EPA/600/R-99/088
June 1999
Annotated Bibliography Developed for the Graduate Level
Introductory CIS Classes Taught at EPA
National Center for Environmental Assessment-W
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, DC
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DISCLAIMER
This document has been reviewed in accordance with U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency policy and approved for publication. Mention of trade names or commercial products
does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
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PREFACE
From September 1996 to December 1997, EPA's National Center for Environmental
Assessment (NCEA) worked with George Mason University to present a semester long, graduate
level class on "Introduction to Geographic Information Systems (GIS)" that was taught at EPA.
The class was offered four times during this period and 100 EPA staff members took the class.
Students taking the class for credit were required to submit an annotated bibliography covering
various aspects of GIS. This document represents a compilation of the bibliographies submitted
by the students. The abstracts are presented in alphabetical order, by author, and have only been
edited for style, not content. References that were cited by more than one student will appear as
duplicates in this document. Each duplicate contains a different student's abstract. The document
is in Word Perfect 8.0 and can be searched by key words by going into the "Edit" menu and using
the "find and replace" function. We are in the process of converting this document into a format
compatible with Reference Manager so that it can be searched more easily. When this task is
completed, we will put the revised version on the Internet.
Although this document does not represent an exhaustive literature search on the field of
GIS, it does provide an excellent resource on a very broad range of topics including GIS used to
study environmental impacts on land, water and air; GIS used in epidemiology studies; GIS used
to study environmental justice; and GIS used to study changes in natural resources. Many
references also cover issues concerning the set up of GIS systems and the collection and use of
data from remote sensing and aerial photography for GIS studies. Approximately 510 different
articles have been cited.
Unfortunately, NCEA does not have the resources needed to update and maintain this
bibliography in a systematic manner. If you are interested in obtaining more recent references,
you should conduct a literature search on GIS and GIS in combination with other topics of
interest, such as air pollution and environmental justice. You also may want to select key words
from this bibliography to use in your search. In an effort to provide the EPA GIS user community
with useful information, NCEA will periodically post GIS-related references and other
information to our web page. So stop by and visit our web site (http://www.epa.gov/ncea) and
see what's new!
in
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Project Manager
Sue Perlin (National Center for Environmental Assessment/ORD)
Contributors
Elizabeth Anderson (Pollution Prevention Div., Office of Pollution, Prevention and Toxics)
Roger Anzzolin (Implementation & Assistance Div./ Office of Groundwater and Drinking Water)
Nancy Birnbaum (Office of Reinvention)
Bryan Bloomer (Office of Atmospheric Programs, Acid Rain Div./Office of Air & Radiation)
Megan Carroll (Office of Pollution Prevention & Toxics/OPPTS)
Paul Cocca (Office of Science & Technology/ Office of Water)
Donna Deneen (Office of Atmospheric Programs, Acid Rain Div./Office of Air & Radiation)
Judith Kahl (Water Enforcement Div./ Office of Regulatory Enforcement)
Jennifer Kramer (Office of Atmospheric Programs, Acid Rain Div./Office of Air & Radiation)
Elliot Lieberman (Office of Atmospheric Programs/Office of Air & Radiation)
Elizabeth Lonoff (Office of Mobile Sources/ Office of Air and Radiation)
Joseph Mauro (no longer with EPA)
Patricia Murray (Office of Pollution Prevention & Toxics/OPPTS)
AnnettNold (Office of Pollution Prevention & Toxics/OPPTS)
Douglas Norton (Office of Wetlands, Oceans & Watersheds/Office of Water)
Susan Norton (National Center for Environmental Assessment/ORD)
Carolyn Offutt (Office of Emergency & Remedial Response/OSWER)
Susan Perlin (National Center for Environmental Assessment/ORD)
Vic Serveiss (National Center for Environmental Assessment/ORD)
Candace Stoughton (no longer with EPA)
John Sullivan Office of Reinvention/Office of the Administrator)
Claudia Walters (Office of Science Policy/ Office of Research & Development)
James Wolf (Environmental Fate & Effects Div./Office of Pesticide Programs)
Jennifer Wu (Office of Ground Water & Drinking Water/Office of Water)
Terri Konoza, document production support (National Center for Environmental
Assessment/ORD)
Joanna Taylor, Editor (The CDM Group, Inc.)
IV
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Albert, DP; Gesler, WM; Wittie, PS. 1995.
Geographic information systems and health: an educational resource.
JGeogr 94:350-356.
This article is an excellent resource for background information on GIS and its
applications. The authors state that the "article is intended as a bibliographic resource for
university geography teachers and students." The article is presented in sections dealing with the
definition of GIS, the use of GIS in medical studies, and studies that are further broken down into
four categories: (1) advocate the use of GIS, (2) present cautionary literature, (3) present
preliminary investigations, and (4) actual applications. The section on preliminary investigations
of GIS was particularly interesting because of the two studies that were presented—one dealt
with lead (Pb) exposure and poisoning and the other discussed "using GIS to assess reproductive
outcomes in an area surrounding hazardous waste sites." The authors raised a point that is
relevant to Dr. Wheeler's GECA 553 (EPA) course, specifically the required reading text. The
authors note that Aronoff s text provides examples of GIS applications, but that "there are no
examples that highlight applications of GIS to spatial aspects of health and disease." Applications
that are relevant to the spatial aspects of public health might be of great interest to the class
members. This article is a useful resource to point interested parties to those types of journal
articles.
Albertson, PE; Bourne, SG; Hennington, GW. 1992.
An integrated groundwater and land-use GIS for impact assessment.
Photogrammetric EngRemote Sensing 58(8): 1203-1207.
The authors demonstrate the use of GIS to evaluate the effects of navigational pools on
ground-water conditions and assess any actual postproject land-use impacts. The study was
conducted around Alexandria, Louisiana, along the Red River, where the Corps of Engineers was
building five locks and dams. The resulting navigational pools were expected to cause higher
stages in the river during low- and medium-flow periods. Alexandria, the largest urban area
adjacent to pool #2, was selected for study to evaluate the changes in ground-water levels and
impacts to land use that have occurred since the rise of water in this pool. GIS was selected to
demonstrate how this technology could store, access, analyze, and portray the vast amount of
preproject, predictive, and actual postproject data. The input data included digitized values
derived from ground surface elevation data and preconstruction potentiometric maps, as well as
land-use maps identifying all land-cover classes, with particular emphasis on how specific crops
were impacted by changing ground-water levels. They also used data water levels for each crop
that would either reduce or increase crop yield. Postproject land use was derived from
LANDSAT Thematic Mapper—digital data. The authors described how they processed the TM
data to produce classified land-use maps. The authors also used Triangulated Irregular Network
(TIN) to generate contour maps of surface elevation and water level. Preproject water elevation
was compared with topography, and then the procedure was repeated for predicted postproject
conditions. The two outputs were compared to determine how wet conditions will increase based
on USGS model predictions. Comparison with actual postproject data indicated that in reality the
real impacts were less than predicted. The authors concluded that GIS was a valuable tool for
evaluation of ground-water impacts.
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Al-Garni, AM. 1996.
A system with predictive least-squares mathematical models for monitoring wildlife conservation
sites using GIS and remotely-sensed data.
IntJRemote Sensing 17(13):2479-2503.
The author developed a GIS-based system that can use remotely sensed Thematic Mapper
(TM) data to monitor conservation areas. The GIS had 12 thematic layers important for wildlife
conservation. Only the results of the vegetation analysis are discussed in this paper. It had four
modules: an input module, a static GIS module, a data manipulation module, and an output
module. Data preparation took about 3 months. Although it is difficult to tell from this article, it
appears the author used TM data to update information that was already in the GIS. The author
corrected the TM data for partial coverage and ground-truthed them using reference maps. The
system was used to examine time trends in the vegetation cover.
Anderson, JR; Hardy, EE; Roach, JT; Witmer, RE. 1976.
A land use and land cover classification system for use with remote sensor data.
Geological Survey Professional Paper 964, U.S. Government Printing Office.
This article describes a basic land-use and land-cover classification scheme for the nation
that uses nine separate categories.
Anonymous. 1997.
Exploit the web with geomedia web map, 1997.
Global Link/Intergraph, Winter 1996, 2:8-9.
GeoMedia Web Map provides smart, vector-based maps in active CGM format for
creating dynamic maps and data on the World Wide Web.
Anthes, GH; Blodgett, M. 1996.
States eye online revenues: debate rages over who can see what for how much.
Computerworld 30(34): 26(1).
Cash-strapped state and local governments are struggling to move vast databases to online
access and facing the question of whether to charge fees for the information. The city of Phoenix
charges commercial users of its $8 million GIS full commercial rates ranging from $25 for one
map to $36,000 for the entire database. Los Angeles has a controversial plan to sell electronic
access to court records to commercial information resellers. The Information Industry
Association and other critics say public information should be free or priced to cover incremental
cost of delivery rather than sold at a profit. Most state governments offer access to numerous
databases at little or no charge. One major concern is individual privacy; privacy advocates worry
about the rush to make motor vehicle, real estate, and court records available to anyone with an
internet account. States are beginning to consider restrictions on who can access sensitive
information. This article includes related articles on methodologies and privacy issues.
Aral, MM; Maslia, ML; Ulirsch, GV; Reyes, JJ. 1996.
Estimating exposure to volatile organic compounds from municipal water-supply systems: use of
a better computational model.
Arch Environ Health 51(4):300-309.
The authors review the use of certain tools to "evaluate exposure of populations via
water-distribution systems." Specifically, the tools are a GIS along with census information and
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spatial environmental analysis techniques. The study area was in Southington, Connecticut, at the
Solvents Recovery Services of New England site. The contents of the article were largely beyond
the understanding of this student. The article was useful as a learning resource to gain an
understanding of how GIS is applied and not so much as instruction in this specific application.
Aronoff, S. 1989.
Geographic information systems: a management perspective.
WDL Publications, P.O. Box 8457, Station T, Ottawa, Ontario K1G3H8, Canada.
Chapter topics: An introduction to geographic information systems [examples of GIS
applications]; What is a geographic information system? [components of a GIS, georeferenced
data, spatial data]; Remote sensing [steps to analyze remotely sensed data, energy sources and
radiation principles, sensor systems commonly used in rs]; Data input and output [data entry,
remotely sensed data, existing digital data] data output [hardcopy devices, softcopy devices];
Data quality [components of data quality, sources of error, accuracy issues]; Data management
[data base approach,three classic data models, components of geographic features, spatial data
models]; GIS analysis functions [GIS analysis, GIS functions, organizing geographic data for
analysis, classification of GIS analysis functions]; implementing a GIS; Conclusion.
Aronoff, S. 1995.
Geographic information systems: a management approach.
WDL publications, P.O. Box 8457, Station T, Ottawa, Ontario K1G3H8, Canada
Topics covered: Examples of GIS application to a variety of problems with color plates
showing examples; What is a GIS, what is it made of (logical and specific), and why one would
want to use it; People must be responsible for setting objectives for which the technology and
techniques can be applied; Remote sensing key input to GIS; Easy introduction into the physics of
remote sensing technology and sensor types; Discussion of satellite bandwidth available and uses
for each, including absorption spectrum (p. 67), lambda satellite (p. 77), lambda coastal zone, and
NOAA GOES (pp. 84, 85); Simplified discussion of microwave/radar remote sensing; Examples
of classical remotely sensed data; Data input/output, with sample discussion of input
techniques/technology and digital data available; Data management, with good (brief) discussion
of different types of data models and their strengths and weaknesses relative to GIS; Introduction
to basic nature of geographic data; Discussion of raster and vector data models; Extensive
discussion of various data encoding schemes for each data model; and Discussion of data model
integration and geographic data with tradeoffs of different approaches.
Aronoff, S; Ross, GA. 1982.
Detection of environmental disturbance using color areal photography in thermal infra-red
imagery.
Photogrammetric EngRemote Sensing 48(4):587-591.
Describes use of color infrared (CIR) imagery, thermal infrared (TIR) night imagery, and
color photography for detecting environmental disturbances. For example, siltation was detected
with normal color photos, vegetation quality and quantity with CIR, and oil-covered water with
TIR.
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Ashton, PJ; van Zyl, FC; Heath, RG. 1995.
Water quality management in the Crocodile River catchment, Eastern Transvaal, South Africa.
Water Sci Technol 32:201-208.
South Africa's Department of Water Affairs and Forestry has moved from effluent
standards to receiving water quality. The authors used a GIS (ARC/INFO) to integrate
information on catchment characteristics, including geology, soils, vegetation, climatic patterns,
population distribution, land use, and hydrological and water quality features. The system
allowed identification of sources of water quality problems and prediction of potential negative
water quality impacts. Particular problems have been seen associated with periods of low flow.
They used the system to calculate environmental capacity, defined as the ability of a river and its
users to tolerate elevated concentrations of specific water quality variables. An added advantage
was the used of the GIS for displaying information to all interested parties.
Augustine, JA; Woodley, WL; Scott, RW; Changnon, SA. 1992.
Using geosynchronous satellite imagery to estimate summer-season rainfall over the Great Lakes.
J Great Lakes Res 20(4):683-700.
The quality of Great Lakes hydrologic monitoring and forecasting depends on how
accurately components of the water cycle are estimated. Precipitation is the most important
factor, but there is no way to directly measure the rain that falls over the lakes. This is a serious
problem because the water area represents one-third of the drainage basin. Here, satellite-based
rain estimates were combined with rain gauge measurements to estimate summer lake rainfall.
Hourly estimates were made from GOES imagery for the summers of 1988, 1989, and 1990, and
accumulated monthly and over summer seasons. Area-averaged gauge-measured rainfall from
local rain gauge networks were used to adjust the satellite-based estimates. Resulting best
estimates of mean summer rainfall for Lakes Michigan, Superior, and Huron were 22.66, 23.83,
and 18.80 cm, respectively. These mean summer values were 1-5 percent different from those
computed using the shoreline-gauge technique, which is the current operational method for
estimating lake rainfall. Estimates for individual summers were 1-17 percent different from those
computed using shoreline gauges. Considering the gauge measurements as the standard, the mean
absolute error of monthly gauge-adjusted lake rainfall was 21 percent, whereas the mean monthly
error was only 2 percent. These results suggest that gauge-adjusted satellite estimates of rainfall
could provide a useful measure of summer lake rainfall that may improve input to Great Lakes
water balance and hydrologic prediction models. Other analyses were used to quantify the effects
of the lakes on summer rainfall. Generally, they revealed lake-induced rain minima over and
downwind of the lakes.
Bachman, W; Sarasua, W; Guensler, R. 1996.
Geographic information system framework for modeling mobile-source emissions.
Transportation Research Record, November, 1551:123-132.
The authors determined that a GIS would be well suited to modeling mobile-source
emission, because vehicle activities and their emissions can be correlated with specific points in
time and space. Emissions could be aggregated into grid cells for input to an airshed model and
improve understanding of emissions impacts. GIS displays and maps would improve
communication with decision makers and with the public. A prototype of such a system was
developed at Georgia Institute of Technology.
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Backman, L. 1993.
Computer-aided liability.
Civil Eng63(6):41-43.
The article discussed liability from the point of view of structural engineering. The article
has points that apply to all aspects of computer usage, including GIS. Several examples are
presented in which an engineer was held liable for faults created by defects in the software used.
The author questions whether the software developer should share liability. The author points out
that the design engineers, who are ultimately responsible, should take steps to ensure accurate use
of the software and should always question the results of any analysis based on their past
experiences.
Bagheri, S; Dios, RA. 1990.
Chlorophyll-a estimation in New Jersey's coastal waters using Thematic Mapper data.
Int J Remote Sensing 11(2): 289-299.
Eutrophication, or enrichment, of the natural water in New Jersey's coastal waters has an
adverse impact on the economic welfare of the state. Since shipboard sampling is not cost-
effective for providing data on coastal/estuarine water processes and materials, satellite remote
sensing, with is synoptic and repetitive coverage, is used to obtain some of the data for
eutrophication-related water quality analysis. For the purpose of this study, existing LANDS AT-5
Thematic Mapper digital data, acquired on 1 September 1985, along with the sea truth
observations, were obtained for quantitative analysis via GIS. The goal was to establish a
correlation between total plankton content and remote sensing signals indicating the relative
degree of eutrophy and productivity in New Jersey's coastal waters.
Bagheri, S; Stein, M; Zetlin, C. 1995.
Utility of airborne imaging spectroscopy and videography in nearshore waters.
Proceedings, 2nd Annual Marine and Estuarine Shallow Water Science and Management
Conference,Atlantic City, NJ, April 3-7. U.S. EPA, Philadelphia, PA, p. 56.
The study investigates the utility of the Airborne Geophysical Environmental Research
(GER) Imaging Spectrometer and XYbion MSC-02 multispectral video camera in hydrological
feature extractions in nearshore waters. The test site is the New Jersey estuarine and coastal
waters, where the multiplatform and multitemporal remotely sensed data have been investigated
with the goal of developing a cost-effective operational monitoring system. Estuarine/nearshore
waters are very complex, dynamic, and productive bodies of water. Their complexity makes them
spatially and temporally heterogeneous. The spectral characterization of these waters is mainly
produced by the organic (e.g., phytoplankton pigments), inorganic (suspended sediments) and
dissolved organic matter (DOM). The airborne systems used here provide spectral coverage from
0.4 to 1.1 |im (GER spectral coverage is 0.4-2.5 mm), which is the only electromagnetic spectral
range in which signals from hydrological volume are originated (i.e., originating below the surface
and thus directly from the water column). Multisensor remote sensing with narrow bandwidth
characteristics provides an important tool for monitoring, mapping, and management of the
nearshore environment. Hydrologic optical measurements and theory have both confirmed that
spectrometers should dramatically improve the ability to identify and measure important water
quality parameters. Present work is focused on the evaluation of airborne sensors (GER and
MSC-02) to improve both qualitative and quantitative assessments of water quality conditions.
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Such developmental use will greatly aid the forthcoming transition to the next generation of
spaceborne systems for nearshore ecosystem monitoring and management.
Baker, V. 1996.
The geological approach to understanding the environment.
GSA Today 6(3): 41-43.
This article discusses the complementary nature of geology and mathematics and physics,
as well as applications to environmental problems such as the U.S. Global Change Research
program.
Baker, CP; Panciera, EC. 1990.
A geographic information system for groundwater protection planning.
JSoil Water Conserv 45(2):246-248.
The drinking water of Rhode Island is heavily reliant on ground-water, and a GIS
approach to managing its protection and monitoring was developed. Several uses were already
demonstrated. The GIS was used extensively to provide information to local and state officials.
Hazardous waste programs allowed for GIS to incorporate contaminant locations and risks with
other data. The GIS was also used to classify four types of ground-water resources to assist in
priorities and strategies for management. Aquifer extent, community wellheads, urban land-use
patterns, and nonpoint source concentration areas were of special significance in developing these
four classes and subsequently making management decisions. An additional advantage of the GIS
was that it provided a medium for communication and data sharing among state, local
government, and university research cooperators.
Baker, CP; Panciera, EC. 1990.
A geographic information system for groundwater protection planning.
JSoil Water Conserv 45(2):246-248.
This is a description of the Rhode Island GIS applications (RIGIS) and how they are used
in the planning and protection of ground-water resources.
Ball, WE; Hutt, ME. 1991.
Determination of three-dimensional coordinates for future land information systems.
GIS, Technical Papers, Vol. 4:1-10, ACSM-ASPRS Annual Convention, ACSM-ASPRS,
Bethesda, MD.
The authors advocate using a true physically based three-dimensional reference frame in
much of the Land Information System work. This sets out a logical case; it does not go into much
detail.
Balogh, ME; Fisher, LT; Bailey, A; Lunetta, RS. 1992.
Application of GPS and aircraft multispectral scanner data to a Puget Sound intertidal habitat
study.
Proceedings, SPIE International Society of Optical Engineering 1930(2), p. 695.
This project investigated the use of remote sensing technology to inventory nearshore
habitats of the Puget Sound area. The research was part of a comprehensive estuarine
management program administered by the U.S. EPA, and was a cooperative effort between the
EPA's Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory in Las Vegas, Nevada (EMSL-LV), EPA
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Region 10, The Washington State Department of Natural Resources, and the Puget Sound Water
Quality Authority. High-resolution, aircraft-borne multispectral scanner (MSS) data provided
optimal data resolution for classifying habitats of the nearshore zone in Puget Sound. Nearshore
habitats of Puget Sound, however, do not have natural or cultural features that can be used as
ground control to georeference MSS imagery. Therefore, MSS data acquisition included
simultaneous collection of Global Positioning System (GPS) data. GPS data collected during
MSS data acquisition provides accurate geopositional information at all times, and were used to
rectify MSS image data to Earth coordinates. MSS imagery and GPS data were collected over the
Commencement Bay area near Tacoma, Washington, in July 1991. Collection of field data also
involved the use of GPS. Field experts in marine and estuarine nearshore habitats visited
representative habitat types, recorded site positions with GPS, and characterized each site by
substrate type, vegetation, and orientation to Puget Sound. Field data were used to assist
identification of surface features visible on the MSS imagery and as data for conducting accuracy
assessments. Use of GPS technology during collection of field data ensured geopositional
accuracy of reference data for image analysis and verification data for assessing accuracy of MSS
classifications.
Barnes, S. 1996.
Abundant harvest: managing Willapa's renewable resources.
Geo Info Sys 6(2)15-21.
Willapa Bay, in the southwestern portion of Washington state, is considered by many to be
one of the cleanest estuaries in the continental United States. The Willapa ecosystem,
approximately the size of Rhode Island, includes an estuarine bay covering 88,000 acres and
600,000 acres of watershed. The bay provides abundant natural resources, including timber,
oysters, and fisheries, in addition to fertile soils. In 1992, local residents allied to find an effective
means of stewarding the natural resources on which their local economy depends. The Willapa
Alliance, formed to lead this effort, turned to GIS as a method to map and analyze the resources
within the watershed. Once the initial database was completed, it could be used for a variety of
applications. With the terrestrial data, the fisheries technical team is using a dataset to prepare a
salmon recovery plan. The Alliance is also monitoring the spread of non-native grasses and their
effect on native species. With the immense database in place, the data will certainly be used for
many more applications in the future.
Barnes, S. 1996.
Northwest flood '96: GIS in the face of disaster.
Geo Info Sys 6(4):22-25.
In February, the Pacific Northwest endured its worst flooding in decades. During the
disaster, agencies enlisted a variety of technologies to keep the public informed and to assess and
map infrastructure damage. GIS technology was used to assess road damage in order to
communicate the information to the public quickly. Public works crews assessed and mapped
bridge and road safety status. The data were downloaded to AutoCAD software and then rolled
into ARC/INFO. After overlaying the high water coverages on existing public works layers, the
GIS team quickly mapped the infrastructure damage and provided that information to the police
for road and bridge closure decisions and sign postings. These technologies are being used to
help assess the devastation and plan for millions of dollars in damage repair yet to come. The
region is also using SPOT satellite imagery to prepare a regional recovery plan, as well as using
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GIS to re-evaluate their 100-year flood plain, which may be revised to a 20-year flood plain. The
Oregon State Board of Forestry requested a study to determine why the flood caused so much
damage to roads, bridges, and culverts. The agency hopes the study will help it to understand the
effect of logging, road building, and other activities and to find constructive solutions to the
problem.
Barrett, EC; Curtis, LF. 1992.
Digital data handling.
Introduction to environmental remote sensing, 3rd ed., Chapter 9. Chapman and Hall, NY, NY
and London.
This contains helpful diagrams and pictures chosen from a number of papers. It ends with
a section on remote sensing and GIS.
Barton, G. 1997.
NOAA and the federal geographic data committee.
Earth SystMonitor 7(3): 1-14.
An Executive Order was passed by President Clinton requiring that federal agencies
participate in the National Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI). The Order encompasses policies,
standards, and procedures with which organizations are to cooperatively produce and share
geospatial data. The vision of the NSDI Strategy Document is: "Current and accurate geospatial
data will be readily available to contribute locally, nationally, and globally to economic growth,
environmental quality and stability, and social progress." Three major objectives were called for
(1) creation of a distributed electronic network of data producers and users, known as the
National Geospatial Data Clearinghouse; (2) development of standards for data documentation,
collection, and exchange; and (3) promotion of procedures and partnerships to create a national
digital geospatial data framework that would include important basic categories of data significant
to a broad variety of users. The Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) is the focal point
for NSDI activities and leadership with the other sectors. The FGDC has developed a metadata
standard for data descriptions and data transfer standard. The FGDC was awarded the National
Performance Review "Hammer" Award.
Bates, T. 1996.
Cluster illustrates need to update cancer registry.
Asbury Park Press, Neptune, NJ, March 17, page 1.
The article discusses the need to combine the State of New Jersey's cancer database with
a GIS in order to determine if and where clusters of cancer cases may occur within the state. The
New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection was reported to have been developing a GIS
that "maps environmental conditions and other land-use data" but the system had yet to be
combined with the cancer registry for further analysis. The article was of interest because it
provided a clear example of how public health goals and GIS technology can be linked.
Bates, T; McEnery, R. 1996.
Computer to begin crunching cancer data.
Asbury Park Press, Neptune, NJ, May 17, page 14.
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This article builds from the article reviewed immediately above. This article, published 2
months after the previous one, reported the news that the state of New Jersey would soon begin
the implementation phase of a project that would allow analysis of cancer data within a GIS.
Battaglin, WA; Goolsby, DA. 1996.
Using GIS and logistic regression to estimate agricultural chemical concentrations in rivers of the
midwestern USA.
Proceedings, HydroGIS '96: Application of Geographic Information Systems in Hydrology and
Water Resources Management, April,Vienna, Austria. I AHS Pub. no. 235, pp. 253-260.
The authors used logistic regression models to investigate empirical relationships between
various drainage basin variables and the concentration of selected agricultural chemicals (alachlor,
atrazine, cyanazine, metolochlor, nitrate) in 134 midwestern watersheds. GIS was used to
manage and display information on county-level estimates of landuse, chemical use, crop acreage,
livestock basin area, population density, hydrological soil variables, runoff, and hydrological
parameters. In most cases, variables were normalized by dividing by basin area. The overall
accuracy of the logistic regression models averaged about 66 percent. Results demonstrated a
strong association between the concentration of selected chemicals in rivers and the amount of
these chemicals used within associated drainage basins. Models that used crop land estimates
worked nearly as well as the agricultural chemical use estimates which are harder to come by.
Soil parameters were significant in most models. Pig density and basin topography also
contributed predictive power.
Bauer, K. 1996.
Creating integrated rural resource land information systems.
JSoil Water Conserv 51(l):29-33.
In 1983, the National Resource Council proposed procedures and standards for design and
implementation of land-related data systems. A multipurpose land information system is an
integrated, land-related data bank of continuous, easily available, and comprehensive information
for land-related resource management. The Natural Resources Conservation Service is
developing a Computer-Assisted Management and Planning System (CAMPS). With local land
information systems, CAMPS can provide maps, tabular data, and land-related records as a
multipurpose, land-related information database.
Bazzani, M; Cecchi, G; Pantani, L; Tirelli, D; Alberotanza, L. 1995.
Venice Lagoon monitoring by a fluorescence lidar.
Proceedings, 1995 International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Part 3, pp.
1735-1737.
The Venice Lagoon is a particular environment where a coastal lagoon hosts the Venice
town, industries, and a large traffic harbor. Tidal movements provide the main water exchange
between the lagoon and the open sea. In this situation, continuous monitoring of the water quality
is necessary to control pollution phenomena, which sometimes reach dramatic levels, for example,
sudden algae blooms. A fluorescence lidar was installed aboard a lagoon-boat, to perform remote
fluorescence measurements together with traditional monitoring and in situ sampling all through
the Venice Lagoon. In addition, continuous monitoring at a fixed station in the central part of the
Venice town (Canal Grande) was carried out during a tidal phase. Water turbidity, dissolved
organic matter, and pigment content were inferred from the lidar spectra. Turbidity was compared
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with in situ measurements, showing a good agreement. The last part of the experiment deals with
the airborne lidar monitoring of this particular site, during which significant results have been
obtained.
Belton, W. 1995.
The mapping program at the U.S. Forest Service Geometronics Service Center.
Cartography and GIS 22(2): 135-139.
In managing the national forests to support sustained, multiple-use activities, the U.S.
Forest Service (USFS) must consider the often divergent needs of wildlife, fisheries, and outdoor
recreation, as well as timber, mining, and grazing concerns. By emphasizing an ecosystem
management approach, the USFS is planning to incorporate all uses of forest lands into the
planning process, which will expand the area of interest to include adjacent federal, state, and
private lands. Accurate, current maps and digital spatial data are essential for effective
management. Land managers are now relying more on GISs to address these issues and to
support their decisionmaking processes. There is an increased demand for digital data, primarily
for base cartographic data to which thematic resource data can be registered. New environmental
concerns, the emphasis on an ecosystem approach, and the introduction of GIS throughout the
USFS will increase the need for quality digital and spatial data. The Geometronics Service Center
(GSC) is responsible for producing the base maps to meet this requirement. The GSC will
continue to develop modernized production processes to meet customer needs, maximize
production, and reduce duplication.
Bergen, SD; Fridley, JL; Ganter, MA; Schiess, P. 1995.
Predicting the visual effects of forest operations.
JForestry 93(2):33-37.
As a case study, the state of Washington Department of Natural Resources (DNR),
performed a viewshed analysis on a tract of forested land scheduled for harvesting. The DNR
used a GIS to identify areas at risk of visual degradation from harvest activities proposed in an
actual management plan. ARC/INFO 6.1.1 was used with the Digital Terrain Model (DEM) to
establish elevation and grid coordinates. Results of the study indicate that viewshed analysis is
relatively easy to perform and uses reasonably available technology and data. Field verification is
also encouraged.
Bevis, M; Bock, Y; Fang, P; Reilinger, R; Herring, T; Stowell, J; Smalley, Jr., R. 1997.
Blending old and new approaches to regional GPS geodesy.
EOS 78(6):61-66.
This article discusses the use of high precision global positioning system (GPS) geodesy,
and, in particular, the Multimodal Occupation Strategy (MOST), to construct regional GPS
networks by the continuous and campaign approaches.
Beyers, N; Gie, RP; Zietsman, HL; Kunneke, M; Hauman, J; Tatley, M; Donald, PR. 1996.
Epidemiology: the use of a geographical information system (GIS) to evaluate the distribution of
tuberculosis in a high-incidence community.
TB Weekly, 11 March, ISSN: 1065-982X.
The article reported on the author's abstract for the study "Epidemiology: The Use of a
Geographical Information System (GIS) to Evaluate the Distribution of Tuberculosis in a High-
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Incidence Community." The study setting was two suburbs in the Western Cape portion of South
Africa. The study mapped the incidence of tuberculosis down to individual residences using a
GIS and the National Population Census for 1991, along with the health data. The conclusion
states: "In a small area with a high incidence of tuberculosis, the cases are spread unevenly
through the community and there are certain houses where tuberculosis occurs repeatedly. This
information should be used to direct health services to concentrate on certain high-risk areas."
This article was of interest because it gave an example in which GIS could be used to help
establish an outreach strategy for targeting a population at risk.
Biagi, B; Pozzana, G. 1994.
A GIS-based information system for the assessment of the variations in the environment load,
owed to changes in socio-economic factors.
European Geographic Information Sytem, Proceedings, EGIS '94, March, Paris, France.
Utrecht, Nether lands: EGIS Foundation, pp. 642-651.
The concept for using a GIS to develop a decision support system is presented. This
application would use mathematical models to identify changes in the quality and quantity of the
flows of resources and pollution between the socioeconomic and environmental systems.
Environmental loads could be located and compared with Italian laws.
Bian, L. 1997.
Multiscale nature of spatial data in scaling up environmental models.
In: Quattrochi, DA; Goodchild,, ME, eds. Scale in remote sensing and GIS.
Boca Raton, FL:CRC Press, pp. 13-26.
This article looks at the effects of "scaling up" (data aggregation) on modeling and shows
how semivariant fractal analysis can assist in forecasting the appropriate extent of scaling up
appropriate to a particular model. Four connotations of scale are discussed: (a) cartographic (or
map) scale-larger scale produces more detail; (b) geographic scale (extent, domain)-spatial
extent of study area; (c) resolution (grain; related concept: sampling intervals)'-size of the
smallest distinguishable part of a spatial data set; smaller units are of finer scale, larger units of
coarser scale; and (d) operational scale-scale at which a phenomenon operates, e.g., a forest
operates at a larger scale than does a tree.
Bingner, RL. 1996.
Runoff simulated from Goodwin Creek Watershed using SWAT.
Trans Am Soc Agric Eng 39(1):85(6).
The GRASS GIS was used to develop input parameters in applying the deterministic Soil
and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) simulation model to the Goodwin Creek Watershed in
northern Mississippi. Fourteen nested subbasins are simulated independently and daily, and
annual runoff trends are predicted.
Blersch, D. 1997.
The national polar-orbiting operational environmental satellite system (NPOESS).
Earth Syst Monitor 7(3):5-16.
For the first time, the U.S. government is taking an integrated approach to identify and
meet the operational satellite needs of both the civil and national security communities. Military
and civil operational meteorological satellite systems will merge into a single national system. It is
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expected to provide more than $450 million in savings through 2003. NOAA, DOD, and NASA
created an Integrated Program Office to develop, manage, acquire, and operate the National Polar
Orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS). NPOESS will provide standard
meteorological data and oceanographic, environmental, climatic, and environmental remote
sensing information, as well as continue to provide surface data collection and search and rescue
capability.
Bliss, NB; Reybold, WU. 1989.
Small-scale digital soil maps for interpreting natural resources.
J Soil Water Conserv 44:30-34.
This paper describes a pilot study (Chesapeake Bay watershed) that was conducted by the
USGS and SCS to investigate how data can be used in a GIS and to explore potential mechanisms
for archiving and distributing the data. The authors present a fairly detailed description of the
process they used to link soil attributes to soil maps. This paper is useful to help design studies
using GIS methods.
Bohard, E; Bohard, J. 1995.
Defining rural and resource lands in a rapidly urbanizing county.
Urban and Regional Information Systems Association, Proceedings, URISA 95, San Antonio,
TX, July 16-20, 1:744-753.
This project used a GIS to identify and categorize land uses. This study of viable rural and
resource lands arose from Washington's growth management legislation. It supports my
conclusion from reading the following article that there are many opportunities for sharing GIS
natural resources data.
Borstad, G. 1992.
Ecosystem surveillance and monitoring with a portable airborne imaging spectrometer system.
Proceedings, SPIE International Society of Optical Engineering 1930(2), pp. 883-892.
The paper describes a portable and extremely flexible airborne remote sensing system that
allows rapid analysis in the field and ability to interact effectively with ecologists. Operating with
local pilots and small unspecialized aircraft, the system fills the gap between satellite imagery and
air photography. The central instrument of the system, a Compact Airborne Spectrographic
Imager (CASI), can be used as a 288-band spectrometer for algorithm development, and as a
multispectral imager to provide any 15 visible and near infrared spectral bands with spatial
resolution down to 2 m or less. Other auxiliary sensors, such as thermal radiometers, can also be
recorded simultaneously on an auxiliary 386 computer. GIS-compatible data are available within
a few hours. The instrument package and processing facilities can be mobilized within 48 hours
for use anywhere in the world. Because of its high spatial resolution and the ability to either fly
under cloud or in weather-windows, the system has many uses in monitoring and mapping of
coastal zones. Users can quickly reconfigure the spectral bands to optimize measurement and
delineation of targets having different spectral signatures. In post-flight image processing, the
analyst uses algebraic operators, color ratios, and multispectral classification to quantitatively map
environmental parameters such as water quality (suspended sediments, phytoplankton chlorophyll-
a, oil slicks, and effluent plumes), near-surface fish schools, and many types of vegetation in
subtidal and intertidal areas, as well as in estuaries and wetlands.
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Bostater, C. 1992.
Remote sensing methods using aircraft and ships for estimating optimal bands & coefficients
related to ecosystem responses.
Proceedings, SPIE International Society of Optical Engineering 1930(2), pp. 1051-1062.
A solid state spectrograph has been used to obtain reflectance signatures for assessing
ecosystem responses to changes in environmental quality. The methods use signatures to
distinguish submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV), coral species and condition states (dead vs.
live), and biochemical parameters such as chlorophyll-a and total suspended matter (seston).
Examples are provided from various ecosystems and water types (CASE I ocean, CASE II
coastal). Optimal bands for assessing seston are described in detail. The optimal region for seston
appears to be centered where solar induced fluorescence (SIF) occurs based on SAV's, specific
coral types, and high chlorophyll-a waters. Estimation of chlorophyll therefore necessitates
normalizing the chlorophyll signal to the seston signal when this region is used to estimate
chlorophyll-a when bands in the SIF region are used to estimate chlorophyll-a. Application of
shipborne and airborne spectroscopy is a valuable tool for monitoring ecosystem changes related
to global change issues and for calibration of algorithms from satellite data.
Bottcher, DB; Hiscock, JG. 1996.
GIS watershed assessment model for Suwannee River Basin.
Proceedings, Watersheds 96 -Moving Ahead Together: Technical Conference and Exposition,
June 8-12, Baltimore, MD.
The overall objective of the GIS watershed assessment project is to identify and develop
specific criteria and assessment algorithms that reflect the relative impacts of land use, soils,
hydrography, and wetlands on the discharge water quality, wetlands value, and flooding impacts.
Two methods were developed for this project. The first provides spatial assessment using impact
indices, and the second utilizes hydrologic and contaminant transport modeling. The method used
depends on the parameter of interest. The indexing approach is used for assessment parameters
(BOD, coliform bacteria, and toxins) that are hard to quantify or are not directly associated with
pollutant transport, while the modeling approach addresses the major pollutants of sediment and
nutrients.
Bourgeois, PE; Robb, SC; Summers, JK; Macauley, JM. 1997.
EMAP's estuary program: interagency efforts to develop master database.
Geo Info Sys 7(2): 14-18.
Through an interagency agreement between the U.S. EPA and U.S. National Biological
Service, GIS technologies are used to support the Environmental Monitoring and Assessment
Program (EMAP)-Estuaries program within the Louisiana Province. GIS technology is used to
help illustrate the locations and sizes of estuaries, boundaries of the estuarine drainage areas, and
locations of sampling stations during a 4-year period (1991-1994). USGS 1:100,000 digital line
graph (DLG) hydrology data layer maps and NOAA coastal charts contributed to the estuary base
map.
Bowen, WM; Sailing, MJ; Kingsley, EH; Cyran, EJ. 1995.
Toward environmental justice: spatial equity in Ohio and Cleveland.
Ann Assoc Am Geographers 85(4): 641-663.
The authors examine the spatial association between race, several measures of income,
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and toxic emissions from TRI facilities in both Ohio and Cuyahoga County. For the Ohio
analysis, the unit of analysis was the county. The census tract was the unit of analysis for
Cuyahoga County, which was selected for study because it is Ohio's most industrial, urban, and
populous county. They evaluate both the total poundage and an aggregated measure of the
toxicity of TRI releases to various media and offsite. It is difficult to tell if they have used GIS in
this analysis, because they do not specifically say they do. However, they discuss establishing the
typology of TRI-site census tracts, and they provide several choropleth maps showing countywide
TRI emissions as well as tract percentages of minorities overlaid with TRI release types (i.e., to
air, land, water). They also provide choropleth maps showing total releases and toxicity of
releases by census tract, overlaid with railroad tracks, in Cuyahoga County. (Well, if they didn't
use GIS, they should have!) The authors concluded that their results provide little evidence of
inequities based on TRI emissions and minority populations. When evaluating spatial associations
at the state level, they found statistically significant correlations between minority densities and
toxic release amounts, which they attribute to the confounding fact that industries, minority
populations, and toxic releases tend to concentrate in urban areas. They caution that results at
this level of aggregation (i.e., county level) could be misleading and therefore should not be used
for environmental equity analyses. The part of the analysis that used census tract data for
Cuyahoga County actually showed that minority density was inversely correlated to toxic
chemical releases, and the TRI's were more likely to be located in poorer tracts than in minority-
dominated tracts. The authors feel that use of census tracts is more appropriate for environmental
equity analyses.
Brewer, CA; MacEachren, AM; Pickle, LW; Herrmann, D. 1997.
Mapping mortality: evaluating color schemes for choropleth maps.
Ann Assoc Am Geographers 87(3):411-438.
Criteria are described and evaluated for selecting colors for choropleth maps of mortality
data. Results of this study indicate that emphasis on color in mapmaking is worth the effort,
because it allows greater accuracy in map reading. The authors found that spectral schemes were
effective if designed to include diverging lightness steps suited to the logical structure of the
mapped data. The authors' goal was to develop a set of color schemes that would allow users
with col or-vision impairments to interpret maps accurately. (The color version of this article is
more useful than the black-and-white.)
Brown, DG; Walsh, SJ. 1991.
Compatibility of non-synchronous in-situ water quality data and remotely-sensed spectral
information for assessing lake turbidity levels in complex and inaccessible terrain.
GeoCartoInt6(2):5-12.
Multiple regression modeling was used to estimate lake turbidity levels in Glacier National
Park, Montana, USA, using LANDSAT Thematic Mapper digital data and nonsynchronous in situ
turbidity data. Variations in model form and components were investigated to exploit
spectral/biophysical relationships described in the literature and to accommodate local site and
situation conditions. Because of limitations inherent in using nonsynchronous in situ and remote
sensing data in GIS, the derived models explained lower levels of turbidity variance compared
with models developed for other studies in other environments. Unique local conditions
contributed to the model performance. Nonparametric tests of correlation and significance were
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used because of these inherent limitations. Lake turbidity rankings secured through various GIS-
linked models were relatively insensitive to changes in model form.
Brown, S; Schreier, H; Thompson, W; Vertinsky, I. 1994.
Linking multiple accounts with GIS as decision support system to resolve forestry/wildlife
conflicts.
J Environ Manage 42(4):346-364.
This paper discusses the effectiveness of combining habitat suitability maps with operable
forest maps of the zone between two national parks in British Columbia. The degree of
wildlife/logging conflicts in the region is established through the use of GIS, combined with
multiple accounts methods and resource databases, in assessing alternative management scenarios
pertaining to forest resources. The sensitivity analysis in British Columbia helped to identify areas
with rich timber resources, thereby helping to establish economic usefulness by comparing
different harvesting scenarios with various wildlife constraints.
Brown, S; Schreier, H; Thompson, WA; Vertinsky, I. 1994.
Linking multiple accounts with GIS as decision support system to resolve forestry/wildlife
conflicts.
J Environ Manage 42(4):349(16).
The Terrasoft GIS, with additionally incorporated topography, hydrology, forest
inventory, and road network information, was used to evaluate wildlife suitability, model forest
growth and yield, and model harvesting costs and values in the Tangier watershed in British
Columbia. Timber production constraints resulting in maximal high-quality caribou habitat were
identified.
Bui, EN; Smettem, KR; Moran, CJ; Williams, J. 1996.
Use of soil survey information to assess regional salinization risk using geographical information
systems.
J Environ Qual 25:433-439.
This Australian study involved integration of hydrology, hydrogeology, and soil and land
management in order to estimate risk of salinization after tree clearing in a river basin of the
wet/dray tropics of Northern Queensland. The GIS themes included soil survey information,
water resources data, and elevation data. The data related to soils included soil-landform
relationships, parent material, soil thickness, depth to bedrock, and soil type. These factors were
used to estimate drainage classes and permeability and to determine likely recharge or discharge
areas. Cross-checking was accomplished through surveyed electrical conductivity measurements.
The study determined that where total soluble salts are >0.25 percent and the water table was <6
m deep, a salinity hazard exists. The GIS was also used to calculate the amount of increased
recharge likely to occur after tree clearing. The results also suggest that clearing may increase
deep drainage by up to 10 times and that in areas of salinity risk, trees should not be cleared.
Bui, EN; Smettem, KRJ; Moran, CJ; William, J. 1996.
Use of soil survey information to assess regional salinization risk using geographical information
systems.
J Environ Qual 25:433-439.
The authors use a GIS to identify areas at risk of salinization after tree clearing. Tree
clearing alters water balances, increases deep drainage and increases phreatic water tables. Salt
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stored in soil is remobilized and precipitated close to the ground surface if the new water table is
less than 2 m deep. The objectives of this study were to identify potential ground water recharge
areas and saline discharge areas, and to identify areas at particular risk. Watersheds with high
salinity hazard are those with shallow ground water and saline soils. Conversely, areas with deep
ground water and nonsaline soils have a low salinity hazard. Assessing risk requires an estimate of
the likelihood and amount of recharge to ground water after tree clearing. This was done
qualitatively based on a series of hydraulic equations. Potential recharge and discharge areas
identified based on permeability and drainage classes were consistent with the spatial distribution
of saline soils. Risk could only be assessed qualitatively. However, the system will be useful in
evaluating tree-clearing permits.
Bullard, RD. 1994.
Overcoming racism in environmental decision making.
Environment 36(4): 10-27.
The author is one of the prominent champions of the environmental justice movement.
Although this article does not cite GIS specifically, the application of GIS has contributed to
many of the points and conclusions concerning incidence of disease or citing of chemical plants
and the demographic characteristics of an area. The article discusses "geographic equity," which
refers to the location and spatial configuration of communities and their proximity to
environmental hazards. One point the author makes is that "communities with hazardous waste
incinerators generally have large minority populations, low incomes, and low property values."
There are many clear examples of GIS applications in this article.
Burke, L. 1993.
Race and environmental equity: a geographic analysis in Los Angeles
Geo Info Sys 3(9):44-50.
The main purpose of the study was to determine whether race is a significant factor in the
relationship with industrial facility locations when the effects of other important variables, such as
income level and population density, have been controlled. The author used 1990 census data at
the tract level for Los Angeles County, and locational data on more then 700 TRI's located in the
county. The author selected the census tract as the unit of analysis based on the likely zone of
effect surrounding TRI's and the fact that this unit is consistent with the spatial accuracy of the
TRI data. GIS was used for data integration and exploration and for displaying results of
statistical models. GIS was used for determining the number of TRI's and members of the
different demographic groups in each census tract for subsequent statistical analyses. The results
showed that race was a consistent and important variable in the relationship with TRI occurrence
in a census tract. On average, there was a direct correlation between the number of TRI's in a
census tract and the percentage of the minority population. There was an inverse relationship
between the number of TRI's and both the population density and per capita income. Because
race and income are both significant, and highly correlated, variables, this study could not
conclude whether income or race was the more important explanatory variable in the relationship
with TRI occurrence.
Burrough, PA. 1986.
Principles of GIS for land resources assessment.
Oxford University Press, New York, NY.
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Chapter topics: Geographical information systems [reasons to use computers in
cartography, cargography, components of a GIS]; Data structures for thematic maps [basic
topological concepts, data base structure, raster and vector data structures]; Digital elevation
models [models representing OEMs]; Data input, verification, storage, and output; Methods of
data analysis and spatial modeling [a general approach to map overlay, advantages and
disadvantages of cartographic modelling in land evaluation and planning].
Burrough, PA. 1986.
Data quality, errors, and natural variation.
Principles of GIS for land resources assessment, Chapter 6. Oxford University Press, New York,
NY, pp. 103-121.
This chapter discusses the errors and variations that may arise from geographic
information processing, from natural variation, or from original measurements, and other obvious
sources. Obvious sources of errors include age of data, partial areal coverage, map scale, density
of observations, relevance, format, accessibility, and cost. Errors resulting from natural variation
or from original measurements include positional accuracy, accuracy of content, measurement
error, laboratory error, field observer error or bias, and local spatial variation (impurities). Errors
that arise through geographic information processing include numerical errors in storing and
processing the data, topological map overlay, and classification and generalizations. Other errors
may arise from rasterizing a vector map, overlaying spatial networks, and digitizing a map.
Burrough, PA. 1986.
Principles of GIS for land resources assessment.
Oxford University Press, New York, NY..
An excellent text that discusses in more detail than Aronoff=s book the theory of GIS and
the associated information and analyses.
Burrough, PA. 1986.
Geographic information systems.
Principles of GIS for land resources assessment, Chapter 1. Oxford University Press, New York,
NY, pp. 1 11.
The first chapter provides an introduction to maps and spatial information. It provides a
history of the need for maps. Hand-drawn maps were expensive and resource intensive and
developing GIS would help to improve mapmaking and spatial analysis. The chapter describes
the history and progression that led to the development of GIS. Components of GIS include
computer hardware (e.g., digitizer, plotter, central processing unit, disk drive, tape drive),
application software modules (e.g., software for data input, storage, management, output,
transformation), and organizational context (e.g., how it will be used, staff training, data
gathering, management).
Carne, J; Allard, M. 1996.
Ireland rings in the changes: Irish utility re-engineers its network asset management.
Geo Info Sys, June, 6(6):24-32.
With deregulation looming, resulting in the need for a competitive advantage, Telecom
Eireann is engineering a new way to manage its assets. By integrating computer-aided design
(CAD) and GIS, the company has developed a system to maintain underground and overhead
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telephone cable networks in hopes of improving its line maintenance, records management, and
service to its 750,000 customers in rural Ireland. This "geo-engineering" system will make a
single database of CAD and GIS data accessible to all personnel. The long-term future of
Telecom Eireann's project is sparking much interest throughout the company for activities such as
work-order scheduling, network planning, performance monitoring, and sales and plant
maintenance. The geo-engineering system's simple database will make this information accessible
to all, and give the company a competitive advantage.
Gary, T. 1994.
A world of possibilities: remote sensing data for your GIS.
Geo InfoSys 4(8):38-42.
A recent study of the GIS and remote sensing markets identified data availability as the
foremost issue affecting the use of remote sensing imagery. And, although many geographic
databases could benefit from the use of satellite data, fewer than 20 percent of GIS users now
take advantage of this resource. Many are hesitant to build a GIS with satellite imagery because
they fear the data will not always be accessible. This article describes the volume of commercially
available remotely sensed data, along with a variety of plans for future satellite systems, which are
designed to keep the data coming. Current systems include LANDS AT, SPOT, ERS-1, JERS-1,
IRS-1, Russian Reconnaissance photos, and MOMS. Future satellites include Lewis and Clark,
RADARSAT, Worldview, Space Imaging, Eyeglass, and Seastar.
Chacon-Torres, A; Ross, LG; Beveridge, MCM; Watson, AI. 1992.
The application of SPOT multispectral imagery for the assessment of water quality in Lake
Patzcuaro, Mexico.
IntJRemote Sensing 13(4):587-603.
A predictive model of water quality variables was developed for SPOT-1 imagery, and
applied to Lake Patzcuaro, Mexico. With use of principal component analysis it was shown that,
at most, two water quality variables, suspended solids and chlorophyll-a concentration, can be
derived from the SPOT data. Having established the independent predictiveness of a set of
empirical relations between the SPOT data and the water quality variables, the whole lake was
analyzed using GIS to reveal the spatial distribution of suspended solids and chlorophyll-a. It was
revealed that a very serious algal bloom had occurred. No bloom of such intensity has ever been
observed before or suspected to have occurred in Lake Patzcuaro. The applicability of SPOT
imagery to water quality monitoring was clearly demonstrated.
Chakraborty, J; Armstrong, MP. 1994.
Estimating the population characteristics of areas affected by hazardous materials accidents.
Proceedings, GIS/LIS, '94, October, Phoenix, AZ. pp. 154-163.
This article describes the application of GIS to identify intersections and neighborhoods
most likely to be impacted by truck accidents in Des Moines, Iowa. The authors modeled the
movements of chlorine gas from a truck accident in order to determine what areas might be
affected. They identified the 50 intersections with the most truck accidents. They concluded that
more minority and low-income households were likely to be impacted by such accidents than the
city as a whole.
Chang, K; Verbyla, DL; Yeo, JJ. 1995.
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Spatial analysis of habitat selection by Sitka black-tailed deer in southeast Alaska, USA. Environ
Manage 19(4): 579-589.
The authors used GIS to analyze Sitka deer habitat usage. The base map was based on
aerial photographs. Soil types were related to plant communities using look-up tables. The
predicted plant communities were verified using ground truthing. The locations of deer were
determined based on telemetry. The vector-based GIS was used to (1) compute the proportion of
each vegetation class within a polygon, (2) compute edge categories and distances, and (3)
compute the distance of each deer relocation point to the old-growth/clear-cut edge. The authors
compared the estimated values with either random values, or average values for the whole area.
They concluded that (1) deer selected ranges having some clear-cut and some old growth, with a
higher proportion of clear-cut area than the entire study area, and (2) deer tended to relocate
within 400 m of the old-growth edge.
Chang, K-T; Verbyla, DL; Yeo, JJ; Li, Z-X. 1994.
GIS-based program aids wildlife habitat and timber management.
GIS World 7(1):40(4).
GIS technology was applied to the study of Sitka black-tailed deer in a logged forest of
southeastern Alaska, thus aiding in the management of both habitat and timber resources. The
vector-based GIS was used to manipulate spatial and attribute characteristics, and it was
interfaced with peripheral programs for sampling, statistical analysis, and habitat analysis. Area,
line, and point analysis of deer distributions within old- growth forests showed that deer preferred
the borders between old growth and open clearcuts. Rapid growth in these clearcuts, however,
quickly discourages deer habitation.
Chen, YD; McCutcheon, SC; Carsel, RF; Norton, DJ; Craig, JP. 1996.
Enhancement and application of HSPF for stream temperature simulation in the upper Grande
Ronde watershed, Oregon.
Proceedings, Watershed '96, June 8-12, Baltimore, MD, pp. 312-315.
The authors describe a model to estimate the contribution of riparian vegetation buffers
and topography to stream surface shade. Model inputs include incoming solar radiation, stream
width, topographic shade angles in 12 directions, and location and nature of riparian vegetation
(e.g., height and canopy density). Model outputs include solar radiation adjusted for riparian
shading effects, and a shading factor, which is the ratio of total radiation and the radiation
reaching the stream. The output is used in the Hydrologic Simulation Program-FORTRAN
(HSPF) to predict stream temperature. ARC/INFO was used to divide the Grand Ronde
watershed into relatively homogenous units so that the model could be applied and tested.
Comparison with stream temperature monitoring verified that the model is accurate to 2.8° C.
The model will be useful for identifying stream reaches for riparian restoration and preservation.
Cheng, MS. 1994.
User-friendly GIS aids in flood management. Prince George's County Department of
Environmental Resources.
Water Environ Technol, April, 6(4).
Flood management and water quality study efficiency has been increased in Prince
George's County, Maryland, through the use of GIS-based models. Using TR-55, TR-20, and
HEC-2, the county was able to analyze many "What ifs" scenarios to determine the best flood
management alternative. GIS was also used to analyze water quality on a watershed basis.
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Based on this information, 41 watersheds were prioritized for development and implemented
within a watershed plan.
Cheng, Y. 1996.
The conformal space projection.
Cartography Geo Info Sys 23(1):37-50.
The author presents a new conformal space projection (CSP) for satellite imagery display.
Compared with previous projections, it has these advantages: (1) it is a truly conformal
projection, (2) the scale error is very small, (3) it can continuously display satellite imagery, (4) it
is widely applicable to different satellite orbits, (5) it can easily integrate projection computation
with orbital computation, (6) its computation is fairly straightforward, and (7) it provides a new
concept in developing special space projections. The problem has traditionally been that as a
satellite moves along its orbit, the Earth rotates too. The combination of tracking a satellite from
the ground (which is also moving) is a very complicated curve, that, in general, cannot be
expressed in an analytical formula. Theoretically, the oblique Mercator can only keep a fairly
simple line, which is found by the intersection of the Earth's surface with a plane passing through
the center of the Earth free from any distortion. The author argues that his new CSP is superior
to past projections and supports his claims mathematically with a number of equations.
Chernin, PR. 1995.
Demonstrating watershed protection using GIS.
J North Eastern Water Works Assoc 109:132-139.
Relying on water treatment as the sole measure of protecting the water supply may not be
sufficient. Exotic chemical and biological contaminants may not be treatable; high costs are
associated with treating turbidity, nutrients, and organic compounds. Watershed management
may provide another way to achieve quality water supplies. "GIS is so useful for watershed
protection because of its ability to integrate, create, manage and map information that brings to
life the natural and manmade characteristics of watershed and the relationships between them."
Chernin discusses the utility of GIS in several areas: understanding watershed and water quality
characteristics; mapping geographic areas to be protected; identifying buffers for wells, reservoirs,
or tributaries; identifying and locating current and potential threats to water supplies; establishing
clear legal authority for programs; public education; and implementation and enforcement.
Cherrill, A; Lane, M. 1994.
The survey and prediction of land cover using an environmental land classification.
Appl Geogr 15(1): 69-85.
The objective of the study is to identify land-use research as the development of methods
of assessing the implications of alternative economic policies and integrating the social, physical,
and life sciences in a multidisciplinary approach. A field survey of the entire catchment was
recognized as being prohibitively demanding of time and labor. The solution adopted was to
record in the field the areas of NCC Phase 1 cover types within a stratified sample of grid squares
and extrapolate from these data to predict the distribution of the cover types in unsurveyed areas.
The 182 field survey maps were digitized using the ARC/INFO GIS. Results included land- cover
estimates, lowlands, marginal uplands, and uplands. Comparison with independently obtained
land-cover data has shown this approach to be capable of providing reliable estimates of the
overall land-cover compositions of large geographical regions.
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Chestnut, L. 1995.
Human health benefits assessment of the acid rain provisions of the 1990 Clean Air Act
amendments of 1990.
Final Report, EPA Contract 68-D8-0005 of Work Assignment 2F-03 and 3F-12. November 10,
1995.
The assessment used atmospheric modeling results that were provided in an 80x80 km
concentration grid. The modeling results were overlaid on census data using GIS (Mapinfo) to
evaluate the exposure and make predictions of health effects. Chapter 3 focused on sulfate, and
Section 3.3 describes the matching with population data in detail.
Choubey, VK. 1994.
Monitoring water quality in reservoirs with IRS-1A-LISS-I.
Water Resources Manage 8(2): 121-136.
An attempt has been made to quantify the relationship between the variation in
IRS-IA-LISS-I (Indian Remote Sensing Satellite-1A Linear Imaging Self-Scanning System)
radiance data and field measured change in Secchi disc depth. Secchi disc depth was measured for
47 predetermined sampling locations on reservoir surface water. At extinction depth (Secchi
depth [SD]), water samples were collected from all the sampling locations. Suspended sediments
of eight locations representing various reaches of the reservoir were selected for mineralogical,
particle size, and optical properties analysis. The LISS-I radiance value in band 1 (0.45-0.52 jam),
band 2 (0-52-0.59 jim) and band 3 (0.62-0.68 jim) were used in a regression analysis. The
absorption infrared band 4 (0.77-0.86 jim) was not included in the analysis. In these, the
dependable variable was SD, and the LISS-I-radiance data were the estimator variable.
Forty-seven data sets of 20 October 1988 from Tawa reservoir surface water were used to obtain
an estimator equation for SD. The verification of the estimator equation was tested by applying it
to a data set of 21 measurements of 28 September 1988 for this reservoir. The coefficient of
correlation between observed and estimated values for the 28 September 1988 data set was r =
0.92 for SD, indicating that the equation could accurately predict the water clarity (SD) for this
reservoir on new occasions from IRS-IA-LISS-I spectral data. It is shown that mineral
composition and optical properties of suspended sediments influence the reflected radiance of
water quality. It was concluded that IRS-IA-LISS-I data provide a useful means of mapping
water quality in reservoirs.
Chuvieco, E; Salas, J. 1996.
Mapping the spatial distribution of forest fire danger using GIS.
Int J Geo Info Sys 10(3):333-345.
This paper presents a methodology for fire danger mapping using GIS. Our purpose was
to map the spatial distribution of the different components used in this system, as well as to
integrate them in a simple index. Chosen variables included topography, fuel types, and human
activity. Refinements to previously developed methodologies: the inclusion of illumination,
texture, weather data as variables. The study area is 150 km west of Madrid. Indexes used
include the Weather Danger Index, Fuel Hazard Index, Fire Incidence Index, and Human Risk
Index. All these variables were included in a raster GIS with a 30x30 m grid resolution.
The methodology in this paper offers a simple approach to obtain fire danger maps, by
considering the spatial distribution of factors affecting the start or spread of a fire. Actual
implementation may be done in a few weeks, using low-cost software.
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Civco, DL; Garcia, AR; Warner, GS. 1995.
Key steps to effective watershed characterization.
GIS World 8(11):62(5).
Watersheds are characterized to link physical characteristics to water quality indicators.
The characterization process includes managing data on land management and cover, geology,
soil, hydrology, and topography. These data are best managed and expressed using a geographic
information system. Four basic steps compose the characterization process: the establishment of a
primary objective, the search for and acquisition of general data, the selection of target
watersheds using a multistep process, and the final characterization. Some of the parameters
include geomorphology, stream network, geology, relief, soils, and climate.
Clark, Y; O'Bara, C; George, D. 1997.
Demonstrating a holistic approach to identifying and costing needs on a watershed basis: a
national demonstration study. Cookeville, TN: Center for the Management, Utilization, and
Protection of Water Resources, http://www.tntech.edu/www/acad/wrc/projects/wqi/index.html
An ARC/INFO GIS system used in conjunction with three models (AGNPS, MODFLOW,
and HSPF) was used to provide a scientifically based tool for local citizens for watershed planning
purposes. Watershed water quality was assessed using the above software along with
comprehensive field validation. A watershed quality index was developed to assist in prioritizing
subwatersheds for actions required. Based on the information derived from the analysis, cost
were developed for work required for each watershed.
Clarke, KC, McLafferty, SL; Tempalski, BJ. 1996.
On epidemiology and geographic information systems: a review and discussion of future
directions.
Emerg Infect Dis 2(2):85-92.
This article promotes use of GIS in epidemiology. The author cites the changes in
software that make GIS now more accessible. He notes the long history that relates to mapping
disease occurrence, such as relating cholera cases to water source, and brings the reader up to the
present. The tasks GIS can contribute to are visualization, exploratory data analysis, and model
building. Model building makes use of the multiple layers of data that GIS can now model to test
hypotheses about causes of disease and transmission.
Clayton, DG; Bernardinelli, L; Montomoli, C. 1993.
Spatial correlation in ecological analysis.
Int JEpidemiol 22(6): 1193-1202.
The term ecological analysis is used here from an epidemiological perspective-the
analysis of environmental covariates of disease. The authors modeled spatial autocorrelation in
terms of the pattern of adjacencies of areas. The objective was to develop an empirical model of
disease. The dependent variable is the standardized mortality rate, which is the number of
observed events (e.g., lung and lip cancers) divided by the expected number of events from
reference rates. The explanatory variables include the degree of urbanization, determined from
principal components analysis and the percentage of men employed in industry. The authors split
the error term in two, one that varies spatially, and the other that is random. The spatial error was
assumed to be distributed normally, with the mean given by the mean of the neighboring values.
When the location variable was confounded with the explanatory variable, the regression
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coefficient decreased. The authors concluded that this effect does not outweigh the advantages of
including a spatial autocorrelation error term.
Clifford, PA; Barchers, DE; Ludwig, DF; Sielkens, RL; Klingensmith, JS; Graham, RV; Banton,
MI. 1995.
An approach to quantify spatial components of exposure for ecological risk assessment.
Environ Toxicol Chem 14:895-906.
Estimating ecological risks from contaminants in the environment requires accurate
characterization of the exposure of organisms to toxic materials. Since organisms integrate
contaminate exposure over space and time, estimating exposure concentrations that correspond to
actual exposure concentrations is difficult. GIS technology is used to quantify exposure. A map
of the surficial concentrations of dieldrin was determined using Thiessen polygon procedures
(ESRI) with a single sample location for each polygon. Polygons were also created using a
triangular network (TIN) using all data points. Animal habitat ranges were identified and were
characterized by exposure circles (specified area or radius) around each sample point. Thus risk
was determined from the overlapping of the exposure circles and the soil concentrations. This
paper is difficult to summarize in limited space. A time factor was also incorporated into this
assessment. This paper provides good ideas on how to use different functions with a GIS
package (ARC/INFO).
Connor, MS. 1992.
Remote sensing as a marine monitoring tool: the local perspective.
Proceedings, SPIE International Society of Optical Engineering 1930(1), pp. 281-291.
Marine water quality monitoring includes assessment of the public health status of beaches
and shellfishing areas, validation of water quality models, assessment of the effectiveness of
pollution abatement programs, and verification of the compliance of marine discharges with water
quality standards. Marine monitoring programs in the United States have been estimated to cost
between $100 and $200 million annually (1985 dollars). Federal agencies account for 43 percent
of the total, state and local agencies 37 percent, and the private sector 18 percent. The challenge
of designing environmental monitoring programs is to relate the basic concerns of the citizenry
with environmental parameters that scientists can actually measure. Generally, the public's
concerns can be grouped under four basic questions: Is it safe to swim? Is it safe to eat the fish
and shellfish? Are the marine resources healthy? Has the aesthetic quality been preserved? For the
most part, these four simple questions are not directly answerable by any specific measurement,
but require a series of measures that point in the direction of an answer. The benefits of remote
sensing for monitoring are similar to those of any new technology that has the potential to yield a
basic understanding of a marine ecosystem. Recent critiques of various marine environmental
monitoring programs indicate that too many of these programs collect extensive amounts of
scientific data that are nearly impossible to interpret. The risk of remote sensing is that future
monitoring programs will collect astronomic amounts of scientific data that are poorly related to
the questions the public wants answered at a specific project. The promise of remote sensing will
depend on its value in elucidating oceanic and estuarine processes that can be related statistically
to the public's basic concerns.
Corny, T; Hushon, J; Goldberg, J; Kneeling, K. 1995.
Integrating operational and environmental data in an air force base-wide GIS.
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FedFacil Environ J 6(3): 9-20.
A basewide GIS is being implemented at Vandenberg Air Force Base to merge planning,
environmental, engineering, and operational functions. The GIS is intended to aid civil engineering
and environmental personnel in coping with increasing legal mandates to manage, monitor,
restore, and protect natural and cultural resources on the base, and to plan for and manage its
built environment. Steps in GIS development for the
military complex are detailed.
Conway, K. 1996.
Wolf recovery: GIS facilitates habitat mapping in the Great Lakes states.
GIS World9(11):54-57.
GIS is being used by scientists in the Great Lakes region to aid wolf recovery planning.
Gray wolf recovery projects face continued challenges locating favorable habitat and managing
recovery programs. GIS was used to map previously unidentified areas of favorable wolf habitat
in Michigan and Wisconsin. After digitizing locations and movements of 14 Wisconsin wolf
packs, researchers generated "home range" polygons for each of the packs. They then analyzed
current wolf habitat using land-use/land-cover datasets and developed a model to predict
additional habitat. In the second phase, researchers estimated potential numbers of wolves that
could occupy the identified habitat areas. They also overlaid areas of land management
responsibilities for different agencies with the map of favorable habitat. The GIS allowed the
Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources to integrate existing data, giving wildlife managers
new information to apply toward wolf recovery efforts. The model is being applied in the
northeastern United States.
Cook, D; Symanzik, J; Majure, JJ; Cressie, N. 1997.
Dynamic graphics and GIS: more examples using linked software.
Comput Geosci 23(4):371-385.
This fascinating article describes how Arc View 2.1 GIS software was linked to XGobi,
software used for graphical analysis of multivariate to allow dynamic interaction between spatially
displayed data in ArcView and graphically displayed data in XGobi. The user simply "brushes"
subsets of the graphed data in XGobi and the corresponding data are highlighted on the linked
ArcView map. The article gives five illustrative examples of possible types of analysis: (1) Scatter
plots to map displays: This is illustrated on attribute data reflecting the residential desirability of
329 U.S. cities, where an XGobi scatterplot of climate vs. housing costs is linked to a map
showing the corresponding locations of any U.S. cities whose scatter points are "brushed." (2)
Spatial cumulation distribution functions linked to map: This is illustrated using a SCDF for forest
damage, where the top 10 percent of the SCDF is brushed, causing the corresponding geographic
locations to be highlighted on the ArcView map. (3) Variogram cloud linked to map: The
variogram used in this example shows variation in precipitation values for a calendar quarter vs.
distance separating the paired receptors. Brushing those points having high variation but close
distance results in the ArcView map being highlighted at points surrounding a receptor on top of a
mountain. (4) Lagged scatter dotplots from ArcView data are linked to XGobi scatter plots: A
dotplot of distance between precipitation sampling points is linked to a scatter plot. Then three
spatial lags (0, 20, and 40 km) are brushed on the dotplot and the scatter plots of third vs. fourth
quarter precipitation are created to see if there is a correlation (or lack of correlation) dependent
on lag distance. (5) Multivariate variogram cloud link: Angle between sampling sites from
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Arc View is linked to XGobi multivariate variogram to detect asymmetries in scatter.
Corbley, K. 1996.
Utah finds biodiversity gaps using GIS.
Geo Info Sys 6(2):32-36.
In 1989, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service began an ambitious GIS development
project-the Gap Analysis Program (GAP)-aimed at mapping the distribution of major vegetation
cover types and terrestrial vertebrate animal species across the entire United States. The overall
goal of the program is to protect ecosystems while the species that inhabit them are still common,
which many conservationists consider a more economic and efficient approach than attempting to
save species after they become endangered. In GAP, 40 states build statewide GIS databases that
are combined in a central GIS, allowing ecosystems to be examined from a continental
perspective. The Utah GAP information has been presented to state officials, who have drafted
legislation for introduction in Congress to protect some federal lands in the state by giving them
Wilderness Area status.
Corbley, KP. 1996.
One-meter satellites: practical applications by spatial data users. Part 3.
Geo Info Sys 6(7):39, Supplement..
One-meter satellite imagery will provide both a quality and quantity of geographic
information currently unavailable from spaceborne remote sensing. GIS experts say that high-
resolution images will expand their use of this information greatly. Users say that detecting and
identifying small features in imagery becomes substantially more valuable in practical applications
if the features can be located with a high degree of absolute and relative accuracy. For
agricultural purposes, high spatial resolution and timely revisits are two capabilities that will make
remote sensing an operation factor in precision farming. Accuracy has become an important issue
in precision farming because variable rate technology (VRT) now allows farmers to apply precise
doses of chemical or water to small grids in the field. Variations within a field must be identified
by the farmer very quickly for the situation to be remedied with precision arming practices. In
operational mode, the farmer would need the interpreted imagery available within 48 hours of
acquisition by the satellite. Space Imaging is the only 1-meter system developer to announce a
price. It plans to offer orthorectified images with 1.5 meter accuracy for $100 per square mile.
Corvaisier, P; Pignon, J. 1997.
Land and freedom.
GIS Europe 6(3):30-31.
This article recalls the basis of the districts in Paris, the commune, and discusses the
process of developing an "urban information system" for the 10 communes of Paris. Great
graphics in the article illustrate the complexity of the information being gathered. Each commune
has its own GIS equipment to manage cadastral and land-use records. Other information is being
added on utilities, pipelines, traffic, waste disposal, etc. Describes coordination among a variety
of users to create a system that serves many needs.
Corwin, DL; Wagenet, RJ. 1996.
Applications of GIS to the modeling of nonpoint source pollutants in the Vadose Zone: a
conference overview.
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JEnviron Qual 25(3):403-411.
This article provides an overview and review of nonpoint source pollutant modeling and
briefly discusses some of the papers presented at the 1995 Bouyoucos Conference: Applications
of GIS to the Modeling of NonPoint Source Pollutants in the Vadose Zone. An extensive
bibliography is provided with this overview.
Cowan, DJ; Jensen, JR; Halls, J. 1991.
Maintenance of TIGER files using remotely sensed data.
GIS, Technical Papers, Vol. 4. ACSM-ASPRS Annual Convention, Bethesda, MD, pp. 31 40.
This article describes what the TIGER roads are like. TIGER images of a network of
roads in suburbs northwest of Columbia, SC, are overlaid with four different sets of satellite
imagery. Of these the 5x5 m resolution NASA CAMS helps more efficiently with better
placement.
Cruz-Batres, C; Lovas, L. 1996.
InfoCAD-Geographical information systems for environmental management.
J Environ Manage Technol 1(2).
This article compares the use of InfoCAD, a GIS program by Digital Matrix, Inc., to
programs like Arc View, but does not relate it to its use for environmental management. Many
typographical errors were found in the article, but many good features were described that would
improve the operation of Arc View.
Csillag,F. 1997.
Quadtrees: hierarchical multiresolution data structures for analysis of digital images.
In: Quattrochi, DA; Goodchild, ME, eds. Scale in remote sensing and GIS. Boca Raton,
FL:CRCPress, pp. 247-271.
This article presents the following sequence of ideas: (1) Explains traditional quadtrees
and gray-scale image quadtrees where each successive (parent) level is the average of the
grayscale rating of the preceding (children) level; (2) Presents the concept of residual variability as
a quality descriptor of quadtree representation. Residual variability is the variance in grayscale
between the current partition and a finer resolution representation; (3) Describes the HQ-
decomposition (Haar-Quadtree) procedure as a means of evaluating not just overall residual
variability but also spatial distribution of variance. HQ-decomposition uses high-dimension vector
representations (e.g., in R64 space) to capture the spatial distribution of grayscale; (4) Presents the
nested analysis of variance way to analyze the Haar coefficients obtained in the HQ-
decomposition in order to evaluate the "gain in explaining heterogeneity" resulting from the
decomposition. The nested ANOVA can then be employed to guide the most advantageous
routes along the quadtree to reduce heterogeneity inbetween levels of resolution. Aim: decrease
the within-unit variance as fast as possible; (5) Proposes a sampling approach based on HQ-
decomposition; (6) Compares results of sampling based on HQ-decomposition; and (7) Gives
real-world examples.
Csillag, F; Kertez, M; Kummert, A. 1996.
Sampling and mapping of heterogeneous surfaces: multi-resolution tiling adjusted to spatial
variability.
Int J Geo Info Sys 7:851-875.
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This article describes a method for the approximation of two-dimensional surfaces by
optimizing sample size, arrangement, and prediction accuracy simultaneously. A grid of ancillary
data is approximated by a quadtree to determine a predefined number of homogeneous mapping
units. The ancillary data are obtained from satellite images. Samples are taken from each
mapping unit. The performance of this sampling was compared against other sampling strategies
(regular and random). This was an interesting paper but difficult to follow. Keywords: GIS,
kriging, Thiessen-polygonization, sampling strategies, sampling quadtrees, sampling efficiencies,
noisy data, semivariograms.
Dangermond, J. 1996.
Geobusiness in the utility industry-it's time.
Geo Info Sys 7(7): 7-9.
A recent surge in GIS-related technology development presents important new
opportunities for using automated mapping/facilities management (AM/FM/GIS) tools, especially
in the utilities business. The introduction of GIS technology into the utility industry began with
the use of the technology chiefly for automated mapping functions. Over time, GIS has also been
applied to engineering, and more recently to work-order workflow efforts. The growing business
uses for GIS are now reaching the utility industry, including market analysis, environmental
monitoring and analysis, long-term business planning, and regulatory compliance. Organizations
that embrace this trend early will have a competitive advantage because the development of these
systems will take time. Deregulation and the resulting need to be more competitive and efficient
will be served by the further development of the AM/FM/GIS in the future.
Dangermond, J. 1997.
ARC/INFO: moving right along.
ARC News 18(4): 1-3.
The president of ESRI, which makes ARC/INFO, wrote this very positive article about the
ARC/INFO software. He states that ARC/INFO for Windows NT was an instant success and that
they are now shipping version 7.1. This version includes "CAD-like" editing functions in the
ARCEDIT feature. When ARC/INFO version 7.2 comes out, all the components and engines of
version 7.1 will be exposed for use with standard permitting tools. This means the ARC/INFO
can be completely embedded within a non-GIS application.
Daniels, RC. 1996.
An innovative method of model integration to forecast spatial patterns of shoreline change: A case
study of Nags Head, NC.
Prof Geographer 48(2): 195-209.
Many coastal erosion models are designed to be used at transects or discrete points, but
produce valid results only for locations meeting a specific set of criteria. Results obtained from
such models are thus difficult to generalize. This paper describes a GIS-based methodology to
combine the results from different types of coastal erosion models to forecast possible responses
of a coastline to several alternative sea-level rise scenarios. These forecasts are unique in that
they integrate results from different models and allow alternative future shoreline projections.
This model is important for coastline planners in that the forecasts can be used to assess possible
impact on sea-level rise on a given region. Planners will be able to develop strategies to identify
and mitigate many adverse impacts of coastal change combined with other factors such as
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population, land use, and land cover in site selection analysis.
Danielson, T. 1997.
Top news stories reflect industry.
GIS World 10(8):34.
This article describes five trends in the GIS industry: market consolidation and
curtailment, GIS interoperability, satellite technology expansion, data delivery diversification, and
use of GIS in the Federal government. This article describes where the industry is headed in
software development and applications that involve a variety of operating systems. In addition,
there are descriptions of current GIS applications in military operations in Bosnia.
Davis, K; Miller, RL; von Zweck, O; Sprague Jr., VG; Kilroy, R; Sommers, J. 1995.
In-situ optics system for coastal ocean color monitoring.
Proceedings, 1995IEEE/MTS Oceans Conference, San Diego, CA, October 9-12, Vol. 3, pp.
1787-1793, Piscataway, NJ:IEEE Publishers.
A recent transition of several naval operations to coastal environments has emphasized the
need for regional- to basin-scale maps of water clarity. Data integrated from in situ and remotely
sensing instruments were required to provide these maps. A specially designed vertical profiling
system is the primary source of in-water optics data for the Naval Oceanographic Office. Optical
measurements include radiance, irradiance, transmission, and absorption at multiple wavebands as
well as light scattering at 880 nm. Select physical parameters such as temperature and salinity are
also measured. A single controller manages both power and data transmission for all instruments.
Data are transmitted to a PC GIS-based data acquisition/display system. The profiling system was
recently modified to include the spectral wavelengths of the SeaWiFS ocean color instrument. The
optics profiling system will collect sea-truth data for calibrating and validating ocean color
instruments in coastal waters.
Decker, D; Seekins, R. 1997.
Creating a statewide digital base map: the Texas Orthoimagery Program.
Surveying Land InfSys 5 7(1):23-30.
This article describes the staged program initiated by the Texas GIS Planning Council to
support the development of color infrared digital orthophoto quarter quadrangles (DOQQs)
statewide as an up-to-date common base map for a wide array of GIS applications. The article
defines a DOQQ as "an accurate digital image, with all distortion removed, from which spatial
data (i.e., roads, hydrology, land cover) can be derived. In a DOQQ image, which is usually
derived from aerial photography, the image is scanned and individual pixels are assigned to cell
locations on a meter grid that corrects distortion due to elevation differences (this involves using
digital elevation models [OEMs]) and ground control information is used to place the resulting
image in its real-world location. The ground control is also used to remove distortion from the
flight." The article presents the history of the project, which was set in motion when a "Base Map
Development Resolution" was adopted by the GIS Planning Council. The article then explains
the data required, funding and program participants, the vendor selection process, and the steps
involved in producing a DOQQ. The latter is illustrated in a production flowchart. Products,
data distribution, and future plans are then described.
Dekker, AG; Malthus, TJ; Hoogenbroom, HJ. 1995.
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The remote sensing of inland water quality.
In: Danson, FM; Plummer, SE., eds. Advances environmental remote sensing. John Wiley, New
York, NY.
For a short article (about 10 pages) this contains many fundamental ideas and numerous
references. Discussion includes upwelling or downwelling irradiance, mixing zone pattern finding,
and trying to sense constituents of the water column.
Dekker, AG; Malthus, TJ; Wijnen, MM; Seyhan, E. 1992.
Effect of spectral bandwidth and positioning on the spectral signature analysis of inland waters.
Remote Sensing Environ 41(2-3):211-225.
Airborne and satellite remote sensing systems (PMI/FLI, LANDSAT-Thematic Mapper,
and SPOT-HRV) were used to assess their potential for inland water quality detection and
monitoring. Airborne imaging spectrometry was acquired. Simultaneous (sub)surface
spectroradiometric and laboratory-based spectrophotometric measurements allowed the
description of the underwater lightfield through determination of the inherent and apparent optical
properties. Spectral signature simulation of various systems increased understanding of the
performances and led to development of the CAESAR Inland Water Mode spectral bandset.
These results apply to the operational use of high-resolution airborne systems (CAST) and are
relevant for future satellite systems such as MERIS, MODIS, and HIRIS, especially in the area of
data reduction through selection of spectral bands and development of algorithms.
DeMers, MN. 1997.
The map as a model of geographic data: the language of spatial thinking.
Fundamentals of geographic information systems, Chapter 3. John Wiley, New York, NY, pp.
50-82.
This chapter focuses on maps and how they are used to represent entities (real-world
objects) and their attributes. First, maps are models of real-world phenomena and therefore
abstractions of reality. Characteristics of maps include scale (amount of reduction of spatial
objects) and map legend (which unites entities with their attributes). The chapter discusses map
projections (converting the three-dimensional Earth to a two-dimensional map), which can be
broken down into four families: planar, cylindrical, conical, and azimuthal, and their distortions.
To determine distance and direction, a grid system is used, such as the cartesian coordinate
system or the universal transverse Mercator (UTM) system. The chapter also discusses the
disadvantages of scale change and feature elimination, such as loss of detail and loss of data.
DeMers, MN. 1997.
Data storage and editing.
Fundamentals of geographic information systems, Chapter 6. John Wiley, New York, NY, pp.
154-176.
This chapter identifies types of errors and how to find and correct them. The three basic
types of errors are entity error, attribute error, and entity-attribute agreement error. The latter
two are more difficult to find than the former. The chapter describes entity errors, which include
pseudo nodes (false nodes), dangling nodes (open polygon, overshoot and undershoot, missing
labels or too many labels, sliver polygons, and weird polygons [polygons digitized in the wrong
place or order]). These errors are among the easiest vector mistakes to find. Raster and vector
can both have attribute error; types of attribute error include missing attributes and incorrect
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attribute values. Incorrect attribute values are very difficult to find, more so in vector than raster.
The most common source of attribute error is failure to keep track of the attributes as you type
them in, thus causing the attributes to be misplaced and matched with the wrong entities. Other
sources of error can be caused by edge matching and converting between Cartesian coordinates
and real-world coordinates.
DeMers, MN. 1997.
Introduction to automated geography.
Fundamentals of geographic information systems, Chapter 1. John Wiley, New York, NY, pp.
3-18.
This chapter provides an overall background and introduction to geographic information
systems. It describes the history of development of GIS and offers different definitions and names
for GIS. The definition the authors choose "resembles the way GIS operates as a series of
subsystems within a larger system." It also compares and contrasts computer assisted drafting
(CAD), computer assisted cartography (CAC), and GIS.
DeMers, M. 1997.
Zoological maps.
Fundamentals of geographic information systems. John Wiley, New York, NY, pp. 75.
Mapping of animal locations and species ranges using GIS technology has been limited.
Problems arise in defining point locations for estimated actual locations and for aggregating points
to produce areas. Choosing an appropriate solution depends on knowing the subject animal's
behavior.
DeMers, MN. 1997.
Cartographic and GIS data.
Fundamentals of geographic information systems, Chapter 4. John Wiley, New York, NY, pp.
83-121.
This chapter discusses types of data file and database structures and the advantages and
disadvantages of each. Data file structures include simple lists, ordered sequential files, and
indexed files (direct files or indirect files). With each successive structure, there is improvement
in speed for conducting a search; however, there is increased complexity in organizing and
planning for the files. Computer database structures include hierarchical, network, and relational.
The two ways to graphically represent data are raster (grid) and vector (point data).
Disadvantages of raster are reduced spatial accuracy and large storage capacity. Vector data
allow for more detail and representation of data. The chapter also discusses how to compact
raster and vector data to reduce storage space.
DeMers, MN. 1997.
GIS data input.
Fundamentals of geographic information systems, Chapter 5. John Wiley, New York, NY, pp.
125-153.
For vector data input, digitizers can be used; factors that determine the usefulness of a
digitizer include stability, repeatability (precision), linearity, resolution, and skew. Scanners,
another data input device, have two types: line-following and drum scanners. Transformations of
GIS data coverages include translation, rotation, and scale change. The chapter provides
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guidelines on how to digitize and how to avoid errors during digitizing. These guidelines are
summarized as (1) define your purpose, (2) make sure the map addresses the purpose, (3) use the
most accurate maps needed for the purpose, (4) keep your coverages small, (5) use the same map
to obtain simple coverages to avoid georeferencing them, and (6) most importantly, think about
your project before inputting the data. The chapter also discusses methods for raster input, such
as presence/absence method, centroid-of-cell method, dominant type method, and percent
occurrence, and the uses of remote sensing as raster data input.
DeMers, MN. 1997.
Spatial analysis: the foundation of modern geography.
Fundamentals of geographic information systems, Chapter 2. John Wiley, New York, NY, pp.
21-49.
This chapter helps the reader better understand spatial language and data. The types of
spatial objects used are points, lines, areas, and surfaces. These can be presented spatially on a
map, but some data that help to describe the spatial objects (name, age, etc) cannot be displayed
spatially and are called attributes. Spatial data can be measured at different levels: nominal
(name), ordinal (ranked), and interval/ratio (numbers). Spatial patterns or relationships can be
characterized through a measure of proximity, spacing, orientations, and associations. The
chapter also covers various methods for collecting data, such as direct sampling and probabilistic
sampling.
Denning,!. 1993.
Small-government GIS.
Civil Eng 63(6):52-54.
The article presents three case studies discussing the multiple applications of GIS for a
single (i.e., town, government) entity. The system has helped to streamline administrative and
design aspects of the different services within the small government entity. Areas where GIS is
used include design and road maintenance, providing information for planners and developers,
developing stormwater management programs, and examining water main problems in terms of
water pressure or firefighter capabilities. The biggest problem encountered is standardization of
data.
Denning, R. 1996.
GIS and hydrologic modeling in watershed management.
Proceedings, Watersheds '96-Moving Ahead Together: Technical Conference and Exposition,
June 8-12, Baltimore, MD.
A GIS was used to generate the necessary data layers and parameters used in models to
examine the relationship between land-use changes in recent decades and the increased
stormwater runoff associated with those changes. Aerial photography from 1963 and 1993 was
used to interpret land-use/cover data. Zoning information was used to predict conditions in 2020.
Using a GIS, the TR-55 Runoff Curve Number Method was applied to the watershed for the
three target years. This project has shown that one of the most serious water quality problems is
that of water quantity.
DePinto, JV; Atkinson, JF; Song, J; Cheng, C; Slawecki, T; Rodgers, PW. 1996.
Development and application of a coupled GIS-modeling system for watershed analysis.
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Proceedings, Watersheds '96, June 8-12, Baltimore, MD, pp. 896-899.
The authors describe the Geo-WAMS modeling support system, which was designed to
develop and apply water quality models in Great Lakes watersheds. The model is demonstrated
for quantifying the relationship between sources of BOD and the distribution of dissolved oxygen
in the Buffalo River. It combines a watershed loading model (WLM) with WASP4/EUTRO4.
The system was designed to ease the tedium associated with converting output from one model to
appropriate format and spatial/temporal scale for use as input for the next model. ARC/INFO
was used to store, generate, and retrieve input data; for calculating pollutant loads; and for
displaying the resulting output. The authors also used the GIS linkage to display the output of the
EUTRO4 model as a spatial animation. Geo-WAMS will be useful in making assessment about
relative impact of different source management scenarios on oxygen in the river.
Deysher, LE. 1993.
Evaluation of remote sensing techniques for monitoring giant kelp populations.
Proceedings, Fourteenth International Seaweed Symposium. Hydrobiologia 260:307-312.
Photographs and maps of the floating canopy of the giant kelp provide an important data
source to monitor nearshore water quality in southern California. Declines in water quality related
to turbidity from coastal development, ocean discharges, and nonpoint source runoff have caused
reductions in the areal extent of these kelp beds. Historically the kelp beds have been monitored
by a variety of methods including small format infrared and color photography. New digital
remote sensing instruments combined with GIS databases offer an efficient method for collecting
and analyzing data on changes in kelp bed size and location. SPOT satellite imagery has been
found to provide adequate resolution for mapping the larger beds of giant kelp along the
California coast. Beds smaller than 10 ha are not resolved well with SPOT imagery and need to be
mapped with a resolution greater than the 20 m pixel size provided by the SPOT multispectral
imagery. Imagery from a prototype of the Positive Systems ADAR system, an airplane-mounted
multispectral video sensor, provided a spatial resolution of 2.3 m in four spectral bands. ADAR
imagery taken on 2 October 1991 of the San Onofire Kelp Bed in northern San Diego County
showed 39 percent more kelp than did small-format color infrared photography made during the
same time period.
Dierberg, F. 1991.
Feasibility of using remote sensing platforms as an aid to water quality monitoring in the
Tennessee Valley. Capabilities and costs.
Publications of the Tennessee Valley Authority, TVA/WR/WQ-91/8.
Remote sensing devices, which include satellite- and airborne-mounted sensors
(fluorosensors, imaging spectrometers, multispectral video, and scanners), were evaluated
according to their availability and technical, operational, and economic features for water quality
monitoring in Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) reservoirs. Optical and electronic advances and
lower capital costs have resulted in sensors that are more real-time oriented, user-interactive,
flexible, portable, accessible, spectral/spatially resolved, and affordable than what had been
available. Two airborne sensors, the Airborne Multispectral Measurement System (AMMS),
manufactured by Xybion Electronic Systems Corp., and the Compact Airborne Spectrographic
Imager (CASI), manufactured by Itres Research Limited and marketed by G.A. Borstad
Associates Ltd., possess the cost and technical aspects to be seriously considered for acquisition
by TVA. Either would add considerable capability to TVA's efforts of mapping turbidity,
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transparency, chlorophyll, suspended solids, and aquatic macrophytes in reservoirs.
Dierberg, FE; Carriker, NE. 1994.
Field testing two instruments for remotely sensing water quality in the Tennessee Valley. Environ
Sci Technol 28(1): 16-25.
Two airborne remote sensing systems, the Compact Airborne Spectrographic Imager
(CAST) and the Airborne Multispectral Measurement System (AMMS), were field-tested over
reservoirs in the Tennessee River Valley during the summer of 1991 and the winter (AMMS only)
of 1992. Univariate, linear regression analyses using ratioed wavelength bands and line height
algorithms for radiance (CAST) or reflectance (AMMS) in the 625-725 nm wavelength range
provided the best correlations to ground-truthed uncorrected chlorophyll-a (R2 = 0.84-0.95) for
both imaging systems during the summer when phytoplankton dominated the suspended solids
composition. For the winter flight, using the AMMS system 3-4 days after a major rain event,
reflectance in the 690-710 nm range was correlated to turbidity and suspended solids
concentrations (R2 = 0.79-0.85). High correlations between imaged data and chlorophyll in
July-August and inorganic turbidity in February-March demonstrate the feasibility of using
low-cost imaging spectrometers and multispectral video cameras from fixed-wing aircraft.
Dikshit, AK; Loucks, DP. 1995-96.
Estimating nonpoint pollutant loadings. I: A geographical-information-based non-point source
simulation model.
J Environ Sys 24(4): 395-408.
This article is the first in a two-article series. A geographical-information-based model,
the Cornell Non-Point Sources simulation model (CNPS) has been developed to help planners
identify, analyze and simulate the impacts of alternative land-use management policies and
practices on nonpoint source pollutant loadings. It simulates hydrologic, erosion, and nonpoint
processes using spatial data from GIS. The model can be used to (1) simulate erosion and runoff,
sediment, and the pollutant loadings at the watershed outlet, (2) provide nonpoint water quality
constituent loadings from a watershed to stream water quality model for comprehensive in-stream
modeling, (3) analyze the runoff quantity and quality for different land-use management
alternatives, and (4) study the relative changes in water quality of receiving water bodies
associated with changes in land uses.
Dobson, AP; Rodriquez, JP; Roberts, WM; Wilcove, DS. 1997.
Geographic distribution of endangered species in the United States.
Science 275(5299):550-553.
Biodiversity is a term currently used to describe the variety of living things and their
relationships to each other and interactions with the environments. Geographic distribution data
for endangered plants, bird, fish, and mollusc species in the United States were used to locate hot
spots of threatened biodiversity.
Dohner, E; Donahoe, S; Solomon, P. 1996.
An integrated approach to ecological restoration using GIS.
Proceedings, Watersheds '96-Moving Ahead Together: Technical Conference and Exposition,
June 8-12, Baltimore, MD.
GIS can be a useful tool for developing cost-effective and ecologically comprehensive
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restoration strategies. Long-term success relies on integration of watershed characteristics such
as percentage of impervious surfaces, erosion rates, sediment yield, condition of riparian habitat,
nutrient loadings, PS discharge, and potential effects of current or future development. Databases
accessed to support the investigation include stream classifications, habitat assessment scores,
biological community assessment scores, cross-sectional streambed profiles, and water quality
data. Correlation analyses can be used to relate physiographic parameters to parameters that
reflect the condition of biological communities.
Drummond, WJ. 1995.
Extending the revolution: teaching land use planning in a GIS environment.
JPlan Educ Res 14 (4): 280-291.
Use of GIS in professional planning applications has increased at an explosive rate over
the past decade, resulting in what some have termed a "quiet revolution." The real value of this
GIS revolution will not be evaluated based on the number of GIS courses offered by planning
educators, but by the acceptance of the technology by the profession. At present, use of GIS
technologies for land-use planning is still relatively new. A general, modular strategy for
incorporating GIS technology into land-use planning coursework is described that utilizes a
combination of GIS, database, and spreadsheet software. Several examples are included to
illustrate the benefits of this approach.
Dutton, G. 1997.
Encoding and handling geospatial data with hierarchical triangular meshes.
In: Kraak, M; Molenaar, M; Fendel, E., eds. Advances in GIS research. Proceedings, Seventh
International Symposium on Spatial Data Handling. London: Taylor & Francis, pp. 505-518.
This article is by one of the originators of an octahedral Quaternary Triangular Mesh (O-
QTM) approach for digitizing the global surface. The paper begins with a survey of the history
(going as far back as the 15th century) of attempts to model the Earth as a polyhedron. It then
compares and quantifies the advantages and disadvantages of using different polyhedral shapes
(e.g., tetrahedron, octahedron, icosahedron, and truncated icosahedron) to develop a triangular
mesh on a sphere. The remainder of the article looks at the author's work using the O-QTM to
handle and visualize data in a hierarchical triangulated domain. It presents computational
procedures and properties associated with accessing geographical data organized in the O-QTM
hierarchically structure. The article concludes with an illustration of a recent preliminary
application in which O-QTM was used to produce multi-resolution cartographic representations
from a single hierarchical geospatial database.
Dwyer, AM, Bolton, RA. 1994.
NOAA's satellite active archive goes online.
Earth Sys Monitor 4(4): 1-16.
Users around the world are now able to access data easily from NOAA's polar-orbiting
satellites via NOAA's new Satellite Active Archive (SAA). The SAA system enables users on the
internet to quickly search, browse, order, and receive satellite data. Development and
management of the SAA are being led by the Office of Satellite Data Processing and Distribution
(OSDPD) within the NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service
(NESDIS). NESDIS is also working with the respective organizations on national climate data,
geophysical data, oceanography data, and NASA's EOSDIS program. Partners in the U.S.
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Global Change Research Program are also participating in the Earth Observing System (EOS)
program. SAA provides a DIRECTORY with high-level information, a GUIDE giving detailed
information about each data set, an INVENTORY to specify search criteria, an ORDER that
allows users to flag items, NEWS to display current information about SAS, and REMOTE which
links remote computer systems.
Eggen-Mclntosh, S; Lannom, KB; Jacobs, DM. 1994.
Mapping forest distributions of Central America and Mexico.
Proceedings, GIS/LIS '94, October, Phoenix, AZ, pp. 273-281.
North and Central American forestry agencies are cooperating to apply the methodology
of the recently completed U.S. forest cover map to mapping forest distributions in Mexico and
Central America. This project takes advantage of the recent availability of a full calendar year of
time-series Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) imagery for the entire area.
Forest areas will be identified, quantified, and then classified based on rainfall and elevation data.
As a result, the degree of forest fragmentation and other resource considerations could be
analyzed.
Elliott, B. 1997.
Bermont moves forward on E-911 rural addressing.
GIS World 10(6): 42-44.
This article describes how Bermont used a GIS system to enhance the state's 911 system.
This is a good example of a practical use of GIS and is explained well in this article.
Enache, M. 1994.
GIS-ready decision support system.
Proceedings, URISA94, (1):206-218.
A decision support system concerning health risk awareness and comparative risk
assessment in the Philippines was developed for the World Bank. It is intended to be used as a
rapid assessment tool for strategic planning, policy discussions, and resource allocations.
Interfaces were designed for analysts, computer operators, and decisionmakers. The current
package aims to combine Windows, Visual Basic, Microsoft Access, and Atlas GIS for Windows.
Engman, ET. 1995.
The use of remote sensing data in watershed research.
JSoil Water Conserv 50(5): 438-440.
This brief review points out that the most unique contribution of remote sensing to this
discipline is that all other hydrologic data are from point measurements, whereas remote sensing
provides area data. Spatially continuous data complement point measurements. As such it has
some potential to help address the major problem of aggregating the dynamic behavior of
hydrologic processes at various space and time scales despite their great heterogeneity. In
addition, remote sensing offers some kinds of data that, either by area of coverage or parameter
measured, have not been available through other means. Some of the basic opportunities include
measuring land cover/use, vegetation indices, drainage patterns, topography, surface temperature,
radiation balance, sensible heat flux, soil moisture, and snow properties. These parameters may
be valued directly or in many cases through their indirect association with still more hydrologic or
biological properties of interest. Further research should combine designs using instrumented
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watersheds and remote sensing tools.
Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc. (ESRI). 1994.
GIS continues growth in real estate.
Available from: ESRI, 380 New York St., Redlands, CA.
ARC News Reprint, Spring, pp. 16.
This article describes how a private consulting firm uses GIS in the real estate market for
doing market analysis and expanding GIS in nontraditional areas. Larry Daniel, VP of research
and information systems at Castillo Company, Inc., of Phoenix, AZ, stated, "Considering data in a
thorough, timely manner necessitates using a GIS. Geography is a natural in real estate."
Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc. (ESRI). 1994.
ARC/INFO map book 1993.
Available from: ESRI, 380 New York St., Redlands, CA.
An extensive demonstration of GIS applications by ARC/INFO users in 1993 resulting
from the annual ESRI competition.
Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc. (ESRI). 1994.
ARC/INFO revision 7, geographic information system analysis and data management.
Available from: ESRI, 380 New York St., Redlands, CA.
Short informational brochure on Revision 7 of ARC/INFO discussing better data entry
(ARCEDIT, ArcScan), extended data model, sophisticated analysis (ARC/INFO GRID,
ARC/INFO NETWORK), powerful data management (ArcStorm), client server GIS (Inter-
Applications-IAC), enhanced cartographic output (ARCPLOT), and ArcTools (ARC Macro
Language-AML).
Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc. (ESRI). 1994.
Arc View version 2, GIS for everyone.
Available from: ESRI, 380 New York St., Redlands, CA.
Short informational brochure on Version 2 of Arc View presenting the features to link
tabular data, access spatial data, customize analyses, use geographical aspects of data, conduct
GIS analyses, and develop quality outputs.
Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc. (ESRI). 1994.
Arc View: The geographic information system for everyone; introducing Arc View.
Available from: ESRI, 380 New York St., Redlands, CA.
A short introduction to Arc View discussing all the features presented in the course on
Introduction to Arc View (but without the class exercises). Topics covered: managing your work,
displaying and querying spatial data, attributes of spatial data, visualizing and querying data,
producing maps, and automating and customizing your work.
Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc. (ESRI). 1995.
Getting to know desktop GIS.
Available from: ESRI, 380 New York St., Redlands, CA.
A short introduction to desktop GIS using Arc View to demonstrate the principles of GIS
in a colorful, descriptive, and visual format. This document explains the terms with lots of
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pictures and examples. Topics covered: Desktop GIS: what it is and what it does; This is how it
works; Asking questions; Getting answers; Making information presentable; What you need to
know about data; and Using desktop GIS.
Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc. (ESRI) Educational Services. 1995.
Introduction to Arc View.
Available from: ESRI, 380 New York St., Redlands, CA.
This is an extensive textbook and workbook with examples for the person who wants to
learn how to use Arc View. Topics covered: Arc View basics; creating views, themes, and image
themes; working with themes and charts; the power of tables; spatial query and analysis; creating
a map layout; and addresses and other events.
Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc. (ESRI). 1996.
ARC/INFO version 7.1, many important new features!
Available from: ESRI, 380 New York St., Redlands, CA.
Informational brochure on enhancements of ARC/INFO 7.1, including new graphical
editing tools, a new vector geoprocessing tool (AREAQUERY), new ARC GRID functions, a
new ARC TIN command, etc.
Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc. (ESRI). 1996.
ESRI map book volume eleven: geography connects our world.
Available from: ESRI, 380 New York St., Redlands, CA.
The maps contained in this volume showcase users' innovative and important GIS
applications and projects. These are the "finest" maps created in 1995 by the more than 100,000
worldwide users. The maps are beautiful and show many of the ways in which geographic
information is being used throughout the world. One of the most colorful and interesting from the
ground-water arena is entitled "Protective Function of Groundwater Covering" from the Bavarian
Geological Survey, Munich, Germany.
Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc. (ESRI). 1997.
Arc View GIS: The geographic information system for everyone.
Available from: ESRI, 380 New York St., Redlands, CA.
A descriptive brochure on Arc View discussing features for visualization, quality mapping,
spatial analysis, data integration, application development, extensible architecture, and user
support.
Ernst, MR; Frossard, W; Andrews, DW. 1994.
Comparison of nonpoint pollutant loadings from geographic information system modeling and wet
weather stream flow monitoring.
Lake Reservoir Manage 9(1): 79-84.
Traditional water quality sampling to ascertain nonpoint loadings to southern reservoirs
focuses on sampling from events when tributaries are carrying significant amounts of runoff.
Many southern reservoirs receive the majority of their runoff from one or two storm events each
year, making sampling of these events critical in assessing the nonpoint load. The four Texas
water supply reservoirs discussed in this paper have at least 75 percent of their nutrient load and
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95 percent of their sediment load coming from nonpoint sources. Efforts to quantify nonpoint
loads are challenged by the large size of the watersheds, unpredictability of rainfall and tributary
reaction and difficulties in sampling rain-swollen tributaries. GIS modeling techniques using
remote sensing, published nutrient export coefficients, and the Universal Soil Loss Equation
(USLE) offer the reservoir manager a quick assessment of average nonpoint loadings from large
areas. GIS nonpoint assessments are purported to provide estimates within a factor of two for
nutrient loads and give a relative ranking highlighting the "critical" subwatersheds impacting a
given reservoir. The Tarrant County Water Control and Improvement District Number One (the
District) has conducted storm event tributary sampling on four major water supply reservoirs in
north central Texas since 1989. The District has also contracted for GIS assessments of each
reservoir's watershed. This paper discusses a comparison of observed traditional sampling results
and GIS modeling results.
Ertep, SA; Lee, GW. 1994.
Use of GRASS to facilitate red-cockaded woodpecker management at Fort Benning Military
Reservation.
URISA, p. 628-633.
The Geographic Resources Analysis Support System (GRASS) was applied within
129,000 acres of manageable forest land near Columbus, Georgia, to try to automate the foraging
analysis for the red-cockaded woodpecker (RCW). As an endangered species, a foraging habitat
has been defined for the RCW in terms of stand age, density, and distance from the center of a
colony. The only new data needed were to define the center of the colonies, which have
overlapping habitats. GRASS determined the suitable foraging areas geographically, produced
maps, and generated reports for import into Lotus 1-2-3 for identifying colonies with stand
attributes and stand acreage. The main time savings is the computer's calculation of acreage in
less than 1/1 Oth the time.
Evans, BM; Myers, WL. 1990.
A GIS-based approach to evaluating regional groundwater pollution potential with DRASTIC.
JSoil Water Conserv 45(2):242-246.
The study consisted of two components, one the development of a GIS database for the
Indian River Inlet area of Delaware and the other the predictive modeling that yielded a ground-
water pollution risk and hazard assessment and map series for the area. Drinking water protection
was among the most important uses to protect. Impact-related information collected for the GIS
included elevation of the aquifer base and water table, soil permeability, elevation, land cover,
sewer service areas, and transmissivity. The predictive modeling using DRASTIC involved
manipulating the data to qualitatively assess the potential for negative impacts to ground-water in
any of the cells of the database. The most important factors for making these judgements were
depth to water table, net recharge, aquifer media, soil media, slope, impact of the vadose zone,
and hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer. Factors could be weighted as desired. Model outputs
generally reflected pollution potential.
Evans, BJ; Gordan, JV; Mavros, WV; Perry, EM. 1994.
The use of geographic information systems technology for salmon habitat analysis.
ASPRS/ACSM, pp. 200-208.
Using the Lower Granite Reservoir as a pilot study area, this project demonstrated that
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GIS technology could be used for aquatic environmental studies. The eventual aim was to use
GIS technology to evaluate the impact of lowering the reservoirs of the Snake River in Idaho,
Oregon, and Washington. This mitigation method is expected to improve the survival of
threatened and endangered salmon. The impacts of related changes in the physical environment
on the surrounding terrestrial wildlife also were considered. The researchers concluded that (1) as
GIS technology moves toward three-dimensional modeling and analysis, it will have fewer
limitations for aquatic applications, and (2) reproducible results are one of the greatest benefits of
using a GIS.
Payer, M; Gee, G; Rockhold, M; Freshley, M; Walters, T. 1996.
Estimating recharge rates for a groundwater model using a GIS.
J Environ Qual 25:510.
There has been concern about the transport of contaminants from defense wastes as a
result of natural recharge. The authors' objective was to estimate the distribution of natural
recharge to use in a ground-water flow and transport model. The authors used a GIS to identify
all combinations of soil type and vegetation in the area. They then used the GIS to assign
estimates of recharge rates using field data or simulation if field data were unavailable. The GIS
estimated the annual recharge volume for each soil-vegetation combination. The GIS map could
later be used to determine the impact of changes in vegetation and to estimate the recharge
volume before farms and the defense site were located in the area.
Fedra, K, Pemberton, R; Elgy, J; Mannis, A. 1996.
Air quality management: an effect-based approach (development of a sophisticated environmental
management technique based upon the integration of air quality modelling withing a GIS/DSS
framework).
Proceedings, International Conference on Development and Application of Computer
Techniques in Environmental Studies, Como, Italy, Sept. pp. 637-648. In: Development and
application of computer techniques to environmental studies-Envirosoft 96. Computational
Mecanics, Inc., Billerica, MA.
This project combined GIS and DSS to formulate an effects-based and cost-effective air
quality management strategy. The goal was to provide policy makers with a tool for maximizing
air quality improvements while minimizing any economic disadvantages.
Fischl, P. 1996.
Predicting areas of future public water supply problems-Floridan aquifer, Northeast Florida.
AWRA Symposium on GIS and Water Resources, September 22-26, Ft. Lauderdale, FL.
This study is part of an assessment of water supply needs and sources in which the St.
Johns River Water Management District (SJRWMD) has been required to identify areas expected
to have inadequate water resources to meet the future water supply demand in the year 2010. The
plan was to use regional ground-water flow models and local analytical ground water flow models
to evaluate the effect of increased pumping on the ground-water flow system. A GIS
methodology was developed (SUN Sparcstation II using SunOS 4.1.3 (UNIX), running
ARC/INFO 6.1.1) using an overlay procedure with gridded surfaces to identify areas that have a
high potential for (1) vegetative impacts, (2) salt water intrusion, and/or (3) an increase in public
water supply demand. Data surfaces used included (1) long-term decline in the potentiometric
surface of the Floridan aquifer, (2) short-term decline in the potentiometric surface of the Floridan
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aquifer, (3) confining unit thickness over the Floridan aquifer, (4) vertical head difference between
the Floridan aquifer and the surficial aquifer, (5) percentage of fresh water in the aquifer, (6)
horizontal distance to areas of no potable water in the aquifer, (7) wetland locations, and (8)
projected 2010 population density. Results showed a high potential for water problems (i.e., high
scores). The Atlantic coastal areas show high scores, as do the Gainesville and Ocala areas due to
several compounding factors. Along the coast, factors include the presence of poor-quality water,
distance to poor-quality water, changes in elevation of the potentiometric surface of the Floridan
aquifer, and large population projections. Fligh inland scores are due to large population
increases and changes in the elevation of the potentiometric surface of the aquifer, as well as a
thin confining unit in the Ocala area.
Fisher, PF. 1989.
Knowledge-based approaches to determining and correcting areas of unreliability in geographic
databases.
In: Goodchild, M; Gopal, S., eds. Accuracy of spatial databases. New York: Taylor & Francis,
pp. 45-54.
Fisher, RF. 1991.
Modeling soil map unit inclusions by Monte Carlo simulation.
Int J Geo Info Sys 5:193-208.
Fitzgerald, RW; Lees, BG. 1994.
Assessing the classification accuracy of multisource remote sensing data.
Remote Sensing Environ 47:362-368.
The authors claim that traditional assessment of errors in the classification of remote
sensing and GIS data is inadequate. The Kappa test statistic technique is recommended and used
in this article. The Kappa test statistic and non-site-specific accuracy assessments were applied to
floristic classification errors that were generated by a neural network and decision tree
classification of a subscene area of Kioloa, Australia. Authors and results suggest that the Kappa
statistic tool is the preferred tool for testing classification accuracy based on error matrices.
Florence, J; Hormsby, K; Egenhofer, MJ. 1997.
The GIS wallboard: iterations with spatial information on large scale displays.
In: Kraak, M; Molenaar, M; Fendel, E., eds. Advances in GIS research. Proceedings, Seventh
International Symposium on Spatial Data Handling. London: Taylor & Francis, pp. 449-463.
This article explores the concept of a GIS wall display device (which the authors call "GIS
WallBoard") and the possible advantages it might offer over current computer GIS displays. The
article begins with a discussion of the important role of WallBoard in collaborative spatial
decisionmaking (e.g., a group of planners working together on a proposed development). It
describes the general features of WallBoard. The heart of the article contains discussions of (1)
interactions the GIS Wallboard could support (e.g., both touch-based and empty-handed gestures,
eye contact, voice interaction, computer input, multi-modal inputs) and (2) the broader range of
"interaction spaces" (arm's length, spitting distance, and within-sight) that would be possible with
the WallBoard but not with current computer desktop displays. The article also describes some
basic GIS manipulation capabilities (selection, zoom, pan, rotation, and navigation) at the "arm's
length" interaction level.
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Fola, SE. 1989.
Patterns of stream channel response to urbanization in the humid tropics and their implications for
urban land use planning: a case study from southwestern Nigeria.
ApplGeogr 9:2 73-286.
Examines the extent to which urban channels in a humid tropical environment are in
equilibrium with the varying urban hydrological states. The degree and location of urbanization in
the watersheds appear to be the main determinants of the nature of stream channel response to
urbanization. This is another useful paper to investigate the impact of urbanization on surface
water bodies.
Foster, MA; Robillard, PD; Lehning, D; Masson, D. 1996.
Expert GIS and model based guidance for protection and enhancement of water quality in
agricultural watersheds.
Proceedings, Watershed '96, June, No. 2:1127, Baltimore, MD. http://www2.deasy.psu.edu/erri/
This article focuses on two knowledge-based software applications for nonpoint source
pollution control: STEWARD and XGSTEWARD. Expert rules are based on lessons learned
through the Rural Clean Water Program and are based on site characteristic and the contaminant
of concern. XGSTEWARD is a GRASS GIS and calculates quantitative indices for leaching
potential and nutrient loading, then applies the same expert rules as STEWARD. Both
applications were undergoing user evaluation, and new versions were anticipated in 1996.
Frank, SM; Goodchild, MF; Onsrud, HJ; Pinto, JK. 1995.
A survey on user requirements for framework GIS data.
Proceedings, Vol 1, URISA 95, San Antonio, TX, July 16-20, pp. 637-651.
This article reports on a National Center of Geographic Information and Analytic survey
that targets users of existing GISs or GIS products. The users were asked about data needs. The
returned information was analyzed across sectors of government, private industry, and academia,
by geographic region, and by professional area of application. The goal was to determine the
criteria that could help in the selection of current digital geographic data sets that best meet the
National Spatial Data Infrastructure. One conclusion is that many current GIS users apparently
lack technical knowledge about GIS. The differences in user requirements appear to be related to
application needs.
Fraser, RH; Warren, MV; Barten, PK. 1995.
Comparative evaluation of land cover data sources for erosion prediction.
Water Resources Bull 31(6):9911000.
The authors compared LANDSAT MSS and TM with aerial photography in terms of their
ability to predict erosion using MUSCLE. In MUSCLE, land cover is used to estimate VM-the
vegetation management parameter. The authors investigated whether the land-cover classification
would change with the different sources, and whether the resulting soil loss prediction will
change. As a first step, they used a nearest neighbor function to convert coverages to UTM.
They compared unsupervised, supervised, and a hybrid approach to classification. A 5x5 filter
was used after classification. Of the classification errors, 92 percent occurred in the forest cover
types. The causes for the errors included the rectification process and the analyst's classification
of mixed forest. Fortunately, soil loss predictions were insensitive to these minor discrepancies in
the land-cover classification. The TM, hybrid-classification map explained 90 percent of the
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variation in the aerial photo-derived map.
Freeman, W; Fox, J. 1995.
ALA WAT: a spatially allocated watershed model for approximating stream, sediment, and
pollutant flows.
Environ Manage 19(4):567-577.
The authors used GIS plus a model to look at (1) hydrology in an undisturbed watershed,
(2) calculated suspended sediment contributions from urban areas, and (3) simulated effects of
street sweeping. They used the normal ratio methods to approximate rainfall for grid cells lacking
data. Conclusion: Street sweeping would have to be increased from once every 14 days to once
every 2 days to reduce suspended sediment loads by one-half
Frye, E; Denning, R. 1995.
Michigan township uses watershed-based decision support system.
Geo Info Sys 5(9):55-57.
This article evaluates stormwater runoff impact on watershed with a model that included
rainfall, land use (derived from aerial photography), and soil group. It provides information to
township officials to help them make better informed land-use decisions. It describes an excellent
application of GIS to ecological risk assessment.
Galagan, C. 1997.
Geographic information systems and ASA.
Marine Environ ModeII, January 11(1).
ASA is a leader in the integration of numerical models and GIS technology. Innovations
in GIS customization tools, data availability, and internet applications are enabling exciting new
product development and expanding the way individuals use GIS technology. The model systems
are being expanded to fully integrate with popular GIS applications such as Arc View. In addition,
model applications will become web-enabled so that data, GIS, and model functionality will be
available to their clients via the internet. For example, GIS layers of critical habitats in Tampa
Bay or real-time wind speed and direction data from an offshore buoy can be used directly in the
integrated hydrodynamics and water quality model system. These models have also been modified
to incorporate raster charts and remotely sensed imagery and have been extended to enterprise
databases.
Galloway, B. 1997.
Schools of thought: putting GIS on the curriculum.
Mapping Awareness ll(3):32-34.
ESRI's Arc View is being promoted in Northern Ireland. GIS has become part of the
geography curriculum (in high school?). This article describes the teacher and student training
tools (using CD ROM) that were developed to introduce GIS into the curriculum.
Geschwind, SA; Stolwijk, JA; Bracken, M; Fitzgerald, E; Stark, A; Olsen, C; Melius, J. 1992.
Risk of congenital malformations associated with proximity to hazardous waste sites.
Am JEpidemiol. 135(11): 1197-1207.
The authors linked two existing databases of the New York State Department of Health to
evaluate the relationship between congenital malformations and maternal residential proximity to
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hazardous waste sites in New York State. A secondary purpose of the study was to test the
feasibility of linking environmental and health databases and using geographic mapping methods
for delineating environmental exposures. They used a four-tier approach: (1) test whether
residential proximity to a waste site during pregnancy increased the risk of congenital defects; (2)
test whether defects of specific organ systems were more likely to be correlated with proximity to
a toxic waste site; (3) test whether specific features of a waste site (i.e., off-site migration of
chemicals) increased the site's potential health risk; and (4) evaluate the risk of particular organ
system defects known to be associated with specific chemical exposures. They assigned lat/long
coordinates to 590 waste sites in 20 New York counties. They used 12,442 individual congenital
malformations representing 9,313 cases taken from the New York Congenital Malformations
Registry in 1983 to 1984. They used 17,802 control births from New York State for the same
time period. Addresses for cases and controls were assigned lat/long coordinates. Each waste
site was assigned a composite hazard ranking score based on several factors, such as the
likelihood of human exposure to residences within a 1-mile radius of the site, and toxicities of
identified chemicals. An "exposure risk index" was calculated for each respondent, incorporating
the distance from the site and the site's hazard ranking score for each site within a 1-mile radius of
the birth residence. They used a coordinate matching program to match all case and control
coordinates to the waste site coordinates. This program calculates the distance and direction of
each birth residence from hazardous waste sites within a 1-mile radius. Individuals living within 1
mile of a site were considered potentially exposed. The results of the study showed a small, but
statistically significant, additional risk for birth defects associated with maternal proximity to toxic
waste sites.
Gi-Chul, Y; Risley, D; Koneff, M; Davis, C. 1994.
Development of Ohio's GIS-based wetlands inventory.
J Water Soil Conserv 49(l):23-28.
The Ohio Division of Wildlife has adopted state-of-the-art GIS to replace the national
wetland inventory maps, which it uses for natural resource management. The GIS is composed of
sophisticated computer hardware and software configurations that are designed to handle,
interpret, and manage large spatially referenced databases. If properly used, the GIS will give the
state the capability of periodically monitoring its wetland resources in a consistent and efficient
manner.
Gi-Chul, Y; Risley, D; Koneff, M; Davis, C. 1994.
Development of Ohio's GIS-based wetlands inventory.
J Water Soil Conserv 49(l):23-28.
This is a discussion of the Ohio Division of Wildlife GIS to replace the national wetland
inventory maps, which it uses for natural resource management. The system is composed of
sophisticated computer hardware and software configurations that are designed to handle,
interpret, and manage large spatially referenced databases.
Gillespie, MK; Howard, DC; Ness, MJ; Fuller, RM. 1996.
Linking satellite and field survey data, through the use of GIS, as implemented in Great Britain in
the Countryside Survey 1990 Project MornaK. Gillespie, Institute of Terrestrial Ecology,
Grange-over-Sands, UK.
Environ Monitor Assess 39(l-3):385.
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In 1990, the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology undertook a major project to record land
cover in the United Kingdom, which was called the Countryside Survey 1990. A number of
different technologies were employed, including satellite image analysis and field surveys. Data
from the two sources were analyzed using a GIS, and efforts to integrate the data are described.
Experience has shown that the combined surveys provide localized and more detailed estimates
than either data set alone.
Gilliland, MW; Baxter-Potter, W. 1987.
A geographic information system to predict non-point source pollution potential.
Lake Reservoir Manage 3 (2): 23-29.
Bacterial densities (total coliform, fecal coliform, and fecal streptococci) and suspended
solids in runoff from a feedlot, pasture, and cornfield were measured. Densities of fecal coliform
were highest from the feedlot but were 1000 to 10,000 times greater than the water quality
standard for swimmable waters from all three land uses. Densities of fecal streptococci were
highest from the corn field, which suggests that wildlife are the source of bacteria. Fecal
coliform/fecal streptococci ratios distinguished cattle from wildlife as the source of bacterial
pollution both among land uses and among seasons of the year. Suspended solids concentrations
in runoff ranged from 423 to 925 mg/L and were highest from the cornfield. A GIS was
developed to include algorithms associated with nonpoint source pollution. The system accepts
digitally mapped information on soil type, topography, and land use. It calculates characteristics
such as slope and slope length, and relates these characteristics to soils and land-use parameters in
order to produce three-dimensional maps of runoff potential, sediment pollution potential, and
bacterial pollution potential. It offers the advantages of retaining the geographic character of
pollution potential information and of conveying in three-dimensional graphical terms the effects
of topography, soil type, land use, and land management practices.
Gitelson, A; Garbuzov, G; Szilagyi, F; Mittenzwey, KH; Karnieli, A; Kaiser, A. 1993.
Quantitative remote sensing methods for real-time monitoring of inland waters quality.
IntJRemote Sensing 14(7): 1269-1295.
Spaceborne remote sensing of inland water quality is based on the assumption that the
relationship between the reflectance and the concentration of relevant water quality constituents is
known a priori. Simultaneous measurements of the upwelling and downwelling irradiances, along
with phytoplankton chlorophyll-a, suspended matter, and dissolved organic matter concentration
at over 20 water bodies throughout former USSR, Hungary, Germany, and Bulgaria, are reported
in this article. The measurements cover different trophic states of water bodies, from oligotrophic
to hypertrophic, and different climatic conditions. The range of chlorophyll-a is 0 multiplied by 1
to 350 mg/m"3, suspended matter is 0 multiplied by 1 to 66 mg/L"1, and dissolved organic matter
absorption at the wavelength 380 nm is 0 multiplied by 1 to 12 m"1. All radiometric measurements
are performed with a single radiometer in the 400-750 nm range with spectral resolution better
than 1 nm. Factor and signature analysis, as well as multispectral statistical modeling of water
quality parameters versus simulated spectral band ratios, makes possible the determination of
appropriate functions of reflectance for estimating phytoplankton chlorophyll-a, suspended
matter, and dissolved organic matter concentrations. One set of measurements is used to develop
empirical relationships among the spectral reflectance and the above-mentioned water quality
parameters. The other sets of measurements are used to test these relationships. The maximum
error of estimation are: 3 mg/m"3 for chlorophyll-a, 4 mg/L"1 for suspended matter, and 0
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multiplied by 065 mg Cm"3 (mg of carbon per m3) for dissolved organic matter. The results are
used to develop an appropriate methodology for monitoring of the eutrophication process in
inland waters and to test concepts of inland water quality monitoring from space.
Gitelson, A; Szilagyi, F; Mittenzwey, KH. 1993.
Improving quantitative remote sensing for monitoring of inland water quality.
Water Resources Res 2 7(7): 1185-1194.
Simultaneous measurements of the upwelling and downwelling irradiances, along with
phytoplankton chlorophyll-a, suspended matter, and dissolved organic matter concentration at
over 20 water bodies throughout the CIS, Hungary, Germany, and Bulgaria, are reported in this
paper. The measurements cover different trophic states of water bodies, from oligotrophic to
hypertrophic, and different climatic conditions. The range of chlorophyll-a is 0.1-350 mg/m"3,
suspended matter is 0.1-66 mg/L"1 and dissolved organic matter absorption, at a wavelength of
380 nm, is 0.1-12 m"1. All radiometric measurements were performed with a single radiometer in
the 400-750 nm range with spectral resolution better than 1 nm. Factor and signature analysis, as
well as multispectral statistical modeling of water quality parameters versus simulated spectral
band ratios, made possible the determination of appropriate functions of reflectance for estimating
phytoplankton chlorophyll-a, suspended matter, and dissolved organic matter concentrations. One
set of measurements was used to develop empirical relationships between the spectral reflectance
and the above-mentioned water quality parameters. The other sets of measurements were used to
test these relationships. The maximum errors of estimation are: 3 mg/m"3 for chlorophyll-a, 4
mg/L"1 for suspended matter, and 0.065 mg Cm"3 for dissolved organic matter. The results are
used to develop an appropriate methodology for monitoring of eutrophication processes in inland
waters.
Glickman, TS. 1994.
Measuring environmental equity with geographic information systems.
Resources, summer 1994, pp. 2-6.
The author discusses his methods and preliminary results of a GIS study examining
environmental equity with respect to the risks from industrial hazards in Allegheny County, PA.
He has combined risk assessment techniques with GIS software in order to look at both
residential proximity to hazards and the health and safely risks associated with these hazards. He
has classified Allegheny County's industrial facilities into those that may pose a risk of chronic
hazards (TRI facilities) and those that may pose a risk of acute hazards (EHS facilities). The TRI
facilities are considered to pose chronic hazards because they have continual, routine chemical
releases. The EHS facilities are considered to pose acute hazards because they store large
quantities of "extremely hazardous substances" that could be released during an accident. The
author drew concentric circles of 0.5-, 1.0- and 2.0-mile radii around each facility and designated
the combined areas within the circles as the "close-proximity region," where people live in close
proximity to the facilities. Using GIS, he calculated the proportion of nonwhite residents and
poor residents both inside and outside the close-proximity region for both the TRI and EHS
facilities. For both kinds of facilities, he found that both demographic groups made up a larger
percentage of the population inside the close-proximity region compared with their percentage of
the population in the remainder of the county. These types of findings are similar to those of
other studies. The paper then discusses the results of combining these proximity-based measures
with the risk-based measures for the EHS facilities. The risk-based measures include such things
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as probability of accidental chemical release from a facility, size and location of area affected by
such a release, toxicity of chemical released, and day versus night-time accidental releases.
Combining both the proximity- and risk-based measures, he assumed that equity for nonwhites (or
the poor) exists if their percentage of the total risk is the same as that of the nonwhites (or poor)
among the entire county population. He found that the percentage of nonwhites and poor at risk
from accidental chemical releases from the EHS facilities was lower (9 percent and 8 percent,
respectively) than the percentage of nonwhite and poor people living in the whole county (13
percent and 12 percent, respectively). He felt this outcome resulted from the fact that nonpoor
whites are often at greater risk from hazards that affect a large area, such as major accidental
chemical releases, than from hazards that affect only a small area. The radius of the area affected
by a major chemical release accident often exceeds 1 mile, and nonwhites and poor people tend to
live closer to EHS facilities than do white and nonpoor people.
Glickman, TS; Golding, D; Hersh, R. 1995.
GIS-based environmental equity analysis, a case study of TRI facilities in the Pittsburgh area.
In: Beroggi, GEG; Wallace, WA., eds. Computer supported risk management. Dordrecht,
Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 95 114.
The authors wanted to investigate the effect that areal unit of analysis has on the
evaluation of environmental equity. Using GIS technology, they examined the demographics of
populations associated with all TRI facilities in Pittsburgh and surrounding Allegheny County,
Pennsylvania. They identified all census block groups, tracts, and municipalities and classified
them as being TRI (i.e., containing at least one TRI) or non-TRI (i.e., containing no TRI's)
communities. They also drew half-mile and 1-mile radius circles around each of the 88 TRIs, and
dissolved the boundaries of the overlapping circles to produce two single layers representing all
the TRI communities within both a half-mile and 1 mile of a TRI. The area of Allegheny County
lying outside the union of the circles was designated as the non-TRI community. They looked at
several demographic measures of race, poverty, and potentially at-risk populations, including the
percentage of the black population, median household income, and percentage of population less
than 5 years of age. When comparing the demographic measures for the various TRI and non-
TRI communities, they found significant differences associated with the unit of analysis. They
also found that although the same kinds of inequities were seen in the half-mile and 1-mile circles,
the absolute magnitude of the differences was greater in the 1-mile circles. Based on their
findings, the authors caution that the spatial unit of analysis in environmental equity studies needs
to be selected carefully and tailored to evaluating the problem at hand (i.e., health risk evaluation
versus proximity evaluation). They also suggest that several units of analysis should be used and
sensitivity analyses conducted to examine the impact of the spatial unit on the study results. They
felt that for proximity analyses, use of the circles around the TRIs was the most appropriate unit
of analysis.
Goodchild, MF; Quattrochi, DA. 1997.
Scale, multiscaling, remote sensing, and GIS.
Scale in remote sensing and GIS. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, pp. 111.
The subject of the collection, "geographic scaling," is an overworked and yet ambiguous
concept. It is used to refer to both the "magnitude" of a study (its geographic extent) and also the
degree of detail (its level of geographic resolution). GIS has opened up the possibility of (a)
multiscale representation of geographical space and (b) approaching scale as a generic issue,
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aspects of scale considered as a generic issue, observations of the Earth, data volume, and the
term "scale." The remainder of the article describes the order and summarizes the other essays
that appear in the volume.
Goodchild, MF; Parks, BO; Steyaert, LT, eds. 1993.
Environmental modeling with GIS.
New York: Oxford University Press.
This book is a followup from a conference held in Boulder, Colorado, in September 1991,
but it is not a conference proceedings. It is fairly readable and well produced.
Goodchild, MF; Steyaert, LT; Parks, BO; Johnston, C; Maidment, D; Crane, M; Glendinning, S.
1996.
GIS and environmental modeling: progress and research issues.
GIS World Books, Ft. Collins, CO, 486 p.
Gorokhovich, Y. 1996.
The NYC water quality division GIS and its applications for the watershed management.
Proceedings, Watersheds 96-Moving Ahead Together: Technical Conference and Exposition,
June 8-12, Baltimore, MD.
The main use of GIS is integration of different layers of information for model input:
layers include stream locations, land use, soil, geology, climate, and water quality. Estimates of
the total annual mass of phosphorus (P) entering a reservoir or lake are obtained by identifying
land use, applying export coefficients, and then summing the annual P contribution for each
nonpoint source and point source within the watershed. By changing the assumptions on land use
and export coefficients, it is possible to evaluate the effects of future land-use changes on nutrient
loadings, and subsequently water quality. The GIS system allows automatic processing of the
area delineation. To accomplish this, elevation data were converted into the Digital Elevation
Model (DEM). Then the DEM file was converted into the raster grid containing information
about the flow direction of water along the surface of the land. Another GIS application was
created to calculate reservoir volumes, which are necessary for reservoir modeling.
Gorres, J; Gold, AJ. 1996.
Incorporating spatial variability into GIS to estimate nitrate leaching at the aquifer scale.
J Environ Qual 25:491-498.
This study analyzed the effect of spatial variability of soil properties and management
practices on ground-water quality. The analyses were carried out at different spatial scales from
point level to the entire recharge basin. GIS and stratified sampling were used together to
characterize soils and assess variability in potential NO3 leaching. The authors developed
cumulative distribution functions of several properties of soil for input to the root zone model.
The analyses were of markedly lower variability basinwide than at the point scale, suggesting that
GIS at common mapping scales may be appropriate for use by water quality managers to protect
large production wells.
Gorres, J; Gold, AJ. 1996.
Incorporating spatial variability into GIS to estimate nitrate leaching at the aquifer scale.
J Environ Qual, 25(3):491-498.
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The Rhode Island GIS soils database was used to generate six broad soil strata for use in a
root-zone nitrogen fate model to predict nitrate-nitrogen concentrations at a production scale
well. Monte Carlo analyses with the model were used to assess uncertainty associated with
predicting NO3-N leaching for different soil/land management strata.
Gosinski, T. 1995.
Implementing a regional traffic data management system.
Proceedings, Vol. 1, URISA 95, San Antonio, TX, July 16-20, pp. 735-743.
The Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act (ISTEA) and the Clean Air Act
Amendments shift transportation decisionmaking toward the local level in such areas as air quality
control and employer trip reduction. In response, the Houston-Galveston Area Council
developed a Traffic Data Management System to efficiently store, display, query, analyze, and
disseminate information. The data can be accessed by other planning agencies.
Gould, MD; Tatham, JA; Savitsky, B. 1988.
Applying spatial search techniques to chemical emergency management.
Proceedings, GIS/LIS '88 Third International Conference, Nov. 30-Dec. 2, San Antonio, TX,
pp. 843-851.
The authors discuss the use of AM/FM, spatial searching, air dispersions modeling, and
population overlays in a comprehensive facility system to deal with chemical emergencies. They
describe different hardware and software options for building such a system. They also discuss
how to integrate the products of an air dispersion model with the chemical and health hazard
characteristics of a chemical plume resulting from an accident. This plume information can then
be used in conjunction with mapped population data to determine who is at risk and what
emergency actions should be taken. They also suggest queries that can be made to determine the
number and kinds of people who may live in the path of the plume.
Graham, LA. 1997.
Land, sea, air GPS/GIS field mapping solutions for terrestrial, aquatic and aerial settings.
GIS World 10(1): 40-46.
The author contends that feature positioning systems such as GPS now allow users to
build GIS databases while out in the field. The author evaluated several systems in the field and
concluded that real-time computer mapping software is a valuable tool in collecting accurate GIS
data and attributes in the field. This software is particularly useful when interfaced with real-time
differential GPS. The optimal combination of software, devices, and methodologies varies
depending on whether the user is in a terrestrial, aquatic, or aerial setting.
Graham, LA. 1997.
Land, sea, air GPS/GIS field mapping solutions for terrestrial, aquatic and aerial settings.
GIS World 10(1): 40-46.
This article describes the types of equipment that can be used in the field to accomplish
"real-time feature mapping." The article covers laser mapping devices, digital still cameras, and
video integration that can be operated in conjunction with GPS and real-time mapping software.
This is a good article because it notes some down-to-earth problems, such as trees around a pond
interfering with GPS or radio signals.
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Graham, LA. 1997.
Land, sea, air GPS/GIS field mapping solutions for terrestrial, aquatic and aerial settings.
GIS World 10(l):40-46.
The author evaluated a variety of field data collection devices to determine performance in
terrestrial, aquatic, and aerial environments. Devices included laser mapping devices, digital still
cameras, and single- or multiple-camera video data integration. Combinations of software and
field data collection devices and methods were also evaluated. Comparison tables are presented
summarizing device performance.
Graham, LA. 1997.
Modern-day magic options abound from raster-to-vector conversion.
GIS World 10(7): 32-38.
Raster to vector conversion is possible using six software products. Not all maps are
good candidates for conversion, but the software available to make this conversion is quite good.
Graham, SJ. 1997.
Products liability in GIS: present complexions and future directions.
GIS Law 4(1).
This article discusses liability problems that are likely to arise as more people use GIS and
GIS software packages become more mass-produced. The author believes that strict product
liability concerns could rise from hardware, software, data, and the personnel required to operate
the system. The author implies that data quality is particularly at risk because problems can occur
with positional accuracy, attribute accuracy, logical consistency, resolution accuracy,
completeness, and temporal changes. Such errors could lead to personal injury or death. The
author believes that the GIS profession should police itself and its quality or the law will, and
should, accomplish that task for it.
Grant, RE. 1997.
Integrating network models: CAD versus GIS.
Water Eng Manage 144 (4): 29.
The author discusses the thought process engineers and GIS managers should consider
when integrating CAD with GIS. Although both systems have different applications, both can
process information using the same database. The author points out that users may be interested
in some common data attributes, but for different applications. Attributes of the same data also
may not be interchangeable between the different applications. The author concludes that vendors
are creating tools for seamless integration of data, but users of the tools should be mindful of their
needs and the limitations of these integrating tools.
Grant, R; Shah, N. 1996.
Data conversion for a small-town GIS.
Geo Info Sys 6(4):38-41.
The town of Stonington, Connecticut (population 17,000), began to consider
implementing a GIS to keep pace with the town's rapid growth over the past 7-10 years, mostly
as a tourist destination and retirement community. Because of the town's limited budget, it
needed to consider carefully all options before choosing a data conversion method. The goal of
the GIS is to increase the efficiency of town staff in working with geographically related
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information and data, primarily by improving geographic data sharing between departments. This
program would centralize maps in the town office to avoid duplication of efforts and reduce
expenses. Although the data conversion is still under way, the benefits of GIS have already been
realized: the director of emergency management foresees using GIS for planning evacuation in
emergency situations; the local fire departments want to use GIS to study response times and
locate district boundaries; and the planning department is using the data to find variances in
zoning and re-evaluating existing zones. Town officials hope that they will soon be able to offer
GIS maps to developers for a fee.
Green, K; Cosentino, B. 1996.
Using satellite imagery to detect and monitor forest change.
Geo Info Sys 6(2):22-30.
During the past decade, many types of pests have ravaged the forests of eastern Oregon
and Washington and the Sierras of California. Massive tree mortality and damage have resulted,
rapidly changing wildlife habitat and expanding the potential for forest fires fueled by excessive
dead, woody materials throughout the forests. The rapidly changing forest landscape presents
substantial challenges for forest mapping, inventory, and planning for forest managers. Working
under a NASA Earth Observation Commercialization Program (EOCAP) contract, Pacific
Meridian Resources investigated the use of multitemporal satellite imagery to detect and measure
land-use and land-cover change. Different techniques for monitoring change were investigated,
addressed, and compared; the results of the assessments were then employed to develop easy-to-
use change-detection software. The utility of multitemporal satellite imagery in detecting and
measuring forest damage caused by pest outbreaks was examined. The results of this comparative
analysis showed that using image differencing of ratios of the near- to mid-infrared bands
provided the highest accuracy in measuring forest crown cover change.
Green, K; Finney, M; Campbell, J; Weinstein, D; Landrum,V. 1995.
FIRE: using GIS to predict fire behavior.
J Forestry 93(5):21-25.
The paper discusses the application of GIS to spatially represent fire behavior, including
various assumptions of fuel type, weather conditions, and topography. FIRE! is a GIS-based
model that was developed for Camp Lejeune for predicting fire behavior across both time and
space. It also allows for decisions to be sensitively analyzed for managers fighting fires. Future
versions of the model will include economic costs and benefits.
Groves, M. 1997.
The cutting edge; ground control; a crop of satellites and computers is helping farmers manage
fields more efficiently.
Los Angeles Times, Business Section, March 10.
This article discusses the future of precision farming in California. The lead in precision
farming has been in the midwest, where fewer crops are grown on larger pieces of land. In
California, more crops are grown on smaller parcels using irrigation. This makes it more difficult
to use systems like GIS and GPS because of higher cost to produce the data needed. Recently,
ESRI came out with software that enables growers to assess field conditions and how those relate
to yield. Within the next year, two Colorado companies plan to launch the first high-resolution
private-sector satellites. EarthWatch in Longmont, Colorado, plans to launch a satellite that will
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feature 30-meter resolution. Next January, Space Imaging Eosat in Thornton, Colorado, plans to
be the first company to offer 1-meter resolution on a commercial basis. This sharpening of
resolution will make it easier for farmers to manage smaller areas precisely.
Gruber, U; Haefner, H. 1995.
Avalanche hazard mapping with satellite data and a digital elevation model.
Appl Geogr 15(2):99-113.
The objective of the study is to evaluate the potential of high resolution satellite imagery
(LANDSAT-TM, SPOT-XS) for avalanche hazard mapping and to develop an appropriate
method for mapping vast, remote mountain areas. DEM raster format was used to derive
elevation zone, slope angle, and aspect. Two sites were chosen for study: Beckenreid and Davos
in the Swiss Alps. LANDSAT-TM satellite data were used for the forest classification.
Classification results were verified by scanning 1:25,000 topo maps. A Salm-Voellmy model was
used to calculate hazard and to establish an avalanche hazard map. Results showed advantages
and disadvantages of using satellite imagery.
Guan,W. 1997.
Evaluating ARC-to-Oracle linkages.
Geo Info Sys 7(2):38-44.
The article discusses criteria for evaluating technical approaches in ARC-Oracle interfaces.
The evaluation criteria include update frequency, query speed, interaction level, and user
friendliness. The seven approaches include connection, conversion, manipulation, integration,
native mode query, harsh tables, and third party script.
Gumbricht, T. 1996.
Application of GIS in training for environmental management.
J Environ Manage 46:17.
The need for integrated GISs, using different sources of data, different types of models,
error handling, and artificial intelligence, is increasing. For students, the course the author was
testing was too ambitious and initially tedious. Once students master GIS, however, inferring
domain-specific knowledge is relatively efficient. The author concluded that education needs to
be focused more on problem solving.
Gurnell, AM; Angold, PG; Edwards, PJ. 1996.
Extracting information from river corridor surveys.
Appl Geogr 16(1): 1 19.
All maps are subject to some degree of locational error, but the spatial accuracy of maps
of natural environmental features may present particular problems as a result of the frequently
fuzzy boundaries of such features. This paper develops and tests a method for extracting
quantitative information from river corridor survey maps, which are used throughout England and
Wales by the National Rivers Authority for recording ecological and geomorphological features.
The study was done on the Coal Burn river, which was selected because it contains varied
features within a relatively short, unbranched length of river. Information was extracted
independently from the same river corridor survey by three different operators to assess the
degree and nature of operator variance. The analyses presented in this paper illustrate the success
with which computer-compatible information can be extracted from river corridor survey maps.
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Guthe, WG; Tucker, RK; Murphy, EA; England, R; Stevenson, E; Luckhardt, JC. 1992.
Reassessment of lead exposure in New Jersey using GIS technology.
Environ Res 59:318-325.
This paper summarizes the results of a pilot study conducted in Newark, East Orange, and
Irvington, New Jersey, in which GIS (ARC/INFO) technology is used to overlay several data
layers in order to identify areas where children may be at high risk for lead exposure. This area
contains a large number of children with elevated blood lead levels and industrial, residential, and
vehicular sources of lead contamination. Data layers include census tract boundaries and
demographic data, blood lead screening record of children, locations of industrial sites emitting
lead, locations of hazardous waste sites contaminated with lead, and road locations with their
associated traffic volume estimates. The interim results provide a visual sense of the patterns of
reported blood lead relative to the potential sources of exposure and the population at risk. The
paper provides a series of thematic maps of the area, and a final map in which these different
themes are overlaid. The final map shows some areas with a good correlation among children's
elevated blood lead levels, location of sensitive populations, and sources of lead exposure. This
map also shows several areas with reported high blood lead levels that were not predicted based
on the overlay of data on potential risk factors. The authors believed this meant that additional
parameters not currently included in the analysis may be significant predictors of elevated blood
lead. These parameters may include lead levels in drinking water, distance of the census tract
from a blood screening center, economic and social factors not currently considered, location of
abandoned industrial sites, and illegal smelting activities. The authors stated that this pilot project
was successful and they plan to continue adding relevant data layers. All of this information will
be used to build a community educational needs profile and help design appropriate intervention
strategies.
Guthe, WG; Tucker, RK; Murphy, EA; England, R; Stevenson, E; Luckhardt, JC. 1992.
Reassessment of lead exposure in New Jersey using GIS technology.
Environ Res 59:318-325.
This article describes the collection of data and use of GIS to develop maps that will relate
elevated blood lead levels in children to location. Using ARC/INFO ADDRESSMATCH to
locate where children lived and the lead exposure, maps were created that showed areas of
elevated lead exposure. The next step is to identify probable sources of lead and areas where soil
samples should be taken. Community outreach is planned to prevent lead poisoning.
Hagar, WG; Miniutti, PG; Stallsmith, BW. 1992.
Remote monitoring of oxygen levels in Savin Hill cove of Boston harbor.
Proceedings, SPIE International Society of Optical Engineering 1930(1), pp. 547-556.
Seasonal oxygen levels of Savin Hill Cove of Boston Harbor were monitored using an
interactive remote sensing device. A combination oxygen and temperature meter with RS232
linkage was used to process and send data to a portable computer. The sensing probes for the
meter were suspended 1.5 meters from the water surface on a floating platform that rose and fell
with the tide. Stored data were retrieved either onsite by transfer computer or by telemetry using
a modified cellular telephone connection to the remote sensor computer. There was wide variation
in seasonal oxygen values during the year. Spring and winter values showed lower temperatures
with higher and more constant oxygen values than the summer and fall data. Summer and fall
measurements showed a great deal of daily biotic input with oxygen levels ranging from 3 to 8 mg
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per liter of water. Fast Fourier transforms of the data exhibited seasonal diel and tidal influences.
Hall, RK; Ota, AY; Hashimoto, JY; Maher, NM. 1995.
Geographical information systems (GIS) to manage oceanographic data for site designation and
site monitoring.
Mar Geodesy, EPA, Jul.-Sep., San Francisco, CA, 18(3):161(11).
GISs can be used as a tool within the technical evaluation process to show spatial and
temporal relationships between different data types. GIS data were used to determine the disposal
site for dredged material from San Francisco Bay, CA, which is necessary to maintain navigational
channels for vessel traffic. The site-designation process is described, including the preliminary
screening, the use of existing and newly acquired
data, and the determination of the preferred site. The use of GIS technology as a site management
and monitoring tool is outlined.
Hallett, SH; Jones, RJA; Keay, CA. 1996.
Environmental information systems developments for planning sustainable land use.
Int J Geo Info Sys 10(l):47-64.
The Soil Survey and Land Research Centre (SSLRC) is responsible for classification and
mapping of soils in England and Wales. To store the large amounts of data collected and to
interpret and make them more readily available to users, development of national Land
Information Systems (LandlS) was begun in 1979. Since the launch of LandlS, emphasis has
shifted from agricultural production to environmental issues, and therefore a range of satellite
computerized environmental information systems have been developed as powerful tools for
spatial analysis, manipulation, and visualization of soil and land data. These include: national soil
map, national soil inventory, national catalog of soils, agroclimate database, and catchment
information system. LandlS applications include determination of crop suitability, nitrate
pollution, heavy metal contamination, acidification, and farm waste disposal.
Hallmark, S; O'Neill, W. 1995.
Integrating air quality analysis and GIS-T.
Proceedings, Eighth Annual Symposium on Geographic Information Systems for Transportation
(GIS-T), pp. 418-434.
A GIS was linked with air quality models, CALINE3 and CAL3QHC, to measure and
analyze the impact of transportation-related air pollution. The GIS generates air pollution
concentration contours using a Triangulated Irregular Network. Of particular interest to the
authors were drive-through facilities, which were found to tend to cluster spatially and to often
contribute at least as much to local air pollution as did signalized intersections in the vicinity.
Hallmark, S; O'Neill, W. 1996.
Integrating geographic information systems for transportation and air quality models for
microscale analysis.
Transportation Res Rec 1551:133 140.
Building on their earlier research, the authors found that output from air quality models in
the form of pollution concentrations at specified receptor locations can be input to a GIS for hot-
spot identification, estimation of contributions of off-road mobile sources, and impact analysis.
TRANSCAD, a transportation-based GIS, was used to demonstrate contour generation,
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classification, and point-in-polygon analysis. The authors noted GIS/air quality model
incompatibilities in their coordinate systems and in how street segments are represented and that
additional data collection might be needed for signal analysis.
Hamlett, JM; Miller, DA; Day, RL; Peterson, GW; Baumer, GM; Russo, J. 1992.
Statewide GIS-based ranking of watersheds for agricultural pollution prevention.
JSoil Water Conserv 47(5):399-404.
Results are presented from a Pennsylvania study that used a GIS in combination with
modeling capabilities to rank critical nonpoint-pollution potential of 104 watersheds. The data
layers in the GIS database included watershed boundaries, land cover, animal population density,
topography, soil data, precipitation data, and a rainfall-runoff factor. The watersheds were ranked
by the Agricultural Pollution Potential Index, which comprises four separate components: runoff
index, chemical use index, sediment production index, and animal loading index. The relative
pollution hazard for each watershed was then calculated using the GIS data layers, the ranking
model, and GIS software. Recommendations for improvements in the ranking system are
proposed.
Hamlett, JM; Miller, DA; Day, RL; Peterson, GW; Baumer, GM; Russo, J. 1992.
Statewide GIS-based ranking of watersheds for agricultural pollution prevention.
JSoil Water Conserv 47(5):399-404
A GIS-based model was used to rank the pollution potential of 104 watersheds in
Pennsylvania. The objectives were to select important processes and parameters of watersheds
that contribute to water quality degradation, to develop a ranking model, and to apply that model
to the watersheds. Parameters used for ranking included watershed boundaries, land cover,
animal density, topography, soil, precipitation, and rainfall-runoff factors. For the initial model,
potential pollution production for each cell was summed, and no ground-water component was
used. The ranking index combined values for runoff, chemical use, sediment production, and
animal loading. Weightings were applied to each factor to reflect relative importance. The model
is sensitive to the land-cover and elevation data because each component uses these data layers in
calculations. The output of the exercise is a map of Pennsylvania watersheds with relative
rankings for NFS pollution potential. The article ends by discussing several opportunities for
improving the ranking system.
Hamlett, JM; Miller, DA; Day, RL; Peterson, GW; Baumer, GM; Russo, J. 1992.
Statewide GIS-based ranking of watersheds for agricultural pollution prevention.
JSoil Water Conserv 47(5):399-404.
GIS combined with a pollutant generation and transport model was seen by these authors
as the appropriate basis for GIS-based agricultural pollution prevention. The study covered 104
watersheds composing the full extent of the state of Pennsylvania. The model was a screening
level model that was entirely GIS-based. The main purpose of the model was to rank the
pollution potential of each watershed from agriculture. The ranking index developed for the
project included four areas: a runoff index, sediment production index, animal loading index, and
chemical use index. These data were commonly available. Statewide data used in the ranking also
included watershed boundaries, land cover, animal density, topography, soils, precipitation, and
rainfall-runoff factors. Cost constraints had to be considered in deciding which data to use and in
limiting the complexity of the model. Results allowed the authors to identify critical nonpoint
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pollutant contributing watersheds to be identified and targeted for further investigations and
control programs.
Hammel, DJ; Wyly, EK. 1996.
Variations in housing price depreciation: the 'Taste for Newness' across heterogeneous
submarkets.
Urban Geogr 17:248-268.
This article is important not because of what it said, but because of what it did not say.
With an academic interest in urban planning, this student expected the authors would discuss how
they used a GIS in their research. Essentially, the authors' study was designed to develop a
computer model that would use tract-level census statistics to identify gentrified urban areas.
Given that the research was conducted so recently (presumably within a few years of the article's
publication), it seemed entirely probable and appropriate that GIS would be used to conduct the
research. That was not the case. The enlightening aspect of the article was that the study could
have been done much more easily if GIS had been used. One might have assumed that the
technology would be available and familiar to the authors and within their budgets.
Han, L; Rundquist, DC; Liu, LL; Fraser, RN; Schalles, JF. 1994.
The spectral responses of algal chlorophyll in water with varying levels of suspended sediment.
IntJRemote Sensing 15(18):3707-3718.
The purpose of this paper was to investigate the spectral responses of algal chlorophyll
and water, under natural sunlight with varying suspended sediment concentrations (SSC). Twenty
levels of SSC with each of two sediment types were generated, ranging from 50 to 1000 mg/L, in
7510 L of water containing chlorophyll-a concentrations of 718 |ig/L and 295 |ig/L. Results
indicate that suspended sediments do not eliminate the prominent spectral patterns of algal
chlorophyll, even as SSC reached 1000 mg/L. Between 400 and 900 nm, the relation between
reflectance and SSC satisfies the expression: d2 R(lambda )/dS2 < 0. The effects of varying SSC
on the positions and magnitudes of pronounced chlorophyll features were investigated. The ratio
between the NIR and red wavelengths was totally independent of SSC. Thus, the findings support
using it as an index for measuring chlorophyll in natural surface water containing suspended
sediments.
Han, S; Evans, RG; Hodges, T; Rawlins, SL. 1995.
Linking a geographic information system with a potato simulation model for site-specific crop
management.
JEnviron Qua! 24:772-777.
This paper presented the development of an interface between PC ARC/INFO with
SEVIPOTATO (a potato growth simulation model). The SEVIPOTATO model predicted potato
yield and nitrogen leaching distributions. The most important model input parameters were
irrigation water, soil texture, and initial soil nitrogen (N). Soil properties were collected from a
61 x 61 m grid. Soil samples were converted to raster format, with a 12.2 x 12.2 m grid size, by a
nonparametric blocking algorithm (Han et al., 1993). The raster data were converted to
ARC/INFO data map layers. Altogether, seven data layers were used to create seven map layers:
(1) irrigation water with nitrogen fertilizer, (2) soil texture-0 to 30 cm, (3) soil texture-30 to 60
cm, (4) initial soil N-0 to 30 cm, (5) initial soil N-30 to 60 cm, (6) potato yield, and (7) N
leaching. The paper also discusses types of linkages that have been used to interface GIS and
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simulation models (two types of linkages: direct simulation with GIS and GIS interfacing with
simulation models). In this interesting paper, the authors conclude that improvements in
SIMPOTATO can improve the accuracy of the proposed system (GIS with simulation model).
They further suggest that the interfacing of GIS and the GIS-ARC/INFO can be useful for site-
specific crop management.
Han, S; Evans, R; Hodges, T; Rawlins, S. 1995.
Linking a geographic information system with a potato simulation model for site-specific crop
management.
JEnviron Qual 24:772-777.
The authors used a GIS for developing potato crop management practices. Using the
GIS, they studied potato yield and nitrogen leaching distributions. They determined that the most
important factors were irrigated water/nitrogen, soil texture, and initial soil nitrogen. The GIS
helped them identify the overwatered areas, and they found that uniformly irrigating the fields
increased potato yield and reduced nitrogen leaching. However, a significant limitation of the
study was that field verification of the model's estimated potato yields and nitrogen leaching was
not possible due to budget constraints. The authors noted that all inputs to the model were based
on measured data, so they believe that the results of the model should be relatively accurate.
Hansen, HS. 1997.
Interactive analysis of spatial data.
In: Kraak, MJ; Molenaar, M; Fendel, EM, eds. Advances in GIS research. Proceedings,
Seventh International Symposium on Spatial Data Handling. London: Taylor & Francis, pp.
895-904.
This article describes how interactive spatial statistical analysis tools can be built into a
vector desktop GIS (specifically Arc View 2.0) to perform exploratory data analysis. The article
begins by describing five analytical methods (Moran's I, Geary's c, Grstatistic, G;*-statistic, and
Moran Scattergram) that are used to analyze spatial autocorrelation (association) in geographical
data. It then describes the code that was written in ESRI's Avenue object-oriented programming
language to implement these analytic methods. Illustrations are provided to show how the
resulting enhancements to Arc View allow ordinary users to perform spatial autocorrelation
analysis in an interactive easy-to-use desktop environment. An example application is provided
involving analysis of the regional distribution of root crops on the Danish island of Funen.
Hardin, D. 1995.
Computer tools simplify sewer planning, management.
Water Environ Technol 7:34-35.
Software and a GIS system helped Garland, Texas, rehabilitate and manage its wastewater
infrastructure. Using GIS, 30 relief sewer options were developed and evaluated for more
capacity. The recommended options were then incorporated into the citywide capital
improvement plan. Daily maintenance activities were streamlined and tracked by way of the GIS.
Hardzinksi, C. 1994.
Buffering impacts on forest resources: Nett Lake Reservation, Minnesota.
Proceedings, GIS/LIS '94, October, Phoenix, AZ, pp. 434-437.
The advent of GIS technology has enabled tribal managers to integrate the planning of
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natural resources, including determining the trade-offs between various land management options
or activity levels. For this project, timber harvesting buffers were placed around selected lakes,
streams, roads, and community areas on Nett Lake Reservation. This resulted in a 12 percent
reduction in the forest acreage available for management. The map product now is used to help
locate desired cover types for harvesting and access routes.
Hardzinski, C; Meyer, C; Besougloff, J. 1996.
GIS in Indian country: federal GIS activities.
GIS/LISNews, Summer, 13:1.
The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) within the Department of the Interior is the primary
federal agency responsible for management of trust resources on Indian reservations in Minnesota.
In the past, the relationship between federal and tribal governments has been one of manager-
trustee, raising criticism over a lack of tribal input and control with managing these activities.
Significant legislation, however, has been passed over the last 15-20 years, which allows tribal
governments to contract with the BIA to perform services on reservations and assume program
management administered at the federal level. Necessary components of expanding the tribal role
include delegation of authority, transfer of funding, and development of management tools. In
these respects, the use of GIS within the BIA has gone through several progressions to transfer
the technology to tribal governments, resulting in GIS capability becoming commonplace at tribal
offices. GIS capability supports activities such as locational information of animal habitat for use
during annual population surveys, analysis of wetlands, maintaining current forest cover type
databases in support of forest management, and addressing environmental and cultural impacts of
economic development projects. GIS has become an integral part of management activities
throughout Indian Country and is contributing to effective management of Native American
resources.
Harrington, Jr., JA; Schiebe, FR; Nix, JF. 1992.
Remote sensing of Lake Chicot, Arkansas: monitoring suspended sediments, turbidity, and Secchi
depth with LANDSAT MSS data.
Remote Sensing of Environ 39(l):15-27.
This research used water quality data from Lake Chicot, Arkansas, and a corresponding
set of LANDSAT MSS data to compare the ability of satellite-based sensor systems to monitor
suspended sediment concentration, Secchi disk depth, and nephelometric turbidity. Lake Chicot
was selected, in part, because of the availability of a wide range of water quality conditions.
Secchi disk depth and nephelometric turbidity are both optical measures of water quality and
differ from suspended sediment concentration, which is a measure of the weight of inorganic
particulates suspended in the water column. Four different models for these relationships between
satellite data and water quality data were tested. Two different solar spectral irradiance curves
and an orbital eccentricity correction factor were tested using the exponential model. Results
suggest that (1) remote sensing from space-based platforms can provide meaningful information
on water quality variability; (2) an exponential model best characterizes the relationship between
the satellite data and the water quality measures investigated; (3) slight differences result from
using the solar curve proposed by the World Radiation Center (as opposed to the NASA
standard); and (4) predictions based on optical measures of water quality, rather than measures of
the weight of particles in the water column, are slightly better when using LANDSAT MSS data.
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Harris, S. 1997.
Evaluating possible human exposure pathways to populations relative to hazardous materials
sites.
Proceedings, ESRIInternational User Conference, July 8-11, San Diego, CA. (www.esri.com)
Public health personnel in Georgia are using Arc View GIS 3.0 to map sources of
hazardous chemicals and the variety of pathways by which such chemicals may be transported to
an exposure point, such as drinking water, food, or home. Sources they have mapped include
landfills and hazardous waste sites. Transport information includes highways, topographic
information, flood extent coverage, and hydrologic information. These data layers, of sources and
transport media, were then mapped to indicate possible exposure points, such as wells or showers,
where people might come into contact with hazardous chemicals through air or water transport.
GIS was used to map potential exposure pathways.
Harris, R; Hopkinson, P; McCaffrey, S; Huntsinger, L. 1997.
Comparison of a geographical information system versus manual techniques for land cover
analysis in a riparian restoration project.
J Soil Water Conser 52:112.
The authors are concerned that few studies have attempted to determine the benefits and
costs of GIS versus manual cartographic analysis. Thus, they set out to compare the cost
involved in calculating land-cover areas with a GIS and manual calculations using a planimeter
and dot-grid. The authors also conducted simple modeling of riparian forest restoration potential
to determine the value of the GIS for restoration planning. The authors found that both the GIS
and manual methods arrived at similar results, but the cost of using the GIS was many times
greater. However, the authors do point out that an advantage of GIS is that the data are
permanently stored and may be easily retrieved. For an untrained person, the authors found that
developing a simple modeling procedure was difficult and time-consuming. The results, while
useful, required validation. The authors recommend that decisionmakers consider the long-term
benefits and costs before developing a GIS for riparian restoration planning.
Hastings, D. 1992.
Geographic information systems: more than just mapping.
Earth Syst Monitor 4(1):9-12.
This article describes the lessons learned at the National Geophysical Data Center
(NGDC) about GIS. The article first describes what a GIS is, followed by the various
applications at the NOAA's NGDC in Boulder, Colorado. NGDC uses modern scientific GIS to
integrate individual global environmental data sets into a coordinated Global Change Data Base.
In addition, they investigate the ability of existing data sets to characterize the global environment.
Preliminary work with statistical techniques shows that incongruous relationships often occur
between environmental data in existing data sets. Several examples are described. The articles
also suggests several GIS systems for those who are getting started with GIS, including GRASS
(Geographic Resources Analysis Support System) and IDRISI.
Haubner, SM; Joeres, EF. 1996.
Using a GIS for estimating input parameters in urban stormwater quality modeling.
Water Resources Bull 32(6): 1341(11).
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A GIS was used for estimating water-quality model-input parameters. The model
parameters describe watershed characteristics such as land use and cover, building density, soil
characteristics, and hydrology. The GIS was used in an urban watershed (Parkers Lake, MN) for
the Source Loading and Management Model.
Hay, LE; Battaglin, WA. 1996.
A visual/interactive method for examining the national stream quality accounting network
(NASQAN) data.
Proceedings, Watersheds 96 -Moving Ahead Together: Technical Conference and Exposition,
June 8-12, Baltimore, MD.
The USGS developed NASQAN in 1973 to describe the water quality of the nation's
streams and rivers on a systematic basis and to identify temporal trends in the concentrations of
measured constituents. A Scientific Visualization System (SVS) was used to represent visually a
three-dimensional model output of the data over time. SVS permits manipulation and display of
data that have three spatial dimensions and are time variant. Incorporating SVS techniques into a
geographic problem-solving environment can greatly enhance data interpretation because both
spatial and temporal dimensions can be explored, large complex data sets can be viewed
interactively, and multiple data images can be presented to accommodate a variety of scientific
and management perspectives.
Heitgerd, JL; Burg, JR; Strickland, HG. 1995.
A geographic information system approach to estimating and assessing national priorities list site
demographics: racial and hispanic origin composition.
Int J Occup Med Tox 4(3):343-363.
The authors used GIS in a proximity analysis of the racial and Hispanic composition of
populations living within 1 mile of 1200 National Priorities List (NPL) sites located across the
United States. They used ARC/INFO to develop coverages consisting of the site boundaries of
these facilities as listed by EPA in 1992. These boundaries define the approximate geographic
location and extent of the hazardous substance release as delineated by EPA. The authors also
used ARC/INFO to develop 1-mile buffer zones around each facility boundary and determine the
size of the population living within this buffer. The potentially impacted "community area" was
defined as the area within the NPL site boundary plus the 1-mile buffer zone. The population site
values were derived by summing all the census blocks within the impacted areas for each county.
This shifted the focus of the analysis from the NPL sites to the counties within 1 mile of those
sites, while retaining the block level observational data. Across the United States 670 counties
had a part of their total area located within 1 mile of the 1200 NPL sites. The comparison
population was defined spatially as those living in one of the 670 impacted counties but more than
one mile from the site. They used a cross-sectional design to estimate the total population,
including breakdowns by race and Hispanic origin, at the census block level for areas within 1
mile of these sites. The results indicate that about 11 million people live within the impacted areas
and that racial and Hispanic origin distributions around the sites generally are consistent with
regional population differences. The results of the ANOVA indicate significant differences in the
mean percentage for each racial and Hispanic origin group between those living within the
impacted area and those living within the comparison area. No statistically significant difference
was found for the percentage of whites living in the impacted versus the comparison areas.
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Hemenway, Jr., DF. 1996.
Best of the net 1996.
GIS World. January, http://www.geoplace.com/print/gw/1996/0196/0196feat.html.
The article provides the best links (the most useful sites) for GIS, including the best
database site, corporate GIS site, and so on.
Henry, MS; London, JB; Brooks, KR; Singletary, LA. 1991.
GIS: a new tool for local economic development.
In: Clouser, R, ed. Rural infrastructure and economic issues: information systems,
transportation and education. Proceedings, Regional Workshop, Southern Region Information
Exchange Group-53, 3-4 October 1990, Atlanta, GA SRIEG-53 Publication No. 1, SRDC
Publication No. 146, April, pp. 35-41.
The article presents background information on how GIS can be used in land-use
planning. Several examples illustrate how GIS has been applied for this purpose throughout the
country. One conclusion in the article relates to how GIS may fit into the field of public health or
urban planning: "If GIS can help to bridge the gap between research results that show up in
scientific journals and the willingness of policy makers to make decisions based on the best
evidence available, the cost of buying into GIS may be small relative to the benefits of more
effective public infrastructure investment policy." This conclusion is something to ponder.
Hession, WC; Shanholtz, VO. 1988.
A geographic information system for targeting nonpoint source pollution.
JSoil Water Conserv 43(3):263-266.
The project was designed to use a GIS in estimating potential sediment loadings to
streams from agricultural lands, mainly for the purpose of Chesapeake Bay water resources
management in Virginia. The approach incorporated use of the universal soil loss equation
(USLE) and a delivery ratio to make the estimates. Three levels of analysis were built. The first
level incorporated all the Virginia portion of the Bay drainage and dealt with analyses of terrain
across the entire area. The second level was more focused on critical agricultural areas, where the
greatest improvements could be made. The third level was the individual farm level. Performance
of the database was yet to be evaluated at the time of the paper, but the products appeared useful
on all three intended levels of service.
Heuvelink, GB; Burroughs, PA. 1993.
Error propagation in cartographic modelling using Boolean logic and continuous classification.
Int J Geo Info Sys 7:231-246.
These authors indicate that soil and ground-water attributes are manipulated by logical
cartographic modeling; however, these results are often assumed to be exact. In reality the results
will be in error because the values of input attributes cannot be determined exactly. Also the
effect may not be definable by a simple rule. For example, if erosion hazard for each polygon or
pixel is determined from a set of rules based on soil texture, percent slope, and vegetative cover,
the erosion hazard may be still be a problem even if all three rules are not exceeded. Thus the
process may be much more complicated than the simple rules are able include. This paper
analyzes how errors in such values propagate through Boolean and continuous modeling
involving the intersection of several maps. The error analysis was conducted using Monte Carlo
methods on data interpolated by block kriging to a regular grid, which yields predictions and
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prediction stand deviations of attribute values for each pixel. The results suggest that Boolean
methods of SIEVE (overlaying different maps) mapping are much more prone to error
propagation than the continuous equivalents. Thus continuous classifications may be one way to
deal with the problem of discrete boundaries or breaks between classes or groups. This is a good
paper, although somewhat technical and difficult to abstract without a lot of detail. Several useful
concepts are presented. Keywords: error, GIS, SIEVE, pixels, Booleans, fuzzy sets.
Hewitt, M. 1994.
Crossing the ARC/Oracle Bridge
Geo Info Sys 4(8):26-27.
This article describes the learning process of EPA's EMSL research laboratory in
connecting ARC/INFO to the Oracle RDBMS instead of the RDBI as the database integrator
(DBI) for their EMAP program. The purpose of the DBI is to increase the information
functionality of ARC by allowing direct interface with very powerful and robust relational data
base systems such as Oracle. Their objective was to enhance the existing functions of the EGI
and DBI by providing a user-managed bridge, in a product called ABE. The Windows Motiff
interface allows the following functions: connect, import, join, and query. Although the bridge
was successful, the group suggested that complicated queries should use SQL queries. However,
EMAP decided to employ Oracle as their backbone RDBMS.
Hodgson, ME; Gaile, GL. 1996.
Characteristic mean and dispersion in surface orientations for a zone.
Int J Geo Info Sys 10:817-830.
Statistical methods to describe surface orientation (slope and aspect) in an area or zone
are described and discussed. Aspect statistics are problematic because of the circular scale used to
measure aspect and the hemispherical scale for both slope and aspect. Two techniques are
presented for computing the mean and dispersion measures of aspect and a bidirectional surface
orientation. The relevant directional statistics and calculations are discussed with appropriate
examples (circular mean aspect and dispersion for zone and hemispherical mean aspect and
dispersion for zone).
Hunsaker, CT; Schwartz, PM; Jackson, BL. 1996.
Landscape characterization for watershed management.
Proceedings, Watersheds 96—Moving Ahead Together: Technical Conference and Exposition,
June 8-12, Baltimore, MD.
Many studies have shown that the proportion of different land uses within a watershed can
account for some of the variability in surface water quality. This paper outlines the application of
landscape pattern metrics for monitoring and assessing regional water quality. Land-use and -
cover data came from the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometry (AVHRR) satellite
imagery. Landscape pattern was characterized by proportion of seven land-use types and several
integrative metrics-dominance, contagion (shape complexity). Disturbed land covers like
agriculture, barren, and rangeland have positive associations with water-quality parameters.
Contagion and proportion of forest were found to be negatively correlated with water quality
parameters. Thus, an area that has contiguous land covers or that is dominated by forests tends to
have better water quality.
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Hyde, A. 1997.
Regulated facilities that pose a threat to sensitive habitat.
Proceedings, ESRI International User Conference, San Diego, CA July 8-11. (www.esri.com).
This paper describes work in Indiana using GIS to determine what industrial facilities are
located near sensitive habitats that contain endangered species. This is a good example for EPA
because the author describes all the EPA data from the various programs (toxics, air, and water)
that were collected for a given facility. Needless to say, data integration is ongoing. They
identified which facilities to look at based on the location of the sensitive habitat mapped with a
quarter-mile "buffer zone." Facilities had to fall in three or more buffer zones to be identified for
analysis.
Inskeep, WP; Wraith, JM; Snyder, RD. 1996.
Soil and climate data input.
JEnviron Qual 3:445(9).
Four readily available data sets of soil and climate inputs were used in the Chemical
Movement through Layered Soils (CMLS) model to estimate the depth of picloram movement at
the end of a growing season in Teton County, Montana. The ARC/INFO GIS was used to
generate and organize the input data for the model runs and to prepare maps showing different
predicted picloram leaching depths. The four databases are described. The two CMLS model runs
that used the USDA-NRCS County Soil Survey Geographic database soil inputs in place of the
USDA-NRCS State Soil Geographic data base soil inputs identified numerous small areas where
the predicted depth of the picloram solute front exceeded 100 cm. The overall results indicated
that CMLS model predictions can vary with the choice of climate and soil inputs.
Iredale,H. 1995.
NOAA's coastal change analysis program (C-CAP) monitors critical marine habitats.
Earth Syst Monitor 5(3): 1-8.
The Coastal Change Analysis Program (C-CAP), a component of NOAA's Coastal Ocean
program, has begun coordinated studies to monitor the alterations of coastal areas of the United
States. C-CAP is working with EPA's Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program, the
F&G National Wetlands Inventory, and other federal agencies. Their purpose is to enhance
protocol, conduct regional change analysis using remotely sensed data, and establish data
management infrastructure. C-CAP employs satellite images and aerial photography to cover
large coastal areas of interest in order to monitor functional stats and changes in critical habitats.
LANDSAT satellite Thematic Mapper sensor scenes will be used when feasible. C-CAP will use
the data to determine land cover and changes between years. Submerged aquatic vegetation is
also monitored. Data are available for distribution.
Jacobs, A. 1996.
All roads lead to the 'net (web-based geographic information systems).
Computerworld 30(28) :45(1).
Users have easy access to spatial-analysis information now that GIS has become available
on the web. Currently, only Maplnfo is offering its ProServer web-based program, but other GIS
vendors are likely to follow, according to market research. Industry experts indicate that GIS
market revenue expanded 18.3 percent in 1995 to $548 million. Part of the growth in GIS comes
from customers using information generated from maps to assist in managing businesses.
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Observers also suggest that use of the internet and corporate intranets will make it more cost-
effective and easier to introduce GIS projects. One of the main benefits of ProServer is that
Maplnfo charges for licenses based on the number of people who need to access data rather than
the number of desktop systems in a company.
Jacobs, A. 1996.
Mapping software finds the 'net (ESRI Inc to introduce Arc View 3.0 geographic information
system, Internet-based mapping software).
Computerworld 30(32):44(1).
ESRI Inc. is readying Arc View 3.0, a new version of its flagship GIS, along with a new
internet-based GIS due later in 1996. Arc View 3.0 includes a new plug-in architecture with
modules that simplify specific tasks such as spatial analysis and determining the best travel routes
between two points. The web-based MapObjects mapping tool will let users create mapping and
GIS applications that reside on a web server and access dynamic maps and other data via a
browser on an intranet or the internet. Some users are wary of doing mapping over the internet,
citing high costs and security concerns.
Jaquet, JM; Schanz, F; Bossard, P; Hanselmann, K; Gendre, F. 1994.
Measurements and significance of bio-optical parameters for remote sensing in two subalpine
lakes of different trophic state.
Aquat Sci 56(3):263-274.
Bio-optical measurements were carried out on eutrophic Lake Zug and oligotrophic Lake
Lucerne, to provide data and models for the in situ calibration of multispectral imagery collected
in 1991 during an AVIRIS flight over Central Switzerland. The results indicate that Secchi depth,
chlorophyll and total suspended solid concentrations, vertical extinction coefficient, absorption
coefficient, and irradiance reflectance in the PAR region can be used to discriminate between the
two lakes. Dissolved organics concentration, scattering and total attenuation coefficients
estimates, as well as backscattering probability, are less acceptable because of instrumental
limitations. Relationships between optical and water quality parameters were investigated and
found to behave according to accepted theoretical frameworks. Both lakes exhibited vertical and
horizontal heterogeneities in chlorophyll and turbidity, and had contrasting mean bio-optical
characteristics: although suspended solid concentrations were similar, transparency was lower in
Lake Zug, but reflectance was substantially higher in Lake Lucerne. Water color determined by
chromaticity analysis was blue-green in Lake Lucerne and green in Lake Zug. Reflectance spectra
simulated through a three-component optochemical model did not completely match those
derived from in situ measurements, because of lack of site-specific optical cross-sections for
suspended minerals and dissolved organics. The monitoring of water quality in subalpine lakes by
remote sensing, both with present and future technology, is discussed and considered as possible,
provided that their optical behavior is known, and preferably expressed by a valid optochemical
model.
Jensen, JR; Narumalani, S; Weatherbee, O; Morris KS; Mackey, HE. 1992.
Predictive modeling of cattail and waterlily distribution in a South Carolina reservoir using GIS.
Photogrammetric Eng Remote Sensing 58(11):1561-1568.
The authors developed a model to predict the spatial distribution of cattails and waterlilies
using spatially distributed biophysical information and a GIS. The GIS was used to store data,
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query the database, and employ Boolean logic to predict macrophyte distribution. The model was
built using the concept of "environmental constraint criteria"; that is, macrophytes would be
present in a given pixel if all of the environmental criteria were met. The criteria were developed
using Par Lake and included water depth, slope, fetch, soil type, and temperature. The same
criteria were measured in L Lake and boolean logic was applied to predict where the macrophytes
would occur. Monitoring of L Lake qualitatively verified the model's predictions.
Ji, W; Johnston, J. 1994.
A GIS-based decision support system for wetland permit analysis.
GIS/LIS, pp. 471-476.
The National Biological Survey developed a permit database in Alabama as a pilot for
coastal wetland permit analysis. This was a test of the Multifunctional Coastal Ecosystem
Decision Support GIS, which encompasses wetland restoration planning, biodiversity modeling,
and spill damage and contaminant risk assessment. Such decision support systems help resource
managers to organize and analyze huge volumes of environmental data for decisionmaking.
Johansen, ME, Tommervik, H; Guneriussen, T; Pedersen, JP. 1994.
Using a geographic information system (ARC/INFO) as a tool for integration of remote sensed
and in-situ-data in an analysis of the air pollution effects on terrestrial ecosystems in Varanger
(Norway) and Nickel-Pechenga (Russia).
Proceedings, International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS '94), August,
Pasadena, CA., Vol. 2, pp. 1213 Published by IEEE.
This paper demonstrates the damage to vegetative cover due to transboundary air
pollution from industrial sources. Air pollution and contamination data were combined with
vegetation cover maps. This use of ARC/INFO as a remote sensing tool has broader applications,
particularly the methods of verifying and correlating the remote sensing based maps with the air
pollution data.
Johnson, BE; Smith, RH; Anderson, JL. 1995.
Comparison of distributive vs. lumped rainfall-runoff models on Goodwin Creek Watershed.
Integrated water resources plan for the 21st century. Proceedings, 22nd Annual Conference,
American Society of Civil Engineers/et al. May 7-11, Cambridge, MA, pp. 1065(4).
A GIS was incorporated in a two-dimensional distributive hydrology model (CASC2D) to
simulate rainfall/runoff in the Goodwin Creek Watershed. CASC2D's ability to simulate
streamflow runoff hydrograph shape, rate of rise, and volume is unmatched by the lumped model
approach when accurate watershed spatial data are available, and without the subbasin stream
gauge data on which the lumped models rely.
Johnson, G; Myers, W; Patil, GP; Walrath, D. 1996.
Multiscale analysis of the spatial distribution of breeding bird species richness using the echelon
approach.
Center for Statistical Ecology and Environmental Statistics. Pennsylvania State University.
Technical Report No. 96-0601.
The authors apply the echelon method for characterizing spatial distribution of species
richness (see related paper under Myers et al., 1996, below). The analysis may aid in objectively
identifying areas for particular protection. The objective was to examine changes in pattern at
different scales to see whether the conclusions of the analysis would alter. Echelon objects of the
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first order are identified by moving outward and downward until saddles between peaks are
identified. All polygons between the saddles then become members of that echelon. The process
is conducted iteratively. The authors used Pennsylvania Breeding Bird Atlas data to demonstrate
the method. Species/polygon pairs were codified according to the degree of subjective probability
that a given species occurred within that polygon. EMAP hexagons were used to illustrate the
large degree of aggregation; breeding bird blocks were used to illustrate a smaller degree of
aggregation scale. The comparison between the two scales was investigated by examining
"globally high/locally moderate" and "globally moderate/locally high" combinations, using
cumulative species-area curves. Globally moderate/locally high polygons exhibited jagged curves,
indicating a fragmented landscape with local pockets of high diversity.
Jones, J. 1997.
Federal GIS projects decentralize
GIS World 10(8):46-51.
In the past, the federal government instigated GIS technology. Now the government is
leaning more toward using commercial products. The author cites examples: FEMA is using
ARC/INFO for disaster modeling and mitigation. The Agency is also developing a new
management software package. At EPA, GIS operations are being decentralized, mostly because
use of GIS has become so widespread. In the past, ARC/INFO was standardized but is now more
open to other vehicles. The Bureau of the Census relies on an array of commercially available
GIS packages, but also has developed proprietary GIS software. The Department of
Transportation is another major GIS user, as are the Department of Defense and the National
Imagery and Mapping Agency.
Jungert, E. 1997.
A qualitative approach to recognition of man-made objects in laser-radar images.
In: Kraak, MJ; Molenaar, M; Fendel, E., eds. Advances in GIS research. Proceedings,
Seventh International Symposium on Spatial Data Handling. London: Taylor & Francis, pp.
943-954.
This article describes a qualitative method for matching the three-dimensional images
provided by aircraft-based laser-radar sensors to previously stored model objects. The aim is to
identify manmade objects. The matching process is based on generating qualitative slope
descriptors (QSDs) for the images and the stored objects and then seeing if the two match. QSDs
contain angle and quadrant information about the line segments that compose an object. The
article begins by describing the characteristics of laser-radar images. Then, the process of
generating QSDs is presented. Next, the article describes how the QSDs are used to perform
object matching. The article concludes with a discussion of how image distortions are handled
and identifies problems that require further investigation.
Juracek, KE. 1994.
Interactive query of state water-appropriations and water-use information.
Geo Info Sys 4(ll):44-48.
GIS technology was used to develop a user-support tool to summarize water-
appropriations and water-use information by geographic area, source of water, and type of water
use. The tool is referred to as the Water Information Management and Analysis System
(WTMAS). WEVIAS can be used to perform ground-water level analysis by yielding spatial
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averages, and trends; provide surface water information, stream flow data; monitor ecologically
sensitive areas; and assist in regulating water structures.
Juracek, K. 1994.
Interactive query of state water-appropriations and water-use information.
Geo Info Sys 4(ll):44-48.
Managing and analyzing data-intensive water resources is a challenging task. In Kansas, a
primary source of hydrologic information is the Kansas State Board of Agriculture's Division of
Water Resources, which maintains extensive digital databases containing information about water
appropriations and water use by point of diversion. To date, use of the databases by the Division
of Water Resources and other agencies has been inhibited by lack of an effective means to access,
analyze, and display the information. To remedy this situation, the division, in cooperation with
USGS, used GIS technology to develop a user-support tool referred to as the Water Information
Management and Analysis System (WIMAS), to summarize water-appropriations and water-use
information by user-defined geographic area, source of water, and type of water use. The systems
capabilities and applications of WEVIAS are described. One such example was the recent study to
assess the effect of saline river water on ground-water quality, where WEVIAS generated data files
for input to a ground-water flow model.
Juras, AA. 1995.
Application of remote sensing in studies of water quality in the Amazon Region.
Lakes Reservoirs Resource Manage 1(2):141-145.
This paper deals with basic matters concerning use of remote sensing and GIS techniques
related to limnological/water quality surveys in the Amazon Region. The main conclusions are:
(1) it is important to use these techniques for detecting problems before the construction of new
projects involving water resources in the Amazon Region and (2) remote sensing focused on
water quality should be seriously considered in planning Brazil's space program as a means of
providing data for more effective water basin management.
Kang, YT; Kahniser, TE; Wolfson, LG; Bartholic, JF. 1994.
WEVIS: a prototype wetlands information management system for facilitating wetland decision
making.
Proceedings, American Congress on Surveying and Mapping/American Society of
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (ACSM/ASPRS), April, Reno, NV. Vol. 1, pp. 290-300.
Like the above project, this project produced a tool for evaluating wetlands. It is
narrower in scope in that there is less surrounding the GIS component. It also has a GRASS
version as well as an ARCH/INFO version.
Kao, J-J; Lin, H-Y; Chen, W-Y. 1997.
Network geographic information system for landfill siting.
Waste Manage Res 15(3):239-253.
A prototype network GIS was developed to (1) improve a complex municipal solid waste
landfill siting procedure in Taiwan, (2) provide siting information to the general public, (3) assist
local environmental protection agencies with maintenance of their GIS, and (4) facilitate
managing, instructing, and evaluating local landfill siting in Taiwan. A multimedia network
interface provided continuous local or remote access to the system via the internet.
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Kay, D; Stoner, J. 1988.
The effects of catchment land use on stream water quality in an acid-susceptible region of West
Wales: the implications for compliance with EC drinking water and fishery directives.
Appl Geogr 8:191-205.
This paper examines the effects of catchment land use on water quality. Each of the three
broad land-use groups (afforestation, moorland, and improved agriculture) present different
problems with respect to noncompliance with drinking water criteria. Useful to reference the
impact of these types of land use on water quality.
Kellogg, RL; Maizel, MS; Goss, DW. 1992.
Agricultural chemical use and ground water quality: where are the potential problem areas?
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, Economic Research Service,
Cooperative State Research Service, National Center for Resource Innovations. NAL TD427
A35K45. Washington, DC: USDA.
This is a good document that utilizes GIS technology to evaluate the potential of
pesticides to contaminate ground water. Databases used include soils databases (NRI and SOI-5),
pesticide use databases, crop data, etc. The leach class of different soil map units was determined
from soils data (attributes). By overlaying different layers, the areas with high potential to
contaminate ground water with pesticides and nitrate-nitrogen were identified. This is a good
summary paper. The available data were discussed and integrated into a national assessment
using GIS technology. Keywords: ARC/INFO, NRI, SOI-5, MLRA, hydrologic units, pesticide
leaching potential.
Kellogg, RL; Maizel, MS; Goss, DW. 1994.
The potential for leaching of agrichemicals used in crop production: a national perspective.
JSoil Water Cons 49:294-298.
This study was designed to help define areas of the country with the highest priority for
study and program implementation, and to develop leaching vulnerability indices for pesticides
and nitrates. Pesticide and nitrate leaching indices were developed and maps showing distribution
were prepared. This is a good, useful paper that presents a practical use for GIS to help manage
ground-water contamination.
Kessler, B. 1995.
PC based GIS grows on foresters.
J Forestry 93(5):28-29.
The author discusses successes and difficulties encountered by foresters transitioning from
traditional, centralized computer management to PC-based GIS forest management. One of the
biggest problems was making data readably accessible to field personnel. Working with PC
ARC/INFO ESRI developed a system linking directly the main office with foresters in field
offices. This system allowed for data to be quickly exchanged and used in GIS-based analysis at
the main office.
Kester,D. 1992.
Global ocean observing system.
Proceedings, Ocean Climate Data Workshop, February 18-21, Greenbelt, MD. Published by
NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD. Abstract printed in Aquatic Sciences &
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Fisheries Abstract (ASFA) #3, p. 95.
A Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS) should be established now with international
coordination (1) to address issues of global change, (2) to implement operational ENSO forecasts,
(3) to provide the data required to apply global ocean circulation models, and (4) to extract the
greatest value from the $1 billion investment over the next 10 years in ocean remote sensing by
the world's space agencies. The objectives of GOOS will focus on climatic and oceanic
predictions, on assessing coastal pollution, and on determining the sustainability of living marine
resources and ecosystems. GOOS will be a complete system, including satellite observations, in
situ observations, numerical modeling of ocean processes, and data exchange and management. A
series of practical and economic benefits will be derived from the information generated by
GOOS. In addition to the marine science community, the energy industries of the world and the
world's fisheries will benefit. The basic oceanic variables required to meet oceanic and
predictability objectives of GOOS include wind velocity over the ocean, sea surface temperature
and salinity, surface current, sea level, extent and thickness of sea ice, partial pressure of CO2 in
surface waters, and chlorophyll concentration of surface waters. Ocean circulation models and
coupled ocean-atmosphere models can be used to evaluate observing system design, to assimilate
diverse data sets from in situ and remotely sensed observations, and ultimately to predict future
states of the system. The volume of ocean data will increase enormously over the next decade as
new satellite systems are launched and as complementary in situ measuring systems are deployed.
These data must be transmitted, quality controlled, exchanged, analyzed, and archived with the
best state-of-the-art computational methods.
Khakural, BR; Robert, PC. 1993.
Soil nitrate leaching potential indices: using a simulation model as a screening system.
J Environ Qual 22:839-845.
The authors describe how results from different screening models (LEACHM-N and
NLEAP) using soil survey information (attributes) were used to compare simulated NO3-N lost to
measured NO3-N lost. These leaching losses were then broken into six nitrate leaching potentials
classes that were assigned to different map units based upon their soil properties. Thus the
leaching potentials were assigned, using GIS, to a soil map (soil map units) to produce a leaching
potential map for a county.
Khorram, S; Cheshire, H; Geraci, AL; La Rosa, G. 1991.
Water quality mapping of Augusta Bay, Italy from LANDSAT-TM data.
IntJ Remote Sensing 12(4):803-808.
LANDSAT Thematic Mapper (TM) digital data were used to map the distributions and
concentrations of selected water quality indicators in and around Augusta Bay, Sicily. The general
approach involved near-simultaneous acquisition of TM data and water quality samples from 42
sites; laboratory analysis of samples; extraction of sample site digital numbers from the TM data;
development and validation of regression models based on sample data, application of models to
the entire study area; and generation of color-coded output maps. Results were good for
modeling temperature, turbidity, Secchi disc depth, and chlorophyll-a, and indicate that remotely
sensed data as part of GIS may be applicable to monitoring water quality in this geographic area.
Kihn, E; Kroehl, H. 1994.
The global inventory of biomass burning (GIBB) project.
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Earth Syst Monitor 5(2):8-10.
The National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC) has undertaken the Global Inventory of
Biomass Burning (GIBB) project to produce the first systematic, global inventory of fires and to
compute the resulting greenhouse gas emissions, including CO, CO2, CH4, O3, NO2, hydrogen,
methylchloride, and particulates. The GIBB project will construct daily maps of fire locations and
estimate the quantity of greenhouse gases emitted by these fires. Global fires are clearly seen in
nighttime images recorded by Defense Meteorological Satellite Program instruments at visible and
near infrared wavelengths during each orbit. For example, forest fires during the summer's tragic
fire season in the western United States provided an opportunity to develop, test, and evaluate
our fire detection algorithms. Another example showed smoke from fires in Borneo hanging over
Singapore.
King, GQ. 1991.
Geography and GIS technology.
JGeogr 90:66 72.
The author discusses GIS and presents a case for inclusion of GIS in a geography program
curriculum.
Klemas, V; Weatherbee, OP. 1995.
Remote sensing of biomass and stress in coastal wetlands.
Proceedings, 2nd Annual Marine andEstuarine Shallow Water Science and Management
Conference, Atlantic City, NJ, April 3-7. Published by U.S. EPA, Philadelphia, PA. pp.
221-228.
Remote sensing represents a synoptic, cost-effective methodology for analyzing land cover
and many other attributes of coastal watersheds. For estuarine studies, land-use change represents
a key layer in GIS-type databases. For instance, changes in land-use patterns affect nonpoint
source pollutant runoff and may alter wetlands health and estuarine water quality. The goal of this
effort was to improve coastal management on a regional and national scale by utilizing remotely
sensed data in a GIS framework to integrate and evaluate land-use change and condition
indicators that are important for monitoring and managing wetland/estuarine health. Condition
indicators are characteristic of the environment that elicits a change in the condition of an
ecological resource. They include both natural and human-induced stressors. Selected stressor
indicators are particularly useful when a relationship between specific condition and stressor
indicator can be established. For instance, for the past 7 years researchers at the Center for
Remote Sensing have developed remote sensing techniques to map the biomass of large Spartina
marshes. The spectral reflectance signature variations can be related to changes in Spartina
biomass induced by stress. The stress may be caused by salinity variations, changes in local
hydrology, or runoff from undesirable land uses. As a result, the Wetlands Subcommittee of the
Federal Geographic Data Committee has endorsed biomass as a convenient indicator of wetland
health, which can be measured over large areas by carefully executed remote sensing techniques.
Instead of attempting to measure all biological/chemical/physical properties, however, we are
optimizing the procedure by determining key condition/stress indicators that can be obtained
cost-effectively by remote sensing. When indicators change beyond prescribed threshold values
and "sound the alarm," the GIS approach will help users relate these changes to land-use change
and ecological properties and aid in formulating the appropriate response. This approach
optimizes data acquisition and processing for effective decisionmaking; i.e., only those
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stress/condition indicators will be measured and processed that are required to solve specific
problems or make management decisions.
Knapp, P, Bishop, K; Lancaster, J; Taylor, R. 1993.
Use of GIS in optimizing timber thinning strategies in the Eastern Sierra Nevada.
Prof Geographer 45(3):323-331.
This paper demonstrates the use of GIS to develop timber-thinning strategies on the
Kyburz Planning Area of the Tahoe National Forest in northeastern California. The primary
criteria used in the assessment of selective thinning potential were forest health and fire hazard
ratings. By eliminating environmentally sensitive, economically unfeasible, or low fire hazard
areas from consideration, use of GIS reduced the area that was considered appropriate for
thinning by approximately 58 percent. GIS offers considerable potential for improving resource
management strategies. The major benefit of using a GIS to develop timber-thinning strategies is
that it allows the Sierraville Ranger District (SRD) to view a variety of different scenarios before
implementing a management program. The project was developed to assess the feasibility of
using GIS to develop new resource management strategies in the Tahoe National Forest.
Feedback from SRD personnel about the results has been favorable.
Kondratyev, KY; Pozdniakov, DV. 1992.
Development of optical remote-sensing techniques for studying the quality of inland waters.
Environ Conserv 19(4):354.
Problems of nature conservation and management are becoming more and more urgent.
One problem that has acquired critical significance in many countries is water quality (and, first of
all, drinking-water quality). Regular monitoring of water quality is a necessary condition for
conservation and management of rivers, lakes, and water-storage reservoirs, which are the basic
sources of drinking water. A very efficient way of monitoring such waterbodies is through
application of remote-sensing techniques to obtain data on water-quality parameters. This paper
presents results of studies on the subject that were conducted in St. Petersburg, Russia. The
techniques mentioned were used to determine the concentrations of chlorophyll-a (CHL) in
phytoplankton and dissolved organic matter (DOM). Two complementary approaches have been
developed: (1) passive and active optical remote-sensing, which are based on the effects of
specific absorption of natural light by the CHL and DOM molecules, respectively, and (2) the
effect of forced fluorescence of the same matter under the influence of laser radiation having a
certain wavelength.
Laiderman, J. 1997.
Site selection.
Business Geogr 5(2):20-23.
Using data to identify customers, screen markets, choose sites, and analyze a trade area
involves collecting data, sampling, and use of models.
Lais, S. 1997.
Groups clash over mapping agency's role.
Gov ComputNews 16(19): 1-80.
When users and producers of federal mapping data met recently, sharp disagreements
arose over how information technology can best meet national policy demands. Defense and
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civilian agencies viewed the creation of the National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NEVIA),
which combined defense and intelligence mapping organizations into a single group, with some
trepidation. Though NEVIA's outreach efforts have somewhat alleviated anxiety, tough talk on
Capitol Hill about NEVIA budgets is generating new fears that Congress will underfund the
agency. NIMA needs a new strategy to ensure that customers are receiving and understanding
their products. Different agencies often want the same information, but presented differently.
Landry, R; Fournier, RA; Ahern, FJ; Lang, RH. 1997.
Tree vectorization: a methodology to characterize fine tree architecture in support of remote
sensing models.
Can JRemote Sensing 23(2):91-107.
A tree vectorization methodology was developed to characterize architectural parameters
in individual jack pine trees. The objective of the study was to implement a method to generate a
realistic geometric description of a complete forest tree. The method had to preserve a realistic
spatial distribution of all wood and foliage elements as a function of height and radial distance to
the trunk. Species-specific branch curvature and branch and foliage clumping also had to be
considered. The study site was in the boreal forest of central Saskatchewan, Canada.
Lathrop, Jr., RG; Van de Castle, JD; Brass, JA. 1994.
Monitoring changes in Greater Yellowstone lake water quality following the 1988 wildfires.
GeoCarto Int 9 (3): 49-57.
The fires that burned in the Greater Yellowstone Area (GYA) during the summer of 1988
were the largest ever recorded for the region. Wildfire can have profound indirect effects on
associated aquatic ecosystems by increased nutrient loading, sediment erosion, and runoff.
Satellite remote sensing and water quality sampling were used through GIS to compare pre-
versus post-fire conditions in the GYA's large oligotrophic (high transparency, low productivity)
lakes. Inputs of suspended sediment to Jackson Lake appear to have increased. Yellowstone Lake
has not shown any discernable shift in water quality. The insights gained separately from the
LANDSAT Thematic and NOAA AVHRR remote sensing systems, along with conventional
in-situ sampling, can be combined into a useful water quality monitoring tool.
Leavesley, GH; Markstrom, SL; Brewer, MS; Viger, RJ. 1996.
The modular modeling system (MMS)-the physical process modeling component of a
database-centered decision support system for water and power management.
Water Air SoilPollut 90(1-2):303(9).
A GIS interface component is being added to the Modular Modeling System (MMS).
MMS consists of three components-preprocess, model, and postprocess; it allows the coupling of
physical process models with water and power resource-management models. The GIS interface
will permit the testing of a variety of objective characterization and parameterization techniques
for MMS.
Lee, JK; Park, RA; Mausel, PW. 1992.
Application of geoprocessing and simulation modeling to estimate impacts of sea level rise on the
northeast coast of Florida.
Photogrammetric EngRemote Sensing 58(11): 1579-1586.
The objective of the paper is to demonstrate how geoprocessing techniques can be applied
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to simulate responses of coastal wetlands to sea-level rise. The model used, SLAMM, simulates
the effects of sea-level rise on a cell-by-cell basis. A decision tree is used to govern transfers
among coastal classes. Input variables include elevation, sedimentation, and accretion rates;
proximity of the marsh to the coast; and presence of dikes. The model computes changes in wind
and wave action and beach erosion rates. The model was applied to an area near Jacksonville,
FL. ERDAS and PC ARC/INFO were used along with SPOT imagery. Supervised classification
was used to classify coastal areas into 22 landcovers. Under reasonable scenarios, the simulation
predicted a significant loss of coastal marshes. This is partially because it was assumed that dry
lands would be protected by engineering solutions and would not be converted to marsh. The
authors noted that the input and output of data were a significant factor in efficient integration of
digital data and GIS software. In addition, attention to the appropriate scale was essential in
choosing the structural details of modeling. When remotely sensed data are used, the spatial scale
used in data input and manipulation must be appropriate to the process resolutions of the model.
Leopold, G. 1996.
DOD details digital-mapping initiative.
Electron Eng Times, June, 905:142.
This article describes an initiative to develop geospatial information systems for battlefield
data. Description of an attempt to combine intelligence data and digital imagery, distributed in
real-time, routed through GIS to assist U.S. troops in battle.
Leung, Y; Leung, KS. 1993.
An intelligent expert system shell for knowledge-based geographical information systems. 1. The
tools.
Int J Geo Info Sys 3:189-199.
This paper presents a tool to enable better use of GIS data. Current GISs typically use
Boolean logic, a rigid mathematical system that gives no allowance for imprecision in information,
human cognition, perception, and thought process. The authors suggest that Boolean logic
sometimes leads to fundamental problems in representing the information and decision analysis.
They present some fuzzy logic and expert systems technology as a means of enhancing
intelligence in GIS. ("Fuzzy logic is a non-standard logic within which an inference is a deduction
of imprecise conclusions from a set of imprecise premises.") Some potential applications are
presented. Keywords: Expert systems, GIS, fuzzy logic, FLESS (fuzzy-logic-based expert system
shell).
Leung, Y; Leung, KS. 1993.
An intelligent expert system shell for knowledge-based geographical information systems: 2.
Some applications.
Int J Geo Info Sys 3:201-213.
Some fairly detailed examples (specific rules) are presented concerning the use of fuzzy
logic with respect to GIS (land type, climate, etc.). This is an interesting series of papers, but it is
not clear how the system could be used within GIS (in Arc View). It may be useful in pre-GIS
preparation of input data. This type of information is useful for work involving imprecise (i.e.,
fuzzy) data.
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Liao, H-H; Tim, US. 1994.
Interactive water quality modeling within a GIS environment.
Comput Environ Urban Syst 18(5):343(21).
The availability of GIS offers tools to spatially structure and manage water quality data for
modeling exercises. An interactive water quality modeling scheme derived within a GIS
environment is described. Pollutant export and soil erosion models are combined with ARC/INFO
software, which describes geographic information about spatial elements, and a graphic user
interface. The system also permits cost-effective use of simplified water quality models for
assessment of nonpoint source pollution in watersheds. The interactive modeling technique
represents a spatial decision support tool to target critical areas of water quality problems.
Limp, FW. 1997.
Weave maps across the web.
GIS World 10(9):46-55.
This article reviews four web-based mapping products: Autodesk MapGuide 2.5, ESRI
MapObjects Internet Map Server for ARC/INFO, Intergraph GeoMedia Web Map 1.0, and
Maplnfo ProServer. This reviewer logged on to ESRI's MapObjects Internet Map Server and
used their demo, which applies Toxic Release Inventory System data by zip code. This product
was impressive.
Limp, FW. 1997.
Weave maps across the web.
GIS World 10(9):46-55.
This article compares four web-based mapping products: MapGuide, Internet MapServer
for Map Objects and for Arc View, GeoMedia Web Map and ProServer. Much of the information
about these packages is quite technical. However, this may become a good resource for learning
about (1) the differences in use of image graphics vs. graphic objects, (2) using map prepublishing
vs. direct data access, (3) client-level requirements, (4) amount of geographical analysis accessible
from the Web, and (5) data and platform restrictions. The article appears to conclude that the
"best" product depends on how the product is to be used. The authors sum up the article by
saying that if one's data are already in a certain format and cannot be transferred to another
system, then one's decision is made. If data restrictions do not exist, one should decide which
product to use based on, for example, whether one wants to do spatial queries, address matching,
detailed geographical entities, or extensive interaction with live relational databases.
Lindell, L; Steinvall, O; Johnson, M; Claesson, TH. 1985.
Mapping of coastal water turbidity using LANDSAT imagery.
IntJ Remote Sensing 6(5): 629-642.
LANDSAT data along with Secchi disk depth was used to determine relative nutrient and
solids loading situations around the Swedish coast and as a basis for the applicability of laser
bathymetry for water depth surroundings.
Liu, G; Coleman, TL; Gooding, E. 1995.
Windows-based GIS in demographic analyses.
Proceedings, GIS/LIS '95, Volume II, Annual Conference and Exposition, November, Nashville,
TN, pp. 646-658.
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The authors present a framework for using Windows-based GIS software to create a base
map and thematic map for demographic analyses. They also provide information comparing some
of the features of different GIS systems, such as Atlas GIS, Arc View, and ARC/INFO. They
discuss some basic characteristics of the TIGER Line Files and indicate the steps needed to
convert these data files into a base map of census tract boundaries. They also discuss the need for
obtaining population attribute data to create appropriate demographic theme maps using the tract
base maps. They discuss some of the features of the Census Summary Tape files and how one
can use these for the attribute tables and map products.
Lo, KFA. 1995.
Erosion assessment of large watersheds in Taiwan.
JSoil Water Conserv 50(2): 180(4).
GIS technology supplemented the application of the Agricultural Nonpoint Source
Pollution (AGNPS) Model in quantifying erosion problems at the Bajun River Basin and the
Tsengwen Reservoir Watershed in Taiwan. Hydrology, erosion, and sediment and chemical
transport were simulated to estimate sediment yield per hectare and total watershed yields and to
assist in prescribing watershed soil conservation practices.
Logan, B. 1996.
Fishing for a river solution.
Comput Canada 22(22):52.
GIS was used to deal with problems caused by sudden temperature increase in the Fraser
River system in British Columbia, which adversely affected salmon migration patterns. Salmon
migration patterns and spawning data were combined with other data such as water level, water
temperature, air temperature, and snow melting patterns for the Department of Fisheries and
Oceans Fraser system DBMS. The data were combined with an existing digital mapping system
to provide timely data analysis and prevent future problems.
Loibl, W. 1997.
Modeling tropospheric ozone distribution considering the spatio-temporal dependencies with
complex terrain.
In: Kraak, M; Molenaar, M; Fendel, E, eds. Advances in GIS research. Proceedings, Seventh
International Symposium on Spatial Data Handling. London: Taylor & Francis, pp. 667-677.
This article describes the digital elevation model that was developed to reflect the
elevation and diurnal variations in ozone concentrations throughout Austria based on data from a
national network of ozone monitoring stations. First, using regression analysis, standard
ozone/elevation/daytime functions were derived where the standard ozone concentration was
described as a function of the (1) relative elevation from the local valley bottom and (2) time of
day. The standard function produces ozone values reflecting of a typical summer day. To reflect
seasonal, day-specific, and local influences, a deviation curve was added to the model. It was
calculated in terms of the deviations in day-specific hourly measurements from those produced by
the standard function at three elevation ranges. The result was a day-specific ozone/elevation
curve that was then used to calculate a cell-by-cell ozone concentration for insertion in the digital
elevation model. A complete ozone concentration surface was produced for each specific hour of
a specific day. The resulting DEM needed to be further modified to reflect local geographical
influences on ozone concentration. Interpolation needed to be used to reflect the influence of
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local deviations as a function of the distance from a given monitoring site. However, traditional
spatial interpolation could not be used to produce the deviation surface because the local
deviation in ozone concentration is dependent on altitude, i.e., the lower the relative elevation, the
higher the deviations in ozone concentration. To reflect this, an elevation-dependent weighting
function was derived and then interpolation was performed by inverse distance weighting. Using
the interpolation, a cell-by-cell deviation surface was created for the DEM. Day-hour-specific
ozone concentration maps for Austria were then produced by simple cell-by-cell addition of
values from the (1) day-specific DEM ozone concentration surface and (2) final DEM deviation
surface. The resulting daily maps have been continuously disseminated since 1996 by the Federal
Environmental Agency of Austria on the internet.
Lopez, XR. 1996.
Stimulating GIS innovation through the dissemination of geographic information.
J Urban Reg InfSyst Assoc 8(2)24-3 7.
This article discusses access and commercialization of spatial databases and three
alternative models for information dissemination (cost-recovery, proprietary partnerships, and
open-access).
Lopez, XR. 1996.
Stimulating GIS innovation through the dissemination of geographic information.
J Urban RegInf Syst Assoc 8(2):24-37.
This article suggests that government agencies, because they are using systems such as
GIS that are providing better ways to keep public information, are at a cross-road for deciding
how they should disseminate the information. The author proposes three alternatives: (1) cost
recovery (i.e., anyone who wants the data can have it but they must help pay the cost of
maintaining system), (2) proprietary partnerships (i.e., government contracts with companies who
will disseminate information for profit), and (3) open-access (i.e., make data available at marginal
cost to anyone and private sector can market the data if they wish). The author believes the third
alternative provides the greatest benefit.
Lotz, T. 1996.
A landmark in Lima, Ohio: The legacy of West Ohio Gas continues as GIS charts the utility's
second century course.
Geo Info Sys 6(3): 16-21.
As part of the company's reorganization for growth, West Ohio Gas Company (Lima,
OH) has integrated a GIS, known as the Asset Information Management System (AIMS), one
year ahead of schedule and 10 percent under budget. The company's overall goal is to grow in
the increasingly competitive energy market by being more competitive and by focusing more
intently on new products and services to meet customer needs. GIS, as well as related automated
mapping/facilities management systems (AM/FM), has gained widespread use among natural gas
and other utilities in recent years. GIS technology is being used as a tool to manage spatial
information about facilities; their relationship to customers, products, or services these facilities
offer; and the land environments in which they operate. AIMS' functions will benefit the entire
company and will include linkage to the company's accounting function to assist with property
records management, as well as integration with customer information services to help personnel
answering service calls to provide quick answers to customer calls.
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Lougeay, R; Stol, MJ; Brazel, A. 1994.
Surface emissivity calibration of LAKDSAT thermal data: creating an urban surface temperature
map of Phoenix, Arizona.
Geogr Bull 36(2): 7 4-82.
An analysis of surface temperature, extracted from LANDSAT thermal remotely sensed
imagery, was compared with current land use in regions of rapidly expanding urban landscapes,
near and including Phoenix. Digital values of the LANDSAT Thematic Mapper thermal spectral
band can be transformed to observed ground surface temperatures by first calculating the spectral
radiance, then calculating the "at satellite" temperature of each pixel. Image maps of surface
temperature have been compared with land-use maps. In the rapidly developing area of the
Phoenix metropolitan region, one can observe the influence of changing land use upon changing
urban climate.
Lovejoy, S. 1997.
Watershed management for water quality protection: are GIS and simulation models THE
answer?
JSoil Water Conserv 52:103.
The author argues that using a GIS to predict the exact sources of pollution and the
changes in land use necessary to meet water quality objectives may be too costly. He prefers the
use of simulation models that allow "micro-targeting" of conservation efforts. He suggests that
local decisionmakers first use their limited funds for simple watershed management ideas such as
riparian buffers. Then, when the potential for these simple ideas has been exhausted and as more
funds become available, the decisionmakers can invest in more hi-tech approaches.
Lowell, K. 1993.
Predictive model development and evaluation with unknown spatial units.
Photogrammetric Eng Remote Sensing 59:1509 1515.
The author worked with a simple model of plant succession: Open—>Cedars-->Forest.
The objective was to predict the cover type at a given year by the 1939 cover type, topographic
aspect, soil, and distance from a seed source (i.e., forest). To estimate the cover type for a given
cell, the author used discriminant functions using values of the independent variables for that cell.
A reduced model, based on 1939 cover types and the number of years since 1939, performed even
better than the full model. The author concluded that the full model contained variables that were
significant because of spatial correlation only, and so had little predictive value. She concluded
that in cases where the units that are spatially independent are not known, an analysis of the
spatial autocorrelation of the residuals should be conducted.
Lowry, JH; Miller, HJ; Hepner, GF. 1995.
A GIS-based sensitivity analysis of community vulnerability to hazardous contaminants on the
Mexico/U.S. border.
Photogrammetric Eng Remote Sensing 61(11): 1347-1359.
The authors provide a detailed description of how they used GIS technology to estimate
and determine community vulnerability to hazardous material releases in the Mexico/U.S. border
community of Nogales, Sonora/Arizona. They used composite mapping analysis (CMA) to model
community vulnerability using information on the location of potential hazard material generation
sites relative to the locations of sensitive populations (i.e., children under 18 years old, adults over
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65 years old) and institutions (i.e., schools, hospitals, clinics). The authors show how GIS
enhances the CMA approach to vulnerability analysis and allows development and exploration of
a well-structured set of vulnerability scenarios based on different weighting of the input variables.
They developed eight spatial data layers reflecting variables that can be meaningfully partitioned
into two major components: hazard-related and human-related factors. The hazard-related data
layers included location of industrial facilities and two modes of hazardous material transmission
(surface and sewer transmission). The human-related data included layers representing the two
sensitive age groups, population density, and sensitive institutions. They describe in detail how
they generated 18 different vulnerability scenarios from these data layers and performed a
sensitivity analysis to determine the key variables and robustness of the model. They provide
maps to show how the location and ranking of vulnerable areas change as the assumptions and
weighting factors change for the different scenarios. They conclude that this GIS-based
community vulnerability model is robust in predicting estimates of high and very high
vulnerability, but is less robust in predicting very low, low, and medium vulnerability. They
believe this is good, since the zones of highest vulnerability are the most important for evacuation
planning. They also summarize data access and quality issues and the differences between U.S.
and Mexican data.
Luettich, Jr., RA; Kirby-Smith, WW; Runnings, W. 1993.
PSWTMS, a profiling instrument system for remote physical and chemical measurements in
shallow water.
Estuaries 16(2): 190-197.
PSWIMS (Profiling Shallow Water Instrument Mounting System) is a relatively simple
instrumentation system developed to remotely collect vertical profiles of physical and chemical
parameters in shallow water that is subject to significant changes in depth. The system is designed
for observations that cannot practically be made with moored sensors (due to the high cost of
multiple sensors, the physical size of sensors, or the inability of moored instruments to
accommodate changes in water depth) or with hand-held sensors (due to the need for frequent
observations over extended periods of time). Results are presented from two field deployments
that demonstrate the utility of PSWIMS for measuring horizontal flux and for monitoring water
quality parameters in shallow water.
Lull, KJ; Tindall, JA; Potts, DF. 1995.
Assessing nonpoint source pollution risk.
J Forestry 93(1): 35-40.
In accordance with the 1987 Renewal of the Clean Water Act, Section 319, states have to
assess, identify, and define water quality problem areas and their causes. The state of Montana
developed an erosion-impact matrix and implemented a risk analysis using GIS on two pilot study
areas. Results from the two studies indicated that resulting information was good for relative
comparisons. However, detailed analysis of the watershed required extensive field monitoring and
verification.
Lynch, J, Bowersox, VC; Geimm, J. 1996.
Trends in precipitation chemistry in the U.S. 1983-94. An analysis of the effects in 1995 of phase
I of the clean air act amendments, Title IV.
U.S. Geological Survey, distributed by USGS, Information Services, open file report 96B0346
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June 1996.
This is an evaluation of NADP/NTN (National Acid Deposition Program / National
Trends Network) data for anion, cation, and precipitation amount. GIS is applied to create
contour plots of concentration and percent changes in compounds of interest. The kriging
technique is used for visualization.
Mack, C; Marsh, SE; Hutchinson, CF. 1995.
Application of aerial photography and GIS techniques in the development of a historical
perspective of environmental hazards at the rural-urban fringe.
Photogrammetric Eng Remote Sensing 6-1(8):10*15-1020.
The authors use GIS technology to study how land use/land cover changed between 1954
and 1985 in a 155 sq km area of western rural-urban fringe in Phoenix, AZ, and to evaluate the
relationship between land use and environmental hazards. The study was designed to gain
historical perspective on changing land use within the urban-rural fringe in order to provide
significant insight into the nature of environmental hazards (past and future) in these dynamic
areas. The study was undertaken as a result of a reported high incidence of childhood leukemia
concentrated in a residential neighborhood of Phoenix. The authors summarize how they
developed land-use/land-cover maps from interpretation of historical aerial photographs and
layered this over USGS topo base maps. They also performed a topological comparison of the
known and possible waste disposal classes in 1976 with digital soil maps. The authors graphically
show how several key land-use/land-cover categories have changed during this 32- year period.
The results also show that significant areas of historical dumping may currently, or sometime in
the future, expose residents to environmental hazards, because the majority of these landfills and
dump sites have been located along the Salt River in soils unsuited for waste disposal. (The Salt
River flows along the southern border of the study area.) A large percentage of the abandoned
waste disposal sites have been converted to public, urban undeveloped, and industrial land uses.
The authors concluded that historical land-use information could be coupled with information on
waste disposal using GIS technology to gain a unique perspective on environmental risk.
Malthus, TJ; Dekker, AG. 1994.
First derivative indices for the remote sensing of inland water quality using high spectral
resolution reflectance.
Proceedings, Inland and Coastal Water Quality '93-Measurement and Modelling, J Env
International 21(2):221-232.
Remote sensing is a technique with potential for monitoring the surface water quality of
lakes and rivers. However, new technologies are required in order to overcome the poor spatial
and spectral resolutions of conventional satellite sensors. This paper presents the results of novel
derivative analyses applied to both high spectral resolution subsurface reflectance and similar data
obtained at 450 m above lakes in the Netherlands. Several first derivatives, at 670, 722, and 840
nm wavelengths, showed good potential for the prediction of surface suspended matter
concentrations. These were similar in strength to correlations found between reflectance in a
single band and suspended sediment. First derivatives of reflectance, at 620, 638, and 661 nm in
particular, showed higher correlations with chlorophyll-a concentrations than did individual
reflectance wavebands. The results suggest that derivatives of reflectance, calculated using high
spectral resolution reflectance, may be used as the basis for indices for detection of inland water
quality and warrant further study.
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Mandrak, NE. 1995.
Biogeographic patterns offish species richness in Ontario lakes in relation to historical and
environmental factors.
Can JFish Aquat Sci 52:1462-1474.
This is a very nice paper. Spatial autocorrelation may result from spatially structured
historical and environmental variables affecting species distributions, or may be the result of
extraneous variables not included in the study. It is a confounding factor that may produce
spurious correlations between pattern and process variables. The objectives of this study were to
(1) identify patterns offish-species richness in Ontario Lakes; (2) look for relationships between
richness and historical and environmental factors, controlling for scale and autocorrelation; and
(3) postulate processes that influence observed patterns of regional lake species. A quadrate
sampling scheme was used. The spatial structure was examined by plotting Moran's I coefficient
against the distance between quadrat centers. The dependent variable was species richness.
Explanatory variables included distance from dispersal corridors, the time since the last glacier,
climate, elevation, lake chemistry, and morphometry. Spatial autocorrelation was partialled out of
the data set using the partial Mantel test (Smouse et al., 1986). Principal coordinates analysis was
conducted only on the corrected set. Each matrix exhibited spatial correlation. After adjustment,
only climate and postglacial dispersal explained a significant amount of the variation in species
richness. Greater species richness was found in quadrats close to entry locations of dispersal
corridors and covered by glacial lakes for the longest periods of time.
Mangold, G. 1996.
Farming with precision.
Successful Farming, December.
Precision farming is also known as site-specific management (SSM). It involves collecting
and controlling information to accurately manage parts of fields for actual needs instead of whole
fields for the average need. SSM uses a variety of computer-related information including GIS,
GPS, remote sensing, direct sensor technology, and variable rate technology (VRT). One main
point of the article is that information age farming is about information, and not about
"contraptions," as the author refers to computers.
Mann, WW. 1995.
Land use/transportation impact model-LUTRIM.
Proceedings, 33rd Annual Conference of the Urban and Regional Information System Associates
(URISA). July, San Antonio, TX. Journal of the URISA, Vol. 1:710-722.
LUTRIM combines urban land-use and urban transportation models to determine
transportation impacts on land uses. Factors include real estate values, crime, air quality, school
ratings, and traffic congestion. The program can be used as a land-use model, a travel forecasting
model, or both, to measure impacts of transportation improvements on land-use forecasts.
Marr, P; Schoolmaster, FA. 1988.
An application of GIS to monitoring site changes in gasoline service stations and underground
storage tank locations
Proceedings, GIS/LIS '88, Third International Conference, Nov. 30-Dec. 2, San Antonio, TX,
pp. 852-860.
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The authors demonstrate the use of GIS (ARC/INFO) to inventory and monitor
underground storage tank locations and ownership regardless of changes in surface land. The
study was conducted in Denton, Texas. The authors identified 136 former and current gasoline
stations in Denton based on field work, zoning records, and interviews with long-time residents of
the town. They provide maps showing the town's streets and locations of all gas stations and
reused and abandoned underground storage tanks. They also provide a table listing the 11 data
layers they developed and their attributes. They also indicate that a water quality monitoring
program of public and private wells and streams was needed so that data layer could be added to
provide updates to the ground-water flow models and facilitate detection of leaked materials. The
authors list four applications resulting from development and implementation of such a GIS-based
monitoring system, such as the improved capability for proactive (routine monitoring and
checking) and reactive (emergency response) leak detection.
Masuoka, P; Foresman, T; Fifer, S; Acevedo, W; Clark, S; Crawford, J; Buchanan, J. 1995.
Visualization techniques for the analysis of Baltimore regional GIS data.
Proceedings, GIS/LIS '95, Volume II, Annual Conference and Exposition, November, Nashville,
TN,pp. 704-712.
The authors are involved in a joint research project to assemble a GIS consisting of maps,
census data, and satellite images of the Baltimore, MD, area from the 1700's to the present. The
GIS will eventually be expanded to include a 2-degree by 2-degree region that encompasses the
Baltimore-Washington corridor. When completed, this system will allow researchers to study
historical changes in urban and rural patterns, population density, and land cover. The authors
very briefly discuss preliminary work being done to test various ways to visualize the data in
preparation for the completed GIS. Data sources include 1:100,000 and 1:250,000 scale OEMs,
vector data of roads and urban land cover, and LANDSAT TM imagery. The authors very briefly
summarize some of the major pros and cons of the different images tested as backgrounds for
displaying the GIS data. They briefly discuss original DEM images, contour maps, shaded relief
maps, color-encoded shaded relief maps, and Thematic Mapper images as possible backgrounds.
They selected TM images and the original DEM since they were thought to provide the best
backgrounds for displaying Baltimore urban growth and transportation data.
Mathews, KB; MacDonald, A; Aspinall, RJ; Hudson, G; Law, AN; Paterson, E. 1994.
Climatic soil moisture deficit-climate and soil data integration in a GIS.
dim Change, 28(3):273(15).
Many researchers predict that significant global warming will occur over the coming
decades due to the buildup of greenhouse gases. This warming will likely have profound impacts
on both climate and agricultural practices around the globe. The design and development of a
GIS-based technique for predicting potential effects of climate change on the susceptibility of soils
in Scotland to drought are described. The primary focus of this research was the generation of a
technique for mapping available water capacity in soils. A sample assessment of the soil drought
susceptibility of Scotland in the year 2030 is presented to illustrate the effectiveness of the
methodology. The scenario is examined with maps and derived statistics.
Mattikalli, NM. 1995.
Integration of remotely-sensed data with a vector-based geographical information system for land-
use change detection.
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Remote Sensing 16(15):2813-2828.
Remotely sensed images are increasingly being used to derive land-use data. Methods
have not been developed to analyze vector formatted data for land-use change. The data derived
from satellite images will be in raster format. To integrate raster data with large volumes of
vector data already available in a GIS, an effective data integration technique is needed. This
paper presents a methodology for integrating remotely sensed raster data with vector data.
Mattikalli, NM; Richards, KS. 1996.
Estimation of surface water quality changes in response to land-use changes: Application of the
export coefficient model using remote sensing and geographical information system.
J Environ Manage, 48(3):263(20).
The authors developed a strategy to determine hindcast water quality changes (nitrogen
and phosphorus concentrations) utilizing remote sensing data, geographic information system
techniques, and historical land-use data to describe increased agricultural intensification and heavy
reliance on chemical fertilizers. They applied this export coefficient model to an eastern England
watershed.
May, JW. 1994.
Automated mapping and GIS in Florida local planning agencies.
URISA,pp. 755-770.
Local comprehensive planning has been mandatory in Florida since 1989 due to the
pressures of rapid population growth. In 1993, the 459 local government units were surveyed
about their use of computers in this effort. A followup survey was sent to 96 local planning
agencies that had a planning agency and planning staff, that used computers in their planning
work, and that used an automated mapping system. Eight percent of all city planning agencies in
Florida and 43 percent of all county planning agencies in Florida use a GIS. A profile of these
planning agencies was developed. The agencies use GIS for a variety of purposes, including land-
use and natural resources inventories. The biggest institutional issues faced by these agencies
were general budget constraints, base map preparation, and inconsistent management/political
support. Most agencies believe GIS was worth the investment and is meeting some or all of their
expectations. The author predicts increasing GIS inroads at local planning agencies to improve
their analytical capability and decisionmaking. This experience provides guidance to other
organizations planning to work with GIS, as well as to GIS natural resources data seekers that it
is widely available.
McCann, AJ; Joubert, L; Gold, AJ; LaBash, C; August, PV; Puffer, RH. 1994.
Training municipal decision-makers in the use of geographic information systems for water
resource protection.
Proceedings, Annual Symposium of American Water Resources Association (A WRA), Jackson
Hole, WY, Jun 26-29, p55 64. Published by AWRA.
The Narragansett Bay Nonpoint Source Water Pollution Control Program was initiated in
1992 by the University of Rhode Island to protect water-supply reservoirs and the bay. A major
thrust of the program is education of municipal decisionmakers about the relationship between
land use and water quality. A GIS has been incorporated into the training scheme, because GISs
are often used to develop future land use scenarios and to assess their impact on water quality.
Decisionmakers can then choose the scenario that best fits their water quality goal. The GIS
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training program is described, which was developed using personnel from Portsmouth and
Middletown. Once the participants had gained an understanding of GIS and had worked with the
software, several simple water quality models were used as illustration. The models effectively
demonstrated to the participants the impact of future land-use practices on drinking water
supplies. Both municipalities are now planning to use GIS for future planning purposes.
McCollough, D; Moore, K. 1995.
Issues and methodologies in integrating aerial photography and digital base maps.
Geo Info Sys 5(3):46-50.
The article discusses using aerial photographs to capture thematic data in digital form
(wetlands inventory) for British Columbia, Canada. The article explores the advantages and
disadvantages of alternative methods, including digital orthophoto, stereo analytical plotter, and
monorestitution.
McConville, DR; Owens, TW; Redmond, AS. 1996.
Geospatial application: a geographic information system interface designed for use in river
management.
National Biological Service, Environmental Management Technical Center, Onalaska,
Wisconsin, July 1996. LTRMP 96-TOO3. 21pp. + Appendixes A-B.
The main objective in developing the program for this project was to show planners how a
GIS can assist in design and evaluation of a Habitat Rehabilitation and Enhancement Project
(HREP). Frequent flooding and the resulting sedimentation can have negative effects on the biota
in Calhoun Point at the confluence of the Illinois and Mississippi rivers in Calhoun County, IL.
Flooding can kill tree seedlings if they are overtopped by floodwaters and can destroy moist-soil
vegetation and agricultural crops used by wildlife. Sedimentation can also prevent the growth of
aquatic vegetation and inhibit movement of and suitable spawning habitat for several species of
fish inhabiting backwaters of Calhoun Point. The most important element of the management
plan was determined to be recreation of the low-head levee system around the area to simplify
water level management in the area, reduce frequency of flooding, and reduce sediment inflow.
Data layers used in the Calhoun Point Interface included land cover/use, 1989; land cover/use,
1975; land cover/use, 1930; land cover/use, 1903; land cover/use, 1890's; land cover/use, 1817;
wetlands coverages; soils; elevations; photocomposites; Calhoun Point Management Areas; roads;
endangered species; historical or archeological sites; and fisheries research sites. The modeling
components included elevation change impact, dike design, dike development, dike effectiveness
test, and flood animation. The modular design of the interface facilitates modification of the
program, and, as such, the interface could be readily adapted for use with another HREP in
another area of the Mississippi River.
McGarigle, B. 1994.
Drawing the line: accurate data collection.
Geo Info Sys 4(10):29-33.
The Fish and Wildlife Division of the Department of Environmental Conservation of New
York State is responsible for mapping more than 1.5 million acres of wetlands, assessing the
environmental impact of numerous proposed projects, and protecting endangered and threatened
species. Those responsibilities have led to creation of the GIS-based Master Habitat Data Bank
(MHDB). This article describes a pilot program to explore use of differentially corrected global
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positioning system technology for acquiring new data and updating previously acquired data for
the data bank and other fish and wildlife applications. The MHDB project is an ongoing project
to integrate and automate natural resource data for planning, protecting, and managing fish,
wildlife, and their habitats in New York. GIS has the largest role in analysis and display of land
management areas and habitat locations of rare and endangered species.
McGarigle, B. 1994.
Drawing the line: accurate data collection; evaluating DGPS support for New York's master
habitat data bank.
Geo Info Sys 4(10):29-33.
This article describes the use of the differentially corrected global positioning system
(DGPS) to update and acquire data for the Master Habitat Data Bank (MHDB) in New York.
The data are used to support GIS applications for the Fish and Wildlife Division of the
Department of Environmental Conservation of New York. DGPS was evaluated for a variety of
uses, including mapping regulatory wetland boundaries and endangered species habitats; locating
rare, natural community areas and forest-covers, and hiking trails; and monitoring sites for
toxicity. GIS maps identifying habitats are used to determine if endangered species are located in
areas of proposed activities; the same maps also may be used to study animal behavior and
population fluctuation. DGPS may prove to be a more accurate means of collecting these data.
McGarigle, B. 1996.
Satellite imagery-higher resolution, lower prices.
Gov ComputNews 9(12): 17-19.
High-resolution satellite imagery, previously restricted to intelligence organizations, is
about to make a commercial debut. In the next 2 years, U.S. companies plan to launch satellites
carrying sensors capable of recording and transmitting images of the Earth's surface with 1-meter
resolution. Fully processed images will be precise enough to meet U.S. accuracy standards for
1:2400 scale mapping-detailed enough to spot a motorcycle from 400 miles out in space. The
combination of domestic and foreign competition may put the cost of high-resolution imagery
well below that of aerial photography. France and Japan are now providing satellite imagery, with
Russia selling 5- and 8-meter resolution data. The article discusses advantages and disadvantages
of the various media, including black-and-white and multispectral color imagery. In addition, the
article discusses the costs, and software and hardware requirements for the different media.
McGarigle, B. 1996.
High school students win national awards with GIS.
Gov ComputNews 9(7): 1-48.
An Oregon High School teacher and his students won the national Educational Model
Program from President Clinton and EPA for forming the Coastal Studies and Technology
Center. The Center provides opportunities for students to study GIS and other technologies
while participating in environmental projects conducted by state and local government. In
addition to serving as a research and development center for students, faculty, and the larger
community, the center provides science programs that emphasize modern technology applications
in coastal and watershed studies. One such study included formation of a jetty in Trestle Bay, off
the Columbia River. The center provides a link between the community, students, government,
and academia via real-life projects.
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McGarigle, B. 1997.
Land-use planning by joystick.
Gov ComputNews 10(6):20-22.
The city council members of Scottsdale, AZ, formed a team that came up with a prototype
system that "flies" observers through three-dimensional digital terrain imagery and computer-
generated models in real time. This replaced static images and lay interpretations of maps. The
users can zoom in, pull back, show scenes from any perspective, and changes features on the fly
to create "what-if' scenarios. Even better, they can visualize the appearance of proposed
developments and designs. The visualization is a representation that lets decisionmakers focus on
the issues, not the data. The system has been used in actual cases of land acquisition, general
planning, zoning, and design.
Medina, 1C; Schattanek, G; Nichols, Jr., F. 1994.
A framework for integrating information systems in air quality analysis.
URISA, Proceeings, 32nd Annual Conference ofURISA (Urban & Regional Information System
Association, August, Milwaukee, WI. Published by URISA, Vol. 1, pp. 339-348.
This paper outlines experience with linking air quality analysis and transportation planning
for the Boston Central Artery/Third Harbor Tunnel project. This effort evaluated possible air
quality impacts of several proposed alignments, predicting air pollutant levels over the 23 most
congested and sensitive locations in the area by integrating transportation planning, vehicle
emission, and air quality dispersion models. The vehicle emission factors model was EPA's
MOBILES, which is about to be upgraded. Challenges included sharing data between CADD and
GIS computer systems and training staff in both.
Meiner, A. 1996.
Evaluation of AVHRR-based land cover data as input for regional modelling of nutrient load to
the Baltic Sea.
Proceedings, HydroGIS '96: Application of Geographic Information Systems in Hydrology and
Water Resources Management, April, Vienna, Austria. lAHSpubl. no. 235, pp. 629-635.
The author examined the accuracy of land-cover data from satellite imagery by comparing
AVHRR (ALC) with an existing map classified using TM data (LLC). The land-cover
information will be used as part of a regional model of nutrient loads to the Baltic Sea. He
investigated the classification of forest vs. open land. In order to compare the two, the LLC had
to be generalized from a 30 m cell size to a 1110 m cell size. He did this using a filter and the
majority value. He used ARC/INFO GRID and IDRISI to calculate correlations and the Kappa
Index of Agreement. There was low agreement in the two data sets-only slightly above chance.
Best agreement was achieved with coniferous forests and open/dry bogs. Landscapes with mixed
patterns and small land-cover units are estimated the worst by the ALC.
Meiner, A. 1996.
Integration of GIS and a dynamic spatially distributed model for non-point source pollution
management.
Water Sci Technol 33(4-5):211(8).
A GIS was extended to include a network model of nonpoint source pollution . The
model integrates, over a watershed, a set of irregular, contiguous spatial objects and is thus a
distributed-parameter, zero-dimensional, quasi-unsteady simulation technique.
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Mellerowicz, KT; Rees, HW; Chow, TL; Ghanem, I. 1994.
Soil conservation planning at the watershed level using the universal soil loss equation (USLE)
with GIS and microcomputer technologies: a case study.
JSoil Water Conserv 49:194-200.
This paper gives a procedure to integrate databases and geographic information to
characterize the spatial distribution of the risk of soil erosion by water. This was used to identify
areas suitable for three different possible management procedures to reduce erosion. The
watersheds considered for planning tend to be relatively small, less than 20 km2. The USLE was
used to calculate the predicted annual soil loss rates. Soil survey, land-use inventory, property
ownership, digital elevation data, and climatic atlases were used to generate the USLE factor
values. Methods are described both in the methodology section and in two generalized flow
charts (figures). The paper discusses how the authors developed the data. Ultimately, each factor
in the USLE or management practices had a map with one set of unique polygons. The authors
identified that the most limiting factor was the accuracy of estimating the USLE factor values in
portraying the physical and management conditions of the watershed. This reviewer did not see
any discussion concerning the resolution or accuracy of the work. This paper is a good reference
to help design a GIS project. System used: Computer Aided Resource Information System
(CARIS).
Mersey, JE. 1997.
Life after lectures: the internet as a resource for a senior undergraduate GIS course.
Cartographica 26:38-45.
The author reports on student reaction to an Internet site that was designed to help them
out in their GIS course. The site included course information, bibliographical references,
acquisition of digital maps and data sets, communication with GIS experts, listservers, and
familiarization with post-graduation opportunities in GIS. Most useful were the search engines,
which gave the students a starting point for beginning research on GIS-related projects.
Mikhova, D; Pickles, J. 1994.
Environmental data in Bulgaria: problems and prospects.
Prof Geographer 46(2):228-235.
Research projects dealing with transition in the former centrally planned economies of
Eastern and Central Europe face great difficulties of data availability. Environmental problems
arose as a result of virtually unregulated pollution by large state industrial and agricultural
enterprises that placed production considerations above all others. In the process of economic
and environmental reconstruction, a crucial need of researchers and policymakers is good data on
production systems, technology use, energy and chemical inputs and outputs, and impacts on
particular ecosystems. Many data are not available, and what are available are poorly documented
or unreliable. This paper describes some of the problems of data availability in the context of
environmental research in Bulgaria. It describes current efforts to upgrade national- level
environmental monitoring capabilities, and argues for the need for the development of locally
sensitive systems of data collection and analysis.
Miller, RL; Cruise, JF; Otero, E; Lopez, JM. 1994.
Monitoring suspended particulate matter in Puerto Rico: field measurements and remote sensing.
Water Resources Bull 30(2):271-282.
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The spatial distribution of suspended paniculate matter (SPM) was estimated in Mayaguez
Bay on the west coast of Puerto Rico by using traditional ship board measurements and remotely
sensed data acquired over 4 days during January 1990. This effort was part of a joint project
between NASA and the University of Puerto Rico to develop techniques to monitor the water
quality of a Caribbean coastal zone. This paper presents the methods and algorithms developed to
map and analyze short-term changes in the source and spatial distribution of SPM in Mayaguez
Bay by using remotely sensed data acquired by the Calibrated Airborne Multispectral Scanner
(CAMS). A PC-based data acquisition system was developed to record continuous ship
measurements of select in-water variables. Spectral reflectances derived from CAMS red and
near-IR data were corrected for atmospheric effects and then used to generate GIS maps of SPM.
These maps displayed SPM plumes associated with the mouths of the bay's three river systems.
Significant day-to-day differences in the spatial characteristics were observed, suggesting that
changes in river discharge occurred. However, a GIS analysis of estimated river discharge,
sediment yield, local wind field, and thermal river plume indicates that observed sediment plumes
result primarily from wind-driven resuspension events.
Millie, DF; Paerl, HW; Hurley, JP. 1993.
Microalgal pigment assessments using high-performance liquid chromatography: a synopsis of
organismal and ecological applications.
Can JFisheries Sci 50(ll):2513-2527.
Past and current efforts at identifying microalgal phylogenetic groups rely largely on
microscopic evaluation, which requires a high level of taxonomic skill, may take considerable
time, can be variable among personnel, and does not allow characterization of the physiological
status of the taxa. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) has proven effective in
rapidly separating and distinguishing chlorophylls, chlorophyll-degradation products, and
carotenoids within monotypic and mixed algal samples. When coupled with absorbance and/or
fluorescence spectroscopy, HPLC can accurately characterize phylogenetic groups and changes in
community composition and yield information concerning microalgal physiological status,
production, trophic interaction, and paleolimnology/paleooceanography. The recent widespread
occurrence of toxic and noxious phytoplankton blooms has necessitated the use of remote
imagery of pigment and reflectance "signatures" for monitoring and predicting bloom distribution.
Because HPLC allows processing of large numbers of samples from numerous locations relatively
quickly, it is ideally suited for large-scale "ground truthing" of remotely sensed imagery. Coupled
with rapidly evolving GIS-based remote sensing technologies, HPLC-based pigment analyses may
provide accurate assessments of aquatic biogeochemical flux, primary production, trophic state,
water quality, and changes therein on local, regional, and global scales.
Mitchell, JE. 1996.
Effect of spatial resolution on estimating hydrologic response and economic value of an urban
forest.
American Water Resources Association Symposium, GIS and Water Resources, September 1996.
Ft. Lauderdale, FL.
This study uses Quanti Tree to estimate the economic contribution of urban forest to the
local community. Factors analyzed include flood reduction, air quality improvement, and
property value increases. This study shows that differences in the scale of spatial data can elicit
large changes in inferences made from those data. In addition, data aggregation in space greatly
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influences these results. This study examines the area known as Bayou Duplantier, in Baton
Rouge, LA, and compares the economic value of the Bayou Duplantier generated from derived,
aggregated data and from site survey. The original Parish-wide urban forest value was based on
data derived from aerial photographs. Annual benefits are calculated for the following specific
environmental impact categories as a function of the control strategy used to mitigate their impact
on the local environment: particulates below 10 microns, NO2, CO, SO2, O3, carbon storage,
runoff, electric power, and gas utilization. Results of the study show that impacts from the
planning district aggregated data are generally five times smaller than the site-surveyed data (i.e.,
total annual benefits of $978,600 [aggregated data] vs. $5,971,500 [site surveyed data] per year).
Some differences are to be expected but a fivefold difference indicates a problem in the creation of
the derived, district-level model input data.
Molenaar, M. 1997.
The extensional uncertainty of spatial objects.
In: Kraak, M; Molenaar M; Fendel, E, eds. Advances in GIS Research. Proceedings, Seventh
International Symposium on Spatial Data Handling. London: Taylor & Francis, pp. 571-583.
The article begins by identifying types of uncertainty with respect to spatial objects:
existential, extensional, and geometric. The article focuses on ways that "fuzzy functions" can be
used to characterize the extensional and geometric uncertainty associated with spatial objects in
both vector and raster format. It first presents how "crisp functions" are used to characterize
spatial objects. Then, the author presents fuzzy variants of the crisp functions, showing how they
can be used to characterize the extensional and geometric uncertainty of an object. Vector and
raster examples are given of the application of fuzzy functions for photo interpretation.
Moragues, A; Alcaide, T. 1996.
The use of a geographical information system to assess the effect of traffic pollution.
Sci Total Environment Vol. 189-190:267-273.
A GIS was used to locate and assess traffic effects expected from the construction of a
new section of a ring road around Madrid, Spain. Traffic information was input to a model of a
standard day with unchanging weather conditions. The resulting ground-level pollutant
concentrations were used to locate and quantify the affected population, as well as wildlife,
historic, and archaeological features at risk.
Moss, MR.; Davis, LS. 1994.
Measurement of spatial change in the forest component of the rural landscape of southern
Ontario.
Appl Geogr 14:214-231.
The major research objectives of this paper are twofold: first, to describe, quantify, and
compare the evolution and change of the pattern of forest "islands" in southern Ontario between
the early 30's and late 70's, and secondly to relate both land-use histories and other environmental
factors to these changes in spatial relationships amongst the forest islands. At the first stage, all
forest islands were digitized for four time periods; at the second stage; woodlot interaction was
described using numerous measurements; at the third stage came regional landscape patterns; and
the fourth stage was the conclusion-the transformation of rural landscapes in the wake of
increased agricultural expansion and urban sprawl has led to a high degree of variance in size,
numbers, and spacing of remnant woodlots, hedgerows, shelter belts, and other unique habitats.
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Such large-scale modification of the landscape often translates into reduced spatial heterogeneity
of resources, with hidden environmental costs resulting from altered soil and water conditions.
Mueksch, MC. 1995.
Airborne hyperspectral monitoring of lake, river, and estuary pollution in Great Britain and
Germany.
Proceedings, SPIE International Society of Optical Engineering Conference (2503), pp.
122-130.
Hyperspectral monitoring is an increasingly popular method for satellite and airborne
remote sensing. The rapidly developing optoelectronic technology of the last years has promoted
this method. Regarding the characteristics of the VIS-spectrum, the most prominent features are
located between 600 and 800 nm. High spectral resolution of 1-2 nm within this region shows
various peaks correlated with organic compounds and microorganisms. Since pollution is often
represented by presence and growth of organic substances and microorganisms, their kind, extent,
and distribution in water environments can be detected by hyperspectrometry. The hyperspectral
method is still limited by its recording velocities, while applied on high-ground-speed aircrafts.
This has impacts on the data gain, quality, and interpretation. Airborne hyperspectrometry was
applied for pollution detection in water environments such as lakes, ponds, rivers, coastal and
ocean regions, and wetlands. Results were shown and interpreted through GIS integration.
Mulla, D; Perillo, C; Cogger, C. 1996.
A site-specific farm-scale GIS approach for reducing groundwater contamination by pesticides.
JEnv Qual 25:419.
The authors evaluated the feasibility of varying pesticide application on different soil types
to reduce ground-water contamination. Using data such as carbofuran (a weakly absorbed
pesticide) concentration and pore water velocity, the authors estimated the risk of pesticide
leaching using two models. The authors found that most of the variability in leaching risk resulted
from velocity variations. Thus, the authors concluded that a soil's surface organic carbon content
does not control leaching risk for weakly absorbed pesticides.
Muller, E; Decamps, H; Dobson, MK. 1993.
Contribution of space remote sensing to river studies.
Freshwater Bio 29(2):301-312.
A review is presented of types of satellite remote sensing data currently available and their
recent uses in studies of river systems. Broad-scale assessments of relative water quality may be
carried out, although precise indication of water quality requires that samples be taken in situ. In
the event of flooding, the extent of inundation may be determined and damage assessed quickly.
Some radar data allow measurements of flood water even when obscured by vegetation. Riparian
vegetation may be mapped over large areas, although the recognition of specific tree species
remains difficult. One of the most basic and widely used applications of remote-sensing data for
rivers is that of mapping, both as a single event and over time to follow changes (e.g. channels in
a delta). Entire catchments may be mapped, although the efficiency of detection of low-order
stream depends on the characteristics of the system used.
Muller-Karger, FE. 1992.
Remote sensing of marine pollution: A challenge for the 1990s.
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Marine Pollut Bull 25 (1-4): 54-60.
A summary of advances in satellite and aircraft remote sensing of marine pollution is
presented. Remote sensing offers large benefits because of the high costs of monitoring using only
traditional methods. Nevertheless, much work is needed to refine the technology to address even
basic marine pollution problems. This paper briefly outlines studies of water quality assessment,
including phytoplankton standing stock, turbidity, suspended sediment load, dissolved organic
material, temperature, salinity, wind stress, wave direction and wavelength, current speed and
direction, and light attenuation coefficients. The author states that an increasing number of
techniques useful to monitor marine pollution will be available in the 1990s. As part of this effort,
a solid scientific base for remote sensing methods should be established, and multidisciplinary,
international training programs developed. It is capable human resources that we currently lack
the most.
Mumford, Jr., TF. 1992.
Characterization of nearshore habitats of Puget Sound, Washington.
Proceedings, SPIE International Society of Optical Engineering 1930(2), pp. 611-625.
This project has determined the most cost-effective methods to inventory and routinely
monitor distribution and types of marine and estuarine habitats of Puget Sound, Washington.
Remote sensing and geographic information system technologies are used to update the US Fish
and Wildlife Service's National Wetland Inventory (NWI) maps. The project is a cooperative
effort between Washington's Department of Natural Resources (DNR), the Environmental
Protection Agency's Environmental Monitoring Lab in Las Vegas (EPA EMSL-LV), and the
Puget Sound Water Quality Authority (PSWQA). The project is now part of the Puget Sound
Ambient Monitoring Program, now formalized as a CCMP. Existing inventories-the Coastal Zone
Atlas (Ecology, 1980), the Puget Sound Environmental Atlas (PSWQA, 1987), and the National
Wetland Inventory-all suffer from either outdated information, inadequate resolution, or
inaccurate information, especially in subtidal regions. The data are classified by Dethier's system,
which is compatible with the Cowardin classification system used in the NWI. Classified data are
transferred to a vector-based GIS and used to update the marine and estuarine portions of the
NWI data. Data structure is described. Uses of the data include proprietary management by the
Department of Natural Resources to sustain long-term ecosystem and economic viability, wetland
protection, oil spill response, natural resource damage, and mandated growth management
planning by local governments. Future efforts will include: (1) inventorying the functions of these
habitats, (2) determining the annual variation in these habitats and their functions, and (3)
documenting long-term changes of habitat and functions.
Murphy, L. 1997.
Why aren't business schools teaching business geographies?
Business Geogr 5(2):24-27.
Business geographies is one of the biggest applications of GIS, but it requires a champion,
teaching with (not about) GIS, and acquiring data. Some commercial educational applications
have been developed
Murphy, S. 1995.
Kansas City builds GIS to defray cost of clean water act compliance.
Geo Info Sys 5(6):39-42.
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As part of Clean Water Act compliance, Kansas City, Missouri, created a GIS to calculate
usage fees to cover the cost of management of its stormwater-runoff system. To ensure that users
were being charged fairly and equitably, fees were based on the area of impervious land surface on
each water customer's property. Aerial photos and land parcel maps were digitized, and the GIS
would calculate the square footage of the hard surface areas (e.g., parking lot, driveway, patios),
which directly affect the volume of stormwater runoff that flows into the city's storm system. It
used a relational database environment so that fee calculations could be linked to billing
addresses.
Murphy, S. 1995.
Kansas City builds GIS to defray costs of clean water act compliance.
Geo Info Sys 5(6):39-41.
Kansas City is enacting usage fees to cover cost of stormwater runoff control
improvements. Fees assessed to property owners are based on amount of impervious cover
owned. The author used aerial photos at 3500 feet and digitized orthorectified aerial photos and
digitized data into GIS. This is an excellent application of GIS to environmental management.
Murphy, L; Smith, T. 1995.
Submerged in the past.
Geo Info Sys 5(10):26-33.
Biscayne and Dry Tortugas National Parks have been the subject of numerous small-area
surveys, but have lacked the integrated database needed by resource managers and researchers to
adequately map the area. Since 1993, the National Park Service has been conducting surveys
designed to provide a comprehensive, cumulative natural and cultural resource inventory
accessible through geographic database software. The NFS Submerged Cultural Resources Unit
(SCRU) is conducting wide-area remote sensing hydrographic surveys in Biscayne and Dry
Tortugas National Park to inventory both natural and cultural submerged resources. These
underwater remote sensing surveys are some of the first to be designed specifically for GIS
applications, and will be used to preserve the maritime, cultural, and natural history submerged in
the Florida Straits.
Myers, R; McElvaney, S; Eberhardt, J. 1996.
GIS in the jungle: monitoring East Maui's rain forest changes from the ground, air, and space.
Geo Info Sys 6(11): 16-23.
Habitat destruction is considered the most important factor in species loss, and in Hawaii,
invasion of alien plant and animal species is considered the single worst threat to the Hawaiian
economy and environment. Alien species have been shown to affect ecosystem function,
community structure, and population dynamics. Out of concern for these issues, the East Maui
Watershed Partnership (EMWP) was formed in 1992. The group developed a strategy to prevent
new weeds from entering the watershed area and targeting those species that pose the greatest
threat to native species. In 1995, a pilot watershed monitoring program was initiated to design
monitoring protocols for collecting, converting, and integrating data from the ground, air, and
space. The researchers coordinated all data collected in the different aspects of their research into
a single GIS database. They compiled baseline data for roads, streams, island boundaries, rainfall,
land use, vegetation cover, and county, state, and federal management areas, etc. The researchers
used GPS (global positioning system) coordinates to link their relational database data to the
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spatial database, including historical aerial photos. Using new methods of data integration, the
researchers can now better monitor Maui's rain forests to carefully manage this unique ecosystem.
Myers, W; Patil, GP; Joly, K. 1996.
Echelon approach to areas of concern in synoptic regional monitoring.
Center for Statistical Ecology and Environmental Statistics, Pennsylvania State University.
Technical Report No. 96-0601.
Echelons provide an objective approach to prospecting for areas of potential concern.
They can be thought of as "stacked hillforms." The approach is applicable whenever the
regionalized variable has at least ordinal strength of measurement. Echelons can serve as analogs
of sampling units for a cumulative distribution function. The strategy is to identify regions of the
surface that are staked relative to surroundings. Local peaks are identified first, followed by
foundations. Stacking uses the parent-child relationship, with the several peaks belonging to one
foundation. The concept is illustrated with data on the breeding occurrence of mammals in
Pennsylvania using the EMAP grid. The program is written in d-Base Plus and is available as
Shareware. See a related paper under Johnson et al. 1996.
Nachtnebel, HP; Furst, J; Holzmann, H. 1993.
Application of geographical information systems to support groundwater modelling.
Proceedings, 1AHS/UNESCO, et al., Aplication of Geographic Information Systems in
Hydrology and Water Resources Management International Conference, April 19-22, Vienna,
Austria, pp. 653(12).
Experiences with using a GIS for regional ground-water modeling are discussed. Topics
covered include data exchange with a GIS, ground-water model design, visualization and display
of simulation results, analytical tools, and the open-system concept of communicating with other
software tools. Use of the GIS improves spatial data management and preprocessing; other
benefits are noted.
Narumalani, S; Jense, J; Hayes, M; Michel, J; Montello, T; Robinson, J. 1993.
Gulf War legacy: using remote sensing to assess habitat in the Saudi Arabian Gulf before the Gulf
War oil spill.
Geo Info Sys 3(6):33-41.
The research described in this article assessed the habitat of two bays in Saudi Arabia
before the Gulf War oil spill. These bays—Dawhat Al Musallamiyah and Dawhat Ad Daffi—were
seriously affected by the oil. A LANDSAT Thematic Mapper scene acquired on 1 September
1990 was geometrically rectified and used as a base map for identifying the most appropriate
locations for field transects. The data also were used to classify the physical and biological
environments of the two bays. An extensive in situ investigation using global position systems
obtained data on the vegetation, soils, and bathymetry of the area from 31 transects located across
the bays. Statistical error evaluation techniques were used to compare the remote sensing-derived
classification with the in situ data. The habitat database represents significant baseline
information, which is being compared using GIS technology with data acquired in a postspill
investigation of habitat now under way.
National Resources Defense Council (NRDC). 1997.
Benchmarking all emissions of electric utility generators in the eastern US.
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Public Service Electric and Gas Co., Pace University, Mid-Atlantic Energy Project. April 1997.
http//www.nrdc.org/nrdepro.
This article presents a comprehensive analysis of air emissions for electrical generation
over the eastern United States. It describes the application of GIS to demonstrate regional
variations in NOX, SO2, CO2, and Hg (mercury) emissions. It describes overlay of emissions on
areas designated to be nonattainment, and applies point and pie graphics to demonstrate
reductions. Also described are overlay of emissions on kriged visibility data and overlay model
output, including a wind vector field from model output and emissions on the same map. Section
5.0 provides detailed procedures for data evaluation and cleanup.
New Jersey State Mapping Advisory Committee (SMAC). 1996.
New Jersey GIS resource guide—1996.
New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection (NJDEP), Information Resources
Management, CN428-401 East State St., Trenton, NJ 08625-0428.
This is an excellent guide to GIS as it pertains to the overall operation of a state system
and the outlook for national spatial data as part of the NPR and reinventing of government. It can
serve as a primer and as a reference for gaining fundamental knowledge of GIS and the
information (accuracy standards, mapping standards, data sources, etc.) needed to build and
maintain a successful GIS. It is available for $20.
Nichol, JE. 1993.
Remote sensing of water quality in the Singapore-Johor-Riau growth triangle.
Remote Sensing Environ 43(2): 139-148.
Remote sensing has not been used extensively in southeast Asia for resource development,
partly for reasons of perennial cloud cover and low image availability. However, the low level of
awareness of remote sensing among planning and environmental agencies is unjustified in view of
the capabilities of high spatial and spectral resolution sensors such as the LANDSAT Thematic
Mapper (TM), coupled with a general lack of physical resources data throughout the region. The
main objective of this study is to demonstrate the application of LANDSAT imagery to the survey
and monitoring of water quality in coastal regions affected by land drainage from peat swamp
catchments, which are common in southeast Asia, and where dissolved organic matter (yellow
substance) dominates the volume reflectance of coastal water. The TM 0.45-0.52 jim waveband
was found to be capable of differentiating water with high concentration of yellow substance from
nonplume water, but the addition of the 0.63-0.69 |im waveband was required for differentiating
lower concentrations of yellow substance. The higher temperature of river plumes dominated by a
yellow substance observed on the 10.5-12.5 jam waveband confirmed field observations. These
findings have implications for water resource management in the region, since image-derived
classes of water quality can be related to environmental standards for the main types of water use.
Nicholson, MC; Mather, TN. 1996.
Models for evaluating Lyme disease risks using geographic information systems and geospatial
analysis.
JMedEntomol 33(5) :711-720.
This is an excellent modeling example with figures showing the layers of data, such as
roads, vegetation, land use, and hydrography, being overlaid to correlate with other data such as
Lyme disease case distribution, nymphal ticks collected per hour, percentage of forest, etc. The
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map of Rhode Island overlaid with a map depicting ticks of various sizes indicating nymphal tick
densities was of particular interest-not exactly a good tourism map! The article also includes all
the great statistical sleights of hand, kriging, for instance.
Nizeyimana, E; Petersen, GW; Anderson, MC; Evans, BM; Hamlett, JM; Baumer, GM. 1996.
Statewide GIS/census data assessment of nitrogen loadings from septic systems in Pennsylvania.
J Environ Qual 25(2):346-354.
The authors ranked watersheds in terms of their potential for nitrogen loading from septic
systems. They relied on nitrogen estimates in septic system effluents, census data, and soil
information. The objective was to derive the number of septic systems, the nitrogen content of
effluent, and the population served for each watershed. They used GIS overlays of soil, census
tract, and watershed boundary layers. Assumptions included that the number of housing units on
septic systems is the same as the number of septic systems. Population density was the most
important factor: population information from the census was overlaid with the watershed map
and combined with assumptions regarding septic system outflow and the soil map. Based on this
information, the authors grouped watersheds into high, medium, and low hazard ratings.
Nizeyimana, E; Petersen, GW; Anderson, MC; Evans, BM; Hamlett, JM; Baumer, GM. 1996.
Statewide GIS/census data assessment of nitrogen loadings from septic systems in Pennsylvania.
J Environ Qual 25(2): 346-354.
The authors provide a detailed description of the methodology they used to compute
nitrogen (N) loadings per watershed unit area in Pennsylvania using a GIS framework. They
incorporated the following data: (1) location of septic systems and populations from the 1990
Census, (2) soil limitation information for septic system effluents from the State Soil Geographic
(STATSGO) database, and (3) daily N estimates per capita in septic system effluents from the
literature. They used ARC/INFO overlays of soil characteristics, census tract, and watershed
boundary layers. They provided a flow chart and detailed descriptions indicating the steps to
calculate the N loading estimates and where GIS was used. They presented three maps of the
state, each showing the boundaries of the 104 watersheds and one of the following: (1) population
density for each watershed, (2) N loading loss from the septic systems in each watershed, and (3)
N pollution rankings of each watershed. The third map clearly showed that the watersheds with
medium to high N pollution rankings were limited to areas in the southeastern and western parts
of the state, where the population densities were the highest. The authors felt this methodology
and resulting information would be useful to state and regional planning agencies as a screening
tool to identify the most critical areas for septic system N pollution.
Nizeyimana, E; Petersen, GW; Anderson, MC; Evans, BM; Hamlett, JM; Baumer, GM. 1996.
Statewide GIS/census data assessment of nitrogen loadings from septic systems in Pennsylvania.
J Environ Qual 25(2): 346-354.
Septic systems play a significant role in N contamination but little statewide information is
available to document the relative importance of this source over broad areas. The study
attempted to develop a methodology to assess septic-released N at the state scale and present
estimates of loading in specific watersheds. The GIS-based process relied on many factors: septic
systems and population data from the 1990 census, soil limitations for septic effluent purification
from the STATSGO database, and daily N estimates per capita from the literature. Watersheds
were ranked high, medium, and low according to N loadings. Higher producing watersheds were
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generally in suburbs adjacent to larger metropolitan areas. Although this methodology focused on
septic systems alone, parallel methods for agriculture and atmospheric N sources could be
developed in the attempt to account for all N sources.
Nizeyimana, E; Peterson, GW; Anderson, MC; Evans, BM; Hamlett; JM; Baumer, GM. 1996.
Statewide GIS/census data assessment of nitrogen loadings from septic systems in Pennsylvania. J
Environ Qual 25(2):346-354.
A GIS framework was used to estimate the amount of nitrogen released from septic
system effluents in watersheds in Pennsylvania and to estimate N loadings from septic systems
delivered to surface and shallow ground-water in these watersheds. Census data were used to
generate data on septic systems, soil limitations to septic-system performance, and amounts of N
delivered to surface and ground-water. Watersheds were ranked high, medium, and low,
according to their N loadings, and the ranges of median N loadings were 1.16-0.71, 0.66-0.41,
and 0.38-0.03 kg/ha/yr, respectively. Statewide maps are presented that represent population
density, the distribution of N loading loss from septic systems, and N pollution rankings of
watersheds.
Nizeyimana, E; Petersen, G; Anderson, M; Evans, B; Hamlett, J; Baumer, G. 1996.
Statewide GIS/census data assessment of nitrogen loadings from septic systems in Pennsylvania.
J Environ Qual 25(2): 346-354.
The authors report on the development of methods for assessing the amount of nitrogen
released from septic systems in Pennsylvania. Using information on septic systems, census data,
soil information, and daily nitrogen estimates per capita, the authors grouped the state into three
classes of nitrogen loading. High loadings on watersheds were found in suburbs near large
metropolitan areas. The authors hope to later combine the results with information from
agriculture, acid deposition, and other nitrogen loadings to account for all nonpoint sources of
nitrogen in the state.
Nobre, F; Romana, JM; Ramos, I. 1994.
The use of remote sensing data and GIS techniques in reservoir projects: environment impact and
the decision-making perspective.
Proceedings: Advances in Water Resources Technology & Management, 2nd European
Conference, Jun 14-18, Lisbon, Portugal, pp 389-392.
The environmental impacts of prospective reservoir siting and operation in the Avelames
River Basin of Portugal were studied with the Integrated Land & Water Information System GIS.
Topographic, land-use, and LANDSAT data were integrated into the GIS software environment.
Submersed land areas and water volumes accumulated in different watershed levels were
determined. Socioeconomic costs and benefits of reservoir development were also considered.
Decisionmaking is aided by optimization analysis functions incorporated in the GIS.
Norton, D; Slonecker, ET. 1990.
The ecological geography of EMAP.
Geo Info Sys 1(0):32-42.
The Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program (EMAP) has applied the concept
of landscape characterization to document the composition and pattern of land cover and land
use. These data were compiled using multistage remote sensing, and stored and analyzed in a GIS
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database along with a variety of existing spatial data sets. This article describes EMAP's
landscape characterization approach and discusses the growing role of GIS technology in national
ecological monitoring. This article is useful to reference the role of GIS in EMAP.
Novak, JH; Dennis, R. 1993.
Regional air quality and acid deposition modeling and the role for visualization.
In: Goodchild, MF; Parks, BO; Steyaert, LT, eds. Environmental modeling with GIS. New
York, NY: Oxford University Press, pp. 142-146.
The authors provide a summary of EPA's regional air quality and deposition models
(Regional Acid Deposition Model, Regional Oxidant Model (ROM), Urban Airshed Model, and
Regional Lagrangian Model of Air Pollution). They also briefly discuss an EPA GIS pilot project
for spatial analysis related to interpretation of the regional air quality models. The pilot was
conducted to evaluate the usefulness of a GIS, using ARC/INFO, for air pollution modeling
research and assessment activities. The study area for the pilot project was the ROM domain
covering the northeastern United States. Several data layers were prepared, including ROM-
predicted pollutant concentrations, manmade point and area source emissions, natural
hydrocarbon emissions, air quality measurements, land-use data, and census data. A pilot
Interactive Display for Environmental Analysis System (IDEAS) was developed using ARC/INFO
to enable the user to study relationships among (1) measured and predicted air pollution
concentrations, (2) point and area source emissions, (3) land use, and (4) health effects. The
results of the pilot showed that in this setting, GIS was useful for some activities but not for
others. Because much of the preparation of emissions data for input to models involves spatial
distribution of emission sources, human activities, active emission control legislation, and landuse
and landcover, a GIS provides an excellent means to design emissions control strategies and then
estimate the resultant emissions inputs to air quality models. The pilot study demonstrated that
one of the major drawbacks of GIS for use in air modeling is the lack of ability to deal effectively
with the element of time (a critical part of air modeling) in spatial data analysis. GIS software
also has difficulty in adequately representing and exploring the three-dimensional fields of ambient
air concentrations predicted by air quality models. As a result of this pilot, EPA initiated a project
to design a third-generation modeling and analysis framework specifically to address the
limitations of GIS identified by the pilot study. The authors briefly discussed the highlights of this
new project, including the fact that a successful prototype system was developed that used a
commercially available software package, Application Visualization System, as the user interface.
Nuckols, JR; Stallones, L; Reif, J; Calderon, R. 1995.
Evaluation of the use of a geographic information system in drinking water epidemiology.
Assessing and managing health risks from drinking water contamination: approaches and
applications. Proceedings, Rome Symposium, September 1994. IAHS Publication no. 233, pp.
111-122.
The authors conducted a pilot study to evaluate the use of GIS technology in an
epidemiology study of two populations served by different public water distribution systems in
Colorado. The two distribution systems were matched for demographic composition and water
supply source, so the primary difference was the disinfection practice. One system uses
chloramination and the other chlorination, so the latter has much higher trihalomethane (THM)
levels in the drinking water. The authors evaluated several reproductive outcomes in the two
populations for any association between these outcomes and THMs levels. The authors
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summarized how they used GIS in several parts of the study. For example, they used GIS to do
address matching to geocode location of residence of the live births. They used GIS to map water
distribution systems and overlay census block group data with the THM water sampling points to
identify the block groups with either "high" or "low" THM levels. The preliminary results of the
study showed no statistically significant association between low birth weight and water
distribution system. The authors concluded that GIS was quite useful for this study, particularly
for providing refinements of the exposed population and in developing input data for use in
modeling the water in the distribution system.
O'Neill, NT; Royer, A; Cote, P; McArthur, L. 1993.
Relations between optically derived aerosol parameters, humidity, and air-quality data in an urban
atmosphere.
JAppl Meteorol 32(9) :1484-1498.
This paper deals with diurnal and mensual correlations between ground-based atmospheric
observations of columnar and surface optical parameters, standard surface humidity parameters,
and surface air-quality data. The implications of a significant portion of small, Rayleigh-free
optical depths being attributable to continuum water vapor absorption are analyzed in terms of the
impact on the computation of aerosol optical depth and Angstrom spectral coefficients in
relatively clear atmospheres. Multiwavelength correlation analysis between aerosol optical depth
and precipitable water indicators yielded a systematic, inverse-wavelength type of dependency in
the extracted slopes that was suggestive of a simple correlation between precipitable water and
the accumulation-mode number density of the aerosols. On a diurnal basis, increasing trends in
aerosol optical depth were negatively correlated with surface relative humidity and thus resulted
either from variations in the nature or abundance of dry aerosol or possibly from
convection-induced increases in relative humidity at higher altitudes in the aerosol scattering layer.
Correlations between diurnally averaged aerosol optical depths and 24-hour averaged surface
sulfate measurements indicated the potential of satellite-based pollution monitoring using passive
remote sensing data.
Ogden, JC; Porter, JW; Smith, NP; Szmant, AM; Jaap, WC; Forcucci, D. 1994.
A long-term interdisciplinary study of the Florida Keys seascape.
Bull Marine Sci 54(3): 1059-1071.
The SEAKEYS (sustained ecological research related to management of the Florida Keys
seascape) program is a research framework that encompasses the large geographic scale and long-
time scale of natural marine processes and ecosystem variation on which human impact is
superimposed. The need for interdisciplinary long-term research in coastal ecosystems is critical,
because we anticipate extraordinary resource management obligations and scientific opportunities
in the next decade. The core of the program is six instrumented, satellite-linked monitoring
stations that span the 220 mile-long coral reef tract and Florida Bay and that since 1991 have
documented the potential impact of summer heating, winter cold fronts, storms, and distant
floods. Mesoscale physical oceanographic studies have documented the net flow of water from
Florida Bay to Hawk Channel, which provides a potential mechanism to link water quality in
Florida Bay with the waters of new Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. Water column and
sediment nutrient studies have shown elevated nutrient levels in nearshore waters decreasing
sharply to low levels near the offshore coral reef tract. There is a potential link of nearshore and
offshore via a seaward deflection in the near-bottom flow. Regional nutrient dynamics are
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complicated by periodic upwelling driven by the Florida Current. A series of long-term
photomosaic stations have tracked coral community dynamics for more than 5 years and have
indicated a loss of over 40 percent in coral cover at some sites. This loss may be linked to
declining water quality in Florida Bay. As a large marine ecosystem, the new Sanctuary and
adjoining parks and reserve must be studied and managed holistically if human use of the region is
to be sustained.
Ollinger, SV, et al. 1996.
Modeling physical and chemical climate of the Northeastern United States for GIS.
U.S. Department of Agriculture Technical Report No. 4NE-191.
This is a presentation of a simple physical and chemical model for New York and New
England that can be integrated with a GIS. Regression with independent variables of latitude,
longitude, and elevation was fitted with a digital elevation model to generate regional coverages
of temperature, precipitation, and solar radiation, as well as wet and dry sulfur and nitrogen
deposition.
Olsenholler, J. 1997.
Find the right fit: how to select the best data collection strategy.
GIS World 10(7):52.
This article talks about the differences between using field acquisition techniques (e.g.,
windshield surveys and sampling) and preexisting data. Many GIS software vendors have
programs to connect users with data vendors. Users may need to find qualified contractors to
acquire data if qualified staff members do not exist.
Onsrud, H; Johnson, J; Winnecki, J. 1996.
GIS dissemination policy: two surveys and a suggested approach.
Urban Reg Inf Syst Assoc 8(2):8-23.
This article presents evidence of current dissemination policies of local governments,
analyzes implications of information from two surveys (national and Minnesota), and suggests an
approach for GIS dissemination policy using open-access and revenue generation.
Ortiz-Casas, JL; Pena-Martinez, R. 1989.
Water quality monitoring in Spanish reservoirs by satellite remote sensing.
Lake Reservoir Manag 5(2):23-29.
A United States-Spanish Cooperative Program applied LANDSAT satellite digital imagery
to eutrophication-related water quality monitoring in Spanish reservoirs. LANDSAT digital
images were processed with concurrent surface sampling data to develop regression equation and
water surface maps. Limnological parameters selected for the study were related to trophic
conditions such as chlorophyll concentrations and Secchi transparency. Although thematic
mapping based on single-date regression in equations proved feasible and reliable, more
sophisticated processing is needed to develop equations for multiple-data assessment, that is, to
enable assessment on any date on which remote sensing data are available, whether or not
concurrent water surface measurements are available. The long-term goal of this project was
developing updated, GIS-based, and cost-effective reservoir surveillance and classification on
regional or nationwide basis.
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Oswald, R. 1996.
Shared vision: Manitoba partners build land information data warehouse.
Geo Info Sys 6(1):36-38.
The members of the Manitoba Land Related Information System (MLRIS), composed of
government departments, utility companies, and private sector agencies, are building a centralized
data warehouse for storing, managing, and distributing shareable, land-related information and to
develop end-user applications that use these data. Source agencies responsible for their own data
layers upload a copy of the shareable portion of their data to a centralized data warehouse and
retrieve data layers they are missing, rather than recreate these data layers. The article describes
how MLRIS has used an information utility (IU) as the successful core of its venture. The impact
of the IU concept has resulted in re-engineering of existing systems, which will advance levels of
service to support the ever-growing demand for better land information.
Ottens, H; Van Beurden, J. 1997.
New digital land-use statistics reveal Dutch urbanization trends.
Geo Info Sys 50:32-3 7.
The article describes the conversion of Netherlands land-use statistics to digitized data.
Collection of land-use statistics dated back to 1946, but their procedure resulted in data with
significant variation among the municipalities. To increase accuracy and improve quality control,
Statistics Netherlands decided to centralize and automate data capture. It used 1:10,000
monochrome topographical map sheets and 1:25,000 color topographic map sheets to digitize a
geometrically correct topological framework. The authors used the new system for tracking
urban and rural patterns from 1981 to 1989.
Fairish, DA; Townsend, L; Saunders, J; Carney, G; Langston, C. 1993.
U.S. EPA region 6 comparative risk project: evaluating ecological risk.
In: Goodchild, MF; Parks, BO; Steyaert, LT, eds. Environmental modeling with GIS. New
York: Oxford University Press, pp. 348-352.
The authors conducted a project in EPA's Region 6 to compare the residual risk to human
health, human welfare, and ecological systems associated with 22 environmental problem areas.
This paper summarized some of the highlights of the ecological risk evaluation component, which
incorporated GIS technology. The common denominator for comparing risks was the area of
impact (AI). Region 6 was divided into 24 distinct ecoregions, each of which was an AI. The
authors indicated that a GIS data layer of the ecoregions was used, but they did not give any
details concerning the nature of the mapped data. An ecological risk index (ERI) was calculated,
which took into consideration the AI, degree of impact, degree of vulnerability, and area of the
ecoregion. Data on the ERI values and the ecoregions were loaded into a relational database so
the authors could use GIS to display the results spatially and identify ecoregions at highest risk.
The paper has a choropleth map showing the boundaries of the states composing Region 6, the
boundaries of the ecoregions, and the ranges of the composite ERI values for each ecoregion.
The paper also summarizes some of the data and GIS problems.
Pattiaratchi, C; Lavery, P; Wyllie, A; Hick, P. 1994.
Estimates of water quality in coastal waters using multi-date LANDSAT Thematic Mapper data.
IntJRemote Sensing 15(8): 1571-1584.
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An evaluation of LANDSAT Thematic Mapper (TM) data for routine monitoring of
surface chlorophyll concentration (C) and Secchi disk depth (SDD, a measure of the water clarity)
used Cockburn Sound as a study area. Multitemporal empirical algorithms to predict these
parameters have been developed from the atmospherically corrected satellite-received radiance
and field data collected at the time of the satellite overpass. Highly significant, predictive
algorithms for the surface C (range: 0.2-2.7 |ig/L) and SDD (range: 4-15 m) were obtained using
bands 1 and 3 of the TM. It is shown that high confidence may be placed on the predictions using
these algorithms, and therefore it offers a cost-effective tool for complementing regular
monitoring programs.
Paulu, CA; Ozonoff, DM; Coogan, P; Wartenberg, D. 1995.
Making environmental data accessible for public health aims: the Massachusetts environmental
database project.
Public Health Rep 110(6): 776-783..
As in other entries in this bibliography, the authors of this article discuss how GIS and
public health data can be combined and used in public health research. The authors present a
convincing case for how and why the two fields (GIS and public health) should be joined to
produce some very practical results. They present their work in the development of "the
Massachusetts Environmental Database, a microcomputer-based data management system that
accesses and integrates routinely collected environmental data." The article includes related
information on developing an environmental database.
Paulu, CA; Ozonoff, DM; Coogan, P; Wartenberg, D. 1995.
Making environmental data accessible for public health aims: the Massachusetts environmetal
database project.
Public Health Rep 110:776-783.
This article discusses linking environmental and health databases using GIS. The article is
written from the viewpoint of a state health official who must respond to a phone call from a
concerned citizen. The article cites ease of using GIS with easily accessible data on a PC. The
authors provide an example whereby GIS can be used to draw parallels between various towns or
counties and incidences of health problems reported. They show how GIS could identify the
occurrence of similarities such as hazardous waste sites, water supply, or fuel storage tank
location.
Peabody, WD; Hanscom, AD. 1992.
Cost effective airborne remote sensing in coastal environments.
Proceedings, SPIE International Society of Optical Engineering 1930(2), pp. 817-826.
Use of proven remote sensing technology applied from an airborne platform, coupled with
recent advancements in computer/GIS technology, has given rise to a new cost-effective screening
and monitoring tool for environmental applications. The new system, called a remote airborne
sensing computer analysis link (RASCAL), can provide high-resolution remote sensing data at a
fraction of the cost normally associated with remote sensing data acquisition and processing and
can be used in a variety of applications. Properly applied and interpreted, the system provides
quantitative screening data related to thermal characteristics of near surface soils and relative
stress of vegetation. Future applications of RASCAL will include emergency response monitoring,
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water quality assessment, coastal monitoring, agricultural and forestry management, and others,
where timely, high-resolution environmental data are desired.
Pearson, M; Wheaton, S. 1993.
GIS and storm water management.
CivilEng 6(9):63-72.
Anchorage, Alaska, used GIS to prepare an application forNPDES coverage of its
municipal separate storm sewer system management program. GIS helped to overcome the
spatial and temporal complexities associated with accessing stormwater quality and to
economically analyze and present a variety of options for a management program. Mistaken
assumptions in the beginning of the process had an impact on initial costs of the project. Even so,
however, time and cost savings were significant compared with doing the same effort without
GIS. An unexpected result was an improved overall product due to the balance of thought put
into the project by the computer scientist and the water-quality scientist.
Petersen, M; Wall, M. 1995.
Exploring management of threatened Colorado trout stream using GIS.
Geo Info Sys 5(1):36-39.
The Yuma County (Colorado) Soil Conservation District (SCD) and the U.S. Department
of Agriculture (USDA) Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) have been using GIS
technology in an effort to protect the North Fork of the Republican River in eastern Colorado,
where, for the past 20 years, deteriorating water quality and diminished riparian habitat have
caused the fishery to decline in trout species and population. The North Fork project has
demonstrated the successful application of four techniques, including applying GIS for natural
resource concerns and contributing SCS data to cooperative geographic information studies.
Peterson, JL. 1995.
Teeth in the wind.
Geo Info Sys 5(2):20-27.
The article describes a pest management decision-support system built around GIS
technology. The GIS system uses Global Positioning System (GPS) data and field data for input
into ARC/INFO to indicate density of grasshoppers in crop land and rangeland.
Peterson, DE. 1996.
Grizzly country: GPS/GIS help monitor the great bear's fragile ecosystem.
GIS World9(4):52(4).
The back country of Montana provides essential habitat for many different forms of
wildlife, including grizzly bears. Human development pressures are forcing significant changes
onto these areas of wilderness. These changes impact on the lifestyles of grizzly bears, which
require large areas of diverse habitat for survival. The food sources grizzlies depend upon are
quite fragile. Researchers are using portable field mapping equipment to study the habits of bears,
including a Geolink GPS/GIS mapping system from GeoResearch, Billings, MT. This GPS/GIS
system operates at a very fine level of resolution to help researchers classify small differences in
habitat. In addition, the system can be used to follow disease patterns in vegetation.
Phuyal, BP; Schmidley, RW; Ramirez, JR. 1997.
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Automated quality control for GIS data conversion.
Surveying Land InfSyst 5 7(1) :3 7-41.
This article discusses the automated quality control software developed for the GISOM
(Generating Information from Scanning Ohio Maps) project. GISOM is a project of Ohio State
University Center for Mapping, in which the 793 existing 7.5 minute 1:24,000 scale USGS
topographic maps that cover the state are being converted into digital form by a two-step process
of raster scanning followed by transforming the map image data into the USGS vector digital
format known as digital line graph (DLG). The article begins by describing the six stages in the
GISOM conversion model. Then, the quality verification software is described. The software
checks the transformed data against the original source map for geometric accuracy and
completeness. It does this by converting the final DLG line data into raster form and comparing
it, pixel by pixel, with the digitally scanned image of the source contour map. Two tests are used
to determine whether a given line segment is acceptable: (1) the centerline of a rasterized DLG
line is compared with the pixels from the source map to determine the extent to which it falls
entirely within the areal line and (2) the rasterized DLG line is thickened and its percentage of
overlap with the source data is computed as an indicator of whether the vector line approximates
the center of mass of the original line. The article then describes the specific algorithm that is
employed and the resulting outputs.
Pikaz, A; Averbuch, A. 1997.
An efficient topological characterization of gray-level textures, using a multiresolution
representation.
Graphical Models Image Processing 59(1): 1-17.
The authors present a new method for texture characterization based on topological
properties at different gray levels and different resolutions. The data structure proposed and
described is the multiresolution clusters graphs (MRCG). The multiresolution method proposed
performed well for textures whose basic element is big (macrotextures) and also for
microtextures.
Poiani, KA; Bedford, B. 1995.
GIS-based nonpoint source pollution modeling: considerations for wetlands.
JSoil Water Conserv 50:613 619.
This is a nice review article. The authors discuss different aspects of using models in a
GIS context. For example, they contrast empirical and mechanistic modeling approaches.
Empirical relationships are used primarily to estimate annual averages and are generally not useful
for assessing episodic events. Extrapolation between watersheds is not generally valid. Until
recently, empirical-based models have ignored the spatial distribution of factors influencing model
parameters. Process-based models have more complex equations and intensive data requirements
that limit their use. Evaluating simulation models is labor- and cost-intensive. Linking models
with GIS, and propagation of errors are also discussed. The particular problems associated with
modeling nonpoint source impacts to wetlands are also discussed, such as that many wetlands lack
an identifiable outlet that could be used to calibrate model results. Some wetlands do not even
have water the entire year. Because many wetlands are dominated by ground water, any NPS
model will need a sophisticated subsurface component.
Poiani, KA; Bedford, BL. 1995.
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GIS-based nonpoint source pollution modeling: considerations for wetlands.
JSoil Water Conserv 50(6):613-619.
This review article concerns the coupling of GIS and models, specifically the application
of a linked GIS/modeling process to nonpoint pollution of wetlands. As transitional areas
between land and water, wetlands are highly vulnerable to nonpoint source (NFS) pollution
problems. The article reviews types of NFS models that simulate transport and fate of sediments,
nutrients, and contaminants on ground and surface waters. Special attention is given to validation
problems and the propagation of geographic data error through the modeling approaches used.
One problem is that validation is very costly and observed data are not always available. Methods
of GIS and model linkage are also described, including linkage with shared data and separate
interfaces compared with true integration of model and GIS with one resulting interface. A large
list of GIS-model linkage projects is provided. The authors conclude that NPS/wetlands
applications are possible and discuss the parameters of interest for GIS use and the considerations
for minimizing error in the process.
Poiani, KA; Bedford, B. 1995.
GIS-based nonpoint source pollution modeling: considerations for wetlands.
JSoil Water Conserv 50:613 619.
The authors' objective was to estimate nonpoint source pollution potential for wetlands
and to link this information to a watershed's spatial characteristics. The authors found that
coupling models with GIS for wetlands is possible, but special issues arise. The models must have
sophisticated subsurface components, and dilution and denitrification must be considered. In
addition, measuring incoming water and chemicals is not always possible. The authors
recommend that the coupled approach initially be used only for sites where water budgets can be
obtained.
Preuss, C. 1997.
Protecting riparian resources.
Geo Info Sys 7(2):21-26.
A nonprofit program organized volunteers to collect riparian and watershed data, and
implemented a GIS to organize and use the information for Coyote Creek Riparian Station and
Guadalupe River watershed.
Prior, N; Wong, S. 1997.
GIS/IT integration reveals business solutions.
GISWorld 10(6):38.
This article discusses GIS architecture evolution from "GIS centric" through "GIS
dominant" and "peer to peer" to "GIS as servant." The discussion centers around changes in GIS
software and how applications of GIS have evolved as software and database management have
changed. This is related to article by Wegenast in GIS World concerning a partnership among
several municipalities around Ontario, Canada. Basically, the municipalities banded together to
develop a GIS system that would facilitate coordination of planning and services. Information in
the database includes water and sewer inventory, roads and traffic inventory, and land-use
planning. The point is that developing a comprehensive GIS tool is an expensive undertaking that
is hoped to pay off through a common database. Through shared information, problems and
solutions can be based on a regional perspective.
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Public Technology, Inc. (PTI), the Urban Consortium, and the International City Management
Assn. (ICMA). 1991.
The local government guide to geographic information systems: Planning and implementation.
Published by PTI & ICMA.
This book is an excellent resource for anyone who needs background information on how
GIS can be used by local governments. In addition, it provides practical advice on how GIS
should be acquired and how common management/policy pitfalls can be avoided. It is an
excellent resource for people who are contemplating how a GIS can be applied in a local
government setting and for people who are putting the processes in place to acquire and use a
GIS.
Quibell, G 1992.
Estimating chlorophyll concentrations using upwelling radiance from different freshwater algal
genera.
IntJRemote Sensing 13(14):2611-2621.
Upwelling radiance from pure cultures and natural populations of freshwater algae is
examined. The effects of changes in the vertical distribution of the algae on the upwelling radiance
are also explored. The different algae studied were spectrally very similar. The volume reflectance
for any given chlorophyll concentration difference between the phyla was studied. This appeared
to be due to the colonial nature of some species. Higher chlorophyll concentrations resulted in
higher reflectance in all but the blue wavelengths, and correlations between reflectance in the
near-infrared and Ln chlorophyll were the highest. This suggests that remote sensing of algae in
inland waters should be based on increased scattering by the cells and not increased absorption by
chlorophyll.
Ramirez, M. 1995.
Closing the gap: GIS in the high school classroom.
Geo Info Sys 5(4): 52-55.
The school district of Palm Beach County, Florida, in support of two reports published by
national and state forums, developed a GIS high school curriculum. It was designed to meet
needs in areas where students need improvement, including higher-order thinking, problem-
solving skills, and synthesizing information, as well as to help prepare students for the future work
force. The curriculum also encourages students to learn responsible decisionmaking about
societal issues, by solving predefined environmental and urban problems.
Rapor, J. 1997.
Unsolved problems of spatial representation.
In: Kraak, M; Molenaar, M; Fendel, E, eds. Advances in GIS research. Proceedings of the
Seventh International Symposium on Spatial Data Handling. London: Taylor & Francis, pp.
917-927.
This fascinating if somewhat unusual paper that maintains that current GIS practice is
flawed by a "very narrow epistomology of spatial representation." The essence of this
epistomology rests on continuous two-dimensional "absolute space and time" concepts.
According to the author, this limited epistomology leads to an equally limited three-element GIS
research agenda: (1) handling georeferenced computational geometry, reasoning with topological
relations, and designing databases for alphanumerical data types and temporal sequences of
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georeferenced geometry; (2) capturing data from conventional sources or using GIS and related
software to establish inventories; and (3) studying how such systems can be used on an ergonomic
level. Besides criticizing the current GIS research agenda, the author also criticizes the restricted
dimensionality of spatial representation in GIS, the restricted nature of spatial representation
primitives used in GIS, and the restricted sense in which a GIS represents the real world. After
looking at possible alternative epistomologies of spatial representation from other disciplines
(physics, mathematics, psychology, and social theory), the author suggests other frameworks for
viewing space, including structuralism (location of entities are produced by the functioning of
social systems), structuration (social structure reproduced across space and time through
interaction), realism (social structure generates events and entities in an individualistic
nongeneralizable fashion), and postmodernism (space is not ordered but a disordered mosaic-
space that may be destroyed as a meaningful concept by new forms of interaction over
communication networks). The article concludes by proposing an alternative research agenda
that would include (1) attacking unsolved problems that can be tackled now (e.g., extending the
current systems based on geometry and alphanumeric attributes to offer richer spatial
representations (such as curves and mathematical functions, video and sound primitives,
kinematics, intelligent agents adapted from computer science); (2) addressing unsolved problems
that may become tractable (e.g., implementation of a spatial-temporal framework based on
Minkowskian four-dimensional space, development of topologically realistic spatial
representations that can store and analyze holes [tunnels] and handles [flyovers] or otherwise
continuous 2.5-dimensional representations), and (3) dealing with larger unsolved problems.
Rechel, JL; Nicholson, MC. 1994.
Spatial pattern analysis of mule deer locations in the San Bernardino Mountains, California.
Proceedings, Annual Conference, GIS/LIS'94, Phoenix, AZ, October, pp. 647-657.
Spatial modeling of individual animal locations and movements can be used to understand
spatial and temporal patterns and processes affecting wildlife populations. This study used
1988-91 radiotelemetry data from 29 mule deer on approximately 32,524 hectares in the Santa
Ana River drainage in the San Bernardino Mountains. The degree of clustering of deer locations
was evaluated using three types of point pattern analysis. Using multiple methods enabled
detection of differences in habitat use on a seasonal basis by gender.
Reichhardt, T. 1996.
Environmental GIS: the world in a computer. Expanding data resources are spurring widespread
use of geographic information systems in the environmental field.
Environ Sci Technol 30(8):340-343.
GISs represent one of the biggest growth areas in the computer industry. Much of this
growth has been fueled by business applications, as companies realize the potential of GIS as a
marketing tool. However, the environmental field continues to make up a large part of the GIS
market as well. Environmental applications include site assessment and cleanup, wildlife
management, pollution monitoring, risk analysis, vegetation mapping, and public information.
Many natural resource managers are now using GIS, with one key reason being the increase in
availability of different kinds of geographic data in electronic formats. As GIS becomes more
common in environmental and other applications, it is being incorporated into more mainstream
types of software.
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Reichhardt, T. 1996.
Environmental GIS: the world in a computer. Expanding data resources are spurring widespread
use of geographic information systems in the environmental field.
Environ Sci Technol 30(8):340-343.
This article discusses environmental applications including site assessment and cleanup,
wildlife management, pollution monitoring, risk analysis, vegetation mapping, and public
information.
Reichhardt, T. 1996.
Environmental GIS: the world in a computer. Expanding data resources are spurring widespread
use of geographic information systems in the environmental field.
Environ Sci Technol 30(8):340-343.
This article cites a number of GIS applications, many of which involve federal agencies
such as EPA, NASA, and USGS. It states that the GIS software market is worth between $550
million and $1 billion and is growing 15-24 percent every year! An upcoming challenge identified
for GIS models is the ability to deal with the fourth dimension of time to show environmental
processes such as soil loss or nutrient flow in an aquatic ecosystem.
Reid, E; Quarmby, N. 1997.
Blanket coverage: mapping and assessing Scotland's bogs.
Mapping Awareness, 11(4):34-36.
A description of the use of satellite remote sensing imagery for the Scottish Blanket Bog
Inventory. The blanket bog or mire is a natural habitat in Scotland. The Thematic Mapper sensor
(LANDSAT 5) was used for data collection. Survey sites were targeted using a combination of
local knowledge and a computer-aided aggregation of image data; polygons were superimposed
onto the satellite images and blocks marked for ground surveying. The technique may provide a
method for monitoring vegetation changes over time.
Reid, E; Quarmby, N. 1997.
Blanket coverage: mapping and assessing Scotland's bogs.
Mapping Awareness ll(4):34-36.
I have the mistaken impression that the British Isles have been inhabited for so long that
there are no unknown or unmapped areas. The authors discuss the Scottish Blanket Bog
Inventory and how they determined to carry out this inventory. They ruled out ground surveying
and air photography and chose six Thematic Mapper image bands from LANDSAT 5 (June
1992). The article discusses the reasoning behind this selection and how use of remote sensing
has been cost-effective for this task.
Rejeski, D. 1993.
GIS and risk: a three-culture problem.
In: Goodchild, M; Parks, B; Steyaert, L, eds. Environmental modeling with GIS. New York:
Oxford University Press, pp. 318-331.
The author discusses the three "subcultures" of the risk world and four core issues that cut
through these worlds. Those using GIS to model and estimate risks are "pioneers in this
landscape," caught between the three subcultures of science, policy, and the public. The four core
issues he discusses (believability, honesty, decision utility, and clarity) cut across the three risk
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subcultures and have a great effect on model structure, data, and GIS technology itself. For each
of these four core issues, the author discusses the impact on risk assessment, risk management,
and risk communication, and he indicates how GIS has been able to help, or not help, resolve
these issues. He also offers recommendations on new GIS approaches that need to be explored in
order to start addressing these issues in a more successful manner. He also indicates analytical
areas where GIS is greatly underutilized, and offers some interesting suggestions for more uses of
this technology to help support decisionmakers. He also provides a critique of many of the
shortcomings of GIS, particularly the lack of appropriate methods to incorporate and map
measures of uncertainty.
Reybold, WU; TeSelle, GW. 1989.
Soil geographic data bases.
JSoil Water Conserv 44:28-29.
This paper briefly describes three databases that can be accessed for use: Soil Survey
Geographical Data Base (SSURGO), State Soil Geographic Data (STATSGO), and National Soil
Geographic Data Base (NATSGO). Components of map units are generally phases of soil series.
Each database is briefly described, and its availability and sources are defined. This paper is useful
to help the reader understand the specific databases often used in GIS work.
Rich, MJ. 1994.
The Providence Plan: using GIS to guide urban revitalization.
Proceedings, 32nd Annual URISA (Urban and Regional Information Association), conference,
August, Milwaukee, WI. URISA Journal, Conference 32. Vol 1, p.496-508.
This article is an example of how a state and city are collaborating on a GIS project to
identify areas of the capital of Rhode Island, Providence, for revitalization. (The Providence Plan
refers to a nonprofit organization.) The study focuses on areas of poverty and neighborhood
decline in order to identify initiatives appropriate for these areas. Factors modeled include
poverty, children, crime, housing, supermarkets, and education.
Richards, C; Host, GE; Arthur, JW. 1993.
Identification of predominant environmental factors structuring stream macroinvertebrate
communities within a large agricultural catchment.
Freshwater Biol 29:285-294.
The authors related macroinvertebrate community measures with environmental gradients
including nutrients and habitat variables. The study area was predominantly agricultural. They
used canonical correlation analysis to determine the major factors influencing stream community.
The first three axes explained 69 percent of the variation in the data. Most of the variation was
due to physical habitat attributes. The strongest chemical influence was from ammonia. The most
important stream morphological features were related to substrate composition. Although the
authors did not use GIS for this article, one can easily see how such a tool would enhance their
work.
Richman, D. 1996.
Geographic database finds home on the 'net. (U.S. Board of Geographic Names, National
Geographic Names Database).
Computerworld 30(12): 45(1).
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The National Geographic Names Database, a database of correct place names, is gaining
popularity since it became available as a website in September 1996. The database is also available
as a CD-ROM product, the Digital Gazeteer, and is priced at $57. The National Geographic
Names Database is maintained by the U.S. Board of Geographic Names,
and the database itself is housed in a 1GB Oracle database. Currently it contains the locations and
names of around 2 million geographic features in the United States, including arroyos, rivers,
hamlets, and cities. Approximately 5000 to 10,000 names are made on a monthly basis, and plans
call for the database to be completed by 2006. The Digital Gazeteer became available in
September 1993, and 2000 CDs have been pressed since that time. The database was initially on
an Amdahl mainframe, but it was ported to a client/server system to provide internet access.
Richman, M. 1996.
Management: BASINS software help determine maximum loads in waterbodies.
Water Environ Technol 8(12):29-33.
EPA has developed a software package designed for use by water quality analysis and
watershed managers. Better Assessment Science Integration Point and Nonpoint Sources
(BASINS) can be used to develop pollution limits for point sources, Best Management Practices
(BMPS) for nonpoint sources, and total maximum daily loads (TMDLs) for a watershed. The
databases, assessment tools, and models are integrated in the PC-based GIS software Arc View
2.1. The user of this software can visualize and explore a watershed. On a statewide basis, the
user is able to determine where and what the pollutant loads are and if they exceed water quality
criteria.
Rifai, HS; Newell, CJ; Bedinent, PB. 1993.
Getting to nonpoint source with GIS.
Civil Eng 63(6):44-46.
Galveston Bay National Estuary Program used GIS in its three-phase plan to prioritize
estuary problems, scientifically characterize the problems, link them with causes, and create a
series of action plans to solve identified problems. Based on the GIS database, areas within the
watershed were identified according to those contributing the highest amount of pollutants to the
estuary. Analysis was based on three rainfall cases: average year, 10-year return period, and
single storm event.
Ringrose, S; Vanderpost, C; Matheson, W. 1996
The use of integrated remotely sensed and GIS data to determine causes of vegetation cover
change in southern Botswana.
Appl Geogr 16(3):225-242.
The GIS technique of buffer analysis was applied to determine the extent to which
herbivory (livestock) and the gathering of brush products by the local population were directly
involved in the spatial distribution of savanna types. Digital Thematic Mapper (TM) imagery
bands 2, 3, and 4 were obtained because these were considered most appropriate for vegetation
cover analyses. Field work consisted of reconnaissance vegetation pattern mapping using
1:50,000 and 1:250,000 topo maps. Later a series of 46 sites was chosen to represent vegetation
groupings in the area. Image processing intended to define different vegetation types was
undertaken using ERDAS IMAGINE 8.1, running on a SPARC10 work station. Results of GIS
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analysis show a positive correlation between the location of villages and boreholes and the
location and extent of depleted land (sparse vegetation).
Ripple, WJ. 1994.
Remote sensing and GIS applications for forest ecosystem analysis.
ASPRS/ACSM, pp. 530-537.
The Environmental Remote Sensing Applications Laboratory, established by NASA to
promote the use of remote sensing technology, worked with a few federal and state agencies to
capitalize on the insights of the new field of landscape ecology in combination with remote
sensing and GIS to evaluate forest and wildlife habitat resources. Technical advances at the
landscape scale included developing techniques to measure forest landscape patterns important to
wildlife species. A new automated method for determining the extent of forest fragmentation
based on the percentage of closed conifer cover was used to plan a potential Pacific Northwest
biological reserve system. The relationship between nest sites of the northern spotted owl and
mature forests was investigated. A predictive model of vertebrate species richness was
developed. The technology was adopted by the end users because they had been introduced to it,
had capable staff interested in it, had a major need for the technology and the resulting spatial
information due to resource management issues, and had funding available for it.
Robinson, KJ; Ragan, RM. 1993.
Geographic information system based nonpoint pollution modeling.
Water Resources Bull 29(6): 1003-1008.
The reauthorization of the Clean Water Act reemphasizes the need for regional scale
monitoring and management of nonpoint pollution loads. The magnitude of the task will require
that local governments and their consultants integrate information systems and modeling if they
are to manage the massive data sets and conduct the array of simulations that will be needed to
support decisionmaking processes. Interfacing GISs and nonpoint pollution modeling is a logical
approach. The objective of the present study was to use the 37,000-acre area defined by the
Kensington Quadrangle sheet in Montgomery County, Maryland, to show that GIS-supported
nonpoint pollution modeling is practical and economically attractive.
Roeters, PB; Buiteveld, H; Allewijn R. 1993.
Application of thermal infrared remote sensing for water quality management and monitoring in
the Netherlands.
Proceedings, SPIE International Society of Optical Engineering 20, pp. 251-259.
In the Netherlands, the information need in water management is to a large extent met by
water quality monitoring programs based on point measurements. Remote sensing techniques can
provide additional information, as a synoptic view over larger areas. Thermal infrared remote
sensing is used for water surface temperature mapping. The potential of this technique was tested
in a number of projects with thermal scanner survey flights. Results of selected case studies are
presented. It was concluded that the particular value is in effluent and waste water discharge
detection, stream patterns, and modeling studies. Procedures for implementation were not
formulated. Application of the technique is primarily in the framework of the Pollution of Surface
Waters Act. Evaluation has shown that implementation at the user's level requires (near) real-time
detection of discharges followed by rapid action by ground control teams. These requirements
can be met by using the new remote sensing airplane of the Netherlands Coast Guard. Results of
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a test program in the summer of 1993 were expected to show that this airplane using thermal
infrared remote sensing is a powerful instrument in enforcement of environmental legislation.
Rogowski, AS. 1995.
GIS modeling of recharge on a watershed.
JEnviron Qual 25(3):463(12).
A GIS was utilized to generate kriged overlays of soil hydraulic properties. Areas of
recharge were predicted for a rural Pennsylvania watershed. Soil water content, bulk density,
hydraulic conductivity, and depth to water were measured at 31 locations. The model output
compared favorably with measured streamflows.
Rogowski, AS. 1995.
Quantifying soil variability in GIS applications: I. Estimates of position.
Int J Geo Info Sys 9:81-94.
GISs frequently use soil maps, descriptive text, and tables of attribute values. For optimal
use, published soil maps first need to be digitized and registered, and then the variability
associated with the soil attribute data needs to be quantified. Some problems of dealing with
splicing together adjacent maps are noted. Errors associated with GPS and coordinate and
elevation measures are mentioned. The validity of the field observations depends on the combined
accuracy of an attribute estimate, sampling position location, and interpolation or extrapolation
error among measured values. The accuracy of sampling position location was evaluated by
comparing GPS field-measured values with visual estimates obtained from aerial photographs.
Results showed that visual estimates of position (x,y), registered using standard procedures, could
have considerable error. The author found that the best estimates of location were obtained from
kriged position estimates (x,y) or a projection-type registration of position location. This paper
has many good GIS citations in the reference section; it provides useful descriptions of problems
associated with GIS and data used in GIS. Keywords: ARC/INFO, ERDAS, GPS, krige.
Rogowski, A. 1996.
GIS modeling of recharge on a watershed.
J Environ Qual 25:463-474.
The author used information on soil water content, bulk density, hydraulic conductivity,
and depth to water in 31 locations as input for the GIS. Predictions of water flux distributions,
travel time to ground water, and recharge flux pulse were made by using the GIS. Comparing
these predictions with field observations, the author determined that flow may occur through part
of the total pore space only. The results suggested that water at 0.6 m remains relatively stable.
Rogowski, AS. 1996.
GIS modeling of recharge on a watershed.
J Environ Qual 25:463-474.
The study used a watershed in Pennsylvania to investigate whether model and GIS linkage
could simulate the primary characteristics of the site's recharge. The objective was also to
delineate primary recharge contributing areas in the watershed. GIS parameters of interest
included several field-measured parameters that were kriged to provide area data that were then
overlaid. The methods used soil water content, bulk density, hydraulic conductivity, and depth to
water table at 31 locations as the basis for the data layers developed for the GIS. Analyses were
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used to predict distributions of water flux from below the root zone, travel time to the ground
water, and recharge flux pulse at the ground water table. Comparison with field data suggested
that flow may occur through only part of the available pore space.
Rogowski, AS. 1996.
Quantifying soil variability in GIS applications: II. Spatial distribution of soil properties.
Int J Geo Info Sys 10:455-475.
This paper addressed incorporation of spatial variability into soil databases using GIS.
The study considered measured and published values of bulk density and hydraulic conductivity
(or permeability) in the Mahantango Creek watershed, at both the farm and watershed scale.
Fourteen published soil maps were spliced together and digitized in vector format using
ARC/INFO. Individual map units and their properties were combined into the Great Soil Groups
encountered in the study area. Sample locations were georeferenced and converted to UTM
coordinates. Several levels of resolution were obtained, based upon pixels. A 300 x 300 m
georeferenced UTM grid was superimposed over the watershed, and a 30 x 30 m georeferenced
UTM grid was superimposed. Thus the watershed was represented by 1364 pixels and the farms
ranged from 189 to 715 pixels. The minimum resolution of the soils map was 1.2 ha. The 300 m
watershed grid was about eight times larger than the minimum resolution (1.2 ha). The 30m farm
scale grid was stated to be smaller and better adapted (less smoothed) to interpolation. Grid size
was dictated by software limitations. Collection of measured and published data was described.
Detailed maps (orthophoto) were available for slopes, land use, conservation practices, etc.
Spatial analysis was conducted with GEO-EAS software. Semivariograms were determined and
cross-validated. Block kriging was used to estimate (interpolate) BD and Ks at unmeasured
points (pixels). These interpolated distributions were compared with maps derived from
published data. Data were evaluated with consideration given to soil great groups and soil map
units. The differences between published soil descriptions and data compared with measured soil
descriptions and data were discussed. Possible problems and limitations were noted. The paper
discussed differences between measured data collected at different scales (farm or watershed).
The GIS procedure transformed the (vector) polygon data and attributes to be compatible with
the kriged data (uniform grid-blocks). ARC/INFO POLYGRTD was used for the transformation.
Values were assigned to grid squares based on dominant soil type. Grid size affects resolution
(different levels of resolution are noted above). By controlling the size of the grid, the extent of
uncertainty becomes both scale and resolution dependent. Because published soil map data had a
resolution of 1.2 ha, the size of the grid controlled the scale at which soil properties were
averaged. The study found that published distributions of mapped soils can be related to
measured values through a geostatistical procedure known as regularization. A procedure is
recommended to combine measured and published values. Limitations are discussed. This is a
good, detailed paper that uses GIS and geostatistics. Keywords: ARC/INFO, GEO-EAS,
STATSGO, Geostatistics, soil map units, soil series, soil great groups, kriging, kriging variance,
UTM, ARC/INFO POLYGRID.
Ross, JD; Schiebe, FR; Harrington Jr., JA; Grimshaw, HJ. 1991.
Satellite mapping of suspended sediment and its application to reservoir assessment.
Lake Reservoir Manage 7(1): 89-95.
Lake Thunderbird, a 2428-hectare reservoir located in Norman, Oklahoma, was studied
along with 15 other lakes in south central Oklahoma over a 2-year period. An objective of this
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study was continued development and testing of satellite-based capabilities to assess the water
quality variations within reservoirs. Lake measurements and water samples were obtained on
each day of LANDS AT overpass. A mathematical model of the relationship between suspended
sediment and reflectance measured by the satellite was calibrated to the 16 south central
Oklahoma lakes. A series of multidate suspended sediment maps was generated for Lake
Thunderbird with this model using LANDSAT MSS near infrared (Band 3) data. These maps
were used to quantitatively evaluate the geographic extent of suspended sediment on each date
investigated. The results demonstrate the feasibility of using LANDSAT data to routinely
monitor and assess surface water bodies impacted by suspended sediment.
Roth, NE; Allan, JD; Erickson, DL. 1996.
Landscape influences on stream biotic integrity assessed at multiple spatial scales.
Landscape Ecol 11(3): 141-156.
This article compares stream water quality with land use using the Index of Biotic
Integrity and Habitat Index. Using field surveys, aerial photography, and GIS analyses, the paper
provides assessment of water quality in relation to amount of forest cover and riparian buffer.
Stream biotic integrity was highly correlated with extent of wetlands and forest in watershed, and
found riparian buffer to be a weak secondary predictor of stream integrity.
Rundquist, B; Frank, D; Miewald, T; Lulla, K; McLaughlin, D. 1996.
GIS and astronaut training: first step into a new frontier.
GIS World 9(4): 44.
By means of space shuttle photography, a hypertext browser will interface with a GIS
database to help astronauts recognize sites on Earth, understand their scientific significance, and
better obtain data during passes over each site. The browser will contain photographs from
previous space flights and will allow astronauts to compare these older pictures with their current
observations. The browser/GIS will also allow astronauts to become familiar with the features of
Earth sites from outer space prior to space travel.
Rushton, G; Krishnamurti, D; Krishnamurthy, R; Song, H. 1995.
A geographic information analysis of urban infant mortality rates.
Geo Info Sys 52-56.
The article describes how the authors map infant mortality rates in Des Moines, Iowa.
Instead of mapping infant death and birth rates according to census tract, they map data
continuously using a spatial pattern of grid points and spatial filters surrounding those points. The
article shows the advantages of using more flexible tools of geographic information analysis rather
than mapping health data into predefined, census-defined areas, or any other exclusively defined
area units, because it will often conceal spatial patterns. They are developing, with the support of
the U.S. Department of Education, a CD-ROM that will provide instructional modules for
implementing these methods.
Sabins, FF. 1987.
Digital image processing.
Remote sensing: Principles and interpretation, Chapter 7. New York: W.H. Freeman (22 pages,
online text).
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This chapter describes the major categories of image processing. Image processing
methods are grouped into three functional categories: image restoration, image enhancement, and
information extraction. The categories are further described and well illustrated in this chapter,
using LAKDSAT examples.
Salcido, E; Lovell, L; Williams, Q. 1995.
Applying U.S. technology to water supply problems in Mexico.
American Society of Civil Engineers. Integrated water resources planning for the 21st century.
Proceedings, 22nd Annual Conference, May 7-11, Cambridge, MA, pp. 11531156.
Two GISs were used to manipulate LANDSAT remote sensing and other data to facilitate
the estimation of runoff coefficients for use in calculating watershed yield in a water accounting
model.
Sander, P, Chesly, MM; Minor, TB. 1996.
Groundwater assessment using remote sensing and GIS in a rural groundwater project in Ghana:
Lessons learned.
Hydrogeol J 4:40-49.
The study goal was to use remote sensing data and GIS analyses to develop better well-
siting strategies. Remote sensing data include LANDSAT Thematic Mapper (TM), SPOT, and
infrared aerial photography. Other data include maps and well logs, and open literature. These
data were analyzed for linear vegetation, drainage, and bedrock features that would indicate
underlying fracture zones. Limitations in the remote sensing data and maps were discussed. GIS
analyses focused on identification of factors that contributed to successful wells. (The GIS study
framework is presented by the authors.) This would allow for better well location siting for future
drilling. Linear features were examined in the field and integrated with 189 GPS-positioned bore
holes (out of a total population of about 600 wells). They determined that the remote sensing
data allowed for effective mapping of surficial features that were conducive to ground-water
development. TM had the best correspondence to successful well placement. The authors clearly
identified limitations or problems noted during their study. They concluded that the GIS was
valuable for effective analysis but demonstrated the need for spatial reference and accuracy of
data from different sources. GIS also increased the spatial accuracy of various data integrated by
GIS.
Savabi, MR; Flanagan, DC; Hebel, B; Engel, BA. 1995.
Application of WEPP and GIS-GRASS to a small watershed in Indiana.
JSoil Water Conserv 50(5):477-483.
The study linked the USDA's Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP) model with GIS
application. WEPP is a spatially and physically based hydrologic model that incorporates
hydrology, soil physics, plant physiology, erosion, and hydraulics. WEPP simulates daily soil
water balance, evapotranspiration demand, annual crop and forage production, water yield,
drainage system, effects of management practices, and other traits. GIS was used to obtain many
of the parameters needed to run the model, including soil type, bulk density, and texture;
climate/precipitation and temperature; crop type, tillage and harvest dates; and slope steepness,
length, and aspect. The evaluation of this application compared model-predicted storm runoff
with measured values. The results were successful in that GIS use on recognizing relative
influences of numerous types of hillslope configurations improved the model's ability to predict
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storm runoff. Many models have become constrained by the number of parameters and of
locations where these parameters are needed; the complete coverage of GIS data sets allows for
virtually unlimited density of measurement in these kinds of settings, compared with the sparse
incidence of field measurements previously used.
Savabi, MR; Flanagan, DC; Hebel, B; Engel, BA. 1995.
Application of WEPP and GIS-GRASS to a small watershed in Indiana.
JSoil Water Conserv 50:477-483.
USDA's Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP) model was applied to a watershed in
Indiana. The objective of this paper was to investigate the utility of using the Geographical
Resources Analysis Support System (GRASS) to provide input parameters for the model such as
those related to soil and slope. Another objective was to compare the measured and model-
simulated storm runoff values. The watershed was delineated by applying the GRASS watershed
routine. A watershed basin analysis program was used to obtain flow direction and water flow
accumulation. The parameters obtained using GRASS were output in ASCII files for use in
WEPP. Storm runoff was calculated for three scenarios. Correlations between measured and
predicted stormwater yielded r2 values of 0.48 and 0.47, indicating that agreement was not strong.
The authors concluded that GRASS was a useful tool for parameterizing complex models;
however, more work is needed on appropriate cell resolution.
Savabi, M; Flanagan, D; Hebel, B; Engel, B. 1995.
Application of WEPP and GIS-GRASS to a small watershed in Indiana.
JSoil Water Cons 50:477-483.
The USDA-Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP) model requires information on
hydrometeorological, soil, topograph, and land-use data. The Geographical Resources Analysis
Support System (GRASS) GIS provided many of the necessary inputs for the WEPP model. The
GRASS GIS was also used to identify hillslope profiles within the watershed's boundaries. The
WEPP model was then used to predict storm runoff for a watershed in Indiana. These results
were compared with field observations, and the authors concluded that the GRASS GIS was a
powerful tool for providing input to a complex hydrologic model such as WEPP. In addition, the
authors concluded that using the GIS to provide information on the watershed's boundaries
improved the WEPP model's ability to predict storm runoff.
Savabi, MR; Flanagan, DC; Hebel, B; Engel, BA. 1995.
Application of WEPP and GIS-GRASS to a small watershed in Indiana.
JSoil Water Conserv 50(5):477-483.
The Geographical Resources Analysis Support System (GRASS) GIS was linked to the
USDA Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP) model. Input parameter data, such as those
describing hydrology, soil physics, plant science, erosion, and hydraulics, are harvested from
GRASS and used in WEPP to evaluate the impacts of soil surface conditions, caused by various
land uses, on erosion.
Schell, SP; Lockwood, JA. 1995.
Spatial analysis optimizes grasshopper management.
GIS World 8(11):68-72.
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Swarming grasshoppers, or locusts, are a threat to food crops in many areas. In the
western states, some of the 400 known species are the greatest above-ground herbivores on the
rangelands. Control measures reached $22.75 million during the last outbreak in 1985-86. GISs
have been adapted to analyze the population dynamics of these insects on the plains of Wyoming.
USDA grasshopper survey maps have been combined with state templates and processed using
Global Positioning System (GPS) technology to determine outbreak sites. These sites share spatial
features, as evidenced by maps of vegetation type, precipitation, elevation, evapotranspiration,
and landform-soil type.
Schlagel, JD; Newton, CM. 1996.
A GIS-based statistical method to analyze spatial change.
Photogrammetric Eng Remote Sensing 62(7):839-844.
The authors discuss the pros and cons of several methods for displaying temporal trends
of spatial data using GIS. They indicate that the null hypothesis (i.e., no trend exists in a single
variable measured at multiple locations over time) can be tested statistically in conjunction with
using common GIS overlay operations. To accomplish this, they use the Mann-Kendall trend
statistic, a nonparametric test for zero slope of the linear regression of time-ordered data versus
time. They summarize the steps involved in preparing raster data and calculating the Mann-
Kendall test statistic. They then apply this procedure to a real watershed area to investigate
whether changes in the spatial pattern of animal waste application that occurred over time could
be adversely affecting water quality. They use a set of land-use data collected from 1983 to 1990
in the Jewett Brook Watershed at the north end of St. Albans Bay of Lake Champlain. They
provide tabular summaries of the time trend of annual manure application rates derived from the
Mann-Kendall test. They also provide choropleth maps of the watershed indicating areas where
no manure was applied and where there was a downward trend in application rates, an upward
trend in application rates, or no significant trend in application rates. They also use GIS to
develop buffers at varying distances from Jewett Brook to determine if manure application rates
change with distance from the river. By overlaying the boundaries of the farmlands, they also are
able to identify the single farm responsible for most of the increase in manure application.
Schmidt, MG; Schreir, HE; Shab, PB. 1995.
A GIS evaluation of land use dynamics and forest soil fertility in a watershed in Nepal.
IntJ GIS 9(3): 317-327.
Land-use changes between 1972 and 1990 and soil fertility were investigated. Soil carbon
content maps and composite fertility index maps were developed for forest, plantation, and
shrubland areas in a watershed. GIS showed soil fertility was poor, and this can be used for
problem identification and planning. This is a useful example with some description of GIS
methods for comparing land cover with water quality.
Schulman, RD. 1997.
Modern technology meets traditional farm practices.
Geo Info Sys 7(2):32-37.
Modern farmers face many complex challenges including water and fertilizer management,
crop selection, and finances. Large-scale farming without the ability to measure and control site-
specific spatially related farm elements contributes to pollution of nearby rivers, streams, and well
water. GIS-based precision farming practices permit better monitoring and control of farm
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practices such as application of pesticides and herbicides and help provide an environment for
higher crop yields. GIS allows farmers to manage and fine-tune specific sites. It provides a way
to ingest, visualize, analyze, and manage many aspects of farming. There are many obstacles to
the use of GIS and precision agriculture, including some traditional farmers' reluctance to adopt
new technologies, and the perception that it will mean heavy initial costs for equipment, software,
and technical expertise.
Schwartz,!. 1996.
Using a geographic information system to identify the Chesapeake Bay watershed's strategic
agricultural land: why is it necessary and how is it done?
Proceedings, Watersheds 96-Moving Ahead Together: Technical Conference and Exposition,
June 8-12, Baltimore, MD.
The objective of this project is to use GIS to identify strategic farmland that could be
protected as a multiple-purpose resource. A map of strategic farmland is being developed in
Maryland. Factors to be mapped are soils, land use/land cover, productivity, development
pressures, protected lands, cultural implications, and environmental implications. The result will
be a series of county and state maps, color-coded to highlight the most strategic agricultural land.
The maps will be available to the public and to private entities for their use in planning.
Sengupta, S; Patil, RS; Venkatachalam, P. 1996.
Assessment of population exposure and risk zones due to air pollution using the geographic
information system.
Comput Environ Urban Syst 20(3): 191-199.
The authors chose to use GIS technology to assess spatial distribution of air quality and its
human health impacts, because of the large database needed. A GIS package was developed to
assess exposure and health risk of the population of the Greater Bombay region from atmospheric
pollutants. An air quality index was calculated and related to population density and projected
growth to identify five pollutant risk zones. The resulting map was used to develop air pollution
management strategies.
Shaffer, L. 1997.
Managing national wetlands with digital data.
Geo Info Sys 7(2):28-32.
The article describes the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Wetlands Inventory
(NWI) and identifies a sample of agencies (local, state, and federal) that use the NWI. The NWI
provides location, classification, status, and trend information regarding the nation's wetlands. It
contains digital vector data for more than 17,000 quadrangles. Information about NWI can also
be obtained by accessing NWIS's homepage: http://www.nwi.fws.gov.
Shaffer, L. 1997.
Managing national wetlands with digital data.
Geo Info Sys 7(2):8-30.
This article identifies three levels of government (local government planning, state-level
assessment, and Federal habitat protection) that use the National Wetlands Inventory (NWI)
digital wetlands data for environmental protection.
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Shaffer, L. 1997.
Managing national wetlands with digital data.
Geo Info Sys 7(2):28-32.
This article discusses the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Wetlands Inventory
(NWI) project, which provides location, classification, status, and trend information regarding the
nation's wetlands. The article provides seven examples of use of NWI digital wetlands data
across the country. With the NWI as a data layer, GIS is used to evaluate various situations on
different governmental levels. The article also lists how the information can be accessed via the
internet and downloaded for use in ARC/INFO.
Sham, CH; Bradley, JW; Moritz, MA. 1995.
Quantifying septic nitrogen loadings to receiving waters: Waquoit Bay, Massachusetts.
IntJGIS9(3):463-473.
The authors demonstrate that it is necessary to incorporate spatial and temporal
characteristics of ground-water flow and land-use data to accurately quantify nitrogen (N) loading
into the watershed. They compare residential land parcels with septic N loading over time. The
article provides a useful example with some description of GIS methods to compare land cover
with water quality. The article was also useful because this reviewer may use Waquoit Bay as the
site of a project.
Shamsi, UM. 1996.
Storm-water management implementation through modeling and GIS.
J Water Resource Plan Manage-ASCE 122(2):114(14).
A planning-level GIS integrated with a lumped-parameter hydrologic model, the Penn
State Runoff Model, was used to develop a watershed release rate map for use in developing a
watershed-wide stormwater management plan. The model was used to simulate runoff
hydrographs for a range of durations and frequencies, from which peak flow presentation and
release rate tables were generated.
Shaver, E; Maxted, J; Curtis, G; Carter, D. 1995.
Watershed protection using an integrated approach.
In: Torno, HC, ed. Stormwater NPDES-RelatedMonitoring Needs. Proceedings, Engineering
Foundation Conference. Crested Butte, CO, August 7-12. New York: American Society of Civil
Engineers, pp. 435-459.
The authors begin by describing ARC/INFO as user-friendly. That must be a first! The
authors used SWMM to model stormwater runoff influencing Silver Lake, Delaware. The
ARC/INFO macro language was used to enhance the user interface of SWMM and to integrate it
into the GIS framework. Data for the model are stored in ARC/INFO coverages and files.
Outputs from SWMM will be linked to WASP to predict lake concentrations. The GIS modeling
tool will be used for effluent permitting and stormwater control. The effects of stormwater runoff
will be measured using biological and habitat measures. These measures will indicate when
stormwater management efforts are adequate or need refinement. In order to implement the
project, the state of Delaware needed to buy a work station. Total costs of the 3-year project are
anticipated to be $740K, or $95/hectare.
Shearer,!. 1994.
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NOAA relies on tracing technology to speed ocean mapping.
Geo Info Sys 4(2):22-25.
NOAA's Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) group initiated a major project to
update and digitize maps of approximately 65,000 miles of U.S. shoreline, including the Gulf of
Mexico, Atlantic and Pacific coasts, and the Great Lakes. With the advent of new technologies
such as aerial photography, changes can be detected more quickly and accurately. This ability
means that it is now possible to build GISs to study the world's oceans. Researchers can
extrapolate additional information, for example, where schools offish are to be found, likely sites
for oil or gas reservoirs, and possible recreational areas, and can identify areas that are potentially
at ecological risk. NOAA plans to use interactive tracing technology to convert the 260 plus
charts, thus cutting the time from 2.5 to 1.5 years. The article describes the technical process of
converting the data to electronic format.
Sheng, T; Barrett, R; Mitchell, T. 1997.
Using geographic information systems for watershed classification and rating in developing
countries.
JSoil Water Conserv 52:84.
The authors explain that the best approach for using a GIS to classify watersheds and
establish management priorities is to (1) develop a watershed classification scheme, (2) conduct a
reconnaissance survey and assess watershed data, and (3) prioritize the watersheds. To develop a
classification scheme, the authors suggest combining community input with government policy
guidance. Criteria should be concentrated on major national concerns and watershed problems.
Once the watershed classification scheme is completed, one needs to design a data collection
process that focuses on key data that will be useful for the classification scheme, and on data that
are easy to collect or are readily available. After these data are input into the GIS, the GIS can be
used to prioritize the watersheds.
Short, M. 1997.
Ten years after Chorley.
Mapping Awareness 11(6):40-41.
In May 1997, the "Chorley Report" predicted the future of GIS in the United Kingdom.
The author of this article sees opportunities still ahead but is frustrated by the barriers caused by
problems such as lack of freely available, affordable digital-map data. This problem is not
highlighted as a problem in the United States, but that note gives rise to a United Kingdom cry
that American digital map data are not as good as the United Kingdom's. This short article was
not very enlightening but did give a more international perspective of at least the data accessibility
issue.
Sloss, P. 1996.
Enhancing NOAA's image.
Earth Syst Monitor 7(1): 1-5.
Images from the National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC) have appeared in numerous
publications, including National Geographic, Scientific American, Geo, Newsweek, and
Encyclopedia Britannica. The images, which are available on WWW, can also be found on CD-
ROMs including the award-winning Small Blue Planet and Oceans. Many examples are
described. Digital raster elevation data from ETOPO5 were processed into color-shaded relief
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imagery. Two publications used the same shading algorithm, but the map projections used were
Mercator for the poster and gnomonic for the Icosahedron. Desktop PC software can render
global views using texture mapping to simulate the lighting of topography and to apply a specific
coloration to the simulated landscape. The most intensive rendering computations are involved in
perspective views of a polygon-modeled surface. NGDC has a new poster in preparation that
uses 2.9 million polygons to represent the age of crustal material on the ocean floor draped over
world topographic relief.
Smith, KD. 1995.
Remote sensing instruments for water monitoring.
Nat Environ J 5(5) :2 7-28.
The most prominent force in the development and installation of remote monitoring
sensors and remote data collection technology is the need to reduce the high costs incurred in
conventional sampling and monitoring methods. Conventional sampling and analytical methods
usually require manual functions followed by wet chemical analysis in laboratories, which are
often located considerable distances from the sampling point. Manual sampling requires
assembling and transporting to the sample site numerous sample containers, chemicals to stabilize
the samples, and refrigeration and portable monitoring equipment. Additional disadvantages of
conventional sampling include inconsistent sampling techniques, time-consuming preparation of
sampling equipment, delays in analysis, and exposure of personnel to potentially dangerous
sampling locations and adverse weather conditions. Sensors are widely available for remote
monitoring of physical measurements. Most physical sensors are well developed and acceptable
for most remote monitoring requirements where only trends or pollution indicators are required.
Smith, CL; Steel, BS; List, PC; Cordray, S. 1995.
Making forest policy: integrating GIS with social processes.
J Forestry 93(5):31-36.
The authors discuss how GIS is used to address changes to land use and landscape. Users
are only now starting to investigate ways to include social and value dimensions in any land-use
analysis. They offer a way for identifying the missing information layer, which they call the
superstructure layer, with other information in future versions of GIS. They also include several
example analyses that include the superstructure layer.
Smith, RH; Sahoo, SN; Sunkara, SS; Moore, LW. 1995.
Grass integrated synthetic sediment routing model (GISSRM).
American Society of Civil Engineers. Integrated water resources plan for the 21st century.
Proceedings, 22ndAnnual Conference, May 7-11,Cambridge, MA, pp.1069-1072.
The Grass Integrated Synthetic Sediment Routing Model (GISSRM) uses the GRASS
GIS to generate sediment yield estimates using topographic, edaphic, land use, and
meteorological data. The model could be used to determine watershed sediment yield reductions
after grade control drop structure construction.
Smith, SE; Dewitt, BA; Gonzalez, EP; Hurt, GW. 1995.
Georeferencing of satellite imagery for digital soil mapping.
Surveying LandlnfSyst 55(1): 13-20.
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This article describes the procedure used by the Soil Conservation Service in Florida to
convert traditional soil maps into digital format. The focus is on the process used to georeference
satellite imagery to the digital soil maps so that they can be used as a background layer for the
resulting GIS. The project chose to use LAND SAT Thematic Mapper rather than SPOT
Multispectral for its satellite imagery, because of LANDSAT's greater number of spectral
channels and because with LANDSAT fewer scenes were required to cover the state.
Georeferencing is defined as the process of converting the arbitrary coordinate system of the
satellite image into the geographic coordinate system of the GIS. A two-dimensional affine
transformation was used to relate the satellite image coordinates to the map coordinates. This
entailed, first, locating a set of at least three control points (36 were actually used) with known
UTM coordinates in the satellite image by their row and column coordinates. Using these control
values, the parameters of the affine transformation's two equations (one for row, the other for
column coordinates) are derived by least squares. With the resulting equations, any cell in the
GIS image layer can be related to the corresponding location in the satellite image. The article
then describes the resampling subprocess needed to translate the noninteger column and row
coordinates generated by the affine transformation into integer coordinates usable in the GIS.
Resampling involves interpolation. Three interpolation techniques are explained (nearest
neighbor, bilinear, and bicubic) along with their respective advantages and disadvantages. For this
project the bilinear interpolation was chosen as a compromise between the faster speed of the
nearest neighbor and the better detail and smoother appearance of the bicubic interpolation.
Somers, R. 1994.
GIS development alternatives: 10 years vs. 10 days.
Geo Info Sys 4(8):20-58.
This article discusses the management strategy to successfully implement a GIS system in
less than the traditional 10-year timeframe. The author suggests that rather than conducting a
full-blown user requirements analysis, one should obtain the core characteristics for essential
components which can be modified later. The author describes the management issues to
evaluate, including alternatives, immediate benefits for immediate costs, sidelines to major system
development, multitracking development, and so forth. Strategic planning should be an iterative
process that changes the GIS online.
Somers, R. 1995.
Should we stop and think about this more?
Geo Info Sys 55:19-20.
The article discusses causes of delays of GIS projects and ways to move past the delays.
The article emphasizes that the crucial first step is to develop a clear vision of the system's role in
the organization and the scope of the project. It also emphasizes moving past delays because they
increase costs.
Somers, R. 1996.
How to implement a GIS.
Geo Info Sys 7(1): 18-21.
This article discusses various issues related to implementing GIS. It outlines five basic
phases and the issues that must be addressed in each phase: (1) planning (establishing resources,
activities, and schedules; (2) analysis (determining the organization's requirements); (3) design
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(determining what type of system will meet the organization's requirements); (4) acquisition and
development (acquiring the software, hardware, and data, and crafting them into a personalized
system); and (5) operation and maintenance (using and keeping the system current). It also
provides references for other publications on GIS implementation.
Soracco, M. 1995.
NOAA satellite information system (NOAASIS).
Earth Sys Monitor 6(2): 12-14.
World Wide Web sites provide access to environmental satellite-related products and
information. The site serves as a central location for disseminating satellite information provided
by various contributors within NESDIS (NO A A's National Environmental Satellite, Data, and
Information Service) and the external satellite community. There are 3000 users routinely
accessing the site per week. The data provided are not imagery; rather, they are the information
necessary to collect and process imagery data. Other information available includes satellite and
sensor descriptions, publications, available data services, links to other sites, and upcoming
events. Files are accessible via anonymous FTP.
Soutter, M; Pannatier, Y. 1996.
Groundwater vulnerability to pesticide contamination on a regional scale.
JEnviron Qual 25(3):439-444.
A case study is presented that describes a methodology for developing a ground-water
vulnerability index. The method combines environmental point models with geostatistical
techniques.
Specht, J. 1996.
Mapping Earth's endangered biodiversity.
GIS World 9(3): 42-46.
The largest resources of biological diversity are found in some of the world's poorest
countries. The use of GISs to promote species conservation and ecological protection is
described. A case study of deforestation trends in Madagascar is used to highlight the need for
these types of programs. From 1950 to 1985, some 50 percent of Madagascar's forests were
cleared for timber, agriculture, and firewood. Conservation International (CI) (Washington, DC)
has used data from satellite images to identify some of the most endangered regions on the planet.
The CI Sistema de Informacion Geographica (CISIG) was created to assist in scientific field
analysis programs aimed at conserving species diversity.
Techniques used to train local workers to use the CISIG system are described.
Stallones, L; Nuckols, JR; Berry, JK. 1992.
Surveillance around hazardous waste sites: geographic information systems and reproductive
outcomes.
Environ Res 59:81-92.
This article basically describes the potential to use GIS in reproductive epidemiology but
does not go so far as to apply GIS to actual data, so it is a bit disappointing. The authors state
that a lot of information is available about toxic waste sites, the chemicals at the sites, potential
routes of transport and human exposure. The authors also note that birthweight has been used as
an indicator of environmental influences. They show examples of overlaying information using
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GIS, and talk about the application of spatial statistics, but there are no health data being
modeled.
Stauffer, B; Wang, X. 1995.
Application of GIS for environmental impact analysis in a traffic relief study.
Proceedings, National Conference on Environmental Problem-Solving with Geographic
Information Systems, September, EPA/625/R-95/004, pp. 322-330.
A multidisciplinary team evaluated the environmental and socioeconomic impacts of
various potential highway alignments in the Pocono region. GIS technology was used to develop
a natural and cultural resource inventory, identify contamination sources, assess environmental
constraints, and evaluate alternatives. The authors considered the GIS environment to be ideal for
analyzing data, applying models, and making decisions, and the high-quality GIS maps enhanced
the quality of public presentations and reports. This was one of the first Environmental Impact
Statement (EIS) projects funded by the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation to use a GIS.
Steffenson, J; Dippon, D. 1994.
Building a GIS for the president's forest ecosystem management assessment team.
Proceedings, American Congress on Surveying and Mapping/American Society of
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (ACSM/ASPRS), April, Reno, NV. Vol. 1, pp. 617-623.
At the April 2, 1993, Forest Conference, President Clinton challenged his administration
to create an interagency spatial database and to use it to prepare a report critiquing strategies for
managing the 26 million acres of federal lands within the range of the northern spotted owl within
100 days. Vector data were converted to GRID raster format and merged into a single grid (400
m x 400 m) with a multitude of attributes representing each of the original map layers and then
exported to Oracle for analysis. Linking each grid cell to the database enabled the analysis of new
alternatives within 24 hours of having a completed ARC/INFO coverage. Database development
issues in developing 10 alternatives included the lack of information standards and the
mechanisms for sharing data. Many questions were raised about having consistent, current,
accurate resource data and making decisions that cross agency boundaries, which may have been
partly addressed by the formation of an interagency team to maintain and enhance the interagency
databases. The leader of the Forest Ecosystem Management Assessment Team, Jack Ward
Thomas, became Chief of the Forest Service.
Stehman, SV. 1992.
Comparison of systematic and random sampling for estimating the accuracy of maps generated
from remotely sensed data.
Photogrammetric Eng Remote Sensing 58(9): 1343-1350.
There is a need to assess the accuracy of land-use and land-cover classifications developed
from remotely sensed data. This paper is useful because it compares the accuracy of systematic
sampling with random sampling designs.
Stevenson, P. 1995.
The problem of data conversion.
Geo Info Sys 5(2):28-32.
The article discusses the various tools and methods used to convert hard-copy maps into
digital vector format for use with GIS, possible directions for developing better conversion tools,
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and the need for concerted research to minimize future expenses. The conversion tools included
manual digitizing, scanning, heads-up digitizing, line following, and automated vectorization.
Stockwell, JR; Sorenson, JW; Eckert, Jr., JW; Carreras, EM. 1993.
The U.S. EPA geographic information system for mapping environmental releases of toxic
chemical release inventory (TRI) chemicals.
Risk Anal 13(2): 155-164.
The authors use the EPA GIS to map environmental releases of TRI chemicals in the
southeastern United States in order to define those regions which may be potential exposure
zones and which could be strategic targets for future risk screening efforts. They used the
1987-1989 TRI database to identify total releases and transfers of all chemicals to all media, by
county. They also used EPA's Office of Toxic Substances "Toxicity Index Profile" or "TIP"
score as a very crude measure of potential human health and ecological effects associated with
each TRI chemical. The TIP score for a chemical is calculated by checking off a list of seven
human health effects (e.g., cancer, developmental toxicity, reproductive toxicity) and three
ecological effects (environmental toxicity, persistence, bioaccumulation) that the literature
indicates have been associated with exposure to that chemical. The composite TIP score can have
total value from 1 to 10, just based on the number of these effects reported in the literature. The
authors multiplied the value of the TIP score by the total annual pounds of each chemical released
or transferred into all media for each TRI facility. The authors developed and provided the
following mapping products: (1) choropleth map based on the 1980 Census data showing
population densities (people/sq.mi.) for each county in the southeastern United States overlaid
with the location of the top 25 emitting TRIs; and (2) four choropleth maps showing emissions of
TRI chemicals, ranked from high to low by county, based on their TIP scores multiplied by the
total releases and transfers. Each of these four maps dealt with one of the following four human
health effects: carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, developmental toxicity, or reproductive toxicity.
The authors found that the top 25 ranking TRIs, based on total releases and transfers, were
located in counties having population densities exceeding 100 persons/sq.mi., and that the largest
releases and transfers are usually in the most densely populated areas. They concluded that the
most useful result of this methodology and study was to identify areas for future risk assessment
follow-up study, based on mapping of the combination of population, chemical release, and
toxicity information.
Stockwell, JR; Sorenson, JW; Eckert, Jr., JW; Carreras, EM. 1993.
The US EPA geographic information system for mapping environmental releases of toxic
chemical release inventory (TRI) chemicals.
Risk Anal 13(2): 155-164.
This article was written early in the genesis of application of GIS to Toxic Release
Inventory (TRI) data, by EPA colleagues in Region 4 (southeast United States). This was an
early attempt to link what we know about the health effects of specific chemicals to the releases of
these same chemicals reported by industry under TRI.
Strand, EJ. 1997.
Will GIS face a year 2000 problem?
GIS World 10(7):20-30.
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This article suggests that GIS should not be affected by the year 2000 problem (because
GIS is more concerned with "where" questions than "when" questions). GIS, however, has its
own significant problem, of which those in the field should be aware and take care to address.
The problem concerns naming conventions, such that, for example, wrong names are given to
entities or one name is mistakenly given to many entities. Among the reasons for these errors are
the changing of names over time and the variation of names that may exist among different source
data.
Stumpf, RP; Tyler, MA. 1988.
Satellite detection of bloom and pigment distribution in estuaries.
Remote Sensing Environ 24:385-404.
Using a form of vector analysis of satellite spectral data, it is possible to distinguish algal
pigment concentrations based on changes in turbidity. It is possible to identify algae blooms in
estuaries.
Sudhakar, S; Pal, DK. 1993.
Water quality assessment of the Lake Chilka.
IntJRemote Sensing 14(14):2575-2579.
A judicious management plan for natural lake ecosystems based on ecologically sound
principles warrants a reliable database updated on a suitable temporal cycle. Large water bodies,
particularly shallow ones, are of immense economic, scientific, cultural, and aesthetic value, and it
has been well established that they play a key role in regulation of local hydrological and
microclimatic conditions.
Sui, DZ; Giardino, JR. 1995.
Application of GIS in environmental equity analysis: a multi-scale and multi-zoning scheme study
for the city of Houston, Texas, USA.
Proceedings, GIS/LIS '95, Volume II, Annual Conference and Exposition, November, Nashville,
TN, pp. 950 959.
Authors used ARC/INFO and Arc View on 1990 TRI and census data (in the Houston
metro area) to examine effect of different areal aggregations on the results of environmental
justice (EJ) analyses. Although many studies have been published to evaluate EJ, few have
addressed the issue of how the selection of the study area unit of analysis can significantly affect
the study results. The authors' results show that "if the effects of geographic scale and zoning
schemes are not considered, ...it is possible to find almost any desired results simply by re-
aggregating the data to different scales and areal-unit boundaries." They examine the TRI and
census data at three different scales-census block group, census tract, and zip code-and three
different zones-concentric rings (1.5, 3, and 4.5 mile) around the major population centers, 1.5-
mile buffer zones along major highways, and sectoral radiating patterns from Houston's three
major ethnic enclaves. Although they provide no detail on the queries they performed, they do
show the results of two models that look at the relationship between the number of TRIs and the
size of the minority population, per capita income, and population density, or the number of TRIs
and the percentages of black, Hispanic, and Asian populations. The results show that both the
scale and the zones selected have significant effects on the magnitude and sign of the model
coefficients and the goodness of fit of the model.
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Sun, X; Anderson, JM. 1994.
Evaluation of the application potential of a variable interference filter imaging spectrometer for
the water environment.
Marine TechnolSoc J28(2):37-45.
This paper evaluates the application potential of a variable interference filter imaging
spectrometer (VTFIS) for the water environment by analysis of the experimental data acquired in
recent airborne tests. It shows that VIFIS can be configured to fly in different sensing modes to
satisfy a variety of applications. In sunglint-free sensing mode, VIFIS supplies regular
wavelength-spectral images of the solar diffuse reflection of the body of water. In the
front(rear)-sunglint sensing mode, VIFIS supplies unique directional-spectral images of the
specular reflection of the surface of water. Two kinds of wavelength-spectral image examples,
which consist of a frame of the progressively variable-filtered sensor imagery and a set of
multispectral track-recovery images respectively, are illustrated. The first allows efficient access
of the simultaneous spectrum of a homogeneous water area within a whole sensed frame. The
other is applicable to areas of general interest for both spatial inspection and pixel spectrum
analysis. These regular wavelength-spectral data sets are of interest for monitoring the subsurface
scattering that is usually relevant to water quality, phytoplankton, shallow-water fish schools, and
other subsurface materials. With the unique directional-spectral images, VTFIS has extra
capabilities of enhancing the contrast of the anomalies and other regular surface features, such as
oil spills, floating materials, ship wakes, and frontal patterns between different water bodies, on
the general water background.
Swanson, C. 1994.
From sword to plowshares: GIS technology helps San Francisco's historic Presidio army post
convert to urban national park.
Geo Info Sys 4(11):22-30.
The Presidio military base (San Francisco, CA) is being transformed into a unique national
park. The project's final general management plan calls for preservation of 600 structures, with
possible uses ranging from innovative community-service programs, to a global think tank, to
ongoing scientific and medical research at Letterman Hospital. The National Park Service's
Presidio Transition Team has developed a GIS called the Presidio Graphic Management
Information System (PGMIS), which has three major functions: as a planning tool to aid in the
base-conversion process; to present complex alternatives to the public, decisionmakers, and other
government agencies in an easily understandable format; and to be easy to use and update. The
management plan also calls for protection, preservation, and restoration of the natural landscape.
Because of the unique status, personnel must apply not only the skills required to maintain a rural
national park but also skills normally reserved for a city planner, environmentalist, and
archaeologist. Because of the scope and complexity, the GIS system (PGMIS) was developed.
Szergoe, J. 1994.
Estimating and mapping the impact of environmental influences on a dynamic population.
European Geographic Information Sytem, Proceedings, EGIS '94, March, Paris, France.
Utrecht, Netherlands:EGIS Foundation, pp. 997-1006.
The author considers environmental impact analyses to be among the least developed
techniques for urban and regional planning. Using real population data from the third largest city
in Sweden and fictional air pollution assumptions, he modeled the concentration of air pollution
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on a 100 x 100 m grid network. This method can be used to project future patterns based on
expected urban growth.
Tassan, S; Ribera d'Alcala, M. 1993.
Water quality monitoring by Thematic Mapper in coastal environments: a performance analysis of
local biooptical algorithms and atmospheric correction procedures.
Remote Sensing Environ 42(2): 177-191.
The Thematic Mapper sensor's ability to monitor localized phenomena associated with
anthropogenic pollution in coastal waters has been investigated with reference to experimental
data collected on a test site in the Gulf of Naples. In situ measurements yielded the biooptical
algorithms for chlorophyll and sediment retrieval as well as an optical model for computation of
the subsurface reflectance as a function of water composition, specific to the site. The algorithms'
performance was assessed through a sensitivity analysis, taking into account correlation among
chlorophyll, sediment, and yellow substance contents, as well as stratification characteristics of
the water body. Sensitivity analysis techniques were similarly used to evaluate the performance in
the coastal environment of three atmospheric correction models, which assume uniform aerosol
load and composition, uniform aerosol composition, and varying aerosol load and composition,
respectively. A comparison with sea-truth data collected for the LANDSAT overpass of 22 June
1988 showed a satisfactory correspondence between measured concentrations and concentrations
retrieved from the TM data using the above atmospheric correction procedures and "local"
biooptical algorithms. Consistent with indications of the sensitivity analysis, the best agreement
was obtained by the atmospheric model assuming varying aerosol load and composition.
Tayer, MJ; Gee, GW; Rockhold, ML. 1996.
Estimating recharge rates for a groundwater model using a GIS.
J Environ Qual 25:510-518.
The study was done to estimate possible routes and amount of transport of contaminants
from buried wastes into ground water at the Hanford nuclear site in Washington state. GIS was
used to identify all possible combinations of vegetation and soil type and assign to each an
estimate of recharge rate. Estimates were based on field data and supplemented when needed with
simulations. GIS was then used to estimate annual recharge volume for the 120 vegetation/soil
combinations. Calculations showed recharge volume estimates were several times higher than
expected runoff and ground-water flow from adjacent uplands, but this may illustrate the higher
recharge rates associated with a 1984 fire and with disturbed soil surface onsite. Model error was
estimated at around 20 percent. A more rigorous analysis of error could be performed with GIS,
for example, by factoring in road surface area (not in the vegetation map) and subtle vegetation
changes. The map product is useful for focusing and refining further analysis of recharge on the
smaller areas within the site that are of concern for contaminant burial and migration.
Tempalski, BJ. 1994.
The case of Guinea worm: GIS as a tool for the analysis of disease control policy.
Geo Info Sys 4(11):32-38.
The article describes how GIS technology was used to analyze spatial patterns of Guinea-
worm disease. GIS used data collected by UNICEF to identify and map West African villages
that had high rates of infection in order to analyze the spatial pattern of the disease. The method
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proved useful in locating and identifying areas with a high prevalence of the disease. Health
officials were able to target these areas for assistance and health education programs.
Terui, N; Kikuchi, M. 1994.
The size-adjusted critical region of Moran's I test statistics for spatial autocorrelation and its
application to geographical areas.
Geo Anal 26:213-227.
Critical regions of Moran's I statistic have been based on the assumption of asymptotic
normality, which had been previously proven. This assumption is probably not valid for small
sample sizes of 10-50. Cliff and Ord (1971) proposed a Monte Carlo method for small sizes.
The authors used the Edgeworth-type approximation to improve these critical values. The size
adjustment proved advantageous in tests of the "Queens Case" of spatial pattern. The authors
provide a table of critical values for 1 percent and 5 percent, but only for limited sample sizes of
PRj to P7.
Teso, RR; Poe, MP; Younglove, T; McCool, PM. 1996.
Use of logistic regression and GIS modeling to predict groundwater vulnerability to pesticides.
JEnviron Qual 25(3):425-432.
A significant logistic regression model was developed, based on soil-particle-size class
composition of wells sampled for 1,3-dibromochloropropane (DBCP). The California Soils Map
Unit Inventory database was used to provide soil data. Probability scores for over 15,000
sections located in the San Joaquin Valley, CA, were generated. GIS was used to generate
images of the probability scores, and four distinct probability classes of DBCP contamination
were mapped. It was concluded that particle-size class can be used to successfully estimate
contamination status for DBCP.
Teso, R; Poe, M; Younglove, T; McCool, P. 1996.
Use of logistic regression and GIS modeling to predict groundwater vulnerability to pesticides.
J Environ Qual 25:425-432.
The authors are concerned that there are no guidelines for interpreting the generic soil
texture terms found on pesticide labels. They used California's Soils Map Unit Inventory
database to assign probabilities of DBCP well contamination to sections in the San Joaquin Valley
in California. A GIS was used to provide visual images of the assigned probabilities. The authors
concluded that particle size may be useful in interpreting the soil references found on pesticide
labels. They also found that combining a GIS with data models was useful in conducting the
study.
Theocharopoulos, S; Davidson, D; McArthur, J; Tsouloucha, F. 1995.
GIS as an aid to soil surveys and land evaluation in Greece.
J Soil Water Conserv 50:118.
This was one of the first uses of GIS in a country bordering the Mediterranean. The
authors developed a GIS for soil survey and land evaluation. They found that GIS technology
benefitted the soil survey and land evaluation project, particularly through the provision of results
very quickly after field and lab work was completed.
Thomas, JP. 1995.
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Remote sensing and relating coastal development to living marine resources and their habitats.
Natural Areas J15(1) :21-36.
Coastal ecosystems, including those with natural areas (e.g., reserves, refuges, parks),
receive virtually all of the water flowing off the continental United States. As the human
population increases, so do waste loads and use of the terrestrial surface. Changes in land use
result in changes in land cover, which affect water quality and, subsequently, coastal and estuarine
habitats and their living resources. Lack of understanding of the cumulative effects of land cover
and changes in land cover on these habitats and their resources has limited appropriate
management of landscape activities. Additionally, in the United States, as elsewhere, human
population in the coastal region is increasing at an ever-quickening pace. Our ability to monitor
resultant land-cover and habitat change has not kept pace with the change, and management, thus,
has been more reactive than proactive. Remote sensing is a key element of monitoring land-cover
changes over broad areas of the coastal zone in a synoptic, relatively inexpensive, and dependable
way. Such information, when assimilated into a GIS and integrated with transport and
process-oriented models, would allow us to relate land cover and changes in land cover (i.e.,
development in the coastal zone) to effects on living marine resources; it also would permit
proactive responses to continuing degradation and loss of coastal and estuarine habitats and their
living marine resources.
Thompson, T; Forster, CB. 1996.
Seeing the future for the trees: big business goes green.
Geo Info Sys 6(9):20-24.
Louisiana-Pacific (L-P), a wood-based building products company, is applying
"environomics"-using GIS technology to balance how natural habitat is managed-to develop
sustainable land-use policies in partnership with leading environmental groups. The GIS also
simplifies communication between L-P's resource managers and upper management regarding
data about the company's California timberlands. Since 1991, L-P has applied a group of GIS-
based technologies and spatial tools to better understand the environmental impact of timber
harvesting, both now and as many as 120 years into the future, in its California forests. The
company's GIS provides a scientific base for using field-verified information for compliance
reports and forestry management activities. The company is seen as a partner by leading
environmental groups. GIS information can be shared and mutually viewed as a planning tool in
the early phases of land management. L-P believes applying environomics will greatly influence
worldwide habitat preservation. Science can provide paths for sustainable use of resources such
that profit is made both now and in the future, balanced with habitat preservation. Long-term
plans for the GIS system include making it available to others in government, academia, and
industry, both nationally and internationally.
Thrall, G; Bates, B; Ruiz, M. 1994.
A history of implementing an urban GIS. Part two: two solutions toward a working GIS.
Geo Info Sys 4(10):46-51.
This article describes the learning experiences of Alachua County, FL, in attempting to
implement a GIS system. Their first attempt was a failure. Even so, the county still was
impressed by GIS, and the failure allowed them to articulate what they did and did not want in a
new GIS system. ACPAO identified three categories of criteria: automated map graphics
capabilities, general GIS capabilities, and general system requirements. The new system had to
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read all the maps from the first system. The two key GIS players use different tools to access the
data and each requires different forms of analysis; however, they use the same base map of land
features.
Tim, US. 1995.
Review: the application of GIS in environmental health sciences: opportunities and limitations.
Environ Res 71:75-88.
This review covers both GIS-describing software, hardware and functions-and the
application of GIS to public health data. It is very well done! The author describes the evolution
of GIS and how GIS can impact data management. The author then goes on to provide an
example of applying GIS to public health data in Iowa. The database included: environmental
data (soil, geology, etc.), environmental monitoring data (some information from EPA or the
state), demographic data, agrochemical data, and infrastructure data (hydrology and
transportation). The article includes sample Arc View screens showing maps with morbidity data,
indicating some of the capabilities of using GIS software to explore public health data.
Tim, US; Jolly, R. 1994.
Evaluating agricultural nonpoint source pollution using integrated geographic information systems
and hydrologic/water quality model.
JEnviron Qual 23:25-35.
The authors claim that GIS enables considerable progress in advancement of the many
forms of nonpoint source pollution models because of the speed efficiency and accuracy with
which they can handle large volumes of information. The study they performed was focused on
using the AGNPS model with GIS to examine an agricultural watershed. The GIS was used
primarily as an organizational and processing/analysis tool, whereas the model was used to
provide estimates of several water quality variables. These included soil erosion and
sedimentation. The linked model-GIS approach was used to estimate potential effectiveness of
several alternative management strategies for reducing sediment pollution. When the GIS-assisted
strategies were implemented, a 71 percent reduction in sediment yield was made possible.
Tim, US; Jolly, R; Liao, Hsiu-Hua. 1995.
Impact of landscape feature and feature placement on agricultural non-point-source-pollution
control.
J Water Resources Plan Manage 121(6):463-470.
The authors used the AGNPS model plus GIS to evaluate the impact of width and
placement of buffer strips on sediment yield in a watershed. Efficacy increased with increasing
width (from 10 to 30 m). The effects of placement varied from a 3 percent reduction to 26
percent reduction. The larger reductions were seen when buffer strips were placed in an area with
few other controls. ARC/INFO was used to combine data layer-AGNPS was run for each grid
cell.
Tobias, RA; Roy, R; Alo, C; Howe, H. 1996.
Tracking human health statistics in Radium City.
Geo Info Sys 7(7):50-53.
Sites in Ottawa, IL, were declared to be Superfund due to excess radiation from 14
unrestricted sites (caused by radium dial companies). To determine health outcomes/statistics
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surrounding the sites, the Illinois Department of Health-Division of Epidemiologic Studies
received funding to study incidence of cancer and adverse pregnancy using GIS. They first
geocoded the cancer cases and birth problems records and matched them to addresses in the city.
They then conducted a health statistics review at the subcounty level. Finally, they studied the
spatial distribution of the cancers and birth defect cases relative to the radiation sites. For the
spatial analysis, three techniques were used: zone analysis, clustering analysis (nearest neighbor
analysis), and Poisson chi-square mapping. However, they were not able to discuss the result of
the study, only the methodology and analyses. It appears that there is a higher incidence of
people of lower socioeconomic status and minorities around the radioactive sites.
Torgersen, CE; Poage, NJ; Flood, MA; Norton, DJ; Mclntosh, BA. 1996.
Airborne thermal remote sensing of salmonid habitat for restoration planning in Pacific
Northwestern watersheds.
Proceedings, Watersheds 96-Moving Ahead Together: Technical Conference and Exposition,
June 8-12, Baltimore, MD.
This project focused on using forward-looking infrared (FLIR) imagery as a monitoring
tool for assessing salmonid habitat in several rivers and streams in Oregon, Washington, and
Idaho. The primary use was to supplement water temperature information from in-stream data
loggers with spatially continuous thermal image data composing entire river reaches. Stream
temperature is a critical factor in salmonid populations success. Approximately 1600 river km of
FLIR coverage were obtained for analysis during the heat of summer 1995. The authors
developed diurnal water temperature curves from data logger locations to predict expected stream
temperatures on the hottest days of summer. The imagery proved useful for both classifying river
reaches according to thermal characteristics and detecting cool-water refugia of critical
importance to salmonids.
Tsou, M-H; Buttenfield, BP. 1997.
A direct manipulation interface for geographical information processing.
In: Kraak, M; Molenaar, M; Fendel, E, eds. Advances in GIS Research. Proceedings, Seventh
International Symposium on Spatial Data Handling. London: Taylor & Francis, pp. 905 915.
This article describes how object-oriented programming can be used to create a point-and-
click iconic direct manipulation graphical user interface (GUI) in Arc View for visualizing,
performing, standardizing, and sharing GIS operations and capturing the complete data flow. The
article begins by showing the system design and resulting icons for representing vector data
objects (i.e., points, lines, and polygons). Then, the article describes the system design objects
and resulting icons used to represent vector overlay operations. Two classes of overlay
operations are identified: those involving a single vector object (reselect and buffer) and those
involving multiple vector objects (erase, update, identify, intersect, union, and clip). With these
building blocks presented, the article then describes the GUI that is used to manipulate both the
data objects and the operation objects. Next, the article shows and describes the resulting screen
display of the icon flow in a case study involving selection of a potential housing site based on six
geographic criteria. The article concludes with a discussion of the advantages and limitations of
the proposed approach and proposals on the direction of future research.
Tuomari, D. 1996.
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Rouge River watershed illicit sewer connection detection program: a GIS application.
Proceedings, Watersheds 96-Moving Ahead Together: Technical Conference and Exposition,
June 8-12, Baltimore, MD.
The Rouge GIS has enhanced the Illicit Connections Detection program of Wayne County
which is an intensive effort to identify and correct improper connections to stormwater sewers.
The GIS contains an illicit connection application, which is a computer-automated technique for
prioritizing priority drainage areas and sites for field investigations. The GIS has made the
program more efficient by reducing planning and research time before going into the field. The
program has also become more effective because the whole watershed is now being evaluated. A
total of 573 illicit connections were found.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1993.
Geographic targeting: selected state examples.
U.S. EPA, Office of Water, EPA-841-B-93-001.
This Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and Watersheds (OWOW) report describes geographic
targeting at the watershed level and includes several state highlights for ranking and targeting
approaches. Much of the information is based on information from the Clean Water Act 305(b)
reports and its use of indexes and beneficial use designations. It also contains a chapter entitled
"EPA Data Sources and Targeting," which may be of interest.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1994.
Spatial integration program implementation plan.
Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and Watersheds (OWOW), Office of Water, U.S. EPA, Washington,
DC. September 1994. Direct questions to Thomas G. Dewald, mailcode 4503F.
This is the OWOW planning document for integrating GIS and spatial data analysis into
their program activities. It is a decent reference if one is to "sell" a system to management. It
contains a short, but important bibliography and the Executive Order for "Coordinating
Geographic Data Acquisition and Access: The National Spatial Data Infrastructure."
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1994.
GIS/Key™ environmental data management system: innovative technology evaluation.
EPA Report No. 540/R-94/505, March, 151 pages.
As part of the Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation program, the GIS/Key™
Environmental Data Management System has been developed to manage the myriad chemical,
geological, and hydrogeological data at Superfund sites. The system has been evaluated in the
following areas: setup, map management, data entry, data queries, contouring, calculations,
products, hardware configuration, project planning, training, and documentation and support
services. GIS/Key™ is a custom-developed software system that uses several commercial
off-the-shelf products to produce a variety of site-specific tables, graphs, and maps to facilitate
collection, reporting, and analysis of site-management data. The products available from the
system include boring logs, structure maps, geologic cross-sections, isopleth maps, chemistry and
hydrology graphs, and tabular reports. An overview is presented of the various functions of the
data-management system, which has been shown to effectively manage the necessary data with a
high quality and relatively low cost.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1995.
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Acid deposition standard feasibility study report to congress.
EPA Report No. 430-R-95-D019, October.
Many parts of this study have information relative to GIS. It includes an analysis of areas
of influence on sensitive receptors using gridded model output and scenario variation. The
Eastern United States is segmented into irregular polygons based on analysis of source attribution
and similarity of emissions patterns and source meteorology.
van Hoef, JM; Cressie, NAC; Glenn-Lewin, DC. 1993.
Spatial models for spatial statistics: some unification.
JVegSci 4:441-452.
The authors relate the spatial statistical methods of Nested ANOVA, Two-Term Local
Variance (TTLV), and Paired Quadrant Variance (PQV) through the common element of a
variogram. Nested ANOVA and TTLV can estimate an aggregated variogram, and PQV is a
variogram estimator. Because of possible correlations between nearby quadrats, Nested ANOVA
is likely to be inappropriate for testing hypotheses. This is because Nested ANOVA models
spatial heterogeneity as variation in nested blocks of deterministic mean structure, and assumes
independent residuals. In contrast, variograms model spatial heterogeneity has autocorrelated
random error with a constant mean structure. Even though most of the proofs were above this
reviewer's level of knowledge, it is helpful to know that the variogram can be used to tie together
these different tests.
van Oosterom, P; Vijlbrief, T. 1997.
The spatial location code.
In: Kraak, M; Molenaar,M; Fendel, E, eds. Advances in GIS research. Proceedings, Seventh
International Symposium on Spatial Data Handling. London: Taylor & Francis, pp. 101-117.
This article describes a database indexing system (known as Spatial Location Codes) for
GIS objects that is claimed to provide the capability of approximating both the location and extent
of objects by a single code. To provide these capabilities, the system combines features of
quadtrees, Morton codes, and field trees. The latter is an indexing system consisting of several
levels of grids, each with a distinct resolution and displacement. Field trees offer the advantage of
storing polygons and polylines in a nonfragmented manner. Objects are stored in the smallest field
(grid cell) in which they fit and, because of the use of different resolutions and grid sizes, objects
never have to be stored more than three field levels above the resolution level in which they fit.
The article gives a summary of the basics of quadtrees, Morton numbers, and field trees. It then
describes the concepts and coding employed in Spatial Location Codes, including advantages and
disadvantages. It concludes with a description of two benchmark tests comparing the retrieval
speed with and without Spatial Location Coding. Directions of future research are indicated.
van Smallen, JWN. 1997.
A hierarchic rule model for geographic information abstraction.
In: Kraak, M; Molenaar, M; Fendel, E, eds. Advances in GIS research. Proceedings, Seventh
International Symposium on Spatial Data Handling. London: Taylor & Francis, pp. 215-225.
This article addresses the problem of structuring geographic data so that they are most
useful to the user, particularly at the desired level of detail. The article presents a model for
geographic information abstraction, described as a "pre-stage to graphic generalization," a
process for creating datasets that are best suited to the particular spatial analysis to be performed.
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The model is designed to handle thematic and topological data. A hierarchy of object classes is
first defined to represent terrain features. Relationships (e.g., "is-a" and "part-of' relations) are
then assigned to the different classes, which are used to create superclasses and supersets. Then,
a set of abstraction rules (e.g., generalization, aggregation, and selection within a class) are
presented, which are used to create the datasets at the desired level of detail. The system relies on
the input of an "expert user" who participates in a two-phase process: a definition phase and a
generalization phase that implements the abstraction process.
van Stokkom, H; Stokman, G; Hovenier, JW. 1993.
Quantitative use of passive optical remote sensing over coastal and inland water bodies.
Inter JRemote Sensing 14(3):541-563.
Adequate water quality management requires information on actual concentrations, spatial
distribution, and temporal variations of water constituents. Using passive remote sensing,
synoptic information on a limited number of water parameters can regularly be obtained.
Monitoring purposes and the study of the functioning of the aquatic ecosystem require
quantitative processing and analysis rather than visual interpretation of remote sensing imagery.
The quantitative use of remote sensing over water bodies is hampered by insufficient
understanding of the physical mechanisms involved and by technical limitations of the instruments
used. Items that play an important role in this respect are connected to the object characteristics,
the geometry of the sun, object and sensor, the atmosphere, the remote sensing instruments, and
the data processing involved. These items are critically assessed successively. Practical solutions
and recommendations concerning implementation of remote sensing in operational water
management practice are given.
Vantuono, WC. 1995.
Mapping new roles for GIS.
Railw Age 196(3):45-49.
The GIS, which combines spatial data with tabular data to produce visual results, is
finding new applications in railroad transport. In this application, data can be integrated from
many different functional areas. GIS can be used for asset management, maintenance planning,
stock maintenance, marketing and customer service, emergency planning, capital resources
management, and traffic planning. Customized GIS applications are in development for six major
railways, and others are considering applications. Although GIS software was first developed 15
years ago, it has only recently become cost effective for large-scale railway use.
Varekamp, C; Skidmore, AK; Burrough, P. 1996.
Using public domain geostatistical and GIS software for spatial interpolation.
Photogrammetric Eng & Remote Sensing 62(7):845-854.
The purpose of this study was to (1) identify suitable public domain software for
geostatistical (and GIS) analysis, (2) link these separate geostatistical and GIS programs into a
system for spatial interpolation, (3) test the system with a case study, and (4) highlight how the
system is useful for GIS analysts. The authors describe how they have linked a set of publicly
available subprogram components developed by different geostatistical and GIS packages into a
system in order to convert point data into maps that can be used in GIS. They provide detailed
descriptions of what programs they used and how they linked them to perform exploratory data
analysis, parameterization, validation, and interpolation and display. They described how they
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tested this interpolation system to map forest soils at Nullica State Forest in Australia. In doing
this test, they selected several soil variables and described how they accomplished each of the four
steps of exploratory data analysis, parameterization, validation, and interpolation and display.
Vester, C; Toutin, T. 1996.
RADARS AT in stereo: a training tool kit.
Internal Report, Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, p. 119 (abstract only)
This is a description of a training package designed to demonstrate the use of stereoscopy
with respect to RADARS AT data. RADARSAT is Canada's first Earth observation satellite. It
has the ability to provide images of any of the Earth's surface, in any climates, and at any time
(night and day).
Vine, MF; Degnan, D; Hanchette, C. 1997.
Geographic information systems: Their use in epidemiologic research.
Environ Health Perspect 105:598-605.
This paper provides an overview of GIS capabilities and their application to epidemiology.
The authors review a few examples of GIS being used in epidemiological studies (the Guthe
article above is one). They also focus on the geocoding function and cite some of the technical
issues that came up in their North Carolina study. The authors investigate whether residents
living near pesticide dump sites were more likely to have evidence of immunosuppression than
residents living further away from those sites.
Wade, T; Wickham, J. 1995.
Using GIS and a graphical user interface to model land degradation.
Geo Info Sys 5(2):38-42.
GISs are increasingly being used to model arid ecosystem characteristics. This article
describes the usefulness of GIS to model the susceptibility to desertification of arid lands. The
GIS model and graphical user interface (GUI) were developed for a 100,000 km2 area in the
Colorado Plateau Region in southeastern Utah. The GIS model is packaged as a GUI that allows
land managers and other scientists not necessarily familiar with GIS technology to create different
environmental scenarios and displays the outcomes on a computer screen for comparison. Using
spatially explicit data in a GIS allows scientists and land managers to easily import and display
indicator data, create synthetic maps of susceptibility to desertification, and compare results based
on simulating change in environmental conditions.
Walker, D; Black, RA; Linn, JK; Thomas, AJ; Wiseman, R; D'Attilio, MG. 1996.
Development of geographic information systems-oriented databases for integrated geological and
geophysical applications.
GSA Today 6(3): 1-7.
This article discusses the use of GIS to analyze large data sets to present surface
geological information (geologic maps), which if entered with geologic contact, rock unit, and
structural measurement, produces a data set useful for a variety of applications for a variety of
people.
Warwick, JJ; Haness, SJ. 1994.
Efficacy of ARC/INFO GIS application to hydrologic modeling.
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J Water Resources Plan Manage 120(3):366-381.
This study used a hypothetical watershed and GIS to provide spatial data input to the
Corps of Engineers model HEC-1. The GIS performed the tedious tasks well and time-efficiently;
these included spatial averaging functions such as basin areas, and average runoff curve numbers.
Using a Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN) to assess average rainfall intensities was marked
with inaccuracies, however. The analysis of these problems showed that the density of contouring
intervals was proportionately related to the degree of estimation error. The highest density of
contouring intervals enabled a less than 1 percent overestimation. The number and location of
rainfall gauges also imparted error to the average rainfall estimation.
Watson, APR; Barker, S; Ardern, KD. 1995.
Initial investigation into the potential link between air pollution and asthma using geographical
information system based technique.
Proceedings, Air Pollution Engineering and Management, International Conference on Air
Pollution, Vol. 2, pp. 447-454.
A GIS was used to compare the distribution of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) with a zip-code
distribution of emergency asthma hospital admissions. There was a significant correlation
between adult asthma admissions and traffic-sourced NO2. The combination of air quality
monitoring with epidemiological studies within a GIS demonstrated that this tool could be used
for rapid public health monitoring.
Weisman, A. 1994.
Journey through a doomed land: exploring Chernobyl's still-deadly ruins.
Harper's Magazine, August, pp. 45-53.
On May 27, 1994, the government of Ukraine reversed its decision to close down
Chernobyl's two remaining active nuclear reactors. Defying pressure from anxious European
neighbors, the newly formed republic resolved that its wrecked economy and urgent need for
electricity compelled it to operate the plants indefinitely, despite the risk of further damage. In the
8 years since history's worst nuclear accident, thousands of new safety violations have been
reported at Chernobyl. Despite the presence of excessive levels of radiation in the landscape, both
Ukraine and Russia intend to build more nuclear reactors. Although hundreds of families were
evacuated from the most radioactive villages, it has been impossible to relocate several million.
This article discusses the development of a GIS program to create a multilayered computer
rendering of the landscape around Chernobyl in order to locate and assess hot spots of radioactive
accumulation, and determine which crops would be best to grow and how soil could be treated to
minimize transfer of radiation to humans.
Werner, RJ. 1997.
Toxic releases and demography in Minneapolis/St. Paul: a GIS exploration.
Proceedings, ESRIInternational User Conference, San Diego, CA, July 8-11. (www.esri.com)..
This study compared race, age, and income in areas near and far from toxic releases in the
Twin Cities metropolitan area. They were using Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) data gathered by
the EPA on industrial facilities. The author describes having to correct for locational accuracy in
the TRI data and the need for analyzing the data using different sizes of buffers around the TRI
sites. The author notes: "if results were similar for different buffer distances, one might have
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more confidence in the results." This is a good example of a thoughtful evaluation of data. The
study found that minorities and low-income people are closer to toxic releases.
Werner, R; Hedlund, C. 1995.
Putting children first: St. Paul uses GIS to prioritize lead pipe replacement.
Geo Info Sys 5(10):44-47.
This article describes how GIS is used to study the relation between lead service pipes
(which are used to transport drinking water) and the number of children less than 5 years old in
St. Paul, Minnesota. The purpose is to maximize the reduction of lead exposure to children by
prioritizing pipe replacement.
West, E; Ban, L. 1994.
Elk habitat analysis in the Kansas prairie.
GIS/LIS, pp. 818-824.
Elk successfully transplanted to the Cameron National Grassland in Kansas were studied
using 1990-1992 radio telemetry and a GIS to determine their prairie habitat preferences. The
results can be used to maintain a healthy grassland elk population, protect elk habitat, and
integrate competing human land uses with elk habitat. This project is supported by the Rocky
Mountain Elk Foundation, the Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks, and the USD A Forest
Service.
Westort, C. 1997.
Generalized operators for sculpting digital topographic surfaces.
In: Kraak, M; Molenaar, M; Fendel, E, eds. Advances in GIS research. Proceedings, Seventh
International Symposium on Spatial Data Handling. London: Taylor & Francis, pp. 491 504.
This article addresses the need to develop a set of active tools for manipulating the
geometry of digital topographical surfaces at a regional rather than a "local" (i.e., single vertex) or
"global" (i.e., the entire topographic data set) level. The article begins with a survey of nondigital
and digital surface manipulation methods that have been generally used. Nondigital methods
include sculpting, contour line manipulation, model-making, and the various actions of
agricultural and gardening tools (e.g., piling, digging, filling, leveling, roughening, and
smoothing). Digital methods include filtering, masking, manipulation of contour lines, revolving,
translating, and reseating. Based on these surveys, the author proposes a generalized surface
manipulation toolset for regional geometric control. The toolset consists of four component
parts: (1) sculpting operators, (2) library of topographic geometric forms, (3) dynamic operators,
and (4) generic CAD functionality.
Wettstein, C; Cohen, W. 1995.
High resolution digital imagery applied to ecosystem management.
Geo Info Sys 5(6):24-25.
The Siuslaw National Forest in western Oregon was once abundant in old-growth
vegetation and provided habitats for many species. A combination of catastrophic fires in the mid
1800s and intensive timber harvest during the past several decades has reduced and fragmented
the older forest habitats. In an effort to protect and restore ecosystem health in the Northwest,
while also minimizing negative economic impacts to timber-dependent communities, the U.S.
Forest Service is using airborne and satellite imagery to provide information for watershed
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analysis and to conduct ecological assessments. The project goal is to identify opportunities to
improve endangered species habitats by returning as much of the forest to its natural range of
habitat conditions as possible. After the assessment is complete, projects to improve and enhance
fish and other threatened wildlife habitats will be proposed. The long-range goal is to allow the
forest to return to its natural conditions, while still providing sustainable levels of commodity
outputs.
Wickham, JD, et al. 1996.
Landscape 'contagion' in raster and vector environments.
Int J Geo Info Sys 10:891-899.
The landscape contagion (LC) is a quantitative index of spatial pattern used by landscape
ecologists to estimate the tendency of patches in a land cover map to cluster. Calculation of LC is
a three-step process. First, the pixel edges of a raster land-cover map (LANDSAT data classified
for land cover) are scanned and classified according to the land-cover types they separate. This
classification is commonly labeled as edges of type ij, where i and j are the land-cover categories.
The number of possible type combinations is equal to t2, where t is the number of land-cover
types, and assumes that edge type ij is different from edge type ji. Classification of edge types is
represented as a square matrix (Ay), where rows and columns of the matrix are the land-cover
types. Ay is also known as a co-occurrence matrix or adjacency matrix. The second step is to fill
the matrix with the proportions that each edge type contributes to the total sum of pixel edges in
the land-cover map. Third, the LC is often calculated with a Shannon or entropy type indicator:
Shannon = (-££AylnAy)/2*ln*t. The denominator is the maximum possible value of the
numerator when all edge types have equal proportions. The equation expresses the ratio of actual
to possible value for a given number of cover types in a map. The Shannon number ranges
between 0 and 1. Small values indicate that the land-cover types in the map are clustered into a
few, large patches. The purpose of the paper was to show how a contagion metric could be
calculated in a vector environment, and how the value differs between raster and vector
calculations. The authors found that the standard contagion metrics could not be applied to a
vector environment. For the vector environment, measures comparable to contagion will need to
come from other related measurements such as patch size or number of patches. This
complicated paper would be easier to understand if actual data were presented. Keywords:
ARC/INFO, ARC AML, AAT, PAT
Wickham, JD; Norton, DJ. 1994.
Mapping and analyzing landscape pattern.
Landscape Ecol 9:7-23.
The authors propose a method for identifying and classifying areas with heterogeneous
land-cover types (Landscape Pattern Types or LPTs). Each LPT consists of up to three land-
cover types in roughly equal percentages (mosaics) or disparate percentages (matrix and patch).
The accuracy of the method was assessed by comparing LPTs determined by two analysts with
each other and with GIS-calculated LPTs based on LUDA. Similarity was 75 percent between
the two interpreters and 62 percent between the interpreters and the LUDA LPTs. The greatest
errors occurred in LPTs with a residential or urban mix. Disagreement was also attributed to the
15-year difference in comparison data sets. The utility of LPTs was shown by using the technique
to analyze questions, for example, about how road densities increase and stream densities
decrease with increasing urbanization. These questions were analyzed using GIS overlays. In
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addition, the authors compared distributions of LPTs and land-cover types across ecoregions.
The analysis showed that additional information on spatial distribution of forests, for example, is
provided by LPTs.
Wilke, T. 1991.
Computer software for displaying map projections and comparing distortions.
JGeo 90:264-266.
This article discussed different software packages that can be used to teach geography
students about map projections. Although this reviewer has no immediate use for such software
packages, it is interesting to note that the whole topic of map projections must be confusing to
other people too, because otherwise there would not be the need for these types of products.
Wilkening, CR.; Johnson, LE.; Herr, J. 1994.
Using a GIS to develop input for 2-dimensional unsteady hydraulic models.
Proceedings, Effects of human-induced changes on hydrolic systems symposium. Annual
Symposium of American Water Resources Association (AWRA), June 26-29, Jackson Hole, WY,
pp. 83-92. Published by AWRA.
Input to two-dimensional hydraulic models is often time-consuming. The USGS Diffusion
Hydrodynamic Model, which calculates downstream hydrography based on equations of unsteady
flow, is detailed and applied to a reach of Cherry Creek in Denver, CO. The input data are derived
from GIS software used to develop a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of the reach using USGS
TopoSO files. The development of the DEM is detailed. The outflows and water-surface
elevations computed by the Diffusion Hydrodynamic Model are shown to provide the necessary
data to determine the limits, attenuation, and timing of a flood wave as it moves downstream.
Wilson, JD. 1996.
CAD/GIS convergence creating the next generation GIS.
GIS World. May, http://www.geoplace.com/print/gw/1996/0596/0596feat.html.
The article describes how CAD and GIS technologies continue to overlap and intertwine,
which has caused software companies to develop new software that brings geographic
functionality to CAD packages. The common features of the new products include: out-of-the-
box functionality, desktop access and convenience, low cost, and object-oriented environment.
The article provides an overview of companies and their products that are at the forefront of the
CAD/GIS convergence movement, including Autodesk, Bentley Systems, ESRI, and Intergraph.
Wilson, JD. 1997.
GIS goes global.
GIS World 10(10):36.
This article looks at GIS usage throughout the world, in Asia, Europe, and the United
States. The article touches on the need for data standards and making data more accessible. One
problem in Europe is that data are expensive to obtain. Barriers to the application of GIS
technology in Vietnam are discussed.
Wilson, JD. 1997.
Technology partnerships spark the industry.
GIS World 16(4):36.
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This article describes some of the alliances being formed between companies (such as
ESRI and IBM) to extend functionality beyond traditional GIS domains. There is a focus on
customer needs and the need to apply GIS solutions across an enterprise, utilizing a variety of
databases. The article mentions SHL VISION* Solutions, which maintains relationships with
"best-of-class" vendors of data stores, CAD, and development tools. This same company was
mentioned in the Prior and Wong article (see above) as putting together a GIS solution for the
regional municipalities of Ottawa. The author describes how GIS software is being worked into
other areas of business.
Wong, KM; Strecker, E; Stenstrom, MK. 1997.
A picture worth more than 1,000 words: geographical information system provides fine detail for
nonpoint source model.
Water Environ Technol 9(1): 41 46.
A team from the University of California at Los Angeles combined an empirical urban
runoff model with a GIS to identify catchments and estimate pollutant loadings from nonpoint
sources to the Santa Monica Bay. Los Angeles City and County uses information from this model
to determine types of Best Management Practices (BMPs) and where they should be located for
the best effect. The City and County also uses the model to determine the effects of land-use
changes within the study area.
Wood, WB.; Smith, DG 1997.
Mapping war crimes: GIS analyzed ethnic cleansing practices in Bosnia.
GIS World 10(9):56-58.
When the available data are reliable, a GIS can be used to demonstrate populations of an
area, such as Bosnia, before and after "cleansing" has occurred. Data layers, consisting of
numbers of dead and missing, and locations of destroyed cultural institutions, concentration
camps, and mass graves, can be spatially and temporally linked to identify and monitor war crime
activities. A prototype Bosnia war crimes GIS was created using Arc View and datafiles from a
variety of sources were described.
Wood, WB; Smith, DG. 1997.
Weave maps across the web.
GIS World 10(9):46-48.
This article describes how GIS is used to analyze ethnic cleansing in Bosnia. GIS can
demonstrate the intent and design of ethnic cleansing, showing the population compositions of an
area before and after cleansing has occurred. The numbers of dead and missing from genocidal
action; the location of destroyed cultural institutions, concentration camps, and mass graves; and
the areal extent of effective control by a military force. The National Committee of the Red Cross
has long been a respected neutral support for POWs. In Bosnia, it took on the task of compiling a
database of mission people using Arc View and building from data layers provided by several
distinct independent sources. In 1993, the UN Security Council mandated creation of an
International Criminal Tribunal for CITY, but was frustrated by the lack of cooperation by the
parties involved. For GIS, they used (1) the ethnic population distribution from the Yugoslavia
1991 census, (2) a list compiled by CITY of damaged or destroyed religious sites, (3) ICRC
(International Committee of the Red Cross) database on missing persons, (4) control zones
provided by UN forces, (5) ARC/INFO coverages of the region's international and internal first-
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order administrative boundaries, as well as the interentity boundary line agreed to at the
November 1995 Dayton Peace Accords. None of the databases was created with GIS in mind;
e.g., place names of religious sites had to be individually located on the xy coordinate system.
Considered by authors to be a novel application, GIS-based human rights monitoring is a critical
need in a world beset by violent ethnic conflict.
Wright, D. 1996.
Rumblings on the ocean floor: GIS supports deep-sea research.
Geo Info Sys 6(l):22-29.
This article describes the pioneering use of a GIS aboard the Atlantis II deep-sea
oceanographic research vessel, in concert with the Alvin diving submersible vehicle, to explore
and map sites along a sea floor-spreading center in the Pacific Ocean and Washington coastline.
Alvin was used to carry out extensive, integrated sampling features that were discovered and
mapped on previous expeditions to the study area. GIS equipment aboard Atlantis II helped
oceanographers manage and interpret data gathered by Alvin. By using GIS to provide detailed
and accurate predive maps of important hydrothermal and geological features, Alvin's time on the
ocean floor could be managed for optimum productivity. GIS operations were also valuable after
the dive in providing maps of dive tracklines and sample locations in relation to geological
features, and in assessing their navigational accuracy.
Wu, S; Walker, DJ; Brusven, MA. 1996.
Economic and environmental impacts of planting flexibility and conservation compliance in the
1990 farm bill.
Proceedings, Erosion control technology. . . bringing it home, International Erosion Control
Association, Conference XXVII, Feb 27-Mar 1, Seattle, WA, pp. 273-289.
A GIS linked with optimization/policy and physical simulation models was used to
evaluate 1990 Farm Bill commodity program policies in improving soil conservation. The tool
was used to evaluate planting flexibility and erosion limit/reduced tillage alternatives for a highly
erodible watershed in Idaho.
Wysession, ME; Fischer, KM; Clarke, TJ; Al-eqabi, GI; et al. 1996.
Slicing into the Earth.
EOS, 77(48):477-482.
This article discusses the deployment of portable broadband seismometers to map the deep
earth structures through the Missouri-Massachusetts (MOMA) project.
Young, RD; Dahl, TE. 1994.
Use of GIS in assessing areas of rapid wetland change.
GIS/LIS, pp. 851-859.
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services National Wetlands Inventory is using national
coverages in ARC/INFO to identify counties where wetland losses may be occurring faster than
the national average. This process relies extensively on temporal color infrared aerial
photographs. Once identified, the areas are prioritized for further investigation work based on
wetland occurrence and resource priorities. This is an improvement over past methods in being
more timely, more efficient, and less subjective.
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Young, RH; Green, DR; Cousins, SH. 1993.
Landscape ecology and Geographic Information Systems.
Taylor and Francis, New York, NY, 296 pp. ISSN 0-7484-0002-8.
The chapters in this book present a series of papers broken into sections describing aspects
of the interface between GIS and landscape ecology. The book shows that spatial studies of
ecology and environment require tools capable of handling and analyzing spatial data. It is a
useful reference because it offers insight on applications of GIS in landscape ecology and
describes pitfalls and problems.
Yulsman, T. 1996.
The seafloor laid bare.
Earth: 5(3):42-51.
This is an extended article on the use of GIS with the Geosat satellite to map in greater
detail than ever before the topography of the ocean floor, which took $80 million and 18 months.
Zapletal, M. 1994.
Use of geographical information systems for spatial modelling of the sulphur dioxide gas
deposition on the territory of the Czech Republic.
EGIS, pp. 233-242.
This project was one of the Czech Republic's efforts under the UN ECE program of
mapping critical pollutant loads and levels. Atmospheric deposition rates were related to land-
use types and meteorology. Covering 882 10x10 km grids, maps were made of SO2
concentration and deposition classified into 9 categories across the Czech Republic.
Zhang, Y. 1997.
Adaptive ordered dither.
Graphical Models Image Process 59(1): 49-5:3.
This article describes a new ordered dithering method-adaptive ordered dither-that does
half-toning by using a space-filling curve to perform an adaptive variation of the cluster size. In
the new method, dithering thresholds are assigned to the pixels of the image under half-toning by
subdividing a space-filling curve over the image into segments, making it possible to produce
images with clustered dot patterns efficiently. A 256 x 256 real image of a boat scene was used to
demonstrate the performance of the new method.
Zhang, Z; Dossey, T; Weissmann, J; Hudson, WR. 1994.
Urban GIS integrates paving and infrastructure management.
Better Roads 64(ll):33-35.
Researchers at the University of Texas, Austin, are investigating the potential use of GISs
for urban roadway and infrastructure management systems. As part of these efforts, a conceptual
evaluation of GIS technology was conducted. Different GIS software packages were compared.
A pilot application was then developed based on digital geographic information for an urban area.
The GIS approach comes at a time when the prices for personal computers and software are
declining significantly, making GIS systems economically attractive. The benefits and drawbacks
of various platforms and GIS packages are discussed. The design of a GIS for urban roadway
management is detailed.
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Zhang, R; Hammerlinck, JD; Gloss, SP; Munn, L. 1996.
Determination of nonpoint-source pollution using GIS and numerical models.
J Environ Qual 25(3):411-418.
GIS methods were compared with numerical modeling methods in assessing ground-water
contamination sensitivity. The method was a modified DRASTIC (Dr = depth to ground-water
table rating; Rr = net recharge rating, Ar = aquifer rating, Sr = soil media rating, Tr = topography
rating, Ir = impact of vadose zone, O = aquifer hydraulic conductivity rating). The site selected
was Goshen County, Wyoming. Base maps were developed using GIS, describing the sensitivity
of ground water to pollutants; numeric simulations were used to model flow and chemical
transport in the vadose zone; ground-water sensitivity indexes were developed from the
simulation results and compared with the map results. Parameters included depth to ground
water, net recharge, hydrogeologic units, vadose zone soil properties, land surface slope, and
saturated hydraulic conductivity (aquifer). Results from both methods were comparable, with
excellent agreement in high sensitivity areas.
Zhang, R; Hamerlinch, J; Gloss, S; Munn, L. 1996.
Determination of nonpoint-source pollution using GIS and numerical models.
J Environ Qual 25:411-418.
A GIS was developed using environmental characteristics that affect contaminant
transport. Sensitivity ratings were assigned to each of these characteristics. Ground-water
sensitivity indices were compared with the resulting GIS map to verify the map's reliability. The
two methods both generally agreed in their ratings. The authors concluded that GIS is an efficient
method for large-area mapping, but that numerical modeling is better for detailed and site-specific
results of water flow and solute transport. However, the authors are working on developing
reliable rating functions to be used in the GIS.
Zucker, LA; White, DA. 1996.
Spatial modeling of aquatic biocriteria relative to riparian and upland characteristics.
Proceedings, Watersheds 96-Moving ahead together: Techical and Exposition Conference, June
8-12, Baltimore, MD, pp. 571-574.
The objectives of the study are to (1) determine patterns of riparian conditions that are
beneficial for instream biological integrity, (2) characterize watershed stressor and modifier
components in a digital GIS, and (3) determine the significance of impacts from upland stressors
relative to characteristics of riparian modifiers. A predictive model of the relationship between
riparian and upland characteristics and biotic integrity was built using ordinary least-squares
regression. The extent and width of each riparian cover type was recorded for patches of
vegetation observed on 1:40,000 air photos of the Big Darby Creek Basin. The success of the
spatial model indicates that riparian conditions can modify and buffer the impacts of stressors
across the watershed.
Zybach, B; Barrington, M; Downey, T. 1995.
Converting historical information to GIS, political boundaries of the Douglas Fir region, 1788-
1995.
J Forestry 93(5): 15-20.
Combining GIS products and research of historical records, the authors were able to
describe the political boundary settings in the west coast Douglas Fir region in 1788.
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REFERENCES HAVING ONLY INTERNET ADDRESSES
Conterminous U.S. land cover characteristics data set: 1990 prototype.
http://www.lib.noaa.gOv/uhtbin/cgisirsi/190/9
This article describes the acquisition of the distinct land cover regions using the NOAA
AVHRR satellite imagery. It can be used as a base cover, with its final 159 land-cover regions
processed through several steps. These final steps include using ancillary data sets and statistical
and visualization tools. Discussed are the raster data and the map projection, spatial resolution 1-
km), composite images derived from Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), and
inclusion of attribute tables and thematic data sets developed as part of the process. Data come
on CD-ROM and list directory tree structure. This data set could complement higher resolution
imagery such as LANDSAT and SPOT.
GIS development in the hazardous waste geology section.
Office of Solid and Hazardous Waste Management, Indiana Department of Environmental
Management.
http://www.esri.com/librarv/userconf/proc97/PROC97/T0400/PAP381/P381 .htm
GIS and GPS are used in this heavy industrial area to document cleanup efforts for an
integrated steel mill and a closed hazardous waste landfill. However, the study has identified
many unique, undisturbed areas, on which GIS can display the physical and spatial relationships
between the regulated and unregulated entities. The study used first the combined digital data
sets of others. Interest in GIS has spread rapidly across all the state agencies.
Library of Congress adds more than a touch of history to GIS.
Government Computer News, June 10, 1996. (Visit the website to order back issues.)
http ://www. gen, com
This article is about digitizing many of the nation's historical maps and the contributions
that several companies have made to make the National Digital Library a reality. It states that one
of the most important aspects of GIS is the study of change, with the 5 million items in the
library's various collections a rich source. The library plans to digitize 80,000 maps in 5 years!
The map collection has 4.5 million maps and 60,000 atlases, some of which are 500 years old.
The goal is to store this historical information in electronic format, add layers of information with
which to study any environmental or urban change, and place this information on the World Wide
Web.
Transportation has both hands on GIS wheel.
Government Computer News, June 10, 1996. (Visit the website to order back issues.)
http ://www. gen, com
The Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 (ISTEA) spurred
numerous GIS efforts in the Bureau of Transportation Statistics (Department of Transportation
[DOT]). The website can be found at http://www.bts.gov. BTS has expanded the effort to
handle DOT's spatial databases in its Center to support consolidation of its regional offices and to
address national transportation emergencies. The system uses two GIS software packages:
ARC/INFO to develop high-quality maps and TransCAD (Caliper Corp.) for transportation
analysis in quick response situations. The Center has a plotter to plot maps up to 34 x 44 inches
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(HP DesignJet 650C). There are six different categories on the website, one being a GIS services
page that includes National Transportation Atlas, GIS-T Links (TIGER data, FGDC, etc.),
Conferences and Workshops, GIS-T Newsgroup, GIS-T Reference Library, and FGDC Ground
Transportation Subcommittee. The Center plans to develop more map and spatial data products
for the general public and place it on the website.
EPA cleans up its data to support a healthy environment.
Government Computer News, June 10, 1996. (Visit the website to order back issues.)
http ://www. gen, com
EPA's Andy Battin, national GIS program manager, quotes political guru, James
Carville-"It's the data, stupid"-to describe EPA's task to not only have data for its 700,000
facilities, but to make sure the data are accurate. A main task for the national office is to populate
the EPA Environmental Spatial Data Library (ESDL), which is based on the Census Bureau
TIGER data set. The data set is at the Washington Information Center (WIC) and is the sum total
of EPA's nationally integrated spatial databases. Regional versions are replicated in the 10 EPA
regional offices. ESDL also contains boundary data for the National Priority List (NPL) and the
relational database (Oracle) containing other EPA databases. A second task is to ensure accurate
data using the "key identifier project" to better define locational data and other environmental
data. EPA works with several groups to expand use of accuracy codes and place information on
its website.
Geospatial tools added to Earth vision.
Government Computer News, July 8, 1996. (Visit the website to order back issues.)
http ://www. gen, com
The short article describes a geospatial analysis tool (Dynamic Graphics, Inc. Alameda,
CA) that can create shaded three-dimensional graphics, and also can build base and contour maps,
cross-sections, and fence diagrams. This tool could lend itself to three-dimensional visualization
of hazardous waste sites and well profiles for geospatial analysis.
CAD software.
Government Computer News, July 8, 1996. (Visit the website to order back issues.)
http ://www. gen, com
This general article about CAD lists systems under $2000 that can be used by many
different professions, including enforcement officers, who are using it to plot crime scenes. It's
not just for engineers and architects anymore!
Digital maps keep the pace.
Government Computer News, July 8, 1996. (Visit the website to order back issues.)
http ://www. gen, com
An interesting article on how the Army and the Defense Mapping Agency used digital
(terrain) elevation data to produce maps for the Dayton Accords to set the boundaries of the
countries of the Croat, Bosnian and Serb negotiators. The software (PowerScene, McLean, VA)
combined digital elevation data with satellite imagery to create a three-dimensional landscape.
The highly classified information showed exact locations of houses, bridges, and road
intersections. The team also used GIS (Erdas, Inc.) to calculate the changes in the percentage of
land allocated to each party after each revision of the boundaries. The three Balkan presidents
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were up until 6 am on the morning after the Accord was announced by President Clinton,
checking particularly sensitive spots on the boundaries.
ESRI ARC NEWS. 1996.
ARC NEWS 18(3). For reprint information go to www.esri.com.
Numerous articles on the applications of GIS to police departments, BLM at Glen Canyon
dam, investigation of the ValuJet flight 592 in Florida, GIS projects in the inner city of downtown
Detroit, firefighting in Alaska by providing maps to assess the fire's path, public service uses in
Anaheim, CA, to bring all the data sources under GIS, soils mapping for USGS, displaying data
on leukemia in Sweden as a result of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant accident and restoration
and renovation work in Greece and Jordan.
TV digital maps aid news presentations, 1996.
Business Geographies 4(8). For reprint information go to www.gisworld.com.
This article describes how important maps are to tell people where something is
happening and not just tell a story. In particular, it talks about the use of maps in news reporting
and covering the weather.
Capture digital imagery for your GIS.
GIS World, September 1996. For reprint information go to www.gisworld.com.
Three ways of obtaining digital imagery for use in GIS applications are discussed and
compared. Grabbing frames from a video camera was judged superior to use of a 35mm camera
and digital camera in this comparison based on cost and image quality.
EOSATNotes 11(1) Spring/Summer 1996. Available on the internet at
http://www.spaceimage.com/home/pubs/notes/vol 1 Inol/index.html.
Articles summarize the Indian Remote Sensing (IRA) program, which the Foreign
Agricultural Service (FAS) of the USDA uses as a supplement to its LANDSAT and other data.
FAAS has used remote sensing data since 1978 to report on global agricultural commodity
production.
Potomac News, Friday, November 29, 1996. For article information, contact the newspaper at
www. potomacnews. com.
This local newspaper article explains how the local bus service will use a software
program (Intelligent Transportation System) to reroute buses to off-routes when a passenger
requests a ride and to advise operators on the location of buses that are traveling at any time.
Even though the software has problems, the system should be able to check each bus schedule,
current load, and timeliness. The system will use GPS, which will eliminate the need for on-street
time checks. A study found that 7 percent of county residents use the system and that 17,000
people have used the system. The new procedures should help the system both to grow and to
save money, through eliminating the on-call system for ridership now in use.
You are...where, exactly?
Potomac News, Sunday, November 17, 1996. For article information, contact the newspaper at
www. potomacnews. com.
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This article is on the local firm of Larry N. Scartz which uses GPS technology to map out
Prince William County. Use of the 24 satellites from the "cold-war defense technology" and the
decrease in cost for the systems has put this company at the forefront of mapping. The firm has
worked in Oregon to set navigation points for a small airport, in North Carolina to record precise
locations and elevations of beachfront homes wiped out by Hurricane Fran, and to plot
coordinates at Dulles Airport. That project recorded 40 points (over 1 week) that were accurate
to 1 millimeter. Other work was to plot sewer lines and values in a GIS format.
News briefs: EPA announces $2 million in grants for various lead-related projects. 1996.
Asbestos and lead abatement report. October 7, 1996, Vol. 9, No. 20). ISSN: 0893-858X.
The article reports EPA's announcement concerning Community/University Partnership
(CUP) grants. The CUP program was developed to address environmental justice issues in a
partnership between community groups and higher education institutions. The article reported the
award of $2 million to three projects, each related to lead (Pb) exposure and lead poisoning
prevention. This article was particularly interesting because it highlighted how little
communication there is within EPA between the people who work in the program offices and the
people who work in the grants office or the environmental justice program.
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GIS SOFTWARE COMPANIES
COMPANY NAME: Bowne Management Systems Inc.
Address: 235 E. Jericho Tpk.
Mineola,NY11501
Telephone: (516)746-2350
Fax/Telex: Fax(516)742-13 96
Established: 1982
SMSA Coverage: Nassau-Suffolk, NY
Description of Services: Custom design and implementation of geographic information systems
COMPANY NAME: Informed Management Environment Inc.
Also known as: Informed Management Environment
Address: Informed Management Environment
1720Bolsover St.
Houston TX 77005
Telephone: (512)522-0057
Fax/Telex: Fax(512)524-9704
Established: 1987
SMSA Coverage: Houston, TX
Description of Services: Developer of geographic information systems
COMPANY NAME: Mapping Automation Inc.
Also known as: Mapping Automation
Address: Mapping Automation Inc.
335 N. Alma School Rd., #A
TempeAZ 85224-4301
Telephone: (602)829-3090
Established: 1984
SMSA Coverage: Phoenix, AZ
Description of Services: Geographic information systems consultant
COMPANY NAME: UGC Consulting Co.
Also known as: Utility Graphics Consultants Inc.
Address: UGC Consulting Co.
6200 S. Syracuse Way
Englewood, CO 80111
Telephone: (303)773-6166
Fax/Telex: Fax(303)773-1242
Established: 1985
SMSA Coverage: Denver, CO
Description of Services: Geographic information systems consulting firm
COMPANY NAME: Mentor Software Inc.
Address: Mentor Software Inc.
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3907 E. 120th Ave., #200
Thornton, CO 80233-1600
Telephone: (303)252-9090
Fax/Telex: Fax(303)450-9859
Established: 1987
SMSA Coverage: Denver, CO
Description of Services: Developer of automated mapping and geographic information systems
software
COMPANY NAME: EIS Inc.
Address: EIS Inc.
3387 Poplar Ave., #329
Memphis, TN 38111
Telephone: (901)458-7800
Established: 1989
SMSA Coverage: Memphis, TN-AR-MS
Description of Services: Developer of custom and prepackaged geographic information systems
software
COMPANY NAME: Terra-Mar Resource Information Services Inc.
Address: Terra-Mar Resource Information Services
1927 Landings Dr.
Mountain View, CA 94043
Telephone: (415)964-6900
Fax/Telex: Fax(415)964-5430
Established: 1976
SMSA Coverage: San Jose, CA
Description of Services: Developers of customized and prepackaged software for image
processing and geographic data analysis, systems integration, and suppliers of turnkey systems
COMPANY NAME: Sidwell Co.
Also known as: The Sidwell Co.
Address: 28 W. 240 North Ave.
West Chicago, IL 60185
Mailing add: Sidwell Co.
P.O. Box 920
West Chicago, IL 60186
Telephone: (708)231-0206
Fax/Telex: Fax(708)231-8206
Description of Services: Mapping and geographic information systems services
COMPANY NAME: Sanborn Mapping and Geographic Information Services
Also known as: Sanborn Map Company Inc.
Address: Sanborn Mapping and Geographic Information Services
629 5th Ave.
Pelham,NY 10803
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Telephone: (914)738-1649
Fax/Telex: Fax(914)738-1654
Established: 1876
SMS A Coverage: New York, NY
Description of Services: Map publishing Services; Computer database developer
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