controlling a hazardous materials incident, a potential loss of
equipment due to exposure to certain types of materials is also an important factor. For
example, corrosives may damage equipment, and in general, could be very costly. Finally,
damage to the environment, the natural resources - forests, oceans, etc., when contaminated
with hazardous materials - may be very costly to reverse.
V. RESOURCES AND CONTROL MEASURES FOR SIZE-UP
The amount of resources and support which can be directed toward mitigating the effect of
a hazardous materials incident is another important consideration. The number of individuals
available to respond to a hazardous materials incident, for example, will affect the time and
extent of the response operation. The fatigue of the response personnel and potential
replacements must be factored into the number of available individuals for response. The
level of training of the response personnel is important. Response personnel should
determine the number of individuals that are prepared through proper training to handle a
hazardous materials incident.
The amount and types of equipment needed should be factored in by response personnel in
developing an action plan during size-up. For specific incidents, specialized equipment may
be needed. For example, different types of equipment are required for fire fighting, rescue
operations, traffic control and communications. Finally, support, information, and assistance
from resource groups may be needed. CHEMTREC and CHEMNET, for example, are
available as a resource. Additionally, the National Response Center, Industrial Response
Teams and local technical support are also available. Moreover, hazardous materials guides
published by such groups as the Department Of Transportation (DOT) and National Institute
of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) yield information about hazardous materials.
Much of this information should be compiled and organized in the form of pre-planning and
contingency plans. A well-developed and prepared contingency plan must contain
information regarding local resources, additional resources, and sources of information.
VI. SUMMARY TO SIZE-UP
Size-up is just one of the components of incident response operations. It is, however, very
important because decisions are based on the information gathered and analyzed during size-
up. Further, size-up is a continuous process. Incidents and response actions are dynamic.
Throughout the lifetime of the incident there is an on-going need for information upon which
to make decisions. • >
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A successful size-up involves:
(1) an attempt to get a general picture of the incident as well as any detailed, specific
information about the incident;
(2) consideration of extenuating factors such as the stage of the incident, harmful nature
of materials involved, and type, condition and behavior of containers;
(3) consideration of modifying conditions including incident location, time of occurrence
and existing weather conditions;
(4) consideration of potential losses to life, property and equipment, and damage to the
environment (safety of response personnel and affected individuals is the top
priority);
(5) consideration of resources and control measures, including personnel, information
sources and support from other organizations.
VII. INTRODUCTION TO STRATEGY AND TACTICS
During size-up, a general picture of the hazardous material incident is developed. Responders
gather information about the materials involved, the hazardous conditions which exist, and
attempt to determine the severity and effects the incident will have on the surrounding area.
Based upon initial size-up and a continuous evaluation of what is happening, many decisions
need to be made; problems identified, priorities determined, a strategy (plan) developed, and
tactics (actions) implemented.
Because each incident is different, the strategy used to prevent or reduce the potential effects
on people, property, or the environment must be tailored to the specific conditions present.
The strategy chosen must be continuously reevaluated and modified, if necessary, to
effectively mitigate any conditions which change during the course of the response.
Strategy and tactics are two different, but inseparable components of response operations
which result in an action plan to control the emergency.
• STRATEGY is the general plan or course of action for preventing or reducing the
effects of an incident.
• TACTICS are the methods and tasks used to accomplish the selected strategy.
To develop and execute a specific strategy responders must be trained and have available
personnel, equipment and other resources. Communities with inadequate preplanning and
resources are limited in their capability to effectively respond to all but minor incidents.
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Conversely, communities with practical preplans and appropriate resources have a wider
range of options available to control an emergency.
A. Modifying Conditions
During the process of gathering information for sizing-up an incident, response
personnel must consider conditions such as the location, time factors and weather
These conditions must be evaluated in order to determine the most effective and
appropriate response tactics.
1. Location
If the location of the incident is remote, fewer people might be affected.
Fewer response resources may be necessary and different tactics needed,
therefore, to control the incident. Conversely, if the location of the incident
is in a heavily populated area, response personnel may have to use different
tactics and consider evacuation of the surrounding community.
If, during size-up, it is determined that the location of the incident involves
rough terrain or complex street patterns, there may be limited access to the
incident. The location of the incident may be in a remote area without roads
or freeways, or in an area with many intersecting streets and buildings. Lack
of water might also be a problem. When the location of an incident is near
a waterway, spill control measures that will prevent the release into the body
of water must be used. When there is a combination of circumstances related
to the location of the incident, response personnel should carefully determine
the most effective method for, at least initially, controlling the hazardous
materials incident.
2. Time
During size-up, time (time of day, time of week, time of year, time-delay
between start of incident and notification, and response time to the scene) is
an important factor. If an incident occurs during the time of day considered
to be rush hour, response personnel must consider that the congested
roadways could adversely affect response time or the transportation of
additional resources to the location of incident. Likewise, if an incident
occurs at a downtown location which is more heavily populated during the
weekdays, the response time may be adversely affected due to congestion.
It may also take longer to evacuate a heavily populated area. The time of
year of the incident should also be considered. Response time, for example,
may be much quicker during the spring, summer and fall months when the
roads are clear and much slower during the winter months when the roads are
covered with heavy snow.
The time-delay between the start of the incident and notification of response
personnel must also be considered. To the extent possible, response
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personnel must determine what is the probable or expected condition of the
incident that will be encountered on their arrival at the scene. Finally, the
response time to the scene of the incident is important. If response time is
long, response personnel may have to expedite a preliminary size-up of the
incident. If the response time is quick, response personnel may have more
time to gather information about the incident and plan the response.
3. Weather Conditions
Weather conditions are also a factor. For example, the temperature on the
outside, as well as in the inside of a structure containing materials should be
considered because the materials involved in the incident may have differing
vapor pressures that are affected by temperatures. Also, wind direction and
speed may yield information about possible plume location and/or dispersion
rate. Furthermore, if an air inversion occurs, this may cause vapors from
materials to be concentrated or held near the ground, thus potentially
exposing the public to a hazardous condition. Air inversions may also inhibit
dispersion of vapors. Finally, because some chemicals react adversely with
water, precipitation can have an effect on response operations.
VIII. RESPONSE OBJECTIVES TO STRATEGY AND TACTICS
Initial size-up and successive follow-ups provide information about the incident from which
problems are identified and priorities for response operations established. Problems,
solutions, and priorities are the basis for evolving a strategy and for determining the best
control tactics to use.
The objectives of responding to a hazardous materials emergency are to:
• Prevent or reduce the loss of lives or injury to those involved in the incident,
including responders, or to those in the surrounding area who could be affected by
the hazards produced.
• Prevent or reduce loss of property or damage to property.
• Prevent or reduce the effects the incident could have on the environment.
IX. STRATEGY
Based upon the information that is initially available or that is subsequently obtained,
problems are identified and priorities for operations established. Tactics and options for
controlling the various conditions created by the incident are evaluated, along with expected
results. A strategy is then implemented to prevent or reduce the effects of the incident.
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In addition to determining the materials involved and their associated hazards, other factors
that need to be considered in establishing priorities are:
• need for immediate rescue or life-saving activities;
• protection of affected persons;
• responders' safety;
• protection of property;
• protection of the environment;
• fire or explosions (or potential for);
• potential for container failure;
• availability of necessary resources;
• availability of time;
• weather conditions.
The first priority that must be considered in developing a strategy (and concurrently the
tactics to go with them) involves protecting people. Subsequent priorities are for protecting
property and the environment.
A strategy must be developed to prevent, or if the incident has already occurred, minimize
the effects of:
• explosions;
• fires; and
• releases of chemicals from their containers which could result in;
explosions,
fire,
toxic hazards from liquids, solids, vapors, or gases,
corrosive and reactive hazards,
radiation hazards,
biological hazards.
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X. TACTICS
Once the problems associated with an incident have been identified and an overall strategy
developed, tactics are implemented. Tactics are the methods, procedures, and techniques
used to control the released materials, or in the case of a potential situation, preventing it
from being released.
The use of any tactic must be thoroughly evaluated. Various options may exist for
controlling a certain situation. The effectiveness of each needs to be decided and a
determination made whether a particular option is more beneficial than some other action,
or no action at all. In considering any tactic, a most important consideration is that its
outcome not contribute to the problem itself. In selecting any option, protecting the health
and safety of responders is also a factor.
In general, the tactics that are employed to prevent or reduce the hazards associated with
chemicals are:
• extinguishing fires and wetting areas,
• controlled burning or detonation,
• cooling containers (that heat may cause to explode or ignite),
• removing materials,
• plugging, patching, and other methods (containment) to keep materials in their
original containers,
• using dikes, berms, dams, and other techniques to confine spilled materials to the
smallest possible physical area,
• using various chemical and physical methods, for example, neutralization, absorption,
dilution, transfer, dispersion, solidification, and others to minimize hazards.
Other than removing people from an area that could be affected by the hazardous nature of
the incident, most tactics used to protect people also protect property and the environment.
The concept of incident control includes: suppressing the source; instituting appropriate and
effective measures to limit the various hazards associated with materials from happening;
isolating the materials and hazards to the smallest possible physical area; and removing
people from harms way.
A. Life Saving Operations
1. Rescue
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Based on information obtained during size-up of an incident, responders may
learn that civilians have been affected by a hazardous materials incident.
Response personnel may then have to plan for rescuing any affected or
endangered persons.
• Endangered Persons are those individuals directly involved in the
incident who are in immediate jeopardy and who because of injury
may not be able to leave the area of danger. These people will
require rescue.
• Affected Persons are those whose health and safety are "threatened".
They include people adjacent to the incident as well as those that are
subject to potential exposure to materials released in the air or surface
water. It may be necessary for responders to evacuate those people
who may be affected.
If rescue of trapped or injured persons is attempted, responders must be
certain that they do not take any undue risks. Responders should always
determine and evaluate the risk to themselves before a rescue of a victim is
attempted.
After determining that a rescue is appropriate, responders should be certain
that no first aid is given in the danger area. Rather, the rescued victim
should be removed from the danger area as quickly as possible. This will
ensure that the rescuers and the victim are not subjected further to the hazards
associated with hazardous materials.
2. Evacuation
A tactic for preventing loss of life or injury from airborne toxics, explosions
or fires is evacuation. If evacuation is needed, it should be implemented as
quickly as possible to allow for expected delays associated with people
attempting to leave an area. Responders must be certain that the persons to
be evacuated are not sent from an area of lesser danger to an area of greater
danger. For example, if a tank truck has spilled its hazardous cargo in an
area adjacent to a parking lot, people in the building should not be allowed
to leave the building to get their cars in the parking lot.
An alternative to evacuation in certain situations is staying inside -"shelter-in-
place". Shelter-in-place is generally a good action to take if there is a one-
time release, short duration release, or a very small release of hazardous
materials in the air. Shelter-in-place sometimes involves moving people to
an area of lesser danger within the building (e.g., to another wing).
Generally, determining whether shelter-in-place is an appropriate alternative
depends on the type of incident and the material involved. When responders
determine that shelter-in-place is appropriate, people inside a house or other
type of building should be advised to:
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• close all doors and windows;
• turn off heating, cooling or ventilation systems;
• stop using the fireplace, put out the fire and close the dampers; and
• listen to their local radio or TV stations for further
instructions.
If evacuation is determined to be the best way to protect the health and safety
of affected persons, responders must be sure that entry into the evacuated
area is restricted. Generally, local police are responsible for getting people
out of the danger area and maintaining security within the perimeter.
Conversely, the highway patrol and county sheriff might be responsible for
maintaining the perimeter. To a large degree, successful evacuations are
based upon having evacuation methods and responsibilities assigned in a
contingency plan.
Special considerations must be given to unique populations in the evacuation
area. Evacuation of hospitals, jails, and old age homes may require special
arrangements. Also, certain people in the evacuation area may be confined
to their home due to illness and/or disability and special evacuation
arrangements must be made for these people. To ensure that these unique
populations are evacuated safely and smoothly, responders must prepare a
standard evacuation plan that may be used for these populations. By pre-
planning an evacuation, responders will minimize the risks to the health and
safety of these populations.
B. Prevent Container Failure
1. Cool Containers
A tactic that can be used to reduce the probability of container failure because
it is on fire, or near a fire, is cooling the container. This is usually done by
applying large quantities of water to the container. Generally, a minimum of
500 gallons per minute must be applied at the point of flame impingement.
If there are several points of flame impingement, large quantities of water are
needed in order to apply 500 gallons per minute at each point of flame
impingement. Maintaining an adequate water supply may be difficult in areas
that do not have a domestic water supply. For example, in areas around
interstate highways and railroad yards, it may not be possible for responders
to have access to an adequate supply of water that can be applied at 500
gallons per minute at each point of flame impingement.
If an adequate supply of water is available, heavy streams should be applied
to the vapor space (the space in the container above the liquid), as well as the
point of flame impingement. When the flames are thick and heavy and the
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relief value is operating, it is likely that more and more of the product is
being released into the environment. As the level of the product in the
container goes down, greater vapor space is exposed. This vapor space, a
critical area in the tank, is generally the point at which failure of the
container will occur. Heavy streams of water must be applied to the vapor
space in order to prevent the container from failing.
When a container holding a hazardous product is on fire, or near a fire,
responders should also consider whether it may present an undue risk to
response personnel manning the cooling streams. If it is determined that the
risk is high, unmanned monitors should be used. The equipment should be
set up and then all response personnel should leave the danger area. If
unmanned monitors are used, it may only be necessary to enter the danger
area occasionally to check the equipment to ensure that it is operating
properly. There should not be a shut-off between the end of the nozzle and
the pump outlet. The pump operator need only open the line in order for
water to be sprayed on the burning hazardous material.
2. Use Stress Barriers
Stress barriers between the fire and containers might be used to prevent
container failure. Stress barriers absorb the radiant heat or prevent the
container from coming into contact with the flame.
3. Remove Uninvolved Materials
Another tactic is to remove containers (assuming they are mobile) that have
not been affected or are not involved in the fire. This tactic should be used
with extreme caution. For example, in some cases, individual containers,
having been exposed to fire, may have stabilizers that are driven away by the
heat. In other cases, the chemical in the product itself, once heated, may
cause the container to fail. Container failure may also be prevented by
removing tank cars containing a hazardous material from the danger area.
This can only be done by a railroad crew. Finally, it may be necessary to
cool a container after it is moved. For example, if a hazardous material
product remains in a container after it is moved, and the container is moved
out of the danger area, but into the sun, pressure inside the container may
continue to build up and a catastrophic failure may occur.
C. Contain or Confine the Hazard
1. Containment - Stop the Leak
Often, a leaking hazardous substance may be contained by stopping the leak
in a drum, tank, or other container. This can be accomplished by closing
values, plugging openings, or uprighting containers.
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When dealing with a pressurized storage tank, responders should approach the
tank from the sides. Most pressurized tanks have hemispherical heads which
are welded to the body, or sides, of the tank. There is a higher probability
of a failure in the heads, or ends, of the tank versus the side. Approaching
a tank from the sides, however, does not provide a guarantee that response
personnel will be protected. Extreme caution should be exercised in these
situations.
2. Confinement - Construct a Barrier
Another tactic that may be useful is to confine a substance by the construction
of barriers (dams, dikes or channels) to control run-off and to keep the
material from being spread over a larger physical area. If a great deal of dirt
or sand is used for constructing a containment dam, dike or
channel, responders should consider the problems associated with the disposal
of the now contaminated dirt and sand. The methods for confining and
containing a hazardous material are discussed in greater detail in Part 1 -
Confinement and Containment.
3. Remove Ignition Sources
Remove all potential ignition sources to prevent ignition of flammable
(explosive) vapors and gases. Removing all ignition sources is usually a very
difficult tactic to accomplish. If responders attempt this tactic, they should
start downwind and remove all sources of flame, heat, or spark. And to
protect themselves, responders should continually monitor the area to
determine the flammability hazard present. Also, to ensure that all ignition
sources are removed, responders will require additional assistance from public
utility personnel from the electric and gas companies.
4. Controlled Burning
Response personnel may start a controlled burn. Responders should be
careful to size-up a situation completely before attempting to ignite and burn
a hazardous material. Because of the serious threat posed to responders and
the public in the immediate area, responders should be careful to protect
themselves, the public and their equipment from this potentially dangerous
situation. Careful monitoring of the incident is therefore stressed. The
primary objective of a controlled ignition is to allow the majority of the
hazards in a hazardous material (e.g., Hydrogen cyanide) to be burned off so
that the subsequent cleanup involves only a minimal amount of hazardous
material. Often, if a hazardous material leak cannot be stopped immediately,
responders should consider, for example, igniting the material.
3/94 16
-------
RESPONSE OPERATIONS: SIZE-UP, STRATEGY, AND TACTICS
D. Extinguish Fires
1. Use Proper Extinguishing Agent
To extinguish burning hazardous materials, the proper extinguishing agent
must be used. Although straight water streams are effective for extinguishing
high flash point liquids such as kerosene and diesel fuel, water is generally
ineffective for extinguishing low flash point liquids such as gasoline. Low
flash point liquids may be extinguished with foam or dry chemicals. When
selecting the proper extinguishing agent, response personnel must be sure not
to mix incompatible agents. For example, foam and water are incompatible.
In some situations, water should be shut off prior to using any foam. If foam
and water are used at the same time, the fire may not be extinguished.
Moreover, the water may wash the foam away. Another example of
incompatible agents is foam and some dry chemical extinguishing agents.
These agents are effective only when used separately. If response personnel
are required to extinguish water reactive materials, dry powder (e.g.,
graphite) should be used. Generally, a dry powder agent is shoveled onto the
material to extinguish the fire. If an extinguisher containing this agent is
used, the responder must be careful not to spread the burning material.
Extreme caution should always be taken when using water for fire control.
If water reactive chemicals are present, extreme reactions can occur which
can escalate the severity of the incident.
2. Remove Fuel Supply/Remove Oxygen Source/Let Substance Burn
A second tactic that may be used to extinguish ignited materials is to remove
the fuel supply. To decrease the hazard, responders should consider closing
valves and plugging leaks, and, where appropriate, removing the fuel supply
from the danger area. This is an appropriate tactic for flammable liquids or
gas. Another tactic that may be used to extinguish ignited materials is the
removal of the Oxygen supply (i.e., smothering the hazardous material). For
certain hazardous materials, a fire may be effectively extinguished by
smothering the material with foam, sand, or dirt. Finally, responders may
extinguish ignited material by letting the substance burn itself out. For
example, for fires involving pesticides or poisonous gases, a tactic is to let
the substances burn themselves out, making certain that people are evacuated
from the area which may be effected by the "smoke" produced by the fire.
E. Exposure Protection
1. Protect Personnel, Equipment, and Vehicles
Responders should be careful to protect personnel, vehicles, and other
equipment during an incident. Protection of personnel from toxic exposures
to hazardous substances involves wearing proper chemical protective clothing
3/94 17
-------
RESPONSE OPERATIONS: SIZE-UP, STRATEGY, AND TACTICS
and respiratory equipment. Responders should stay away from potential fires
or explosions. A rest and rehabilitation area where responders can cool off
should be established. Heat stress can be a major problem. In situations
where decontamination of protective clothing is required, the rest and
rehabilitation area can be incorporated in the decontamination line. Protection
of personnel, equipment, and vehicles also involves approaching the danger
area from upwind or an angle other than downwind. If response personnel
can only approach the danger area from downwind, they will be at a
tremendous disadvantage and will have to place themselves and their vehicles
much further back. Generally, vehicles should be parked at a safe distance
away from the danger area with the engines shut off. All rest areas, vehicle
parking areas and other non-contaminated areas should continually be
monitored to ensure that individuals, equipment and vehicles have not been
placed in a potentially explosive or toxic area.
2. Tactical Withdrawal
Sometimes, responders may have to withdraw from an area to protect
personnel, equipment and vehicles. Withdrawal from a danger area must
always be considered a possibility and withdrawal plans should be prepared.
Response personnel should never be placed in a situation where they can get
trapped. Before entering an area, responders should plan withdrawal routes
to ensure a quick and safe exit in case the situation becomes dangerous and
requires withdrawal.
3. Explosion-Resistant Barriers
Explosion-resistant barriers can also be helpful in protecting personnel and
vehicles from chemicals, fire or radiant heat. Natural barriers such as ditches
and depressions may be helpful in protecting personnel. Response personnel
may be protected by making sure that the incident does not spread to other
materials. Because of the possibility of explosions, oftentimes, there may be
additional fires. Crews and resources should be standing by to handle this
possibility, and to prevent the fire from spreading.
3/94 18
-------
RESPONSE OPERATIONS: SIZE-UP, STRATEGY, AND TACTICS
XI. SUMMARY TO STRATEGY AND TACTICS
Based upon information obtained during size-up (defining problems and establishing
priorities), a control strategy is developed and tactics determined. Preplanning and
comprehensive emergency response plans are needed to make certain that necessary
personnel, training, and equipment is available. Effective emergency response plans will
ensure that response personnel are able to develop a strategy and implement tactics to
effectively control an incident. Strategy and tactics are developed using a very organized
decision-making process. Response personnel should:
• size-up the conditions present,
• define the problems,
• establish priorities,
• evaluate all of the possible courses of action and establish priorities. Use of standard
operating procedures (SOPs) and safety plans are very important at this point,
• determine the best course of action. Formulate a strategy and the tactics based on
what will be done, how will it be done, and expected results.
• Put the strategy in operation,
• review the results and modify the plan for any changes that might occur.
3/94 19
-------
Section 9
-------
LEVELS OF PROTECTION
PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lesson, participants will be able to:
• Given incident variables, 1) select the appropriate level of
protection and 2) describe the rationale for that selection
• Identify the four EPA levels of protection
• Identify the symptoms and emergency care for:
Heat-related emergencies
- Heat rash
Heat cramps
- Heat exhaustion
- Heat stroke
Cold-related emergencies
- Frostnip
- Frostbite
Hypothermia
• Identify three measures effective in preventing heat-
related emergencies
• Identify three measures effective in preventing cold-
related emergencies
• Describe how work function can affect the level of
personnel protection
• Describe how physical hazards can affect the integrity
of personal protective clothing.
3/94
-------
NOTES
LEVELS
OF
PROTECTION
P
SELECTION CONSIDERATIONS
Unknown vs. known conditions
Chemical hazard recognition
Physical hazard recognition
SELECTION CONSIDERATIONS
• Chemical concentration
• Work function
• Work location
3/94
Levels of Protection
-------
NOTES
SELECTION CONSIDERATIONS
• Weather conditions
• Training
EVELS OF
PROTECTION
LEVEL
PROTECTION!
LEVEL A PROTECTION
Used when:
• Unknown conditions exist
• Hazardous substance identified
requires the highest level of
protection
• Confined space operations are
performed
Levels of Protection
3/94
-------
NOTES
LEVEL A PROTECTION
Used when:
• High potential for splash or
immersion during operations
exists
• Potential for exposure to
unexpected skin hazards
exists
LEVEL A EQUIPMENT
• Fully encapsulating vapor or
gas-tight, chemical-resistant suit
• Positive-pressure, supplied-air
respirator
• Inner clothing
LEVEL A EQUIPMENT
• Chemical gloves, inner and
outer
• Chemical-resistant safety boots
• Two-way radio, inherently safe
3/94
Levels of Protection
-------
NOTES
OPTIONAL LEVEL A EQUIPMENT
• Outer suit, special hazard gloves, boot
covers
• Helmet or hard hat
• Cooling unit
LEVEL A SELECTION CRITERIA
• Conditions require skin to be protected
from hazardous chemical environment
* Highest level of eye and respiratory
protection required for conditions
ry^ LEVELS OF
^Sdr^ PROTECTION
LEVEL
B
PROTECTION
J
]
1
Levels of Protection
3/94
-------
NOTES
LEVEL B PROTECTION
Used when:
• Air contaminants are unknown
• Atmosphere is known; APR criteria
cannot be met
• IDLH conditions exist
LEVEL B PROTECTION
Used when:
• Less than 19.5% oxygen is present in
the atmosphere
• Direct contact with skin does not pose
a severe skin hazard
LEVEL B EQUIPMENT
« Positive-pressure, supplied-air
respirator
• Hooded, chemical-resistant suit
• Inner clothing
3/94
Levels of Protection
-------
NOTES
LEVEL B EQUIPMENT
Inner and outer chemical-resistant
gloves
Chemical-resistant safety boots
Two-way radio, inherently safe
OPTIONAL LEVEL B EQUIPMENT
• Splash hoods, boot covers,
special hazard gloves
• Helmets or hard hats with face
shields
• Encapsulating B suits
LEVEL B SELECTION CRITERIA
• Contaminants present would not be
harmful or absorbed by the skin
• Highest level of eye and respiratory
protection required
Levels of Protection
3/94
-------
NOTES
a
rj) LEVELS OF
-HC^.^ PROTECTIC
LEVEL
C
PROTECTION
DN
1
j
/
LEVEL C PROTECTION
Used when:
• Atmospheric contaminants, liquid
splashes, or other direct contact will
not adversely affect any exposed
skin
• Air contaminants have been
identified
LEVEL C PROTECTION
Used when:
• Air contaminants are monitored
• A canister is available that can remove
the contaminant
• All criteria for the use of
air-purifying respirators are met
3/94
Levels of Protection
-------
/VOTES
LEVEL C EQUIPMENT
• Full-face, air-purifying respirator with
appropriate canister
• Hooded, chemical-resistant suit
• Inner clothing
LEVEL C EQUIPMENT
• Inner and outer chemical-resistant
gloves
• Chemical-resistant safety boots
• Helmet or hard hat with face
shield
• Two-way radio, inherently safe
LEVEL C PROTECTION CRITERIA
• IDLH atmosphere does not exist
• Atmosphere contains at least 19.5%
oxygen
• APR criteria have been met
• Skin will not be adversely
affected by contaminants present
Levels of Protection
3/94
-------
LEVELS OF
PROTECTION
LEVEL
D
PROTECTION
LEVEL D PROTECTION
Used when:
• The atmosphere contains no known
hazard
• Work functions preclude splashes,
immersion, or potential for
unexpected inhalation or contact
with hazardous levels of any
chemicals
LEVEL D EQUIPMENT
• Work uniform, coveralls
• Gloves
• Safety boots or shoes
NOTES
3/94
Levels of Protection
-------
NOTES
OPTIONAL LEVEL D EQUIPMENT
• Helmet or hard hat
• Boot covers
• Safety glasses or goggles
• Escape mask
LEVEL D SELECTION CRITERIA
No potential for exposure to
liquid or solid contaminants
from site
No exposure to contaminated
atmospheres
f77) LEVELS OF PROTECTION
UJ~4£: — ^
Level A
Level B
Level C
Level D
Chemical Protective
Clothing
FES
Splash Suit
None
Respiratory
Protection
SAR
APR
None
Levels of Protection
3/94
-------
PROTECTIVE
EQUIPMENT
CONSIDERATIONS
HEAT
STRESS
TYPES OF HEAT STRESS
• Heat Rash
• Heat Cramps
• Heat exhaustion
• Heatstroke
HEAT RASH SYMPTOMS
Skin rash over affected area
Tingling sensation of affected
area
NOTES
3/94
Levels of Protection
-------
NOTES
HEAT CRAMP SYMPTOMS
0
• Cramps in extremities and abdomen
• Increase in respiration
• Increase in pulse rate
HEAT CRAMP SYMPTOMS
• Pale moist skin
• Normal body temperature
• Generalized weakness
HEAT EXHAUSTION SYMPTOMS
Syncope, headache, fatigue,
dizziness, nausea with occasional
abdominal cramps
Profuse sweating
Rapid and weak pulse
Levels of Protection
3/94
-------
NOTES
/
HEAT EXHAUSTION SYMPTOMS
• Rapid and shallow respirations
• Pale and clammy skin
• Body temperature normal or
decreased
• Irritability or restlessness
s\
)
/ /
HEAT STROKE SYMPTOMS
• HOT, DRY, FLUSHED skin
• Strong and bounding pulse
• May experience headache,
dizziness, dryness of mouth
}
/ A
HEAT STROKE SYMPTOMS J
• Seizures or coma may occur
• Airway maintenance may be a
problem
• A true medical emergency; seek
immediate medical assistance
3/94
Levels of Protection
-------
NOTES
AWyflfS PROTECTIVE
^y^y EQUIPMENT
o CONSIDERATIONS
-10
COLD ]
STRESS ]
/_
I
COLD EXPOSURE INJURIE
• Local
- Frostnip
- Superficial frostbite
- Deep frostbite
A
* J
/
FROSTNIP
A slight burning or painful
sensation of the skin around
the face, nose, earlobes,
hands, or feet
j
Levels of Protection
3/94
-------
NOTES
/
SUPERFICIAL FROSTBITE
_/l
J
• A white, waxy appearance of the
skin which has a firm sensation
with some resiliency
• Extremity will have a warm
sensation with noticeable pain
/ /
DEEP FROSTBITE
• Skin will have a very cold
appearance
• Extremities will be numb, pale,
firm, or hard
• Medical emergency; transport
1
/
COLD EXPOSURE INJURIES
• Systemic
- Hypothermia: A decrease in
the body's core temperature
to <95°F
J
3/94
Levels of Protection
-------
NOTES
HYPOTHERMIA SYMPTOMS
• Five stages
- Shivering
- Apathy, listlessness, sleepiness
- Unconsciousness
- Freezing of extremities
- Death
Levels of Protection
3/94
-------
LEVELS OF PROTECTION
TOPIC PAGE NO.
I. HEAT EXPOSURE 1
II. PREVENTION 1
A. GENERAL 1
B. ON-SITE/SCENE 2
III. HEAT RASH 2
A. SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS 2
B. EMERGENCY CARE 3
IV. HEAT CRAMPS 3
A. SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS 3
B. EMERGENCY CARE 4
V. HEAT EXHAUSTION 4
A. SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS 4
B. EMERGENCY CARE 5
VI. HEAT STROKE 5
A. SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS 5
B. EMERGENCY CARE 6
3/94
-------
LEVELS OF PROTECTION
HEAT
Good judgement is essential. Pace yourself by knowing your limitations. Avoid over exertion. You
are your best gauge for heat related emergencies. When in doubt, get out! This section will address
general information on heat related emergencies as well as signs and symptoms of heat related
conditions.
I. HEAT EXPOSURE
The human body stubbornly defends its constant core temperature of 98.6°F (37°C). To
maintain this constant temperature, heat loss must equal heat gain. If heat loss exceeds heat
gain, the body temperature will fall; conversely, if heat production exceeds heat loss, the
temperature will rise. In a heat related emergency the body's mechanism for temperature
regulation are overwhelmed. The body can no longer regulate core temperature and the core
temperature begins to rise. As this rise occurs, the body will begin to show the signs and
symptoms of heat related emergencies. The sequence of illness may start with Heat Cramps
and progress into a more severe case or may go straight to Heat Stroke. The degree of
illness will vary from person to person, depending on the nature of the exposure, physical
conditioning and inherited traits.
II. PREVENTION
A. General
1. Maintain good physical conditioning and control your blood pressure (avoid
weight gain, smoking, etc.).
2. Eat regularly and properly. Increase salt intake through food consumption
during the hot season or hot spells and avoid the use of salt tablets. Consult
a physician if you are on a salt restrictive diet.
3. Regulate Alcohol intake if you are going to be working in hot environments,
either from ambient conditions or through the wearing of Chemical Protective
Clothing.
4. Obtain basic First Aid and CPR training.
5. Participate in a yearly medical monitoring program. If you are on medication
or have a chronic medical history, consult a physician prior to working in a
hot environment.
3/94
-------
LEVELS OF PROTECTION
B. On Site/Scene
1. If you anticipate fieldwork, get acclimated and conditioned prior to working
in high temperatures. This process usually takes from 4-7 days.
2. Plan site work for cooler periods in the day, early morning or evening.
3. Take frequent short breaks. Open or remove protective clothing while on
break.
4. The Site Safety Plan should include a telephone number for the local hospital,
ambulance and rescue squad.
5. Drink cool water or an electrolyte solution while on the site/scene. Vary
your intake of both fluids. While working on site/scene drink 1 cup of
replacement fluid every 15 - 20 minutes. Remember that the sensation of
thirst is not a good gauge for the need for replacement fluids.
6. Work using the buddy system. Watch out for your buddy and fellow
workers. Look for the signs and symptoms of heat related emergencies.
Workers with heat related emergencies may have physiological as well as
physical problems. Workers may do unsafe things, make poor decisions, or
act hastily due to the situation.
7. If you experience the symptoms of heat related emergencies, STOP WORK,
notify your safety officer, or on-site supervisor, then go to a cool, shaded
area and rest. If the condition persists or worsens, consider seeking advance
medical care. If in doubt call for an ambulance.
8. Develop an on-site medical monitoring program following OSHA standards.
HI. HEAT RASH
Also known as prickly heat, this is a condition affecting the skin. This condition occurs in
situations where the skin remains wet most of the time. The sweat ducts become plugged
and a skin rash soon appears.
A. Signs and Symptoms
1. Skin rash over affected areas of the body.
2. Tingling or prickling sensation on the affected areas.
3/94
-------
LEVELS OF PROTECTION
B. Emergency Care
1. Take shower after working in heat.
2. Dry the skin thoroughly.
3. Change underwear as needed.
4. Stay in cool place after work hours.
5. Avoid repeated exposure to heated environment until condition improves,
when possible.
IV. HEAT CRAMPS
Heat Cramps are muscle pains, usually in the lower extremities, the abdomen, or both, which
occur secondary to profuse sweating with accompanying salt depletion. Heat Cramps most
often afflict people in good physical condition, who overwork in conditions of high
temperature and humidity. Untreated, Heat Cramps may progress to Heat Exhaustion.
Treatment of Heat Cramps is aimed at eliminating the exposure and restoring the loss of salt
and water.
A. Signs and Symptoms
1. Cramps in the extremities and abdomen which come on suddenly during
vigorous activity. Heat Cramps can be mild with only slight abdominal
cramping and tingling in the extremities, but more commonly present intense
and incapacitating pain in the abdomen and extremities.
2. Respiration rate will increase, decreasing after the pain subsides.
3. Pulse rate will increase.
4. Skin will be pale and moist.
5. Body temperature will be normal.
6. Loss of consciousness, airway maintenance are seldom problems with this
condition.
7. Generalized weakness will be noted as the pain subsides.
3/94
-------
LEVELS OF PROTECTION
B. Emergency Care
1. Move the worker to a cool environment. Have him lie down if he feels faint.
2. If the worker is not nauseated he may be given 1 or 2 glasses of an
electrolyte solution. Have the worker drink slowly. The use of salt tablets
is not recommended, as they may precipitate nausea.
3. If the worker is nauseated avoid giving anything by mouth until the nausea
subsides.
4. Avoid massaging the cramping muscles. This rarely helps and may actually
aggravate the pain.
5. As the salt and water level is replenished, the worker's pain will subside. He
may wish to return to work, however this is NOT recommended for a period
of 12 hours. Further exertion may lead to heat exhaustion or heat stroke.
V. HEAT EXHAUSTION
Heat exhaustion represents a somewhat more severe response to salt and water loss, as well
as an initial disturbance in the body's heat-regulating system. Like heat cramps, heat
exhaustion tends to occur in persons working in hot environments. Heat exhaustion is likely
in dehydrated and hypertensive people. Untreated Heat Exhaustion may progress to Heat
Stroke.
Treatment of heat exhaustion is similar in principle to that of heat cramps.
A. Signs and Symptoms
1. Heat Exhaustion may come on suddenly as SYNCOPE and collapse, or it
may be present with a headache, fatigue, dizziness, nausea with occasional
abdominal cramping.
2. Sweating will be profuse.
3. Pulse rate will be rapid and weak.
4. Respiration rate will be rapid and shallow.
5. The skin will be pale and clammy.
6. The body temperature will be normal or decreased.
7. The worker could be irritable and restless.
3/94
-------
LEVELS OF PROTECTION
8. Monitor the worker's level of consciousness and airway.
B. Emergency Care
1. Move the worker to a cool environment, take off as much of his clothing as
possible, place him in a supine position with his legs elevated.
2. Sponge the worker with cool water. If you fan the worker, avoid chilling.
When the body chills, the muscles generate energy. When the body shivers,
this energy is released in the form of heat and actually can increase the body
temperature.
3. If this is a true medical emergency, prompt intervention by Emergency
Medical Services is recommended.
VI. HEAT STROKE
Heat Stroke is caused by a severe disturbance in the body's heat-regulating mechanism and
is a profound emergency, with a mortality rate ranging from 25 to 50 percent. It is most
common in men over 40, especially in alcoholics. It can also occur in people of any age
having too much exposure to the sun or prolonged confinement in a hot atmosphere. Heat
stroke comes on suddenly. As the sweating mechanism fails, the body temperature begins
to rise precipitously, reaching 106°F (41°C) or higher within 10 to 15 minutes. If the
situation is not corrected rapidly, the body cells (especially the very vulnerable cells of the
brain) are literally cooked, and irreversible central nervous system damage occurs.
The treatment for Heat Stroke is aimed at maintaining vital functions and causing as rapid
a temperature fall as possible.
A. Signs and Symptoms
1. The worker's pulse will be strong and bounding.
2. The skin will be hot, dry and flushed.
3. The worker may experience headache, dizziness, and dryness of mouth.
4. Seizures and coma occur.
5. Loss of consciousness and airway maintenance problems can occur.
3/94
-------
LEVELS OF PROTECTION
B. Emergency Care
1. Establish an open airway.
2. Move the worker to a cool environment. Take off as much clothing as
possible, place him in a semi-reclining position with the head elevated.
3. Use any means to cool the worker. Improvise with whatever is available.
Remember, speed is essential; delay may result in permanent brain damage.
Vigorous efforts to cool the worker must continue until the body temperature
is below 102°F (38.9°C).
4. This is a true medical emergency, prompt intervention by Emergency Medical
Services is recommended.
These are only guidelines for the care of Heat Related Emergencies. Actual training in
emergency medical care or basic first aid is recommended.
3/94
-------
Section 10
-------
CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lesson, participants will be able to:
• Identify the three primary measures of chemical resistance in
protective clothing
• Describe the difference between limited use and reusable
chemical protective clothing
• List the four factors that can influence permeation
• Explain how the terms "permeation rate" and "breakthrough
time" apply to the evaluation of chemical protective clothing
• Explain how material thickness affects permeation rate
• Identify three National Consensus Standards that affect
protective clothing
• Describe two factors that should be considered before
chemical protective clothing is reused.
3/94
-------
NOTES
CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE
CLOTHING
PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
CONSIDERATIONS
• Durability
• Comfort
• Flexibility
• Temperature resistance
• Aging resistance
PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
CONSIDERATIONS
• Design
• Size
• Color
3/94
Chemical Protective Clothing
-------
NOTES
PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
CONSIDERATIONS
• Chemical resistance
- Penetration
- Degradation
- Permeation
CHEMICAL PENETRATION
The transport of a chemical through
design imperfections such as seams
or zippers
DEGRADATION
The breakdown of the protective
material due to the hazardous
chemical
Chemical Protective Clothing
3/94
-------
PERMEATION
The sorption of a chemical and
its subsequent transport through
the material on a molecular level
BREAKTHROUGH TIME
The time elapsed between initial contact
of a chemical with the outside surface
of a protective clothing material and the
time at which the chemical can be
detected at the inside surface of the
material
PERMEATION RATE
The rate at which a chemical moves
through protective clothing material
(expressed in terms of amount per
unit area per unit of time)
NOTES
3/94
Chemical Protective Clothing
-------
PERMEATION TEST CELL
Test liquid
Test gas
Material sample
/\
ASTM Method F-739-81
o
Fresh gas
Sample out
NOTES
Chemical Protective Clothing
3/94
-------
PROTECTIVE MATERIAL
DEGRADATION -EXAMPLE
So
Generic class
Alcohols
Aldehydes
Amines
Esters
Ethers
^-~
Butyl
Rubber
E
E-G
E-F
G-F
G-F
— — - _
PVC
E
G-F
G-F
P
G
/
Neoprene
E
E-G
E-G
G
E-G
Natural
Rubber
E
E-F
G-F
F-P
G-F
^^ "^ •
urce: Survey of Personal Protective Clothing. DOT, USCG (9174)
NOTES
3/94
Chemical Protective Clothing
-------
PERMEATION AND DEGRADATION
BREAKTHROUGH CHART
i
Acetaldehyde
Amyl alcohol
Chloroethane VG
Nitromethane
\_^-^
Manufacturers re
Nitrile NBR
Permeation
Rate
P
E
F
F
Permeation
Breakthrough
-
ND
2 hr.
30 min
Degradation
Rating
-
E
P
F
Neoprene
c
0
OJ 0)
Sts
E DC
<5
Q_
E
E
NR
E
Permeation
Breakthrough
30 min
6hr.
-
1 hr.
^^~^~~
Degradation
Rating
P
E
-
VG
Natural rubber
Permeation
Rate
E
E
NR
E
^
Permeation
Breakthrough
10 min
10 min
-
4 min
x- — -
Degradation
Rating
F
VG
-
E
presentative example
NOTES
Chemical Protective Clothing
3/94
-------
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
NON-ELASTOMERS
Materials that when stretched do not
normally return to their original shape
TYVEK'
Advantages
- Participate protection
- Inexpensive
- Disposable
Disadvantages
- Penetrable if not coated
- Not durable
POLYETHYLENE
Advantages
- Acids and bases
- Alcohols, phenols, and aldehydes
- Inexpensive
Disadvantages
- Halogenated hydrocarbons
- Aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons
- Physical properties
NOTES
3/94
Chemical Protective Clothing
-------
NOTES
SARANEX
Advantages
- Acids, amines, and some organics
- PCBs
- Inexpensive
Disadvantages
- Halogenated hydrocarbons
- Aromatic hydrocarbons
NOMEX®
Advantages
- Acid resistant
- Fire resistant
Disadvantages
- Penetrable (woven)
LEATHER
Advantages
- Durability
- Flexibility
- Cut resistance
Disadvantages
- Penetrable
- Will not release contamination
Chemical Protective Clothing
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NOTES
MATERIAL CONSTRUCTION
ELASTOMERS
Materials that when stretched will
usually return to their normal shape
and configuration
CHLORINATED POLYETHYLENE
(CPE) (CHLOROPEL®)
Advantages
- Aliphatic hydrocarbons
- Acids, bases, alcohols, and phenols
- Abrasion and ozone resistance
Disadvantages
- Amines, esters, and ketones
- Halogenated hydrocarbons
- Rigid at cold temperatures
POLYVINYL CHLORIDE
(PVC)
Advantages
- Acids and bases
- Some organics
- Amines and peroxides
- Low cost
Disadvantages
- Most organic compounds
- Poor cut and heat resistance
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Chemical Protective Clothing
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NOTES
NEOPRENE
Advantages
- Bases, peroxides, fuels, and oils
- Aliphatic hydrocarbons and alcohols
- Glycols and phenols
- Abrasion and cut resistance
Disadvantages
- Halogenated hydrocarbons
- Aromatic hydrocarbons
- Ketones and acids
BUTYL RUBBER
Advantages
- Bases and many organic compounds
- Heat and ozone resistant
- Releases contamination
- Resists gas permeation
BUTYL RUBBER
Disadvantages
- Aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons
- Gasoline
- Halogenated hydrocarbons
- Abrasion resistance
- High cost
- Duct tape degrades surface
Chemical Protective Clothing
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NOTES
NATURAL RUBBER
Advantages
- Alcohols
- Dilute acids and bases
- Flexibility
- Inexpensive
Disadvantages
- Organic compounds
- Poor aging resistance
- Ozone degrades
NITRILE RUBBER
Advantages
- Phenols, PCBs, oils, and fuels
- Alcohols, amines, bases, and
peroxides
- Flexibility
Disadvantages
- Aromatic hydrocarbons
- Halogenated hydrocarbons
- Amines, ketones, and esters
VITON w
(Fluoroelastomer)
Advantages
- Aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons
- Acids
- Releases contamination
Disadvantages
- Aldehydes, ketones, and esters
- Amines
- Expensive
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Chemical Protective Clothing
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NOTES
POLYVINYL ALCOHOL
(PVA)
Advantages
- Almost all organics
Disadvantages
- Esters, ethers, acids, and bases
- Degraded by water (dissolves)
- Poor flexibility
- Expensive
TEFLON®
(Fluorocarbon)
Advantages
- Almost all chemicals
- Cleans easily
- Chemfab suit is all fluorocarbon
Disadvantages
- Teflon/Nomex - Carbon disulfide
- Dichloromethane
- Holds all creases; expensive
BLENDS AND LAYERS
Neoprene and latex gloves
Viton/Neoprene FES, MSA Vautex, Draeger
Viton/Butyl FES, Trellborg
PVC/Nitrile boots
PVC/Paracril splash suits
Chemical Protective Clothing
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PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
• Check suit prior to entry
• Test suit
- Prior to use
- After use
- Semiannually or annually
PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Suit test criteria
- Authority
- OSHA 1910.120
- NFPA 1991,1992
Always follow the manufacturers
recommended maintenance, storage, and
testing procedures
NOTES
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Chemical Protective Clothing
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CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
TOPIC PAGE NO.
I. INTRODUCTION 1
II. CLASSIFICATION OF CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING 1
A. STYLE 1
1. FULLY ENCAPSULATING SUITS (FES) 1
2. NON-ENCAPSULATING SUITS 2
B. PROTECTIVE MATERIAL 2
1. ELASTOMERS 2
2. NON-ELASTOMERS 2
C. SINGLE-USE SUITS 2
III. PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS FOR CHEMICAL
PROTECTIVE CLOTHING 3
A. CHEMICAL RESISTANCE 3
B. DURABILITY 3
C. FLEXIBILITY 3
D. TEMPERATURE RESISTANCE 3
E. SERVICE LIFE 3
F. CLEANABILITY 3
G. DESIGN 3
H. SIZE 4
I. COLOR 4
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CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
J. COST 4
IV. CHEMICAL RESISTANCE 4
V. PROTECTIVE MATERIALS 10
A. ELASTOMERS 10
B. NON-ELASTOMERS 13
VI. SELECTING CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING 14
VII. PHYSICAL STRESS 16
VIII. INSPECTION OF PROTECTIVE CLOTHING 17
A. INSPECTION PROCEDURES 17
B. RECORDS ON SUIT'S INSPECTION, USE CONDITION, AND
REPAIR STATUS 18
IX. PERSONAL COOLING DEVICES 19
A. INTRODUCTION 19
B. EXTERNAL COOLANT SYSTEMS 19
1. COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS 19
2. LIQUID-COOLED DEVICES 21
C. SELF-CONTAINED SYSTEMS 21
1. ICE VESTS/JACKETS 21
2. CIRCULATING SYSTEMS 22
D. SUMMARY 23
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CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
APX. I PERMEATION REFERENCES 25
APX. II. DONNING AND DOFFING FES AND SCBA 27
I. INTRODUCTION 27
II. DONNING 27
III. DOFFING ; 29
IV. ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS 29
APX. Ill NFPA-CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING STANDARD
SUMMARY 31
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CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
I. INTRODUCTION
Chemical protective clothing (CPC) is worn to prevent harmful chemicals from coming in
contact with the skin (or eyes). It provides a barrier between the body and chemicals which
have a detrimental effect on the skin or which can be absorbed through the skin affecting
other organs. Used with respiratory protection, properly selected chemical protective
clothing can protect personnel who must work in a hostile chemical environment from injury.
Protecting workers against skin exposure requires using the most effective chemical
protective clothing. Of primary importance is selecting clothing made from a material which
is most resistance to the attack chemical. The style of clothing is also important and depends
on whether the attack substance is in the air or skin exposure will be from splash or direct
contact with solids or semi-solids. Other selection criteria which should be considered
include the probability of being exposed, ease of decontamination, mobility while wearing
clothing, durability of clothing, and to a lesser degree, cost.
A variety of manufactured materials exists which are used to make the fabric for chemical
protective clothing. Each of these materials provides a degree of skin protection against a
range of chemicals. But no one material affords maximum protection against all chemicals.
The chemical protective clothing selected.must be made from a material which affords the
greatest deterrent against the chemicals known or expected to be encountered.
Properly selected chemical protective clothing can minimize risk of exposure to chemical
substances, but may not protect against physical hazards, i.e. fire, radiation, electrical. The
use of other personal protective equipment must also be determined for a complete ensemble.
Head protection is provided by hard hats; eye and face protection by goggles or impact
resistant lenses in spectacles; hearing protection by earmuffs or earplugs; and foot protection
by impact resistant and chemically-resistant boots.
II. CLASSIFICATION OF CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
Chemical protective clothing is classified by style, protective material from which the fabric
is made, and whether the clothing is single use (disposable).
A. Style
Fully Encapsulating Suits (FES): Fully encapsulating, chemical protective
clothing is a one piece garment that completely encloses the wearer. Boots,
gloves and facepiece are an integral part of the suit, but may be removed.
If removable they are connected to the suit by devices that provide a vapor
or gas proof seal.These are gas tight suits and must be periodically pressure
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CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
tested to insure integrity.
Respiratory protection and breathing air is provided to the wearer by a
positive-pressure, self-contained breathing apparatus worn under the suit, or
by an air-line respirator which maintains a positive-pressure inside the suit.
Fully encapsulating suits are primarily for protecting the wearer against toxic
vapors, gases, mists, or particulates in air. Concomitantly, they protect
against splashes of liquids. The protection they provide against a specific
chemical depends upon the material from which they are constructed.
2. Non-Encapsulating Suits: Non-encapsulating chemical protective clothing
(frequently called splash suits) does not have a facepiece as an integral part
of the suit. A positive pressure self-contained breathing apparatus or air-line
respirator is worn outside the suit, or an air-purifying respirator is used.
Splash suits are of two types: a one-piece, "coverall" or a two piece, "pants
and coat". Either type may include a hood and other accessories.
Non-encapsulating suits are not designed to provide maximum protection
against vapors, gases, or other airborne substances but against splashes. In
effect, splash suits can be made (by taping wrist, ankle and neck joints) to
totally enclose the wearer such that no part of the body is exposed but they
still are not considered to be gas tight. They may be an acceptable substitute
for a fully encapsulating suit if the concentration of airborne contamination
is low and the material is not extremely toxic to the skin.
B. Protective Material
Chemical protective clothing also is classified based on the material from which it is
made. All materials fall into two general categories, elastomers and non-elastomers.
1. Elastomers: polymeric (plastic-like) materials, that after being stretched,
return to about their original shape. Most protective materials are elastomers.
These include: Poly vinyl chloride, Neoprene, Polyethylene, Nitrile,
Poly vinyl alcohol, Viton, Teflon, Butyl rubber and others. Elastomers may
be supported (layered on to cloth-like material) or unsupported.
2. Non-elastomers: materials that do not have the quality of stretchability.
Non-elastomers include Tyvek, Tyvek coated garments and other materials.
C. Single-Use Suits
A third classification is single use or disposable garment. This classification is
relative and based on cost, ease of decontamination and quality of construction.
Disposable chemical protective clothing is commonly considered to be less than
$25.00 per garment. In situations where decontamination is a problem, more
expensive clothing may be considered disposable.
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CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
III. PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS FOR CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
A number of performance requirements must be considered in selecting the appropriate
protective material. Their relative importance is determined by the particular work activity
and site specific conditions.
A. Chemical Resistance: The ability of a material to withstand chemical and physical
change. A material's chemical resistance is the most important performance
requirement. The material must maintain its structural integrity and protective
qualities upon contact with a hazardous substance. This requirement is discussed in
detail in Section IV.
B. Durability: The ability to withstand wear. The ability to resist punctures, abrasions,
and tears. The materials' inherent strength.
C. Flexibility: The ability to bend or flex; pliable. It is extremely important both for
glove and full-body suit materials, for it directly impacts the worker's mobility,
agility, and range of motion.
D. Temperature Resistance: The ability of a material to maintain its chemical resistance
during temperature extremes (especially heat), and to remain flexible in cold weather.
A general tendency for most materials is that higher temperatures reduce their
chemical resistance; lower temperatures reduce flexibility.
E. Service Life: The ability of a material to resist aging and deterioration. Factors such
as chemicals, extreme temperatures, moisture, ultraviolet light, oxidizing agents, and
others decrease a material's service life. Storage away from and proper care against
these conditions can help prevent aging. Manufacturers should be consulted
regarding any recommendations on a suit's shelf-life.
\
F. Cleanability: The ability to effectively decontaminate protective materials.
Cleanability is a relative measure of the ability of a material to release the contact
substance. Some materials are nearly impossible to decontaminate, so it may be
important to cover those materials with disposable garments to prevent gross
contamination.
G. Design: The way a suit is constructed which includes the general type and specific
features it has. A variety of suit styles and features are manufactured including:
1. Fully encapsulating or non-encapsulating
2. One, two, or three piece suits
3. Hoods, facepieces, gloves, and boots (attached or unattached)
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CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
4. Location of zipper, buttons, storm flaps, and seams
(front, side and back)
5. Pockets, cloth collars, and velcro straps
6. Exhalation valves or ventilation ports
7. Ease of compatibility with wearing respiratory protection
H. Size: The physical dimensions or proportions of clothing. Size is directly related to
comfort and influences the number of unnecessary physical accidents. Ill-fitting
clothing limits a worker's mobility, dexterity and concentration. Manufacturers offer
standard sizes in boots and gloves for both men and women, however standard suit
sizes for women are not available.
I. Color: Brightly colored suit material make it easier to maintain visual contact
between personnel. Suits of darker colors (black, green) absorb radiant heat from
external sources and transfer it to the worker increasing heat related problems.
J. Cost: The cost of chemical protective clothing varies considerably. Cost will often
play a role in the selection and frequency of use of CPC. In many situations, less
expensive, single use garments are more appropriate and as safe as more costly
clothing. Other situations require high quality, costly clothing which may have to be
discarded after limited use.
IV. CHEMICAL RESISTANCE
The effectiveness of materials to protect against chemicals is based on their resistance to
penetration, degradation, and permeation. Each of these properties must be evaluated when
selecting the style of chemical protective clothing and the material from which it is made. In
choosing protective materials:
A. There is no protective material that is impermeable.
B. There is no one material that affords protection against all chemicals, and
C. For certain contaminants and chemical mixtures there are no materials available that
will protect for more than an hour after initial contact.
Penetration is the transport of chemicals through openings in a garment. A chemical may
penetrate due to design or garment imperfections. Stitched seams, button holes, pinholes,
zippers, and woven fabrics can provide an avenue for the chemical to penetrate the garment.
A well designed and constructed garment prevents this by using self-sealing zippers, seams
overlaid with tape, flap closures, and non-woven fabrics. Rips, tears, punctures, or
abrasions to the garment also allow penetration.
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CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
Degradation is a chemical action involving the molecular breakdown of the material due to
chemical contact. Degradation is evidenced by physical changes to the material. The action
may cause the material to shrink or swell, become brittle or soft, or completely change its
chemical properties. Other changes may be a slight discoloration, rough or gummy surface,
or cracks in the material. Such changes may enhance permeation or allow penetration by the
contaminant.
Degradation test data for specific chemical or generic classes of chemical (Table 1, page 6)
is available from product manufacturers, suppliers, or other sources. The published data
provides the user with a general degradation resistance rating. The rating is subjectively
expressed as excellent, good, fair, or poor. Degradation data can help in assessing the
protective capability of a material but should not replace permeation test data. The reason
for this is that a material with excellent degradation resistance can have poor permeation
properties. Degradation and permeation are not directly related and cannot be used
interchangeably. The manufacturer should be consulted by the user to determine on which
degradation changes the rating is based.
Permeation is a chemical action involving the movement of chemicals, on a molecular level,
through intact material. Permeation is a process which involves the sorption of the chemical
on the outside surface, diffusion through, and desorption of the chemical from the inside
surface of the protective material. A concentration gradient (high on the outside: low on the
inside) is established. Because the tendency is to achieve concentration equilibrium,
molecular forces "drive" the chemical into the material toward the area of no or lower
concentration. Eventually the highest flow of permeating chemical exists and is referred to
as the steady flow state.
Permeation is measured as a rate. Permeation rate is the quantity of chemical that will move
through an area of protective material in a given time. It is usually expressed in micrograms
of chemical permeated per square centimeter per minute of exposure (ug/cm2/min). Several
factors influence the rate of permeation including the type of material and thickness. A
general rule of thumb is that the permeation rate is inversely proportional to the thickness (2
x thickness = 1/2 x permeation rate). Other important factors are chemical concentration,
contact time, temperature, material grade, humidity, and solubility of the material in the
chemical.
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CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
TABLE 1
EFFECTIVENESS OF PROTECTIVE MATERIALS AGAINST
CHEMICAL DEGRADATION (BY GENERIC CLASS)1
Generic Class
Alcohols
Aldehydes
Amines
Esters
Ethers
Halogenated hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons
Inorganic acids
Inorganic bases and salts
Ketones
Natural fats and oils
Organic acids
Butyl
Rubber
E
E-G
E-F
G-F
G-F
G-P
F-P
G-F
E
E
G-F
E
Polyvinyl
Chloride
E
G-F
G-F
P
G
G-P
F
E
E
P
G
E
Neoprene
E
E-G
E-G
G
E-G
G-F
G-F
E-G
E
G-F
E-G
E
Natural
Rubber
E
E-F
G-F
F-P
G-F
F-P
F-P
F-P
E
E-F
G-F
E
1
KEY = E-Excellent
G - Good
F - Fair
P - Poor
Source: Survey of Personal Protective Clothing and Respiratory Apparatus. DOT,
USCG, Office of Research and Development (September, 1974). Of material and
thickness, a general rule of thumb is that the permeation rate is inversely proportional to
the thickness (2 x thickness - 1/2 x permeation rate). Other important factors are
chemical concentration, contact time, temperature, material grade, humidity, and
solubility of the material in the chemical.
Another measure of permeation is breakthrough time, expressed in minutes. Breakthrough is the
elapsed time between initial contact of a chemical with the outside surface and detection at the
inside surface of the material. Like permeation rate, breakthrough time is chemical specific for
a particular material and is influenced by the same factors. A rule of thumb concerning
breakthrough time is that it is directly proportional to the square of the thickness (2 x thickness
= 4 x break-through time).
Permeation and breakthrough test data is available from manufacturers which gives specific rates
and times (Table 2, page 7). A given manufacturer's recommendations serve as a relative
guideline to properly selecting their products. This data is obtained using the American Society
for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standard test method F739-81. Although ASTM has a
standard method for permeation testing, considerable variation exists between manufacturer's test
data. The differences are due to material thickness and grade, manufacturing processes,
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CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
temperature, chemical concentrations, and analytical detection method. Therefore, caution should
be used when comparing different manufacturers results. The results for the same
material/chemical combination will differ considerably between manufacturers. ASTM also has
test methods for penetration and degradation resistance.
TABLE 2
PERMEATION/DEGRADATION RESISTANCE FOR EDMONT GLOVES*
Acetone
Cellosolve Acetate
Dimethyl Sulfoxide
(DMSO)
Hydrofluoric Acid,
48%
Propyl Acetate
Toluene
1 , 1 , 1-Trichloroethane
Nitrile NBR
Permeation Rate
NR
F
E
E
F
F
F
Permeation Breakthrough
-
1.5 hr.
<4hr.
2hr.
20 min.
10 min.
1.5 hr.
Degradation Rating
-
G
VG
-
G
F
P
Neoprene
c
mSS^SSSm
B
G
E
E
P
NR
NR
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CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
The best protective material against a specific chemical is one that has a low permeation rate
(if any) and a long breakthrough time. However, these properties do not always correlate.
Compare Propyl acetate (Table 2, page 7) and 1,1,1-Trichloromethane against Nitrile NBR
or Dimethyl sulfoxide and Methyl alcohol against Neoprene. As indicated, a long
breakthrough time does not always correlate with a low permeation rate or vice versa. A
long breakthrough time is usually desired.
The literature on material testing also notes that permeation rates and breakthrough times are
not tested for those materials which receive a poor degradation rating; only breakthrough
time is measured for those chemicals (especially corrosives) which are known to be direct
skin hazards. The data also reflects the testing of pure substances and not mixtures.
In addition to the manufacturer's chemical resistance data, the best general reference for
selection of CPC is Guidelines For The Selection Of Chemical Protective Clothing. ACGIH
(1985). This reference compiles degradation and permeation test data from manufacturers,
vendors, and independent laboratories with recommendations for over 300 chemicals. Table
3, page 9 illustrates information presented in this particular reference. Further selection
information is also available on computer data bases.
Specific chemicals are rated against a variety of protective materials. The ratings (RR, rr,
NN, nn) are based on two criteria; breakthrough times and vendor chemical resistance data.
Each rating represents a combination of performance, number of sources confirming that
performance, and consistency of the data. The number and size of the letters indicate this.
The available test data and recommendations for all chemical protective clothing is extremely
limited in scope and use. The user must consider these restrictions when selecting CPC and
use the guidelines in the way they were intended to be used.
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VO
TABLE 3
GUIDELINES FOR THE SELECTION OF CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING (ACGIH)
Inorganic Salts
Inorganic Salts (34)
Ammonium Fluoride
Ammonium Fluoride, 30-70%
Ammonium Sulfate
Arsenic Trichloride
Bromine Trifluoride
Calcium Chloride
Calcium Hypochlorite
Copper Chloride
Copper Sulfate
Cupric Chloride
Cupric Sulfate
Ferric Chloride
r
r
r
r
r
r
n
n
rr
R
R
R
n
n
n
n
r
rr
R
R
R
r
R
R
R
R
r
r
r
r
r
r
rr
r
r
r
r
r
r
rr
R
R
R
r
R
R
R
R
n
n
NEOP+NAT RUB (r)
POLYURETHANE (r)
POLYURETHANE (r)
POLYURETHANE (r)
POLYURETHANE (r)
POLYURETHANE (r)
POLYURETHANE (r)
POLYURETHANE (r)
POLYURETHANE (r)
NOTE: Numbers in parentheses are chemical class codes — see Table 8.1 and Appendix B.
recommendation codes (e.g. RR, R, NN, etc.) see Table 8.3.
For explanation of
Source: Arthur D. Little, Inc.
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CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
V. PROTECTIVE MATERIALS
There are a wide variety of protective materials. The following is a list of the more common
materials used in CPC segregated as elastomers or non-elastomers. The elastomers are not
listed in any particular priority. The classes of chemicals rated as "good for" or "poor for"
represent test data for both permeation breakthrough and permeation rate. They are general
recommendations; there are many exceptions within each chemicals class. Sources consulted
for this information included Guidelines for the Selection of Chemical Protective Clothing
(ACGIH< Vol. 1, 1985) and manufacturer's literature.
A. Elastomers
Butyl Rubber
Good for: bases and many organics heat and ozone resistance
decontamination
Poor for: aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons
Gasoline
halogenated hydrocarbons abrasion resistance
Chlorinated Polyethylene: (Cloropel®, CPE)
Good for: aliphatic hydrocarbons
acids and bases
alcohols, phenols
abrasion and ozone
Poor for: amines, esters, ketones
halogenated hydrocarbons
cold temperature (becomes rigid)
Natural Rubber: (Polyisoprene)
Good for: alcohols
dilute acids and bases flexibility
Poor for: organic chemicals
aging (affected by ozone)
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CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
Neoprene: (Chloroprene)
Good for: bases and dilute acids
peroxides
fuels and oils
aliphatic hydrocarbons
alcohols
glycols
phenols
abrasion and cut resistance
Poor for: halogenated hydrocarbons
aromatic hydrocarbons
ketones
concentrated acids
Nitrile Rubber: (Acrylonitrile rubber, Buna-N, NBR, Hycar, Paracril, Krynac)
Good for: phenols
PCBs
oils and fuels
alcohols
amines
bases
peroxides
abrasion and cut resistance flexibility
Poor for: aromatic & halogenated hydrocarbons
amides
ketones
esters
cold temperature
Note: The higher the Acrylonitrile concentration, the
better the chemical resistance; but also increases
stiffness.
Polyurethane:
Good for: bases
aliphatic hydrocarbons
alcohols
abrasion resistance
flexibility - especially at cold temperatures
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CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
Poor for:
halogenated hydrocarbons
Polvvinvl Alcohol: (PVA)
Good for:
Poor for:
almost all organics ozone resistance
esters
ethers
acids and bases
water and water solutions flexibility
Polvvinvl Chloride: (PVC)
Good for:
Poor for:
acids and bases
some organics
amines, peroxides
most organic compounds
cut and heat resistance decontamination
Viton:
Good for:
Poor for:
aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons
halogenated hydrocarbons
acids
decontamination
physical properties
aldehydes
ketones
esters (oxygenated solvents) amines
Teflon:
Teflon has become available for chemical protective suits. Limited permeation test
data is published on teflon. Teflon, similar to Viton, is thought to afford excellent
chemical resistance against most chemicals.
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CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
Blends/Layers
CPC Manufacturers have developed a technique of layering materials to improve chemical
resistance. Essentially one suit is designed with multiple layers. Some examples of layered
fully encapsulating suits are Viton/Butyl (Trelleborg), Viton/Neoprene (MSA Vautex and
Draeger), and Butyl/Neoprene (MSA Betex).
B. Non-Elastomers
Ty_vek®: (non-woven Polyethylene fibers)
Good for:
Poor for:
Recommendations:
dry paniculate and dust protection decontamination
(disposable) lightweight
chemical resistance (penetration/degradation)
durability
Used against toxic particulates but provides no
chemical protection; worn over other CPC to
prevent gross contamination of non-disposable
items and under suits to replace cotton.
Polyethylene: (coated Tyvek®)
Good for:
Poor for:
Recommendation:
acids and bases
alcohols
phenols
aldehydes
decontamination (disposable)
lightweight
halogenated hydrocarbons
aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons
physical properties (durability) penetration
(stitched seams)
Provides limited chemical protection against
concentrated liquids and vapors. Useful against
low concentrations and those activities which do
not create a high risk of splash; also worn over
CPC to prevent gross contamination of non-
disposables. The disposable poly considered
"inner liners" and assist decontamination
procedures.
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CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
Saranex®: (laminated Tyvek®)
Good for:
Poor for:
Recommendation:
acids and bases
amines
some organics
PCBs
decontamination (disposable)
lightweight
durability
halogenated hydrocarbons
aromatic hydrocarbons
stitched seams (penetration may occur)
Provides greater chemical resistance and overall
protection compared to Polyethylene coated
Tyvek®; used to prevent contamination of non-
disposable clothing.
VI. SELECTING CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
Selecting the most effective chemical protective clothing is easier when the chemical for
which protection is necessary is known. Selection becomes more difficult when the presence
of chemicals is unknown, multiple chemicals (known or unknown) are involved, or an
unidentifiable substance is present. As uncertainties about the substances involved increases,
selecting the proper clothing becomes more difficult.
Another major difficulty in selection is that there is not enough available information
concerning the protective qualities of commonly used protective materials against the wide
range of chemicals that could be encountered.
The selection process consists of:
;
Deciding that workers must be in an environment where they could be exposed.
Identifying the chemical involved and determining its physical, chemical, and
toxicological properties.
Deciding whether, at the concentrations known or expected, the substance is a skin
hazard.
Selecting protective material which provides the least permeation and degradation for
the longest period of time.
Determining whether a fully encapsulating suit or a non-encapsulating is required.
3/94
14
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CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
In those incidents where the presence of hazardous substances is not known or they can not
be readily identified there are usually clues which can assist in choosing the style of clothing.
Observations which could indicate wearing fully encapsulating suits are:
visible emissions of gases, vapors, dust or smoke.
indications of airborne hazards on direct-reading instruments.
configurations of containers or vehicles which indicate they contain gases or
pressurized liquids.
signs, labels, placards, or bills of lading indicating substances that could become
airborne and are toxic to the skin.
enclosed, poorly ventilated areas where toxic vapors, gases and other airborne
substances could accumulate.
work functions required might expose workers to high concentrations of skin toxics.
Unknown situations require considerable judgement as to whether maximum protection to the
skin (fully encapsulating clothing) is necessary, or whether splash suits are appropriate.
After determining the type of protective garment to be worn, the next step is to select the
protective material. Vendors or manufacturers of materials used to make chemical protective
materials can sometimes (but not always) supply information concerning their product's
chemical resistance and make recommendations about what chemicals it is good for. The
number of chemicals their product is tested against may be limited, for they can not test
against the 1000's of chemicals that exist.
Permeation is the primary selection criteria. The best protective material against a specific
chemical would be one that has a very low permeation rate (if any), and a long breakthrough
time, and has been constructed free of design imperfections.
Less useful information is degradation. This is usually a qualitative determination of a
materials ability to standup under the attack of a chemical, usually expressed in subjective
units of excellent, good, poor, or similar terms. Degradation data can help in assessing the
protective capability of a materials, if no other data is available.
However, a fabric with good degradation resistance may be very permeable to the same
chemical. Permeation and degradation are not directly related and cannot be used
interchangeably. In those situations where a protective material can not be chosen because
of uncertainty of the attack substance, there are some reasonable options.
1. Select a protective material which protects against the greatest range of chemicals.
These are generally garments made from Butyl rubber, Viton, or Teflon. Chemicals
against which these materials (or other materials) do not provide protection could
possibly be eliminated as not being present.
2. Clothing made of multiple protective material could be used. Garments consisting
of Butyl-Viton, Neoprene-Viton, and Neoprene-Butyl are manufactured. If not
commercially available, two garments made of different material could be worn with
a disposal type garment on the outside.
3/94 15
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CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
Whether fully encapsulating or non-encapsulating clothing should be worn may not be self-
evident. If based on an assessment of the situation it is determined that either style would
provide effective protection other factors to consider would be:
Ease in wearing: Non-encapsulating suits are easier to wear. Wearers are
less prone to accidents for they have better visibility and the clothing are less
cumbersome.
Communications: It is more difficult to communicate in fully encapsulating suits.
Decontamination: Fully encapsulating suits protect self-contained breathing
apparatus, which are difficult to decontaminate, from being contaminated.
Heat stress: Non-encapsulating clothing generally causes less heat stress. However
as less area of the body is
exposed by wearing gloves and hoods and taping hoods to respirator masks, there is
little difference in the heat build-up of either style.
VII. PHYSICAL STRESS
Wearing chemical protective clothing can cause problems. These involve heat stress,
accident proneness, and fatigue. The major problem is heat stress caused by protective
clothing interfering with the body's ability to cool itself. Clothing that provides a barrier
against chemicals contacting the skin, prevents the efficient dissipation of body heat.
Evaporation, the body's primary cooling mechanism is reduced, since ambient air is not in
contact with the skin's surface. Other heat exchange mechanisms (convection and radiation)
are also impeded. Additional strain is put on the body as it attempts to maintain it's heat
balance. This added stress can result in health effects ranging from transient heat fatigue to
serious illness or death.
The smaller the area of the body exposed to the air, the greater the probability for heat
stress. Fully encapsulating suits allow no ambient air to contact the skin's surfaces to aid in
the evaporation of moisture. Heat in these suits builds up quickly. Splash suits may allow
more body surface (head, neck, and hands) to be cooled by the air, but if those areas are
covered by hoods, gloves and respirators and the joints taped, the same conditions will exist
as if wearing a fully encapsulating suit. Heat-related problems become more common as the
ambient temperature rises above 70°F., but can occur at much lower temperatures. Although
wearing protective clothing establishes conditions that are conducive to heat-related illness,
individuals vary in their susceptibility to heat stress and their ability to withstand high
temperatures.
Accident proneness also increases when wearing chemical protective clothing. Suits are
heavy, cumbersome, decrease mobility and dexterity, lessen visual and audio acuity, and
increase physical exertion. The severity of the problems depend on the style of clothing
worn. These negative qualities increase the risk of common accidental injury, for example
slips, falls, or being struck.
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CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
Increased physical exertion caused by working in protective clothing can in itself cause
problems. Worker performance may decrease due to increased fatigue levels. Other more
serious illnesses such as stroke or heart attack could occur.
To minimize the adverse effects of physical stress, workers wearing protective clothing must
change their normal work regimen. A medical surveillance program, including baseline
physicals and routine medical monitoring, should be instituted. Personnel must be allowed
to acclimatize to stressful environmental factors by varying work and rest periods as needed.
Projects should be scheduled for cooler periods of the day when possible. The intake of
fluids must be maintained at levels to prevent dehydration, and body electrolytes replaced
through added salting at mealtimes. Compensatory efforts such as these must be established
as part of Standard Operating Safety Procedures on a site-specific basis to reduce the risks
associated with wearing protective clothing.
VIII. INSPECTION OF PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
Before wearing chemical protective clothing it must be properly inspected. The following
is a checklist for visually inspecting all types of chemical protective suits. Chemical suits
should be inspected immediately before use and monthly when not in use.
A. Inspection Procedures:
- Spread suit out on a flat surface.
- Examine the outside for the following:
~ fabric for abrasions, cuts, holes, or tears
-- fabric has retained the original flexibility and durability
- seams for separations, or holes
~ zippers, buttons, storm flaps, and other connecting devices for proper sealing
and operation
— signs of previous chemical attack or incomplete decontamination (unusual
discoloration, rough surface, gummy feeling, cracks)
-- elastic around wrists and ankles and the draw strings on hoods are in good
condition (if applicable)
— Fully encapsulating suits require additional inspection which include (if
applicable):
-- Exhalation valves (positive pressure) for debris and proper functioning.
3/94 17
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CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
- Suit facepiece for poor visibility (cuts, scratches, dirt) and an adequate
facepiece to suit seal.
- Presence and condition of waist belts, velcro adjustments (head and hips), and
ankle straps.
~ Condition of integral gloves, boots, and leg gaiters.
— Presence of hard hat or ratchet head suspension.
~ Presence and condition of airline attachment and hoses for cooling system.
— Leak detection and pinholes.
1. If an air source is available, secure the suit and inflate it, then using a mild soap
solution observe for bubbles on the surface or around seams, or
2. Inside a dark room, run a flashlight inside the suit and look for pinpoints of light
from outside the suit.
3. OSHA 1910.120 Standard has an Appendix A attachment which outlines two test
methods for evaluating the integrity of totally encapsulating chemical suits. One
is an Air Pressure test and the other is an Ammonia Leak Test. These tests are
non-mandatory under the standard.
B. Records should be maintained on each suit's inspection, use conditions, and repair
status. These records are especially important for fully encapsulating suits (FES)
which are usually not individually assigned but shared. Suggestions for maintaining
records include:
1. Inspection - who, when, and any problems.
2. Use conditions - where, activity, and chemicals if
known.
3. Repair status - what is the problem, who repaired
it (in-house or manufacturer), date
of repair, and tag the suit "out of
service" if not repaired.
** Always refer to manufacturer recommendations for routine or any special inspection
procedures.
3/94 18
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CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
IX. PERSONAL COOLING DEVICES
A. Introduction
Wearing chemical resistant clothing and respirators increases the risk for heat stress.
They cause additional strain on the body by adding weight, increasing breathing
resistance and restricting movement. They can also reduce the body's natural cooling
mechanism. The body releases heat by convecting heat to cooler air, radiating heat
to cooler surfaces in the surroundings, and evaporating moisture from the skin.
Chemical resistant clothing interferes with these processes. This can lead to heat
illness, heat fatigue, heat rash, heat cramps, heat syncope (fainting), heat exhaustion
or even heat stroke. Methods used to prevent heat illness include frequent rest
breaks, reduced work loads, increased consumption of fluids, acclimatization, and
working during the cooler times of the day. Another method that is available is the
use of personal cooling devices to remove heat from the user's body. These devices
are divided into two types: those that use a coolant source external to the wearer (an
umbilical system) or self-contained systems that are not connected to an outside
source.
B. External Coolant Systems
Devices using an external cooling source need a connection between the wearer and
the coolant source. The coolant can be compressed air or a liquid.
1. Compressed air systems
Compressed air systems use cool, dry air to aid in cooling the body. Generally
the air is distributed to the ankles, wrists, and head by an arrangement of air tubes
worn on the body or attached to the protective clothing (Figure 1, page 20).
Some systems can be found in the form of a hood or vest. Many manufacturers
of fully encapsulating suits have air distribution systems built into their suits.
The air is delivered to the units comes from a compressor or a large compressed
air container (like a cascade system). The air acts as an insulator from external
heat and increases evaporation of sweat because of the constant flow of dry air.
If additional cooling is needed, a vortex cooler to chill the air can be connected
into the airline at the user's end. The vortex cooler (Figure 2, page 20) takes
compressed air, increases its velocity, directs it into an outer "hot" tube, and
forms a vortex. The air spirals down the tube and a fraction escapes through a
valve in the end. The remaining air forms a second vortex which passes through
the center of the outer vortex -flowing in the opposite direction - and exits from
the "cold" tube. The outer vortex takes heat from the inner vortex. How much
heat is transferred is determined by how much air the valve releases; more hot air
out, more cold air to user. The vortex cooler is attached to a belt or other
support. It must be worn on the outside of any protective clothing so that the heat
can be vented.
3/94 19
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CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
TEE ASSEMBLY
rStf H
y*".i s&^\
\ \ Jj , ^~—l?i~f7i * \
\ \ /^ /.. /•- •,. rr -. • \
AIR SUPPLY
FIGURE 1
FULLY ENCAPSULATING SUIT WITH AIR DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Used with permission of Mine Safety Appliances, Pittsburgh, PA.
Vortex Tube
• Hood or Helmet
Belt or Support
Line to
Compressed
Air Source
FIGURE 2
VORTEX TUBE; SCHEMATIC OF VORTEX TUBE;
VORTEX TUBE CONNECT TO AIR-SUPPLIED HOOD
Used with permission of Fyrepel Products, Inc., Newark, OH.
3/94
20
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CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
It is important to remember that NIOSH does not have a specific testing and
certification schedule for supplied air suits. Thus, the suits should not be used for
respiratory protection. Some suits and hoods have a NIOSH/MSHA respiratory
approval under the SCBA or airline testing schedules. If a vortex tube is used
with a unit for respirator protection, then the respirator must be tested and
approved with the vortex tube.
Compressed air systems have two advantages. They are able to cool the whole
body and they allow the wearer to work as long as desired. However, they have
several disadvantages. They restrict mobility because of the airline umbilical.
Since the system is continuous flow, they use a lot of air - especially if using a
vortex cooler. One unit with a vortex cooler uses 25 cubic feet of air per minute
to deliver 15 cubic feet of useable air to the wearer. A normal airline respirator
uses 6-8 cubic feet per minute. Also, the hot air from the vortex tube - as hot
as 162°F - can add heat to the environment or to the outside surface of the
protective clothing.
2. Liquid-cooled devices
There is only one device in this category. Water is circulated through tubing in
a garment resembling long Johns. It can use an external water supply - which can
be chilled - or a portable chilling unit for recirculated water.
This unit has the same advantages and disadvantages of the air-supplied systems.
It has additional disadvantages. There is additional weight due to the water in the
system. At the present, fully encapsulating suits do not have liquid line
connections. One advantage is that the cooling system can be located away from
the user and thus not add heat to the user's immediate area.
C. Self-Contained Systems
Self-contained systems have all of the heat exchanging elements as part of the
wearer's ensemble. Thus, they are not hooked to an outside coolant source. These
systems are usually of two types - those that use ice to cool the wearer and those that
circulated a liquid cooled by a heat exchange system.
1. Ice Vests/Jackets
These systems use ice in a vest/jacket or in removable packets. The size and
number of packets vary form manufacturer to manufacturer. Some systems come
with a inner vest to prevent direct contact with the skin. Some have an outer vest
to reduce external heat effects on the ice (Figure 3, page 22).
These systems have several advantages. They are simple to use, have no moving
parts, and do not restrict mobility. They can be worn under protective clothing
or an SCBA. They also have disadvantages. They are usually limited to a
maximum of one hour of cooling. If more time is needed, extra packets are
needed. If the unit has no removable packets, the whole vest has to be refrozen.
3/94 21
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CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
After the ice melts, the wearer is carrying extra weight with no cooling benefit.
They weigh from 12 to 15 pounds. If there is no inner insulation, they may be
too cold.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Honeycombed vest
Filling connection
Body belt
Fastening button - top
Insulating vest
Fastening button - bottom
Outer vest
Filling accessory
FIGURES
WATER FILLED ICE VEST
(Whole jacket is frozen prior to use.) Used with permission of National Draeger,
Pittsburgh, PA.
2. Circulating Systems
Circulating systems use a water or a water/alcohol mixture circulated through the
vest to cool the wearer. The liquid is cooled by ice or other frozen liquid
contained in a pouch or container carried by the wearer (Figure 4, page 23). In
some cases, the melting ice becomes part of the circulating system. There are a
couple of experimental models that use dry ice to cool the circulating liquid.
The circulating systems have some of the same advantages and disadvantages as
the ice vests. They have the additional disadvantage of using an electric
circulator. This requires battery pack to power the circulator. Thus, more weight
is added. Also, while the units have waterproof and sparkproof connections, none
have received an inherent safety rating. Their main advantage is that the cooling
3/94
22
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CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
rate can be controlled by controlling the flow of the liquid through the vest. They
can be worn under protective clothing and a SCBA. There is one model that is
incorporated into a fully encapsulating suit. The ice can be replenished without
removing the suit.
FIGURE 4
COOL VEST® MODEL 19
(The back of unit has battery operated pump and pouch containing ice and circulating
water.) Used with permission of ILC Dover, Frederica, DE.
D. Summary
There are many different types of personal cooling devices. At the end of this
section is a list of manufacturers and the types they make. When selecting a unit,
one main consideration is whether it is compatible with the other protective
equipment worn. Mobility, weight and duration of use must also be considered.
Worker acceptance is also an important consideration. Whatever device is used, it
must be remembered that the device reduces but doesn't eliminate the heat stress.
3/94
23
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APPENDIX I
PERMEATION REFERENCES
1. Development of Performance Criteria for Protective Clothing Used Against Carcinogenic
Liquids. NIOSH, Technical Report No. 79-106. NTIS
2. "A Discussion: Resistance of Butyl Rubber Gloves to the Penetration of Aromatic Nitro and
Amino Compounds". American Industrial Hygiene Association, J. 39:314316 (1978).
3. Henry, N.W. Ill and C.N. Schlatter. "The Development of a Standard Method for
Evaluating Chemical Protective Clothing by Hazardous Liquids". (1981)
4. Lynch, A.L. "Protective Clothing". Handbook of Laboratory Safety, 2nd ed. (1971).
5. Middleton, H.W. Glove Corrosive Liquid Immersion and Permeability Study. No. GEPP-
322, General Electric Co., Neutron Devices Dept., P.O. Box 11508, St. Petersburg, FL
33733.
6. Nelson, G.O. and C.M. Wong. "Glove Permeation by Organic Solvents". American
Industrial Hygiene Association, 1.42:217-225 (1981).
7. Permeation of Protective Garment Material by Liquid Halogenated Ethanes and a
Polychlorinated Biphenvl. NIOSH Publication 81-110 (1981).
8. Sansome, E.B. and U.B. Tewari. "The Permeability of Laboratory Gloves to Selected
Solvents". American Industrial Hygiene Association, J.39:164-174 (1978).
9. Weeks, R.W. Jr., and B.J. Dean. "Permeation of Methanolic Aromatic Arm'ne Solutions
Through Commercially Available Glove Materials". American Industrial Hygiene
Assocation, J. 38:721-725 (1977).
10. Weeks, R.W. Jr., and M. J. McLeod. "Permeation of Protective Garment Material by Liquid
Benzene and by Tritiated Water". American Industrial Hygiene Association, J.43:201-211
(1982).
11. Williams, J.R. "Permeation of Glove Materials by Physiologically Harmful Chemicals".
American Industrial Hygiene Association, J. 40:877-882 (1979).
3/94 25
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APPENDIX II
DONNING AND DOFFING FES AND SCBA
I. INTRODUCTION
In responding to episodes involving hazardous substances, it may be necessary for response
personnel to wear self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) and fully encapsulating suits
to protect against toxic environments. Donning/Doffing of both is a relatively simple task,
but a routine must be established and practiced frequently. Not only do correct procedures
help instill confidence in the wearer, they reduce the risk of exposure and the possibility of
damage to the suit. It is especially important to remove the equipment systematically so as
to prevent or minimize the transfer of contaminants from suit to wearer.
The following procedures for donning/doffing apply to certain types of suits. They should
be modified if a different suit or extra boots and gloves are worn. These procedures also
assume that:
• The wearer has been trained in the SCBA.
• SCBA has been checked out.
• Appropriate decontamination steps have been taken prior to
removal of the suit or other components.
• Sufficient air is available for routine decontamination and
doffing of suit.
Donning/doffing an encapsulating suit is more difficult if the user has to do it alone because
of the physical effort required. Also the possibility of wearer exposure to contaminants or
damaging the suit greatly increases. Therefore, assistance is needed in donning/doffing the
equipment.
II. DONNING
A. Before donning suit, thoroughly inspect for deficiencies that will decrease its
effectiveness as the primary barrier for protecting the body. Do not use any suit with
holes, rips, malfunctioning closures, cracked masks, etc. If suit contains a
hoodpiece, or a hard hat is worn, adjust it to fit user's head. If suit has a back
enclosure for changing air bottles, open it.
B. Use a moderate amount of talcum powder or cornstarch to prevent chafing and
increase comfort. Both also reduce rubber binding.
C. Use antifog on suit and mask facepieces.
3/94 27
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APPENDIX H: DONNING AND DOFFING FES AND SCBA
D. While sitting (preferably), step into legs, place feet properly, and gather suit around
waist.
E. While sitting (preferably), put on chemical-resistant, steel toe and shank boots over
feet of suit. Properly attach and affix suit leg over top of boot.
1. For one-piece suits with heavy-soled protective feet, wear leather or short
rubber safety boots inside suit.
2. Wear an additional pair of disposable boot protectors if necessary.
F. Put on SCBA air tank and harness assembly. Don facepiece and adjust it securely
yet comfortably. Do not connect breathing hose. Open valve to air tank. (The air
tank and harness assembly could also be put on before stepping into legs of suit).
G. Depending on type of suit:
1. Put on inner gloves.
2. For suits with detachable gloves, secure gloves to sleeves, if this has not been
done prior to entering the suit. (In some cases, extra gloves are worn over
suit gloves.)
H. While standing, put arms into sleeves, and then head into hood of suit. The helper
pulls suit up and over SCBA, resting hood on top of SCBA, adjusting suit around
SCBA backpack and user's shoulders to assure unrestricted motion. To facilitate
entry into the suit, bend at the knees as hood is placed over wearer's head. Avoid
bending at the waist, as this motion tends to use up room in the suit rather than
provide slack. For a tall or stout person, it is easier to put on the hood of the suit
before getting into the sleeves.
I. Begin to secure suit by closing all fasteners until there is only room to connect the
breathing hose. Also, secure all belts and/or adjustable leg, head, and waist bands.
Connect breathing hose while opening main valve.
J. When breathing properly in SCBA, complete closing suit.
K. Helper should observe for a time to assure that wearer is comfortable and equipment
is functioning properly.
3/94 28 -
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APPENDIX II: DONNING AND DOFFING FES AND SCBA
III. DOFFING
Exact procedures must be established and followed to remove the fully encapsulating suit and
SCBA. Adherence to these procedures is necessary to minimize or prevent contamination
(or possible contamination) of the wearer through contacting the outside surface of the unit.
The following procedures assume that before the suit is removed, it has been properly
decontaminated, considering the type and extent of contamination, and that a suitably attired
helper is available.
A. Remove any extraneous or disposable clothing, boot covers, or gloves.
B. If possible, wearer kicks off oversized chemical-resistant boots unassisted. To
achieve this, oversized boots are often selected. Otherwise, helper loosens and
removes chemical-resistant boots.
C. Helper opens front of suit to allow access to SCBA regulator. As long as there is
sufficient air pressure, hose is not disconnected.
D. Helper lifts hood of the suit over wearer's head and rests hood on top of SCBA air
tank. For a tall or stout person it is easier to remove the arms from the sleeves of
the suit prior to removing the hood.
E. Remove external gloves.
F. To minimize contact with contaminated clothing, helper touches only the outside of
the suit, and the wearer touches only the inside. Remove arms, one at a time from
suit. Helper lifts suit up and away from SCBA back pack, avoiding any contact
between outside surface of suit and wearer's body. Helper lays suit out flat behind
wearer.
G. While sitting (preferably), remove both legs from suit.
H. After suit is completely removed, roll internal gloves off hands, inside out.
I. Walk to clean area and follow procedure for doffing SCBA.
J. Remove inner clothing, clean body thoroughly.
IV. ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
A. If work is at a very dirty site or the potential for contamination is extremely high,
wear disposable Tyvek or PVC coveralls over fully encapsulating suit. Make a slit
in back to fit around bulge of the SCBA back pack.
3/94 29
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APPENDIX II: DONNING AND DOFFING FES AND SCBA
B. Wear clothing inside the suit appropriate to outside temperatures. Even in hot
weather, wear long cotton underwear, which absorbs perspiration and acts as a wick
for evaporation, thus aiding body cooling. Long underwear also protects skin from
contact with hot surface of suit, reducing the possibility of burns in hot weather.
C. Monitor wearer for heat stress.
D. If a cooling device is used, modify donning/doffing procedure.
E. If low-pressure warning alarm sounds signifying approximately 5 minutes of air
remaining, follow these procedures:
1. Quickly hose off suit and scrub especially around entrance/exit zipper.
(Remove any disposable clothing.)
2. Open zipper sufficiently to allow access to regulator and breathing hose.
3. Disconnect breathing hose from regulator as main valve is closed.
4. Immediately attach canister for vapor, acid gas, dust, mist, or fume to
breathing hose. This provides protection against contaminants still present.
5. Continue doffing suit as in steps A through J of previous section. Take extra
care to avoid contaminating helper and wearer.
3/94 30
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APPENDIX III
NFPA CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING STANDARD SUMMARY
NFPA Standard 1991: Vapor Protective Suits for Hazardous Chemical Emergencies - Summary
of Contents:
Chapter 1 - Administration
Purpose
Definitions
Chapter 2 - Certification
Certification Program
Inspection and Testing
Garment Labeling
User Information
Chapter 3 - Documentation Requirements
Technical Data Package
Suit Material and Component Descriptions
Chemical Permeation Resistance Documentation
Suit Component Documentation
Chapter 4 - Design and Performance Requirements
Overall Suit and Suit Component Requirements
Primary Suit Material Requirements
Additional Garment and Glove Material Requirements
Additional Visor or Faceshield Material Requirements
Seam Requirements
Suit Closure Assembly Requirements
Suit Exhaust Valve Requirements
Chapter 5 - Test Methods
Overall Suit Water Penetration Test
Chemical Permeation Resistance Test
Flammability Resistance Test
Abrasion Resistance Test
Flexural Fatigue Test
Cold Temperature Performance Test
Luminous (Visible) Transmittance Testing
Penetration Resistance Test
Exhaust Valve Inward Leakage Test
Exhaust Valve Cracking Pressure Test
3/94 31
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APPENDIX III: NFPA CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING STANDARD SUMMARY
NFPA Standard 1992: Liquid Splash Protective Suits for Hazardous Chemical Emergencies:
Chapter 1 - Administration
Purpose
Definitions
Chapter 2 - Certification
Certification Program
Inspection and Testing
Garment Labeling
User Information
Chapter 3 - Documentation Requirements
Technical Data Package
Suit Material and Component Descriptions
Chemical Penetration Resistance Documentation
Chapter 4 - Design and Performance Requirements
Overall Suit and Suit Component Requirements
Primary Suit Material Requirements
Additional Garment and Glove Material Requirements
Additional Garment Material Requirements
Additional Visor or Faceshield Material Requirements
Seam Requirements
Suit Closure Assembly Requirements
Chapter 5 - Test Methods
Overall Suit Water Penetration Test
Chemical Penetration Resistance Test
Flammability Resistance Test
Abrasion Resistance Test
Flexural Fatigue Test
Cold Temperature Performance Test
3/94 32
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Section 11
-------
INITIAL SITE SURVEY
AND RECONNAISSANCE
PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lesson, participants will be able to:
• Explain the importance of scene control at a hazardous
materials incident
• Describe the methods used to establish site work zones
• Identify EPA action levels for the following:
Combustible vapors
Oxygen levels
Radiation levels
• List the information that entry teams are briefed on prior to
entering a contaminated area
• Describe techniques that are applied by entry teams while in
the contaminated area
• Describe the three work zones recognized by EPA
• Describe how to diagram a spill scene
• Describe what is meant by "relative distance" in relation to
work zone size.
3/94
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NOTES
INITIAL SITE SURVEY AND
RECONNAISSANCE
SITE CONTROL
Set up site security to limit access
- Minimize the number of personnel in
control areas to those with a reason
for being there
SITE CONTROL
• Establish work zones
- Hot zone (exclusion zone)
- Warm zone (contamination reduction
zone)
- Cold zone (support zone)
• Implement decontamination procedures
prior to haz mat team entry immediately
after initial site survey
3/94
Initial Site Survey and Reconnaissance
-------
WORK ZONES
HOT
LU
Exclusion
Zone
WARM
Wing!
Direction
Contamination
Reduction
Zone
Decon Area
access control
points
COLD
Support
Zone
Command
Post
NOTES
Initial Site Survey and Reconnaissance
3/94
-------
NOTES
ACTION LEVELS
Oxygen Indicator
Meter Readinq
<19.5%
19.5% -25%
>25%
Action
Monitor wearing SCBA (Note:
CGI readings may not be valid)
Continue investigation with caution
Discontinue investigation; fire
hazard potential
ACTION LEVELS
Combustible Gas Indicator
Meter Reading
<10%LEL
10% -25%
>25%LEL
Action
Continue investigation
Continue onsite monitoring with
extreme caution as higher levels
are encountered
Explosion hazard; withdraw from
area immediately
ACTION LEVELS
Radiation Survey
Meter Reading
<1 mR/hr
>1mR/hr
Action
If levels are above background,
continue investigation with caution.
Perform thorough monitoring.
Consult health physicist.
Potential radiation hazard. Evacuate
site. Continue monitoring only
upon advice of a health physicist.
3/94
Initial Site Survey and Reconnaissance
-------
NOTES
ACTION LEVELS
Total Gas/Vapor Meters
Meter Reading
Unknowns:
Background
0-5
5-500
500-1000
>1000
Knowns:
Action
Level D
Level C
Level B
Level A
Possible explosion hazard
Compare to exposure guides.
IDLH/TLV/PEL/REL
ENTRY TECHNIQUES
Establish entry teams
Establish back-up teams
Conduct briefing
ENTRY TECHNIQUES
Use good air monitoring techniques
Follow guidelines established in briefing,
standard operating procedures, and site
safety plan
Decontaminate and debrief upon
completion of entry
Initial Site Survey and Reconnaissance
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INITIAL SITE SURVEY AND RECONNAISSANCE
TOPIC PAGE NO.
I. INTRODUCTION 1
II. INITIAL CHARACTERIZATION 1
III. PROTECTION OF THE HEALTH AND SAFETY OF RESPONSE
PERSONNEL 2
A. DATA GATHERING AND PRELIMINARY ASSESSMENT 2
B. INFORMATION ABOUT THE INCIDENT 3
C. PRELIMINARY INSPECTION 3
1. OFF-SITE RECONNAISSANCE 3
2. ON-SITE SURVEY 4
IV. COMPREHENSIVE CHARACTERIZATION 6
V. SUMMARY 6
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INITIAL SITE SURVEY AND RECONNAISSANCE
I. INTRODUCTION
To accomplish the primary objective in responding to hazardous materials incidents of
preventing or reducing detrimental effects to public health or to the environment, it is
necessary to:
1. Identify the substance involved.
2. Evaluate its behavior when released and its effect on public health and the
environment.
3. Initiate actions to prevent or modify its effects.
From the start to finish of an incident a high priority activity is obtaining the necessary
information to evaluate its impact. This process of identifying the substance involved,
evaluating actual or potential impact on public health and the environment is incident
characterization.
In those incidents where the substance involved is known or easily identified, the pathways
or dispersion are clearly defined, and the effect or potential impact is demonstrated,
characterization is relatively straightforward. For example, the effects of a large discharge
of Vinyl chloride on fish in a small stream is relatively easy to evaluate. An incident such
as an abandoned waste site containing 60,000 fifty-five gallon drums is more complex since
there is generally not enough initial information to determine the hazards and to evaluate their
impact.
Evaluating a hazardous substance incident is generally a two-phase process: an initial
characterization, and a more comprehensive characterization.
II. INITIAL CHARACTERIZATION
The initial characterization is based on information that is readily available or can be obtained
fairly rapidly to determine what hazards exist and if immediate protective measures are
necessary. During this initial phase, a number of key decisions must be made regarding:
1. Imminent or potential risk to public health and to the environment.
2. Immediate need for protective actions to prevent or reduce the impact.
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INITIAL SITE SURVEY AND RECONNAISSANCE
III. PROTECTION OF THE HEALTH AND SAFETY OF RESPONSE PERSONNEL
After immediate control measures have been taken, other activities to restore the area to
environmentally acceptable conditions start. If there is no emergency, more time is available
to evaluate hazards, to design plans for cleanup, and to establish safety requirements for
response personnel. Information for characterizing the hazards can be obtained from
intelligence (records, placards, eye witnesses, etc.), direct-reading instruments, and sampling.
Depending on the nature of the incident and the amount of time available, various
combinations of these information gathering processes are used.
The following outline describes an approach to collecting data needed to evaluate the impact
of a hazardous materials incident. Not every incident requires obtaining all items nor using
the approach recommended. The list provides a relatively detailed guide (though not all
inclusive) which could be adapted to meet site-specific conditions.
A. Data Gathering and Preliminary Assessment
Upon notification or discovery of an incident, obtain the following information:
1. Brief description.
2. Exact location.
3. Date and time of occurrence.
4. Hazardous materials involved and their physical/chemical properties.
5. Present status of incident.
6. Potential pathways of dispersion.
7. Habitation-population at risk.
8. Environmentally sensitive areas-endangered species, delicate ecosystems.
9. Economically sensitive areas-industrial, agricultural.
10. Accessibility by air and roads.
11. Waterways.
12. Current weather and forecast.
13. Terrain-include topographic map.
14. Geology and hydrology-include appropriate maps.
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INITIAL SITE SURVEY AND RECONNAISSANCE
IS. Aerial photographs.
16. Communications.
17. Any other related background information.
B. Information about the incident, especially abandoned waste sites, may also be
available from:
1. Other federal agencies.
2. State and local health or environmental agencies.
3. Company records.
4. Court records.
5. Water departments, sewage districts.
6. State and local authorities.
C. Preliminary Inspection
1. Off-Site Reconnaissance
At responses in which the hazards are largely unknown or there is no need
to go on-site immediately, make visual observations and monitor atmospheric
hazards near the site. Also collect various types of off-site samples that may
indicate on-site conditions or migration from the incident.
In addition to collecting information that is not available from the preliminary
assessment or needed to verify or supplement the preliminary assessment, off-
site reconnaissance would include:
a. General layout and map of the site.
b. Monitoring ambient air with direct-reading instruments for:
1) organic vapors, gases and particulates
2) Oxygen deficiency
3) specific materials, if known
4) combustible gases
5) inorganic vapors, gases and particulates
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INITIAL SITE SURVEY AND RECONNAISSANCE
6) radiation
c. Placards, labels, markings on containers or transportation vehicles.
d. Configuration of containers, tank cars, and trailers.
e. Types and number of containers, buildings, and impoundments.
f. Leachate or run-off.
g. Biological indicators-dead vegetation, animals, insects, and fish.
h. Unusual odors or conditions.
i. Visual observation of vapors, clouds, or suspicious substances.
j. Off-site samples.
1) surface water
2) drinking water
3) site run-off
4) groundwater (wells)
5) soil
6) air
k. Interviews with inhabitants, observers, or witnesses.
2. On-Site Survey
A more thorough evaluation of hazards generally necessitates personnel
entering the defined site. Prior to going on-site, develop an entry plan
addressing what will be initially accomplished and prescribing the procedures
to protect the health and safety of response personnel. On-site inspection and
information gathering would include:
a. Monitoring ambient air with direct-reading instruments for:
1) Oxygen deficiency
2) combustible gases
3) organic vapors and gases
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INITIAL SITE SURVEY AND RECONNAISSANCE
4) inorganic vapors and gases
5) radiation
6) particulates
7) specific materials, if known
b. Types of containers, impoundments, or other storage systems:
1) numbers, types, and quantities of material
2) condition of storage systems (such as state of repair or
deterioration)
c. Physical condition of material:
1) solids, liquids, gases
2) color
3) behavior-foaming, vaporizing, corroding
d. Leaks or discharges from containers, tanks, ponds, vehicles, etc.
e. Potential pathways of dispersion:
f. Air
1) surface water
2) groundwater
3) land surface
4) biological routes
g. Labels, markings, identification tags, or other indicators of material.
h. Container configuration, shape of tank cars or trailers-Samples:
1) standing water or liquids
2) soil
3) wells
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INITIAL SITE SURVEY AND RECONNAISSANCE
4) storage containers
5) drainage ditches
6) streams and ponds
7) air
IV. COMPREHENSIVE CHARACTERIZATION
The second phase, comprehensive characterization (which may not be needed in all
responses), is a more methodical investigation to enhance, refine, and enlarge the information
base obtained during the preliminary inspection. This phase provides more complete
information for characterizing the hazards associated with an incident. As a continuously
operating program the second phase also reflects environmental changes resulting from
response activities.
Available information and information obtained through initial site entries may be sufficient
to thoroughly identify and assess the human and environmental effects on an incident. If not,
an environmental surveillance program needs to be implemented. Much of the same type of
information as collected during the preliminary inspection is needed. However, it may be
much more extensive. Instead of one or two groundwater samples being collected, an
extensive groundwater survey may be needed over a long period of time. Results from the
preliminary inspection provide a screening mechanism for a more complete environmental
surveillance program to determine the extent of contamination. Also,, since mitigation and
remedial measures may cause changes in the original conditions, a continual surveillance
program must be maintained to identify any changes.
V. SUMMARY
Evaluating the hazards associated with an incident involves various degrees of complexity.
The release of a single, known chemical compound may represent a relatively -simple
problem. It becomes progressively more difficult to determine harmful effects as the number
of compounds increase. Evaluation of the imminent or potential hazards associated with an
abandoned waste site, storage tanks, or lagoons holding vast amounts of known or unknown
chemical substances is far more complex than a single release of an identifiable substance.
The major responsibility of response personnel is the protection of public health and the
environment. The effective accomplishment of this goal is dependent upon a thorough
characterization of the chemical compounds, their dispersion pathways, concentrations in the
environment, and deleterious effects. A base of information is developed over the lifetime
of the incident to assess the harmful effects and ensure that effective actions are taken to
mitigate the release.
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Section 12
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INCIDENT CONTROL:
CONFINEMENT AND CONTAINMENT
PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lesson, participants will be able to:
• Explain the importance of confinement and containment
techniques at hazardous material scenes
• Define the differences between confinement and containment
• Describe approved techniques of confinement and
containment
• Identify equipment used for confinement and containment
techniques.
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NOTES
INCIDENT CONTROL:
CONFINEMENT AND
CONTAINMENT
LEAK AND SPILL CONTROL
• Reduce the effects of the incident
- Responder
- Civilians
- Environment
• Stabilize the incident
TACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Defensive
- Confinement
Offensive
- Containment
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Incident Control: Confinement and Containment
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NOTES
DEFENSIVE TACTICS
Confinement
- Actions taken remote from the
spill site to prevent the spread
of product over a larger area
DEFENSIVE TACTICS
Advantages
- Personnel not exposed to high
concentration levels
- Specialized equipment not always
needed
DEFENSIVE TACTICS
Disadvantages
- Most incidents cannot be
completely stabilized
Incident Control: Confinement and Containment
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NOTES
CONFINEMENT
• Dike, dam, or boom
• Cover
• Sorb
• Divert
• Retain
OFFENSIVE TACTICS
Containment
- Actions taken to stop or control
the source of the leak or spill
OFFENSIVE TACTICS
Advantages
- Stabilizes the incident
- Reduces operating time
- Reduces the area affected by
vapor clouds or spills
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Incident Control: Confinement and Containment
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NOTES
OFFENSIVE TACTICS
Disadvantages
- Personnel will be in, or in close
proximity to, leaking product
- Requires use of specialized
protective clothing and
equipment
CONTAINMENT
• Valve or cap
• Position
• Vacuum
• Catch
• Plug or patch
• Cool
CONTAINMENT
• Separate
• Burn
• Other
- Do nothing
- Combination
Incident Control: Confinement and Containment
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INCIDENT CONTROL: CONFINEMENT AND CONTAINMENT
TOPIC PAGE NO.
I. INTRODUCTION 1
A. CONFINEMENT 1
B. CONTAINMENT 1
II. CONFINING HAZARDOUS MATERIAL RELEASES 1
A. AIR RELEASES 2
B. LAND SPILLS 3
1. DIVERSION 4
2. DIKING 4
3. RETAINING 6
4. RELEASES INTO WATER 8
C. GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION 12
III. CONTAINING HAZARDOUS MATERIAL RELEASES 12
A. PRIMARY TOOL KIT 13
B. CONTROLLING LEAKS FROM DRUMS-EQUIPMENT AND
TOOLS 14
C. CONTROLLING LEAKS FROM PIPING-EQUIPMENT AND
TOOLS 17
D. CONTROLLING LEAKS FROM TANK TRUCKS-EQUIPMENT
AND TOOLS 18
E. SPECIALTY TOOLS 20
IV. PROTECTION AND SAFETY 21
V. SUMMARY 21
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INCIDENT CONTROL: CONFINEMENT AND CONTAINMENT
I. INTRODUCTION
The objective of responding to incidents involving the release or potential release of
hazardous materials is to prevent or reduce the adverse effects that a release might have on
the public's health, property, and the environment. In order to mitigate (prevent or reduce)
the incident's impact, the release must be controlled.
Mitigating releases means controlling them. Measures to control a release involve those
processes, methods, procedures, and techniques that are used to prevent or reduce the
dispersement of the material or its by-products into the environment. These control measures
may include fire extinguishment, controlled burning, neutralization, construction of
temporary dams, berms, or dikes, plugging leaking containers, misting or fogging toxic
vapors or gases, sorbent materials, and others.
Two general control techniques frequently used by first responders are confinement and
containment.
A. CONFINEMENT consists of methods used to limit the physical size of the area of
the release. Hazardous materials can be released (directly or indirectly), to air,
surface water, groundwater, or land surface. Depending on the media affected,
various methods are available that might help restrict the spread of materials.
B. CONTAINMENT is defined as those methods used to restrict the material to its
original container. Until the released materials are contained, the area of
involvement will grow larger, and cleanup will become correspondingly more
difficult. Whenever possible, it is important to contain the materials in order to limit
the size of the area involved and minimize cleanup difficulties.
Controlling a release may be as simple as uprighting an overturned drum leaking from its
bung or turning off a valve. It may be as difficult as patching a large tear in an acid tank
or repairing a high pressure transfer line. Many times, for small leaks, just shoving a
wooden wedge into a hole can temporarily slow or stop a leak. Generally, highly volatile
liquids and liquified gases are the most difficult to deal with. If a tank car has been involved
in an accident or if its structural integrity is suspect, then its contents may need to be
transferred to another tank car. Fire might also be involved which further complicates the
problem.
II. CONFINING HAZARDOUS MATERIAL RELEASES
Techniques for confining hazardous materials depend upon whether the release is into the air,
on land, into surface waters, or into the groundwater.
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INCIDENT CONTROL: CONFINEMENT AND CONTAINMENT
A. Air Releases
Releases of gas, vapors, or participates into air present a serious threat (depending
particularly on the identity and quantity of chemical released). Once in the air, the
material can move rapidly depending on wind and other weather conditions, and
therefore has the capability of affecting a large physical area. The cloud of material
produced may be flammable, toxic, corrosive, or have other hazardous properties.
Controlling airborne materials is very difficult especially if large quantities are
involved. The first step is to determine if it is possible to prevent or reduce the
amount of materials from becoming airborne by containing or confining it. If this
cannot be done then some vapor suppression or dispersion techniques may work
depending on the quantity being released. Weather conditions such as humidity,
temperature, and wind speed and direction can greatly affect cloud formation and
dispersion. If the cloud is large, then initial consideration must be given to
immediately evacuating the area which has the potential for being impacted.
With some materials the use of fog patterns to disperse the vapor cloud can work.
When a fog stream is used, the material is condensed and a collecting area such as
a dike should be used to capture the water. This collected material should be pumped
into a container and disposed of properly. Responders must also be certain that the
liquid does not revolatilize (Figure 1). This use of fog patterns to disperse a vapor
cloud should be used judiciously because extensive groundwater contamination as
well as excessive cleanup costs can be associated with this method.
Water Mist
Hose
Air Release
Excavated and Diked Area
^m^. ^ Collection _JTO*
FIGURE 1
MIST KNOCKDOWN
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INCIDENT CONTROL: CONFINEMENT AND CONTAINMENT
Air releases or suspected air releases should always be cautiously approached from
the upwind direction whenever possible. Personnel must also be on the alert for
changes in wind direction. Visual observations or direct-reading instruments may
give some indication of the type and quantities of materials being released, and
whether vapor suppression will work.
Materials that are lighter than air (vapor density less than ambient atmosphere), will
drift upwards into the atmosphere and be driven by the wind in a downwind
direction. Heavier than air materials will tend to hug the ground, following the
contours of the land from higher to lower elevations or be pushed by the wind
movement.
B. Land Spills
Generally, solids (even in the form of particulates) that spill on the land are the
easiest materials to confine. Even if shipping containers rupture, solids ordinarily
don't move far. The release area should be closed off to avoid having the materials
tracked away from the site on shoes, clothing, or vehicle tires. It is also important
not to increase the mobility of the material by the indiscriminate application of water
or other liquids. Covering the material with plastic, tarps, or other means can help
prevent it from becoming windborne.
Liquids spilled on the land may be somewhat more difficult to confine. In some
cases, confinement may already be in place. For example, most tank farms have a
berm around their periphery for confining major leaks. If a transfer line breaks or
if an accident occurs in transporting or loading a liquid, there will be no "automatic"
containment. On concrete, blacktop, or other hard surfaces, berms can be
constructed with dirt, sand, absorbents, or urethane foam packs specifically designed
for this purpose. If the spill is on the ground, berms can be constructed by simply
mounding the soil itself. In many cases, though, it may be more advantageous to
"herd" the liquids by ditches, swales, and berms to an existing low point or construct
a catch basin. This allows the material to pool and may make cleanup easier.
There are three techniques for controlling spills on the land:
• Diversion: The controlled movement of the liquid from one course or area
to another where the effects to human health and the environment are
substantially reduced.
• Diking: The use of a barrier to confine or control the movement of liquids
from an area of potential harm.
• Retention: The temporary confinement of the liquid in an area (e.g., in a
pond) where it can be absorbed, neutralized, diluted, or pumped out.
Determining which of these three techniques should be used to confine a spill of
hazardous materials depends on several factors: time; personnel; equipment; supplies
and the potential harmful effects of the leaking material. For example, response
personnel may determine that diversion, rather than diking and retaining, is more
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INCIDENT CONTROL: CONFINEMENT AND CONTAINMENT
appropriate for controlling the movement of fuel oil that could enter a storm drain.
In this situation, response personnel may determine that diversion should be used to
control the movement of oil because the oil is flowing toward the storm drain at a
rate that will not permit the timely construction of a dike. Or, response personnel
may determine that available personnel and equipment is insufficient to construct a
dike or a retention pond. In many cases, however, diking and retention techniques
will follow the diversion technique. That is, diversion can begin immediately, while
diking and retaining work may begin as resources arrive.
1. Diversion
Usually dirt is used as a barrier to divert a spilled liquid. Because diversion
requires that barriers be constructed in advance of the flow, using dirt from
the area is practical because it is generally readily available, and a barrier can
be quickly constructed. In order for diversion to be effective, response
personnel should have a preplan for constructing diversion walls or barriers.
For example, for a small barrier, each participating response personnel should
be equipped with a hand tool for digging and a pick for breaking the ground.
As the first responder breaks the ground with a pick, a second responder
should place the dirt on a pile, while a third responder packs the dirt tightly.
This process should continue until the diversion barrier is completed. In
constructing the diversion wall, the speed and the angle of the oncoming,
flowing spill must be considered. For fast moving spills, angles of 60° or
more should be used for intercepting the spill. Generally, the greater the
speed of the flow, the greater the distance and angle required to slow it
down. Construction equipment may be needed to build a diversion barrier
if large quantities of liquids are involved. This is practical when the
equipment and trained personnel are available at the scene.
2. Diking
Dikes can be constructed from practically any available materials. The
materials and manpower to construct a typical dike are usually readily
available and inexpensive. Several common items are: dirt, tree limbs,
boards, roof ladders, pike poles, and salvage covers. In a severe emergency,
bagged materials such as tree bark, sand, dog food, kitty litter, and charcoal
could be commandeered from a nearby food or garden store. Over time,
however, both vertical and horizontal seepage through and around the dike
will occur. This process can be slowed by the use of "visqueen" or "poly"
plastics (a form of Polyethylene). These Polyethylene sheets or tarps provide
a base for construction of a dike or a drainage ditch. Because some liquid
materials may degrade or "eat through" a plastic sheeting, response personnel
must carefully select the plastic that is to be used. Or, an alternative method
to diking is to transfer the product remaining in the vessel to another
container. It still may be necessary to build a dike around the original spill,
while waiting for the second container to arrive.
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INCIDENT CONTROL: CONFINEMENT AND CONTAINMENT
When possible, dike construction should begin with heavier materials for
reinforcement, followed by an outer layer of lighter material such as dirt. If
time permits, plastic runners or salvage covers can be placed between the
inner and outer walls of the dike.
The process of constructing a dike is very similar to the process of
constructing a diversion barrier. Response personnel must consider the time
required to confine the land spill, the resources available (i.e., response
personnel and equipment), and the quantity of the hazardous material. If it
is determined that diking is a practical option, response personnel should
consider whether to construct a dike using hand tools or power equipment.
When a dike is to be constructed using heavy (power) equipment, the state or
local highway department or appropriate contractors should be notified and
arrangements made to ensure that the equipment is available and is properly
used. Also, utility companies should be contacted concerning underground
electrical cables or product piping to ensure that the equipment does not tear
a hole in any cables or piping. The type of dike to be constructed will
depend largely on the rate that the hazardous material is moving as well as
the quantity of material involved. For example, slow moving or heavy
materials should be confined by building a circle dike (Figure 2).
Confined Material -/ Top yjew
\ ./SiX
Dike Walls.
Side View
FIGURE 2
CIRCLE DIKE
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INCIDENT CONTROL: CONFINEMENT AND CONTAINMENT
Faster moving products can be confined by constructing a V-shaped dike in
a low area (Figure 3).
Side Vie*
FIGURES
V-SHAPED DIKE
3. Retaining
In situations where materials cannot be diverted or diked, or it is not feasible
to do so, retention in a pit, basin or pond provides an alternative. For
example, at an incident involving an overturned tank truck leaking fuel oil
onto a highway, response personnel may determine that unless the fuel oil is
confined, it will enter a storm drain. Because of the rate of the flow of the
fuel oil and the limited number of response personnel at the scene,
construction of a dike or a diversion barrier may not be practical. In this
situation, retention at the drain is a workable alternative. Drain retention
(Figure 4, page 7) may involve the following process:
a. Salvage covers or tarps should be placed over the drain and weighted
down with any heavy objects.
b. If time permits, sand, stone, etc. should be shoveled onto the covers.
c. The area should be flooded with water to a depth of four to 10
inches. This flow should be maintained.
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INCIDENT CONTROL: CONFINEMENT AND CONTAINMENT
Curb
Water
Salvage Cover
Storm System
FIGURE 4
DRAIN RETENTION
When this process is used, minimum oil will enter the drain. Most of the oil
will float on top of the water. If response personnel maintain the flow of
water in the area, mostly water, and a minimum amount of oil, will enter the
storm drain. This technique is an effective measure only for materials lighter
than water or for materials that are insoluble in water. The solubilities of
specific materials can be obtained from material safety data sheets, chemical
texts, or computerized sources.
Response personnel should consider volatile liquids and protect against air
hazards that may occur when using any confinement method. For example,
if volatile liquids are spilled onto the ground, an air hazard may be created.
If the spill is small, response personnel need only cover the material with a
salvage cover or tarp to contain the material. If the spill is large, response
personnel may have to spray the material with foam in order to prevent the
formation of hazardous vapors.
In some cases, it may be more appropriate to retain hazardous materials in
an excavated pit, pond or basin (Figure 5, page 8). Constructing a retention
pit, pond or basin could mean simply placing a five-gallon bucket under a
dripping valve or excavating a retaining structure using construction
equipment.
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INCIDENT CONTROL: CONFINEMENT AND CONTAINMENT
Drain
Confined Material
Xy4€«^v
Side View
Pit
FIGURE 5
EXCAVATION
4.
Like diversion barriers and dikes, whether a retaining structure may be
constructed depends primarily upon the time and the resources (i.e.,
personnel and equipment) available for construction, and the amount of
construction needed. In an emergency, portable water tanks and "kiddy"
swimming pools are alternatives that provide for a quick solution for blocking
materials from entering storm drains, or for holding materials. Generally,
any above ground structure offers a quicker solution than a below grade
structure that must be built.
Releases into Water
Releases of materials into water may be controlled using several different
measures. For example, if the material in water is insoluble or slightly
soluble in water, and its specific gravity is greater than that of water causing
the material to sink, a method for confinement might be an overflow dam
(Figure 6, page 9).
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INCIDENT CONTROL: CONFINEMENT AND CONTAINMENT
Confined
Material
Overflow
FIGURE 6
OVERFLOW DAM
An overflow dam is used to trap heavier than water material by causing the
material to sink to the bottom of the stream behind the dam. When the
material is trapped, relatively uncontaminated water flows over the barrier.
Care, therefore, must be taken in building the barrier because if it breaks, it
will release the contaminants. A depression in the waterway may be dug to
trap the spilled material. Generally, however, a natural pool is used for this
purpose. An overflow or confinement dam works best on slow moving and
relatively narrow waterways. The faster the waterway, the less likely this
method will work.
A floating boom (Figure 7, page 10) is a second confinement measure for a
spilled material that floats and is insoluble or slightly soluble in water. Once
the spilled material has been contained, it can be herded to a collection point.
There it can be skimmed from the surface using several different types of
skimmers. Alternatively, the spilled material can be collected for disposal by
sorbents, which can be loose or in sheets or pads. In the case of a viscous
liquid, straw may be used. There are several different types of booms on the
market, including some which absorb the spill instead of confining it. Booms
are not usually effective in rough" water. Rather, booms are usually the
fastest method of containment in small, slow-moving streams.
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INCIDENT CONTROL: CONFINEMENT AND CONTAINMENT
Oil Removal
Points
Anchor Post
Booms
FIGURE 7
DEFLECTION BOOMS
Material that is highly soluble in water is very difficult to confine and
contain. This is especially true in a stream that is fairly wide, deep and has
a moderate to fast flow rate. In fact, even floating material is difficult to
control in such a stream. For pollutants that are lighter than water (specific
gravity < 1), it is possible to confine and contain the material by discharging
clean water into the stream while retaining the floating material. This method
only works if the material is not soluble in water.
Another confinement option for water discharges is the use of a siphon or
underflow dam (Figure 8, page 11).
An underflow dam is a dike constructed with a pipe placed lower on the
upstream side and higher on the downstream side. This creates a waterway
through the piping and traps the contaminants on the upstream side. As with
the overflow dam, it is necessary to have additional manpower and supplies
downstream, just in case the dam breaks. Hay can be used as a temporary
measure to create a fixed barrier. An underflow dam is generally limited to
smaller waterways, and is particularly useful for controlling and confining
hazardous material that floats on the surface of the stream of water.
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10
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INCIDENT CONTROL: CONFINEMENT AND CONTAINMENT
_ Oil
Flow
FIGURES
SIPHON DAM
A filter fence is also a confinement option for water discharges involving oil
(Figure 9, page 12). Generally, this type of fencing is difficult to set up.
Items which may be used to construct a filter fence include chicken wire or
any type of wire fencing. Straw or hay may also be used. However, a great
deal of saturated material is generated as a result of using straw or hay which
can be costly to dispose. Filter fences are typically used on faster running
streams, and are only partially successful in removing oily contaminants.
If the material spilled is soluble, there is very little that the first responder
can do. If the waterway is small, the responder may install a dam which will
help to recover or filter the water. The other option is to neutralize the
chemical, rendering it inert. This will require the resources of the EPA
and/or State environmental agency for technical assistance.
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11
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INCIDENT CONTROL: CONFINEMENT AND CONTAINMENT
Filter Fence
Material to
Absorb Oil
FIGURE 9
FILTER FENCE
C. Groundwater Contamination
Groundwater contamination is not usually handled by first responders. Occasionally,
they may be required to take samples to ensure that a release does not contaminate
groundwater. Because groundwater cleanups often involve millions of dollars, any
incorrect actions taken by responders may contribute to the cost of the cleanup. It
is very important, therefore, that response personnel take special precautions when
conducting response operations to ensure that groundwater is not affected by their
actions.
III. CONTAINING HAZARDOUS MATERIAL RELEASES
A variety of techniques for emergency leak containment have been developed. Most of these
techniques involve the use of tools and materials that are readily available or can be made
easily and inexpensively. The type of materials and tools needed to temporarily patch a leak
is dependent upon the kind of container.
A practical way of determining what equipment may be required is to plan ahead. A
prearranged on-site visit with the facility manager, for example, can be valuable in
determining what leak control problems there could be and the materials available on location
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INCIDENT CONTROL: CONFINEMENT AND CONTAINMENT
for use. Leak control equipment literature, equipment used by established response teams,
and a facility survey can provide the major elements of a shopping list.
A. Primary Tool Kit
Often a leak may be controlled by simply tightening fittings such as bungs, caps,
pipes or flange bolts. A variety of tools may be necessary to accomplish this. A
basic tool kit should be carried on response vehicles and should contain, at a
minimum, the following items:
rubber mallet
nylon mallet
18" and 36" pipe wrench
open and wrench set
box end wrench set
slip joint pliers (2 pair)
common pliers
18" or 24" flat blade screwdriver with plastic handle
medium weight ball peen hammer
linoleum knife
pocket knife for carving wooden plugs
8" vise grip pliers
6" pry bar or pinch bar
lock back knife
portable explosion proof handlight
18" to 36" bolt cutters
bung wrenches (2)
diagonal side cutting pliers
needle nose pliers
screwdriver set - common
screwdriver set - crosspoint
tin snips
wire brush with long handle
hacksaw with quick disconnect for blades
hacksaw blades
In addition, first responders should carry other materials or at least have access to the
following:
Teflon tape - available in a variety of widths and used for wrapping threads
on fittings and connections.
Lead wool - inexpensive and useful for wedging into small cracks and leaking
drum chimes.
Duct tape - used to slow leakage from pipes, fittings, etc. by wrapping tightly
around the affected area - also can be used as a gasket with wedges or plugs.
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INCIDENT CONTROL: CONFINEMENT AND CONTAINMENT
Rubber sheeting (old inner tubes work well) - useful as gasket material for
any type of patch or plug.
Lead foil - can be wedged into breaches - also good for wrapping wedges or
plugs - or filling spaces around plugs.
Oakum - fibrous, resin impregnated substance that swells when wet - useful
as filler material or wrap on wedges and plugs.
Wooden taper plug assortment.
Wooden wedge assortment.
Assorted sheet metal screws - when backed by flat washers and rubber
gaskets, useful for small holes, pinholes and some cracks.
Assorted pipe caps - can be used on threaded pipe ends.
Bungs - used to secure drums.
Assorted automotive clamps - used to secure rubber sheeting over pipe ends,
etc.
Assorted threaded pipe plugs - used on internally threaded pipe ends.
Flat washers for sheet metal screws.
Epoxy compounds - can be used as a patch or binder and filler.
Once tools are obtained, response personnel should "practice" with them to determine
whether there are any special problems. For example, if a hand tool does not have
enough leverage, an extension arm may have to be made from a pipe. Snap-on
extension arms are also available. If a hand tool is awkward to use while wearing
protective gloves, response personnel may have to enlarge the handles on the small
tools and practice patching leaks and some of the plugging techniques while wearing
gloves. If hand tools are difficult to see while wearing respirators and face pieces,
response personnel may have to replace the facepiece or color code all tools
according to, for example, size. Consideration should also be given to having a
variety of spark proof tools.
Personnel must be able to hand carry tools and be mobile within the response area.
A canvas mason's bag can be used to hand carry the tools. Using a canvas mason's
bag to transport a limited number of hand tools within the response area frees
response personnel to work on several problems at once, and ensures that only a few
tools required for the job, rather than the entire tool box, are contaminated.
B. Controlling Leaks from Drums - Equipment and Tools
Leaking drums are a fairly common type of accident. A typical low-pressure metal
drum is a flat piece of metal rolled into a tube with two capped ends. It may be
welded at both ends or clamped at the top for access to the contents. A rim or lip
runs around the outer edge of each end. Sometimes, various access holes are found
on different drums, although typically, the main opening is found at the top. These
openings or access holes are closed with a right handed screw cap referred to as a
bung. On some drums the bung is the only method of identifying the top.
Because gravity dictates that a hazardous material will follow the path of least
resistance, problems may be created when a drum is accidentally breached. Any
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INCIDENT CONTROL: CONFINEMENT AND CONTAINMENT
leaks that are a result of the hole in the drum can be controlled by providing some
method of resistance to the leaking materials. One approach to controlling leaks in
a drum is to raise the hole above the level of the liquid or solid. This can be done
quickly by rolling the drum so that the hole is on top or by standing the drum on
end.
When minor leaks occur at openings such as the bung or lid, these leaks are easily
stopped by tightening the bung clockwise. If a bung wrench is unavailable, a long
handled screwdriver can be used. Drum rim clamps can be tightened with pliers and
a screwdriver if the clamp is placed properly over the rim of the drum.
If a leaking drum has to be patched, response personnel should first remove all of the
paint in the area of the hole in the drum to the bare metal with a wire brush. (Before
creating friction with the brush, response personnel should rule out the potential for
a flammable situation.) Then, a wooden wedge should be driven partially into the
hole with a hammer. If lead wool is available, it should be packed around the wedge
so as to provide for a tight seal. The wooden wedge should then be cut flush with
the drum. Next, response personnel should place aluminum tape over the wedge, and
epoxy over the tape. The surface of the tape should be smoothed even with the
drum.
Typically, holes or gashes in drums are the results of punctures. Often times, these
punctures are caused by forklifts. If the hole or gash is large, a plug or wedge can
be used. Homemade drum clamps can also be used to patch holes up to
approximately 3-inches in diameter. These drum clamps or patches consist of three
parts: a Neoprene gasket, a metal backing, and a clamp. A drum clamp is used to
patch a hole in a drum in the following manner:
1. Bend the end tab of the one-piece, T-shaped sheet metal backing over the
main section.
2. Insert the clamp strap through the slot that was made by bending over the tab
on the sheet metal backing. (The strap is a large version of a simple radiator
hose clamp.)
3. Glue the Neoprene gasket directly to the sheet metal backing to make the seal
once the patch is in place.
4. Place the clamp around the drum, putting the patch over the hole, and tighten
the clamp.
Patching holes in drums may be done frequently by responders at a hazardous
materials incident, it is recommended that a number of drum clamp patches of
varying sizes be made in advance and carried in a kit on the response vehicle. Small
punctures or pinhole leaks can be stopped by inserting a sheet metal screw with one
or more washers and a rubber gasket into the hole. Other methods for plugging
small holes include boiler plugs, vulcanizing repair kit (tire patches), and rubber
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INCIDENT CONTROL: CONFINEMENT AND CONTAINMENT
plugs. All of these items are available at plumbing and automobile part stores.
Response personnel may also perform a "drum to drum transfer." This method
involves hand pumping the contents of a damaged drum into a new and empty drum,
or into a drum containing the same material.
Usually, more sophisticated plugs and patches are readily available or can be locally
manufactured from sheet metal with rubber gasket material and toggle bolts (T-
patches)(Figure 10). They can be fabricated in a variety of sizes. Each works well
on different types of container breaches. The only limiting factor is that the fissure
must be large enough for the toggle to pass through. These devices should not be
snugged down too tightly because the toggles will not tolerate a great deal of torque.
For devices that can be applied using more torque, a T-bolt (Figure 11, page 17)
may substitute for the toggle bolt. But once again, too much torque can pull the "T"
through thin walled containers.
Toggle Bolt
Flat Washer _
Rubber Gasket
Sheet Metal
Square
FIGURE 10
EXAMPLE OF A T-PATCH
Successfully patched drums should be removed from normal service and placed inside
a recovery drum (also referred to as an overdrum) designed to fit over the damaged
55-gallon container. Additional protection is obtained by first placing the damaged
drum inside a large Polyethylene bag. The final package must be clearly marked so
receivers at its destination are made aware of the hazardous material stored inside.
Failure to mark the recovery drum could be in violation of state and federal
regulations. Properly packaged recovery drums will be suitable for transportation to
a recycling facility or waste dump.
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INCIDENT CONTROL: CONFINEMENT AND CONTAINMENT
T Section Welded to Threaded Shank
Flat—..
Washer
Hex Nut
Sheet Metal
Rubber Gasket
FIGURE 11
EXAMPLE OF A T-BOLT
Controlling Leaks from Piping - Equipment and Tools
Leaks from piping present another problem. An expanding plug is useful for
stopping most leaks from piping (Figure 12, page 18).
The plugs can be vented or unvented, although if system pressure exceeds 2 psi,
vented plugs will probably be necessary to facilitate plug installation. One type of
plug includes a threaded nipple on the vent tube which a valved hose can be attached
to. This allows responders to pipe off the material to a suitable container after plug
installation.
Plugs are easy to apply. The plug, with the vent open, is inserted into the pipe. The
hex nut is then drawn tight, causing the rubber stoppers to be compressed along their
longitudinal axis. The stoppers will then expand circumferentially. After the plug
is in place, the vent may be closed, shutting off the product flow from the appliance,
or the product may be piped to a suitable container. Plugs such as these are most
effective on low pressure systems. A word of caution: Personnel should stand clear
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INCIDENT CONTROL: CONFINEMENT AND CONTAINMENT
of the plug if the vent is to be closed, just in case the plug is ejected from the pipe
by system pressure.
Vent Pipe
Rubber Stopper
Hat Washer
Spacer
Rat Washer
FIGURE 12
VENTED PIPE PLUG
D. Controlling Leaks from Tank Trucks - Equipment and Tools
Tank truck leaks usually occur in the tank shell or its installed pipe and valve system.
Breaches in the cargo tank itself normally occur from stress caused on impact such
as the vehicle overturning. Typical holes in the tank shell take the form of punctures
and tears. Because tanks may be breached in several locations, they should always
be inspected on as many sides as possible. Generally speaking, the lower the leak
on the tank the more serious the problem. Naturally, leaks located below the liquid
level should be controlled first; however, holes above the liquid should not be
overlooked. Vapors may be released through the hole to the surrounding area or
fresh air can be drawn inside the tank, possibly placing the vapor space in the
explosive range if flammable or combustible liquids are involved.
Minor leaks can be quickly confined by placing a bucket directly under the hole to
catch the liquid before it contacts the ground. Plastic food buckets, for example, are
handy leak control devices since they are lightweight, can be cut down to fit tight
spots, and may be discarded after use. Because some chemicals may react with
plastics causing the structural integrity of the container to be diminished, a stainless
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INCIDENT CONTROL: CONFINEMENT AND CONTAINMENT
steel milk bucket or container, or a glass container is preferable for catching a liquid
other than an acid. Small holes in the tank are usually found at a weld seam or
crease in the metal. A golf tee, or any small piece of wood, can be effective in this
size leak. Large holes can be plugged with tapered wooden plugs or wedges. In the
absence of similar homemade plugs, a rag, stick, 2"x 4", etc. can be jammed in the
hole until something more sophisticated is available. Generally, it is a very good idea
for responders to carry several wooden plugs or wedges in various shapes and sizes
to protect against most kinds of leaks (Figure 13). These plugs or wedges should be
made from cedar, redwood or pine because these wood materials swell when wet to
fill holes or seams. Soap may also be used to stop a leak because it can be carved
into irregular shapes.
Golf Tec
Dowel
FIGURE 13
WEDGE AND PLUG ASSORTMENT
Breaches in product transfer pipe walls, valves and caps seldom occur on tank trucks
in non-fire situations. Small pin holes, however, may be encountered due to stress
cracking or corrosion. Most vehicles are equipped with emergency shutdown valves.
The types of systems are fairly standardized by U. S. DOT vehicle class.
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INCIDENT CONTROL: CONFINEMENT AND CONTAINMENT
If the hole in the pipe is between one or more valves, the valves can be closed to
further isolate the leak from the remaining cargo. Once pressure and product flow
has been reduced, it may be possible to stop the leak by inserting a small plug in the
hole. Small, dripping leaks can be wrapped with a rag and duct or adhesive tape.
A bucket placed under the hole can be used to catch slow drips until the line is
repaired or the product is offloaded.
Valves and caps on product lines can be an effective control method if the responders
are familiar with the operation of the vehicle. Generally speaking, butterfly valves
and ball valves are closed when the operating handle is NOT in line with the pipe.
Most tank trucks have well labeled valves which may include detailed procedures for
routine shut down. Screw on caps can be tightened to control a leak on pipes at the
discharge or intake. Most tank trucks have right hand threads (right-to-tight, left-to-
loosen). When used in conjunction with closing a valve on the line, this technique
can be effective. A damaged valve inadvertently opened may not close easily due to
pressure or damage. If there is any doubt about the proper position of a valve or
cap, it is best to leave it alone until someone with knowledge of the vehicle arrives.
E. Specialty Tools
Some specialty devices, such as air bags, are available commercially. They consist
of inflatable patch systems for large vessels. These patch systems are secured against
the container breach with chains or webbing and then inflated. Devices similar to air
bags are available for use on pipes and small diameter container systems. Air bag
devices designed for controlling leaks, operate on relatively low inflation pressures.
They are better than lifting devices, which might crush container walls when inflated.
Specialty kits such as Chlorine A, B and C are available from the Chlorine Institute,
although they require special training to use and have limited application. The
Chlorine A kit is for 150 pound cylinders and can be used to temporarily repair valve
and wall leaks. The B kit is designed for use on ton containers of Chlorine and the
C kit is for emergency leak stoppage from Chlorine tank car domes. For additional
information contact:
Chlorine Institute
70 West 40th Street
New York, New York 10018
Responders must be trained specifically on the use of chlorine kits. Entering a site
to patch hazardous materials leaks requires special training. Responders should be
familiar with hazard recognition and the use of protective clothing and equipment
before attempting to use chlorine kits. It is recommended that training on leak
abatement and spill control be conducted with personnel wearing the protective gear
that they would wear at an incident. Because protective clothing used at chemical
incidents restricts vision, mobility, and adversely affects normal dexterity, the need
for all personnel to receive prior training in the use of chlorine kits is very important.
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INCIDENT CONTROL: CONFINEMENT AND CONTAINMENT
IV. PROTECTION AND SAFETY
Before committing personnel and equipment to the spill area, some careful consideration
should be given to the destructive characteristics of the hazardous material. Consider:
• What protective clothing and equipment will be required for the responders as well
as equipment operators?
• Will the product react with water or materials used for construction of dikes,
retention structures, etc.?
• Will vapors accumulate after the product is controlled? Are the vapors corrosive,
toxic, flammable, etc.?
• What are the physical limitations of the responders? Is it reasonable to ask five
responders to dike spills of 1,000 gallons or more? Always consider the physical and
psychological strain that they are under.
• What are the potential hazards to responders associated with fires or explosives at a
hazardous materials incident?
V. SUMMARY
Controlling a release using confinement and containment measures requires response
personnel to preplan the use of general control measures. Response personnel must be
prepared, on arrival at the incident, to confine materials that have been released into the air,
spilled on the land, into surface waters, and, sometimes, into groundwater. Personnel must
also be prepared to contain materials that have been released by making sure that a variety
of leak control tools and equipment is available on the response vehicle. When response
personnel are prepared to confine and contain materials in an emergency, they are in the best
position to mitigate (prevent or reduce) the incident's impact on public health, property and
the environment.
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Section 13
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REGULATORY OVERVIEW
PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lesson, participants will be able to:
• Identify the major components of SARA Title I, Section 126,
29 CFR 1910.120 Paragraph Q, Emergency Response
• Identify state and local government and industry
requirements mandated by SARA Title III
• Identify Title III planning requirements for both state and
local committees and industry
• Describe the benefits of SARA as they relate to safety in the
field
• Identify the mandated components of an emergency response
plan
• Describe the required procedure for handling an emergency
response
• Describe the necessity of an incident command system to
direct emergency response
• State the mandated duties of the incident commander
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PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES (Continued)
Describe how skilled support personnel can be used during
an emergency response
Describe the duties of specialists during an emergency
response
Identify the various mandated levels of training, including
the type of training for each level
Identify who must participate in a medical surveillance
program and what an employer must do to maintain
compliance
Describe the chemical protective equipment program
mandated by 1910.120 Paragraph Q
Describe how the requirements mandated by 1910.120
Paragraph Q impact decisions regarding post-emergency
operations.
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NOTES
REGULATORY OVERVIEW
fl SUPERFUND AMENDMENTS
AND REAUTHORIZATION ACT
OF 1986
I Provisions relating primarily to
response and liability
II Miscellaneous provisions
III Emergency planning and community
right to know
IV Radon gas and indoor air quality
research
SUPERFUND AMENDMENTS AND
REAUTHORIZATION ACT OF 1986
Worker Protection Standards
- Title I, Section 126, SARA
- Codified in 29 CFR 1910.120
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Regulatory Overview
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NOTES
SUPERFUND AMENDMENTS AND
REAUTHORIZATION ACT OF 1986
Emergency planning and community
right to know, Title III SARA
- State Emergency Response
Commissions (SERC)
- Local Emergency Response
Committees (LEPC)
SUPERFUND AMENDMENTS AND
REAUTHORIZATION ACT OF 1986
Emergency planning and community
right to know, Title III SARA
- Industry reporting of stored
and used hazardous substances
- Develop emergency response
plans
PARAGRAPH Q 1910.120
Regulatory Overview
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NOTES
PARAGRAPH Q 29 CFR 1910.120
• Agencies engaged in emergency
response to hazardous substance
incidents regardless of location
• Section 303 of SARA
- Comprehensive emergency
response plan
EMERGENCY RESPONSE PLAN
Develop and implement as a minimum
- Pre-emergency planning
- Personnel roles, lines of authority
training, and communications
- Emergency recognition and prevention
- Safe distances
- Site security
EMERGENCY RESPONSE PLAN
- Evacuation procedures
- Decontamination procedures
- Emergency medical treatment
- Emergency alerting
- Personal protective equipment
- Critique and response follow-up
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NOTES
EMERGENCY RESPONSE PROCEDURES
Incident command employed
Incident commander required to:
- Identify chemical and physical
hazards
- Address site analysis
- Use engineering controls
EMERGENCY RESPONSE PROCEDURES
Incident commander required to:
- Establish maximum exposure limits
- Establish hazardous substance
handling procedures
- Use new technologies
INCIDENT COMMANDER
Ensure:
- Proper protective equipment used
- When required, positive pressure
breathing apparatus is used
- Response personnel on scene
kept to a minimum
Regulatory Overview
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NOTES
INCIDENT COMMANDER
• Ensure:
- "Buddy system" used on scene
(two or more personnel)
- Back-up personnel on standby
- Advanced first aid personnel
on scene with transportation
INCIDENT COMMANDER
Ensure:
- Implement appropriate decontamination
procedures
- Exchange of SCBA air cylinders
SAFETY OFFICIAL
• Incident commander appoints
• Safety official must identify
and evaluate hazards
• Authority to alter, suspend,
or terminate scene activities
- Inform incident commander
immediately; provide direction
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NOTES
SKILLED SUPPORT PERSONNEL
Specialized equipment operators
Temporary support work
Training requirements
SKILLED SUPPORT PERSONNEL
Initial briefing required
- Use of personal protective
clothing
- Chemical hazards
- Duties to be performed
SPECIALIST EMPLOYEES
• Work with specific hazardous
substances
• Provide technical advice
• Demonstrate competency
Regulatory Overview
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NOTES
TRAINING
• Based on duties and functions
• Personnel hired after March 6, 1990
FIRST RESPONDER AWARENESS LEVEL
• Discover or witness incident
Notify proper authorities
FIRST RESPONDER AWARENESS LEVEL
Sufficient training and experience
to objectively demonstrate:
- Understanding of hazardous
materials and risks during response
- Potential outcomes of response
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NOTES
FIRST RESPONDER AWARENESS LEVEL
- Recognize presence of hazardous
materials
- Ability to identify hazardous
materials
- Understanding of responder's role
- Recognize need for additional
resources
FIRST RESPONDER OPERATIONS LEVEL
Protection of nearby persons,
property, or the environment
Defensive response
Confinement of release from safe
distance
FIRST RESPONDER OPERATIONS LEVEL
At least 8 hours of training
Sufficient experience to objectively
demonstrate competency of Awareness
Level training
Regulatory Overview
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NOTES
FIRST RESPONDER OPERATIONS LEVEL
Agency to certify:
- Knowledge of basic hazard and
risk assessment
- Selection and use of PPE
- Basic hazardous materials
terminology
FIRST RESPONDER OPERATIONS LEVEL
Perform basic control techniques
Implement basic decontamination
procedures
Relevant standard operating
procedures, and termination
procedures
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS TECHNICIAN
• Respond to stop a release
• Perform advance control techniques
• Received at least 24 hours of
training equal to Operations Level
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NOTES
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS TECHNICIAN
Agency shall certify that the technician
has the ability to:
- Implement the agencies' emergency
response plan
- Use field instruments to classify,
identify, or verify known or unknown
materials present
- Function within an assigned role
in the agencies' ICS
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS TECHNICIAN
Agency shall certify that the technician has the
ability to:
- Select and use proper specialized
personal protective equipment
- Understand hazard and risk
assessment techniques
- Perform advance control,
containment, or confinement
techniques
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS TECHNICIAN
Agency shall certify that the technician has the
ability to:
- Understand and implement
decontamination procedures
- Understand termination procedures
- Understand basic chemical and
toxicological terminology and
behavior
Regulatory Overview
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NOTES
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS SPECIALIST
• Support technicians
• Specific knowledge of various
substances
• Act as liaison with local, state,
and federal government officials
• Shall have a minimum of 24 hours
training equal to Technician Level
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS SPECIALIST
Agency shall certify the specialist
has the ability to:
- Implement the local emergency
response plan
- Use advanced survey instruments
and equipment to classify, identify,
and verify known and unknown
materials onsite
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS SPECIALIST
Agency shall certify the specialist
has the ability to:
- Know the state emergency response
plan
- Select and use specialized
chemical personal protective
equipment
- Understand in-depth hazard and
risk assessment techniques
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NOTES
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS SPECIALIST
Agency shall certify the specialist has the
ability to:
- Perform specialized control, containment,
and confinement operations
- Implement decontamination procedures
- Develop a site safety and control plan
- Understand chemical, radiological, and
toxicological terminology and behavior
ON-SCENE INCIDENT COMMANDER
• Training for those who control
scene beyond Awareness Level
response
• Shall receive a minimum 24 hours
of training equal to Operations Level
ON-SCENE INCIDENT COMMANDER
Must have competency in the
following areas:
- Know and implement agencies' ICS
- Implement the agencies' ERP
- Know the risks and hazards of
employees working in chemical
protective clothing
- Implement the local ERP
Regulatory Overview
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NOTES
ON-SCENE INCIDENT COMMANDER
Must have compentency in the following
areas:
- Knowledge of the state ERP
- Knowledge of the federal regional
response team
- Know and understand the importance
of decontamination procedures
TRAINERS
Trainers of employees in categories
Q-6 of the standard shall:
- Satisfactorily complete training
course
- Have training or academic credentials
- Possess a good command of subject
matter
REFRESHER TRAINING
• Training pursuant to Q-6:
- Sufficient content and duration
to maintain competency
- Employee to demonstrate competency
at least yearly
- Agency to make a written statement
of the training or competency
- Record of methodology
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NOTES
MEDICAL SURVEILLANCE
• Members of organized and designated
hazardous material teams
• Hazardous materials specialist
• Paragraph (f) of standard
MEDICAL SURVEILLANCE
Prior to response
Every 12 months, unless physician
approves longer interval
Reassignment of duties or
termination of employment
Agency to provide examinations at
no cost to employees
MEDICAL SURVEILLANCE
Signs or symptoms of possible
overexposure to a substance or
health hazard
Injured or exposed above the PEL
More frequent intervals as
determined by physician
Regulatory Overview
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NOTES
CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
Compliance with Paragraph (g 3-5)
of the standard
- Selection based on known
or potential hazards
- Positive-pressure SCBA
CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
Compliance with Paragraph (g 3-5)
of the standard
- Level A suits to be used when skin
absorption possible
- Level of protection to vary with
conditions
- Level A suit to protect from
hazards
CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
Personal protective equipment program
- Equipment selection
- Use and limitations of equipment
- Work mission duration
- Maintenance and storage
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NOTES
CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
Personal protective equipment program
- Decontamination and disposal
- Training and proper fitting
- Donning and doffing procedures
- Inspection procedures prior to,
during, and after use
CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
Personal protective equipment program
- Evaluation of program
- Limitations during temperature
extremes, heat stress, appropriate
medical considerations
POST-EMERGENCY RESPONSE
Institute termination procedures
Cleanup and removal of materials
from scene; mandatory compliance
with paragraphs (b) through (o)
of standard
Incident at facility
Regulatory Overview
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NOTES
WORKER PROTECTION STANDARDS
Standard enforced by both OSHA and
U.S. EPA
• Professional response
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REGULATORY OVERVIEW
TITLE III - EMERGENCY PLANNING AND COMMUNITY RIGHT-TO-KNOW
TOPIC PAGE NO.
I. INTRODUCTION 1
II. SUPERFUND REAUTHORIZATION AND AMENDMENTS ACT 2
III. TITLE III 2
A. EMERGENCY PLANNING (SECTION 301-302) 2
B. EMERGENCY NOTIFICATION (SECTION 304) 3
C. COMMUNITY RIGHT-TO-KNOW REPORTING REQUIREMENTS
(SECTION 311-312) 4
D. TOXIC CHEMICAL RELEASE REPORTING (SECTION 313) 5
IV. THE NATIONAL RESPONSE PLAN 7
V. SUMMARY 7
APX. I 29CFR 1910.120 PARAGRAPH (q) 9
APX. II 29CFR 1910.120 PARAGRAPH (f) 15
APX. HI LIST OF EXTREMELY HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES AND THEIR
THRESHOLD PLANNING QUANTITIES 19
APX. IV MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET 27
APX. V SAMPLE OF COMPLETED MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET 29
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TITLE III - EMERGENCY PLANNING AND COMMUNITY RIGHT-TO-KNOW
I. INTRODUCTION
Responding to a hazardous material emergency (or incident) requires executing many
different activities in order to control the emergency and prevent or reduce loss of life,
injury, property damage, or adverse environmental effects. The number of responders (and
resources) needed varies considerably. From a few responders for a minor spill to many,
representing local, state, and federal agencies as well as private industry, for a major
incident. Regardless of the number needed, whether they can effectively achieve the goal
of mitigating undesirable effects depends upon a number of factors. To a large degree, one
factor primarily determines the success of a response - having a preestablished hazardous
material emergency response plan.
A comprehensive, well-written plan, periodically reviewed and tested, helps prevent much
of the confusion and chaos inherent in responding to incidents for which no preplanning
exists. A plan allows required activities to commence without unnecessary delays caused by
lack of organization, structure, leadership, resources, assistance, or technical expertise.
In addition to existing state and local laws and regulations concerning hazardous material
emergencies, a relatively new federal environmental law, the Emergency Planning and
Community Right-To-Known Act of 1986, known a Title III, requires the States to develop
and coordinate state and local response organizations and preparedness plans for responding
to hazardous material emergencies.
Four provisions of Title III are especially important to local responders.
• A planning committee comprised of representatives from the local community
must be established to develop plans and organize resources for responding
to chemical accidents.
• Facilities that manufacture, use, store, or otherwise possess quantities of
designated chemicals above minimum levels must identify and give
information concerning the hazardous properties of these substances to the
local emergency planning committee and to the fire department.
• Facilities must immediately notify local and state authorities of a release of
more than a predetermined amount of designated chemicals.
• Upon request of the Fire Department, the owner/operator of a facility must
permit access to the facility by the Fire Department to conduct on-site
inspections of the facility.
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TITLE III - EMERGENCY PLANNING AND COMMUNITY RIGHT-TO-KNOW
II. SUPERFUND REAUTHORIZATION AND AMENDMENTS ACT
In 1986, the Superfund Reauthorization and Amendments Act, (SARA) was passed. SARA
reauthorized and amended the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and
Liability Act (CERCLA) of 1980, the major law establishing the role and responsibilities of
the federal agencies for responses to hazardous materials accidents and clean-up of
abandoned, hazardous waste sites. The reauthorization of CERCLA provided for the
continuation and revision of the federal government's own plan for responding to hazardous
material emergencies - the Oil and Hazardous Substances Contingency Plan. Also included
in SARA were five Titles (each a free-standing statutory provision or law). Of these, Title
III has a direct impact on state and local emergency response planning for hazardous material
emergencies.
III. TITLE III - EMERGENCY PLANNING AND COMMUNITY RIGHT-TO-KNOW ACT
OF 1986
Title III mandates that state and local governments establish an organization, prepare
emergency plans, identify resources, and provide training for emergency responders. Its
intent is to improve the local and state capability for planning, preparing, and responding to
chemical emergencies and to provide for a more coordinated local, state, federal approach
to hazardous material emergency response.
Title III has four major sections:
A. Emergency Planning (Section 301-302)
The Governor of each state must designate a State Emergency Response Commission
(SERC) which should have broad based representation from state agencies, the public
as well as the private sector. The SERC is to designate emergency planning districts
and appoint Local Emergency Planning Committees (LEPC). Membership of the
LEPC must include elected State and local officials, police, fire, civil defense, public
health professionals, environmental, hospital, and transportation officials as well as
representatives of facilities subject to the emergency planning requirements,
community groups, and the media.
It is the responsibility of the SERC to coordinate local planning efforts and to insure
that facilities and the local community comply with Title III requirements.
The LEPC is responsible for preparing an emergency response plan which must, as
a minimum:
• Identify facilities and extremely hazardous substances transportation
routes.
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TITLE III - EMERGENCY PLANNING AND COMMUNITY RIGHT-TO-KNOW
• Designate a Local Emergency Coordinator and facility
coordinators(s).
• Establish emergency notification procedures.
• Provide emergency response training to local personnel who may be
called upon to mitigate a chemical release.
• Provide methods for determining the occurrence of releases and the
probable area affected area and population.
• Describe the community's and industry's emergency equipment and
facilities and identifying the persons responsible for them.
• Prepare evacuation plans.
• Develop methods and schedules for exercising emergency response
plans.
B. Emergency Notification (Section 304)
Facilities must immediately notify the LEPC and the SERC if there is a release of a
listed hazardous substance that exceeds the reportable quantity for that substance.
Substances subject to this requirement are:
• Substances listed on the list of Extremely Hazardous Substances
(EHS) (See Appendix I).
• Substances subject to the emergency notification requirement Of
CERCLA, Section 303(a).
The initial notification requirement can be by telephone, radio, or in person.
Transportation incidents are reported by dialing the local emergency number (911)
or the local operator.
Emergency notification needs to include:
• The chemical name
• An indication of whether the substance is extremely hazardous
• An estimate of the quantity released into the environment
• The time and duration of the release
• The media into which the release occurred
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TITLE III - EMERGENCY PLANNING AND COMMUNITY RIGHT-TO-KNOW
• Any known or anticipated acute or chronic health risk associated with the
emergency, and where appropriate, advise regarding medical attention
necessary for exposed individuals
• Proper precautions, such as evacuation
• Name and telephone number of contact person
A follow-up written notice is required after the emergency which is to include:
• Updated information included in the initial verbal notification
• Additional information on:
Actual response actions taken
Any known or anticipated data or chronic health risks
associated with the release
Advise regarding medical attention necessary for exposed
individuals
C. Community Right-to-Know Reporting Requirements (Section 311-312)
Facilities required to prepare Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs), by the US
Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OSHA) in their Worker Right-To-
Know regulations, must submit, if they meet the threshold limit quantities, this
information to the SERC, the LEPC, and the local fire department Facilities may
submit a list of the chemicals they have instead of the MSDS. (See Sample
MSDS, Appendix II). If so done, the list must include the chemical or common
name and any hazardous components as provided on the MSDS. If requested by the
LEPC, facilities must submit MSDS for the chemicals on their list to the LEPC.
The chemicals on the list must be organized into health and physical hazards as set
forth by OSHA regulations. OSHA originally used 23 separate categories of health
hazards. EPA has condensed this into five groups. Two health - acute and chronic
toxicity, and three physical hazard groups - pressure release (which can include
anything from compressed gases to explosives), flammable and reactive.
The reporting requirements also include submission of an emergency and hazardous
chemical inventory form to the LEPC, the SERC, and to the local fire department.
EPA has established a two-tier requirement for facilities to report chemical
information to local and state authorities.
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TITLE III - EMERGENCY PLANNING AND COMMUNITY RIGHT-TO-KNOW
• Tier I Information
This is general information about the facility and the identity and an
estimate (in ranges) of the maximum amount of chemicals for each
category present at the facility during the previous calendar year.
Also required is an estimate (a range) of the average daily amount of
chemicals in each category and the general location in the facility
where they are stored.
• Tier II Information
Upon the request of the LEPC, SERC, or fire department, the facility
must provide the following information:
Essentially the same information as required by Tier I, but in
more detail. Additional information includes a brief
description of the manner of storage, the location of the
chemicals in the facility, and an indication of whether the
owner wishes to withhold information on the basis of trade
secrecy.
Tier I information must be made available to the public during
normal working hours by the SERC or LEPC. Tier II
information is to be made available by the SERC provided a
written request substantiates a legitimate need to know.
Of particular importance to emergency responders is the section which gives the
senior fire official or his designated representative access to the facility to conduct
inspections for compliance with these regulations. Local authorities can also
designate additional personnel such as environmental health or health department
inspectors to assist in conducting these facility inspections.
D. Toxic Chemical Release Reporting (Section 313)
Requires EPA to establish an inventory of toxic chemical emissions from certain
facilities. Facilities subject to this reporting requirement are required to complete a
toxic chemical release form for each specific chemical meeting threshold
requirements.
The reporting requirement applies to owners and operators of facilities that have ten
or more full-time employees and that manufacture, process, or otherwise use a listed
toxic chemical in excess of specified threshold quantities. They must report annually
on all releases to air, water, and land.
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TITLE III - EMERGENCY PLANNING AND COMMUNITY RIGHT-TO-KNOW
There are over 300 chemicals and categories of chemicals that are subject to the
reporting requirements. Facilities using listed chemicals in quantities over 10,000
pounds per year are subject to reporting requirements.
Other Title III Provisions
Section 322 addresses the authority for a facility to withhold information based upon
trade secrecy. In general, for the specific identity of a chemical to be withheld from
disclosure four criteria must be met:
1. The information withheld cannot have been divulged to another person.
Essentially if others not directly involved in the processing or operation are
aware of the chemical identity, it cannot be considered a secret any longer,
2. The information is not required to be disclosed by other federal laws.
3. The disclosure of the information would cause a substantial competitive
disadvantage to the firm in the commercial marketplace.
4. The identity of the chemical is not readily discernable through reverse
engineering.
Even for chemicals whose specific identity can be withheld as a trade secret the
generic category the chemical falls in must still be submitted as well as any
significant health and safety hazards it possesses.
In this subtitle, there is an exception to the trade secret provision. Upon written
request by health practitioners, information must be made available for the diagnosis
and treatment of chemical injury. During a medical emergency a written
confidentiality statement by the physician is not needed, but the provider of the
chemical information, under the trade secrecy provision, may subsequently request
a written confidentiality agreement from health professionals. If information is
needed for any reason other than a bonafide emergency, a written confidentiality
agreement must be provided along with a specific statement of need for the
information by the local medical authority.
Section 305(a) Provides up to $5,000,000 annually to states to enhance their training
efforts in the area of planning and responding to chemical incidents.
Section 305(b) requires EPA to review emergency systems for monitoring, detecting,
and preventing releases of extremely hazardous substances at representative facilities
that produce, use, or store these substances.
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TITLE III - EMERGENCY PLANNING AND COMMUNITY RIGHT-TO-KNOW
IV. THE NATIONAL RESPONSE PLAN
The federal government's role and responsibilities for responding to releases or potential
releases of oil or hazardous substances is contained in the National Oil and Hazardous
Substances Contingency Plan (NCP). The NCP establishes a National Response Team
(NRT), comprised of representatives from 14 federal agencies. Each signatory agency is
assigned certain response functions, generally parallel to the agency's legislative
responsibilities, and is required to develop and organize their agencies capabilities for
responding to chemical emergencies.
The National Response Team's primary function is to organize and manage the NCP; to
review it, keep it current, and to make sure that individual agencies discharge their
responsibility. Lead roles in the NCP are assigned to the US EPA and the Coast Guard
(USCG).
The NCP also establishes Regional Response Teams (RRT) and requires that they develop
appropriate regional mechanisms for planning and preparedness activities. Regional
Contingency Plans (RCP) are to include provisions for communications, planning,
coordination, training, evaluation, preparedness, and other such matters on a region-wide
basis. The NCP calls for ten Regional Response Teams with jurisdiction corresponding to
the ten standard federal geographical regions. The RRT's are responsible for developing and
preparing Regional Response Plans (RRP).
Regional Response Teams are comprised of regional representatives from each of the 14
federal agencies on the NRT. It also includes a representative from each of the States within
that region. When the Regional Response Plan is activated, due to an incident within the
region, a representative from the locally effected area automatically becomes a voting
member of the committee. The RRP also preestablishes a federal manager - On-Scene-
Coordinator (OSC) - either from the EPA or the USCG for any incident that occurs.
Title III requires Regional Response Teams, when requested, to assist SERCs and LEPCs
in the development and implementation of their emergency preparedness plans. It also
requires the NRT to publish guidance documents concerning the preparation and planning of
emergency response plans.
V. SUMMARY
Responses to hazardous materials incidents are more effective when preplanning has been
done and emergency response plans prepared in advance. Emergency response plans must
be prepared by each level of government - local, state, federal - which has responsibilities
for response activities. Title III and the NCP provide a mechanism for integrated,
coordinated preparedness planning and emergency response.
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APPENDIX I
29CFR 1910.120 PARAGRAPH (q) EMERGENCY RESPONSE TO HAZARDOUS
SUBSTANCE RELEASES.
This paragraph covers employers whose
employees are engaged in emergency response
no matter where it occurs except that it does
not cover employees engaged in operations
specified in paragraphs (a)(l)(i) through
(a)(l)(iv) of this section. Those emergency
response organizations who have developed
and implemented programs equivalent to this
paragraph for handling releases of hazardous
substances pursuant to section 303 of the
Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization
Act of 1986 (Emergency Planning and
Community Right-to-Know Act of 1986, 42
U.S.C. 11003) shall be deemed to have met
the requirements of this paragraph.
(1) Emergency response plan. An
emergency response plan shall be developed
and implemented to handle anticipated
emergencies prior to the commencement of
emergency response operations. The plan
shall be in writing and available for inspection
and copying by employees, their
representatives and OSHA personnel.
Employers who will evacuate their employees
from the workplace when an emergency
occurs, and who did not permit any of their
employees to assist in handling the emergency
are exempt from the requirements of this
paragraph if they provide an emergency action
plan in accordance with §1910.38(a) of this
part.
(2) Elements of an emergency response
plan. The employer shall develop an
emergency response plan for emergencies
which shall address, as a minimum, the
following to the extent that they are not
addressed elsewhere:
(i) Pre-emergency planning and coordination
with outside parties.
(ii) Personnel roles, lines of authority,
training, and communication.
(iii) Emergency recognition and prevention.
(iv) Safe distances and places of refuse.
(v) Site security and control.
(vi) Evacuation routes and procedures.
(vii) Decontamination.
(viii) Emergency medical treatment and first
aid.
(ix) Emergency alerting and response
procedures.
(x) Critique of response and follow-up.
(xi) PPE and Emergency equipment.
(xii) Emergency response organizations may
use the local emergency response plan or the
state emergency response plan or both, as
part of their emergency response plan to
avoid duplication. Those items of the
emergency response plan that are being
properly addressed by the SARA Title III
plans may be substituted into their
emergency plan or otherwise kept together
for the employer and the employee's use.
(3) Procedures for handling emergency
response.
(i) The senior emergency response official
responding to an emergency shall become the
individual in charge of a site-specific
Incident Command System (ICS). All
emergency responders and their
communications shall be coordinated and
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APPENDIX I: 29CFR 1910.120 PARAGRAPH (q)
controlled through the individual in charge of
the ICS assisted by the senior official present
for each employer.
Note to (q)(3)(i)—The "senior official" at an
emergency response is the most senior
official on the site who has the responsibility
for controlling the operations at the site.
Initially it is the senior officer on the first-
due piece of responding emergency apparatus
to arrive on the incident scene. As more
senior officers arrive (i.e., battalion chief,
fire chief, state law enforcement official, site
coordinator, etc.) the position is passed up
the line of authority which has been
previously established.
(ii) The individual in charge of the ICS shall
identify, to the extent possible, all hazardous
substances or conditions present and shall
address as appropriate site analysis, use of
engineering controls, maximum exposure
limits, hazardous substance handling
procedures, and use of any new
technologies.
(iii) Based on the hazardous substances
and/or conditions present, the individual in
charge of the ICS shall implement
appropriate emergency operations, and
assure that the personal protective equipment
worn is appropriate for the hazards to be
encountered. However, personal protective
equipment shall meet, at a minimum, the
criteria contained in 29 CFR 1910.156(e)
when worn while performing fire fighting
operations beyond the incipient stage for any
incident or site.
(iv) Employees engaged in emergency
response and exposed to hazardous
substances presenting an inhalation hazard or
potential inhalation hazard shall wear
positive pressure self-contained breathing
apparatus while engaged in emergency
response, until such time that the individual
in charge of the ICS determines through the
use of air monitoring that a decreased level
of respiratory protection will not result in
hazardous exposures to employees.
(v) The individual in charge of the ICS shall
limit the number of emergency response
personnel at the emergency site, in those
areas of potential or actual exposure to
incident or site hazards, to those who are
actively performing emergency operations.
However, operations in hazardous areas shall
be performed using the buddy system in
groups of two or more.
(vi) Back-up personnel shall stand by with
equipment ready to provide assistance or
rescue. Advance first aid support personnel,
as a minimum, shall also stand by with
medical equipment and transportation
capability.
(vii) The individual in charge of the ICS
shall designate a safety official, who is
knowledgeable in the operations being
implemented at the emergency response site,
with specific responsibility to identify and
evaluate hazards and to provide direction
with respect to the safety of operations for
the emergency at hand.
(viii) When activities are judged by the
safety official to be an IDLH condition
and/or to involve an imminent danger
condition, the safety official shall have the
authority to alter, suspend, or terminate
those activities. The safety official shall
immediately inform the individual in charge
of the ICS of any actions needed to be taken
to correct these hazards at an emergency
scene.
(ix) After emergency operations have
terminated, the individual in charge of the
ICS shall implement appropriate
decontamination procedures.
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APPENDIX Ei 29CFK 1910.12©
(x) When deemed necessary for meeting the
tasks at hand, approved self-contained
compressed air breathing apparatus may be
used with approved cylinders from other
approved self-contained compressed air
breathing apparatus provided that such
cylinders are of the same capacity and
pressure rating. All compressed air
cylinders used with self-contained breathing
apparatus shall meet U.S. Department of
Transportation and National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health criteria.
(4) SEdledl snoppord: psrsomimeL Personnel,
not necessarily an employer's own employees,
who are skilled in the operation of certain
equipment, such as mechanized earth moving
or digging equipment or crane and hoisting
equipment, and who are needed temporarily to
perform immediate emergency support work
that cannot reasonably be performed in a
timely fashion by an employer's own
employees, and who will be or may be
exposed to the hazards at an emergency
response scene, are not required to meet the
training required in this paragraph for the
employer's regular employees. However,
these personnel shall be given an initial
briefing at the site prior to their participation
in any emergency response. The initial
briefing shall include instruction in the
wearing of appropriate personal protective
equipment, what chemical hazards are
involved, and what duties are to be performed.
All other appropriate safety and health
precautions provided to the employer's own
employees shall be used to assure the safety
and health of these personnel.
(5) SpsdaDnslt emmiptoym. Employees who, in
the course of their regular job duties, work
with and are trained in the hazards of specific
hazardous substances, and who will be called
upon to provide technical advice or assistance
at a hazardous substance release incident to
the individual in charge, shall receive training
or demonstrate competency in the area of their
specialization annually.
(<&) TirsinimDinigo Training shall be based on the
duties and function to be performed by each
responder of an emergency response
organization. The skill and knowledge levels
required for all new responders, those hired
after the effective date of this standard, shall
be conveyed to them through training before
they are permitted to take part in actual
emergency operations on an incident.
Employees who participate, or are expected to
participate, in emergency response, shall be
given training in accordance with the
following paragraphs:
(5) Fin-sit riiiidl
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APPENDIX I: 29CFR 1910.120 PARAGRAPH (q)
(e) An understanding of the role of the
first responder awareness individual in the
employer's emergency response plan
including the site security and control and
the U.S. Department of Transportation's
Emergency Response Guidebook.
(f) the ability to realize the need for
additional resources, and to make
appropriate notifications to the
communication center.
(ii) First responder operations level. First
responders at the operations level are
individuals who respond to releases or
potential releases of hazardous substances as
part of the initial response to the site for the
purpose of protecting nearby persons,
property, or the environment from the effects
of the release. They are trained to respond
in a defensive fashion without actually trying
to stop the release. Their function is to
contain the release from a safe distance, keep
it from spreading, and prevent exposures.
First responders at the operational level shall
have received at least eight hours of training
or have had sufficient experience to
objectively demonstrate competency in the
following areas in addition to those listed for
the awareness level and the employer shall
so certify:
(a) Knowledge of the basic hazard and
risk assessment techniques.
(b) Know how to select and use proper
personal protective equipment provided to
the first responder operational level.
(c) An understanding of basic hazardous
materials terms.
(d) Know how to perform basic control,
containment and/or confinement operations
within the capabilities of the resources and
personal protective equipment available
with their unit.
(e) Know how to implement
decontamination procedures.
basic
(f) An understanding of the revellent
standard operating procedures and
termination procedures.
(iii) Hazardous materials technician.
Hazardous materials technicians are
individuals who respond to releases or
potential releases for the purpose of stopping
the release. They assume a more aggressive
role than a first responder at the operations
level in that they will approach the point of
release in order to plug, patch or otherwise
stop the release of a hazardous substance.
Hazardous materials technicians shall have
received at least 24 hours of training equal to
the first responder operations level and in
addition have competency in the following
areas and the employer shall so certify:
(a) Know how to implement the
employer's emergency response plan.
(b) Know the classification, identification
and verification of known and unknown
materials by using field survey instruments
and equipment.
(c) Be able to function within an assigned
role in the Incident Command System.
(d) Know how to select and use proper
specialized chemical personal protective
equipment provided to the hazardous
materials technical.
(e) Understand hazard and risk assessment
techniques.
(f) Be able to perform advance control,
containment, and/or confinement
operations within the capabilities of the
resources and personal protective
equipment available with the unit.
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APPENDIX I: 29CFR 1910.120 PARAGRAPH (q)
(g) Understand and implement
decontamination procedures.
(h) Understand termination procedures.
(i) Understand basic chemical and
toxicological terminology and behavior.
(iv) Hazardous materials specialist.
Hazardous materials specialists are
individuals who respond with and provide
support to hazardous materials technicians.
Their duties parallel those of the hazardous
materials technician, however, those duties
require a more directed or specific
knowledge of the various substances they
may be called upon to contain. The
hazardous materials specialist would also act
as the site liaison with Federal, state, local
and other government authorities in regards
to site activities. Hazardous materials
specialists shall have received at least 24
hours of training equal to the technical level
and in addition have competency in the
following areas and the employer shall so
certify:
(a) Know how to implement the local
emergency response plan.
(b) Understand classification, identification
and verification of known and unknown
materials by using advanced survey
instruments and equipment.
(c) Know of the state emergency response
plan.
(d) Be able to select and use proper
specialized chemical personal protective
equipment provided to die hazardous
materials specialist.
(e) Understand in-depth hazard and risk
techniques.
(f) Be able to perform specialized control,
containment, and/or confinement
operations within die capabilities of die
resources and personal protective
equipment available.
(g) Be able to determine and implement
decontamination procedures.
(h) Have the ability to develop a site
safety and control plan.
(i) Understand chemical, radiological and
toxicological terminology and behavior.
(v) On scene incident commander.
Incident commanders, who will assume
control of the incident scene beyond the first
responder awareness level, shall receive at
least 24 hours of training equal to the first
responder operations level and in addition
have competency in me following areas and
die employer shall so certify:
(a) Know and be able to implement the
employer's incident command system.
(b) Know how to implement the
employer's emergency response plan.
(c) Know and understand the hazards and
risks associated with employees working
in chemical protective clothing.
(d) Know how to implement die local
emergency response plan.
(e) Know of die state emergency response
plan and of the Federal Regional Response
Team.
(f) Know and understand the importance
of decontamination procedures.
(7) Trainers. Trainers who teach any of me
above training subjects shall have satisfactorily
completed a training course for teaching the
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APPENDIX I: 29CFR 1910.120 PARAGRAPH (q)
subjects they are expected to teach, such as
the courses offered by the U.S. Fire
Academy, or they shall have the training
and/or academic credentials and instructional
experience necessary to demonstrate competent
instructional skills and a good command of the
subject matter of the courses they are to teach.
(8) Refresher training.
(i) Those employees who are trained in
accordance with paragraph (q)(6) of this
section shall receive annual refresher training
of sufficient content and duration to maintain
their competencies, or shall demonstrate
competency in those areas at least yearly.
(ii) A statement shall be made of the training
or competency, and if a statement of
competency is made, the employer shall keep
a record of the methodology used to
demonstrate competency.
(9) Medical surveillance and consultation.
(i) Members of an organized and designated
HAZMAT team and hazardous materials
specialists shall receive a baseline physical
examination and be provided with medical
surveillance as required in paragraph (f) of
this section.
(ii) Any emergency response employee who
exhibits signs or symptoms which may have
resulted from exposure to hazardous
substances during the course of an
emergency incident, either immediately or
subsequently, shall be provided with medical
consultation as required in paragraph
(f)(3)(ii) of this section.
(10) Chemical protective clothing. Chemical
protective clothing and equipment to be used
by organized and designated HAZMAT team
members, or to be used by hazardous
materials specialists, shall meet the
requirements of paragraphs (g)(3) through (5)
of this section.
(11) Post-emergency response operations.
Upon completion of the emergency response,
if it is determined that it is necessary to
remove hazardous substances, health hazards,
and materials contaminated with them (such as
contaminated soil or other elements of the
natural environment) from the site of the
incident, the employer conducting the clean-up
shall comply with one of the following:
(i) Meet all of the requirements of
paragraphs (b) through (o) of this section;
or
(ii) Where the clean-up is done on plant
property using plant or workplace
employees, such employees shall have
completed the training requirements of the
following: 29 CFR 1910.38(a); 1910.134;
1910.1200, and other appropriate safety
and health training made necessary by the
tasks that they are expected to be
performed such as personal protective
equipment and decontamination
procedures. All equipment to be used in
the performance of the clean-up work shall
be in serviceable condition and shall have
been inspected prior to use.
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APPENDIX II
29CFR 1910.120 PARAGRAPH (f) MEDICAL SURVEILLANCE
(1) General. Employers engaged in operations
specified in paragraphs (a)(l)(i) through
(a)(l)(iv) of this section and not covered by
(a)(2)(iii) exceptions and employers of
employees specified in paragraph (q)(9) shall
institute a medical surveillance program in
accordance with this paragraph.
(2) Employees covered. The medical
surveillance program shall be instituted by the
employer for the following employees:
(i) All employees who are or may be
exposed to hazardous substances or health
hazards at or above the permissible exposure
limits or, if there is no permissible exposure
limit, above the published exposure levels
for these substances, without regard to the
use of respirators, for 30 days or more a
year;
(ii) All employees who wear a respirator for
30 days or more a year or as required by
§ 1910.134;
(Hi) All employees who are injured due to
overexposure from an emergency incident
involving hazardous substances or health
hazards; or
(iv) Members of HAZMAT teams.
(3) Frequency of medical examinations and
consultations.
Medical examinations and consultations shall be
made available by the employer to each
employee covered under paragraph (f)(2) of this
section on the following schedules:
0) For employees covered under paragraphs
(f)(2)(i), (f)(2)(ii), and (f)(2)(iv):
(a) Prior to assignment;
(b) At least once every twelve months for
each employee covered unless the attending
physician believes a longer interval (not
greater than biennially) is appropriate;
(c) At termination of employment or
reassignment to an area where the employee
would not be covered if the employee has
not had an examination within the last six
months;
(d) As soon as possible upon notification by
an employee that the employee has
developed signs or symptoms indicating
possible overexposure to hazardous
substances or health hazards, or that the
employee has been injured or exposed above
the permissible exposure limits or published
exposure levels in an emergency situation;
(e) At more frequent times, if the examining
physician determines that an increased
frequency of examination is medically
necessary.
(ii) For employees covered under paragraph
(f)(2)(iii) and for all employees including those
of employers covered by paragraph (a)(l)(v)
who may have been injured, received a health
impairment, developed signs or symptoms
which may have resulted from exposure to
hazardous substances resulting from an
emergency incident, or exposed during an
emergency incident to hazardous substances at
concentrations above the permissible exposure
limits or the published exposure levels without
the necessary personal protective equipment
being used:
(a) As soon as possible following the
emergency incident or development of signs
or symptoms;
(b) At additional times, if the examining
physician determines that follow-up
3/94
15
-------
APPENDIX II: 29CFR 1910.120 PARAGRAPH (f)
examinations or consultations are medically
necessary.
(4) Content of medical examinations and
consultations.
0) Medical examinations required by paragraph
(f)(3) of this section shall include a medical
and work history (or updated history if one is
hi the employees file) with special emphasis on
symptoms related to the handling of hazardous
substances and health hazards, and to fitness
for duty including the ability to wear any
required PPE under conditions (i.e.,
temperature extremes) that may be expected at
the work site.
(ii) The content of medical examinations or
consultations made available to employees
pursuant to paragraph (f) shall be determined
by the attending physician. The guidelines in
the Occupational Safety and Health Guidance
Manual for Hazardous Waste Site Activities
(see Appendix D, Reference # 10) should be
consulted.
(5) Examination by a physician and costs. All
medical examinations and procedures shall be
performed by or under the supervision of a
licensed physician, preferably one
knowledgeable in occupational medicine, and
shall be provided without cost to the employee,
without loss of pay, and at a reasonable time and
place.
(6) Information provided to the physician. The
employer shall provide one copy of this standard
and its appendices to the attending physician,
and in addition the following for each employee:
(i) A description of the employee's duties as
they relate to the employee's exposures.
(ii) The employee's exposure levels or
anticipated exposure levels.
(iii) A description of any personal protective
equipment used or to be used.
(iv) Information from previous medical
examinations of the employee which is not
readily available to the examining physician.
(v) Information required by §1910.134
(7) Physician's written opinion.
0) The employer shall obtain and furnish the
employee with a copy of a written opinion
from the attending physician containing the
following:
(a) The physician's opinion as to whether
the employee has any detected medical
conditions which would place the employee
at increased risk of material impairment of
the employee's health from work in
hazardous waste operations or emergency
response, or from respirator use.
(b) The physician's recommended limitations
upon the employee's assigned work.
(c) The results of the medical examination
and tests if requested by the employee.
(d) A statement that the employee has been
informed by the physician of the results of
the medical examination and any medical
conditions which require further examination
or treatment.
(ii) The written opinion obtained by the
employer shall not reveal specific findings or
diagnoses unrelated to occupational exposures.
(8) Recordkeeping.
0) An accurate record of the medical
surveillance required by paragraph (f) of this
section shall be retained. This record shall be
retained for the period specified and meet the
criteria of 29 CFR 1919.20
(ii) The record required in paragraph (f)(8)(i)
of this section shall include at least the
following information:
3/94
16
-------
APPENDIX II: 29CFR 1910.120 PARAGRAPH (0
(a) The name and social security number of
the employee;
(b) Physician's written opinions,
recommended limitations, and results of
examinations and tests;
(c) Any employee medical complaints
related to exposure to hazardous substances;
(d) A copy of the information provided to
the examining physician by the employer,
with the exception of the standard and its
appendices.
3/94 17
-------
APPENDIX III
Federal Register / Vol. 52, No. 77 / Wednesday, April 22. 1987 / Rules and Regulations 13397
APPENDIX A.—THE LIST OF EXTREMELY HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES AND THEIR THRESHOLD PLANNING QUANTITIES
[Alphabetical Order]
CAS No.
Chemical name
Notes
Reportable
quantity*
(pounds)
Threshold
planning quantity
(pounds)
75-86-5
1752-30-3
107-02-8
79-06-1
107--13-1
814-68-6
111-69-3
116-06-3
309-00-2
107-18-6
107-11-9
20859-73-8
54-62-6
78-53-5
3734-97-2
7664-41-7
16919-58-7
300-62-9
62-53-3
88-05-1
7783-70-2
1397-94-0
86-88-4
1303-28-2
1327-53-3
7784-34-1
7784-42-1
2642-71-9
86-50-0
1405-87-4
98-87-3
98-16-8
100-14-1
98-05-5
98-09-9
3615-21-2
98-07-7
100-44-7
140-29-4
Acetone Cyanohydrin
Acetone Thiosemicarbazide e
Acrolein
Acrylamide d, I
Acrylonitrile d, I
Acrylyl Chloride e, h
Adiponitrile. e, I
Aldicarb C
Aldrin d
Allyl Alcohol
Allylamine e
Aluminum Phosphide b
Aminopterin e
Amiton e
Amiton Oxalate e
Ammonia I
Ammonium Chloroplatinate a, e
Amphetamine e
Aniline d, I
Aniline, 2,4,6-Trimethyl- e
Antimony Pentafluoride e
Antimycin A c, e
ANTU ;
Arsenic Pentoxide d
Arsenous Oxide d.'h
Arsenous Trichloride d
Arsine e
Azinphos-Ethyl e
Azinphos-Methyl
Bacitracin a. e
Benzal Chloride d
Benzenamine, 3-{Trifluoromethyl)- e
Benzene, 1-(Chloromethyl)-4-Nitro- e
Benzenearsonic Acid e
Benzenesulfonyl Chloride a
Benzimidazole. 4,5-Dichlorc-2-(Trifluoromethyl)- e, g
Benzotrichloride d
Benzyl Chloride d
Benzyl Cyanide e, h
10
1
1
5,000
100
1
1
1
1
100
1
100
1
1
1
100
1
1
5.000
1
1
1
100
5,000
5,000
5,000
1
1
1
1
5,000
1
1
1
100
1
1
100
1
1.000
1,000/10,000
500
1.000/10,000
10,000
100
1.000
100/10,000
500/10,000
1,000
500
500
500/10,000
500
100/10.000
500
10,000
1.000
1.000
500
500
1,000/10,000
500/10,000
100/10,000
100/10.000
500
100
100/10.000
10/10.000
10.000
500
500
500/10,000
10/10.000
10,000
500/10,000
100
500
500
3/94
19
-------
APPENDIX HI
13398 Federal Register / Vol. 52, No. 77 / Wednesday, April 22, 1987 / Rules and Regulations
APPENDIX A.—THE LIST OF EXTREMELY HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES AND THEIR THRESHOLD PLANNING QUANTITIES—Continued
[Alphabetical Order]
CAS No.
15271-41-7
534-07-6
4044-65-9
10294-34-5
7637-07-2
353-42-4
28772-56-7
7726-95-6
106-99-0
109-19-3
111-34-2
1306-19-0
2223-93-0
7778-44-1
6001-35-2
56-25-7
51-83-2
26419-73-8
1563-66-2
75-15-0
786-19-6
2244-16-6
57-74-9
470-90-6
7782-50-5
24934-91-6
999-81-5
107-20-0
79-11-8
107-07-3
627-11-2
67-66-3
542-8B-1
107-30-2
3691-35-8
1982-47-4
21923-23-9
10025-73-7
7440-46-4
62207-76-5
10210-68-1
64-66-8
117-52-2
56-72-4
5636-29-3
95-48-7
535-89-7
4170-30-3
123-73-9
506-68-3
506-78-5
2636-26-2
675-14-9
66-81-9
108-91-8
287-92-3
633-03-4
17702^(1-9
8065-48-3
919^86-8
10311-84-9
19287-45-7
84-74-2
8023-53-8
11 1-44-4
Chemical name
Bicyclo[2.2.1]Heptane-2-Carbonitrile. 5-Chloro-6-((((Methylamino)Carbonyl)Oxy)lmino)-.
(1s-(1 -alpha, 2-beta, 4-alpha, 5-alpha, 6E))-.
Bis(Chloromethyl) Ketone _
Bitoscanate . - . .. - — — . . ..
Boron Trichloride .
Boron Trifluoride.-
Boron Trifluoride Compound With Methyl Ether (1:1) ..
Bromadiolone _. — ._ — . .-_...„ _ _ _.._.....
Bromine .
Butadiene . • . .."-^ . - 1, , * .«.
Butyl Isovalerate « .. .... „
Butyl Vinyl Ether -
Cadmium Oxide .. - _
Cadmium Stearate - „..._
Calcium Arsenate ... _ _
Carriphechlor.,,, . ,.., .„.„.. ...„„.., .,, ,,,,, ,, ,,, .,, .., , ... , ...
Cantharidin _ _ . . _
Carbechol Chloride . ..
Carbamic Acid, Methyl-, 0-(((2,4-Dimethyl-1 , 3-Ditruolan-2-yt)Methylene)Amino}-
Carbofuran . . _
Carbon Disulfide _ _ —
Carbophenothion „
Carvone.
Chlordane .. _
Chlorfenvinfos,- ._ _ _...
Chlorine .„ _ _ „
Chlormephos _ „
Chlormequat Chloride „ „ _
Chloroacetaldehyde _
Chloroacetic Acid— _
Chloroethanol . .._
Chloroethyl Chlorof ormate ._._ ......
Chloroform _ _ „_.......
Chlnromethyl Fther , , ....„.., ..„„. . . ,,, .,..,,
Chloromethyl Methyl Ether _
ChlorpphpcinQOe , ,, ,, ,...,
Chlorcmiron ...., , ,,,,, ,.._„ , ,
Chlorthiophos _.„.___ .
Chromic Chloride... ,„.,-.....,, .-,..-, ....,,. .....^
Cobalt _
Cobalt. ((2,2'-(1 ,2-Ethanediylbis (Nitrilomethylidyne))Bis(6-Fluorophenolato))(2-)-
N.N'.O.O')-,.
Cobalt Carbonyl..._ _
Colchicine . „ _...„
Coumafuryl
Coumaphos _ _
Coumatetralyl _...
Cresol, o- „ _
Crimidine ;
Crotonaldehyde
Crotonaldehyde, (E)- „
Cyanogen Bromide „ „
Cyanogen Iodide . _ „
Cyanophos „
Cyanuric Fluoride „ .
Cycloheximide „ _
Cyclohexylamine
Cyclopentane
C. I. Basic Green 1 _.
Decaborane(14)
Demeton „.
Demeton-S-Methyl _
Dialifor _„ _ ..„ _.. "
Diborane ;
Dibutyl Phthalate _ „
Oichlorobenzalkonium Chloride
Oichloroethyl Ether _.. ._ _
Notes
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e. 1
a, e
a, e
a, e
e
c, e
d
d
e
e
e
1
e
a, e
d
e
e
e, h
a
e
e
G
d 1
d h
c d
e
e
e h
e
a* d
e
e h
e h
a. e
e
d
e
G
Q
G
e
e 1
a, e
&, G
e
e
Q
^
ft A
d
Reportable
quantity*
(pounds)
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1 000
1
1
1
1
10
100
1
1
1
1
10
1
1
1 000
1
1
1
5000
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
10
1
1 000
1
100
100
1 000
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
10
1
1
Threshold
planning quantity
(pounds)
500/10,000
10/10,000
500/10,000
500
500
1,000
100/10,000
500
10,000
10.000
10,000
100/10,000
1,000/10,000
500/10 000
500/10000
100/10,000
500/10 000
100/10,000
10/10000
10000
500
10,000
1 000
500
100
500
100/10.000
10000
100/10,000
500
1 000
10000
100
100
100/10,000
500/10,000
500
1/10.000
10000
100/10,000
10/10000
10/10000
10000
100/10000
500/10000
1 000/10000
100/10000
1 000
1 000
500/10000
1 000/10000
1 ooO
100
100/10000
10 000
10000
10000
500/10 000
500
500
100/10000
ion
mnno
mnon
10.0OO
3/94
20
-------
APPENDIX III
Federal Register / Vol. 52. No. 77 / Wednesday, April 22, 1987 / Rules and Regulations
13399
APPENDIX A.—THE LIST OF EXTREMELY HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES AND THEIR THRESHOLD PLANNING QUANTITIES—Continued
[Alphabetical Order]
CAS No.
Chemical name
Notes
Reportable
quantity*
(pounds)
Threshold
planning quantity
(pounds)
149-74-6 Dichloromethylphenylsilane e
62-73-7 Dichlorvos ............_ _.._._........... .._.._
141-66-2 Dicrotophos _ __ _ e
1464-53-5 Diepoxybutane _ . d
814-49-3 Oiethyl Chlorophospate . ._.. e, h
1642-54-2 Diethylcarbamazine Citrate . e
93—05-0 Diethyl-p-Phenylenediamine.__._.__ _...._ ._...._...... a,e
71—63-6 Digrtoxin « . ..___.— ..._._..«.«...... __... «..._. _...._......_.._.___...... c, e
2238-07-5 Diglycidyl Ether e
20830-75-5 Digoxin_ _.. e. h
^ ^ 5_26-4 Dimefox . _. _ ._ _ ™- ____.» e
2524-03-0 Dimethyl Phosphorochloridothioate e
131-11-3 Dimethyl Phthalate _ a
77-78-1 Dimethyl Sulfate d
75-.18-3 Dimethyl Sulfide _ e
75-78-5 Dimethytdichlorosilane......——.— _...__ .„..—.—. _.__._._.___ e, h
99-98-9 Dimethyt-p-Pnenytenediamine _— ~— __..........„.._.„._..„._.._..._..__-.. e
644—64-4 Dimetilan —.. -, , „ _.,....._ __..__..._ -- e
534-52-1 Dinitrocresol...
88-35^7 Dinoseb
117-84-0 Dioctyt Phthalate . a
78-34-2 Dioxathion _. ..........—.......................... , e
646-06-0 Dioxolane a, e
152-16-9 Diphosphoramide, Octametrr^
298-04-4 Disurfoton
514—73-8 Dithiazanine lodide-......__ ___........ .._... ........ . .._._«.__„_. e
541-53-7 Drthtobiuret
316-42-7 Emetine. Dihydrochloride e. h
115-29-7 Endosulfan :
2778-04-3 Endothion. ._.. - ._ ..___ ....... ._..__________— e
72-20-8 Endrin
106-89-8 Epichlorohydrin - ,,,,,,„— d, I
2104-64-5 EPN e
379—79-3 Ergotamine Tartrate..... _______ _....__ . ._„„_.__... e
1622-32-8 Ethanesutfonyl Chloride. 2-Chtoro- e
10140-87-1 Ethanol, 1.2-Dichtoro-, Acetate e
563-12-2 Ethion
13194-48-4 Ethoprophos '. e
538-07-8 Ethytois(2-Chloroetriyl)Amin_ : e. h
371-62-0 Ethytene Fhjorohydrin _.___._._. -,... c, 6,
h
75-21-8 Ethytene Oxide
107-15-3 Ethytenediamine....
151-56-4 Ethyleneimine d
2235-25-8 Ethyhnercuric Phosphate .„...._...„ _....___... .__. a, e
542-90-5 Ethylthiocyanate_ _ e
22224-92-6 Fenamiphos e
122-14-5 Fenitrothkm e
115-90-2 Fensulfothion e, h
4301-50-2 Ruenetil _ e
7782-41-4 Fluorine _ k
640-19-7 Fluoroacetamide .—.......—__— . ............. „...._.. ....._.._ „...._..... j
144—49-0 Fluoroacetic Acid .. _. . -....._ ..._.._..........._......_»_.._....«.»..__.. e
359-06-8 Fluoroacetyl Chloride c. e
51-21-8 Fluorouracil .... ....................... ........... .._ _.. e
944-22-9 Fonofos _ e
50—00-0 Formaldehyde „.-.. _....._._.__.. _ ~ _...._... d.l
107-16-4 Formaldehyde Cyanohydrin _. e. h
23422-53-9 Formetanate Hydrochloride e.h
2540-82-1 Formothkjn... _._._ . ..._.... . . .............. e
17702-57-7 Formparanate e
21548-32-3 Fosthietan e
1
10
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
10
1
5.000
1
1
1
1
1
1
10
1,000
1
5.000
1
1
1
100
1
1
100
1
1
1
1
1.000
1
1
1
1
1
10
1
1
1
1
5,000
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
10
100
1
1
1
1
1.000
1
1
1
1
1
1,000
1,000
100
500
500
100/10,000
10,000
100/10,000
1,000
10/10.000
500
500/10,000
500
10.000
500
100
500
1.000
10/10,000
500/10,000
10/10.000
100/10.000
500/10.000
10.000
500
10,000
10/10,000
100
500
500/10.000
100/10.000
1/10,000
10/10,000
500/10,000
500/10,000
1.000
100/10,000
1,000/10,000
500/10,000
500
1,000
1.000
1.000
500
10
1.000
10.000
500
10.000
10.000
10/10,000
500
500
100/10,000
500
100/10.000
10/10,000
10
500/10.000
500
500
1,000
500/10,000
100
100/10.000
500
3/94
21
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APPENDIX III
13400 Federal Register / Vol. 52, No. 77 / Wednesday, April 22, 1987 / Rules and Regulations
APPENDIX A.—THE LIST OF EXTREMELY HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES AND THEIR THRESHOLD PLANNING QUANTITIES—Continued
[Alphabetical Order]
CAS No.
Chemical name
Notes
Reportable
quantity*
(pounds)
Threshold
planning quantity
(pounds)
3878-19-1 Fuberidazole •. e
110-00-9 Furan
13450-90-3 Gallium Trichloride e
77-47-4 Hexachlorocyclopentadiene d, h
1335-87-1 Hexachloronaphthalene a, e
4835-11-4 Hexamethylenediamine, N.N'-Dibutyl- e
302-01-2 Hydrazine „ '. d
74-90-8 Hydrocyanic Acid
7647-01-0 Hydrogen Chloride (Gas Only) e, I
7664-39-3 Hydrogen Fluoride
7722-84-1 Hydrogen Peroxide (Cone >52%) e, I
7783-07-5 Hydrogen Selenide e
7783-06-4 Hydrogen Sulfide I
123-31-9 Hydroquinone I
53-86-1 Indomethacin a, e
10025-97-5 Iridium Tetrachloride j a, e
13463-40-6 Iron, Pentacarbonyl- I e
297-78-9 Isobenzan _ e
78-82-0 Isobutyronitrile e, h
102-36-3 Isocyanic Acid, 3,4-Dichlorophenyl Ester e
465-73-6 Isodrin
55-91-4 Isofluorphate c
4098-71-9 Isophorone Diisocyanate _ • b, e
108-23-6 Isopropyl Chloroformate I e
625-55-8 Isopropyl Formate e
119-38-0 Isoproplymethylpyrazolyl Dimethylcarbamate ! e
78-97-7 Lactonitrile |e
21609-90-5 Leptophos ! e
541-25-3 Lewisite I c. e,
h
58-89-9 Lindane d
7580-67-8 Lithium Hydride j b, e
109-77-3 Malononitrile
12108-13-3 Manganese, Tricarbonyl Methylcyclopentadienyl ! e. h
51-75-2 Mechlorethamine I c, e
950-10-7 Mephosfolan ! e
1600-27-7 Mercuric Acetate e
7487-94-7 Mercuric Chloride e
21908-53-2 Mercuric Oxide e
108-67-8 Mesitylene a, e
10476-95-6 Methacrolein Diacetate e
760-93-0 Methacrylic Anhydride e
126-98-7 Methacrylonitrile h
920-46-7 Methacryloyl Chloride e
30674-80-7 Methacryloyloxyethyl Isocyanate e. h
10265-92-6 Methamidophos e
558-25-8 Methanesulfonyl Fluoride e
950-37-8 Methidathion e
2032-65-7 Methiocarb
16752-77-5 Methomyl.. h
151 -38-2 Methoxyethylmercuric Acetate e
80-63-7 Methyl 2-Chloroacrylate e
74-83-9 Methyl Bromide I
79-22-1 Methyl Chloroformate '. d, h
624-92-0 Methyl Disulfide e
60-34-4 Methyl Hydrazine
624-83-9 Methyl Isocyanate f
556-61-6 Methyl Isothiocyanate b, e
74-93-1 Methyl Mercaptan
3735-23-7 Methyl Phenkapton e
676-97-1 Methyl Phosphonic Dichloride .-. b, e
556-64-9 Methyl Thiocyanate e
78-94-4 Methyl Vinyl Ketone e
502-39-6 Methylmercuric Dicyanamide e
75-79-6 Methyltrichlorosilane e, h
1129-41-5 Metolcarb ;.... e
7786-34-7 Mevinphos
1
100
1
1
1
1
1
10
1
100
1
1
100
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
100
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1,000
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
10
100
1
1
1.000
1.000
1
10
1
1
100
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
10
100/10.000
500
500/10,000
100
10.000
500
1.000
100
500
100
1.000
10
500
500/10,000
10,000
10.000
100
100/10,000
1,000
500/10,000
100/10,000
100
100
1.000
500
500
1.000
500/10,000
10
1.000/10.000
100
500/10.000
100
10
500
500/10,000
500/10.000
500/10,000
10,000
1.000
500
• 500
100
100
100/10,000
1,000
500/10,000
500/10,000
500/10,000
500/10,000
500
1,000
500
100
500
500
500
500
500
100
10,000
10
500/10,000
500
100/10,000
500
3/94
22
-------
APPENDIX III
Federal Register / Vol. 52. No. 77 / Wednesday, April 22. 1987 / Rules and Regulations 13491
APPENDIX A,—THE LIST OF EXTREMELY HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES AND THEIR THRESHOLD PLANNING QUANTITIES—Continued
[Alphabetical Order)
CAS No.
315-18-4
50-07-7
6923-22-4
2763-96-4
505-60-2
7440-02-0
13463-39-3
54-11-5
65-30-5
7697-37-2
10102-43-9
98-95-3
1122-60-7
10102-44-0
62-75-9
991-42-4
0
65-86-1
20816-12-0
630-60-4
23135-22-0
78-71-7
2497-07-6
10028-15-6
1910-42-5
2074-50-2
56-38-2
298-00-0
12002-03-6
19624-22-7
76-01-7
87-86-5
2570-26-5
79-21-0
594-42-3
108-95-2
97-18-7
4418-66-0
64-00-6
58-36-6
696-28-6
59-68-1
62-38-4
2097-19-0
103-85-5
298-02-2
4104-14-7
947-02-4
75-44-5
732-11-6
13171-21-6
7803-51-2
2703-13-1
50782-69-9
2665-30-7
3254-63-5
2587-90-8
7723-14-0
10025-87-3
10026-13-8
1314-56-3
7719-12-2
84-80-0
57-47-6
57-64-7
124-87-8
Chemical name
Mexacarbate _ _.._..._.. .
Mitomycin C „ . „
Monocrotophos „. .
Muscimol _ _.. .._
Mustard Gas
Nickel _ _
Nickel Carbonyl _
Nicotine _ . . _. .
Nicotine Sulfate _
Nitric Acid .. ....
Nitric Oxide
Nitrobenzene _
Nitrocyclohexane.. ... .
Nitrogen Dioxide.... _
Nitrosodimethylamine . ..__~
Norbormide „ _
Organorhodium Complex (PMN-82-1 47) „ - .'....
Orotic Acid _ „
Osmium Tetroxide ~
Ouabain _...
Oxamyl .__. .. . .... ..
Oxetane, 3,3-Bis(Chloromethyt)-
Oxydisulfoton _ _._._...„ _
Ozone . . ... . . ...
Paraquat _ „
Paraquat Methosulfate ...._
Parathion _ _ _
Parathiort-Methyl .. ... _
Paris Green _ _ „
Pen'arxxane..,, , , .., , ..,.,.,,, ,...„,.,,, „,. , ,.,,,„ „ ....,.,.,,...,,
Pentachloroettiane... __ ... . ...
Pentachlorophenol _ .... „....__._.._
Pentadecylamine. _._
Peracetic Acid _ _ „
Perchtoromethylmercaptan . _
Phenol
Phenol, 22'-Thiobis(46-Dichlorc-.. ..
Phenol. 2,2'-Thiobis(4-Chloro-6-Methyt-Phenol. 2,2'-Thiobis (4-Chloro-6-Methyl)-
Phenol. 3-(1-Methylethyl)-, Methytcarbamate - ......
Phenoxarsine 10,10'-Oxydi- . «
Pherryl Dichloroarsine. „
Ph«ny(hydra7irw Hy
-------
APPENDIX III
13402 Federal Register / Vol. 52, No. 77 / Wednesday. April 22. 1987 / Rules and Regulations
APPENDIX A.—THE LIST OF EXTREMELY HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES AND THEIR THRESHOLD PLANNING QUANTITIES—Continued
[Alphabetical Order]
CAS No.
Chemical name
Notes
Reportable
quantity*
(pounds)
Threshold
planning quantity
(pounds)
110-89-4 Pipendine :... e
5281-13-0 Piprotal _ e
23505-41-1 Pirimifos-Ethyt e
10025-65-7 Platinous Chloride :. a, e
13454-96-1 Platinum Tetrachloride a. e
10124-50-2 Potassium Arsenite d
151-50-8 Potassium Cyanide b
506-61-6 Potassium Silver Cy?^de b
2631-37-0 Promecarb .'. e. h
106-96-7 Propargyl Bromide e
57-57-8 Propiolactone, Beta- e
107-12-0 Propionitrile :
542-76-7 Propionitrile, 3-Chloro-
70-69-9 Propiophenone, 4-Amino- e, g
109-61 -5 Propyl Chloroformate e
1331-17-5 Propylene Glycol, Allyl Ether a. e
75-56-9 Propylene Oxide I
75-55-8 Propyleneimine d
2275-18-5 Prothoate e
95-63-6 Pseudocumene a, e
129-00-0 Pyrene c
140-76-1 Pyridine. 2-Methyt-5-Vinyl- e
504-24-5 Pyridine, 4-Aminc- h
1124-33-0 Pyridine, 4-Nitro-, 1 -Oxide e
53558-25-1 Pyriminil _ e, h
10049-07-7 Rhodium Trichloride a, e
14167-18-1 Salcomine e
107-44-8 Sarin e, h
7783-00-8 Selenious Acid
7791-23-3 Selenium Oxychloride e
563-41-7 Semicarbazide Hydrochloride e
3037-72-7 Silane, (4-Aminobutyl)Diethoxymethyt- e
128-56-3 Sodium Anthraquinone-1 -Sulfonate a, e
7631-89-2 Sodium Arsenate d
7784-46-5 Sodium Arsenite d
26628-22-8 Sodium Azide (Na(N3)) b
124-65-2 Sodium Cacodylate e
143-33-9 Sodium Cyanide (Na(CN)) b
62-74-8 Sodium Fluoroacetate
131-52-2 Sodium Pentachlorophenate e
13410-01-0 Sodium Selenate_ e
10102-18-8 Sodium Selenite h
10102-20-2 Sodium Tellurite e
900-95-8 Stannane. Acetoxytriphenyl- e, g
57-24-9 Strychnine „ c
60-41-3 Strychnine. Sulfate e
3689-24-5 Sulfotep
3569-57-1 SuKoxide, 3-Chloropropyl Octyl e
7446-09-5 Sulfur Dioxide e, I
7783-60-0 Sulfur Tetrafluoride e
7446-11-9 Sulfur Trioxide !.! '. "... b, e
7664-93-9 Sulfur Acid
77-81-6 Tabun c, e,
h
13494-80-9 Tellurium...: e
7783-80-4 Tellurium Hexafluoride e k
107-49-3 TEPP _
13071-79-9 Terbufos _ !"!.......".. e. h
78-00-2 Tetraethyllead _. c! d
597-64-8. Tetraethyltin „ c, e
75-74-1 Tetramethyllead c, e, I
509-14-8 Tetranitromethane
1314-32-5 Thallic Oxide »,.! ™". a
10031-59-1 Thallium Sulfate ; .'. h
6533-73-9 Thallous Carbonate c, h
7791-12-0 Thallous Chloride c, h
1
1
1
1
1
1.000
10
1
1
1
1
10
1,000
1
1
1
100
1
1
1
5.000
1
1,000
1
1
1
1
1
10
1
1
1
1
1.000
1,000
1,000
1
10
10
1
1
100
1
1
10
1
100
1
1
1
1
1.000
1
1
1
10
1
10
1
1
10
100
100
100
100
1,000
100/10,000
1,000
10,000
10,000
500/10,000
100
500
500/10.000
10
500
500
1.000
100/10,000
500
10,000
10,000
10,000
100/10,000
10,000
1,000/10,000
500
500/10.000
500/10,000
100/10,000
10,000
500/10,000
10
1,000/10,000
500
1.000/10.000
1,000
10,000
1,000/10.000
500/10,000
500
100/10,000
100
10/10,000
100/10,000
100/10,000
100/10.000
500/10,000
500/10.000
100/10.000
100/10,000
500
500
500
100
100
1,000
10
500/10,000
100
100
100
100
100
100
500
10.000
100/10,000
100/10.000
100/10,000
3/94
24
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APPENDIX III
Federal Register / Vol. 52. No. 77 / Wednesday. April 22. 1987 / Rules and Regulations 13403
APPENDIX A.—THE LIST OF EXTREMELY HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES AND THEIR THRESHOLD PLANNING QUANTITIES—Continued
[Alphabetical Order]
CAS No.
Chemical name
Notes
Reportable
quantity*
(pounds)
Threshold
planning quantity
(pounds)
2757-18-8 Thallous Malonate _ c, e,
h
7446-18-6 Thallous Sulfate.
2231-57-4 Thiocarbazide _ e
21564-17-0 Thiocyanic Acid, 2-(Benzothiazolylthio)Methyt Ester a, e
39196-18-4 Thiofanox _
640-15-3 Thiometon _ „ a, e
297-97-2 Thionazin....
108-98-5 Thiophenol.
79-19-6
5344-82-1 Thiourea, (2-Chlorophenyl)-.,
614-78-8 Thiourea, (2-Methylphenyl)- _ e
7550-45-0 Titanium Tetrachtoride _„ e
584-84-9 Toluene 2,4-Diisocyanate...
91-08-7 Toluene 2,6-Diisocyanate...
110-57-6 Trans-1,4-Dichlorobutene _ e
1031-47-6 Triamiphos „ _ e
24017-47-8 Triazofos _ _ e
76-02-8 Trichloroacety Chloride _ — e
115-21 -9 Trichloroethylsilane _ _ _ e, h
327-98-0 Trichloronate e, k
98-13-5 Trichlorophenylsilane e, h
52-68-6 Trichlorophon _ _ a
1558-25-4 Trichloro(Chloromethyl)Silane e
27137-85-5 Trichloro(Dichlorophenyl)Si!ane _ e
998-30-1 Triethoxysilane __ _ e
75-77-4 Trimethylchlorosilane e
824-11-3 Trimethylolpropane Phosphite e, h
1066-45-1 Trimethyltin Chloride e
639-58-7 Triphenyltin Chloride e
555-77-1 Tris(2-Chloroethyl)Amine _ e, h
2001-95-8 Valinomycin „ „ c, e
1314-62-1 Vanadium Pentoxide _
108-05-4 Vinyl Acetate Monomer _ d, I
3048-64-4 Vinylnorbornene a, e
81-81-2 Warfarin _
129-06-6 Warfarin Sodium _ _ „ e, h
28347-13-9 Xyrylene Dichloride _ e
58270-08-9 Zinc, Dichloro(4.4-Dimethyt-5((((Methylamino) Carbonyl)Oxy)lmino)Pentanenitrile)-,(T-4)-.. e
1314-84-7 Zinc Phosphide _ _ _ b
1
100
1
1
100
1
100
100
100
100
1
1
100
100
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
100
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1,000
5,000
1
100
1
1
1
100
100/10,000
100/10,000
1,000/10,000
10,000
100/10,000
10.000
500
500
100/10,000
100/10,000
500/10,000
100
500
100
500
500/10,000
500
500
500
500
500
10,000
100
500
500
1,000
100/10,000
500/10.000
500/10,000
100
1,000/10.000
100/10.000
1,000
10,000
500/10,000
100/10,000
100/10,000
100/10,000
500
'Only the statutory or final RQ is shown. For more information, see 40 CFR Table 302.4
Notes:
a This chemical does not meet acute toxicity criteria. Its TPQ is set at 10,000 pounds.
b This material is a reactive solid. The TPQ does not default to 10,000 pounds for non-powder, non-molten, non-solution form.
c The calculated TPQ changed after technical review as described in the technical support document.
d Indicates that the RQ is subject to change when the assessment of potential carcinogenicity and/or other toxicity Is completed.
e Statutory reportable quantity for purposes of notification under SARA sect 304(a)(2).
f The statutory 1 pound reportable quantity for methyl isocyanate may be adjusted in a future rutemaking action.
g New chemicals added that were not part of the original list of 402 substances.
h Revised TPQ based on new or re-evaluated toxicity data.
j TPQ is revised to its calculated value and does not change due to technical review as in proposed rule.
k The TPQ was revised after proposal due to calculation error.
I Chemicals on the original list that do not meet toxicity criteria but because of their high production volume and recognized toxicity are
considered chemicals of concern ("Other chemicals").
3/94
25
-------
Material Safety Data Sheet
May be used lo comply with
OSHA's Hazard Communicaiion Standard.
29 CFR 1910.1200. Standard must be
consulted lor specific requirements.
APPENDIX IV
U.S. Department of Labor
Occupational Safety and Health Adminiuration
(Non-Mandatory Form)
Form Approved
OMO No. 1210-0072
IDENTITY (As Used on Label and
Note: Blank spaces are not permitted. II any item is not app/icac'e. 01 no
information is available, the spaco muil £>e marked lo /ViOVcare tttnt.
Section
Manufacturer's Name
Address (Number. Street. City. Slate, and ZIP Code)
Emergency Telephone Number
Telephone Number lor Information
Dale Prepared
Signature ol Preparer (optional)
Section II — Hazardous Ingredients/Identity -Information
Hazardous Components (Specific Chemical Identity: Common Name
-------
APPENDIX IV
Section V — Reactivity Data'
Siabiiiiy
Unstaote
Stable
Conditions lo Avoid
Incompatibility (Materials lo Avoid]
Hazardous Decomposition or Byproducts
Hazardous
Polymerization
May Occur
Will Not Occur
Conditions to Avoid
Section V! — Health Hazard Data
Routols) ol Entry:
Inhalation?
Skin?
Ingeslion?
Health Hazards (Acute and Chronic)
Carcinogenicity:
NTP?
IARC Monographs?
OSHA Regulated?
Signs and Symptoms ol Exposure
Meaical Conditions
Generally Aggravated by Exposure
Emergency and first Aid Procedures
Section VII — Precautions for Safe Handling and Use
Steps to Be Taken in Case Material Is Released or Spilled
Waste Disposal Method
Precautions to Be Taken in Handling and Storing
Other Precautions
Section VIII — Control Measures
Respiratory Protection (Specify Type)
Ventilation
Local Exhaust
Mechanical (Genera!)
Protective Gloves
Special
Other
Eye Protection
Other Protective Clothing Of Equipment
Work/Hygienic Practices
3/94
Page 2
28
ujci-o i
-------
APPENDIX V
SAMPLE OF COMPLETED MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET
Manufacturer's Name & Address
XYZ Chemical, Inc.
4400 Carin Alley
Elizabeth, NJ 07231
Prepared By
Susan S. Smith
2/18/87
Date Prepared
Emergency Contact
John H. Doe (615/211-2233)
Information Contact
Susan S. Smith (615/211-2234)
Chemical Identity
Vinyl Chloride Monomer
CAS #75-01-4
CH2 = CHC1
Synonyms. Trade and Common Names
VCM; Vinyl Chloride, inhibited;
Chloroethylene; Chlorethene;
Monochloroethylene; Ethylene monochloride
OSHA PEL
1 ppm (8hr. TWA); 0.5 ppm (8 hr. TWA) action level; 5 ppm ceiling concentration.
ACGIH TLV
5 ppm (8 hr. TWA); Human carcinogen.
Other Limits Recommended
NIOSH - Lowest detectable (NIOSH Recommended Exposure Level, REL)
Hazardous Components/Ingredients
Vinyl chloride monomer 99.9%
Contaminants may include acetaldehyde, acetylene, iron, hydrogen chloride.
An inhibitor (e.g., approx. 50 ppm phenol) may be added to prevent polymerization during
storage.
3/94
29
-------
APPENDIX V
SAMPLE OF COMPLETED MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET CONT'D
Physical/Chemical Characteristics
Boiling Point:
Specific Gravity
Vapor Pressure:
Solubility in Water:
Appearance and Odor:
= 1):
Vapor Density (Air = 1):
Melting Point:
Evaporation Rate:
(Butyl Acetate = 1)
7°F (-14°C)
0.91
230 mm Hg at 20°C
Negligible (0.1% at25°C)
Colorless, sweet-smelling gas at room tem-
perature.
Readily liquefies below -14°C or at increased
pressures.
2.2
-245°F (-160°C)
Information not available
Fire and Explosion Information
Flash Point (Method Used):
Flammable Limits in Air (% by volume):
Extinguishing Media:
Special Firefighting Recommendations:
Unusual Fire and Explosion Hazards:
108°F/-77°C (COC)
Lower (LEL) 3.6%
Upper (UEL) 33%
Dry chemical or carbon dioxide for small
fires. Heavy water spray, fog or alcohol
foam for larger fires to cool containers and
protect response workers (ineffective extin-
guishing material).
Stop flow of gas if possible; if flow cannot
be stopped, fight fires from a distance or
allow to burn. If possible, remove container
from fire area and/or isolate from other
flammable materials.
Heavier than air - can flow along surfaces to
distant sources of ignition and flashback.
VCM is highly flammable and can form
explosive mixtures in air. If heated or ex-
posed to light, air or catalyst, it can undergo
violent exothermic reaction.
3/94
30
-------
APPENDIX V
SAMPLE OF COMPLETED MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET CONT'D
Reactivity Data
Stability: Inhibited VCM is stable at room temperature.
Heat, sparks, or other sources of ignition can
Conditions to Avoid: result in a flashback fire and/or explosion.
Exposure to heat, light, air, oxidizing agents,
copper, or aluminum can result in vigorous
reaction.
Hazardous Polymerization: X may occur does not occur
Hazard Decomposition Products: Hydrogen chloride, carbon monoxide, phos-
gene.
Health Hazard Data
Main Route(s) of Exposure: Inhalation, Skin, Eye contact
Signs and Symptoms of Overexposure:
Acute: Central Nervous System (CNS) disturbances
(e.g., headache, nausea, drunkenness, drows-
iness, narcolepsy, unconsciousness, respira-
tory paralysis, euphoria, cardiac arrest);
Asphyxia, Pulmonary damage; Liver and
Kidney damage; Dimmed vision; Skin irrita-
tion, redness, frostbite and pain; Nonperma-
nent corneal injury with eye contact.
Cancer; CNS and automonic nervous system
effects; Peripheral circulation disturbances
Chronic: (Raynaud's phenomenon), skeletal and skin
changes, immunosuppression.
Carcinogenicity: NTP - Yes IARC Human - Yes
OSHA - Yes Animal - Yes
(29 CFR 1910.1017)
Medical Conditions
Aggravated by Exposure: No information available
3/94 31
-------
APPENDIX V
SAMPLE OF COMPLETED MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET CONTD
Emergency and First-Aid Procedures
Inhalation:
Skin Contact:
Eye Contact:
Promptly take victim to uncontaminated, well-
ventilated area. Resuscitate if necessary (oxy-
gen may be necessary). GET MEDICAL
ATTENTION IMMEDIATELY.
Promptly remove contaminated shoes and
clothing and thoroughly wash affected areas
with large amounts of warm water. If frost-
bite occurs, warm affected parts by wrapping.
Gently exercise affected parts to restore circula-
tion.
Immediately flush eyes with large amounts of
water with lids lifted, for no less than 15-20
minutes. GET IMMEDIATE MEDICAL
ATTENTION.
Precautions for Safe Handling and Use
Storage and Handling Precautions:
Other Precautions:
Spill and Leak Procedures:
Waste Disposal Method:
Store in a cool, well-ventilated area isolated
from ignition sources or oxidizing agents.
Cylinders must be protected from physical
damage.
VCM is a cancer hazard and must be stored in
a designated regulated area with controlled and
limited access. Where workers may be ex-
posed, storage and other areas must be moni-
tored periodically for levels above the 0.5 ppm
action level.
Immediately remove and/or turn off all sources
of ignition. Evacuate and isolate area until leak
has been stopped and area well-ventilated.
Stop leak if possible and spray area with large
amounts of water to suppress vapors and reduce
temperatures. Response personnel must use
appropriate personal protective clothing and
equipment to prevent breathing contaminated
air or coming into contact with liquid VCM.
High temperature incineration in accordance
with EPA guidelines.
3/94
32
-------
APPENDIX V
SAMPLE OF COMPLETED MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET CONT'D
Control Measures
Ventilation: Local Exhaust, explosion-proof. Process enclo-
sure, if possible.
General ventilation must also be explosion-
proof.
Respiratory Protection (Specific Type):
Up to 10 ppm: 1) Combination Type C supplied air respirator
(SAR), demand-type with half-mask
facepiece and auxiliary self-contained air
supply; or
2) Type C SAR, demand type with half-mask
facepiece; or
3) Any chemical cartridge respirator with an
organic vapor cartridge that has at least a
one-hour service life in concentrations of
vinyl chloride up to 10 ppm.
(See 29 CFR 1910.1017(g)(4) for the required
selection of respirators at higher concentra-
tions.)
Neoprene or other VCM-impermeable material.
Chemical-protective goggles or faceshield, as
needed. Eyewash station must be in working
order and readily accessible for emergency use.
Protective Gloves:
Eye Protection:
Other Protective Clothing/Equipment:
Work/Hygienic Practices:
Chemical-protective clothing and boot covers.
Safety showers and eyewash stations must be hi
working order and readily accessible in the
work areas.
3/94
33
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Section 14
-------
DIRECT-READING INSTRUMENTS
AND
RADIATION SURVEY INSTRUMENTS
PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lesson, participants will be able to:
• List two reasons why air monitoring with direct-reading
instruments is important at an incident involving hazardous
materials
• Identify three limitations of each of the following:
Combustible gas indicators
Oxygen indicators
Colorimetric tubes
• Identify four desirable characteristics in a field monitoring
instrument
• Recognize the inherent safety classifications
• Identify three instrument rating definitions
• Explain the following terms:
Perimeter monitoring
Plume modeling
Internal sensor/external sensor
Automatic pump/manual pump
• Explain the two values colorimetric tubes are read in
• Describe the Wheatstone Bridge Circuit
• Define "operating temperature range" in relation to
instruments and colorimetric tubes
3/94
-------
PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES (Continued)
• Identify the characteristics associated with the following
types of radiation:
Alpha
Beta
Gamma
• Explain the difference between Geiger-Mueller tubes and
scintillation media detectors
• Identify the action level for ionizing radiation
• Describe the relationships between microroentgen,
milliroentgen, and roentgen
• Identify the maximum radiation level allowed in a rescue
situation
• Identify at least three common sources of radiation in the
community
• Describe background radiation.
3/94
-------
NOTES
DIRECT-READING INSTRUMENTS
AIR MONITORING INSTRUMENTS
Collection of "real time" data to
aid in decisions concerning:
- Hazards and risks to personnel
and public
- Personal protective equipment
- Mitigative actions
FIELD INSTRUMENT CHARACTERISTICS
• Portability
• Ease of operation
• Reliable and useful results
• Inherent safety
3/94
Direct-Reading Instruments and Radiation Survey Instruments
-------
NOTES
INHERENT SAFETY
Instrument testing and certification
- Factory Mutual (FM)
- Underwriters Laboratories (UL)
- Approval markings
INHERENT SAFETY APPROVAL
• National Fire Protection Association
(NFPA)
- National Fire Codes
• National Electrical Code (NEC)
- Chapter 5. Special Occupancies
Article 500: Hazardous Locations
INHERENT SAFETY APPROVAL
Equipment approved for:
- Class of location
- Explosive, combustible, or
ignitable properties of the specific
gas, vapor, dust, fiber, or flyings
present
Direct-Reading Instruments and Radiation Survey Instruments
3/94
-------
NOTES
HAZARD LOCATION
• Class
- I - Flammable gases or vapors
- II - Combustible dusts
- Ill - Ignitable fibers or flyings
HAZARD LOCATIONS
Division 1 -
Hazardous concentrations exist
continuously, intermittently, or
periodically under normal working
conditions
HAZARD LOCATIONS
• Division 2 -
Locations in which hazardous
concentrations do not normally exist
under normal working conditions
3/94
Direct-Reading Instruments and Radiation Survey Instruments
-------
NOTES
HAZARD LOCATIONS
Groups
- Groups A, B, C, and D
Gases or vapors found in Class I
atmospheres
- Groups E, F, and G
Dusts found in Class II atmospheres
INSTRUMENT PROTECTION CRITERIA
• Class I, Division 1, Groups A, B, C, and D
- Intrinsically safe
- Explosion proof
- Purged system
INSTRUMENT PROTECTION CRITERIA
Class I, Division 2, Groups A, B, C, and D
- Nonincendive
Class II, Divisions 1 and 2, Groups E, F,
andG
- Dust-ignition proof
Direct-Reading Instruments and Radiation Survey Instruments
3/94
-------
NOTES
1
OXYGEN MONITORING
OXYGEN MONITORING
Monitor to determine:
- Respiratory protection
- Increased flammability risk
- CGI operation
- Presence of contaminants
OXYGEN INDICATORS
• Exterior sensor
• Interior sensor
- Manual pump
- Automatic pump
• Combination units
3/94
Direct-Reading Instruments and Radiation Survey Instruments
-------
NOTES
THEORY OF OPERATION
• Oxygen diffusion into detector cell
• Chemical reaction establishes current
proportional to oxygen concentration
Oxygen
1
INTERPRETATION OF DATA
• Instantaneous results
• Specific, quantitative results
- 0-25%
- 0-100%
• Calibrate to ambient air
LIMITATIONS AND PRECAUTIONS
Atmospheric pressure (altitude)
Interfering gases
Ambient temperature
Direct-Reading Instruments and Radiation Survey Instruments
3/94
-------
NOTES
Altitude
-1000
-500
Sea level
500
1000
3000
4000
5000
02
21.6%
21.2%
20.8%
20.4%
20.1%
18.6%
18.0%
17.3%
Altitude
6000
7000
8000
9000
10,000
02
16.7%
16.1%
15.4%
14.9%
14.3%
Calibrate
Calibrate
2
FLAMMABLE ATMOSPHERE
MONITORING
FLAMMABLE ATMOSPHERE
MONITORING
• Monitor to determine:
- Risk of explosion or fire
- Work zones
3/94
Direct-Reading Instruments and Radiation Survey Instruments
-------
NOTES
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR
• External sensor
• Internal sensor
- Manual pump
- Automatic pump
• Supersensitive unit
• Combination units
THEORY OF OPERATION
Wheatstone Bridge
- Heated catalytic filament
- Increase in operating temperature
- Increase in electrial resistance
- Imbalance in Wheatstone Bridge
- Needle deflection
DATA INTERPRETATION
• Rapid response of instrument
• Nonselective quantitative results
• Needle deflection indicates
0 -100% lower explosive limit
Direct-Reading Instruments and Radiation Survey Instruments
3/94
-------
NOTES
DATA INTERPRETATION
50%
25% ^J^ 75%
0% %LEL 100%
UEL
INSTRUMENT LIMITATIONS
Oxygen requirements
Filament damage or destruction
Temperature
Relative response
Accuracy
MSA 260
80
70
60
50
Meter 4Q
30
20
10
0
Methane
/
V
/
f
ff
/
/
^
f
I
/
f
/
s
/
f
f
/
/
"^
/
^
^
^
•~
V
H
1020304050 Actual Percent
Xylene
LEL
3/94
Direct-Reading Instruments and Radiation Survey Instruments
-------
NOTES
o
A/d^V-^
Ifrs li K N
n£..4^('_r> TOXIC ATMOSPHERE
MONITORING
TOXIC ATMOSPHERE MONITORING
• Used to determine:
- Health risks to personnel and public
- Appropriate levels of protection
- Work zones
TOXIC ATMOSPHERE MONITORS
• Detector tube systems
• Specific toxic agent monitors
• Total vapor analyzers
• Gas chromatographs
Direct-Reading Instruments and Radiation Survey Instruments
3/94
-------
NOTES
DETECTOR TUBE SYSTEMS
• Bellows pump
• Piston pump
TUBE SELECTION
Specific chemicals
• Classes of chemicals
Concentration ranges
THEORY OF OPERATION
Specific volume of air
Length of tube stain
Concentration of contaminant
3/94
Direct-Reading Instruments and Radiation Survey Instruments
-------
NOTES
DATA INTERPRETATION
• Sometimes tedious and slow
• Know suspect chemical
- Polytest
• Specific quantitative results
- ppm or % by volume
LIMITATIONS/PRECAUTIONS
• Chemical group
• Tube lot number
• Expiration date
• Pump strokes
• Color change
LIMITATIONS / PRECAUTIONS
• Temperature
• Humidity
• Atmospheric pressure
• Reusable
• Accuracy
Direct-Reading Instruments and Radiation Survey Instruments
3/94
-------
NOTES
o
n
RADIATION MONITORING
MONITORING FOR RADIATION
Ionizing radiation
• Gamma radiation
USE OF RADIATION INSTRUMENTS
Principles of operation
- lonization in detection media
- Ions produced counted electronically
- Relationship established between
ionizing events and the quantity
of radiation present
3/94
Direct-Reading Instruments and Radiation Survey Instruments
-------
NOTES
TYPES OF RADIATION
Radiation Distance Shielding
Alpha
Beta
Gamma
<1 inch
Inches
Hundreds of feet
Sheet
of
Paper
1/1 6 inch
aluminum
foil
2 feet
aluminum
PROTECTION FACTORS
• Time
• Distance
• Shielding
RADIATION INSTRUMENTS
Activity meters
Exposure meters
Direct-Reading Instruments and Radiation Survey Instruments
3/94
-------
NOTES
EXPOSURE
• Geiger-Mueller
METERS
detection tube
• Scintillation detection media
- Roentgens
per hour
- Milliroentgens per hour
- Microroentgens per hour
LUDLUM
MODEL -19
MICRO R METER
Measurements, Inc.
Sweetwater, Texas
20 30
° Micro R/HR^f
0
on p
oo o
Off S light
aUdi° 5000 500
Bat (j 50
O N^S
Res
RADIATION SURVEY
• Check instrument calibration
• Check instrument battery
• Obtain background reading
3/94
Direct-Reading Instruments and Radiation Survey Instruments
-------
NOTES
PRELIMINARY SURVEY
Select "fast" setting for needle
response switch
Select lowest setting on range
selector switch
Carry detector waist high
Compare readings with
background
Direct-Reading Instruments and Radiation Survey Instruments
3/94
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DIRECT-READING INSTRUMENTS AND
RADIATION SURVEY INSTRUMENTS
TOPIC PAGE NO.
I. INTRODUCTION 1
II. CHARACTERISTICS OF AIR MONITORING INSTRUMENTS 1
A. PORTABILITY 1
B. EASE OF OPERATION 2
C. INHERENT SAFETY 2
1. HAZARDOUS ATMOSPHERES 2
a. CLASS AND GROUP 3
b. DIVISION 3
2. USING THIS SYSTEM 5
3. CONTROLS 5
4. CERTIFICATION 6
D. RELIABLE AND USEFUL RESULTS 8
III. CALIBRATION AND RELATIVE RESPONSE 9
IV. TYPES OF DIRECT-READING INSTRUMENTS 10
A. INTRODUCTION 10
B. OXYGEN INDICATORS 10
1. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION 11
2. LIMITATIONS AND CONSIDERATIONS 11
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DIRECT-READING INSTRUMENTS AND
RADIATION SURVEY INSTRUMENTS
C. COMBUSTIBLE ATMOSPHERE INDICATORS 13
1. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION 13
2. LIMITATIONS AND CONSIDERATIONS 14
D. TOXIC ATMOSPHERE MONITORS 15
1. COLORIMETRIC INDICATOR
TUBES (DETECTOR TUBES) 15
a. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION 15
b. LIMITATIONS AND CONSIDERATIONS 17
2. SPECIFIC CHEMICAL MONITORS 18
V. RADIATION 18
APX. I DIRECT-READING INSTRUMENTS USED FOR EVALUATION 25
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DIRECT-READING INSTRUMENTS AND
RADIATION SURVEY INSTRUMENTS
I. INTRODUCTION
Airborne contaminants can present a significant threat to human health. Identifying and
quantifying these contaminants by air monitoring is an essential component of a health and
safety program at a hazardous waste site. Air monitoring data is useful to:
• Assess the health risks to the public and response workers.
• Select personal protective equipment.
• Delineate areas where protection is needed.
• Determine actual or potential effects on the environment.
• Select actions to mitigate the hazards safely and effectively.
Direct-reading instruments were developed as early warning devices for use in industrial
settings, where leaks or an accident could release a high concentration of a known chemical.
Today, some direct reading instruments can detect low concentrations of contaminants as
little as one part contaminant per million parts of air (ppm). Direct-reading instruments
provide information at the time of sampling and do not require sending samples to a
laboratory for subsequent analysis. This characteristic of direct-reading instruments enables
rapid decision-making.
Many of the common types of monitoring equipment discussed in this part are listed in
tabular form in APPENDIX I, pages 25-27.
II. CHARACTERISTICS OF AIR MONITORING INSTRUMENTS
To be useful air monitoring instruments must be:
• Portable and rugged.
• Easy to operate.
• Inherently safe.
• Able to generate reliable and useful results.
A. Portability
A prime consideration for field instruments is portability. Transportation shock
resulting from the movement from one place to another, together with unintentional
abuse, shortens the usable life of an instrument. To reduce the effects of this trauma,
instruments should be selected that have reinforced shells or frames, shock-mounted
electronic packages, or padded containers for shipment.
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DIRECT-READING INSTRUMENTS AND RADIATION SURVEY INSTRUMENTS
Exposure to the elements and to the test atmosphere itself is of concern for those
instruments repeatedly used in adverse conditions or as long-term monitors.
Anodized or coated finishes, weather resistant packaging and remote sensors are
effective in reducing downtime and increasing portability.
An internal power supply is important for portability. Some instruments use
replaceable or rechargeable batteries and some do not require a power supply.
An instrument should not be so heavy or bulky that it is difficult for a response
worker to carry.
B. Ease Of Operation
Because many of these instruments were designed for industrial use, allowances may
not have been made for using the instrument while wearing protective equipment.
One must consider how easy it is to use the instrument while wearing gloves or how
difficult it is to read the meter while wearing a respirator. Also, how quickly a
worker can learn to operate the instrument correctly should be considered.
Preparation time for use of the instrument should be short. Rapid warm-up, easy
attachment of accessories, and quick instrument checks shorten preparation time.
C. Inherent Safety
The portable instrumentation used to characterize hazardous material spills or waste
sites must be safe to use. Electrical devices, including instruments, must be
constructed in such a fashion as to prevent the ignition of a combustible atmosphere.
The sources of this ignition could be: an arc generated by the power source itself or
the associated electronics, or a flame or heat source necessary for function of the
instrument. Several engineering, insurance, and safety organizations have
standardized test methods, established inclusive definitions, and developed codes for
testing electrical devices used in hazardous locations. The National Fire Protection
Association (NFPA) has created minimum standards in its National Electrical Code
(NEC) published every 3 years. This code spells out types of areas in which
hazardous atmospheres can be generated and the types of materials that generate these
atmospheres, and design safeguards acceptable for use in hazardous atmospheres.
1. Hazardous Atmospheres
Depending upon the response worker's background, the term "hazardous
atmosphere" conjures up situations ranging from toxic air contaminants to
flammable atmospheres. For NEC purposes, an atmosphere is hazardous if
it meets the following criteria:
• It is a mixture of any flammable material in air whose concentration
is within the material's flammable range (i.e. between the material's
lower flammable limit and its upper flammable limit).
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DIRECT-READING INSTRUMENTS AND RADIATION SURVEY INSTRUMENTS
• There is the potential for an ignition source to be present.
• The resulting exothermic reaction could propagate beyond where it
started.
To adequately describe hazardous atmospheres, the NEC categories them
according to their Class, Group, and Division.
a. Class and Group
Class is a category describing the type of flammable material that
produces the hazardous atmosphere:
• Class I is flammable vapors and gases, such as gasoline and
hydrogen. Class I is further divided into groups A, B, C, and
D on the basis of similar flammability characteristics
(Table 1, page 4).
• Class II consists of combustible dusts like coal or grain and
is divided into groups E, F, and G (Table 2, page 5).
• Class III is ignitable fibers such as produced by cotton
milling.
b. Division
Division is the term describing the "location" of generation and
release of the flammable material.
• Division 1 is a location where the generation and release are
continuous, intermittent, or periodic into an open, unconfmed
area under normal conditions.
• Division 2 is a location where the generation and release are
only from ruptures, leaks or other failures from closed
systems or containers.
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DIRECT-READING INSTRUMENTS AND RADIATION SURVEY INSTRUMENTS
TABLE 1
SELECTED CLASS I CHEMICALS BY GROUPS
Group A Atmospheres acetylene
Group B Atmospheres (not sealed in conduit 1/2 inch of larger)
1,3-Butadiene
Ethylene oxide
Formaldehyde (gas)
Hydrogen
Manufactured gas (containing greater than 30% H2 by volume)
Propylene oxide
Propyl nitrate
Allyl glycidyl ether
N-Butyl glycidyl ether
Group C Atmospheres (selected chemicals)
Acetaldehyde Epichlorohydrin Tetrahydrofuran
Carbon monoxide Ethylene Triethylamine
Crotonaldehyde Ethyl mercaptan Ethylene glycol
Dicyclopentadiene Hydrogen cyanide Monoethyl ether
Diethyl ether Hydrogen selenide Hydrazine
Di-isobutyl amine Hydrogen sulfide Chloroaldehyde
Methylacetylene Morpholine Tetraethyl lead
Ethylene glycol Monoethyl (39 others)
Ether acetate Nitropropane
Group D Atmospheres (selected chemicals)
Acetone Methane Acetonitrile
Methanol Acrylonitrile Methyl ethyl ketone
Ammonia Naphtha Benzene
Propane Butane Styrene
Chlorobenzene Vinyl chloride
Source: Classification of Gases. Vapors and Dusts for Electrical Equipment in
Hazardous (classified^ Locations. 1986 National Fire Protection Association
ANSI/NFPA 497M.
3/94
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DIRECT-READING INSTRUMENTS AND RADIATION SURVEY INSTRUMENTS
TABLE 2
SELECTED CLASS II CHEMICALS BY GROUPS
Group E Conductive Dusts
Atmospheres containing metal dusts, including Aluminum, Magnesium, and their
commercial alloys, and other metals of similarly hazardous characteristics.
Group F Semi-Volatile Dusts
Atmospheres containing Carbon black, coal or coke dust with more than 8% volatile
material.
Group G Non-Conductive Dusts
Atmospheres containing flour, starch, grain, carbonaceous, chemical thermoplastic,
thermosetting and molding compounds.
Source: Classification of Gases. Vapors and Dusts for Electrical Equipment in
Hazardous (classified) Locations. 1986 National Fire Protection Association
ANSI/NFPA 497M.
2. Using this system
A hazardous atmosphere can be routinely and adequately defined. As an
example, an abandoned waste site containing intact closed drums of methyl
ethyl ketone, toluene and xylene would be considered a Class I, Division 2,
Group D environment. However, when transferring of the flammable liquids
takes place at the site, or if releases of flammable gases/vapors is considered
normal, the areas would be considered Class I, Division 1.
3. Controls
The following three methods of construction exist to prevent a potential
source from igniting a flammable atmosphere:
• Explosion-proof: Explosion-proof instruments allow the flammable
atmosphere to enter. If an arc is generated, the ensuing explosion is
contained within the specially built enclosure. Within it, any flames
or hot gases are cooled prior to exiting into the ambient flammable
atmosphere so that the explosion does not spread into the
environment.
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DIRECT-READING INSTRUMENTS AND RADIATION SURVEY INSTRUMENTS
• Intrinsically Safe: The potential for arcing among components is
reduced by encasing them in a solid insulating material. Also,
reducing the instrument's operational current and voltage below the
energy level necessary for ignition of the flammable atmosphere
provides protection. An "intrinsically safe" device, as defined by the
National Electrical Code, is incapable "of releasing sufficient
electrical or thermal energy under normal or abnormal conditions to
cause ignition of a specific hazardous atmospheric mixture in its most
easily ignited concentration. Abnormal conditions shall include
accidental damage to any wiring, failure of electrical components,
application of over-voltage, adjustment and maintenance operations
and other similar conditions".
• Purged: The arcing or flame-producing device is buffered from the
flammable atmosphere with an inert gas. In a pressurized or
"purged" system, a steady stream of, nitrogen or helium is passed by
the potential arcing device, keeping the flammable atmosphere from
the ignition source. This type of control, however, does not
satisfactorily control analytical devices that use flame or heat for
analysis, such as a combustible gas indicator (CGI). It also requires
a source of gas which would reduce instrument portability.
4. Certification
If a device is certified as explosion-proof,intrinsically safe, or purged for a
given Class, Division, and Group, and is used, maintained, and serviced
according to the manufacturer's instructions, it will not contribute to ignition.
The device is not, however, certified for use in atmospheres other than those
indicated. All certified devices must be marked to show Class, Division, and
Group (Figure 1, page 7). Any manufacturer wishing to have an electrical
device certified must submit a prototype to a laboratory for testing. If the
unit passes, it is certified as submitted. However, the manufacturer agrees
to allow the testing laboratory to randomly check the manufacturing plant at
any time, as well as any marketed units. Furthermore, any change in the unit
requires the manufacturer to notify the test laboratory, which can continue the
certification or withdraw it until the modified unit can be retested. NFPA
does not do certification testing. Testing is done by such organizations as
Underwriters' Laboratory Inc. (UL) or Factory Mutual Research Corp. (FM).
Currently, these are the only two testing labs recognized by OSHA.
3/94
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DIRECT-READING INSTRUMENTS AND RADIATION SURVEY INSTRUMENTS
flfitT±l
Combustible Gas and 02 Alarm
•-™"— model 260 part no. 449900
^^ calibutid for Pen Lane
Inlriniicillv Si'c lot UK In hirirdoin loont CUn 1. Di»nlon I.
G'Oupl C ind D ind Non-incrddtvt to' uw in CI'll 1. Ovtlion 2. Groupi A
8. C. «nd D «x
-------
DIRECT-READING INSTRUMENTS AND RADIATION SURVEY INSTRUMENTS
• There are so many Groups, Classes, and Divisions that it is impossible to
certify an all-inclusive instrument. Therefore, select a certified device based
on the chemicals and conditions most likely to be encountered. For example,
a device certified for a Class II, Division 1, Group E (combustible metal
dust) would offer little protection around a flammable vapor or gas.
D. Reliable and Useful Results
The response time, sensitivity, selectivity, accuracy and precision of an instrument
are important in evaluating the reliability and usefulness of the data the instrument
generates.
Response time, the interval between an instrument "sensing" a contaminant and
generating data, is important to producing reliable and useful results in the field.
Response time depends on: test(s) to be performed, dead time between sample
periods (the time for analysis, data generation, and data display), and the sensitivity
of the instrument. Response times for direct-reading instruments may range from a
few seconds to several minutes.
Sensitivity is important when slight concentration changes can be dangerous.
Sensitivity is defined as the ability of an instrument to accurately measure changes
in concentration. Sensitive instruments can detect small changes in concentration.
The lower detection limit is the lowest concentration to which instrument will respond
to. The operating range is the lower and upper use limits of the instrument. It is
defined by the lower detection limit at one end and the saturation concentration at the
other end. It is important to use an instrument with an operating range that will
accurately measure the concentration in the range of concern.
Amplification, a term often used synonymously (and incorrectly) with sensitivity, is
the instrument's ability to increase very small electronic signals emanating from the
detector to the readout. Changing the amplification of the detector does not change
its sensitivity. However, it may be useful in calibration. Instruments with amplifier
circuits can be effected by radio frequency from pulsed DC or AC power lines,
transformers, generators, and radio wave transmitters.
Accuracy is defined as the relationship between a true value and the instrument
reading. Precision is the indication of the reproducibility. These factors can be
indicated by the error factor. For example, some detector tubes may have an error
factor of ±35% of the true value; meaning the actual concentration of the chemical
being measured is within a range of 35% higher or lower than the tube reading.
Selectivity is the ability of an instrument to detect and measure a specific chemical
or group of similar chemicals. Additionally, selectivity is dependent upon interfering
compounds which may produce a similar response. Selectivity and sensitivity must
be reviewed and interpreted together. Interferences can affect the accuracy of the
instrument reading.
3/94
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DIRECT-READING INSTRUMENTS AND RADIATION SURVEY INSTRUMENTS
Another consideration is that the instrument must give results that are immediately
useful. Instruments should be direct reading, with little or no need to interpolate,
integrate, or compile large amounts of data.
When selecting an instrument, compare the desired sensitivity, range, accuracy,
selectivity, and ability to vary amplification of detector signals with the available
instrument characteristics.
III. CALIBRATION AND RELATIVE RESPONSE
For an instrument to function properly in the field, it should be calibrated prior to use.
Calibration is the process of adjusting the instrument readout so that it corresponds to the
actual concentration. Calibration involves checking the instrument results with a known
concentration of a gas or vapor to see that the instrument gives the proper response. For
example, if a combustible gas meter is calibrated with a gas that is 20% of the lower
explosive limit (LEL), then the instrument should read 20% of the LEL. If it does not read
accurately, it is out of calibration and should be adjusted until accurate readings are obtained.
Although an instrument is calibrated to give a one-to-one response for a specific chemical
(the calibration gas), its response to other chemicals may be different. This variability is
called relative response. A combustible gas indicator calibrated to pentane will give a higher
instrument reading for Methane than the actual concentration (Table 3, page 10). The
relative response of an instrument to different chemicals can be calculated by dividing the
instrument reading by the actual concentration and is expressed as a ratio or a percent. Note
that for the calibration standard the relative response should be 1.00 or 100%.
If the instrument is being used for a chemical that is not the calibration standard, then it may
be possible to look at the manufacturer's information to get the relative response of that
instrument for the chemical. Then the actual concentration can be calculated. For example,
if the instrument's relative response for Xylene is .27 (27%) and the reading is 100 ppm
(parts per million), then the actual concentration is 370 ppm (.27 x actual concentration =
100 ppm, then actual concentration = 100/.27 = 370 ppm). If there is no relative response
data for the chemical in question, it may be possible to recalibrate the instrument. If the
instrument has adjustable settings and a known concentration is available, the instrument may
be adjusted to read directly for the chemical. As recalibration takes time, this is usually done
only if the instrument is going to be used for many measurements of the special chemical.
3/94
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DIRECT-READING INSTRUMENTS AND RADIATION SURVEY INSTRUMENTS
TABLES
RELATIVE RESPONSE FOR A COMBUSTIBLE GAS
INDICATOR CALIBRATED TO PENTANE
Chemical
Methane
Acetylene
Pentane
1,4-Dioxane
Xylene
Concentration
(% LEL)
50
50
50
50
50
Meter Response
(% LEL)
85
60
53
37
27
Relative
Response
170%
120%
106%
74%
54%
Source: Portable Gas Indicator. Model 250 & 260. Response Curves. Mine Safety
Appliances Company, Pittsburgh, PA.
IV. TYPES OF DIRECT-READING INSTRUMENTS
A. Introduction
Many hazards may be present when responding to hazardous materials spills or
uncontrolled waste sites. There are several types of instrumentation for detecting
hazardous atmospheres. This section will discuss Oxygen indicators, combustible gas
indicators, and toxic atmosphere monitors.
B. Oxygen Indicators
Oxygen indicators are used to evaluate an atmosphere for the following:
• Oxygen content for respiratory purposes. Normal air is 20.9% Oxygen.
Generally, if the Oxygen content decreases below 19.5% it is considered
Oxygen deficient and special respiratory protection is needed.
• Increased risk of combustion. Generally, concentrations above 25% are
considered Oxygen-enriched and increase the risk of combustion.
• Use of other instruments. Some instruments require sufficient Oxygen for
operation. For example, some combustible gas indicators do not give reliable
results at Oxygen concentrations below 10%. Also, the inherent safety
approvals for instruments are for normal atmospheres and not for Oxygen
enriched ones.
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10
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DIRECT-READING INSTRUMENTS AND RADIATION SURVEY INSTRUMENTS
• Presence of contaminants. A decrease in Oxygen content can be due to the
consumption (by combustion or a reaction such as rusting) of Oxygen or the
displacement of air by a chemical. If it is due to consumption then the
concern is the lack of Oxygen. If it is due to displacement then there is
something present that could be flammable or toxic.
Oxygen deficient atmospheres may occur in unventilated areas or may by due to
terrain variations in cases where heavier than air vapors may collect. Most indicators
have meters which display the Oxygen concentration from 0-25 %. There are also
Oxygen indicators available which measure concentrations from 0-5% and 0-100%.
The most useful range for response is the 0-25% Oxygen content readout since
decisions involving air-supplying respirators and the use of combustible gas indicators
fall into this range.
Many instrument manufacturers make Oxygen meters. They can be small hand-held
units with or without pumps to draw the sample across the detector cell. Some
pumps are single aspirating (hand-squeeze) bulbs, others are battery powered
diaphragm pumps. Units that combine O2 meters and combustible gas indicators into
one instrument are available from a number of manufacturers. Also, flashing and
audible alarms can be found on many instruments. These alarms go off at a pre-set
Oxygen concentration to alert the users even if they are not watching the meter.
Manufacturers of Oxygen indicators are found at the end of this manual section.
1. Principle of Operation
Oxygen indicators have two principle components for operation. These are
the Oxygen sensor and the meter readout. In some units air is drawn into the
Oxygen detector with an aspirator bulb or pump; in other units, the ambient
air is allowed to diffuse to the sensor. The Oxygen detector uses an
electrochemical sensor to determine the Oxygen concentration in air. A
typical sensor consists of: two electrodes; a housing containing a basic
electrolytic solution; and a semipermeable Teflon membrane (Figure 2, page
12).
• *•
Oxygen molecules (Oj) diffuse through the membrane into the solution.
Reactions between the Oxygen, the solution and the electrodes produce a
minute electric current proportional to the Oxygen content. The current
passes through the electronic circuit. The resulting signal is shown as a
needle deflection on a meter or digital reading.
2. Limitations and Considerations
The operation of Oxygen meters depends on the absolute atmospheric
pressure. The concentration of natural Oxygen (to differentiate it from
manufactured or generated Oxygen) is a function of the atmospheric pressure
at a given altitude. While the actual percentage of Oxygen does not change
with altitude, at sea level the weight of the atmosphere above is greater, and
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DIRECT-READING INSTRUMENTS AND RADIATION SURVEY INSTRUMENTS
more O2 molecules (and the other components of air) are compressed into a
given volume than at higher elevations. As elevation increases, this
compression decreases, resulting in fewer air molecules being "squeezed" into
a given volume. Consequently, an O2 indicator calibrated at sea level and
operated at an altitude of several thousand feet will falsely indicate an Oxygen
deficient atmosphere because less oxygen is being "pushed" into the sensor.
Therefore, it is necessary to calibrate at the altitude the instrument is used.
2 o.
1 I I
MEMBRANE/COVER
ELECTRODE
ELECTRODE
ELECTROLYTE
FIGURE!
SCHEMATIC OF OXYGEN SENSOR
Selection from Product Literature. Rexnard Electronic Products Division.
Biomarine Oxygen Sensor, by Rexnard, Inc., reprinted with permission of
publisher.
High concentrations of Carbon dioxide (CO2) shorten the useful life of the
Oxygen sensor. As a general rule, the unit can be used in atmospheres
greater than 0.5% CO2 only with frequent replacing or rejuvenating of the
sensor. Lifetime in a normal atmosphere (0.04% COj) can be from one week
to one year depending on the manufacturer's design.
Temperature can affect the response of Oxygen indicators. The normal
operating range for them is between 32°F and 120°F. Between 0°F and 32°F
the response of the unit is slower. Below 0°F the sensor may be damaged by
the solution freezing. The instrument should be calibrated at the temperature
at which it will be used.
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12
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DIRECT-READING INSTRUMENTS AND RADIATION SURVEY INSTRUMENTS
Strong oxidizing chemicals, like Ozone and Chlorine, can cause increased
readings and indicate high or normal O2 content when the actual content is
normal or even low.
C. Combustible Atmosphere Indicators
Combustible gas indicators (CGIs) measure the concentration of a flammable vapor
or gas in air, indicating the results as a percentage of the lower explosive limit (LEL)
of the calibration gas.
The LEL (or LFL - lower flammable limit) of a combustible gas or vapor is the
minimum concentration of the material in air which will propagate flame on contact
with an ignition source. The upper explosive limit (UEL) is the maximum
concentration. Above the UEL, the mixture is too "rich" to support combustion so
ignition is not possible. Below the LEL there is insufficient fuel to support
combustion.
CGI's are available in many styles and configurations. All units have some type of
pump to draw the air sample into the detector. The pumps are either hand operated
square bulbs or automatic (battery-powered) diaphragm types. Many units are
"combination meters". This means they have an O2 meter and CGI (and sometimes
one or two specific gas indicators) combined in the same instrument. Flashing and
audible alarms are options on many units. The alarms go off at a pre-set
concentration to warn the instrument operator of potentially hazardous concentrations.
Other options such as larger sampling lines, moisture taps, all dust filters are also
available. Manufacturers of CGIs are listed at the end of this manual section.
Concentrations between the LEL and the UEL are considered flammable.
1. Principle of Operation
Combustible gas indicators use a combustion chamber containing a filament
that combusts the flammable gas. To facilitate combustion the filament is
heated or is coated with a catalyst (like Platinum or Palladium), or both. The
filament is part of a balanced resistor circuit called a Wheatstone Bridge.
The hot filament combusts the gas on the immediate surface of the element,
thus raising the temperature of the filament. As the temperature of the
filament increases so does its resistance. This change in resistance causes an
imbalance in the Wheatstone Bridge. This is measured as the ratio of
combustible vapor present compared to the total required to reach the LEL.
For example, if the meter reads 0.5 (or 50%, depending upon the readout),
this means that 50% of the concentration of combustible gas needed to reach
a flammable or combustible situation is present. If the LEL for the gas is 5 %
then the meter indicates that a 2.5% concentration is present. Thus, the
typical meter readout indicates concentration up to the LEL of the gas
(Figure 3, page 14).
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If a concentration greater than LEL and lower than the UEL is present, then
the meter needle will stay beyond the 1.0 (100%) level on the meter (Figure
3). This indicates that the ambient atmosphere is readily combustible. When
the atmosphere has a gas concentration above the UEL the meter needle will
usually rise above the 1.0 (100%) mark and then return to zero (Figure 3).
This occurs because the gas mixture in the combustion cell is too rich to
burn. This permits the filament to conduct a current just as if the atmosphere
contained no combustibles at all. Some instruments have a lock mechanism
that prevents the needle from returning to zero when it has reached 100% and
must be reset in an atmosphere below the LEL.
100
%LEL
IOQ
%LEL
IOO
LEL
Lower than the
LEL
Between the LEL
and the UEL
Above the UEL
FIGURES
COMPARISON OF METER READINGS TO
COMBUSTIBLE GAS CONCENTRATIONS
2. Limitations and Considerations
The response of the instrument is temperature dependent. If the temperature
at which the instrument is zeroed differs from the sample temperature, the
accuracy of the reading is affected. Hotter temperatures raise the temperature
of the filament and produce a higher than actual reading. Cooler
temperatures will reduce the reading. It works best to calibrate and zero the
instrument at the sample temperature.
The instruments are intended for use only in normal Oxygen atmospheres.
Oxygen-deficient atmospheres will produce lowered readings. Also the safety
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DIRECT-READING INSTRUMENTS AND RADIATION SURVEY INSTRUMENTS
guards that prevent the combustion source from igniting a flammable
atmosphere are not designed to operate in an Oxygen-enriched atmosphere.
Organic Lead vapors (e.g. gasoline vapors), Sulfur compounds, and Silicone
compounds will foul the filament. Acid gases (e.g. Hydrogen chloride and
Hydrogen fluoride) can corrode the filament. Most units have an optional
filter that protects the sensor from leaded vapors.
There is no differentiation between petroleum vapors and combustible gases.
If the flammability of the combined vapors and gases in an atmosphere is the
concern this is not a problem. However, if the instrument is being used to
detect the presence of a released flammable liquid - like gasoline - in a sewer
system where Methane may be present, the operator can't tell if the reading
is the contaminant or the Methane. A pre-filter can be used to remove the
vapors but will not remove the Methane. Thus, if readings are made with
and without the filter, the user can compare the readings and can conclude
that differences in the values indicate that a petroleum vapor (i.e. the
contaminant) is present.
D. Toxic Atmosphere Monitors
Along with Oxygen concentration and flammable gases or vapors, there is a concern
about chemicals present at toxic concentrations.
This usually involves measurements at concentrations lower than would be indicated
by oxygen indicators or combustible gas indicators. There is a need to determine if
toxic chemicals are present and identify them so the environmental concentration can
be compared to exposure guidelines. Toxic atmosphere monitoring is done to:
• identify airborne concentrations that could pose a toxic risk to response
workers and the public.
• evaluate the need for and type of personal protective equipment.
• set up work zones or areas where contaminants are or are not present.
There are several different groups of instruments that can be used for these functions.
1. Colorimetric Indicator Tubes (Detector Tubes)
a. Principle of Operation
Colorimetric indicator tubes consist of a glass tube impregnated with
an indicating chemical (Figure 4, page 16). The tube is connected
to a piston- or bellows- type pump. A known volume of
contaminated air is pulled at a predetermined rate through the tube by
the pump. The
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DIRECT-READING INSTRUMENTS AND RADIATION SURVEY INSTRUMENTS
contaminant reacts with the indicator chemical in the tube, producing
a change in color whose length is proportional to the contaminant
concentration.
COTTON PLUG
GLASS VIAL
A A
PRE-FILTER INDICATING CHEMICAL COTTON PLUG
ON SILICA GEL
FIGURE 4
DIRECT-READING COLORIMETRIC
INDICATOR TUBE
Detector tubes are normally chemical specific. There are different
tubes for different gases; for example, Chlorine detector tube for
Chlorine gas, Acrylonitrile tube for Acrylonitrile gas, etc. Some
manufacturers do produce tubes for groups of gases, e.g. Aromatic
hydrocarbons, Alcohols. Concentration ranges on the tubes may be
in the ppm or percent range. A preconditioning filter may precede
the indicating chemical to:
• remove contaminants (other than the one in question) that may
interfere with the measurement. Many have a prefilter for
removing humidity.
• react with a contaminant to change it into a compound that
reacts with the indicating chemical.
"Haz-mat kits are available from at least two manufacturers. These
kits identify or classify the contaminants as a member of a chemical
group such as acid gas, Halogenated hydrocarbon, etc. This is done
by sampling with certain combinations of tubes at the same time by
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DIRECT-READING INSTRUMENTS AND RADIATION SURVEY INSTRUMENTS
using a special multiple tube holder or by using tubes in a specific
sampling sequence. Detector tube manufacturers are listed at the end
of this manual section.
b. Limitations and Considerations
Detector tubes have the disadvantage of poor accuracy and precision.
In the past, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH) tested and certified detector tubes that were submitted to
them. For the tubes they tested they certified the accuracy to be
+35% at concentrations at 1/2 the OSHA Permissible Exposure Limit
(PEL) and ±25% at 1 to 5 times the PEL. NIOSH has discontinued
testing and certification. Special studies have reported error factors
of 50% and higher for some tubes.
The chemical reactions involved in the use of the tubes are affected
by temperature. Cold weather slows the reactions and thus the
response time. To reduce this problem it is recommended that the
tubes be kept warm (for example, inside a coat pocket) until they are
used if the measurement is done in cold weather. Hot temperatures
increase the reaction and can cause a problem by discoloring the
indicator when a contaminant is not present. This can happen even
in unopened tubes. Therefore, the tubes should be stored at a
moderate temperature or even refrigerated during storage.
Some tubes do not have a prefilter to remove humidity and may be
affected by high humidity. The manufacturer's instructions usually
indicate if humidity is a problem and list any correction factors to use
if the tube is affected by humidity.
The chemical used in the tubes deteriorates over time. Thus the tubes
are assigned a shelf life. This varies from 1 to 3 years. Shelf life
can be extended by refrigeration but the tube should equilibrate to
ambient temperature before use.
An advantage that detector tubes have over some other instruments is
that it is possible to select a tube that is specific to a chemical.
However, some tubes will respond to interfering compounds.
Fortunately, the manufacturers provide information with the tubes on
interfering gases and vapors.
Interpretation of results can be a problem. Since the tube's length of
color change indicates the contaminant concentration, the user must
be able to see the end of the stain. Some stains are diffused and are
not clear cut; others may have an uneven endpoint. When in doubt
use the highest value that would be obtained from reading the
different aspects of the tube.
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The total volume to be drawn through the tube varies with the tubes.
The volume needed is given as the number of pump strokes needed,
i.e. the number of times the piston or bellows is manipulated. Also,
the air does not instantaneously go through the tube. It may take 1
to 2 minutes for each volume (stroke) to be completely drawn.
Therefore, sampling times can vary from 1 to 30 minutes per tube.
This can make the use of detector tubes time consuming.
Due to these many considerations, it is very important to read the
instructions that are provided with and are specific to a set of tubes.
The information includes the number of pump strokes needed, time
for each pump stroke, interfering gases and vapors, effects of
humidity and temperature, shelf life, proper color change and whether
the tube is reusable.
While there are many limitations and considerations for using detector
tubes, detector tubes allow the versatility of being able to measure a
wide range of chemicals with a single pump. Also, there are some
chemicals for which detector tubes are the only direct-reading
indicators.
2. Specific Chemical Monitors
There are several gas monitors which utilize electrochemical cells or metal
oxide semi-conductors (MOS) for detecting specific chemicals. MOS
detectors change conductivity when exposed to certain gases or vapors. They
can be designed to respond to a large group of chemicals or to a specific
chemical. The most common monitors are used to detect Carbon monoxide
or Hydrogen sulfide but there are also monitors available for Hydrogen
cyanide, Ammonia and Chlorine. They are more accurate than detector tubes
but there are only about a dozen different chemicals they can monitor.
V. RADIATION
There are three primary categories of radiation that might be encountered in a field survey:
(1) alpha, (2) beta, and (3) gamma. Each of these has unique characteristics that must be
considered in selecting an instrument for use. Alpha radiation is paniculate and is simply
the nucleus of an Helium ion (2 protons, 2 neutrons, and no electrons). Because of their
large size (mass or 4), and high charge (double positive), they readily interact with any thing
they come into contact with and will not penetrate through much matter. Alpha particles only
travel about an inch in air, and can normally be stopped by a sheet of paper. Beta radiation
is also paniculate, but is relatively small in size (mass of .00055) as compared to alpha
radiation. Beta particles can have a positive or negative charge (depending on the decay
scheme), and are more penetrating than alpha particles. They can travel up to about a meter
in air, and can normally be stopped by a few millimeters of material such as plastic or
aluminum. Gamma radiation is not paniculate and is simply high energy light (photons).
It is the most penetrating of the radiation types. Very high energy gamma radiation can
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DIRECT-READING INSTRUMENTS AND RADIATION SURVEY INSTRUMENTS
penetrate through several centimeters of most materials, so thick, dense, heavy materials such
as Lead and Iron are needed to stop gamma radiation.
There are hazards associated with exposure of humans to radiation, but if the exposure is
limited to low levels, that hazard is not very serious. In fact, humans are exposed to natural
background radiation every day. Naturally occurring radioactive materials can be found in
the soil, building materials, certain foods, and even the human body. The unit used to
quantify the radiation dose received by an individual is the roentgen equivalent man (rem).
The average dose, due to natural background radiation and natural radioactive materials in
the environment, to an individual in the United States is about 0.2 rem/year.
The actual health risk from low-levels of radiation is quite small. There is no direct evidence
that low doses of radiation can injure the health of humans. All of the estimates of the health
risks associated with radiation have been extrapolated from studies of people who have
received doses equivalent to hundreds of rem. It has been assumed that very low levels of
radiation would affect the body in the same way as these very high doses, only with
proportionately less damage. As radiation passes through matter, it may interact and lose
energy. The damage done by radiation as it interacts with the body results from the way it
affects molecules essential to the normal functioning of human cells. One of four things may
happen when radiation strikes a cell: (1) the radiation may pass through the cell without
doing any damage, (2) the cell may be damaged but repairs itself, (3) the cell may be
damaged so that it not only fails to repair itself, but reproduces in damaged form over a
period of years, or (4) the cell may be killed. The death of a single cell may not be harmful
because the body can readily replace most cells, but problems will occur if so many cells are
killed that the body cannot properly function. Incompletely or imperfectly repaired cells can
lead to delayed health effects such as cancer, genetic mutations, or birth defects. Again, it
is important to recognize that the risks from radiation are small. For example, the statistical
risk of a cancer death from 7 mrem of radiation is equivalent to that associated with smoking
a single cigarette.
Radiation cannot be detected by any of the human senses. We cannot taste, smell, feel, see
or hear it. Because of this, we must rely upon instruments that respond to an interaction
between the radiation and the instrument itself. Radiation is nothing more than energetic
particles or photons.
As the radiation passes through matter, it interacts with the material's electrons to lose some
of the energy. This energy results in either excitation or ionization of atoms. Depending
upon the type of detector, either the excitation or the ionization is sensed, quantified, and the
instrument produces a response that is proportional to the total amount of radiation that is
present in the area being monitored or surveyed.
Portable survey instruments are calibrated to read out in either counts per minute (CPM), in
direct units or radiation intensity, such as milli-Roentgen/hour (mR/hr) or micro-
Roentgen/hour OiR/hr). Instruments reading out in mR/hr and jiR/hr are used to measure
extended radiation fields such as that experienced in the vicinity of radioactive materials'
storage or disposal sites. Instruments that read out in CPM are usually used to monitor for
low-level surface contamination, particularly on hard, nonporous surfaces.
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One of the difficulties in measuring radiation is that there is always some background level
of radiation present. This background will vary with location; some regions of the country
will have higher background than others, brick buildings will have higher backgrounds than
wooden buildings, etc. Because of this variation, when any survey instrument is used, a
determination of local background must be made in an area that is not believed to contain any
radioactive materials. Any reading significantly above the background (two to three times
background) is indicative of the presence of radioactive materials. Background levels
throughout the United States will typically range between 5 and 100 jtR/hr. The United
States Environmental Protection Agency limits the radiation exposure to workers to 1 mR/hr
above background. This action level is specified in the EPA's Standard Operating Safety
Guides.
The detectors used in most portable survey instruments are gas-filled or scintillation devices.
The gas-filled detectors measure the amount of ionization in the gas that is caused by
radiation entering the detectors. This is accomplished by establishing a voltage potential
across a volume of gas. When the gas is ionized, the current that flows between the
electrodes producing the potential can be measured. The amount of current is directly
proportional to the amount of radiation that enters the detector. Scintillation detectors depend
upon light that is produced in a crystal plastic, of certain compounds, when the material's
atoms are excited by interactions with radiation. The amount of light produced is measured
and converted to an easily monitored electrical signal by a photomultiplier tube. There are
gas-filled and scintillation detectors designed to detect all three of the radiation types of
interest in field surveys.
The most obvious difference in detectors used for different radiation types is the manner in
which radiation can enter the sensitive volume of the detector. Many gamma survey
instruments will not appear to have a detector, but only an electronics box. This is because
the gammas can easily penetrate the metal electronics enclosure and the detector is placed
inside where it is protected from damage. The Ludlum Model 19 Micro R meter is an
example of such a detector. Alpha and beta detectors must have thin entrance windows so
that these particles can enter the sensitive volume. Some gas filled detectors are designed
with a thick metal shield so they can discriminate between betas and gammas; with the shield
open, the detector is sensitive to both betas and gammas; with it closed, it will detect only
gammas, since the shield absorbs the betas before they can interact with the detector.
A good survey meter should be portable, rugged, sensitive, simple in construction, and
reliable. Portability implies lightness and compactness with a suitable handle or strap for
carrying. Ruggedness requires that an instrument be capable of withstanding mild shock
without damage. Sensitivity demands an instrument which will respond to the type of energy
level of the radiation being measured. Rarely does one find an instrument capable of
measuring all types and energies of radiation that are encountered in practice. Simplicity in
construction necessitates convenient arrangement of components and simple circuitry
comprised of parts which may be replaced easily. Reliability is that attribute which implies
ability to duplicate response under similar circumstances.
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Ludlum Model 19 Micro R Meter
The Ludlum Model 19 Micro R Meter is designed to monitor low-level gamma radiation.
The instrument utilizes an internally mounted Sodium iodide scintillator crystal. The meter
face has two scales, one in black representing 0-50 /*R/hr and one in red representing 0-25
/tR/hr. The meter range is controlled with a six position switch: OFF, 5000, 500, 250, 50
and 25. The full scale reading of the meter is equal to the switch setting; the red scale
corresponds to the 25 and 250 position and the black scale to the other three positions. As
an example, if the switch is in the 500 position and the meter pointer is aligned with the
"30" scale marking, the radiation field is 300 /*R/hr.
The Ludlum Model 19 is equipped with five additional switches or buttons. One button,
labeled L, lights the meter face while depressed. This allows accurate readings in poor
lighting conditions. The BAT button tests the battery condition. If the batteries are good,
the meter pointer will deflect to the "batt OK" portion of the scale. The audio switch
controls the audible signal; in the ON position, a "beeping" signal accompanies each radiation
event that is detected. The switch marked with the F and S controls the meter response; the
S (slow) position is used for most applications, although in conditions where the radiation
level is changing rapidly, the F (fast) position will provide a better representation of the
radiation level. The remaining button resets the detector operating high voltage should a
transient pulse cause it to be disabled.
Detector Probes
Detector probes will fall into two major categories: gas-filled detectors and scintillation
detectors. These have been briefly discussed in the introduction section. This section will
describe a few of the most commonly used probes.
The Geiger-Mueller (GM) pancake probe is very common and is most valuable for
monitoring for surface activity on equipment, benchtops, soil surface and personnel. The
probe may be used to monitor alpha, beta or gamma radiation. The sensitive volume of the
detector is covered with a thin mica window of about 1.75 inch diameter. This window
allows detection of alphas and low energy betas. The fragile window is protected by a metal
screen, and care must be taken to avoid puncturing it.
End-window GM probes may also be used for alpha, beta, and gamma monitoring. These
tubes are generally cylindrical, about 6-8 inches long and have mica entrance windows about
1 inch in diameter. The window often does not have a protective screen and is easily
punctured. Because of its configuration, this tube is not as convenient as a pancake probe
for surface monitoring. Also, because of the smaller entrance window, it is less efficient for
detecting alphas and betas.
Thin-walled GM probes are used for beta and gamma detection. The tube is constructed
within steel walls through which beta rays can pass. The tube is housed in a protective cage
fitted with a movable steel shield. With the shield in place, betas are absorbed and only
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DIRECT-READING INSTRUMENTS AND RADIATION SURVEY INSTRUMENTS
gammas can be detected. When the shield is moved away from the cage opening, the
detector is sensitive to both betas and gammas.
Scintillation probes are available for alphas, betas, and gammas. They differ in the type of
scintillator used and the detector housing. Alpha detectors are made of thin activated Zinc
sulfide crystals. The beta detectors generally use thin scintillation plastic crystals. Gamma
probes use thick crystals of activated Sodium iodide. Beta and alpha probes have entrance
windows of thin aluminized mylar. This window protects the detector from light which
would be sensed by the photomultiplier as if it were a high radiation field. Care must be
taken not to puncture the window.
The alpha probes often have large surface areas (50-100 cm2) to allow efficient detection of
low levels of alpha contamination. The gamma detectors are usually housed in an Aluminum
shell. This shell is not easy to puncture and is quite rugged, although dropping or banging
it against a hard object may break the crystal or the photomultiplier.
Personnel Dosimeters
The amount of radiation dose received by an individual working in a radiation field is
measured by the use of personnel dosimeters. Two types that are frequently used are the
direct-reading dosimeter and the thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD).
The direct-reading dosimeter provides an immediate indication of the gamma radiation dose
the wearer has received. By checking his dosimeter periodically, the wearer can get an up-
to-the-minute estimate of the total gamma dose he/she has received. Only gamma radiation
is measured. There is no way that beta radiation can penetrate the walls of the dosimeter to
cause ionization.
Inside the detection chamber of the dosimeter is a stationary metal electrode with a movable
quartz fiber attached to it. The dosimeter is charged so that both the electrode and the fiber
are positively charged. Because both are positively charged, they repel each other, and the
movable fiber moves as far away from the electrode as it can. When gamma radiation causes
ionization in the detection chamber, the negative ions move to the positively charged
electrode or fiber. This action reduces the positive charge and allows the fiber to move a
little closer to the stationary electrode. The movement of the fiber, then, is a measure of the
amount of gamma radiation absorbed by the detector.
In direct-reading pocket dosimeters, a scale is placed so that the hairline on the scale is the
movable fiber. As the fiber moves, the scale indicates the total amount of gamma radiation
absorbed by the dosimeter. A magnifying glass inside the dosimeter enables the scale to be
read. This provides an immediate estimate of an individual's total gamma exposure.
Anyone who is instructed to wear a direct-reading dosimeter should make sure that it is
properly charged. When a dosimeter is properly charged, there is sufficient potential
between the electrode and the fiber that the fiber is significantly displaced and the hairline
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DIRECT-READING INSTRUMENTS AND RADIATION SURVEY INSTRUMENTS
on the scale reads near zero. In general, a dosimeter is considered adequately charged if it
reads below 10 mR.
If a dosimeter is not properly charged, a charger must be used to charge it before it can be
worn. The dosimeter is pushed into the charger, and the charger control is turned until the
dosimeter is zeroed. The dosimeter must be checked again after it is taken out of the
charger. Sometimes the hairline shifts when the dosimeter is removed from the charger, and
the dosimeter will have to be readjusted so that the hairline will end up at or near zero.
Because the direct-reading dosimeter measures the whole-body gamma radiation dose, it
should be worn on the trunk of the body. When using a dosimeter, care must be taken not
to bang or drop it. Rough treatment may cause the electrode to discharge completely,
sending the hairline all the way upscale.
Thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs) are often used for beta and gamma whole-body
measurements. Inside the TLD is a very small quantity of crystalline material called a
detector chip that is used to measure beta and gamma exposure. A typical detector chip is
approximately 1/8 inch across and 1/32 inch thick.
To understand how a detector chip measures radiation, we first need to go through a short
review of electron energy levels. As we know, electrons in a solid material prefer to be in
their ground energy state. This is especially true for a crystalline material. If radiation
imparts enough energy to one of these electrons, the electron will jump up to a higher,
instable energy level. However, since the electron prefers to be in the ground state, it will
drop to the ground state and emit the extra energy in the form of heat, x-rays, or light.
In TLD material, there is an in-between state called a metastable state, which acts as an
electron trap. When radiation strikes the ground state electron, the electron jumps up and
is trapped in the metastable state, It remains there until it gets enough energy to move it up
to the unstable state. This energy is supplied when the TLD chip is heated to a high enough
temperature. Then the electron will drop back down to the ground state and, because the
TLD chip is a luminescent material, it will release its extra energy in the form of light. The
total quantity of light emitted by electrons returning to the ground state is proportional to the
number of electrons that were trapped in the metastable state. The number of electrons
trapped in the metastable state is proportional to the amount of beta and gamma radiation that
interacts with the material. This means the amount of light emitted when the TLD is heated
is proportional to the total amount of beta and gamma radiation interacting with the material.
In the photomultiplier tube, electrons are produced in the photocathode, multiplied across the
dynodes, and finally collected on the anode. This then produces a pulse in the circuit that
is proportional to the total amount of beta and gamma radiation absorbed by the TLD
material.
There are several reasons for using TLDs instead of film badges. One reason is size - TLD
chips are so small that they can be taped to the fingers to measure exposure to the extremities
without interfering with work. A second reason is sensitivity. The TLD is generally more
sensitive than a film badge, more accurate in the low mR range, and able to provide a better
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DIRECT-READING INSTRUMENTS AND RADIATION SURVEY INSTRUMENTS
overall indication of the total beta/gamma dose received. A third reason is that the TLD chip
can be reused after it is read.
As with the direct-reading dosimeter, TLD is normally worn on the trunk of the body to give
the best indication of whole-body dose. There are times, however, when these devices might
be worn on other parts of the body. For example, a TLD might be moved to an arm or a
leg if these portions of the body might receive more radiation than the trunk area. An
additional device such as a finger ring might also be used to measure an extremity dose. A
finger ring contains a TLD chip to measure absorbed dose from beta and gamma radiation.
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u>
vo
APPENDIX I
DIRECT-READING INSTRUMENTS USED FOR EVALUATION
Hazard Monitored
Instrument
Appfication
Detection Method j
Notes
Combustible Gas/Vapor
Combustible Gas Indicator
Measures the concentration of a
combustible gas or vapor.
A filament is heated by burning
the combustible gas/vapor. The
increase in heat is measured.
Calibrated before use.
Oxygen Deficiency
Oxygen Meter
Measures the percentage of
Oxygen in air.
Uses an electrochemical sensor to
measure the partial pressure of
Oxygen in air.
Calibrated before each use in
normal air.
Ionizing radiation
Geiger-Muller (G-M) counter
Scintillator tube
to
Environmental radiation
monitor. Some monitors can
distinguish among the types of
ionizing radiation.
G-M: ionizing radiation reacts
with inert gas producing electric
current radiation.
Scintillator: ionizing radiation
produces photons of light within a
crystal. Crystals are specific to
types of radiation e.g., Sodium
iodide crystal for gamma
radiation.
Must be calibrated annually at >
specialized facility.
Organics
1)
Colorimetric tubes
Measure concentration of
specific gases and vapors.
The substance reacts with the
indicator chemical producing a
stain whose length in the tube is
proportional to the concentration
of the substance.
Leak test before use. Check
flow rate and volume
periodically. Check shelf life of
tubes before use.
2) Flame ionizing
Detector (FID) with
Gas Chromatograph
(GC) Option.
Measure total concentration or
organics in survey mode;
identifies and measure specific
compounds in GC mode.
Gases and vapors are ionized in a
flame. A current is produced in
proportion to the number of
carbon atoms present.
Requires experience to operate.
Fuel source is Hydrogen.
-------
UJ
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APPENDIX I
1 DIRECT-READING INSTRUMENTS USED FOR EVALUATION
Hazard Monitored
Instrument
Application
Detection Method
Notes
Organics cont'd
Inorganics (Volatile)
3) Photoionizing
Detectors
4) Portable infrared
Spectrophotometer
5) Catalytic Combustion
Meters (Super
Sensitive Combustible
Gas Indicators)
1) Colorimetric tubes
2) Photoionizing
Detectors
3) Portable Infrared
Spectrophotometer
Measures total concentrations
of substances). Some
identification of compounds is
possible if more than one probe
is used.
Designed to quantify
component mixtures.
Measures substances capable of
being combusted.
Measure concentration of
specific inorganic gases and
vapors.
Measure total concentration of
some inorganics.
Designed to quantify one or
two component mixtures. Will
detect oxides of Nitrogen,
Ammonia, Hydrogen cyanide,
Hydrogen fluoride and Sulfur
dioxide.
Ultraviolet radiation ionizes
molecules, produces ions
proportional to concentration.
Infrared radiation (IR) is passed
through a sample; each compound
will absorb IR at a specific
frequency. Amount of absorption
is proportional to concentration.
Oxidation takes place on the
surface of a heated catalytic bead
element. Oxidation is
proportional to concentration.
See previous description.
See previous description.
See previous description.
Does not detect methane.
Compounds have different
ionization potentials.
Requires knowledge of IR
frequencies for chemical. Short
battery life. Needs to be
operated at a stable location
(table top).
Similar to CGI, but used for
ppm measurements.
See previous note.
See previous note.
See previous note.
K>
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APPENDIX I
DIRECT-READING INSTRUMENTS USED FOR EVALUATION
Hazard Monitored
Instrument
Appfication
Detection Method
Notes
Inorganics (Volatile)
cont'd
Aerosols/*Particulates
4) Specific Chemical
Monitors
Direct-Reading Instruments for
Analyzing Airborne
Particulates.
Measure concentration of
specific gases and vapors.
Measures and sizes the
concentration of aerosols in air.
Electrochemical sensor or metal
oxide semiconductor UV light
absorption for Mercury vapor
detection.
Operates on one of four basic
techniques:
1) Optical
2) Electrical
3) Piezoelectric
Limited number of chemical can
be detected. Even through
specific, there can be
interferences.
Individual instruments have
specific notes. Instruments are
available to measure fibers.
*These direct-reading instruments will readout total or respirable aerosol matter not the composition of the aerosols. The content, e.g., Lead, pesticides, of a dust, fume,
mist, fog, spray or smoke must be separately.
to
-------
Section 15
-------
DECONTAMINATION
PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lesson, participants will be able to:
• Identify the five means of reducing the effects of
contamination
• Describe the steps to be taken in a decontamination line for
Level A
• Describe the steps to be taken in a decontamination line for
LevelB
• Elaborate on the equipment needed in a decontamination line
• Identify the steps taken in an emergency decontamination
• Demonstrate the proper work zone layout for
decontamination
• Describe the importance of air and water monitoring in the
decontamination process
• Describe methods to expand or reduce the decontamination
process
• Identify the process of decontamination area termination.
Note: Decontamination guidelines can be found in the U.S.
EPA's Standard Operating and Safety Guidelines,
Chapter 9.
3/94
-------
NOTES
DECONTAMINATION
DECONTAMINATION FACTORS
Type of contaminant
Amount of contaminant
Level of protection
DECONTAMINATION FACTORS
• Work function
• Location of contaminants
• Reason for leaving the scene
3/94
Decontamination
-------
CONTAMINATION
REDUCTION ZONE
Equipment
decontamination
Hot Line
Exit path
r
i
i —
p
< —
r
—I
Auxiliary Tank
«~~~~~ chanae
- access y
control path ^ •;
CRC
^
r
i
p
r
Support Zone
Dressout
Area
Redress
Area
NOTES
Decontamination
3/94
-------
Boot cover
removal
Outer glove
removal
l— > •
I >'•
"lank 10 '
change 11 I
12 i
13 1
14
15
16
17
Field 18H
wash
V
Boot cover
Tape &
removal glove wash
5 4 32 qp
• • • • 1 be
t • ec
BC&G rinse dr
l Suit & boot wash
Suit & boot rinse
Safety boot removal
FES removal
SCBA backpack removal
Inner glove wash
Inner glove rinse
Face piece removal
Inner glove removal
Inner clothing removal
19 | Cor lit
edress •
Exclusion Zone
gregated *
uipment
°P Hot Line
Decon Layout
Level A Protection
Contamination
Reduction Zone
imination Control Line
_>
NOTES
3/94
Decontamination
-------
Exclusion Zone
Segregated equipment drop
Hot Line
Tank
change
Outer boot, glove, FES wash/
rinse
Outer boot & glove removal
Boot, glove, & FES removal
Minimum Level
A Decon Line
SCBA removal
Contamination
Reduction
Zone
Contamination Control Line
Field wash
NOTES
Decontamination
3/94
-------
o
20 Wind direction
^\ ^
20°
Equipment
drop ~~
Plastic
sheet
Exclusion
Zone
4 . n L- Decon solution
J
i ^ Water
! ^ k | ,
Decon outer .s
garments s'
*• /^ Remove •
.x^boot covers ' • ^
^xwid outer gloves ^
OTank
change-over
4 point
8 r
Zi Can
^ (10 gallon)
1 (32
•
F.S.O.R No. 7 Minimum A & B Decon
V
Remove
boots/gloves
and outer
garments
(For disposal
and off site
decontamination)
^O
Can
nallon^ i
Ljanul iy
Remove SCBA
NOTES
3/94
Decontamination
-------
DECONTAMINATION
TOPIC PAGE NO.
US EPA FIELD STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURE
NO. 7 - DECONTAMINATION PROCEDURE, APPENDIX D 1
INTRODUCTION 1
MAXIMUM DECONTAMINATION LAYOUT LEVEL B 2
MINIMUM DECONTAMINATION LAYOUT LEVELS A & B 3
EQUIPMENT FOR MAXIMUM LEVEL A, B, C LAYOUT 4
EQUIPMENT FOR MINIMUM LEVEL A, B, C LAYOUT 4
MAXIMUM MEASURES FOR LEVEL A DECONTAMINATION 5
MINUMUM MEASURES FOR LEVEL A DECONTAMINATION 5
MAXIMUM MEASURES FOR LEVEL B DECONTAMINATION 6
MINIMUM MEASURES FOR LEVEL B DECONTAMINATION 6
MAXIMUM MEASURES FOR LEVEL C DECONTAMINATION 7
MINIMUM MEASURES FOR LEVEL C DECONTAMINATION 7
3/94
-------
Appendix D. Sample Decontamination Procedures for
Three Typical Levels of Protection3
F.S.O.P. No. 7
Process: DECONTAMINATION PROCEDURES
INTRODUCTION
1.1 The objective of these procedures is to minimize the risk of
exposure to hazardous substances. These procedures were derived
from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of
Emergency and Remedial"Response1s (OERR), "Interim Standard
Operating Safety Guides (revised Sep. 82)". This version of the
guides is in a format that is more appropriate for use in the
field.
1.2 Protective equipment must be worn by personnel when response
activities involve known or suspected hazardous substances. The
procedures for decontaminating personnel upon leaving the
contaminated area are addressed for each of the EPA, OERR
designated levels of protection. The procedures.given are for
the maximum and minimum amount of decontamination used for each
level of protection.
1.3 The maximum decontamination procedures for all levels of
protection consist of specific activities at nineteen stations.
Each station emphasizes an important aspect of decontamination.
When establishing a decontamination line, each aspect should be
incorporated separately or combined with other aspects into a
procedure with fewer steps (such as the Minimum Decontamination
Procedures).
1.4 Decontamination lines are site specific since they are dependent
upon the types of contamination and the type of work activities
on site. A cooling station.is sometimes necessary within the
decontamination line during hot weather. It is usually a
location in a shaded area in which the wind can help to cool
personnel. In addition, site conditions may permit the use of
cooling devices such as cool water hose, ice packs, cool towels,
etc. When the decontamination line is no longer required,
contaminated wash and rinse solutions and contaminated articles
must be contained and disposed of as hazardous wastes in
compliance with state and federal regulations.
3 Source: Excerpted from Field Standard Operating Procedures for the Decon-
tamination of Response Personnel (FSOP 7). EPA Office of Emergency
and Remedial Response, Hazardous Response Support Division,
Washington, DC. January 1985.
3/94
-------
Appendix D
D-3
F.S.O.P. No. 7
PROCESS DECON PROCEDURES
MAXIMUM DECONTAMINATION LAYOUT
LEVEL B PROTECTION
EXCLUSION
Outer Glove
Removal
ZONE
Tape
Removal
Boot Cover
&
Glove Wash
Boot Cover
Removal
Boot Cover &
Glove Rinse
Segregated
Equipment
Drop
• HOTLINE
Tank Change L^H
and Redress - Boot Cover/
Outer Gloves
7 j Suit/Safety Boot
Wash
Suit/SCBA/Boot/Glove
Rinse
CONTAMINATION
REDUCTION
ZONE
Safety Boot
Removal
SCBA Backpack
Removal
Splash Suit
Removal
Inner Glove
Wash
Inner Glove
Rinse
Face Piece
Removal
Inner Glove
Removal
Inner Clothing
Removal
Field
Wash
CONTAMINATION
CONTROL LINE
->{19J Redress
SUPPORT
ZONE
3/94
-------
Appendix D
D-5
F.S.O.P. No. 7
PROCESS DECON PROCEDURES
MINIMUM DECONTAMINATION LAYOUT
LEVELS A & B PROTECTION
WIND DIRECTION
| Redress: Boot Covers
1 and Outer Gloves
^ — — .
oi I Decon
? I Solution
£• i fijfo 1
1 1
/
Decon Outer jf
Equipment Garments ;/
Drop .^^ r-»
x' Boot Covers
>/ and Outer Gloves
b ji b
Plastic 0 1 Can
t
^
Water Tar
•4 J^^-^.
^^"^
t
k
Change-Over
Point
* * £
> > ^
Sheet | (10 gallon)
5—
Remove
and
Outer
Garments
(For Disposal fc
and Off Site
Decontamination)
b
Can
(32 gallon)
> >
REMOVE
SCBA
3/94
-------
Appendix D
D-7
EQUIPMENT NEEDED TO PERFORM MAXIMUM DECONTAMINATION MEASURES FOR LEVELS A, B, AND C
Station 1 :
Station 2:
Station 3:
a.
b.
c.
a.
b.
c.
a.
Various Size Containers
Plastic Liners
Plastic Drop Cloths
Containers (20-30
Oecon Solution or
2-3 Long-Handled,
Scrub Brushes
Containers (20-30
OR
Gallons)
Detergent Water
Soft-Bristled
Gallons)
High-Pressure Spray Unit
Station 4:
Station 5:
Station 6:
Station 7:
Station 8:
b.
c.
a.
b.
a.
b.
c.
a.
b.
a.
b.
c.
a.
Hater
2-3 Long-Handled,
Scrub Brushes
Containers (20-30
Plastic Liners
Containers (20-30
Plastic Liners
Bench or Stools
Containers (20-30
Plastic Liners
Containers (20-30
Decon Solution or
2-3 Long-Handled,
Scrub Brushes
Containers (20-30
OR
Soft-"Bristled
Gallons)
Gallons)
Gallons)
Gallons)
Detergent Water
Soft-Bristled
Gallons)
Station 10:
Station 11 :
Station 12:
Station 13:
Station 14:
Station 15:
Station 16:
Station 17:
Station 18:
High-Pressure Spray Unit
b.
c.
Water
2-3 Long-Handled,
Scrub Brushes
Soft-Bristled
Station 19:
a.
b.
c.
d.
a.
b.
c.
a.
a.
b.
c.
a.
b.
c.
a.
b.
a.
b.
a.
b.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
a.
Containers (20-30 Gallons)
Plastic Liners
Bench or Stools
Boot Jack
Rack
Drop Cloths
Bench or Stools
Table
Basin or Bucket
Decon Solution
Small Table
Water
Basin or Bucket
Small Table
Containers (20-30 Gallons)
Plastic Liners
Containers (20-30 Gallons)
Plastic Liners
Containers (20-30 Gallons)
Plastic Liners
Water
Soap
Small Table
Basin or Bucket
Field Showers
Towel s
Dressing Trailer is Needed in
Inclement Weather
Station 9: a. A1r Tanks or Face Masks and
Cartridge Depending on Level
b. Tape
c. Boot Covers
d. Gloves
b. Tables
c. Chairs
d. Lockers
e. Cloths
EQUIPMENT NEEDED TO PERFORM MINIMUM DECONTAMINATION MEASURES FOR LEVELS A, B, AND C
Station 1:
Station 2:
Station 3:
a. Various Size Containers
b. Plastic Liners
c. Plastic Drop Cloths
a. Containers (20-30 Gallons)
b. Decon Solution
c. Rinse Water
d. 2-3 Long-Handled, Soft-Bristled
Scrub Brushes
a. Containers (20-30 Gallons)
b. Plastic Liners
c. Bench or Stools
3/94
Station 4: a. Air Tanks or Masks and
Cartridges Depending Upon Level
b. Tape
c. Boot Covers
d. Gloves
Station 5: a. Containers (20-30 Gallons)
b. Plastic Liners
c. Bench or Stools
Station 6: a. Plastic Sheets
b. Basin or Bucket
c. Soap and Towels
d. Bench or Stools
Station 7: a. Water
b. Soap
c. Tables
d. Wash Basin or Bucket
-------
Appendix D
D-9
FSOP 7: MAXIMUM MEASURES FOR LEVEL A DECONTAMINATION
Station 17: Inner Clothing
Removal
Station 18: Field Wash
Station 19: Redress
17. Remove clothing and place in lined container.
Do not wear Inner clothing off-site since there
is a possibility that small amounts of
contaminants might have been transferred in
removing the fully-encapsulating suit.
18. Shower If highly toxic, skin-corrosive or skin-
absorbable materials are known or suspected to
be present. Wash hands and face If shower is
not available.
19. Put on clean clothes.
FSOP 7: MINIMUM MEASURES FOR LEVEL A DECONTAMINATION
Station 1: Equipment Drop
Station 2: Outer Garment,
Boots, and Gloves
Wash and Rinse
Station 3: Outer Boot and
Glove Removal
Station 4: Tank Change
Station 5: Boot, Gloves
and Outer Garment
Removal
.Station 6: SCBA Removal
Station 7: Field Wash
1. Deposit equipment used on-site (tools, sampling
devices and containers, monitoring instruments,
radios, clipboards, etc.) on plastic drop
cloths. Segregation at the drop reduces the
probability of cross contamination. During hot
weather operations, cool down stations maybe set
up within this area.
2. Scrub outer boots, outer gloves and fully-
encapsulating suit with decon solution or
detergent and water. Rinse off using copious
amounts of water.
3. Remove outer boots and gloves. Deposit In
container with plastic liner.
4. If worker leaves Exclusion Zone to change air
tank, this is the last step in the
• decontamination procedure. Worker's air tank is
exchanged, new outer gloves and boot covers
donned, joints taped, and worker returns to duty.
5. Boots, fully-encapsulating suit, Inner gloves
removed and deposited in-separate containers
lined with plastic.
6. SCBA backpack and faceplece 1s removed (avoid
touching face with fingers). SCBA deposited
on plastic sheets.
7. Hands and face are thoroughly washed.
soon as possible.
Shower as
3/94
-------
Appendix D
D-11
FSOP 7: MAXIMUM MEASURES FOR LEVEL B DECONTAMINATION
Station 17: Inner Clothing
Removal
Station 18: Field Wash
Station 19: Redress
17. Remove inner clothing. Place in container with
liner. Do not wear inner clothing off-site
since there is a possibility that small amounts
of contaminants might have been transferred in
removing the fully-encapsulating suit.
18. Shower if highly toxic, skin-corrosive or skin-
absorbable materials are known or suspected to
be present. Wash hands and face if shower is
not available.
19. Put on clean clothes.
FSOP 7: MINIMUM MEASURES FOR LEVEL B DECONTAMINATION
Station 1: Equipment Drop
Station 2: Outer Garment,
Boots, and Gloves
Wash and Rinse
Station 3: Outer Boot and
Glove Removal
Station 4: Tank Change
Station 5: Boot, Gloves
and Outer Garment
Removal
Station 6: SCBA Removal
Station 7: Field Wash
1. Deposit equipment used on-site (tools, sampling
devices and containers, monitoring instruments,
radios, clipboards, etc.) on plastic drop
cloths. Segregation at the drop reduces the
probability of cross contamination. During hot
weather operations, cool down station may be set
up within this area.
2. Scrub outer boots, outer gloves and chemical-
resistant splash suit with decon solution or
detergent water. Rinse off using copious
amounts of water.
3. Remove outer boots and gloves. Deposit in
container with plastic liner.
4. If worker leaves exclusive zone to change air
• tank, this is the last step in the
decontamination procedure. Worker's air tank Is
exchanged, new outer gloves and boot covers
donned, joints taped, and worker returns to duty.
5. Boots, chemical-resistant splash suit, Inner
gloves removed and deposited in separate
containers lined with plastic.
6. SCBA backpack and facepiece is removed. Avoid
touching face with finger. SCBA deposited
on plastic sheets.
7. Hands and face are thoroughly washed.
soon as possible.
Shower as
3/94
-------
Appendix D
D-13
FSOP 7: MAXIMUM MEASURES FOR LEVEL C DECONTAMINATION
Station 16: Inner Clothing
Removal
Station 17: Field Wash
atist 18: Redress
16. Remove clothing soaked with perspiration and
place in lined container. Oo not wear inner
clothing off-site since there is a possibility
that small amounts of contaminants might have
been transferred in removing the fully-
encapsulating suit.
17. Shower if highly toxic, skin-corrosive or skin-
absorbable materials are known or suspected to
be present. Wash hands and face if shower is
not available.
18. Put on clean clothes.
FSOP 7: MINIMUM MEASURES FOR LEVEL C DECONTAMINATION
Station 1: Equipment Drop
Station 2: Outer Garment,
Boots, and Gloves
Wash and Rinse
Station 3: Outer Boot arid
Glove Removal
Station 4: Canister or
Mask Change
Station 5: Boot, Gloves
and Outer Garment
Removal
Station 6: Face Piece
Removal
1. Deposit equipment used on-site (tools, sampling
devices and containers, monitoring instruments,
radios,-clipboards, etc.) on plastic drop
cloths. Segregation at the drop reduces the
probability of cross contamination. During hot
weather operations, a cool down station may be
set up within this area.
2. Scrub outer boots, outer gloves and splash
suit with decon solution or detergent water.
Rinse off using copious amounts of water.
3. Remove outer boots and gloves. Deposit in
container with plastic liner.
4. If worker leaves exclusive zone to change
canister (or mask), this is the last step In the
decontamination procedure. Worker's canister is
' exchanged, new outer gloves and boot covers
donned, joints taped, and worker returns to duty.
5. Boots, chemical-resistant splash suit, inner
gloves removed' and deposited in separate
containers lined with plastic.
6. Facepiece is removed. Avoid touching face with
fingers, Facepiece deposited on plastic sheet.
Station 7: Field Wash
7. Hands and face are thoroughly washed.
soon as possible.
Shower as
3/94
-------
Section 16
-------
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION
TOPIC PAGE NO.
I. INTRODUCTION 1
II. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM-STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 1
A. INHALATION 1
B. EXHALATION 2
III. RESPIRATORY HAZARDS 2
A. OXYGEN DEFICIENCY 3
B. AEROSOLS 3
1. PHYSICAL CLASSIFICATION EXAMPLES 4
2. PHYSIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION EXAMPLES 4
C. GASEOUS CONTAMINANTS 4
1. CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS 4
2. PHYSIOLOGICAL CONTAMINANTS 5
APX. I RESPIRATOR NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE PRESSURE TEST 7
APX. II SELF CONTAINED BREATHING APPARTUS 9
I. INTRODUCTION 9
A. OXYGEN-GENERATING 9
B. HOSE MASK 9
\
C. AIRLINE RESPIRATOR 9
D. SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS 9
II. MODES OF OPERATION 10
A. NEGATIVE PRESSURE 10
3/94
-------
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION
B. PRESSURE-DEMAND 10
III. TYPES OF APPARATUS 11
A. CLOSED-CIRCUIT 11
B. OPEN-CIRCUIT 12
IV. COMPONENTS OF A TYPICAL OPEN-CIRCUIT PRESSURE
DEMAND SCBA 12
A. CYLINDER 12
B. HIGH-PRESSURE HOSE 13
C. ALARM 13
D. REGULATOR ASSEMBLY 13
E. BREATHING HOSE AND FACEPIECE 14
F. BACKPACK AND HARNESS 15
V. INSPECTION AND CHECKOUT 15
VI. INFORMATION ON CYLINDER LABEL 16
VII. NFPA 1981 "OPEN CIRCUIT SELF-CONTAINER BREATHING
APPARATUS FOR FIREFIGHTERS" 1987 EDITION 16
A. BASIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS 16
B. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS 17
C. PERFORMANCE TESTS 17
1. AIRFLOW 17
2. THERMAL RESISTANCE TEST 17
3. VIBRATION AND SHOCK 17
4. FABRIC COMPONENTS TEST 17
5. ACCELERATED CORROSION RESISTANCE TEST 18
3/94
-------
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION
6. PARTICULATE RESISTANCE TEST 18
7. FACEPIECE LENS ABRASION RESISTANCE TEST 18
8. COMMUNICATIONS TEST 18
APX. III. SCBA CHECKOUT-MSA MODEL 401 ULTRALITE II 19
3/94
-------
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION
I. INTRODUCTION
The respiratory system is able to tolerate exposures to toxic gases, vapors and participates,
but only to a limited degree. Some chemicals can impair or destroy portions of the
respiratory tract, or they may be absorbed directly into the bloodstream from the lungs.
Chemicals that enter the blood may eventually affect the function of other organs and tissues.
The respiratory system can be protected by avoiding or minimizing exposure to harmful
substances. Engineering controls such as ventilation help decrease exposure. When these
methods are not feasible respirators may provide protection. Certain respirators can filter
gases, vapors, and particulates in the ambient atmosphere, other respirators are available
which can supply clean breathing air to the wearer.
The use of respirators is regulated by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA). Regulations stipulate the use of approved respirators, proper selection, and
individual fitting of respirator users. This unit discusses the topics necessary to ensure
quality respiratory protection.
II. THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
A. Inhalation
When air is inhaled, the chest muscles and diaphragm contract, lifting the rib cage
and dropping the diaphragm. These actions enlarge the chest cavity. As a result, the
lungs expand and fill with air (Figure 1, page 2).
Normally, air is pulled through the nose, but it also can be inhaled through the
mouth. The nasal passages are very narrow and divided which forces the air to
travel a turbulent path. Particulate matter is impacted, and soluble particulates, and
gases are absorbed on the walls of the passages. Still, some contaminants escape this
initial deposition and penetrate further into the respiratory system.
The inhaled air passes through the pharynx and enters the trachea at the larynx. The
pharynx is the common port for the passage of air and food. The trachea, commonly
called the windpipe, divides into two bronchi, one leading to each lung. Further
divisions of the bronchus are named bronchioles. Collectively the passages are called
conducting tubes because they carry air to the sites where Oxygen and Carbon
dioxide are exchanged. Lining the conducting tubes are mucous and cilia.
Contaminants are caught in the mucous, swept up to the esophagus by the cilia, and
swallowed. In this way, the respiratory system rids itself of some contaminants in
inhaled air.
3/94
-------
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION
PHARYNX
ESOPHAGUS
EPIGLOTTIS
TRACHEA
LARYNX
LUNG
PLEURA
PLEURAL SPACE
HEART
BRONCHI
ALVEOLI
PULMONARY
VEIN
PULMONARY
ARTERY
FIGURE 1
STRUCTURE OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
At the end of the bronchioles are alveoli, sacs with very thin walls, filled with
bundles of capillaries (minute blood vessels that connect arteries and veins). Here
Oxygen in the inhaled air is diffused into the bloodstream and Carbon dioxide is
diffused out to be exhaled.
B. Exhalation
When air is exhaled, the chest muscles and diaphragm are expanded, decreasing the
size of the chest cavity. This forces air out of the lungs back along the same route.
A relaxed person breathes about 10 liters of air per minute. During brisk activity,
the volume can increase to over 75 liters per minute. In such a situation, the
respiratory system must handle a very large volume of air.
III. RESPIRATORY HAZARDS
The normal atmosphere consists of 78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen, 0.9% inert gases and
0.04% Carbon dioxide. An atmosphere containing toxic contaminants, even at very low
concentrations, could be a hazard to the lungs and body. A concentration large enough to
3/94
-------
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION
decrease the percentage of Oxygen in the air can lead to asphyxiation, even if the
contaminant is an inert gas.
A. Oxygen Deficiency
The body requires Oxygen to live. If the Oxygen concentration decreases, the body
reacts in various ways (Table 1). Death occurs rapidly when the concentration
decreases to 6%.
TABLE 1
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF OXYGEN DEFICIENCY
% Oxygen
(by volume)
at Sea Level
21-16
16-12
12-10
10-6
<6
Effects
Nothing abnormal.
Loss of peripheral vision, increased breathing volume, accelerated
heartbeat, impaired attention and thinking, impaired coordination.
Very faulty judgment, very poor muscular coordination, muscular
exertion causes fatigue that may cause permanent heart damage,
intermittent respiration.
Nausea, vomiting, inability to perform vigorous movement, or loss
of all movement, unconsciousness, followed by death.
Spasmodic breathing, convulsive movements, death in minutes.
B.
Physiological effects of Oxygen deficiency are not apparent until the concentration
decreases to 16%. The various regulations and standards dealing with respirator use
recommend that concentrations ranging from 16-19.5% be considered indicative of
an Oxygen deficiency. Such numbers take into account individual physiological
responses, errors in measurement, and other safety considerations. In hazardous
materials response operations 19.5% Oxygen in air is considered the lowest "safe"
working concentration. Below 19.5% available Oxygen, a supplied air respirator
must be used.
Aerosols
Aerosol is a term used to describe fine particulates (solid or liquid) suspended in air.
Particulates ranging in diameter from 5 to 30 microns are deposited in the nasal and
pharyngeal passages. The trachea and smaller conducting tubes collect particulates
1-5 microns in diameter. For particulates to diffuse from the bronchioles into alveoli
they must be less than 0.5 microns in diameter. Larger particles do reach the alveoli
3/94
-------
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION
due to gravity. The smallest particulates may never be deposited in the alveoli and
so may diffuse back into the conducting tubes to be exhaled.
Aerosols can be classified in two ways: by their physical form and origin and by the
physiological effect on the body.
1. Physical Classification Examples:
• Mechanical dispersoid: liquid or solid particle mechanically
produced.
• Condensation dispersoid: liquid or solid particle often produced by
combustion.
• Spray: visible liquid mechanical dispersoid.
• Fume: extremely small solid condensation dispersoid.
• Mist: liquid condensation dispersoid.
• Fog: mist dense enough to obscure vision.
• Smoke: liquid or solid organic particles resulting from incomplete
combustion.
• Smog: mixture of smoke and fog.
2. Physiological Classification Examples:
• Nuisance: no lung injury but proper lung functioning inhibited.
• Inert pulmonary reaction causing: non-specific reaction.
• Pulmonary fibrosis causing: effects ranging from nodule production
in lungs to serious diseases such as asbestosis.
• Chemical irritation: irritation, inflammation, or ulceration of lung
tissue.
• Systemic poison: diseases in other parts of the body.
• Allergy-producing: causes allergic hypersensitivity reactions such as
itching or sneezing.
C. Gaseous Contaminants
Gases and vapors are filtered to some degree on their trip through the respiratory
tract. Soluble gases and vapors are absorbed by the conducting tubes in route to the
alveoli. Not all will be absorbed so that along with insoluble gases, they finally
diffuse into the alveoli where they can be directly absorbed into the bloodstream.
Gaseous contaminants can be classified as chemical and physiological hazards.
1. Chemical Contaminants
• Acidic: acids or react with water to form acids.
• Alkaline: bases or react with water to form bases.
• Organic: compounds which contain carbon; may range from methane
to chlorinated organic solvents.
3/94
-------
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION
Organometallic: organic compounds containing metals.
Hydrides: compound in which hydrogen is bonded to another metal.
Inert: no chemical reactivity.
2. Physiological Contaminants
Irritants: corrosive substances which injure and inflame tissue.
Asphyxiants: substances which displace oxygen or prevent the use of
oxygen in the body.
Anesthetics: substances which depress the central nervous system,
causing a loss of sensation or intoxication.
Systemic poisons: substances which can cause disease in various
organ systems.
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APPENDIX I
RESPIRATOR NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE PRESSURE TEST
I. FITTING
Place the respirator over the face and draw the straps evenly and securely. The mask should
not be so tight as to cause discomfort or a headache. Secure bottom straps first, progressing
to the top straps.
II. NEGATIVE PRESSURE TEST
This test (and the positive pressure test) should be used only as a very gross determination
of fit. The wearer should use this test just before entering the hazardous atmosphere. In this
test, the user closes off the inlet of the canister, cartridge(s), or filter(s) by covering with the
palm(s), inhales gently so that the facepiece collapses slightly; and holds breath for about 10
seconds. If the facepiece remains slightly collapsed and no inward leakage is detected, the
respirator is probably tight enough.
Although this test is simple, it has drawbacks; primarily that the wearer must handle the
respirator after it has been positioned on his face. This handling can modify the facepiece
seal.
III. POSITIVE PRESSURE TEST
This test, similar to the negative pressure test, is conducted by closing off the exhalation
valve and exhaling gently into the facepiece. The fit is considered satisfactory if slight
positive pressure can be built up inside the facepiece without any evidence of outward
leakage. For some respirators, this method requires that the wearer remove the exhalation
valve cover; this often disturbs the respirator fit even more than does the negative pressure
test. Therefore, this test should be used sparingly if it requires removing and replacing a
valve cover. The test is easy for respirators whose valve has a single small part that can be
closed by the palm or a finger.
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APPENDIX II
SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS
I. INTRODUCTION
Respiratory apparatus must frequently be used during response to hazardous materials
incidents. If the contaminant is unknown or the requirements for using air-purifying
respirators cannot be met, then an atmosphere supplying respirator is required. Several types
of atmosphere supplying devices are available:
A. Oxygen-generating
One of the oldest respirators is the Oxygen-generating respirator, which utilizes a
canister of Potassium superoxide. The chemical reacts with water vapor to produce
Oxygen which replenishes the wearer's exhaled breath. Exhaled CO2 is removed by
a scrubber device containing LiOH. This reoxygenated air is then returned to the
wearer. Oxygen-generating respirators have been used by the military and for escape
purposes in mines. It generally is not used for hazardous material applications
because of the chemical reaction taking place within the respirator itself.
B. Hose mask
This type of respirator consists of a facepiece attached to a large diameter hose which
transports clean air from a remote area. In units where the wearer breathes the air
in, the hose lines can go up to 75 feet. With powered units the hose length can vary
from 50 to 250 feet.
C. Airline respirator
The airline respirator is similar to the hose mask, except that breathing grade air is
delivered to the wearer under pressure; either from a compressor or a bank of
compressed air cylinders. The air may flow continuously, or it may be delivered as
the wearer breathes (demands it). The air source must not be depletable, and no
more than 300 feet of airline is allowed. An escape device is required for entry into
an IDLH atmosphere.
D. Self-contained breathing apparatus
The self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) consists of a facepiece and regulator
mechanism connected to a cylinder of compressed air or Oxygen carried by the
wearer.
The self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) is generally used because it allows the wearer
to work without being confined by a hose or airline. The wearer of the SCBA depends on
it to supply clean breathing air.
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APPENDIX II: SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS
If the wearer is not properly trained to wear the SCBA or it is not properly cared for, then
it may fail to provide the protection expected.
The user should be completely familiar with the SCBA being worn. Checkout procedures
have been developed for inspecting an SCBA prior to use, allowing the user to recognize
potential problems. An individual who checks out the unit is more comfortable and confident
wearing it.
There are two types of apparatus: closed-circuit, which use compressed Oxygen, and open-
circuit, which use compressed air. SCBA's may operate in one of two modes, demand or
pressure-demand (positive-pressure). The length of time an SCBA operates is based on the
air supply. The units available operate from 5 minutes to over 4 hours.
Pressure Demand (positive pressure) is the only approved type of open circuit SCBA for use
in Hazardous Environments by the US EPA and NFPA.
Both open- and closed-circuit SCBA's will be discussed and the modes of operation explained.
The bulk of the discussion deals with open circuit pressure-demand SCBA's which are most
widely used because they offer more protection.
II. MODES OF OPERATION
A. Negative Pressure
In the demand mode, a negative pressure is created inside the facepiece and breathing
tubes when the wearer inhales (Table 1, page 11). This negative pressure draws
down a diaphragm in the regulator in an SCBA. The diaphragm depresses and opens
the admission valve, allowing air to be inhaled. As long as the negative pressure
remains, air flows to the facepiece.
The problem with demand operation is that the wearer can inhale contaminated air
through any gaps in the facepiece-to-face sealing surface. Hence, a demand
apparatus with a full facepiece is assigned a Protection Factor of only 100, the same
as for a full face air-purifying respirator.
B. Pressure-Demand
An SCBA operating in the pressure-demand mode maintains a positive pressure inside
the facepiece at all times. The system is designed so that the admission valve
remains open until enough pressure is built up to close it. The pressure builds up
because air is prevented from leaving the system until the wearer exhales. Less
pressure is required to close the admission valve than is required to open the spring-
loaded exhalation valve.
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APPENDIX II: SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS
At all times, the pressure in the facepiece is greater than the ambient pressure outside
the facepiece. If any leakage occurs, it is outward from the facepiece. Because of
this, the pressure-demand (positive pressure) SCBA has been assigned a Protection
Factor of 10,000.
TABLE 1
RELATIVE PRESSURE INSIDE AND OUTSIDE SCBA FACEPIECE
Demand
Pressure demand
(positive pressure)
Inhalation
Exhalation
Static (between breaths)
+
same
III. TYPES OF APPARATUS
A. Closed-Circuit
The closed-circuit SCBA (Figure 1), commonly called the rebreather, was developed
especially for Oxygen-deficient situations. Because it recycles exhaled breath and
carries only a small Oxygen supply, the service time can be considerably greater than
an open-circuit device, which must carry all of the user's breathing air.
FIGURE 1
CLOSED-CIRCUIT SCBA
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APPENDIX II: SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS
The air for breathing is mixed in a flexible breathing bag. This air is inhaled,
deflating the breathing bag. The deflation depresses the admission valve, allowing
the Oxygen to enter the bag. There it mixes with exhaled breath, from which Carbon
dioxide has just been removed by passage through a CO2 scrubber.
Most rebreathers operate in the demand mode. Several rebreathers are designed to
provide a positive pressure in the facepiece. The approval schedule 13F under 30
CFR Part II for closed-circuit SCBA makes no provisions for testing "demand" or
"pressure-demand" rebreathers. The approval schedule was set up to certify only
rebreathers that happen to operate in the demand mode. Thus, rebreathers designed
to operate in the positive pressure mode can be approved strictly as closed-circuit
apparatus. Since regulations make no distinction, and selection is based on approval
criteria, rebreathers designed to maintain a positive pressure can only be considered
as a demand-type apparatus. Rebreathers use either compressed Oxygen or liquid
Oxygen. To assure the quality of the air to be breathed, the Oxygen must be at least
medical grade breathing Oxygen which meets the requirements set by the "U.S.
Pharmacopeia".
B. Open-Circuit
The open-circuit SCBA requires a supply of compressed breathing air. The user
simply inhales and exhales. The exhaled air is exhausted from the system. Because
the air is not recycled, the wearer must carry the full air supply, which limits a unit
to the amount of air that the wearer can easily carry. Available SCBA's can last
from 5 to 60 minutes. Units which have 5-to-15 minute air supplies are only
applicable to escape situations.
The air used in open-circuit apparatus must meet the requirements in the Compressed
Gas Association's Pamphlet G-7.1, which calls for at least "Grade D". Grade D air
must contain 19.5 to 23.5% Oxygen with the balance being predominantly Nitrogen.
Condensed Hydrocarbons are limited to 5 mg/m3, Carbon monoxide to 20 parts per
million (ppm) and Carbon dioxide to 1,000 ppm. An undesirable odor is also
prohibited. Air quality can be checked using an Oxygen meter, Carbon monoxide
meter and detector tubes.
IV. COMPONENTS OF A TYPICAL OPEN-CIRCUIT PRESSURE DEMAND SCBA
A. Cylinder
Compressed air is considered a hazardous material. For this reason, any cylinder
used with a SCBA must meet the Department of Transportation's (DOT) "General
Requirements for Shipments and Packaging" (49 CFR Part 173) and "Shipping
Container Specifications" (49 CFR Part 178).
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APPENDIX II: SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS
A hydrostatic test must be performed on a cylinder at regular intervals: for Steel &
Aluminum cylinders, every 5 years; for composite cylinders (glass fiber/Aluminum),
every 3 years. Composite cylinders are relatively new, designed with fiberglass.
Composite cylinders have a DOT exemption because there are no set construction
requirements at this time. Overall difference is in weight. The construction
technology reduces the weight of the cylinder and thereby the overall weight of the
SCBA.
Air volume of 45 cubic feet of Grade D air at a pressure of 2,216 pounds per square
inch (psi) is needed for a 30-minute supply. Cylinders are filled using a compressor
or a cascade system of several large cylinders of breathing air. If the cylinder is
overfilled, a rupture disc releases the pressure. The rupture disc is located at the
cylinder valve, along with a cylinder pressure gauge to be accurate within + 5%.
Because the gauge is exposed and subject to abuse, it should be used only for judging
if the cylinder is full, and not for monitoring air supply to the wearer.
B. High-Pressure Hose
The high-pressure hose connects the cylinder and the regulator. The hose should be
connected to the cylinder only by hand, never with a wrench. An O-ring inside the
connector assures a good seal.
C. Alarm
A low-pressure warning alarm is located near the connection to the cylinder. This
alarm sounds to alert the wearer that only 20-25 % of the full cylinder air supply is
available for retreat, usually 5 to 8 minutes.
D. Regulator Assembly
Air travels from the cylinder through the high-pressure hose to the regulator (Figure
2, page 14). There it can travel one of two paths. If the by-pass valve is opened,
air travels directly through the breathing hose into the facepiece. If the mainline
valve is opened, air passes through the regulator and is controlled by that mechanism.
Also at the regulator (before air enters one of the valves) is another pressure gauge
which also must be accurate to + 5%. Because it is visible and well protected, this
gauge should be used to monitor the air supply.
Under normal conditions, the bypass valve is closed and the mainline valve opened
so air can center the regular. Once in the regulator, the air pressure is reduced from
the actual cylinder pressure to approximately 50-100 psi by reducing mechanism. A
pressure relief valve is located after the pressure reducer for safety should the
pressure reducer malfunction. The airflow rate to meet NIOSH standards must meet
or exceed 40 liters/minute. NFPA 1981 states the airflow rate must meet or exceed
100 liters/minute.
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APPENDIX II: SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS
E. Breathing Hose and Facepiece
The breathing hose connects the regulator to the facepiece. Rubber gaskets at both
ends provide tight seals. The hose is usually constructed of neoprene and is
corrugated to allow stretching.
Above the point in the mask where the hose is connected, is a one way check valve.
This valve allows air to be drawn from the hose when the wearer inhales but prevents
exhaled air from entering the breathing hose. If the check valve is not in place, the
exhaled air may not be completely exhausted from the facepieces.
Sprln,
FIGURE!
REGULATOR ASSEMBLY
Selected from MSA Product Literature, by Mine Safety Appliances Co., Copyrighted
by Mine Safety Appliances Co., reprinted with permission of Publisher.
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APPENDIX II: SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS
The facepiece is normally constructed of Neoprene, but sometimes of Silicone rubber.
Five- or six-point suspension is used to hold the mask to the face. The visor lens is
made of Polycarbonate or other clear, shatter proof, and chemically resistant
material. At the bottom of the facepiece is an exhalation value.
Some masks include an air-tight speaking diaphragm, which facilitates
communications while preventing contaminated air from entering.
F. Backpack and Harness
A back pack and harness support the cylinder and regulator, allowing the user to
move freely. Weight should be supported on the hips not the shoulders.
V. INSPECTION AND CHECKOUT
The SCBA must be inspected according to manufacturers as well as 29 CFR
recommendations. In addition, the SCBA should be checked out immediately prior to use.
Checkout and inspection procedures (Appendix III, pages 19-21) should be followed closely
to assure safe operation of the unit.
A. A cylinder on a SCBA typically carries the following information (Figure 3, page
16).
1. DOT exemption for composite cylinder
2. DOT rated pressure and air volume
3. Cylinder number
4. Manufacturer's name, symbol and part number
5. Original hydrostatic test date, month/year
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APPENDIX II: SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS
VI. INFORMATION ON CYLINDER LABEL
DOT E- 7277-221 6
ALT 59-32150
ELASTIC EXPANSION: 96-106 ml
© SCI
^^^^
8-88
CONTENTS: AIR; 45 SCF AT 2216 PSIG
MINE SAFETY APPLIANCES CO.
PART NO. 460320
FIGURES
INFORMATION ON TYPICAL SCBA CYLINDER LABEL
VII. NFPA 1981 "OPEN CIRCUIT SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS FOR
FIREFIGHTERS" 1987 Edition
The National Fire Protection (NFPA) has developed a standard for performance requirements
and appropriate testing procedures designed to simulate various environmental conditions that
fire fighter's SCBA can be exposed to during use and storage. These requirements are in
addition to the basic NIOSH/MSHA certification requirements. This Standard, NFPA 1981,
now applies only to open circuit SCBA.
A. Basic Design Requirements
The basic design requirements for SCBA units under 1981 are:
1. That the units be NIOSH/MSMA certified positive-pressure.
2. The maximum weight shall not exceed 35 pounds, in accordance with
NIOSH/MSMA certification.
3. The rated service time shall be 30 minutes or more.
4. No positive-pressure unit that can be switched to demand mode.
5. The unit shall not be approved under the Bureau of Mines Schedule
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APPENDIX II: SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS
6. The manufacturer shall provide with each SCBA instructions on maintenance,
storage, disinfecting, inspection, use, operations, limitations and training
materials.
B. General Requirements
Additionally, SCBA units must meet certain general requirements which include:
1. Labeling showing that the unit meets the requirements.
2. Initial, annual and fifth year testing of the SCBA.
3. Retesting of unit after any modifications.
4. Test series to include three categories, with one SCBA used per category.
C. Performance Tests
1. Airflow
This test increases the current NIOSH breathing machine requirements of 40
liters per minute to 100 liters per minute. The 100 liters per minute volume
was derived from a review of several studies indicating that a ventilation rate
of 100 standard liters per minute encompasses the 98th percentile of all fire
fighters studies.
NOTE: An airflow test is then performed after each of the following tests,
with the exception of the fabric component test, to ensure breathing apparatus
performance.
2. Thermal Resistance Test
This series of tests expose the breathing apparatus to various temperature
extremes and temperature cycles that breathing apparatus might be exposed
to during actual firefighting operations.
3. Vibration and Shock
This test is designed to provide a reasonable level of assurance that when the
breathing apparatus is exposed to vibration, such as being carried on a rig that
often travels over rough road surfaces, the apparatus will perform and
function properly.
4. Fabric Components Test
Flame, heat and thread tests are added to provide a reasonable level of
assurance that the fabric components of a harness assembly used to hold the
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APPENDIX II: SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS
backplate to the wearer's body will remain intact during firefighting
operations.
5. Accelerated Corrosion Resistance Test
This test is to provide a reasonable level of assurance that the breathing
apparatus is designed to resist corrosion that may form and interfere with the
apparatus performance and function.
6. Paniculate Resistance Test
This test exposes the breathing apparatus to a specified concentration of
particulates to provide a reasonable level of assurance that the apparatus is
designed to properly function when exposed to dust conditions commonly
present during firefighting operations.
7. Facepiece Lens Abrasion Resistance Test
This test is designed to provide a reasonable level of assurance that the
facepiece lens of the breathing apparatus is not easily scratched during
firefighting operations that could result in reduced visibility for the fire
fighter.
8. Communications Test
This test is designed to assure that the facepiece of the breathing apparatus
does not significantly reduce a fire fighter's normal voice communications.
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APPENDIX III
SCBA CHECKOUT - MSA MODEL 401 ULTRALITE II
1. MONTHLY INSPECTION
a. Check cylinder label for current hydrostatic test date.
b. Inspect cylinder for large dents or gouges in metal or fiberglass.
c. Inspect cylinder gauge for damage.
d. Complete full checkout procedure (Steps 3 thru 8).
e. Fill out appropriate records with results and recommendations.
2. REGULAR INSPECTION
a. Immediate prior to donning.
b. Prior to storing after cleaning and sanitization.
3. BEFORE PROCEEDING, CHECK THAT:
a. High-pressure-hose connector is tight on cylinder fitting.
b. By-pass valve is closed.
c. Mainline valve is closed.
d. Regulator outlet is not covered or obstructed.
4. BACKPACK AND HARNESS ASSEMBLY
a. Visually inspect straps for wear, damage, completeness, etc.
b. Check wear function of buckle.
c. Check backplate for damage and attachment to cylinder.
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APPENDIX III: SCBA CHECKOUT - MSA MODEL 401 ULTRALITE II
5. CYLINDER AND HIGH-PRESSURE-HOSE ASSEMBLY
a. Check cylinder to assure that it is firmly fastened to backplate.
b. Open cylinder valve; listen or feel for leakage around packing and hose connection.
c. Check high-pressure-hose for damage or leaks.
6. REGULATOR
a. Cover regulator outlet with palm of hand or rubber dust cover.
b. Open mainline valve.
c. Note stoppage of air flow after positive pressure builds.
d. Close mainline valve.
e. REMOVE HAND OR DUST COVER FROM REGULATOR OUTLET.
f. Open by-pass valve slowly to assure proper function.
g. Close by-pass valve.
h. Cover regulator outlet again with palm of hand or dust cover.
i. Open mainline valve.
j. Note pressure reading on regulator gauge.
k. Close cylinder valve while keeping hand or dust cover over regulator outlet.
1. Slowly remove hand or dust cover from outlet and allow air to flow.
m. Note pressure when low-pressure warning alarm sounds; it should be between 550-
650 psi.
n. Remove hand from regulator.
o. Close mainline valve.
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APPENDIX III: SCBA CHECKOUT - MSA MODEL 401 ULTRALITE II
7. FACEPIECE AND CORRUGATED BREATHING TUBE
a. Inspect head harness and facepiece for damage, serrations, and deteriorated rubber.
b. Inspect lens for damage and proper seal in facepiece.
c. Inspect facepiece for presence of diaphragm and wagon wheel.
d. Stretch breathing tube and carefully inspect for holes and deterioration.
e. Inspect connector for damage and presence of washer.
f. Perform negative pressure test with facepiece donned.
8. STORAGE
a. Close cylinder valve.
b. Bleed pressure from high-pressure-hose by opening mainline valve.
c. Refill cylinder to 2216 psi.
d. Tightly connect high-pressure-hose to cylinder.
e. Close by-pass valve.
f. Fully extend all straps.
g. Store facepiece in a clean plastic bag for protection.
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Section 17
-------
GLOSSARY
Accident - An unexpected event generally resulting in injury, loss of property, or disruption
of service.
Action Level - A quantitative limit of a chemical, biological, or radiological agent at which
actions are taken to prevent or reduce exposure or contact.
Acute Exposure - A dose that is delivered to a receptor in a single event or in a short period
of time.
Air Surveillance - Use of air monitoring and air sampling during a response to identify and
quantify airborne contaminants on and off-site, and monitor changes in air contaminants that
occur over the lifetime of the incidents.
Aquifer - A water bearing formation of permeable rock, sand, or gravel capable of yielding
water to a well or spring.
Boiling Point - The temperature at which a liquid changes to a vapor.
Chronic Exposure - Low doses repeatedly delivered to a receptor over a long period of time.
Combustibility - The ability of a material to act as a fuel.
Condensation Point - The temperature at which a vapor changes to a liquid.
Confinement - Control methods used to limit the physical area or size of a released material.
Examples:dams, dikes, and absorption processes.
Containment - Control methods used keep the material in its container.Examples:plugging
and patching.
Contaminant/Contamination - An unwanted and non-beneficial substance.
Control - Chemical or physical methods used to prevent or reduce the hazards associated with
a material. Example: Neutralizing an acid spill.
Decontamination - The process of physically removing contaminants from individuals and
equipment or changing their chemical nature to innocuous substances
Degree of Hazard - A relative measure of how much harm a substance can do.
Density - The density of a substance is its mass per unit volume, commonly expressed in
grams per cubic centimeter (g/cc). The density of water is 1 g/cc since 1 cc has a mass of
1 gram.
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GLOSSARY
Direct-Reading Instruments - A portable device that rapidly measures and displays the
concentration of a contaminant in the environment.
Emergency - A sudden and unexpected event calling for immediate action.
Emergency Removal - Action or actions undertaken, in a time-critical situation, to prevent,
minimize, or mitigate a release that poses an immediate and/or significant threat(s) to human
health or welfare or to the environment. (See also Removal Action)
Environmental Assessment - The measurement or prediction of the concentration, transport,
dispersion, and final fate of a released hazardous substance in the environment.
Environmental Emergencies - Incidents involving the release (or potential release) of
hazardous materials into the environment which require immediate action.
Environmental Hazard - A condition capable of posing an unreasonable risk to air, water,
or soil quality, and to plants or wildlife.
Environmental Sample - Samples that are considered to contain no contaminants or low
concentrations of contaminants as compared to hazardous samples.
Episode - Incident.
First Responder - The first personnel to arrive on the scene of a hazardous materials incident.
Usually officials from local emergency services, fire fighters, and police.
Flammability - The ability of a liquid or gas to generate a sufficient concentration of
combustible vapors under normal conditions to be ignited and produce a flame.
Flashpoint - The minimum temperature at which a substance produces sufficient flammable
vapors to ignite.
Freezing Point - The temperature at which a liquid changes to a solid.
Groundwater - Water found in the saturated portions of geologic formations beneath the
surface of land or water.
Hazard - A circumstance or condition that can do harm. Hazards are categorized into four
groups: biological, chemical, radiation, and physical.
Hazard Classes - A series of nine descriptive terms that have been established by the UN
Committee of Experts to categorize the hazardous nature of chemical, physical, and
biological materials. These categories are:
1. Explosives,
2. Non-flammable and flammable gases,
3. Flammable liquids,
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GLOSSARY
4. Flammable solids,
5. Oxidizing materials,
6. Poisons, irritants, and disease causing materials,
7. Radioactive materials,
8. Corrosive materials, and
9. Dangerous materials.
Hazard Evaluation - The impact or risk the hazardous substance poses to public health and
the environment.
HAZARDLINE - A data information/retrieval system containing regulatory and precautionary
data on about 5,000 hazardous chemicals, as well as OSHA, EPA, NIOSH, and ANSI
standards and criteria documents relative to court decisions, standards, and guidelines.
Hazardous - Capable of posing an unreasonable risk to health and safety (Department of
Transportation). Capable of doing harm.
Hazardous Material - A substance or material which has been determined by the Secretary
of Transportation to be capable of posing an unreasonable risk to health, safety, and property
when transported in commerce, and which has been so designated. (Department of
Transportation)
Hazardous Sample - Samples that are considered to contain high concentrations of
contaminants.
Hazardous Substance - 1) A material and its mixtures or solutions that are listed in the
Appendix to the Hazardous Materials Table, 49 CFR 172.101, when offered for
transportation in one package, or in one transport vehicle if not packaged, and when the
quantity of the material therein equals or exceeds the reportable quantity. 2) Any substance
designated pursuant to Section 311(b)(2) (A) of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, (B)
any element, compound, mixture solution, or substance designated pursuant to Section 102
of this Act, (C) any hazardous waste having the characteristics identified under or listed
pursuant to Section 3001 of the Solid Waste Disposal Act (but not including any waste of the
regulation of which under the Solid Waste Disposal Act has been suspended by Act of
Congress), (D) any toxic pollutant listed under Section 307(a) of the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act, (E) any hazardous air pollutant listed under Section 112 of the Clean Air Act,
and (F) any imminently hazardous chemical substance or mixture with respect to which the
Administrator has taken action pursuant to Section 7 of the Toxic Substances Control Act.
The term does not include petroleum, including crude oil or any fraction thereof which is not
otherwise specifically listed or designated as a hazardous substance under subparagraphs (A)
through (F) of this paragraph, and the term does not include natural gas, natural gas liquids,
liquified natural gas, or synthetic gas usable for fuel (of mixtures of natural gas and such
synthetic gas).
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GLOSSARY
Hazardous Waste - Any material that is subject to the hazardous waste manifest requirements
of the Environmental Protection Agency specified in 40 CFR, Part 262 or would be subject
to these requirements in the absence of an interim authorization to a State under 40 CFR Part
123, Subpart F.
Incident - The release or potential release of a hazardous substance or material into the
environment.
Incident Characterization - The process of identifying the substance(s) involved in an
incident, determining exposure pathways and projecting the effect it will have on people,
property, wildlife and plants, and the disruption of services.
Incident Evaluation - The process of assessing the impact released or potentially released
substances pose to public health and the environment.
Information - Knowledge acquired concerning the conditions or circumstances particular to
an incident.
Inspection - Same as investigation.
Intelligence - Information obtained from existing records or documentation, placards, labels,
signs, special configuration of containers, visual observations, technical records, eye
witnesses, and others.
Investigation - On-site and off-site survey(s) conducted to provide a qualitative and
quantitative assessment of hazards associated with a site.
Limited Quantity - With the exception of Poison B materials, the maximum amount of a
hazardous material for which there is a specific labeling and packaging exception.
Melting Point - The temperature at which a solid changes to a liquid.
Mitigation - Actions taken to prevent or reduce the severity of threats to human health and
the environment.
Monitoring - The process of sampling and measuring certain environmental parameters on
a real-time basis for spatial and time variations. For example, air monitoring may be
conducted with direct-reading instruments to indicate relative changes in air contaminant
concentrations at various times.
National Contingency Plan - Policies and procedures that the Federal Government follows
in implementing responses to hazardous substances.
Off-Site - Presence outside of the work site .
On-Site - Presence within the boundaries of the work site.
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GLOSSARY
Pathways of Dispersion - The environmental medium (water, groundwater, soil, and air)
through which a chemical is transported.
Persistent Chemicals - A substance which resists biodegradation and/or chemical
transformation when released into the environment and tends to accumulate on land, in air,
in water, or in organic matter.
Planned Removal (Non-Time-Critical Removal) - The removal of released hazardous
substances that pose a threat or potential threat to human health or welfare or to the
environment from a site within a non-immediate time period. Under CERCLA: Actions
intended to minimize increases in exposure such that time and cost commitments are limited
to 12 months and/or two million dollars. (See also Emergency Removal)
Pollutant - A substance or mixture which after release into the environment and upon
exposure to any organism will or may reasonably be anticipated to cause adverse effects in
such organisms or their offspring.
Pollutant Transport - An array of mechanisms by which a substance may migrate outside the
immediate location of the release or discharge of the substance. For example, pollution of
groundwater by hazardous waste leachate migrating from a landfill.
Published Exposure Level - The exposure limits published by NIOSH Recommendations for
Occupational Health Standards (1986).
Qualified Individual - A person who through education, experience, or professional
accreditation is competent to make judgements concerning a particular subject matter. A
Certified Industrial Hygienist may be a qualified individual for preparing a site safety plan.
Regulated Material - A substance or material that is subject to regulations set forth by the
Environmental Protection Agency, the Department of Transportation, or any other federal
agency.
Release - Any spilling, leaking, pumping, pouring, emitting, emptying, discharging,
injecting, escaping, leaching, dumping, or disposing of hazardous substances into the
environment.
Remedial Actions - As in the National Contingency Plan, responses to releases on a National
Priority List that are consistent with treatment-oriented remedy that is protective of human
health and the environment and that permanently and significantly reduces toxicity, mobility,
or volume of hazardous substances.
Removal Actions - Any appropriate actions(s) taken to abate, minimize, stabilize, mitigate,
or eliminate the release or threat of release that poses a threat to human health or welfare or
to the environment. As set forth in the National Contingency Plan, these actions shall be
terminated after $2 million has been obligated or 12 months have elapsed from the date of
initial response.
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GLOSSARY
Reportable Quantity - As set forth in the Clean Water Act, the minimum amount (pounds or
kilograms) of a hazardous substance that may be discharged in a 24 hour period that requires
notification of the appropriate government agency.
Response Actions - Actions taken to recognize, evaluate, and control an incident.
Response Operations - Same as Response Actions.
Risk - The probability that harm will occur.
Risk Assessment - The use of factual base to define the health effects of exposure of
individuals or populations to hazardous materials and situations.
Risk Management - The process of weighing policy alternatives and selecting the most
appropriate regulatory action integrating the results of risk assessment with engineering data
and with social and economic concerns to reach a decision.
Routes of Exposure - The manner in which a contaminant enters the body through inhalation,
ingestion, skin absorption, and injection.
Safety - Freedom from man, equipment, material, and environmental interactions that result
in injury or illness.
Sampling - The collection of representative portion of the universe. Example: the collection
of a water sample from a contaminated stream.
Severe - A relative term used to describe the degree to which hazardous material releases can
cause adverse effects to human health and the environment.
Site - Location.
Site Safety Plan - Written, site-specific safety criteria that establishes requirements for
protecting the health and safety of responders during all activities conducted at an incident.
Solubility - The tendency to dissolve in water.
Specific Gravity (SpG) - The ratio of the density of a substance, at a given temperature, to
the density of water at the temperature of its maximum density of 4°C.
Toxicity - The ability of a substance to produce injury once it reaches a susceptible site in
or on the body.
Toxicology - The study of the interactions between chemical agents and biological
systems.
Vapor Pressure - The pressure exerted by a vapor against the sides of a closed container.
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GLOSSARY
Work Plan - Written directives that specifically describe all work activities that are to take
place at a work site.
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