United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Region 10
1200 Sixth Avenue
Seattle WA 98101
October 1978
Impact of
Forestry Burning
Upon Air Quality
A State-of-the-Knowledge
Characterization in
Washington and Oregon
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EPA 910/9-78-052
October 1978
IMPACT OF FORESTRY BURNING UPON
AIR QUALITY
A State-of-the-Knowledge Characterization
in Washington and Oregon
FINAL REPORT
GEOMET, Incorporated
Gaithersburg, Maryland 20760
EPA Contract Number b&-01-4144
David C. bray
Project Officer
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REGION X
1200 SIXTH AVENUE
SEATTLE, WASHINGTON 98101
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by Region X, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, and approved for publication. Approval does not signify that the con-
tents necessarily reflect the views and policies of the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, nor does mention of trade names or commercial products con-
stitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This study characterizes prescribed forestry burning in the states of
Washington and Oregon with an emphasis on the region west of the Cascade
Mountains. A comprehensive program of literature searches and field inter-
views was used to develop a state-of-the-knowledge document on forestry
burning emissions and their impact on air quality. Methods for reducing
the impact of forestry burning on air quality are explored and organiza-
tional and research strategies are introduced to improve air quality impact
assessment and control.
Prescribed burning is used to reduce or eliminate unwanted natural and
man-caused accumulations of slash, brush, litter or duff in a controlled
application so as to maximize net benefits with minimum damage and at an
acceptable cost. Prescribed burning accomplishes three basic objectives
singularly or in combination: reduction of the hazard of wildfire, aid
to silvicultural activities and improvement of forage plants and wildlife
habitats. The appropriate use or nonuse of prescribed burning depends on
an assessment of site-specific variables including fuel, topography, weather,
climate, accessibility, manpower, management and environmental considera-
tions. The burning technique and ignition device employed on a given site
will depend on these same variables. Prescribed burning is accomplished
by broadcast, pile or understory burning and may use such ignition devices
as matches, drip torches, napalm or helicopter drip torches.
In the 3-year period from 1975 through 1977, an average of 138,000 acres
were burned annually on the west side of the Cascade Mountains, consuming an
estimated 5.1 million tons of fuel. The average estimated fuel burned per
acre in Oregon and Washington was 39.8 and 31.9 tons, respectively. However,
these estimates of fuel burned are subject to significant error which must
be considered before drawing conclusions about total pollutant emissions
based on these figures. Of the 138,000 acres burned annually, 61 percent of
the burning was carried out in National Forests. In terms of burning activity
per 100 square miles of commercial forest land, the National Forests burned
765 acres per 100 square miles, which is in contrast to burning on state and
private lands of 201 acres per 100 square miles.
Emissions from forestry burning are highly complex, consisting of hun-
dreds of gaseous chemical compounds and particulates, which vary greatly
in composition and physical properties. Total emissions and the relative
abundance of the major effluents are dependent on fire behavior and fuel
conditions. A number of the compounds emitted are photochemically reac-
tive and thus the physical and chemical properties of smoke change with
increasing residence time in the atmosphere. Fire behavior can be con-
trolled or predetermined within limits during prescribed forestry burning
because such burning is carried out only under favorable fuel moisture and
weather conditions. While these factors provide greater emissions predict-
ability than is possible for wildfires, each fire has a unique emission
profile.
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Emission factors, relating quantity of effluent released to mass of
fuel consumed, have been derived through laboratory burning studies and a
limited number of field measurements. Laboratory measurements of emissions
from burning forest fuels can be made fairly easily and represent the most
practical approach for identification of fuel and fire parameters which
govern emission production. However, unavoidable differences between lab-
oratory and field situations, with respect to fire behavior and fuel condi-
tions, must be considered when extrapolating laboratory-derived emission
factors to field fires. Differences in fuel, fire behavior and burning
techniques produce widely different emission patterns and use of a single
emission factor for a given effluent is unrealistic. The following emission
ranges for the major effluents were suggested by leading experts in forestry
burning and represent the best general estimate of expected normal field
emissions which can be made from data available at the present time:
Carbon dioxide (C02) 2000-3500 Ib/ton of fuel
Water (H20) 500-1500 Ib/ton of fuel
Carbon monoxide (CO) 20-500 Ib/ton of fuel
Particulates (TSP) 17-67 Ib/tori of fuel
Hydrocarbons (HC) 10-40 Ib/ton of fuel
Nitrogen oxides (NO ) 2-6 Ib/ton of fuel.
A
These emission.ranges apply to prescribed fires, which typically consume dry,
dead fuels under conditions which tend to minimize emissions. Wildfires are
generally fast moving headfires, which ignite both live and dead fuels in
the fire front, and leave a major portion of the available fuel to burn by
smoldering. These conditions tend to maximize emissions. Estimates of total
emissions from forestry burning are highly uncertain. Emission factor varia-
tions, magnified oy uncertainties in estimating available fuel, result in
calculated total emissions that may vary more than the range of emission
factors.
In Oregon and Washington, air quality problems exist in many urban
areas relative to primary and secondary National Ambient Air Quality Stan-
dards (NAAQS). Forestry burning is one potentially significant pollution
source which may contribute to exceedances of the NAAQS in populated areas.
Actual impact depends upon the composition of the plume and how the initial
plume characteristics, tne meteorology and the terrain affect the transport,
Dispersion, deposition arid transformation of the plume. The impact of for-
estry burning upon air quality can be assessed through the use of mathemat-
ical models which describe emission patterns in relation to observed airflow
patterns. Further assessment can be made by relating burning activities
to pollution measurements with statistical or morphological correlations.
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The available literature does not reveal any modeling studies that spe-
cifically determine the impact of slash burning activities on the smoke-
sensitive regions of the Pacific Northwest. However, validation of models
developed in other regions is being pursued in Oregon and Washington. Some
research has been done using tracer materials to determine mass and momentum
transport and dispersion into and within a forest canopy to help evaluate the
impact of drift smoke. Most recently, a microscopical analysis of hi-vol
filters and a multiple regression analysis of the data have been done in
Oregon to assess the contribution of field burning and forestry burning to
observed air quality levels. These preliminary studies indicate that forestry
burning does have a significant, detrimental impact on observed particulate
air quality measures.
Available data show no direct evidence of adverse health impacts from
forestry burning in the Pacific Northwest. However, forestry burning has
been shown to be a significant source of particulates, hydrocarbons and
carbon monoxide emissions and may contribute to violations of health-related
ambient air quality standards. Smoke intrusions into urban areas add to the
particulate haze resulting from industrial and transportation source emis-
sions. Forestry burning may not impact on air quality in areas where smoke
is successfully vented away by smoke management programs.
Currently, both Washington and Oregon have smoke management programs
designed to limit the air quality impact of forestry burning activities.
The effectiveness of these programs has resulted in decreased citizen com-
plaints related to forestry burning. The percentage of problem burns in
Oregon between 1975 and 1977 averaged only 1.9 percent. In Washington,
problem burns reported for 1977 were less than 1 percent of total burns.
Monthly data did reveal that there are relatively high rates of problem
burns occurring from July through September.
Alternative burning techniques and alternatives to burning which
could be utilized to reduce impacts on air quality are available. How-
ever, as is the case with prescribed burning, a site-by-site evaluation
is required to determine the applicability of these alternatives. Alter-
native burning techniques include the use of varying burn periods, optimal
field procedures and the development and use of new burning technology.
Nonburning alternatives include the use of mechanical or chemical treat-
ments, improved harvesting systems, slash utilization or no treatment.
The future impact of forestry burning on air quality in the Pacific
Northwest is a function of the level of burning, of Federal, state and local
air quality regulations, and of the use of alternatives to burning. Recent
data appear to indicate a downward trend in the amount of slash burned per
acre on a regionwide basis. This coincides logically with increasingly
better harvesting practices and wood fiber utilization. These trends, along
with present smoke management programs and the federally mandated Clean Air
Act, will most likely continue to reduce forestry burning activities.
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The full impact of forestry burning on air quality in the Pacific
Northwest is not accurately known at this time, although preliminary
studies have indicated that the impact may be significant. To assess
this impact and to minimize the future impact of forestry burning on
air quality, a broad-scope, fully coordinated program, designed specifi-
cally to evaluate emissions, atmospheric dispersion characteristics, air
quality impacts, and the economics of alternatives, is recommended. This
program should utilize the resources of state, local and Federal agencies
and forest industries and should draw on current significant research which
is underway. The emphasis of this program should be the accurate evalua-
tion of the air quality impact of forestry burning and the development of
recommendations for reducing this impact to acceptable levels, through
the use of alternatives to forestry burning, improved smoke management
practices, and techniques for the reduction of emissions from burning.
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CONTENTS
Executive Summary iji
Figures ix
Tables xi
Acknowledgments xi i i
Project Staff xiv
-1. Introduction 1
Definition of terms 1
General background 10
Reasons for burning 18
Burning techniques 28
Prescribed fire in forest management - overview 35
2. Forestry Burning in Washington and Oregon 44
Locat i on of forestry burns 44
Timber harvest activity and its relation to forestry
burning 57
^3. Emissions from Forestry Burning 58
Introduct i on 58
Major constituents of emissions 63
Other constituents 76
Fuel combustion 80
Fuel moisture 82
Source strength 82
^4. Impact of Forestry Burning Upon Air Quality 85
Current air quality problems in the Northwest 85
Mechanisms by which forestry burning impacts air quality 89
Evaluation of the impacts of forestry burning 94
Relative impact of forestry burning 102
^5. Methods of Reducing the Air Quality Impact of Forestry Burning 106
Smoke management programs—current programs in
Washington and Oregon 106
Alternative burning techniques 116
Alternatives to forestry burning 123
The economics of forestry burning 143
/6. Future Impact of Forestry Burning on Air Quality 152
Impacts of projected trends in burning 152
Impact of air quality regulations 157
Impact of alternatives to burning 159
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CONTENTS (confd)
7. Requirements for Impact Assessment and Control 161
Organizational needs 162
Research needs 164
Health effects studies 168
Research in progress 169
Appendices
A. Tree species 173
B. Phase II - Economic Approach, Study Plan 174
C. Bibliography 176
D. Listing of Field Experts 241
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FIGURES
Number Page
1 Physiographic subregion of the Pacific Northwest 11
2 Mean annual precipitation patterns of the Pacific Northwest 13
3 Forest zones of the Pacific Northwest 14
4 Potential impact areas in Washington and Oregon 16
5 Looking onto Penrold Mountain 22
6 Incomplete combustion temperature profile of pile or
broadcast burn 34
7 Number of burns, western Washington and Oregon, 1975-1977 48
8 Acres burned, western Washington and Oregon, 1975-1977 49
9 Estimated tons of fuel burned, western Washington and
Oregon, 1975-1977 50
10 Land ownership in western Oregon and Washington 53
11 Chromatogram of organic vapors in loblolly pine smoke 68
12 Nephelorneter trace through plume 74
13 Nephelometer readings with respect to time 74
14 Vertical profile of smoke density 90
15 Plume penetrating through top of mixing layer 92
16 Common mesoscale and local afternoon dispersion conditions
west of the Cascades during the warm season 95
17 Common nighttime or early morning condition during the warm
season west of the Cascades 95
18 Wind profile of forest on flat terrain 97
19 Wind profile of forest on sloping terrain 97
20 Designated areas under Washington's and Oregon's Smoke
Management Programs 107
21 Principle of air curtain combustion 121
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FIGURES (cont'd)
hamper Page
22 Alternatives to forestry burning 124
23 Energy consumption by the pulp and paper industry of
the Pacific Northwest 140
24 Trend of acres burned on the West Side from 1972-77 153
25 Trend of tons burned on the West Side from 1972-77 154
26 Trend of tons/acre burned on the West Side from 1972-77 155
27 Three-year trend of broadcast and pile burning in Oregon 156
28 Program structure 163
29 Impact assessment 165
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TABLES
Number Page
1 Prescribed Burning Ignition Devices 30
2 brown and Burn Herbicides and Desiccants 32
3 Summary of Forestry Burning Activity in Washington and
Oregon, 1975-1977 45
4 Area of Commercial Timberland by Ownership Class 52
5 Summary of Timber Production by Type of Tree 55
6 Annual Forest Fire Particulate Production 59
7 Particulate Emission Factors 63
8 Emission Ranges 64
9 Estimated Emissions Due to Forestry Burning, 1977, in
Washington 65
10 Estimated Emissions Due to Forestry Burning, 1977, in
Oregon 66
11 Particulate Emissions from Logging Slash 72
12 PPOM from Burning Pine Needles by Fire Type 78
13 PPOM from Burning Pine Needles by Fire Phases 79
14 Trace Metal Emissions from Laboratory Burns of
Sugar Cane 80
15 National Ambient Air Quality Standards 86
16 NAAQS Attainment Status for Oregon and Washington 87
17 Statewide Emissions for Oregon and Washington 104
18 Summary of Smoke Management Plan Restrictions for
Washington and Oregon 109
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TABLES (cont'd)
Number Page
19 Percent Problem burn Acreage by Month for 1975 Through 1977 113
20 Water Repellent Slash Coatings 118
21 Average Size of Problem Broadcast Burns 120
22 Air Curtain Burners Operating Capacity 122
23 Mechanical Slash Treatment Techniques 126
24 Properties of Herbicides Used for Forest Vegetative
Control 129
25 Wood Products from Slash 137
26 Heat Values of Various PNW Tree Species 139
27 Conversion of Slash Into Energy Products 141
28 Natural Decay Process of Western Hemlock 142
29 Cost Examples of Prescribed Burning Ignition Devices and
Burning Techniques in the Pacific Northwest 145
30 Cost Examples of Nonburning Techniques in the Pacific
Northwest 148
31 Class I Areas in Oregon and Washington 158
32 Sources of Wood Residue Materials Used for Wood
Products in the PNW 160
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The GEOMET staff sincerely appreciate the cooperation of the many field
experts interviewed for this report. In addition, special thanks are extended
to the following people for their monumental efforts which insured the produc-
tion of a document of the highest possible technical quality.
David Bray, USEPA Region X, our EPA Task Manager, whose even-handed
study approach, guidance and technical advice provided the backbone
of this study.
The Steering Committee members who provided direction, reams of data
and constructive critiques throughout this project are:
Robert Wilson, USEPA, Region X
Darrell Weaver, DOE, Washington
Al Hedin, DNR, Washington
Robert Lamb (formerly with
USDA FS, Region 6)
Ralph Kunz, USDA FS, Region 6
Scott Freeburn, DEQ, Oregon
Stuart Wells, DOF, Oregon
Royce Cornelius, Weyerhaeuser Co.
The USDA FS staff who assisted in the coordination of our field activi-
ties and provided much technical information, advice and text review
are:
Craig Chandler
Edward Clarke
John Dell
R.W. Johansen
Leonidas Lavdas
Charles WcMahon
Ralph Nelson
Neil Paulson
John Pierovich
David Sandberg
William Shenk
James Torrence
Stewart Pickford, University of Washington, who gave advice and profes-
sional review of portions of this document.
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PROJECT STAFF
Project Manager
Benjamin J. Mason
Principal Authors
Jonathan D. Cook
James H. Himel
Rudolph H. Moyer
Contributing Authors
Robert C. Koch
Kenneth E. Pickering
Philip Tedder
John R. Ward
Robert H. Woodward
Technical Review and Editing - GEOMET, Incorporated
Douglas J. Pelton
John L. Swift
James E. McFadden
Judy M. Thomas
Publications, Graphics, and Reproduction
Leonora L. Riley
Anna E. Strikis
Jo Ann R. Koffman
Jacquelyn 6. Sanks
Efegenia G. Maxwel1
Marqaret M. Etzler
I. Lee Oden
Donald R. Cade
Sallie S. Morse
Graphics, Inc.
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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
The objective of this study is to establish, within the limits of state-
of-the-art techniques, the actual and potential air quality impact of pre-
scribed forestry burning on forest lands within the states of Washington and
Oregon with an emphasis on the region west of the Cascade Mountains. This
document evaluates the past, present and expected future impact of forestry
burning on ambient air quality, identifies alternative methods or alternatives
to forestry burning which could reduce the impact on air quality and evalutes
the technical and economic feasibility and effectiveness of each. Appropriate
conclusions are drawn with regard to possible short- and long-range actions
for minimizing the impact of prescribed forestry burning on air quality.
This study also establishes baseline information for describing the
magnitude and impact of existing and projected future emissions from for-
estry burning in the states of Washington and Oregon.
DEFINITION OF TERMS AS USED IN THIS REPORT
ACB: Air Curtain Burner—slash burner utilizing high-velocity, forced-air
circulation for rapid, complete combustion with insignificant visible
atmospheric emissions.
aerosol: A colloidal system in which the dispersed phase is composed of
either solid or liquid particles no greater than 1 micron in diameter,
and in which the dispersion medium is some type of gas, usually
air. Haze, most smokes, and some fogs and clouds may be regarded as
aerosols.
air quality: Atmospheric properties with respect to the presence of pol-
lutants which may impair health, visibility or general welfare.
allelopathy: Repressive effect of plants upon each other, exclusive of
microorganisms, by metabolic products, exudates, and leachates.
area burning: See broadcast burn.*
* Underlined terms are defined elsewhere in this definition of terms listing.
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area ignition: Fires set in many places throughout an area either simul-
taneously or in quick succession and spaced so that the entire area is
rapidly covered with fire.
available fuel load: The fuel load that will be consumed in a fire under
given conditions. Compare total fuel load.
backing fire: A prescribed fire or wildfire burning into or against the
wind or down the slope without the aid of wind. Compare head fire.
BIA: Bureau of Indian Affairs.
board products: A wood-based panel manufactured from small wood material,
usually sawdust or chips, agglomerated with an organic binder and
compression. These include particleboard, fiberboard, flakeboard.
broadcast burn: Burning of slash over a contiguous treeless area using any
of a number of ignition devices, burning patterns, and pretreatments.
Compare pile burn, understory burn.
brown and burn: The application of chemical desiccants or herbicides prior to
broadcast burning.
brush: Scrub vegetation and immature stands of tree species that do not
produce merchantable timber.
brushfield: A more or less temporary vegetative type, primarily of shrub
species, that occupies potential forest sites.
bucking: Sectioning of log to desired lengths for optimum handling and
utilization.
burning block: An area to be broadcast or understory burned as a unit within
one daily work period.
burying: A residue disposal treatment in which residue is collected, placed
in a large pit or trench, and covered with soil; usually done with a
tractor.
cable yarding: A logging technique to move logs to a loading area using
cables extending into a logging area from a stationary power unit.
May include use of skyline cable system, helicopter or balloon.
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chipping: (1) In residue treatment, the reduction of woody residue by a
portable chipper to chips that are left to decay on the forest floor.
(2) In utilization, the conversion of usable wood to chips, often at
the logging site, for use in manufacture of pulp, hardboard, energy, etc.
clearcutting: A harvest and regeneration system, normally applied to an
even-aged forest, whereby all trees are cut. Regeneration may be
artificial or natural, logging methods may vary, and clearcut areas may
be of any size.
commercial forest land: Land capable of or producing crops of industrial
wood and not withdrawn from timber utilization. Productivity in excess
of 20 ft3/acre/yr (1.4 m3/ha/yr) of industrial wood. Compare forest
land.
controlled burning: See prescribed burning.
convection: The transmission of heat by the mass movement of heated particles,
as circulation in air, gas, or liquid currents. In meteorology, convec-
tion refers to the thermally induced, vertical motion of air.
convective plume height: The elevation a plume attains due to buoyancy caused
by its initial increased temperature over ambient conditions.
convective smoke column: The thermally produced ascending column of hot gases
and smoke over a fire.
dbh: Diameter breast height, the diameter measurement of a standing tree
4-1/2 feet above ground level.
DEQ: Department of Environmental Quality, State of Oregon.
desiccant: A drying agent that kills tissues of living plants and causes
them to lose moisture and dry out. Compare herbicide.
designated area: Areas designated by the Smoke Management Programs as
principal population centers.
DOE: Department of Ecology, State of Washington.
duff: Forest litter and other organic debris in various stages of decompo-
sition, on top of the mineral soil, typical of coniferous forests in
cool climates where rate of decomposition is low and litter accumulation
exceeds decay.
emission factors: Statistical average of the amount of emissions released to
the atmosphere in relation to the amount of fuel burned. It is generally
expressed in Ibs/ton.
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emission rate: An estimate of the amount of emissions released over time.
It is generally expressed in Ibs/hr.
emissions: Gases and particles which are put into the atmosphere by
forestry burning.
fine fuels: The complex of living and dead herbaceous plants and dead woody
plant materials less than 1/4 inch (0.6 cm) in diameter.
fire behavior: The response of fire to its environment of fuel, weather, and
terrain including its ignition, spread, and development of other phenomena
such as turbulent and convective winds and mass gas combustion.
firebreak: A natural or constructed strip or zone from which all fuels have
been removed for the purpose of stopping the spread of fire or providing
a control line from which to attack a fire.
fire climax: A plant association, forest type, or cover type held at a
serai stage by periodic fires, therefore differing from the true climax
community; e.g., a Douglas-fir forest in the western hemlock zone.
fire danger: Resultant of both constant and variable factors—weather, slope,
fuel, and risk—that affect the inception, spread, and difficulty
of control of fires and the damage they cause.
fire hazard: The probability that a fuel complex defined by kind, arrangement,
volume, condition and location will form a special threat of ignition,
spread, and difficulty of suppression.
fire hazard reduction: Any residue treatment that reduces threat of ignition,
spread of fire, and its resistance to control. This may involve removal,
burning, rearrangement, burying, or modification such as by masticating
or chipping.
fire retardant: Any substance that reduces flammability by chemical or
physical action.
fire risk: The chance of a fire starting as determined by the presence and
activity of causative agents; usually divided into man-caused risk and
lightning risk.
fire season: The portion of the year during which fires are likely to occur,
spread, and do sufficient damage to warrant organized fire control;
strongly dependent on climate.
fire storm: An extremely intense fire drawing in surrounding gases and
creating a strong vertical convective plume.
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flash fuels: Fuels such as dried grass, leaves, dried pine needles, dead
fern, tree moss, and some kinds of slash which ignite readily and are
consumed rapidly when dry. Compare heavy fuels.
forest land: Land at least 10 percent occupied by forest trees of any size,
or formerly having had such tree cover, and not currently developed for
nonforest use. Compare commercial forest land.
forestry burning: See prescribed burning.
fuel loading: The amount of fuel present expressed quantitatively in terms of
weight of fuel per unit area. This may be available fuel or total fuel
and is usually dry weight.
fuel moisture content: The quantity of water in a fuel particle expressed as
a percent of the oven dry weight of the fuel particle.
Gaussian plume: A plume in which the concentration of the pollutant material
is distributed according to the normal distribution (the fundamental
frequency distribution of statistical analysis) in the crosswind and
vertical directions.
hazard reduction: Factors which may reduce fire hazard.
head fire: A fire spreading or set to spread with the wind and/or upslope.
Also heading fire. Compare backing fire.
head of fire: The most rapidly spreading portion of a fire's perimeter,
usually to the leeward or upslope.
heavy fuels: Fuels of large diameter such as snags, logs, and large limbwood
that ignite and are consumed more slowly than flash fuels.
herbicide: A chemical compound that causes physiological plant damage usually
resulting in death.
high-lead yarding: A method in which logs are dragged to the loading area
by cable, usually in contact with the ground. Compare cable yarding.
HLS: High Lead Scarification—cable scarification technique using a drum or
other heavy object to break up slash continuity and expose soil.
humus: That more or less stable fraction of the soil organic matter remaining
after the major portion of plant and animal residues have decomposed;
usually dark colored.
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hydrocarbon: The simplest organic compounds composed of hydrogen and carbon.
Hydrocarbons include gases, liquids, and solids and vary from simple to
complex molecules. They are divided into alkanes or saturated hydro-
carbons, cycloalkanes, alkenes or olefins, alkynes or acetylenes, and
aromatic hydrocarbons.
intensity: The rate of heat release per unit length of fire front. Generally
expressed in BTU/sec ft.
inversion (temperature inversion): A layer through which temperature increases
with altitude; e.g., nighttime inversion above the ground. Aloft, an
inversion layer separates warmer air above from cooler air below. This
most stable condition inhibits vertical motion of air.
ITF-FSU: Interim Task Force on Forest Slash Utilization, Senator John Powell,
Chairman, State of Oregon, 1977.
ladder fuels: Provide vertical fuel continuity between strata as between
surface fuels and crowns.
landing: Anyplace on or adjacent to the logging site where logs are assembled
for further transport. See yarding.
lee waves: An airflow pattern that develops on the downwind side of mountainous
terrain.
light burn: Degree of burn which leaves the soil covered with partially charred
organic material; large fuels are not deeply charred. Compare severe burn.
litter: The surface layer of the forest floor consisting of freshly fallen
leaves, needles, twigs, stems, bark, and fruits. This layer may be
very thin or absent during the growing season.
logging residue: Unmerchantable or otherwise unwanted woody material remaining
after a logging operation.
lopping: Cutting branches, tops, and small trees after felling, so that the
resultant slash will lie close to the ground. To cut limbs from felled
trees.
masticating: Breaking and crushing of residue in place with heavy equipment
including tractors and weighted rollers with cutting devices. Usually
limited to brush, thinnings, and small slash. Serves to lower height
of fuel and enhance its decay by increasing contact with the soil.
mixing layer: The surface layer of the atmosphere which is relatively unstable
compared with air at higher altitudes. The layer is strongly influenced
by the frictional and radiative effects of the earth's surface.
NFDRS: National Fire Danger Rating System.
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(O.D.) tons: Oven dried ton--2,000 pounds of fiberwood dried to a constant
weight at 105° C.
old growth: Timber stands of age and stature so as to resemble a "virgin"
forest in which the mean annual growth is declining.
old-growth stand: Loosely defined as a condition in which rate of tree growth
has passed its peak and normal processes of deterioration approach or
exceed stand growth.
OSMS: Oregon Smoke Management System.
RAM: Per Area Material--standard merchantable material measured per acre
area.
particulates: A component of polluted air consisting of any liquid or solid
particles suspended in or falling through the atmosphere. Particulates
are responsible for the visible forms of air pollution.
PF: Phenol formaldehyde--an organic binding agent for wood products.
pile burn: Burning of slash piled by PUM or YUM techniques. See PUM or YUM.
Compare broadcast burn.
plume: A cloud of pollutant material, containing emissions from a particular
source or group of sources, which is being dispersed in the atmosphere.
PM: Per thousand material—standard merchantable material measured per acre
area.
prescribed burning: The intentional ignition of grass, shrubs, or forest fuels
under weather and fuel conditions that will confine the fire to a prede-
termined area and produce the intensity of heat and rate of spread required
to accomplish planned forest management benefits including hazard reduction,
silvicultural and range improvement.
problem burn: Within the context of the Oregon Smoke Management Program, a burn
whose smoke plume intrudes into a designated area.
PUM: Piling Unmerchantable Material by hand or tractor in partially cut,
thinned, clearcut or right-of-way areas.
pyrolysis: Thermal decomposition of matter in the absence of oxygen.
pyrosynthesis: The synthesis of large molecules in the reducing region of the
flame.
rate of spread: The relative activity of a fire in extending its horizontal
dimensions. It may be expressed as rate of increase of the perimeter,
as a rate of forward spread of the fire front, or as a rate of increase
in area.
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residence time: The time an emission component is in the air between emission
and removal from the air or change into another chemical configuration.
residual smoke: Smoke produced after the initial fire has passed through the
fuel.
roughwood: Wood chips made from unbarked material.
scarification: Loosening the top soil of open areas, or breaking up the forest
floor in preparation for regenerating by direct seeding or natural seedfall.
Done to reduce vegetative competition and to expose mineral soil.
second growth: Natural or planted timber stands on areas previously logged or
cleared.
sere: One of a series of ecological communities succeeding one another in the
biotic development of an area.
severe burn: Degree of burn in which all organic material is burned from the
soil surface which is discolored by heat, usually to red. Organic matter
below the surface is consumed or charred. Compare light burn.
silvicultural burning: See prescribed burning.
site: An area considered in terms of the type and quality of the vegetation the
area can carry as indicated by its biotic, climatic, and soil conditions.
site preparation: Removal or killing of unwanted vegetation, residue, etc., by
use of fire, herbicides, or mechanical treatments in preparation for
reforestation and future management.
slash: A complex of woody forest debris left on the ground after logging, land
clearing, thinning, pruning, brush removal, or natural processes such as
ice or snow breakage, wind, and fire. Slash includes logs, chunks, bark,
branches, tops, uprooted stumps and trees, intermixed understory vegetation,
and other fuels.
slash and burn: Hand or mechanical cutting or impaction of slash material prior
to broadcast burning.
slash burning: See prescribed burning.
smoke episode: A period when smoke is dense enough to be an unmistakable
nuisance.
smoke management: A system whereby current and predicted weather information
pertinent to fire behavior, smoke convection, and smoke plume movement
and dispersal is used as a basis for scheduling the location, amount, and
timing of burning operations so as to minimize total smoke production and
assure that smoke does not contribute significantly to air pollution.
-8-
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smoke-sensitive area: An area in which smoke from outside sources is intoler-
able, owing to heavy population, existing air pollution, or intensive
recreation or tourist use.
smoldering combustion: Combustion of a solid fuel, generally with incandescence
and smoke but without flame.
spotfire: A fire produced by sparks or embers that are carried by the wind
beyond the zone of direct ignition by the main fire.
stability: The degree to which the vertical temperature structure of the atmo-
sphere restricts the rising and dispersion of air pollutants.
synergism: Cooperative action of two or more chemicals so that their total
effect is greater than the sum of their individual effects on the same
organism.
thinning: To reduce the number of trees per acre so that residual tree growth
will be enhanced.
total fuel load: The total quantity of inflammable material including slash,
brush, litter and duff on a given site, but not necessarily consumable.
Generally expressed in tons/acre. Compare available fuel load.
understory burn: A prescribed burn of low intensity used in forested areas
to achieve treatment objectives without damaging desirable vegetation.
USEPA: United States Environmental Protection Agency.
USDA-FS: United States Department of Agriculture-Forest Service.
USDOE: United States Department of Energy.
whole tree logging: Felling and transporting the whole tree without the
stump, but with its own crown, for trimming and bucking at a landing
or mill.
wildfire: An unplanned fire, not being used as a tool in forest protection
or management in accordance with an authorized permit or plan, which
requires suppression.
yarding: Moving of logs from stump to roadside deck or landing.
YUM: Yarding Unmerchantable Material by cable techniques, usually in areas
inaccessible to tractors.
-9-
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GENERAL BACKGROUND
Characterization of the Study Area
This study describes aspects of prescribed forestry burning and its impacts
in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States, encompassing the 165,173
square-mile area of the states of Washington and Oregon. The region has two
study areas (see Figure 1):
1. West Side—West of the Cascade divide to the Pacific Ocean
2. East Side—East of the Cascade divide to the Idaho border.
West Side—
Physiography—The physiographic subregions of the West Side according to
Franklin and Dyrness (1973) are:
t West Slopes of the Cascades—Glacier-formed valleys characterize
the west slopes of the Cascades. The ridge-top elevation grad-
ually decreases from approximately 2500 m in the north to approxi-
mately 1880 m in the south. Mt. Rainer (elevation 4420 m) in
Washington and Mt. Hood (elevation 3440 m) in Oregon are two of
the highest peaks in the Cascades.
t Puget Trough—The Puget Trough is situated to the west of the
Cascades in Washington and includes the Puget Sound in the north
and the Cowlitz and Chehalis River Valleys in the south. Inlets
and islands characterize the glaciated Puget Sound area. Ele-
vations in the southern portion of the Puget Trough seldom
exceed 160 m.
• Willamette Valley—The Willamette Valley, south of the Columbia
River, is an extension of the Puget Trough. This subregion is
characterized by broad valleys with low, intermittent hills. The
average elevation gradually increases towards the south and ends
where the Cascades and Coast Ranges converge in southern Oregon.
• Olympic Peninsula—The Olympic Peninsula includes the Olympic
Mountains and bordering flatlands. The Olympic Mountain Range
contains peaks up to 2420 m in elevation although most ridge
tops average around 1300 m.
• Coast Ranges—The Coast Ranges are located west of the Willamette
Valley and Puget Trough. It is an area of steep slopes and
abrupt ridges, especially in the southern part. The average
elevation of the ridge line is approximately 600 m with the
elevation of the highest peak at 1249 m. Mountain passes
lead to the Pacific Coast.
-10-
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-------
• Klamath Mountains—The Klamath Mountains are in southwest Oregon.
The average elevation of the ridge line is approximately 900 m
with the highest peak at 2280 m.'
C1imate--The West Side has a maritime-type climate characterized by
fairly dry summers and mild, wet winters.
The relatively small variation in seasonal temperatures on the West Side
may be attributed to the proximity of the Pacific Ocean and the Cascade Ranges.
Seasonal temperature variations in the Pacific Ocean are small compared to the
North American continent. The prevailing westerlies advect these moderating
temperatures inland. The Cascades shield the West Side from cold continental
air masses in the winter and hot air masses in the summer.
The precipitation pattern of the West Side, in Figure 2, is a product of
meteorological and topographical factors. According to Franklin and Dyrness
(1973), up to 85 percent of the precipitation falls between October 1 and
April 1. This is due to the north-south migration of the Pacific high and
the semipermanent low pressure cell found over the northern Pacific. During
the winter months this cell intensifies and moves southward causing the storm
track to be centered over the Pacific Northwest. The Klamath Mountains, Olympic
Mountains, Cascades, and Coast Ranges also affect precipitation. The pre-
vailing westerlies carry the moist Pacific air inland where it is lifted over
the ranges, cooled, and condensed. This moisture is precipitated on the
western slopes and higher peaks of these mountains producing an annual pre-
cipitation of 300 cm. A rain shadow exists in the Willamette Valley, Puget
Trough, and river valleys of the Klamath Mountains due to the westerlies
subsiding on the eastern slopes of the coastal mountains.
Stable atmospheric conditions are frequently found in the Puget Trough-
Willamette Valley region. These conditions are formed by radiational cooling,
subsidence, or a combination of the two. Inversions are also induced by warm
advection over a topographically trapped, surface-based layer of cold air.
Inversion-level heights are variable and are dependent upon the relative degree
of cooling and adiabatic warming of the air mass due to subsidence. These
conditions occur most frequently in the fall.
Graham (1953) reports that a natural pressure gradient wind funnel exists
in the Columbia Gorge between the West Side and the East Side. The Columbia
River flows through this narrow opening in the Cascade Range. The gorge pro-
vides an opening for the movement of continental air into the Puget Trough-
Willamette Valley area and likewise for the movement of maritime air into the
Columbia Basin. Dry continental air moving westward through the gorge produces
an increased fire danger. Other areas west of the Cascades are similarly
affected by westward movements of continental air.
Forest zones—The West Side is occupied by four major forest zones. Fig-
ure 3 shows the predominant tree species expected in each zone. Situations may
exist in these forest zones where large stands of subclimax tree species such as
red alder or plupiographic climax stands of trees such as western red cedar are
present. A complete list of West Side tree species is included in Appendix A.
-12-
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WEST EAST
SIDE SIDE
120 160250 250160 80 60 4030 30 40 50 60
60 60
30
30
30
,
-------
Figure 3. Forest zones of the Pacific Northwest
-------
• Douglas-f1r—Douglas-f1r (Pseudotsuga menziesii) occupies much
of the Coast Range, Olympic Peninsula, Puget Trough, and the
western slopes of the Cascades. Associated species may include
western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), sitka spruce (Picea
sitchenis), ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), and western red
cedar (Thuja plicata). Douglas-fir is commonly found in pure
stands. Red alder (Alnus rubra) often inhabits recently dis-
turbed areas. The understory contains a large array of shrubs
and herbs.
• Douglas-fir - Mixed Conifer--Doug1as-fir and mixed conifers are
found in the interior Klamath Mountain Range. This zone has a
variety of tree species including Douglas-fir, ponderosa pine,
tan oak (Lithocarpus densiflorus), sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana),
incense cedar (Libocedrus decurrens), and white fir (Abies
concolor).
• Hemlock - Sitka Spruce—Western hemlock and sitka spruce are found
along the coastal plains of the Pacific Coast and in some areas
of the Coast Range and western slopes of the Cascades. Associ-
ated species may include western red cedar, Douglas-fir, grand
fir (Abies grandis), and red alder. The understory may contain
a dense growth of shrubs and ferns.
• Spruce - Fir--Mixed spruce and fir are found along the crest of
the Cascades. This zone has a variety of tree species including
Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis), noble fir (Abies procera),
western hemlock, Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii) and sub-
alpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa). The understory may consist of
large shrubs, herbs or moss.
Potential impact areas—The potential impact areas on the West Side con-
si dere^~TTr^tnTs~Ttudy~TncTLrde population centers and recreation and wilder-
ness areas. Most of the West Side population centers are situated in the
Willamette Valley-Puget Trough area. Recreation and wilderness areas are
scattered throughout the region (Figure 4).
East Side—
Physiography—Figure 1 (shown previously) illustrates the physiographical
subregions of the East side.
The three major mountain systems found on the East Side are the eastern
Cascades, the Okanogan Highlands, and the Blue Mountains. The elevation of
the Cascades gradually decreases from 2500 m in northern Washington to approxi-
mately 1880 m in southern Oregon. Higher peaks such as Mr. Rainer (elevation
4420 m) and Mt. Hood (elevation 3440 m) protrude above the ridge-top. The
Okanogan Highlands, located in northeast Washington, are characterized by
rounded ridge tops with elevations up to 2400 m. The Blue Mountains in north-
east Oregon and southwest Washington contain several ranges with peaks reaching
2900 m in elevation.
-15-
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WEST EAST
SIDE SIDE
S *•
Belhngham ^
T acorn a
-•• >
_ Olympia*
Aberdeen-Hoquiam
Area
O Centralia 9
Portland
Area
• U • • • QT
Oregon 0 • , /•
CITIES
Population (xlOOO)
gO >ioo
[•) 50-100
® 20-50
O 10-20
Figure 4. Potential impact areas in Washington and Oregon.
-16-
WINTER SPORTS AREAS
CAMPSITES
STATE PARKS
ROADSIDE PARKS
NATIONAL PARKS &
-------
The remaining subregions consist of plateaus, rounded ridges and broad
valleys. The Columbia Basin is characterized by rolling hills ranging from
300 to 600 m in elevation. The High Lava Plains contain volcanic formations
from lava flows as recent as 2000 B.C. The average elevation is 1200 m.
The Basin and Range and the Owyhee Uplands average 1200 m in elevation with
isolated fault-block mountains attaining elevations of 2900 m.
Climate—The East Side climate is affected by the proximity of the
Pacific Ocean, Cascades, and Rocky Mountain Ranges. These geographic fea-
tures allow both maritime and continental air masses to move into the
region.
The precipitation pattern of the East Side is a product of several
factors. The moist maritime air carried by westerlies loses much of its
moisture on the Coast and Cascade Ranges. Clouds are further dissipated
by subsidence west of the Cascades. This results in an annual precipita-
tion of 20 to 40 cm in the lowlands. A local precipitation high of 100 cm
per year in the Blue Mountains and 60 cm per year in the Okanogan Highlands
is due to the lifting of these ridges.
The temperature regime of the East Side is governed in part by the
Rockies and Cascades. The Rocky Mountains to the east and north shield
this region from cold continental air masses in the winter. Likewise, the
Cascades block milder air during the winter. The summer months are normally
warm and dry. Extremes in temperatures occur during all seasons when the
region is under the influence of continental air.
Forest zones—Figure 3 (shown previously on page 14) shows that East
Side forests are predominantly found on the eastern Cascades, the eastern
third of the High Lava Plains, the Basin and Range subregion, the Okanogan
Highlands, and the Blue Mountains. Elsewhere, forests are found only in
river valleys and north-facing slopes.
The East Side is occupied by five major forest zones. East Side tree
species may be found in Appendix A.
t Ponderosa pine - Mixed conifer—Ponderosa pine and mixed
conifers occupy the eastern slopes of the Cascade Range,
the south-central area of Oregon, and sections of the Blue
Mountains and Okanogan Highlands. Associated species may
include western juniper (Juniperus occidental is), quaking
aspen (Populus tremuloides), lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta),
Oregon white oak (Quercus garryana), grand fir and the inner-
mountain variety of Douglas-fir. The understory of ponderosa
pine stands consists of shrubs and herbs.
• White pine—Western white pine (Pinus monticola) occupies an
area in northeastern Washington in association with lodgepole
pine, western larch (Larix occidentalis), and western hemlock.
-17-
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• Larch—Western larch occupies large areas in the Blue Mountains
of Oregon and the Okanogan Highlands of Washington. Associated
species include ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, and lodgepole pine.
• Lodgepole pine--Lodgepo1e pine occupies the eastern slopes of
the Cascades in Oregon and as nearly pure stands in the Okanogan
Highlands of Washington. Associated species include ponderosa
pine, Douglas-fir, western hemlock and western larch.
• Spruce - Fir—Mixed spruce and fir are found along the crest of
the Cascades. This zone has a variety of tree species including
Pacific silver fir, noble fir, westen hemlock, Engelmann spruce
and subalpine fir. The understory may consist of large shrubs,
herbs or moss.
Potential impact areas—Potential impact areas are scattered throughout
the East Side forest zones (Figure 4, page 16). Major recreation and wilder-
ness areas include part of the North Cascades National Park, Crater Lake
National Park, Ross Lake National Recreation Area, and all of Lake Chelan
National Recreation Area.
REASONS FOR BURNING
Prescribed burning is used to reduce or eliminate unwanted natural and
man-caused accumulations of slash, brush, litter or duff in a "controlled
application" so as to maximize net benefits with minimum damage and at an
acceptable cost (Williams 1975). Burning accomplishes three basic objectives:
1. To reduce the hazard of wildfire posed by excessive
fuel accumulations
2. To aid in siIvicultural activities
3. To improve grazing forage and wildlife habitat.
These objectives have long been associated with the timber-producing
regions of the Southeastern United States. The use of prescribed fire in
the timber-producing regions of Pacific Northwest is based on these same
objectives, but in technique and applicability may be as highly variable
as this region's vegetation, physiography and climate.
The appropriate use or nonuse of prescribed burning depends on an assess-
ment of site-specific variables including:1
• Fuel Factors—Fuel type, size, arrangement, continuity,
quantity, moisture; burninq characteristics; associated
Personal communication, J. Dell, USDA FS, November 29, 1977.
-18-
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vegetation; and adjacent fuel hazards (snags, private
slash, flammable brushfields, etc.)
• Topographic Factors—Steepness of slope; irregularity of
terrain (gullies, ridges, escarpments); elevation, and
slope direction (aspect)
t Weather and Climatic Factors—Prevailing wind directions;
vulnerability to high velocity east winds; smoke manage-
ment restrictions (distance from designated smoke sensi-
tive areas, local valley and canyon winds and their
influence on smoke drift and persistence, temperature
inversion patterns); allowable dry periods for burning;
and fire weather severity
t Accessibility Factors--Drive-in or walk-in distance
for preparation, burning, holding, and mop-up crews
and their equipment; and unit access in relation to
on-unit logging spurs, landings, natural barriers, etc.
• Manpower and Management Factors—Restrictions and
ceilings on manpower available to do the job; support
costs (clerical and business management, transporta-
tion, equipment, communications, etc.); and size of
unit.
Factors which may necessitate the use of prescribed burning instead of
mechanical treatment include steep slopes that are greater than 30 percent
and are not feasible for mechanical treatment, fragile soils which may be
highly credible if mechanically disturbed, and other environmental factors
for which fire may cause the least impact of available methods.
Hazard Reduction
A general concern for the threat of catastrophic wildfires in the heavily
forested areas of Washington and Oregon has resulted in extensive fire sup-
pression activities since 1910. Recent research indicates that past suppres-
sion activities and inadequate fuel management programs have enhanced the
threat of wildfires by allowing fuel loads in the forest to accumulate to
unnaturally high levels (Davis and Cooper 1963, Vogl 1971, Hall 1977). The
presence of heavy untreated slash concentrations in old-growth forests has
been attributed with enhancing the spread of major wildfires in recent years,
including the Tillamook, Oxbow and Wenatchee-Okanogan fires. Between 1973 and
1977, 44 percent of the wildfires on DNR-protected lands in Washington started
in logging and thinning slash.2
2
Personal communication, A. Hedin, Washington Department of Natural Resources, April 21, 1978.
-19-
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In an assessment of what can be done to reduce the number of destruc-
tive forest fires, Wilson and Dell (1971) point out that of the three major
factors which influence wildfire behavior - atmospheric conditions, topog-
raphy and fuel loads - we can modify only fuels loading.
Effective fuels management through fuel modification over vast areas is
not presently feasible, however, periodic precribed burning can be used to
create and maintain fuel breaks by removing dead fuels and highly flammable
understory vegetation. Roe et al. (1971) contend that judicious use of pre-
scribed burning can reduce the occurrence of costly and uncontrollable cata-
strophic wildfires. Burning will commonly dispose of fuel under 2 inches
in diameter and sometimes all material under 4 inches in diameter, whereas
increased utilization and cleaner logging techniques will not be as suc-
cessful as burning for eliminating fine fuels (Smith 1962).
Measurements by Anderson, Fahnestock, Philpot and others3 show that
wildfire may temporarily increase available fuel by killing green vegeta-
tion, but that prescribed burning will reduce total available fuels, the
rate of fire spread and the associated wildfire resistance to control.
This is accomplished through the interruption of the horizontal and some-
times the vertical continuity of flammable materials by the reduction of
highly inflammable fine fuels (Smith 1962). Hodgson 19684 showed that
doubling the amount of fine fuels doubled the rate of fire spread and pro-
duced a fourfold increase in fire intensity.
West Side--
Prescribed burning is used on the West Side to eliminate logging activ-
ity residues from the clear cut harvesting of Douglas-fir or other species,
which if not treated would remain a wildfire hazard for many years (Dell and
Green 1968). Unutilized slash may accumulate to "total fuel" loads in excess
of 50 tons per acre and can reach over 200 tons per acre in extreme cases
(Dell and Ward 1972). Of this "total fuel" load the finer materials includ-
ing foliage, twigs and small branches compose "available fuel" loads of from
20 to 40 tons per acre (Moore and Morris5). Martin et al. (1976) indicate
that the upper limit of available fuel loads, above which fires were prone
to "blow up" is between 5 and 7 tons per acre.
Fuel models of the mature West Side Douglas-fir timber type indicate
that in 1 hour a wildfire in slash fuels will be four times the size of a
fire burning in a natural fuel complex (Deeming et al. 1974). Evaluations
of the 14 major wildfires which have occurred in the Mt. Hood National Forest
during the period from 1960 to 1975 show that in each case, the fires either
started or gained momentum in accumulated logging slash fuels (Dell 1977).
As cited in Martin 1976.
As cited in Dodge 1972.
Contained in Cramer 1974.
-20-
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In contrast, the understory of western red cedar-forested areas on the
Olympic Peninsula are constantly wet and present very little wildfire hazard.
Field observations by the BIA indicate that slash beneath a forest canopy of
this type will not support a qround fire because of the high moisture content
of the fuel. Wildfires in this area are normally confined to clearings and
along roads.
East side —
Catastrophic wildfires in East Side ponderosa pine forests may be reduced
by restoring the natural component of periodic fire to the forest under con-
trolled conditions (Biswell et al. 1973). Wildfire damage is reduced by under-
story burning in five principal ways:
1. Reducing the volume of dead, highly flammable fuels
2. Thinning dense thickets of pine saplings and pole-
size trees
3. Raising the height of green tree foliage by needle
scorching, thus decreasing the chance of vertical
spread and crown fires
4. Eliminating understory trees, thus decreasing the
chance of vertical spread.
5. Eliminating ground litter, therefore allowing close
compaction of the subsequent needle-fall.
Studies by Weaver, Cooper, Biswell, Hall and others indicate that inter-
vals of 5 to 10 years approximate the natural occurrence of fuel-reducing
qround fires in ponderosa pine.
An example of the successful use of periodic understory burning to mini-
mize wildfire damage was demonstrated during the Penrold Butte, Arizona wild-
fire of June 1963. Figure 5 shows a stand of trees which had been understory
burned by prescription in 1956 and 1961 in which the wildfire was confined to
the ground and did no damage. However, as shown in the foreground, where no
previous understory burning had occurred, the wildfire killed 100 percent of
the trees.
Kallander 19657 concluded that understory burning in ponderosa pine
stands on the Fort Apache Indian Reservation, Arizona reduced the size of
wildfires on treated areas by over 60 percent. Observations by Davis and
Cooper (1963) showed that periodic prescribed burning in southern pine
reduced the number, size, intensity and destructiveness of wildfires.
Personal communication, R. French, Bureau of Indian Affairs, January 18, 1978.
As cited in Biswell et a.1. 1973.
-21-
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Figure 5. Looking onto Penrold Mountain where the Penrold Butte Wildfire of 1963
burned under die trees after two controlled bums, one in 1956 and the second in 1961.
There the wildfire did no damage. In the foreground there had been no controlled
burning and the wildfire killed all the trees, small and large. (Bitwell et al. 1973)
In 1968, Fahnestock studied the wildfire hazard of slash from precom-
merclal thinning of ponderosa pine on the Deschutes National Forest, Oregon.
He found that thinning to an 18 x 18 foot spacing generated up to 40 tons
of slash per acre. He concluded that this slash accumulation probably
represented as great a fire damage hazard in this thinned stand as did the
dense thicket prior to thinning.
In an earlier study, Weaver (1957)8 showed that three successive under-
story burns on the Colvllie Indian Reservation, Washington reduced fuel
loads from 21.5 tons per acre to 3 tons per acre.
Sllvlcultural
Historically, prescribed burning has been primarily used to reduce the
threat of wildfire. However, recent figures In the Pacific Northwest Indicate
an Increasing use of Sllvlcultural burning (Oregon, State of 1977m).
As cited in Biswell et al. 1973.
-22-
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reasons:9
Si 1vicultural burning may be utilized for one or more of the following
To Reduce Undesirable Brush Growth Competition for Sunlight
and Moisture—Unmerchantable brush species may occupy the
growing space of desirable tree species and reduce poten-
tial yields. However, this same brush cover may provide
essential protective shade for other desirable tree
species (Jemison and Lowden1().
To Remove Obstacles to Tree Planting, Thinning and Har-
vesting—Reducing large accumulations of slash improves
accessibility for tree planting and other siIvicultural
treatments; however, it may also increase seedling expo-
sure to heat, drought and animal damage (Jemison and
Lowden11). Harrison (1975) and Jemison and Lowden12
found that partial burning of slash pieces may kill
decay organisms outright and surface charring would
impede the rate of natural decomposition of the material,
impairing future access through the site for up to 50
years.
To Reduce the Threat of Insect and Disease Build-ups in
Slash Accumulations—Untreated slash may attract unde-
sirable levels of dwarf mistletoe, tussock moths or
pine bark beetles which can then damage residual trees,
especially those weakened or previously injured.
Hartesveldt et al. (1968)13 referred to the sterilizing
effect of fire in soil infested with pathogenic fungi.
However, Jemison and Lowden14 point out that the patho-
genic fungus Rhizini undulata is stimulated by fire in
some Pacific Northwest forests.
To Expose Mineral Soil for Reforestation Site Preparation—
The removal of surface duff and litter allows seed germina-
tion and seedling establishment in mineral soil; however,
9
From USDA FS PNW 1973, Slash Disposal Information Sheet.
10
Contained in Cramer 1974.
11 Ibid.
12
Ibid.
As cited in Dodge 1972.
14
Contained in Cramer 1974.
-23-
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intense burns may damage soil productivity, inhibiting15
seedling establishment and reducing growth potential (see
Environmental Effects - Soil).
West side—
Silvicultural burning on the West Side is used as a site preparation
tool on clearcut logging sites and nonproductive brush lands. However,
management objectives, budget constraints, weather problems and environmental
concerns limit the application of fire to less than 25 to 40 percent of the
total area treated each year depending on ownership.
Prescribed understory burning is presently used on a limited basis on the
West Side, but may increase in applicability as more "second growth" Douglas-
fir stands are intensively managed.17
"Old growth" Douglas-fir stands on the West Side may accumulate up to
several feet of litter and duff under natural conditions. Clearcut logging
activities in these stands may generate as much as 200 tons of slash per acre
(Dell and Ward 1972). Although no data are presently available to indicate
the impact of slash accumulations on total stocking in the Pacific Northwest,
field interviews indicate that slash-caused seedling mortality and site unplant-
ability will commonly reduce stocking to 50 percent of the normally expected
level/8
Prescribed burning after logging can reduce slash obstacles and expose
mineral soils as is necessary to establish new tree seedlings (Martin 1974).
This may be especially true for Douglas-fir, a species with serotinous cones
which regenerate best on fire-prepared seedbeds in the open. In a 1973 study
by Vyse and Muraro, broadcast burning reduced heavy logging slash and increased
planting site suitability for reforestation efforts. In the study area of
Vancouver Island, British Columbia, pretreatment slash loads ranged from 120
to 180 tons per acre. In this condition, 14 percent of the area was rated as
plantable with little or no difficulty. Broadcast burning reduced slash loads
to a level such that 100 percent of the area was rated plantable and the cost
of of planting was decreased.
In an earlier study, Morris 1970 observed 58 pairs of clearcut plots
in the Cascade and Coast Ranges of Oregon which were either burned or left
is
Contained in Cramer 1974.
16
Personal communication, A. Hedin, Washington Department of Natural Resources; S. Wells, Oregon
Department of Forestry.
17
Personal communication, F. Graf, Oregon Department of Forestry.
IS
Personal communication, F. Craf, Oregon Department of Forestry; A. Hedin, Washington Department
of Natural Resources.
-24-
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untreated. He concluded that burning consumed nearly all material up to
11 inches in diameter and reduced litter beds and rotten wood.
In field observations of several slash treatment study units on the
Wind River Experiment Forest - Gifford Pinchot National Forest, mechanical
piling of old growth Douglas-fir logging residue to a residual slash load of
15 tons per acre was sufficient to allow access for tree planting, but did
not reduce the 1 to 3 foot accumulations of duff and litter. Broadcast burn-
ing of similarly logged areas on the Gifford Pinchot did however reduce duff
and litter accumulations and expose the mineral soils.19
A 1977 survey in Oregon established that 30 percent of the 3.8 million
forested acres in the coast ranqe is underproductive., although the area
contains 70 to 75 percent of the State's best growing sites for commerical
Douqlas-fir stands (Oregon State 1977). Serai communities of alder and
associated brush species, especially salmonberry, thimbleberry and vine
maple now occupy Douglas-fir sites which were logged or otherwise disturbed
but not replanted with Douglas-fir. Washington has a similar problem.
Silvicultural burning is used as a site preparation tool for convert-
ing these immature alder stands and brushlands to the more desirable stands
of Douqlas-fir. An effective burn treatment may remove planting obstacles
and inhibit brush competition and eliminate the need for follow-up treat-
ments as is required when mechanical or herbicide treatments are used.20
In field applications, Publishers Time Mirror, Inc. found that prescribed
burning of brush prior to planting controlled competing brush species for up
to 5 years with no further brush treatment. However, in areas in which non-
burning mechanical or chemical treatments were used, follow-up chemical treat-
ments were necessary within 2 to 3 years.21 D. Robinson, Associate Professor,
Oregon State University, supported these findings in his testimony before
the ITF-FSU (September 13, 1977) in which he stated that burning will retard
brush growth for 2 to 5 years, allowing planted tree seedlings to become
established without additional treatments. However, Roberts (1975) found
that some shrub species resprout rapidly after a brown and burn treatment
and could necessitate follow-up application of selective herbicides.
Animal damage to established seedlings nay also be reduced by temporar-
ily eliminating animal habitats with fire. Studies by Hooven (1973, 1976)
show that prescribed fires may reduce small animal populations by as much as
50 percent by eliminating protective cover vegetation.
19
Personal communication and field observations with N. Paulson, USDA FS, October 7, 1977.
20
Personal communication, G. Lingler, USDA FS Sinslaw National Forest, November 11, 1977.
Personal communication, E. Feddern, Publishers Time Mirror, Inc., October 11, 1977.
-25-
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Mountain beaver (Aplodontin rufa) have been observed to clip up to 100 per-
cent of untreated plantations within a few weeks of planting. The application
of burning prior to planting in conjunction with post-plant trapping has been
shown to reduce mountain beaver damage td an insignificant level.22
East side--
Silvicultural burning on the East Side, in the form of periodic prescribed
understory burning, is used to enhance site conditions for seedling establishment
and to maintain open stand stocking to avoid growth stagnating competition
(Hall 1977).
Roe and Beaufait (1971) reported that the initial growth of ponderosa pine
seedlings may be as much as 50 percent greater on burned seedbeds as compared
to other nonburn seedbed treatments.
Weaver (1947)23 found that the growth rate of ponderosa pine is greatly
increased in fire-thinned stands as compared to unthinned stands. In another
study, Weaver24 also suggested that fire exclusion in ponderosa pine may lead
to greatly increased competition, weakening the trees and making them more
vulnerable to insect attack. Studies by Hall (1977) support Weaver's earlier
findings and indicate that the exclusion of fire or other thinning tools may
result in growth stagnation of ponderosa pine thickets. Instead of a
classical stand development in which dominant trees eventually eliminate
suppressed trees, stagnation over a period of 50 to 100 years may limit
diameter growth to 1 inch per 50 to 75 years and height growth to 4 to
6 inches per year.
Hall (1977) also found that fire may enhance the growth of ponderosa
pine by volatilizing growth inhibiting pine-specific allelopathic substances
which are suspected to accumulate in pine litter and associated soils. On
several sites where fire had been excluded and accumulations of litter were
present, the growth of ponderosa pine was significantly reduced while the
growth of nearby white and Douglas-fir appeared normal.
Prescribed burning has also been shown to effectively control competing
hardwoods underneath an established pine stand (Brender and Cooper 1968).
Experiments on the Hitchiti Experimental Forest near Macon, Georgia resulted
in the following conclusions:
» Prescribed fire effectively reduced hardwood stems 2 inches
dbh and smaller
Personal communication, E. Feddern, Publishers Time Mirror, Inc. , October 11, 1977.
23
As cited in Dodge 1972.
24
Ibid.
-26-
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t Repeated burns were necessary to control sprout growth
• Pine reproduction became established on burned-over areas
• Sufficient litter remained unburned on 10-20 percent of the
slopes to protect against soil erosion.
The present use of fire on the East Side may also help to control insect
infestation. Martin et al. (1976) mentions research underway to determine if
Douglas-fir tussock moth damage can be reduced by introducing periodic fire
to prevent the ingrowth of susceptible Douglas and true fir on sites more
suitable to pine.25 He also indicates that the severity of mountain pine
beetle (Dendroctonus monticola) infestations may also be reduced by periodic
burning to control tree spacing.
Wildlife and Range
Prescribed burning may be used to improve wildlife habitats and
enhance range conditions (Stoddard 1931, Mobley 1973). However, prescribed
burning objectives in the timber-producing areas of the Pacific Northwest
may preclude optimum prescriptions for wildlife or range. Mobley et al.
(1973) indicated that the size and frequency of a burn for timber manage-
ment will not always enhance the requirements of wildlife and range. It
may be that wildlife and range considerations are not a primary reason for
burning in these areas as are hazard reduction and siIvicultural improvement,
but rather are merely expected spin-off benefits.
Periodic prescribed burning will maintain important wildlife forage
and browse vegetation in areas where woody shrubs and trees would normally
invade. However, recent studies in the Pacific Northwest by Hooven (1973,
1976) indicate that the wildlife benefits from burning are generally no dif-
ferent than those derived from clear cutting, although specific vegetative
types and associated animal species will be affected differently (see OTHER
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS: Wildlife).
Prescribed burning may also enhance range conditions in East Side
ponderosa pine-type forests. Mobley (1973) indicated that grazing condi-
tions may be improved by fire in the following ways:
• Increased forage production
• Increased forage palatability
• Increased forage availability
25
Douglas-fir Tussock Moth Program, USDA FS Bend Silviculture Laboratory and the University of
Washington.
-27-
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• Increased forage quality
• Removal of dead material
• Reduction of competing vegetation.
Pearson et al. (1972)26 studied the effects of prescribed burning on
forage plants in a ponderosa pine-bunchgrass vegetative type. One year
after burning, the digestibility of forage plants increased and nitrogen
and phosphorus contents were higher. However, Stoddard et al. (1975)
indicated that repeated burning and overgrazing of perennial bunchgrasses
may perpetuate inferior subclimax stands of annual bromegrasses.
It is, however, evident that prescribed burning in ponderosa pine-
bunchgrass communities does increase forage production by reducing over-
story competition from trees and brush (Pearson 1967). Studies by Hall
(1977) in the Blue Mountains of Oregon concluded that crown cover in areas
of fire exclusion increased from a normal coverage of 50 percent to about
80 percent. The associated forage production was reduced from 500-600
pounds per acre to as little as 50 to 100 pounds per acre.
USDA Forest Service estimates indicate that of the 2,118,000 acres
cf ponderosa pine forests on the East Side which may be suitable27 for graz-
ing, 45 percent may be unavailable because of dense brush or trees.28
BURNING TECHNIQUES
The season and hour-of-day of a proposed burn treatment will affect the
fire behavior expected from a particular prescribed burning technique. Gen-
erally, when fuel is dry enough to burn efficiently, the hazard of wildfire
is great and when meteorolooical conditions are most suitable, fuels may not
burn efficiently (Harrison 1975). Preferred burning conditions will vary
with management objectives, but are generally within the following ranges
(Cooper 1975):
Fuel moisture content - 6-15 percent
Relative humidity - 30-50 percent29
Wind speed - 2-10 mph.
As cited in Stoddard et al. 1975, p. 438.
27
Less than 30 percent slope.
28
Personal communication, L. Volland, USDA FS, December 2, 1977.
20
Personal communication, R. Johansen, January 30, 1978.
-28-
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In the Pacific Northwest, meteorological conditions and smoke manage-
ment requirements limit the number of available days with optimal burning
conditions. These constraints have necessarily required burning during
the less than optimal periods of high fire hazard or high fuel moisture.
Ignition devices currently utilized with varying success in the Pacific
Northwest and in other regions of the country are listed with their respec-
tive advantages and disadvantages in Table 1.
Prescribed burning techniques employed in the Pacific Northwest may be
divided into three general categories: broadcast burning, pile burning and
understory burning. The successful application of each may vary depending
upon prevailing meteorological conditions, fuels and topography.
Broadcast Burning
Broadcast burning is an "in place" method of logging slash disposal and
brushland conversion. The size of the area burned and ignition devices and
technique used depend upon the particular environmental conditions and treat-
ment objectives on each site.
There are four basic ignition patterns commonly utilized for broadcast
burning: (1) strip, (2) ring, (3) center, and (4) area. Each pattern may be
influenced differently by local atmospheric conditions affecting the fire
behavior and resulting emissions (Beaufait 1966).
Strip Ignition—
Backing fires are set along the downwind side of the intended burn area
and allowed to "back" into the wind. Field studies indicate that total fuel
consumption by backfires consumed more litter fuel and less vegetative fuel
than do head fires (Hough 1968).
Head fires are set along the windward side of the intended burn area
and allowed to run with the wind. This type of fire front is typically fast
moving.
Strip head fires are parallel head fires set across the intended burn
area progressively from the downwind side toward the windward side. Flare-
ups may occur when fires meet.
Flank fires are set in strips parallel to the wind and allowed to
spread at an angle to the wind.
Ring Ignition —
Ring ignition is accomplished by firing the perimeter of the intended
burn area and allowing the fire to burn towards the center. This type of
ignition pattern is typically used in gentle terrain and light fuels.
-29-
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TABLE 1. PRESCRIBED BURNING IGNITION DEVICES
Ignition Device
Matches
Fusees
Propane torches
(backpack)
Diesel flame-
throwers
(truck-mount)
Diesel flame-
throwers
(backpack)
Hand drip torches
Very flares and
thermite
Type of
Burn
Understory
Broadcast,
Pile
Broadcast,
Understory
Broadcast
Broadcast,
Understory
Broadcast,
Pile,
Understory
Broadcast,
Pile
Advantages
Always available in
quantity
Rapidly dispensed
Light in weight,
convenient
May be extended on pole
Hot, concentrated flame
Relatively long -burning
May be thrown
Very hot flame
Long burning
Maintain own pressure
Good for piled slash
Long residual flame
Long burning
Fast roadside ignition
Wide ignition pattern
Residual flame
Easy refill
Residual flame
Light and portable
Fast igniting
Some residual flame
Remote ignition possible
Disadvantages
Require fine, dry fuels
Localized ignition
Poor in wind
Require fine fuels
Localized ignition
No residual flame
Heavey and awkward
Time-consuming refill
Refill can be hazardous
No residual flame
Restricted to near
roads
Require gasoline pump
Require large quantities
of fuel
Heavy and awkward
Require pressurizing
Need frequent refills
Awkward in heavy
slash
Relatively costly
May burn too hot for
Reference
Beaufait 1966
Beaufait 1966
Beaufait 1966
Beaufait 1966
Beaufait 1966
Beaufait 1966
Beaufait 1966
grenades
Jelled petroleum Broadcast,
(Napalm) in Pile
sausage casings or
cannisters
slash ignition
May be ignited with fuse Require presetting
Heli torch
Broadcast
Napalm grenade Broadcast
or electrically
Good for piled slash
Persistent flame
May be preset days ahead
Remote ignition
Rapid dispensing
Good for inaccessible slash
Residual flame
Forty sec pull fuse
Hand thrown remote
ignition
Persistent flame
Requires constant
surveillance
Time-consuming to
layout
Poor in hardwood
in marginal weather
Poor in hardwood
Schimke &
Dell 1969
Beaufait 1966
Hedin 1977
Dell & Ward 1967
-30-
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Center or Internal Ignition—
Center or internal iqnition is accomplished by iqnitinq the center of
the burn block and allowing the fire to burn towards the perimeter.
Area Iqnition--
Area iqnition is accomplished by checkerboard firinq or spot iqnition
of the burn block and allowinq each spot to burn into another.
One or more of the followinq mechanical or chemical pretreatments may
be used in combination with broadcast burninq.
Slash and Burn--
Unmerchantable loqs, saplinqs and brush remaininq after a clearcut loq-
ginq operation or present on a potential timber-growinq site may be mechani-
cally or hand-cut (slashed) and then broadcast burned. ,
Mechanical "Hydro-axe" and "Tomahawk" slashers operate efficiently in
relatively small slash, but are restricted to areas accessible by tractor.
Observations on the Deschutes National Forest indicate that Tomahawk treat-
ment without follow-up burninq does not substantially reduce wildfire
hazard (Section 5 - ALTERNATIVES TO BURNING). A 2- to 3-month interim
period between slashing and burninq may be required to allow enough desic-
cation and compaction of fuels for an efficient burn treatment.31
Brown and Burn—
Green slash and brush areas may be more efficiently burned if treated
with chemical herbicides or desiccants 2 weeks32 to 12 months33 prior to
broadcast burninq. The herbicides and desiccants used and application
rates are shown in Table 2.
Field applications by the Hashinqton Department of Natural Resources
demonstrated that the application of the contact herbicide Dinitro followed
by mass iqnition broadcast burninq produces satisfactory fire behavior in
situations where conventional torch iqnition would be ineffective (Hurley
and Taylor 1974). Mass iqnition utilizes helitorch or napalm iqnition
devices discussed previously in Table 1. Entire burn blocks may be envel-
oped within minutes with hiqh fire intensity characteristics.34
30
Personal communication, W. Shenk, USDA FS PNW, November 11, 1977.
Personal communication, E. Feddern, Publishers Time Mirror, Inc., October 11, 1977.
32
Hurley and Taylor 1974.
Personal communication, E. Feddern, Publishers Time Mirror, Inc. , October 11, 1977.
34
Personal communication, A. Hedin, Washington Department of Natural Resources, October 5, 1977.
-31-
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TABLE 2. BROWN AND BURN HERBICIDES AND DESICCANTS
Name
Tordon 101
2,4,D
2,4,5,7
Round-up
Paraquat
Dinitro
Chemical Structure
4-Amino 3, 5, 6 - Trichloropicolinic acid
2,4 Dichlorophenoxy acetic acid
2,4,5 Trichlorophenoxy acetic acid
N (Phosphonomethyl) glycine
1, 1' Dimethyl-4,4' Bipyridinium methane sulfanate
2 Sec Butyl 4, 6 Dinitro phenol
Application Rate*
1/4-8 Ib/Ac
1/4-4 Ib/Ac
1 -4 Ib/Ac
N/A
1/2 Ib/Ac
1-12 Ibs/Ac
* Thomson, W. T. 1977, Agricultural Chemicals Book 2: Herbicides
In a study by Roberts (1975), brown and burn treatment of brushfields
in western Oregon prior to reforestation efforts was shown to greatly enhance
the potential of planted conifers to assume dominance. The competing over-
story of red alder was completely removed and other hardwoods and tall
shrubs reduced. The author did however point out that shrub resprouting
was rapid and could provide significant site competition necessitating
follow-up applications of selective herbicides.
Pile and Burn--
Pretreatment of larqer typically "unavailable" fuels by PUM or YUM
techniques may increase the efficiency of broadcast burning (Dell 1977).
The remaining small dimensional fuels would produce a low intensity burn
with less smoldering material, thus reducino the residual burn-out time
or smoldering stage.
Pile Burning
Pile burning of slash is accomplished by PUM or YUM techniques to
concentrate material into piles or windrows.
PUM is accomplished by tractor or hand. Tractor piling is limited to
slopes less than 30 to 35 percent where soils will not be adversely affected
by tractor compaction. In areas accessible to tractors, continual bunching
of the material as the burn progresses increases the fire intensity and mate-
rial consumption (Harrison 1975). Tractor movement may also scarify the site,
exposing mineral soil for favorable reaeneration planting sites (Beaufait
1966). However, the use of tractors nay also decrease burning efficiency
and increase the chance of residual smoldering by mixing soil and rock with
the slash to be burned. Harrison (1975) points out that this problem may be
elipinated by the use of 3 "rock rake" instead of a dozer blade attachment.
Windrow piling utilizes crawler and ignition crews more efficiently than
standard PUM techniques (Beaufait 1966). Vertical windrowing may reduce soil
erosion by directing tractor scrapinn across the slope and allow for more
-32-
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efficient fire control when the windrows are burned from either the bottom
or top of the slope. Field applications by Boise-Cascade (Elmgren 1977)
show that tractor windrow piling and burning using a helicopter drip torch
is a cost-effective means of disposing of logging slash to allow for refor-
estation.
YUM is accomplished by "high-lead" or other cable logging machinery on
slopes inaccessible to tractors. Slash material is pulled to the log land-
ing or road, concentrated in piles and later burned.
Present Forest Service timber sale contracts in the Pacific Northwest
may contain YUM or PUM provisions, requiring that loggers yard or pile all
slash over 5 to 8 inches in diameter (Harrison 1975). This facilitates
pile burning or exportation for utilization (see Section 5 - ALTERNATIVES
TO BURNING). Hall (1967) found that pilina or windrowing of slash before
burning substantially increases the percentge of total material and pieces
larger than 4 inches in diameter that will be consumed. However, Burwell
(1977b) indicated that the extreme fire intensity of pile burning may also
sterilize the soil beneath the pile site (see OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS:
Soil).
Pile burning may be utilized when insufficient fuel is available to
support a broadcast burn or when burning must be done during wet or snowy
periods (Beaufait 1966). An ignition spot can be kept dry using a covering
of paper, tar paper or plastic. Favorable meteorological conditions for
smoke dispersion during the winter months increases the desirability of
deferred pile burning. Pile burning may also be utilized during the summer
wildfire season when extreme fuel and meteorological conditions would nor-
mally preclude broadcast burning. Cooper (1975) indicated that pile burning
may reduce the risk of fire escape by eliminating the need for predictable
directional winds as are desired when broadcast burning.
Material combustion by pile burning or broadcast burning may result
in air pollution due to incomplete combustion. Unburned emissions escape
when temperatures above the fire decrease to levels insufficient for com-
plete combustion as shown in Figure 6.
Portable fans may be used to increase the combustion of pile-burned
material by supplying oxygen and a measured amount of fuel oil although
Harrison (1975) observed that combustion efficiency is only "marginally"
improved.
Understory Burning
Understory burning can be used in forested areas to efficiently reduce
undesirable light fuel loads without damaging desirable residual vegetation.
Strip ignition patterns as described on page 29 are typically utilized for
understory burning.
-33-
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PILE I BURNING
>f
Broadcast Burning
Figure 6. Incomplete combustion temperature profile of pile or broadcast burn.
(Harrison 1975).
Schimke and Green (1970) indicated that a controlled flame height of
2 feet or less would efficiently consume litter and duff fuels and reduce
brush and other undesirable veqetation. Martin35 indicated, however, that
a flame height of 5 feet may be used to give a 20-foot scorch height for
pruninq or reducing mistletoe infestation. The application of a particular
ignition device and pattern may not always produce a fire intensity and rate
of spread that will meet these objectives.
Burning heavy accumulations of thinning or partial-cutting slash which
may cause unacceptable fire damage to residual trees can be left to decompose
for 4 to 6 years before burning (Dieterich 1976). This untreated thinning
slash may be reqarded as a high wildfire hazard and require "extra protection"
until treated or sufficiently decomposed (see Section 5 - ALTERNATIVES TO
BURNING).
35
Personal communication, R.E. Martin, USDA FS, July 18, 1978.
-34-
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PRESCRIBED FIRE IN FOREST MANAGEMENT - OVERVIEW
This report has thus far introduced prescribed burning in the context
of forest management applications, the reasons for burning and the burning
techniques utilized. Prescribed burning has been shown to be a useful man-
agement tool when the fire can accomplish silvicultural objectives without
adversely affecting other environmental resources. However, the absence of
comprehensive guidelines for the use of prescribed fire in the Pacific
Northwest may evidence the difficult task of developing prescriptions for
all environmental conditions and management objectives. It may also attest
to the notion that "...prescribed burning is still more of an art than a
science."
This section is an overview of the economic and other environmental
impacts of prescribed burning. They would not normally be addressed in
a study of the impact of forestry burning upon air quality, but may be
of importance for a clear and total understanding of the overall impli-
cations of prescribed burning and the trade-offs which must be con-
sidered in its use, or the use of a nonburning alternative technique.
Economic Impacts
Section 317(a)(4) of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977 requires
that any action taken by the EPA Administrator which would be used to
prevent deterioration of air quality must be preceeded by an Economic
Impact Assessment. The requirements of this act are quite similar to the
information needed to provide an economic assessment of the impacts of
forest burning upon air quality along with the potential for alternate
management techniques.
A discussion of the economics of forestry burning and nonburning alter-
natives are presented in Section 5.
Other Environmental Impacts
The impact of prescribed burning on other forest resources is briefly
discussed in this section to provide background information necessary to fully
understand the potential environmental impacts from alternative nonburning
techniques as discussed in Section 5 (see Section 5 - ALTERNATIVES TO BURNING).
In general, although the immediate impact of fire is often intense and dra-
matic, long-term effects are usually buffered by the natural regenerative
ability of forests. In many instances fire is recognized as a natural com-
ponent of forest ecosystems, guiding the successional progress of plant and
animal communities. Douglas-fir forests throughout the Pacific Northwest are
an intermediate sere resulting from catastrophic fire disturbances. They
exemplify the natural role that fire has played in the characterization of
this region.
-35-
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Water—
Prescribed burning may indirectly affect the quality of surface water
if riparian vegetation is reduced. Mobley (1973) observed that a reduction
in veqetative cover will increase surface runoff. The resulting erosion
may wash mineral soils and nutrients into adjacent streams, increasing the
turbidity and altering the chemical content of the water. Snyder (1975)
measured increased levels of pH, electrical conductivity, nitrate, bicar-
bonate, sulfate, potassium, calcium and magnesium in streams adjacent to
burned areas. Organic nitrogen may constitute up to 53 percent of the
nutrient increases (Fredriksen 1971). Water temperature has increased
by as much as 11.4°C (Levno and Rothacher 1974).36 However, these effects
are expected to be temporary, diminishing as the riparian vegetation
becomes reestablished.
Fire intensity, and the associated consumption of surface duff and
litter, affects soil credibility (Dyrness and Youngberg 1957). Light
burning may partially consume duff and litter accumulations, but does not
affect physical soil properties. Severe burning may consume all litter
and duff and expose mineral soils to erosion. Soil credibility will vary
with slope and soil type. However, there are several factors that can
minimize the impact of severe burninci on soil credibility:
0 Severely burned areas are not usually found on steep
slopes which are normally most susceptible to erosion.
• Severely burned areas are usually small and scattered.
• Fire may form a protective crust on some soil types.
The effects of prescribed burning on water guality may be minimized
bv leaving a forested buffer strip between burn areas and adjacent streams
(USDA FS 1973).
Veqetation--
Prescribed burninq can significantly alter the vegetative composition
or perpetuate a successional stage of a forest. Studies in the Pacific
Northwest by Habeck et al. (1973) and Hall (1974) show that periodic fires
may reduce the incursion of competing tree species into dominant forest
stands. Fire may also facilitate tree regeneration by freeing serotinous
cone seeds, exposing mineral soil seed beds and releasing soil minerals
and nutrients (Roe 1971, Heinselman 1970).
Several factors contribute to the decree of vegetative tolerance to
fire. The immediate lethal effect of fire is due to combustion and heat.
As cited in Cramer 1974.
-36-
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Temperatures above 55 to 60°C may result in cell death. However, the tem-
perature required to kill veqetative tissue is inversely related to the time
of exposure. Douglas-fir phloem, cambium and foliage which can withstand a
temperature of 49°C for 1 hour will succumb to a temperature of 60°C within
1 minute (Martin 1977).
Tree species exhibit varying degrees of tolerance to fire. Mature
ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir and larch are considered to be extremely fire
resistant because of their characteristically thick bark, buds and stems,
although young saplings of these species are relatively sensitive to fire.
Fire-sensitive species include lodgepole pine, western white pine, true
fir, Engelmann spruce, and quaking aspen. However, Roe (1971) observed
that the fire tolerance of tree species may depend on site conditions as
reflected by the successional position of the species.
Issac (1943) reported that fire will inhibit or eliminate many shrub
species including salal, Oregon grapes, vine maple, and salmonberry. How-
ever, many shrub species that are totally consumed by fire above ground
will sprout prolifically from root crowns. Fire may also enhance the regen-
eration of shrubs with heat-germinated seeds (Haebeck and Mutch 1975).
Vogl (1969), Hooven and Black (1976), Lyon (1972) and others reported
that the density and diversity of herbaceous and grass species increase
after burning.
Wildlife—
Hooven (1973), Reeves (1973), and the University of California (1971)
stated that prescribed burning benefits large animals by increasing browse
palatability and accessibility. Swanson (1970) and Harper (1971) have docu-
mented the improved habitat for large game following prescribed burning in
Douqlas-fir stands of western Oregon.3' Komarek found that following a burn,
resprouting shrubs and herbaceous species contain high nutrient levels of
protein, calcium, potash, and phosphorus.38 Brown and Krygier (1967) reported
that browse reaches optimum conditions for Roosevelt elk 7 years after logging
and for deer 15 to 20 years after logging.39 Hall (1971) reported that the
exclusion of understory burnings has a long-term detrimental effect on wild-
life by reducing cover and forage. Three shrub species contribute browse in
dense fir stands while eight contribute in open park-line ponderosa pine
stands.
The altering of the habitat by prescribed burning may have varied effects
on other mammals. Hooven (1969), Tevis (1956a) and Moore (1940) found that deer
As cited in Cramer 1974.
Q Q
As cited in Hooven 1973.
39 Ibid.
-37-
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copulations return rapidly followinq a broadcast burn.40 Koehler found that
nine marten populations decreased immediately after a fire but in the long-run
the new habitat supported more martens.41 Hooven and Black (1976) found a
smaller shrew population on a slash-burned Douglas-fir clearcut than on the
adjacent mature stand due to a decreased insect population on the burned plot.
However, field mice were found to be more prevalent on the burned area.
Observations indicate that prescribed burning has little adverse effect
on bird populations (USDA FS 1973). Fire may indirectly benefit bird popula-
tions by enhancing the growth of protective shrub cover and exposing seeds and
insects. Stoddard (1931, 1962) showed that fire exclusion was responsible
for a decline in quail populations in the Southeastern United States. In the
Pacific Northwest many birds, including quail, are attracted to clearcut areas
that have been burned (Hooven 1973).
Hilderness and Aesthetics--
Increasing public interest in "pristine" wilderness areas has identified
a need for a better understanding of the natural role of fire in forests.
Fire is a most common natural disturbance that will shape a forest stand and
characterize the forest community (Smith 1962). The visually pleasing open
park-like stands of oonderosa pine forests have been perpetuated by periodic
understory burning and the habitat of many wild animals and desirable veaeta-
tive species have been enhanced by fire treatments.
There are no definitive studies in the Pacific Northwest showing how
people react to specific prescribed burning treatments. However, Williams
(1975) indicates that, in general, public reaction to burning will be emo-
tional and negative.
The visual impacts of prescribed burning may elicit the most reaction.
Harrison (1975) observed that the large partially burned pieces of slash and
cull logs that remain after burning give an appearance of vast waste, although
actual destruction is much less than would be expected from a catastrophic
wildfire. Also, the smoke from forestry burnina may be displeasing in rural
areas which are not common!v associated with atmospheric pollutants, although
Hough and Turner (1972)42 found that there is not a direct correlation between
visible smoke and the amount of burnino activity.
Public sentiment against burning, if any, may in part be attributed to
the success of the USFS "Smokey the Bear" campaign coupled with a lack of
understanding of the reasons for prescribed burning and a lack of scien-
tific knowledge of potentially detrimental environmental impacts.
4(1
As cited in Cramer 1974.
41
As cited in Moore 1976.
42
As cited in Williams 1975.
-------
Soils--
Hall (1977), Stone (1971) and Wells (1971) all point out a basic factor
that must be kept in mind when assessing the effects of fire on soil. There
are short-term influences that alter the productivity (both for good and
bad), but the soil system tends to buffer these effects and fairly rapidly
return to an equilibrium not too different than that seen before the burn.
These soils developed under conditions of periodic burning by either wild-
fires or those set by the aboriginal populations.
Dyrness and Youngberg (1957a, b), Tarrant (1956a, b), and Ralston and
Hatchell (1971) have all evaluated the effects of fire on soil physical
properties and have all concluded that there is essentially no significant
effect unless the fire is severe. This occurs in less than 10 percent of the
area during broadcast burns. These severe burns occur under piles of slash
that often accumulate in the bottoms of draws and on log landings.
This effect could present a problem for PUM and YUM operations where
5 percent of an area's soils may be sterilized by the severe burns under
piles. By judicious placement of piles, the effects can be minimized.
Any disturbance to the soil is likely to alter erosional patterns, how-
ever, Ralston and Hatchell (1971) note that these factors are ameliorated
with the invasion of shrubs and forbs into the area following the burn.
Dyrness and Youngberg (1957a, b) point out that on the lightly burned areas
erosion should not be markedly different from the unlogged areas; however,
more research needs to be done in this area and Ralston and Hatchell (1971)
voice this same conclusion.
Nutrient regimes are definitely altered by fire. Some factors are bene-
ficial, others detrimental. The work by Grier and Cole (1971) at the Univer-
sity of Washington indicate a definite release of nutrients to the soil, but
notes that these are rapidly adsorbed onto the soil colloids. A more striking
finding was reported by Wells (1971). The loss of nitrogen (N) from the lit-
ter was offset by the same rate in accumulation in the 0-2" layer of mineral
soil. Wells (1971) reports that the increased burning leads to a stimulation
of nonsymbiotic fixation of N. Stone (1971) speculates that this is most
likely brought about by blue-green algae, which have been shown by Jurgensen
and Davey (1968) to be present in acid forest soils and are known to be stim-
ulated by increased pH which could result from the released nutrients after a
burn. This increase in N fixation along with the mineralization is believed
to be the reason that there is little apparent loss of available N following
a fire on some sites.
In comments on Wells' (1971) paper, Dr. William L. Pritchett of the
University of Florida Soils Department, observes that fire is a rapid method
of oxidizing the organic matter on the forest floor; the same action is car-
ried out over longer time periods by microorganisms. Dr. Charles Davy of North
Carolina State University makes a similar observation in conjunction with a
paper by Jorgensen and Hodges (1971). Davy notes that the organic matter in
-39-
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the A, horizon of the soil is on the order of 300 to 800 years old. The
r>aterial destroyed by fire is not this "old" material but the less resistant,
readilv oxidizable material. The key to the effects aqain depends upon the
severity of the burn.
In summary, the consensus of opinion held by most forest soils specialists
is that prescribed fires have relatively little effect on the soil system and
that those effects that are seen are rapidly offset by the homeostatic tenden-
cies of the ecosystem.
Political Setting
Any use of fire in wildland settinas is an open invitation for contro-
versy. Foresters themselves are often in disagreement over the use of pre-
scribed fire.43 Data have not been accumulated that enable.a sound scientific
evaluation to be made of the impact of fire on the ecosystem. Policy has
been set based upon the emotions of the hour, i^lajor conflagrations which
oriqinated in the early part of this century led to legislative mandates that
said in effect: "There shall be no fires in the forest." The effort to edu-
cate the public to this goal through "Smokey the Bear" has been perhaps one
of the best advert is inn schemes ever developed. In effect, it has been too
successfu 1.
The "no burn" philosophy of the first half of this century is slowly
qivinq way to a more rational management goal, that of using fires as an
effective management tool. This is reflected by the U.S. Forest Service
Operations Manual,44 where the following statement is made:
"Protectinq and managing forest and range environments
for enhancement of productive potential in terms of wood,
forage, water and recreation necessitates use of con-
trolled burning."
The use of burning as a forest management tool is inevitably controver-
sial. Mot only does it run counter to the vision of fire as the enemy of
forests and man which the Forest Service itself has so effectively engendered
o»er many years, but it now appears to much of the public as a threat to
environmental values about which the public had been little concerned as
recently as 25 years ago. Among the new environmental values which controlled
burning is seen to threaten are air quality, visibility, energy conservation,
resource utilization and the ineffable values of what seems to the city-
dweller's eve to be "wilderness" countrv.
43
44
Smith, David M. The Practice of Silviculture. 7th ed. , John Wiley & Sons, Inc. , New York 1962.
U.S. Forest Service Manual, Region 6, Supplement No. 62. February 1972. U.S. Department of
Agriculture.
-40-
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The new environmental consciousness has been enacted into environmental
laws, among which the Federal Clean Air Act, particularly in its amendments
of 1970, 1974 and 1977, provides mandates to the states to preserve the qual-
ity and appearance of their air in ways which are not readily compatible with
the use of controlled burning in forest lands.
The stage has been set for controversy. On both sides the issues are
expressed in terms of law, health, economics and available technologies,
but there is a strong emotional underlay to the arguments. The advocates
of environmental protection (in this case, the advocates of severe limita-
tions on controlled burning) are defending a landscape as well as tangible
values. Those responsible for implementing a policy of controlled burning
as a forest management tool react emotionally, as well as logically, against
a perceived threat to an industry, to an individual's job, or to an individ-
ual's ego. The employees of government agencies find themselves engaged in
arguments on both sides of the issue, arguments which must be based in law
and the marshalling of facts but which are difficult to disentangle from the
emotional, and often political, background of the issues.
Early efforts toward meeting the requirements of the Clean Air Act and
other air quality legislation were directed toward the more obvious sources
of pollution. Slash fires were considered to be an "uncontrolled" source.
Even though action to eliminate the use of fire was not instigated, efforts
have been made to control the smoke emissions from the fires. Both
Washington and Oregon have an active smoke management plan. These plans
regulate the use of fire through the respective forestry organizations who
are responsible for issuing burning permits. These programs have become
increasingly effective as experience is gained in predicting smoke behavior
under varying fuel, terrain and meteorological conditions.
The Federal and State agencies concerned with managing environmental
quality and forestry production are increasingly aware of the interactions
of their mandates and programs. Public awareness, still without a full under-
standing of all the issues involved, is also increasing in this area. Over
the years the general public have not been overly tolerant of smoke. This
attitude, along with the potential for health problems resulting from smoke
inhalation, has created public reactions that are becoming more and more
difficult to anticipate. Public pressures led the 1977 Oregon Legislature
to take a serious look at the use of fire in grass seed production areas of
the Willamette Valley. House Bill 2196 resulted. This bill states in
Section 4:
"468.455. [In a concerted effort by agricultural inter-
ests and the public to overcome problems of air pollution,
it is the purpose of ORS 468.140, 468.150, 468.290 and
468.455 to 468.485 to provide incentives for development
of alternatives to open field burning, to phase out open
field burning and to develop feasible alternative methods
of field sanitation and straw utilization and disposal.]
In the interest of public health and welfare it is declared
to be the public policy of the state to control, reduce
-41-
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and prevent air pollution caused by the practice of open
field burning. Recognizing that limitation or ban of the
practice at this time, without having found reasonable
and economically feasible alternatives to the practice
could seriously impair the public welfare, the Legisla-
tive Assembly declares it to be the public policy of the
state to reduce air pollution by smoke management and to
continue to seek and encourage by research and develop-
ment reasonable and economically feasible alternatives
to the practice of annual open field burning, all con-
sistent with ORS 468.280."
Hearings and implementation of this legislation have revealed the
nature of "prescribed" fire to generate political heat along with combus-
tion products. The fact that slash fires occur at the same time the grass
fields are burned was noted during the hearings on Oregon House Bill 2196.
This raised the question as to the source of smoke in the Eugene-Springfield
area. In an effort to further identify the impact of forest burning upon air
quality, a Joint Interim Task Force on Forest Slash Utilization was set up
by the Oregon State Legislature. This task force is attempting to determine
a course of action for the State of Oregon in regard to reducing the air
quality effects of prescribed burning. Foresters are quite concerned over
the potential loss of the use of fire as a management tool.
The Federal Clean Air Amendments of 1977 passed by Congress in August
1977 place another potential restriction on the use of fire. These amend-
ments contain three sections that have a potential effect in the Northwest.
This act requires: (1) that significant deterioration of air quality will
not be allowed in areas such as the designated wilderness areas; (2) preser-
vation of visibility in Federal Class I areas by alleviating significant
impairments; (3) initiation of a report to Congress on the effects of fine
particulates on health and welfare.
The first requirement, which is the part of the 1977 Clean Air Act
Arnendements preventing significant deterioration of air quality, permits
only minimal degradation of air quality within designated Class I areas.
(The Class I areas include National Parks and wilderness areas.) At the
present time, the smoke management plans in Oregon and Washington are
designed to direct the smoke away from the designated areas lying in the
Puget Trough and the Willamette Valley. Any requirement to direct smoke
out of the Western Cascade area toward the east is likely to interact with
the air in the National Parks and the wilderness areas lying along the
Cascade Crest. If the Clean Air Amendments are interpreted so that they
apply to these Class I areas, the smoke management programs will be greatly
handicapped and prescribed forest burning further restricted. (This is
discussed further in Section 6.)
The second requirement seeks to protect the scenic value of Class I
areas from visibility impairment both now and in the future. This require-
ment is similar in its impact to that discussed above--smoke management
-42-
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will be greatly handicapped and thus more difficult to attain. The third
requirement listed above is still open because of the lack of information.
However, if research leads to special air quality standards for fine par-
ticulate matter, forestry burning may be greatly curtailed since the majority
of the particulate matter emitted by forest burning is in the fine particu-
late range. The effect of forest burning upon fine particulate levels is
further discussed in Sections 3 and 6.
This brief outline points up the dilemma of the environmental managers
within the various governmental and private organizations. The public is
demanding cleaner air at the same time the demands for inexpensive forest
products are being made. An industry that is often marginal is being pressed
to absorb additional costs or else risk an elevated probability of destruc-
tive wildfires. Legislative deadlines put pressure on pollution control
agencies to act with limited knowledge to control pollution. Many environ-
mental action groups want clear visibility, on one hand, and, on the other
hand, do not want wildfire destroying the natural beauty. These are all
conflicting points of view that must be addressed with no present mechanism
for handling them. A system of checks and balances must be developed that
will enable the managers within the Government to balance as many of the
factors as possible in coming up with a decision. Research and legislative
action must be taken to assist this decision process by enabling the manager
to use a scientific basis for decisions rather than with emotion or legisla-
tive, fiat alone.
-43-
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SECTION 2
FORESTRY BURNING IK WASHINGTON AND OREGON
The locations and extent of forestry burning in Washington and Oregon
are presented in this section through a series of maps and tables. Infor-
mation on who is conducting burning activity, the type of fuel burned,
burning techniques used, and relation to timber harvest activity is also
presented.
LOCATION OF FORESTRY BURNING
Data on forestry burning activity were drawn from the Smoke Management
Programs administered by the Washington Department of Natural Resources (DNR)
and the Oregon Department of Forestry (DOF), and the Total Resources Informa-
tion (TRI) System of the U.S. Forest Service (Region 6). Data for Oregon
were drawn entirely from the Oregon Smoke hanagement System, a computerized
system for recording planned and accomplished burns and operated as part of
the Oregon Smoke Management Program. Data on burns conducted in Washington
were drawn primarily from the Washington Smoke Management Plan annual reports
or listings of individual burns provided by the DNR. Data on Federal burns
conducted in Washington during 1975 and 1976 were drawn from the TRI System
of the USDA FS.
The number of burns, acres burned, estimated tons of fuel burned and
annual averages are summarized in Table 3 for the years 1975 through 1977.
It should be emphasized that tons of fuel burned are estimates and subject
to considerable error. This is especially true in the case of broadcast
burning, where both fuel loading and percent of fuel consumed which are
required to estimate fuel burned, are difficult to estimate reliably.
Since tons of fuel burned are used in estimating pollutant emissions, the
error in estimated fuel burned should be considered before drawing conclu-
sions based on these figures. Attempts to determine the magnitude of the
errors were unfruitful because of the lack of studies designed to provide
estimates of the accuracy. A comparison was made between actual field
sampling (reported by Dell and Ward 1971) and smoke management system
data provided by the States of Washington and Oregon. Statistical tests
on the data revealed considerable variablity in the tonnages burned per
acre. The data often was consistent within a National Forest but varied
considerably between National Forests. The data from the State of Washington
was not different from the field measurements but the Oregon data revealed
considerable differences. Most of the discrepancy between the field data
and the Oregon Smoke Management estimates was due to high values reported
for two National Forests.
The values reported in Table 3 may be reasonably accurate for the
Washington areas but appear to be too high in Oregon. Some of the
National Forest areas report values that averaged almost five times the
-44-
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TABLE 3. SUMMARY OF FORESTRY BURNING ACTIVITY IN WASHINGTON AND OREGON, 1975-1977
County
Washington:
Clallam
Clark
Cowlitz
Grays Harbor
Island
Jefferson
King
Kitsap
Lewis
Mason
Pacific
Pierce
San Juan
i Skagit
i Skamania
Snohomish
Thurston
Wahkiakum
Whatcom
No. of
Burns
82
1
124
74
0
59
25
S
129
36
29
21
0
28
251
49
25
2
31
1975
Estimated
Acres Tons of Fuel
Burned Burned
3,424
80
10, 098
4,685
0
2,612
774
185
4,331
1,488
2,437
1,044
0
922
7,907
1,387
1,123
136
940
65, 354*
160*
145, 995*
79, 865*
0
84,094*
32, 395*
2,012
41, 040*
7, 385*
47,104
25,610*
0
4, 155*
7, 610*
25, 140*
23, 202*
4,700
2, 280*
No. of
Burns
120
6
116
86
0
69
33
9
146
90
45
35
0
55
199
58
18
5
36
1976
Estimated
A cres Tons of Fuel
Burned Burned
4,135
430
9,237
5,307
0
3,423
1,228
236
9,489
4,101
3,909
1,509
0
1,443
11,588
2,196
280
214
1,005
33, 338*
8, 450*
262,493*
89, 218*
0
41,316*
48, 507*
3,012
87, 131*
15, 670*
85, 105
25,040
0
12, 270*
39, 990*
9, 730*
24, 500*
6,516
15,555*
1977
Estimated
No. of Acres Tons of Fuel
Burns Burned Burned
87
2
51
74
0
86
29
7
240
96
49
45
0
49
289
39
11
5
17
2,945
50
4,334
5,372
0
3,467
402
248
8,572
2,457
3,464
1,293
0
2,266
9,687
1,541
410
542
1,034
95, 940
700
111,040
104, 930
0
80, 460
21, 950
2,490
301, 230
84,440
• 71,455
25,520
0
63,400
363,510
45, 120
5,440
4,150
41,580
All
No. of
Bums
96
3
97
78
0
71
29
7
171
74
41
34
0
44
246
49
18
4
: 28
Years (Average)
Estimated
A cres Tons of Fuel
Burned Burned
3,501
187
7,890
5,121
0
3,167
801
223
7,464
2,682
3,270
1,282
0
1,544
9,727
1,708
604
297
993
64, 877*
3, 103*
173, 176*
91, 338*
0
68,623*
34,284
2,505
143, 134*
35, 832*
67, 888
25,390
0
26,608*
137,037*
26, 663*
17, 714*
5,122
19,805*
Combined
Western Counties
971 43,573 1,540, 031f! 1,126 59,730 1,869,281"*" ' 1, 176 48,085 1,423,350 1,090 50,461
1,610, 8891
Combined
tt
.**
Eastern Counties 264 74, 323 §1 1,495, 374 § 423 57, 331 § i 1, 788, ISO-5,' 336*53,228** 1,227,260**,' 374 61,627 »1,503, 595
I Statewide Totals 1, 235 * 117, 896 §: 3, 035, 405 § 1,549 117, 061 5; 3, 657, 431 § .' 1, 512# 101, 313** 2, 650, 6l6**l>432"H- 112> 090**" 3,114,482tt
* Figure does not include burnt by the U.S. Forest Service for 1975 and 1976. (continued)
t Figure includes fuel burned by the U.S. Forest Service in Western Washington, as reported In the Annual Summary of Prescribed Burning Activities conducted under the Washington Smoke Management Plan.
$ Figure does not include bum conducted by the Bureau of Indian Affairs in Eastern Washington or the U.S. Forest Service In the CMvlUe National Forest.
I Figure does not include burns conducted by the U.S. Forest Service In the Colvllle National Forest.
t Figure does not include burns conducted by the Bureau of Indian Affairs in Eastern Washington and the U.S. Forest Service bi the Colvllle and Umalllla National Forests.
** Figure does not include burns conducted by the U.S. Forest Service In Cotvllle and UmiitlUa National Forests.
tt Figure does not Include burns conducted by: the Bureau of Indian Affairs in Eastern Washington during 1973-77, the U.S. Forest Service In the Colville National Forest during 1975-77, and the
U.S. Forest Service in the Umatilla National Forest during 1977.
$^ Figure does not include burns conducted by the U.S. Forest Service in the Colvllle National Forest during 1975-77 and the Umatilla National Forest during 1977.
NOTE: Tonnage figures may be high. See page 43 for discussion of possible error.
-------
TABLE 3. (continued)
1975
Estimated
County
Oregon:
Ben ton
Clackamas
Clatsop
Columbia
Coos
Curry
Douglas
Hood River
Jackson
Josephine
Lane
Lincoln
Linn
Marion
Multnomah
Polk
Tillamook
Washington
Yamliill
Combined
Western
Counties
Combined
Eastern
Counties
Statewide
Totals
No. of
Burns
24
316
3
8
127
77
526
57
69
74
604
66
158
36
49
8
54
2
11
2,269
103
2,372
A cres
Burned
321
6,771
338
366
3,409
1,927
23, 905
2, 364
5,713
1,089
18,421
1,820
3, 123
821
251
135
1,851
94
219
72,938
5,593
78,531
Tons of Fuel
Burned
4,985
249, 298
12, 180
12,875
129,986
83, 199
653, 297
29, 205
491,962
104, 365
756,431
40, 937
1 14, 020
26,628
51,627
4,250
72,261
1,966
7,125
2, 847, 227
131,222
2, 978, 448
No. of
Burns
34
419
9
18
197
137
630
86
98
87
878
109
312
57
35
14
85
3
25
3,233
93
3,326
1976
Estimated
Acres
Burned
1,290
4, 858
382
578
5,306
4,573
21,994
2,149
6,668
1,639
25, 874
4, 161
10, 858
1,076
419
550
2,897
59
606
95,937
1,923
97, 860
Tons of Fuel
Burned
21, 336
428,998
6, 907
17,903
172,664
143, 407
886,523
59, 385
507, 946
116,674
1, 288, 766
155, 506
279,515
40,434
61,530
16,475
95, 896
1,904
28, 843
4,330,612
157, 283
4, 487, 895
1977
Estimated
No. of Acres
Burns
23
389
6
8
159
117
601
56
135
75
626
100
277
104
38
17
40
3
23
2,797
214
3,011
Burned
597
4,187
404
495
5,582
2,987
21,542
740
13,332
2,122
22, 791
5,037
8,769
2,732
511
676
1,745
134
589
94, 972
3,395
98, 367
Tons of Fuel No.
Burned
5,002
199,684
14,855
4,748
137, 725
141,753
888,965
45,472
448,012
132,551
761,692
98,021
261,745
96, 367
44,713
12,409
42,470
3,915
21, 845
3,361,943
192, 592
3, 554, 535
All Years (Average)
Estimated
of Acres
Burns Burned
27
375
6
11
161
110
586
66
101
79
704
92
249
66
41
13
59
3
20
2,769
137
2,904
736
5,272
375
480
4,766
3, 162
22,480
1,751
8,571
1,617
22, 362
3,673
7,583
1,543
394
454
2,164
96
471
87,949
3,637
•
91,586
Tons of Fuel
Burned
10,441
292,659
11, 314
11,842
146,792
122,786
809, 805
44, 687
482,640
117,863
935,629
98,155
218,426
54, 476
52,623
11,045
70, 209
2,595
19,271
3,513,258
160, 366
3,673,624
-------
average for the field measurements derived from the data reported by Dell
and Ward (1971).
Examination of the data gives a clue to the likely problem. Many of
the areas appear to be reporting total fuel loading rather than tons of
fuel burned. (Better supervision and data quality control should greatly
reduce much of the discrepancy.) Dell and Ward reported that the fines
(< 3") averaged from 20-40 tons per acre. Most fuels management personnel
consider that this is a reasonable figure and closely follows the tonnages
burned in slash fires. In some cases values as high as 350 tons per acre
were reported. These high values more closely follow total tons of fuel
on the ground than tons consumed by the fire.
Until a field check is undertaken, these estimates cannot be con-
sidered as more than indications of the amounts of material burned. Fuels
management specialists are attempting to refine the basis for estimating
the amount of materials burned in order to develop more reliable figures.
Future estimates should improve greatly as a result of these new tech-
niques. Better data management will also help improve the quality and
reliability of the estimates made.
Table 3 contains fuel tonnages for each county on the West Sides of
the two states and summaries of East Side, West Side, and state totals.
Washington counties which are missing data on "Estimated Tons of Fuel
Burned" for USDA-FS area burns are flagged with asterisks (*). West Side
summary figures for "Tons of Fuel Burned" do include USDA FS burns.1 Ton-
nages reported for "Combined Western Counties" are thought to be complete.
East Side figures for Washington are footnoted to indicate missing data.
The number of burns on the East Side does not include burns conducted by
the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA). However, acres and estimated fuel
burned do include data for BIA burns. East Side figures also do not
include burns conducted by the USDA FS in the Colville National Forest
for the entire period 1975-1977 and for the Umatilla National Forest for
1977.
Figures 7 through 9 show the distribution of forestry burning activity
on the West Side commercial forest lands of Washington and Oregon. Fig-
ure 7 shows the number of burns, Figure 8 the acres burned and Figure 9
tons of fuel burned. The degree of burning activity is shown by county for
the years 1975 through 1977 and as an average of the 3-year period. In
Washington only non-Federal commercial areas have been shaded in Figure 9,
representing estimated tons of fuel burned, except for 1977, for which county-
level figures were available for all burns on the West Side. During the
period 1975-1977, an average of approximately 3900 burns were conducted each
year on the West Side, 2769 in Oregon and 1090 in Washington. An average of
138 thousand acres were burned annually, 88 thousand in Oregon and 50 thousand
As a result, the sum of individual county figures is less than the indicated West Side total.
-47-
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r
-pi
CO
I
1975
1976
1977
Figure 7. Number of burns, western Washington and Oregon, 1975-1977
1975-1977
Number of Burns per Hundred Square Miles
None ]%gj^p| 7.5 - 9.9
°.l - 2.4 IJjJimH lo.O - 14.9
2.5-4.9 ||ffi|| 15.0-19.9
5.0-7.4 20.0-
-------
1975
1976
1977
Figure 8. Acres burned, western Washington and Oregon, 1975-77.
1975-1977
Acres Burned per Hundred Square Miles
| | None 138881 300-399
t=4 1-99 |!||||||||l| 400-499
^1 100-199 iHI 500-599
|%^| 200-299 600-
-------
I
en
O
i
1975
1976
1977
Figure 9. Estimated tons of fuel burned, western Washington and Oregon 1975-1977
1975-1977
Estimated Tons of Fuel Burned
per Hundred Square Miles
I I None HI 7,500- 9,
1 - 2«499 IIIIIIIIIH 10,000 - 14,
2,500-4,999 |^j| 15,000-19,
5,000-7,499 20,000-
-------
in Washington. An estimated 5.1 million tons of fuel were burned, 3.5 million
in Oregon and 1.6 million in Washington. Although these figures indicate more
burning activity in Oregon than in Washington, on a unit area basis the two
states are comparable. Oregon burns 6.1 thousand acres per million acres of
commercial forest land and Washington burns 5.0 thousand acres per million
acres of commercial forest land. Washington reported 1100 burns; considerably
fewer than the 2800 burns reported by Oregon. The average size of burn blocks
was 46.3 acres in Washington versus 31.8 acres in Oregon. However, average
estimated fuel burned per acre was 39.9 tons in Oregon versus 31.9 tons in
Washington.
East Side data available from the Oregon and Washington Smoke Management
Programs indicate considerable forestry burning in Washington and compara-
tively little in Oregon. During the 3-year period from 1975 to 1977, an aver-
age of nearly 62 thousand acres were burned annually in eastern Washington,
consuming an estimated 1.5 million tons of fuel. These figures do not include
burns by the USDA FS in the Colville and Umatilla National Forests for all
3 years. The Oregon Smoke Management System (OSHS) reported 3637 acres
were burned annually on Oregon's East Side, consuming an estimated 160
thousand tons of fuel, during 1975-1977. However, these figures do not
include forestry burning in the large portion of eastern Oregon which is
not within the jurisdiction of the Oregon Smoke Management Plan.
On the West Side, Douglas County, Oregon reported 22,480 acres burned;
the greatest number of acres burned of the two states during the period
1975-1977. Lane County, Oregon was close behind reporting 22,362 acres
burned. However, these two counties also have approximately twice as much
commercial forest area as any other county in the two states. On a unit
area basis, Douglas and Lane Counties were also high in burning activity,
reporting 499 and 627 acres burned per 100 square miles of commercial tim-
berland during 1977. Cowlitz County, Washington showed the greatest level
of burning on a unit area basis, with 785 acres burned per 100 square miles
of commercial timberland. Other counties reporting high levels of burning
activity were Hood River, Oregon; Linn, Oregon; and Skaniania, Washington.
The largest number of burns per unit area was in Clackamas County, Oregon
with 27 burns per 100 square niles, Multnomah County, Oregon with 24 burns
per 100 square miles and Skaniania County, Washington with 17 burns per
100 square miles.
Estimated tons of fuel burned per unit area was greatest in Multnomah
County, with more than 30 thousand tons of fuel burned per 100 square miles.
Other counties with high estimated tons of fuel burned were Clackamas,
Douglas, Jackson and Lane, in Oregon, and Cowlitz in Washington.
Principals Doing Burning
Table 4 presents the ownership of commercial forests in Washington
and Oregon by broad ownership classes. On the West Side of the two states,
28.8 percent of commercial forest is owned by the U.S. Forest Service,
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52.5 percent by private landowners and the forest industries, and 18.7 per-
cent by other public agencies including Bureau of Indian Affairs, Bureau of
Land Management, the State government, and municipalities. Figure 10 shows
in greater detail the commercial and noncommerical land ownerships on the
West Side of the two states.
TABLE 4. AREA OF COMMERCIAL TTMBERLAND BY OWNERSHIP CLASS
(In Thousands of A cres)
Grand Total
National Forest
Other Public
Forest Industry
Other Private
Total
Oregon:
West Side
East Side
Total
Washington:
West Side
East Side
Total
4645
6993
11638
2365
3107
5472
2876
584
3460
1681
2266
3947
3625
1627
5252
3634
735
4369
3238
1378
4616
2296
2200
4496
14384
10582
24966
9976
8308
18284
17110
7407
9621
9112
43250
Sources: Washington Forest Productivity Study. Phase I Report. June, 1975, prepared under Project
NR-1014 by the Department of Natural Resources of the State of Washington.
Timber Resource Statistics for Oregon. January 1, 1975, Bassett, P.M. , and G. A. Choate,
USDA Forest Service Resource Bulletin PNW-56.
Of the 138 thousand acres burned annually on the West Side, 84 thousand
acres or 61 percent of the total is burned by the USDA FS. On the West
Side the USDA FS is the dominant user of forestry burning. In Washington,
18 thousand of the 50 thousand acres are burned by the USDA FS, while in
Oregon 66 thousand of the 88 thousand acres are burned by the USDA FS. A
breakdown of the remaining 22 thousand acres in Oregon between private and
State is not available from the OSMS. However, in Washington nearly 20 thou-
sand acres were burned by the private sector, in comparison to 8 thousand
acres by the State. Hence, in western Washington, the dominant principle
in forestry burning is the private sector, although the USDA FS is a close
second.
Although the USDA FS is the principal user of forestry burning on the
West Side, only 28.8 percent of commercial forest lands are National Forests.
In terms of burning activity per unit area, the USDA FS burned an annual
average of 765 acres per 100 square miles of commercial forest land, while
-52-
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WEST '.
SIDE •
Figure 10. Land ownership in western Oregon and Washington.
-------
state and private sectors burned 201 acres per 100 square miles. A possible
reason for this greater use of forestry burning by the USDA FS is the loca-
tion and terrain of the National Forests. Much of the USDA FS lands are
remote and mountainous, making residue treatment methods other than slash
burning more difficult.
Most of the 62,264 acres treated by burning on the East Side of the
two states is in Wasington with 61,627 acres burned. Of this, 76 percent of
acreage burned on Washington's East Side is carried by the Bureau of Indian
Affairs, 15 percent by the U.S. Forest Service and 8 percent by the private
sector. Burning by the State on the East Side is negligible. Although the
amount of burning on Washington's East Side decreased from 1975 to 1977, the
amount of burning by the USDA FS, the State, and the private sector increased
steadily over the period. In 1975 these sectors accounted for approximately
5600 acres. In 1977 they accounted for nearly 26,000 acres. During the same
period, reported burning by the BIA decreased from 69 thousand to 47 thousand
acres, more than offsetting increases by the other sectors.
Type of Fuel Burned
The relationship between the type of fuel burned and pollutant emis-
sions is discussed in Section 3. Among the parameters describing forestry
fuels' composition which are potentially important to emissions are:
• Material type (wood fiber, bark, pine needles, etc.)
• Tree species
• Size of fuel (diameter, length)
• Age (indicating whether fuel is dry, decayed, etc.).
The Smoke Management Programs of Oregon and Washington do not collect data
on the type of fuel burned and explicit data on this variable are not cur-
rently available.
One approach to estimating the type of fuel burned by tree species is
to assume that logging residue is of the same type as the harvested tree.
Data are available on the type of tree harvested and are presented in
Table 5. Most forestry burning in western Oregon is for slash removal fol-
lowing timber harvesting. In 1976, approximately 88 percent of forestry
burning acreage within the jurisdiction of the Oregon Smoke Management Program
was for slash disposal. However, it does not necessarily follow that slash
burned is of the same type as the tree harvested. A study of forest residue
created during 1973 estimated that 60 tons of slash were created for every
2
ITF-FSU, Final Report. 1977, p. 10.
-54-
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TABLE 5. SUMMARY OF TIMBER PRODUCTION BY TYPE OF TREE (1000 Board Feet)
Tree Type
Oregon*
Washington t
WEST SIDE
Softwoods
Douglas- fir
Hemlock
Sitka Spruce
Cedar
True Firs
Other Conifers
Hardwoods
Red Alder
Black Cottonwood
Big Leaf Maple
Other Hardwoods
8, 086, 400
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
85,000
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
5,015,516
2,240,104
1,804,339
92,465
513,427
269,086
96,095
156,642
143,420
6,388
1,881
4,953
EAST SIDE
Softwoods
Ponderosa Pine
Western White Pine
Douglas- fir
Western Larch
Hemlock, True Fir
Other Conifers
Lodgepole Pine
Hardwoods
Black Cottonwood
Other Hardwoods
2,123,500
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
1,012,746
317,002
15,960
324, 542
87,919
181,537
66,771
19,015
147
13
134
* Timber Resource Statistics for Oregon,
Bassett, P.M. , and G.A.
Choate, USDA Forest Service
Bulletin PNW-56, January 1, 1973.
t Timber Harvest Report, 1974, State of Washington Department of Natural Resources.
-55-
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100 tons of timber harvested (Van Sickle 1973). Of these 60 tons, approxi-
mately 13 were growing stock residues. Of the remaining 47 tons, 11 were
nongrowing residues greater than 4 inches in diameter, 17 tons were non-
growing residues 1 to 4 inches in diameter, and 19 tons were uncut small or
undesirable trees. These figures indicate that the major portion of slash
resulting from timber harvest is not residues from the harvested tree. This
may be particularly true of old-growth stands which dominate the National
Forests. The type of tree harvested may be an unreliable indicator of fuel
burned.
Much research has been performed on the analysis of residues with a view
toward fuller utilization. However, these studies typically exclude the fine
residues which are the major components of available fuel, since these are
the least potentially utilized. A study of residue by Howard (1973) specifi-
cally excluded material less than 4 inches in diameter or 4 feet in length.
The literature does not reveal specific studies that address the composi-
tion of combustible fuel in forestry burning.
Another approach to evaluating the type of species burned is to com-
pare the location of burning to tree stand maps. This approach is con-
sidered unreliable for the following reasons:
1. The vegetation map (see Figure 3) is at best a rough approxi-
mation of vegetative type. Only in carefully managed second
growth areas are tree stands relatively pure.
2. As pointed out in the previous paragraph, the slash resulting
from harvesting is not necessarily related to the dominant
tree type in the stand.
The following conclusions by Howard (1973) are potentially relevant to
aetermining the type of fuel burned:
• A large component of residue on USDA FS lands is decadent,
old growth material. The average age of National Forests
sampled was 260 years, in contrast to an average age of
140 years in private lands.
t The amount of residue material was greater on National
Forest lands than on private lands by more than a factor
of two.
• In the ponderosa pine region of eastern Washington and
Oregon, more than naif of the slash created consisted
of whole trees or tree tops left after logging.
t The residue created on the East Side tended to be
smaller than on the West Side.
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Burning Techniques Used
The literature and available data from state and Federal agencies do not
give detailed data on the use of different burning techniques in the Pacific
Northwest. The following summarizes what is known about the use of broad-
cast and pile burning in the region:
• On the East Side, the principal agency conducting burning
is the BIA. The BIA uses mostly pile burning.3
• Statistical compilations of burn technique are not avail-
able for Washington's West Side. However, the 1977
Washington SMP Annual Report indicates that private
and state agencies use mostly broadcast burning, while
the USDA FS uses predominantly pile burning. State and
private burning accounted for 29 thousand acres and an
estimated 557 thousand tons of fuel burned during 1977.
The USDA FS burned 19 thousand acres and an estimated
867 thousand tons of fuel.
• The Oregon Smoke Management System (OSMS) reported that
41.2 percent of the 98 thousand acres burned in Oregon
during 1977 were broadcast burned. Hence, pile burning
is the more dominant method in Oregon. Roughly the same
percentages were reported for 1976, but the 1975 OSMS
report indicated a considerably lower percentage of
broadcast burning (32.1 percent).
TIMBER HARVEST ACTIVITY AND ITS RELATION TO FORESTRY BURNING
Two of the primary reasons for forestry burning are hazard reduction and
stand regeneration. As a result, the locations of burn blocks may correspond
to recently cut timber stands. However, forestry burning could not to be
statistically correlated with timber harvesting activity on a county basis.
This is possibly due to the small percentage of acreage burned per year in com-
parison to that harvested. For example, in 1975 a total of nearly 207 thousand
acres were cut on the West Side of Washington.4 However, only 44 thousand acres
were burned. Areas harvested one year are not necessarily burned that same year,
Some areas may not require slash burning due to high utilization or other more
appropriate treatment methods. Also, some forestry burning is not directly
related to harvesting, including underburning and brush land conversion.
Washington Smoke Management Report, 1977.
4
Timber Harvest Report. 1975, Washington Department of Natural Resources, p. 13.
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SECTION 3
EMISSIONS FROM FORESTRY BURNING
INTRODUCTION
Until recently, measurements of emissions from open burning were largely
limited to effluents which were also industrial pollutants governed by the
National Ambient Air Quality Standards. Emphasis was usually on determi-
nation of emission factors, relating the quantity of effluent produced to
weight of fuel burned. The emission factors reported in the literature are
highly inconsistent and the reliability of these factors for estimating emis-
sions from actual fires is questionable. Emission factors are being upgraded
but much more effort will be necessary before satisfactory reliability is
achieved. Interest in minor and trace emissions has been increasing over the
past several years and has generated funding for study in this area. Sampl-
ing, sample preservation and analytical techniques are evolvinq which will
eventually provide comprehensive characterization of emissions from open
burning. However, unique, specially constructed facilities are required
for such studies and few exist at the present time. Quantitative data
relating emission rates of some trace emissions to burning conditions are
being reported. The followina section is an attempt to summarize the avail-
able emissions data and to assess the reliability of extrapolating laboratory
results to field situations.
Variability and Complexity of Emissions
The three general burning techniques, broadcast, pile and understory,
have distinct differences in total emissions as well as in the ratios of
individual effluents. Emissions within each of these techniques are highly
dependent on fire behavior and fuel conditions. Fire behavior can be con-
trolled or predetermined, within limits, and prescribed burninq is only
carried out under specific fuel moisture and weather conditions. While
these factors provide greater emissions predictability than is possible
for wildfires, each fire has a unique emission profile.
Discussion of the complexity of the emissions from open burning of
forest products is prominent throughout the literature concerned with forest
burning. The article of Tangren et al. (1976) includes a summary of the
burning process and one of the most recent, concise discussions in this area.
The authors point out that over 200 chemical compounds have been identified
in wood smoke in contrast to over 1,200 in tobacco smoke. This difference
merely reflects a difference in research emphasis and the number of com-
pounds identified in smoke from forest burning can be expected to increase
by as much as an order of magnitude as sampling and analytical techniques
are improved. The emissions are not only chemically complex but size, shape,
porosity, density and other physical properties of smoke particles are also
highly variable. A number of the compounds emitted are photochemically
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reactive and the character of a smoke plume changes with residence time in
the atmosphere. Both the fire and smoke plume are dynamic entities undergoing
multiple reactions and interactions. The result is a composite emission which
cannot be completely characterized with present technology.
A mathematical description of forest fire emissions was attempted by
Becker (1973) as part of an EPA-sponsored study. The model, utilizing many
simplifying assumptions, focused only on the major aspects of the emissions
but could not be completed because of a lack of definitive data. Mathe-
matical description of the emissions from forestry burning is highly complex
and the data base has not expanded greatly in the past 5 years. It is there-
fore doubtful that a mathematical model with reliable predictive value
can be constructed on the basis of presently available data.
Emission Factors
In the case of forestry burning, an emission factor is an estimate of the
amount of emissions released into the atmosphere in relation to the amount of
fuel burned. The factor is usually expressed as pounds of emission per ton
of fuel burned, calculated on a dry-weight basis. Total emission is usually
obtained by multiplying the emission factor by an estimate of the average quan-
tity of fuel burned per acre and the total number of acres involved. Histori-
cally, there has been great divergence in assignment of emission factors to
forest burning as well as uncertainty in estimation of the quantities of fuel
burned. Particulate emissions from fires have been measured more extensively
than most other effluents. The general sampling and analytical techniques for
measurement of particulate emissions from various sources have been fairly well
standardized for many years. Despite the relative ease of measuring particulate
material, various comprehensive investigations have produced widely different
estimates of the emissions of particles from forest fires. The historical
inconsistency in these estimations is illustrated in Table 6, which, along
with the footnote, is taken directly from a recent discussion by Ward et al.
(1976).
TABLE 6. ANNUAL FOREST FIRE PARTICULATE PRODUCTION (TONS/YR. )
(Ward et al. 1976)
Reference USA Estimate Global Estimate
_—_
Vandegrift (1971) 54 x 10
Hidy and Brock (1970) 15 x 1Q6 ISOxlQ6
6
Hoffman (1971) 6.7x10
6
Cavender et al. (1973) 2. 0 x 10
6 6
Robinson and Robbins (1971) 0.7x10 3x10
Yamate(1975) 0.5x10
To put these figures in a proper perspective, the estimate of 54 x 10^ tons/yr for forest fires alone
may be compared to the 27. 3.x 10° tons/yr of particulates for all primary sources, including forest fires
for the year 1969. (Cavender et al. 1973).
-59-
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The discrepancies shown in Table 6 are the result of differences in
method of computation, use of different emission factors, variations in the
number of acres burned in the years on which the estimates were based and
differences in estimates of the quantities of fuel burned per acre. The
two arbitrary considerations, selection of emission factors and the method
of computation, account for most of the variation shown. The compilation
illustrates the confusion which has been prevalent in projectina forest
fire emissions and shows a need for standardization of emission factors and
of methods for applying these factors in estimating total emissions.
In general, emission factors are being updated as laboratory-scale burn-
ing facilities are made more representative of field conditions. The relia-
bility of extrapolating laboratory results to obtain emission factors is also
being improved through correlation with data obtained from field measurements.
However, a great many more emission measurements from actual prescribed fires
will need to be carried out before complete emission patterns can be reliably
projected from burning prescriptions.
Determination of Emission Factors—
Emission factors have generally been determined from laboratory-scale
studies in which burning was carried out under controlled conditions. The
burning techniques and facilities described by Darley et al. (1966), Benner
et al. (1977), Ward et al. (1974) and Yamate (1973) are representative of
those which have been used to derive emission factors. The burning tower
described by Darley et al. (1966), in some cases including the modifications
indicated by Darley and Biswell (1973), has been used extensively for deter-
mination of factors for leaves, agricultural refuse and forest litter. The
results obtained in numerous studies by various investigators using the
burning tower have been summarized by Wayne and McQueary (1975). This
facility approximates field conditions more closely than most laboratory
installations. The quantity of fuel burned per test could range from 10 to
20 pounds of straw or grass to more than 50 pounds of woody material, which
is a much higher capacity than that generally available for laboratory tests.
In the tower installation, fuel was burned on a table equipped for recording
weiaht chanaes on a 5-second frequency to monitor burning rate. Probes and
instruments for monitoring various parameters of the burning process and
for sample collection were mounted in a stack attached to a large funnel
over the burning table.
Field measurements of emissions from actual fires require a great deal
of preparation and are difficult to carry out, in comparison with laboratory
measurements. As a result, few field measurements have been reported and
the emission factors commonly quoted are based mainly on laboratory data.
Boubel et al. (1969) and Darley et al. (1973) used sampling equipment mounted
on a tower in plots of stubble and straw, which were then ignited and measure-
ments were made as the fires burned past the tower. Ward et al. (1974)
employed a arid of masts with samplers positioned at various heights to
measure particle emissions immediatelv downwind from low-intensity line
source backfires. Direct calculation of emission factors from field data
-60-
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has generally not been possible because the ratio of sample to total effluent
could not be accurately defined. Downwind measurements of fire effluents can
only be related to emission factors if the dimensions of the smoke plume and
its rate of movement past the sampling point can be accurately established.
While it is practically impossible to attain the accuracy and precision of
controlled laboratory experiments under field conditions, the improved
validity of conclusions based on field data offsets many imperfections in the
measurements.
Reliability of Methods—
The diversity of emission factors reported in the literature does not
inspire confidence in their overall reliability, particularly since most
were derived from data obtained under closely controlled laboratory burning
conditions. The laboratory-derived emission factors for leaves and agricul-
tural refuse are considered relatively reliable, since these materials are
usually loosely arranged or piled when burned in the field. This condition
can easily be duplicated in burning laboratories and the data obtained are
representative of field burning. Field conditions for burning forest fuels
cannot be simulated as easily. Slash piles and broadcast slash burns involve
tons of material, much of which is too large for a laboratory fire. Slash
burning conditions are usually adjusted for maximum combustion efficiency and
the resulting fires are hotter and smolder longer than those obtained from a
few pounds of small fuel in a laboratory. Understory burning typically con-
sumes small fuels in low intensity fires and should be more readily simulated
in burning laboratories. However, the field fuels are generally the result
of accumulation on the forest floor for a period of time and are variable in
size, aqe, degree of compaction and stage of decomposition. They are also
arranged in strata which cannot be simulated under laboratory conditions unless
precautions, such as those described by Parley et al. (1973), are taken during
sample collection.
Laboratory measurements of emissions from burning forest fuels can be
made fairly easily and represent the most practical approach for identifica-
tion of fuel and fire parameters which govern emission production. However,
unavoidable differences between laboratory and field situations, with respect
to fire behavior and fuel conditions, must be taken into account when extrap-
olating laboratory-dervied emission factors to field fires. For example,
Sandberg (1974) measured particulate emissions of 6 to 24 pounds per ton
in laboratory fires and 28 to 107 pounds per ton in field fires burning
western logging residue. The emission factor of 17 pounds of particulate
matter per ton of fuel, which has been used as the basis for estimating
atmospheric emissions from forest fires (Yamate 1975), is compatible with
the laboratory values but well below the range of the field emissions.
Influence of Fuel Type and Condition--
Fire behavior, the major determinant of emission factors, is highly
dependent on fuel type, loadinq and conditions such as size, age, arrange-
ment, compaction and moisture content. In developing emission factors for
leaves under controlled laboratory conditions, Darley (1976) showed sig-
nificant differences between leaves from different species in emissions of
-61-
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particles, carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons. Increasing moisture levels
generally increased production of all three effluents, with particles show-
ing the greatest increase. Burning compacted piles or green leaves pro-
duced much higher emissions than loosely piled dry leaves. These tests,
carried out with material which is much more homogeneous than that typical
in managed forestry burning, illustrate the dependence of emissions on
small variations in fuel type and condition.
Many studies, for example, Darley et al. (1966), Gerstle and Kemnitz
(1967), Sandberg (1974) and Ward et al. (1974), have shown emissions to be
affected by the type and conditions of the material burned. However, many
factors, such as arrangment of material, fuel loading and burning technique,
also have pronounced effects on emissions. As a result of alteration of
fire behavior, individual emission factors probably have little meaning when
mixed fuels are burned. It is doubtful that the emissions from a mixture of
leaves, needles and twigs would be predictable from emission factors obtained
by burning samples of the three fuels separately.
Influence of Burning Techniques —
Burning techniques have a pronounced influence on both the total quantity
of emissions and on the relative rate of production of individual effluents.
As a broad generalization, factors such as high moisture, compaction and fire
retardant, which increase residual, nonflaming combustion, tend to increase
emissions. In a laboratory study of burning logging slash, Sandberg et al.
(1975) found significant increases in emissions of carbon monoxide, hydro-
carbon gases and particulate material from fuel beds which had been treated
with diammonium phosphate flame retardant. Relative emission of unsaturated
hydrocarbons was also higher from the treated beds. An important observation
during these tests was that the initial 80 percent of the fuel burned produced
only 20 to 30 percent of the hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions, the
major portion being produced during the die-down and smoldering phases.
The techniques used for burning have a significant effect on emissions.
Laboratory studies may be carried out with fuel beds arranged on a slope
to simulate head and back fires. Fires burning up the slope simulate head
fires driven by a wind, while those burning down the slope simulate back
fires progressing against a wind. The effect of slope on particulate emis-
sion factors from laboratory burning of various materials is illustrated
in Table 7 taken from Ward et al. (1974).
The results lead to two general conclusions, fuel compaction increases
particle emission and head fires emit greater quantities of particles than
back fires. Data from laboratory studies of this type and field measurements
have been used as the basis for predicting particle emissions from prescribed
fires. Guidelines for predicting particle emissions and rate of fire spread
as a function of available fuel and burning technique have been developed by
Johansen et al. (1976) and constitute Chapter IV of the Southern Forestry
Smoke Management Guidebook. The predictions require detailed information on
fuel characteristics and fire behavior. Such information is presently avail-
able only for the southeastern United States and will need to be developed for
individual fuel types and conditions in other regions before similar predictions
can be applied in those areas.
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TABLE 7. PARTICULATE EMISSION FACTORS (LB/TON, DRY BASIS;
Ward et al. 1974)
Slope (percent)
Fuel
Loblolly pine
(loose)
Loblolly pine
(loose)
Loblolly pine
(compacted)
Loblolly pine
(branches & twigs)
1/4 - 1 in. )
Goldenrod
Mixed grasses
(compacted )
Hardwood leaves
(red oak)
Back Fire Head Fire
Moisture (simulated) (simulated)
(Percent) -50 -25 0 +25 +50 +75
6 15 19 28 47 40
10 13 20 37 67 55
18 28 86 123 158 152
15 6
10 6
12 34
11 7
MAJOR CONSTITUENTS OF EMISSIONS
Emission factors reported for the major effluents from forest fires are
highly variable. Differences in fuel, fire behavior and burning techniques
produce widely different emission patterns and use of a sinqle factor for a
given effluent is unrealistic. The approach suggested by McMahon and Ryan
(1976), application of a range of factors whenever possible, shows the vari-
ation which may pertain and leads to conclusions which are less misleading
than the use of single factors. The emission ranges for gases listed in
Table 8 were suggested by McMahon and Ryan (1976) and represent the best
general estimate of expected normal field emissions which can be made from
data available at the present time. The range for particulate emissions was
obtained from D.V. Sandberg who carried out a limited number of field measure-
ments of emissions from burning western logging slash (Sandberg 1974).
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TABLE 8. EMISSION RANGES (DRY WEIGHT BASIS)
(Gases McMahon and Ryan 1976; Particulates - Sandberg)
Effluent Emission Range (Ib/ton of fuel)
Carbon dioxide (CO ) 2000-3500
Water (H^) 500-1500
Carbon monoxide (CO) 20-500
P articulates (TSP) 17-67*
Hydrocarbons (HC) 10-40
Nitrogen oxides (NO ) 2-6
* Best available field range, revised in a private communication by D. V. Sandberg, March 1978.
The sulfur content of forest fuels is low in comparison with that of
most other carbonaceous fuels. As a result, sulfur oxide emission from
forestry burning is generally considered negligible. Airborne measurements
of gases in plumes from five prescribed fires, reported by Radke et al.
(1978), did not detect significant concentrations of gaseous sulfur in any
of the plumes sampled.
Estimated total emissions of CO, TSP, HC and NO for Washington and
Oregon are presented in Tables 9 and 10. The values shown were obtained by
applying the ranges of emission factors in Table 8 to the estimated mass
of fuel burned per county, by controlled forestry burning, in Washington and
Oregon in the year 1977. Estimates of quantities of fuel burned were sup-
plied by the USFS, the State of Oregon Department of Forestry and the State of
Washington Department of Natural Resources. The three agencies agree that the
estimated tonnages of fuel burned are not entirely accurate and that there
probably has been a systematic tendency to overestimate available fuel.
Opinions regarding the magnitude of the error of the fuel estimates differ to
the extent that confidence limits cannot be established. Despite the fuel
uncertainties and the broad ranges of emission factors on which Tables 9 and
10 are based, the values tabulated show the areas where emissions occurred and
their relative magnitude from each of these areas.
Gases Emitted
Over 90 percent of the effluent mass from forest fires is CO^ and hLO.
These gases are not normally considered pollutants in the context of impact
on ambient air quality. Measurements of COp production are frequently made
to provide an index of combustion efficiency but I-LO emission is rarely
measured. For the remaining gases, however, air guality and accurate emis-
sions data are necessary for impact assessment.
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TABLE 9. ESTIMATED EMISSIONS DUE TO FORESTRY BURNING, 1977 (annual average) IN WASHINGTON
(in tons of pollutant)
i
-------
TABLE 10. ESTIMATED EMISSIONS DUE TO FORESTRY BURNING, 1977 ( annual average ) IN OREGON
(in tons of pollutant)
en
en
Estimated
County
Oregon:
Ben ton
Clackamas
Clatsop
Columbia
Coos
Curry
Douglas
Hood River
Jackson
Josephine
Lane
Lincoln
Linn
Marion
Multnomah
Polk
Tillamook
Washington
Yamhill
Combined
Western Counties
Combined
Eastern Counties
Statewide Total
i ons 01 ruel
Burned
5,
199,
14,
4,
137,
141,
888,
45,
448,
132,
761,
98,
261,
96,
44,
12,
42,
3,
21,
3, 361,
192,
3,554,
002
684
855
748
725
753
965
472
012
551
692
021
745
367
713
409
470
915
845
944
592
536
Carbon Monoxide
Low
50
1,997
149
48
1,377
1,418
8,890
455
4,480
1,326
7,617
980
2,617
964
447
124
425
39
219
33,619
1,926
35, 545
High
1,
49,
3,
1,
34,
35,
222,
11,
112,
33,
190,
24,
65,
24,
11,
3,
10,
5,
840,
48,
888,
251
921
714
187
431
438
241
368
005
138
423
505
436
092
178
102
618
979
461
486
148
634
Parti cu late
Low
43
1,697
126
40
1,171
1,205
7,556
387
3,808
1,127
6,474
833
2,225
819
380
105
361
33
186
28, 577
1,637
30, 214
High
168
6,689
498
159
4,614
4,749
29, 780
1,523
15, 009
4,440
25,517
3,284
8,768
3,228
1,498
416
1,423
131
732
112,625
6,452
119,077
Hydrocarbon
Low
25
998
74
24
689
709
4,445
227
2,240
663
3,808
490
1,309
482
224
62
212
20
109
16,810
963
17, 773
High
100
3,994
297
95
2,755
2,835
17, 779
909
8,960
2,651
15, 234
1,960
5,235
1,927
894
248
849
78
437
67, 239
3,852
71,091
Nitrogen
Low
5
200
15
5
138
142
889
45
448
133
762
98
262
96
45
12
42
4
22
3,362
193
3,555
Oxides
High
15
599
45
14
413
425
2,667
136
1,344
398
2,285
294
785
289
134
37
127
12
66
1O, 086
578
10, 664
NOTE: Tonnage figures may be high. See page 43 for discussion of possible error.
-------
Gas Measurements and Reliability--
Measurements relating output of qaseous emissions to quantity of fuel
burned have only been made under laboratory conditions. As indicated earlier,
emissions derived in this way may not apply to field situations. Typical
measurements and results for the major qaseous emissions are outlined in the
followinq summaries.
Carbon monoxide—The emission factors generally quoted for CO were derived
from nondispersive infrared measurements of CO evolution from test fires in the
burninq tower described by Darley et al. (1966). The data included in reports
by Darley et al. (1966), Gerstle and Kemnitz (1967), Sandberg et al. (1975) and
Darley (1976) were obtained usinq this facility and measurement technique.
Laboratory measurements of CO emissions reported by Benner et al. (1977), usinq
different facilities and equipment, are in general agreement with the results
from the burninq tower.
Field measurements of CO in fires, adjacent areas and smoke plumes,
such as those by Countryman (1964) and Fritschen et al. (1970), showed CO
concentrations to diminish rapidly with distance from fires. Such measure-
ments provide information on the concentrations of CO near fire zones but
do not directly relate the mass of CO evolved to the quantity of fuel con-
sumed. Field studies desiqned specifically for emission factor development
will be necessary before CO emissions from forestry burninq can be reliably
predicted.
Hydrocarbons—Measurements of hydrocarbon emissions have qenerally
been included in laboratory burninq studies and the references cited for
carbon monoxide have largely provided the data base for estimates of hydro-
carbon emissions factors. The factors have qenerally been derived from
flame ionization measurements of total hydrocarbons and nonmethane hydro-
carbons. As indicated in the discussion by Hall (1972), flame ionization
measurements include essentially all volatile orqanic compounds and the
designation "hydrocarbons" as applied to wood smoke is misleading. Gas
chromatographic analyses of grab samples taken at various staqes of test
fires have been used to identify predominant hydrocarbon emissions.
In studies of emissions from laboratory burninq of logging slash,
Sandberg et al. (1975) measured methane, ethylene, acetylene, total alkanes,
total olefins and total alkynes. During the peak burning period, methane,
ethylene and acetylene accounted for 50 percent of the flame ionization
measurement. An additional 12 percent was composed of other alkanes, ole-
fins and alkynes. The remaining carbonaceous material indicated by the
flame ionization measurement, 38 percent, could not be accounted for by
these classes of compounds. During the smolderinq phases, the total hydro-
carbons identified by gas chromatography constituted only 20 percent of the
flame ionization value. It is apparent that the composition of the hydro-
carbon effluent is greatly influenced by the stage of fire and that simple
flame ionization measurements do not reflect changes in the composition of
the hydrocarbon emission.
-67-
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During the peak burning period, 38 percent, and during the smoldering
period, 80 percent, of the hydrocarbon emissions could not be identified as
simple alkanes, olefins and alkynes. An example of the complexity of the
volatile organic emission is included in the report by McMahon and Ryan (1976),
which presents a readout pattern from gas chromotoqraphic/mass spectrographic
analysis of smoke from laboratory burning of needles from loblolly pine (Pinus
taeda L.). This pattern is reproduced in Chapter II of the Southern Forestry
Smoke Management Guidebook (USDA Forest Service General Technical Report SE-10)
and is shown in Figure 11. The complex array of compounds represents only the
intermediate range (principally C. to C,2) of vapor components. It does not
include low-molecular-weight oxygenated species, such as formic and acetic
acids or reactive aldehydes, such as formaldehyde, acetaldehyde and acrolein.
These low-molecular-weight compounds have frequently been identified in wood
smoke and constitute a small, but significant, portion of the emission.
IOOM GLASS SCOT OV-IOI
20-230 •Cot4Ymin
l.5ml/min H>
68 BO 92 104
TEMPERATURE
140 I
164
—1
224
230
JO 33
TIME (MINUTES)
PEAK COMPOUND
2
2B
2C
3
3A
36
4A
4B
7
8
8A
9
10
15
16
17
20
21
22
23
24
Itopentane
l-pentene
furon
Q-pentane
isoprene
acetone
Isoproponol
cydopentodene
diocetyl
l-heiene
methyl vinyl ketone
2-methytfuron
?-heiano
,4- heiadiene
l,3^-heiatrlen«
3-tiwthylbutanal
benzene
cyctoheione
4- melhylpentene
2|*-dlm«thylp«ntar
-------
Nitrogen oxides—Emission of nitrogen oxides from burning forest fuels
has not been widely studied. The factors quoted in various reviews are mainly
from Gerstle and Kemnitz (1967) and Boubel et al. (1969). Oxidation of atmo-
spheric nitrogen requires temperatures greater than 1500'C, which is consider-
ably higher than the temperatures achieved in most Drescribed fires. However,
some nitrogen oxides are formed in these fires, possibly through involvement of
hydrocarbon-free radicals, as indicated by Ay and Sichel (1976). Oxidation of
fuel nitroaen is also possible. If this is the source, NO production should
be fuel-dependent, with needles, foliage and duff producing relatively greater
quantities than woody fuels. Benner et al. (1977), in a laboratory study of
burning pine needles, reported emission factors of 6.3 and 3.1 pounds per ton
of fuel for NO and NO-, respectively. These values, from low intensity fires,
are significantly higner than the NO emission factors listed in Table 8 and
tend to support a fuel-related orinift for NO . The conclusion stated by
DeBell and Ralston (1970), that fuel nitrogen is released as N? on burning,
is not supported by definitive data and is not widely accepted.
The source of the NO emissions remains a very open question. The two
potential sources cited, Oxidation of fuel nitrogen and involvement of hydro-
carbon-free radicals in oxidation of atmospheric nitrogen are both fire- and
fuel-dependent. It will be necessary to identify the source of NO and carry
out a number of field measurements before reliable NO emission factors can
be derived. x
Oxidants—The action of sunlight on N0? in the presence of reactive
hydrocarbons results in the production of ozone and organic oxidants. Potent
eye irritants, peroxyacyl nitrates (PAN), are among the photochemical oxi-
dants which may be produced. Olefins and saturated aromatic hydrocarbons are
reactive and produce ozone by irradiation in the presence of NO . Formation
of PAN-type compounds is associated with the presence of propyl^ne, higher
molecular weight olefins, and dialkyl- and trialkyl-benzenes. One of the
main hydrocarbon effluents from forest fires, ethylene, results in the
production of ozone, but not PAN, when it is irradiated in the presence of
N0x.
Radke et al. (1978) studied plumes from several prescribed fires of log-
oino debris in western Washington. A 36 ppb increase in ozone concentration
was measured 10 km downwind of an 86-acre fire. A 10 ppb increase in ozone
was measured 13 km downwind of a plume of a much smaller fire. Radke et al.
suggested that since forest fires are sources of N0?, elevated ozone concen-
trations may be due to the greater amount of ozone needed to equilibrate the
higher NO^/NO ratio that exists in the plume.
Studies of the photochemical potential of forest fire smoke were reported
by Benner et al. (1977). The effluent from burning 2-g quantities of pine
needles was trapped in a chamber and subjected to alternating periods of
darkness and artificial sunlight. The pollutant concentration followed the
typical diurnal cycles found in Los Angeles-type photochemical smog. Light
intensity equivalent to one-third of noon summer sunlight produced ozone
concentrations of 30-40 ppb.
-69-
-------
Evans et al. (1977) measured NCL and ozone concentrations in smoke
plumes from large prescribed fires. Smoke from the plumes was also collected
and subsequently irradiated. Irradiation increased the ozone concentration
two to three times the concentration of olefins initially present; the rate
of ozone formation was too rapid to involve photooxidation of ethylene.
The presence of terpenes and unsaturated aldehydes was cited as a possible
explanation for the rapid production of excess ozone. Smoke samples spiked
with additional NCL produced significantly more ozone than samples without
spikes.
Evans et al. (1977) measured maximum ozone concentrations of 65-70 ppb
at a downwind distance corresponding to approximately 1 hour of irradiation
by sunlight. Background levels were approximately 30 ppb. Ozone levels
reached 100 ppb in plumes from high intensity burns. However, the strong
convective rise caused the ozone formation at high elevations. Plumes from
fuel reduction burns are normally trapped beneath elevated inversions.
They may reach the ground as far as 50 km downwind, increasing the concen-
tration of ozone at the surface. A correlation was observed between the
depth of the elevated ozone layer and the effective depth of penetration
of ultraviolet radiation through the plume. Evans et al. (1974) observed
that the ozone layer developed at the top of the plume, with the thickness
of the layer and the ozone concentration increasing downwind.
Measurements taken at various distances downwind of a plume showed ozone
concentrations reaching maximum values after approximately 1 hour of irradia-
tion (Evans et al. 1977). Irradiation of pine needle smoke rapidly produced
maximum ozone concentrations which persisted for more than 10 hours before
beginning to decline (Benner and Drone 1977). Irradiation of smoke held
in a dark chamber for 24 hours produced ozone concentrations equivalent to
those obtained by irradiation of fresh smoke. These results indicated that
ozone precursors were not depeleted during the 24-hour period of darkness.
Forest fire smoke is photochemically reactive. If the observations of
Evans et al. (1977) reflect typical field situations, photochemical produc-
tion of ozone and oxidants in smoke is limited by NO , rather than reactive
hydrocarbons. The photochemical reactivity of smokexdrifting into industrial
areas of high ambient NO levels could be significantly increased.
/\
To predict the photochemical potential of forest fire smoke, it is neces-
sary to carry out controlled laboratory chamber studies using smoke from typi-
cal fuels. The relative importance of NO and reactive hydrocarbons in
limiting photochemical ozone production can then be determined. Field emis-
sion factors for NO and reactive hydrocarbons, and for the fuels and burning
conditions of the Pacific Northwest, will also need to be defined.
Effects of Gases--
The health and environmental effects of CO and NO , which are also indus-
trial pollutants, have been repeatedly documented by numerous studies and do not
require further discussion in the present context. Some of the hydrocarbon and
-70-
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volatile organic emissions are unique to open burning and their effects have not
been studied as extensively as those of the industrial pollutants.
Ethylene, one of the major hydrocarbon emissions, can cause injury to
susceptible plants (AP-64, 1970). However, exposure to smoke from prescribed
fires is generally considered too short for serious plant damage to occur,
except in cases of poor ventilation when smoke stagnates at ground level in
areas adjacent to a fire. Feldstein et al. (1963) estimated that the ethylene
concentration 1 to 2 miles downwind from a fire burning 2000 tons of land
clearing debris was 0.5 to 2 ppm and persisted for approximately 3 hours.
Susceptible vegetation in the exposed area could have suffered ethylene
damaqe in this time, though none was reported.
Relatively small quantities of potentially photochemically reactive com-
pounds, such as olefins, diolefins and substituted aromatics, are released by
forest fires. Downwind photochemical formation of ozone and other oxidants from
these and nitrogen oxides is dependent on various plume and meteorological param-
eters. Evans et al. (1977) reported increased ozone concentrations in the upper
layers of smoke plumes from field fires in Australia, and Radke et al. (1978)
measured above-ambient concentrations of ozone in plumes from burning logging
residue in Washington State.
The oxygenated organic compounds, though they constitute only a minor
fraction of the gaseous emissions, cause most of the physical irritation asso-
ciated with smoke. The major factors are probably water soluble, low-molecular-
weight aldehydes, such as formaldehyde and acrolein, which are strong irritants
to skin and exposed mucosa. Compounds of this type are reactive and their per-
sistence as vapors in ambient air is relatively short. However, they readily
adsorb onto smoke particles, which improves their stability and increases their
toxicity. Impact on ground level air quality downwind from a fire is dependent
on plume behavior and meteorological conditions.
Particulate Emissions
The emission of particulate matter from fires has been studied more exten-
sively than the emission of gases. The particles generated by open burning have
a high content of organic material and range in size from about 0.002 microns
in diameter to very large particles. For practical purposes, only particles
with aerodynamic diameters smaller than about 10 microns remain airborne long
enough to impact on air quality. Larger particles fall out of the atmosphere
fairly rapidly and can only be detected within short distances from prescribed
fires.
Particle Measurements —
The most common apparatus for measurements of particulate matter in ambient
air and source streams is the high volume sampler. Samples are collected on
filters and the average particle load of the sample air is calculated on the
basis of the weight of material collected on the filter. Measurements of this
type have provided the basis for current air quality standards. However, mass
-71-
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measurements alone provide little information regarding the impact of the par-
ticles on air quality. There is increasing emphasis on including particle size
distribution and chemical composition in assessments of air quality.
Multistage impactors with final filters have been used to fractionate
particles from burning forest fuels on the basis of aerodynamic properties.
Sandberg and Martin (1975) found the distribution of particle sizes shown in
Table 11 in smoke from laboratory burning of Douglas-fir logging slash.
TABLE 11. PARTICULATE EMISSIONS FROM LOGGING SLASH (MASS BASIS)
(Sandberg and Martin, 1975)
Aerodynamic Particle Diameter Average Percent
> 5. 0 y 8
1- 5. 0 y 10
0.3- i.o y 13
< 0. 3 y 69
Examination of collected particles by electron microscope showed
predominantly single spherical particles with diameters of approximately
0.1 micron, along with various aggregates of these particles. Similar
results were reported by Ward et al. (1974) for low intensity prescribed
fires in slash pine and palmetto-galIberry fuel types. Field measurements
of particle size distribution on a number basis, using an electric charge
mobility analyzer, were reported by McMahon and Ryan (1976). The average
particle diameter reported was approximately 0.1 micron, which remained
essentially constant for several different fuel types.
There is remarkable agreement between investigators studying various
fuel types and burning conditions with respect to the size distribution of
particulate emissions. This is in marked contrast to the total mass of par-
ticulate matter emitted, which is highly dependent on fuel types and burning
conditions.
Effects of Particles--
Effects of particles on air quality are discussed in detail in
Publication No. AP-49, "Air Quality Criteria for Particulate Matter," by
the National Air Pollution Control Administration (1969). The publica-
tion includes individual chapters on various effects of particles. The
key points of these are:
Solar radiation and climate--Atmospheric particles absorb and scatter
sunlight, decreasing ground-level visible radiation. The problem is most
acute in^cities having atmospheric particulate loads of the order of
100 yg/m . In these, sunlight is reduced about 5 percent for every
-72-
-------
doubling in particle concentration. Particles serve as condensation nuclei
and can influence precipitation patterns.
Visibility—Visibility is dependent on both the nature of particulate
matter in the atmosphere and on the volume of air into which the particulates
have been mixed. A measure of the volume of air available is the inversion
height. Generally better visibility is associated with strong winds which
provide better dispersion plumes. Particles in the atmosphere scatter light;
as more light is scattered, the visibility becomes poorer. Particles of
approximately the same size as wavelengths of visible light (0.4-0.8 urn) are
the most effective scatterers of light, although particles from 0.01 to 10pm
contribute to scattering. Visibility markedly decreases when the relative
humidity exceeds 70 percent due to hydroscopic particles absorbing water and
increasing in size. Smoke from forestry burning has been observed to contain
large numbers of particles in the size range below 1 urn diameter. Sandberg
and Martin (1975) reported a majority (69 percent) of the particles from
simulated fires to be less than 0.3 ym, 13 percent to be between 0.3 and 1 urn,
10 percent between 1 and 5 ym, and 8 percent greater than 5 ym.
Eccleston et al. (1974) made measurements,of particle concentration,
C(ug/m ), and the scattering coefficient, b(m~ ), in the plumes of nine
Australian fires. A relationship of the form C = 0.24b was developed. How-
ever, a more useful relationship would be between mass concentration and visi-
bility. A simple proportionality between visibility and mass concentration
implies similarity of the particle size distribution if the relationship is to
be used at locations other than where it was developed. This is necessary
since light scattering and mass concentration are functions of different ranges
of particle size. Noll et al. (1968) expressed visibility in terms of mass
concentration. In their study they assumed that mass concentration was propor-
tional to the scattering coefficient and also that the theroretical relation-
ship between visibility and the scattering coefficient took the form V = 3.9/b.
Using measured data from four cities, a relationship was derived for each.
Horvath and Noll (1969) obtained the formula for Seattle for V = 1142/C where
V is in miles and C is in yg~/m . For a given mass concentration a measure
of visibility can be obtained +_ 50 percent when the relative humidity is less
than 70 percent. These authors also assumed that the aerosol was well-aged
and that the visibility was the average for the period of aerosol collection.
CharlesoR (1968) reported visibility of 25 miles at 30 yg/m , 7.5 miles at
100 yg/m , and 3.75 miles at 200 yg/m . Charleson stated that visibility
can vary by a factor of 2 for a given mass concentration due to differences
in the particle size distribution. Eccleston et al. (1974) have collected
scattering coefficient data for plumes in western Australia by means of a
nephelometer. Figures 12 and 13 show scattering coefficient traces through
plumes from large fires.
Weather modificaton effects—Since forestry burning introduces a large
number of particles into the atmosphere, the impact on precipitation should
be considered. Particles of < 0.1 ym serve as cloud condensation nuclei
-73-
-------
— Fire slowly
dying
Time, min
Figure 12. Nephelometer trace through plume (Eccleston et al. 1974).
DO
C
I
o 3000 ft
.2700(1
-2500ft
* 2000 ft
Light-up time
Fire of December 11, 1970
Traverses 2-3 naut. miles
from fire area
Wind speed 15 knots
1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 hr
Time
Figure 13. Nephelometer readings with respect to
time (Eccleston et al. 1974).
-74-
-------
(CCN) or ice nuclei in the precipitation formation process. Hobbs et al.
(1970) observed that particles emitted from a large pulp and paper mill in
Washington State broadened the rain droplet size distribution in clouds
downwind from the mill; in theory, this should enhance precipitation. Hobbs
and Radke (1969) found that CCN increased by a factor of 2.5 in smoke from
slash burning. However, Ruskin (1974) found in the vicinity of a prescribed
burn in the southeastern portion of the Olympic Peninsula that, although the
CCN concentration measured 38 km downwind of the fire increased, the cloud
droplet size was narrowed, therefore decreasing the efficiency of the rain-
producing mechanism. After examining 60 years of rainfall records, Warner
(1968) detected a reduction in rainfall downwind of sugar cane fires in
Australia; this is consistent with the theory proposed by Hobbs and Radke
(1969) that additional CCN compete for the available moisture, produce smal-
ler droplets, and therefore hinder the droplet coalescence rainfall mecha-
nism. Schaefer (1969) noted a similar effect downwind of brush fires in
Africa.
Hobbs and Locatelli (1969) reported ice nuclei concentrations in forest
fire smoke were four times that of ambient air in the Washington Cascades.
However, this increase is small compared with the total increase in particu-
lates.
Materials damage—High atmospheric particle loads correlate with increased
corrosion of metal and surface damage to structures. The problem is common
for corrosive industrial aerosols but is not a serious consequence of forest
fire smoke.
Vegetation damage—Industrial aerosols containing phytotoxic materials
cause serious damage to susceptible plants. Damage from wood smoke has not
been demonstrated.
Respiratory deposition and clearance—Deposition is the process by which
inspired particulates are caught within the respiratory tract and thus fail
to exit with expired air. Factors which determine the fraction of inhaled
particulates deposited, as well as their site of deposition, are respiratory
tract anatomy, the effective aerodynamic diameter of particles, and the pat-
tern of breathing. Clearance of deposited particles from the respiratory
tract is dependent upon cilia and mucus transport to the pharynx, blood
stream absorption, and direct expiration. In general, maximum respiratory
tract deposition occurs for particles between 1-2 ym while minimum deposition
occurs in the region of 0.5 urn diameter. The retention of particles with
sizes less than 0.1 ym is as great as for those around 1 ym, with the smaller
particles lodging primarily in the pulmonary compartment and the larger ones
captured in the naso-pharynx area.
The occurrence of adverse human health which results from ambient particu-
late exposures is partially dependent upon the mechanisms used in the deposi-
tion and clearance of particles from the respiratory tract. Additionally,
ally, there is increasing evidence that the combination of particulates
with other atmospheric pollutants causes synergistic and antagonistic effects
upon human health. As a consequence of increased particulate levels in the
-75-
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atmosphere, incidences of respiratory malfunctions and disease are evident.
Under severe air pollution episodes, associated adverse health effects have
been validated with studies showing increased incidence and severity of
respiratory illness and increased death rates.
OTHER CONSTITUENTS
Minor and trace constituents emitted by forest fires have greater poten-
tial for producing adverse health effects than the major effluents. Volatile
oxygenated organic compounds, such as acids, ketones, alcohols, aldehydes and
furans are produced in the fires and partially absorbed in, or adsorbed on,
condensing smoke particles. The particle-bound vapors retain activity longer
than they would in the gaseous state and can be transported long distances
from the fires. As indicated previously, the particles facilitate lung pene-
tration, thereby increasing the apparent toxicity of absorbed materials. The
oxygenated compounds are health hazards only under conditions of long exposure
to relatively high levels. They may pose some threat to fire personnel but
their content in diluted plumes is probably too low to cause measurable
health effects at any appreciable distance downwind from a fire.
Polycyclic Organic Materials (POM)
These compounds are formed by pyrosynthesis in all inefficient combustion
processes. Some of these compounds have been identified as carcinogens and
others are suspected of carcinogenic potential. POM is organic matter that
contains two or more ring structures and includes polycyclic aromatic hydro-
carbons, polycyclic heterocyclics and various derivatives. It is separated
into two classifications: PPOM, a solid which can be collected on glass fiber
filters at ambient temperatures, and VPOM, a vapor which cannot be collected on
glass fiber filters at ambient temperatures. A comprehensive review of PPOM was
published by the National Academy of Sciences in 1972 and in a Technical Assess-
ment Report by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in 1975. In most of the
PPOM studies covered by these reports, benzo-a-pyrene (BaP) was used as an indi-
cator substance for the PPOM family because of its carcinogenicity, ubiquity
and distinctive chromatographic and spectral properties. Studies reviewed in
the reports have indicated that PPOM is emitted as a vapor which may either con-
dense on particles already present or form small particles of pure condensate.
The half-life of PPOM in the atmosphere has been estimated at 100 hours under
dry conditions, but may be much shorter. There is also evidence that some of
the highly reactive compounds are degraded in the atmosphere by reaction with
oxidants and by photooxidation.
The National Air Surveillance Network (NASN) has been collecting ambient
air data on BaP concentrations since 1966. Estimates of emissions of BaP
emission from open burning of agricultural wastes and other material have been
made. Measurements of the emission of 12 PPOM, including BaP, from laboratory
burning of pine needles in simulated head and back fires and three different
fuel loadings have been reported by McMahon and Tsoukales (1978). The results
-76-
-------
from the latter study are reproduced in Tables 12 and 13. The data tabulated
show the emission of all compounds to be hiqhly dependent on fuel loadinq,
burning conditions and stage of fire. The trends for BaP are representative
of those of the other PPOM and range from 238 ng/g to 3454 ng/g in back fires
and 38 ng/q to 97 no/q in head fires. These trends are essentially the
reverse of those for particulates, which ranqe from 5 Ib/ton to 21 Ib/ton in
back fires and 20 Ib/ton to 118 Ib/ton in head fires. However, the smolder-
ing phase of head fires burninq in pine needles produced higher emissions of
both PPOM and particulate matter than the flaming phase.
The values recorded for BaP emissions from burninq pine needles, for
all but the liqhtly loaded back fire, are comparable with those cited by the
National Academy of Sciences (1972) for open burninq of landscape refuse
(150 nq/q) and grass clippings, leaves and branches (346 nq/g). McMahon and
Tsoukales caution that the results in Tables 12 and 13 were obtained with a
single fuel type and that additional data on other fuel types and fire condi-
tions will be required before PPOM emission factors for forest fires can be
developed. The data reported are fire-dependent, suggesting that an emission
range for PPOM will be more appropriate than a single factor.
Trace Elements
Emissions of trace elements from forestry burning have not been reported,
but some measurements have been made on smoke from laboratory and field burning
of agricultural refuse. Darley and Lerman (1975) obtained emission factors for
the five metals listed in Table 14 for laboratory burning of Hawaiian sugar
cane residues.
The residues were collected in Hawaii and shipped to the Riverside,
California burning facility described by Darley and Biswell (1973), where the
tests were carried out. On a mass basis, the metal emissions listed in Table 14
are very low and would not be expected to contribute significantly to the trace
element background of rural air, which is due to natural sources.
Shum and Loveland (1977) measured emissions of 24 elements from burning
grass fields in Oregon. The relative abundance of trace elements measured in
the particulate effluent was comparable to that in the material being burned
and the elements were almost entirely in the particulate fraction larger than
about 2 ym. The authors concluded that the metals in the smoke were primarily
due to incompletely burned plant material. The observation that trace elements
are concentrated in the larger sized particulate emission suggests that field
plume measurements, made at distances far enough removed from the fire to permit
fallout of the larae particles, will be necessary for development of element
emission factors.
Emission of selenium, presumed to be Se02, fr0m incinerator burning of wood
chips, wood, sugar cane and trash has been reported by Shendrikar and West (1973).
Smoke from wood chips and wood contained siqnificantly hiqher concentrations of
-77-
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TABLE 12. PPOM FROM BURNING PINE NEEDLES BY FIRE TYPE (ng/gram of fuel burned; dry-weight basis)*
oo
i
Backing Fires
Anthracene/Phenanthrene
Methyl Anthracene
Fluoranthene
Pyrcne
Methyl Pyrene/Fluoranthene
Benzo (c) phcnanthrene
Chrysene/benz (a) anthracene
Methylchryseno
Benzofluoranthenes
Benzo (a)pyrene
Benzo (e)pyrene
Perylene
Methylbenzopyrenes
Indeno (1 , 2, 3-cd)pyre'ne
Benzo Cghi)perylene
TOTAL PAH
Total suspended particulate
matter (TSP)
Benzene soluble organics
0.1 Ib.ft2
12,181
9,400
14,563
20,407
18,580
8,845
28,724
17,753
12,835
3,454
5,836
2,128
6,582
4,282
6,181 ,
171,750
21 Ib/ton
55 percent
0.3 lb/ft2
2,189
.1,147 !
2,140
3,102
2,466
1,808
5,228
1,891
1,216
555
1,172
198
963
655
1,009
25,735
9 Ib/ton
. .50 percent .
0.5 lb/ft2
584
449
687
1,084
1,229
468
2,033
877
818
238
680
134
384
169
419
10,249
5 Ib/ton
. . .45 percent
Heading Fires
0.1 lb/ft2
2,525
1,057
733
1,121
730
244
581
282
164
38
61
33
. 65
--
....
7,632
20 Ib/ton
. . 44 percent
0.3 Ib/ft2
5,542
4,965
974
979
1,648
142
543
1,287
129
40
78
24
198
...
___
16,549
73 Ib/ton
73 percent
0.5 Ib/ft2
6,768
7,611
1,051
1,133
• 2,453
175
536
1,559
241
97
152
46
665
-_-
—
22,787
118 Ib/ton
75 percent
* Moisture content for all fires ranged between 18 to 27 percent.
Taken from McMahon and Tsoukalas (1978).
-------
TABLE 13. PPOM FROM BURNING PINE NEEDLES BY FIRE PHASES (ng/gram of fuel burned; dry-weight basis)*
0.1 Ib/ft
2
Flaming Smoldering
Anthracene/Phenanthrene
Methyl Anthracene
Fluoranthene
Pyrene
Methyl Pyrene/Fluoranthena
Benzo (c) phenanthrene
Chrysene/benz (a) anthracene
Methylchrysene
Benzofluoranthenes
Benzo(a)pyrene
Benzo (e)pyrene
Perylene
Methylbenzopyrenes
Indeno(l,2,3-cd)pyrene
Benzo (ghi)perylcne
TOTAL PAH
Total suspended particulate
matter (TSP.)
Benzene soluble organics
1,621 7
539 3
445. 2
750 3
455 2
228
472 1
263
178
33
56
38
19
—
_..
,049
,872
,317
,078
,383
397
,324
497
199
100
133
33;
397
_„
i.
5,097 21,779
13 Ib/ton 55
39 percent 48
Ib/ton .
percent •
Heading Fires by Phases
0.3 Ib/ft2
Flaming
865
667
244
342
494
77
230
343
69
17
45
14
52
--
__
3,456
11 Ib/ton
54 percent
Smoldering
9,046
8,193
1,516
1,454
2,501
189
769
1,989
174
55
102
32 ;.
304
_..
26,324
165 Ib/ton
76 percent •
0.5 Ib/ft2
Flaming
2,351
1,909
622
838
1,036
179
628
466
90
36
82
27
75
--
_..
8,389
31 Ib/ton
69 percent
Smoldering
8,791
11,447
1,331
1,291
3,396
173
980
2,290
347
140
203
61
1,069
-..
31,519
222 Ib/ton
76 percent
Moisture content for all fires ranged between 18 to 27 percent.
Taken from McMahon and Tsoukalas (1978).
-------
SeO? than that from the other two materials. The authors made no attempt to
relate SeO^ emission rate to combustion rate or mass of fuel burned.
TABLE 14. TRACE METAL EMISSIONS FROM LABORATORY BURNING OF SUGAR CANE
(ng/kg; calculated from Darley and Lerman 1975).
Nickel Chromium Beryllium Cadmium Copper
Whole Cane
Leaf Trash
0.16
0.12
0.05
0.04
0.02
0.04
0.18
0.28
0.56
0.82
FUEL COMBUSTION
If temperatures around 1000°C and complete aeration could be maintained
throuqhout a fire, emission would consist almost entirely of COp and f-LO.
However, this condition cannot be attained in open fires, which are generally
considered to pass through three burning stages. The following description
of these three stages is quoted directly from the Southern Forestry Smoke
Management Guidebook, Chapter II, by Tangren et al. (1976).
"Pre-Ignition Phase (Pyrolysis Predominating)
In this phase, the fuel is heated; volatile components move
to the surface of the fuel and are expelled in the surrounding
air. Initially, these volatiles contain large amounts of water
vapor and some noncombustible organic compounds. As temperatures
increase, hemicellulose, followed by cellulose and lignin, begin
to decompose and release a stream of combustible organic products
(pyrolysates). Because these gases and vapors are hot they rise,
mix with the oxygen in the air, and ignite - producing the second
phase.
"Flaming Phase (Gas-Phase Oxidation Predominating)
In the second phase, the temperature rises rapidly from the
heat of exothermic reactions. Pyrolysis continues, but it is now
accompanied by rapid oxidation, or flaming of the combustible
gases being evolved in high concentrations. Carbon monoxide,
methane, formaldehyde, organic acids, methanol, and other highly
combustible hydrocarbon species are being fed into the flame
zone. The products of the flame zone are predominantly carbon
dioxide and water vapor. The water vapor here is not a result
of dehydration as in the pre-ignition phase, but rather a major
product of the oxidation of the fuel constituents.
-80-
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"Some of the pyrolyzed substances cool and condense without
passing through the flame zone; others pass through the flames
but only partially oxidize, producing a wide range of products.
Many products of low molecular weight (methane, propane, etc.)
remain as gases after cooling. Others, with higher molecular
weights, cool and condense to form small, tarry, liquid drop-
lets and solid soot particles as they move from the combustion
zone. These condensing substances, along with the rapidly
cooling water vapor that is being evolved in copius amounts,
form the smoke that accompanies all forest fires.
"Pyrosynthesis also occurs during this phase. Low-
molecular-weight hydrocarbon radicals condense in the reducing
region of the flames, leading to the synthesis of relatively
large molecules such as the polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons.
"Glowing Phase (Solid Oxidation Predominating)
In the final phase of combustion, the exposed surface of
the char left from the flaming phase is oxidized, producing a
characteristic glow. This continues, as long as temperatures
remain high enough, until only small amounts of noncombustible
material remain as gray ash. Many times the arrangement of
the burning material is such that temperatures cannot be
maintained, and black char is left instead of gray ash.
"Fuel particles are not always consumed in a moving
fire front. Because of the size, condition, or arrangement
of these particles, some are pyrolyzed but not oxidized and
others are only partially consumed before the flame is
extinguished. From the heat still available after the flam-
ing phase, these particles emit large amounts of smoke.
Still other particles continue in flaming combustion after
the flaming phase has ended. As a result dehydration,
pyrolysis, solid oxidation, and scattered flaming often
occur simultaneously during this last phase. Where this
condition exists, that last phase is called smoldering."
The major portion of the emission from forest fires occurs during the
pre-ignition and glowing phases. Cramer (1974) has pointed out a number of
ways in which emissions can be minimized through adjustment of burning tech-
niques to utilize the efficient flaming phase to maximum advantage. Piled
fuels, in particular, burn more efficiently in larger fires because higher
average combustion temperatures are attained. Large piles have proportion-
ally less fuel near the edges, where it is subject to inefficient combustion.
Maximum combustion efficiency in pile burning is achieved with a continuing
fire to which fuel is added at a rate which maintains the fire in the flaming
phase. Fuels such as duff and rotted wood tend to burn in the glowing phase
and their inclusion in pile fires increases emissions. Head fires move
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rapidly and burn off the light fuels in a relatively cool, inefficient flame,
leaving heavier fuel elements smoldering. Back fires progress more slowly and
consume proportionally more of the available fuel during the flaming phase.
FUEL MOISTURE
The effect of fuel moisture on emissions has not been studied extensively.
There appears little question that increased moisture decreases the quantity of
available fuel and rate of fire spread, thus decreasing source strength and
rate of emissions. However, the effect of moisture on emission factors has not
been clearly defined. Darley (1976) noted marked increases in particulate and
hydrocarbon emission factors for leaves when fuel moisture was increased from
10 to 20 percent. Particulate matter increased by as much as 400 percent and
hydrocarbons by as much as 300 percent, although carbon monoxide showed only
a 29 percent increase. Measurements of emissions from field burning of agri-
cultural refuse reported by Carrol et al. (1977), also showed increasing fuel
moisture to greatly increase emissions of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and
particulate matter. The effect of fuel moisture on emissions was much more
pronounced in head fires than in back fires.
Ward et al. (1974) showed higher particle emissions in simulated head
fires in pine needles at 10 percent moisture than at 6 percent. The dif-
ference in moisture level did not affect particle emissions from simulated
back fires in the same fuel. In measuring field emissions, the same authors
noted a significant decrease in rate of fire spread and, consequently, rate
of particle emissions with increasing moisture. However, the particle emis-
sion factors were similar at the two moisture levels. Studies reported by
Darley et al. (1974) and Darley (1977) indicate that emissions of particu-
late matter, carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons increase with increasing fuel
moisture for fine agricultural fuels but drying woody fuels below 35 percent
moisture has little effect on these emissions.
SOURCE STRENGTH
Source strength can be defined and determined in a number of ways.
Definitions generally include total emissions as well as emission rates.
For point sources, such as power plants, both integrated emissions and emis-
sion rates are predictable from operating parameters and are usually monitored
as part of the operating activity. Line sources, such as major traffic arter-
ies, pose a more difficult problem. However, emissions are predictable from
traffic patterns and fixed monitoring stations can be strategically placed
along a route to document integrated and instantaneous source strength. The
difficulty of predicting and measuring the strength of area sources, such as
forest fires, is orders of magnitude greater than than point or line sources.
While the locations of prescribed fires are known, fixed monitoring
installations are impractical because a given plot is burned only once in
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several years. Electric line power is not normally available near pre-
scribed fires and any monitoring must rely on battery power or portable
field generators. Since a fire only burns a plot once, there is no margin
for error in deployment of monitoring instruments and no time for correc-
tion of malfunctions. Field monitoring of forest fires to determine source
strength is therefore difficult, costly and uncertain. The approach taken
by the southern region, monitoring a limited number of field fires in repre-
sentative fuels under usual burning conditions to predict source strength,
appears more reasonable than attempting to monitor all prescribed fires.
Methods used to predict the emission of particulate matter from typical
fires in southern fuels have been described in detail by Mobley et al.
(1976). The major fire and fuel parameters that are important for pre-
dicting source strength are outlined in the following subsection.
Fire Behavior and Burning Technique
Emissions from fires occur in two phases which may take place simul-
taneously or sequentially. An actively burning fire front generates enough
heat to entrain emissions into a convective column. The emissions are carried
far from the fire by the resulting plume and are usually well dispersed before
returning to ground level. A fire in the smoldering phase does not generate
enough heat to produce a convective column. Emissions remain near ground level
and can impact on air quality in areas adjacent to fires. Fires are thus
composite sources with varying emission rates and plume rise that impact
on air quality both near the fire and at greater distances. Consideration of
source strength can emphasize either or both emission properties, depending on
fire location, meteorological conditions and downwind smoke sensitivity.
Fire behavior and burning technique have a pronounced effect on source
strength for any given fuel loading condition. Fuel moisture, particularly
that of the litter layer and fine fuels, influences the rate of fire spread
and the quantity of available fuel. With very wet fuels, the rate of fire
spread is too slow to generate enough heat for formation of a convective column
and the entire emission drifts from the fire zone at ground level. Back fires
consume most of the available fuel in the flaming fire front. A high percen-
tage of the emissions is entrained in the convective column if the fire inten-
sity is adequate for formation of such a column. Head fires consume only fine
fuels in the flaming front, leaving heavier fuels smoldering. As a result,
head fires may consume only 50 to 80 percent of the available fuel during
the advancing-front combustion stage. There is frequently enough heat in
the advancing-front stage to entrain part of the residual stage emissions
into the convective column (Johansen et al. 1976). In contrast, the mass
ignition techniques typically employed for slash burning in the Pacific
Northwest result in rapid formation of strong convective columns which
entrain the major portion of the fire emissions.
-83-
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Available Fuel Loading
Source strength, in terms of total emissions and emission rates, is
highly dependent on fuel loading and arrangement, which determine fire behavior
and largely govern selection of burning technique. Methods for estimating
total and available fuel in the Pacific Northwest include those described by
Beaufait et al. (1977), Brown (1974), Maxwell and Ward (1976a, b), and
Hedin and Taylor (1977). The individual methods have varying utility and
reliability for estimating quantities of available fuel and predicting fire
behavior. Fuel loadings and emission factors are the major parameters
governing source strength. Field emission factors for the fuels and burning
conditions of the Pacific Northwest will need to be accurately defined.
Methods for estimating available fuel in terms of type, size, arrangement and
condition will need to be improved to serve as the basis for derivation of
fire behavior models. The utility of such models for estimating source
strength and predicting emission impact is a direct function of the accuracy
of the emission factors and available fuel estimates. The models will need to
be validated through selected field measurements of emission, heat evolution
and fire spread rates. In the absence of such validated models for the
specific fuels and burninn conditions of the Pacific Northwest, source
strength of individual fires can be guessed but not accurately estimated.
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SECTION 4
IMPACT OF FORESTRY BURNING UPON AIR QUALITY
This section addresses the impact of forestry burning on air quality
in the Northwest. The first subsection summarizes air quality problems as
they relate to the attainment of National Ambient Air Quality Standards
in Washington and Oregon. The second section describes the mechanics of
pollutant transport and dispersion relative to forestry burning activity
in the Northwest. The third section reviews studies which have attempted
to assess the impact of forestry burning on air quality through various
approaches. The final section discusses the relative impact of forestry
burning in comparison to other emission sources.
CURRENT AIR QUALITY PROBLEMS IN THE NORTHWEST
Under authority of the Clean Air Act of 1970, the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency developed National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS),
which established acceptable levels of five criteria pollutants. Standards
are of two basic types, primary and secondary. Primary standards are estab-
lished to protect the public's health and are based on scientific data pub-
lished in air quality criteria documents. Secondary standards are designed
to protect the public's welfare. Standards established for criteria
pollutants are summarized in Table 15.
Under the Clean Air Act, individual states have the responsibility of
bringing nonattainment areas into compliance with NAAQS and insuring that
NAAQS standards are maintained. Attainment of NAAQS standards is determined
by standard air quality monitoring techniques and, in some cases, by dif-
fusion modeling techniques. The attainment statuses of areas within Oregon
and Washington were recently published in the Federal Register1 as required
by the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977, and are presented in Table 16. This
table indicates that ambient levels of total suspended particulates (TSP),
photochemical oxidants (0 ), and carbon monoxide (CO) represent major air
quality problems within tne two states.
Federal Register. Vol. 32, No. 43, Friday, March 3, 1978.
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TABLE 15. NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS
Pollutant
Primary Standards
Secondary Standards
Total suspended
particulate
Annual geometric mean of
75 yg/m3 not to be
exceeded
Annual geometric mean of
60 Pg/m3 not to be
exceeded
Sulfur dioxide
Carbon monoxide
Photochemical
oxidants
Nitrogen dioxide
24-hour concentration of
260 yg/m3 not to be
exceeded more than
once per year
Annual arithmetic mean of
80 yg/m3 not to be
exceeded
24-hour concentration of
365 yg/m3 not to be
exceeded more than
once per year
1-hour concentration of
40 mg/m3 not to be
exceeded more than
once per year
8-hour concentration of
10 yg/m3 not to be
exceeded more than
once per year
1-hour concentration of
160 Mg/m3 not to be
exceeded more than
once per year
Annual arithmetic mean
of 100 yg/m3 not to be
exceeded
24-hour concentration of
150 yg/m3 not to be
exceeded more than
once per year
3-hour concentration of
1300 yg/m3 not to be
exceeded more than
once per year
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TABLE 16. NAAQS ATTAINMENT STATUS FOR OREGON AND WASHINGTON
( X indicates attainment not reached at current time )
Area
Total Suspended
P articulate Sulfur Dioxide
Primary Secondary Primary Secondary
Photochemical
Oxidants
C arbon Nitrogen
Monoxide * Dioxide *
Portland - Vancouver AQMA **
(Oregon portion)
Medford-Ashland AQMA **
Eugene-Springfield AQMA **
Salem
Remainder of State
Washington
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
^ Seattle ***
Y* Renton
Kent
Tacoma ***
Port Angeles ***
Longview
Vancouver
Yakima
Spokane
Clarkston
Remainder of State
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X
* Primary and secondary standards for these pollutants are identical.
** Air Quality Maintenance Area—an area defined by states for the purpose of air quality maintenance planning,
*** Different attainment statuses were published for localities within these urban areas. If both primary and secondary standards were
violated, we have indicated only that primary standards were violated.
-------
A few points should be made about the attainment status and its value
as an indicator of air quality.
« First, attainment status can only be determined where
air quality monitoring data have been collected or air
quality models are used to estimate air quality levels.
As a rule, air quality monitors are placed in populated
areas.
« Federal law requires that all areas within states be
designated as attainment, nonattainment, or nonclas-
sifiable areas. Many of these areas are large and
have relatively few monitors located within them.
Hence the designation of nonattainment does not
necessarily imply poor air quality throughout an
area. Nor does the designation of attainment neces-
sarily imply acceptable air quality through an area.
• On the other hand, a careful analysis is made of
monitoring data before a designation of attainment
or nonattainment is made. For example, if unchar-
acteristic meteorological conditions led to abnor-
mally low or high air quality readings, this factor
is taken into account in determining attainment
status.
• Rural areas are generally not designated as non-
attainment if it can be shown that particulate
levels result from fugitive dust emissions. Rural,
wind-blown dust is not believed to contain the same
toxic pollutants and to have the same health impact
as urban dust.2
The attainment status of an area represents the state's best evaluation of
the air quality relative to NAAQS within populated locales.
In Oregon, major air quality problems exist in the urban areas of
Portland, Salem, Eugene-Springfield, and Medford-Ashland. The problem
appears to be most severe in the Eugene-Springfield area, where particulate,
ozone, and carbon monoxide standards are exceeded. In Washington, five
urban areas on the East Side and four areas on the West Side exceed NAAQS.
Photochemical oxidant problems exist in the Puget Sound area of Seattle and
Tacoma. Carbon monoxide exceedances occur in Seattle, Yakima, and Spokane.
Particulate exceedances occur at every area reporting an exceedance of any
type, except for Longview.
Federal Register, Vol. 43, No. 43, March 3, 1978, p. 8963.
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The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977 require states to submit to EPA
State Implementation Plans to achieve NAAQS primary standards within des-
ignated nonattainment areas, while maintaining standards in areas where
NAAQS are not currently exceeded. These plans must be submitted to EPA by
January 1, 1979. In order to develop strategies which are effective in
achieving primary standards, states must be able to determine the contribu-
tions of various sources to air quality. One potentially significant source
is forestry burning.
MECHANISMS BY WHICH FOREST BURNING IMPACTS AIR QUALITY
Combustion products including heat, water vapor, particles and gases
are emitted into the atmosphere from an open fire and form a plume or
cloud of material which is transported in a downwind direction by the wind.
Meteorological parameters determine to what height this plume will rise and
what its dimensions will be at downwind points. Numerous references appear
in the literature regarding pollution observation studies in the vicinity
of fires; mathematical models of plume behavior have been attempted to pre-
dict downwind pollutant concentrations. Such models must include features
which will adequately describe the airflow within a forest, the airflow in
complex terrain, to what height the plume will rise, and to what extent the
plume will disperse pollutant material into the atmosphere by turbulence.
Smoke plumes can be quantitatively described with respect to size,
composition, behavior and effects. Each of these characteristics is deter-
mined from several interrelated factors including type and quantity of fuel,
burning phase of the fire, meteorological conditions, land slope and the
type of fire.
The composition of the plume includes the chemical, heat, moisture and
particulate content of the fire emissions. The composition and effects of
forestry burning emissions are described in Section 3. This section dis-
cusses initial plume characteristics and how the meteorology and the
terrain affect the transport, dispersion, deposition and transformation
of the plume and hence its impact on air quality.
Plume Rise
Plume height is the height above ground level at which the vertical
rise of the smoke plume stops. Plume height is determined by atmospheric
stability, wind speed and heat release rate of the fire. Murphy (1976)
measured plume rise from a 15 hectare burn in Georgia using an instrumented
aircraft. Under the burn conditions, the plume rose to the top of the mixing
layer within 8 km of the burn site. Figure 14 depicts the density of the
smoke plume in a vertical section from transects made 1.6 km from the fire.
-89-
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Nephelometer data
and a plume width
dimensions of the
approximately 500
(1974) described
22,000 acres) in
showed the plume rapidly rising through the mixing layer
of approximately 2000 m measured 1.6 km downwind. The
source are not given; however, the fire was estimated to be
m across at the time of the measurements. Eccleston et al.
fires covering areas of 1400 to 8800 hect-ares (3500 to
western Australia. Plumes from the burns were measured from
1067 to 3048 meters (3500 to 10,000 feet) in altitude. A description of the
existing meteorological conditions was not provided. Vines (1974) observed
the behavior of plumes from burned areas of approximately 3000 hectares (7500
acres) containing approximately 45 x 10 kkg (50 x 10 tons) of fuel.
900 —
£ 500
200
200O
0 2000
Cross Wind Distance, m
Figure 14. Vertical profile of smoke density (Murphy 1976).
Norum (1974) monitored 22 prescribed burns of approximately 4 hectares
(10 acres) to relate fire intensity with convective plume height. Fuel
guantities were measured before and after the burn and fuel moisture at the
time of the burn. Convective column heights were determined from an aircraft.
The relationship of fuel, fire and atmospheric variables to plume height was
studied; convective plume heinht was more closely related to variables which
control fire intensity, such as wind speed and fuel dryness, than to mixing
depth.
Research by Briggs (1969, 1975) to determine plume rise from heated plumes
emitted from chimneys is based on principles which should be applicable to for-
est burning. The Southern Forestry Smoke Management Guidebook (Pharo, Lavdas,
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and Bailey 1976) has adopted the Briggs method for estimating plume heights.
However, in the South it is estimated that only 60 percent of the smoke
from a prescribed fire is carried aloft by the convective uplift and attains
the height predicted by the Briggs equations. The remaining 40 percent
remains unentrained and drifts along the ground.
Lavdas (1978) made comparisons of plume heights observed from aircraft
using estimates calculated by the Briggs equations. In all experimental cases,
the Briggs estimates agreed with observations within a factor of two with
both overprediction and underprediction occurring. Lavdas also formulated
a plume rise model that accounts for the smoke not entrained by the rising
convective column. The model allows 60 percent of the smoke to attain a
Briggs plume height while 40 percent is assigned to a plume height of zero.
This approach yields satisfactory ground-level predictions of TSP concentra-
tions at short ranges.
Alternatively, smoke column behavior can be described by convection
models that have been used to simulate the behavior of cumulus clouds
(Roberts 1976). These models take into account the vertical variations in
stability that occur in the atmosphere. This feature is especially useful
since convective columns from forest fires may penetrate the top of the
mixing layer and enter a region of more stable air aloft.
Atmospheric Transport and Dispersion
Meteorological factors which directly affect the transport and disper-
sion of the plume are wind speed and direction, depth of the mixing layer,
and atmospheric stability. The USDA Forest Service Agriculture Handbook 360
entitled Fire Weather (Schroeder 1976) describes these concepts. The mixing
layer is deeper in an unstable atmosphere and hence more dispersion will
occur. Also, the more unstable the atmosphere is, the more rapidly disper-
sion will occur. Light winds will predominate in a stable atmosphere thus
resulting in small dispersion of the plume. Wind speeds generally increase
with height in the lower atmosphere. The plume will be transported at the
wind speeds existing throughout the layer that it occupies. These winds will
be stronger than the wind speed at the surface. Wind direction generally
changes in a clockwise fashion with height. Therefore the entire plume may
not travel in the same direction.
If the mixing depth is low due to a layer in the atmosphere, the smoke
plume may be trapped below the stable layer, increasing adverse effects.
If the convective column above a fire is strong enough to penetrate the
stable layer, the smoke plume will rise through the inversion layer further
downwind and provide more time for dispersion to occur. Figure 15 illus-
trates this condition.
Dell et al. (1970) reported on the general dispersion of smoke plumes
from the Cascades when the Pacific Northwest was under the influence of
-91-
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WIND
CONVECTION
COLUMN
MAIN PLUME
TOP OF MIXED LAYER
ro
i
DRIFT
ASMOKE
LIGHT WIND
LATE AFTERNOONi
Figure 15. Plume penetrating through top of mixing layer. (Beaufait and Cramer 1969)
-------
anticyclonic flow. Subsiding air in the high pressure system resulted in
inversion layers between 300 and 400 m. Observed plumes from fires ignited
above the inversion layer did not penetrate down through the inversion
layers and did not enter the Willamette Valley.
The elevated inversion can occur during the daytime in the Willamette-
Puget Trough region when cool maritime air is trapped at the surface by
relatively warm subsiding air from a high pressure system. Studies which
characterize fire intensity and plume rise versus depth of the mixing layer
inversion strength are needed to refine these combinations of parameters
for smoke management. A joint frequency distribution of stability classes
with wind direction and wind speed is commonly used for air pollution
modeling to calculate expected pollution levels. These frequency distri-
butions are based on climatological records. Similar information modified
to include the situations encountered in prescribed burning in complex ter-
rain would provide desirable refinement to planning procedures. Probability
forecasts of the occurrence of the most desirable conditions would aid in
anticipating plume behavior. Climatic records are compiled by the National
Climatic Center for all areas of the country. Seasonal variations as well
as spatial variations in precipitation, cloud amount, soil moisture, etc.
are determined from climatological records.
Local Influences on Dispersion
Dispersion of smoke plumes in the Northwest is influenced by the rough
terrain and the proximity of the Pacific Ocean. Complex terrain causes a
variety of local influences on air flow patterns such as up-slope and down-
slope flow, mountain and valley winds, flow channeling, and mountain lee
waves. Whether or not this type of phenomena occurs depends largely on the
magnitude of the synoptic-scale flow. Strong large-scale winds can break up
or prohibit local flows from forming.
Daytime solar heating and nighttime radiational cooling generate the
driving force for mountain and valley flows and upslope and downslope winds.
During the day the layer of air closest to the surface is strongly heated by
the sun. As a result, this air rises and has an upslope component. Rising
thermals of warm air exist above peaks and ridges. At night, radiational
cooling produces a cold layer of air near the surface which flows toward the
lowest elevations. If a smoke plume is entrained by this type of flow, smoke
will accumulate in low-lying places. Similar effects occur in the up-valley
and down-valley directions during the day and night respectively.
Channeling of airflow in mountain and valley systems was studied in
eastern Tennessee by Nappo (1975). During stable conditions the topographic
features affected the flow to elevations greater than 2000 m above the ground
and to distances beyond 50 km. Mountain lee waves develop downwind of a
mountain or ridge crest in a stable atmosphere with moderate to strong
winds above the elevated terrain.
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Turbulence is partly caused by the roughness of the surface over which
air flows and is the primary mechanism for dispersion of smoke plumes. It is
expected that dispersion will be enhanced in complex terrain, except when
strong inversions are present in the valleys. Most field plume studies indi-
cate that complex terrain contributes to alterations in air flow and to
increased amounts of turbulent diffusion compared to those in flat terrain.
Drainage flow and lee waves appear to be the flow characteristics most respon-
sible for increased turbulent effects.
The maritime influence felt in the Pacific Northwest is due to the pre-
dominately westerly winds of the coastal sections. The maritime air that
comes ashore is quite stable due to its fetch over the relatively cool
ocean water. A stable layer near the surface of the water is transported
inland. As the air passes over the Coast Ranges in the daytime, an unstable
mixing layer develops, aided by the upslope winds due to solar heating. At
night, radiational cooling produces a layer just above the surface which is
more stable than the maritime layer. These phenomena are displayed in
Figures 16 and 17-
With westerly synoptic-scale winds, the effects of a local sea-land
breeze circulation cell developing in coastal areas due to differential heat-
ing of land and ocean would be masked by the larger-scale flow. When the
onshore flow is weak there may be some potential for sea breeze cell develop-
ment. Under strong insolation conditions land surfaces are heated more
strongly than water surfaces, causing rising air over land which may flow out
over the ocean where cooler air is subsidinq. Cool air moves inland to com-
plete the sea breeze circulation cell.
EVALUATION OF THE IMPACT OF FORESTRY BURNING
The impact of forestry burning can be assessed by several different
approaches. Mathematical models have been developed to describe both the
airflow and plume dispersion in forested complex terrain areas and to pre-
dict concentrations of pollutants downwind of fires. Pollutant concentra-
tions of plumes have been measured at the surface and at upper levels.
Tracer materials have been used to follow airflow patterns in forested
areas. Pollutant measurements have been made in smoke-sensitive areas and
these data have been both statistically and morphologically related to
burning activity.
Modeling Studies
Despite the fact that several models have been developed to describe
airflow in forested, complex terrain reqions or predict pollutant concen-
trations resulting from forest fires, the available literature does not
reveal any modeling studies that specifically determine the impact of
slash burninq activities on the smoke-sensitive reqions of the Pacific
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Feet
—10.000
Slightly Stable
-A. Top of Marine Layer
?-.—8.00O
-I-I- -6.000
—4,000
—2,000
—0
Figure 16. Common mesoscale and local afternoon dispersion conditions west of the Cascades
during the warm season. The mixing layer is shallower in cooler seasons (Cramer 1974).
Feet
-10,000
Slightly Stable
^Stable^CWJ^ -
-8,000
—6.000
—4,000
—2,000
20 30
—0
Figure 17. Common nighttime or early morning condition during the warm season west of the Cascades.
Downslope breezes develop on still, clear nights. Similar stratified conditions without downslope breezes
may persist throughout the day during the colder seasons and during rainy weather (Cramer 1974).
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Northwest. However, validation of such models is beinq pursued in Oregon
and Washington. Modeling of airflow through the forest canopy is necessary
to assess the impact of drift smoke.
Complex terrain airflow and dispersion models can be used to predict the
pollutant concentrations that result from large smoke plumes of slash fires
in Washington and Oregon. Researchers have developed numerical models to
describe wind patterns applicable to the transport and dispersion of the
already formed plume. Tana (1970) devised a mathematical model to determine
airflow in and above a forest on horizontal and sloping terrains. Drag and
vertical eddy exchanges were used to construct the models. The wind profile
above flat terrain was basically concave upward in the trunk space, concave
downward in the canopy, and logarithmically increasing above the canopy as
shown in Figure 18. This basically agreed with observed data. The computed
wind profile for sloping terrains contained a maximum above the canopy and
in the trunk space as shown in Figure 19. The magnitude of the maximum wind
depended on the slope of the terrain and the eddy exchange coefficient varia-
tion with height.
Kinerson and Fritschen (1973) used an analog computer to model three-
dimensional coniferous forest density and determine airflow and dispersion
of aerosols. Field studies performed by Fritschen et al. (1969, 1970, 1971)
in an experimental forest in Washington were used to test the accuracy
of the analog simulation. Satisfactory results were obtained with the model.
It was concluded that wind direction, governed by vegetative distribution
and density, was an important factor in determining lateral aerosol move-
ment. Vertical motion of the aerosol was concluded to be primarily due to
atmospheric stability. Kinerson and Fritschen (1971) also developed a
model that specifically characterizes the canopy of a naturally regener-
ated Douglas-fir stand. The model validated satisfactorily when used to
compute wind profiles.
Ryan (1977) developed a model to characterize surface winds in complex
terrain, assuming that the winds resulted from vector addition of several
independent wind components produced by mountainous terrain. The components
include valley-mountain wind, slope drainage wind, land and sea breeze,
synoptic-scale wind, and the channel effect of topography elements. The
computed winds were comparable to observed winds in the San Bernadino
Mountains of southern California. No reference was made indicating if Ryan's
model has been adapted to compute dispersion of atmospheric pollutants in
complex terrain.
Other models have been devised to characterize airflows and dispersion
through complex terrain. Fosberg (1976a) developed a numerical model from
the curl and divergence of the Navier-Stokes equation to determine the ther-
mally driven wind pattern in mountainous terrain. The model evaluates the
wind conditions and plume locations in remote areas. Data on the ther-
mal field may be obtained by direct measurement or remote sensing. The
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Figure 18. Wind profile of forest on flat terrain (z = height; u = wind speed) (Tang 1970).
300- •
200--
IOO--
5O--
Z(m) ..
3O--
20---7C
10--
- - Conopy
5--
U (Canopy
flow)
0
4 ( m sec"1)
Figure 19. Wind profile of forest on sloping terrain (30°) (Tang 1970).
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model was-.tested against observed conditions in California; errors of
+_ 1.1 ms for wind speed and +_ 20.7° for wind directions were documented.
Fosberq (1976b) also devised a single layer model for airflow and the
dispersion of pollutants in the atmospheric boundary layer in complex ter-
rain. The model was derived from the Navier-Stokes flow equation by neglect-
inn advection terms and assuming an impulse solution. The model requires a
minimum amount of data and describes a diagnostic model of the vector flow
field. Six sets of wind data from the Oregon Cascades and one set from
California were used to evaluate the model. The model validated reasonably
well with a root-mean-square wind speed error of 2.0 ms and a root-mean-
square wind direction error of 1.9 points based on a 16-point compass. The
Fosberq model is currently undergoinn validation in the Willamette Valley
reaion by the Oreqon Air Resources Center at Oregon State University.
The LIRAO model developed at Lawrence Livermore Laboratories is also
being validated in the same renion. The LIRAQ model has been previously
evaluated by Environmental Research and Technology (Bass, Eschenroeder and
Eqan 1977). LIRAO is a reqional multiple-source air quality simulation model
capable of predicting the dispersion of both nonreactive pollutants or reac-
tive photochemical pollutants. The model produces spatial distributions of
around-level pollutant concentrations. Complex topographic effects on mix-
ing height and local wind fields are included in the model. The impact of
slash burning on air quality in any region near burning activity in the
Coast Ranges or Cascades can be evaluated after the model has been vali-
dated.
Transport and diffusion models usually deal with point sources such
as stacks. Adams et al. (1976) aerially monitored prescribed burns and
concluded that long-range plume dispersal can be satisfactorily described
with point source models. However, for short-range predictions, the length
of the fire line must be considered. A line source model that predicts
pollutant concentrations within 100 km of prescribed fires was developed
for flat terrain in the South by Pharo, Lavdas and Bailey (1976). Both
a "workbook" type model and a computer model (SMOGO) have been developed
using Briggs1 plume rise and the line source Gaussian dispersion equation
of Turner (1970). According to preliminary reports by Lavdas (1978), the
best results using the Briqqs-Turner approach are obtained when 60 percent
of the smoke can rise to the level predicted by the Briggs equations and
40 percent is dispersed from the around level.
Williams (1974) used a different approach from the standard Gaussian
plume formulation to estimate smoke concentrations from prescribed fires.
Smoke concentration is expressed as a function of the smoke production rate
and the volume change rate of the smoke plume. The plume is assumed to
occupy a wedge rising from a line source with a quarter part of a right
elliptical cone on either side of the wedge. The model was tested against
measured data from two burns in Reoroia. Predicted concentrations at dis-
tances of 805 m and 2415 m during a head-fire burn and 1610 m during a
back-fire burn varied less than 25 percent from measured values.
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Reiquam (1970) developed a mathematical model of an airshed that was
evaluated for the Willamette Valley. Pollution concentrations are related
to pollutant source distributions and intensities, and to the volume of air
available for dispersion. The model describes the transport and accumula-
tion of pollutants within an entire airshed during conditions associated
with maximum observed concentrations. Calculated patterns of TSP concen-
tration were qualitatively similar to patterns observed in the Willamette
Valley during a period of field burning in late summer and early fall.
All of the models described in this section are applicable to the
problem of describing and evaluating the transport and diffusion of smoke
from prescribed fires in the Northwest. They differ, however, in both the
techniques used to describe the transport and dispersal of smoke, and also
in the scale for which they are meant to be applied.
Plume and Tracer Studies
Smoke plumes from prescribed fires have been observed by aircraft
measurements in Washington, Oreaon, Montana and Georaia. Dell et al.
(1970) observed smoke transport from slash burns occurring above
2600 feet MSL in the Oregon Cascades during a 3-day period in October
1969. A stable layer of air below 10,000 feet existed during the period
severely limiting mixing and causing pollution problems in the Willamette
Valley. However, wind directions were such that smoke from the Cascades
fires was carried eastward over smaller communities than exist in the
more copulated Willamette Valley. On the last day of the study, dense
smoke was visible from the crest of the Cascades and eastward for 50 miles.
Visibility at Redmond, Oregon, was decreased to 4 miles due to smoke from
slash burns.
Radke et al. (1978) made airborne measurements of plumes from several
prescribed fires in western Washinoton durina October 1976. The particle
number and volume distributions were measured for each fire, along with the
light-scattering coefficient, CCN concentration, size spectra of cloud drop-
lets, and concentrations of total gaseous sulfur, 0,, NO, N0? and NO .
The plume from an 86-acre fire near Eatonville, Washington was observed to
form a cumulus-type cloud 12 km across with a well-defined top at 1800 m.
A plume measured 10 km downwind of a 49-acre fire near Centralia reached
only 600 m. Some of the plume from the Eatonville fire reached the ground
13 km downwind, but the majority of the plume appeared to be above 900 m.
CCN concentrations were approximately 5000 CCN/cm and comparable to
those reported by Eagan et al. (1974) for forest fire smoke. Although a
majority of the particulate matter is organic and insoluble, 80 percent
of the mass was in the 0.1 to 1.0 ym diameter range; this is large enough
to be active for condensation despite the lack of soluble material.-. The
mass concentration in the plume of the Eatonville fire was 250 pg/m
greater than the concentration in ambient air.
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Air quality within a 60 km radius of prescribed burns in the Miller
Creek and Newman Ridge areas of Montana was investigated by Adams, Koppe and
Robinson (1967). Both aircraft and ground-based measurements were taken
including hi-vol samples, visual range, CO and CO^. The hi-vol TSP data
determined that at three sites downwind from the fires, highly significent
increases in TSP concentrations occurred on fire days as compared with
nonfire days. Nephelometer measurements from aircraft were used to compute
the standard deviations of concentration in the crosswind and in the vertical
direction. Values of the scattering coefficient indicated particulate
concentrations to be within^the range of 90 to 230 yg/m , including a
background of about 18 pg/m .
Murphy et al. (1976) reported aerially measured smoke dispersal from a
15 hectare controlled fire of forest debris in Georgia. Smoke density was
measured by nephelometer, and the flight patterns were designed to yield
data on the three-dimensional structure of the smoke plume. The smoke
density profile did not seem to conform to a simple Gaussian model. High
concentrations were found at low altitudes 1.6 km from the fire despite
substantial plume rise in a buoyant column. It was hypothesized that smoke
dispersion from a forest fire will vary depending on the stage of the fire's
development.
Local atmospheric diffusion processes can be observed by releasing
tracer materials into the atmosphere. Fritschen et al. (1969) released
fluorescent particles and spores to determine mass and momentum transport
at a forest border interface and to study dispersion into and within a for-
est canopy. Knowledge of such dispersion characteristics is essential for
evaluating the impact of drift smoke. Fritschen observed that vegetation
density strongly influences the wind speed profile in a forest. In the
daytime, an inversion in the stem zone trapped the tracer while unstable
conditions in the upper canopy and above the forest allowed rapid dispersal.
At night, an inversion above the canopy trapped the aerosols within the
forest.
Statistical Studies
The relationship of ambient pollutant concentrations to emissions and
meteorological factors can be established by statistical techniques of cor-
relation and regression. Multiple regression analysis can determine which
variables have the greatest impact on air quality and determine the contri-
butions of various sources to air quality.
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Such a study has been conducted in the Eugene-Springfield, Oregon area
(US EPA 1977). ' TSP data from three urban stations were available along
with light-scattering, visibility and visual-smoke observations. Although
the study was aimed primarily at assessing the impact of field burning,
slash burning impact was also examined. Emissions data included the number
of acres burned and the number of tons of slash burning conducted on a
given day in each of four quadrants. Relevant meteorological data included
daily average temperature, rainfall, relative humidity, wind direction and
the number of days since precipitation had occurred.
During the 3-year Eugene-Springfield study (1974-1976), violations of
both the annual and the 24-hour primary and secondary standards occurred.
Results of the correlation and multiple-regression analyses showed that fugi-
tive dust generated from other sources has a greater influence on ambient TSP
and light-scattering measurements in Eugene-Springfield that does field or
slash burning. Slash burning had a greater impact on visual-smoke observa-
tions than did field burning. Smoke observations were highly correlated with
long periods of dry sunny weather. Field and slash burning equally influenced
the visibility at the Eugene Airport.
The multiple regression equations predicted that the mean 24-hour con-
tribution to TSP from field burning in the Eugene-Springfield area was^l to
4 yg/m , while the maximum 24-hour contribution was fcom 13 to 43 yg/m .
Slash burning was computed to contribute 3 to 15 yg/m to the mean 24-hour
TSP concentration, while the maximum contribution from slash burning was
estimated between 21 and 84 yg/m . However, other areas of the Willamette
Valley may experience greater smoke impact from burning activity than does
Eugene-Springfield. Since burning generates large numbers of small particles
(0.1 - 1.0 urn), it therefore is likely to have a greater impact on health and
visibility. Legally, TSP measurements made with a hi-vol sampler are used
to determine the impact of sources, but the public is more concerned with
the health and visibility effects resulting from the small particles not
measured with this method.
Dieterich (1971) reported on TSP data collected from central Georgia
during a period of variable amounts of prescribed burning. A network of
eight hi-vol samples was used. Based on seven days of data, the mean TSP
concentration over the eight sites showed a correlation coefficient of
+0.78 with the number of smoke plumes observed in the area during the day.
Filter Analyses
Microscopic analysis of hi-vol filters can be used to identify the
impact of an emission source or group of sources based on TSP concentra-
tions. The specific sources of particles can be identified by their size,
shape, solubility, surface texture, transparency, and color.
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Approximately 60 hi-vol filters from the Eugene-Springfield area under-
went microscopy by McCrone Associates and the results were reported by US EPA
(1977). An average of 8 yg/m could be attributed to field burning with a .-,
range from 1 to 33 yg/m . Slash burning was determined to contribute 5 yg/m
on the average with the range of 1 to 15 yg/m . Total particulate readings
for all sources averaged 101 yg/m * for this sample, with a range of 24 to
253 yg/m . Only optical microscopy which may not detect particles < 0.5 ym
was used. Since a significant portion of smoke particles is < 0.5 ym, there
is more uncertainty concerning the results. However, since most particles
emitted from forestry burning are known to be less than 0.5 ym in diameter
(see Table 11), these microscopic analyses do not give a true measure of the
impact of forestry burning or particulate air quality.
RELATIVE EMISSIONS FROM FORESTRY BURNING
Normally, a rough indicator of the relative impact of a particular source
category on regional air quality is the total emissions of that category in
comparison to other source categories. However, this is a highly uncertain
basis for assessing the impact of forestry burning, particularly in relation
to the impact from wildfires. Burning conditions for prescribed fires can be
selected to minimize the impact of emissions, but wildfires burn under various
conditions, many of which result in severe degradation of air quality in popu-
lated areas. Wildfires are typically fast-moving headfires, which leave a
major portion of available fuel to burn by smoldering. As discussed in Sec-
tion 3, emissions of TSP, CO and HC are maximal in such a situation. Forestry
burning consumes mainly dead fuel, but live fuels are included in wildfires.
Burning live fuels, as simulated by including green leaves in laboratory test
fires (Darley 1976), greatly increases emissions of TSP, CO and HC. Emission
from wildfires would therefore be expected to be relatively greater than from
prescribed fires, resulting in emission factors significantly higher than
those listed previously in Table 8 for prescribed fires. For example, Ward
et al. (1976) suggest average TSP emission factors of 50 pounds per ton for
prescribed fires and 150 pounds per ton for wildfires. The concensus among
experts actively engaged in forestry burning research is that emissions from
wildfires, at best, are comparable to those from worst case prescribed fires.
In the absence of wildfire emissions data, the upper values of the emission
ranges listed in Table 8 probably represent the best conservative estimate of
wildfire emission factors that can be made at the present time. These factors
with substitution of the TSP factor of 150 pounds per ton, suggested by Ward
et al (1976) for the upper TSP value in Table 8, are:
CO:
TSP:
HC:
NO :
X
500 pounds per ton
150 pounds per ton
40 pounds per ton
6 pounds per ton.
Of this TSP value, 17 percent was determined to be burned vegetable matter, including grass and wood.
However, only 72 percent of this burned vegetable matter was determined to be specifically wood or grass.
Hence it is likely that the figures cited in this paragraph are low estimates of the contributions of slash and
field burning observed TSP values.
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Emissions from forestry burning, wildfires, field burning, other types
of open burning, and all other sources including industrial and automotive
are summarized in Table 17 for the year 1975. The total emissions show that
forestry burning and wildfires are major sources of TSP, HC and CO. However,
the emissions from forestry burning are generally vented away from population
centers, while those from wildfires can intrude into such centers at random.
Hazard reduction to minimize occurrence and spread of wild fires is one objec-
tive of forestry burning, but the incidence of wildfires in the absence of such
burning cannot be quantitatively determined. Statistics supplied by the State
of Washington Department of Natural Resources (DNR) for the years 1973 through
1977 show the occurrence of 37 project wildfires which burned 19,345 acres.
Forty-four percent of the project fires occurring on DNR-protected lands state-
wide started in unburned logging and thinning slash. An additional 20 percent
of the fires were aided in their spread by burning through unburned slash.
One fire stopped and was controlled at the point it encountered a previously
prescribed burned area. In Western Washington, 14 of the 16 project fires
started in and spread through unburned logging slash due to a variety of fire
causes. These statistics raise a question relevant to assessment of the impact
of forestry burning on air quality: Is there a trade-off between emissions from
forestry burning and those from wildfires? That is, would the emissions from
wildfires, due to more and larger fires, have been significantly increased dur-
ing the period covered by the data in Table 17 if hazard reduction by forestry
burning had not been practiced? The question cannot be answered quantitatively
at this time, but the DNR statistics suggest that the trade-off is real and
should be considered a major factor in assessing the relative impact of forestry
burning on air quality. In considering this argument for the use of prescribed
burning, one should bear in mind that there are alternative methods of hazard
reduction, including prescribed burning. The pros and cons of these alterna-
tives are discussed in Chapter 5.
SUMMARY
The previous section discussed in some detail a study conducted by US FPA
(1977). This study was aimed at assessing the impact of field burning on
observed TSP levels in the Eugene-Springfield area. Since slash burning was
also considered to be a contributor to TSP concentrations, slash burning emis-
sions were included in the study. The study concluded that the contributions of
slash burning and field burning to measured TSP levels were significant. Tin's
conclusion was based on corroborative filter and statistical correlation analyses.
The study also suggested that the contributions of field and slash burning
activities to fine particulate levels might be significant. These particles
which are less than 0.5 urn in diameter are felt to impact most on health and
visibility. Furthermore, the microscopic analysis carried out in the study
was capable only of evaluating the characteristics of larger particles. The
study concluded that field and slash burning were not principal factors in
the nonattainment of national air quality standards which do not presently
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TABLE 17. STATEWIDE EMISSIONS FOR OREGON AND WASHINGTON* t
Source
Category/State
Oregon:
Forestry burnings §
Low estimate
High estimate
Wildfires#
Field burning**
Other open burning
Other sources
Washington:
Forestry burnings §
Low estimate
High estimate
Wildfires #
Field burning **
Other open burning
Other sources
Oregon and Washington:
Forestry burning §
Low estimates
High estimates
Wildfires #
Field burnings**
Other open burning
Other sources
Total Suspended
P articulates*
30, 214
119,077
115, 103
4,100
4,320
93,614
22,530
88, 795
34,068
2,200
5,464
142,636
i
52, 744
207, 872
149, 171
6,300
9,784
236, 250
Nitrogen Oxides
3,555
10, 664
4,604
480
1,363
194,421
2,650
7,952
1,363
200
1,082
352, 275
6,205
18,616
5,967
680
2,445
546, 696
Hydroc arbons
17, 773
71, 091
30, 694
4,800
5,511
276, 564
13, 253
53,012
9,085
2,600
9,213
368, 042
31,026
124,013
39, 779
7,400
14, 724
644, 606
Carbon Monoxide
35, 545
888, 634
383, 676
24, 000
24, 365
1,084,731
26, 507
662, 653
113,559
13,000
49, 088
1,699,740
65, 052
1,551,287
497, 235
37, 000
73, 453
2,784,471
t= Emission figures taken
from National Emissions Report (1975): National Emissions Data
Aerometric and Emissions Reporting System
(AEROS), U.S. EPA,
April 1977, except as
System (NEDS) of the
otherwise noted.
f Sulfur dioxide emissions are not included, since forestry burning does not emit significant sulfur dioxide.
•f TSP emissions of this table do not include fugitive dust emissions due primarily to agricultural tilling
(Oregon estimated at 156, 776 tons during 1976).
§ Taken from Tables 9 and 10 of this report. Estimated tons of fuel burned are the basis for computed
emissions and are subject to error. See page 43 for discussion of possible error.
# Wildfire tonnage figures are those used to estimate emissions for the National Emissions Report (1975).
f* These estimates are taken from Source Assessment: Agricultural Open Burning, EPA-600/2-77-107a,
July 1977, and correspond to the year 1973.
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distinguish between fine and large particles. However, the study was unable
to conclude that these sources did or did not have a significant impact on air
quality or health. The study did indicate that slash burning had a greater
impact on observed visibility measures than did field burning with the excep-
tion of one site where the contributions of the two sources were approximately
equal.
Another study was recently completed by the Oregon DEQ and addressed
the impact of field and slash burning using monitoring data from the entire
Willamette Valley.3 The study was based on a monitoring network with par-
ticulate samplers at seven locations in the Willamete Valley (Corvallis,
Lebanon, Halsey, Junction City, Perrydale, Stayton, and Woodburn). The
study was established primarily to evaluate the impact of field burning on
air quality, but did not become operative until September 1977, when most
field burning was complete. The monitoring network was used instead to
monitor air quality during slash burning through October.
Monitoring data from the seven stations showed similar behavior and
indicated that a single regional source of air pollution and/or poor
atmospheric ventilation was responsible for observed particulate levels.
Comparison of average particulate readings over the Willamette Valley with
daily tonnages of slash burned in the counties of Clackamas, Multnomah,
Lincoln, Tillamook, Marion, Polk, Yamhill, Benton, Lane, and Linn showed
similar behavior. Statistical analysis of the data indicated a strong
correlation between Valley-wide particulate readings, slash tonnages and
atmospheric ventilation. A multiple correlation coefficient of 0.78 was
obtained. Although the simple correlation between particulate readings
and slash burning tonnages was not available in the DEQ report, inspection
of graphs presented in this report do indicate a general correspondence
between peaks in slash burning activity and highs in valley-wide particulate
averages. The findings of this study correlate with the study by the US EPA,
which indicated that slash burning contributes significantly to measured TSP
levels in the Eugene-Springfield area.
Field Burning Network Data Analysis—Preliminary Results, Oregon Department of Environmental
Quality, 1978.
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SECTION 5
METHODS OF REDUCING THE AIR QUALITY IMPACT OF FORESTRY BURNING
This section describes and evaluates methods of reducing the air quality
impact of forestry burning. The first subsection describes current Smoke Manage-
ment Programs, evaluates their success in minimizing air quality problems, and
suggests improvements to these programs. The second section describes alter-
native burning techniques and their potential for reducing air quality impact.
The final section describes alternative residue treatment techniques which do
not require field burning of forest fuels and evaluates their potential for
successful application.
SMOKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS—CURRENT PROGRAMS IN WASHINGTON AND OREGON
1
Currently, both Washington and Oregon have Smoke Management Programs
designed to limit the air quality impact of forestry burning activities. The
Oregon Smoke Management Program was implemented in 19722 and is administered
by the Oregon Department of Forestry in coordination with the Department of
Environmental Quality. The Washington Smoke Management Program was implemented
in 1971 and is administered by the Washington Department of Natural Resources
in coordination with the Department of Ecology. Both programs were subsequently
revised in 1975. The Smoke Management Programs represent a cooperative effort
by the U.S. Forest Service, the U.S. Bureau of Land Management, the U.S. Bureau
of Indian Affairs, private industry, state and local governments.
Description and Operation
The major features of each program are essentially the same. These fea-
tures may be summarized as follows:
t The primary purpose of the program is to keep smoke from
forestry burning out of designated areas. These desig-
nated areas are determined by the state's air pollution
control agency and generally correspond to populated
areas. Figure 20 shows designated areas for the two
states.
A 11 of the information of this section is taken directly from the Smoke Management Programs of the Oregon
DOF and the Washington DNR, except as noted otherwise.
However, the precursor to Oregon's current Smoke Management Program was initiated by a. memorandum of
an agreement signed in 1969 by State, Federal and private fire control agencies and the Department of
Environmental Quality.
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Figure 20. Designated areas under Washington's and Oregon's Smoke Management Programs.
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Administration of the program is the responsibility of
the State Forester. He closely coordinates his adminis-
tration with the state air pollution control agency
(DEQ or DOE) by curtailing burning activity when
notified of air quality problems. In addition, he
reports forestry burning activity to the state air
pollution control agency on a daily basis. The state
agency in turn notifies local air pollution control
agencies.
At the local level, the Smoke Management Program is
administered by an Area Manager. It is the responsi-
bility of the Area Manager to ensure that forestry
burning activity within his area does not result in
intrusions of smoke into designated areas. He also
responds to directives from the State Forester to
curtail burning activity in response to critical air
quality problems. National Forests are considered as
separate Management Areas, with the Forest Supervisor
acting as the Area Manager. Within areas administered
by the Bureau of Indian Affairs, the BIA Fire Control
Officer is the Area Manager.
A third level of administration takes place in the
field. Field Administrators advise the burn operator
in the preparation of burning plans and monitor the
actual fire, in addition to issuing the permit to the
operator.3
Meteorological forecasts prepared by the Fire-Weather
Forecast Offices of the U.S. Weather Bureau are relayed
to the State Forester and to Area Managers at the begin-
ning of each day.
The Area Manager's decision to permit burns is deter-
mined by regulations published in the Smoke Management
Plan, unless further restricted by the State Forester.
These regulations relate total allowable fuel consump-
tion within 150,000-acre areas to the elevation, proxim-
ity of designated areas, and meteorological conditions
(Table 18).
ITF/FSU, Final Report, 1977, p. 16.
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TABLE 18. SUMMARY OF SMOKE MANAGEMENT PLAN RESTRICTIONS FOR WASHINGTON AND OREGON
Distance to Nearest Downwind
Designated Area
Maximum Daily Forestry Burning Permitted *
Oregon W ashington
Smoke vented toward
designated area, below
ceiling established for area
Smoke vented toward
designated area, into deep
mixing layer over area
Smoke vented toward
designated area, above
stable layer over area
Smoke vented away
from designated areas
Smoke vented within
designated area, but away
from population center
Smoke vented within
designated area, toward
population center
Smoke vented above base
of precipitating cloud
Less than 10 miles
10 - 30 miles
30 - 60 miles
Greater than 60 miles
Less than 10 miles
10 - 30 miles
30 - 60 miles
Greater than 60 miles
Less than 10 miles
10 - 30 miles
30 - 60 miles
Greater than 60 miles
Not applicable
Not applicable
Not applicable
Not applicable
No burning permitted
1, 500 tons per ISO, 000 acres
3, 000 tons per 150, 000 acres
No restriction
3, 000 tons per 150, 000 acres
4, 500 tons per 150, 000 acres
9,000 tons per 150, 000 acres
No restriction
6, 000 tons per 150, 000 acres
9, 000 tons per 150, 000 acres
18, 000 tons per 150, 000 acres
No restriction
No restriction
Not specified
Not specified
No restriction
No burning permitted
1, 500 tons per 150, 000 acres
3, 000 tons per 150, 000 acres
Not specified
3, 000 tons per 150, 000 acres
4, 500 tons per 150, 000 acres
9, 000 tons per 150, 000 acres
Not specified
6, 000 tons per 150, 000 acres
9, 000 tons per 150, 000 acres
18, 000 tons per 150, 000 acres
Not specified
No restriction
3, 000 tons per designated area
100 tons per burn unit
No restriction
* In addition, Washington limits daily burning with 500, 000 acre units to 75, 000 tons of fuel.
-------
• Information flow between the Area Manager and the State
Forester is conducted by teletype. Information sent to
the State Forester includes identification of future burns
by location, size, etc., listings of burns planned for a
given day, and accomplishment reports for the previous
day's activities. At the end of the year, this informa-
tion is summarized in an annual report prepared by the
State Forester. This annual report and the individual
burn data collected by the State Forester are the basis
of the summaries of forestry burning activity presented
in Section 2 of this report.
A major operational difference between the two programs is the computer-
ized "Oregon Smoke Management System" that stores and retrieves information
on planned and accomplished burns; currently Washington does not have such
a system. The program in Oregon is limited to the area west of the Cascades
and portions of Mt. Hood and Descutes National Forests east of the Cascades.
The Washington program has jurisdiction over burning in the entire state.
In 1977, Oregon instituted a priority rating system which applies to the
Willamette Valley area during the 60-day field burning period.4 The purpose
of this system is to reduce forestry burning activity during the field burn-
ing season by restricting burning permits to only those units which cannot be
burned at other times. Burn units are assigned priority ratings of "high,"
"moderate," or "low" based on fuel characteristics, location, and siIvicul-
tural considerations. Normally, only "high" priority units are permitted to
burn during this priority period.
The regulations which restrict burning activity are nearly identical for
Washington and Oregon. They are formulated using the following key terms:
designated ceiling -- 2000 to 2500 feet above the average ground ele-
vation for the designated area. For example,
the designated ceiling for Spokane, Washington
is 4000 feet
wind direction
deep mixing layer
used to determine whether plume will flow toward
or away from designated areas. Considered
unknown if wind speed is less than 5 miles per
hour
a condition characterized by good atmospheric
mixing from ground level to 1000 feet above
designated ceiling
Oregon Department of Forestry Directive No. 1-1-3-200, July 15, 1977.
-110-
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stable layer ~ an atmospheric layer which restricts
upward and downward movement of air
and by implication is not penetrated
by a smoke plume unless the plume is
released directly into the layer
smoke vent height -- the height at which heat rise stops
and plume motion levels off and is
carried horizontally by the wind
distance to ~ the distance to the nearest designated
designated area area downwind of a planned burn.
These regulations may be summarized as follows:
1. If wind carries the smoke plume toward a designated area
and smoke is vented to an elevation less than the desig-
nated ceiling for that area, severe restrictions are placed
on burning activity. If the distance to the designated area
is less than 10 miles, no burning is permitted; if 10 to
30 miles, up to 1500 tons of fuel may be ignited per
150,000 acres; if 30 to 60 miles, up to 3000 tons per
150,000 acres; if greater than 60 miles, no restrictions
are applied.
2. If wind carries the plume toward a designated area and
into a deep mixing layer, moderate restrictions are placed
on burning activity. For example, if the distance to the
designated area is less than 10 miles, up to 3000 tons of
fuel may be ignited per 150,000 acres.
3. If wind carries the plume toward a designated area and vent
height is greater than the height of the stable air layer
covering the area and also above the designated ceiling for
that area, slight restrictions apply to burning activity.
For example, if the distance to the designated area is less
than 10 miles, up to 6000 tons of fuel may be ignited per
150,000 acres.
4. If wind carries the plume away from designated areas, burn-
ing activity is not restricted, except as noted in item (8).
5. If smoke is vented into a precipitating cloud such that the
smoke vent height is above the cloud base, no restriction
is applied, except as noted in item (8). This condition is
feasible only for pile burns.
-Ill-
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6. In Washington, if the unit to be burned is located within
a designated area and the wind carries the plume away from
the population centers, a total of 3000 tons of fuel may be
ignited per day within the designated area.5
7. In Washington, if the unit to be burned is located within
a designated area and wind carries the plume toward the
population centers, units with total fuel loading greater
than 100 tons may not be ignited.6
8. In Washington, a maximum of 75,000 tons of fuel may be
ignited per 500,000-acre unit, regardles of conditions.
No such overall limitation is specified in the Oregon
Smoke Management Plan.
Meteorological parameters are key to the regulation of burning activ-
ity. These meteorological parameters are provided by the fire weather
meteorologists of the State Forestry Office and the National Weather
Service. A key parameter in some of the regulations is smoke vent height.
Although mathematical formulas do exist for evaluating vent height for a
given planned burn, simpler guidelines are generally used in operation.
These guidelines assume that an intense fire will normally penetrate a
stable layer of air less than 1500 feet above the fire. That is, vent
height may be assumed to be at least 1500 feet above ground level and
burning may be permitted within the constraining regulations.
Effectiveness and Consistency
One measure of the effectiveness of the Smoke Management Program is
the number of problem burns reported by the Oregon Smoke Management System.
Problem burns are defined to be those which result in the intrusion of smoke
into designated areas. Problem burns are usually determined by the field
administrator who observes smoke traveling in the direction of a designated
area. Problem burns are also detected by aerial observations which are
broader in scope and hence more accurate than ground-level operations.
Both techniques rely on visual observations.
In general, problem burns are caused by inaccurate meteorological pre-
dictions. The decision to burn a unit is based on parameters such as wind
speed, direction and atmospheric stability. Inaccuracies in these data may
result in an intrusion of smoke into a designated area. Inaccurate or untimely
communications from the fire meteorological office to area managers is not a
Regulations relating to burn units located within designated areas are not specified in the Oregon Smoke
Management Plan.
Ibid.
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significant factor in causing problem burns. However, changes in meteorolog-
ical conditions due to a normal statistical percentage of erroneous forecasts
and inability to account for local terrain effects on meteorology are thought
to be major causes of problem burns. Fewer problem burns are expected as
meteorological forecasting becomes more accurate and its ability to account
for local terrain effects increases.
The percentage of problem burns reported by the Oregon Smoke Management
System for the years 1975 through 1977 is very low (1.9 percent averaged
over the period). The Washington SMP Annual Report for 1977 also reported
a very low incidence of problem burns, with less than 1 percent of pre-
scribed burns significantly impacting on designated areas.
Although the percentage of problem burns on an annual basis is low,
monthly data in Oregon reveal periods of relative highs in percent of
problem burn acreage. Table 19 gives the percent of problem burn acreage
for each month for the years 1975 through 1977.
TABLE 19. PERCENT PROBLEM BURN A CREAGE
BY MONTH FOR 1975 THROUGH 1977.
Month 1975 1976 1977
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
0
0
0
0
0.7
0
17.6
20.8
10.2
0.9
0.2
0
2.0
2.5
0
0
0.5
9.3
21.6
11.4
7.4
5.7
3.2
1.8
2.0
1.4
0
0
0.7
9_.S
24.9
5.5
0
1.5
1.3
0.2
Annual 1.9 4.5 2.2
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The table indicates that relatively high rates of problem burns occur
primarily during the summer months. The cause of problem burns during the
summer months may be due to meteorological conditions that are more diffi-
cult to anticipate from a smoke management standpoint; and inadequate weather
forecasting for smoke management due to the priority of wildfire prevention
activities. If the percentages of problem acreage occurring during the
months of June through September were reduced to the levels observed during
October and November (1.9 percent), the total problem acreage during the
period 1975 through 1977 would have been reduced from 9055 to 5394 acres.
The implication is that more effective management during the summer months
would significantly improve the performance of the Smoke Management Program
in Oregon.
The occurrence of problem burns is a limited measure of the effective-
ness of the Smoke Management Program. Visual observations of problem burns
during the daylight hours do not identify the possible impact of nighttime
drift smoke. The concept of drift smoke and the mechanism by which it
impacts on air quality are described earlier in this report. The impact of
drift smoke on air quality depends on the presence of residual smoke at or
near ground level and drainage winds to carry this smoke from the location
of the burn to the valley floor. The occurrence of drainage wind in com-
plex terrain with nighttime cooling is well established. Since drift smoke
is primarily a nighttime phenomenon, an intrusion into a designated area
would not be detected using current visual procedures. It is therefore
possible that forestry burning is impacting on air quality within desig-
nated areas, despite the indications of recorded problem burns. At the
current time, data are not available to substantiate or refute this impact.
A significant impact of forestry burning on air quality within desig-
nated areas is suggested by a study recently performed by the Oregon
Department of Environmental Quality.7 A correlation was found between
slash burning activity in western Oregon and air quality measures collected
during the fall of 1977. This study suggests that despite conscientious
efforts of the Oregon Smoke Management Program personnel, forest burning
smoke is entering designated areas, at least during the stagnant weather
conditions of the fall. An extensive, followup study conducted by the
DEQ in 1978 will attempt to better evaluate the impact of forestry burning
activity on air quality in the Willamette Valley. A study of this type is
needed to accurately evaluate the effectiveness of the Smoke Management
Program in keeping forestry smoke from populated areas.
Foreseeable and Potential Improvements
There are several modifications which might be made to the Smoke Man-
agement Programs of Oregon and Washington to improve their effectiveness.
As previously indicated, the two programs are almost identical from a
1977 Field Burning Network Data Analysis. Preliminary Results, Oregon DEQ, 1978.
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regulatory standpoint. They are also similar from an operational standpoint,
with the exception of the priority rating system used in Oregon during the
field burning season. Some of the possible improvements which might be made
to improve the effectiveness of the two programs are summarized as follows:
1. Redefining designated areas
Making burning criteria area-specific, accounting for con-
ditions which impact on air quality at different locations
3. Improving smoke management meteorological forecasts and
extending the period of forecasting
4. Adopting regulations to minimize the effect of drift smoke.
In addition, it is apparent that little is known about the potential long-
range impact of forestry burning. Smoke management is largely directed
toward maintenance of air quality in urbanized areas in the general vicinity
of burning activity. The potential of long-range effects should be investi-
gated and smoke management practices modified as necessary to prevent long-
range degradation of air quality due to forestry buring.
Designated areas have been defined to correspond to heavily populated
areas, primarily in the Puget Trough in Washington and the Willamette Valley
in Oregon. These should be periodically reviewed to ensure that changes in
population distribution are reflected in designated area boundaries. In addi-
tion, it has been suggested that heavily utilized recreational areas—such
as parks and wildlife areas—be considered "designated" during periods of
heavy use. However, the addition of designated areas is likely to impose a
considerable burden on the operation of the Smoke Management Program, as the
number of allowable burning conditions is decreased. At present, Smoke
Management permits, with few exceptions, burning in the Cascades when winds
are persistent and from the west; burns in the Coast Ranges are permitted
when winds are persistent and from the east. The establishment of parks and
recreational areas, which dot both the Cascades and the Coast Ranges (see
Figure 4), could greatly restrict and complicate smoke management. This
factor should be carefully considered.
Various parts of the Northwest differ considerably in their ability
to disperse pollutants into the atmosphere. The southern Willamette Valley
has particularly poor dispersal conditions. As a result, air pollution
episodes occur in the Eugene area. Witnesses before the Oregon Interim Task
Force on Forest Slash Utilization have recommended that the Oregon Smoke
Management Program be modified to specify different permissible burning
conditions for different areas.8 For example, it was recommended that
Joint Interim Task Force on Forest Slash Utilization, September-November 1977, page 1.
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the burning ceiling for the Medford area be increased to allow for better
dispersal of pollutants in that area. Such a recommendation, if enacted,
would probably result in better smoke dispersal. However, it would also
decrease the amount of allowable burning activity, since there would be
fewer days and fewer areas where burning would be permissible.
The most critical parameters in effective Smoke Management decisions are
meteorological. In particular, accurate data on wind speed, direction and
stability conditions are key to the decision of whether and how much to burn.
The majority of problem burns documented in the Uregon Smoke Management Sys-
tems are thought to be due to forecasts which did not reflect actual local
meteorological conditions. Hence, improvement in smoke management can be
expected with improvement in weather forecasting techniques. It is essential
that the most timely and accurate forecasts are available to the area manager
charged with burning activity within his area.
As indicated previously in this section, it is possible that drift smoke,
carried by nighttime drainage winds, is intruding into designated areas,
despite indications of problem burn tabulations to the contrary. Modifica-
tions can be made to the Smoke Management Program to minimize possible
nighttime drainage effects.
Some possible modifications are:
• Stricter enforcement of mopup operations, to eliminate much
of the drift smoke concentrations potentially contributing
to smoke intrusion problems.
• Requirement for earlier conclusion at burning operations.
This would give drift smoke time to disperse before night-
time drainage winds take effect.
• The prohibition of burns which, given combined meteorologi-
cal and terrain conditions, are potential candidates for
nighttime drainage effects.
ALTERNATIVE BURNINb TECHNIQUES
Alternative burning techniques can be used to reduce the impact of
forestry burning on air quality. This section evaluates the feasibility
and potential impacts of extenaed burn periods, optimal burning techniques
and new burning technology that may be used for slash disposal. Practical
alternatives to underburriing nave not been documented and are not dis-
cussed in this document.
116-
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However, these alternative burning techniques, like the burning tech-
niques presented in Section 1, may not be suitable for all prescribed burning
applications. Highly variable meteorological factors and fuel and terrain
conditions require site-by-site evaluations to determine the applicability
of these alternatives. The alternatives presented here are primarily appli-
cable to the West Side, where the removal of heavy accumulations of slash is
a major forest management problem. Treatment of residue on the East Side is
less problematic, since slash accumulations there are far less than on the
West Side. Much of the burning conducted on the East Side is underburning
and is carried out for silvicultural purposes.
Extended Burn Period
Present broadcast burning activities are concentrated within September
and October when fuel conditions are optimal for ignition and the risk of
spot fires in the surrounding forest is minimal. Smoke management regu-
lations have further concentrated these activities into as few as 14 days
in some areas for favorable smoke dispersion conditions.
Extending the burn period throughout the year would provide more
flexibility for optimal smoke dispersion conditions and reduce emission
concentrations expected during any one period.
The feasibility of utilizing alternate burn periods has been limited
by seasonal meteorological conditions. Winter months are generally too wet
and summer months too dry. However, conditions vary by site, suggesting
that a site-by-site assessment is necessary to schedule the optimal time
of burn.
The development of better fire ignition and control techniques and an
increasing knowledge of fire behavior has allowed a limited but increasing
amount of burning during the summer, winter and spring. Studies are in
progress in the Pacific Northwest to compare the relative effectiveness of
burning during different seasons.9
The winter burning season is the 5-month period from the beginning
of November to the end of March. Winter pile burning techniques have been
successful when the concentrated slash is covered with paper or plastic
prior to the wet winter season. This technique is being increasingly
utilized. The feasibility of winter broadcast burning has been limited
due to the excessively wet slash fuel conditions that thwart present fire
ignition techniques.
Winter broadcast burning may be technically feasible if scattered
slash is treated with a protective petroleum or wax emulsion prior to
winter rains. Feasibility studies have shown that the burnability of dry
slash pretreated with the emulsions shown in Table 20 is increased as
9
As cited in Steele and Beaufait 1969.
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compared to untreated slash after as much as 8 to 10 inches of rain (Murphy
et al. 1969, Schimke and Murphy 1966). However, these same emulsions have
been found to inhibit the burning of green slash by preventing satisfactory
drying (Schimke and Dougherty 1967). Emulsions have not been utilized
because of cost constraints and air quality concerns over the emissions from
burning these products.
The potential damage of winter pile burning to soil and riparian vege-
tation is expected to be minimal because of the excessively wet conditions
and small areas affected. On the other hand, the potential soil and water
quality damage from a successfully ignited winter broadcast burn could be
significant. Surface runoff from winter rains on large burn blocks cleared
of slash and duff may be excessive, resulting in a greatly increased erosion
potential. This is particularly true of the Coast Ranges, where winter
rainfall levels may be as much as 15 inches per month.
TABLE 20. WATER REPELLENT SLASH COATINGS.
Asphalt Emulsions
LAYKOLD Slow-set (ss-1)
LAYKOLD Rapid-set (ss-2)
Wax Emulsions
Lumber Wax
Soil Sealant
The spring burning season is a 2-1/2-month period that starts after the
winter rains in March and ends before the summer wildfire season in mid-June.
Fuel conditions in late May and early June are generally satisfactory for
broadcast burning. However, the effectiveness of a burn treatment earlier in
the year will depend upon the residual winter moisture content of duff and
slash fuels. Residual moisture may decrease the fire intensity, leaving
partially consumed material and increasing relative atmospheric emissions.
Spring burning may, however, reduce potential damage to soils and riparian
vegetation when the moisture content of surface fuels obstructs complete
consumption of the protective duff layer. Studies in experimental blocks of
Douglas-fir logging slash averaging 64 tons/acre showed that spring burning
consumed less than one-half the duff mantle consumed by fall burning (Steele
and Beaufait 1969).
The summer burning season runs from mid-June to mid-September. The
feasibility of broadcast and pile burning during the summer season has been
United by the wildfire hazard of excessively dry fuels. Broadcast burning
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has not been widely utilized during very dry periods except in low hazard, low
elevation sites because of the excessive fire control precautions required by
standard burning techniques to reduce the risk of spot fires. Concentrated
pile burns are more easily controlled and may be more suitable for summer
burning than broadcast burning.
Chemical fire retardents may be used to pretreat slash prior to summer
burning to reduce normally expected high fire intensity. Broadcast or pile
burn applications of diammonium phosphate (DAP) or ammonium sulfate (AS)
have been found to substantially reduce fire intensity, the associated risks
of soil damage and the risk of spot fires (Dodge and Davis 1966). Phil pot
et al. (1972) found very little particulate increase from burning AS-treated
fuels; however, DAP significantly increased particulate emissions from
treated fuels.
Potential environmental damage from summer burning may be significant.
The high fire intensity and low duff moisture content associated with summer
burning may result in greater soil and vegetation damage than is expected
by burning at any other time of the year.
Optimal Burning Techniques
Burning techniques are available that can minimize the potential impact
of forestry burning on air quality. These techniques optimize fuel arrange-
ment and fire ignition for rapid and complete combustion.
Pretreatment by PUM or YUM techniques prior to burning can be used to
remove larger fuel components which, if left to burn, produce intense heat
and a prolonged residual smoldering fire. The density and size of the resi-
dual fuel components will depend on the degree of pre-burn YUM or PUM residue
removal. Generally, YUM yarding removes material as small as 5 to 8 inches
in diameter.
Fuels which are not piled must be sufficiently concentrated to burn
efficiently. Residual fuel loading and scattered fuel continuity may not
provide fuel concentrations and the needed fire intensity to minimize
impacts on air quality.
Fewer larger burn blocks will not necessarily decrease visible smoke
intrusions into populated areas as reported by the State of Oregon.10 On the
contrary (Table 21), the average sizes of problem broadcast burns reported
in Oregon from 1975 to 1977 were consistantly and significantly larger than
the average sizes of all the burns.
10 Final Report, ITF-FSU, 1977.
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TABLE 21. AVERAGE SIZE OF PROBLEM BROADCAST BURNS (Ac. )*
Year
1975
1976
1977
Problem Burns
60.5
59.3
63.9
A 11 Burns
37.9
36.9
34.6
* From Smoke Management Plans, State of Oregon.
Pile burning provides more flexible burn scheduling during periods that
are unsuitable for broadcast burning. RDM and YUM applications are presently
limited by available equipment. Cable logging equipment is generally designed
to handle larger material and is not cost efficient for piling small slash.
Tractor piling is limited by slope and soil conditions as described in Sec-
tion 1. Hand piling is not technically feasible due to the volume and size
of residue materials to be treated.
Ignition and Mop-up—
Rapid ignition and mop-up techniques are expected to significantly reduce
the emission problems generally associated with early cool-flaming and residual
smoldering stages of a fire as described in Section 3.
Ignition techniques utilizing the he!itorch or electrically detonated
napalm devices described in Section 1 can provide rapid fuel ignition over
an entire burn block. Under the right site conditions and fuel moisture and
loading, potential soil damage is minimized and a fire of high intensity is
created. Such high intensity fires have been shown to reduce undesirable
emissions and to vent smoke through a high convective column, with desirable
smoke management consequences (see Section 4). In addition, these fires are
short in duration, generally lasting less than 2 hours.
Weyerhaeuser Company is presently testing an alternative he!itorch
system which will reduce the use of petroleum ignition fuels. Fuel capsules
containing potassium permanganate are injected with ethylene glycol and water
and dispersed. The water catalyst results in a delayed exothermic chemical
reaction that is highly flammable. The economic and technical efficiency of
this system should broaden the applications of this helitorch ignition system.
Complete fire mop-up activities started immediately after the flaming
front of the burn has subsided will minimize residual smoldering. Standard
techniques using water trucks and hand labor may be augmented if aerial
tankers and chemical retardants are used on large burn blocks. The effi-
ciency of mop-up activities will be significantly enhanced by pretreatment
removal of larger slash materials which typically prolong the burn and are
difficult to snuff out.
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New Burning Technology
Research and development should be directed toward better onsite burning
techniques that would eliminate the management and environmental impacts asso-
ciated with open burning. These impacts include such components as smoke,
residual charred logs, potential soil and watershed damage, fire hazard, the
need for fire control manpower, fireline and mop-up activities, and a depen-
dence on highly variable weather conditions.
Air Curtain Combustion--
Portable or trench air curtain burners are specifically designed for the
combustion of wood waste with insignificant smoke emissions. However, this
burning technique is not widely utilized at present because of extremely high
operating costs (see Table 30, p. 145).
Rapid and complete combustion is encouraged by a blower system which
directs an air curtain diagonally downward across the burner at a velocity
of approximately 150 feet per second. Figure 21 shows the recirculated air-
flow pattern which results in a secondary combustion process of emissions.
Combustion temperatures in this process range from 900 to 2300°F (Harrison
1978, McLean and Ward 1976).
Figure 21. Principle of air curtain combustion.
Air quality evaluations show that the air curtain combustion process
will produce no visible smoke emissions if combustion temperatures are
maintained over 1600°F (McLean and Ward 1976). Visible smoke approaching
20 percent opacity has been recorded during the 15 minute startup period.
Golson (1975) found that breaking the air curtain by overloading the burner
emitted smoke levels 70 to 80 percent less than would be expected from an
open pile burn. The smoke disappeared within 60 feet, due to the super-
heated convection column.
The operating capacity of air curtain burners ranges from 5 to 25 tons
per hour, as shown in Table 22. This production rate will vary due to fuel
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moisture content, although fuels with a moisture content as high as 200 percent
have been consumed satisfactorily (Golson 1975). The satisfactory combustion
of excessively wet fuels by an air curtain burner suggests its potential
as a burning technique during the wet winter season.
TABLE 22. AIR CURTAIN BURNERS OPERATING CAPACITY
Type
Camron PORTAPIT
N/A
Camron ACCU
N/A
DriAll Thermal Airblast
Incinerator
N/A
Length (ft)
20
N/A
20
N/A
24
36
15
Capacity (tons/hr)
6.2
10
6.5
10-15
5-15
8-25
5
Reference
Golson 1975
Murphy 1970
McLean and Ward 1976
Harrison 1975
Harrison 1975
Harrison 1975
Geyer
Portable air burners are self-contained, trailer-mounted units which may
be employed with YUM operations in areas of limited space or where acces-
sible slash loads are relatively small but scattered. A ground trench system
may be used for heavy slash disposal if enough flat terrain is available for
the combustion trench and supporting equipment. The capacity of this system
will increase with the length of the trench and is restricted only by the
length of the available blower system. Complete slash disposal following
burning is accomplished by refilling the trench with an earth cover.
Potential environmental damage from the air curtain burner is expected to
be less than any other burning technique presently used. Soil disturbance
on the treated site will depend upon the type of yarding technique utilized
to pre-pile residues or deliver them within knuckle boom reach of the burner.
A spot fire hazard may exist on windy aays, due to glowing embers discharged
when the air curtain is disrupted during loading operations.
Off-Site Incinerator--
Stationary off-site, high-volume incinerator equipment is available to
dispose of logging residues and produce little or no atmospheric emission
products. Although technically feasible, this alternative may not be cost-
effective considering the mecnanical handling and transportation requirements
-------
of processing this material to a fixed disposal point. Once out of the forest,
the potential market that exists for this material would logically direct its
utilization instead of disposal.
ALTERNATIVES TO FORESTRY BURNING
This section presents a general overview of the alternatives to forestry
burning. The technical feasibility and potential environmental impacts of
these alternatives are addressed and available cost data and an economic anal-
ysis of burning versus no-burn alternatives is presented.
The alternatives to forestry burning are shown in Figure 22. These alter-
natives include the use of mechanical or chemical treatments, improved har-
vesting systems, slash utilization, and no treatment. The practicality and
desirability of these alternatives may not be generalized for the Pacific
Northwest, hence any assessment of feasibility or silvicultural and environ-
mental suitability should be made on a site-by-site basis.
Mechanical Treatment
Mechanical techniques for treating slash and for brushland conversion
are technically feasible and versatile. These techniques do not eliminate
slash materials, but may sufficiently rearrange and change the size and
shape of the slash components to satisfy silvicultural and environmental
considerations. Slash materials are mechanically treated by mastication,
chipping, piling, scarification or burying.
Mastication—
Onsite crushing or shredding machines may be used to treat small diam-
eter, concentrated slash. Materials less than 6 inches in diameter are
reduced to a mat of wood chips and chunks. Larger material may not be
broken up but will usually be compacted closer to the ground. This level
of treatment is generally considered to be sufficient for silvicultural
objectives, but may not significantly reduce wildfire hazard.
The tractor support needed by these devices restricts their use to
terrain with slopes less than 30 percent. Present applications have been
limited to small thinning slash and brushland conversion. Applications in
heavy logging slash may be feasible in conjunction with the utilization or
piling of large material.
Chipping--
Onsite chipping may be used to treat small concentrations of slash or
in conjunction with PUM or YUM operations. Small mobile or tractor-mounted
chippers are adequate to treat small volumes of concentrated slash materials
up to 6 inches in diameter, but are limited to terrains of less than 30 per-
cent slope. Larger materials require PUM or YUM support operations in
-123-
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Mechanical Treatment
Chemical Treatment
Improved
Harvesting Systems
Optimal
Material
Handling
Utilization
Figure 22. Alternatives to forestry burning.
-------
conjunction with larger timber processor-type chippers that are limited to
roadside or landing operations. Present slash chipping operations are limited
to roadside treatments of thinning slash. However, onsite chipping applica-
tions are expected to increase in conjunction with increasing slash fiber
utilization (see Utilization presented later in this section).
Piling—
YUM and PUM techniques as described in earlier sections may be used
to pile or windrow slash without further treatment. Piling operations can
sufficiently break up the continuity of slash concentrations for regeneration
planting and reduced fire hazard. Piling operations concentrate and increase
the accessibility of slash material and thus enhance the potential for more
complete utilization.
Scarification—
Ground scarification techniques expose mineral soil for regeneration
planting and break up the continuity of slash fuels to reduce fire hazard.
Tractor scarification is limited by terrain and soil conditions. Recently
developed cable and High Lead Scarification (HLS) techniques have been
successfully used in brush and slash areas not feasibly treated by tractor
(Ward and Russel 1975). Scarification techniques are used in conjunction
with piling or windrowing to better satisfy silvicultural considerations.
Burying—
Field studies indicate that burying slash is technically feasible
(Schimke and Dougherty 1966, Harrison 1975). Onsite pits can accommodate
most piled or tractor-scarified materials. Large slash components and heavy
material concentrations are difficult to treat. Necessary tractor support
limits this technique to relatively flat rockless terrain.
Potential short- and long-range environmental effects may be of con-
cern. Burial sites may not support trees until slash materials are decomposed.
There are indications that wood decay is inhibited under anaerobic burial
conditions (Evans 1973). These anaerobic conditions may also produce wood
leachate pollutants. Volatile organic acids may be leached into ground waters
(Sweet and Fetrow 1975). Under reducing conditions, these acids may further
degrade water quality by dissociating heavy metals from the soil substratum.
These techniques can be used in combinations to achieve desired treat-
ment levels. YUM yarding alone may not provide adequate logging residue
treatment. Present specifications leave materials less than 5 to 8 inches in
diameter on the site, impeding regeneration efforts and maintaining a temporary
fire hazard until degraded. Competing vegetation to seedlings is not deterred
and often requires additional treatment.
The onsite feasibility of the various mechanical techniques are dependent
on the capabilities of available machines. Table 23 describes the limitations
of the various machines presently used to treat slash. Prototype equipment for
slash treatment is constantly being developed by private industries and at the
San Dimas, California and Missoula, Montana equipment development centers of the
U.S. Forest Service.
-125-
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TABLE 23. MECHANICAL SLASH TREATMENT TECHNIQUES
Equipment or
Method
Masticate
Tractor crushing
Youg Tomahawk
&ATECO Com-
pactor
Towed Rolling
Choppers
National
Hydro -Ax
Kershaw
Klear-way
Trakmac/
Trailmaker
Tree Eater
Chip
Nicholson Ecolo
Chipper
Vermeer 671
Roy Ecological
Demolisher
Pile
PUM
Size Limitation
Slope
Limitation Diameter Length
(%) (in) (ft)
30 4-6 None
15-20 4-8 None
30 4 None
25 6 None
35 18 None
20 10 None
Limit of 24 None
yarding
method
Limit of 24 8
yarding
Limit of 96 25
yarding
method
30 None 15
Support Equipment
Needed Disadvantages
None Very Ineffi-
cient
Tractor, D6 or Slow needs
larger hard ground and
brittle material
Tractor, D6 or Sensitive to
larger rocks - blades
break; damages
desirable tree
seedlings
None Leaves stubble
which can
resprout
None Leaves sharp
stubble which
can resprout
None Undependable
None Undependable;
damages desir-
able seedlings
Grapple skidder Large initial
investment
Loader Limited to
short mate-
rial
Crane Large initial
investment
Tractor, D6 or Potential soil
larger compaction
Advantages
OK in small
material
Good, results
with small,
dry material
Good results
with small-
stem material
Thorough
treatment
Thorough
treatment
Low ground
compactor
Good results
High qual-
ity job
Good results
with short
material
High qual-
ity job
Low cost
(continued)
-126-
-------
TABLE 23. (continued)
Size Limitation
Equipment or Limitation Diameter Length
Method (%) (in) (ft)
Pile
YUM Limit of None IS
yarding
method
Hand 60 4-8 5-10
Scarify
Tractor 30 None None
Cable (HLS) None 12 None
Bury
Tractor 15 None 10
Support Equipment
Needed Disadvantages
Cable Yarder Inadequate
treatment of
small materi-
als
None Slow, limited
to small mate-
rial
None Potential soil
compaction
Cable Yarder Potential soil
erosion
None Slow, ground
settling
A dvantages
Minimal environ-
mental effects
Minimal environ-
mental impacts
Good results
Good results
in small
material
Aesthetically
appealing
-127-
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The environmental effects of mechanical slash treatments are dependent
on the degree of site disturbance that occurs as a result of soil scarifica-
tion and damage to residual vegetation. Site disturbance may be no more than
expected from logging operations or may accelerate deterioration of previously
logged areas by further disruption of surface vegetation.
Soil damaging effects have been recognized and are regulated by State
forest practices regulations. Erosion or compaction will vary, depending on
soil conditions, terrain, and the extent of surface scarification. Techniques
that leave a mat of residual woodchips on the soil surface will minimize soil
disturbance.
Residual slash alters soil water distribution and obstructs drainage
channels (Swanston 1974). Chip material washed into streams may physically
disrupts fish habits (Ruth 1975). The potential toxicity of the leachates
from this type of material has not been well substantiated although there is
indirect evidence that the leachates are toxic to fish (Evans 1973).
Chemical Treatment
Chemical herbicides can be used for temporary control of undesirable
vegetation. Forestry applications have been effective for brushland conver-
sions, conifer thinnings and conifer release treatments. Available formu-
lations and application methods provide versatile options for forest
management and environmental considerations (Table 24).
Broad spectrum formulations are used in brushland conversion for prepar-
ation of seedling sites. Aerial application allows efficient treatment of
terrain not feasible by other methods. Slow-release granular formulations
and the synergistic effects of two or more herbicide combinations provide
an effective means of controlling a variety of undesirable trees, shrubs
or grasses (Gratkowski 1974).n
Selective herbicide formulations and/or application methods are used
to control specific plants without injuring others. Selective herbicides
are used in conifer release treatments to control competing hardwoods and
grasses without affecting desirable conifer seedlings. On the other hand,
conifer thinning treatments use selective application methods that allow
treatment of individual trees. Selective application methods are usually
accomplished by hand spraying or direct tree injection of the herbicide.
Chemical herbicides provide at best only partial treatment of slash.
Vegetation control is temporary, usually less than 2 to 3 years,12 and
does not reduce slash concentrations.
As cited in Cramer 1974.
12
Personal communication, E. Feddern, Publishers Time Mirror, Inc., October 11, 1977.
-128-
-------
TABLE 24. PROPERTIES OF HERBICIDES USED FOR FOREST VEGETATIVE CONTROL
PO
<£>
i
Herbicide
AECP
(Ammonium
ethyl
carbamoyl-
phosphonate
Amitrole-T
Atrazine
Dalapon
Dicamba
Formulation
Krenite -water
soluble liquid
Amino triazole
+ ammonium thio-
cyanate liquid
80% wettable powder
74% sodium and
magnesium salts-
water soluble
Dimethylamine salt
Dimethylamine salts
of dicamba & 2, 4-D
or 2,4, 5 -T
Oil-soluble acid of
dicamba + isoactyl
esters of 2, 4-D or
2,4,5-T
Application
Method
Aerial
ground
Aerial
ground
Aerial
ground
Aerial
ground
Injection
Aerial
ground
Aerial
ground
Application*
Rate
1-1/2 to 3
gal/A
1/2 to 1
gal/A
3 to 4 Ib
ai/A
3 to 11 Ib
ai/A
Undiluted or
1:4 in water
1 to 3 gal/A
1 gal/A
Use Half-life
Selectivity Persistence
Deciduous species for <4 mo.
site preparation
SaLmonberry and elder- <4 mo.
berry; will damage
Douglas-fir if applied
too early or too late
Annual grasses and some <4 mo.
forbs; does not damage
conifers
Annual and perennial <4 mo.
grasses for site prepa-
ration; use with atrazine
or directed sprays for
release
Hardwoods and conifers 5 to 8 mo.
Shrubs and weed trees 5 to 8 mo.
for site preparation
Shrubs and weed trees 5 to 8 mo.
for site preparation
* ai = active ingredient
(continued)
-------
TABLE 24. (continued)
uo
O
i
Herbicide
MSMA
Picloram
Silvex
Formulation
Monosodium acid
methane arsonate-
water soluble
Potassium salt + invert
^mulsions of 2, 4-D or
2,4, 5-T
Trilsopropanolamine
salts of picloram &
2, 4-D (Tordon 101R
and Tordon 101)
Trilsopropanolamine
salts of picloram &
2, 4-D (Tordon 101) with
or without low volatile
esters of 2, 4, 5-T or
silvex
Isooctyl ester of picloram
+ PC BE ester of 2, 4, 5-T
(Tordon 155)
Low -volatile esters
(BOE, PGBE)
Application
Method
Injection
Aerial
ground
Injection
Aerial
ground
Aerial
ground
Aerial
ground
Application Use Half -life
Rate Selectivity Persistence
Undiluted Hardwoods and conifers <4 mo.
1 to 4 quarts Shrubs and week trees 8 to 12 mo.
picloram + 1 to 4 for site preparation
gal of phenoxy
invert
Undiltued Hardwoods and conifers 8 to 12 mo.
1 to 4 gal/A Shrubs and weed trees 8 to 12 mo.
for site preparation
1/2 to 1 gal/A Shrubs and week trees 8 to 12 mo.
for site preparation
1/4 to 2/4 gal/A Shrubs, weed trees and 5 to 8 mo.
forbs; damaging to
conifers
(continued)
-------
TABLE 24. (continued)
Herbicide Formulation
2, 4-D Amine
Low-volatile esters
(Isooctyl, BOE, PGBE)
2, 4, 5-T Low-volatile esters
(Isooctyl, BOE, PGBE)
Amine
Application
Method
Injection
Aerial
ground
Aerial
ground
Injection
Application
Rate
Undiluted or 1:1
with water
1/4 to 3/4 gal/ A
1/4 to 3/4 gal/A
Undiluted or 1:1
with water
Use
Selectivity
Hardwoods except
cherry and
bigleaf maple
Shrubs, weed trees, and
forbs; for site preparation
and conifer release
(except pines)
Shrubs, weed trees, and
forbs for site preparation
and release
Hardw oods
Half-life
Persistence
<4 mo.
<4 mo.
<4 mo.
<4 mo.
-------
The feasibility of accelerating slash decomposition using chemical
sprays has been studied in the Pacific Northwest (Ward 1975). Results
indicate that the spray application of ammonium phosphate, urea, asparagin,
2,4-D and 2,4,5-T, or a plastic moisture barrier will not accelerate wood
decay.
Herbicides used in combination with mechanical alternatives are more
effective in slash treatment and can reduce the soil disturbance and other
environmental effects associated with mechanical techniques. Two to three
periodic herbicide appications are usually required after mechanical site
preparation to ensure the establishment of new conifer seedlings.13
Adverse environmental effects depend on the persistence, accumulation
and toxicity of a particular herbicide formulation. The herbicides that
are presently registered by EPA for use in forest management have been
observed to insignificantly affect wild life, soil microorganisms, water
quality or air quality.14 Damage to desirable vegetation is probable when
broad spectrum formulations or application methods are used. Damage to
riparian vegetation may result from aerial drifting of herbicides applied
by plane or helicopter. However, improved spray nozzles and the use of
low volatile formulations are expected to minimize this potential impact.15
Improved Harvesting Systems
Present harvesting systems generate considerably more logging residues
than can be utilized. Logging residues may be significantly reduced by har-
vesting systems directed towards maximum utilization. The optimum system
would only cut what could be utilized or rapidly treated. Of course, the
successful application of any harvesting system that generates more usable
wood fiber is dependent upon the market demand for this material. Market
conditions that do not encouragae slash material recovery, necessitate
some type of disposal activity. Thus, improved harvesting systems must pro-
vide an economic incentive along with technical feasibility for increased
slash utilization.
Research and development of improved harvesting systems are ongoing in
the Pacific Northwest under a cooperative effort by the USDA Forest Service
and forest industries (Clarke 1972, USDA FS 1974).
The environmental effects of improved harvesting systems may be no
more than expected from present logging operations. Removal of larger
13
Personal communication, E. Feddern, Publishers Time Mirror, Inc. , October 11, 1977.
Unpublished E.I. S. on Herbicides in PNW Forests, USDA FS.
Personal communication, M. Newton, Oregon State University, February 21, 1978.
132-
-------
quantities of slash materials is not expected to affect the nutrient budget
of most soils in this region although specific sites which are nutrient
deficient or have fragile soils may be adversely affected. Helicopter
logging techniques have been successfully used to minimize site distur-
bance during logging activities and to yard material when other tech-
niques are not feasible. However, the low operating efficiency and weight
limitations of helicopters currently limit their application to high grade
saw logs.
Directional Felling--
Uphill or directional felling in old-growth stands can help minimize
logging slash by reducing log breakage and thus increasing potential
utilization as high-grade material. Directional control is accomplished
with the aid of cables or hydraulic jacks. Although these control methods
may increase logging costs by two to three times, field applications by forest
industries indicate that these costs are easily offset by greater log recovery
and utility (Burwell 1977). Gross volume recovery may be increased as much
as 30 percent depending on terrain conditions (ITF-FSU 11/17/77).
Multistage Logging—
A two-stage logging operation can recover low-grade material that would
at present remain as slash. Normal logging operations would be preceeded
or followed by light-material handling systems to recover small-diameter
material. Prelogging increases the utility of small material usually damaged
during normal logging operations. Prelogging also lessens timber breakage
during normal felling and yarding operations. Post logging salvages small
logging residue from normal logging operations.
Minimum Bucking—
Minimizing preyard bucking of logs into uniform length classes optimizes
the utility of low-grade materials. Shattered log ends and extraneous log
lengths that are bucked prior to yarding are not easily handled by standard
yarding machines so they remain on the site as slash. Minimum bucking
encourages the yarding and processing of this material for utilization.
Whole-tree yarding--
Whole-tree yarding may be used to eliminate the need for any bucking.
Applications have been limited by yarding capabilities and the present util-
ity of whole tree fiber materials in the Pacific Northwest, although this
process is commonly used in the Southeast by Weyerhaeuser Company and other
forest industries. (See Utilization presented later in this section.) Also,
the limited area of log landings may facilitate slash disposal piles con-
tiguous with log yarding activities.
Optimal Material Handing Techniques-
More efficient logging machinery can improve opportunities for slash
utilization. Prototype systems are being developed to yard, preprocess and
transport slash materials. Lightweight cable-yarders provide more material-
handling versatility, greater mobility and more rapid in-haul capabilities.
-133-
-------
Mobile chippers and tree processors reduce irregular slash components to uni-
form chip material that can be efficiently loaded and transported for utiliza-
tion.
Optimal Timber Contracts--
The contractual requirements of timber sales on public lands may be used
to promote better logging slash utilization. Lump sum or per acre pricing
(RAM) of small materials encourages efficient logging techniques and maximum
utilization by an operator. RAM has been shown to significantly increase resi-
due utilization as compared to traditional per-thousand board feet pricing (PM)
(Pierovich and Smith 1973).16
The introduction of sustained yield unit agreements have been suggested
as a method to improve utilization (U.S. General Accounting Office 1973).
Guaranteeing a long-term timber supply would encourage development of local
processing facilities for low-grade material.
Salvage rights and subsidies for residue removal may be used when market
conditions will not support the sale of subgrade material. The desirability
of cleaning up slash materials may justify some form of purchaser credit.
On a smaller scale, free-use firewood permits encourage individual removal
of slash. However, this nonsystematic hand technique is limited to roadsides
and is at best a partial alternative.
Utilization
Increased slash utilization can reduce the need for further slash treat-
ment. Total tree utilization standards outside of the Pacific Northwest have
been shown to reduce wildfire potential to a level requiring no further fuel
modifications (Brown 1974). Silvicultural objectives for burning slash may be
partially met by removing slash for utilization. In the case of pile burning,
removing the piles rather than burning them will accomplish silvicultural
objectives.
Slash utilization would, in general, have little adverse effect on soils,
vegetation or wildlife (Sandberg 1977).l' However, slash removal may have
detrimental effects in isolated situations when: tree seedling survival
depends on the shade of residual slash, erosion of steep, unstable slopes is
prevented by slash and vegetative cover, and surface erosion is increased on
steep, unstable slopes without slash or vegetative cover, or the habitats for
local wildlife populations are provided by slash.
16
17
No significant difference in PAM and PM residue loads was found by Hamilton (1975).
ITF/FSU. Exhibit A. November 7, 1977 „
-134-
-------
The use of slash material is dependent on the capability and efficiency
of the forest industries to process low-grade fiber that may contain undes-
irable species, rot, defects, rock and dirt. Fougler (1976) suggests that
materials less than 4 inches in diameter can not be efficiently utilized
by present processes.
The material handling and production alternatives that are available
for slash utilization are characterized in this section. Market influences
are discussed as is necessary to clarify the economic feasibility of these
alternatives.
Material Handling--
The value of slash as a raw material for wood products or energy depends
largely upon the efficiency of material handling and processing as described
by Adams (1976). These processes must be efficient enough to allow slash mate-
rials to compete with mill residues and other sources of raw material; pres-
ently, this is not the case. The cost of delivering slash material is as much
as 10 times that of mill residues where handling costs are absorbed by the
primary wood products (Grantham 1974). Slash utilization depends on the
availability and application of preprocessing and transportation systems that
can efficiently handle this material.
A computer simulation model has been developed by the USDA-FS that can
be used to assess different slash material handling systems (Bare 1976). The
model traces the flow of materials through pre-specified combinations of pro-
cessing and transporting operations to evaluate the feasibility of converting
slash into wood products and energy.
Preprocessing—This permits optimum grading and distribution of all
harvested material. Early conversion of low-grade slash material into uni-
formly sized chip material increases processing and transportation efficiency.
The following processes may encourage maximum use of low-grade slash material.
Merchandising centers—Such centers combine sorting and some processing
to divert logs to specialized centers of use. Low-grade logs and slash
materials are typically chipped for transport to nearby mills as pulp or
hog fuel material.
Chip and saw—Chip and saw mills utilize small log materials for stud
material and maximum residue recovery. Material that has no lumber
value is chipped and utilized as hogged fuel or transported to nearby
pulp mills.
Chipping plants—Chipping plants and mobile chippers provide early
or on-site processing of slash material into chip form for transport
to nearby mills. The economic feasibility of these processes are
extremely dependent on fluctuating chip markets (Gram 1974).
-135-
-------
Hammermill plants--Hammermill plants and portable machines are being
developed to provide early or onsite production of uniformly sized
and compressed wood pellets for efficient handling and transport
(Currier 1971).18
Stockpiling of slash material or processed chips can be used for short-
term storage when markets are not favorable for material utilization. Chemi-
cal control methods to reduce deterioration of stockpiled wood fiber are
being developed by the USDA FS (Young 1972).
Transportation—The transportation of slash materials is presently lim-
ited to the capability of standard logging trucks. These trucks are designed
to haul uniformly shaped material and cannot accommodate smaller, irregularly
shaped slash material. New and modified hauling systems are available that may
increase the efficiency of slash handling.
Short truck and trailer--These combinations have been developed for
small log handling. These vehicles can accommodate log material that
is too short for standard logging trucks.
Chip vans—Chip vans may be used in combination with onsite chipping
or wood-pelletizing processes. Uniform material size allows efficient
transportation to mills.
Sideboard modifications — Improvements to standard logging trucks may
allow "whole-tree" transporting. This is a new concept being developed
by Weyerheauser Company in the Southeast with potential, but as yet
untested applications in the Pacific Northwest.19
Production processes—Many forest product industries can presently acorn-
mod atFr~orTe~modT7Ted~To' efficiently use, slash material. The basic proper-
ties of slash material are not significantly different from the fiber used in
any wood product. Increasing use of mill residues demonstrates the existing
potential for utilizing slash type materials. Sound fiber can be used as fuel
for steam to generate electrical power. Slash materials can also be used to
a much lesser extent for other miscellaneous products. Table 25 shows the
types of wood products presently available or being developed that could utilize
slash fiber material.
Pulp and paper—The pulp and paper industry and chip export market offer
the most feasible immediate use for slash materials. Improved chemical pulp
digestion processes can accommodate the unbarked rough wood of various hard-
and soft-wood species. These processes produce diverse product lines with
1 8
As cited in Van Vliet (1971).
19
Personal communication, R. Cornelius, Wyerhaeuser Company, January 17, 1978.
-136-
-------
TABLE 25. WOOD PRODUCTS FROM SLASH
Products
Pulp
Particle board
Structural flakeboard
Charcoal
Wood pellets
Fire wood
Methanol /Oil
^ Synthetic natural gas
CO
•j-J Densified fuel logs
Resinous glues
Compost & soil conditioner
Thermosetting plastics
Glucose
Ethylene, butadiene
Absorbent floor covering
Porous brick and tile
Packing material
Posts and stakes
Cellulose derivatives
Furan
Cork and wax
Process or
Technique
Sulfate, kraft
N/A
N/A
Herreshoff reduction
furnace
Pelletizing
--
Pyrolysis
Chemical catalyst
Compression
Pyrolytic converter
Pelletizing
N/A
Cellulose hydrolysis
Ethanol extract
Hamermill sawdust
N/A
N/A
—
Dissolved pulp
Furfural extract
From Douglas- fir bark
Development or
Research Group
--
USDA-FS Forest Products Lab.
USDA-FS Forest Products Lab.
Olsen Lawyer
Bio- Solar Research & Dev.
Corp.
--
N/A
Battelle Memoiral Institute
USDA-FS Forest Products Lab.
Georgia Institute of Tech.
University of Arizona
Oregon State University
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Boise Cascade Corp.
N/A
N/A
N/A
Reference
Grantham 1974
Dickerhoof 1977
Adams 1976
Steffensen
1971*
ITF-FSU
10/25/77
--
Grantham 1978
Feldmann, H.F.t
Oregon State
Univ., 1977
Hewlett 1972
Fuller 1966
Currier 1971*
Grantham 1978
Grantham 1978
Harkin 1969
Harkin 1969
Harkin 1969
Elmgren 1977
Grantham 1978
Grantham 1978
Trocino 1974$
Uses
Paper products
Counter tops, underlayments, paneling,
Wall and roof sheathing, paneling
Recreation
Electric generation, steam boilers
Home heat, hogged fuel
Heat, steam boilers
Home heating, industrial applications
Presto- logs, home heating, stoker fuel
Bonding agent
Landscaping, agricultural
decking
Molded products: cups, switch box, sofa leg
Animal feed, carbohydrate supplement,
Alcohol
sugar
Animal bedding, packing plants, fish markets
Reduced density and weight of clay products
Shipping fragile items
Grapestacks, fence posts
Cellophane, rayon
Nylon
Miscellaneous
* As cited in Van Vliet 1971
t USDOE study in progress
As cited in Young 1975
-------
satisfactory strength and bleach quality (Auston 1973). The bark content
of processed material has been shown to increase total fiber yields by as
much as 10 percent; nonfibrous bark material that is dissolved during
the digestion process can be recovered and used by the mill as an energy
source. The successful operation of a hardwood pulp mill by Weyerheauser
Company in Aberdeen, WA suggests that concentrated red alder and other
low-grade hardwood species in the coast range can support hardwood pulp
mills.
The feasibility of utilizing slash material for pulp and paper is pres-
ently limited by market conditions and individual mill capabilities. As long
as large amounts of cheaper, more desirable conifer mill residues are avail-
able, there appears to be little industrial incentive to use slash material.
Particle and flake board—Existing product lines of particle and flake
boards are potential uses for slash materials. The particle board share of
the Nation's wood-based panel industry has steadily increased from 5 percent
in 1962 to 25 percent in 1972 (Buongiorno 1977). Structural flake board,
a high strength wall and roof sheathing board, is still in the development
stage (Heebink 1974). Construction applications are expected to be wide,
especially in the housing market. Price and performance specifications are
competitive with other product lines.
At this time, slash materials are not used for particle board manu-
facturing in the Pacific Northwest (Dickerhoff 1977). Cheaper mill residues
constitute the entire raw material supply for these products. Research is
ongoing to develop board products and material handling systems that might
increase the use of slash materials (Zerbe 1972, Resch 1977).
Energy—Conversion of low grade slash material into energy products is
technically feasible. Direct combustion of hogged slash fuels can be used
to produce heat, process steam, and generate electricity for industrial and
municipal use. A communal group in the Eugene-Springfield area is showing
the cost effectiveness of harvesting slashed material for use as home fuel.
The heat value of slash materials depends on the species and moisture con-
tent of the wood. Table 26 shows the heat value of various tree species'
components on an ovendried basis. Increasing moisture content will signifi-
cantly decrease the combustion efficiency of wood fuels.
Forest industries use large amounts of processed steam and heat. Pulp
and paper production requires steam for pulp cooking and drying. Sawmills
and plywood plants use direct heat for drykilns and veneer drying. Many of
these facilities employ fuel systems that can accommodate hogged slash fuels.
The use of slash material by forest industries for in-plant energy production
is a function of the availability and cost of conventional energy sources.
20
As cited in Grantham (1974).
138-
-------
At present, very little slash is being used. Processed mill residues, fossil
fuels, and electricity provide most of the energy needs of industry. However,
the scarcity of fossil fuels and potential price increases for industrial
electricity users could result in the increased use of mill residue and slash
material for energy in the near future.
TABLE 26. HEAT VALUES OF VARIOUS PNW TREE SPECIES
Species Heating Value (Btu/lb, oven-dry*
Douglas-Fir
Western Hemlock
White Fir
Western Red Cedar
Ponderosa Pine
Western Larch
Lodge Pole Pine
Western White Pine
RedAdler
Wood
8,890
8,410
8,210
9,700
9,110
N/A
N/A
N/A
7,990
Bark
9,790
9,400
N/A
8,790
N/A
8,280
10,260
9,090
8,410
Needles
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
8,478
7,999
9,050
8,674
N/A
* These heat values are in contrast to 11,000 - 14,000 Btu/lb
expected from coal.
Figure 23 shows the present sources of energy consumed by the pulp and
paper industry. Mill residues provide 54 percent of all energy needs. The
remaining 46 percent is supplied by fossil fuels and electricity. Efforts by
forest industries to become more energy self-sufficient have been focused on
the increased use of processed mill residue and are not expected to have an
substantial impact on slash utilization.21
Slash material may be a potential energy source used to increase the
electrical power generating capacity of Washington and Oregon. The U.S.
Department of Energy is studying the feasibility of utilizing wood fiber to
produce additional power for the regional power grid (Lindsey 1977).22
The forest industries are at present best suited to handle and process
hogged slash fuel for electric power generation. Public utilities cannot
compete with the forest industries for hogged mill residue and processed
Personal communication, R. Cornelius, Wyerhaeuser Company, March 22, 1978.
22 As cited in Adams (1977).
-139-
-------
slash (Grant 1977).23 Power is a logical secondary product of mills that
now generate low pressure process steam. Conventional energy systems would
require modifications to accommodate hogged slash material. The power gen-
erated by these small industrial units is expected to be more expensive than
the public utility grid using conventional energy sources. These conversion
and higher generating costs would necessarily be absorbed by the power grid
in a "wheeling process" that would distribute power to all industrial and
nonindustrial users at a cost reflecting the average operating cost of the
total power grid.
m FOSSIL FUEL (SBi PROCESS WASTE
Illllllllll OIL i PULPING LIQUORS
••• COAL asm WOOD AND BARK
NATURAL GAS ?WM» ELECTRICITY
Figure 23. Energy consumption by the pulp and paper industry
of the Pacific Northwest including California (Arola 1976)
The potential use of wood fiber for municipal steam and electric gen-
eration has been demonstrated by the Eugene Water and Electric Board (Lynch
1977).24 The city of Eugene, OR employs hogged fuel fired boilers to produce
steam heat. This system is also able to generate limited amounts of elec-
tricity, but at costs that are almost twice as high as power presently
available from BPA.
The conversion of slash materials into other energy products is in the
research and development stage. Potential conversion processes are described
in Table 27. Although these processes may be technically feasible, they are
not presently cost efficient alternatives for slash utilization.
As cited in ITF-FSU Minutes, October 13, 1977.
24
As cited in Adams (1977).
-140-
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TABLE 27. CONVERSION OF SLASH INTO ENERGY PRODUCTS
Technique
Product
BTU/lb
Researcher
Reference
Pelletizing process (WOODEX)
Pelletizing process
Pelletizing process
Anaerobic digestion
Gasification reactor
Pyro lysis by direct heating
Pyrolysis by direct heating
Pelletizing process (WOODEX)
Pyrolytic converter
Pyrolytic converter
Catalytic procedure
N7A
Wood pellets
Pellets
Pulverized pellets
Methane gas
Gas
Gas
Gas
Gas
Oil-soaked char
Wood oil
Oil
Oil
9,000
7,960
8,200
N/A
150 (BTU/cuft)
N/A
8,200-9,600*
8,700
13,000
13,000
17,000
N/A
Bio-Solar Research & Development Corp.
Alsid, Snow den & Associates
U and I, Inc.
N/A
Council of Forest Industries of B. C.
USDA-PNW F&Res.
Forest Fuels, Inc.
Bio-Solar Research & Development Corp.
Georgia Institute of Technology
Georgia Institute of Technology
USDI Bureau of Mines
Bechtel Corporation (USDOE)
ITF-FSU 1977
Snowden 1977
Wilson 1977
Grantfaam 1974
Halak 1977
Grantham 1974
Forest Fuels 1976
ITF-FSU 1977
Hewlett 1972
Hewlett 1972
Grantham 1974
Blackman 1978
* Depends on species
-------
Pelletized material--Pel leti zed material uses a hammer-milling process
to reduce wood and bark residues to uniformly compacted and dried pellets.
Pellets are an easily handled fuel with predictable burning characteristics.
The fuel has been successfully used as a low emission substitute to coal and
hogged fuels in the Pacific Northwest (Farnsworth 1977, Dell 1977).
Methane—Methane gas can be produced from wood residue using pyrolysis or
anaerobic digestion. Small gasification units are capable of producing enough
heat for veneer drying and other forest industry applications (Dell 1977).
Synthetic crude oil--The processing of synthetic crude oil using wood
residues is being studied by the USDOE. A pilot plant at Albany, OR produces
approximately three barrels of oil per day. However, costs are not compet-
itive with presently available oil (Blackman 1978).
No Treatment
Desirable levels of slash abatement for sustained wood fiber production
and wildfire hazard reduction cannot presently be accomplished by natural
processes. Natural processes are slow. Slash degradation by wildlife,
insects and microorganisms may take from 5 to 50 years depending on the slash
component size, species, moisture content, temperature and inoculum present.
Table 28 shows the natural decay process expected over a 15-year period in
a western hemlock-type forest.
TABLE 28. NATURAL DECAY PROCESS OF WESTERN HEMLOCK (MacBean 1941)*
Years since logging
Stage of decay
1 3
4-6
7-9
10 12
13 - 15
Needles dry out and have mostly fallen.
Fine twigs become brittle but still
adhere to the branches.
Twigs flatten out.
Twigs less than 0.25 inch (0.64 cm)
diameter have fallen. Small branches
can be easily broken.
Slash well flattened, material less
than 0.5 inch (1.3 cm) has fallen.
Small logs become well rotted.
All small material decomposed. Small
branches 2 to 3 inches (5-8 cm) in
diameter still intact. Decay in logs
well advanced.
*As cited in Ruth and Harris 1975.
-142-
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The concept of introducing microorganisms into concentrated slash to
hasten deconjposition has been studied, but not applied. Lindermuth and
Gill (1959) found that slash decomposition can be accelerted by intro-
ducing specific wood-rotting fungus. The application of nitrogen ferti-
lizers has also been found to stimulate wood decaying microbial activity.
Supplemental fire protection personnel may reduce wildfire damage in
areas where no slash treatment is performed. Present applications by the
USDA Forest Service are used in conjunction with fuel breaks or fire lines.
Fire management personnel suggest that supplemental fire protection is not
sufficient to reduce the wildfire hazard of heavy contiguous slash areas.
Untreated slash material may add to soil stability, provide shade for
regeneration seedlings and maintain an organic nutrient source. However,
these materials may also degrade adjacent surface water quality by clogging
stream channels and increasing biochemical oxygen demand (Notzon 1977).
There is indirect evidence that wood leachates may also be toxic to fish
(Evans 1973).
THE ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY BURNING
An in-depth economic analysis of forest burning and of alternate
methods of slash disposal requires detailed cost data for the following
reasons:
1. The amount of variation in both the cost and the benefit
data precludes the use of summary statistics, such as a
mean value, as a meaningful representation of either costs
or benefits.
2. The intangible burning and nonburning benefits are even
more difficult to define in economic terms thus making it
difficult to define the entire set of benefits without
detailed data analysis.
3. Inadequate or contradictory summary data prevent the defi-
nition of burning and nonburning costs and benefits in the
economic terms required for a reliable economic analysis.
Studies designed to evaluate the economics of slash disposal are, for
the most part, localized and nonuniform. The detailed data may be avail-
able in the files of industrial firms utilizing various methods of burning
or else making use of alternate methods of slash disposal. However, if
these data exist, they were not made available for this study nor were they
readily available in the open literature. The situation with the economic
25
As cited in Dell and Green (1968).
-143-
-------
data was summarized by Adams (1976) when he stated "aggregate amounts
(volumes) are misleading, and the potential value of logging residue,
either positive or negative, can only be determined for specific situa-
tions with respect to the type of residue location, sale arrangements,
and development of suitable processing facilities." Tables 29 and 30
represent examples of costs associated with burning and with nonburning
methods of slash disposal. The range in values can be the result of
either the limited, nonuniform cost data or the result of variability in
the volume of residue per acre. Data are not reported for other poten-
tial alternatives because of their unavailability at the time of this
study.
The classic benefit/cost formula calculates a ratio which provides
a measure of the desirability of an investment by discounting the revenues
and costs at an appropriate interest rate which is presumably the highest
rate in the next best alternative use of capital. The discounted revenue
stream is then divided by the discounted cost stream. If the benefit/cost
ratio is equal to or greater than 1, then the project under scrutiny is
considered justified.
There are typically two types of benefits and two types of costs asso-
ciated with the benefit/cost ratio approach. The benefits can be divided
into "project benefits" or as they are sometimes called "direct benefits"
and secondary benefits sometimes called "indirect benefits." Project bene-
fits consist of all benefits that come directly from the project while the
secondary benefits are those that accrue to society because of the project.
As an example, if slash were harvested, chipped, and processed into particle-
board, one direct project benefit would be the wholesale price received for
the particleboard. A secondary benefit would be the societal benefit of not
having to view or inhale slash smoke because the slash was removed instead
of burned.
Costs are also divided into two parts. The first part is comprised of
"project costs." Project costs consist of the value of all goods and services
used for establishing, maintaining, and operating the project purchases of
land, labor, equipment, etc. necessary to undertake the project. The second
part is comprised of "associated costs." These costs are incurred over and
above project costs to make the outputs of the project available.
The questionable portion of any benefit/cost ratios is the inclusion of
secondary benefits and the associated costs. There is a tendency to disregard
those benefits that cannot be measured in concrete terms. Those benefits
that are intangible, difficult to assign marketplace dollar values to (view,
air quality, etc.), often find no place in benefit/cost analysis. Secondary
benefits should be isolated and priced. Even though a benefit/cost ratio
for slash removal may be less than 1, addition of the secondary benefits
could cause the benefit/cost ratio to rise above the value of 1.
-144-
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TABLE 29. COST EXAMPLES OF PRESCRIBED BURNING IGNITION DEVICES AND BURNING
TECHNIQUES IN THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST
Ignition Techniques
Type
Primacord
Primacord (Helicopter)
Helitorch
Helitorch
Cost Organization
$20. 25/A Publishers' Paper
$20.25-23.25/A Publishers' Paper
$20/A Publishers' Paper
$8/A Washington
Reference
Feddern (1977)**
Feddern (1977)**
Feddern (1977)**
Griggs (1978)**
Burning Techniques
Organization
BROADCAST
W ashington
Washington
Oregon
Washington
Oregon
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
Industry
Operator
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
Operator
Operator
Forest Service
Forest Service
Industry
Pretreatment
Slash and Burn
Industry
Industry
Brown and Burn
Forest Service
Pile and Burn
Washington
W ashington
Oregon
Cost
$121/A
$121/A
$73/A
$121/A
$73/A
$122-184/A
$4. 10/T
$125-225/A
$25-110/A
$25-200/A
$150/ A
(F)$80-120/A
(SP)$90-140/A
(F)$100/A
(SP)$115/A
$140/A
$125-225/A
$85 /A
$40-100/A*
$131/A
$86.72/A
$79/A
$79/A
$55/A
Reference
FY(1974)
Dell (1975)
Dell (1975)
Dell (1975)
Dell (1975)
USDA-FS (1975)
Richardson (1976)
ITF-FSU(1977)
ITF-FSU(1977)
ITF-FSU(1977)
ITF-FSU(1977)
Tokarczyk (1977)
Tokarczyk (1977)
Tokarczyk (1977)
Tokarczyk (1977)
Tokarczyk (1977)
Dell (1977)
Claunch (1977)**
Feddern (1977)**
Feddern (1977)**
USDA-FS (1973)
FY (1974)
Dell (1975)
Dell (1975)
* Only slashing
** Personal communication
(continued)
-145-
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TABLE 29. (continued)
Burning Techniques
Organization
Cost
Reference
BROADCAST
Pretreatment
Pile and Burn -
Forest Service
Forest Service
Forest Service
Forest Service
Forest Service
Operator
Forest Service
PILE
$560/At
$47 T
$105-2007A
$160/A
$140/A
$115/A
$50-300/A
Richardson et aL (1976)
Richardson (1976)
Dell (1977)
Tokarczyk(1977)**
Tokarczyk(1977)**
Tokarczyk (1977)**
USDA-FS (1977)
PUM
Hand -
Forest Service
Forest Service
Oregon
Forest Service and Operator
Operator
Forest Service
Forest Service
Machine
Forest Service
Forest Service
Industry
Forest Service and Operator
Forest Service
$153-310/A
$SOO/A
$450/A
$12S-175/A
$175/A
$100-150/A
$150/A
$117-164/A
$100-200/A
$150-200/A
$100-120/A
$50-75/A
tAt 40 tons/acre
** Personal communication
^Only
USDA-FS (1975)
ITF-FSU(1975)
ITF-FSU(1977)
Tokarczyk (1977)
USDA-FS (1977)
Tokarczyk (1977)**
Getz(1975)
USDA-FS (1975)
ITF-FSU (1977)
ITF-FSU (1977)
Tokarczyk (1977)
Getz(1975)
YUM
Forest Service
Industry
Forest Service
Operator
Forest Service
Forest Service
Forest Service
$10/AT
$300/-$1,000/A
$3S2/A
$224/A
$150-300/A
$450-950/A§
$300-8007 A
USDA-FS (1975)
ITF-FSU (1977)
Tokarczyk (1977)
Shenk (1977)
USDA-FS (1977)
ITF-FSU (1977)
Dell (1977)
burning
(continued)
§YUM and burn
-146-
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TABLE 29. (continued)
Organization Cost Reference
AIR CURTAIN BURNER
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
Washington
$30/ton
$16-30/ton
$6-8/ton
$8/ton
$58S/AC
$14/ton
Ward (1976)
McLean G Ward (1976)
Harrison (1975)
Murphy & Fritschen
(1970)
Lambert (1972)*
Golson(1975)
* As cited in Fahnestock (1975).
-147-
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TABLE 30. COST EXAMPLES OF NONBURNING TECHNIQUES IN THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST
Organization
Masticate
USDA-FS
Industry
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
Washington
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
Washington
Chip
USDA-FS
N/A
USDA-FS
Pile
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
Scarify
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
Bury
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
N/A
Mechanical
Type
crush
slash
Tomahawk
Hydro-Ax
Trak-Mac
crush
crush
Hydro-Ax
Tomahawk
Marden Brushcutter
Tomahawk
Trak-Mac
small portable
N/A $1,
small portable
PUM
YUM
PUM
PUM (hand)
tractor
HLS
Techniques
Cost
$20/AC
$40/AC
$30/AC
$70-90/AC
$70-90/AC
$18/AC
$20/AC
$15-30/AC
$20-35/AC
$11-19/AC
$19-29/AC
$137-239/AC
$3 /ton
600-2, 800/AC
$150-200/AC
$65-1 10/ AC
$300-800/AC
$75/AC
$120-500/AC
$12-22/AC
$244-264/AC
$74/AC **
$83/AC **
$1, 800/AC
Reference
Dell & Ward (1969)
Feddern(1977)
Dell (1977)
Dell (1977)
Dell (1977)
Wilson (1970)
Murphy & Fritschen ( 1970)
Mohler & Golson (1975)
Shenk&Harlan(1972)
Dell & Ward (1969)
Dell & Ward (1969)
Mohler & Golson (1976)
Schimke & Dougharty (1966)
Lambert *
Dell (1977)
Baker (1977)
Dell (1977)
USDA-FS (1977)
Dell (1977)
Dell &Ward (1969)
Ward &Russel (1975)
Schimke & Dougherty (1966)
Ward (1976)
Fahnestock (1974)
* As cited in Fahnestock (1974)
** At 50 tons/acre
-148-
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Existing cost data are quite varied and, as a result, not useful for
benefit/cost analysis. Une important aspect that may be derived from the
data is the variability itself. The estimates of the cost of prescribed
burning vary greatly from source to source. This variance can be attributed
to many factors. If one assumes that all costs collected have been collected
uniformly, there is great variability in cost of slash burning from acre
to acre. However, the variance may be attributed to nonuniformity of the
data collected. Some sources report the cost of slash burning on a per-ton
basis instead of a per-acre basis. Some sources present only the cost of
materials involved in actually setting the fire, some give a collection of
costs, and yet other sources present the costs in terms of pretreatment costs
and then burning costs. In order to conduct a meaningful analysis of costs
and benefits, a set of uniform detailed data is required.
Items that can be generally identified as lacking in the available cost
data may be described as:
1. Uniform data not available.
2. Irregular grouping of costs.
3. Slash burning cost data are lacking.
4. Nonburning alternatives cost data are lacking.
Additional data lacking to complete a benefit/cost analysis are the
benefits that accrue when slash burning is accomplished and the benefits
that accrue when nonburning alternative methods are considered.
Scope of Phase II Economic Approach
Specific guiaelines for a full benefit/cost approach to the alternative
burning techniques and alternatives to forestry burning need to be identified.
The guidelines must include specifications as to exactly what type of data
needs to be collected and on what alternatives. After the Phase I portion
of the study is completed, a study management group should identify specific
burning and nonburning alternatives for slash disposal. Specific categories
must be identified in each area and uniform cost data must be collected.
As an example, the following methods of slash disposal may be defined:
Nonburning Alternatives Burning Alternatives
Sell for Firewood Pile and Burn
Haul for Energy Conversion PUN Pretreatment
Haul for Paper Conversion YUM Pretreatment
Bury Broadcast Burn
No treatment
-149-
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Once the burning and nonburning alternatives for slash disposal have
been identified, a uniform data collection approach may be adopted. Items
for which data should be collected for each alternative are:
1. Labor
2. Materials
3. Equipment
4. Transportation
5. Associated Overheads.
The majority of the cost data may be present for the burning alterna-
tives. The majority of the cost data may not be present for the nonburning
alternatives. Benefits that accrue from the alternatives listed must be
defined. Benefits must be viewed as either long- or short-term. A long-
term benefit is the increased yields resulting on those acres that have
been treated. A short-term benefit is the decrease in cost of planting as
a result of slash treatment.
The proper approach to analyzing the economics of the burning and non-
burning alternatives of slash disposal must be highly systematic. A study
plan and simple study format for a Phase II economic approach are outlined
in Appendix B.
As time proceeds, favorable tax legislation regarding the use of slash
material may alter benefit/cost ratios. Future tax credits and tax exemp-
tions may make previously undesirable alternatives more attractive. Consid-
eration must also be given to the effect that slash disposal alternatives
have on the yields of other multiple-use products of the forest (including
range, water, wildlife and recreation).
The analysis would include secondary benefits and associated costs that
accrue from items such as:
1. Fire hazard reductions
2. Seed bed preparations
3. Physical impediment reductions
4. Silvicultural considerations
5. Health cost reduction through air quality improvement
6. Esthetic values of visibility improvement.
-150-
-------
These items are difficult to quantify. The benefits and costs should
include all known values for those benefits and costs that currently have no
value in dollar terms attributed to them. Additionally, benefit/cost ratios
may vary with geographic location. The benefit/cost ratio for one alter-
native may be greater in one area and far less in another area. Differences
in species, slope, elevation, underbrush, and previous logging activity may
play a role in the benefit/cost determination.
-151-
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SECTION 6
FUTURE IMPACT OF FORESTRY BURNING ON AIR QUALITY
The future impact of forestry burning on air quality in the Pacific
Northwest is a function of the level of burning. Federal, state and local
air quality regulations and the use of alternatives to burning. Historical
trends may not be useful in a projection of future impacts because of sig-
nificant changes in burning technology, regulations and alternatives within
the past 5 to 7 years. This section characterizes some of these recent
trends and their potential impact on air quality.
IMPACTS OF PROJECTED TRENDS IN BURNING
The future of slash burning can be categorized into short- and long-
term trends. The need for prescribed burning may increase on a short-term
basis.1 More burning is expected due to favorable productivity and cost
incentives and improved burning technology and methodology. By the year 2020,
most old growth timber will have been harvested, leaving commercial stands in
harvest cycles of 60 to 100 years.2 Better utilization and management con-
trol of these second growth stands are expected to create less slash, there-
fore decreasing the need for slash disposal.
Between 1972-77, the number of acres of slash burned in the Pacific
Northwest showed an increasing trend for both Washington and Oregon
(Figure 24). However, the trend of total tons burned varied with Oregon
increasing, Washington decreasing and the region as a whole remaining
constant (Figure 25). The proportional amount of slash burned measured
in tons/acre decreased for both Washington and Oregon (Figure 26). These
trends are independent of two abnormal data sets. The 1974 data for Oregon
used in these figures were incomplete due to a computer malfunction. The
1976 data for both states reflects an unusually high level of burning due
to extremely favorable weather conditions.
Although there appears to be little change in the total tons of slash
being burned in the region, the downward trend of the amount of slash burned
per acre may reduce the impact of forestry burning on air quality in the
area of the burn. This trend in the amount of slash burned per acre corre-
sponds with a continuing trend towards more complete utilization of the wood
harvested and with more precise techniques for estimating the amount of fuel
burned, an estimate which historically has been on the high side. The use of
broadcast burning appears to be in an upward trend in Oregon. The number of
acres broadcast burned in Oregon increased 48 percent during the 3-year period
from 1975-1977; concomitantly, pile burning decreased by 14 percent (Figure 27),
ITF-FSU, Final Report, December 1977.
2
Personal communication, J. Todd, USDA FS, October 1977.
-152-
-------
200 T
ISO. -
TJ
-------
7.0.
6.0. .
5.0. —"
•o
-------
•a
(U
§
CQ
1)
PI
u
704-
604.
SO-K
404-
30 +
20
10
\
\
\
\
72
73
74
76
77
Year
• Region «..— .
| Washington — — —
NOTE: Tonnage figures are estimates and subject to possible error.
See page 43 for discussion of error.
Figure 26. Trend of tons/acre burned on the West Side from 1972-77.
-155-
-------
70 -r
60- •
50
I 8
pa o
S 3.
o
40- '
30
Figure 27. Three-year trend of broadcast and pile burning in Oregon.
(Figures derived from Oregon SMP reports. )
-156-
-------
Increased broadcast burning correlates witn the recent increased use of fire
for brushland conversion as reported by the Oregon Department of Forestry.3
The downward trend in pile burning is contrary to the trend observed on National
Forests from 1963 to 1972 (USDA FS 1973). Although no data are available after
1972, increasing use of partial cut timber harvesting methods on National
Forests has led to the use of pile rather than broadcast burning.4
IMPACT OF AIR QUALITY REGULATIONS
There are two areas where pending or recently enacted air quality legis-
lation is likely to have a significant impact on forestry burning as practiced
in the Pacific Northwest. The first relates to a requirement by the Clean
Air Act Amendments of 1977 that visibility impairment from man-made sources
not be allowed in national pristine areas. The second relates to the pos-
sible development of National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) specifi-
cally for fine particles.
The Clean Air Act classifies areas as either I, II or III. Class I
areas are those in which almost any degradation of air quality would be con-
sidered a significant degradation. The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977
declare as a national goal the prevention of visibility impairment from man-
-made air pollution and the restoration of natural visibility in mandatory
Class I Federal areas. Twenty national parks and wildernesses of the Pacific
Northwest have been declared as mandatory Class I areas. These are summarizec
in Table 31. The possible impact of this legislation on forestry burning as
practiced in the Northwest is considerable. The Smoke Management Programs of
both Oregon and Washington permit burning when the prevailing wind carries
smoke away from populated areas. The operation of the program has been sim-
plified by the fact that the populated areas of Washington and Oregon (at
least west of the Cascades) generally coincide with the Puget Trough and the
Willamette Valley. Hence, burning is generaly permitted in the Cascades when
the prevailing wind is from the west and in the Coast Ranges when the prevail-
ing wind is from the east. However, Class I areas are wilderness areas which
frequently lie in the Coast or Cascade Ranges. If smoke is to be vented away
from both populated areas and these Class I areas, the effect will be to make
smoke management much more complicated operationally than it is currently or
even impossible in certain commercial forest areas bordering these Class I
areas. This is particularly true of burning in the Cascades, which contain
12 separate Class I areas.
Any visibility limitation would be particularly severe for broadcast burn-
ing. While pile burning could, in some areas, be carried out when visibility
is naturally impaired during fog and/or rain, it is virtually impossible to
carry out broadcast burning during these times. Hence, the visibility goals
of the 1977 Amendments may be interpreted to restrict forestry burning more
than current Smoke Management Program restrictions.
ITF-FSU, Final Report, December 1977.
4
Personal communication, J. Dell, USDA FS, March 27, 1978.
-157-
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TABLE 31. CLASS I AREAS IN OREGON AND WASHINGTON*
Oregon
Washington
Crater Lake National Park
Diamond Peak Wilderness
Eagle Cap Wilderness
Gearhart Mountain Wilderness
Hell's Canyon Wilderness
Kalmiopris Wilderness
Mountain Lakes Wilderness
Mount Hood Wilderness
Mount Jefferson Wilderness
Mount Washington Wilderness
Strawberry Mountain Wilderness
Three Sisters Wilderness
A Ipine Lakes Wilderness
Glacier Peak Wilderness
Goat Rocks Wilderness
Mount Adams Wilderness
Mount Rainier National Park
North Cascades National Park
Olympic National Park
Pasayton Wilderness
* Federal Register, Vol. 43, No. 38. Friday, Feb. 24, 1978.
Reaction of forestry managers to the new visibility constraints could
take one of two forms: first, a cutback in forestry burning as a management
alternative in response to visibility restrictions (burning permitted only
when smoke vented away from both populated areas and Class I areas); or,
second, a lessening in the severity of population-oriented restrictions as
currently detailed in the Smoke Management Programs of Washington and Oregon.
In view of the potential impact that forestry burning may have on air quality
in populated areas, this second alternative may not be desirable at this
time. Furthermore, the first alternative may not be feasible in certain
cases, if silvicultural and hazard reduction objectives of forestry practice
are to be met. A careful analysis of the potential impact of the visibility
requirement on air quality and forest management should be undertaken before
visibility requirements are implemented. This analysis might start with an
evaluation of commercial forest lands affected due to proximity to Class I
areas and the degree of restriction on burning activity imposed by the visi-
bility requirement, given prevailing meteorological conditions and proximity
to populated areas. Without such an analysis it will be difficult to deter-
mine just how significant the impact of the new visibility requirement 'of
the Clean Air Act will be on forestry practices.
-158-
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The second area in which regulation could impact significantly on for-
estry burning is the potential for new fine particle air quality standards
by the US EPA. Current air quality standards are based on 24-hour and annual
geometric mean concentrations of particles less than 50 ym in .diameter. How-
ever, it has been recognized for some time that fine particles less than 1 pm
in diameter have a much more significant impact on the health than do larger
particles. Furthermore, there is considerable evidence that much of the par-
ticulate emission from forestry burning is in the fine particle range (see
Section 3). Hence, new standards for fine particles have the potential for
significant impact on forestry burning activity. Dichotomous sampling, which
records fine particle concentrations separately from large particles, and is
part of the Oregon DEQ's new field monitoring program, will help to determine
the contribution of forestry burning to fine particle concentrations. The
knowledge gained from the field monitoring program will help air quality plan-
ners and forestry managers in planning corrective action if new fine particle
legislation is passed.
IMPACT OF ALTERNATIVES TO BURNING
The future use of alternatives to forestry burning are limited by the
development of efficient techniques that are technically feasible in the
steeply sloped terrain of the Pacific Northwest. Alternative slash treat-
ments may become more feasible as more low grade woodfiber is harvested for
utilization. A trend towards greater utilization is apparent. The chang-
ing standard of the Simpson Lumber Company from an 11-inch minimum log
diameter in 1967 to a 4-inch minimum log diameter in 1977s is character-
istic of the changing utilization standards of the forest industries in the
Pacific Northwest. Closer utilization standards are thought to be partly
responsible for decreasing slash loads as shown previously in Figure 26.
The short- and long-term potential of harvesting slash for wood and
energy products was not apparent in the literature reviewed or during the
field interviews. However, this type of data may exist within the forest
industries showing when mill residues will no longer be available and forest
residues are likely to be increasingly utilized. Short-term demands for wood
residue material are expected to be almost entirely supplied by mill residue
as is presently the case (Table 32). The long-term demand for wood and energy
products is expected to continue to increase. However, the economic desira-
bility of harvesting slash materials may depend on the following factors:
• The availability of less expensive mill residues or
other raw materials
t The increasing value of residue wood products
Personal communication, M. Truax, Simpson Lumber Company, January 24, 1978.
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t More efficient slash handling and transportation systems
• The increased demand for residue wood products.
TABLE 32. SOURCES OF WOOD RESIDUE MATERIALS
USED FOR WOOD PRODUCTS IN THE PNW
Source
Slash (Roundwood)
Veneer core
Planer shavings
Plywood mill waste
Slabs, edgings, and trimmings
Sawdust
Chips
Other
Total mill residue
Particleboard*
(K)
0
< 0.5
74
9
4
10
2
< 0.5
100
<*f
15 §
2
8
< 1
< 1
7
61
6
85
Hog Fuel*
(*)
< 5
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
>95
* from Dickerhoof 1977
t from Austin 1973
£ estimate based on personal communications with USDA FS and industry personnel
§ mostly utility grade logs
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SECTION 7
REQUIREMENTS FOR IMPACT ASSESSMENT AND CONTROL
The major information gap encountered by GEOMET, Incorporated, in deter-
mining forestry burning impacts on air quality in Washington and Oregon, is
the lack of definitive ambient air monitoring data, emission factors and
dispersion studies. The lack of air monitoring data is obvious to all agencies
and personnel concerned with either air quality or forestry burning in the
Pacific Northwest. The major objective of the forestry smoke management plans
is to restrict burning activity which may result in smoke intrusions into popu-
lation centers. Smoke management is generally effective and intrusion of smoke
into heavily populated areas is rare. Economic restrictions have limited state
and local environmental agencies to deployment of air monitoring stations pri-
marily in sensitive areas having the largest populations. Smoke management
criteria for designation of "smoke-sensitive" areas are derived on a comparable
population basis and have similar population limits. As a result, smoke man-
agement strives to avoid smoke intrusion into areas designated "smoke-sensitive,"
which are the only areas having active air monitoring installations. Smoke intru-
sions do occasionally occur, mainly due to unpredicted meteorological variations.
Pollutant emissions from industrial point sources and transportation sources
contribute to the monitored pollutant levels. All emissions are affected by
the same meteorological variations, and smoke intrusions can not usually be
unequivocally documented. The current situation in the Pacific Northwest thus
precludes using air monitoring data for assessment of the impact of forestry
burning on air quality.
The Oregon Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ) has made a number of
attempts to monitor the impact of agricultural field burning in the Willamette
Valley and has established an air monitoring network for this purpose. Nor-
mally, the periods of agricultural and forestry burning are coincident and
separation of air quality impacts from the two is very difficult. However, in
late 1977, forestry burning was carried out for several months after agricul-
tural burning had ceased. The DEQ air monitoring network was kept operational
during this period and the data collected support a correlation between for-
estry burning and degradation of air quality. A more sophisticated DEQ air
monitoring network is scheduled for deployment in 1978. This network is
designed so that air quality impacts of forestry and agricultural burning
should be separable from each other, as well as from industrial emissions
from resident point sources.
The Willamette Valley is only one of many areas in the Pacific Northwest
whose air quality is potentially degraded by smoke from forestry burning.
However, no comprehensive effort to selectively monitor forestry burning
emissions has been made in any of the other areas and no data, beyond occa-
sional qualitative citizen complaints, exist for correlation between for-
restry burning and degradation of air quality.
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In order to arrive at meaningful conclusions regarding the current
impact of forestry burning on air quality in Washington and Oregon, it
will be necessary to conduct a comprehensive air quality survey to collect
data and provide a basis for definition of specific regions vulnerable to
such impact. The survey will need to be interfaced with a sophisticated
analytical data reduction system and structured in a manner to identify both
distant and proximal impacts from forestry burning activity. For example,
slash fires west of the Cascade range frequently emit smoke plumes which drift
eastward and may impair the air quality in population centers east of the
mountain range. The fires also emit significant quantitities of residual
smoke, which drifts from the fire site at ground level and may impair the
air quality in nearby population centers.
Air quality measurements should include more than high-volume samplers
for measurement of total particulate matter. Particle size measurements and
chemical analyses of collected particulate material should be carried out at
selected sites. The gaseous emissions from forestry burning may also impact
on air quality; therefore, some stations should include instrumentation for
measurement of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides. In view
of the probable photochemical reactivity of forest fire smoke, it would be
desirable to measure ozone and oxidants as well.
A comprehensive air quality survey, carried out immediately before,
during and after the forestry burning season, would provide the data base
necessary to assess the impact of current forestry burning practices on air
quality. However, such a survey would not contribute significantly toward
resolution of any problems identified. It would be preferable to undertake
a large-scale program, utilizing the combined resources of forestry and
environmental interests, both to identify and minimize forestry burning
impact on air quality.
ORGANIZATIONAL NEEDS
A highly organized, fully coordinated and comprehensive effort is
required to evaluate the impact of forestry burning on air quality in
Washington and Oregon. Individual agencies pursuing narrow and diverse
objectives could eventually generate sufficient information for partial
evaluation. Separate efforts by forest industries and the USDA FS to min-
imize emissions through improved burning practices could decrease impacts in
some areas. However, separate approaches would be time-consuming and costly.
A single broad-scope, fully coordinated program, designed specifically to
evaluate emission, dispersion, impact and economic studies and minimize
emissions impact would utilize time and resources more efficiently and be
more effective than multiple uncoordinated efforts. A diagram of an organi-
zational structure capable of carrying out a program of the necessary scope
is shown in Figure 28.
The total effort would be supervised by a steering committee drawn
from agencies contributing funds, manpower or equipment to the program.
-162-
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CTi
CO
Impaii
1
snt Air
lUty
ation
•ment
Impact
Studio
Material
and
Ecological
Damage
1
Heal
Effe<
Figure 28. Program structure.
-------
Direct management of the project would be by a professional group responsible
to the steering committee, preferably retained on a contract basis and not
affiliated with any of the contributing agencies. The management group would
create and be supported by a comprehensive data correlation and analysis
system, which would continuously acquire data from individual projects and
update the status of each to provide current information on individual and
collective progress.
RESEARCH NEEDS
The end objective of a comprehensive research program would be capa-
bility for prediction of air quality impacts of fires through use of
operation-oriented source strength and dispersion models. The functional
inputs and interrelation of the two models are indicated in Figure 29.
Detailed knowledge of fire behavior, for a burning technique suitable for
the fuel type, condition and loading in a given situation, allows accurate
prediction of source emission characteristics in terms of heat release rate,
total emissions and emission rate as a function of time. These three predic-
tions are the primary outputs of the source strength model. An important
detail of the emission rate is the ratio of convective column to residual
emissions. Transport and dispersion of the emissions are predicted by the
dispersion model, which interfaces input from the source strength model with
meteorological parameters to ultimately predict air quality impacts. Strate-
gically deployed air monitoring networks are required to develop parameter
values for the models and to evaluate their effectiveness in predicting air
quality impacts.
Source Strength Models
Development of reliable source strength models requires detailed knowl-
edge of fire behavior as a function of fuel and burning conditions. Fuel
types, loading, arrangement and burning conditions in Washington and Oregon
are diverse, and development of models to include most prevalent situations
is a major effort. The primary factors forming the basis for such models
involve fuel in a forest setting; forestry agencies must be heavily involved
in any efforts undertaken in the area of source strength model development.
Forestry agencies, notably the Southern Forest Fire Laboratory of the U.S.
Forest Service, are actively engaged in research oriented toward development
of source strength models. The accumulated experience and technology can be
applied to model development for the Pacific Northwest. Studies in the
areas of (1) emission factors and (2) fuel and fire parameters are required
to provide the data base necessry for model development.
Emission Factors--
Emission factors are major determinants of source strength. Since
they are highly fire- and fuel-dependent, they must be separately derived
for the various fuel conditions and burning techniques of the Pacific
Northwest. Derivation of emission factors requires a combination of lab-
oratory studies and field measurements. Laboratory studies are carried
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Meteorology
Fuel
en
i
Burning
Technique
Source
Strength
Model
Emission
Characteristics
Transport and
Dispersion
Characteristics
Dispersion
Model
Monitoring
Network
Air Quality
Impact
Figure 29. Impact assessment.
-------
out relatively easily and provide information useful in identification of
fuel and fire variables that govern emission production. However, measure-
ments of emissions from selected field fires must also be made to derive
scaling factors for extrapolation of laboratory observations to field situ-
ations. A communication from John M. Pierovich, manager of the emissions
research program at the Southern Forest Fire Laboratory, U.S. Forest Service,
outlines the type of program and level of effort necessary for derivation
of field emission factors:
"Work in field sampling methods at the Southern Forest Fire
Laboratory is currently focused on two key procedures. One
procedural investigation is in the use of an array of instru-
ments suspended by a tethered balloon in order to better pro-
file smoke plume emissions concentrations near the fire. In
this procedure, data from particulate matter and gas samples
collected at different heights are related to coincident pro-
filed air flow and temperature data, as well as to the amount
of fuel consumed and fire behavior during the sampling period.
The other procedure being studied will utilize laboratory and
field-derived combustion/emissions relationships for simpli-
fied emission rate determinations using aircraft sampling.
These rate relationships are to be used in a specified
sampling protocol."
It is evident from the communication that derivation of field emission fac-
tors for forest fires is not an easy task. The high-intensity slash fires
in complex terrain, typical of much of the burning in the Pacific Northwest,
complicate the scaling of laboratory factors to field situations and increase
the difficulty of making field measurements.
Fuel and Fire Parameters—
Fire behavior has a pronounced effect on emission factors, heat release
rate and emission rate and is primarily determined by fuel type, loading,
condition and arrangement. The reliability and predictive value of a source
strength model are ultimately determined by the accuracy of the available fuel
estimate and the reliability of the fire behavior prediction. The fuel and
fire inputs to a source strength model largely determine the output. However,
available fuel estimates and fire behavior predictions are operator-dependent,
relying heavily on the training and skill of field personnel. The human judg-
ment required cannot possibly be standardized, and significant variations
between individuals and between judgments made at different times can be
expected. A major focal point of the source strength study effort must be
the development of standardized procedures and guidelines for estimating
available fuel and predicting fire behavior. Improvements in the reliability
and consistency of the estimates and predictions are directly reflected in
the output of the model.
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Dispersion Modeling
One of the most promising avenues for future studies of smoke impact
is the use of regional-scale transport and dispersion models. Pollutant
concentrations can be estimated for many locations by the use of such a
model, provided detailed emission estimates are available. Some models
are capable of yielding the contribution of each source to the total pol-
lutant concentration computed for a particular location. In this manner
the relative importance of slash burning in contributing to pollution
problems can be assessed. Two such models are presently being validated
against measured pollution concentrations in the Willamette Valley. How-
ever, improvements may have to be made to existing models as more knowledge
is gained concerning air flow in complex terrain, the variations of mixing
heights over mountainous terrain, and plume rise characteristics.
Additional monitoring and smoke plume studies need to be conducted
before photochemical models are applied to regions surrounding forest
burning activity. To date there is still too much uncertainty, concerning
the hydrocarbon composition in smoke plumes and the chemical reactions by
which photochemical oxidants form downwind of forest fires, to adequately
model these effects.
An additional area for future research is the impact of longer-range
transport of pollutants from slash fires. Air pollution control officials
from eastern Washington (Jenne 1975) have attributed high TSP concentra-
tions in the Pasco, Richland and Walla Walla areas in September and October,
1974, to slash burning in western Washington. Air trajectory models are
necessary for tracing the long-range travel of smoke plumes. Trajectories
are usually determined from wind observations at a number of locations
throughout the area of interest. Although several regional scale,
trajectory-directed dispersion models exist (e.g., Draxler 1977, Fabrick
et al. 1977, Fosberg 1976, Liu 1974, Pandolfo et al. 1976), these need
to be engineered and tested with regional data for practical application
to evaluating the dispersion of forest burning emissions in the Pacific
Northwest. An important process affecting the range dispersion of TSP
is the removal of smoke particles from the atmosphere by precipitation
processes. The important west-to-east differences in the precipitation
process across the states of Washington and Oregon need to be taken into
account. Although some models are available to treat the precipitation
process and dry deposition (e.g., Dana et al. 1976), these need to be
refined for application to this region.
Air Quality Monitoring
Little work has been done to directly assess the impact of slash burn-
ing on smoke-sensitive areas in the Pacific Northwest with the exception of
the statistical and filter studies in the Eugene-Springfield area sponsored
-167-
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by EPA Region X and a recent monitoring study by the Oregon Department of
Environmental Quality in the Willamette Valley. The use of hi-vol filters
to determine the air quality impact of slash burning can be made more con-
clusive if a unique tracer element or compound for slash burning can be found.
In the meantime, filters can be microscopically analyzed to determine the
fraction of total particulate attributable to slash burning based on physical
characteristics of the particles. If filter analyses are performed, both
optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy should be used to assure
that the contribution of small particles to TSP mass is considered.
The methodology of assessing impacts on smoke-sensitive areas must be
upgraded as evidenced by the discrepancies between the Oregon Department of
Forestry and Department of Environmental Quality estimates of smoke intru-
sions into the Eugene-Springfield area. During the period from June 1975
through September 1977, the Department of Environmental Quality reported
92 days of smoke intrusions using only ambient TSP monitoring data. For the
same period, the Department of Forestry reported only 21 days of smoke intru-
sions based on daytime visual observations. The attribution of these smoke
intrusions should be related to burning data on a statistical basis.
Airborne monitoring instruments should be used to further investigate
smoke plume structure and composition. Measurements of ozone and the pre-
cursors to photochemical oxidant formation (NO, NOp, and hydrocarbons)
are necessary in determining the nature of the chemical reactions and the
extent of the ground-level impact of the oxidants downwind.
HEALTH EFFECTS STUDIES
Forest burning emissions of most interest in terms of potential health
impact are CO, N0?, respirable particulate matter, and halogenated vaporous
compounds. Under the appropriate conditions, there appears to be the poten-
tial for oxidant formation distant from the burning site. Of these pollutants,
particulate matter may be the most prominent consideration since some 80 percent
of the forest burning particulate emissions are in the range of 0.1 to 1.0 ym
in diameter. Particulate matter of this size could remain suspended for long
periods of time and be carried considerable distance from the site of origin.
These particles tend to be retained deeply in pulmonary passages with the
potential of adversely affecting tissue due to particle composition and
compounds adsorbed on their surface.
Particulate matter from combustion of carbonaceous material has long
been considered a factor in the etiology of respiratory tract neoplasms and
in chronic obstructive lung disease (COLD), although exposure-response rela-
tionships are not well documented. The major difficulty at this time in
assessing the extent to which forest burning may impact health is the paucity
of information on population exposure.
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A carefully planned epidemiclogical study will be needed if the impact
of forestry burning on health is to be fully assessed. Epidemiological stud-
ies are normally undertaken to identify causal factors in populations which
experience abnormally high rates of diseases or combinations of diseases. A
good example of such a study is the Montana Air Pollution Study (MAPS). MAPS
has undertaken to determine contributions of air pollution sources to high
rates of Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease in Montana. State officials observed
that Montana had a considerably higher rate (22.4 deaths per hundred thousand)
of deaths1 due to asthma, emphysema and bronchitis than did the Nation as a
whole (16.6 deaths per hundred thousand). Furthermore, the western, mountain-
ous portion of the state experienced much higher mortality rates due to these
diseases (27.1 deaths per hundred thousand) than did the remainder of the state
(17.8 deaths per hundred thousand). MAPS is assessing the impact of forestry
burning2 on observed disease and mortality rates within Montana. The study
will also evaluate the role of other factors such as elevation and socioeco-
nomic variables on disease rates.
Mortality rates3 for asthma, emphysema, and bronchitis are also high in
several other northwestern states including Oregon (18.5 deaths per hundred
thousand) and Washington (17.2 deaths per hundred thousand). A well-designed
epidemiological study would help to determine the contribution of forestry
burning, if any, to observed disease rates. The results of the Montana study,
now in its early stages, should be weighed before undertaking a comparable
study in Washington and Oregon.
RESEARCH IN PROGRESS
Numerous research studies pertaining to forestry burning techniques,
alternatives, emissions and impacts on air quality are presently in prog-
ress. The following descriptors identify the organizations involved
and briefly summarize ongoing research projects:
Southern Forest Fire Laboratory, U.S. Forest Service, Macon, Georgia.
Comprehensive program including: Field sampling methods; Combus-
tion/emissions relationships; Emission rate determinations;
Emisions characterization; Smoke transport and dispersion;
Smoke management.
J.M. Pierovich, Program Manager, (912) 746-1477.
All ages, deaths occurring from 1969 through 1973. Data supplied by Dennis Haddow, Department of
Health and Environmental Sciences, State of Montana, July 31, 1978.
2
The major source of particulate emissions in western Montana is forestry burning.
Deaths for all ages during 1973. Comparable national figure is 14. 2. Data supplied by Dennis Haddow,
Montana Department of Health and Environmental Sciences, July 31, 1978.
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University of Washington, School of Forestry, Seattle, Washington.
Nutrient volatilization on burning forest floor materials;
Statistical properties of the line intersect fuel estimation
method; Duration of flaming phase for large forest fuels.
S.G. Pickford, Senior Investigator, (206) 543-6210.
University of Washington, Department of Environmental Health; Seattle,
Washington.
In vivo studies of toxic products from burning wood.
R. Schumacher, Coordinator.
Analytical techniques for measurement of combustion emissions.
I.E. Monteith, Principal Investigator, (206) 543-4252.
Department of Environmental Quality, Air Quality Control Division;
Portland, Oregon.
Field and slash burning particulate characterization.
J.E. Core, Project Manager, (503) 229-6458.
Willamette Valley field and slash burning impact, air quality
surveillance program.
F. Terraglio, Program Manager.
Oregon State University, Air Resources Center; Corvallis, Oregon.
Air quality model applied to field and slash burning in Oregon's
Willamette Valley.
C.D. Craig, Principal Investigator, (503) 425-4955.
Washington State University, Air Pollution Research Station;
Pullman, Washington.
Photochemical oxidant production and transport in forest fire
smoke plumes over the Washington Cascades; Laboratory studies
of hydrocarbon emissions from burning forest fuels.
H.H. Westberg, Principal Investigator (509) 335-1526.
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Oregon State University, Department of Mechanical Engineering;
Corvallis, Oregon.
Energy production from renewable resources.
R.W. Baubel, Principal Investigator, (503) 754-4902.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Corvallis, Oregon.
Economic impact of air pollution on cost of timber production, crop
production and household cleaning.
J. Jaksch, Program Manager, (503) 757-4714.
P.T. Tingey, Principal Investigator, (503) 757-4621.ission from plants.
University of Florida, Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering;
Gainsville, Florida.
Photochemical reactions of smoke from burning pine needles and
organic soil.
W.H. Benner, Principal Investigator.
Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, U.S. Forest Service;
Fort Collins, Colorado.
Smoke dispersion studies applicable to complex terrain; Smoke
management research.
M.S. Fosberg, Program Manager, (303) 221-4390.
Fuels management research.
S. Hirsch, Program Manager, (303) 221-4390.
Ministry of the Environment and Ministry of Forestry, Province of British
Columbia, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada.
Air quality impact of slash burning.
K.A. Keshvani and P.A. Bell, Principal Investigators, (604) 387-5321.
Ministry of Forestry, Province of British Columbia, Victoria, British
Columbia, Canada.
Smoke management research; Methods for estimating fuel loading.
U.E. Gilbert, Principal Investigator (604) 387-5965.
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Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, U.S. Forest
Service; Portland, Oregon.
Environmental effects of prescribed understoryburnings.
E.H. Clarke, Program Manager, (503) 234-3361, Ext. 4811.
Planning for prescribed burning in the Inland Northwest.
R.E. Martin and J.D. Dell, Principal Investigators (503) 221-2931.
Statewide Air Pollution Research Center, University of California;
Riverside, California.
Impact of burning agricultural and forestry residues on air
quality.
E.F. Darley, Principal Investigator.
Forest Products Laboratory, U.S. Forest Service, Madison, Wisconsin.
Research on saccharification of wood and conversion to energy
chemicals and petrochemical substitutes; Improving combustion
of wood, including processing methods such as charcoal manu-
facture, pyrolysis and briquetting.
J.I. Zerbe, Program Manager, (608) 257-2211.
United States Department of Energy, Richland, Washington.
Coordination of regional and national energy research. Studies
include wood residue conversion to petrolium and gas products.
R.J. Durham, Special Projects Officer, (509) 942-6553.
United States Congress, Washington, D.C.
House of Representatives Bill 13324 introduced June 28, 1978 to
establish pilot projects for testing and demonstrating practical
application of existing technology for the utilization of wood
residues from timber harvesting, forest protection and management,
and the manufacture of wood products. (In committee.)
Congressman James Weaver of Oregon, sponsor.
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Appendix A
TREE SPECIES
Balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera)
Bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum)
Black cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa)
Boxelder (Acer negundo)
Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)
Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii)
Goldern chinkapin (Castonopsis chrysophylla)
Grand fir (Abies grandis)
Incense-cedar (Libocedrus decurrens)
Jeffery pine (Pinus jeffreyi)
Knobcone pine (Pinus attenuate)
Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta)
Mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana)
Noble fir (Abies procera)
Oregon ash (Fraxinus latifolia)
Oregon white oak (Quercus garryana)
Pacific dogwood (Cornus nuttallii)
Pacific madrone (Arbutus menziesii)
Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis)
Paper birch (Betula papyrifera)
Quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides)
Red alder (Alnus rubra)
Red fir (Abies magnifica)
Redwood (Sequoia semperivirens)
Shasta red fir (Abies magnifica var. shastensis)
Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis)
Sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana)
Subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa)
Subalpine larch (Larix lyallii)
Tanoak (Lithocarpus densiflorus)
Western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla)
Western larch (Larix occidental is)
Western red cedar (Thuja plicata)
Western white pine (Pinus monticola)
White alder (Alnus rhombifolia)
White fir (Abies concolor)
Whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis)
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APPENDIX B
Phase II - Economic Approach
Study Plan
Step 1. Organize a committee after the completion of Phase I.
2. Identify specific alternatives to slash burning.
3. Identify specific alternatives of slash burning.
4. Identify needed data concerning costs of 2 and 3 above.
5. Identify needed data concerning short-run and long-run benefits.
6. Make decisions on what non-valued benefits and costs that are present.
7. Identify sources of secondary data and investigate whether or not the
specific data needed is present.
8. If data is not available, begin collection of primary data.
9. After all data has been collected, perform analysis and present rank-
ings of alternatives.
Sample Study
Slash Burning Alternatives
Broadcast Burn
a. head-fire
b. backing-fire
Pile and Burn
a. Pum
b. Yum
Costs needed for each method:
Materials
a. Ignition materials
b. Labor costs
c. Equipment costs
d. Transportation into and out of the area
Non-valued Costs
a. Air quality premium
b. Visual premium
(Note: if these premiums are set to remain constant over all
the methods then no problem will exist. The problem that arises
be in determining the difference in premiums as you proceed
from broadcast burning to pile-burning. I would suggest that factors
be used as multipliers to either increase or decrease the
premium among methods.
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Benefits needed for each method: (Project Benefits)
Short run:
a. Amount of decrease in planting costs.
Long run:
a. Increase or decrease in available volumes in the future as
a result of burning.
Indirect benefits
a. Improved site quality
b. Reduction of fire hazard
Alternatives to Slash Burning
No treatment
Bury
Haul Away (manufacturing or energy)
Pile (PUM or YUM)
Costs needed for each method:
Materials:
a. Equipment costs
b. Labor
c. Transportation
d. Increase in planting costs
e. Possible loss of long-term yield
Project Benefits:
a. Return per unit if manufactured or used to create energy.
Indirect Benefits:
a. Air quality premium
b. Visual quality premium
When all the data for each specific alternative has been assembled, a
formula to obtain a benefit cost/ratio may be employed. Possible
rankings may be:
No treatment 1.05
Headfire 1.04
Backing fire 1.03
Pile and burn 1.02
Utilize for energy 0.75
Utilize for wood products 0.60
Bury 0.50
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APPENDIX C
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INFORMATION SEARCH
The citations contained in this bibliography were identified by field
experts and from the data bases shown below.
Computer Information Systems
PACFORNET COMPENDEX
AGRICOLA CHEMLON
APTIC FIRE BASE
NTIS TOXLINE
ENVIROLINE ORBIT
Abstract Indexes
Forestry Abstracts 1971-1977
Hard copies were obtained from field experts or through the facilities
shown below.
Publication Services
PACFORNET Seattle, WA
NTIS Springfield, VA
USDA-FS Forest and Range Experiment Stations
Pacific Northwest, Portland, OR
Pacific Southwest, Berkeley, CA
Southeast, Asheville, NC
Intermountain, Ogden, LIT
Rocky Mountain, Ft. Collins, CO
Libraries
Library of Congress, Washington, U.C.
McKeldin Library, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland
National Agricultural Library, Beltsville, Maryland
National Bureau of Standards Library, Gaithersburg, Maryland
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Library,
Washington, U.C.
U.S. Department of Agriculture Library, Washington, D.C.
U.S. Department of Interior Library, Washington, D.C.
176-
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Adams, Donald F., Robert K. Koppe and Elmer Robinson. 1976. "Air and
Surface Measurements of Constituents of Prescribed Forest Slash Smoke."
In Air Quality and Smoke from Urban and Forest Fires Inter. Symp.
National Academy of Sciences.p. 105.
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A Potential
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Wagener, W.W. and H.R. Offord. 1972. Logging Slash: Its Breakdown and
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-235-
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Inches in Diameter." Fire Management Notes 37(3):8-9, 12.
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-238-
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-239-
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Zerbe, J. 1972. Particleboard from Residues. Close Timber Utilization
Committee Report. USDA Forest Service, pp. 50-54a.
-240-
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APPENDIX D
Listing of Field Experts Contacted
for This Report
Key:
1 - Fire and fuels management
2 - Forestry burning emissions and impacts on air quality
3 - Burning techniques
4 - Alternatives to burning
E - Economics
h - Management
k - Research
-241-
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Adams, Thomas C.
Principal Economist, Forest Residue Program
USDA-FS PNWF & RES
809 NE 6th Ave. (P.O. Box 3141)
Portland, OR 97208
(503) 234-3361 [1-E, 4-E]
Baker, Glenn E.
Fire Management Officer
USDA-FS Willamette National Forest
211 E. 7th Ave.
Eugene, OR 97401
(503) 425-6533 [1-M, 3-M, 4-M]
Baker, Junius (Joe) 0.
Fire Management Specialist
USDA-FS, Aviation and Fire Management
P.O. Box 2417
Washington, D.C. 20013
(703) 235-8666 [1-M, 1-R]
Bjorklund, Norm E.
Vice President
Industrial Forestry Association
1220 S.W. Columbia St.
Portland, OR 97201
(503) 222-9505 [1-M, 1-E, 3-E, 4-E]
Bray, David C.
Air Prog. Branch
USEPA
Region X, MS-625
1200 6th Ave.
Seattle, WA 98101
(206) 442-1125 [2-M, 2-R]
Brunn, Russell
Meteorologist
Oregon State Department of Forestry
2600 State St.
Salem, OR 97310
(503) 378-2506 [2-M, 4-R]
Campbell, R.A.
Ministry of Forestry
Province of British Columbia
Victoria, B.C.
(604) 387-5965 [1-M]
-242-
-------
Chandler, Craig C.
Director
USDA-FS, Forest Fire and Atmospheric
Science Research
P.O. Box 2417
Washington, D.C. 20013
(703) 235-8195 [1-R, 2-R, 3-R, 4-R]
Clarke, Edward H.
Program Manager
Forest Residues Program
USDA-FS PNWF & RES
809 NE 6th Ave. (P.O. Box 3141)
Portland, OR 97208
(503) 234-3361 [1-E, 1-M]
Cleary, Brian D.
Extension Forester
Oregon State University
Forest Research Laboratory
Corvallis, OR 97331
(503) 753-9166 [1-M]
Core, John E.
Department of Environmental Quality
State of Oregon
P.O. Box 1760
Portland, OR 97207
(503) 229-6458 [2-M, 2-R]
Corlett, James B.
Manager, Oregon Forest Protection Association
1326 American Bank Bldg.
Portland, OR 97205
(503) 226-462 [1-M]
Cornelius, Royce 0.
Director of Forest Resource Relations
Weyerhaeuser Company
Tacoma, WA 98401
(206) 924-2326 [1-M, 3-M, 4-M]
Craig, Charles D.
Air Resources Center
Oregon State University
Corvallis, OR 97331
(503) 754-4955 [2-R]
-243-
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Currier, Raymond A.
Associate Professor
Forest Reseach Laboratory
Oregon State University
Corvallis, OR 97331
(503) 753-9166 [4-R]
Debell, Dean S.
USDA-FS PNWF & RES
Rt. 4, Box 500
Olympia, WA 98502
(206) 434-9470 [2-R]
Dell, John D.
Fuels Management Specialist
USDA-FS, PNW
319 Pine St.
Portland, OR 97208
(503) 221-2931 [1-M, 2-M, 3-M, 4-M]
Denison, Janes M.
Division-Forester
Publishers' Paper Times Mirror
P.O. Box 370
Toledo, OR 97391
(503) 336-2203 [1-M, 3-M, 1-E, 3-E]
Durham, Richard L.
Special Projects Officer
U.S. Department of Energy
P.O. Box 550
Richland, WA 99352
(509) 942-6553
Ellis, Thomas H.
Economist
FDA-FS, Forest Products Laboratory
P.O. Box 5130
Madison, WI 53705
(608) 257-2211 [4-E]
Feddern, Edward T.
Division Forester
Publishers Paper Times Mirror
P.O. Box 471
Tillamook, OR 97141
(503) 842-5551 [1-M, 3-M, 1-E, 3-E]
-244-
-------
Fosberg, Michael A.
USDA-FS RMF & RES
240 W. Prospect St.
Ft. Collins, CO 80521
(303) 221-4390 [2-R]
Fox, Douglas G.
USDA-FS RMF & RES
240 W. Prospect St.
Ft. Collins, CO 80521
(303) 221-4390 [1-R, 2-R]
Freeburn, Scott
State of Oregon
Department of Environmental Quality
16 Oak Way Mall
Eugene, OR 97401
(503) 686-7601 [2-M, 2-R]
French, Richard E. (Dick)
Prevention and Protection
USDI - BIA
1425 NE Irving (P.O. Box 3785)
Portland, OR 97208
(503) 234-3361, Ext. 4740 [1-M, 3-M, 4-M]
Fritschen, Leo
School of Forestry
University of Washington
Seattle, WA 98195
(206) 543-6210 [1-R, 2-R]
Graf, Fred
District Forester
State of Oregon Department of Forestry
Star Route 2, Box 1-B
Philomath, OR 97370
(503) 929-3266 [1-M, 3-M, 4-M]
Hall, Frederick C.
Plant Ecologist
USDA-FS, PNW
319 SW Pine St.
Portland, OR 97208
(503) 221-3817 [1-M, 3-M]
Haddow, Dennis
Air Quality Bureau
Department of Environmental Health and Science
State of Montana
Helena, Montana 59601
-245-
-------
Hartman, Harold E.
Environmental Specialist
Industrial Forestry Association
1220 SW Columbia St.
Portland, OR 97201
(503) 222-9505 [1-M, 3-M, 4-M]
Hedin, Albert T.
Forester
Washington State Department of Natural Resources
General Administration Building
Olympia, WA 98504
(206) 753-5350 [1-M, 2-M, 3-M]
Hickerson, Carl W.
Director, Fire Management
USDA-FS PNW
319 Pine St.
Portland, OR 97208
(503) 221-2931 [1-M, 3-M]
Hooven, Edward F.
Associate Professor, Wildlife Ecology
Forest Research Laboratory
Oregon State University
Corvallis, OR 97331
Hough, Walter A.
Staff Fire Scientist
USDA-FS, Forest Fire and Atmospheric
Science Research
P.O. Box 2417, Washington, D.C. 20013
Washington, D.C. 20013
(703) 235-8195 [1-R, 2-R]
James, Donald H.
Supervisor
USDA-FS Siuslaw National Forest
P.O. Box 1148
Corvallis, OR 97330
(503) 757-4493 [1-M, 3-M]
Johansen, Ragnar (Bill) W.
Principal Research Forester
USDA-FS, Southern Forest Fire Laboratory
Southeastern Forest Experiment Station
P.O. Box 5106
Macon, GA 31208
(912) 746-1477 [1-R, 2-R]
-246-
-------
Keesee, Robert H.
Senior Economist
Georgia-Pacific Corporation
900 SW Pine St.
Portland, OR 97204
(503) 222-5561 [1-E, 3-E, 4-E]
Krauss, Paul E.
Deputy Supervisor
Washington State Department of Natural
Resources
General Administration Building
Olympia, WA 98504
(206) 753-1935 [1-M, 3-M]
Kunz, Ralph H.
Fire Prevention and Fuel Management
USDA-FS PNW
319 Pine St.
Portland, OR 97208
(503) 221-2931 [1-M, 3-M]
Lamb, Robert C.
Formerly Regional Meteorologist
USDA-FS PNW
Contact: Deeming, J.E.
Regional Meteorologist
USDA-FS PNW
319 SW Pine Street
Portland, OR 97208
(503) 221-2931 [2-M, 2-R]
Lawrence, William
Research Coordinator
Weyerhaeuser Corporation
Centralia, WA
(206) 736-8241 [1-R, 4-R]
Lingler, Gene E.
District Silviculturalist
USDA-FS Siuslaw National Forest
Alsea, OR
(503) 487-5811 [1-M, 3-M]
Martin, Robert E.
Project Leader
USDA-FS PNW Bend Silviculture Lab
1027 NW Trenton Ave.
Bend, OR 97701
(503) 422-6283 [1-M, 1-R]
-247-
-------
Matthews, Robert P.
Director - Forest Management
Washington Forest Protection Association
1411 4th Ave. Bldg.
Suite 1220
Seattle, WA 98101
(206) 623-1500 [1-M, 3-M, 4-M]
Maxwell, Wayne G.
Forest Residues Research
USDA-FS PNWF & RES
809 NE 6th Ave. (P.O. Box 3141)
Portland, OR 97208
(503) 234-3361 [1-R, 2-R, 3-R]
McCleese, William L.
Supervisor
USDA-FS, Ochoco National Forest
Prineville, OR 97754
(503) 447-6247 [1-M, 3-M, 4-M]
Mclaughlin, William D.
Supervisor
USDA-FS Okanogan National Forest
219 2nd Ave./S.
Okanogan, WA 98840
(509) 422-2704 [1-M]
McMahon, Charles K.
Principal Research Chemist
USDA-FS, Southern Forest Fire Laboratory
Southeastern Forest Experiment Station
P.O. Box 5106
Macon, GA 31208
(912) 746-9436
Mick, Allen H.
Senior Environmental Engineer
Georoia-Pacific Corporation
900 SW 5th Ave.
Portland, OR 97204
(503) 222-5561 [1-M, 2-R]
-248-
-------
Monteith, Lee E.
Senior Chemist
Department of Environmental Health
University of Washington
Seattle, WA 98195
(206) 543-4252 [2-R, 4-R]
Mote, David
Manager Land and Timer Resources Group
International Paper Company
121 SW Salmon
Portland, OR 97204
(503) 243-3259 [1-M, 3-M, 4-M]
Murphy. James L.
Wildfire Prevention
USDA-FS PSWF & RES
1960 Addison
Berkeley, CA 94701
(415) 449-3482 [1-M, 2-R]
Mutch, Robert
Fire Management Specialist
USDA-FS Lolo National Forest
Missoula, MT 59801
(406) 585-3011 [1-M, 1-R]
Newton, Michael
Associate Professor
School of Forestry
Oregon State University
Corvallis, OR 97331
(503) 753-9166 [1-M, 4-R]
Paulson, Neil R.
Air Quality Management Officer
USDA-FS, Aviation and Fire Management
P.O. Box 2417
Washington, D.C. 20013
(703) 235-8666 [2-M, 2-R]
Pickford, Stewart G.
Assistant Professor
College of Forest Resources AR-10
University of Washington
Seattle, WA 98195
(206) 543-6210 [1-R, 2-R]
-249-
-------
Pierovich, John M.
Program Manager
USDA-FS, Southern Forest Fire Laboratory
Southeastern Forest Experiment Station
P.O. Box 5106
Macon, GA 31208
(912) 746-1477 [2-R, 3-R]
Rey, Mark E.
Environmental Forester
National Forest Products Association
1619 Massachusetts Ave., NW
Washington, D.C. 20036
(202) 797-5869 [1-M, 3-M, 1-E, 3-E]
Roberts, Charles F-
Principal Research Meteorologist
USDA-FS, Aviation and Fire Management
P.O. Box 2417
Washington, D.C. 20013
(703) 235-8666 [2-R]
Robertson, John R.
Data Management Leader
USDA-FS PNW
319 SW Pine St.
Portland, OR 97208 [1-M]
Rosene, John
Olympic Air Pollution Control Authority
120 East State Ave.
Olympia, WA 98501
(206) 352-4881 [2-M, 2-R]
Ryan, Paul W.
Principal Research Forester
USDA-FS, Southern Forest Fire Laboratory
Southeastern Forest Experiment Station
P.O. Box 5106
Macon, GA 31208
(912) 746-9436 [1-R, 2-R]
Sandberg, David V.
Forest Residues Program
USDA-FS PNWF & RES
4507 University Way, NE
Seattle, WA 98105
(206) 442-7815 [1-R, 2-R]
-250-
-------
Shenk, William D.
Cooperative Fire Management
USDA-FS, PNW
319 SW Pine St.
Portland, OR 97208
(503) 221-2727 [1-M]
Shrader, Paul H.
Deputy Director
Northwest Energy Policy Project
1096 Lloyd Bldg.
700 N.E. Multnomah St.
Portland, OR 97232
(503) 234-9666 [4-R]
Stenkamp, Paul R.
USDA-FS, Gifford Pinchot National Forest
500 W. 12th St.
Vancouver, WA 98660
(206) 696-4041 [1-M, 3-M, 1-E, 3-E]
Strand, Robert
Research Forester
Central Division Research
Crown Zellerbach Corporation
Wilsonville, OR
(503) 682-2141 [1-R, 4-R]
Teitel, Jeff
Environmental Counsel on Air Quality
National Forest Products Association
1619 Massachusetts Ave., NW
Washington, D.C. 20036
(202) 797-5868 [2-M, 2-R]
Todd, John E.
Director of Timber Management
USDA-FS PNW
319 SW Pine St.
Portland, OR 97208
(503) 221-2955 [1-M]
Tokarczyk, Robert D.
Forest Supervisor
USDA-FS, Gifford Pinchot National Forest
500 W. 12th St.
Vancouver, WA 98660
(206) 696-4041 [1-M, 3-M, 1-E, 3-E]
-251-
-------
Torrence, James F.
Deputy Regional Forester
USDA-FS PNW
319 SW Pine St.
Portland, OR 97208
(503) 221-3627 [1-M]
Truax, Michael R.
Resource Planning Analyst
Simpson Timber Company
900 Fourth Ave.
Seattle, WA 98164
(206) 292-5217 [1-M, 3-M, 4-M]
VanSickle, Charles C.
Forest Survey
USDA-FS, PNW F & RES
809 NE 6th Ave
Portland, OR 97208
(503) 429-3361, Ext. 4935 [1-M, 1-E]
Ward, Darold E.
School of Forestry
University of Washington
Seattle, WA 98195
(206) 543-6210 [1-R.2-R]
Ward, Frank R.
Forest Residues Research
USDA-FS PNWF & RES
809 NE 6th Ave. (P.O. Box 3141)
Portland, OR 97208
(503) 234-3361 [1-R, 2-R, 3-R]
Weaver, Darrell F.
Meteorologist, Air Programs
State of Washington Department of Ecology
Olympia, WA 98504
(206) 753-2800 [2-M, 2-R]
Wells, Stuart N. Jr.
Operations Director
Forest Protection Division
State of Oregon Department of Forestry
2600 State Street
Salem, OR 97310
(503) 378-2506 [1-M, 2-M]
-252-
-------
Williams, Dansy (Dan) T.
Principal Research Meteorologist
USDA-FS, Southern Forest Fire Laboratory
Southeastern Forest Experiment Station
P.O. Box 5106
Macon, GA 31208
(912) 746-5191 [1-R, 2-R]
Zerbe, John I.
Program Manager
USDA-FS Forest Products Laboratory
P.O. Box 5130
Madison, WI 53705
(608) 257-2211 [4-R]
-253-
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
•(Please read Inuructions on the reverse before completing/
1. REPORT NO.
EPA 910/9-78-052
2.
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION"NO.
L TITLE AND SUBTITLE
IMPACT OF FORESTRY BURNING UPON AIR QUALITY
A State-of-the-Know ledge Characterization in Washington and Oregon
5. REPORT DATE
October 1978
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
Jonathan D. Cook, James H. Himel, and Rudolph H. Moyer
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
GEOMET Report Number EF-664
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
GEOMET, Incorporated
15 Firstfield Road
Gaithersburg, MD 20760
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
Contract Number 68-01-4144
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region X
1200 Sixth Avenue
Seattle, Washington 98101
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final—8/15/77-8/15/78
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
This document presents a state-of-the-knowledge characterization of the air quality impact of prescribed forestry burn-
ing in the Pacific Northwest.
Prescribed forestry burning has been shown to be a useful management tool in the Pacific Northwest. Techniques for
burning are well developed. Much is known about fire behavior under controlled burning conditions; less is known about
emissions.
Emissions from prescribed forestry burning in this region cannot be accurately estimated from data presently available.
The emission factors reported in the literature vary widely, therefore, this report presents ranges of estimated emissions which
may reflect the magnitude of forestry burning emissions.
The impact of these emissions cannot be accurately assessed using available dispersion models or air quality monitoring
networks. Potential impacts of concern include human health and visibility impairment. The total particulate, hydrocarbon
and carbon monoxide emissions from forestry burning are significant and may contribute to exceedance of air quality standards
in Washington and Oregon. Some research has been directed toward evaluation of the impact of forestry burning on ambient
air quality, particularly in the Willamette Valley, but a consensus of findings does not exist at this time. However, some
individual studies have indicated a clear impact.
The impact o' prescribed burning can be reduced. Smoke management programs are largely successful in preventing
observable smoke intrusions into populated areas; however, the potential for air quality degradation from residual smoke still
exists. Alternative burning techniques and alternatives to burning are available. Alternative burning techniques include the
use of optimal burn periods, optimal standard techniques and new burning technology. The alternatives to forestry burning
include the use of mechanical or chemical treatments, improved harvesting systems, slash utilization and no treatment./ >
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS C. COSATI Field/Group
Air Quality Impact
Forestry Burning
Slash Burning
Prescribed Burning
Open Burning
Emissions
Alternatives
Wood Residues
Smoke Management
Utilization
8. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release to the Public
19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)
UNCLASSIFIED
21. NO. OF PAGES
270
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
UNCLASSIFIED
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
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16. ABSTRACT (Continued)
Future legislation and the implementation of legislative mandates of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977 may have
significant implications. Visibility standards in EPA Class I areas and fine particle legislation by EPA and Congress could
impose stricter regulations on forestry burning in the Pacific Northwest.
This report was submitted in fulfillment of Task Order 4 of Contract Number 68-01-4144 by GEOMET, Incorporated
under the sponsorship of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
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