,EPA-9IO/9-76-026D
ENVIE?DNMENTAL QUALITY PROFILE 1976
•tanhrrina.1 smpplpment
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SUPPLEMENT
1976 ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY PROFILE
FOR WASHINGTON
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This report has been reviewed by EPA Region X
and is approved for publication. Approval does
not necessarily signify that the contents reflect
the views or policies of the Environmental
Protection Agency, nor does mention of trade
names or commercial products constitute endorse-
ment or recommendation for use.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
I. INTRODUCTION 1
II. AIR QUALITY PROFILE . 3
Regional Air Quality Profile 3.
Air Quality In Washington 5
Pollutants In Excess Of Health Standards 6
Severity Of Pollution 8
Pollutant Sources 10
Carbon Monoxide . 10-
Total Suspended Particulate Matter ' 12
Air Pollution Trends . 14
Near Term Outlook 16
III. WATER QUALITY.PROFILE 18
Regional Water Quality Profile 18
Water Quality In 'Washington 24
Pollution Sources 26
Suspended Solids 26
Biological Oxygen Demand 28
Total Phosphorus 30
Water Pollution Trends 33
Near Term Outlook 36
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LIST OF FIGURES
Number Page
1 Days Exceeding Health Standards
by Pollutant 7 '"
2. Days Exceeding Health Standards
by Severity 9
3 Carbon Monoxide Emissions 11
4 Point and Area Source Particulate
Emissions 13
5 Attainment Status and Trends in
Air Pollution 15
6 Mainstem Average Water Quality -
Principal Rivers in Region X 19
7 Region X"River Water Quality Status 21
8 Mainstem Average Water Quality per
River Mile - Principal Rivers
in Washington 25
9 'Point Source and Non-Point Source
Loadings - Suspended Solids 27
10 Point Source and Non-Point So'urce
Loadings - Biological Oxygen Demand 29
11 Point Source and Non-Point Source
Loadings - Total Phosphorus 31
12 Federal Criteria Violations 34
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LIST OF TABLES
Number Page
1 • Region X States - Concentrations
Exceeding Standard 3
2 Principle Cities" - Concentrations
Exceeding Standard 3
3 Auto-Related Violation Days 4
4 Threshold Pollutant Concentrations 8
5 Percent of Regional Rivers Not
Meeting Criteria 22
6 Water Quality Trends of Regional
Rivers 22
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1976 ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY PROFILE SUPPLEMENT
FOR WASHINGTON
INTRODUCTION
State, federal, and local environmental quality control agencies
maintain monitoring networks to scientifically measure the quality of
our environment. These monitoring networks are invaluable in deter-
"mining where pollution problems exist and to measure the success or
failure of abatement and* pollution prevention programs.
The Seattle Regional Office of the Environmental Protection Agency
annually evaluates all data collected by northwest pollution control
agencies and submitted to the EPA computer data storage systems. We
feel the public should be made aware of the results of these evalua-
tions. This document and similar future documents are designed to report
on the present status of northwest air and water quality, trends in that
quality, an analysis of the causes and effects of observed pollution
problems and our view of the near term outlook for solving these problems.
This report is a technical supplement to the 1976 Regional Environmental
Quality Profile and is designed to inform the reader about the general
status of the environment within the state..
The reader may find a few inconsistencies between this supplement
and the 1976 Regional Environmental Quality Profile due to the continual
profile upgrading process which includes improvement of evaluation and
presentation techniques. These changes are the result of our readers
comments and suggestions. Formulating useful and accurate indices of
environmental quality is a difficult task. Additional suggestions - for
improving the information presented in this document would be appreciated.
Please .direct your comments to the Office of the Regional Administrator,
U. S: Environmental Protection Agency, 1200 Sixth Avenue, Seattle,
Washington 98101.
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REGIONAL AIR QUALITY PROFILE
OVERVIEW
Air pollution—as pollutant concentrations in excess of those estab-
lished by National health-related air quality standards—occurs in every
State in Federal Administrative Region X. Standards for four of the most
widespread pollutants were exceeded in the State of Washington' for the
three year period ending in 1974. Alaska and Idaho exceeded standards for
two of the four. Three standards were exceeded in Oregon. Frequency of
excessive pollutant concentrations, as measured by number of violation-days,
was greatest in s'parsely populated Idaho, least in Oregon. (A violation-
day, for the purposes of this report, was established whenever a standard
was exceeded in a county. ) More serious "alert level" pollutant concen-
trations were recorded most often in Alaska, least often in Oregon.
TABLE 1 - REGION X STATES
Concentrations Exceeding Standard
Carbon Photo ' Particulate Sulfur
Monoxide Oxidants Matter Dioxide
Violation-Days
Standard Alert
Exceeded Level
Alaska
Idaho
Oregon
Washington
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
412
446
301
368
174
149
40
48
Excessive pollutant levels were concentrated in nine Region X com-
munities that together accounted for 72 percent of all violation-days and
74 percent of all alert level violation-days. The core cities of the
Region's seven standard metropolitan statistical areas were responsible
for just under half of all violation-days 'and just under two-fifths of
all alert level violation-days. But two fairly small communities, Fair-
banks, Alaska and Kellogg-Wallace, Idaho, exceeded any of the larger
cities in numbers of times excessive pollutant concentrations were
recorded, and were responsible for almost half of all recorded pollutant
concentrations above the alert level.
TABLE 2 - PRINCIPAL CITIES
Concentrations Exceeding Standard
Carbon Photo Particulate Sulfur
Monoxide Oxidants Matter Dioxide
Seattle .
Portland
Spokane
Tacoma
Anchorage
Boise
Eugene
Salem
Fairbanks
Kellogg-Wallace
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X1
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Violation-Days
StandardAlert
Exceeded Level
X
149
165
82
43
142
11
56
23
203
217
16
30
3
5
90
6
2
1
73
69
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A great deal of Region X's air pollution can be attributed to the
automobile. Just under half of Alaska's violation-days can be traced to
.the automobile and the bulk of Oregon's and Washington's problems (in
violation-days) can be traced to the automobile. The bulk of Oregon's
and Washington's standards violation problems were due to carbon monoxide
and photochemical oxidant concentrations that occurred around the largest
cities of the two States. Those pollutants could be traced almost entirely
(i.e., 80 to 90 percent) to automobile exhausts. Because well over half of
the Region's population lives in and around the six cities in which such
pollution occurs, population exposure to risk as a consequence of auto-
mobile emissions'is a significant public health problem of. the Pacific
Northwest and Alaska.
TABLE 3 - AUTO-RELATED VIOLATION DAYS
Alaska 42.2%
Anchorage 16.9%
Fairbanks 77.8%
Idaho No Data
Oregon 85.0%
Portland 97.6%
Eugene 85.7%
Salem 100.0%
Washington 66.8%
Seattle 99.3%
Spokane 82.9%'
Tacoma -46.5%
Region X 45.1%
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AIR QUALITY IN WASHINGTON
Under the Clean Air Act of 1970, the Environmental Protection
Agency has established National standards that specify maximum per-
missable levels of pollutant materials in air.
'Standards for the principal and most widespread pollutants—total
suspended particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, photo-
chemical oxidants, and oxides of nitrogen—are divided into two catego-
ries. Primary standards are set at levels intended to protect human
health. Secondary standards are set at levels intended to protect
against other forms of damage caused by air pollution.
The material that follows is an attempt to describe simply what- is
known about air quality in the State of Washington in terms of its adher-
ence to National primary air quality standard's. Those standards have been
established to protect against the following specific health effects that
have been demonstrated to stem from the particular pollutant:
Total suspended particulates—aggravation of asthma and chronic
lung diseases, increased cough, chest discomfort, restricted
activity, aggravation of heart and lung disease symptoms in
the elderly, increased death rate;
Sulfur dioxide—aggravation of asthma, aggravation of heart and .
lung disease symptoms in the elderly, increased lung illness,
increased death rate;
Carbon monoxide—interference with mental and physical activity,
reduced capacity in persons suffering from heart and other
circulatory disorders;
Photochemical oxidants—aggravation of asthma and chronic lung
disease, irritation of the eye and of the respiratory tract,
decreased vision, reduced heart and lung capacity;
Oxides of nitrogen—increased chronic bronchitis.
The material is presented in graphic form. It is intended to depict:
1) where, and how often, primary standards were exceeded in 1974,
. 2) location and frequency of severe concentrations of health dam-
aging pollutants in 1974,
3 ) indicated trend of pollutant concentrations in the period 1972
to 197^, and •
4) sources of the principal pollutants found to be in excess of
the primary standard in 1974.
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POLLUTANTS IN EXCESS OF HEALTH STANDARDS
During the three year period ending in 1974, sixteen of Washington's
thirty-nine counties experienced recorded concentrations of pollutants that
exceeded the allowable maxima specified by primary air quality standards.
The counties are ranked in the chart (Figure l) according to the average
number of days per year in which a standard was exceeded.
The standard for particulate matter was the most widely exceeded.
Concentrations above the primary standard occurred in fifteen counties.
The standard for carbon monoxide was exceeded on the largest number
of days. Total days in which the standard was not met amounted to 224,
as compared to 144 days for the combination of all other primary standard
pollutants. The standard was, however, exceeded only in four metropolitan
area counties.
Sulfur dioxide concentrations exceeded the primary standard in a
single county, though the frequency with which the standard was exceeded
was generally greater than for the more widespread problem of partic-
ulates.
The photochemical oxidant standard was exceeded in three of the four
metropolitan counties that did not consistently meet the carbon monoxide
standard.
Pollutant concentrations in excess of health standards occurred
largely in Washington's metropolitan areas. King County experienced 149
days in which standards were exceeded. Together, Pierce, Clark, and
Spokane Counties accounted for 135 days. All of the rest of the State
produced only -84 days in which health standard levels for pollutants were
not met.
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200- -
LU
D.
100- •
50--
134
Figure 1
WASHINGTON
DAYS EXCEEDING HEALTH STANDARD
BY POLLUTANT
PARTICULATES
:•:::: CARBON MONOXIDE
*•*•*•
gg PHOTO OXIDANTS
[~| SULFUR DIOXIDE
68
:•£: 14 14 •
• • •»* » — «^^^— •
. m
':'•:•: 23 23
IJ1 PI is
iu.J_ll
13
PRIMARY (HEALTH) STANDARD NOT EXCEEDED
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SEVERITY OF POLLUTION
Primary air quality standards include three degrees of risk, according
to level of pollutant concentrations. The nature of potential health
damage is the same at each level, tut the probability of damage and the
proportion of the population that is predisposed to health impairment
increases as the amount of pollutants in air increases. There are distinct
thresholds that indicate the degree of risk believed to be associated with
certain pollutant concentrations, and these are recognized, in the primary
air quality standards. As the higher .concentrations occur, the enhanced
danger of the consequent pollution is designated by an air quality standard
category. "Alert" level pollutant concentrations are thought to be signi-
ficantly more serious than lower concentrations exceeding the primary
standard. "Warning" levels are thought to be significantly more serious
than alert.
TABLE 4
Threshold Pollutant Concentrations
(per cubic meter of air)
Pollutant Standard Alert Warning
Particulates (24 hour) 260 micrograms • 375 625
Sulfur dioxide (24 hour) 365 micrograms 800 1,600
Carbon monoxide (8 hour ) 10 milligrams 17 34
Oxidants (l hour) 160 micrograms 200 800
In 1974 (Figure 2), at least 49 of the 368 instances in which health
.standards were exceeded in Washington involved concentrations at or above
the alert level. A third of those more serious conditions occurred in
King County.
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200--
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50—
Figure 2
WASHINGTON
DAYS EXCEEDING HEALTH STANDARD
BY SEVERITY
16
TIT
j_
7?
5
38
[ 1
ABOVE ALERT
ABOVE PRIMARY
PRIMARY (HEALTH) STANDARD NOT EXCEEDED
2
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POLLUTANT SOURCES: CARBON MONOXIDE
. The graph in Figure 3 indicates the estimated distribution of sources
of carbon monoxide in those Washington counties in which a primary air
quality standard was exceeded in 1974-
Mobile sources—automobiles and transportation equipment—were
responsible for the largest share of carbon monoxide in all of those
counties in which the carbon monoxide standard was exceeded, accounting
for 85 percent of their gross production, as compared to 10 percent from
point sources and 5 percent from area sources. Thus, the predominant
source of Washington's air pollution incidents, and the source of the
pollution that affected the greatest number of persons, was the auto-
mobile, with other mobile sources contributing to its effect.
Point sources—large, recognizable features such as factories—were
significant contributors of carbon monoxide in Spokane and Clark Counties,
where the carbon monoxide standard was exceeded, as well -as, in Chelan and
Pend Oreille Counties where the standard was met.
Area sources (i.e. everything other than mobile and point sources)
tended to be of slight consequence. The graph is somewhat misleading
in this respect, since mobile source contributions were not calculated
for counties in which the carbon monoxide standard was met.
10
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400-rr
Figure 3
WASHINGTON
CARBON MONOXIDE EMISSIONS
POINT-AREA-MOBILE SOURCES
POINT SOURCES
S3 AREA SOURCES
000*
MOBILE SOURCES
(ONLY SHOWN IN COUNTIES
EXCEEDING PRIMARY STANDARD)
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POLLUTANT SOURCES: TOTAL SUSPENDED PARTICULATE MATTER
Figure 4 indicates the estimated distribution of,sources of partic-
ulate matter in those Washington counties intwhich a primary air quality
standard was exceeded in 1974.
Such point sources—large, recognizable features such as factories—
accounted for the bulk of particulate production in the State, as well as
in all but two of the total counties in which particulate standards were
exceeded. In total, point source particualte emissions amounted to about
46,000 tons of the more than 71,000 tons of particualte matter produced
in 1974 for the above counties.
Area sources—space heating, transportation devices, brush and field
burning, wind blown dust: 'the variety of small, intermittent sources of
pollutants too numerous and insignificant in themselves to be cataloged
—though in combination they may generate large volumes of pollutants— •
were responsible for less-than 25,000 tons of particulate'matter.
A comparison of the volume of particulate emissions with frequency
of violation days does not result in a direct correlation without including
the enormous influence of weather on the occurrence of air pollution.
12
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Figure 4
WASHINGTON
POINT AND AREA SOURCE
PARTICULATE EMISSIONS
25-rr
20- •
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10- •
5-
V::: POINT SOURCES
AREA SOURCES
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AIR POLLUTION TRENDS
The chart in Figure 5 shows "indicated trends of pollutant concentra-
tions in Washington counties, as those trends may be derived from the air
monitoring record for the period 1972 through 1974.
Blue boxes indicate that there is no evidence that the specified
primary air quality standard has been exceeded. Where circles occur
within the box, the presumed compliance with standards is not based on
measurements, but is derived from judgment and a knowledge of pollutant
sources.
Yellow boxes indicate that a standard has been exceeded, without
concentrations reaching the alert level. An upward pointing arrow indi-
cates that measured concentrations of the specified pollutant appear to
be increasing—that the propensity for pollution to occur is rising.
A downward pointing arrow indicates that concentrations appear to be
receding.
Red boxes are used where a pollutant concentration has exceeded
the alert level. Again, the arrow within the box indicates the apparent
direction of the pollutant's concentration.
On balance, there appears to have been little change in the State's
air quality situation between 1972 and 1974. A note of optimism is
afforded by the apparent decline in Seattle's carbon monoxide situation.
Fluctuating meteorological conditions, however, make it unwise ;to attempt
to extrapolate the trend.
The central feature of the display is the preponderance of blue.
Clearly, air pollution exceeding health' standards is not widespread in
Washington.'. The limited cases in which primary standards are exceeded
tend to be of slight duration, and seldom reach the alert level. Air
quality in Washington appears to show little disposition to become less
acceptable. Thus, for most of the State, the regulatory goal is one of
protecting against degradation of good quality air.
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COUNTY
ADAMS
ASOTIN
BENTON
CHELAN
CLALLAM
CLARK
COLUMBIA
COWLITZ
DOUGLAS
FERRY
FRANKLIN
GARFIELD
GRANT
GRAYS HARBOR
ISLAND
JEFFERSON
KING
KITSAP
KITTITAS
KLICKITAT
LEWIS
LINCOLN
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NEAR TERM OUTLOOK
With the exception of the Seattle and Spokane area's carbon monoxide
concentrations, Washington's air quality must be conceded to be generally
good. Existing trends indicate no imminent threat of deterioration; and
there is nothing in the review of the, kinds, frequencies/ and sourceSj of
pollutant concentrations that exceed the standards to indicate a turn for
the worse. As for existing air pollution, the prognosis varies according
to pollutant.
Particulates, the broadest form of pollutant in excess of standards,
would seem to offer the brightest prospects for immediate improvement.
Though excessive particulates are widespread, the frequency and the dura-
tion of concentrations in excess of the primary standard are generally
slight. Point sources predominate; and the combination of source iden-
tification with the availability of reliable and relatively inexpensive
control technology indicates that improvement is possible. Indeed, a
good deal of the State's particulate problems had been corrected by
precisely that combination of circumstances "prior to 1972. Total elimi-
nation of particulate concentrations in excess of the standard is not
feasible because of such over-riding natural mechanisms as wind blown
dust—particularly .in eastern Washington agricultural areas—and forest
fire. But the bulk of controllable particulate-associated air quality
problems is very likely to be. eliminated within the next three to five
years.
Sulfur dioxide in excess of primary standards offers the same favor-
able conditions for control—source identification plus demonstrated
control technology—as do particulates. The situation is complicated by
process changes at the source and, difficult meteorological conditions;
but the prospect of virtual elimination of excess concentrations in the
immediate future is good.
Carbon monoxide and associated photochemical oxidant excursions
beyond the standard present distinctly less optimistic prospects. The
private automobile is responsible for almost 85 percent of carbon monox-
ide production in those counties where the standard is not met, so that
the very number of sources that must be controlled presents a formidable
obstacle to near term standard attainment. Carbon monoxide reduction
devices are, of course, an integral component of all recent model autos.
So the reduction of carbon monoxide concentrations is essentially a
matter of gradual replacement of the existing stock of autos with newer
.units that incorporate the control technology—a long term probabilistic
process that is retarded by growth in total automobile usage. This
approach assumes that these devices are operated and maintained properly
which requires an inspection and maintenance program. Modifications of.
transportation practice have the power to accelerate the rate of cleanup:
reduction of use of high density traffic corridors, smoothing of peaks in
traffic patterns, greater attention to auto maintenance, and reduction of
total vehicle miles through growth in average numbers of passengers per
16
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vehicle "by use of mass transit or other techniques all offer marginal
improvements in carbon monoxide production trends. But the main avenue
of pollution control at this time is replacing older autos with ones having
adequate emissions control. That .suggests that the advance toward con-
formity to 'the carbon monoxide standard over the next three to five years
will be steady but slow—certainly less rapid than is desirable to assure
the protection of the public health.
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REGIONAL WATER QUALITY PROFILE
OVERVIEW
Relative pollution of the non-marine waters of major Pacific North-
west rivers is indicated on the accompanying graphs. Figure 6 depicts
the degree of pollution in each major regional river reach and Figure 7
shows the location of the river reaches. Similar determinations are not
available for Alaskan waters due to a lack of necessary data. EPA and
the State of Alaska are currently working together toward the develop-
ment of a water quality monitoring program that will provide the same
depth of information that is available in other Region X States.
The basis of comparison between waters of the Pacific Northwest is
an eleven part Water Quality Index (WQI) that compares measured water
quality conditions during the last five years with National criteria
recommended by the National Academy of Sciences.V Measured water
quality constituents from various Federal, State and local agencies are
stored in EPA's data storage and retrieval system called STORET. The
National water quality criteria are recommended threshold concentrations
in water which are considered suitable for propagation of fish, the use
by wildlife, and for recreation. The eleven criteria groups considered
in the index are listed in Table 5.
The index number for any river segment is calculated by multiplying
the frequency of criteria violations for each constituent by a severity
weighting function which is based on the magnitude of violation. Indi-
vidual river segment index numbers are multiplied by a ratio of segment
river miles to total river'miles, then summed to obtain average WQI for
the total river. The WQI number spans a scale that may run from 0.0
(no measured evidence of pollution) to 110.0 (severe pollution in all
criteria groups at all times); however, most Pacific Northwest streams
fall into a category below the scale of 20.0. General, national criteria
were employed for the particular index construction rather than the spe-
cific State and Federal water quality standards that apply to the various
waterbodies. State water quality standards reflect local natural condi-
tions whereas federal criteria are based upon field and laboratory
studies which have been shown nationally to correlate with biological,
recreational, and health problems. Federal criteria are in some cases
more stringent than state standards. Index values computed from federal
criteria will therefore tend to present a more conservative estimate of
water quality than if actual state standards were applied.
The graphs of water quality indices are divided into three segments
that reflect-professional judgment as to the significance of the values.
An index number greater than 6.0 is considered to be characteristic of
streams or stream segments that do not meet the goals of the Federal
V EPA R3.033 Ecological Research Series, Water Quality Criteria 1972,
U.S. Government Printing Office, March 1973.
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18
16
14-
12-
8
6.0--
2-
FIGURE 6
MAINSTEM AVERAGE WATER QUALITY PER RIVER MILE
PRINCIPAL RIVERS IN REGION X
1.0
O
O
FAILS TO MEET FEDERAL QUALITY
GOALS: POLLUTED
PROVISIONALLY MEETS FEDERAL
QUALITY GOALS
MEETS FEDERAL
QUALITY GOALS
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Water Pollution Control Act—bodies.of water that are, by Federal stan-
dards, definitely polluted. An index number less than 1.0 is considered
to be equivalent to unpolluted natural conditions. ,The area between 1.0
and 6.0, where most Pacific Northwest rivers fall, is generally consistent
with the goals of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, but with local
or seasonal deviations. >
The water quality index is used in this report for the purpose of
comparing twenty-six Pacific Northwest rivers within the States of Idaho,
Oregon, and Washington. In each major river discussed in this section,
the WQI is a summation of the significant individual stream segments that
make up each river. The resultant river WQI is the weighted average of
the individual WQIs within the river and may not reflect local pollution
problems existing in some of the individual segments. For ease of presen-
tation, colors on Figure 7 represent the average WQI range for the main-
stem of each river; however, the actual WQI could change throughout each
river segment.
As Figures 6 and 7 indicate, all but four of the major rivers of the
Pacific Northwest generally meet the goals of the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act; however, three rivers have index numbers that are perilously
close to the 6.0 that indicates unequivocal pollution. It is apparent
that the more arid and agriculture oriented parts of the Region have the
worst pollution. The Upper Snake River and its tributaries—the Boise
and Portneuf Rivers—are three of the four worst polluted rivers in the
Region. The fourth river, Spokane/Coeur d'Alene, is located in an inten-
sive mining"and smelting area. Other streams that flow through major-
agriculture areas include the Middle Snake, Yakima, and Bear Rivers.
These streams have higher index numbers than most of the remaining rivers
within the'Region. Major coastal and Puget Sound rivers, with a few
exceptions, have relatively good'water quality. The exceptions, Green/
Duwamish and Chehalis Rivers, flow through major populated areas.
The most- prevalent of the eleven classes of pollution (see Table 5
below) that make up tfie index are excessive bacterial populations which
indicate the possible presence of disease-related bacteria and viruses
(Pathogenic indicators), excessive concentrations of phosphorus* and
nitrogen which have been documented to be the major nutrients responsible
.for eutrophication in the Region (Trophic potential-), and excessive
presence of suspended materials or oil and grease (Aesthetics). Each-
of these three classes of pollution was found to occur in half or more
of the twenty-six Pacific Northwest rivers that were analyzed for this
report; and each at this time appears to be associated predominantly
with runoff rather than waste discharges. High concentrations of toxic
organic compounds such as pesticides, dissolved oxygen deficiencies, and
elevated temperatures are also common. (The latter two are associated
predominantly with reservoir conditions.) Supersaturation-of dissolved
gasses, heavy metals in toxic concentrations (toxic inorganics), salinity
'(dissolved minerals), and excessive acidity are also found, though they
are rarer forms of pollution in the Pacific Northwest. No excessive
concentrations of radioactivity were measured or suspected in the North-
west waters.
20
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FIGURE 7
REGION 10
RIVER WATER QUALITY STATUS
AVERAGE MAINSTEM WATER QUALITY:
< • • a FAILS TO MEET FEDERAL GOALS
c-—-i PROVISIONALLY MEETS FEDERAL GOALS
»^^^ MEETS FEDERAL GOALS
NOTE: Colors denote the average water quality index value
for the entire river. In actuality, some stream reaches may be
better or worse than indicated
saw*
STREAMS/REACHES
1 BEAR RIVER
2 UPPER SNAKE RIVER
3 PORTNEUF RIVER
4 MIDDLE SNAKE RIVER
5. BOISE RIVER
6 PAYETTE RIVER
7 LOWER SNAKE RIVER
8 ST JOE RIVER
9. COEUR D'ALENE RIVER
10. SPOKANE RIVER
11 UPPER COLUMBIA RIVER
12 YAKIMA RIVER
13 UMATILLA RIVER
14 LOWER COLUMBIA RIVER
15 KLICKITAT RIVER
16 WILLAMETTE RIVER
17 SANTIAM RIVER
18 COWLITZ RIVER
19 WILLAPA RIVER
20 CHEHALIS RIVER
21 GREEN/DUWAMISH RIVER
22 SNOHOMISH RIVER
23 STILLAGUAMISH RIVER
24 NOOKS^CK RIVER
25 UMPQUA RIVER
26 ROGUE RIVER
27 KLAMATH RIVER
Selected stream/reach limits
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Table 5 - Percent of Regional Rivers
Not Meeting Water Quality Criteria
Class Criteria Group
1 Bacteria
2 Trophic potential
3 Aesthetics
4 Toxic organics
5 Dissolved oxygen
6 Temperature
7 Dissolved gasses
8 Toxic inorganics
9 Dissolved minerals
10 Acidity/Alkalinity
11 Radioactivity
Idaho Oregon Washington Regional Avg
50%~
38%
25%
38%
86%
86%
71%
71%
14%
25%
50%
77%
38%
46%
38%
31%
15%
23%
15%
71%
64%
50%
43%
32%
21%
14%
14%
18%
4%
A pattern.of change appears to be evolving in the nature of Pacific
Northwest water pollution; though variations in flow, climate, and moni-
toring make any conclusions with respect to short term trends provisional.
As seen on Table 6 below, those pollutants that have historically been
associated with waste discharges—bacteria, nutrients, acidity, oxygen
consuming substances, heavy metals^from industrial operations—appear to
be progressively less prevalent in Regional rivers. Conversely, pollu-
tants that are associated with runoff, fallout, intense land use, reser-
voirs, and in-stream chemical reactions—toxic organic compounds, dis-
solved gasses, to'tal dissolved solids—would appear to be increasing in
prevalence and concentrations. Some of this apparent deterioration may
be due to improved analytical capability in recent years.
Table 6 - Water Quality Trends of Regional Rivers
Class
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10 .
Criteria Group
Bacteria
Trophic potential
Aesthetic
Toxic organics
Dissolved oxygen
Temperature
Dissolved gasses
Toxic inorganics
Dissolved minerals
Acidity/Alkalinity
Improving* Deteriorating* No Change*
21%
11%
7%
4/0
4%
4%
11%
7%
'7%
25%
7%
r-jal
I/O
7%
* Figure represents the precent of streams within the three states which
are improving or deteriorating by criteria group. One stream may be
improving with respect to one criteria group and deteriorating in
another; therefore, it would be included in each listing. If 7% of the
rivers in one criteria group are.improving and 7% are deteriorating
in the same group, then 86% experience no change at all.
22
-------
The impression that may be derived from the data is that contemporary
water pollution strategies based on waste, treatment are proving effective
with traditional pollutant sources but the more complex and resistant
kinds of pollution that stem from intensive use of land and water may be
offsetting some part of that improvement.
-------
WATER QUALITY IN WASHINGTON
A review of thirteen major Washington rivers (Figure 8)—the river
proper, not the entire drainage system—reveals a water quality pattern
that is not inconsistent with that for all Pacific Northwest drainage
basins. Marine waters are not included in this evaluation since present
WQI techniques only apply to fresh water streams on a river mile basis.
An attempt will be made to include marine waters in future reports.
Water quality, as reflected by an index number, tends to improve
progressively from east to west. The Spokane River which has the highest
WQI, is balanced by a group that discharges directly to the Pacific or
to Puget Sound waters that are so slightly; or so infrequently, polluted
that their quality varies insignificantly from Federal criteria.
Aside from the .general propensity of rivers on the east side of the
Cascades to demonstrate higher concentrations of phosphorus and solids and
higher temperatures .than west side streams, there- is little pattern to the
occurrence of water pollution in Washington. Each river seems to exhibit
quality degradation tendencies that stem from its own circumstances.
Thus two major rivers, the Spokane (including its Idaho reach) and
lower .Columbia, have higher index numbers than the river basin system in
which they are included, due to particular conditions that impinge on the
river without equally affecting its tributaries. The Spokane contains
excessive concentrations of dissolved metals through its entire length of
passage below the Kellogg-Wallace- mining/smelting complex; while the
Columbia suffers annually from dissolved gas supersaturation caused by
spilling of flood season high flows over its numerous dams. Both situa-
tions run counter to the general principle that water pollution tends to be
inversely related to volume of flow. In the cases of the Green/Duwamish
and Yakima Rivers, the mechanics of index construction conceal local
pollution. Both streams are of good quality over most of their length, but
are degraded in their lower reaches.
Nonetheless, the picture of Washington's water quality that emerges
from the index and from consideration of particular pollutants and stream
-reaches is encouraging.. Only the Spokane demonstrates a high, consistent
degree of pollution. Coastal streams are of near natural quality. The
east side tributaries of the Columbia largely meet Federal criteria.
There is no question, that at this time, pollution is a limited and spe-
cialized condition in the waters of the State of Washington. A compre-
hensive pollution control program is necessary, however, to eliminate
the remaining problems and to maintain the quality achieved.
-------
20
rr
18
,,
14
12-
Figure 8
MAINSTEM AVERAGE WATER QUALITY PER RIVER MILE
PRINCIPAL RIVERS IN WASHINGTON
o
o
10 , _
~« 10
a
6.0
4-
2-
1.0
FAILS TO MEET FEDERAL QUALITY
GOALS: POLLUTED
PROVISIONALLY MEETS FEDERAL
QUALITY GOALS
MEETS FEDERAL
QUALITY GOALS
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POLLUTANT SOURCES: SUSPENDED SOLIDS
Suspended solid materials constitute the most abundant pollutant in
the waters of the Pacific Northwest. An average of 260 million pounds
per day are carried to the mouth-of the Columbia, though the volume varies
enormously with streamflow, precipitation and reservoir operating patterns.
Suspended solids are not a single pollutant, but a general class of
materials that are characterized by having a specific gravity close to
1.0. Thus they include both inert materials and organic matter—some of
it, such as algae, living organisms. The specific polluting mechanisms
of suspended solids are reduction of .light penetration, discoloration,
and with gradual settling, silting of. fish spawning gravels and other
ill effects of sediments. In addition to the specific effects of this
general category of pollutant, suspended solids are indicators of other
potential for pollution: the organic fraction is degradable, so a source
of oxygen demand; and suspended materials are carriers of both nutrients
(primarily phosphorus) and of toxic materials which ultimately may be
released.
There is a pattern to the production of suspended solids in Washington
rivers. The mean concentration of suspended solids in the rivers evaluated
as indicated by average flows and solids weights in Figure 9,. is about
125 parts per million of water, but while the average values for those
streams originating on the west banks of the Cascades and flowing directly
to the Columbia or to salt water are less than half of that. Streams in
the relatively arid area east of the Cascades, however, carry higher loads
of suspended solids. Suspended solids data are not available for the Upper
Columbia and Puget Sound streams for this documentation. Puget Sound
streams contain high levels of suspended solids; however, these are mainly
of natural origin resulting from glacial runoff.
Direct industrial and municipal waste discharges are-an insignificant
source of suspended solids. Aggregated waste discharges amount to only.
0.1$ of the total suspended solid load for all of the seven rivers studied-
—this in spite of an aggregation technique that significantly overesti-
mates discharge-related solids loading. (No allowance is made for settling
or decomposition. ) There is, however, a chain of biological reaction
through which the effect of such discharges with respect to the total
quantity of solids is amplified. Given.favorable conditions, nutrient
phosphorus from waste discharges can promote algal growth that is roughly
120 times the dry weight of the available phosphorus, with an even greater
expansion of volume. Waste discharges may, then, be a substantial indirect
source of suspended solids under some specialized circumstances.
26
-------
260,000,000
41,000,000
Figure 9
RIVERS IN WASHINGTON
POINT SOURCE & NONPOINT
SOURCE LOADINGS
1
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9,000,000-
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MEAN FLOW
TOTAL LOA'D
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MUNICIPAL AND gel.000,000
INDUSTRIAL LOADINGS^
+ 100,000
s
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POLLUTANT SOURCES: BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand .(BOD)—the rate at which oxygen is con-
sumed by populations of aquatic bacteria that utilize .dissolved organic
materials as nutrients—has been used as the prime measure of a stream's
pollution for the better part of a ce'ntury.
When exerted at a rate in excess of the rate of reoxygenation, bio-
chemical oxygen demand may reduce the amount of oxygen that is dissolved
in water sufficiently to change the composition of aquatic lifeforms in-
the area of the stream that is affected, as well as to reduce its level
of biologic activity. The pollutant also serves as a measure of the
potential organic enrichment of a stream, enrichment that may support
regrowth of bacterial populations or contribute through decomposition
processes to nuisance proliferation of algae and other aquatic plants.
As the graph in Figure 10 demonstrates, all of the thirteen Wash-
ington streams or stream segments exhibited very similar mean biochemical
oxygen demand levels. The average concentration was about two parts per
million at the mouth in all cases but that of the Snohomish River, where
the concentration was little more than 10$ of that for other rivers.
These levels are approaching what can be considered background levels
for good quality streams. As 'the graph suggests, rivers rising west of
the Cascades (exception, the Duwamish) tended to have- slightly lower
BOD concentrations than eastern tributaries of the Columbia; though the
differences are so slight as to be insignificant. At the mouth, then,
Washington rivers uniformly seem to exhibit what are little more than
natural background levels of organic materials. (Which is by no means
inconsistent with-the possiblility of excessive'BOD concentrations along
the reach of some of the streams, since BOD is not a conservative pollu-
tant and may, be exerted over a short reach of stream.
What is extraordinary about the BOD regimens of these streams is
the slight contribution that industrial and municipal wastes make to the
total BOD load. It has generally been assumed that BOD was essentially
a measure of the strength of. such point discharges; but even by a method
that exaggerates their relative influence (sum of discharges over the
length of the stream related to gross BOD exerted at the mouth) only
three of thirteen waterbodies—the Snohomish, Spokane, and Yakima—dem-
onstrate a significant contribution from waste discharges, and none
derives a majority of its BOD from such discharges.' For the group of
waterbodies, only 13$ of all BOD at the mouth can be attributed to indus-
trial and municipal wastes. For seven of the thirteen, less than 5$ can
be attributed to discharges. Clearly, at the level of waste treatment
achieved in the Pacific Northwest, BOD production is analogous to that
of suspended solids, with runoff and other natural mechanisms outweighing
waste discharges in the transport of degradable brganics to streams.
28
-------
4,00(^000
C
3
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100,000'
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60,000-
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Figure 10
RIVERS IN WASHINGTON
POINT SOURCE & NONPOINT
SOURCE LOADINGS
150,000
I
MEAN FLOW
TOTAL LOAD
AT MOUTH
MUNICIPAL AND
INDUSTRIAL LOADINGS
3P 1,000,000
4.100,000
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POLLUTANT SOURCES: TOTAL PHOSPHORUS
Phosphorus is present in Washington streams in minute quantities—
an average load of 90,000.pounds a day at.the mouth of the Columbia, as
contrasted to 260 million pounds of suspended solids or the 4 million .
pounds of oxygen demand created by dissolved organic matter. Yet the^
amount is sufficient that phosphorus may be regarded as one of the ;mbfe
significant pollutants in Washington streams.
Phosphorus is not in itself a pollutant. Rather, it is the ability
of phosphorus, as the critical nutrient, to support growth of nuisance
levels of aquatic plants that makes it a potential problem. The approx-
imate balance of the major chemical components of algae and other water
plants is 106 parts carbon, 16 parts nitrogen, 1 part phosphorus. Since
some aquatic plants can draw both carbon and nitrogen from the atmosphere,
the effective limit of plant populations .is often dictated by the amount
of phosphorus dissolved in water; and each unit of phosphorus may trigger
more than 120 times its weight in plant growth. The matter is not quite
so simple, as the above would make it seem. Trace nutrients and sunlight
are also necessary for plant growth; and the form in which phosphorus
occurs has a prime influence on its nutrient effect. Where dissolved
phosphorus is immediately available as a nutrient, organically linked
phosphorus becomes available gradually through decomposition processes,
and soil bound phosphorus may never be available to plants unless released
into the water column through chemical and bacteriological processes which
occur under anerobic bottom conditions.
The pollutional aspects of excessive biological activity that stems
from high nutrient levels are diverse. To some degree they may be merely
aesthetic—stream discoloration and presence of clumped, floating water
weeds—but more fundamental ecological alterations are also involved.
.Because of the photosynthetic respiratory cycle (plants give off oxygen
in sunlight, consume, it at night) variations in daytime and nighttime
dissolved oxygen concentrations may occur that produce extreme stress on
fish life. Similar diurnal variations in acidity and alkalinity may occur.
Light penetration is reduced. Decay of dead material that settles out in
lakes or reservoirs may produce oxygen^deficiencies. The enriched environ-
ment is favorable to regrowth of bacteria. Loss of species balance in
fish populations follows from specialization of the organisms that fish
feed upon. The taste and odor of water may be altered disagreeably, .and
carrying capacity- of pipes and channels may be reduced.
The phosphorus production regimens of Washington streams vary with
location as can be seen on Figure 11. There is a rule of thumb that holds
that, with the normal distribution of phosphorus forms, a concentration
of .05 parts or more per million parts of water can result in nuisance
algae growths. Virtually all Washington streams that originate east of
the Cascade Mountains exceed that level—some by a factor of ten or greater.
Conversely, west side streams tend to support concentrations distinctly
below .05. Thus, for example, the Spokane and Yakima Rivers, which
30
-------
Figure 11
RIVERS IN WASHINGTON
POINT SOURCE & NONPOINT
SOURCE LOADINGS
100,000
MEAN FLOW
TOTAL LOAD
AT MOUTH
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INDUSTRIAL LOADINGS^
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-------
together provide about 5% of the Columbia's flow, provide close to 15$ of
its phosphorus; and the Snake is responsible for 20% of the flow of the
Columbia and 35% of its phosphorus. Conversely, the Cowlitz, a typical
west side stream, balances 2% of the Columbia's flow with only 1% of its
phosphorus.
Over all, municipal and industrial waste discharges are a minor source
of phosphorus, about <4% for the thirteen Washington Rivers used in this
analysis. But for several reasons, those discharges are a more significant
contributant to pollution potential than their gross amount would suggest.
As the graph demonstrates, waste discharges provide the largest relative
share of phosphorus in precisely those streams that carry the greatest
phosphorus concentrations—the Spokane, the Yakima, and the Duwamish, all
rivers with definite problems of excess productivity. High relative waste
contributions are also found in certain west side streams—the Snohomish,
Willapa, Cowlitz, and Nooksack, for example—where natural phosphorus
sources are scarce. The total load is fairly low, however, and concen-
trations in these streams are well below the problem level. More signi-
ficant, perhaps, than the-distribution of waste-originating phosphorus
concentrations is their form. The accelerated decomposition of organic
matter that occurs in waste treatment results in a discharge whose phos-
phorus content is largely in solution, thus immediately available as a
growth-triggering nutrient; while much, if not most, of the phosphorus
originating with runoff is soil bound and not available to algae. Thus
both the form and the distribution of that phosphorus that occurs in
discharged wastes tends to give it a disproportionate pollutional effect.
32
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WATER POLLUTION TRENDS
Figure 12 depicts the presence and trends of eleven broad classes of
water pollution.as they are revealed by the monitoring record for major
Washington rivers in the period 1971 through 1975.
A blue box indicates that measurements for the indicated class of
pollutant produced no evidence of a violation of Federal criteria for
water suitable for fish, wildlife, and recreation. Yellow and red boxes
indicate respectively that there were relative minor and major violations
of the criterion. The color determination takes into account the fre-
quency and magnitude of the violation as well .as the water quality sampling
frequency.. An upward pointing arrow within the box indicates measurements
that show either that the concentration of the particular pollutant is
rising or that the frequency of criterion violation is increasing—that is,
that the propensity for pollution to occur is rising. (A downward pointing
arrow would indicate a decline in the'propensity for pollution. ) A circle
within the box .indicates a judgment based on knowledge of pollutant sources
rather than actual water quality measurements.
As Figure 12 demonstrates, the most common criteria violations in
Washington are those derived from bacteria counts and trophic conditions;
but these, on balance, are declining with the exception of the Yakima
and Spokane Rivers.
Violation of aesthetic and trophic criteria follow bacteria in fre-
quency. Trophic violations are more cdmmon in eastern than in western
Washington rivers; whereas, bacteria and aesthetic appear to be equally
spread throughout the State.
Excess concentrations of toxic organic compounds are also common; and
appear to be increasing in the Green/Duwamish, Snqhomish, and Chehalis
Rivers, however," drily the Green/Duwamish stream is considered serious at
this time.
Dissolved gas supersaturation is the most serious form of pollution
in Washington waters because of Its catastrophic and widespread effect on
salmon populations and would appear to -be stable or increasing in the two
rivers in which it occurs.
Other pollutant presences appear to be stable. In fact, the State's
water quality situation seems to display a static balance. Of 1-43 oppor-
tunities for water pollution (eleven pollutant classes, fourteen studied
rivers), thirty-eight suggest that some degree of pollution is, in fact,
realized. In eight of the'143, the propensity for pollution seems to be
declining; in thirteen it appears to be increasing.
In view of the good overall water quality that predominates in Wash-
ington, the static balance may not be unfavorable—though it is clearly
33
-------
Figure 12
RIVERS IN WASHINGTON
FEDERAL CRITERIA VIOLATIONS
PRINCIPAL RIVERS
PARAMETERS
LJ
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W
MEETS FEDERAL
STANDARDS
PROVISIONALLY
MEETS FEDERAL
STANDARDS
DOES NOT MEET
FEDERAL
STANDARDS
NUMBERS OF
VIOLATIONS
INCREASING
NUMBERS OF
X/ini ATIOISK
DFrpFA^iNfi
CONDITION
STABLE
CLASSIFICATION
BASED ON
JUDGMENT
CHEHALIS
WILLAPA
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less than ideal. There are, however, disturbing implications in the dis-
tribution of improving •'and declining pollution indicators. Improvements
are concentrated in the class of pathogenic indicators, where their effects
must be conceded to be slight. Worsening conditions are dominated by
concentrations- of toxic organic materials1 that may have serious and far
reaching effects on aquatic ecosystems.
There is another disturbing feature about the thirteen cases of
declining water quality indicators. The majority of them occur in the
Lower Snake (three), Spokane (four), and Yakima (three) Rivers. So it
is three of the four most polluted of Washington's streams that appear
to be becoming more polluted.
35
-------
NEAR TERM OUTLOOK
Consideration of the nature, location, sources, and trends of water
pollution in the fresh waters of the State of Washington must lead to the
conclusion that little significant change can be anticipated in the next
three to five years.
The assessment is almost inescapable. With exceptions, the water
quality problems in the freshwater areas of Washington do not stem from
point source waste discharges, which constitute the near exclusive focus
of contemporary water pollution abatement programs, but from runoff and
reservoir conditions. Man's activities contribute to the pollutional
aspects of natural runoff; but,.for the most part, measures to reduce
those contributions remain to be defined. And as such definitions occur
and are adopted in the State, it must be anticipated that they will be .
offset to some degree by sheer growth in the scale of human activities and
by the complications posed by proliferation of toxic organic compounds.
There will, in short, be no convenient technological solution like waste
treatment with which to deal with most of the remaining and emerging water
pollution problems of the State.
Little aggregate improvement can be anticipated from extension of
municipal and industrial (M&l) waste treatment because (as the review
of the pollutant sources indicates) M&I point sources of waste are a
minor factor in Washington's present-water quality situation. But in
two quite significant instances, that general lack of impact does not
hold. Industrial.and municipal wastes are significant sources of pollu-
tants to two of the State's worst water quality problems, the Spokane
and lower Yakima Rivers. Improvement of the degree of waste treatment
in the two .situations may well be the one source from which an overall
improvement in the State's water quality may be expected in the next
few years.
Recognition of the limited.marginal effect of M&I waste treatment,
the significance of non-point sources .of pollution, and the difficulties
of dealing with such sources, then, leads to the conclusion that no major
change in Washington's water quality is in the offing. But that is,' on
the whole, an optimistic conclusion. There has been serious water pol-
lution in Washington. It has been largely—not entirely—eliminated.
The major' task of water quality management in the State at this time is
protection and preservation of the excellent water quality that predom-
inates. So to preserve existing water quality would be a major achieve-
ment. To improve water quality in the Yakima and Spokane Rivers would
be even more desirable.
36
•&GPO 796-202
------- |