United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Region 10
1200 Sixth Avenue
Seattle WA 98101
October 1978
Impact of
Forestry Burning
Upon Air Quality

A State-of-the-Knowledge
Characterization in
Washington and Oregon

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                                     EPA 910/9-78-052

                                     October 1978
    IMPACT OF FORESTRY BURNING UPON
              AIR QUALITY

A State-of-the-Knowledge Characterization
       in Washington and Oregon
              FINAL REPORT
          GEOMET, Incorporated
      Gaithersburg, Maryland  20760
      EPA Contract Number b&-01-4144
             David C. bray
            Project Officer
   U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
                REGION X
            1200 SIXTH AVENUE
       SEATTLE, WASHINGTON  98101

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                                DISCLAIMER
     This report has been reviewed by Region X, U.S.  Environmental Protection
Agency, and approved for publication.  Approval does  not signify that the con-
tents necessarily reflect the views and policies of the U.S.  Environmental
Protection Agency, nor does mention of trade names or commercial products con-
stitute endorsement or recommendation for use.

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                            EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
     This study characterizes prescribed forestry burning in the  states  of
Washington and Oregon with an emphasis on the region west of the  Cascade
Mountains.  A comprehensive program of literature searches  and field  inter-
views was used to develop a state-of-the-knowledge document on forestry
burning emissions and their impact on air quality.  Methods for reducing
the impact of forestry burning on air quality are explored  and organiza-
tional and research strategies are introduced to improve air quality  impact
assessment and control.

     Prescribed burning is used to reduce or eliminate unwanted natural  and
man-caused accumulations of slash, brush, litter or duff in a controlled
application so as to maximize net benefits with minimum damage and at  an
acceptable cost.  Prescribed burning accomplishes three basic objectives
singularly or in combination:  reduction of the hazard of wildfire, aid
to silvicultural activities and improvement of forage plants and  wildlife
habitats.  The appropriate use or nonuse of prescribed burning depends on
an assessment of site-specific variables including fuel, topography, weather,
climate, accessibility, manpower, management and environmental considera-
tions.  The burning technique and ignition device employed  on a given  site
will depend on these same variables.  Prescribed burning is accomplished
by broadcast, pile or understory burning and may use such ignition devices
as matches, drip torches, napalm or helicopter drip torches.

     In the 3-year period from 1975 through 1977, an average of 138,000  acres
were burned annually on the west side of the Cascade Mountains, consuming an
estimated 5.1 million tons of fuel.  The average estimated  fuel burned per
acre in Oregon and Washington was 39.8 and 31.9 tons, respectively.  However,
these estimates of fuel burned are subject to significant error which  must
be considered before drawing conclusions about total pollutant emissions
based on these figures.  Of the 138,000 acres burned annually, 61 percent of
the burning was carried out in National Forests.  In terms  of burning  activity
per 100 square miles of commercial forest land, the National Forests burned
765 acres per 100 square miles, which is in contrast to burning on state and
private lands of 201 acres per 100 square miles.

     Emissions from forestry burning are highly complex, consisting of hun-
dreds of gaseous chemical compounds and particulates, which vary  greatly
in composition and physical properties.  Total emissions and the  relative
abundance of the major effluents are dependent on fire behavior and fuel
conditions.  A number of the compounds emitted are photochemically reac-
tive and thus the physical and chemical properties of smoke change with
increasing residence time in the atmosphere.  Fire behavior can be con-
trolled or predetermined within limits during prescribed forestry burning
because such burning is carried out only under favorable fuel moisture and
weather conditions.  While these factors provide greater emissions predict-
ability than is possible for wildfires, each fire has a unique emission
profile.
                                  -m-

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     Emission factors, relating quantity of effluent released to mass of
fuel consumed, have been derived through laboratory burning studies and a
limited number of field measurements.  Laboratory measurements of emissions
from burning forest fuels can be made fairly easily and represent the most
practical approach for identification of fuel and fire parameters which
govern emission production.  However, unavoidable differences between lab-
oratory and field situations, with respect to fire behavior and fuel condi-
tions, must be considered when extrapolating laboratory-derived emission
factors to field fires.  Differences in fuel, fire behavior and burning
techniques produce widely different emission patterns and use of a single
emission factor for a given effluent is unrealistic.  The following emission
ranges for the major effluents were suggested by leading experts in forestry
burning and represent the best general estimate of expected normal field
emissions which can be made from data available at the present time:

     Carbon dioxide (C02)         2000-3500 Ib/ton of fuel

     Water (H20)                   500-1500 Ib/ton of fuel

     Carbon monoxide (CO)           20-500  Ib/ton of fuel

     Particulates (TSP)             17-67   Ib/tori of fuel

     Hydrocarbons (HC)              10-40   Ib/ton of fuel

     Nitrogen oxides (NO )           2-6    Ib/ton of fuel.
                        A

These emission.ranges apply to prescribed fires, which typically consume dry,
dead fuels under conditions which tend to minimize emissions.  Wildfires are
generally fast moving headfires, which ignite both live and dead fuels  in
the fire front, and leave a major portion of the available fuel to burn  by
smoldering.  These conditions tend to maximize emissions.  Estimates of total
emissions from forestry burning are highly uncertain. Emission factor varia-
tions, magnified oy uncertainties in estimating available fuel, result  in
calculated total emissions that may vary more than the range of emission
factors.

     In Oregon and Washington, air quality problems exist in many urban
areas relative to primary and secondary National Ambient Air Quality Stan-
dards (NAAQS).  Forestry burning is one potentially significant pollution
source which may contribute to exceedances of the NAAQS in populated areas.
Actual impact depends upon the composition of the plume and how the initial
plume characteristics, tne meteorology and the terrain affect the transport,
Dispersion, deposition arid transformation of the plume.  The impact of for-
estry burning upon air quality can be assessed through the use of mathemat-
ical models which describe emission patterns in relation to observed airflow
patterns.  Further assessment can be made by relating burning activities
to pollution measurements with statistical or morphological correlations.
                                   -IV-

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     The available literature does not reveal any modeling studies  that  spe-
cifically determine the impact of slash burning activities on the smoke-
sensitive regions of the Pacific Northwest.  However, validation of  models
developed in other regions  is being pursued  in Oregon and Washington.  Some
research has been done using tracer materials to determine mass  and  momentum
transport and dispersion into and within a forest canopy to help evaluate  the
impact of drift smoke.  Most recently, a microscopical analysis  of  hi-vol
filters and a multiple regression analysis of the data have been done  in
Oregon to assess the contribution of field burning and forestry  burning  to
observed air quality levels.  These preliminary studies  indicate that  forestry
burning does have a significant, detrimental impact on observed  particulate
air quality measures.

     Available data show no direct evidence  of adverse health impacts  from
forestry burning in the Pacific Northwest.   However, forestry burning  has
been shown to be a significant source of particulates, hydrocarbons  and
carbon monoxide emissions and may contribute to violations of health-related
ambient air quality standards.  Smoke intrusions into urban areas add  to the
particulate haze resulting from industrial and transportation source emis-
sions.  Forestry burning may not impact on air quality in areas where  smoke
is successfully vented away by smoke management programs.

     Currently, both Washington and Oregon have smoke management programs
designed to limit the air quality impact of  forestry burning activities.
The effectiveness of these programs has resulted in decreased citizen  com-
plaints related to forestry burning.  The percentage of problem  burns  in
Oregon between 1975 and 1977 averaged only 1.9 percent.  In Washington,
problem burns reported for  1977 were  less than 1 percent of total burns.
Monthly data did reveal that there are relatively high rates of  problem
burns occurring from July through September.

     Alternative burning techniques and alternatives to  burning  which
could be utilized to reduce impacts on air quality are available.   How-
ever, as is the case with prescribed burning, a site-by-site evaluation
is required to determine the applicability of these alternatives.   Alter-
native burning techniques include the use of varying burn periods,  optimal
field procedures and the development and use of new burning technology.
Nonburning alternatives include the use of mechanical or chemical treat-
ments, improved harvesting systems, slash utilization or no treatment.

     The future impact of forestry burning on air quality in the Pacific
Northwest is a function of  the level of burning, of Federal, state  and local
air quality regulations, and of the use of alternatives  to burning.  Recent
data appear to indicate a downward trend in  the amount of slash  burned per
acre on a regionwide basis.  This coincides  logically with increasingly
better harvesting practices and wood fiber utilization.  These  trends, along
with present smoke management programs and the federally mandated Clean  Air
Act, will most likely continue to reduce forestry burning activities.
                                   -v-

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     The full impact of forestry burning on air quality in the Pacific
Northwest is not accurately known at this time, although preliminary
studies have indicated that the impact may be significant.  To assess
this impact and to minimize the future impact of forestry burning on
air quality, a broad-scope, fully coordinated program, designed specifi-
cally to evaluate emissions, atmospheric dispersion characteristics, air
quality impacts, and the economics of alternatives, is recommended.  This
program should utilize the resources of state, local and Federal agencies
and forest  industries and should draw on current significant research which
is underway.  The emphasis of this program should be the accurate evalua-
tion of the air quality impact of forestry burning and the development of
recommendations for reducing this impact to acceptable levels, through
the use of  alternatives to forestry burning, improved smoke management
practices,  and techniques for the reduction of emissions from burning.
                                  -VI-

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                                     CONTENTS

Executive Summary	iji
 Figures	ix
 Tables	xi
 Acknowledgments	xi i i
 Project Staff	xiv

      -1.  Introduction	1
               Definition of terms	1
               General background	10
               Reasons for burning	18
               Burning techniques	28
               Prescribed fire in forest management - overview	35

      2.  Forestry Burning in Washington and Oregon	44
               Locat i on of forestry burns	44
               Timber harvest activity and its relation to forestry
                    burning	57

      ^3.  Emissions from Forestry Burning	58
               Introduct i on	58
               Major constituents of emissions	63
               Other constituents	76
               Fuel combustion	80
               Fuel moisture	82
               Source strength	82

      ^4.  Impact of Forestry Burning Upon Air Quality	85
               Current air quality problems in the Northwest	85
               Mechanisms by which forestry burning impacts air quality	89
               Evaluation of the impacts of forestry burning	94
               Relative impact of forestry burning	102

      ^5.  Methods of Reducing the Air Quality  Impact of Forestry Burning	106
               Smoke management programs—current programs in
                    Washington and Oregon	106
               Alternative burning techniques	116
               Alternatives to forestry burning	123
               The economics of forestry burning	143

      /6.  Future Impact of Forestry Burning on Air Quality	152
               Impacts of projected trends in  burning	152
               Impact of air quality regulations	157
               Impact of alternatives to burning	159
                                    -V11-

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                               CONTENTS (confd)
     7.  Requirements for Impact Assessment and Control	161
              Organizational needs	162
              Research needs	164
              Health effects studies	168
              Research in progress	169
Appendices
     A.  Tree species	173
     B.  Phase II - Economic Approach, Study Plan	174
     C.  Bibliography	176
     D.  Listing of Field Experts	241
                                  -vm-

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                                    FIGURES

Number                                                                   Page

  1      Physiographic subregion of the Pacific Northwest	11

  2      Mean annual precipitation patterns of the Pacific Northwest	13

  3      Forest zones of the Pacific Northwest	14

  4      Potential impact areas in Washington and Oregon	16

  5      Looking onto Penrold Mountain	22

  6      Incomplete combustion temperature profile of pile or
              broadcast burn	34

  7      Number of burns, western Washington and Oregon, 1975-1977	48

  8      Acres burned, western Washington and Oregon, 1975-1977	49

  9      Estimated tons of fuel burned, western Washington and
              Oregon, 1975-1977	50

 10      Land ownership in western Oregon and Washington	53

 11      Chromatogram of organic vapors in loblolly pine smoke	68

 12      Nephelorneter trace through plume	74

 13      Nephelometer readings with respect to time	74

 14      Vertical profile of smoke density	90

 15      Plume penetrating through top of mixing layer	92

 16      Common mesoscale and  local afternoon dispersion conditions
              west of the Cascades during the warm season	95

 17      Common nighttime or early morning condition during the warm
              season west of the Cascades	95

 18      Wind profile of forest on flat terrain	97

 19      Wind profile of forest on sloping terrain	97

 20      Designated areas under Washington's and Oregon's Smoke
              Management Programs	107

 21      Principle of air curtain combustion	121
                                    -IX-

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                               FIGURES (cont'd)

hamper                                                                  Page

  22     Alternatives to forestry burning	124

  23     Energy consumption by the pulp and paper industry of
              the Pacific Northwest	140

  24     Trend of acres burned on the West Side from 1972-77	153

  25     Trend of tons burned on the West Side from 1972-77	154

  26     Trend of tons/acre burned on the West Side from 1972-77	155

  27     Three-year trend of broadcast and pile burning in Oregon	156

  28     Program structure	163

  29     Impact assessment	165
                                    -x-

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                                    TABLES

Number                                                                 Page

   1     Prescribed Burning Ignition Devices	30

   2     brown and Burn Herbicides and Desiccants	32

   3     Summary of Forestry Burning Activity in Washington and
              Oregon, 1975-1977	45

   4     Area of Commercial Timberland by Ownership Class	52

   5     Summary of Timber Production by Type of Tree	55

   6     Annual Forest Fire Particulate Production	59

   7     Particulate Emission Factors	63

   8     Emission Ranges	64

   9     Estimated Emissions Due to Forestry Burning, 1977, in
               Washington	65

  10     Estimated Emissions Due to Forestry Burning, 1977, in
              Oregon	66

  11     Particulate Emissions from Logging Slash	72

  12     PPOM from Burning Pine Needles by Fire Type	78

  13     PPOM from Burning Pine Needles by Fire Phases	79

  14     Trace Metal Emissions from Laboratory Burns of
              Sugar Cane	80

  15     National Ambient Air Quality Standards	86

  16     NAAQS Attainment Status for Oregon and Washington	87

  17     Statewide Emissions for Oregon and Washington	104

  18     Summary of Smoke Management Plan Restrictions for
              Washington and Oregon	109
                                   -XI-

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                                 TABLES (cont'd)

Number                                                                  Page

  19     Percent Problem burn Acreage by Month for 1975 Through 1977	113

  20     Water Repellent Slash Coatings	118

  21     Average Size of Problem Broadcast Burns	120

  22     Air Curtain Burners Operating Capacity	122

  23     Mechanical Slash Treatment Techniques	126

  24     Properties of Herbicides Used for Forest Vegetative
              Control	129

  25     Wood Products from Slash	137

  26     Heat Values of Various PNW Tree Species	139

  27     Conversion of Slash Into Energy Products	141

  28     Natural Decay Process of Western Hemlock	142

  29     Cost Examples of Prescribed Burning Ignition Devices and
              Burning Techniques in the Pacific Northwest	145

  30     Cost Examples of Nonburning Techniques in the Pacific
              Northwest	148

  31     Class  I Areas in Oregon and Washington	158

  32     Sources of Wood Residue Materials Used for Wood
              Products in the PNW	160
                                    -xi i-

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                             ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
     The GEOMET staff sincerely appreciate the cooperation of the many field
experts interviewed for this report.  In addition, special thanks are extended
to the following people for their monumental efforts which insured the produc-
tion of a document of the highest possible technical quality.

     David Bray, USEPA Region X, our EPA Task Manager, whose even-handed
     study approach, guidance and technical advice provided the backbone
     of this study.

     The Steering Committee members who provided direction, reams of data
     and constructive critiques throughout this project are:
       Robert Wilson, USEPA, Region X
       Darrell Weaver, DOE, Washington
       Al Hedin, DNR, Washington
       Robert Lamb (formerly with
         USDA FS, Region 6)
Ralph Kunz, USDA FS, Region 6
Scott Freeburn, DEQ, Oregon
Stuart Wells, DOF, Oregon
Royce Cornelius, Weyerhaeuser Co.
     The USDA FS staff who assisted in the coordination of our field activi-
     ties and provided much technical information, advice and text review
     are:
       Craig Chandler
       Edward Clarke
       John Dell
       R.W. Johansen
       Leonidas Lavdas
       Charles WcMahon
 Ralph Nelson
 Neil Paulson
 John Pierovich
 David Sandberg
 William Shenk
 James Torrence
     Stewart Pickford, University of Washington, who gave advice and profes-
     sional review of portions of this document.
                                   -xm-

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                  PROJECT STAFF



                 Project Manager

                Benjamin J.  Mason


                Principal Authors

                 Jonathan D. Cook
                  James H. Himel
                 Rudolph H.  Moyer


               Contributing Authors

                  Robert C.  Koch
               Kenneth E. Pickering
                  Philip Tedder
                  John R. Ward
                Robert H. Woodward


Technical Review and Editing - GEOMET, Incorporated

                 Douglas J.  Pelton
                   John L. Swift
                 James E. McFadden
                  Judy M. Thomas


     Publications, Graphics, and Reproduction

                 Leonora L.  Riley
                 Anna E. Strikis
                Jo Ann R. Koffman
                Jacquelyn 6. Sanks
                Efegenia G.  Maxwel1
                Marqaret M.  Etzler
                   I. Lee Oden
                  Donald R.  Cade
                  Sallie S.  Morse
                   Graphics, Inc.
                      -xiv-

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                                    SECTION  1

                                   INTRODUCTION
     The objective of this  study  is  to  establish,  within the limits of state-
of-the-art techniques, the  actual  and potential  air quality impact of pre-
scribed forestry burning  on  forest lands  within  the states of Washington and
Oregon with an emphasis on  the  region west  of the  Cascade Mountains.  This
document evaluates the past,  present  and  expected  future impact of forestry
burning on ambient air quality, identifies  alternative methods or alternatives
to forestry burning which could reduce  the  impact  on air quality and evalutes
the technical and economic  feasibility  and  effectiveness of each.  Appropriate
conclusions are drawn with  regard  to  possible short- and long-range actions
for minimizing the impact of  prescribed forestry burning on air quality.

     This study also establishes  baseline information for describing the
magnitude and impact of existing  and  projected future emissions from for-
estry burning in the states  of  Washington and Oregon.


DEFINITION OF TERMS AS USED  IN  THIS  REPORT

ACB:  Air Curtain Burner—slash burner  utilizing high-velocity, forced-air
     circulation for rapid,  complete  combustion  with insignificant visible
     atmospheric emissions.

aerosol:  A colloidal system in which the dispersed phase is composed of
     either solid or liquid  particles no  greater than 1 micron in diameter,
     and in which the dispersion  medium is  some  type of gas, usually
     air.  Haze, most smokes,  and  some  fogs and  clouds may be regarded as
     aerosols.

air quality:  Atmospheric properties  with respect  to the presence of pol-
     lutants which may  impair health, visibility or general welfare.

allelopathy:  Repressive  effect of plants upon each other, exclusive of
     microorganisms, by metabolic  products, exudates, and leachates.

area burning:  See broadcast burn.*
* Underlined terms are defined elsewhere in this definition of terms listing.
                                     -1-

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area ignition:  Fires set in many places throughout an area either simul-
     taneously or in quick succession and spaced so that the entire area is
     rapidly covered with fire.

available fuel load:  The fuel load that will  be consumed in a fire under
     given conditions.   Compare  total fuel  load.

backing fire:  A prescribed fire or wildfire burning into or against the
     wind or down the slope without the aid of wind.  Compare head fire.

BIA:  Bureau of Indian Affairs.

board products:  A wood-based panel manufactured from small wood material,
     usually sawdust or chips, agglomerated with an organic binder and
     compression.  These include particleboard, fiberboard, flakeboard.

broadcast burn:  Burning of slash over a contiguous treeless area using any
     of a number of ignition devices, burning  patterns, and pretreatments.
     Compare pile burn, understory burn.

brown and burn:  The application of chemical desiccants or herbicides prior to
     broadcast burning.

brush:  Scrub vegetation and immature stands of tree species that do not
     produce merchantable timber.

brushfield:  A more or less temporary vegetative type, primarily of shrub
     species, that occupies potential forest sites.

bucking:  Sectioning of log to desired lengths for optimum handling and
     utilization.

burning block:  An area to be broadcast or understory burned as a unit within
     one daily work period.

burying:  A residue disposal treatment in which residue is collected, placed
     in a large pit or trench, and covered with soil; usually done with  a
     tractor.

cable yarding:  A logging technique to move logs to a loading area using
     cables extending into a logging area from a stationary power unit.
     May include use of skyline  cable system,  helicopter or balloon.
                                    -2-

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chipping:  (1)  In residue treatment, the reduction of woody residue by a
     portable chipper to chips that are left to decay on the forest floor.
     (2) In utilization, the conversion of usable wood to chips, often at
     the logging site, for use in manufacture of pulp, hardboard, energy, etc.

clearcutting:  A harvest and regeneration system, normally applied to an
     even-aged forest, whereby all trees are cut.  Regeneration may be
     artificial or natural, logging methods may vary, and clearcut areas may
     be of any size.

commercial  forest land:  Land capable of or producing crops of industrial
     wood and not withdrawn from timber utilization.   Productivity in excess
     of 20 ft3/acre/yr (1.4 m3/ha/yr) of industrial  wood.  Compare forest
     land.

controlled burning:  See prescribed burning.

convection:  The transmission of heat by the mass movement of heated particles,
     as circulation in air, gas, or liquid currents.   In meteorology, convec-
     tion refers to the thermally induced, vertical  motion of air.

convective plume height:  The elevation a plume attains due to buoyancy caused
     by its initial increased temperature over ambient conditions.

convective smoke column:  The thermally produced ascending column of hot gases
     and smoke over a fire.

dbh:  Diameter breast height, the diameter measurement of a standing tree
     4-1/2 feet above ground level.

DEQ:  Department of Environmental Quality, State of Oregon.

desiccant:  A drying agent that kills tissues of living plants and causes
     them to lose moisture and dry out.  Compare herbicide.

designated area:  Areas designated by the Smoke Management Programs as
     principal population centers.

DOE:  Department of Ecology, State of Washington.

duff:  Forest litter and other organic debris in various stages of decompo-
     sition, on top of the mineral soil, typical of coniferous forests in
     cool climates where rate of decomposition is low and litter accumulation
     exceeds decay.

emission factors:  Statistical average of the amount of emissions released to
     the atmosphere in relation to the amount of fuel burned.  It is generally
     expressed in Ibs/ton.
                                   -3-

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emission rate:  An estimate of the amount of emissions released over time.
     It is generally expressed in Ibs/hr.

emissions:  Gases and particles which are put into the atmosphere by
     forestry burning.

fine fuels:  The complex of living and dead herbaceous plants and dead woody
     plant materials less than 1/4 inch (0.6 cm)  in diameter.

fire behavior:  The response of fire to its environment of fuel, weather, and
     terrain including its ignition, spread, and  development of other phenomena
     such as turbulent and convective winds and mass gas combustion.

firebreak:  A natural or constructed strip or zone from which all fuels have
     been removed for the purpose of stopping the spread of fire or providing
     a control line from which to attack a fire.

fire climax:  A plant association, forest type, or cover type held at a
     serai stage by periodic fires, therefore differing from the true climax
     community; e.g., a Douglas-fir forest in the western hemlock zone.

fire danger:  Resultant of both constant and variable factors—weather, slope,
     fuel, and risk—that affect the inception, spread, and difficulty
     of control of fires and the damage they cause.

fire hazard:  The probability that a fuel  complex defined by kind, arrangement,
     volume, condition and location will  form a special  threat of ignition,
     spread, and difficulty of suppression.

fire hazard reduction:  Any residue treatment that reduces  threat of ignition,
     spread of fire, and its resistance to control.  This may involve removal,
     burning, rearrangement, burying, or modification such  as by masticating
     or chipping.

fire retardant:  Any substance that reduces flammability by chemical or
     physical action.

fire risk:  The chance of a fire starting as determined by  the presence and
     activity of causative agents; usually divided into man-caused risk and
     lightning risk.

fire season:  The portion of the year during which fires are likely to occur,
     spread, and do sufficient damage to warrant  organized  fire control;
     strongly dependent on climate.

fire storm:  An extremely intense fire drawing in surrounding gases and
     creating a strong vertical convective plume.
                                   -4-

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flash fuels:  Fuels such as dried grass, leaves, dried pine needles, dead
     fern, tree moss, and some kinds of slash which ignite readily and are
     consumed rapidly when dry.  Compare heavy fuels.

forest land:  Land at least 10 percent occupied by forest trees of any size,
     or formerly having had such tree cover, and not currently developed for
     nonforest use.  Compare commercial forest land.

forestry burning:  See prescribed burning.

fuel loading:  The amount of fuel present expressed quantitatively in terms of
     weight of fuel per unit area.  This may be available fuel or total  fuel
     and is usually dry weight.

fuel moisture content:  The quantity of water in a fuel  particle expressed as
     a percent of the oven dry weight of the fuel particle.

Gaussian plume:  A plume in which the concentration of the pollutant material
     is distributed according to the normal  distribution (the fundamental
     frequency distribution of statistical  analysis) in the crosswind and
     vertical directions.

hazard reduction:  Factors which may reduce  fire hazard.

head fire:  A fire spreading or set to spread with the wind and/or upslope.
     Also heading fire.  Compare backing fire.

head of fire:  The most rapidly spreading portion of a fire's perimeter,
     usually to the leeward or upslope.

heavy fuels:  Fuels of large diameter such as snags, logs, and large limbwood
     that ignite and are consumed more slowly than flash fuels.

herbicide:  A chemical compound that causes  physiological plant damage usually
     resulting in death.

high-lead yarding:  A method in which logs are dragged to the loading area
     by cable, usually in contact with the ground.  Compare cable yarding.

HLS:  High Lead Scarification—cable scarification technique using a drum or
     other heavy object to break up slash continuity and expose soil.

humus:  That more or less stable fraction of the soil  organic matter remaining
     after the major portion of plant and animal residues have decomposed;
     usually dark colored.
                                  -5-

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hydrocarbon:  The simplest organic compounds composed of hydrogen and carbon.
     Hydrocarbons include gases, liquids, and solids and vary from simple to
     complex molecules.  They are divided into alkanes or saturated hydro-
     carbons, cycloalkanes, alkenes or olefins, alkynes or acetylenes, and
     aromatic hydrocarbons.

intensity:  The rate of heat release per unit length of fire front.  Generally
     expressed in BTU/sec ft.

inversion (temperature inversion):  A layer through which temperature increases
     with altitude; e.g., nighttime inversion above the ground.   Aloft, an
     inversion layer separates warmer air above from cooler air below.  This
     most stable condition inhibits vertical motion of air.

ITF-FSU:  Interim Task Force on Forest Slash Utilization, Senator John Powell,
     Chairman, State of Oregon, 1977.

ladder fuels:  Provide vertical fuel continuity between strata as between
     surface fuels and crowns.

landing:  Anyplace on or adjacent to the logging site where logs are assembled
     for further transport.  See yarding.

lee waves:  An airflow pattern that develops on the downwind side of mountainous
     terrain.

light burn:  Degree of burn which leaves the soil  covered with partially charred
     organic material; large fuels are not deeply charred.  Compare severe burn.

litter:  The surface layer of the forest floor consisting of freshly fallen
     leaves, needles, twigs, stems, bark, and fruits.  This layer may be
     very thin or absent during the growing season.

logging residue:  Unmerchantable or otherwise unwanted woody material remaining
     after a logging operation.

lopping:  Cutting branches, tops, and small trees after felling, so that the
     resultant slash will lie close to the ground.  To cut limbs from felled
     trees.

masticating:  Breaking and crushing of residue in place with heavy equipment
     including tractors and weighted rollers with cutting devices.  Usually
     limited to brush, thinnings, and small slash.  Serves to lower height
     of fuel and enhance its decay by increasing contact with the soil.

mixing layer:  The surface layer of the atmosphere which is relatively unstable
     compared with air at higher altitudes.  The layer is strongly influenced
     by the frictional  and radiative effects of the earth's surface.

NFDRS:  National Fire Danger Rating System.
                                   -6-

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(O.D.) tons:  Oven dried ton--2,000 pounds of fiberwood dried to a constant
     weight at 105° C.

old growth:  Timber stands of age and stature so as to resemble a "virgin"
     forest in which the mean annual growth is declining.

old-growth stand:  Loosely defined as a condition in which rate of tree growth
     has passed its peak and normal processes of deterioration approach or
     exceed stand growth.

OSMS:  Oregon Smoke Management System.

RAM:  Per Area Material--standard merchantable material measured per acre
     area.

particulates:  A component of polluted air consisting of any liquid or solid
     particles suspended in or falling through the atmosphere.  Particulates
     are responsible for the visible forms of air pollution.

PF:  Phenol formaldehyde--an organic binding agent for wood products.

pile burn:  Burning of slash piled by PUM or YUM techniques.  See PUM or YUM.
     Compare broadcast burn.

plume:  A cloud of pollutant material, containing emissions from a particular
     source or group of sources, which is being dispersed in the atmosphere.

PM:  Per thousand material—standard merchantable material measured per acre
     area.

prescribed burning:  The intentional ignition of grass, shrubs, or forest fuels
     under weather and fuel conditions that will confine the fire to  a prede-
     termined area and produce the intensity of heat and rate of spread required
     to accomplish planned forest management benefits including hazard reduction,
     silvicultural and range improvement.

problem burn:  Within the context of the Oregon Smoke Management Program, a burn
     whose smoke plume intrudes into a designated area.

PUM:  Piling Unmerchantable Material by hand or tractor in partially  cut,
     thinned, clearcut or right-of-way areas.

pyrolysis:  Thermal decomposition of matter in the absence of oxygen.

pyrosynthesis:   The synthesis of large molecules in the reducing region of the
     flame.

rate of spread:   The relative activity of a fire in extending its horizontal
     dimensions.   It may be expressed as rate of increase of the perimeter,
     as a rate  of forward spread of the fire front, or as a rate of increase
     in area.
                                    -7-

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residence time:   The time an emission component is in the air between emission
     and removal from the air or change into another chemical configuration.

residual smoke:   Smoke produced after the initial  fire has passed through the
     fuel.

roughwood:   Wood chips made from unbarked material.

scarification:  Loosening the top soil of open areas, or breaking up the forest
     floor in preparation for regenerating by direct seeding or natural seedfall.
     Done to reduce vegetative competition and to  expose mineral  soil.

second growth:  Natural or planted timber stands on  areas previously logged or
     cleared.

sere:   One  of a  series of ecological  communities succeeding  one another in  the
     biotic development of an area.

severe burn:  Degree of burn in which all organic  material is burned from the
     soil surface which is discolored by heat, usually to red.  Organic matter
     below the surface is consumed or charred.  Compare light burn.

silvicultural burning:  See prescribed burning.

site:  An area considered in terms of the type and quality of the vegetation the
     area can carry as indicated by its biotic, climatic, and soil conditions.

site preparation:  Removal or killing of unwanted  vegetation, residue, etc., by
     use of  fire, herbicides, or mechanical treatments in preparation for
     reforestation and future management.

slash:  A complex of woody forest debris left on the ground after logging,  land
     clearing, thinning, pruning, brush removal, or natural processes such  as
     ice or  snow breakage, wind, and fire.  Slash includes logs,  chunks, bark,
     branches, tops, uprooted stumps and trees, intermixed understory vegetation,
     and other fuels.

slash and burn:   Hand or mechanical cutting or impaction of slash material  prior
     to broadcast burning.

slash burning:  See prescribed burning.

smoke episode:  A period when smoke is dense enough to be an  unmistakable
     nuisance.

smoke management:  A system whereby current and predicted weather information
     pertinent to fire behavior, smoke convection, and smoke plume movement
     and dispersal  is used as a basis for scheduling the location, amount, and
     timing of burning operations so as to minimize total smoke production and
     assure  that smoke does not contribute significantly to air pollution.
                                    -8-

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smoke-sensitive area:  An area in which smoke from outside sources  is  intoler-
     able, owing to heavy population, existing air pollution, or  intensive
     recreation or tourist use.

smoldering combustion:  Combustion of a solid fuel, generally with  incandescence
     and smoke but without flame.

spotfire:  A fire produced by sparks or embers that are carried by  the wind
     beyond the zone of direct ignition by the main fire.

stability:  The degree to which the vertical temperature structure  of the atmo-
     sphere restricts the rising and dispersion of air pollutants.

synergism:  Cooperative action of two or more chemicals so that their total
     effect is greater than the sum of their individual effects on  the same
     organism.

thinning:  To reduce the number of trees per acre so that residual  tree growth
     will be enhanced.

total fuel load:  The total quantity of inflammable material  including slash,
     brush, litter and duff on a given site, but not necessarily consumable.
     Generally expressed in tons/acre.  Compare available fuel load.

understory burn:  A prescribed burn of low intensity used in  forested areas
     to achieve treatment objectives without damaging desirable  vegetation.

USEPA:  United States Environmental Protection Agency.

USDA-FS:  United States Department of Agriculture-Forest Service.

USDOE:  United States Department of Energy.

whole tree logging:  Felling and transporting the whole tree without the
     stump, but with its own crown, for trimming and bucking at a landing
     or mill.

wildfire:  An unplanned fire, not being used as a tool in forest protection
     or management in accordance with an authorized permit or plan, which
     requires suppression.

yarding:  Moving of logs from stump to roadside deck or landing.

YUM:  Yarding Unmerchantable Material  by cable  techniques,  usually in areas
     inaccessible  to tractors.
                                  -9-

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GENERAL BACKGROUND

Characterization of the Study Area

     This study describes aspects of prescribed forestry burning and its impacts
in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States, encompassing the 165,173
square-mile area of the states of Washington and Oregon.  The region has two
study areas (see Figure 1):

     1.  West Side—West of the Cascade divide to the Pacific Ocean
     2.  East Side—East of the Cascade divide to the Idaho border.

West Side—

     Physiography—The physiographic subregions of the West Side according to
Franklin and Dyrness (1973) are:

     t    West Slopes of the Cascades—Glacier-formed valleys characterize
          the west slopes of the Cascades.  The ridge-top elevation grad-
          ually decreases from approximately 2500 m in the north to approxi-
          mately 1880 m in the south.  Mt. Rainer (elevation 4420 m) in
          Washington and Mt. Hood (elevation 3440 m)  in Oregon are two of
          the highest peaks in the Cascades.

     t    Puget Trough—The Puget Trough is situated  to the west of the
          Cascades in Washington and includes the Puget Sound in the north
          and the Cowlitz and Chehalis River Valleys  in the south.  Inlets
          and islands characterize the glaciated Puget Sound area.  Ele-
          vations in the southern portion of the Puget Trough seldom
          exceed 160 m.

     •    Willamette Valley—The Willamette Valley, south of the Columbia
          River, is an extension of the Puget Trough.  This subregion is
          characterized by broad valleys with low, intermittent hills.   The
          average elevation gradually increases towards the south and ends
          where the Cascades and Coast Ranges converge in southern Oregon.

     •    Olympic Peninsula—The Olympic Peninsula includes the Olympic
          Mountains and bordering flatlands.  The Olympic Mountain Range
          contains peaks up to 2420 m in elevation although most ridge
          tops average around 1300 m.

     •    Coast Ranges—The Coast Ranges are located  west of the Willamette
          Valley and Puget Trough.  It is an area of  steep slopes and
          abrupt ridges, especially in the southern part.  The average
          elevation of the ridge line is approximately 600 m with the
          elevation of the highest peak at 1249 m.  Mountain passes
          lead to the Pacific Coast.
                                    -10-

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-------
     •    Klamath Mountains—The Klamath Mountains are in southwest Oregon.
          The average elevation of the ridge line is approximately 900 m
          with the highest peak at 2280 m.'

     C1imate--The West Side has a maritime-type climate characterized by
fairly dry summers and mild, wet winters.

     The relatively small variation in seasonal temperatures on the West Side
may be attributed to the proximity of the  Pacific Ocean and the Cascade Ranges.
Seasonal temperature variations in the Pacific Ocean are small compared to  the
North American continent.  The prevailing  westerlies advect these moderating
temperatures inland.  The Cascades shield  the West Side from cold continental
air masses in the winter and hot air masses in the summer.

     The precipitation pattern of the West Side, in Figure 2, is a product  of
meteorological and topographical factors.  According to Franklin and Dyrness
(1973), up to 85 percent of the precipitation falls between October  1 and
April  1.  This is due to the north-south migration of the Pacific high and
the semipermanent low pressure cell found  over the northern Pacific.  During
the winter months this cell intensifies and moves southward causing the storm
track  to be centered over the Pacific Northwest.  The Klamath Mountains, Olympic
Mountains, Cascades, and Coast Ranges also affect precipitation.  The pre-
vailing westerlies carry the moist Pacific air inland where it is lifted over
the ranges, cooled, and condensed.  This moisture is precipitated on the
western slopes and higher peaks of these mountains producing an annual pre-
cipitation of 300 cm.  A rain shadow exists in the Willamette Valley, Puget
Trough, and river valleys of the Klamath Mountains due to the westerlies
subsiding on the eastern slopes of the coastal mountains.

     Stable atmospheric conditions are frequently found in the Puget Trough-
Willamette Valley region.  These conditions are formed by radiational cooling,
subsidence, or a combination of the two.   Inversions are also induced by warm
advection over a topographically trapped,  surface-based layer of cold air.
Inversion-level heights are variable and are dependent upon the relative degree
of cooling and adiabatic warming of the air mass due to subsidence.  These
conditions occur most frequently in the fall.

     Graham (1953) reports that a natural  pressure gradient wind funnel exists
in the Columbia Gorge between the West Side and the East Side.  The Columbia
River  flows through this narrow opening in the Cascade Range.  The gorge pro-
vides  an opening for the movement of continental air into the Puget Trough-
Willamette Valley area and likewise for the movement of maritime air  into the
Columbia Basin.  Dry continental air moving westward through  the gorge produces
an increased fire danger.  Other areas west of the Cascades are similarly
affected by westward movements of continental  air.

     Forest zones—The West Side is occupied by four major forest zones.  Fig-
ure 3  shows the predominant tree species expected  in each zone.  Situations may
exist  in these forest zones where  large stands of  subclimax tree species such  as
red alder or plupiographic climax stands of trees  such as western red cedar are
present.  A complete list of West Side tree species is included in Appendix A.
                                     -12-

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               WEST     EAST
               SIDE      SIDE
120  160250         250160     80 60 4030  30  40 50     60
                             60  60
                30
30
                                                      30
       ,   


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Figure 3.  Forest zones of the Pacific Northwest

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     •    Douglas-f1r—Douglas-f1r (Pseudotsuga menziesii) occupies much
          of the Coast Range, Olympic Peninsula, Puget Trough, and the
          western slopes of the Cascades.  Associated species may include
          western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), sitka spruce (Picea
          sitchenis), ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), and western red
          cedar (Thuja plicata).  Douglas-fir is commonly found in pure
          stands.  Red alder (Alnus rubra) often inhabits recently dis-
          turbed areas.  The understory contains a large array of shrubs
          and herbs.

     •    Douglas-fir - Mixed Conifer--Doug1as-fir and mixed conifers are
          found in the interior Klamath Mountain Range.  This zone has a
          variety of tree species including Douglas-fir, ponderosa pine,
          tan oak (Lithocarpus densiflorus), sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana),
          incense cedar (Libocedrus decurrens), and white fir (Abies
          concolor).

     •    Hemlock - Sitka Spruce—Western hemlock and sitka spruce are found
          along the coastal plains of the Pacific Coast and in some areas
          of the Coast Range and western slopes of the Cascades.   Associ-
          ated species may include western red cedar, Douglas-fir, grand
          fir (Abies grandis), and red alder.  The understory may contain
          a dense growth of shrubs and ferns.

     •    Spruce - Fir--Mixed spruce and fir are found along the  crest of
          the Cascades.  This zone has a variety of tree species  including
          Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis), noble fir (Abies procera),
          western hemlock, Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii) and sub-
          alpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa).  The understory may consist of
          large shrubs, herbs or moss.

     Potential impact areas—The potential impact areas on the West Side con-
si dere^~TTr^tnTs~Ttudy~TncTLrde population centers and recreation and wilder-
ness areas.  Most of the West Side population centers are situated in the
Willamette Valley-Puget Trough area.  Recreation and wilderness areas are
scattered throughout the region (Figure 4).

East Side—

     Physiography—Figure 1 (shown previously) illustrates the physiographical
subregions of the East side.

     The three major mountain systems found on the East Side are  the eastern
Cascades, the Okanogan Highlands, and the Blue Mountains.  The elevation of
the Cascades gradually decreases from 2500 m in northern Washington to approxi-
mately 1880 m in southern Oregon.  Higher peaks such as Mr. Rainer (elevation
4420 m) and Mt. Hood (elevation 3440 m) protrude above the ridge-top.  The
Okanogan Highlands, located in northeast Washington, are characterized by
rounded ridge tops with elevations up to 2400 m.  The Blue Mountains in north-
east Oregon and southwest Washington contain several ranges with  peaks reaching
2900 m in elevation.
                                   -15-

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                                    WEST    EAST
                                     SIDE    SIDE
                     S      *•
                  Belhngham ^
                          T acorn a

                  -••     >
       _            Olympia*
       Aberdeen-Hoquiam
             Area
                   O Centralia  9
            Portland
              Area
                • U   •    • • QT
                Oregon  0    • ,  /•
CITIES
Population (xlOOO)
gO >ioo
[•) 50-100
® 20-50
O 10-20
Figure 4.  Potential impact areas in Washington and Oregon.
                        -16-
WINTER SPORTS AREAS
CAMPSITES
STATE PARKS
ROADSIDE PARKS
NATIONAL PARKS &

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     The remaining subregions consist of plateaus, rounded ridges and broad
valleys.  The Columbia Basin is characterized by rolling hills ranging from
300 to 600 m in elevation.  The High Lava Plains contain volcanic formations
from lava flows as recent as 2000 B.C.  The average elevation is 1200 m.
The Basin and Range and the Owyhee Uplands average 1200 m in elevation with
isolated fault-block mountains attaining elevations of 2900 m.

     Climate—The East Side climate is affected by the proximity of the
Pacific Ocean, Cascades, and Rocky Mountain Ranges.  These geographic fea-
tures allow both maritime and continental air masses to move into the
region.

     The precipitation pattern of the East Side is a product of several
factors.  The moist maritime air carried by westerlies loses much of its
moisture on the Coast and Cascade Ranges.  Clouds are further dissipated
by subsidence west of the Cascades.  This results in an annual precipita-
tion of 20 to 40 cm in the lowlands.  A local precipitation high of 100 cm
per year in the Blue Mountains and 60 cm per year in the Okanogan Highlands
is due to the lifting of these ridges.

     The temperature regime of the East Side is governed in part by the
Rockies and Cascades.  The Rocky Mountains to the east and north shield
this region from cold continental air masses in the winter.  Likewise, the
Cascades block milder air during the winter.  The summer months are normally
warm and dry.  Extremes in temperatures occur during all seasons when the
region is under the influence of continental air.

     Forest zones—Figure 3 (shown previously on page 14) shows that East
Side forests are predominantly found on the eastern Cascades, the eastern
third of the High Lava Plains, the Basin and Range subregion, the Okanogan
Highlands, and the Blue Mountains.  Elsewhere, forests are found only in
river valleys and north-facing slopes.

     The East Side is occupied by five major forest zones.  East Side tree
species may be found in Appendix A.

     t    Ponderosa pine - Mixed conifer—Ponderosa pine and mixed
          conifers occupy the eastern slopes of the Cascade Range,
          the south-central  area of Oregon, and sections of the Blue
          Mountains and Okanogan Highlands.  Associated species may
          include western juniper (Juniperus occidental is), quaking
          aspen (Populus tremuloides), lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta),
          Oregon white oak (Quercus garryana), grand fir and the inner-
          mountain variety of Douglas-fir.  The understory of ponderosa
          pine stands consists of shrubs and herbs.

     •    White pine—Western white pine (Pinus monticola) occupies an
          area in northeastern Washington in association with lodgepole
          pine, western larch (Larix occidentalis), and western hemlock.
                                    -17-

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     •    Larch—Western larch occupies large areas in the Blue Mountains
          of Oregon and the Okanogan Highlands of Washington.  Associated
          species include ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, and lodgepole pine.

     •    Lodgepole pine--Lodgepo1e pine occupies the eastern slopes of
          the Cascades in Oregon and as nearly pure stands in the Okanogan
          Highlands of Washington.  Associated species include ponderosa
          pine, Douglas-fir, western hemlock and western larch.

     •    Spruce - Fir—Mixed spruce and fir are found along the crest of
          the Cascades.  This zone has a variety of tree species including
          Pacific silver fir, noble fir, westen hemlock, Engelmann spruce
          and subalpine fir.  The understory may consist of large shrubs,
          herbs or moss.

     Potential impact areas—Potential impact areas are scattered throughout
the East Side forest zones (Figure 4, page 16).  Major recreation and wilder-
ness areas include part of the North Cascades National Park, Crater Lake
National Park, Ross Lake National Recreation Area, and all of Lake Chelan
National Recreation Area.

REASONS FOR BURNING

     Prescribed burning is used to reduce or eliminate unwanted natural and
man-caused accumulations of slash, brush, litter or duff in a "controlled
application" so as to maximize net benefits with minimum damage and at an
acceptable cost (Williams 1975).  Burning accomplishes three basic objectives:

      1.  To reduce the hazard of wildfire posed by excessive
         fuel accumulations

      2.  To aid in siIvicultural activities

      3.  To improve grazing forage and wildlife habitat.

      These objectives have long been associated with  the timber-producing
regions of the Southeastern United States.  The use of prescribed fire in
the timber-producing regions of Pacific Northwest is  based on these same
objectives, but in technique and applicability may be as highly variable
as this region's vegetation, physiography and climate.

      The appropriate use or nonuse of prescribed burning depends on an assess-
ment  of site-specific variables including:1


      •    Fuel Factors—Fuel type, size, arrangement, continuity,
          quantity, moisture; burninq characteristics; associated
   Personal communication, J. Dell, USDA FS, November 29, 1977.
                                    -18-

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          vegetation; and adjacent fuel hazards  (snags, private
          slash, flammable brushfields, etc.)

     •    Topographic Factors—Steepness of slope; irregularity of
          terrain (gullies, ridges, escarpments); elevation, and
          slope direction (aspect)

     t    Weather and Climatic Factors—Prevailing wind directions;
          vulnerability to high velocity east winds; smoke manage-
          ment restrictions (distance from designated smoke sensi-
          tive areas, local valley and canyon winds and their
          influence on smoke drift and persistence, temperature
          inversion patterns); allowable dry periods for burning;
          and fire weather severity

     t    Accessibility Factors--Drive-in or walk-in distance
          for preparation, burning, holding, and mop-up crews
          and their equipment; and unit access in relation to
          on-unit logging spurs, landings, natural barriers, etc.

     •    Manpower and Management Factors—Restrictions and
          ceilings on manpower available to do the job; support
          costs (clerical and business management, transporta-
          tion, equipment, communications, etc.); and size of
          unit.

     Factors which may necessitate the use of prescribed burning instead of
mechanical treatment include steep slopes that are greater than 30 percent
and are not feasible for mechanical treatment, fragile soils which may be
highly credible if mechanically disturbed, and other environmental factors
for which fire may cause the least impact of available methods.

Hazard Reduction

     A general concern for the threat of catastrophic wildfires in the heavily
forested areas of Washington and Oregon has resulted in extensive fire sup-
pression activities since 1910.  Recent research indicates that past suppres-
sion activities and inadequate fuel management programs have enhanced the
threat of wildfires by allowing fuel loads in the forest to accumulate to
unnaturally high levels (Davis and Cooper 1963, Vogl 1971, Hall 1977).  The
presence of heavy untreated slash concentrations in old-growth forests has
been attributed with enhancing the spread of major wildfires in recent years,
including the Tillamook, Oxbow and Wenatchee-Okanogan fires.  Between 1973 and
1977, 44 percent of the wildfires on DNR-protected lands in Washington started
in logging and thinning slash.2
2
  Personal communication, A. Hedin, Washington Department of Natural Resources, April 21, 1978.
                                    -19-

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     In an assessment of what can  be  done  to  reduce  the number of destruc-
tive forest fires, Wilson and Dell  (1971)  point  out  that of  the three major
factors which  influence wildfire behavior  - atmospheric conditions,  topog-
raphy and fuel  loads - we can modify  only  fuels  loading.

     Effective fuels management through  fuel  modification over vast  areas is
not presently  feasible, however, periodic  precribed  burning  can be used to
create and maintain fuel breaks by removing dead fuels  and highly flammable
understory vegetation.  Roe et al.  (1971)  contend that  judicious use of pre-
scribed burning can reduce the occurrence  of  costly  and uncontrollable cata-
strophic wildfires.  Burning will  commonly dispose of fuel under 2 inches
in diameter and sometimes all material under  4  inches in diameter, whereas
increased utilization and cleaner  logging  techniques will not be as  suc-
cessful as burning for eliminating fine  fuels (Smith 1962).

     Measurements by Anderson, Fahnestock, Philpot and  others3  show  that
wildfire may temporarily increase  available fuel  by  killing  green vegeta-
tion, but that prescribed burning  will reduce total  available fuels, the
rate of fire spread and the associated wildfire  resistance to control.
This is accomplished through the interruption of the horizontal and  some-
times the vertical continuity of flammable materials by the  reduction of
highly inflammable fine fuels (Smith  1962).   Hodgson 19684 showed that
doubling the amount of fine fuels  doubled  the rate of fire spread and pro-
duced a fourfold  increase in fire  intensity.

West Side--
     Prescribed burning is used on the West Side to  eliminate logging activ-
ity residues from the clear cut harvesting of Douglas-fir or other species,
which  if not treated would remain  a wildfire  hazard  for many years (Dell and
Green  1968). Unutilized slash may  accumulate  to  "total  fuel" loads in excess
of 50 tons per  acre and can reach  over 200 tons  per  acre in  extreme  cases
(Dell and Ward  1972).  Of this "total fuel" load the finer materials includ-
ing foliage, twigs and small branches compose "available fuel" loads of from
20 to 40 tons  per acre  (Moore and  Morris5).   Martin  et  al. (1976) indicate
that the upper  limit of available  fuel loads,  above  which fires were prone
to "blow up" is between 5 and 7 tons  per acre.

     Fuel models  of the mature West Side Douglas-fir timber  type indicate
that in 1 hour  a wildfire in slash fuels will  be four times  the size of a
fire burning in a natural fuel complex (Deeming  et al.  1974).  Evaluations
of the 14 major wildfires which have  occurred in the Mt. Hood National Forest
during the period from 1960 to 1975 show that in each case,  the fires either
started or gained momentum in accumulated  logging slash fuels (Dell  1977).
  As cited in Martin 1976.

  As cited in Dodge 1972.

  Contained in Cramer 1974.
                                   -20-

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     In contrast, the understory  of  western red cedar-forested areas on the
Olympic Peninsula are constantly  wet and present very little wildfire hazard.
Field observations by the BIA   indicate that slash beneath a forest canopy of
this type will not support  a qround  fire because of the high moisture content
of the fuel.  Wildfires  in  this area are normally confined to clearings and
along roads.

East side —
     Catastrophic wildfires  in  East  Side ponderosa pine forests may be reduced
by restoring the natural component  of periodic fire to the forest under con-
trolled conditions (Biswell et  al.  1973).   Wildfire damage is reduced by under-
story burning in five principal ways:

     1.   Reducing the volume  of  dead,  highly flammable fuels

     2.   Thinning dense thickets  of pine saplings and pole-
          size trees

     3.   Raising the height of green tree foliage by needle
          scorching, thus decreasing the chance of vertical
          spread and crown  fires

     4.   Eliminating understory  trees, thus decreasing the
          chance of vertical spread.

     5.   Eliminating ground litter, therefore allowing close
          compaction of  the subsequent  needle-fall.

     Studies by Weaver,  Cooper, Biswell, Hall and others indicate that inter-
vals of 5 to 10 years approximate the natural occurrence of fuel-reducing
qround fires in ponderosa pine.

     An example of the successful  use of periodic understory burning to mini-
mize wildfire damage was demonstrated during the Penrold Butte, Arizona wild-
fire of June 1963.  Figure  5 shows  a stand of trees which had been understory
burned by prescription in  1956  and  1961 in which the wildfire was confined to
the ground  and did no damage.   However, as shown in the foreground, where no
previous understory burning had occurred,  the wildfire killed 100 percent of
the trees.

     Kallander 19657 concluded  that  understory burning in ponderosa pine
stands on the Fort Apache  Indian  Reservation, Arizona reduced the size of
wildfires on treated areas  by  over  60 percent.  Observations by Davis and
Cooper (1963) showed that periodic  prescribed burning in southern pine
reduced the number, size,  intensity and destructiveness of wildfires.
  Personal communication, R. French, Bureau of Indian Affairs, January 18,  1978.


  As cited in Biswell et a.1. 1973.
                                     -21-

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            Figure 5.  Looking onto Penrold Mountain where the Penrold Butte Wildfire of 1963
            burned under die trees after two controlled bums, one in 1956 and the second in 1961.
            There the wildfire did no damage. In the foreground there had been no controlled
            burning and the wildfire killed all the trees, small and large. (Bitwell et al. 1973)
      In  1968, Fahnestock  studied the wildfire hazard of  slash from precom-
merclal  thinning of ponderosa pine on the  Deschutes National  Forest, Oregon.
He found that thinning to an 18 x 18 foot  spacing generated up to 40 tons
of slash per acre.  He concluded that this slash accumulation probably
represented as great a fire  damage hazard  in this thinned stand as did  the
dense  thicket prior to thinning.

      In  an earlier study, Weaver (1957)8 showed that three successive under-
story  burns on the Colvllie  Indian Reservation, Washington reduced fuel
loads  from 21.5 tons per  acre to 3 tons  per acre.

Sllvlcultural
     Historically, prescribed burning has  been primarily  used to reduce the
threat  of wildfire.  However, recent figures In the Pacific Northwest Indicate
an Increasing use of Sllvlcultural burning (Oregon, State of 1977m).
  As cited in Biswell et al. 1973.
                                      -22-

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 reasons:9
      Si 1vicultural burning may be utilized  for  one  or more of the following
           To Reduce Undesirable Brush Growth  Competition for Sunlight
           and Moisture—Unmerchantable brush  species  may occupy the
           growing space of desirable tree  species  and reduce poten-
           tial yields.  However, this same  brush cover may  provide
           essential protective shade for other  desirable tree
           species (Jemison and Lowden1().

           To Remove Obstacles to Tree Planting, Thinning and Har-
           vesting—Reducing large accumulations of slash improves
           accessibility for tree planting  and other siIvicultural
           treatments; however, it may also  increase seedling expo-
           sure to heat, drought and animal  damage  (Jemison  and
           Lowden11).  Harrison (1975) and Jemison and  Lowden12
           found that partial burning of slash pieces  may kill
           decay organisms outright and surface  charring would
           impede the rate of natural decomposition of the material,
           impairing future access through  the site for up to 50
           years.

           To Reduce the Threat of Insect and  Disease  Build-ups in
           Slash Accumulations—Untreated slash may attract  unde-
           sirable levels of dwarf mistletoe,  tussock  moths  or
           pine bark beetles which can then  damage  residual  trees,
           especially those weakened or previously  injured.

           Hartesveldt et al. (1968)13 referred to the  sterilizing
           effect of fire in soil infested with  pathogenic fungi.
           However, Jemison and Lowden14 point  out that the patho-
           genic fungus Rhizini undulata is  stimulated by fire in
           some Pacific Northwest forests.

           To Expose Mineral Soil for Reforestation Site Preparation—
           The removal of surface duff and  litter allows seed germina-
           tion and seedling establishment  in  mineral  soil;  however,
 9
   From USDA FS PNW 1973, Slash Disposal Information Sheet.

10
   Contained in Cramer 1974.


11 Ibid.

12
   Ibid.


   As cited in Dodge 1972.

14
   Contained in Cramer 1974.
                                     -23-

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           intense  burns  may damage soil productivity,  inhibiting15
           seedling  establishment and reducing  growth  potential (see
           Environmental  Effects - Soil).

West side—
     Silvicultural  burning on the West Side  is  used  as  a site preparation
tool on clearcut  logging sites and nonproductive  brush  lands.  However,
management objectives,  budget constraints, weather problems and environmental
concerns limit  the  application of fire to  less  than  25  to 40 percent of the
total area treated  each  year depending on  ownership.

     Prescribed understory burning is presently used  on a limited basis on the
West Side, but  may  increase in applicability as more  "second growth" Douglas-
fir stands are  intensively managed.17

     "Old  growth"  Douglas-fir stands on the West  Side  may accumulate up to
several feet  of litter  and duff under natural  conditions.  Clearcut  logging
activities in these stands may generate as much as 200  tons of slash per  acre
(Dell and  Ward  1972).   Although no data are presently available to  indicate
the  impact of slash accumulations on total stocking  in  the Pacific Northwest,
field interviews  indicate that slash-caused seedling  mortality and site unplant-
ability will  commonly reduce stocking to 50 percent  of  the normally expected
level/8

     Prescribed burning  after logging can  reduce  slash  obstacles and expose
mineral soils as  is necessary to establish new  tree  seedlings (Martin  1974).
This may be  especially  true for Douglas-fir, a  species  with serotinous cones
which regenerate  best  on fire-prepared seedbeds in the  open.  In a  1973 study
by Vyse and  Muraro, broadcast burning reduced heavy  logging slash and  increased
planting site suitability for reforestation efforts.  In the study area of
Vancouver  Island,  British Columbia, pretreatment  slash  loads ranged from  120
to  180 tons  per acre.   In this condition,  14 percent  of the area was rated as
plantable  with  little  or no difficulty.  Broadcast burning reduced slash  loads
to a level such that 100 percent of the area was  rated  plantable and the  cost
of of planting  was  decreased.

     In an earlier  study, Morris 1970 observed  58 pairs of clearcut plots
in the Cascade  and  Coast Ranges of Oregon which were  either burned or  left
is
   Contained in Cramer 1974.

16
   Personal communication, A. Hedin, Washington Department of Natural Resources; S. Wells, Oregon
   Department of Forestry.

17
   Personal communication, F. Graf, Oregon Department of Forestry.

IS
   Personal communication, F. Craf, Oregon Department of Forestry; A. Hedin, Washington Department
   of Natural Resources.
                                   -24-

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untreated.  He  concluded that burning consumed nearly  all  material  up to
11 inches  in  diameter  and reduced litter beds and  rotten wood.

     In field observations of several slash treatment  study  units on the
Wind River Experiment  Forest - Gifford Pinchot National Forest,  mechanical
piling of  old growth Douglas-fir logging residue to  a  residual  slash load of
15 tons per acre was sufficient to allow access for  tree planting,  but did
not reduce the  1 to 3  foot accumulations of duff and litter.   Broadcast burn-
ing of similarly logged areas on the Gifford Pinchot did however reduce duff
and litter accumulations and expose the mineral soils.19

     A 1977 survey  in  Oregon established that 30 percent of  the  3.8 million
forested acres  in the  coast ranqe is underproductive.,  although  the  area
contains 70 to  75 percent of the State's best growing  sites  for  commerical
Douqlas-fir stands  (Oregon State 1977).  Serai communities of  alder and
associated brush species, especially salmonberry,  thimbleberry  and  vine
maple now occupy Douglas-fir sites which were logged or otherwise disturbed
but not replanted with Douglas-fir.  Washington has  a  similar problem.

     Silvicultural  burning is used as a site preparation tool for convert-
ing these  immature  alder stands and brushlands to  the  more desirable stands
of Douqlas-fir.  An effective burn treatment may remove planting obstacles
and inhibit brush competition and eliminate the need for follow-up  treat-
ments as  is required when mechanical or herbicide  treatments are used.20

     In field applications, Publishers Time Mirror,  Inc. found  that prescribed
burning of brush prior to planting controlled competing brush species for up
to 5 years with no  further brush treatment.  However,  in areas  in which non-
burning mechanical  or  chemical treatments were used, follow-up  chemical treat-
ments were necessary within 2 to 3 years.21   D. Robinson,  Associate Professor,
Oregon State  University, supported these findings  in his testimony  before
the ITF-FSU  (September 13, 1977) in which he stated  that burning will retard
brush growth  for 2  to  5 years, allowing planted tree seedlings  to become
established without  additional treatments.  However, Roberts (1975) found
that some  shrub species resprout rapidly after a brown  and burn  treatment
and could  necessitate  follow-up application of selective herbicides.

     Animal damage  to  established seedlings nay also be reduced  by  temporar-
ily eliminating animal habitats with fire.  Studies  by  Hooven  (1973,  1976)
show that  prescribed fires may reduce small animal populations  by as much as
50 percent by eliminating protective cover vegetation.
 19
   Personal communication and field observations with N. Paulson, USDA FS, October 7, 1977.

 20
   Personal communication, G. Lingler, USDA FS Sinslaw National Forest, November 11, 1977.


   Personal communication, E. Feddern, Publishers Time Mirror, Inc., October 11, 1977.
                                    -25-

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     Mountain beaver (Aplodontin rufa) have  been  observed  to  clip  up  to 100 per-
cent of untreated plantations within a few weeks  of  planting.   The application
of burning prior to planting in conjunction  with  post-plant trapping  has been
shown to reduce mountain beaver damage td an insignificant level.22

East side--
     Silvicultural burning on the East Side,  in the  form of periodic  prescribed
understory burning, is used to enhance site  conditions  for seedling establishment
and to maintain open stand stocking to avoid growth  stagnating  competition
(Hall 1977).

     Roe and Beaufait (1971) reported that the initial  growth of ponderosa pine
seedlings may be as much as 50 percent greater on burned seedbeds  as  compared
to other nonburn seedbed treatments.

     Weaver (1947)23 found that the growth rate of ponderosa pine is greatly
increased in fire-thinned stands as compared to unthinned  stands.   In another
study, Weaver24 also suggested that fire  exclusion in ponderosa  pine may lead
to greatly increased competition, weakening  the trees and  making them more
vulnerable to insect attack.  Studies by Hall  (1977)  support  Weaver's earlier
findings and indicate that the exclusion of  fire  or  other  thinning tools may
result  in growth stagnation of ponderosa pine thickets.  Instead of a
classical stand development in which dominant trees  eventually  eliminate
suppressed trees, stagnation over a period of 50  to  100 years may  limit
diameter growth to 1 inch per 50 to 75 years and  height growth  to  4 to
6 inches per year.

     Hall (1977) also found that fire may enhance the growth  of ponderosa
pine by volatilizing growth inhibiting pine-specific allelopathic  substances
which are suspected to accumulate in pine litter  and associated soils.  On
several sites where fire had been excluded and accumulations  of litter were
present, the growth of ponderosa pine was significantly reduced while the
growth  of nearby white and Douglas-fir appeared normal.

     Prescribed burning has also been shown  to effectively control competing
hardwoods underneath an established pine stand (Brender and Cooper 1968).
Experiments on the Hitchiti Experimental Forest near Macon, Georgia resulted
in the  following conclusions:

     »    Prescribed fire effectively reduced hardwood stems  2  inches
          dbh and smaller
   Personal communication, E. Feddern, Publishers Time Mirror, Inc. ,  October 11, 1977.

23
   As cited in Dodge 1972.

24
   Ibid.
                                    -26-

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     t    Repeated burns were  necessary  to control  sprout growth

     •    Pine  reproduction  became  established on burned-over areas

     •    Sufficient  litter  remained  unburned on 10-20 percent of the
          slopes to protect  against soil  erosion.

     The present use  of fire on  the East Side may also help to control insect
infestation.  Martin  et al.  (1976)  mentions research underway to determine if
Douglas-fir tussock moth damage  can be  reduced by introducing periodic fire
to prevent the  ingrowth of susceptible  Douglas and true fir on sites more
suitable to pine.25  He also  indicates that the severity of mountain pine
beetle (Dendroctonus  monticola)  infestations may also be reduced by periodic
burning to control tree spacing.

Wildlife and Range

     Prescribed burning may  be used to  improve wildlife habitats and
enhance range conditions (Stoddard  1931,  Mobley 1973).  However, prescribed
burning objectives in the  timber-producing areas of the Pacific Northwest
may preclude optimum  prescriptions  for wildlife or range.   Mobley et al.
(1973) indicated that the  size and  frequency of a burn for timber manage-
ment will not always  enhance the requirements of wildlife and range.  It
may be that wildlife  and range considerations are not a primary reason for
burning in these areas as  are  hazard  reduction and siIvicultural improvement,
but rather are  merely expected spin-off  benefits.

     Periodic prescribed burning will maintain important wildlife forage
and browse vegetation in areas where  woody shrubs and trees would normally
invade.  However, recent studies in the  Pacific Northwest by Hooven (1973,
1976) indicate  that the wildlife benefits from burning are generally no dif-
ferent than those derived  from clear  cutting, although specific vegetative
types and associated  animal  species will  be affected differently (see OTHER
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS:  Wildlife).

     Prescribed burning may  also enhance range conditions  in East Side
ponderosa pine-type forests.   Mobley  (1973) indicated that grazing condi-
tions may be improved by fire  in the  following ways:

     •    Increased forage production

     •    Increased forage palatability

     •    Increased forage availability
25
   Douglas-fir Tussock Moth Program, USDA FS Bend Silviculture Laboratory and the University of

   Washington.
                                    -27-

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     •    Increased forage quality

     •    Removal of dead material

     •    Reduction of competing  vegetation.

     Pearson et  al. (1972)26 studied the effects of prescribed  burning on
forage plants  in a ponderosa pine-bunchgrass vegetative type.   One  year
after burning, the digestibility  of forage plants increased and nitrogen
and phosphorus contents  were higher.   However, Stoddard et al.  (1975)
indicated that repeated  burning and overgrazing of perennial bunchgrasses
may perpetuate inferior  subclimax stands of annual bromegrasses.

     It is, however, evident that prescribed burning in ponderosa pine-
bunchgrass communities does  increase  forage production by reducing  over-
story competition from trees and  brush (Pearson 1967).  Studies  by  Hall
(1977) in the Blue Mountains of Oregon concluded that crown cover in  areas
of fire exclusion increased  from  a  normal  coverage of 50 percent to about
80 percent.  The associated  forage  production was reduced from  500-600
pounds per acre  to as little as 50  to 100  pounds per acre.

     USDA Forest Service estimates  indicate that of the 2,118,000 acres
cf ponderosa pine forests on the  East Side which may be suitable27 for graz-
ing, 45 percent may be unavailable  because of dense brush or trees.28

BURNING TECHNIQUES

     The season  and hour-of-day of  a  proposed burn treatment will affect  the
fire behavior expected from  a particular prescribed burning technique.   Gen-
erally, when fuel is dry enough to  burn efficiently,  the hazard of  wildfire
is great and when meteorolooical  conditions are most suitable, fuels  may  not
burn efficiently (Harrison  1975).   Preferred burning conditions will  vary
with management  objectives,  but are generally within the following  ranges
(Cooper 1975):

     Fuel moisture content  -  6-15  percent

     Relative  humidity      - 30-50  percent29

     Wind speed             -  2-10  mph.
   As cited in Stoddard et al. 1975, p. 438.

27
   Less than 30 percent slope.

28
   Personal communication, L. Volland, USDA FS, December 2, 1977.

20
   Personal communication, R. Johansen, January 30, 1978.
                                    -28-

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     In the Pacific Northwest, meteorological  conditions  and smoke manage-
ment requirements limit the number  of  available  days  with  optimal  burning
conditions.  These constraints have  necessarily  required  burning during
the less than optimal periods of high  fire  hazard  or  high  fuel  moisture.

     Ignition devices currently utilized with  varying success in the Pacific
Northwest and in other regions of the  country  are  listed with their respec-
tive advantages and disadvantages in Table  1.

     Prescribed burning techniques  employed in the Pacific Northwest may  be
divided into three general categories:  broadcast  burning, pile burning and
understory burning.  The successful  application  of each may vary depending
upon prevailing meteorological conditions,  fuels  and  topography.

Broadcast Burning

     Broadcast burning is  an  "in place" method of  logging  slash disposal  and
brushland conversion.  The size of  the  area burned and ignition devices and
technique used depend upon the particular environmental conditions and  treat-
ment objectives on each site.

     There are four basic  ignition  patterns commonly  utilized for  broadcast
burning: (1) strip, (2) ring, (3) center, and  (4)  area.   Each pattern may be
influenced differently by  local atmospheric conditions affecting the fire
behavior and resulting emissions (Beaufait  1966).

Strip Ignition—
     Backing fires are set along the downwind  side of the  intended burn area
and allowed to "back" into the wind.   Field studies  indicate that  total fuel
consumption by backfires consumed more  litter  fuel and less vegetative  fuel
than do head fires (Hough  1968).

     Head fires are set along the windward  side  of the intended burn area
and allowed to run with the wind.   This type of  fire  front is typically fast
moving.

     Strip head fires are  parallel  head fires  set  across  the intended burn
area progressively from the downwind side toward  the  windward side.   Flare-
ups may occur when fires meet.

     Flank fires are set  in strips  parallel to the wind and allowed to
spread at an angle to the wind.

Ring Ignition —
     Ring ignition is accomplished  by  firing the  perimeter of the  intended
burn area and allowing the fire to  burn towards  the center.  This  type  of
ignition pattern is typically used  in  gentle terrain  and  light  fuels.
                                   -29-

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                     TABLE 1.  PRESCRIBED BURNING IGNITION DEVICES

Ignition Device
Matches
Fusees

Propane torches
(backpack)
Diesel flame-
throwers
(truck-mount)
Diesel flame-
throwers
(backpack)
Hand drip torches
Very flares and
thermite
Type of
Burn
Understory
Broadcast,
Pile

Broadcast,
Understory
Broadcast
Broadcast,
Understory
Broadcast,
Pile,
Understory
Broadcast,
Pile
Advantages
Always available in
quantity
Rapidly dispensed
Light in weight,
convenient
May be extended on pole
Hot, concentrated flame
Relatively long -burning
May be thrown
Very hot flame
Long burning
Maintain own pressure
Good for piled slash
Long residual flame
Long burning
Fast roadside ignition
Wide ignition pattern
Residual flame
Easy refill
Residual flame
Light and portable
Fast igniting
Some residual flame
Remote ignition possible
Disadvantages
Require fine, dry fuels
Localized ignition
Poor in wind
Require fine fuels
Localized ignition
No residual flame

Heavey and awkward
Time-consuming refill
Refill can be hazardous
No residual flame
Restricted to near
roads
Require gasoline pump
Require large quantities
of fuel
Heavy and awkward
Require pressurizing
Need frequent refills
Awkward in heavy
slash
Relatively costly
May burn too hot for
Reference
Beaufait 1966
Beaufait 1966

Beaufait 1966
Beaufait 1966
Beaufait 1966
Beaufait 1966
Beaufait 1966
  grenades

Jelled petroleum     Broadcast,
  (Napalm) in       Pile
  sausage casings or
  cannisters
                             slash ignition
May be ignited with fuse    Require presetting
Heli torch
                    Broadcast
Napalm grenade     Broadcast
  or electrically
Good for piled slash
Persistent flame
May be preset days ahead

Remote ignition
Rapid dispensing
Good for inaccessible slash
Residual flame

Forty sec pull fuse
Hand thrown remote
  ignition
Persistent flame
Requires constant
  surveillance
Time-consuming to
  layout
Poor in hardwood
  in marginal weather
Poor in hardwood
Schimke &
 Dell 1969
Beaufait 1966
Hedin 1977
Dell & Ward 1967
                                            -30-

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Center or  Internal  Ignition—
     Center  or  internal iqnition  is  accomplished by iqnitinq the  center of
the burn block  and  allowing the fire  to  burn towards the perimeter.

Area Iqnition--
     Area  iqnition  is accomplished by checkerboard firinq or spot iqnition
of the burn  block  and allowinq each  spot  to burn into another.

     One or  more  of the followinq mechanical or chemical pretreatments may
be used in combination with broadcast burninq.

Slash and  Burn--
     Unmerchantable loqs, saplinqs and brush remaininq after a  clearcut loq-
ginq operation  or  present on a potential  timber-growinq site may  be  mechani-
cally or hand-cut  (slashed) and then  broadcast  burned.                ,

     Mechanical "Hydro-axe" and "Tomahawk"  slashers operate efficiently in
relatively small  slash, but are restricted  to areas accessible  by tractor.
Observations on the Deschutes National Forest indicate that Tomahawk treat-
ment without follow-up burninq does  not  substantially reduce wildfire
hazard    (Section  5 - ALTERNATIVES TO BURNING).  A 2- to 3-month  interim
period between  slashing and burninq  may  be  required to allow enough  desic-
cation and compaction of fuels for an efficient burn treatment.31

Brown and  Burn—
     Green slash  and brush areas may  be  more efficiently burned  if treated
with chemical  herbicides or desiccants 2  weeks32 to 12 months33 prior to
broadcast  burninq.   The herbicides and desiccants used and application
rates are  shown in  Table 2.

     Field applications by the Hashinqton Department of Natural Resources
demonstrated that  the application of  the  contact herbicide Dinitro followed
by mass  iqnition  broadcast burninq produces satisfactory fire behavior in
situations where  conventional torch  iqnition would be ineffective (Hurley
and Taylor 1974).   Mass iqnition utilizes helitorch or napalm iqnition
devices discussed  previously in Table 1.  Entire burn blocks may  be  envel-
oped within  minutes with hiqh fire intensity characteristics.34
30
   Personal communication, W. Shenk, USDA FS PNW, November 11, 1977.


   Personal communication, E. Feddern, Publishers Time Mirror, Inc., October 11, 1977.

32
   Hurley and Taylor 1974.


   Personal communication, E. Feddern, Publishers Time Mirror, Inc. , October 11, 1977.

34
   Personal communication, A. Hedin, Washington Department of Natural Resources, October 5, 1977.
                                    -31-

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                 TABLE 2. BROWN AND BURN HERBICIDES AND DESICCANTS

Name
Tordon 101
2,4,D
2,4,5,7
Round-up
Paraquat
Dinitro
Chemical Structure
4-Amino 3, 5, 6 - Trichloropicolinic acid
2,4 Dichlorophenoxy acetic acid
2,4,5 Trichlorophenoxy acetic acid
N (Phosphonomethyl) glycine
1, 1' Dimethyl-4,4' Bipyridinium methane sulfanate
2 Sec Butyl 4, 6 Dinitro phenol
Application Rate*
1/4-8 Ib/Ac
1/4-4 Ib/Ac
1 -4 Ib/Ac
N/A
1/2 Ib/Ac
1-12 Ibs/Ac

   * Thomson, W. T. 1977, Agricultural Chemicals Book 2: Herbicides
      In  a study  by  Roberts  (1975),  brown and burn treatment of brushfields
in western Oregon prior  to  reforestation efforts was shown to greatly enhance
the potential  of planted conifers  to assume dominance.   The competing over-
story of red  alder  was  completely  removed and other hardwoods and tall
shrubs reduced.  The  author did  however point out that  shrub resprouting
was rapid and  could provide significant site competition necessitating
follow-up applications  of selective herbicides.

Pile  and Burn--
      Pretreatment of  larqer typically "unavailable" fuels by PUM or YUM
techniques may increase  the efficiency of broadcast burning (Dell 1977).
The remaining  small dimensional  fuels would produce a low intensity burn
with  less smoldering  material, thus reducino the residual burn-out time
or smoldering  stage.

Pile  Burning

      Pile burning of  slash  is  accomplished by PUM or YUM techniques to
concentrate material  into piles  or  windrows.

      PUM is accomplished by tractor or hand.  Tractor piling is limited to
slopes less than 30 to  35 percent  where soils will not  be adversely affected
by tractor compaction.   In  areas accessible to tractors, continual bunching
of the material  as  the  burn progresses increases the fire intensity and mate-
rial  consumption (Harrison  1975).   Tractor movement may also scarify the site,
exposing mineral soil for favorable reaeneration planting sites (Beaufait
1966).   However, the  use of tractors nay also decrease  burning efficiency
and increase  the chance  of  residual smoldering by mixing soil and rock with
the slash to  be  burned.   Harrison  (1975) points  out that this problem may be
elipinated by  the use of 3  "rock rake" instead of a dozer blade attachment.

     Windrow piling utilizes crawler and ignition crews more efficiently than
standard PUM techniques  (Beaufait  1966).   Vertical windrowing may reduce soil
erosion by directing tractor scrapinn across the slope  and allow for more
                                     -32-

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efficient fire control when the windrows  are  burned  from either the bottom
or top of the slope.  Field applications  by Boise-Cascade (Elmgren 1977)
show that tractor windrow piling  and  burning  using  a helicopter drip torch
is a cost-effective means of disposing  of  logging slash  to allow for refor-
estation.

     YUM is accomplished by "high-lead" or other cable  logging  machinery on
slopes inaccessible to tractors.   Slash material is  pulled to the log land-
ing or road, concentrated in piles  and  later  burned.

     Present Forest Service timber  sale contracts in the Pacific Northwest
may contain YUM or PUM provisions,  requiring  that loggers yard  or pile all
slash over 5 to 8 inches in diameter  (Harrison  1975).  This  facilitates
pile burning or exportation for utilization (see Section 5 - ALTERNATIVES
TO BURNING).  Hall (1967) found that  pilina or  windrowing of slash before
burning substantially increases the percentge of total material  and pieces
larger than 4 inches  in diameter  that will be consumed.   However,  Burwell
(1977b) indicated that the extreme  fire intensity of pile burning may also
sterilize the soil beneath the pile site  (see OTHER  ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS:
Soil).

     Pile burning may be utilized when  insufficient  fuel is  available to
support a broadcast burn or when  burning  must be done during wet or snowy
periods (Beaufait 1966).  An ignition spot can  be kept dry using a covering
of paper, tar paper or plastic.   Favorable meteorological conditions  for
smoke dispersion during the winter  months  increases  the  desirability of
deferred pile burning.  Pile burning  may  also be utilized during the summer
wildfire season when  extreme fuel  and meteorological  conditions  would nor-
mally preclude broadcast burning.   Cooper  (1975) indicated that  pile burning
may reduce the risk of fire escape  by eliminating the need for  predictable
directional winds as  are desired  when broadcast burning.

     Material combustion by pile  burning  or broadcast burning may result
in air pollution due  to incomplete  combustion.  Unburned emissions escape
when temperatures above the fire  decrease  to  levels  insufficient for com-
plete combustion as shown in Figure 6.

     Portable fans may be used to increase the  combustion of pile-burned
material by supplying oxygen and  a  measured amount  of fuel oil  although
Harrison (1975) observed that combustion  efficiency  is only "marginally"
improved.

Understory Burning

     Understory burning can be used in  forested areas to efficiently reduce
undesirable light fuel loads without  damaging desirable  residual vegetation.
Strip ignition patterns as described  on page  29 are  typically utilized for
understory burning.
                                    -33-

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                                 PILE I BURNING
                                     >f
                              Broadcast Burning
          Figure 6. Incomplete combustion temperature profile of pile or broadcast burn.

                                (Harrison 1975).
     Schimke  and  Green (1970) indicated that  a  controlled flame height  of
2 feet or  less would efficiently consume  litter and duff fuels and reduce
brush and  other undesirable veqetation.   Martin35   indicated, however,  that
a flame height of 5  feet may be used to give  a  20-foot scorch height for
pruninq or reducing  mistletoe infestation.  The application of a particular
ignition device and  pattern may not always  produce a fire intensity and rate
of spread  that will  meet these objectives.

     Burning  heavy accumulations of thinning  or partial-cutting slash which
may cause  unacceptable fire damage to residual  trees can be left to decompose
for 4 to 6 years  before burning (Dieterich  1976).   This untreated thinning
slash may  be  reqarded as a high wildfire  hazard and require "extra protection"
until treated or  sufficiently decomposed  (see Section 5 - ALTERNATIVES  TO
BURNING).
 35
   Personal communication, R.E. Martin, USDA FS, July 18, 1978.



                                     -34-

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PRESCRIBED FIRE  IN FOREST MANAGEMENT  -  OVERVIEW

     This report has thus far  introduced prescribed  burning  in the context
of forest management applications, the  reasons for  burning  and the burning
techniques utilized.  Prescribed  burning has  been shown  to  be  a useful  man-
agement tool when the fire can accomplish  silvicultural  objectives without
adversely affecting other environmental resources.   However, the absence of
comprehensive guidelines for the  use  of prescribed fire  in  the Pacific
Northwest may evidence the difficult  task  of  developing  prescriptions for
all environmental conditions and  management objectives.   It may also  attest
to the notion that "...prescribed burning  is  still more  of  an  art  than  a
science."
     This section  is an overview of  the  economic  and  other  environmental
impacts of prescribed burning.  They would  not  normally  be  addressed  in
a study of the impact of forestry burning upon  air quality,  but  may be
of importance for  a clear and total  understanding of  the overall  impli-
cations of prescribed burning and the trade-offs which must  be con-
sidered in its use, or the use of a  nonburning  alternative  technique.

Economic Impacts

     Section 317(a)(4) of the Clean  Air  Act Amendments of 1977 requires
that any action taken by the EPA Administrator  which  would  be used to
prevent deterioration of air quality must be preceeded by an Economic
Impact Assessment.  The requirements of  this act  are  quite  similar to the
information needed to provide an economic assessment  of  the  impacts of
forest burning upon air quality along with  the  potential for alternate
management techniques.

     A discussion  of the economics of forestry  burning and  nonburning alter-
natives are presented in Section 5.

Other Environmental Impacts

     The impact of prescribed burning on other  forest resources  is briefly
discussed in this  section to provide background information  necessary to fully
understand the potential environmental impacts  from alternative  nonburning
techniques as discussed in Section 5 (see Section 5 - ALTERNATIVES TO BURNING).
In general, although the immediate impact of fire is  often  intense and dra-
matic, long-term effects are usually buffered by the  natural regenerative
ability of forests.  In many instances fire is  recognized as a natural com-
ponent of forest ecosystems, guiding the successional progress of plant and
animal communities.  Douglas-fir forests throughout the  Pacific  Northwest are
an intermediate sere resulting from  catastrophic fire disturbances.  They
exemplify the natural role that fire has played in the characterization of
this region.
                                    -35-

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Water—
     Prescribed burning may  indirectly  affect  the  quality of  surface water
if riparian vegetation is reduced.  Mobley  (1973)  observed that a reduction
in veqetative cover will increase  surface runoff.   The  resulting erosion
may wash mineral soils and nutrients  into adjacent streams,  increasing the
turbidity and altering the chemical content  of the water.   Snyder (1975)
measured increased levels of pH, electrical  conductivity,  nitrate,  bicar-
bonate, sulfate, potassium,  calcium and  magnesium  in  streams  adjacent to
burned areas.  Organic nitrogen may constitute up  to  53 percent of  the
nutrient increases (Fredriksen  1971).   Water temperature has  increased
by as much as 11.4°C  (Levno  and Rothacher 1974).36   However,  these  effects
are expected to be temporary, diminishing as the riparian vegetation
becomes reestablished.

     Fire intensity,  and the associated  consumption of  surface duff and
litter, affects soil  credibility  (Dyrness and  Youngberg 1957).  Light
burning may partially consume duff and  litter  accumulations,  but does not
affect physical soil  properties.   Severe burning may  consume  all litter
and duff and expose mineral  soils  to  erosion.   Soil credibility will vary
with slope and soil type.  However, there are  several factors that  can
minimize the impact of severe burninci on soil  credibility:

     0     Severely burned areas  are  not usually found  on steep
           slopes which are  normally  most susceptible  to erosion.

     •     Severely burned areas  are  usually small and  scattered.

     •     Fire may form a protective crust  on some soil types.

     The effects of prescribed  burning  on water guality may be minimized
bv leaving a forested buffer strip between  burn areas  and adjacent  streams
(USDA FS 1973).

Veqetation--
     Prescribed burninq can  significantly alter the vegetative composition
or perpetuate a successional stage of a forest.  Studies in the Pacific
Northwest by Habeck et al. (1973)  and Hall  (1974)  show  that periodic fires
may reduce the  incursion of  competing tree  species into dominant forest
stands.  Fire may also facilitate  tree  regeneration by  freeing serotinous
cone seeds, exposing  mineral soil  seed  beds  and releasing soil minerals
and nutrients (Roe 1971, Heinselman  1970).

     Several factors  contribute to the  decree  of vegetative tolerance to
fire.  The immediate  lethal  effect of fire  is  due  to  combustion and heat.
  As cited in Cramer 1974.
                                     -36-

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Temperatures above 55 to 60°C may result  in  cell  death.   However,  the tem-
perature required to kill veqetative  tissue  is  inversely related to the time
of exposure.  Douglas-fir phloem, cambium and foliage  which can withstand a
temperature of 49°C for 1 hour will succumb  to  a  temperature of 60°C within
1 minute (Martin 1977).

     Tree species exhibit varying degrees of tolerance to fire.  Mature
ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir  and  larch  are considered to  be extremely fire
resistant because of their characteristically thick bark, buds  and stems,
although young saplings of these species  are relatively  sensitive  to fire.
Fire-sensitive species  include  lodgepole  pine,  western white pine, true
fir, Engelmann spruce,  and quaking aspen.  However, Roe  (1971)  observed
that the fire tolerance of tree  species may  depend  on  site conditions as
reflected by the successional position  of the species.

     Issac  (1943) reported that  fire  will  inhibit or eliminate  many shrub
species  including salal, Oregon  grapes, vine maple, and  salmonberry.  How-
ever, many  shrub species that are totally consumed  by  fire above ground
will sprout prolifically from root crowns.   Fire  may also enhance  the regen-
eration  of  shrubs with  heat-germinated  seeds (Haebeck  and Mutch 1975).

     Vogl (1969), Hooven and Black (1976), Lyon (1972) and others  reported
that the density and diversity  of herbaceous and  grass species  increase
after burning.

Wildlife—
     Hooven (1973), Reeves (1973), and  the University  of California (1971)
stated that prescribed  burning  benefits large animals  by increasing browse
palatability and accessibility.  Swanson  (1970) and Harper (1971)  have  docu-
mented the  improved habitat  for  large game following prescribed burning in
Douqlas-fir stands of western Oregon.3' Komarek found  that following a  burn,
resprouting shrubs and  herbaceous species contain high nutrient levels  of
protein, calcium, potash, and phosphorus.38  Brown and  Krygier (1967) reported
that browse reaches optimum  conditions  for Roosevelt elk 7 years after  logging
and for  deer 15 to 20 years  after logging.39 Hall (1971) reported  that  the
exclusion of understory burnings has  a long-term  detrimental effect on  wild-
life by  reducing cover  and forage.  Three shrub species  contribute browse in
dense fir stands while  eight contribute in open park-line ponderosa pine
stands.

     The altering of the habitat by prescribed  burning may have varied  effects
on other mammals.  Hooven (1969), Tevis (1956a) and Moore (1940) found  that deer
   As cited in Cramer 1974.
Q Q
   As cited in Hooven 1973.


39 Ibid.
                                   -37-

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copulations return rapidly followinq  a  broadcast  burn.40   Koehler found that
nine marten populations decreased  immediately  after  a fire but in the long-run
the new habitat supported more martens.41   Hooven and Black (1976)  found a
smaller shrew population on a slash-burned  Douglas-fir clearcut than on the
adjacent mature stand due to a decreased  insect population on  the burned plot.
However, field mice were found to  be  more prevalent  on the burned area.

     Observations  indicate that prescribed  burning has little  adverse effect
on bird populations (USDA FS 1973).   Fire may  indirectly  benefit bird popula-
tions by enhancing the growth of protective  shrub cover and exposing seeds and
insects.  Stoddard (1931, 1962) showed  that  fire  exclusion was responsible
for a decline in quail populations  in the Southeastern United  States.  In the
Pacific Northwest many birds, including quail,  are attracted to clearcut areas
that have been burned (Hooven 1973).

Hilderness and Aesthetics--
     Increasing public interest in  "pristine"  wilderness  areas has identified
a need for a better understanding  of  the  natural  role of  fire  in forests.
Fire is a most common natural disturbance that will  shape a forest stand and
characterize the forest community  (Smith  1962).   The visually  pleasing open
park-like stands of oonderosa pine  forests  have been perpetuated by periodic
understory burning and the habitat  of many  wild animals and desirable veaeta-
tive species have  been enhanced by  fire treatments.

     There are no  definitive studies  in the  Pacific  Northwest  showing how
people react to specific prescribed burning  treatments.   However, Williams
(1975) indicates that, in general,  public reaction to burning  will  be emo-
tional and negative.

     The visual impacts of prescribed burning  may elicit  the most reaction.
Harrison (1975) observed that the  large partially burned  pieces of slash and
cull  logs that remain after burning give  an  appearance of vast waste, although
actual destruction is much less than  would  be  expected from a  catastrophic
wildfire.  Also, the smoke from forestry  burnina  may be displeasing in rural
areas which are not common!v associated with  atmospheric  pollutants,  although
Hough and Turner (1972)42 found that  there  is  not a  direct correlation between
visible smoke and  the amount of burnino activity.

     Public sentiment against burning,  if any,  may in part be  attributed to
the success of the USFS "Smokey the Bear" campaign coupled with a lack of
understanding of the reasons for prescribed  burning  and a lack of scien-
tific knowledge of potentially detrimental  environmental  impacts.
4(1
   As cited in Cramer 1974.

41
   As cited in Moore 1976.

42
   As cited in Williams 1975.

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Soils--
     Hall (1977), Stone  (1971) and Wells  (1971)  all  point  out a basic factor
that must be kept in mind when assessing  the  effects of  fire on soil.  There
are short-term influences that alter the  productivity (both  for good and
bad), but the soil system tends to buffer these  effects  and  fairly rapidly
return to an equilibrium not too different  than  that seen  before the burn.
These soils developed under conditions  of periodic  burning by either wild-
fires or those set by the aboriginal populations.

     Dyrness and Youngberg  (1957a, b),  Tarrant  (1956a, b), and Ralston and
Hatchell (1971) have all evaluated the  effects  of fire on  soil physical
properties and have all  concluded that  there  is  essentially  no significant
effect unless the fire  is severe.  This occurs  in  less than  10 percent of the
area during broadcast burns.  These severe  burns occur under piles of slash
that often accumulate in the bottoms of draws  and on log landings.

     This effect could  present a problem  for  PUM and YUM operations where
5 percent of an area's  soils may be sterilized  by the severe burns under
piles.  By judicious placement of piles,  the  effects can be  minimized.

     Any disturbance to  the soil is likely to  alter  erosional  patterns,  how-
ever, Ralston and Hatchell  (1971) note  that these factors  are ameliorated
with the invasion of shrubs and forbs  into the  area  following the burn.
Dyrness and Youngberg (1957a, b) point  out  that  on  the lightly burned areas
erosion should not be markedly different  from  the unlogged areas;  however,
more research needs to  be done in this  area and  Ralston  and  Hatchell  (1971)
voice this same conclusion.

     Nutrient regimes are definitely altered  by  fire.  Some  factors are  bene-
ficial, others detrimental.  The work by  Grier  and  Cole  (1971) at the Univer-
sity of Washington indicate a definite  release  of nutrients  to the soil,  but
notes that these are rapidly adsorbed onto  the  soil  colloids.   A more striking
finding was reported by Wells (1971).   The loss  of  nitrogen  (N)  from the lit-
ter was offset by the same  rate in accumulation  in  the 0-2"  layer of mineral
soil.  Wells (1971) reports that the increased  burning leads to a stimulation
of nonsymbiotic fixation of N.  Stone  (1971)  speculates  that this is  most
likely brought about by blue-green algae,  which  have been  shown by Jurgensen
and Davey (1968) to be  present in acid  forest  soils  and  are  known to be  stim-
ulated by increased pH  which could result from  the  released  nutrients after a
burn.  This increase in  N fixation along  with  the mineralization is believed
to be the reason that there is little apparent  loss  of available N following
a fire on some sites.

     In comments on Wells'  (1971) paper,  Dr.  William L.  Pritchett of the
University of Florida Soils Department, observes that fire is a rapid method
of oxidizing the organic matter on the  forest  floor;  the same action is  car-
ried out over longer time periods by microorganisms.   Dr.  Charles Davy of North
Carolina State University makes a similar observation in conjunction with a
paper by Jorgensen and  Hodges (1971).   Davy notes that the organic matter in
                                     -39-

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the A, horizon  of  the  soil  is  on the order of 300 to 800 years  old.   The
r>aterial destroyed  by  fire  is  not this "old" material but  the  less  resistant,
readilv oxidizable  material.   The key to the effects aqain depends  upon the
severity of the burn.

      In summary, the consensus of opinion held by most  forest  soils  specialists
is that prescribed  fires  have  relatively little effect  on  the  soil  system and
that  those effects  that  are seen are rapidly offset by  the homeostatic tenden-
cies  of the ecosystem.

Political Setting

      Any use  of fire  in  wildland settinas is an open  invitation for contro-
versy.  Foresters  themselves are often in disagreement  over the use of pre-
scribed fire.43  Data  have  not been accumulated that enable.a  sound scientific
evaluation to be made  of the impact of fire on the ecosystem.   Policy has
been  set based  upon the  emotions of the hour,  i^lajor conflagrations which
oriqinated  in the  early  part of this century led to  legislative mandates that
said  in effect: "There  shall  be no fires in the forest."   The effort to edu-
cate  the public to this  goal through "Smokey the Bear"  has been perhaps one
of the  best  advert is inn  schemes ever developed.  In effect, it has  been too
successfu 1.

      The  "no  burn" philosophy of the first half of this century is  slowly
qivinq  way  to a more  rational  management goal, that of  using fires  as an
effective management  tool.   This is reflected by the U.S.  Forest Service
Operations Manual,44  where  the following statement  is made:

      "Protectinq and  managing forest and range environments
      for  enhancement  of  productive potential in terms of wood,
      forage,  water and recreation necessitates use of con-
      trolled  burning."

      The  use  of burning as  a forest management tool  is  inevitably controver-
sial.  Mot  only does it run counter to the vision  of  fire as the enemy of
forests and  man which the Forest Service  itself  has  so  effectively engendered
o»er  many years, but it now appears to much  of the  public as a threat to
environmental  values about which the public  had  been  little concerned as
recently  as  25 years ago.  Among the new environmental  values  which controlled
burning is  seen to threaten are  air quality, visibility, energy conservation,
resource  utilization and the  ineffable values  of what  seems to the city-
dweller's  eve to be "wilderness" countrv.
 43
 44
Smith, David M.  The Practice of Silviculture. 7th ed. , John Wiley & Sons, Inc. , New York 1962.

U.S. Forest Service Manual, Region 6, Supplement No. 62. February 1972. U.S. Department of

Agriculture.
                                      -40-

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     The new environmental consciousness has been enacted into environmental
laws, among which the Federal Clean Air Act, particularly in its amendments
of 1970, 1974 and 1977, provides mandates to the states to preserve the qual-
ity and appearance of their air in ways which are not readily compatible with
the use of controlled burning in forest lands.

     The stage has been set for controversy.  On both sides the issues are
expressed in terms of law, health, economics and available technologies,
but there is a strong emotional underlay to the arguments.  The advocates
of environmental  protection (in this case, the advocates of severe limita-
tions on controlled burning) are defending a landscape as well as tangible
values.  Those responsible for implementing a policy of controlled burning
as a forest management tool react emotionally, as well as logically, against
a perceived threat to an  industry, to an individual's job, or to an individ-
ual's ego.  The employees of government agencies find themselves engaged in
arguments on both sides of the issue, arguments which must be based in law
and the marshalling of facts but which are difficult to disentangle from the
emotional, and often political, background of the issues.

     Early efforts toward meeting the requirements of the Clean Air Act and
other air quality legislation were directed toward the more obvious sources
of pollution.  Slash fires were considered to be an "uncontrolled" source.
Even though action to eliminate the use of fire was not instigated, efforts
have been made to control the smoke emissions from the fires.  Both
Washington and Oregon have an active smoke management plan.  These plans
regulate the use of fire  through the respective forestry organizations who
are responsible for issuing burning permits.  These programs have become
increasingly effective as experience is gained in predicting smoke behavior
under varying fuel, terrain and meteorological conditions.

     The Federal  and State agencies concerned with managing environmental
quality and forestry production are increasingly aware of the interactions
of their mandates and programs.  Public awareness, still without a full under-
standing of all the issues involved, is also increasing in this area.  Over
the years the general public have not been overly tolerant of smoke.  This
attitude, along with the  potential for health problems resulting from smoke
inhalation, has created public reactions that are becoming more and more
difficult to anticipate.  Public pressures led the 1977 Oregon Legislature
to take a serious look at the use of fire in grass seed production areas of
the Willamette Valley.  House Bill 2196 resulted.  This bill states in
Section 4:

     "468.455.  [In a concerted effort by agricultural inter-
     ests and the public  to overcome problems of air pollution,
     it is the purpose of ORS 468.140, 468.150, 468.290 and
     468.455 to 468.485 to provide incentives for development
     of alternatives to open field burning, to phase out open
     field burning and to develop feasible alternative methods
     of field sanitation  and straw utilization and disposal.]
     In the interest of public health and welfare it is declared
     to be the public policy of the state to control, reduce
                                    -41-

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     and prevent air pollution caused by the  practice  of  open
     field burning.  Recognizing that limitation  or  ban of  the
     practice at this time, without having found  reasonable
     and economically feasible alternatives to  the practice
     could seriously impair the public welfare, the  Legisla-
     tive Assembly declares it to be the public policy of the
     state to reduce air pollution by smoke management and  to
     continue to seek and encourage by research and  develop-
     ment reasonable and economically feasible  alternatives
     to the practice of annual open field burning, all con-
     sistent with ORS 468.280."

     Hearings and implementation of this legislation have revealed  the
nature of "prescribed" fire to generate political heat along with combus-
tion products.  The fact that slash fires occur at the same  time  the grass
fields are burned was noted during the hearings on Oregon House Bill  2196.
This raised the question as to the source of  smoke in  the Eugene-Springfield
area.  In an effort to further identify the impact of  forest burning upon air
quality, a Joint Interim Task Force on Forest Slash  Utilization was set up
by the Oregon State Legislature.  This task force is attempting to  determine
a course of action for the State of Oregon in regard to reducing  the air
quality effects of prescribed burning.  Foresters are  quite  concerned over
the potential loss of the use of fire as a management  tool.

     The Federal Clean Air Amendments of 1977 passed by Congress  in August
1977 place another potential  restriction on the use  of fire.  These amend-
ments contain three sections  that have a potential effect in the  Northwest.
This act requires:  (1) that  significant deterioration of air quality will
not be allowed  in areas such  as the designated  wilderness areas;  (2)  preser-
vation of visibility in Federal Class I areas by  alleviating significant
impairments; (3) initiation of a report to Congress  on the  effects  of fine
particulates on health and welfare.

     The first  requirement, which is the part of  the 1977 Clean Air Act
Arnendements preventing significant deterioration  of  air quality,  permits
only minimal degradation of air quality within  designated Class I areas.
(The Class I areas include National Parks and wilderness  areas.)  At  the
present time, the smoke management plans in Oregon and Washington are
designed to direct the smoke  away from the designated areas  lying in  the
Puget Trough and the Willamette Valley.  Any  requirement  to direct  smoke
out of the Western Cascade area toward the east is likely to interact with
the air in the National Parks and the wilderness  areas lying along  the
Cascade Crest.  If the Clean Air Amendments are interpreted so that they
apply to these Class I areas, the smoke management programs will  be greatly
handicapped and prescribed forest burning further restricted.  (This  is
discussed further in Section 6.)

     The second requirement seeks to protect  the  scenic value of Class  I
areas from visibility impairment both now and in  the future.  This  require-
ment is similar in its impact to that discussed above--smoke management
                                    -42-

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will be greatly handicapped and thus more difficult to  attain.   The  third
requirement listed above  is still open because  of  the  lack of  information.
However, if research  leads to special air quality  standards  for  fine par-
ticulate matter, forestry burning may be greatly curtailed since the majority
of the particulate matter emitted by forest  burning is  in the  fine particu-
late range.  The effect of forest burning upon  fine particulate  levels  is
further discussed in  Sections 3 and 6.

     This brief outline points up the dilemma of the environmental managers
within the various governmental and private  organizations. The public is
demanding cleaner air at  the same time the demands for  inexpensive forest
products are being made.  An industry that is often marginal is  being pressed
to absorb additional  costs or else risk an elevated probability  of destruc-
tive wildfires.  Legislative deadlines put pressure on  pollution  control
agencies to act with  limited knowledge to control  pollution.  Many environ-
mental action groups  want clear visibility,  on  one hand, and, on  the other
hand, do not want wildfire destroying the natural  beauty.  These  are all
conflicting points of view that must be addressed with  no present mechanism
for handling them.  A system of checks and balances must be  developed that
will enable the managers  within the Government  to  balance as many of the
factors as possible in coming up with a decision.  Research  and  legislative
action must be taken  to assist this decision process by enabling  the manager
to use a scientific basis for decisions rather  than with emotion  or  legisla-
tive, fiat alone.
                                    -43-

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                                   SECTION 2

                    FORESTRY BURNING IK WASHINGTON AND OREGON
     The locations and extent of forestry burning in Washington and Oregon
are presented in this section through a series of maps and tables.  Infor-
mation on who is conducting burning activity, the type of fuel burned,
burning techniques used, and relation to timber harvest activity is also
presented.

LOCATION OF FORESTRY BURNING

     Data on forestry burning activity were drawn from the Smoke Management
Programs administered by the Washington Department of Natural Resources (DNR)
and the Oregon Department of Forestry (DOF), and the Total Resources  Informa-
tion (TRI)  System of the U.S. Forest Service (Region 6).  Data for Oregon
were drawn entirely from the Oregon Smoke hanagement System, a computerized
system for recording planned and accomplished burns and operated as part of
the Oregon Smoke Management Program.  Data on burns conducted in Washington
were drawn primarily from the Washington Smoke Management Plan annual reports
or  listings of individual burns provided by the DNR.  Data on Federal burns
conducted in Washington during 1975 and 1976 were drawn from the TRI  System
of  the USDA FS.

    The number of burns, acres burned, estimated tons of fuel burned  and
annual averages are summarized in Table 3 for the years 1975 through  1977.
It  should be emphasized that tons of fuel burned are estimates and subject
to  considerable error.  This is especially true in the case of broadcast
burning, where both fuel loading and percent of fuel consumed which are
required to estimate fuel burned, are difficult to estimate reliably.
Since tons of fuel burned are used in estimating pollutant emissions, the
error in estimated fuel burned should be considered before drawing conclu-
sions based on these figures.  Attempts to determine the magnitude of the
errors were unfruitful because of the lack of studies designed to provide
estimates of the accuracy.   A comparison was made between actual field
sampling (reported by Dell  and Ward 1971) and smoke management system
data provided by the States of Washington and Oregon.  Statistical tests
on the data revealed considerable variablity in the tonnages burned per
acre.  The data often was consistent within a National Forest but varied
considerably between National Forests.  The data from the State of Washington
was not different from the field measurements but the Oregon data revealed
considerable differences.  Most of the discrepancy between the field  data
and the Oregon Smoke Management estimates was due to high values reported
for two National Forests.

     The values reported in Table 3 may be reasonably accurate for the
Washington areas but appear to be too high in Oregon.  Some of the
National Forest areas report values that averaged almost five times the
                                  -44-

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                               TABLE  3. SUMMARY OF FORESTRY BURNING ACTIVITY IN WASHINGTON  AND OREGON, 1975-1977
County
Washington:
Clallam
Clark
Cowlitz
Grays Harbor
Island
Jefferson
King
Kitsap
Lewis
Mason
Pacific
Pierce
San Juan
i Skagit
i Skamania
Snohomish
Thurston
Wahkiakum
Whatcom
No. of
Burns

82
1
124
74
0
59
25
S
129
36
29
21
0
28
251
49
25
2
31
1975
Estimated
Acres Tons of Fuel
Burned Burned

3,424
80
10, 098
4,685
0
2,612
774
185
4,331
1,488
2,437
1,044
0
922
7,907
1,387
1,123
136
940

65, 354*
160*
145, 995*
79, 865*
0
84,094*
32, 395*
2,012
41, 040*
7, 385*
47,104
25,610*
0
4, 155*
7, 610*
25, 140*
23, 202*
4,700
2, 280*
No. of
Burns

120
6
116
86
0
69
33
9
146
90
45
35
0
55
199
58
18
5
36
1976
Estimated
A cres Tons of Fuel
Burned Burned

4,135
430
9,237
5,307
0
3,423
1,228
236
9,489
4,101
3,909
1,509
0
1,443
11,588
2,196
280
214
1,005

33, 338*
8, 450*
262,493*
89, 218*
0
41,316*
48, 507*
3,012
87, 131*
15, 670*
85, 105
25,040
0
12, 270*
39, 990*
9, 730*
24, 500*
6,516
15,555*
1977
Estimated
No. of Acres Tons of Fuel
Burns Burned Burned

87
2
51
74
0
86
29
7
240
96
49
45
0
49
289
39
11
5
17

2,945
50
4,334
5,372
0
3,467
402
248
8,572
2,457
3,464
1,293
0
2,266
9,687
1,541
410
542
1,034

95, 940
700
111,040
104, 930
0
80, 460
21, 950
2,490
301, 230
84,440
• 71,455
25,520
0
63,400
363,510
45, 120
5,440
4,150
41,580
All
No. of
Bums

96
3
97
78
0
71
29
7
171
74
41
34
0
44
246
49
18
4
: 28
Years (Average)
Estimated
A cres Tons of Fuel
Burned Burned

3,501
187
7,890
5,121
0
3,167
801
223
7,464
2,682
3,270
1,282
0
1,544
9,727
1,708
604
297
993

64, 877*
3, 103*
173, 176*
91, 338*
0
68,623*
34,284
2,505
143, 134*
35, 832*
67, 888
25,390
0
26,608*
137,037*
26, 663*
17, 714*
5,122
19,805*
       Combined
   Western Counties
971     43,573    1,540, 031f!  1,126   59,730    1,869,281"*"   ' 1, 176    48,085       1,423,350  1,090      50,461
1,610, 8891
       Combined
                                                                                                                                                   tt
                                                                                                                                                    .**
   Eastern Counties     264     74, 323 §1   1,495, 374 §      423   57, 331 § i  1, 788, ISO-5,'   336*53,228**    1,227,260**,'  374      61,627 »1,503, 595


  I Statewide Totals   1, 235 *  117, 896 §:  3, 035, 405 §   1,549  117, 061  5;  3, 657, 431  §  .' 1, 512# 101, 313**    2, 650, 6l6**l>432"H-  112> 090**" 3,114,482tt


  * Figure does not include burnt by the U.S. Forest Service for 1975 and 1976.                                                                                                       (continued)
  t Figure includes fuel burned by the U.S. Forest Service in Western Washington,  as reported In the Annual Summary of Prescribed Burning Activities conducted under the Washington Smoke Management Plan.
  $ Figure does not include bum conducted by the Bureau of Indian Affairs in Eastern Washington or the U.S. Forest Service In the CMvlUe National Forest.
  I Figure does not include burns conducted by the U.S. Forest Service In the Colvllle National Forest.
  t Figure does not include burns conducted by the Bureau of Indian Affairs in Eastern Washington and the U.S. Forest Service bi the Colvllle and Umalllla National Forests.
** Figure does not include burns conducted by the U.S. Forest Service In Cotvllle  and UmiitlUa National Forests.
tt Figure does not Include burns conducted by: the Bureau of Indian Affairs in Eastern Washington during 1973-77, the  U.S. Forest Service In the Colville National Forest during 1975-77, and the
      U.S. Forest Service in the Umatilla National Forest during 1977.
$^ Figure does not include burns conducted by the U.S. Forest Service in the Colvllle National Forest during 1975-77 and the Umatilla National Forest during 1977.

NOTE:  Tonnage figures may be high. See page 43 for discussion of possible error.

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TABLE 3.  (continued)
1975
Estimated

County
Oregon:
Ben ton
Clackamas
Clatsop
Columbia
Coos
Curry
Douglas
Hood River
Jackson
Josephine
Lane
Lincoln
Linn
Marion
Multnomah
Polk
Tillamook
Washington
Yamliill
Combined
Western
Counties
Combined
Eastern
Counties
Statewide
Totals
No. of
Burns

24
316
3
8
127
77
526
57
69
74
604
66
158
36
49
8
54
2
11


2,269


103

2,372
A cres
Burned

321
6,771
338
366
3,409
1,927
23, 905
2, 364
5,713
1,089
18,421
1,820
3, 123
821
251
135
1,851
94
219


72,938


5,593

78,531
Tons of Fuel
Burned

4,985
249, 298
12, 180
12,875
129,986
83, 199
653, 297
29, 205
491,962
104, 365
756,431
40, 937
1 14, 020
26,628
51,627
4,250
72,261
1,966
7,125


2, 847, 227


131,222

2, 978, 448
No. of
Burns

34
419
9
18
197
137
630
86
98
87
878
109
312
57
35
14
85
3
25


3,233


93

3,326
1976
Estimated
Acres
Burned

1,290
4, 858
382
578
5,306
4,573
21,994
2,149
6,668
1,639
25, 874
4, 161
10, 858
1,076
419
550
2,897
59
606


95,937


1,923

97, 860
Tons of Fuel
Burned

21, 336
428,998
6, 907
17,903
172,664
143, 407
886,523
59, 385
507, 946
116,674
1, 288, 766
155, 506
279,515
40,434
61,530
16,475
95, 896
1,904
28, 843


4,330,612


157, 283

4, 487, 895
1977
Estimated
No. of Acres
Burns

23
389
6
8
159
117
601
56
135
75
626
100
277
104
38
17
40
3
23


2,797


214

3,011
Burned

597
4,187
404
495
5,582
2,987
21,542
740
13,332
2,122
22, 791
5,037
8,769
2,732
511
676
1,745
134
589


94, 972


3,395

98, 367
Tons of Fuel No.
Burned

5,002
199,684
14,855
4,748
137, 725
141,753
888,965
45,472
448,012
132,551
761,692
98,021
261,745
96, 367
44,713
12,409
42,470
3,915
21, 845


3,361,943


192, 592

3, 554, 535
All Years (Average)
Estimated
of Acres
Burns Burned

27
375
6
11
161
110
586
66
101
79
704
92
249
66
41
13
59
3
20


2,769


137

2,904

736
5,272
375
480
4,766
3, 162
22,480
1,751
8,571
1,617
22, 362
3,673
7,583
1,543
394
454
2,164
96
471


87,949


3,637
•
91,586
Tons of Fuel
Burned

10,441
292,659
11, 314
11,842
146,792
122,786
809, 805
44, 687
482,640
117,863
935,629
98,155
218,426
54, 476
52,623
11,045
70, 209
2,595
19,271


3,513,258


160, 366

3,673,624

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average for the field measurements  derived  from the data reported by Dell
and Ward (1971).

     Examination of the data gives  a  clue to  the likely problem.   Many of
the areas appear to be reporting total fuel  loading rather than tons of
fuel burned.  (Better supervision  and data  quality control should greatly
reduce much of the discrepancy.)   Dell and  Ward reported that the fines
(< 3") averaged from 20-40 tons per acre.   Most fuels  management  personnel
consider that this is a reasonable  figure and closely  follows the tonnages
burned in slash fires.  In some cases values  as high as 350 tons  per acre
were reported.  These high values  more closely follow  total tons  of fuel
on the ground than tons consumed by the  fire.

     Until a field check  is undertaken,  these estimates cannot be con-
sidered as more than indications of the  amounts of material burned.  Fuels
management specialists are attempting to refine the basis for estimating
the amount of materials burned in  order  to  develop more reliable  figures.
Future estimates should improve greatly  as  a  result of these new  tech-
niques.  Better data management will  also help improve the quality and
reliability of the estimates made.

    Table 3 contains fuel tonnages  for each county on  the West Sides of
the two states and summaries of East  Side,  West Side,  and state totals.
Washington counties which are missing data  on "Estimated Tons of  Fuel
Burned" for USDA-FS area  burns are  flagged  with asterisks (*).  West Side
summary figures for "Tons of Fuel  Burned" do  include USDA FS burns.1  Ton-
nages reported for "Combined Western  Counties" are thought to be  complete.
East Side figures for Washington are  footnoted to indicate missing data.
The number of burns on the East Side  does not include  burns conducted  by
the Bureau of Indian Affairs  (BIA).   However,  acres and estimated fuel
burned do include data for BIA burns.  East Side figures also do  not
include burns conducted by the USDA FS in the Colville National  Forest
for the entire period 1975-1977 and for  the Umatilla National Forest for
1977.

    Figures 7 through 9 show the distribution of forestry burning activity
on the West Side commercial forest  lands of Washington and Oregon.  Fig-
ure 7 shows the number of burns, Figure  8 the acres burned and Figure  9
tons of fuel burned.  The degree of burning activity is shown by  county for
the years 1975 through 1977 and as  an average of the 3-year period.  In
Washington only non-Federal commercial areas  have been shaded in  Figure 9,
representing estimated tons of fuel burned, except for 1977, for  which county-
level figures were available for all  burns  on the West Side.  During the
period 1975-1977, an average of approximately 3900 burns were conducted each
year on the West Side, 2769 in Oregon and 1090 in Washington.  An average of
138 thousand acres were burned annually, 88 thousand in Oregon and 50 thousand
  As a result, the sum of individual county figures is less than the indicated West Side total.
                                    -47-

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 r
-pi
CO
 I
              1975
                                                  1976
                                                                                     1977
                             Figure 7.  Number of burns,  western Washington and Oregon, 1975-1977
    1975-1977



Number of Burns per Hundred Square Miles



       None              ]%gj^p|   7.5 - 9.9



       °.l - 2.4          IJjJimH  lo.O - 14.9



        2.5-4.9          ||ffi||  15.0-19.9



       5.0-7.4                 20.0-

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1975
1976
                                                                     1977
                            Figure 8.  Acres burned, western Washington and Oregon, 1975-77.
                                                                   1975-1977





                                                               Acres Burned per Hundred Square Miles






                                                               |    |  None            138881   300-399





                                                               t=4  1-99            |!||||||||l|   400-499





                                                               ^1  100-199         iHI   500-599





                                                               |%^|  200-299                 600-

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 I
en
O
 i
              1975
                                                 1976
                                                                                   1977
                   Figure 9.  Estimated tons of fuel burned, western Washington and Oregon  1975-1977
     1975-1977


         Estimated Tons of Fuel Burned

           per Hundred Square Miles


I    I    None            HI   7,500-  9,


           1 - 2«499      IIIIIIIIIH  10,000 - 14,


       2,500-4,999      |^j|  15,000-19,


       5,000-7,499             20,000-

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 in Washington.  An estimated 5.1 million  tons  of  fuel were  burned,  3.5  million
 in Oregon and  1.6 million  in Washington.  Although  these  figures  indicate more
 burning activity in Oregon than  in Washington, on  a  unit area  basis  the two
 states are comparable.  Oregon burns 6.1  thousand  acres  per million  acres of
 commercial forest land and Washington  burns  5.0 thousand acres per  million
 acres of commercial forest land.  Washington reported  1100  burns; considerably
 fewer than the 2800 burns  reported by  Oregon.  The average  size  of  burn blocks
was 46.3 acres in Washington versus 31.8  acres  in  Oregon.   However,  average
estimated fuel burned per  acre was 39.9 tons in Oregon versus  31.9  tons in
Washington.

    East Side data available from the  Oregon and Washington Smoke Management
Programs indicate considerable forestry burning in Washington  and compara-
tively little  in Oregon.   During the 3-year  period from  1975 to  1977, an aver-
age of nearly 62 thousand  acres were burned  annually in  eastern  Washington,
consuming an estimated 1.5 million tons of fuel.   These  figures  do  not  include
burns by the USDA FS  in the Colville and  Umatilla  National  Forests for  all
3 years.  The Oregon Smoke Management  System (OSHS)  reported 3637 acres
were burned annually on Oregon's East  Side,  consuming an estimated  160
thousand tons of fuel, during 1975-1977.  However, these figures do  not
 include forestry burning in the  large  portion  of eastern  Oregon  which is
not within the jurisdiction of the Oregon Smoke Management  Plan.

    On the West Side, Douglas County,  Oregon reported 22,480 acres burned;
the greatest number of acres burned of the two states during the period
 1975-1977.  Lane County, Oregon was close behind reporting  22,362 acres
burned.  However, these two counties also have approximately twice as much
commercial forest area as  any other county in  the  two states.  On a  unit
area basis,  Douglas and Lane Counties  were also high in  burning  activity,
reporting 499 and 627 acres burned per 100 square  miles  of  commercial tim-
berland during 1977.  Cowlitz County,  Washington showed  the greatest  level
of burning on a unit  area  basis, with  785 acres burned per  100 square miles
of commercial timberland.  Other counties reporting  high  levels  of burning
activity were Hood River,  Oregon; Linn, Oregon; and  Skaniania,  Washington.

    The largest number of  burns per unit  area was  in Clackamas County,  Oregon
with 27 burns per 100 square niles, Multnomah County, Oregon with 24  burns
per 100 square miles  and Skaniania County, Washington with 17 burns per
100 square miles.

    Estimated tons of fuel burned per  unit area was  greatest in  Multnomah
County, with more than 30  thousand tons of fuel burned per  100 square miles.
Other counties with high estimated tons of fuel burned were Clackamas,
Douglas, Jackson and Lane, in Oregon,  and Cowlitz  in Washington.

Principals Doing Burning

     Table 4 presents the  ownership of commercial  forests in Washington
and Oregon by broad ownership classes.  On the West  Side of the  two  states,
28.8 percent of commercial forest is owned by  the  U.S. Forest  Service,
                                  -bl-

-------
52.5 percent  by private  landowners and the forest industries,  and  18.7 per-
cent by other public agencies  including Bureau  of Indian Affairs,  Bureau of
Land Management, the State government, and municipalities.  Figure 10 shows
in greater  detail the commercial  and noncommerical  land ownerships on the
West Side of  the two states.
              TABLE 4.  AREA OF COMMERCIAL TTMBERLAND BY OWNERSHIP CLASS
                                 (In Thousands of A cres)
   Grand Total
                 National Forest
Other Public
Forest Industry
                                                             Other Private
          Total
Oregon:
West Side
East Side
Total
Washington:
West Side
East Side
Total

4645
6993
11638

2365
3107
5472

2876
584
3460

1681
2266
3947

3625
1627
5252

3634
735
4369

3238
1378
4616

2296
2200
4496

14384
10582
24966

9976
8308
18284
                    17110
   7407
    9621
9112
43250
    Sources:  Washington Forest Productivity Study. Phase I Report. June, 1975, prepared under Project
           NR-1014 by the Department of Natural Resources of the State of Washington.

           Timber Resource Statistics for Oregon. January 1, 1975, Bassett, P.M. , and G. A.  Choate,
           USDA Forest Service Resource Bulletin PNW-56.
     Of the  138  thousand acres burned  annually on the  West Side, 84 thousand
 acres or 61 percent of the total  is  burned by the USDA FS.  On the West
 Side the USDA  FS  is the dominant  user of forestry burning.  In Washington,
 18 thousand of  the 50 thousand  acres  are burned by  the USDA FS, while  in
 Oregon 66 thousand of the 88 thousand acres are burned by the USDA FS.   A
 breakdown of the  remaining 22 thousand acres in Oregon between private  and
 State is not available from the OSMS.  However, in  Washington nearly 20  thou-
 sand acres were burned by the private sector, in comparison to 8 thousand
 acres by the State.  Hence, in  western Washington,  the dominant principle
 in forestry burning is the private sector, although the USDA FS is  a close
 second.

     Although the  USDA FS is the principal user of forestry burning on  the
 West Side,  only 28.8 percent of commercial forest  lands are National Forests.
 In terms of burning activity per  unit area, the USDA FS burned an  annual
 average of  765  acres per 100 square miles of commercial forest land, while
                                      -52-

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                                             WEST   '.
                                             SIDE   •
Figure 10.  Land ownership in western Oregon and Washington.

-------
state and private sectors burned 201 acres per  100 square miles.  A  possible
reason for this greater use of forestry burning by the USDA FS  is the  loca-
tion and terrain of the National Forests.  Much of the USDA FS  lands are
remote and mountainous, making residue treatment methods other  than  slash
burning more difficult.

     Most of the 62,264 acres treated by burning on the East Side of the
two states is in Wasington with 61,627 acres burned.  Of this,  76 percent  of
acreage burned on Washington's East Side is carried by the Bureau of Indian
Affairs, 15 percent by the U.S. Forest Service  and 8 percent by the  private
sector.  Burning by the State on the East Side  is negligible.   Although the
amount of burning on Washington's East Side decreased from 1975 to  1977, the
amount of burning by the USDA FS, the State, and the private sector  increased
steadily over the period.  In 1975 these sectors accounted for  approximately
5600 acres.  In 1977 they accounted for nearly 26,000 acres.  During the same
period, reported burning by the BIA decreased from 69 thousand  to 47 thousand
acres, more than offsetting increases by the other sectors.

Type of Fuel Burned

    The relationship between the type of fuel burned and pollutant emis-
sions  is discussed in Section 3.  Among the parameters describing forestry
fuels' composition which are potentially important to emissions are:

     •    Material type (wood fiber, bark, pine needles, etc.)

     •    Tree species

     •    Size of fuel (diameter, length)

     •    Age (indicating whether fuel is dry,  decayed, etc.).

The Smoke Management Programs of Oregon and Washington do not collect  data
on the type of fuel burned and explicit data on this variable are not  cur-
rently available.

    One approach to estimating the type of fuel burned by tree  species  is
to assume that logging residue is of the same type as the harvested  tree.
Data are available on the type of tree harvested and are presented  in
Table  5.  Most forestry burning in western Oregon is for slash  removal  fol-
lowing timber harvesting.  In 1976, approximately 88 percent of forestry
burning acreage within the jurisdiction of the  Oregon Smoke Management  Program
was for slash disposal.   However, it does not  necessarily follow that  slash
burned is of the same type as the tree harvested.  A study of forest residue
created during 1973 estimated that 60 tons of slash were created for every
2
  ITF-FSU, Final Report.  1977, p. 10.
                                    -54-

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       TABLE 5.  SUMMARY OF TIMBER PRODUCTION BY TYPE OF TREE (1000 Board Feet)

Tree Type
Oregon*
Washington t
WEST SIDE
Softwoods
Douglas- fir
Hemlock
Sitka Spruce
Cedar
True Firs
Other Conifers
Hardwoods
Red Alder
Black Cottonwood
Big Leaf Maple
Other Hardwoods
8, 086, 400
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
85,000
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
5,015,516
2,240,104
1,804,339
92,465
513,427
269,086
96,095
156,642
143,420
6,388
1,881
4,953
EAST SIDE
Softwoods
Ponderosa Pine
Western White Pine
Douglas- fir
Western Larch
Hemlock, True Fir
Other Conifers
Lodgepole Pine
Hardwoods
Black Cottonwood
Other Hardwoods
2,123,500
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A

N/A
N/A
1,012,746
317,002
15,960
324, 542
87,919
181,537
66,771
19,015
147
13
134

* Timber Resource Statistics for Oregon,
Bassett, P.M. , and G.A.
Choate, USDA Forest Service
  Bulletin PNW-56, January 1, 1973.




t Timber Harvest Report, 1974, State of Washington Department of Natural Resources.
                                          -55-

-------
100 tons of timber harvested  (Van Sickle  1973).   Of  these  60  tons,  approxi-
mately 13 were growing stock  residues.  Of  the  remaining 47 tons,  11  were
nongrowing residues greater than 4  inches  in  diameter,  17  tons  were non-
growing residues  1 to 4  inches  in diameter, and  19 tons were  uncut  small or
undesirable trees.  These figures indicate  that  the  major  portion  of  slash
resulting from timber harvest  is not residues from the  harvested tree.   This
may be particularly true of old-growth  stands which  dominate  the National
Forests.  The type of tree harvested may  be an  unreliable  indicator of  fuel
burned.

    Much research has been performed on the analysis of residues with a view
toward fuller utilization.  However, these  studies typically  exclude  the fine
residues which are the major  components of  available fuel, since these  are
the least potentially utilized.  A  study  of residue  by  Howard (1973)  specifi-
cally excluded material  less  than 4 inches  in diameter  or  4 feet  in length.
The literature does not  reveal  specific studies  that address  the composi-
tion of combustible fuel in forestry burning.

    Another approach to  evaluating  the  type of  species  burned is to com-
pare the location of burning  to tree stand  maps.  This  approach is  con-
sidered unreliable for the following reasons:

    1.  The vegetation map (see Figure  3)  is  at  best a  rough  approxi-
        mation of vegetative  type.  Only  in carefully managed second
        growth areas are tree  stands relatively pure.

    2.  As pointed out in the  previous  paragraph, the slash resulting
        from harvesting  is not  necessarily  related to the  dominant
        tree type in the stand.

     The following conclusions  by Howard  (1973)  are  potentially relevant to
aetermining the  type of  fuel  burned:

    •    A  large  component of  residue on  USDA FS  lands  is  decadent,
         old growth material.   The  average  age  of National Forests
         sampled  was 260 years,  in  contrast to  an average  age of
         140 years  in private lands.

    t    The amount of residue  material was greater  on  National
         Forest  lands than on  private lands by  more  than  a factor
         of two.

    •    In the  ponderosa pine  region of  eastern  Washington  and
         Oregon,  more than naif of  the  slash  created consisted
         of whole trees  or tree tops left after logging.

    t    The residue created  on the East  Side tended to  be
         smaller  than on the  West Side.
                                   -56-

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Burning  Techniques  Used

      The literature and available data from state and Federal agencies  do  not
give  detailed  data  on  the use of different burning techniques in the Pacific
Northwest.   The  following summarizes what is known about the use of broad-
cast  and pile  burning  in the region:

    •    On  the  East Side,  the principal agency conducting burning
          is  the  BIA.  The BIA uses mostly pile burning.3

    •    Statistical compilations of burn technique are not avail-
          able  for Washington's West Side.  However, the 1977
          Washington SMP Annual Report indicates that private
          and state  agencies use mostly broadcast burning, while
          the USDA FS uses predominantly pile burning.  State and
          private burning accounted for 29 thousand acres and an
          estimated  557 thousand tons of fuel burned during 1977.
          The USDA FS burned 19 thousand acres and an estimated
          867 thousand  tons  of fuel.

    •    The Oregon Smoke Management System (OSMS) reported that
          41.2  percent  of the 98 thousand acres burned in Oregon
          during  1977 were broadcast burned.   Hence, pile burning
          is  the  more dominant method in Oregon.   Roughly the same
          percentages were reported for 1976, but the 1975 OSMS
          report  indicated a considerably lower percentage of
          broadcast  burning  (32.1  percent).


TIMBER HARVEST ACTIVITY AND ITS RELATION TO  FORESTRY BURNING

    Two  of the primary reasons for forestry  burning are hazard reduction and
stand regeneration.  As a result,  the locations  of burn blocks may correspond
to recently cut  timber stands.   However, forestry burning could not to be
statistically correlated with timber harvesting  activity on a county basis.
This  is  possibly due to the small  percentage of  acreage burned per year in com-
parison  to that  harvested.   For example, in  1975 a total  of nearly 207 thousand
acres were cut on the  West  Side of Washington.4   However,  only 44 thousand acres
were burned.  Areas  harvested one  year are  not necessarily burned that same year,
Some  areas may not  require  slash  burning due to  high  utilization or other more
appropriate treatment  methods.   Also,  some forestry burning is not directly
related to harvesting,  including  underburning and brush land conversion.
  Washington Smoke Management Report,  1977.
4
  Timber Harvest Report. 1975, Washington Department of Natural Resources, p. 13.
                                    -57-

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                                   SECTION 3

                        EMISSIONS FROM FORESTRY  BURNING
INTRODUCTION

     Until recently, measurements of emissions  from  open  burning  were largely
limited to effluents which were  also industrial  pollutants  governed  by the
National Ambient Air Quality Standards.   Emphasis was  usually  on  determi-
nation of emission factors, relating the  quantity of effluent  produced to
weight of fuel burned.  The emission factors  reported  in  the  literature are
highly inconsistent and the reliability of  these factors  for  estimating emis-
sions from actual fires is questionable.  Emission factors  are being upgraded
but much more effort will be necessary before  satisfactory  reliability is
achieved.  Interest in minor and trace emissions has been increasing over the
past several years and has generated funding  for study in this area.  Sampl-
ing, sample preservation  and analytical techniques are evolvinq which will
eventually provide comprehensive characterization of emissions from  open
burning.  However, unique, specially constructed facilities are required
for such studies and few  exist  at the present  time.  Quantitative data
relating emission rates of some  trace emissions  to burning  conditions are
being reported.  The followina  section is an  attempt to summarize the avail-
able emissions data and to assess the reliability of extrapolating laboratory
results to field situations.

Variability and Complexity of Emissions

     The three general burning  techniques,  broadcast,  pile  and understory,
have distinct differences  in total  emissions  as  well as in  the ratios of
individual effluents.  Emissions within each  of  these  techniques  are highly
dependent on  fire behavior and  fuel conditions.  Fire  behavior can be con-
trolled or predetermined, within  limits,  and  prescribed burninq is only
carried out under specific fuel  moisture  and  weather conditions.   While
these factors provide  greater emissions predictability than is possible
for wildfires, each fire  has a  unique emission  profile.

     Discussion of the complexity of the  emissions from open  burning of
forest products  is prominent throughout the literature concerned  with forest
burning.  The article  of  Tangren et al. (1976)  includes a summary of the
burning process  and one of the  most recent, concise  discussions in this area.
The authors point out  that over 200 chemical  compounds have been  identified
in wood smoke in contrast to over  1,200 in  tobacco smoke.  This difference
merely reflects  a difference in research  emphasis  and  the number  of  com-
pounds  identified in smoke from forest burning can be  expected to increase
by as much as an order of magnitude as sampling and  analytical techniques
are improved.  The emissions are not only chemically complex  but  size, shape,
porosity, density and  other physical properties  of smoke  particles are also
highly variable.  A number of the compounds emitted  are photochemically
                                    -58-

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reactive  and  the character of  a  smoke  plume changes with  residence time  in
the atmosphere.   Both the fire and  smoke plume are dynamic  entities undergoing
multiple  reactions and interactions.   The result  is a  composite emission which
cannot be  completely characterized  with present technology.

     A mathematical  description  of  forest fire emissions  was attempted by
Becker (1973)  as part of an EPA-sponsored study.  The  model, utilizing many
simplifying assumptions, focused  only  on the major aspects  of the emissions
but could  not  be completed because  of  a lack of definitive  data.   Mathe-
matical description  of the emissions from forestry burning  is highly complex
and the data  base has not expanded  greatly in the past 5  years.  It is there-
fore doubtful  that a mathematical model with reliable  predictive  value
can be constructed on the basis  of  presently available data.

Emission  Factors

     In the case of  forestry  burning,  an emission factor  is an estimate  of the
amount of  emissions  released  into the  atmosphere  in relation to the amount of
fuel burned.   The factor is usually expressed as  pounds of  emission per  ton
of fuel burned,  calculated on  a  dry-weight basis.  Total  emission is usually
obtained  by multiplying the emission factor by an estimate  of the average quan-
tity of fuel  burned per acre  and the  total number of  acres  involved.  Histori-
cally, there  has been great divergence in assignment  of emission  factors to
forest burning as well  as uncertainty  in estimation of the  quantities of fuel
burned.   Particulate emissions from fires have been measured more extensively
than most other effluents.  The  general sampling  and  analytical techniques for
measurement  of particulate emissions  from various sources have been fairly well
standardized  for many years.   Despite  the relative ease of  measuring particulate
material,  various comprehensive  investigations have produced widely different
estimates of  the emissions of particles from forest fires.   The historical
inconsistency in these  estimations  is  illustrated in  Table  6, which, along
with the  footnote, is taken directly from a recent discussion by Ward et al.
(1976).
            TABLE 6.  ANNUAL FOREST FIRE PARTICULATE PRODUCTION (TONS/YR. )
                                 (Ward et al. 1976)

                 Reference                 USA Estimate            Global Estimate
                                                _—_
          Vandegrift (1971)                     54 x 10
          Hidy and Brock (1970)                  15 x 1Q6               ISOxlQ6
                                                6
          Hoffman (1971)                     6.7x10
                                                6
          Cavender et al. (1973)                2. 0 x 10
                                                6                     6
          Robinson and Robbins (1971)            0.7x10                 3x10
          Yamate(1975)                      0.5x10

       To put these figures in a proper perspective, the estimate of 54 x 10^ tons/yr for forest fires alone
    may be compared to the 27. 3.x 10° tons/yr of particulates for all primary sources, including forest fires
    for the year 1969.  (Cavender et al. 1973).
                                     -59-

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     The discrepancies shown  in Table  6  are  the  result  of  differences  in
method of computation, use of different  emission  factors,  variations  in the
number of acres burned in the years on which  the  estimates  were  based  and
differences  in estimates of the quantities of  fuel  burned  per  acre.  The
two arbitrary considerations, selection  of emission factors and  the method
of computation, account for most of the  variation shown.   The  compilation
illustrates  the confusion which has been  prevalent  in  projectina forest
fire emissions and shows a need for standardization of  emission  factors and
of methods for applying these factors  in  estimating total  emissions.

     In general, emission factors  are  being  updated as  laboratory-scale burn-
ing facilities are made more  representative  of field conditions.   The  relia-
bility of extrapolating  laboratory results to  obtain emission  factors  is also
being improved through correlation with  data obtained  from field measurements.
However, a great many more emission measurements  from  actual  prescribed fires
will need to be carried out before complete  emission patterns  can be  reliably
projected from burning prescriptions.

Determination of Emission Factors—
     Emission factors have generally been determined from  laboratory-scale
studies  in which burning was  carried out  under controlled  conditions.   The
burning techniques and facilities  described  by Darley  et  al.  (1966), Benner
et al. (1977), Ward et al. (1974)  and  Yamate (1973) are representative of
those which  have been used to derive emission  factors.   The burning tower
described by Darley et al. (1966), in  some cases  including  the modifications
indicated by Darley and Biswell (1973),  has  been  used  extensively for  deter-
mination of  factors for  leaves, agricultural  refuse and forest litter.  The
results obtained in numerous  studies by  various  investigators  using the
burning tower have been summarized by  Wayne  and McQueary (1975).   This
facility approximates field conditions more  closely than most  laboratory
installations.  The quantity  of fuel burned  per  test could  range from  10 to
20 pounds of straw or grass to more than  50  pounds  of  woody material,  which
is a much higher capacity than that generally available for laboratory tests.
In the tower installation, fuel was burned on  a  table  equipped for recording
weiaht chanaes on a 5-second  frequency to monitor burning  rate.   Probes and
instruments  for monitoring various parameters  of  the burning  process  and
for sample collection were mounted in  a  stack  attached  to  a large funnel
over the burning table.

     Field measurements of emissions from actual  fires  require a great deal
of preparation and are difficult to carry out,  in comparison  with laboratory
measurements.  As a result, few field  measurements  have been reported  and
the emission factors commonly quoted are  based mainly  on  laboratory  data.
Boubel et al.  (1969) and Darley et al.  (1973)  used  sampling equipment  mounted
on a tower in plots of stubble and straw, which  were then  ignited and  measure-
ments were made as the fires  burned past  the tower. Ward  et  al. (1974)
employed a arid of masts with samplers positioned at various heights  to
measure particle emissions  immediatelv downwind  from low-intensity line
source backfires.  Direct calculation  of  emission factors  from field  data
                                    -60-

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has generally not been possible  because  the  ratio  of  sample to total  effluent
could not be accurately defined.   Downwind measurements  of fire effluents can
only be related to emission  factors  if the dimensions  of the smoke plume and
its rate of movement past  the  sampling point can  be  accurately established.
While it is practically impossible to attain the  accuracy and precision of
controlled laboratory experiments  under  field conditions,  the improved
validity of conclusions based  on field data  offsets many imperfections in the
measurements.

Reliability of Methods—
     The diversity of emission factors reported  in the literature does not
inspire confidence in their  overall  reliability,  particularly since most
were derived from data obtained  under closely controlled laboratory burning
conditions.  The  laboratory-derived  emission factors  for leaves and agricul-
tural refuse are  considered  relatively reliable,  since these materials are
usually loosely arranged or  piled when burned in  the  field.  This condition
can easily be duplicated in  burning  laboratories  and  the data obtained are
representative of field burning.   Field  conditions for burning forest fuels
cannot be simulated  as easily.   Slash piles  and  broadcast slash burns involve
tons of material, much of  which  is too large for  a laboratory fire. Slash
burning conditions are usually adjusted  for  maximum  combustion efficiency and
the resulting fires  are hotter and smolder  longer  than those obtained from a
few pounds of small  fuel in  a  laboratory.  Understory  burning typically con-
sumes small fuels  in low intensity fires and should  be more readily simulated
in burning laboratories.   However, the field fuels are generally the result
of accumulation on the forest  floor  for  a period  of  time and are variable in
size, aqe, degree of compaction  and  stage of decomposition.  They are also
arranged in strata which cannot  be simulated under laboratory conditions unless
precautions, such  as those described by  Parley et  al.  (1973), are taken during
sample collection.

     Laboratory measurements of  emissions from burning forest fuels can be
made fairly easily and represent the most practical  approach for identifica-
tion of fuel and  fire parameters which govern emission production.   However,
unavoidable differences between  laboratory and field  situations,  with respect
to fire behavior  and fuel  conditions, must be taken  into account when extrap-
olating laboratory-dervied emission  factors  to field  fires.  For example,
Sandberg (1974) measured particulate emissions of  6  to 24 pounds per  ton
in laboratory fires  and 28 to  107  pounds per ton  in field fires burning
western logging residue.   The  emission factor of  17  pounds of particulate
matter per ton of fuel, which  has  been used  as the basis for estimating
atmospheric emissions from forest  fires  (Yamate  1975), is compatible  with
the laboratory values but  well below the range of  the  field emissions.

Influence of Fuel Type and Condition--
     Fire behavior,  the major  determinant of emission  factors, is highly
dependent on fuel type, loadinq  and  conditions such  as size, age, arrange-
ment, compaction  and moisture  content.   In developing  emission factors for
leaves under controlled laboratory conditions, Darley  (1976) showed sig-
nificant differences between leaves  from different species in emissions of
                                   -61-

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particles, carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons.   Increasing  moisture  levels
generally increased production of all three effluents,  with  particles  show-
ing the greatest increase.  Burning compacted  piles  or  green  leaves  pro-
duced much higher emissions than  loosely  piled  dry  leaves.   These  tests,
carried out with material which  is much more homogeneous  than  that typical
in managed forestry burning, illustrate the dependence  of emissions  on
small variations in fuel type and condition.

     Many studies, for example, Darley et  al.  (1966), Gerstle  and  Kemnitz
(1967), Sandberg (1974) and Ward  et al. (1974),  have  shown emissions to  be
affected by the type and conditions of the material  burned.   However,  many
factors, such as arrangment of material,  fuel  loading and burning  technique,
also have pronounced effects on emissions.  As  a result of alteration  of
fire behavior, individual emission factors probably have  little  meaning when
mixed fuels are burned.  It is doubtful that the emissions from  a  mixture  of
leaves, needles and twigs would be predictable  from emission  factors obtained
by burning samples of the three fuels separately.

Influence of Burning Techniques —
     Burning techniques have a pronounced  influence on  both  the  total  quantity
of emissions and on the relative  rate of  production of  individual  effluents.
As a broad generalization, factors such as high  moisture,  compaction and fire
retardant, which increase residual, nonflaming  combustion, tend  to increase
emissions.  In a laboratory study of burning logging  slash,  Sandberg et  al.
(1975) found significant  increases in emissions  of  carbon monoxide,  hydro-
carbon gases and particulate material from fuel  beds  which had been  treated
with diammonium phosphate flame  retardant.  Relative  emission  of unsaturated
hydrocarbons was also higher from the treated  beds.   An important  observation
during these tests was that the  initial 80 percent  of the fuel burned  produced
only 20 to 30 percent of the hydrocarbon  and carbon monoxide  emissions, the
major portion being produced during the die-down and  smoldering  phases.

     The  techniques used for burning have  a significant effect on  emissions.
Laboratory studies may be carried out with fuel  beds  arranged  on a slope
to simulate head and back fires.  Fires burning  up  the  slope  simulate  head
fires driven by a wind, while those burning down the  slope simulate  back
fires progressing against a wind.  The effect  of slope  on particulate  emis-
sion factors from laboratory burning of various  materials is  illustrated
in Table  7 taken from Ward et al. (1974).

     The  results lead to  two general conclusions, fuel  compaction  increases
particle  emission and head fires  emit greater  quantities  of  particles  than
back fires.  Data from  laboratory studies  of this type  and field measurements
have been used as the basis for  predicting particle emissions  from prescribed
fires.  Guidelines for predicting particle emissions  and  rate of fire spread
as a function of available fuel  and burning technique have been  developed  by
Johansen  et al. (1976) and constitute Chapter  IV of the Southern Forestry
Smoke Management Guidebook.  The  predictions require detailed information  on
fuel characteristics and fire behavior.   Such  information is presently avail-
able only for the southeastern United States and will need to be developed  for
individual fuel types and conditions  in other  regions before similar predictions
can be applied in those areas.


                                   -62-

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             TABLE 7.  PARTICULATE EMISSION FACTORS (LB/TON, DRY BASIS;
                                 Ward et al. 1974)


                                               Slope (percent)
Fuel
Loblolly pine
(loose)
Loblolly pine
(loose)
Loblolly pine
(compacted)
Loblolly pine
(branches & twigs)
1/4 - 1 in. )
Goldenrod
Mixed grasses
(compacted )
Hardwood leaves
(red oak)
Back Fire Head Fire
Moisture (simulated) (simulated)
(Percent) -50 -25 0 +25 +50 +75
6 15 19 28 47 40

10 13 20 37 67 55

18 28 86 123 158 152

15 6


10 6
12 34

11 7


MAJOR CONSTITUENTS  OF EMISSIONS

     Emission  factors reported for the major effluents from forest fires  are
highly variable.   Differences in fuel, fire behavior and burning techniques
produce widely different emission patterns and use of a sinqle  factor  for a
given effluent is  unrealistic.  The approach suggested by McMahon and  Ryan
(1976), application of a range of factors whenever possible,  shows the vari-
ation which may pertain and leads to conclusions which are  less misleading
than the use of single factors.  The emission ranges for gases  listed  in
Table 8 were suggested by McMahon and Ryan (1976) and represent the  best
general estimate  of expected normal field emissions which can be made  from
data available at  the present time.  The range for particulate  emissions  was
obtained from  D.V.  Sandberg who carried out a limited number  of field  measure-
ments of emissions  from burning western logging slash (Sandberg 1974).
                                    -63-

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                     TABLE 8.  EMISSION RANGES (DRY WEIGHT BASIS)

                    (Gases  McMahon and Ryan 1976; Particulates - Sandberg)
                    Effluent                 Emission Range (Ib/ton of fuel)


              Carbon dioxide (CO  )                    2000-3500

              Water (H^)                            500-1500

              Carbon monoxide (CO)                     20-500

              P articulates (TSP)                         17-67*

              Hydrocarbons (HC)                         10-40

              Nitrogen oxides (NO  )                      2-6



    * Best available field range, revised in a private communication by D. V. Sandberg, March 1978.
     The sulfur  content of forest fuels  is  low in comparison with  that of
most other  carbonaceous fuels.  As a result,  sulfur oxide emission from
forestry burning is  generally considered  negligible.  Airborne measurements
of gases in plumes  from five prescribed fires, reported by Radke et al.
(1978), did not  detect significant concentrations of gaseous sulfur in any
of the plumes  sampled.

     Estimated total emissions of CO, TSP,  HC and NO  for Washington and
Oregon are  presented in Tables 9 and 10.   The values shown were obtained by
applying the ranges  of emission factors  in  Table 8 to the estimated mass
of fuel burned per  county, by controlled  forestry burning, in Washington and
Oregon in the  year  1977.  Estimates of  quantities of fuel burned were sup-
plied by the USFS,  the State of Oregon  Department of Forestry and  the State of
Washington  Department of Natural Resources.   The three agencies agree that the
estimated tonnages  of fuel burned are not entirely accurate  and that there
probably has been a systematic tendency to  overestimate available  fuel.
Opinions regarding  the magnitude of the  error of the fuel estimates differ to
the extent  that  confidence limits cannot  be established.  Despite  the fuel
uncertainties  and the broad ranges of emission factors on which Tables 9 and
10 are based,  the values tabulated show the areas where emissions  occurred and
their relative magnitude from each of these areas.

Gases Emitted

     Over 90 percent of the effluent mass from forest fires  is CO^ and hLO.
These gases are  not normally considered  pollutants  in the context  of  impact
on ambient  air quality.  Measurements of  COp production are  frequently made
to provide  an  index of combustion efficiency but I-LO emission  is  rarely
measured.   For the  remaining gases, however, air guality and accurate emis-
sions data  are necessary for impact assessment.
                                      -64-

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                          TABLE 9.  ESTIMATED EMISSIONS DUE TO FORESTRY BURNING, 1977 (annual average) IN WASHINGTON

                                                                     (in tons of pollutant)
 i

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                          TABLE 10.  ESTIMATED EMISSIONS DUE TO FORESTRY BURNING, 1977 ( annual average ) IN OREGON

                                                                   (in tons of pollutant)
en
en
Estimated
County
Oregon:
Ben ton
Clackamas
Clatsop
Columbia
Coos
Curry
Douglas
Hood River
Jackson
Josephine
Lane
Lincoln
Linn
Marion
Multnomah
Polk
Tillamook
Washington
Yamhill
Combined
Western Counties
Combined
Eastern Counties
Statewide Total
i ons 01 ruel
Burned

5,
199,
14,
4,
137,
141,
888,
45,
448,
132,
761,
98,
261,
96,
44,
12,
42,
3,
21,

3, 361,

192,
3,554,

002
684
855
748
725
753
965
472
012
551
692
021
745
367
713
409
470
915
845

944

592
536
Carbon Monoxide
Low

50
1,997
149
48
1,377
1,418
8,890
455
4,480
1,326
7,617
980
2,617
964
447
124
425
39
219

33,619

1,926
35, 545
High

1,
49,
3,
1,
34,
35,
222,
11,
112,
33,
190,
24,
65,
24,
11,
3,
10,

5,

840,

48,
888,

251
921
714
187
431
438
241
368
005
138
423
505
436
092
178
102
618
979
461

486

148
634
Parti cu late
Low

43
1,697
126
40
1,171
1,205
7,556
387
3,808
1,127
6,474
833
2,225
819
380
105
361
33
186

28, 577

1,637
30, 214
High

168
6,689
498
159
4,614
4,749
29, 780
1,523
15, 009
4,440
25,517
3,284
8,768
3,228
1,498
416
1,423
131
732

112,625

6,452
119,077
Hydrocarbon
Low

25
998
74
24
689
709
4,445
227
2,240
663
3,808
490
1,309
482
224
62
212
20
109

16,810

963
17, 773
High

100
3,994
297
95
2,755
2,835
17, 779
909
8,960
2,651
15, 234
1,960
5,235
1,927
894
248
849
78
437

67, 239

3,852
71,091
Nitrogen
Low

5
200
15
5
138
142
889
45
448
133
762
98
262
96
45
12
42
4
22

3,362

193
3,555
Oxides
High

15
599
45
14
413
425
2,667
136
1,344
398
2,285
294
785
289
134
37
127
12
66

1O, 086

578
10, 664

             NOTE:  Tonnage figures may be high.  See page 43 for discussion of possible error.

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Gas Measurements and Reliability--
     Measurements relating output of qaseous  emissions  to  quantity of fuel
burned have only been made under  laboratory conditions.  As  indicated earlier,
emissions derived in this way may not  apply to field  situations.   Typical
measurements and results for the major  qaseous emissions are  outlined in the
followinq summaries.

     Carbon monoxide—The emission factors generally  quoted for CO were derived
from nondispersive  infrared measurements of CO evolution from test fires in the
burninq tower described by Darley et al. (1966).  The data included in reports
by Darley et al. (1966), Gerstle  and Kemnitz  (1967),  Sandberg et  al.  (1975) and
Darley (1976) were  obtained usinq this  facility  and measurement technique.
Laboratory measurements of CO emissions reported  by Benner et al.  (1977),  usinq
different facilities and equipment, are in general agreement  with  the results
from the burninq tower.

     Field measurements of CO in  fires, adjacent  areas  and smoke  plumes,
such as those by Countryman (1964) and  Fritschen  et al.  (1970), showed CO
concentrations to diminish rapidly with distance  from fires.   Such measure-
ments provide information on the  concentrations  of CO near fire zones but
do not directly relate the mass of CO  evolved to  the  quantity of  fuel con-
sumed.  Field studies desiqned specifically for  emission factor development
will be necessary before CO emissions  from forestry burninq can be reliably
predicted.

     Hydrocarbons—Measurements of hydrocarbon emissions have qenerally
been included in laboratory burninq studies and  the references cited  for
carbon monoxide have largely provided  the data base for estimates  of  hydro-
carbon emissions factors.  The factors  have qenerally been derived from
flame ionization measurements of  total  hydrocarbons and nonmethane hydro-
carbons. As  indicated in the discussion by Hall  (1972), flame ionization
measurements include essentially  all volatile orqanic compounds and the
designation  "hydrocarbons" as applied  to wood smoke is misleading.   Gas
chromatographic analyses of grab  samples taken at various  staqes  of test
fires have been used to identify  predominant  hydrocarbon emissions.

     In studies of  emissions from  laboratory  burninq  of  logging slash,
Sandberg et  al. (1975) measured methane, ethylene, acetylene,  total  alkanes,
total olefins and total alkynes.   During the  peak burning  period,  methane,
ethylene and acetylene accounted  for 50 percent  of the  flame  ionization
measurement.  An additional 12 percent  was composed of  other  alkanes, ole-
fins and alkynes.   The remaining  carbonaceous material  indicated  by the
flame ionization measurement, 38  percent, could  not be  accounted  for  by
these classes of compounds.  During the smolderinq phases, the total  hydro-
carbons  identified  by gas chromatography constituted  only  20  percent  of the
flame ionization value.  It is apparent that  the composition  of  the hydro-
carbon effluent is  greatly influenced  by the  stage of fire and that simple
flame ionization measurements do  not reflect  changes  in  the composition of
the hydrocarbon emission.
                                    -67-

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     During the peak  burning period,  38  percent, and  during the  smoldering
period,  80 percent, of  the hydrocarbon emissions could  not be  identified as
simple  alkanes, olefins  and alkynes.   An example of  the complexity  of the
volatile organic emission  is included in the report  by  McMahon and  Ryan (1976),
which presents a readout pattern from gas chromotoqraphic/mass spectrographic
analysis of smoke from  laboratory burning of needles  from loblolly  pine (Pinus
taeda L.).  This pattern is reproduced  in Chapter  II  of the Southern  Forestry
Smoke Management Guidebook (USDA Forest  Service General Technical Report SE-10)
and  is  shown in Figure  11.  The complex  array of compounds represents only the
intermediate range  (principally C.  to C,2) of vapor  components.   It does not
include  low-molecular-weight oxygenated  species, such as formic  and acetic
acids or reactive aldehydes, such as  formaldehyde,  acetaldehyde  and acrolein.
These  low-molecular-weight compounds  have frequently been identified  in wood
smoke  and constitute  a  small, but significant, portion  of the  emission.
            IOOM GLASS SCOT OV-IOI
            20-230 •Cot4Ymin
            l.5ml/min H>
            68   BO   92    104
                                     TEMPERATURE

                                        140    I
                                                  164
                                                 —1	
                                                                         224
                                                                              230
                                      	JO	33
                                       TIME (MINUTES)
             PEAK   COMPOUND
2
2B
2C
3
3A
36
4A
4B
7
8
8A
9
10
15
16
17
20
21
22
23
24
Itopentane
l-pentene
furon
Q-pentane
isoprene
acetone
Isoproponol
cydopentodene
diocetyl
l-heiene
methyl vinyl ketone
2-methytfuron
?-heiano
,4- heiadiene
l,3^-heiatrlen«
3-tiwthylbutanal
benzene
cyctoheione
4- melhylpentene
2|*-dlm«thylp«ntar
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     Nitrogen oxides—Emission of nitrogen oxides  from  burning  forest fuels
has not been widely studied.  The factors quoted  in  various  reviews  are mainly
from Gerstle and Kemnitz  (1967) and Boubel et  al.  (1969).  Oxidation of atmo-
spheric nitrogen requires temperatures greater  than  1500'C,  which  is consider-
ably higher than the temperatures achieved in most Drescribed fires.  However,
some nitrogen oxides are  formed in these fires, possibly  through  involvement of
hydrocarbon-free radicals, as indicated by Ay  and  Sichel  (1976).   Oxidation of
fuel nitroaen is also possible.  If this is  the source, NO   production should
be fuel-dependent, with needles, foliage and duff  producing  relatively greater
quantities than woody fuels.  Benner et al.  (1977),  in  a  laboratory  study of
burning pine needles, reported emission factors of 6.3  and 3.1  pounds per ton
of fuel for NO and NO-, respectively. These  values,  from  low intensity fires,
are significantly higner  than the NO  emission  factors  listed in Table 8 and
tend to support a fuel-related orinift for NO .  The  conclusion  stated by
DeBell and Ralston (1970), that fuel nitrogen  is released as N? on burning,
is not supported by definitive data and is not  widely accepted.

     The source of the NO emissions remains a  very  open  question.   The two
potential sources cited,  Oxidation of fuel nitrogen  and involvement  of hydro-
carbon-free radicals in oxidation of atmospheric nitrogen are both fire- and
fuel-dependent.  It will  be  necessary to identify  the source of NO  and carry
out a number of field measurements before reliable NO  emission factors can
be derived.                                          x

     Oxidants—The action of  sunlight on N0? in the  presence of reactive
hydrocarbons results in the  production of ozone and  organic  oxidants.   Potent
eye irritants, peroxyacyl nitrates (PAN), are  among  the photochemical  oxi-
dants which may be produced.  Olefins and saturated  aromatic hydrocarbons are
reactive and produce ozone by irradiation in the presence of NO .  Formation
of PAN-type compounds  is  associated with the presence of  propyl^ne,  higher
molecular weight olefins, and dialkyl- and trialkyl-benzenes.   One of the
main hydrocarbon effluents from forest fires, ethylene, results in the
production of ozone, but  not  PAN, when it is irradiated in the  presence of
N0x.

     Radke et al. (1978)  studied plumes from several prescribed fires of log-
oino debris in western Washington.  A 36 ppb increase in  ozone  concentration
was measured 10 km downwind  of an 86-acre fire.  A 10 ppb increase in ozone
was measured 13 km downwind  of a plume of a  much smaller  fire.  Radke et al.
suggested that since forest  fires are sources of N0?, elevated  ozone concen-
trations may be due to the greater amount of ozone needed to equilibrate the
higher NO^/NO ratio that  exists in the plume.

     Studies of the photochemical potential  of  forest fire smoke were reported
by Benner et al. (1977).  The effluent from  burning  2-g quantities of pine
needles was trapped in a  chamber and subjected  to  alternating periods of
darkness and artificial sunlight.  The pollutant concentration  followed the
typical diurnal cycles found  in Los Angeles-type photochemical  smog.   Light
intensity equivalent to one-third of noon summer sunlight produced ozone
concentrations of 30-40 ppb.
                                    -69-

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     Evans et al.  (1977) measured NCL and ozone  concentrations  in  smoke
plumes from large prescribed fires.  Smoke from  the  plumes was  also  collected
and subsequently irradiated.  Irradiation increased  the  ozone  concentration
two to three times the concentration of olefins  initially present; the rate
of ozone formation was too rapid to  involve photooxidation of  ethylene.
The presence of terpenes and unsaturated aldehydes was cited  as  a  possible
explanation for the rapid production of excess ozone.  Smoke  samples spiked
with additional NCL produced significantly more  ozone than samples without
spikes.

     Evans et al.  (1977) measured maximum ozone  concentrations  of  65-70 ppb
at a downwind distance corresponding to approximately 1  hour  of  irradiation
by sunlight.  Background levels were approximately 30 ppb.  Ozone  levels
reached 100 ppb in plumes from high  intensity burns.  However,  the strong
convective rise caused the ozone formation at high elevations.   Plumes from
fuel reduction burns are normally trapped beneath elevated inversions.
They may reach the ground as far as  50 km downwind,  increasing  the concen-
tration of ozone at the surface.  A  correlation  was  observed  between the
depth of the elevated ozone  layer and the effective  depth of  penetration
of ultraviolet radiation through the plume.  Evans et al.  (1974) observed
that the ozone  layer developed at the top of the plume,  with  the thickness
of the layer and the ozone concentration increasing  downwind.

     Measurements taken at various distances downwind of  a plume showed ozone
concentrations reaching maximum values after approximately 1  hour  of irradia-
tion (Evans et al. 1977).   Irradiation of pine needle smoke rapidly  produced
maximum ozone concentrations which persisted for more than 10  hours  before
beginning to decline (Benner and Drone 1977).  Irradiation of  smoke  held
in a dark chamber for 24 hours produced ozone concentrations  equivalent to
those obtained by irradiation of fresh smoke.  These results  indicated that
ozone precursors were not depeleted  during the 24-hour period  of darkness.

     Forest fire smoke  is photochemically reactive.  If  the observations of
Evans et al. (1977) reflect  typical  field situations, photochemical  produc-
tion of ozone and oxidants  in smoke  is limited by NO , rather  than reactive
hydrocarbons.  The photochemical reactivity of smokexdrifting  into  industrial
areas of high ambient NO  levels could be significantly  increased.
                        /\

     To predict the photochemical potential of forest fire smoke,  it is neces-
sary to carry out controlled laboratory chamber  studies  using  smoke  from typi-
cal fuels.  The relative importance  of NO  and reactive  hydrocarbons in
limiting photochemical ozone production can then be  determined.   Field emis-
sion factors for NO  and reactive hydrocarbons,  and  for  the fuels  and burning
conditions of the Pacific Northwest, will also need  to  be  defined.

Effects of Gases--
     The health and environmental effects of CO  and  NO  ,  which  are  also indus-
trial pollutants, have been  repeatedly documented  by numerous  studies and do not
require further discussion  in the present context.   Some of the hydrocarbon and
                                    -70-

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volatile organic emissions are unique to  open  burning  and  their  effects have not
been studied as extensively as those of the  industrial  pollutants.

     Ethylene, one of the major hydrocarbon  emissions,  can cause injury to
susceptible plants (AP-64, 1970).  However,  exposure to smoke  from  prescribed
fires is generally considered too  short for  serious plant  damage to occur,
except in cases of poor ventilation when  smoke  stagnates at  ground  level  in
areas adjacent to a fire.  Feldstein et al.  (1963) estimated that the ethylene
concentration  1 to 2 miles downwind from  a fire burning 2000 tons of land
clearing debris was 0.5 to 2 ppm and persisted  for approximately 3  hours.
Susceptible vegetation  in the exposed area could  have  suffered ethylene
damaqe in this time, though none was reported.

     Relatively small quantities of potentially photochemically  reactive  com-
pounds, such as olefins, diolefins and substituted aromatics,  are released by
forest fires.  Downwind photochemical formation of ozone and other  oxidants from
these and nitrogen oxides is dependent on  various plume and  meteorological param-
eters.  Evans  et al. (1977) reported increased  ozone concentrations in the upper
layers of smoke plumes  from field  fires in Australia,  and  Radke  et  al.  (1978)
measured above-ambient  concentrations of  ozone  in plumes from  burning logging
residue in Washington State.

     The oxygenated organic compounds, though  they constitute  only  a minor
fraction of the gaseous emissions, cause  most  of  the physical  irritation  asso-
ciated with smoke.  The major factors are  probably water soluble, low-molecular-
weight aldehydes, such  as formaldehyde and acrolein, which are strong irritants
to skin and exposed mucosa.  Compounds of  this  type are reactive and their per-
sistence as vapors in ambient air  is relatively short.   However,  they readily
adsorb onto smoke particles, which improves  their stability  and  increases their
toxicity.  Impact on ground level  air quality  downwind  from  a  fire  is dependent
on plume behavior and meteorological conditions.

Particulate Emissions

     The emission of particulate matter from fires has  been  studied more  exten-
sively than the emission of gases.  The particles generated  by open burning have
a high content of organic material and range in size from  about  0.002 microns
in diameter to very large particles.  For  practical purposes,  only  particles
with aerodynamic diameters smaller than about  10  microns remain  airborne  long
enough to impact on air quality.   Larger  particles fall out  of the  atmosphere
fairly rapidly and can  only be detected within  short distances from prescribed
fires.

Particle Measurements —
     The most  common apparatus for measurements of particulate matter in  ambient
air and source streams  is the high volume  sampler.  Samples  are  collected on
filters and the average particle  load of  the sample air is calculated on  the
basis of the weight of  material collected  on the  filter. Measurements of  this
type have provided the  basis for current  air quality standards.   However, mass
                                     -71-

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measurements alone provide  little  information  regarding the impact of the par-
ticles on air quality.  There  is  increasing  emphasis  on including particle size
distribution and chemical composition  in  assessments  of air quality.

     Multistage impactors with final filters  have  been  used to fractionate
particles from burning forest  fuels on  the basis of  aerodynamic properties.
Sandberg and Martin  (1975)  found the distribution  of  particle  sizes shown in
Table 11 in smoke from laboratory  burning of  Douglas-fir logging slash.


           TABLE 11. PARTICULATE EMISSIONS FROM LOGGING SLASH (MASS BASIS)
                            (Sandberg and Martin, 1975)


                Aerodynamic Particle Diameter            Average Percent

                         > 5. 0 y                         8

                        1- 5. 0 y                        10

                       0.3- i.o y                        13

                       < 0. 3  y                           69
     Examination of collected  particles  by electron microscope showed
predominantly  single  spherical  particles with  diameters of approximately
0.1 micron,  along with  various  aggregates of  these particles.   Similar
results were reported by Ward  et  al.  (1974) for  low intensity  prescribed
fires  in slash  pine and palmetto-galIberry fuel  types.   Field  measurements
of particle  size distribution  on  a  number basis,  using  an electric charge
mobility analyzer, were reported  by McMahon and  Ryan (1976).   The average
particle diameter reported was  approximately  0.1  micron, which remained
essentially  constant  for several  different fuel  types.

     There is  remarkable agreement  between investigators studying various
fuel types and  burning  conditions with  respect to the size distribution of
particulate  emissions.  This  is in  marked contrast to the total  mass of par-
ticulate matter emitted, which  is highly dependent on fuel types and burning
conditions.

Effects of Particles--
     Effects of particles on  air  quality are  discussed  in detail in
Publication  No. AP-49,  "Air Quality Criteria  for Particulate Matter," by
the National Air Pollution Control  Administration (1969).  The publica-
tion includes  individual chapters on  various  effects of particles.  The
key points of  these are:

     Solar radiation  and climate--Atmospheric  particles absorb and scatter
sunlight, decreasing  ground-level visible radiation.  The problem is most
acute in^cities having  atmospheric  particulate loads of the order of
100 yg/m .    In these, sunlight  is reduced about  5 percent for  every


                                    -72-

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doubling in particle concentration.  Particles  serve  as  condensation  nuclei
and can influence precipitation patterns.

     Visibility—Visibility  is dependent on  both  the  nature  of  particulate
matter in the atmosphere and on the volume of air  into which  the  particulates
have been mixed.  A measure  of the volume of  air  available  is the inversion
height.  Generally better visibility is  associated with  strong  winds  which
provide better dispersion plumes.  Particles  in the atmosphere  scatter  light;
as more light is scattered,  the visibility becomes poorer.   Particles of
approximately the same size  as wavelengths of visible  light  (0.4-0.8  urn)  are
the most effective scatterers of  light,  although  particles from 0.01  to  10pm
contribute to scattering.  Visibility markedly  decreases when the relative
humidity exceeds 70 percent  due to hydroscopic  particles absorbing water  and
increasing in size.  Smoke from forestry burning  has  been observed to contain
large  numbers of particles in the size range  below 1 urn  diameter.  Sandberg
and Martin (1975) reported a majority  (69 percent) of  the particles from
simulated fires to be  less than 0.3 ym,  13 percent to  be between  0.3  and  1 urn,
10 percent between 1 and 5 ym, and 8 percent  greater  than 5 ym.

     Eccleston et al.  (1974) made measurements,of  particle concentration,
C(ug/m ), and the scattering coefficient, b(m~  ),  in  the plumes of nine
Australian fires.  A relationship of the form C =  0.24b was  developed.   How-
ever,  a more useful relationship would be between  mass concentration  and  visi-
bility.  A simple proportionality between visibility  and mass concentration
implies similarity of  the particle size  distribution  if  the  relationship  is to
be used at locations other than where  it was  developed.  This is  necessary
since  light scattering and mass concentration are  functions  of  different  ranges
of particle size.  Noll et al. (1968) expressed visibility  in terms of mass
concentration.  In their study they assumed  that  mass  concentration was  propor-
tional to the scattering coefficient and also that the theroretical relation-
ship between visibility and  the scattering coefficient took  the form  V =  3.9/b.
Using  measured data from four cities, a  relationship  was derived  for  each.
Horvath and Noll (1969) obtained the formula  for  Seattle for  V  =  1142/C  where
V  is  in miles and C is in yg~/m .  For a  given mass concentration  a measure
of visibility can be obtained +_ 50 percent when the relative  humidity is  less
than 70 percent.  These authors also assumed  that  the  aerosol was well-aged
and that the visibility was  the average  for  the period of aerosol collection.
CharlesoR (1968) reported visibility of  25 miles  at 30 yg/m  , 7.5 miles  at
100 yg/m , and 3.75 miles at 200 yg/m  .  Charleson stated that  visibility
can vary by a factor of 2 for a given mass concentration due  to differences
in the particle size distribution.  Eccleston et  al.  (1974)  have  collected
scattering coefficient data  for plumes in western  Australia  by  means  of  a
nephelometer.  Figures 12 and 13  show scattering  coefficient  traces through
plumes from large fires.

     Weather modificaton effects—Since  forestry  burning introduces a large
number of particles into the atmosphere, the  impact on precipitation  should
be considered.  Particles of < 0.1 ym serve  as  cloud  condensation nuclei
                                    -73-

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                                                  — Fire slowly
                                                    dying
                              Time, min
Figure 12.  Nephelometer trace through plume (Eccleston et al.  1974).
                 DO
                 C


                 I
                       o 3000 ft
                       .2700(1
                       -2500ft
                       * 2000 ft
                      Light-up time
                                           Fire of December 11, 1970
                                           Traverses 2-3 naut. miles
                                           from fire area
                                           Wind speed 15 knots
                   1100  1200  1300  1400   1500   1600  1700 hr
                                        Time
                 Figure 13.  Nephelometer readings with respect to

                           time (Eccleston et al.  1974).
                                   -74-

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 (CCN) or  ice nuclei  in the precipitation  formation  process.   Hobbs  et  al.
 (1970) observed that particles  emitted from  a  large pulp  and  paper  mill  in
Washington State broadened the  rain  droplet  size  distribution in  clouds
downwind  from the mill;  in theory, this should  enhance  precipitation.   Hobbs
and Radke (1969) found that CCN  increased by a  factor of  2.5  in smoke  from
slash burning.  However, Ruskin  (1974) found in the vicinity  of a prescribed
burn  in the southeastern portion  of  the Olympic Peninsula that, although  the
CCN concentration measured 38 km  downwind of the  fire increased,  the cloud
droplet size was narrowed, therefore  decreasing the efficiency of the  rain-
producing mechanism.  After examining 60  years  of rainfall records, Warner
 (1968) detected a reduction in  rainfall downwind  of sugar cane fires in
Australia; this is consistent with the theory proposed  by Hobbs and Radke
 (1969) that additional CCN compete for the available moisture, produce  smal-
ler droplets, and therefore hinder the droplet  coalescence rainfall mecha-
nism.  Schaefer (1969) noted a  similar effect downwind  of brush fires  in
Africa.

      Hobbs and Locatelli (1969) reported  ice nuclei  concentrations  in forest
fire  smoke were four times that of ambient air  in the Washington  Cascades.
However,  this increase is small compared  with the total increase  in particu-
lates.

      Materials damage—High atmospheric particle  loads  correlate  with  increased
corrosion of metal and surface  damage to  structures.  The problem is common
for corrosive industrial aerosols but is  not a  serious  consequence  of forest
fire  smoke.

      Vegetation damage—Industrial aerosols  containing  phytotoxic materials
cause serious damage to susceptible plants.  Damage from  wood smoke has not
been  demonstrated.

      Respiratory deposition and clearance—Deposition is  the  process by which
 inspired  particulates are caught within the  respiratory tract and thus fail
to exit with expired air.  Factors which  determine  the  fraction of  inhaled
particulates deposited, as well as their  site of  deposition,  are  respiratory
tract anatomy, the effective aerodynamic  diameter of particles, and the pat-
tern  of breathing.   Clearance of  deposited particles from the respiratory
tract is  dependent upon cilia and mucus transport to the  pharynx, blood
stream absorption, and direct expiration.  In general,  maximum respiratory
tract deposition occurs for particles between 1-2 ym while minimum  deposition
occurs in the region of 0.5 urn  diameter.   The retention of particles with
sizes less than 0.1 ym is as great as for those around  1  ym,  with the smaller
particles lodging primarily in  the pulmonary compartment  and  the  larger ones
captured  in the naso-pharynx area.

      The  occurrence of adverse  human  health  which results from ambient  particu-
late  exposures is partially dependent upon the  mechanisms used in the deposi-
tion  and  clearance of particles from  the  respiratory tract.   Additionally,
ally, there is increasing evidence that the  combination of particulates
with  other atmospheric pollutants causes  synergistic and  antagonistic effects
upon  human health.  As a consequence  of increased particulate levels in the
                                  -75-

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atmosphere, incidences of respiratory malfunctions  and  disease  are  evident.
Under severe air pollution episodes, associated  adverse health  effects  have
been validated with studies showing  increased  incidence and  severity of
respiratory illness and  increased death rates.

OTHER CONSTITUENTS

     Minor and trace constituents emitted  by forest  fires  have  greater  poten-
tial for producing adverse health effects  than the major effluents.   Volatile
oxygenated organic compounds, such  as acids, ketones, alcohols,  aldehydes and
furans are produced in the fires and partially absorbed in,  or  adsorbed on,
condensing smoke particles.  The particle-bound  vapors  retain  activity  longer
than they would in the gaseous  state and can be  transported  long distances
from the fires.  As indicated previously,  the  particles facilitate  lung pene-
tration, thereby increasing the apparent toxicity of absorbed  materials.   The
oxygenated compounds are health hazards only under  conditions  of long exposure
to relatively  high levels.  They may pose  some threat to fire  personnel but
their content  in diluted plumes is  probably too  low  to  cause measurable
health effects at any appreciable distance downwind  from a fire.

Polycyclic Organic Materials (POM)

     These compounds are formed by  pyrosynthesis  in  all inefficient  combustion
processes.  Some of these compounds  have been  identified as  carcinogens and
others are suspected of  carcinogenic potential.  POM is organic  matter  that
contains two or more ring structures and includes polycyclic aromatic hydro-
carbons, polycyclic heterocyclics and various  derivatives.   It  is separated
into two classifications:  PPOM, a  solid which can  be collected  on  glass  fiber
filters at ambient temperatures, and VPOM, a vapor which cannot  be  collected on
glass fiber filters at ambient  temperatures.   A  comprehensive  review of PPOM was
published  by the National Academy of Sciences  in  1972 and  in a Technical  Assess-
ment Report by the U.S.  Environmental Protection Agency in 1975.  In most of the
PPOM studies covered by  these reports, benzo-a-pyrene (BaP)  was  used as an indi-
cator substance for the  PPOM family because of its  carcinogenicity,  ubiquity
and distinctive chromatographic and  spectral properties.   Studies reviewed in
the reports have indicated that PPOM is emitted  as  a vapor which may either  con-
dense on particles already present  or form small particles of  pure  condensate.
The half-life  of PPOM in the atmosphere has been estimated at  100 hours under
dry conditions, but may  be much shorter.   There  is  also evidence that some of
the highly reactive compounds are degraded in  the atmosphere by  reaction  with
oxidants and by photooxidation.

     The National Air Surveillance  Network (NASN) has been collecting ambient
air data on BaP concentrations  since 1966.  Estimates of emissions  of BaP
emission from  open burning of agricultural wastes and other  material have been
made. Measurements of the emission  of 12 PPOM, including BaP,  from  laboratory
burning of pine needles  in simulated head  and  back  fires and three  different
fuel loadings  have been  reported by McMahon and  Tsoukales  (1978).   The  results
                                    -76-

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from the latter study are reproduced  in Tables  12  and  13.   The  data tabulated
show the emission of all compounds to be hiqhly dependent  on  fuel  loadinq,
burning conditions and stage of fire.  The trends  for  BaP  are representative
of those of the other PPOM and range  from 238 ng/g to  3454 ng/g  in  back  fires
and 38 ng/q to 97 no/q in head fires.  These trends  are  essentially the
reverse of those for particulates, which ranqe  from  5  Ib/ton  to  21  Ib/ton  in
back fires and 20 Ib/ton to  118 Ib/ton in head  fires.  However,  the smolder-
ing phase of head fires burninq in pine needles produced higher  emissions  of
both PPOM and particulate matter than the flaming  phase.

      The values recorded for BaP emissions from burninq pine needles, for
all but the liqhtly loaded back fire, are comparable with  those  cited  by the
National Academy of Sciences (1972) for open burninq of  landscape  refuse
(150 nq/q) and grass clippings, leaves and branches  (346 nq/g).  McMahon and
Tsoukales caution that the results in Tables 12 and  13 were obtained with  a
single fuel type and that additional  data on other fuel  types and  fire condi-
tions will be required before PPOM emission factors  for  forest  fires can be
developed.  The data reported are fire-dependent,  suggesting  that  an emission
range for PPOM will be more  appropriate than a  single  factor.

Trace Elements

     Emissions of trace elements from forestry  burning have not  been reported,
but some measurements have been made  on smoke from laboratory and  field  burning
of agricultural refuse.  Darley and Lerman (1975)  obtained emission factors for
the five metals listed in Table 14 for laboratory  burning  of  Hawaiian  sugar
cane residues.

      The residues were collected in  Hawaii and shipped  to the  Riverside,
California burning facility  described by Darley and  Biswell (1973), where  the
tests were carried out.  On  a mass basis, the metal  emissions listed in  Table 14
are very low and would not be expected to contribute significantly to  the  trace
element background of rural  air, which is due to natural sources.

      Shum and Loveland (1977) measured emissions  of 24  elements from  burning
grass fields in Oregon.  The relative abundance of trace elements  measured  in
the particulate effluent was comparable to that in the material  being  burned
and the elements were almost entirely in the particulate fraction  larger than
about 2 ym.  The authors concluded that the metals in  the  smoke were primarily
due to  incompletely burned plant material.  The observation that trace elements
are concentrated in the  larger sized  particulate emission  suggests that  field
plume measurements, made at  distances far enough removed from the  fire to  permit
fallout of the larae particles, will  be necessary  for  development  of element
emission factors.

      Emission of selenium,  presumed  to be Se02, fr0m  incinerator  burning  of  wood
chips, wood, sugar cane and  trash has been reported  by Shendrikar  and  West (1973).
Smoke from wood chips and wood contained siqnificantly hiqher concentrations  of
                                     -77-

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                    TABLE 12.  PPOM FROM BURNING PINE NEEDLES BY FIRE TYPE (ng/gram of fuel burned; dry-weight basis)*
oo
 i

Backing Fires

Anthracene/Phenanthrene
Methyl Anthracene
Fluoranthene
Pyrcne
Methyl Pyrene/Fluoranthene
Benzo (c) phcnanthrene
Chrysene/benz (a) anthracene
Methylchryseno
Benzofluoranthenes
Benzo (a)pyrene
Benzo (e)pyrene
Perylene
Methylbenzopyrenes
Indeno (1 , 2, 3-cd)pyre'ne
Benzo Cghi)perylene
TOTAL PAH
Total suspended particulate
matter (TSP)
Benzene soluble organics
0.1 Ib.ft2
12,181
9,400
14,563
20,407
18,580
8,845
28,724
17,753
12,835
3,454
5,836
2,128
6,582
4,282
6,181 ,
171,750
21 Ib/ton
55 percent
0.3 lb/ft2
2,189
.1,147 !
2,140
3,102
2,466
1,808
5,228
1,891
1,216
555
1,172
198
963
655
1,009
25,735
9 Ib/ton
. .50 percent .
0.5 lb/ft2
584
449
687
1,084
1,229
468
2,033
877
818
238
680
134
384
169
419
10,249
5 Ib/ton
. . .45 percent
Heading Fires
0.1 lb/ft2
2,525
1,057
733
1,121
730
244
581
282
164
38
61
33
. 65
--
....
7,632
20 Ib/ton
. . 44 percent
0.3 Ib/ft2
5,542
4,965
974
979
1,648
142
543
1,287
129
40
78
24
198
...
___
16,549
73 Ib/ton
73 percent
0.5 Ib/ft2
6,768
7,611
1,051
1,133
• 2,453
175
536
1,559
241
97
152
46
665
-_-
—
22,787
118 Ib/ton
75 percent
               * Moisture content for all fires ranged between 18 to 27 percent.




                 Taken from McMahon and Tsoukalas (1978).

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TABLE 13.  PPOM FROM BURNING PINE NEEDLES BY FIRE PHASES (ng/gram of fuel burned; dry-weight basis)*


0.1 Ib/ft
2
Flaming Smoldering
Anthracene/Phenanthrene
Methyl Anthracene
Fluoranthene
Pyrene
Methyl Pyrene/Fluoranthena
Benzo (c) phenanthrene
Chrysene/benz (a) anthracene
Methylchrysene
Benzofluoranthenes
Benzo(a)pyrene
Benzo (e)pyrene
Perylene
Methylbenzopyrenes
Indeno(l,2,3-cd)pyrene
Benzo (ghi)perylcne
TOTAL PAH
Total suspended particulate
matter (TSP.)
Benzene soluble organics
1,621 7
539 3
445. 2
750 3
455 2
228
472 1
263
178
33
56
38
19
—
_..
,049
,872
,317
,078
,383
397
,324
497
199
100
133
33;
397
_„
i.
5,097 21,779
13 Ib/ton 55
39 percent 48
Ib/ton .
percent •
Heading Fires by Phases
0.3 Ib/ft2
Flaming
865
667
244
342
494
77
230
343
69
17
45
14
52
--
__
3,456
11 Ib/ton
54 percent
Smoldering
9,046
8,193
1,516
1,454
2,501
189
769
1,989
174
55
102
32 ;.
304
_..
26,324
165 Ib/ton
76 percent •
0.5 Ib/ft2
Flaming
2,351
1,909
622
838
1,036
179
628
466
90
36
82
27
75
--
_..
8,389
31 Ib/ton
69 percent
Smoldering
8,791
11,447
1,331
1,291
3,396
173
980
2,290
347
140
203
61
1,069
-..
31,519
222 Ib/ton
76 percent
Moisture content for all fires ranged between 18 to 27 percent.
Taken from McMahon and Tsoukalas (1978).

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SeO? than that from the  other  two  materials.   The authors made no  attempt  to
relate SeO^ emission  rate  to  combustion rate or mass of fuel burned.
        TABLE 14. TRACE METAL EMISSIONS FROM LABORATORY BURNING OF SUGAR CANE
                      (ng/kg; calculated from Darley and Lerman 1975).


                    Nickel     Chromium      Beryllium     Cadmium      Copper
Whole Cane
Leaf Trash
0.16
0.12
0.05
0.04
0.02
0.04
0.18
0.28
0.56
0.82

FUEL COMBUSTION

     If temperatures  around  1000°C  and complete aeration could be maintained
throuqhout  a fire, emission  would consist almost entirely of COp and  f-LO.
However, this condition  cannot  be attained in open fires, which are generally
considered  to pass through  three  burning stages.  The following description
of these three stages  is  quoted directly from the Southern Forestry Smoke
Management  Guidebook,  Chapter  II, by Tangren et al.  (1976).


           "Pre-Ignition  Phase  (Pyrolysis Predominating)
           In this phase,  the fuel is heated; volatile components move
     to the surface  of the  fuel and are expelled in the surrounding
     air.   Initially,  these  volatiles contain large amounts of water
     vapor  and some  noncombustible  organic compounds.   As temperatures
     increase, hemicellulose,  followed by cellulose and lignin, begin
     to decompose and  release  a stream of combustible organic products
     (pyrolysates).   Because these  gases and vapors are hot they rise,
     mix with the oxygen  in  the air, and ignite - producing the second
     phase.

           "Flaming Phase  (Gas-Phase Oxidation Predominating)
           In the second  phase,  the  temperature rises rapidly from the
     heat of exothermic  reactions.   Pyrolysis continues, but it is now
     accompanied by  rapid oxidation, or flaming of the combustible
     gases  being evolved  in  high  concentrations.  Carbon monoxide,
     methane, formaldehyde,  organic acids, methanol, and other highly
     combustible hydrocarbon species are being fed into the flame
     zone.  The products  of  the flame zone are predominantly carbon
     dioxide and water vapor.   The  water vapor here is not a result
     of dehydration  as in the  pre-ignition phase, but rather a major
     product of the  oxidation  of  the fuel constituents.
                                     -80-

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          "Some of the pyrolyzed  substances  cool  and condense without
     passing through the flame zone;  others  pass  through  the flames
     but only partially oxidize,  producing  a wide range  of products.
     Many products of low molecular weight  (methane, propane, etc.)
     remain as gases after  cooling.   Others,  with higher  molecular
     weights, cool and condense to form  small,  tarry,  liquid drop-
     lets and solid soot particles as  they  move from the  combustion
     zone.  These condensing substances,  along  with  the  rapidly
     cooling water vapor that  is  being evolved  in copius  amounts,
     form the smoke that accompanies  all  forest fires.

          "Pyrosynthesis also  occurs  during  this  phase.   Low-
     molecular-weight hydrocarbon radicals  condense  in the reducing
     region of the flames,  leading to  the synthesis  of relatively
     large molecules such as the  polynuclear aromatic  hydrocarbons.

          "Glowing Phase (Solid Oxidation Predominating)
          In the final phase of combustion,  the exposed  surface of
     the char left from the flaming phase is oxidized, producing a
     characteristic glow.   This continues,  as long as  temperatures
     remain high enough, until only small amounts of noncombustible
     material remain as gray ash.  Many  times the arrangement of
     the burning material is such that temperatures  cannot be
     maintained, and black  char is left  instead of gray  ash.

          "Fuel particles are  not always  consumed in a moving
     fire front.  Because of the  size, condition, or arrangement
     of these particles, some  are pyrolyzed  but not  oxidized and
     others are only partially consumed  before  the flame  is
     extinguished.  From the heat still  available after  the flam-
     ing phase, these particles emit  large  amounts of  smoke.
     Still other particles  continue in flaming  combustion  after
     the flaming phase has  ended.  As  a  result  dehydration,
     pyrolysis, solid oxidation,  and  scattered  flaming often
     occur simultaneously during  this  last  phase. Where  this
     condition exists, that last  phase  is called  smoldering."


      The major portion of  the emission  from forest  fires  occurs during the
pre-ignition and glowing phases.  Cramer  (1974) has  pointed out a  number of
ways in which emissions can be minimized  through  adjustment of burning tech-
niques to utilize the efficient flaming  phase to  maximum  advantage.  Piled
fuels, in particular, burn  more efficiently in  larger  fires because higher
average combustion temperatures are attained.  Large piles have proportion-
ally less fuel near the edges, where  it  is  subject to  inefficient  combustion.
Maximum combustion efficiency  in  pile  burning is  achieved  with a continuing
fire to which fuel is added at a  rate which  maintains  the  fire in  the flaming
phase.  Fuels such as duff  and rotted wood  tend to burn  in the glowing phase
and their inclusion in pile fires increases  emissions.   Head fires move
                                    -81-

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rapidly and burn off the light fuels  in a relatively cool,  inefficient  flame,
leaving heavier fuel elements smoldering.  Back fires  progress more  slowly and
consume proportionally more of the available fuel during the  flaming phase.

FUEL MOISTURE

     The effect of fuel moisture on emissions has not  been  studied extensively.
There appears little question that increased moisture  decreases  the  quantity of
available fuel and rate of fire spread, thus decreasing source strength and
rate of emissions.  However, the effect of moisture on emission  factors has not
been clearly defined.  Darley (1976)  noted marked increases  in particulate and
hydrocarbon emission factors for leaves when fuel moisture  was  increased from
10 to 20 percent.  Particulate matter  increased by as  much  as 400 percent and
hydrocarbons by as much as 300 percent, although carbon monoxide showed only
a 29 percent  increase.  Measurements  of emissions from field  burning of agri-
cultural refuse reported by Carrol et  al. (1977), also showed increasing fuel
moisture to greatly increase emissions of carbon monoxide,  hydrocarbons and
particulate matter.  The effect of fuel moisture on emissions was much  more
pronounced in head fires than in back  fires.

     Ward et  al.  (1974) showed higher  particle emissions  in simulated head
fires  in pine needles  at 10 percent moisture than at 6 percent.  The dif-
ference  in moisture level did not affect particle emissions  from simulated
back fires in the same fuel.  In measuring field emissions,  the  same authors
noted a  significant decrease in rate  of fire spread and, consequently,  rate
of particle emissions with  increasing  moisture.  However, the particle  emis-
sion factors were similar at the two  moisture levels.  Studies reported by
Darley et al. (1974) and Darley (1977) indicate that emissions of particu-
late matter,  carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons increase with  increasing  fuel
moisture for fine agricultural fuels  but drying woody  fuels  below 35 percent
moisture has  little effect on these emissions.

SOURCE STRENGTH

     Source strength can be defined and determined in  a number of ways.
Definitions generally  include total emissions as well  as emission rates.
For point sources, such as power plants, both integrated emissions and  emis-
sion rates are predictable from operating parameters and are  usually monitored
as part of the operating activity.  Line sources, such as major  traffic arter-
ies, pose a more difficult problem.   However, emissions are  predictable from
traffic patterns  and fixed monitoring  stations can be  strategically  placed
along a route to document integrated  and instantaneous source strength.   The
difficulty of predicting and measuring the strength of area sources, such as
forest fires, is orders of magnitude  greater than than point  or  line sources.

     While the locations of prescribed fires are known, fixed monitoring
installations are impractical because  a given plot is  burned  only once  in
                                      -82-

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several years.  Electric  line power  is  not  normally available near pre-
scribed fires and any monitoring  must  rely  on  battery power or portable
field generators.  Since  a fire only burns  a plot  once,  there is no margin
for error in deployment of monitoring  instruments  and no time for correc-
tion of malfunctions.  Field monitoring of  forest  fires  to determine source
strength is therefore difficult,  costly and uncertain.   The approach taken
by the southern region, monitoring a limited number of  field fires in repre-
sentative fuels under usual burning  conditions  to  predict source strength,
appears more reasonable than attempting to  monitor all  prescribed fires.
Methods used to predict the emission of particulate matter from typical
fires in southern fuels have been described in  detail by Mobley et al.
(1976).  The major fire and fuel  parameters that  are important for pre-
dicting source strength are outlined in the following subsection.

Fire Behavior and Burning Technique

     Emissions from fires occur in two  phases which may  take place simul-
taneously or sequentially.  An actively burning fire front generates enough
heat to entrain emissions into a  convective column.  The emissions are  carried
far from the fire by the  resulting plume and are  usually well dispersed before
returning to ground  level.  A fire  in  the smoldering phase does not generate
enough heat to produce a  convective  column. Emissions  remain near ground level
and can impact on air quality in  areas  adjacent to fires.  Fires are thus
composite sources with varying emission rates  and  plume  rise that impact
on air quality both  near  the fire and  at greater  distances.   Consideration of
source strength can  emphasize either or both emission properties, depending on
fire location, meteorological conditions and downwind smoke sensitivity.

     Fire behavior and burning technique have  a pronounced effect on source
strength for any given fuel  loading  condition.  Fuel moisture, particularly
that of the litter layer  and fine fuels, influences the  rate of fire spread
and the quantity of  available fuel.  With very  wet fuels, the rate of fire
spread is too slow to generate enough  heat  for  formation of a convective  column
and the entire emission drifts from  the fire zone  at ground level.  Back  fires
consume most of the  available fuel  in  the flaming  fire  front.  A high percen-
tage of the emissions is  entrained  in  the convective column if the fire inten-
sity is adequate for formation of such  a column.   Head  fires consume only fine
fuels in the flaming front,  leaving  heavier fuels  smoldering.  As a result,
head fires may consume only 50 to 80 percent of the available fuel during
the advancing-front  combustion stage.   There is frequently enough heat  in
the advancing-front  stage to entrain part of the  residual stage emissions
into the convective  column (Johansen et al. 1976).  In  contrast, the mass
ignition techniques  typically employed  for  slash  burning in the Pacific
Northwest result in  rapid formation  of  strong  convective columns which
entrain the major portion of the  fire  emissions.
                                    -83-

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Available Fuel Loading

     Source strength, in terms of total emissions  and  emission  rates,  is
highly dependent on fuel loading and  arrangement,  which  determine fire behavior
and largely govern selection of burning technique.   Methods  for estimating
total and available fuel in the Pacific Northwest  include  those described by
Beaufait et al.  (1977), Brown  (1974), Maxwell  and  Ward (1976a,  b),  and
Hedin and Taylor (1977).  The  individual methods have  varying utility and
reliability for  estimating quantities of available fuel  and  predicting fire
behavior.  Fuel  loadings and emission factors  are  the  major  parameters
governing source strength.  Field emission  factors for the fuels and burning
conditions of  the Pacific Northwest will need  to be accurately  defined.
Methods for estimating available fuel in terms  of  type,  size, arrangement and
condition will need to be improved to serve  as  the basis for derivation  of
fire behavior  models.  The utility of such  models  for  estimating source
strength and predicting emission impact  is  a direct function of the accuracy
of the emission  factors and available fuel  estimates.  The  models will  need to
be validated through selected  field measurements of emission, heat  evolution
and fire spread  rates.  In the absence of  such  validated models for the
specific fuels and burninn conditions of the Pacific Northwest, source
strength of individual fires can be guessed  but not accurately  estimated.
                                   -84-

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                                   SECTION 4

                   IMPACT OF FORESTRY BURNING  UPON  AIR QUALITY


     This section addresses the  impact of forestry  burning  on  air  quality
in the Northwest.  The first subsection summarizes  air quality  problems  as
they relate to the attainment of National Ambient Air Quality Standards
in Washington and Oregon.  The second section  describes  the mechanics  of
pollutant transport and dispersion relative to forestry  burning activity
in the Northwest.  The third section reviews studies which  have attempted
to assess the impact of forestry burning on air quality  through various
approaches.  The final section discusses the relative impact of forestry
burning in comparison to other emission sources.

CURRENT AIR QUALITY PROBLEMS IN THE NORTHWEST

     Under authority of the Clean Air Act of 1970,  the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency developed National Ambient Air Quality Standards  (NAAQS),
which established acceptable levels of five criteria pollutants.   Standards
are of two basic types, primary  and secondary.  Primary  standards  are  estab-
lished to protect the public's health and are  based on scientific  data pub-
lished in air quality criteria documents.  Secondary standards  are  designed
to protect the public's welfare.  Standards established  for criteria
pollutants are summarized in Table 15.

     Under the Clean Air Act, individual states have the responsibility  of
bringing nonattainment areas into compliance with NAAQS  and insuring that
NAAQS standards  are maintained.  Attainment of NAAQS standards  is  determined
by standard air  quality monitoring techniques  and,  in some  cases,  by dif-
fusion modeling  techniques.  The attainment statuses of  areas within Oregon
and Washington were recently published in the  Federal Register1 as  required
by the Clean Air Act Amendments  of 1977, and are presented  in Table 16.   This
table indicates  that ambient levels of total suspended particulates (TSP),
photochemical oxidants (0 ), and carbon monoxide (CO) represent major  air
quality problems within tne two  states.
  Federal Register. Vol. 32, No. 43, Friday, March 3, 1978.
                                     -85-

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            TABLE 15.  NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS
    Pollutant
      Primary Standards
Secondary Standards
Total suspended
 particulate
Annual geometric mean of
 75 yg/m3 not to be
 exceeded
Annual geometric mean of
 60 Pg/m3 not to be
 exceeded
Sulfur dioxide
Carbon monoxide
Photochemical
  oxidants
Nitrogen dioxide
24-hour concentration of
 260 yg/m3 not to be
 exceeded more than
 once per year

Annual arithmetic mean of
 80 yg/m3 not to be
 exceeded

24-hour concentration of
 365 yg/m3 not to be
 exceeded more than
 once per year

1-hour concentration of
 40 mg/m3 not to be
 exceeded more than
 once per year

8-hour concentration of
 10 yg/m3 not to be
 exceeded more than
 once per year

1-hour concentration of
 160 Mg/m3 not to be
 exceeded more than
 once per year

Annual arithmetic mean
 of 100 yg/m3 not to be
 exceeded
24-hour concentration of
  150 yg/m3 not to be
  exceeded more than
  once per year

3-hour concentration of
  1300 yg/m3 not to be
  exceeded more than
  once per year
                                       -86-

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                              TABLE 16.  NAAQS ATTAINMENT STATUS FOR OREGON AND WASHINGTON
                                           ( X indicates attainment not reached at current time )
                Area
    Total Suspended
	P articulate	       Sulfur Dioxide
Primary     Secondary   Primary    Secondary
Photochemical
  Oxidants
  C arbon      Nitrogen
Monoxide *   Dioxide *
    Portland - Vancouver AQMA **
      (Oregon portion)
    Medford-Ashland AQMA **
    Eugene-Springfield AQMA **
    Salem
    Remainder of State
  Washington
                X

                X
      X

      X
      X
      X
     X

     X
     X
     X
^ Seattle ***
Y* Renton
Kent
Tacoma ***
Port Angeles ***
Longview
Vancouver
Yakima
Spokane
Clarkston
Remainder of State
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X

X
X

X X


X
X
X


  *  Primary and secondary standards for these pollutants are identical.
 **  Air Quality Maintenance Area—an area defined by states for the purpose of air quality maintenance planning,

***  Different attainment statuses were published for localities within these urban areas.  If both primary and secondary standards were
     violated, we have indicated only  that primary standards were violated.

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     A few points should be made  about  the attainment status and its value
as an indicator of air quality.

     «    First, attainment status  can  only be determined where
          air quality monitoring  data have been collected or air
          quality models are used to estimate air quality levels.
          As a rule, air quality  monitors  are placed in populated
          areas.

     «    Federal law requires  that all  areas within states be
          designated as attainment,  nonattainment,  or nonclas-
          sifiable areas.  Many of  these areas are large and
          have relatively few monitors  located within them.
          Hence the designation of  nonattainment does not
          necessarily imply poor  air quality throughout an
          area.  Nor does the designation  of attainment neces-
          sarily imply acceptable air quality through an area.

     •    On the other hand, a  careful  analysis is made of
          monitoring data before  a  designation of attainment
          or nonattainment is made.  For example, if unchar-
          acteristic meteorological  conditions led to abnor-
          mally low or high air quality readings, this factor
          is taken into account in  determining attainment
          status.

     •    Rural areas are generally not  designated as non-
          attainment if it can  be shown  that particulate
          levels result from fugitive dust emissions.  Rural,
          wind-blown dust  is not  believed  to contain the same
          toxic pollutants and  to have  the same health impact
          as urban dust.2

The  attainment status of an area  represents the state's best evaluation of
the  air quality relative to NAAQS within populated locales.

     In Oregon, major air quality problems exist in the urban areas of
Portland, Salem, Eugene-Springfield, and Medford-Ashland.  The problem
appears to be most severe  in the  Eugene-Springfield area, where particulate,
ozone, and carbon monoxide standards are exceeded.   In Washington, five
urban areas on the East Side and  four areas on the West Side exceed NAAQS.
Photochemical oxidant problems  exist  in the Puget Sound area of Seattle and
Tacoma.  Carbon monoxide exceedances occur in Seattle, Yakima, and Spokane.
Particulate exceedances occur at  every  area reporting an exceedance of any
type, except for Longview.
  Federal Register, Vol. 43,  No. 43, March 3, 1978,  p. 8963.
                                     -88-

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     The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977 require  states  to  submit  to  EPA
State Implementation Plans to achieve NAAQS primary  standards within des-
ignated nonattainment areas, while maintaining standards  in  areas where
NAAQS are not currently exceeded.  These plans must  be  submitted to EPA  by
January 1, 1979.  In order to develop strategies which  are effective in
achieving primary standards, states must be able to  determine the contribu-
tions of various sources to air quality.  One potentially significant  source
is forestry burning.

MECHANISMS BY WHICH FOREST BURNING IMPACTS AIR QUALITY

     Combustion products including heat, water vapor, particles and gases
are emitted into the atmosphere from an open fire  and form a plume  or
cloud of material which is transported in a downwind direction by the  wind.
Meteorological parameters determine to what height this plume will  rise  and
what its dimensions will be at downwind points.  Numerous references appear
in the  literature regarding pollution observation  studies in the vicinity
of fires; mathematical models of plume behavior have been attempted to pre-
dict downwind pollutant concentrations.  Such models must include features
which will adequately describe the airflow within  a  forest,  the airflow  in
complex terrain, to what height the plume will rise, and  to  what extent  the
plume will disperse pollutant material into the atmosphere by turbulence.

     Smoke plumes can be quantitatively described with  respect to size,
composition, behavior and effects.  Each of these  characteristics is deter-
mined from several  interrelated factors including  type  and quantity of fuel,
burning phase of the fire, meteorological conditions, land slope and the
type of fire.

    The composition of the plume includes the chemical, heat, moisture and
particulate content of the fire emissions.  The composition  and effects  of
forestry burning emissions  are described in Section  3.  This section dis-
cusses  initial plume characteristics and how the meteorology and the
terrain affect the  transport, dispersion, deposition and  transformation
of the  plume and hence its  impact on air quality.

Plume Rise

     Plume height is the height  above ground level at which  the vertical
rise of the smoke plume stops.  Plume height is determined by atmospheric
stability, wind speed and heat release rate of the fire.  Murphy (1976)
measured plume rise from a  15 hectare burn in Georgia using  an instrumented
aircraft.  Under the burn conditions, the plume rose to the  top of  the mixing
layer within 8 km of the burn site.  Figure 14 depicts  the density  of  the
smoke plume in a vertical section from transects made  1.6 km from the  fire.
                                     -89-

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Nephelometer data
and a plume width
dimensions of the
approximately 500
(1974)  described
22,000 acres) in
 showed the plume rapidly rising  through  the mixing layer
 of approximately 2000 m measured 1.6  km  downwind.   The
 source are not given; however, the  fire  was estimated to be
 m across at the time of the measurements.   Eccleston et al.
 fires covering areas of 1400  to  8800  hect-ares (3500 to
western Australia.   Plumes  from the  burns were measured from
1067 to 3048 meters  (3500  to  10,000 feet)  in altitude.  A description of  the
existing meteorological  conditions  was not provided.  Vines (1974) observed
the behavior of  plumes  from  burned  areas of approximately 3000 hectares  (7500
acres) containing  approximately 45  x 10  kkg (50 x 10  tons) of fuel.
                   900 —
                  £ 500
                   200
                     200O
                                  0          2000
                                Cross Wind Distance, m
                 Figure 14. Vertical profile of smoke density (Murphy 1976).
      Norum (1974) monitored 22 prescribed burns of  approximately 4  hectares
 (10  acres) to relate fire intensity with convective plume  height.   Fuel
 guantities were measured before and after the burn  and fuel  moisture  at  the
 time  of  the burn.  Convective column heights were determined from an  aircraft.
 The  relationship of fuel, fire and atmospheric variables  to  plume height was
 studied;  convective plume heinht was more closely related  to variables which
 control  fire intensity, such as wind speed and fuel dryness, than to  mixing
 depth.

      Research by Briggs (1969, 1975) to determine plume  rise from heated plumes
 emitted  from chimneys  is based on principles which  should  be applicable  to for-
 est  burning.   The Southern Forestry Smoke Management  Guidebook  (Pharo, Lavdas,
                                     -90-

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and Bailey 1976) has adopted the Briggs method for  estimating plume heights.
However, in the South it  is estimated that  only  60  percent  of the smoke
from a prescribed fire is carried aloft by  the convective  uplift and attains
the height predicted by the Briggs equations.  The  remaining  40 percent
remains unentrained and drifts along the ground.

     Lavdas (1978) made comparisons of plume  heights  observed from aircraft
using estimates calculated by the Briggs equations.   In  all experimental cases,
the Briggs estimates agreed with observations within  a factor of two with
both overprediction and underprediction occurring.  Lavdas  also formulated
a plume rise model that accounts for the smoke not  entrained  by the rising
convective column.  The model allows 60 percent  of  the smoke  to attain a
Briggs plume height while 40 percent is assigned  to a plume height of zero.
This approach yields satisfactory ground-level predictions  of TSP concentra-
tions at short ranges.

     Alternatively, smoke column behavior can be  described  by convection
models that have been used to simulate the  behavior of cumulus clouds
(Roberts 1976).  These models take into account  the vertical  variations in
stability that occur  in the atmosphere.  This feature is especially useful
since convective columns  from forest fires  may penetrate the  top of the
mixing layer and enter a  region of more stable air  aloft.

Atmospheric Transport and Dispersion

     Meteorological factors which directly  affect the transport and disper-
sion of the plume  are wind speed and direction,  depth of the  mixing layer,
and atmospheric stability.  The USDA Forest Service Agriculture Handbook 360
entitled Fire Weather (Schroeder 1976) describes  these concepts.   The mixing
layer is deeper in an unstable atmosphere and hence more dispersion will
occur.  Also, the  more unstable the atmosphere is,  the more rapidly disper-
sion will occur.   Light winds will predominate in a stable  atmosphere thus
resulting in small dispersion of the plume.   Wind speeds generally increase
with height in the lower  atmosphere.  The plume  will  be transported at the
wind speeds existing throughout the layer that it occupies.   These winds will
be stronger than the wind speed at the surface.   Wind direction generally
changes in a clockwise fashion with height.   Therefore the  entire plume may
not travel in the  same direction.

     If the mixing depth  is low due to a layer in the atmosphere, the smoke
plume may be trapped below the stable layer,  increasing adverse effects.
If the convective  column  above a fire is strong  enough to penetrate the
stable layer, the  smoke plume will rise through  the inversion layer further
downwind and provide more time for dispersion to  occur.  Figure 15 illus-
trates this condition.

    Dell et al. (1970) reported on the general dispersion of  smoke plumes
from the Cascades when the Pacific Northwest was  under the  influence of
                                    -91-

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                                    WIND
     CONVECTION

      COLUMN
                                            MAIN  PLUME
                                                         TOP OF MIXED LAYER
ro
i
                      DRIFT


                       ASMOKE
                                    LIGHT WIND

                                                                       LATE AFTERNOONi
                         Figure 15. Plume penetrating through top of mixing layer. (Beaufait and Cramer 1969)

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anticyclonic flow.  Subsiding air  in  the  high  pressure  system resulted in
inversion layers between 300 and 400  m.   Observed  plumes  from fires ignited
above the inversion layer did not  penetrate  down through  the inversion
layers and did not enter the Willamette Valley.

     The elevated inversion can occur during the daytime  in  the Willamette-
Puget Trough region when cool maritime air  is  trapped at  the surface by
relatively warm subsiding air from a  high pressure system.   Studies which
characterize fire intensity and plume rise  versus  depth of the mixing layer
inversion strength are  needed to refine these  combinations of parameters
for smoke management.   A joint frequency  distribution of  stability classes
with wind direction and wind speed is commonly used  for air  pollution
modeling to calculate expected pollution  levels.   These frequency distri-
butions are based on climatological records.   Similar information modified
to include the situations encountered in  prescribed  burning  in complex ter-
rain would provide desirable refinement to  planning  procedures.   Probability
forecasts of the occurrence of the most desirable  conditions would aid in
anticipating plume behavior.  Climatic records are compiled  by the National
Climatic Center for all areas of the  country.   Seasonal variations as well
as spatial variations in precipitation, cloud  amount, soil moisture,  etc.
are determined from climatological  records.

Local Influences on Dispersion

     Dispersion of smoke plumes in the Northwest is  influenced by the rough
terrain and the proximity of the Pacific  Ocean.  Complex  terrain causes a
variety of local influences on air flow patterns such as  up-slope and down-
slope flow, mountain and valley winds, flow  channeling, and  mountain lee
waves.  Whether or not  this type of phenomena  occurs depends largely on the
magnitude of the synoptic-scale flow.  Strong  large-scale winds can break up
or prohibit local flows from forming.

     Daytime solar heating and nighttime  radiational cooling generate the
driving force for mountain and valley flows  and upslope and  downslope winds.
During the day the layer of air closest to  the surface  is strongly heated by
the sun.  As a result,  this air rises and has  an upslope  component.   Rising
thermals of warm air exist above peaks and  ridges.   At  night,  radiational
cooling produces a cold layer of air  near the  surface which  flows toward  the
lowest elevations.  If  a smoke plume  is entrained  by this type of flow, smoke
will accumulate in low-lying places.   Similar  effects occur  in the up-valley
and down-valley directions during  the day and  night  respectively.

     Channeling of airflow in mountain and  valley  systems was studied in
eastern Tennessee by Nappo (1975).  During  stable  conditions the topographic
features affected the flow to elevations  greater than 2000 m above the ground
and to distances beyond 50 km.  Mountain  lee waves develop downwind of a
mountain or ridge crest in a stable atmosphere with  moderate to strong
winds above the elevated terrain.
                                     -93-

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     Turbulence is partly caused by the roughness  of  the  surface  over which
air flows and is the primary mechanism for  dispersion  of  smoke  plumes.   It is
expected that dispersion will be enhanced  in  complex  terrain, except when
strong inversions are present in the valleys.   Most field  plume studies  indi-
cate that complex terrain contributes to alterations  in air  flow  and to
increased amounts of turbulent diffusion compared  to  those in flat  terrain.
Drainage flow and lee waves appear to be the  flow  characteristics most respon-
sible for increased turbulent effects.

     The maritime influence felt in the Pacific Northwest  is due  to the  pre-
dominately westerly winds of the coastal sections.  The maritime  air that
comes ashore is quite stable due to its fetch  over the relatively cool
ocean water.  A stable  layer near the surface  of the  water is transported
inland.  As the air passes over the Coast Ranges in the daytime,  an unstable
mixing layer develops,  aided by the upslope winds  due to  solar  heating.   At
night, radiational cooling produces a layer just above the surface  which is
more stable than the maritime layer.  These phenomena are  displayed in
Figures  16 and  17-

     With westerly synoptic-scale winds, the  effects  of a local sea-land
breeze circulation cell  developing in coastal  areas due to differential  heat-
ing of land and ocean would be masked by the  larger-scale  flow.  When the
onshore  flow is weak there may be some potential for  sea  breeze cell develop-
ment.  Under strong insolation conditions  land surfaces are  heated  more
strongly than water surfaces, causing rising  air over land which may flow out
over the ocean where cooler air is subsidinq.   Cool air moves  inland to  com-
plete the sea breeze circulation cell.

EVALUATION OF THE IMPACT OF FORESTRY BURNING

     The impact of forestry burning can be  assessed by several  different
approaches.  Mathematical models have been  developed  to describe  both the
airflow  and plume dispersion  in forested complex terrain  areas  and  to pre-
dict concentrations of  pollutants downwind  of  fires.   Pollutant concentra-
tions of plumes have been measured at the  surface  and at  upper  levels.
Tracer materials have been used to follow  airflow  patterns in forested
areas.   Pollutant measurements have been made  in smoke-sensitive  areas and
these data have been both statistically and morphologically  related to
burning  activity.

Modeling Studies

     Despite the fact that several models  have been developed to describe
airflow  in forested, complex terrain reqions  or predict pollutant  concen-
trations resulting from forest fires, the  available  literature  does not
reveal any modeling studies that specifically determine the  impact  of
slash burninq activities on the smoke-sensitive reqions of the  Pacific
                                     -94-

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                                                                                             Feet
                                                                                               —10.000
                         Slightly Stable
                         -A.      Top of Marine Layer
                                                                                            ?-.—8.00O
                                                                                          -I-I- -6.000
                                                                                              —4,000
                                                                                              —2,000
                                                                                              —0
      Figure  16.  Common mesoscale and local afternoon dispersion conditions west of the Cascades
         during the warm season.  The mixing layer is shallower in cooler seasons (Cramer 1974).
                                                                                          Feet
                                                                                           -10,000
                  Slightly Stable
                          ^Stable^CWJ^ -
                                                                                           -8,000
                                                                                           —6.000
                                                                                           —4,000
                                                                                           —2,000
                                                                                20      30
                                                                                           —0

Figure 17.   Common nighttime or early morning condition during the warm season west of the Cascades.
Downslope breezes develop on still,  clear nights.  Similar stratified conditions without downslope breezes
   may persist throughout the day during the colder seasons and during rainy weather (Cramer  1974).
                                             -95-

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Northwest.   However, validation of such models  is beinq pursued  in  Oregon
and Washington.  Modeling of airflow through the forest canopy  is necessary
to assess the  impact of drift smoke.

     Complex terrain airflow and dispersion models can be  used to predict  the
pollutant concentrations that result from large smoke plumes of  slash  fires
in Washington  and Oregon.  Researchers have developed numerical  models  to
describe wind  patterns applicable to the transport and dispersion of  the
already formed plume.  Tana (1970) devised a mathematical  model  to  determine
airflow in and above a forest on horizontal and sloping terrains.   Drag  and
vertical eddy  exchanges were used to construct  the models.  The  wind  profile
above flat terrain was basically concave upward in the trunk space, concave
downward in the canopy, and logarithmically increasing above the canopy  as
shown in Figure 18.  This basically agreed with observed data.   The computed
wind profile for sloping terrains contained a maximum above the  canopy  and
in the trunk space as shown in Figure  19.  The  magnitude of the  maximum wind
depended on the slope of the terrain and the eddy exchange coefficient  varia-
tion with height.

     Kinerson  and Fritschen (1973) used an analog computer to model three-
dimensional coniferous forest density  and determine  airflow and  dispersion
of aerosols.   Field studies performed  by Fritschen et al.  (1969, 1970,  1971)
in an experimental forest in Washington were used to test  the accuracy
of the analog  simulation.  Satisfactory results were obtained with  the model.
It was concluded that wind direction,  governed  by vegetative distribution
and density, was an important factor in determining  lateral aerosol move-
ment.  Vertical motion of the aerosol  was concluded  to be  primarily due  to
atmospheric stability.  Kinerson and Fritschen  (1971) also developed  a
model that specifically characterizes  the canopy of  a naturally  regener-
ated Douglas-fir stand.  The model validated satisfactorily when used  to
compute wind profiles.

     Ryan (1977) developed a model to  characterize surface winds in complex
terrain, assuming that the winds resulted from  vector addition of several
independent wind components produced by mountainous  terrain.  The components
include valley-mountain wind, slope drainage wind, land and sea  breeze,
synoptic-scale wind, and the channel effect of  topography  elements.   The
computed winds were comparable to observed winds  in  the San Bernadino
Mountains of southern California.  No  reference was  made  indicating if Ryan's
model has been adapted to compute dispersion of atmospheric pollutants  in
complex terrain.

     Other models have been devised to characterize  airflows  and dispersion
through complex terrain.  Fosberg (1976a) developed  a numerical  model  from
the curl and divergence of the Navier-Stokes equation to  determine  the  ther-
mally driven wind pattern in mountainous terrain.  The model evaluates  the
wind conditions and plume locations  in remote  areas.  Data on the ther-
mal field may  be obtained by direct measurement or remote  sensing.  The
                                    -96-

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Figure 18.  Wind profile of forest on flat terrain (z = height; u = wind speed) (Tang 1970).
      300- •



      200--






       IOO--
       5O--

    Z(m)  ..


       3O--
        20---7C
        10--
          - - Conopy
         5--
                         U (Canopy
                              flow)
                     0
4      ( m sec"1)
           Figure 19.  Wind profile of forest on sloping terrain (30°) (Tang 1970).
                                        -97-

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model was-.tested against observed conditions  in California;  errors  of
+_ 1.1 ms   for wind speed and +_ 20.7° for wind directions were  documented.

     Fosberq (1976b) also devised a single  layer model for  airflow  and  the
dispersion of pollutants in the atmospheric boundary  layer  in complex  ter-
rain.  The model was derived from the Navier-Stokes flow equation  by neglect-
inn advection terms and assuming an impulse solution.  The  model requires  a
minimum amount of data and describes a diagnostic model of  the  vector  flow
field.  Six sets of wind data from the Oregon Cascades and  one  set  from
California were used to evaluate the model.   The model validated reasonably
well with a root-mean-square wind speed error of 2.0  ms   and a root-mean-
square wind direction error of 1.9 points based on a  16-point compass.   The
Fosberq model is currently undergoinn validation in the Willamette  Valley
reaion by the Oreqon Air Resources Center at  Oregon State University.

     The LIRAO model developed at Lawrence  Livermore  Laboratories  is also
being validated in  the same renion.  The LIRAQ model  has been previously
evaluated by Environmental Research and Technology (Bass, Eschenroeder  and
Eqan 1977).  LIRAO  is a reqional multiple-source air  quality simulation model
capable of predicting the dispersion of both  nonreactive pollutants  or  reac-
tive photochemical  pollutants.  The model produces spatial  distributions of
around-level pollutant concentrations.  Complex topographic  effects  on  mix-
ing height and  local wind fields are included in the  model.   The  impact of
slash burning on air quality  in any region  near burning activity  in  the
Coast Ranges or Cascades can  be evaluated after the model has been  vali-
dated.

     Transport  and  diffusion models usually deal with point  sources  such
as  stacks.  Adams et al. (1976) aerially monitored prescribed burns  and
concluded that  long-range plume dispersal can be satisfactorily described
with point source models.  However, for short-range predictions, the length
of  the fire  line must be considered.  A  line  source model that  predicts
pollutant concentrations within 100 km of prescribed  fires  was  developed
for flat terrain  in the South by Pharo, Lavdas and Bailey  (1976).   Both
a "workbook" type model and a computer model  (SMOGO)  have been  developed
using Briggs1 plume rise and  the  line source  Gaussian dispersion equation
of  Turner (1970).   According  to preliminary reports by Lavdas  (1978),  the
best results using  the Briqqs-Turner approach are obtained  when 60  percent
of  the smoke can rise to the  level predicted  by  the Briggs  equations and
40  percent  is dispersed from  the around  level.

     Williams (1974) used a different approach from the standard  Gaussian
plume formulation to estimate smoke concentrations from prescribed  fires.
Smoke concentration is expressed as a function of the smoke production  rate
and the volume  change rate of the smoke plume.  The plume  is assumed to
occupy a wedge  rising from a  line source with a quarter part of a  right
elliptical cone on  either side of the wedge.  The model was tested  against
measured data from  two burns  in Reoroia.  Predicted concentrations  at  dis-
tances of 805 m and 2415 m during a head-fire burn and  1610 m during a
back-fire burn  varied less than 25 percent  from measured  values.
                                     -98-

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     Reiquam (1970) developed a mathematical model  of  an  airshed  that  was
evaluated for the Willamette Valley.  Pollution  concentrations  are  related
to pollutant source distributions and intensities,  and to  the volume  of  air
available for dispersion.  The model describes the  transport  and  accumula-
tion of pollutants within an entire airshed  during  conditions associated
with maximum observed concentrations.  Calculated patterns  of TSP concen-
tration were qualitatively similar to patterns observed in  the  Willamette
Valley during a period of field burning in  late  summer and  early  fall.

     All of the models described in this section are applicable to  the
problem of describing and evaluating the transport  and diffusion  of smoke
from prescribed fires in the Northwest.  They differ, however,  in both the
techniques used to describe the transport and dispersal of  smoke, and  also
in the scale for which they are meant to be  applied.

Plume and Tracer Studies

     Smoke plumes from prescribed fires have been observed  by aircraft
measurements in Washington, Oreaon, Montana  and  Georaia.   Dell  et al.
(1970) observed smoke transport from slash  burns occurring  above
2600 feet MSL in the Oregon Cascades during  a 3-day period  in October
1969.  A stable layer of air below 10,000 feet existed during the period
severely limiting mixing and causing pollution problems in  the  Willamette
Valley.  However, wind directions were such  that smoke from the Cascades
fires was carried eastward over smaller communities than exist  in the
more copulated Willamette Valley.  On the last day  of the  study,  dense
smoke was visible from the crest of the Cascades and eastward for 50 miles.
Visibility at Redmond, Oregon, was decreased to  4 miles due to  smoke from
slash burns.

     Radke et al.  (1978) made airborne measurements of plumes from  several
prescribed fires in western Washinoton durina October  1976.  The  particle
number and volume distributions were measured for each fire, along with  the
light-scattering coefficient, CCN concentration, size spectra of  cloud drop-
lets, and concentrations of total gaseous sulfur, 0,, NO,  N0? and NO  .
The plume from an 86-acre fire near Eatonville,  Washington  was  observed  to
form a cumulus-type cloud 12 km across with  a well-defined  top  at 1800 m.
A plume measured 10 km downwind of a 49-acre fire near Centralia  reached
only 600 m.  Some of the plume from the Eatonville  fire reached the ground
13 km downwind, but the majority of the plume appeared to  be above  900 m.
CCN concentrations were approximately 5000  CCN/cm   and comparable to
those reported by Eagan et al. (1974) for forest fire smoke.  Although a
majority of the particulate matter is organic and insoluble, 80 percent
of the mass was in the 0.1 to 1.0 ym diameter range; this  is  large  enough
to be active for condensation despite the lack of soluble  material.-. The
mass concentration in the plume of the Eatonville fire was  250  pg/m
greater than the concentration in ambient air.
                                    -99-

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     Air quality within a 60 km radius of prescribed burns  in the Miller
Creek and Newman Ridge areas of Montana was  investigated by Adams, Koppe  and
Robinson (1967).  Both aircraft and ground-based measurements were taken
including hi-vol samples, visual range, CO and CO^.  The hi-vol TSP data
determined that at three sites downwind from the fires, highly  significent
increases in TSP concentrations occurred on fire days  as compared with
nonfire days.  Nephelometer measurements from aircraft were used to compute
the standard deviations of concentration in the crosswind and in the  vertical
direction.  Values of the scattering coefficient indicated particulate
concentrations to be within^the range of 90 to 230 yg/m , including a
background of about 18 pg/m .
     Murphy et al. (1976) reported aerially measured smoke dispersal from  a
15 hectare controlled fire of forest debris in Georgia.  Smoke density was
measured by nephelometer, and the flight patterns were designed to yield
data on the three-dimensional structure of the smoke plume.  The smoke
density profile did not seem to conform to a simple Gaussian model.  High
concentrations were found at low altitudes 1.6 km from the fire despite
substantial plume rise in a buoyant column.  It was hypothesized that smoke
dispersion from a forest fire will vary depending on the stage of the fire's
development.

     Local atmospheric diffusion processes can be observed by releasing
tracer materials into the atmosphere.  Fritschen et al. (1969) released
fluorescent particles and spores to determine mass and momentum transport
at a forest border interface and to study dispersion into and within a for-
est canopy.  Knowledge of such dispersion characteristics is essential for
evaluating the impact of drift smoke.  Fritschen observed that vegetation
density strongly influences the wind speed profile in a forest.  In the
daytime, an inversion in the stem zone trapped the tracer while unstable
conditions in the upper canopy and above the forest allowed rapid dispersal.
At night, an inversion above the canopy trapped the aerosols within the
forest.

Statistical Studies

     The relationship of ambient pollutant concentrations to emissions and
meteorological factors can be established by statistical techniques of cor-
relation and regression.  Multiple regression analysis can determine which
variables have the greatest impact on air quality and determine the contri-
butions of various sources to air quality.
                                    -100-

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     Such a study has been conducted in the Eugene-Springfield, Oregon  area
(US EPA 1977). ' TSP data from three urban stations were  available  along
with light-scattering, visibility and visual-smoke observations.   Although
the study was aimed primarily at assessing the  impact of field  burning,
slash burning impact was also examined.  Emissions data  included the  number
of acres burned and the number of tons of slash burning  conducted  on  a
given day in each of four quadrants.  Relevant meteorological data included
daily average temperature, rainfall, relative humidity,  wind  direction  and
the number of days since precipitation had occurred.

     During the 3-year Eugene-Springfield study (1974-1976),  violations  of
both the annual and the 24-hour primary and secondary standards occurred.
Results of the correlation and multiple-regression analyses showed that  fugi-
tive dust generated from other sources has a greater influence  on  ambient TSP
and light-scattering measurements in Eugene-Springfield  that  does  field or
slash burning.  Slash burning had a greater impact on visual-smoke observa-
tions than did field burning.  Smoke observations were highly correlated with
long periods of dry sunny weather.  Field and slash burning equally influenced
the visibility at the Eugene Airport.

     The multiple regression equations predicted that the mean  24-hour  con-
tribution to TSP from field burning in the Eugene-Springfield area was^l to
4 yg/m  , while the maximum 24-hour contribution was fcom 13 to  43  yg/m  .
Slash burning was computed to contribute 3 to 15 yg/m  to the mean 24-hour
TSP concentration, while the maximum contribution from slash  burning  was
estimated between 21 and 84 yg/m .  However, other areas of the Willamette
Valley  may experience greater smoke impact from burning  activity than does
Eugene-Springfield.  Since burning generates large numbers of small particles
(0.1 -  1.0 urn), it therefore is likely to have  a greater impact on health and
visibility.  Legally, TSP measurements made with a hi-vol sampler  are used
to determine the impact of sources, but the public is more concerned  with
the health and visibility effects resulting from the small particles  not
measured with this method.

     Dieterich (1971) reported on TSP data collected from central  Georgia
during  a period of variable amounts of prescribed burning.  A network of
eight hi-vol samples was used.  Based on seven  days of data,  the mean TSP
concentration over the eight sites showed a correlation  coefficient of
+0.78 with the number of smoke plumes observed  in the area during  the day.

Filter  Analyses

     Microscopic analysis of hi-vol filters can be used  to identify the
impact  of an emission source or group of sources based on TSP concentra-
tions.  The specific sources of particles can be identified by  their  size,
shape,  solubility, surface texture, transparency, and color.
                                   -101-

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     Approximately  60  hi-vol  filters from the Eugene-Springfield area under-
went microscopy  by  McCrone  Associates and the results were  reported by US EPA
(1977).  An  average of 8  yg/m  could be attributed to field burning with a  .-,
range from  1 to  33  yg/m .   Slash burning was determined to  contribute 5 yg/m
on the average with the range of 1 to 15 yg/m .  Total particulate readings
for all sources  averaged  101  yg/m * for this sample, with  a range of 24 to
253 yg/m .   Only optical  microscopy which may not detect particles < 0.5 ym
was used.   Since a  significant portion of smoke particles  is  <  0.5 ym, there
is more uncertainty concerning the results.   However, since most particles
emitted from forestry  burning are known to be less than 0.5 ym  in diameter
(see Table  11),  these  microscopic analyses do not give a true measure of the
impact of forestry  burning  or particulate air quality.

RELATIVE EMISSIONS  FROM FORESTRY BURNING

     Normally, a rough indicator of the relative impact of  a  particular source
category on  regional air  quality is the total emissions of  that category in
comparison  to other source  categories.  However, this is a  highly uncertain
basis for assessing the impact of forestry burning, particularly in relation
to the impact from  wildfires.  Burning conditions for prescribed fires can be
selected to  minimize the  impact of emissions, but wildfires burn under various
conditions,  many of which result in severe degradation of  air quality in popu-
lated areas.  Wildfires are typically fast-moving headfires,  which leave a
major portion of available  fuel to burn by smoldering.  As  discussed in Sec-
tion 3, emissions of TSP, CO and HC are maximal in such a situation.   Forestry
burning consumes mainly dead fuel, but live fuels are included  in wildfires.
Burning live fuels, as simulated by including green leaves  in laboratory test
fires  (Darley 1976), greatly increases emissions of TSP, CO and HC.   Emission
from wildfires would therefore be expected to be relatively greater than from
prescribed  fires, resulting in emission factors significantly higher than
those  listed previously in  Table 8 for prescribed fires.  For example, Ward
et  al. (1976) suggest  average TSP emission factors of 50 pounds per ton for
prescribed  fires and 150  pounds per ton for wildfires.  The concensus among
experts actively engaged  in forestry burning research is that emissions from
wildfires,  at best, are comparable to those from worst case prescribed fires.
In the absence of wildfire  emissions data, the upper values of  the emission
ranges listed in Table 8  probably represent the best conservative estimate of
wildfire emission factors that can be made at the present time.   These factors
with substitution of the  TSP factor of 150 pounds per ton,  suggested by Ward
et  al  (1976) for the  upper TSP value in Table 8, are:
CO:
TSP:
HC:
NO :
X
500 pounds per ton
150 pounds per ton
40 pounds per ton
6 pounds per ton.
   Of this TSP value, 17 percent was determined to be burned vegetable matter, including grass and wood.

   However, only 72 percent of this burned vegetable matter was determined to be specifically wood or grass.
   Hence it is likely that the figures cited in this paragraph are low estimates of the contributions of slash and

   field burning observed TSP values.
                                      102-

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     Emissions from forestry burning, wildfires, field burning,  other  types
of open burning, and all other sources including industrial  and  automotive
are summarized in Table 17 for the year  1975. The total emissions  show that
forestry burning and wildfires are major sources of TSP, HC  and  CO.  However,
the emissions from forestry burning are  generally vented away  from population
centers, while those from wildfires can  intrude  into such  centers  at random.
Hazard reduction to minimize occurrence  and spread of wild  fires  is one  objec-
tive of forestry burning, but the incidence of wildfires in  the  absence  of  such
burning cannot be quantitatively determined.  Statistics supplied  by the State
of Washington Department of Natural Resources (DNR) for the  years  1973 through
1977 show the occurrence of 37 project wildfires which burned  19,345 acres.
Forty-four percent of the project fires  occurring on DNR-protected lands state-
wide started in unburned logging and thinning slash.  An additional 20 percent
of the fires were aided in their spread  by burning through  unburned slash.
One fire stopped and was controlled at the point it encountered  a  previously
prescribed burned area.  In Western Washington,  14 of the  16 project fires
started in and spread through unburned logging slash due to  a  variety  of fire
causes.  These statistics raise a question relevant to assessment  of the impact
of forestry burning on  air quality:  Is  there a  trade-off  between  emissions from
forestry burning and those from wildfires?  That is, would  the emissions from
wildfires, due to more  and larger fires, have been significantly  increased  dur-
ing the period covered  by the data  in Table 17 if hazard reduction by  forestry
burning had not been practiced?  The question cannot be answered  quantitatively
at this time, but the DNR statistics suggest  that the trade-off  is real  and
should be considered a  major factor  in assessing the relative  impact of  forestry
burning on air quality.  In considering  this  argument for  the  use  of prescribed
burning, one should bear in mind that there are  alternative  methods of hazard
reduction, including prescribed burning.  The pros and cons  of these alterna-
tives  are discussed in  Chapter 5.

SUMMARY

     The previous section discussed  in some detail a study  conducted by  US  FPA
(1977).  This study was aimed at assessing the impact of field burning on
observed TSP  levels in  the Eugene-Springfield area.  Since  slash  burning was
also considered to be a contributor to TSP concentrations,  slash  burning emis-
sions  were included in  the study.   The study  concluded that  the  contributions of
slash  burning and field burning to  measured TSP  levels were  significant. Tin's
conclusion was based on corroborative filter  and statistical correlation analyses.

     The study also suggested that  the contributions of field  and  slash  burning
activities to fine particulate levels might be significant.  These particles
which  are less than 0.5 urn in diameter are felt  to impact most on  health and
visibility.  Furthermore, the microscopic analysis carried  out in  the  study
was capable only of evaluating the  characteristics of larger particles.   The
study  concluded that field and slash burning  were not principal  factors  in
the nonattainment of national air quality standards which  do not  presently
                                    -103-

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                   TABLE 17.  STATEWIDE EMISSIONS FOR OREGON AND WASHINGTON* t

Source
Category/State
Oregon:
Forestry burnings §
Low estimate
High estimate
Wildfires#
Field burning**
Other open burning
Other sources
Washington:
Forestry burnings §
Low estimate
High estimate
Wildfires #
Field burning **
Other open burning
Other sources

Oregon and Washington:
Forestry burning §
Low estimates
High estimates
Wildfires #
Field burnings**
Other open burning
Other sources
Total Suspended
P articulates*


30, 214
119,077
115, 103
4,100
4,320
93,614


22,530
88, 795
34,068
2,200
5,464
142,636
i


52, 744
207, 872
149, 171
6,300
9,784
236, 250
Nitrogen Oxides


3,555
10, 664
4,604
480
1,363
194,421


2,650
7,952
1,363
200
1,082
352, 275



6,205
18,616
5,967
680
2,445
546, 696
Hydroc arbons


17, 773
71, 091
30, 694
4,800
5,511
276, 564


13, 253
53,012
9,085
2,600
9,213
368, 042



31,026
124,013
39, 779
7,400
14, 724
644, 606
Carbon Monoxide


35, 545
888, 634
383, 676
24, 000
24, 365
1,084,731


26, 507
662, 653
113,559
13,000
49, 088
1,699,740



65, 052
1,551,287
497, 235
37, 000
73, 453
2,784,471

t= Emission figures taken
from National Emissions Report (1975): National Emissions Data
Aerometric and Emissions Reporting System
(AEROS), U.S. EPA,
April 1977, except as
System (NEDS) of the
otherwise noted.
 f  Sulfur dioxide emissions are not included, since forestry burning does not emit significant sulfur dioxide.

 •f  TSP emissions of this table do not include fugitive dust  emissions due primarily to agricultural tilling
    (Oregon estimated at 156, 776 tons during 1976).

 §  Taken from Tables 9 and  10 of this report.  Estimated tons of fuel burned are the basis for computed
    emissions and  are subject to error.   See page 43 for discussion of possible error.

 #  Wildfire tonnage figures are those used to estimate emissions for the National Emissions Report (1975).

f*  These estimates are taken from Source Assessment:  Agricultural Open Burning, EPA-600/2-77-107a,
    July 1977, and correspond to the year 1973.
                                                     -104-

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distinguish between fine  and  large  particles.   However,  the study was unable
to conclude that these sources did  or  did  not  have a significant impact on air
quality or health.  The study did indicate that slash burning had a greater
impact on observed visibility measures  than did field burning with the excep-
tion of one site where the  contributions of the two sources were approximately
equal.

    Another study was recently completed by the Oregon DEQ and addressed
the impact of field and slash burning  using monitoring data from the entire
Willamette Valley.3  The  study was  based on a  monitoring network with par-
ticulate samplers at seven  locations  in the Willamete Valley (Corvallis,
Lebanon, Halsey, Junction City,  Perrydale, Stayton, and  Woodburn).  The
study was established primarily  to  evaluate the impact of field burning on
air quality, but did not  become  operative  until September 1977, when most
field burning was complete.   The monitoring network was  used instead to
monitor air quality during  slash burning through October.

    Monitoring  data from  the  seven  stations showed similar behavior and
indicated that  a single regional source of air pollution and/or poor
atmospheric ventilation was responsible for observed particulate levels.
Comparison of average particulate readings over the Willamette Valley with
daily tonnages  of slash burned  in the  counties of Clackamas, Multnomah,
Lincoln, Tillamook, Marion, Polk, Yamhill, Benton, Lane, and Linn showed
similar behavior.  Statistical  analysis of the data indicated a strong
correlation between Valley-wide  particulate readings, slash tonnages and
atmospheric ventilation.  A multiple  correlation coefficient of 0.78 was
obtained.  Although the simple  correlation between particulate readings
and slash burning tonnages  was  not  available in the DEQ  report, inspection
of graphs presented in this report  do  indicate a general correspondence
between peaks  in slash burning  activity and highs in valley-wide particulate
averages.  The  findings of  this  study correlate with the study by the US EPA,
which  indicated that slash  burning  contributes significantly to measured TSP
levels  in the Eugene-Springfield area.
  Field Burning Network Data Analysis—Preliminary Results, Oregon Department of Environmental
  Quality, 1978.
                                     -105-

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                                  SECTION 5

        METHODS  OF  REDUCING THE AIR QUALITY  IMPACT OF FORESTRY BURNING

     This  section  describes and evaluates methods of reducing the air quality
impact of  forestry  burning.  The first  subsection describes current Smoke  Manage-
ment Programs, evaluates their success  in minimizing air quality problems,  and
suggests improvements to these programs.  The  second section describes  alter-
native burning techniques and their potential  for reducing air quality  impact.
The final  section  describes alternative residue  treatment techniques which  do
not require  field  burning of forest fuels and  evaluates their potential  for
successful application.
SMOKE MANAGEMENT  PROGRAMS—CURRENT PROGRAMS  IN  WASHINGTON AND OREGON
                                                                       1
     Currently,  both Washington and Oregon  have  Smoke Management Programs
designed  to  limit the air quality impact of forestry burning activities.   The
Oregon Smoke Management Program was implemented  in 19722 and is administered
by the Oregon Department of Forestry in coordination with the Department of
Environmental  Quality.  The Washington Smoke Management Program was implemented
in 1971 and  is administered by the Washington  Department of Natural Resources
in coordination  with the Department of Ecology.  Both programs were subsequently
revised in  1975.  The Smoke Management Programs  represent a cooperative effort
by the U.S.  Forest Service, the U.S. Bureau of Land Management, the U.S. Bureau
of Indian Affairs, private industry, state  and local  governments.

Description  and  Operation

     The  major features of each program are essentially the same.  These fea-
tures may be summarized as follows:

     t      The primary purpose of the program  is to keep smoke from
            forestry burning out of designated  areas.   These desig-
            nated areas are determined by the state's air pollution
            control agency and generally correspond to populated
            areas.  Figure 20 shows designated  areas for the two
            states.
  A 11 of the information of this section is taken directly from the Smoke Management Programs of the Oregon
  DOF and the Washington DNR, except as noted otherwise.


  However, the precursor to Oregon's current Smoke Management Program was initiated by a. memorandum of
  an agreement signed in 1969 by State, Federal and private fire control agencies and the Department of
  Environmental Quality.
                                      106-

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Figure 20.  Designated areas under Washington's and Oregon's Smoke Management Programs.





                                          -107-

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         Administration  of  the  program is the responsibility of
         the State Forester.   He  closely  coordinates his adminis-
         tration with  the state air pollution control  agency
         (DEQ or DOE)  by curtailing burning activity when
         notified of air quality  problems.   In addition, he
         reports forestry burning activity  to the state air
         pollution control  agency on a daily basis.   The state
         agency in turn  notifies  local  air  pollution control
         agencies.

         At  the local  level,  the  Smoke Management Program is
         administered  by an Area  Manager.  It is the responsi-
         bility of the Area Manager to ensure that forestry
         burning activity within  his area does not result in
         intrusions of smoke  into designated areas.   He also
         responds to directives from the  State Forester to
         curtail burning activity in response to critical air
         quality problems.  National  Forests are considered as
         separate Management  Areas, with  the Forest Supervisor
         acting as the Area Manager.   Within areas administered
         by  the Bureau of Indian  Affairs, the BIA Fire Control
         Officer is the  Area  Manager.

         A third level of administration  takes place in the
         field.  Field Administrators  advise the burn operator
         in  the preparation of  burning plans and monitor the
         actual fire,  in addition to issuing the permit to the
         operator.3

         Meteorological  forecasts prepared  by the Fire-Weather
         Forecast Offices of  the  U.S.  Weather Bureau are relayed
         to  the State  Forester  and to  Area  Managers at the begin-
         ning of each  day.

         The Area Manager's decision to permit burns is deter-
         mined by regulations published in  the Smoke Management
         Plan, unless  further restricted  by the State Forester.
         These regulations  relate total allowable fuel consump-
         tion within 150,000-acre areas to  the elevation, proxim-
         ity of designated  areas, and  meteorological conditions
         (Table 18).
ITF/FSU, Final Report, 1977, p. 16.
                                   108-

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                  TABLE 18.  SUMMARY OF SMOKE MANAGEMENT PLAN RESTRICTIONS FOR WASHINGTON AND OREGON
                                    Distance to Nearest Downwind
                                           Designated Area
                                             Maximum Daily Forestry Burning Permitted *

                                            Oregon                          W ashington
   Smoke vented toward
     designated area, below
     ceiling established for area
   Smoke vented toward
     designated area, into deep
     mixing layer over area
   Smoke vented toward
     designated area, above
     stable layer over area
   Smoke vented away
     from designated areas

   Smoke vented within
    designated area, but away
    from population center

   Smoke vented within
    designated area, toward
    population center

   Smoke vented above base
    of precipitating cloud
Less than 10 miles
10 - 30 miles
30 - 60 miles
Greater than 60 miles

Less than 10 miles
10  - 30 miles
30  - 60 miles
Greater than 60 miles

Less than 10 miles
10  - 30 miles
30  - 60 miles
Greater than 60 miles
Not applicable



Not applicable



Not applicable


Not applicable
No burning permitted
1, 500 tons per ISO, 000 acres
3, 000 tons per 150, 000 acres
No restriction

3, 000 tons per 150, 000 acres
4, 500 tons per 150, 000 acres
9,000 tons per 150, 000 acres
No restriction

6, 000 tons per 150, 000 acres
9, 000 tons per 150, 000 acres
18, 000 tons per  150, 000 acres
No restriction
                                 No restriction
Not specified
Not specified
No restriction
No burning permitted
1, 500 tons per 150, 000 acres
3, 000 tons per 150, 000 acres
Not specified

3, 000 tons per 150, 000 acres
4, 500 tons per 150, 000 acres
9, 000 tons per 150, 000 acres
Not specified

6, 000 tons per 150, 000 acres
9, 000 tons per 150, 000 acres
18, 000 tons  per  150, 000 acres
Not specified
                                   No restriction
3, 000 tons per designated area
100 tons per burn unit
No restriction
*  In addition, Washington limits daily burning with 500, 000 acre units to 75, 000 tons of fuel.

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     •     Information flow between the Area Manager  and  the  State
           Forester is conducted by teletype.   Information  sent  to
           the State Forester includes identification  of  future  burns
           by location, size, etc., listings of burns  planned for a
           given day, and accomplishment reports for  the  previous
           day's activities.  At the end of the year,  this  informa-
           tion is summarized in an annual report prepared  by the
           State Forester.  This annual report  and the individual
           burn data collected by the State Forester  are  the  basis
           of the summaries of forestry burning activity  presented
           in Section 2 of this report.

     A major operational difference between the two programs  is  the  computer-
ized "Oregon Smoke Management System" that stores and  retrieves  information
on planned and accomplished burns; currently Washington does  not have  such
a system.  The program in Oregon is limited to  the area west  of  the  Cascades
and portions of Mt. Hood and Descutes National  Forests east of the Cascades.
The Washington program has jurisdiction over burning  in the entire state.

     In 1977, Oregon instituted a priority rating system  which applies  to  the
Willamette Valley area during the 60-day field  burning period.4  The purpose
of this system is to reduce forestry burning activity  during  the field  burn-
ing season by restricting burning permits to only those units which  cannot be
burned at other times.  Burn units are assigned priority  ratings of  "high,"
"moderate," or "low" based on fuel characteristics, location,  and siIvicul-
tural considerations.  Normally, only "high" priority  units are  permitted  to
burn during this priority period.

     The regulations which restrict burning activity  are  nearly  identical  for
Washington and Oregon.  They are formulated using the  following  key  terms:

     designated ceiling  --  2000 to 2500 feet  above  the  average ground  ele-
                             vation for the designated area.   For example,
                             the designated ceiling for Spokane, Washington
                             is 4000 feet
     wind direction
     deep mixing layer
used to determine whether plume will flow toward
or away from designated areas.  Considered
unknown if wind speed is less than 5 miles per
hour

a condition characterized by good atmospheric
mixing from ground level to 1000 feet above
designated ceiling
  Oregon Department of Forestry Directive No. 1-1-3-200, July 15, 1977.
                                     -110-

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stable layer        ~  an atmospheric layer which restricts
                        upward and downward movement of air
                        and by implication is not penetrated
                        by a smoke plume unless the plume is
                        released directly into the layer

smoke vent height   --  the height at which heat rise stops
                        and plume motion levels off and is
                        carried horizontally by the wind

distance to         ~  the distance to the nearest designated
designated area         area downwind of a planned burn.

These regulations may be summarized as follows:

1.  If wind carries the smoke plume toward a designated area
    and smoke is vented to an elevation less than the desig-
    nated ceiling for that area, severe restrictions are placed
    on burning activity.  If the distance to the designated area
    is less than 10 miles, no burning is permitted; if 10 to
    30 miles, up to 1500 tons of fuel may be ignited per
    150,000 acres; if 30 to 60 miles, up to 3000 tons per
    150,000 acres; if greater than 60 miles, no restrictions
    are applied.

2.  If wind carries the plume toward a designated area and
    into a deep mixing layer, moderate restrictions are placed
    on burning activity.  For example, if the distance to the
    designated area is less than 10 miles, up to 3000 tons of
    fuel may be ignited per 150,000 acres.

3.  If wind carries the plume toward a designated area and vent
    height is greater than the height of the stable air layer
    covering the area and also above the designated ceiling for
    that area, slight restrictions apply to burning activity.
    For example, if the distance to the designated area is less
    than 10 miles, up to 6000 tons of fuel may be ignited per
    150,000 acres.

4.  If wind carries the plume away from designated areas, burn-
    ing activity is not restricted, except as noted in item (8).

5.  If smoke is vented into a precipitating cloud such that the
    smoke vent height is above the cloud base, no restriction
    is applied, except as noted in item (8).  This condition is
    feasible only for pile burns.
                               -Ill-

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     6.  In Washington, if the unit  to  be  burned  is  located within
         a designated area and the wind  carries  the  plume away from
         the population centers, a total of  3000  tons of fuel  may be
         ignited per day within  the  designated area.5

     7.  In Washington, if the unit  to  be  burned  is  located within
         a designated area and wind  carries  the  plume toward the
         population centers, units with  total  fuel  loading greater
         than 100 tons may not be ignited.6

     8.  In Washington, a maximum of 75,000  tons  of  fuel  may be
         ignited per 500,000-acre unit,  regardles of conditions.
         No such overall limitation  is  specified  in  the Oregon
         Smoke Management Plan.

     Meteorological parameters are key  to  the  regulation of burning activ-
ity.  These meteorological parameters are  provided by the fire weather
meteorologists of the State Forestry Office  and  the  National Weather
Service.  A key parameter in some of the regulations is smoke vent height.
Although mathematical formulas do exist  for  evaluating vent height for a
given planned burn, simpler guidelines  are generally used in operation.
These guidelines assume that an  intense  fire will normally penetrate a
stable layer of air less than 1500 feet  above  the fire.  That is, vent
height may be assumed to be at least 1500  feet above ground level and
burning may be permitted within  the  constraining  regulations.

Effectiveness and Consistency

    One measure of the effectiveness of  the  Smoke Management Program is
the number of problem burns reported by  the  Oregon Smoke Management System.
Problem burns are defined to be  those which  result in the intrusion of smoke
into designated areas.  Problem  burns are  usually determined by the field
administrator who observes smoke traveling in  the direction of a designated
area.  Problem burns are also detected  by  aerial  observations which are
broader in scope and hence more  accurate than  ground-level operations.
Both techniques rely on visual observations.

    In general, problem burns are caused by  inaccurate meteorological pre-
dictions.  The decision to burn  a unit  is  based  on parameters such as wind
speed, direction and atmospheric stability.   Inaccuracies in these data may
result in an intrusion of smoke  into a  designated area.   Inaccurate or untimely
communications from the fire meteorological  office to area managers is not a
  Regulations relating to burn units located within designated areas are not specified in the Oregon Smoke

  Management Plan.


  Ibid.
                                    -112-

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significant factor in causing problem  burns.   However,  changes in meteorolog-
ical conditions due to a normal statistical percentage  of erroneous forecasts
and inability to account for local terrain  effects  on meteorology are thought
to be major causes of problem burns.   Fewer problem burns are expected as
meteorological forecasting becomes more  accurate  and its ability to account
for local terrain effects increases.

    The percentage of problem burns  reported  by  the Oregon Smoke Management
System for the years 1975 through 1977 is very low  (1.9 percent averaged
over the period).  The Washington SMP  Annual  Report for 1977 also reported
a very low incidence of problem burns, with less  than  1 percent of pre-
scribed burns significantly  impacting  on designated areas.

    Although  the percentage  of problem burns  on  an  annual basis is low,
monthly data  in Oregon  reveal periods  of relative highs in percent of
problem burn  acreage.   Table 19 gives  the percent of problem burn acreage
for each month  for the years 1975 through 1977.
                      TABLE 19. PERCENT PROBLEM BURN A CREAGE

                         BY MONTH FOR 1975 THROUGH 1977.
                   Month          1975        1976        1977
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
0
0
0
0
0.7
0
17.6
20.8
10.2
0.9
0.2
0
2.0
2.5
0
0
0.5
9.3
21.6
11.4
7.4
5.7
3.2
1.8
2.0
1.4
0
0
0.7
9_.S
24.9
5.5
0
1.5
1.3
0.2
                   Annual           1.9        4.5         2.2
                                     -113-

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     The table indicates that relatively high rates of problem burns occur
primarily during the summer months.  The cause of problem burns during the
summer months may be due to meteorological conditions that  are more diffi-
cult to anticipate from a smoke management standpoint; and  inadequate weather
forecasting for smoke management due to the priority of wildfire prevention
activities.  If the percentages of problem acreage occurring during the
months of June through September were reduced to the levels observed during
October and November (1.9 percent), the total problem acreage during the
period 1975 through 1977 would have been reduced from 9055  to 5394 acres.
The implication is that more effective management during the summer months
would significantly improve the performance of the Smoke Management Program
in Oregon.

     The occurrence of problem burns is a limited measure of the effective-
ness of the Smoke Management Program.  Visual observations  of problem burns
during the daylight hours do not identify the possible impact of nighttime
drift smoke.  The concept of drift smoke and the mechanism  by which it
impacts on air quality are described earlier in this report.  The  impact  of
drift smoke on air quality depends on the presence of residual smoke at or
near ground level and drainage winds to carry this smoke from the  location
of the burn to the valley floor.  The occurrence of drainage wind  in com-
plex terrain with nighttime cooling is well established.  Since drift smoke
is primarily a nighttime phenomenon, an intrusion into a designated area
would not  be detected using current visual procedures.  It  is therefore
possible that forestry burning is  impacting on air quality  within  desig-
nated areas, despite the indications of recorded problem burns.  At the
current time, data are not available to substantiate or refute this impact.

    A significant impact of forestry burning on air quality within desig-
nated areas is suggested by a study recently performed by the Oregon
Department of Environmental Quality.7  A correlation was found between
slash burning activity in western Oregon and air quality measures  collected
during the fall of 1977.  This study suggests that despite  conscientious
efforts of the Oregon Smoke Management Program personnel, forest burning
smoke is entering designated areas, at least during the stagnant weather
conditions of the fall.  An extensive, followup study conducted by the
DEQ in  1978 will attempt to better evaluate the impact of forestry burning
activity on air quality in the Willamette Valley.  A study  of this type  is
needed to  accurately evaluate the  effectiveness of the Smoke Management
Program in keeping forestry smoke  from populated areas.

Foreseeable and Potential  Improvements

     There are several modifications which might be made to the Smoke Man-
agement Programs of Oregon and Washington to improve their  effectiveness.
As previously indicated, the two programs are almost  identical from a
  1977 Field Burning Network Data Analysis. Preliminary Results, Oregon DEQ, 1978.
                                    -114-

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regulatory standpoint.  They are also similar from  an  operational  standpoint,
with the exception of the priority rating system  used  in  Oregon during the
field burning season.  Some of the possible  improvements  which  might be made
to improve the effectiveness of the two programs  are summarized as follows:

     1.  Redefining designated areas
        Making burning criteria  area-specific,  accounting  for  con-
        ditions which  impact on  air quality  at  different  locations

    3.  Improving smoke management meteorological  forecasts  and
        extending the  period of  forecasting

    4.  Adopting regulations to  minimize  the effect  of  drift smoke.

In addition, it is  apparent that little  is known  about  the potential  long-
range impact of forestry  burning.  Smoke  management  is  largely directed
toward maintenance  of  air quality in  urbanized  areas in the  general  vicinity
of burning activity.   The potential of  long-range  effects  should be  investi-
gated and smoke management practices  modified as  necessary to  prevent long-
range degradation of  air  quality due  to forestry  buring.

    Designated areas  have been defined to correspond to heavily  populated
areas, primarily in the Puget Trough  in Washington and  the Willamette Valley
in Oregon.  These should  be periodically  reviewed  to ensure  that changes in
population distribution are reflected in  designated  area  boundaries.   In addi-
tion, it has been suggested that heavily  utilized  recreational  areas—such
as parks and wildlife  areas—be  considered "designated" during periods of
heavy use.  However,  the  addition of  designated areas is  likely  to impose a
considerable burden on the operation  of the  Smoke  Management Program, as the
number of allowable burning conditions  is decreased.  At  present,  Smoke
Management permits, with  few exceptions,  burning  in  the Cascades when winds
are persistent  and  from the west;  burns  in the  Coast Ranges  are  permitted
when winds are persistent and from the  east.   The  establishment  of parks and
recreational areas, which dot both the  Cascades and  the Coast  Ranges  (see
Figure 4), could greatly  restrict and complicate  smoke  management.  This
factor should be carefully considered.

     Various parts  of  the Northwest differ considerably in their ability
to disperse pollutants into the  atmosphere.   The  southern  Willamette  Valley
has particularly poor  dispersal  conditions.   As a result,  air  pollution
episodes occur  in the  Eugene area.  Witnesses before the  Oregon  Interim Task
Force on Forest Slash  Utilization have  recommended that the  Oregon Smoke
Management Program  be  modified to specify different  permissible  burning
conditions for different  areas.8  For  example, it was  recommended that
  Joint Interim Task Force on Forest Slash Utilization, September-November 1977, page 1.
                                    -115-

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the burning ceiling for the Medford area be increased to allow for better
dispersal of pollutants in that area.  Such a recommendation, if enacted,
would probably result in better smoke dispersal. However, it would also
decrease the amount of allowable burning activity, since there would be
fewer days and fewer areas where burning would be permissible.

    The most critical parameters in effective Smoke Management decisions are
meteorological.  In particular, accurate data on wind speed, direction and
stability conditions are key to the decision of whether and how much to burn.
The majority of problem burns documented in the Uregon Smoke Management Sys-
tems are thought to be due to forecasts which did not reflect actual local
meteorological conditions.  Hence, improvement in smoke management can be
expected with  improvement in weather forecasting techniques.  It is essential
that the most  timely and accurate forecasts are available to the area manager
charged with burning activity within his area.

    As  indicated previously in this section, it is possible that drift smoke,
carried by nighttime drainage winds, is intruding into designated areas,
despite indications of problem burn tabulations to the contrary. Modifica-
tions can be made to the Smoke Management Program to minimize possible
nighttime drainage effects.

    Some possible modifications are:

    •    Stricter enforcement of mopup operations, to eliminate much
         of the drift smoke concentrations potentially contributing
         to smoke intrusion problems.

    •    Requirement for earlier conclusion at burning operations.
         This  would give drift smoke time to disperse before night-
         time  drainage winds take effect.

    •    The prohibition of burns which, given combined meteorologi-
         cal and terrain conditions, are potential candidates for
         nighttime drainage effects.

ALTERNATIVE BURNINb TECHNIQUES

     Alternative burning techniques can be used to reduce the impact of
forestry burning on air quality.  This section evaluates the feasibility
and potential  impacts of extenaed burn periods, optimal burning techniques
and new burning technology that may be used for slash disposal.  Practical
alternatives to underburriing nave not been documented and are not dis-
cussed  in this document.
                                     116-

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     However, these alternative burning techniques,  like  the  burning  tech-
niques presented in Section 1, may not be suitable for  all prescribed burning
applications.  Highly variable meteorological factors  and fuel  and  terrain
conditions require site-by-site evaluations to determine  the  applicability
of these alternatives.  The alternatives presented here are primarily appli-
cable to the West Side, where the removal of heavy accumulations  of slash is
a major forest management problem.  Treatment of residue  on the East  Side is
less problematic, since slash accumulations there are far less  than on the
West Side.  Much of the burning conducted on the East Side is underburning
and is carried out for silvicultural purposes.

Extended Burn Period

     Present broadcast burning activities are concentrated within September
and October when fuel conditions are optimal for ignition and the risk of
spot fires in the surrounding forest is minimal.  Smoke management  regu-
lations have further concentrated these activities into as few  as 14  days
in some areas for favorable smoke dispersion conditions.

     Extending the burn period throughout the year would provide more
flexibility for optimal smoke dispersion conditions  and reduce  emission
concentrations expected during any one period.

     The feasibility of utilizing alternate burn periods  has been limited
by seasonal meteorological conditions.  Winter months are generally too wet
and summer months too dry.  However, conditions vary by site, suggesting
that a site-by-site assessment is necessary to schedule the optimal time
of burn.

     The development of better fire ignition and control techniques and an
increasing knowledge of fire behavior has allowed a  limited but increasing
amount of burning during the summer, winter and spring.   Studies  are  in
progress  in the Pacific Northwest to compare the relative effectiveness of
burning during different seasons.9

     The winter burning season is the 5-month period from the beginning
of November to the end of March.  Winter pile burning techniques have been
successful when the concentrated slash is covered with paper or plastic
prior to the wet winter season.  This technique is being  increasingly
utilized.  The feasibility of winter broadcast burning has been limited
due to the excessively wet slash fuel conditions that thwart present  fire
ignition techniques.

     Winter broadcast burning may be technically feasible if  scattered
slash is treated with a protective petroleum or wax  emulsion prior  to
winter rains. Feasibility studies have shown that the burnability of  dry
slash pretreated with the emulsions shown in Table 20 is  increased  as
9
  As cited in Steele and Beaufait 1969.
                                     -117-

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compared to untreated slash after as much as 8 to 10 inches of rain  (Murphy
et al.  1969, Schimke and Murphy 1966).  However, these same emulsions have
been found to inhibit the burning of green slash by preventing satisfactory
drying (Schimke and Dougherty 1967).  Emulsions have not been utilized
because of cost constraints and air quality concerns over the emissions  from
burning these products.

     The potential damage of winter pile burning to soil and riparian vege-
tation is expected to be minimal because of the excessively wet  conditions
and small areas affected.  On the other hand, the potential soil  and water
quality damage from a successfully ignited winter broadcast burn  could  be
significant.  Surface runoff from winter rains on large burn blocks  cleared
of slash and duff may be excessive, resulting in a greatly increased erosion
potential.  This  is particularly true of the Coast Ranges, where  winter
rainfall levels may be as much as 15 inches per month.
                   TABLE 20.  WATER REPELLENT SLASH COATINGS.
Asphalt Emulsions
LAYKOLD Slow-set (ss-1)
LAYKOLD Rapid-set (ss-2)
Wax Emulsions
Lumber Wax
Soil Sealant
      The  spring  burning  season  is  a  2-1/2-month  period  that starts  after the
 winter  rains  in  March  and  ends  before  the  summer wildfire  season  in mid-June.
 Fuel  conditions  in  late  May  and early  June are  generally satisfactory  for
 broadcast burning.   However,  the effectiveness  of  a  burn treatment  earlier in
 the year  will  depend upon  the residual  winter moisture  content  of duff and
 slash fuels.   Residual moisture may  decrease the fire  intensity,  leaving
 partially consumed  material  and increasing relative  atmospheric emissions.
 Spring  burning may,  however,  reduce  potential  damage to soils  and riparian
 vegetation when  the  moisture content of surface fuels  obstructs complete
 consumption of the  protective duff layer.   Studies in  experimental  blocks of
 Douglas-fir logging  slash  averaging  64 tons/acre showed that spring burning
 consumed  less than  one-half  the duff mantle consumed by fall burning (Steele
 and  Beaufait  1969).

      The  summer  burning  season  runs  from mid-June  to mid-September.  The
 feasibility of broadcast and pile burning  during the summer season  has been
 United by the wildfire  hazard  of excessively  dry  fuels.   Broadcast burning
                                    -118-

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has not been widely utilized during very dry periods  except  in  low hazard,  low
elevation sites because of the excessive fire control  precautions  required  by
standard burning techniques to reduce the  risk of  spot fires.   Concentrated
pile burns are more easily controlled and  may be more suitable  for summer
burning than broadcast burning.

     Chemical fire retardents may be used  to pretreat slash  prior  to  summer
burning to reduce normally expected high fire intensity.   Broadcast or pile
burn applications of diammonium phosphate  (DAP) or  ammonium  sulfate (AS)
have been found to substantially reduce fire intensity, the  associated risks
of soil damage and the risk of spot fires  (Dodge and  Davis 1966).   Phil pot
et al. (1972) found very little particulate increase  from  burning  AS-treated
fuels; however, DAP significantly increased particulate emissions  from
treated fuels.

     Potential environmental damage from summer burning may  be  significant.
The high fire intensity and low duff moisture content associated with  summer
burning may result in greater soil and vegetation  damage than is expected
by burning at any other time of the year.

Optimal Burning Techniques

     Burning techniques are available that can minimize the  potential  impact
of forestry burning on air quality.  These techniques optimize  fuel arrange-
ment and fire ignition for rapid and complete combustion.

     Pretreatment by PUM or YUM techniques prior to burning  can be used to
remove larger fuel components which, if left to burn,  produce intense  heat
and a prolonged residual smoldering fire.  The density and size of the resi-
dual fuel components will depend on the degree of  pre-burn YUM  or  PUM  residue
removal.  Generally, YUM yarding removes material  as  small as 5 to 8  inches
in diameter.

     Fuels which are not piled must be sufficiently concentrated to burn
efficiently.  Residual fuel loading and scattered  fuel  continuity  may  not
provide fuel concentrations and the needed fire intensity  to minimize
impacts on air quality.

     Fewer larger burn blocks will not necessarily  decrease  visible smoke
intrusions into populated areas as reported by the  State of  Oregon.10   On the
contrary (Table 21), the average sizes of  problem  broadcast  burns  reported
in Oregon from 1975 to 1977 were consistantly and  significantly larger than
the average  sizes of all the burns.
10 Final Report, ITF-FSU, 1977.
                                    -119-

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            TABLE 21. AVERAGE SIZE OF PROBLEM BROADCAST BURNS (Ac. )*
Year
1975
1976
1977
Problem Burns
60.5
59.3
63.9
A 11 Burns
37.9
36.9
34.6
                  * From Smoke Management Plans, State of Oregon.
     Pile burning provides more flexible burn scheduling during periods  that
are unsuitable for broadcast burning.  RDM and YUM applications are  presently
limited by available equipment.  Cable logging equipment is generally  designed
to handle larger material and is not cost efficient for piling small slash.
Tractor piling is limited by slope and soil conditions as described  in Sec-
tion 1. Hand piling is not technically feasible due to the volume and  size
of residue materials to be treated.

Ignition and Mop-up—
     Rapid ignition and mop-up techniques are expected to significantly  reduce
the emission problems generally associated with early cool-flaming and residual
smoldering stages of a fire as described in Section 3.

     Ignition techniques utilizing the he!itorch or electrically detonated
napalm devices described in Section 1 can provide rapid fuel  ignition  over
an entire burn block.  Under the right site conditions and fuel moisture and
loading, potential soil damage is minimized and a fire of high intensity is
created.  Such high intensity fires have been shown to reduce undesirable
emissions and to vent smoke through a high convective column, with desirable
smoke management consequences (see Section 4). In addition, these fires  are
short in duration, generally lasting less than 2 hours.

     Weyerhaeuser Company is presently testing an alternative he!itorch
system which will reduce the use of petroleum ignition fuels.  Fuel  capsules
containing potassium permanganate are injected with ethylene  glycol  and  water
and dispersed.  The water catalyst results in a delayed exothermic chemical
reaction that is highly flammable.  The economic and technical efficiency of
this system should broaden the applications of this helitorch ignition system.

     Complete fire mop-up activities started immediately after the flaming
front of the burn has subsided will minimize residual smoldering.  Standard
techniques using water trucks and hand labor may be augmented if aerial
tankers and chemical retardants are used on large burn blocks.  The  effi-
ciency of mop-up activities will be significantly enhanced by pretreatment
removal of larger slash materials which typically prolong the burn and are
difficult to snuff out.
                                    -120-

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New Burning Technology

     Research and development should be directed toward  better  onsite burning
techniques that would eliminate the management  and environmental  impacts asso-
ciated with open burning.  These  impacts  include such  components  as  smoke,
residual charred logs, potential  soil and watershed  damage,  fire  hazard, the
need for fire control manpower, fireline  and mop-up  activities, and  a depen-
dence on highly variable weather  conditions.

Air Curtain Combustion--
     Portable or trench air  curtain burners  are specifically designed for the
combustion of wood waste with insignificant  smoke  emissions.  However,  this
burning technique is  not widely utilized  at  present  because  of  extremely high
operating costs (see  Table 30, p.  145).

     Rapid and complete combustion is encouraged by  a  blower system  which
directs an air curtain diagonally downward across  the  burner at a velocity
of approximately 150  feet per second.  Figure 21 shows the recirculated air-
flow pattern which results in a secondary combustion process of emissions.
Combustion temperatures in this process range from 900 to 2300°F  (Harrison
1978, McLean and Ward 1976).
                   Figure 21.  Principle of air curtain combustion.
     Air quality evaluations  show that  the air curtain combustion  process
will produce no visible  smoke emissions  if combustion temperatures are
maintained over 1600°F (McLean and Ward  1976).  Visible  smoke  approaching
20 percent opacity has been recorded  during the 15 minute  startup  period.
Golson (1975) found that breaking the air curtain by overloading the  burner
emitted smoke levels 70 to 80 percent less than would be expected  from  an
open pile burn.  The smoke disappeared within 60 feet, due  to  the  super-
heated convection column.

     The operating capacity of air curtain burners ranges  from 5 to 25  tons
per hour, as shown in Table 22.  This production rate will  vary due to  fuel
                                    -121-

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moisture  content,  although  fuels  with  a moisture content  as  high as 200 percent
have  been consumed  satisfactorily (Golson  1975).   The satisfactory combustion
of excessively  wet  fuels  by an  air  curtain  burner suggests its  potential
as a  burning  technique  during the wet  winter  season.
                TABLE 22. AIR CURTAIN BURNERS OPERATING CAPACITY
Type
Camron PORTAPIT
N/A
Camron ACCU
N/A
DriAll Thermal Airblast
Incinerator
N/A
Length (ft)
20
N/A
20
N/A
24
36
15
Capacity (tons/hr)
6.2
10
6.5
10-15
5-15
8-25
5
Reference
Golson 1975
Murphy 1970
McLean and Ward 1976
Harrison 1975
Harrison 1975
Harrison 1975
Geyer
     Portable  air  burners  are self-contained, trailer-mounted  units  which  may
be employed with YUM operations  in  areas of  limited space  or where  acces-
sible slash loads  are  relatively  small but scattered.  A ground trench  system
may be  used for heavy  slash disposal  if enough flat terrain is  available for
the combustion trench  and  supporting  equipment.  The capacity  of  this  system
will increase  with  the length of  the  trench  and  is restricted  only  by  the
length  of  the  available blower system.  Complete slash disposal following
burning is  accomplished by refilling  the trench with an earth  cover.

     Potential environmental damage from the air curtain burner is  expected to
be less  than any other burning technique presently used.   Soil  disturbance
on the  treated site will depend upon  the type of yarding technique  utilized
to pre-pile residues or deliver them  within knuckle boom reach  of the  burner.
A spot  fire hazard may exist on windy aays, due to glowing embers discharged
when the air curtain is disrupted during loading operations.

Off-Site Incinerator--
     Stationary off-site,  high-volume incinerator equipment is  available to
dispose of logging residues and produce little or no atmospheric  emission
products.  Although technically feasible, this alternative may  not  be  cost-
effective considering the  mecnanical  handling and transportation  requirements

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of processing this material to a fixed disposal point.  Once  out  of  the forest,
the potential market that exists for this material would  logically direct  its
utilization instead of disposal.

ALTERNATIVES TO FORESTRY BURNING

     This section presents  a general overview of the  alternatives to forestry
burning.  The technical feasibility and potential environmental impacts of
these alternatives are addressed and available cost data  and  an economic anal-
ysis of burning versus no-burn alternatives  is presented.

     The alternatives to forestry burning are shown in Figure 22.  These alter-
natives include the use of  mechanical or chemical treatments, improved har-
vesting systems, slash utilization, and no treatment.  The practicality and
desirability of these alternatives may not be generalized for the Pacific
Northwest, hence any assessment of feasibility or silvicultural and  environ-
mental suitability should be made on a site-by-site basis.

Mechanical Treatment

     Mechanical techniques  for treating slash and for brushland conversion
are technically feasible and versatile.  These techniques do  not  eliminate
slash materials, but may sufficiently rearrange and change the size  and
shape of the slash components to satisfy silvicultural and environmental
considerations.  Slash materials are mechanically treated by  mastication,
chipping, piling, scarification or burying.

Mastication—
     Onsite crushing or shredding machines may be used to treat small diam-
eter, concentrated slash.   Materials less than 6 inches in diameter  are
reduced to a mat of wood chips and chunks.   Larger material may not  be
broken up but will usually  be compacted closer to the ground.  This  level
of treatment is generally considered to be sufficient for silvicultural
objectives, but may not significantly reduce wildfire hazard.

     The tractor support needed by these devices restricts their  use to
terrain with slopes less than 30 percent.  Present applications have been
limited to small thinning slash and brushland conversion.  Applications in
heavy logging slash may be  feasible in conjunction with the utilization or
piling of large material.

Chipping--
     Onsite chipping may be used to treat small concentrations of slash or
in conjunction with PUM or  YUM operations.   Small mobile  or tractor-mounted
chippers are adequate to treat small volumes of concentrated  slash materials
up to 6 inches  in diameter, but are limited  to terrains of less than 30 per-
cent slope.  Larger materials require PUM or YUM support  operations  in
                                    -123-

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Mechanical Treatment
Chemical Treatment
     Improved
Harvesting Systems
                                                                            Optimal
                                                                            Material
                                                                            Handling
                                                                      Utilization
                                                      Figure 22. Alternatives to forestry burning.

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conjunction with larger timber processor-type chippers that are limited to
roadside or landing operations.  Present slash chipping operations are limited
to roadside treatments of thinning slash.  However, onsite chipping applica-
tions are expected to increase in conjunction with increasing slash fiber
utilization (see Utilization presented later in this section).

Piling—
     YUM and PUM techniques as described in earlier sections may be used
to pile or windrow slash without further treatment.  Piling operations can
sufficiently break up the continuity of slash concentrations for regeneration
planting and reduced fire hazard. Piling operations concentrate and increase
the accessibility of slash material and thus enhance the potential for more
complete utilization.

Scarification—
     Ground scarification techniques expose mineral soil for regeneration
planting and break up the continuity of slash fuels to reduce fire hazard.
Tractor scarification is limited by terrain and soil conditions.  Recently
developed cable and High Lead Scarification (HLS) techniques have been
successfully used in brush and slash areas not feasibly treated by tractor
(Ward and Russel 1975).  Scarification techniques are used in conjunction
with piling or windrowing to better satisfy silvicultural considerations.

Burying—
     Field studies indicate that burying slash is technically feasible
(Schimke and Dougherty 1966, Harrison 1975).  Onsite pits can accommodate
most piled or tractor-scarified materials.  Large slash components and heavy
material concentrations are difficult to treat.  Necessary tractor support
limits this technique to relatively flat rockless terrain.

     Potential short- and long-range environmental effects may be of con-
cern. Burial sites may not support trees until slash materials are decomposed.
There are indications that wood decay is inhibited under anaerobic burial
conditions (Evans 1973).  These anaerobic conditions may also produce wood
leachate pollutants. Volatile organic acids may be leached into ground waters
(Sweet and Fetrow 1975).  Under reducing conditions, these acids may further
degrade water quality by dissociating heavy metals from the soil substratum.

     These techniques can be used in combinations to achieve desired treat-
ment levels.  YUM yarding alone may not provide adequate logging residue
treatment.  Present specifications leave materials less than 5 to 8 inches  in
diameter on the site, impeding regeneration efforts and maintaining a temporary
fire hazard until degraded.  Competing vegetation to seedlings is not deterred
and often requires additional treatment.

     The onsite feasibility of the various mechanical techniques are dependent
on the capabilities of available machines.  Table 23 describes the limitations
of the various machines presently used to treat slash.  Prototype equipment for
slash treatment is constantly being developed by private industries and at  the
San Dimas, California and Missoula, Montana equipment development centers of  the
U.S. Forest Service.


                                    -125-

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TABLE 23.  MECHANICAL SLASH TREATMENT TECHNIQUES

Equipment or
Method
Masticate
Tractor crushing
Youg Tomahawk
&ATECO Com-
pactor
Towed Rolling
Choppers
National
Hydro -Ax
Kershaw
Klear-way
Trakmac/
Trailmaker
Tree Eater
Chip
Nicholson Ecolo
Chipper
Vermeer 671
Roy Ecological
Demolisher
Pile
PUM
Size Limitation
Slope
Limitation Diameter Length
(%) (in) (ft)
30 4-6 None

15-20 4-8 None
30 4 None
25 6 None
35 18 None
20 10 None

Limit of 24 None
yarding
method
Limit of 24 8
yarding
Limit of 96 25
yarding
method

30 None 15
Support Equipment
Needed Disadvantages
None Very Ineffi-
cient
Tractor, D6 or Slow needs
larger hard ground and
brittle material
Tractor, D6 or Sensitive to
larger rocks - blades
break; damages
desirable tree
seedlings
None Leaves stubble
which can
resprout
None Leaves sharp
stubble which
can resprout
None Undependable
None Undependable;
damages desir-
able seedlings

Grapple skidder Large initial
investment
Loader Limited to
short mate-
rial
Crane Large initial
investment

Tractor, D6 or Potential soil
larger compaction
Advantages
OK in small
material
Good, results
with small,
dry material
Good results
with small-
stem material
Thorough
treatment
Thorough
treatment
Low ground
compactor
Good results

High qual-
ity job
Good results
with short
material
High qual-
ity job

Low cost
                                                          (continued)
                      -126-

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TABLE 23.  (continued)
Size Limitation
Equipment or Limitation Diameter Length
Method (%) (in) (ft)
Pile
YUM Limit of None IS
yarding
method

Hand 60 4-8 5-10
Scarify
Tractor 30 None None

Cable (HLS) None 12 None

Bury
Tractor 15 None 10
Support Equipment
Needed Disadvantages
Cable Yarder Inadequate
treatment of
small materi-
als
None Slow, limited
to small mate-
rial

None Potential soil
compaction
Cable Yarder Potential soil
erosion


None Slow, ground
settling
A dvantages
Minimal environ-
mental effects

Minimal environ-
mental impacts

Good results

Good results
in small
material

Aesthetically
appealing
     -127-

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     The environmental effects of mechanical  slash  treatments are dependent
on the degree of site disturbance that  occurs  as  a  result of soil  scarifica-
tion and damage to residual vegetation.   Site  disturbance may be no more than
expected from logging operations or may accelerate  deterioration of previously
logged areas by further disruption of surface  vegetation.

     Soil damaging effects have been recognized and are regulated by State
forest practices regulations.  Erosion  or compaction will vary,  depending on
soil conditions, terrain, and the extent  of  surface scarification.  Techniques
that leave a mat of residual woodchips  on the  soil  surface will  minimize soil
disturbance.

     Residual slash alters soil water distribution  and obstructs drainage
channels (Swanston 1974).  Chip material  washed into streams may physically
disrupts fish habits  (Ruth 1975).  The  potential  toxicity of the leachates
from this type of material has not been well  substantiated although there is
indirect evidence that the leachates are  toxic to fish (Evans 1973).

Chemical Treatment

     Chemical herbicides can be used for  temporary  control  of undesirable
vegetation.  Forestry applications have been  effective for brushland conver-
sions, conifer thinnings and conifer release  treatments.   Available formu-
lations and application methods provide versatile options for forest
management and environmental considerations  (Table  24).

     Broad spectrum formulations are used in  brushland conversion for prepar-
ation of seedling sites.  Aerial application  allows efficient treatment of
terrain not feasible  by other methods.  Slow-release granular formulations
and the synergistic effects of two or more herbicide combinations provide
an effective means of controlling a variety  of undesirable trees,  shrubs
or grasses (Gratkowski 1974).n

     Selective herbicide formulations and/or  application  methods are used
to control specific plants without injuring  others.  Selective herbicides
are used in conifer release treatments  to control competing hardwoods and
grasses without affecting desirable conifer  seedlings.  On the other hand,
conifer thinning treatments use selective application methods that allow
treatment of individual trees.  Selective application methods are usually
accomplished by hand  spraying or direct tree  injection of the herbicide.

     Chemical herbicides provide at best  only  partial treatment of slash.
Vegetation control is temporary, usually  less  than  2 to 3 years,12 and
does not reduce slash concentrations.
   As cited in Cramer 1974.

12
   Personal communication, E. Feddern, Publishers Time Mirror, Inc., October 11, 1977.
                                    -128-

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                                  TABLE 24.  PROPERTIES OF HERBICIDES USED FOR FOREST VEGETATIVE CONTROL
PO
<£>
i
Herbicide
AECP
(Ammonium
ethyl
carbamoyl-
phosphonate
Amitrole-T



Atrazine


Dalapon




Dicamba








Formulation
Krenite -water
soluble liquid



Amino triazole
+ ammonium thio-
cyanate liquid

80% wettable powder


74% sodium and
magnesium salts-
water soluble


Dimethylamine salt

Dimethylamine salts
of dicamba & 2, 4-D
or 2,4, 5 -T
Oil-soluble acid of
dicamba + isoactyl
esters of 2, 4-D or
2,4,5-T
Application
Method
Aerial
ground



Aerial
ground


Aerial
ground

Aerial
ground



Injection

Aerial
ground

Aerial
ground


Application*
Rate
1-1/2 to 3
gal/A



1/2 to 1
gal/A


3 to 4 Ib
ai/A

3 to 11 Ib
ai/A



Undiluted or
1:4 in water
1 to 3 gal/A


1 gal/A



Use Half-life
Selectivity Persistence
Deciduous species for <4 mo.
site preparation



SaLmonberry and elder- <4 mo.
berry; will damage
Douglas-fir if applied
too early or too late
Annual grasses and some <4 mo.
forbs; does not damage
conifers
Annual and perennial <4 mo.
grasses for site prepa-
ration; use with atrazine
or directed sprays for
release
Hardwoods and conifers 5 to 8 mo.

Shrubs and weed trees 5 to 8 mo.
for site preparation

Shrubs and weed trees 5 to 8 mo.
for site preparation


             * ai = active ingredient
(continued)

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                                                               TABLE 24.  (continued)
uo
O
 i

Herbicide
MSMA


Picloram
















Silvex



Formulation
Monosodium acid
methane arsonate-
water soluble
Potassium salt + invert
^mulsions of 2, 4-D or
2,4, 5-T

Trilsopropanolamine
salts of picloram &
2, 4-D (Tordon 101R
and Tordon 101)
Trilsopropanolamine
salts of picloram &
2, 4-D (Tordon 101) with
or without low volatile
esters of 2, 4, 5-T or
silvex
Isooctyl ester of picloram
+ PC BE ester of 2, 4, 5-T
(Tordon 155)
Low -volatile esters
(BOE, PGBE)


Application
Method
Injection


Aerial
ground


Injection



Aerial
ground




Aerial
ground

Aerial
ground


Application Use Half -life
Rate Selectivity Persistence
Undiluted Hardwoods and conifers <4 mo.


1 to 4 quarts Shrubs and week trees 8 to 12 mo.
picloram + 1 to 4 for site preparation
gal of phenoxy
invert
Undiltued Hardwoods and conifers 8 to 12 mo.



1 to 4 gal/A Shrubs and weed trees 8 to 12 mo.
for site preparation




1/2 to 1 gal/A Shrubs and week trees 8 to 12 mo.
for site preparation


1/4 to 2/4 gal/A Shrubs, weed trees and 5 to 8 mo.
forbs; damaging to
conifers
                                                                                                                                 (continued)

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TABLE 24.  (continued)

Herbicide Formulation
2, 4-D Amine


Low-volatile esters
(Isooctyl, BOE, PGBE)


2, 4, 5-T Low-volatile esters
(Isooctyl, BOE, PGBE)

Amine

Application
Method
Injection


Aerial
ground


Aerial
ground

Injection

Application
Rate
Undiluted or 1:1
with water

1/4 to 3/4 gal/ A



1/4 to 3/4 gal/A


Undiluted or 1:1
with water
Use
Selectivity
Hardwoods except
cherry and
bigleaf maple
Shrubs, weed trees, and
forbs; for site preparation
and conifer release
(except pines)
Shrubs, weed trees, and
forbs for site preparation
and release
Hardw oods

Half-life
Persistence
<4 mo.


<4 mo.



<4 mo.


<4 mo.


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     The feasibility  of  accelerating slash decomposition using chemical
sprays has been studied  in  the Pacific Northwest (Ward 1975).  Results
indicate that the  spray  application of ammonium phosphate, urea,  asparagin,
2,4-D and 2,4,5-T,  or  a  plastic moisture barrier will not accelerate wood
decay.

     Herbicides used  in  combination with mechanical alternatives  are more
effective in slash  treatment  and can reduce the soil disturbance  and other
environmental effects  associated with mechanical techniques.  Two to three
periodic herbicide  appications are usually required after mechanical site
preparation to ensure  the  establishment of new conifer seedlings.13

     Adverse environmental  effects depend on the persistence, accumulation
and toxicity of a  particular  herbicide formulation.  The herbicides that
are presently registered by EPA for use in forest management have been
observed to insignificantly affect wild life, soil  microorganisms, water
quality or air quality.14   Damage to desirable vegetation is probable when
broad spectrum formulations or application methods  are used.  Damage to
riparian vegetation may  result from aerial drifting of herbicides applied
by plane or helicopter.  However, improved spray nozzles and the use of
low volatile formulations  are expected to minimize  this potential impact.15

Improved Harvesting Systems

     Present harvesting  systems generate considerably more logging residues
than can be utilized.  Logging residues may be significantly reduced by har-
vesting systems directed towards maximum utilization.  The optimum system
would only cut what could  be  utilized or rapidly treated.  Of course, the
successful application of  any harvesting system that generates more usable
wood fiber is dependent  upon  the market demand for  this material.  Market
conditions that do  not encouragae slash material recovery, necessitate
some type of disposal  activity.   Thus, improved harvesting systems must pro-
vide an economic incentive  along with technical feasibility for increased
slash utilization.

     Research and  development of improved harvesting systems are ongoing in
the Pacific Northwest  under a cooperative effort by the USDA Forest Service
and forest industries  (Clarke 1972, USDA FS 1974).

     The environmental effects of improved harvesting systems may be no
more than expected from  present logging operations.  Removal of larger
13
   Personal communication, E. Feddern, Publishers Time Mirror, Inc. , October 11, 1977.

   Unpublished E.I. S. on Herbicides in PNW Forests, USDA FS.

   Personal communication, M. Newton, Oregon State University, February 21, 1978.
                                      132-

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quantities of slash materials is not expected to affect the nutrient budget
of most soils in this region although specific sites which are nutrient
deficient or have fragile soils may be adversely affected.  Helicopter
logging techniques have been successfully used to minimize site distur-
bance during logging activities and to yard material when other tech-
niques are not feasible.  However, the low operating efficiency and weight
limitations of helicopters currently limit their application to high grade
saw logs.

Directional Felling--
     Uphill or directional felling in old-growth stands can help minimize
logging slash by reducing log breakage and thus increasing potential
utilization as high-grade material.  Directional control is accomplished
with the aid of cables or hydraulic jacks.  Although these control methods
may increase logging costs by two to three times, field applications by forest
industries indicate that these costs are easily offset by greater log recovery
and utility (Burwell 1977).   Gross volume recovery may be increased as much
as 30 percent depending on terrain conditions (ITF-FSU 11/17/77).

Multistage Logging—
     A two-stage logging operation can recover low-grade material that would
at present remain as slash.   Normal logging operations would be preceeded
or followed by light-material handling systems to recover small-diameter
material.  Prelogging increases the utility of small material usually damaged
during normal logging operations.  Prelogging also lessens timber breakage
during normal felling and yarding operations.  Post logging salvages small
logging residue from normal   logging operations.

Minimum Bucking—
     Minimizing preyard bucking of logs into uniform length classes optimizes
the utility of low-grade materials.  Shattered log ends and extraneous log
lengths that are bucked prior to yarding are not easily handled by standard
yarding machines so they remain on the site as slash.  Minimum bucking
encourages the yarding and processing of this material for utilization.

Whole-tree yarding--
     Whole-tree yarding may  be used to eliminate the need for any bucking.
Applications have been limited by yarding capabilities and the present util-
ity of whole tree fiber materials in the Pacific Northwest, although this
process is commonly used in  the Southeast by Weyerhaeuser Company and other
forest industries.  (See Utilization presented later in this section.)  Also,
the limited area of log landings may facilitate slash disposal piles con-
tiguous with log yarding activities.

Optimal Material Handing Techniques-
     More efficient logging  machinery can improve opportunities for slash
utilization.  Prototype systems are being developed to yard, preprocess and
transport slash materials.   Lightweight cable-yarders provide more material-
handling versatility, greater mobility and more rapid in-haul capabilities.
                                     -133-

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Mobile  chippers  and  tree  processors  reduce irregular slash components to uni-
form chip  material that can  be  efficiently loaded and transported for utiliza-
tion.

Optimal Timber Contracts--
     The contractual  requirements  of timber sales on public lands may be used
to  promote better  logging slash utilization.   Lump sum or per acre pricing
(RAM) of small materials  encourages  efficient logging techniques and maximum
utilization  by an  operator.   RAM has been shown to significantly increase resi-
due utilization  as compared  to  traditional per-thousand board feet pricing  (PM)
(Pierovich and Smith  1973).16

     The introduction of  sustained yield unit agreements have been suggested
as  a method  to improve utilization (U.S. General  Accounting Office 1973).
Guaranteeing a long-term  timber supply would  encourage development of local
processing facilities for low-grade  material.

     Salvage rights  and subsidies  for residue removal may be used when market
conditions will  not  support  the sale of subgrade  material.  The desirability
of  cleaning  up slash  materials  may justify some form of purchaser credit.

     On a  smaller  scale,  free-use  firewood permits encourage individual removal
of  slash.   However,  this  nonsystematic hand technique is limited to roadsides
and is  at  best a partial  alternative.

Utilization

     Increased slash  utilization can reduce the need for further slash treat-
ment.   Total tree  utilization standards outside of the Pacific Northwest have
been shown to reduce  wildfire potential to a  level requiring no further fuel
modifications (Brown  1974).  Silvicultural objectives for burning slash may  be
partially  met by removing slash for  utilization.   In the case of pile burning,
removing the piles rather than  burning them will  accomplish silvicultural
objectives.

     Slash utilization would, in general, have little adverse effect on soils,
vegetation or wildlife (Sandberg 1977).l'   However,  slash removal may have
detrimental  effects  in isolated situations when:   tree seedling survival
depends on the shade  of residual slash, erosion of steep, unstable slopes is
prevented  by slash and vegetative  cover, and  surface erosion is increased on
steep,  unstable  slopes without  slash or vegetative cover, or the habitats for
local wildlife populations  are  provided by slash.
16
17
No significant difference in PAM and PM residue loads was found by Hamilton (1975).

ITF/FSU.  Exhibit A. November 7, 1977 „
                                    -134-

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     The use of slash material is dependent on the capability  and efficiency
of the forest industries to process low-grade fiber that may contain  undes-
irable species, rot, defects, rock and dirt.  Fougler  (1976) suggests  that
materials less than 4 inches in diameter can not be efficiently  utilized
by present processes.

     The material handling and production alternatives that are  available
for slash utilization are characterized in this section.  Market influences
are discussed as is necessary to clarify the economic feasibility of  these
alternatives.

Material Handling--
     The value of slash as a raw material for wood products or energy  depends
largely upon the efficiency of material handling and processing  as described
by Adams (1976).  These processes must be efficient enough to  allow slash mate-
rials to compete with mill residues and other sources of raw material; pres-
ently, this  is not the case.  The cost of delivering slash material is as much
as 10 times  that of mill residues where handling costs are absorbed by the
primary wood products (Grantham 1974).  Slash utilization depends on the
availability and application of preprocessing and transportation systems that
can efficiently handle this material.

     A computer simulation model has been developed by the USDA-FS that can
be used to assess different slash material handling systems (Bare 1976).  The
model traces the flow of materials through pre-specified combinations  of pro-
cessing and transporting operations to evaluate the feasibility of converting
slash into wood products and energy.

     Preprocessing—This permits optimum grading and distribution of  all
harvested material.  Early conversion of low-grade slash material into uni-
formly sized chip material increases processing and transportation efficiency.
The following processes may encourage maximum use of low-grade slash material.

     Merchandising centers—Such centers combine sorting and some processing
     to divert logs to specialized centers of use.  Low-grade  logs and slash
     materials are typically chipped for transport to nearby mills as  pulp or
     hog fuel material.

     Chip and saw—Chip and saw mills utilize small log materials for  stud
     material and maximum residue recovery.  Material that has no lumber
     value is chipped and utilized as hogged fuel or transported to nearby
     pulp mills.

     Chipping plants—Chipping plants and mobile chippers provide early
     or on-site processing of slash material into chip form for transport
     to nearby mills.  The economic feasibility of these processes are
     extremely dependent on fluctuating chip markets (Gram 1974).
                                     -135-

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     Hammermill plants--Hammermill plants  and portable machines  are  being
     developed to provide early or onsite  production  of  uniformly  sized
     and compressed wood pellets for efficient handling  and transport
     (Currier 1971).18

     Stockpiling of slash material or processed chips can  be  used  for  short-
term storage when markets are not favorable for material utilization.  Chemi-
cal control methods to reduce deterioration of stockpiled  wood fiber are
being developed by the USDA FS (Young 1972).

     Transportation—The transportation of  slash materials is presently  lim-
ited to the capability of standard logging trucks.  These  trucks are designed
to haul uniformly shaped material and cannot accommodate smaller,  irregularly
shaped slash material.  New and modified hauling systems are  available that may
increase the efficiency of slash handling.

     Short truck and trailer--These combinations have been developed for
     small log handling.  These vehicles can accommodate log  material  that
     is too short for standard logging trucks.

     Chip vans—Chip vans may be used in combination with  onsite chipping
     or wood-pelletizing processes.  Uniform material size allows  efficient
     transportation to mills.

     Sideboard modifications — Improvements to standard logging trucks  may
     allow "whole-tree" transporting.  This is a new concept  being developed
     by Weyerheauser Company in the Southeast with potential, but  as yet
     untested applications in the Pacific  Northwest.19

     Production processes—Many forest product industries  can presently  acorn-
mod atFr~orTe~modT7Ted~To' efficiently use, slash material.  The  basic  proper-
ties of slash material are not significantly different from the  fiber  used in
any wood product.  Increasing use of mill  residues demonstrates  the  existing
potential for utilizing slash type materials.  Sound fiber can be  used as  fuel
for steam to generate electrical power.  Slash materials can  also  be used  to
a much lesser extent for other miscellaneous products.   Table 25 shows the
types of wood products presently available or being developed that could utilize
slash fiber material.

     Pulp and paper—The pulp and paper industry and  chip  export market  offer
the most feasible immediate use for slash  materials.  Improved chemical  pulp
digestion processes can accommodate the unbarked rough wood of various hard-
and soft-wood species.  These processes produce diverse  product  lines  with
1 8
   As cited in Van Vliet (1971).

19
   Personal communication, R. Cornelius, Wyerhaeuser Company, January 17, 1978.
                                    -136-

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                                                   TABLE 25.  WOOD PRODUCTS FROM SLASH

Products
Pulp
Particle board
Structural flakeboard
Charcoal
Wood pellets
Fire wood
Methanol /Oil
^ Synthetic natural gas
CO
•j-J Densified fuel logs
Resinous glues
Compost & soil conditioner
Thermosetting plastics
Glucose
Ethylene, butadiene
Absorbent floor covering
Porous brick and tile
Packing material
Posts and stakes
Cellulose derivatives
Furan
Cork and wax
Process or
Technique
Sulfate, kraft
N/A
N/A
Herreshoff reduction
furnace
Pelletizing
--
Pyrolysis
Chemical catalyst
Compression
Pyrolytic converter
Pelletizing
N/A
Cellulose hydrolysis
Ethanol extract
Hamermill sawdust
N/A
N/A
—
Dissolved pulp
Furfural extract
From Douglas- fir bark
Development or
Research Group
--
USDA-FS Forest Products Lab.
USDA-FS Forest Products Lab.
Olsen Lawyer
Bio- Solar Research & Dev.
Corp.
--
N/A
Battelle Memoiral Institute
USDA-FS Forest Products Lab.
Georgia Institute of Tech.
University of Arizona
Oregon State University
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Boise Cascade Corp.
N/A
N/A
N/A
Reference
Grantham 1974
Dickerhoof 1977
Adams 1976
Steffensen
1971*
ITF-FSU
10/25/77
--
Grantham 1978
Feldmann, H.F.t
Oregon State
Univ., 1977
Hewlett 1972
Fuller 1966
Currier 1971*
Grantham 1978
Grantham 1978
Harkin 1969
Harkin 1969
Harkin 1969
Elmgren 1977
Grantham 1978
Grantham 1978
Trocino 1974$
Uses
Paper products
Counter tops, underlayments, paneling,
Wall and roof sheathing, paneling
Recreation
Electric generation, steam boilers
Home heat, hogged fuel
Heat, steam boilers
Home heating, industrial applications
Presto- logs, home heating, stoker fuel
Bonding agent
Landscaping, agricultural


decking








Molded products: cups, switch box, sofa leg
Animal feed, carbohydrate supplement,
Alcohol
sugar

Animal bedding, packing plants, fish markets
Reduced density and weight of clay products
Shipping fragile items
Grapestacks, fence posts
Cellophane, rayon
Nylon
Miscellaneous




* As cited in Van Vliet 1971
t USDOE study in progress
As cited in Young 1975

-------
satisfactory strength and bleach quality  (Auston  1973).   The  bark  content
of processed material has been shown to increase  total fiber  yields  by  as
much as 10 percent;  nonfibrous bark material that  is dissolved  during
the digestion process can be recovered and used by  the mill as  an  energy
source.  The successful operation of a hardwood pulp mill  by  Weyerheauser
Company in Aberdeen, WA suggests that concentrated  red alder  and other
low-grade hardwood species  in the coast range can support  hardwood pulp
mills.

     The feasibility of utilizing slash material for pulp  and paper  is  pres-
ently  limited by market conditions and individual mill capabilities.  As long
as large amounts of cheaper, more desirable conifer mill  residues  are avail-
able,  there appears to be little industrial incentive to  use  slash material.

     Particle and flake board—Existing product lines of  particle  and flake
boards are potential uses for slash materials.  The particle  board share of
the Nation's wood-based panel industry has steadily increased from 5 percent
in 1962 to 25 percent in 1972 (Buongiorno  1977).  Structural  flake board,
a high strength wall and roof sheathing board, is still in the  development
stage  (Heebink  1974).  Construction applications  are expected to be  wide,
especially in the housing market.  Price  and performance  specifications are
competitive with other product lines.

     At this time, slash materials are not used for particle  board manu-
facturing in the Pacific Northwest (Dickerhoff 1977).  Cheaper mill  residues
constitute the  entire raw material supply for these products.   Research is
ongoing to develop board products and material handling systems  that might
increase the use of slash materials (Zerbe 1972, Resch 1977).

     Energy—Conversion of  low grade slash material into  energy  products is
technically feasible.  Direct combustion of hogged  slash  fuels can be used
to produce heat, process steam, and generate electricity  for  industrial  and
municipal use.  A communal  group in the Eugene-Springfield area  is showing
the cost effectiveness of harvesting slashed material for  use as home fuel.
The heat value  of slash materials depends on the  species  and  moisture con-
tent of the wood.  Table 26 shows the heat value of various tree species'
components on an ovendried  basis.  Increasing moisture content will  signifi-
cantly decrease the combustion efficiency of wood fuels.

     Forest industries use  large amounts of processed steam and  heat.   Pulp
and paper production requires steam for pulp cooking and  drying.   Sawmills
and plywood plants use direct heat for drykilns and veneer drying.   Many of
these facilities employ fuel systems that can accommodate  hogged slash  fuels.
The use of slash material by forest industries for  in-plant energy production
is a function of the availability and cost of conventional energy  sources.
20
   As cited in Grantham (1974).
                                     138-

-------
At present,  very little slash  is  being used.  Processed mill  residues, fossil
fuels,  and electricity provide most  of the energy needs of  industry.   However,
the  scarcity of fossil fuels and  potential price increases  for  industrial
electricity users could result in the increased use of mill residue and slash
material  for energy in the near future.

                  TABLE 26.  HEAT VALUES OF VARIOUS PNW TREE SPECIES
                     Species           Heating Value (Btu/lb, oven-dry*

Douglas-Fir
Western Hemlock
White Fir
Western Red Cedar
Ponderosa Pine
Western Larch
Lodge Pole Pine
Western White Pine
RedAdler
Wood
8,890
8,410
8,210
9,700
9,110
N/A
N/A
N/A
7,990
Bark
9,790
9,400
N/A
8,790
N/A
8,280
10,260
9,090
8,410
Needles
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
8,478
7,999
9,050
8,674
N/A

                * These heat values are in contrast to 11,000 - 14,000 Btu/lb
                  expected from coal.

    Figure  23 shows the present sources  of  energy consumed by the pulp  and
paper  industry.   Mill residues provide 54 percent of all energy needs.   The
remaining 46 percent is supplied by  fossil  fuels and electricity.   Efforts  by
forest  industries to become more energy  self-sufficient have been focused on
the increased use of processed mill  residue and are not expected to have an
substantial  impact on slash utilization.21

     Slash  material may be a potential energy source used to increase the
electrical  power generating capacity of  Washington and Oregon.  The U.S.
Department  of Energy is studying the feasibility of utilizing wood  fiber to
produce  additional power for the regional power grid (Lindsey 1977).22

     The forest  industries are at present best suited to handle and process
hogged slash fuel for electric power generation.  Public utilities  cannot
compete with the forest industries for hogged mill residue and processed
   Personal communication, R. Cornelius, Wyerhaeuser Company, March 22, 1978.

22  As cited in Adams (1977).
                                     -139-

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slash (Grant  1977).23   Power is  a  logical  secondary product of mills that
now generate  low pressure process  steam.   Conventional  energy systems would
require modifications to accommodate  hogged slash material.  The power gen-
erated by  these small industrial units is  expected to  be  more expensive than
the public  utility grid using conventional  energy sources.   These conversion
and higher  generating costs would  necessarily be absorbed by the power grid
in a "wheeling process" that would distribute power to  all  industrial and
nonindustrial  users at a cost reflecting  the average operating cost of the
total power grid.
                               m FOSSIL FUEL    (SBi PROCESS WASTE
                            Illllllllll OIL         i    PULPING LIQUORS
                            ••• COAL        asm WOOD AND BARK
                                NATURAL GAS   ?WM» ELECTRICITY
                 Figure 23.  Energy consumption by the pulp and paper industry
                   of the Pacific Northwest including California (Arola 1976)
      The potential use of wood  fiber for municipal steam and electric gen-
eration  has been demonstrated by  the Eugene Water and  Electric Board (Lynch
1977).24  The city of Eugene, OR employs hogged fuel  fired boilers to produce
steam heat.  This system is  also  able to generate limited amounts of elec-
tricity,  but at costs that are  almost twice as high  as power presently
available from BPA.

      The  conversion of slash materials into other energy products is in  the
research  and development stage.   Potential  conversion  processes are described
in Table  27.  Although these processes may be technically feasible, they  are
not presently cost efficient alternatives for slash  utilization.
   As cited in ITF-FSU Minutes, October 13, 1977.

24
   As cited in Adams (1977).
                                      -140-

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                                       TABLE 27.  CONVERSION OF SLASH INTO ENERGY PRODUCTS
        Technique
   Product
BTU/lb
                                                       Researcher
                                             Reference
  Pelletizing process (WOODEX)




  Pelletizing process



  Pelletizing process



  Anaerobic digestion




  Gasification reactor



  Pyro lysis by direct heating



  Pyrolysis by direct heating



  Pelletizing process (WOODEX)



  Pyrolytic converter




  Pyrolytic converter



  Catalytic procedure




            N7A
Wood pellets



Pellets




Pulverized pellets




Methane gas



Gas



Gas



Gas



Gas



Oil-soaked char



Wood oil



Oil




Oil
 9,000




 7,960




 8,200



   N/A




150 (BTU/cuft)



   N/A



 8,200-9,600*




 8,700



13,000



13,000



17,000




   N/A
Bio-Solar Research & Development Corp.




Alsid,  Snow den & Associates




U and I,  Inc.




             N/A



Council of Forest  Industries of B. C.




USDA-PNW F&Res.



Forest Fuels, Inc.



Bio-Solar Research & Development Corp.



Georgia Institute of Technology



Georgia Institute of Technology



USDI Bureau of Mines




Bechtel Corporation (USDOE)
ITF-FSU 1977




Snowden 1977




Wilson 1977



Grantfaam 1974




Halak 1977



Grantham 1974



Forest Fuels 1976



ITF-FSU 1977




Hewlett 1972



Hewlett 1972



Grantham 1974




Blackman 1978
* Depends on species

-------
     Pelletized material--Pel leti zed material  uses a hammer-milling process
to reduce wood and bark residues to uniformly  compacted and  dried pellets.
Pellets  are  an easily handled fuel  with predictable burning  characteristics.
The fuel has been successfully used as a  low emission substitute to coal and
hogged fuels in the Pacific  Northwest (Farnsworth 1977, Dell  1977).

     Methane—Methane gas can be produced  from wood residue  using pyrolysis or
anaerobic digestion.  Small  gasification units are capable of producing enough
heat for veneer drying and other forest industry applications (Dell 1977).

     Synthetic crude oil--The processing of synthetic crude  oil  using wood
residues is  being studied by the USDOE.  A pilot plant at Albany, OR produces
approximately three barrels  of oil  per day.  However, costs  are  not compet-
itive with presently available oil  (Blackman 1978).

No Treatment

     Desirable levels of slash abatement for sustained wood  fiber production
and wildfire hazard reduction  cannot presently be accomplished by natural
processes.   Natural  processes  are slow.  Slash degradation by wildlife,
insects  and  microorganisms may take from 5 to  50 years depending on the slash
component size, species, moisture content, temperature and inoculum present.
Table 28 shows the natural decay process expected over a 15-year period in
a western hemlock-type forest.
         TABLE 28.  NATURAL DECAY PROCESS OF WESTERN HEMLOCK (MacBean 1941)*
                 Years since logging
      Stage of decay
                      1  3




                      4-6

                      7-9




                      10  12




                      13 - 15
Needles dry out and have mostly fallen.
Fine twigs become brittle but still
adhere to the branches.

Twigs flatten out.

Twigs less than 0.25 inch (0.64 cm)
diameter have fallen. Small branches
can be easily broken.

Slash well flattened, material less
than 0.5 inch (1.3 cm) has fallen.
Small logs become well rotted.

All small material decomposed. Small
branches 2 to 3 inches (5-8 cm) in
diameter still intact.  Decay in logs
well advanced.
        *As cited in Ruth and Harris 1975.
                                      -142-

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    The concept of introducing microorganisms  into  concentrated  slash to
hasten deconjposition has been studied, but  not  applied.   Lindermuth and
Gill (1959)  found that slash decomposition  can  be  accelerted  by intro-
ducing specific wood-rotting fungus.  The application  of  nitrogen ferti-
lizers has also been found to stimulate wood decaying  microbial  activity.

    Supplemental fire protection personnel  may  reduce  wildfire damage in
areas where no slash treatment is performed.  Present  applications by the
USDA Forest Service are used in conjunction with  fuel  breaks or  fire lines.
Fire management personnel suggest that supplemental fire  protection is not
sufficient to reduce the wildfire hazard of  heavy contiguous slash areas.

     Untreated slash material may add to soil stability,  provide shade for
regeneration seedlings and maintain an organic  nutrient source.   However,
these materials may also degrade adjacent surface water quality  by clogging
stream channels and increasing biochemical  oxygen demand  (Notzon 1977).
There is indirect evidence that wood leachates  may  also be  toxic to fish
(Evans 1973).

THE ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY BURNING

     An in-depth economic analysis of forest burning and  of alternate
methods of slash disposal requires detailed  cost  data  for the  following
reasons:

     1.  The amount of variation in both the cost and  the benefit
         data precludes the use of summary  statistics, such as a
         mean value, as a meaningful representation of either  costs
         or benefits.

     2.  The intangible burning and nonburning  benefits are even
         more difficult to define in economic terms thus  making  it
         difficult to define the entire set  of  benefits without
         detailed data analysis.

     3.  Inadequate or contradictory summary data prevent the  defi-
         nition of burning and nonburning costs  and benefits in  the
         economic terms required for a reliable  economic  analysis.

     Studies designed to evaluate the economics  of  slash  disposal are, for
the most part, localized and nonuniform.  The detailed data may  be avail-
able in the files of industrial firms utilizing  various methods  of burning
or else making use of alternate methods of  slash  disposal.   However,  if
these data exist, they were not made available  for  this study  nor were they
readily available in the open  literature.   The  situation  with  the economic
25
   As cited in Dell and Green (1968).
                                    -143-

-------
data was summarized by Adams (1976) when he stated  "aggregate  amounts
(volumes) are misleading, and the potential value of  logging residue,
either positive or negative, can only be determined for specific situa-
tions with respect to the type of residue  location, sale  arrangements,
and development of suitable processing facilities."   Tables 29 and 30
represent examples of costs associated with burning and with nonburning
methods of slash disposal.  The range in values can be the result of
either the limited, nonuniform cost data or the result of variability  in
the volume of residue per acre.  Data are  not reported for other poten-
tial alternatives because of their unavailability at  the  time  of this
study.

     The classic benefit/cost formula calculates a  ratio  which provides
a measure of the desirability of an investment by discounting  the revenues
and costs at an appropriate interest rate  which is  presumably  the highest
rate in the next best alternative use of capital.   The discounted revenue
stream is then divided by the discounted cost stream.  If the  benefit/cost
ratio is equal to or greater than 1, then  the project under scrutiny  is
considered justified.

    There are typically two types of benefits and two types of costs  asso-
ciated with the benefit/cost ratio approach.  The benefits can be divided
into "project benefits" or as they are sometimes called "direct benefits"
and secondary benefits sometimes called "indirect benefits."   Project  bene-
fits consist of all benefits that come directly from  the  project while the
secondary benefits are those that accrue to society because of the project.
As an example, if slash were harvested, chipped, and  processed into particle-
board, one direct project benefit would be the wholesale  price received for
the particleboard.  A secondary benefit would be the  societal  benefit  of not
having to view or inhale slash smoke because the slash was removed instead
of burned.

    Costs are also divided into two parts.  The first part is  comprised of
"project costs."  Project costs consist of the value  of all goods and  services
used for establishing, maintaining, and operating the project  purchases of
land, labor, equipment, etc. necessary to  undertake the project.  The  second
part is comprised of "associated costs."   These costs are incurred over and
above project costs to make the outputs of the project available.

    The questionable portion of any benefit/cost ratios is the inclusion of
secondary benefits and the associated costs.  There is a  tendency to  disregard
those benefits that cannot be measured in  concrete  terms.  Those benefits
that are intangible, difficult to assign marketplace  dollar values to  (view,
air quality, etc.), often find no place in benefit/cost analysis.  Secondary
benefits should be isolated and priced.  Even though  a benefit/cost ratio
for slash removal may be less than 1, addition of the secondary benefits
could cause the benefit/cost ratio to rise above the  value of  1.
                                    -144-

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  TABLE 29.  COST EXAMPLES OF PRESCRIBED BURNING IGNITION DEVICES AND BURNING
                      TECHNIQUES IN THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST
Ignition Techniques
Type
Primacord
Primacord (Helicopter)
Helitorch
Helitorch
Cost Organization
$20. 25/A Publishers' Paper
$20.25-23.25/A Publishers' Paper
$20/A Publishers' Paper
$8/A Washington
Reference
Feddern (1977)**
Feddern (1977)**
Feddern (1977)**
Griggs (1978)**
Burning Techniques
Organization
BROADCAST
W ashington
Washington
Oregon
Washington
Oregon
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
Industry
Operator
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
Operator
Operator
Forest Service
Forest Service
Industry
Pretreatment
Slash and Burn
Industry
Industry
Brown and Burn
Forest Service
Pile and Burn
Washington
W ashington
Oregon
Cost

$121/A
$121/A
$73/A
$121/A
$73/A
$122-184/A
$4. 10/T
$125-225/A
$25-110/A
$25-200/A
$150/ A
(F)$80-120/A
(SP)$90-140/A
(F)$100/A
(SP)$115/A
$140/A
$125-225/A
$85 /A


$40-100/A*
$131/A

$86.72/A

$79/A
$79/A
$55/A
Reference

FY(1974)
Dell (1975)
Dell (1975)
Dell (1975)
Dell (1975)
USDA-FS (1975)
Richardson (1976)
ITF-FSU(1977)
ITF-FSU(1977)
ITF-FSU(1977)
ITF-FSU(1977)
Tokarczyk (1977)
Tokarczyk (1977)
Tokarczyk (1977)
Tokarczyk (1977)
Tokarczyk (1977)
Dell (1977)
Claunch (1977)**


Feddern (1977)**
Feddern (1977)**

USDA-FS (1973)

FY (1974)
Dell (1975)
Dell (1975)
 * Only slashing
** Personal communication
                                                                     (continued)
                                       -145-

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                                    TABLE 29.  (continued)
                                    Burning Techniques
      Organization
                                          Cost
                                  Reference
   BROADCAST

      Pretreatment

        Pile and Burn -

   Forest Service
   Forest Service
   Forest Service
   Forest Service
   Forest Service
   Operator
   Forest Service

   PILE
   $560/At
     $47 T
   $105-2007A
   $160/A
   $140/A
   $115/A
    $50-300/A
                        Richardson et aL (1976)
                        Richardson (1976)
                        Dell (1977)
                        Tokarczyk(1977)**
                        Tokarczyk(1977)**
                        Tokarczyk (1977)**
                        USDA-FS (1977)
       PUM

          Hand -

   Forest Service
   Forest Service
   Oregon
   Forest Service and Operator
   Operator
   Forest Service
   Forest Service

        Machine

   Forest Service
   Forest Service
   Industry
   Forest Service and Operator
   Forest Service
   $153-310/A
   $SOO/A
   $450/A
   $12S-175/A
   $175/A
   $100-150/A
   $150/A
  $117-164/A
  $100-200/A
  $150-200/A
  $100-120/A
    $50-75/A
tAt 40 tons/acre
** Personal communication
^Only
                        USDA-FS (1975)
                        ITF-FSU(1975)
                        ITF-FSU(1977)
                        Tokarczyk (1977)
                        USDA-FS (1977)
                        Tokarczyk (1977)**
                        Getz(1975)
                        USDA-FS (1975)
                        ITF-FSU (1977)
                        ITF-FSU (1977)
                        Tokarczyk (1977)
                        Getz(1975)
YUM
Forest Service
Industry
Forest Service
Operator
Forest Service
Forest Service
Forest Service

$10/AT
$300/-$1,000/A
$3S2/A
$224/A
$150-300/A
$450-950/A§
$300-8007 A

USDA-FS (1975)
ITF-FSU (1977)
Tokarczyk (1977)
Shenk (1977)
USDA-FS (1977)
ITF-FSU (1977)
Dell (1977)
burning
         (continued)
§YUM and burn
                                          -146-

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                                   TABLE 29.  (continued)
     Organization                           Cost                      Reference





 AIR CURTAIN BURNER
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS

USDA-FS
Washington
$30/ton
$16-30/ton
$6-8/ton
$8/ton

$58S/AC
$14/ton
Ward (1976)
McLean G Ward (1976)
Harrison (1975)
Murphy & Fritschen
(1970)
Lambert (1972)*
Golson(1975)

* As cited in Fahnestock (1975).
                                         -147-

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 TABLE 30.  COST EXAMPLES OF NONBURNING TECHNIQUES IN THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST


Organization
Masticate
USDA-FS
Industry
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
Washington
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
Washington
Chip
USDA-FS
N/A
USDA-FS
Pile
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
Scarify
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
Bury
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
N/A
Mechanical

Type

crush
slash
Tomahawk
Hydro-Ax
Trak-Mac
crush
crush
Hydro-Ax
Tomahawk
Marden Brushcutter
Tomahawk
Trak-Mac

small portable
N/A $1,
small portable

PUM
YUM
PUM
PUM (hand)

tractor
HLS




Techniques

Cost

$20/AC
$40/AC
$30/AC
$70-90/AC
$70-90/AC
$18/AC
$20/AC
$15-30/AC
$20-35/AC
$11-19/AC
$19-29/AC
$137-239/AC

$3 /ton
600-2, 800/AC
$150-200/AC

$65-1 10/ AC
$300-800/AC
$75/AC
$120-500/AC

$12-22/AC
$244-264/AC

$74/AC **
$83/AC **
$1, 800/AC

Reference

Dell & Ward (1969)
Feddern(1977)
Dell (1977)
Dell (1977)
Dell (1977)
Wilson (1970)
Murphy & Fritschen ( 1970)
Mohler & Golson (1975)
Shenk&Harlan(1972)
Dell & Ward (1969)
Dell & Ward (1969)
Mohler & Golson (1976)

Schimke & Dougharty (1966)
Lambert *
Dell (1977)

Baker (1977)
Dell (1977)
USDA-FS (1977)
Dell (1977)

Dell &Ward (1969)
Ward &Russel (1975)

Schimke & Dougherty (1966)
Ward (1976)
Fahnestock (1974)

 * As cited in Fahnestock (1974)




** At 50 tons/acre
                                       -148-

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    Existing cost data are quite varied and, as  a result, not useful for
benefit/cost analysis.  Une important aspect that may be derived from the
data is the variability itself.  The estimates of the cost of prescribed
burning vary greatly from source to source.  This variance can be  attributed
to many factors.  If one assumes that all costs  collected have been collected
uniformly, there is great variability in cost of slash burning from acre
to acre.  However, the variance may be attributed to nonuniformity of the
data collected.  Some sources report the cost of slash burning on  a per-ton
basis instead of a per-acre basis.  Some sources present only the  cost  of
materials involved in actually setting the fire, some give a collection of
costs, and yet other sources present the costs in terms of pretreatment costs
and then burning costs.  In order to conduct a meaningful analysis of costs
and benefits, a set of uniform detailed data is  required.

    Items that can be generally identified as lacking in the available  cost
data may be described as:

    1.  Uniform data not available.

    2.  Irregular grouping of costs.

    3.  Slash burning cost data are lacking.

    4.  Nonburning alternatives cost data are lacking.

    Additional data lacking to complete a benefit/cost analysis are the
benefits that accrue when slash burning is accomplished and the benefits
that accrue when nonburning alternative methods  are considered.

Scope of Phase II Economic Approach

    Specific guiaelines for a full benefit/cost  approach to the alternative
burning techniques and alternatives to forestry  burning need to be identified.
The guidelines must include specifications as to exactly what type of data
needs to be collected and on what alternatives.  After the Phase I portion
of the study is completed, a study management group should identify specific
burning and nonburning alternatives for slash disposal. Specific categories
must be identified in each area and uniform cost data must be collected.
As an example, the following methods of slash disposal may be defined:

    Nonburning Alternatives                      Burning Alternatives

    Sell for Firewood                            Pile and Burn

    Haul for Energy Conversion                   PUN Pretreatment

    Haul for Paper Conversion                    YUM Pretreatment

    Bury                                         Broadcast Burn

    No treatment

                                     -149-

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    Once the burning and nonburning alternatives for slash disposal have
been identified, a uniform data collection approach may be adopted.   Items
for which data should be collected for each alternative are:

    1.  Labor

    2.  Materials

    3.  Equipment

    4.  Transportation

    5.  Associated Overheads.

    The majority of the cost data may be present for the burning alterna-
tives.  The majority of the cost data may not be present for the nonburning
alternatives.  Benefits that accrue from the alternatives listed must be
defined.  Benefits must be viewed as either long- or short-term.  A long-
term benefit is the increased yields resulting on those acres that have
been treated.  A short-term benefit is the decrease in cost of planting as
a result of slash treatment.

    The proper approach to analyzing the economics of the burning and non-
burning alternatives of slash disposal must be highly systematic.  A  study
plan and simple study format for a Phase II economic approach are outlined
in Appendix B.

    As time proceeds, favorable tax legislation regarding the use of  slash
material may alter benefit/cost ratios.  Future tax credits and tax exemp-
tions may make previously undesirable alternatives more attractive.   Consid-
eration must also be given to the effect that slash disposal alternatives
have on the yields of other multiple-use products of the forest (including
range, water, wildlife and recreation).

    The analysis would include secondary benefits and associated costs that
accrue from items such as:

    1.  Fire hazard reductions

    2.  Seed bed preparations

    3.  Physical impediment reductions

    4.  Silvicultural considerations

    5.  Health cost reduction through air quality improvement

    6.  Esthetic values of visibility improvement.
                                    -150-

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    These items are difficult to quantify.  The benefits and costs should
include all known values for those benefits and costs that currently have  no
value in dollar terms attributed to them.  Additionally, benefit/cost ratios
may vary with geographic location.  The benefit/cost ratio for one alter-
native may be greater in one area and far less in another area.  Differences
in species, slope, elevation, underbrush, and previous logging activity may
play a role in the benefit/cost determination.
                                   -151-

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                                  SECTION  6

             FUTURE IMPACT OF FORESTRY  BURNING  ON  AIR  QUALITY


     The future  impact of forestry burning  on  air  quality in the Pacific
Northwest  is a function of the  level  of burning. Federal, state and local
air quality regulations and the use  of  alternatives  to burning.  Historical
trends may not be useful in a projection  of future impacts because of sig-
nificant changes  in burning technology, regulations  and alternatives within
the past 5 to 7  years.  This section  characterizes some of these recent
trends and their potential impact on  air  quality.

IMPACTS OF PROJECTED TRENDS IN  BURNING

     The future  of slash burning  can  be categorized  into short- and long-
term trends.  The need for prescribed burning  may  increase on  a short-term
basis.1  More burning is expected due to  favorable productivity and cost
incentives and improved burning technology  and  methodology.  By the year 2020,
most old growth  timber will have  been harvested, leaving commercial stands in
harvest cycles of 60 to 100 years.2   Better utilization and  management con-
trol of these second growth stands are  expected to create less slash,  there-
fore decreasing  the need for slash disposal.

     Between 1972-77, the number  of  acres of slash burned in the Pacific
Northwest  showed  an increasing  trend  for  both  Washington and Oregon
(Figure 24).  However, the trend  of  total tons  burned  varied with Oregon
increasing, Washington decreasing and the region as  a  whole  remaining
constant (Figure 25).  The proportional amount  of  slash burned measured
in tons/acre decreased for both Washington  and  Oregon  (Figure  26).   These
trends are independent of two abnormal  data sets.   The 1974  data for Oregon
used in these figures were incomplete due to a  computer malfunction.   The
1976 data  for both states reflects an unusually high level  of  burning due
to extremely favorable weather  conditions.

     Although there appears to  be little  change in the total tons of slash
being burned in  the region, the downward  trend  of  the  amount of slash burned
per acre may reduce the impact  of forestry  burning on  air quality in the
area of the burn.  This trend in  the  amount of  slash burned  per acre corre-
sponds with a continuing trend  towards more complete utilization of the wood
harvested  and with more precise techniques  for  estimating the  amount of fuel
burned, an estimate which historically  has  been on the high  side.  The use of
broadcast  burning appears to be in an upward trend in  Oregon.  The number of
acres broadcast  burned in Oregon  increased  48  percent  during the 3-year period
from 1975-1977;  concomitantly,  pile  burning decreased  by 14  percent (Figure 27),
  ITF-FSU, Final Report, December 1977.
2
  Personal communication, J. Todd, USDA FS, October 1977.
                                    -152-

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         200 T
         ISO. -
TJ

-------
          7.0.
          6.0.  .
          5.0.  —"
•o

-------
•a
(U


§
CQ

1)
PI
u
             704-
             604.
             SO-K
             404-
             30 +
             20
             10
                    \
                     \
                       \
                           \
72
73
                                                 74
                                                                                 76
                                                                                                  77
                                                        Year
                 •    Region       «..— .

                 |    Washington   — — —


                 NOTE:  Tonnage figures are estimates and subject to possible error.

                         See page 43 for discussion of error.


                          Figure 26.  Trend of tons/acre burned on the West Side from  1972-77.



                                                    -155-

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           70 -r
           60- •
           50
I  8
pa  o
S  3.
o
           40- '
            30
  Figure 27.  Three-year trend of broadcast and pile burning in Oregon.
               (Figures derived from Oregon SMP reports. )
                                  -156-

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 Increased  broadcast  burning correlates  witn the recent increased use of fire
 for  brushland  conversion  as reported by the Oregon Department of Forestry.3
 The  downward trend  in  pile burning is contrary to the trend observed on National
 Forests  from 1963 to 1972 (USDA FS 1973).   Although no data are available after
 1972,  increasing use of partial cut timber harvesting methods on National
 Forests  has led to  the use of pile rather  than broadcast burning.4

 IMPACT OF  AIR  QUALITY  REGULATIONS

     There are two  areas  where pending  or  recently enacted air quality legis-
 lation is  likely to  have  a significant  impact  on forestry burning as practiced
 in the Pacific Northwest.  The first relates to a requirement by the Clean
 Air  Act  Amendments  of  1977 that visibility impairment from man-made sources
 not  be allowed in national pristine areas.   The second relates to the pos-
 sible  development of National Ambient Air  Quality Standards (NAAQS) specifi-
 cally  for  fine particles.

     The Clean Air  Act classifies areas as either I,  II or III.  Class I
 areas  are  those  in  which  almost any degradation of air quality would be con-
 sidered  a  significant  degradation.  The Clean  Air Act Amendments of 1977
 declare  as a national  goal the prevention  of visibility impairment  from man-
 -made  air  pollution  and the restoration of natural visibility in mandatory
 Class  I  Federal  areas. Twenty national parks  and wildernesses of the Pacific
 Northwest  have been  declared as mandatory  Class I areas.   These are summarizec
 in Table 31.   The possible impact of this  legislation on  forestry burning as
 practiced  in the Northwest is considerable.   The Smoke Management Programs of
 both Oregon and Washington permit burning  when the prevailing wind  carries
 smoke  away from populated areas.   The operation of the program has  been sim-
 plified  by the fact  that  the populated  areas of Washington and Oregon (at
 least  west of  the Cascades) generally coincide with the Puget Trough and  the
 Willamette Valley.   Hence, burning is generaly permitted  in the Cascades  when
 the  prevailing wind  is from the west and in the Coast Ranges when the prevail-
 ing  wind is from the east.  However, Class I areas are wilderness areas which
 frequently lie in the  Coast or Cascade  Ranges.  If smoke  is to be vented  away
 from both  populated  areas and these Class  I areas, the effect will  be to  make
 smoke  management much  more complicated  operationally than it is currently or
 even impossible  in  certain commercial forest areas bordering these  Class  I
 areas.   This is particularly true of burning in the Cascades, which contain
 12 separate Class I  areas.

     Any visibility  limitation would be particularly severe for broadcast burn-
 ing.   While pile burning  could, in some areas, be carried out when  visibility
 is naturally impaired  during fog and/or rain,  it is virtually impossible  to
 carry  out  broadcast  burning during these times.  Hence, the visibility goals
 of the 1977 Amendments may be interpreted  to restrict forestry burning more
 than current Smoke Management Program restrictions.
  ITF-FSU, Final Report, December 1977.
4
  Personal communication, J. Dell, USDA FS, March 27, 1978.
                                    -157-

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                    TABLE 31. CLASS I AREAS IN OREGON AND WASHINGTON*
            Oregon
Washington
              Crater Lake National Park

              Diamond Peak Wilderness

              Eagle Cap Wilderness

              Gearhart Mountain Wilderness

              Hell's Canyon Wilderness

              Kalmiopris Wilderness

              Mountain Lakes Wilderness

              Mount Hood Wilderness

              Mount Jefferson Wilderness

              Mount Washington Wilderness

              Strawberry Mountain Wilderness

              Three Sisters Wilderness
 A Ipine Lakes Wilderness

 Glacier Peak Wilderness

 Goat Rocks Wilderness

 Mount Adams Wilderness

 Mount Rainier National Park

 North Cascades National Park

 Olympic National Park

 Pasayton Wilderness
            * Federal Register, Vol. 43, No. 38.  Friday, Feb. 24, 1978.
      Reaction  of  forestry managers  to the new visibility constraints  could
 take one of two forms:   first,  a  cutback in forestry burning as  a management
 alternative in response to visibility restrictions  (burning permitted only
 when smoke vented away from both  populated areas  and Class I areas);  or,
 second, a lessening  in the severity of population-oriented restrictions as
 currently detailed in the Smoke Management Programs  of  Washington and Oregon.
 In  view of the potential impact that forestry burning may have on air quality
 in  populated areas,  this second alternative may not  be  desirable at this
 time.   Furthermore,  the first alternative may not be feasible in certain
 cases,  if silvicultural and hazard  reduction objectives of forestry practice
 are  to  be met.  A careful analysis  of the potential  impact of the visibility
 requirement on air quality and forest management  should be undertaken before
 visibility requirements are implemented.   This analysis might start with  an
 evaluation of commercial forest lands affected due to proximity  to Class  I
 areas  and the degree  of restriction  on burning activity imposed  by the visi-
 bility  requirement,  given prevailing meteorological  conditions and proximity
 to populated areas.   Without such an analysis it will be difficult to deter-
mine just how significant the impact of  the new visibility requirement 'of
 the Clean Air Act  will  be on forestry practices.
                                   -158-

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     The second area in which regulation could  impact  significantly on for-
estry burning is the potential for new fine particle  air  quality  standards
by the US EPA.  Current air quality standards are  based on  24-hour  and annual
geometric mean concentrations of particles less  than  50 ym  in  .diameter.   How-
ever, it has been recognized for some time that  fine  particles less than 1  pm
in diameter have a much more significant impact  on  the health  than  do  larger
particles.  Furthermore, there is considerable  evidence that much of the par-
ticulate emission from forestry burning is in the  fine particle range  (see
Section 3).  Hence, new standards for fine particles  have the  potential  for
significant impact on forestry burning activity.   Dichotomous  sampling,  which
records fine particle concentrations separately  from  large  particles,  and is
part of the Oregon DEQ's new field monitoring program, will help  to determine
the contribution of forestry burning to fine particle concentrations.   The
knowledge gained from the field monitoring program  will help air  quality plan-
ners and forestry managers in planning corrective  action  if new fine particle
legislation is passed.

IMPACT OF ALTERNATIVES TO BURNING

     The future use of alternatives to forestry burning are limited by the
development of efficient techniques that are technically  feasible in the
steeply sloped terrain of the Pacific Northwest.   Alternative  slash treat-
ments may become more feasible as more  low grade woodfiber  is  harvested for
utilization.  A trend towards greater utilization  is  apparent. The chang-
ing standard of the Simpson Lumber Company from an 11-inch  minimum  log
diameter  in 1967 to a 4-inch minimum log diameter  in  1977s  is  character-
istic of  the changing utilization standards of  the forest industries in the
Pacific Northwest.  Closer utilization standards are  thought to be  partly
responsible for decreasing slash loads  as shown previously  in  Figure 26.

     The  short- and long-term potential of harvesting  slash for wood and
energy products was not apparent in the literature  reviewed or during  the
field interviews.  However, this type of data may  exist within the  forest
industries showing when mill residues will no longer  be available and  forest
residues  are likely to be increasingly utilized.   Short-term demands for wood
residue material are expected to be almost entirely supplied by mill residue
as  is presently the case (Table 32).  The long-term demand  for wood and energy
products  is expected to continue to increase.   However, the economic desira-
bility of harvesting slash materials may depend  on  the following  factors:

     •     The availability of less expensive mill  residues or
           other raw materials

     t     The increasing value of residue wood  products
  Personal communication, M. Truax, Simpson Lumber Company, January 24, 1978.
                                    -159-

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    t      More efficient slash  handling and  transportation  systems
    •      The  increased  demand  for residue wood products.
                 TABLE 32. SOURCES OF WOOD RESIDUE MATERIALS
                      USED FOR WOOD PRODUCTS IN THE PNW

Source
Slash (Roundwood)
Veneer core
Planer shavings
Plywood mill waste
Slabs, edgings, and trimmings
Sawdust
Chips
Other
Total mill residue
Particleboard*
(K)
0
< 0.5
74
9
4
10
2
< 0.5
100
<*f
15 §
2
8
< 1
< 1
7
61
6
85
Hog Fuel*
(*)
< 5
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
>95

* from Dickerhoof 1977
t from Austin 1973
£ estimate based on personal communications with USDA FS and industry personnel
§ mostly utility grade logs
                                       -160-

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                                 SECTION 7

               REQUIREMENTS FOR IMPACT ASSESSMENT AND CONTROL


     The major information gap encountered by GEOMET, Incorporated,  in  deter-
mining forestry burning impacts on air quality  in Washington and Oregon,  is
the lack of definitive ambient air monitoring data, emission factors  and
dispersion studies.  The lack of air monitoring data is obvious to all  agencies
and personnel concerned with either air quality or forestry burning  in  the
Pacific Northwest.  The major objective of the forestry smoke management  plans
is to restrict burning activity which may result in smoke  intrusions  into popu-
lation centers.  Smoke management is generally effective and intrusion  of smoke
into heavily populated areas is rare.  Economic restrictions have  limited state
and local environmental agencies to deployment of air monitoring stations pri-
marily in sensitive areas having the largest populations.  Smoke management
criteria for designation of "smoke-sensitive" areas are derived on a  comparable
population basis and have similar population limits.  As a result, smoke man-
agement strives to avoid smoke intrusion into areas designated "smoke-sensitive,"
which are the only areas having active air monitoring installations.  Smoke  intru-
sions do occasionally occur, mainly due to unpredicted meteorological variations.
Pollutant emissions from industrial point sources and transportation  sources
contribute to the monitored pollutant levels.  All emissions are affected by
the same meteorological variations, and smoke intrusions can not usually be
unequivocally documented.  The current situation in the Pacific Northwest thus
precludes using air monitoring data for assessment of the  impact of forestry
burning on air quality.

     The Oregon Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ) has made a  number of
attempts to monitor the impact of agricultural field burning in the Willamette
Valley and has established an air monitoring network for this purpose.  Nor-
mally, the periods of agricultural and forestry burning are coincident  and
separation of air quality impacts from the two  is very difficult.  However,  in
late 1977, forestry burning was carried out for several months after  agricul-
tural burning had ceased.  The DEQ air monitoring network was kept operational
during this period and the data collected support a correlation between for-
estry burning and degradation of air quality.  A more sophisticated DEQ air
monitoring network is scheduled for deployment  in 1978.  This network is
designed so that air quality impacts of forestry and agricultural  burning
should be separable from each other, as well as from industrial emissions
from resident point sources.

     The Willamette Valley is only one of many  areas in the Pacific Northwest
whose air quality is potentially degraded by smoke from forestry burning.
However, no comprehensive effort to selectively monitor forestry burning
emissions has been made in any of the other areas and no data, beyond occa-
sional qualitative citizen complaints, exist for correlation between  for-
restry burning and degradation of air quality.
                                    -161-

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     In order to arrive at meaningful conclusions regarding the current
impact of forestry burning on air quality in Washington and Oregon, it
will be necessary to conduct a comprehensive air quality survey to collect
data and provide a basis for definition of specific regions vulnerable to
such impact.  The survey will need to be interfaced with a sophisticated
analytical data reduction system and structured in a manner to identify both
distant and proximal impacts from forestry burning activity.  For example,
slash fires west of the Cascade range frequently emit smoke plumes which drift
eastward and may impair the air quality in population centers east of the
mountain range.  The fires also emit significant quantitities of residual
smoke, which drifts from the fire site at ground level and may impair the
air quality in nearby population centers.

     Air quality measurements should include more than high-volume samplers
for measurement of total particulate matter.  Particle size measurements and
chemical analyses of collected particulate material should be carried out at
selected sites.  The gaseous emissions from forestry burning may also impact
on air quality; therefore, some stations should include instrumentation for
measurement of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides.  In view
of the probable photochemical reactivity of forest fire smoke, it would be
desirable to measure ozone and oxidants as well.

     A comprehensive air quality survey, carried out immediately before,
during and after the forestry burning season, would provide the data base
necessary to assess the impact of current forestry burning practices on air
quality.  However, such a survey would not contribute significantly toward
resolution of any problems identified.  It would be preferable to undertake
a large-scale program, utilizing the combined resources of forestry and
environmental interests, both to identify and minimize forestry burning
impact on air quality.

ORGANIZATIONAL NEEDS

     A highly organized, fully coordinated and comprehensive effort is
required to evaluate the impact of forestry burning on air quality in
Washington and Oregon.  Individual agencies pursuing narrow and diverse
objectives could eventually generate sufficient information for partial
evaluation.  Separate efforts by forest industries and the USDA FS to min-
imize emissions through improved burning practices could decrease impacts in
some areas.  However, separate approaches would be time-consuming and costly.
A single broad-scope, fully coordinated program, designed specifically to
evaluate emission, dispersion, impact and economic studies and minimize
emissions impact would utilize time and resources more efficiently and be
more effective than multiple uncoordinated efforts.  A diagram of an organi-
zational structure capable of carrying out a program of the necessary scope
is shown in Figure 28.

     The total effort would be supervised by a steering committee drawn
from agencies contributing funds, manpower or equipment to the program.
                                    -162-

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CTi
CO
                                                                                                     Impaii

1
snt Air
lUty
ation
•ment


Impact
Studio




Material
and
Ecological
Damage



1
Heal
Effe<

                                                                          Figure 28.  Program structure.

-------
Direct management of the project would be by a professional  group  responsible
to the steering committee, preferably retained on a contract basis  and  not
affiliated with any of the contributing agencies.  The management  group would
create and be supported by a comprehensive data correlation  and  analysis
system, which would continuously acquire data from individual projects  and
update the status of each to provide current information on  individual  and
collective progress.

RESEARCH NEEDS

     The end objective of a comprehensive research program would be capa-
bility for prediction of air quality impacts of fires through use  of
operation-oriented source strength and dispersion models.  The functional
inputs and interrelation of the two models are indicated in  Figure  29.
Detailed knowledge of fire behavior, for a burning technique  suitable for
the fuel type, condition and loading in a given situation, allows  accurate
prediction of source emission characteristics in terms of heat release  rate,
total emissions and emission rate as a function of time.  These  three predic-
tions are the primary outputs of the source strength model.   An  important
detail of the emission rate is the ratio of convective column to residual
emissions.  Transport and dispersion of the emissions are predicted by  the
dispersion model, which interfaces input from the source strength model with
meteorological parameters to ultimately predict air quality  impacts.  Strate-
gically deployed air monitoring networks are required to develop parameter
values for the models and to evaluate their effectiveness in  predicting air
quality impacts.

Source Strength Models

     Development of reliable source strength models requires  detailed knowl-
edge of fire behavior as a function of fuel and burning conditions.  Fuel
types, loading, arrangement and burning conditions in Washington and Oregon
are diverse, and development of models to include most prevalent situations
is a major effort.  The primary factors forming the basis for such models
involve fuel in a forest setting; forestry agencies must be  heavily involved
in any efforts undertaken in the area of source strength model development.
Forestry agencies, notably the Southern Forest Fire Laboratory of  the U.S.
Forest Service, are actively engaged in research oriented toward development
of source strength models.  The accumulated experience and technology can be
applied to model development for the Pacific Northwest.  Studies in the
areas of (1) emission factors and (2) fuel and fire parameters are  required
to provide the data base necessry for model development.

Emission Factors--
     Emission factors are major determinants of source strength.   Since
they are highly fire- and fuel-dependent, they must be separately derived
for the various fuel conditions and burning techniques of the Pacific
Northwest.  Derivation of emission factors requires a combination of lab-
oratory studies and field measurements.  Laboratory studies  are carried
                                   -164-

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                                                                            Meteorology
                   Fuel
en
 i
 Burning
Technique
                          Source
                          Strength
                           Model


Emission
Characteristics


Transport and
Dispersion
Characteristics


                                                                                                                       Dispersion
                                                                                                                        Model
                                                                                                                       Monitoring
                                                                                                                        Network
                                                                                                                                                Air Quality
                                                                                                                                                  Impact
                                                                         Figure 29.  Impact assessment.

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out relatively easily and provide information useful in  identification  of
fuel and fire variables that govern emission production.   However, measure-
ments of emissions from selected field fires must also be  made  to  derive
scaling factors for extrapolation of laboratory observations to field  situ-
ations.  A communication from John M. Pierovich, manager of the emissions
research program at the Southern Forest Fire Laboratory, U.S. Forest Service,
outlines the type of program and level of effort necessary for  derivation
of field emission factors:

     "Work in field sampling methods at the Southern Forest Fire
     Laboratory is currently focused on two key procedures.  One
     procedural investigation is in the use of an array  of instru-
     ments suspended by a tethered balloon in order to better pro-
     file smoke plume emissions concentrations near the  fire.   In
     this procedure, data from particulate matter and gas  samples
     collected at different heights are related to coincident pro-
     filed air flow and temperature data, as well as to  the amount
     of fuel consumed and fire behavior during the sampling period.
     The other procedure being studied will utilize laboratory  and
     field-derived combustion/emissions relationships for  simpli-
     fied emission rate determinations using aircraft sampling.
     These rate relationships are to be used in a specified
     sampling protocol."

It  is evident from the communication that derivation of  field emission  fac-
tors for forest fires is not an easy task.  The high-intensity  slash fires
in complex terrain, typical of much of the burning in the  Pacific Northwest,
complicate the scaling of laboratory factors to field situations and increase
the difficulty of making field measurements.

Fuel and Fire Parameters—
     Fire behavior has a pronounced effect on emission factors,  heat release
rate and emission rate and is primarily determined by fuel type, loading,
condition and arrangement.  The reliability and predictive value of a source
strength model are ultimately determined by the accuracy of the  available fuel
estimate and the reliability of the fire behavior prediction.   The fuel and
fire inputs to a source strength model largely determine the output.  However,
available fuel estimates and fire behavior predictions are operator-dependent,
relying heavily on the training and skill of field personnel.   The human judg-
ment required cannot possibly be standardized, and significant  variations
between individuals and between judgments made at different times can be
expected.  A major focal point of the source strength study effort must be
the development of standardized procedures and guidelines  for estimating
available fuel and predicting fire behavior.  Improvements in the  reliability
and consistency of the estimates and predictions are directly reflected in
the output of the model.
                                    -166-

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Dispersion Modeling

     One of the most promising avenues for future studies of smoke impact
is the use of regional-scale transport and dispersion models.  Pollutant
concentrations can be estimated for many locations by the use of such a
model, provided detailed emission estimates are available.  Some models
are capable of yielding the contribution of each source to the total pol-
lutant concentration computed for a particular location.  In this manner
the relative importance of slash burning in contributing to pollution
problems can be assessed.  Two such models are presently being validated
against measured pollution concentrations in the Willamette Valley.  How-
ever, improvements may have to be made to existing models as more knowledge
is gained concerning air flow in complex terrain, the variations of mixing
heights over mountainous terrain, and plume rise characteristics.

     Additional monitoring and smoke plume studies need to be conducted
before photochemical models are applied to regions surrounding forest
burning activity.  To date there is still too much uncertainty, concerning
the hydrocarbon composition in smoke plumes and the chemical reactions by
which photochemical oxidants form downwind of forest fires, to adequately
model these effects.

     An additional area for future research is the impact of longer-range
transport of pollutants from slash fires.  Air pollution control officials
from eastern Washington (Jenne 1975) have attributed high TSP concentra-
tions in the Pasco, Richland and Walla Walla areas in September and October,
1974, to slash burning in western Washington.  Air trajectory models are
necessary for tracing the long-range travel of smoke plumes.  Trajectories
are usually determined from wind observations at a number of locations
throughout the area of interest.  Although several regional scale,
trajectory-directed dispersion models exist (e.g., Draxler 1977, Fabrick
et al. 1977, Fosberg 1976, Liu 1974, Pandolfo et al. 1976), these need
to be engineered and tested with regional data for practical application
to evaluating the dispersion of forest burning emissions in the Pacific
Northwest.  An important process affecting the range dispersion of TSP
is the removal of smoke particles from the atmosphere by precipitation
processes.  The important west-to-east differences in the precipitation
process across the states of Washington and Oregon need to be taken into
account.  Although some models are available to treat the precipitation
process and dry deposition (e.g., Dana et al. 1976), these need to be
refined for application to this region.

Air Quality Monitoring

     Little work has been done to directly assess the impact of slash burn-
ing on smoke-sensitive areas in the Pacific Northwest with the exception of
the statistical and filter studies in the Eugene-Springfield area sponsored
                                   -167-

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by EPA Region X and a recent monitoring study by the Oregon Department  of
Environmental Quality in the Willamette Valley.  The use of hi-vol  filters
to determine the air quality impact of slash burning can be made more con-
clusive if a unique tracer element or compound for  slash burning can be found.
In the meantime, filters can be microscopically analyzed to determine the
fraction of total particulate attributable to slash burning based  on physical
characteristics of the particles.  If filter analyses are performed, both
optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy should be  used to assure
that the contribution of small particles to TSP mass is considered.

     The methodology of assessing impacts on smoke-sensitive areas must be
upgraded as evidenced by the discrepancies between  the Oregon  Department of
Forestry and Department of Environmental Quality estimates of  smoke intru-
sions  into the Eugene-Springfield area.  During the period from June 1975
through September 1977, the Department of Environmental Quality reported
92 days of smoke intrusions using only ambient TSP  monitoring  data.  For the
same period, the Department of Forestry reported only 21 days  of smoke  intru-
sions  based on daytime visual observations.  The attribution of these smoke
intrusions should be related to burning data on a statistical  basis.

     Airborne monitoring instruments should be used to further investigate
smoke  plume structure and composition.  Measurements of ozone  and  the pre-
cursors to photochemical oxidant formation (NO, NOp, and hydrocarbons)
are necessary in determining the nature of the chemical reactions  and the
extent of the ground-level impact of the oxidants downwind.

HEALTH EFFECTS STUDIES

     Forest burning emissions of most interest in terms of potential health
impact are CO, N0?, respirable particulate matter, and halogenated vaporous
compounds.  Under the appropriate conditions, there appears to be  the poten-
tial for oxidant formation distant from the burning site.  Of  these pollutants,
particulate matter may be the most prominent consideration since some 80 percent
of the forest burning particulate emissions are in  the range of 0.1 to  1.0 ym
in diameter.  Particulate matter of this size could remain suspended for long
periods of time and be carried considerable distance from the  site of origin.
These  particles tend to be retained deeply in pulmonary passages with the
potential  of adversely affecting tissue due to particle composition and
compounds adsorbed on their surface.

     Particulate matter from combustion of carbonaceous material has long
been considered a factor in the etiology of respiratory tract  neoplasms  and
in chronic obstructive lung disease (COLD), although exposure-response  rela-
tionships are not well  documented.  The major difficulty at this time in
assessing the extent to which forest burning may impact health is  the paucity
of information on population exposure.
                                    -168-

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     A carefully planned epidemiclogical study will  be needed if the  impact
of forestry  burning  on health is to be fully  assessed.  Epidemiological stud-
ies are normally undertaken to identify causal  factors in populations which
experience abnormally high rates of diseases  or combinations of diseases.  A
good example  of  such a study is the Montana Air Pollution Study (MAPS).  MAPS
has undertaken to determine contributions of  air pollution sources to high
rates of Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease in  Montana.   State officials observed
that Montana  had a considerably higher rate  (22.4 deaths per hundred thousand)
of deaths1 due to asthma, emphysema and bronchitis than did the Nation as a
whole (16.6  deaths per hundred thousand).  Furthermore, the western, mountain-
ous portion  of the state experienced much higher mortality rates due to these
diseases (27.1 deaths per hundred thousand) than did the remainder of the state
(17.8 deaths  per hundred thousand).  MAPS is  assessing the impact of forestry
burning2 on  observed disease and mortality rates within Montana.  The study
will also evaluate the role of other factors  such as elevation and socioeco-
nomic variables  on disease rates.

     Mortality rates3 for asthma, emphysema,  and bronchitis are also high in
several other northwestern states including Oregon (18.5 deaths per hundred
thousand) and Washington (17.2 deaths per hundred thousand).  A well-designed
epidemiological  study would help to determine the contribution of forestry
burning, if  any, to  observed disease rates.   The results of the Montana study,
now in its early stages, should be weighed before undertaking a comparable
study in Washington  and Oregon.


RESEARCH IN  PROGRESS

     Numerous research studies pertaining to  forestry  burning techniques,
alternatives, emissions and impacts on air quality are presently in prog-
ress.  The following descriptors identify the organizations involved
and briefly  summarize ongoing research projects:

     Southern Forest Fire Laboratory, U.S. Forest Service, Macon, Georgia.

         Comprehensive program including:  Field sampling methods; Combus-
         tion/emissions relationships; Emission rate determinations;
         Emisions characterization; Smoke transport  and dispersion;
         Smoke management.

         J.M. Pierovich, Program Manager, (912) 746-1477.
  All ages, deaths occurring from 1969 through 1973. Data supplied by Dennis Haddow,  Department of

  Health and Environmental Sciences, State of Montana, July 31, 1978.

2
  The major source of particulate emissions in western Montana is forestry burning.


  Deaths for all ages during 1973. Comparable national figure is 14. 2. Data supplied by Dennis Haddow,

  Montana Department of Health and Environmental Sciences, July 31, 1978.
                                     -169-

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University of Washington, School of Forestry, Seattle, Washington.

    Nutrient volatilization on burning forest floor materials;
    Statistical properties of the line intersect fuel estimation
    method; Duration of flaming phase for large forest fuels.

    S.G. Pickford, Senior Investigator, (206) 543-6210.

University of Washington, Department of Environmental Health; Seattle,
Washington.

    In vivo studies of toxic products from burning wood.

    R. Schumacher, Coordinator.

    Analytical techniques for measurement of combustion emissions.

    I.E. Monteith, Principal Investigator, (206) 543-4252.

Department of Environmental Quality, Air Quality Control Division;
Portland, Oregon.

    Field and slash burning particulate characterization.

    J.E. Core, Project Manager, (503) 229-6458.

    Willamette Valley field and slash burning impact, air quality
    surveillance program.

    F. Terraglio, Program Manager.

Oregon State University, Air Resources Center; Corvallis,  Oregon.

    Air quality model applied to field and slash burning in Oregon's
    Willamette Valley.

    C.D. Craig, Principal Investigator, (503) 425-4955.

Washington State University, Air Pollution Research Station;
Pullman, Washington.

    Photochemical oxidant production and transport in forest fire
    smoke plumes over the Washington Cascades; Laboratory studies
    of hydrocarbon emissions from burning forest fuels.

    H.H. Westberg, Principal Investigator (509) 335-1526.
                               -170-

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Oregon State University, Department of Mechanical Engineering;
Corvallis, Oregon.

    Energy production from renewable resources.

    R.W. Baubel, Principal Investigator, (503) 754-4902.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Corvallis, Oregon.

    Economic impact of air pollution on cost of timber production, crop
    production and household cleaning.

    J. Jaksch, Program Manager, (503) 757-4714.

    P.T. Tingey, Principal Investigator, (503) 757-4621.ission from plants.

University of Florida, Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering;
Gainsville, Florida.

    Photochemical reactions of smoke from burning pine needles and
    organic soil.

    W.H. Benner, Principal Investigator.

Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, U.S. Forest Service;
Fort Collins, Colorado.

    Smoke dispersion studies applicable to complex terrain; Smoke
    management research.

    M.S. Fosberg, Program Manager, (303) 221-4390.

    Fuels management research.

    S. Hirsch, Program Manager, (303) 221-4390.

Ministry of the Environment and Ministry of Forestry, Province of British
Columbia, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada.

    Air quality impact of slash burning.

    K.A. Keshvani and P.A. Bell, Principal Investigators, (604) 387-5321.

Ministry of Forestry, Province of British Columbia, Victoria, British
Columbia, Canada.

    Smoke management research; Methods for estimating fuel loading.

    U.E. Gilbert, Principal Investigator (604) 387-5965.
                               -171-

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Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, U.S. Forest
Service; Portland, Oregon.

    Environmental effects of prescribed understoryburnings.

    E.H. Clarke, Program Manager, (503) 234-3361, Ext. 4811.

    Planning for prescribed burning in the Inland Northwest.

    R.E. Martin and J.D. Dell, Principal Investigators (503) 221-2931.

Statewide Air Pollution Research Center, University of California;
Riverside, California.

    Impact of burning agricultural and forestry residues on air
    quality.

    E.F. Darley, Principal  Investigator.

Forest Products Laboratory, U.S. Forest Service, Madison, Wisconsin.

    Research on saccharification of wood and conversion to energy
    chemicals and petrochemical substitutes; Improving combustion
    of wood, including processing methods such as charcoal manu-
    facture, pyrolysis and  briquetting.

    J.I. Zerbe, Program Manager, (608) 257-2211.

United States Department of Energy, Richland, Washington.

    Coordination of regional and national energy research.  Studies
    include wood residue conversion to petrolium and gas products.

    R.J. Durham, Special Projects Officer,  (509) 942-6553.

United States Congress, Washington, D.C.

    House of Representatives Bill 13324 introduced June 28, 1978 to
    establish pilot projects for testing and demonstrating practical
    application of existing technology for the utilization of wood
    residues from timber harvesting, forest protection and management,
    and the manufacture of  wood products.  (In committee.)
    Congressman James Weaver of Oregon, sponsor.
                              -172-

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                Appendix A

               TREE SPECIES
Balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera)
Bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum)
Black cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa)
Boxelder (Acer negundo)
Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)
Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii)
Goldern chinkapin (Castonopsis chrysophylla)
Grand fir (Abies grandis)
Incense-cedar (Libocedrus decurrens)
Jeffery pine (Pinus jeffreyi)
Knobcone pine (Pinus attenuate)
Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta)
Mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana)
Noble fir (Abies procera)
Oregon ash (Fraxinus latifolia)
Oregon white oak (Quercus garryana)
Pacific dogwood (Cornus nuttallii)
Pacific madrone (Arbutus menziesii)
Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis)
Paper birch (Betula papyrifera)
Quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides)
Red alder (Alnus rubra)
Red fir (Abies magnifica)
Redwood (Sequoia semperivirens)
Shasta red fir (Abies magnifica var. shastensis)
Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis)
Sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana)
Subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa)
Subalpine larch (Larix lyallii)
Tanoak (Lithocarpus densiflorus)
Western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla)
Western larch (Larix occidental is)
Western red cedar (Thuja plicata)
Western white pine (Pinus monticola)
White alder (Alnus rhombifolia)
White fir (Abies concolor)
Whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis)
                   -173-

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                                    APPENDIX B

                           Phase II - Economic Approach

                                   Study Plan


Step 1.  Organize a committee after the completion of Phase  I.
     2.  Identify specific alternatives to slash burning.
     3.  Identify specific alternatives of slash burning.
     4.  Identify needed data concerning costs of 2  and 3  above.
     5.  Identify needed data concerning short-run and  long-run  benefits.
     6.  Make decisions on what non-valued benefits  and costs  that  are  present.
     7.  Identify sources of secondary data and investigate whether or  not  the
         specific data needed is present.
     8.  If data is not available, begin collection  of  primary data.
     9.  After all data has been collected, perform  analysis  and  present  rank-
         ings of alternatives.
                                  Sample Study


Slash Burning Alternatives
      Broadcast Burn
           a.  head-fire
           b.  backing-fire
      Pile and Burn
           a.  Pum
           b.  Yum

Costs needed for each method:
      Materials
           a.  Ignition materials
           b.  Labor costs
           c.  Equipment costs
           d.  Transportation into and out of the  area
      Non-valued Costs
           a.  Air quality premium
           b.  Visual premium
               (Note: if these premiums are set to remain  constant  over  all
               the methods then no problem will exist.  The  problem that arises
               be in determining the difference in premiums  as  you  proceed
               from broadcast burning to pile-burning.  I  would suggest  that factors
               be used as multipliers to either increase or  decrease the
               premium among methods.
                                 -174-

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Benefits needed for each method: (Project Benefits)
      Short run:
           a.  Amount of decrease in planting costs.
      Long run:
           a.  Increase or decrease in available volumes in the future as
               a result of burning.

Indirect benefits
           a.  Improved site quality
           b.  Reduction of fire hazard

Alternatives to Slash Burning
      No treatment
      Bury
      Haul Away (manufacturing or energy)
      Pile (PUM or YUM)

Costs needed for each method:
      Materials:
           a.  Equipment costs
           b.  Labor
           c.  Transportation
           d.  Increase in planting costs
           e.  Possible loss of long-term yield

Project Benefits:
      a.  Return per unit if manufactured or used to create energy.

Indirect Benefits:
      a.  Air quality premium
      b.  Visual quality premium

When all the data for each specific alternative has been assembled, a
formula to obtain a benefit cost/ratio may be employed.  Possible
rankings may be:
      No treatment                   1.05
      Headfire                       1.04
      Backing fire                   1.03
      Pile and burn                  1.02
      Utilize for energy             0.75
      Utilize for wood products      0.60
      Bury                           0.50
                                   -175-

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                               APPENDIX  C

                              BIBLIOGRAPHY


                            INFORMATION SEARCH
     The citations contained in this bibliography were identified by field
experts and from the data bases shown below.
     Computer Information Systems

                 PACFORNET                      COMPENDEX
                 AGRICOLA                       CHEMLON
                 APTIC                          FIRE BASE
                 NTIS                           TOXLINE
                 ENVIROLINE                     ORBIT
     Abstract Indexes

     Forestry Abstracts 1971-1977

     Hard copies were obtained from field experts or through the facilities
shown below.
     Publication Services

     PACFORNET     Seattle, WA
     NTIS          Springfield, VA
     USDA-FS       Forest and Range Experiment Stations
                     Pacific Northwest, Portland, OR
                     Pacific Southwest, Berkeley, CA
                     Southeast, Asheville, NC
                     Intermountain, Ogden, LIT
                     Rocky Mountain, Ft. Collins, CO
     Libraries

     Library of Congress, Washington, U.C.
     McKeldin Library, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland
     National Agricultural Library, Beltsville, Maryland
     National Bureau of Standards Library, Gaithersburg, Maryland
     National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Library,
       Washington, U.C.
     U.S.  Department of Agriculture Library, Washington, D.C.
     U.S.  Department of Interior Library,  Washington, D.C.
                                    176-

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Adams, Donald F., Robert K. Koppe and Elmer Robinson.   1976.   "Air and
     Surface Measurements of Constituents of Prescribed Forest Slash Smoke."
     In Air Quality and Smoke from Urban and Forest Fires Inter.  Symp.
     National Academy of Sciences.p.  105.

Adams, D.L.  1972.  Natural Regeneration Following Four Treatments of
     Slash on Clearcut Areas of LodgepoTe Pine,  A Case History.Station
     Note 19.Moscow, Idaho Forestry,  Wildlife, and Range Experiment Station.
     2 pp.

Adams, T.C.  1976.  Economic Availability of Logging Residue  in  the Douglas
     Fir Region.  USDA Forest Service.   Pacific  Northwest Forest and Range
     Experiment Station Resource Bulletin PNW-64.  Portland,  Oregon.   9 pp.

             1977.  Energy from Dead Lodgepole Pine in Eastern Oregon. USDA
     Forest Service PNW.

Adams, T.C. and R.C. Smith.  1976.  Review of the Logging Residue  and  Its
     Reduction Through Marketing Practices.  USDA Forest Service.   Pacific
     Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station General  Technical Report
     PNW-48.  Portland, Oregon.  22 pp.

Agee, James R.  1974.  "Fire Management in the National  Parks."  Western
     Wildlands l(3):27-33.

Agee, J.K. and H.H. Biswell.  1970.  "Debris Accumulated in a  Ponderosa
     Pine Forest."  California Agriculture 24(6):6-7.

Albini, F.A.  1975.  An Attempt (and Failure) to  Correlate Duff  Removal and
     Slash Fire Heat.  USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-24.
     16 pp.

             1976.  Estimatinq Wildfire Behavior  and Effects.  USDA Forest
     Service General Technical Report INT-30.

Alcock, J.  1977-  Forest Slash Utilization.   Smoke Management  Subcommittee.
     October 6, Exhibit B.  10 pp.

Allan,  G.G., C.S. Chopra, R.I. Gara,  A.M.  Meogi,  and R.M.  Wilkins.   1973.
     Wood Waste Reuse in Controlled Release Pesticides.   Washington  University,
     Seattle Institute of Forest Products  Final  Report.   96  pp.

Alsid,  H.F.  1976.  Atmospheric Emission Evaluation - Western State  Hospital
     Boiler #3.  Alsid, Snowden & Associates.

Anderson, Arthur B., Kinn-Tsuen Wu  and Addie  Wong.   1974a.   "Utilization  of
     Ponderosa Pine Bark and Its Extract in Particleboard."  For.  Prod. J.
     24(8):48-53.
                                   -177-

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Anderson, Arthur B., King-Tsuen Wu and Addie Wong.  1974b.   "Utilization
     of White Fir Bark and Its Extract in Particleboard."  For.  Prod.  J.
     24(7):40-45.

          .  1974c.  "Utilization of White Fir Bark in Particleboard."  For.
     Prod. J.  24(l):51-54.

Anderson, H.E.  1968.  Sundance Fire:  An Analysis of Fire Phenomena.   USDA
     Forest Service Research Paper INT-56.

          .  1969.  Heat Transfer and Fire Spread.  USDA Forest Service Research
     Paper INT-69.  20 pp.

     	.  1974.  Appraising Forest Fuels:   A Concept.   USDA Forest Service
     Research Note INT-187.10 pp.

          .  1976.  "Fuels - The Source of the Matter."  In Air Quality
	
     and Smoke from Urban and Forest Fires Inter.  Symp.   pp.  318-21.

Appell, H.R., Y.C. Fu, E.G. Illig, F.W. Steffgen,  and R.D.  Miller.   1975.
     Conversion of Cellulosic Wastes to Oil.   Bureau of  Mines,  Energy Research
     Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.3T~pp.

Appleby, R.W.  1970.  "Thinning Slash and Fire Control."  Fire  Control  Notes
     31(1):8-10.

Arbogast, H.A.  1974.  The Timber Resources of the Inland Empire  Area,
     Washington.  USDA Forest Service.Pacific Northwest Forest  and  Range
     Experiment Station.  USDA Forest Service Resource Bulletin PNW-50.
     Portland, Oregon.  56 pp.

Arnold, J. F.  1976.  Federal Funds for Prescribed Burning.  Presented  to the
     Arizona Conservation Council.December 1.3pp.

Arola, R.A.  1976.  "Wood Fuels - How Do They Stack Up?"  Proceedings of
     Energy and the Wood Product Industry.  FPRS #P-76-14.pp. 34-45.

Austin, J.W.  1973.  Fiberwood Use in Washington,  Oregon and  California,
     1970-80. USDA Forest Service.Pacific Northwest Forest  and  Range  Experi-
     ment Station Research Paper PNW-169.  Portland, Oregon.  31  pp.

Anvil, Clifford J.  1973.  Fire Environmental Test Chamber:  Its  Design and
     Development.  USDA Forest Service.  Pacific Southwest Forest and Range
     Experiment Station Research Mote.  Berkeley,  California.   10 pp.

Ay, J.H. and M. Sichel.  1976.  "Theoretical  Analysis of NO Formation Near
     the Primary Reaction Zone in Methane Combustion."  Combustion  and
     Flame 25:1-15.

Aver, H. and R. Kirkpatrick.   1970.  "Where There's Smoke."  ESSA 5(4):16-19.
     Rockville.


                                    -178-

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Baden, J.H.H.  1971.  Prescribed Burning Plan 1972-1976 for the Fort Apache
     Indian Reservation"^11 pp.

Baker, G.  1977.  ITF-FSU.  November 10, 1977.  Exhibit B.

Baker, A.J. and E.H. Clarke.  1976.  "Wood Residue as an Energy Source -
     Potential and Problems."  Proceedings of the Rocky Mountain Forestry
     Industry Conference,  pp. 7-13.

Bare, B. Bruce and Brian F. Anholt.  1976.  Selecting Forest Residue Treatment
     Alternatives Using Goal Programming.  USDA Forest Service.Pacific North-
     west Forest and Range Experiment Station General Technical Report PNW-43.
     Portland, Oregon.  26 pp.

Bare, B. Bruce, Benjamin A. Jayne and Brian F. Anholt.  1976.  A Simulation-
     Based Approach for Evaluating Logging Residue Handling Systems.   USDA Forest
     Service.Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station General  Tech-
     nical Report PNW-45.  Portland, Oregon.  30 pp.

Barger, R.  1972.  Research and Development in the INT.  USDA Forest Service.
     Close Timber Utilization Committee Report.pp.  62-69.

Barney, R.J.  1974.  Wildfire Smoke Conditions:  Interior Alaska.   USDA Forest
     Service Research Paper PNW-178.18 pp.

	.  1975.  "Fire Management:  A Definition."  J. For.   73(8):498-519.
Barnhart, F.T.  1978.  "Communication:  Up Slope Directional  Filling."
     Timber Cutter: January-February.

Barrows, Jack S.  1974.  "The Challenges of Forest Fire Management."  Western
     Wildlands l(3):3-5.

Bass, A., A.Q. Eschenroeder, and B.A. Egan.  1977.  The Livermore Regional
     Air Quality Model (LIRAQ):  A Technical Review and Market Analysis.
     ERT Report P-2348-1.

Bassett, P.M.  1977.  Timber Resources of Southwest Oregon.   USDA Forest
     Service.  Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment  Station  Resource
     Bulletin PNW-72.  Portland, Oregon.  29 pp.

Bassett, P.M. and G.A. Choate.  1974.  Timber Resource Statistics for Oregon -
     January 1, 1973.  USDA Forest Service Resource Bulletin  PNW-56.

          .  1974.  Timber Resource Statistics for Washington - January  1,
     1973.  USDA Forest Service Resource Bulletin PNW-53.

Beaufait, William R.  1965.  Characteristics of Backfires  and Headfires  in  Pine
     Needle Fuel Bed.  USDA Forest Service Research Note INT-39.
                                   -179-

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Beaufait, William R.   1966.   Prescribed Fire Planning in the Int.  West.
     USDA Forest Service Research Paper INT-26.

          .  1968.  Scheduling Prescribed Fires  to Alter Smoke Production
     and Dispersion.  S.W.  Interagency Fire Council.

          .  1971.  Fire and Smoke in Montana Forests.   USDA Forest Service
     Report.
             1974.  Inventory of Slash Fuels Using 3P Subsampling.   USDA
     Forest Service General Technical  Report INT-13.   17 pp.

Beaufait, William R. and Owen P. Cramer.   1969.   Prescribed Fire Smoke Disper-
     sion Principles.  Division of Fire Control,  Forest Service, Missoula,
     Montana.12 pp.

Beaufait, William R. and W.C. Fischer.  1969.   Identifying Weather Suitable
     for Prescribed Burning.  USDA Forest Service Research Note INT-94.

Beaufait, William R., C.E. Hardy and W.C. Fischer.  1975.   (Revised 1977.)
     Broadcast Burning in Larch-Fir Clearcuts:   The Miller Creek-Newman  Ridge
     Study.USDA Forest Service Research Paper INT-175.53  pp.

Becker, D.  1973.  "Mathematical Description of Forest Fire Emissions."   In
     Development of Emission Factors for Estimating Atmospheric Emissions
     from Forest Fires^IIT Research  Institute.Chicago, Illinois.fffTS
     PB-230-889.

Benner, W.H., P. Urone, C.K. McMahon,  and P- Ryan.  1977.   Photochemical  Poten-
     tial of Forest Fire Smoke.  Presented at the 70th Annual  Meeting of  the
     Air Pollution Control Association.  Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

Benson, R.E.  1974.  Lodgepole Pine Logging Residues,  Management Alternatives.
     USDA Forest Service.Intermountian Forest and Range  Experiment  Station
     Research Paper INT-160.  28 pp.

Benson, R.E. and R.A. Strong.  1977.  Wood Product Potential  in Mature Lodge-
     pole Pine Stands.  USDA Forest Service Research  Paper INT-194.16  pp.

Berger, J.M.  1968.  Timber Resource Statistics for Central  Oregon.   USDA
     Forest Service Resource Bulletin  PNW-24.

Berguall, J.A.,  D.C. Bullington and L. Gee.  1977.  1976 Washington Mill
     Survey.  State of Washington Mill Survey  Series  Report #5.

Bethlahmy, N.  1976.  "Exposure, Clear Cutting,  and Burning Affect Soil
     Moisture Levels."  Northwest Science 50(3):140-45.
                                   -180-

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Biswell, Harold H.  1973.  "A Summary of Research on Smoke and Air Pollution
     from Forest and Wildland Burning."  In Proceedings of the 17th Annual
     Arizona Watershed Symposium,  pp. 28-33.

          .  1976.  "Problems of Prescribed Burning and Smoke in Wildland -
     Urban Areas of California."  In Air Quality and Smoke from Urban and
     Forest Fires Inter. Symp.  National Academy of Sciences.p. 247.

Biswell, Harold H. and James K. Agee.  1973.  Prescribed Fire Effects on
     Water Repellency. Infiltration and Retention in Mixed-Confier Litter,
     Duff and Soil.School of Forestry and Conservation, California Univ.,
     Berkeley, Technical Completion Report.  8 pp.

Biswell, Harold H., H.R. Kallander, R. Komarek, R.J. Vogl and H. Weaver.  1973.
     Ponderosa Fire Management.  Misc. Publ. #2.  Tall  Timbers Research  Sta-
     tion.Tallahassee, Florida,  p. 49.

Bjornsen, R.L.  1976.  "Meteorological Needs for Fire Management Planning."
     In Proceedings of the Fourth National  Conference on Fire and Forest
     Meteorology.November 16-18, 1976.St. Louis, Missouri.USDA Forest
     Service General Technical Report RM-32.  pp. 42-43.

Blackman, T.  1978a.  "Bark Pellets Are High-Energy Fuel for Coal, Gas Appli-
     cations."  For. Indus. 105(2):48-49.

             1978b.  "Crude Oil from Wood Chips?  Test Plant Shows It's  Pos-
     sTbTe."  For. Indus. 105(2):50-51.

Blumer, M. and W.W. Youngblood.  1975.  "Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
     in Soils and Recent Sediments."  Science 188:53-5.

Bolsinger, C.L.  1969.  The Timber Resources of the Olympic Peninsula,
     Washington.  USDA Forest Service Resource Bulletin  PNW-31.

	.  1971 a.  Changes in Commercial Forest Area in Oregon and
     Washington, 1945-70.USDA Forest Service.Pacific Northwest Forest
     and Range Experiment Station.

	.  1971b.  Timber Resources of the Puget Sound Area.   USDA Forest
     Service Resource Bulletin PNW-36.

	.  1975a.  The Timber Resources of the Blue Mountain  Area, Oregon.
     USDA Forest Service Resource Bulletin PNW-57.

             1975b.  Timber Resources and the Timber Economy of Okanogan County,
     Washington.  USDA Forest Service.Pacific Northwest Forest and Range
     Experiment Station Resource Bulletin PNW-58.  Portland,  Oregon.  32 pp.
                                   -181-

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Boubel,  R.W.   1968.   Particulate Emissions from Sawmill  Waste  Burners.
     Corvallis, Oregon Engineering Experimental  Station  Bulletin  42.   Pre-
     sented at 61st Annual  Meeting of the Air Pollution  Control Association.

            1977-  "There's a Price to Pay for Clean  Air,  Prof Says."
     Gazette Times,  November 7,  1977,  Corvallis,  Oregon.

Boubel, R.W., E.F. Darley and E.A.  Schuck.   1969.   "Emissions  from  Burning
     Grass Stubble and Straw."  Journal  of  the Air Pollution Control  Associ-
     ation 19:497-500.

Bradley, E.  1977.  ITF-FSU.  November 10,  1977.   Exhibit E.

Brender, E.V. and R.W. Cooper.  1968.   "Prescribed Burning in  Georgia's
     Piedmont Loblolly Pine Stands."  J.  of For.  66(1).

Brender, Ernest V. and Hugh E. Mobley.   1974.   "Regulations on Prescribed
     Burning and Air Quality."  Forest Farmer  33(4):10.

Briggs, G.A.  1969.   Plume Rise.   Air  Resources Atmospheric Turbulence and
     Diffusion Laboratory.ESSA.   Oak  Ridge,  Tennessee.

          .  1975.  "Plume Rise  Predictions."   Paper  Presented at American
     Meteorological Society Workshop on Meteorology  and  Environment Assessment.
     Boston, Massachusetts.  September 29  -  October  3, 1975.

British Columbia Forest Service.   1969. A Guide  to  Broadcast  Burning  of
     Logging Slash in British Columbia. Forest Protection  Handbook Series  2.
     Forest Protection Division,  Victoria, B.C.   24  pp.

Brotak, E.A. and W.E. Reifsnyder.   1977.   "An  Investigation of the Synoptic
     Situations Associated with Major Wildland Fires."   J.  of  Applied
     Meteorology 16(9):867-70.

Brown, G.W.  1971.  "Clear Cut Logging and Sediment  Problems in  the Oregon
     Coast Range."  Mat. Resources Res. 7(5):1189-98.

Brown, G.W., A.R. Gahler, and B.R. Marston.   1973.   "Nutrient  Losses After
     Clear-Cut Logging and Slash  Burning in  the Oregon Coast Range."   Water
     Resources Res.  9(5):1450-53.                              '

Brown, James K.  1970a.   Physical  Fuel  Properties of Ponderosa Pine Forest
     Floors and Cheat Gra¥s^USDA Forest  Service Research  Paper INT-74.

Brown, James K.  1970b.   Vertical  Distribution of Fuel in Spruce-Fir Logging
     Slash.  USDA Forest Service  Research  Paper INT-81.  9  pp.

             1972.  Field Test of a Rate-of-Fire-Spread  Model  in Slash Fuels.
     USDA Forest Service Research Paper INT-116.   Ogden,  Utah.   24  pp.
                                   -182-

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Brown, James K.  1974a.  Handbook for Inventorying Downed Woody Material.
     USDA Forest Service General  Technical  Report INT-16.

              1974b.  Reducing Fire Potential  in Lodgepole Pine by  Increas-
     ing Timber Utilization.USDA Forest Service.Intermountain Forest
     and Range Experiment Station Research Note INT-181.   6  pp.

Brown, J.K., J.A. Kendall-Snell  and D.L. Burnell.   1977.   Handbook for Pre-
     dicting Slash Weight of Western Conifers.   USDA Forest  Service General
     Technical Report INT-37.

Browne, F.L.  1963.  Theories of the Combustion of  Wood and  Its  Control
     (Revised). Forest Prod.  Lab. Publication No. 2136.69  pp.

Bryan, G.M. and R.E. Martin.   1970.  "The Modeling  of Fire Whirlwinds."
     For. Science. 16(4):386-99.

Bryan, Richard W.  1977.  "Weyerhaeuser Arkansas Operation Firmly Wedded
     to Whole Tree Chippping."  Forest Industries 104(9):42-43.

Buchman, R.E.  1975.  Forest Residues Program:   Research,  Development  and
     Applications Charter.  USDA Forest Service PNW FRES.

Buongiorno, J. and R.A. Oliveira.  1977.  "Growth of the  Particleboard
     Share of Production of Wood-Based Panels in Industrialized  Countries."
     Can. J. of For. Res. 7(2):383-91.

Burckle, J.O. and J.A. Dorsey.  1968.  Air Pollution and  Open  Burning
     in Forestry Operations.   Presented at Joint Meeting  of  Southern Fire
     Chiefs and Information and Education Chiefs, Houston, Texas,  June 10-14.
     Preprint available from Public Health Service, National Center for  Air
     Pollution Control, Cincinnati, Ohio.  14 pp.

Burwell, D.  1977a.  Relationships of Uphill  Felling on Logging  and Forest
     Practices in the Douglas-Fir Region.Interim  Task Force  on Forest
     Slash Utilization, Forest Management Committee.  Exhibit  G.  October 12,
     1977-

	 .  1977b.  Some Economic and Silvicultural Aspects of  PUM in
     Relation to Oregon's Smoke Management Program.   Interim Task  Force
     on Forest Slash Utilization, Forest Management  Committee.   Exhibit  H.
     October 12, 1977.

          .  1977c.  ITF-FSU.  November 10, 1977.   Exhibit A.
                                   -183-

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California Energy Resources Conservation and Devlopment Committee.  1977.
     Agricultural Haste Gasification Project,  p. 3.

Camran Corp., The.  1974.  A Proposal for Resource Recovery of Logging
     Hastes in the Region X Area.

Carroll, J.J. et al.  1977.  "The Dependence of Open Field Burning Emissions
     and Plume Concentrations on Meteorology, Field Conditions and Igni-
     tion Techniques."  Atmos. Envir. 11:1037-50.

Cavender, J.H., D.S. Kircher and A.J. Hoffman.  1973.  Nationwide Air Pol-
     lutant Emission Trends, 1940-1970.  Environmental Protection Agency.
     Research Triangle Park, North Carolina.  52 pp.

Chandler, Craig C.  1976.  "Meteorological Needs of Fire Danger and Fire
     Behavior."  In Proceedings of the Fourth National Conference on Fire
     and Forest Meteorology.November 16-18, 1976.St. Louis, Missouri.
     USDA Forest Service General Technical Report RM-32.  pp.  38-41.

Chavasse, C.G.R.  1975.  "Objectives, Management and Effects of Forest
     Burning."  Proceedings of the 1975 Clean Air Conference.   The Clean
     Air Society of Australia and New Zealand, February 17-21, 1975.
     pp. 92-113.

Charleson, R.J.  1968.  "Atmospheric Aerosol Research at the University
     of Washington."  Journal of the Air Pollution Control  Association
     18:652-54.

Chi, C.T. and D.L. Zanders.  1977.  Source Assessment:  Agricultural
     Open Burning, State-of-the-Art.  Unpublished draft document.   EPA
     Contract Number 600/2-77-107a.

Christensen, G.W.  1975.  "Wood Residue Sources, Uses, and  Trends."
     Proceedings of Wood Residue as an Energy Source.  FPRS #P-75-13.
     pp. 39-41.

Clairborne, Robert.  1972.  "When It's Natures Way, Forest  Fires are a
     Benefit."  Smithsonian 3(2):16.

Clarke, E.H.  1976.  Research and Development in the Pacific Northwest.
     Close Timber Utilization Committee Report.USDA Forest Service.
     pp. 55-61.

          .  1976.  "Residue Research - Recent Developments."   Proceed-
     ings of Annual Meeting.  Northwest Forest Fire Council,   pp.  80-85.

Clarke, E.H. and J.W. Henley.  1978.  "Unused Mill  Residuals  May  All
     Serve as Fuel."  For. Indus. 105(2):54-55.
                                    -184-

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Cleary, B.D. 1977.  Field Notes of Site Preparation Techniques in Use.  Per-
     sonal Communication:Oregon State University Extension Service.

Close Timber Utilization Committee.  1972.  Report.  USDA Forest Service
     Washington.

Close Timber Utilization Work Conference.  1976.  1975 Proceedings of U.S.
     Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wisconsin"!  Limited Distribution.

Cole, B.L.  1977.  Selected Laws Administered by Department of Natural
     Resources.

Coleman, Robert D.  1976.  "Ambient Air Quality Standards for Particulate
     Matter in the United States" in Air Quality and Smoke from Urban and
     Forest Fires International Symposium.October 24-26, 1973.Washington,
     D.C.National Academy of Sciences,  pp. 162-69.

Connaughton, Charles A.  1969.  "Fire Control."  Forest Service Manual,
     Supplement 44, Region 6, Portland, Oregon.  17 pp.

             1972.  "Forest Fires Damage More Than Trees."  American Forests
     75(8):30.

Cooke, J.P.  1978.  "Effect of Forest Burning Practices in Western Oregon
     and Washington on Air Quality East of the Cascades."  Private communi-
     cation with supporting documents.

Cooper, Charles F.  1971.  "Effects of Prescribed Burning on the Ecosystem."
     Prescribed Burning Symp. Proc.  April 14-16, 1971.  Charleston,  S.C.
     pp. 152-60.

Cooper, Robert W.  1971.  "Pros and Cons of Prescribed Burning in the South."
     Forest Farmer 31(2):10.

             1972.  "Prescribed Burning - Why It is a Vital  Forest Management
     Tool."  Forest Farmer 31(7):218.

     	.  1974.  "Status of Prescribed Burning and Air Quality in the
     South."  13th Proceedings of the Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference.
     pp. 309-3T5"!

          .  1975.  "Prescribed Burning."  J. Forestry 73(12):776-80.
	1976.  "Trade-Offs Between Smoke from Wild and Prescribed Forest
     Fires."  In Air Quality and Smoke from Urban and Forest Fires Intern.
     Symp.  National Academy of Sciences.p. 19.

Cooper, Robert W. and A.T. Altobellis.  1969.  "Fire Kill  in Young Loblolly
     Pine."  Fire Control Notes 30(4):14-15.
                                    -185-

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Corder, S.E. and G.H. Atherton.  1970.  "Wood and Bark Residue Disposal  in
     Wigwam Burners."  Bull. Ore. For. Res. Lab #11, p. 68.

Core, J.  1977.  ITF-FSU.  November 10, 1977-  Exhibit H.

Cornell, B.L et al.  1977.  Soil Compaction Study Task Force Report.   USDA
     Forest Service.  Regions 5 and 6.

Countryman, C.M.  1964.  "Mass Fires and Fire Behavior."  USDA Forest Service.
     Pacific Forest and Range Experiment Station Resource  Paper PSW-19.
     Berkeley, California.

	     .  1971.   Fire Whirls ... Why, When and Where.  USDA Forest Service.
     PSW-F&RES,

Countryman, C.M. and M.H. McCutchan.  1969.  Fire Weather and Fire Behavior
     at the 1968 Canyon Fire.  USDA Forest Service Research Paper PSW-55.

Craft, E. Paul.  1976.  Utilizing Hardwood Logging Residue, A Case Study in
     the Appalachians.  USDA Forest Service.Northeastern Forest Experiment
     Station Research Note NE-230.  Upper Darby, Illinois.  7 pp.

Craig, C. and M. Wolf.  1977.  "A Status Report on the Verification of the
     LIRAQ, Model and Complex Terrain Model by the OSU Air Resource Center."
     Personal Communication.

Craig, James B. and Irene McManus.  1972.  "Fire in the Environment."
     American Forests 78(8):24.

Cramer, Owen P.  1959.  Relation of Number and Size of Fires to Fire-Season
     Weather Indexes in Western Washington and OregonTUSDA Forest Service.
     Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station Research Note 175.
     Portland, Oregon.  11 pp.

	.  1969.  Disposal of Logging Residues Without Damage to Air Quality.
     USDC, Environmental Sen. Serv. Admin. Technical  Memo WBTM WR-37.

	.  1972.  "Potential Temperature Analysis for Mountainous  Terrain."
     J. Appl. Meteorol.  11(1):44-50.

	.  1974.  "Air Quality Influences."  In Environmental  Effects  of
     Forest Residues Management in the Pacific Northwest - A State-of-Knowledge
     CompendiLmuUSDA Forest Service.Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experi
     ment Station Report PNW-24.  Portland, Oregon.  52 pp.

Cramer, Owen P. and Howard E. Graham.  1971.  "Cooperative Management  of Smoke
     from Slash Fires."  J. Forestry 69(6):327-331.
                                     -186-

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Cramer, Owen P. and S.G. Pickford.  1973.  "Factors Influencing Smoke Manage-
     ment Decisions in Forest Areas."  In Air Quality and Smoke from Urban and
     Forest Fires Inter. Symp.  National Academy of Sciences.

Cramer, Owen P. and James N. Westwood.  1970.  Potential  Impact of Air Quality
     Restrictions on Logging Residue Burning.  USDA Forest Service.Pacific
     Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station Research Paper PSW-64.
     Berkeley, California.  12 pp.

Crow, A.B.  1975.  "Fire:  A SiIvicultural Tool in Southern Forestry."  Proceed.
     Soc. Amer. For. Conv.  pp. 95-101.

Currier, R.A.  1972.  "An Assessment of Current Bark Utilization Opportunities."
     Proceedings of the 27th Northwest Wood Prod. Clinic.

	.  1977.  Manufacturing Densified Mood and Bark Fuels.  Oregon State
     University Extension Service Special Report #490.

Currier, R.A. and M.L. Laver.  1972.  Utilization of Bark Haste.  Terminal
     Progress Report.  EPA Grant #R-EP 00276-04.NTIS PB-221  876.

	.  1973.  Utilization of Bark Waste.  Oregon State Univ.,  Corvallis,
     Department of Forest Products.Final Report.  184 pp.

Cushwa, C.T. and M. Hopkins.  1970.  Responses of Legumes to Prescribed Burns
     in Loblolly Pine Stands of the South Carolina Piedmont.USDA Forest
     Service Research Note SE-140.
                                    -187-

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 Dana, M.T., et al.   Precipitation Scavenging of Fossil-Fuel  Effluents.
      Publ. #EPA-600/4-76-031.p. 94.

 Darley, Ellis F.  1971.  "Burning Agricultural  Wastes and Effects on Agri-
      culture.  Symposium Proceedings Agric. and the Environment in Southern
      San Jose Valley, California.Division of  Agricultural  Science, Uni-
      versity of California.pp. 17-24.

 	   .  1976.   Emission Factor Development for Leaf Burning.  Office
      of Air Quality Planning and Standards.   U.S. Environmental  Protec-
      tion Agency.  NTIS PB-263-660.  EPA Report No. EPA/405/3-76/044.

 	.  1977.  Emission Factors from Burning Agricultural  Wastes Col-
      lected in California.Final  Report CAL/ARB, Project 4-001.State-
      wide Air Pollution Research Center, University of California.

 Darley, Ellis F. and H.H. Biswell.  1973.  "Air Pollution from  Forest
      and Agricultural  Burning."  J. Fire and Flammability 4(4):74-81.

 Darley, E.F. and S.L.  Lerman.  1975.  Air Pollutant Emissions from  Burning
      Sugar Cane and Pineapple Residues~from  Hawaii.U.S. Environmental
      Protection Agency Publication #450/3-75-071.

 Darley, Ellis F., F.R. Burleson, E.H.  Mateer et al.  1966.   "Contribution
      of Burning of Agricultural Wastes to Photochemical  Air Pollution."
      J. Air Pollution  Control Assoc. 16(12):685-90.

 Darley, Ellis F. et al.  1974.  Air Pollution from Forest and Agricultural
      Burning.  California Air Resources Board Project 2-017-1.University
      of California, Davis, California.

 Darley, E.F., S. Lerman, G.E. Miller,  Jr. and J.F.  Thompson.  1976.   "Labora-
      tory Testing for  Gaseous and Particulate Pollutants from Forest and
      Agricultural Fuels."  In Proceedings of International  Symposium on  Air
      Quality and Smoke from Urban and  Forest Fires.National Academy of
      Sciences.Washington, D.C.

 Davis,  L.S. and R. W.  Cooper.  1963.  "How Prescribed Burning Affects Wild-
      fire Occurrence."  J. of For.  61(12).

 Dawson, George and Ogden Lazenby.   1972.  "Effects  of Fire  on the Environ-
      ment."  American  Biology Teacher  34(5):269.

 Debell, D.S. and C.W.  Ralston.  1970.   "Release of  Nitrogen by Burning Light
      Forest Fuels." Proc. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer.  34(6):936-38.


UeByle,  Norbert V.  1973.  "Broadcast Burning  of Log Residue and the  Water
     Repellency of Soils."  Northwest Sci. 47(2):77-87.

             1976.  "Fire, Logging, and Debris Disposal  Effects on Soil and
     Water in Northern  Coniferous Forests."  Proceedings  of  the  16th  Inter-
     national Union of  Forestry Research Organizations.   Oslo, Norway.
     Volume 1, pp. 201-212.
                                   -188-

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 Deeming, J.E.  1975.  "Fuel Models in the National Fire Danger Rating (NFDR)
      System."  J. For. 73(6):347-50.

 	.   1976.  The National Fire Danger Rating System - Latest Develop-
      ments.  USDA Forest Service General Technical Report RM-32.

 Deeming, J.E. and J.W. Lancaster.  1972.  National Fire Danger Rating System.
      U.S. Fire Service Research Paper RM-83"

              1972.  National Fire Danger Rating System (Revised).  USDA Forest
      Service Research Paper RM-84.

 DelBel, Elsio, Sam Friedman, Paul M. Yavorsky and Henry H. Ginsberg.  1975.
      "Design of a Wood Waste-to-Oil Pilot Plant."  Am. Chem. Soc., Div.  Fuel
      Chem. Meeting, Philadelphia, Pa., April 6-11, 1975.Volume 20, Number 2.
      pp. 17-21.

 Dell, John D.  1967.  Remote Ignition of Logging Slash.  USDA Forest Service
      Research Note PSW-154.  2 pp.

           .   1976a.  Fuel Management Training Guidelines for National Forests
      in the Pacific Northwest Region.  USDA Forest Service Region 6.

     	.   1976b.  "Fuels and Fire Management...Prescribed Fire Use on the
      National Forests in the Pacific Northwest Region."  Proceed, of the 1976
      Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conf. #15.  pp. 119-125.

     	.   1977a.  Action Plan for Improved Slash Burning Programs on west-
      side National Forests in Region 6.  USDA Forest Service Region 6.

              1977b.  "Hazard Accumulation - Risks and Mitigation."  Unpublished
      transcript.

 	.   1977c.  "Some Implications of Eliminating Prescribed Burning
      as a Treatment Option in Managing Forest Vegetation and Fuels in the
      Pacific Northwest."  R-b Fuel Mgmt. Notes 5(2):1-10.

 	.   1977d.  A Status keport on Potential Use of Forest Residues
      for Energy Production.  USDA Forest Service Region 6.


 Dell, John D.   1977e.   Forest  Residue  Treatment  - Methods,  Cost  and Limita-
     tions.   USDA  Forest  Service  PNW.ITF-FSU,  Exhibit  D.

           .   1977f.   ITF-FSU.   November  10,  1977.   Exhibit  C.
Dell, John D.  and L.R.  Green.   1968.   "Slash  Treatment  in  the Douglas-Fir
     Region  -  Trends  in  the  Pacific Northwest."   J.  For.   66(8):610.

Dell, John D.  and G.I.  Schram.   1970.   "Oscillating  Sprinklers  Backup for
     Burnout."  Fire  Control Motes 31(2):8-1Q.

Dell, John D.,and Franklin R. Ward.   1971.  Logging  Residues on Douglas-fir
	Region  Clearcuts -  Weights  and Volumes.  USDA Forest  Service Pacific
     Northwest Forest and Range  Experiment Station Resource Paper PNW-115.
     Portland, Oregon.  14 pp.


                                    -189-

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	.   1969.  Reducing Fire Hazard  in Ponderosa Pine Thinning Slash by
     Mechanical Crushing.USDA Forest Service Resource Paper PSW-57.

 Dell, John D., Franklin R. Ward and Robert E. Lynott.  1970.  Slash Smoke
     Dispersal Over Western Oregon  ...  A Case Study.  USDA Forest Service.
     Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station Resource Paper
     PSW-67.  Berkeley, California.  9 pp.

Dickerhoof, H.E.  1976.  "Particleboard Production, Markets and Raw Materi-
     als  in the United States."  For. Prod. J. 26(10):16-20.

	.  1977.  "Particleboard  Production, Markets and Raw Material Use
     in Western U.S. Surveyed by USDA."   Plywood and Panel.  February.
     (Reprint)

Dickman,  A.  1978.  "Reduced Fire Frequency Changes Species Composition of
     a Ponderosa Pine Stand."  J. For. 76(l):24-25.

uietrich, John H.   1971.  "Air Quality Aspects of Prescribed Burning."
     Proc. of Belle W. Baruch Research Inst.  in Forestry, Wildlife Science,
     and  Marine Biology, Prescribed Burning Symp.Charleston, S.C.,
     April  14-16, 1971.pp. 139-151.

	.  1976.  "Prescribed Burning in Ponderosa Pine - State of the
     Art."  Presented in Region 6,  Eastside Prescribed Fire Workshop.
     USDA Forest Service.

Dillon, J.C.  1970.  "We Should Treat Forest  Fires as a Major Pollution
     Cause."  Canadian Pulp and Paper Indus.,  Toronto 23(5):53.

bodge, M.  1972.  "Forest Fuel Accumulation - A Growing Problem."  Science
     177(4044):139-41.

Dodge, M. and J.L.  Davis.  1966.  "Fire-Retardant Chemicals - An Aid to
     Slash Disposal."  J. For. 64(2):98.

Uonoghue, L.R. and  V.J. Johnson.  1975.   Prescribed Burning in the North
     Central States.  USDA Forest Service Research Paper NC-111.

Dow Chemical U.S.A.  1977-  Miscellaneous Information on Tordon 101.

Dowdle, B.  1973.   Logging Waste Disposal on  Western National Forests.
     University Institute of Governmental Research.Washington Public
     Policy Notes,  Volume 1, No. 3.  Seattle, Washington.

             1977.  "Slash Disposal Requirements Analyzed."  For. Indust.
     101(5):44-45.

Draxler, Roland R.  1977.  A Hesoscale Transport and Diffusion Model.
     NOAA Tech. Memo ERL ARlTBTp. 31.

Uyrness, C.T.  1973.  "Early Stages of Plant Succession Following Logging
     and Burning in the Western Cascades of Oregon."  Ecology 54(l):57-69.
                                    -190-

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Dyrness, C.T. and C.T. Youngberg.   1957a.   Some Effects of Logging and  Slash
     Burning In Physical Soil Properties in the Corvallis Watershed.USDA
     Forest Service Research Paper PNW-19.Pacific Northwest Forest  and
     Range Experiment Station.   15 pp.

             1957b.  "The Effect of Logging and Slash-Burning on  Soil
     Structure."  Proc.  Soil Soc.  of Amer.   21(4):444-47.


Eagan, R.C., P.V. Hobbs, and L. F. Radke.  1974.  "Measurements of Cloud Con-
     densation Nuclei and Cloud Droplet Size Distributions in the Vicinity
     of Forest Fires."  J. of Applied Meteorology 13:553-57.

"East Winds Have Had a Big Effect on Oregon Forestry."  Forest Log 41(3):4.

Eccleston, A.J., N.K. King and D.R. Packham.  1974.  "The Scattering Coeffi-
     cient and Mass Concentration of Smoke from Some Australian Forest Fires."
     J. Air Pollution Control Assoc.  24(11):1047-50.

Ellis, T. H.  1975a.  "Should Wood Be a Source of Commercial Power?"  Forest
     Products J.  25(10):13-16.

	.  1975b.  "The Role of Wood Residue in the National Energy Pic-
     ture."  Proceedings of Wood Residue As an Energy Source.  FPRS #P-75-13.
     pp. 17-20.

          _.  1976.  "How Wood Residues Can Help National  Energy Needs."
     Wood and Wood Products 81(4):52-53.

	.  The Role of Wood Residue in the National Energy Picture.
     USDA Forest Service.For. Prod. Lab.(Reprint)

Elmgren, R.C.  1977.  Factors That Encourage or Discourage More Complete
     Residue UtilizationInterim Task Force on Forest Slash Utilization.
     Forest Management Subcommittee, Exhibit E.

Endeau, F.  1974.  Prescribed Fire to Regenerate Subalpine Lodgepole Pine.
     Inf. Rep. Northern For. Res. Centre, Canada.  NOR-X-114.  17 pp.

Endeau, F. and W.D. Johnstone.  1974.  Prescribed Fire and Regeneration on
     Clearcut Spruce-Fir Sites in Foothills of AlbertiuInfo. Rep.  Northern
     Res. Centre, Canada.NOR-X-126.33 pp.

Erickson, John R.  1975.  "The Harvesting of Forest Residues."  Amer.  Inst.
     of Chem. Eng.  71(146):27-29.

Evans, R.S.  1973.  Hogged Wood and Bark in British Columbia Landfills.
     Western  Forest Products Lab. Report No. VP-X-118.  Vancouver,  British
     Columbia.

Evans, L.F., N.K. King, D.R. Packham and E.T. Stephens.  1974.  "Ozone
     Measurements in Smoke from Forest Fires."  Environ. Sci. and Tech.
     8(l):75-76.

Evans, L.F., I.A. Weeks et al.  1977.  "Photochemical Ozone in Smoke from
     Prescribed Burning of Forests."  Environ. Sci. and Tech.  11(9):896-900.
                                    -191-

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Fabrick, A., R. Sklarew and J. Wilson.  1977.  Point Source Model  Evaluation
     and Development Study.  Science Applications, Inc.   NTIS #PB  271  646.
     Pp. 197.

Fahnenstock, G.R.  1968.  Fire Hazard from Precommercial  Thinning  of Ponderosa
     Pine.   USDA Forest Service Research Paper PNW-57.

	.  1968.  Problem Analysis:  Impacts of Forest Residues  and Their
     Disposal on Forest Land Management and Environment  in the Pacific North-
     west.  USDA PNW.  Inhouse Publication #4050-1.
     	                  /

	.  1970.  Two Keys for Appraising Forest Fire  Fuels.  USDA Forest
     Service Research Note PNW-99.

             1973.  "Use of Fire in Management of Forest Vegetation."    Trans.
     of ASSAE 16(3):410-13, 419.

     	.  1974a.  "Fires, Fuels and Flora as Factors in Wilderness Manage-
     ment: The Pasayten Case."  Proceedings of the Tall Timbers Fire Ecology
     Conference.  October 16-17, 1974.Tall Timbers Research Station, Portland,
     Oreqon, PNW-15.

          .  1974b.  The Value of Fire in Management of the Forests of the
      Inland West.  62 pp.

Farnsworth, E.  1977.  "Old/New Way to Handle Wood Waste - Densify It."
      Wood and Wood Products:  November,  p.  23.

Fawcett, Edwin B.  1976.  "Current Capabilities in Prediction at the National
      Weather Service's National Meteorological Center."  In Proceedings of
      the Fourth National Conference on Fire and Forest MeteoTcTlogy.   USDA
      Forest Service Genertal Technical Report RM-32.   pp.  12-19.

Feldstein, M., D. Duckworth, H.C. Wohlers and B. Linsky.  1963.   "The Contri-
      bution of the Open Burning of Land Clearing Debris to Air Pollution."
      J. Air Pollution Control Assoc. 13(11):542-46.

Fenn, R.W.  1976.  "Optical  Properties of Aerosols."   Handbook on Aerosols
      (R. Dennis, ed.).  NTIS #TID-26608.  pp. 66-92.

Fennelly, Paul F.  1976.  "The Orighin and Influence  of Airborne Particulates."
      American Scientist 64(1):46.

Finklin, A.I.  1973.   Meteorological Factors in the Sundance Fire Run.   USDA
      Forest Service General  Technical  Report INT-6.

"Fire in Wildland Management."  J. For.  71:624-49.

Fire Management Center.  1975.  Prescribed Burning Report.  For  Apache Agency.
                                   -192-

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Fischer, VI.C. and C.E. Hardy.  1976.  Fire-Weather Observer Handbook.    USDA
     Forest Service Agr. Handbook #494.  152 pp.

Flaherty, David C.  1972.  "Are We Objective About Forest Fires?"   American
     Forests 78(8):12.

Folkman, U.S.  1975.  Butte Country, California Residents:   Their  Knowl-
     edge and Attitudes About Forest Fires Reassessed.USDA Forest
     Service Res. Note PSW-297.

Forest Fuels, Inc.  Wood/Gas Industrial Generator Burner System.   Bul-
     letin #1176.

Fosberg, Michael A.  1966.  Some Characteristics of the Three-Dimensional
     Structure of Santa Ana Winds.USDA Forest Service Research Paper  PSW-30.

             1971a.  Derivation of the 1- and 10-Hour Time Lag Fuel  Moisture
     Calculations for Fire Danger Rating^USDA Forest Service Research
     Note RM-207.

             1971b.  Fine Herbaceous Fuels in Fire-Danger Rating.   USDA  Forest
     Service Research Note RM-185.

     ^_^.  1975.  Heat and Water Vapour Flux in Conifer Forest Litter  and
     Duff:  A Theoretical ModeTTUSDA Forest Service Research Paper RM-152.
     23 pp.

     	.  1976a.  "New Technology for Determining Atmospheric Influ-
     ences on Smoke Concentrations."  In Air Quality and Smoke from Urban
     and Forest Fires Inter. Symp.  National Academy of Sciences.p.  148.

             1976b.  Estimating Airflow Patterns Over Complex Terrain.
     USDA Forest Service Research Paper RM-162.

Fougler, A.N., Frank Freese and Joan E. Lengel.   1976.   Solid Wood Content
     of Western Softwood Logging Residues.  Forest Products  Lab.Research
     Paper FSRP-FPL-253.Madison, Wisconsin.  9 pp.

Franklin, J.F. and C.T. Dryness.  1973.  Natural Vegetation  of Oregon  and
     Washington.  USDA-FS General Technical  Report.   PNW-8.   pp~.%VT.

Fredriksen, R.L.  1971.  "Comparative Chemical  Water  Quality - Natural
     and Disturbed Streams Following Logging and Slash  Burning."
     Proceedings of a Symposium:  Forest Land Uses and  Stream Environment.
     pp. 125-137.

Freeburn, S.  1977.  ITF-FSU.   November 10,  1977.  Exhibit F.

French, R.E.  1975.  Forest Burning and Smoke Management.  Bureau  of  Indian
     Affairs.  Portland, Oregon.~
                                   -193-

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Fritschen,  L.   1967.   "Air Quality  and the Use of  Fire  for Forest  Land Man-
     agement,  Current Research."   58th Western Forest Conf.  Proc.   Western
     Forest and Conservation Assoc.,  Portland, Oregon.

Fritschen,  L., Harley Bovee, Konrad Buettner,  Robert Charlson,  Lee Monteith,
     Stewart Pickford, James Murphy and Ellis  Darley.   1970.  Slash Fire
     Atmospheric Pollution.   Pacific  Northwest Forest and Range Experiment
     Station and California Univ.,  Riverside,  Statewide Air  Pollution
     Research  Center RP-PNW-97.   42 pp.

Fritschen,  L.  and C.H. Driver.   1969.   Dispersion  of Air Tracers Into
     and Within a Forested Area.   Parts 1  and  3.   U.S.  Army  Atmospheric
     Sciences  Laboratory.   Univ.  of Washington Grant DA-AMC-28-043068-G8.

Fuller, W.H.  1966.  "New  Organic Pelleted Compost."  Compost Science:
     Autumn-Winter,  p. 30.

Fuyaev, V.V.  1975.  "Research  on the Effects  of Fires  and the  Application
     of Fire in Forestry."  Trans., Env.  Canada #OOENV  TR 936.  33 pp.
                                  -194-

-------
Fischer, W.C. and C.E. Hardy.  1976.  Fire-Weather Observer Handbook.    USDA
     Forest Service Agr. Handbook #494.  152 pp.

Flaherty, David C.  1972.  "Are We Objective About Forest Fires?"   American
     Forests 78(8):12.

Folkman, W.S.  1975.  Butte Country, California Residents:   Their  Knowl-
     edge and Attitudes About Forest Fires Reassessed.USDA Forest
     Service Res. Note PSW-297.

Forest Fuels, Inc.  Wood/Gas Industrial Generator Burner System.   Bul-
     letin #1176.

Fosberg, Michael A.  1966.  Some Characteristics of the Three-Dimensional
     Structure of Santa Ana Winds.USDA Forest Service Research Paper  PSW-30.

          .  1971a.  Derivation of the 1- and 10-Hour Time Lag Fuel  Moisture
     Calculations for Fire Danger Rating^USDA Forest Service Research
     Note RM-207.

      	.  1971b.  Fine Herbaceous Fuels in Fire-Danger Rating.   USDA  Forest
     Service Research Note RM-185.

          .  1975.  Heat and Water Vapour Flux in Conifer Forest Litter  and
     Duff:   A Theoretical ModeTIUSDA Forest Service Research Paper RM-152.
     23 pp.

     	.  1976a.  "New Technology for Determining Atmospheric Influ-
     ences on Smoke Concentrations."  In Air Quality and Smoke from Urban
     and Forest Fires Inter. Symp.  National Academy of Sciences.p.  148.

          .  1976b.  Estimating Airflow Patterns Over Complex Terrain.
     USDA Forest Service Research Paper RM-162.

Fougler, A.M., Frank Freese and Joan E. Lengel.  1976.   Solid Wood Content
     of Western Softwood Logging Residues.  Forest Products  Lab.Research
     Paper FSRP-FPL-253.Madison, Wisconsin.  9 pp.

Franklin, J.F. and C.T. Dryness.  1973.  Natural Vegetation  of Oregon  and
     Washington.  USDA-FS General Technical  Report.   PNW-8.   pp~I   417.

Fredriksen, R.L.  1971.  "Comparative Chemical  Water Quality - Natural
     and Disturbed Streams Following Logging and Slash  Burning."
     Proceedings of a Symposium:  Forest Land Uses and  Stream Environment.
     pp. 125-137.     ~~      ~~~

Freeburn, S.  1977.  ITF-FSU.   November 10,  1977.   Exhibit F-

French, R.E.  1975.  Forest Burning and Smoke Management.  Bureau  of Indian
     Affairs.  Portland, Oregon.~~
                                   -193-

-------
Fritschen, L.   1967.   "Air Quality  and the Use of  Fire  for  Forest Land Man-
     agement,  Current Research."  58th Western Forest Conf.  Proc.   Western
     Forest and Conservation Assoc.,  Portland, Oregon.

Fritschen, L., Harley Bovee, Konrad Buettner,  Robert Charlson,  Lee  Monteith,
     Stewart Pickford, James Murphy and Ellis  Darley.   1970.  Slash Fire
     Atmospheric Pollution.  Pacific  Northwest Forest and Range Experiment
     Station and California Univ.,  Riverside,  Statewide Air Pollution
     Research  Center RP-PNW-97.   42 pp.

Fritschen, L.  and C.H. Driver.   1969.   Dispersion  of Air Tracers Into
     and Within a Forested Area.  Parts 1  and  3.   U.S.  Army  Atmospheric
     Sciences  Laboratory.   Univ. of Washington Grant DA-AMC-28-043068-G8.

Fuller, W.H.  1966.  "New  Organic Pelleted Compost."  Compost Science:
     Autumn-Winter,  p. 30.

Fuyaev, V.V.  1975.  "Research  on the  Effects  of Fires  and  the  Application
     of Fire in Forestry."  Trans., Env.  Canada #OOENV  TR 936.   33  pp.
                                  -194-

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Gagnon, S.  1977.  ITF-FSU.  Exhibit 0.  November 10, 1977.

Galbraith, Marlin C.  1972.  "Effect Timber Harvest and Use  of Logging
     Residues."  Env. Affairs 2(2):314.

Gardner, R.B. and D.F. Gibson.  1974.  Improved Utilization  and Disposal
     of Logging Residues.  Presented at the 1974 Winter Meeting of the
     American Society of Agricultural Engineers.

Gardner, R.B. and D.W. Hann.  1972.  Utilization of Lodgepole Pine Logging
     Residues in Wyoming Increases Fiber Yield.U.S. Forest Service.Inter-
     mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station Research Note INT-160.  6  pp.

Gedney, D.R., D.D. Oswald and R.D. Fight.  1975.  Two Projections of Timber
     Supply in the Pacific Coast States.  USDA Forest Service.   Pacific
     Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station Resource  Bulletin PNW-60.
     40 pp.

Gerstle, R.W. and D.A. Kemnitz.  1967.  "Atmospheric Emission from Open
     Burning."  J. Air Pollution Control Assoc.  17(5):324-27.

Getz, Dale.  1975.  "Something New is Slash Disposal."  Fire Management
     34(4):14-15.

Gipe, D.  1974.  "Response of Range to Burning."  In Proceedings of Tall
     Timber Fire Ecology Conference.  October 16-17, 1974.Tall  Timbers
     Research Station.  Portland, Oregon.  PNW-15.

Goldy, D.L.  1977-  ITF-FSU.  November 7, 1977.  Exhibit C.

Golson, R.E. and J.P. Mohler.  1975.  PORTAPIT Test Report.   Washington
     Dept. of Natural Resources Note FT.

Gould, N.  1972.  Alternative Sales Arrangements.   Close Timber Utilization
     Committee Report.  USDA Forest Service,   pp.  29-31.

Graham, H.E.  1953.  "The Columbia Gorge Wind Funnel."  Weatherwise,
     August, pp. 104-107.

Graham, J.K.  1974.  Feasibility Study of a Logging Residue  Chip  Mill.
     Gram Development Co., Portland, Oregon.   11 pp.

Grantham, J.B.  1978.  "Wood's Future Seems Directed to  Energy  Ahead  of
     Chemicals."  For. Indus. 105(2):52-53.

          .  1974.  Status of Timber Utilization on the  Pacific Coast.
     USDA Forest Service.Pacific Northwest  Forest and  Range Experiment
     Station General Technical Report PNW-29.  Portland, Oregon.   42  pp.
                                   -195-

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Grantham, John B.  1974.  "Forest Residue:   A Forgotten  Source  of Energy."
     Paper Process.  10(2):17-20.

	.   1976.  "Energy Potential  of Forest Residue."   Proceedings  of
     the NW Forest Fire Council  Annual  Meeting.  USDA Forest Service.

Grantham, John B. and Thomas H.  Ellis.   1974.  "Potentials  of Wood for
     Producing Energy."  J. For.  72(9):552-556.

Grantham, John B., E.M. Estep, J.M.  Pierovich,  H.  Tarkow,  and T.C. Adams.
     1974.  Energy and Raw Material  Potentials  of  Wood Residue  in the Pacific
     Coast States - A Summary of a Preliminary  Feasibility  Investigation.
     USDA Forest Service.Intermountain Forest Range Experment Station
     General Technical Report INT-18.   37 pp.

Green, H.L.  et al.  1964.  Particulate  Clouds,  Dusts, Smokes and Mists.
     London.  2nd Edition.  471  pp.

Grier, C.C.  and D.W.  Cole.  1971.  "Influence of Slash Burning  on Ion
     Transportation in a Forest Soil."   Northwest  Sci.  45(2):100-106.
                                   -196-

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Habeck, J.R. and R.W. Mutch.  1973.  "Fire Dependent Forests in the
     Northern Rocky Mountains."  Quaternary Research. Vol. 3, No. 3.
     University of Washington,  pp. 408-424.

          .  1975.  "Forest and Forestry."  McGraw-Hill  Yearbook of Science
     and Technology.  4 pp.

Haines, D.A. and G.H. Updike.  1971.  Fire Whirlwind Formation Over Flat
     Terrain.  USDA Forest Service Research Paper NC-711.   12 pp.

Halak, B.  1977.  "COFI Backing Gasification Project."  British Columbia
     Lumberman:  August,  pp. 44-48.

Hall, E.H.  1977.  "Comparison of Fossil and Wood Fuels."  Proc.  of Energy
     and Wood Prod. Ind.  FPRS #P-76-14.  pp. 141-45.

Hall, E.H., C.M. Allen, D.A. Ball, J.E. Burch and H.N. Cronkle.  1976.
     Comparison of Fossil and Wood Fuels.  Industrial Environmental  Research
     Lab., Research Triangle Park, N.C.  EPA Final  Task Report Number EPA/600/2-
     76/056.  254 pp.

Hall, Frederick C.  1971.  "Fire Ecology."  Northwest For.  Fire Counc.  Ann.
     Meeting Proceed.  Portland, Oregon,  pp. 7-11.

             1977.  Ecology of Natural Underburning in the  Blue Mountains
     of Oregon.  USDA Forest Service.  PNW Reg. Guide 51-1.   16 pp.

Hall, J. Alfred.  1970.  Wood, Pulp and Paper, and People in the Northwest.
     USDA Forest Service.Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment
     Station.  Portland, Oregon.  34 pp.

	1972.  Forest Fuels, Prescribed Fire, and Air Quality.   USDA
     Forest Service.Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment  Station.
     Portland, Oregon.  46 pp.

Hallock, T.  1977.  ITF-FSU.  November 17, 1977.  Exhibit A.

Hallock, Wingard.  1977.  ITF-FSU.  November 7, 1977.  Exhibit G.

Hamilton, T.E. et al.  1975.  Per-Acre Pricing - Its Effect on Logging
     Residue.  USDA Forest Service.Pacific Northwest Forest and Range
     Experiment Station Research Paper PNW-192.  7 pp.

Hammond, V.L., L.K. Mudge, C.H. Allen and G.F. Schiefelbein.  1974.   "Energy
     from Forest Residuals by Gasification of Wood Wastes."   Pulp Pap.
     48(2):54-57.

Harkin, J.M.  1969.  Uses of Sawdust, Shavings and Waste Chips.   USDA
     Forest Service Research Note FPL-0208.
                                   -197-

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Harkin,  J.M.  and J.W.  Rowe.   1971.   Bark  and Its  Possible  Uses.   USDA  Forest
     Servive  Research  Note FPL-091.

Harrison, R.T.  1975.   Slash .  .  .  Equipment and  Methods for Treatment and
     Utilization.  USDA Forest  Service.ED&T Report 7120-7.

Harwood, C.E. and W.D. Jackson.  1975.   "Atmospheric Losses  of  Four Plant
     Nutrients During  a Forest  Fire."   Australian Forestry 38(2):92-99.

Hayes, G. Lloyd.  1941.  Influence  of  Altitude and Aspect  on Daily  Varia-
     tions in Factors  of Forest-Fire "Danger.  USDA Circular  #591.

Hazard,  J.W.   1965.  Timber Resource Statistics for Southwest Washington.
     USDA Forest ServToTResource  Bulletin PNW-15.

Hazard,  J.W.  and M.E.  Metcalf.   1965.   Forest Statistics for West Central
     Oregon.   USDA Forest Service Resource Bulletin PNW-10.

Hedin, A. and T. Turner.  1977-  What  Is  Burned in a Prescribed Fire?
     Washington Department of Natural  Resources Note 16.

Heebink, Bruce G.  1974.  Particleboards  from Lodgepole Pine Forest
     Residue.  Forest Products  Lab.  Research Paper Number  FSRP-FPL-221.
     Madison, Wisconsin.  16 pp.

Heinselman, Miron L.  1970.   "The Natural  Role of Fire  in  Northern  Conifer
     Forests."  Naturalist 21(4):14-23.

Hemeon,  Wesley C.L.  1973.  "A  Critical  Review of Regulation for the Control
     of Particulate Emissions."  J.  Air Pollut. Control Assoc.   23(5):376-87-

Hickerson, C.W.  1976.  Annual  Fire  Report, Region 6 (Pacific Northwest).
     USDA Forest Service.  Fire and  Aviation Management.

Hidy, G.M. and J.R. Brock.  1970.  "An Assessment of the Global  Sources  of
     Tropospheric Aerosols."  In  Second International Clean  Air Congress.
     Washington, D.C.   Paper ME-2M^

Hobbs, P.V. and J.D. Locatelli.  1969.   "Ice Nuclei  from a Natural  Forest
     Fire."  J. Applied Meteorology  8:833-34.

Hobbs, P.V. and L.F. Radke.   1969.   "Cloud Condensation Nuclei  from a
     Simulated Forest Fire."  Science  163:279-80.

Hobbs, P.V.,  L.F. Radke and S.E.  Shumway.   1970.   "Cloud Condensation
     Nuclei from Industrial  Sources  and Their Apparent  Influence on
     Precipitation in  Washington  State."   J. Atmos.  Sci. 27:81-89.
                                    -198-

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Hodam, R.  1978.  "Economical Energy Conversion Promised by Wood Gasification."
     For. Indus. 105(2):56-57.

Hoffman, A.J. (ed.).  1971.  Nationwide Inventory of Air Pollutant Emis-
     sions, 1968.  Division of Applied Technology Report AP-73.  U7ST.
     Environmental Protection Agency.  Research Triangle Park, North
     Carolina.  36 pp.

Hooven, E.F.  1973a.  "A Wildlife Brief for the Clearcut Logging of Douglas
     Fir."  J. of Forestry.  71(4).  (Reprint).

             1973b.  "Response of the Oregon Creeping Vale to the Clear-
     cutting of a Douglas-Fir Forest."  Northwest Science 47(4):256-64.

Hooven, E.F. and H.C. Black.  1976.  "Effects of Some Clearcutting Practices
     on Small-Mammal Populations in Western Oregon."  Northwest Science
     550(4):189-208.                                  	

Host, J.R. and D.P. Lowery.  1970a.  Portable Debarking and Chipping Machines
     Can Improve Forestry Practices.  USDA Forest Service.Intemountain
     Forest and Range Experiment Station Research Note INT-112.  4 pp.

	.  1970b.  "Potentialities for Using Bark to Generate Steam Power
     in Western Montana."  Forest Prod. J. 20(2):35-36.

Hough, Walter A.  1968.  Fuel Consumption and Fire Behavior of Hazard
     Reduction Burns.  Forest Service Research Paper SE-36.7 pp.

             1973a.  "Prescribed Burning in South Surveyed, Analyzed."   Fire
     Control Notes  34(l):4-5.

             1973b.  Fuel and Weather Influence Wildfires in Sand Pine  Forests.
     USDA Forest Service Research Paper SE-106.11  pp.

Houser, J.  1977.  ITF-FSU.  November 7, 1977.  Exhibit  E.

Howard, J.O.  1971.  Volume of Logging Residues in Oregon,  Washington  and
     California...Initial Results from an 1969-70 Study.USDA Forest
     Service Research Note PNW-163.

          .  1973.  The Timber Resources of Central  Washington.   USDA  Forest
     Service Resource Bulletin PNW-45.

          .  1973.  Logging Residue in Washington,  Oregon and California:
     Volume and Characteristics.USDA Forest Service.Pacific  Northwest
     Forest and Range Experiment  Station Resource Bulletin PNW-44.   Portland,
     Oregon.  26 pp.
                                   -199-

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Howath, H. and K.E.  Noll.   1969.   "The Relationship  Between  Atmospheric
     Light Scattering Coefficient and Visibility."   Atmospheric  Environ.
     3:543-52.
Hewlett, K. and A.  Gamache.   1977.
     Source of Biomass Silvicultural
Forest and Mill
 Biomass Farms,
Residues -
Volume VH
     ERDA Contract Number EX-76-C-01-2081
A Potential
 Mitre Corp.
Hewlett, M.  1972.  Equipment Development and Testing.   Close  Timber  Utiliza-
     tion Committee Report.   USD A Forest Service.   pp~.  70-73.

Hurley, C. and D.J. Taylor.   1974.   Brown and Burn  Site Preparation in  Western
     Washington.  Washington Department of Natural  Resources,  DNR  Note  8.
     Division of Forest Land Management Contribution  177.   Olympia, Washington.
     9 pp.
                                   -200-

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Inman, R.E.   1975.   Evaluation of the Use of Agricultural  Residues as an
     Energy  FeedstocITiStanford Research Institute Semi-Annual  Progress
     Report  (July 1-December 31, 1974).   Menlo Park, California.   89 pp.

             1977.   SiIvicultural Biomass Farms - Summary, Volume I.
     Mitre Corp.  ERDA Contract Number E(49-18)-2081.

Ishibashi, Katsuji,  Yoshio Noda,  Shigeo Mitsui,  and Masabumi  Konya.   1973.
     "Production  of  Activated Carbon from Water  Pulps."   Hokkaido  Kogyo
     Kaihatsu Shikensho Hokoku  8:128-37.
                                    -201-

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James, D.H.  1977a.  Sinslaw National  Forest Smoke Management Guide.   USDA
     Forest Service Region 6.

           .  1977b.  ITF-FSU.  November 10,  1977.   Exhibit J.
James M. Montgomery, Inc.  1976.  Forest Harvest,  Residue Treatment,
     Reforestation and Protection of Water Quality.Final  Report.   EPA
     Region X.EPA Number EPA/910/9-76/020.BoTse,  Idaho.   280 pp.

Jamison, R.L.  1977.  The Forest as a Potential  Source of Fuel  for  Energy.
     Presented at the Society of American Foresters Association Meeting,
     October 3, 1977.

Jemison, G.M. and M.S. Lowden.  1974.  Management  and Research  Implications.
     USDA Forest Service.  Pacific Northwest  Forest and Range Experiment
     Station General Technical Report PNW-24.

Jenne, D.E.  1975.  The Status of Air Quality in Benton,  Franklin and
     Walla Wall Counties During 1975^Benton-Franklin-Walla  Wall Coun-
     ties Air Pollution Control Authority.

Johansen, R.W.  1975.  "Prescribed Burning May Enhance Growth of Young Slash
     Pine."  J. For. 73(3):148-49.

Johansen, R.W., H.W. McNab,  W.A. Hough and B.M.  Edwards.   1976.  "Fuels,
     Fire Behavior and Emissions."  Chapter IV,  Southern  Forestry Smoke
     Management Guidebook.  USDA Forest Service  General  Technical Report
     SE-10.

Johnson, A.H.  1974.  "Fire  History and Ecology, Lava Beds  National Monument."
     Proceedings Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference.   October 16-17,  1974.
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Johnson, L.R., G. Simmons and J. Peterson. 1977.  Unconventional  Energy
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Johnson, Marion E.  1973.  Forest Products Pollution  Control  -  Annotated
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Johnson, Robert C.  1975.  "Some Aspects of Wood Waste Preparation  for Use
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Joint Interim Task Forces.  1977.  ITF-FSU.  November 7,  1977.   Exhibit B.

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                                   -202-

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Jorgensen, G.  1972.  Alternative Sales Arrangements.   Close Timber Utiliza-
     tion Committee Report.  USDA Forest Service,  pp.  32-37.

Jorgensen, J.R. and C.S. Hodges, Jr.  1970.  "Microbial  Characteristics  of
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     62(4):721-26.                                    '           '

	.  1971  "Effects of Prescribed Burning on the Microbial  Char-
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Junge, D.C.  1977.  ITF-FSU.  November 7, 1977.  Exhibit D.

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                                     -203-

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Kallander,  H.   1969.   "Controlled Burning on the Fort Apache  Indian  Reserva-
     tion,  Arizona."   Tall  Timbers Fire Ecology  Conference,   pp.  241-48.

Kalnis, A,  I.  levins,  K.  Abele,  J. Pugulis and A.  Kulkevics.   1975.   "Drying
     of Green  Wood and the  Production of Vitamin Flour and  Furfural  from
     Logging Wastes."   Kompleks. Mekhaniz. Rubok Ukhozda.   pp.  95-104.

Karezyk, R.D.   1977.   Forest Service Handbook.   USDA  Forest Service.
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Kiil, A.D.   1971.  Prescribed Fire Effects in Subalpine Spruce-Fir Slash.
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             1975.  "Fire Behavior and the Use of Fire Retardants in  Canadian
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Kilgore, B.M.  1975a.  "Integrated Fire  Management on National  Parks."   Proc.
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	     .  1975b.  "Restoring  Fire to  National Parks."   Amer.  Forests   81(3):
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	1976.  "From Fire Control  to Fire  Management:   An  Ecological  Basis
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     ural Resources Conference.Wildlife Management Institute.pp. 477-93.

Kilian, Leonard A.  1971.  "Public Information  and Legal Aspects  of Prescribed
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     1971, Charleston, S.C.USDA Forest Service.pp.  130-38.

Kimmins, J.P- and M.C. Feller.  1976.  "Effect  of  Clearcutting  and Broadcast
     Slash Burning on Nutrient Budgets,  Stream  Water Chemistry  and Productivity
     in Western Canada."  Proc.  of 16th  Inter.  Union of Forest  Res. Organiz.,
     Volume 1, Oslo, Norway^pp. 186-99.

Kinerson, R.S. and L.J. Fritschen.  1971.  "Modeling a  Coniferous Forest Canopy."
     Agr. Meteorol.  8:439-45.

             1973.  "Modeling Air Flow Through  Vegetation."  Agr. Meteorol.
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Kisser, J.  1966.  "Smoke Damages of Forest from the  Biologic  Standpoint."
     Presented at the Symposium on Smoke Damage to  Forests  in  Austria,
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Kleinfield, N.R.    1972.   Wall Street J.  October 20.   p.  1.
                                    -204-

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Klemmedson, J.O.  1976.  "Effect of Thinning and Slash Burning on N and C
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     45-53.                                          	

Knapp, H.J.  1977.  "Potential of Industrial Wood Residue for Energy."
     Proceedings of Energy and the Hood Prod. Ind.  FPRS #P-76-14.
     pp. 105-07.

Kohn, R.E.  1977.  "A Benefit-Cost Analysis to Determine a Population Cut-
     off for a Statewide Ban on Leaf Burning."  J. of Air Pollution Control
     Association 27(9):887-88.

Komarek, E.V.  1970.  "Controlled Burning and Air Pollution:  An Ecological
     Review."  Annual Proc. Tall Timnbers Fire Ecol.  Conf.  10:141-73.

             1973.  "Comments on the History of Controlled Burning in the
     Southern U.S."  Proc. 17th Annual Arizona Watershed Symposium.

	.  1974.  "Further Remarks on Controlled Burning and Air Pollution."
     Annual Proc. Tall Timbers Fire Ecol. Conf.  13:279-82.

Komarek, E.V., B.B. Komarek and T.C. Carlysle.  1973.  The Ecology of Smoke
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     Misc. Publ. of Tall Timbers Research Station #3.75 pp.

Kovalchik, B. and G. Blake.  1972.  The Effect of Piling and Burning Versus
     Chopping of Logging Residues on Natural Regeneration of Serotinous
     Lodgepole Pine Forests.  Missoula, Montana, Forest and Conservation  Experi
     ment Station Research Note 11.  4 pp.

Krauss, Paul E.  1976.  "Adaptation of Meteorological Products for Specific
     Forestry Uses."  In Proceedings of the Fourth National Conference on
     Fire and Forest Meteorology.St. Louis, Missouri, November 16-18, 1976.
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                                    -205-

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Lagerquist, Marianne.  1975.  "New Particleboard Extruder Stretches Wood
     Residue Profits."  Wood Prod.  80(4):53-54.

Lamb, Robert C.  1969.  Nights Available for Prescribed Burns in the Lower
     Georgia Piedmont.  USDA Forest Service Resarch Note SE-121.

	.  1976.  "Meteorological Resources for Land Management."  In
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     Service General Technical Report RM-32.  pp. 44-47.

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Larson, R.W. and M.H. Goforth.  1970.  TRANS - A Computer Program for the
     Projection of Timber Volume.  USDA Agriculture Handbook #377.24 pp.

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Larson, William H.  "Fire Hazard Versus Air Pollution in the State of
     Washington."  Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Society of
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Lavdas, Leonidas G.  1978.  Plume Rise from Prescribed Fires.   Fifth Con-
     ference on Fire and Forest Meteorology, March 1978, Atlantic City,
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             1976.  "A Groundhog's Approach to Estimating Insolation."  Air
     Pollution Control Association J.  26(8):1.

Lawson, B.D.  1973.  Fire Behavior in Lodgepole Pine Stands Related to the
     Canadian Fire Weather Index.Pac. For. Res.  Cen.,  Canada  Information
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Lehmann, W.F. and R.L. Geimer.  1974.  "Properties of Structural  Particle-
     boards from Douglas-Fir Forest Residues."  For. Prod.  J.   24(10):17-25.

Leisz, D.  1972.  Where Residue Standards Cannot Be Met.   Close Timber
     Utilization Committee Report.  USDA Forest Service,   pp.  13-21.

Lenic, J.  1972.  "Joint Efforts of Scandinavian Countries  Towards a Better
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Leonard, G.  1972.  Removal and Treatment of Residues.  Close Timber Utiliza-
     tion Committee Report.  USDA Forest Service,   pp". 38-42.
                                    -206-

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Levno, Al.  1969.  Increases in Maximum Stream Temperatures After Slash
     Burning in a Small Experimental Watershed.USDA Forest Service.Pacific
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Lewis, W.M. Jr.  1975.  "Effects of Forest Fires on Atmospheric Loads  of
     Soluble Nutrients."  Proc. of Symp. in Mineral Cycling in Southeastern
     Ecosystems, pp. 833-4(n

Liseev, A.S.  1975.  "Prohibit Fire as a Means of Clearing Felled Areas."
     Lesnaya Promyshlennost. 11:22.

Liu, M.L. et al.  Assessment of the Feasibility of Modeling Wind Fields
     Relevant to the Spread of Bush Fires.Science Applications Inc.

Lowery, D.P-, W.A. Hillstrom and E.E. Elert.  1977.  Chipping and Pulping
     Dead Trees of Four Rocky Mountain Timber Species.   USDA Forest Service
     Research Paper INT-193.

Lowry, W.P-  1967.  "A Tentative Model to Establish Requirements for Use
     of Large Smoke Plumes from Prescribed Burning."  Air Pollution Control
     Association PNW 5th Annual Meeting Proceedings.  12 pp.

Lyamin, V.A.  1971.  The Yield of Products from Gasification of Conifer-
     ous Species Bark.  National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C.,
     Special Foreign Currency Science Information Program.

Lyon, L.J.  1971.  Vegetal Development Following Prescribed Burning of
     Douglas-Fir in South-Central Idaho.USDA Forest Service Research
     Paper  INT-105.30 pp.
                                    -207-

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Maclean, C.D.  1976.  Timber Resources of Douglas County,  Oregon.   USDA
     Forest Service Resource Bulletin PNW-66.

Maloney, T.M.  1973.  "Bark Boards From Four West Coast Softwood Species."
     Forest Prod. J.  23(8):30-38.

Maloney, T.M., J.W. Talbott, M.D. Strickler and M.T.  Lentz.   1976.  "Com-
     position Board from Standing Dead White Pine and Dead Lodgepole Pine."
     Proceedings of the 10th Washington State University Symposium on
     Particleboard.March 1976.Pullman, Washington.pp.  27-104.

Malte, P.C.  1975.  Pollutant Production From Forest  Slash Burns.   Washington
     State University!Pullman College of Engineering  Research Report 339.
     34 pp.

Mann, M.J., C.A. Depew and R.C. Corlett.  1972.  A Laboratory Simulation of
     Wood Pyrolysis Under Field Conditions.  Presented  at  Combustion Institute,
     Western States Section, Spring Meeting, Seattle, Washington,  April  24-25,
     1972.  Paper WSCI 72-13.  10 pp.

Martin, Robert E. and Arthur P- Brackebusch.  1974.   "Fire Hazard  and Confla-
     gration Prevention."  In Environmental Effects of  Forest Residues Manage-
     ment in the Pacific Northwest, a State-of-Knowledge Compendium.USDA
     Forest Service.Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station
     General Technical Report PNW-24.  Portland, Oregon.

Martin, R.E., J.D. Dell and L.P- Nuenschwander.  1977.   "Planning  for Pre-
     scribed Burning in the Inland Northwest."  Presented  at the Region 6
     Eastside Prescribed Fire Workshop.  USDA Forest  Service.47  pp.

Martin, R.E., D.D. Robinson and W.H. Schaeffer.  1974.   "Fire in the Pacific
     Northwest   Perspectives and Problems."  Proceedings  Tall  Timbers Fire
     Ecology Conf.  Tall Timbers Research Station.October 16-17, 1974,
     Portland, Oregon.

Martin, R.E. et al.  1976.  Task Force on Prescribed  Burning.  Draft Final
     Report.  Society of American Foresters.

Martin, R.E., R.W. Cooper et al.  1977.  "Report of Task Force on  Prescribed
     Burning."  J. For.  75(5):297-301.

Mason, R.L.  1975.  "Value of Residues for Fuel Versus  Value for Products."
     Proc. Wood Residue As an Energy Source.  FPRS #P-75-13.  pp.  27-29.

Mathews, R.P.  1973.  "The Smoky Question."  Pacific  Search 8(3):10-11.

          .  1976.  Use of Prescribed Burning to Enhance Regional  Air
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                                    -208-

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Maxwell, W.G. and F.R. Ward.  1976a.  Photo Series for Quantifying Forest
     Residues in the:  Coastal Douglas-Fir Hemlock Type, Coastal Douglas-Fir
     Hardwood Type.USDA Forest Service General Technical Report PNW-51.

	.  1976b.  Photo Series for Quantifying Forest Residues in the:
     Ponderosa Pine Type, Ponderosa Pine and Associated Species Type, Lodge-
     pole Pine Type.USDA Forest Service General Technical Report PNW-52.

McCleese, W.L., F.L. Fenstermaker and R.F. Weinmann.  1976a.  A Management
     Contract to Improve Timber Sale Slash Treatment - Northern Region.   0~SDA
     Forest Service.June 1976.

             1976b.  A Management Contract to Improve Sale Slash Treatment -
     California Region.USDA Forest Service.June 1976.

McCleese, W.L. et al.  1976c.  A Management Contract to Improve Timber Sale
     Slash Treatment, Brush Disposal Activity Review Action Plan and Report,
     Pacific Northwest Region.USDA Forest Service.65 pp.

McCleese, W.L., R.W. Fenchter, W.A. Hough et al.  1976d.  An Analysis of the
     Clean Air Act and Related Federal Regulations.  USDA Forest Service.
     Washington, D.C.

McComb, F.  1977.  ITF-FSU.  November 17, 1977-  Exhibit B.

McCutchan, M.H.  1975.   "Forest Fire Meteorology Research Network."  Automated
     Meteorological  Systems,  pp. 351-59.

McHugh, W.M.  1977-  Energy Demend Modeling and Forecasting.  Northwest Energy
     Policy Project.  Study Module II.

McKee, Herbert C. and Franklin W. Church.  1969.  "Particulate Standards Keyed
     to Visibility and Citizen Complaints are Interim Measure.  In A Symposium -
     The Technical Significance of Air Quality Standards."  Environmental Science
     and Technology  3(6):542-48.

McLean, H.R. and F.R. Ward.  1976a.  "Is  'Smoke-Free1 Burning Possible?"  Fire
     Management 37(1):10-13.

          .  1976b.  "Air Curtain Combustion Device Evaluated for Burning Heavy
     Fuels."  R-6 Fuel Management Notes   4(1):1-7.

McMahon, C.K. and P.W. Ryan.  1976.  "Some Chemical and Physical Cha'racteris-
     tics of Emissions from Forest Fires."  69th Annual Meeting of the Air
     Polution Control Association.  Portland, Oregon.~
                                    -209-

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McMahon, C.K. and S.N. Tsoukalas.  1977.  "Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocar-
     bons in Forest Fire Smoke."  Proceedings of the Second International
     Symposium on Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons.September 28-30,
     wrr.

             1978.  Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Forest Fire,  Smoke,
     Carcinogenesis,~Vo1ume 3:  Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons (P.W.  Jones
     and R.I. Freudenthal, eds.).  Raven Press,  New York.pp.  61-73.   (In
     press.)

McMullen, Robert N.  1971.  "Land Clearing and Right-of-Way Disposal  Problems."
     J. Environ. Health 34(2):211-12.

McNab, W.H.  1976.  Prescribed Burning and Direct Seeding Old Clearcuts  in
     the Piedmont (Pines Taeda, Logging Slash, Georgia).USDA  Forest Service.
     Southeastern Forest Experiment Station Research Note SE-229.  4  pp.

Mersereau,  R.C. and C.T. Dyrness.  1972.  "Accelerated Mass Wasting After
     Logging and Slash Burning in Western Oregon."  J. Soil Water Conserv.
     27(3):112-14.

Meskimen, George.  1971  "Managing Forest Landscapes:  Is Prescribed  Burning
     in the Picture?"  In Prescribed Burning Symp  Proceedings.   April 14-16,
     1971,  Charleston, South Carolina.ppT 54-58.

Metcalf, M.E.  1965.  Hardwood Timber Resources  of the Douglas-fir Sub-
     region.  USDA Forest Service Resource Bulletin PNW-11.

Metz, Louis J. and Maurice H. Farrier.  1971.  "Prescribed Burning and
     Soil Mesofauna on the Santee Experimental Forest."  In Prescribed
     Burning Symposium Proceedings.  April 14-16, 1971.  Charleston,  S.C.
     pp. 100-106.

Meyer, V.W.  1975.  A Program for Improving Volume and Value Recovery  in
     Logging Operations.Interim Task Force on  Forest Slash Utilization.
     Exhibit E.

Miller, M.M. and J.W. Miller.  1974.  "Succession After Wilfire in the North
     Cascades North Park Complex."  Proceedings  Tall Timbers Fire Ecology
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                                   -210-

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Mobley, Hugh E.  1974a.  "Fire, Its Impact on the Environment."  J. For.
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	.  1974b.  Air Pollution Regulations and Their Effect on Forest
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          .  1976.  Southern Forestry Smoke Management Guidebook.  USDA
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Mobley, Hugh E., E.V. Brender and D.T. Williams.  1975.  "Preview of Smoke
     Management Guidelines."  Forest Farmer Manual Edition,  pp.  90-92.

Mobley, Hugh E., R.S. Jackson, W.E. Balmer et al.  1973.  A Guide for
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Mohler, J.P- and R.E. Golson.  1975.  Hydro-Ax and Nicolas Hydro-Mulcher
     Test Report.  Washington Dept. of Natural Resources.  DNR Note 10.
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          .  1976.  TRAKMAC Evaluation.  Washington Dept. of Natural
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           .  1976.  "Fire!"  National Wildlife 14(5):4-9.
Morgester, J.J.   1976.   "The California Air Resources Board Program to
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	.   1970.   "Effects of Slash Burning in Overmature Stands of the
     Douglas-Fir Region."  Forest Sci.  16(3):258-70.

Mote, D.   1978.  "International Paper Company - Acres of Slash Burned and
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Mozolevskaia, E.G. and T.V. Galas'eva.  1975.  "Trunk Pests in Slash Fires."
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                                     -211-

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Munnich, K.  1978.  "Scott Paper Company - Acres of Slash Burning,  1963-
     1977."  Private communication.

Murad, J.L.  1972.  "Effects of Prescribed Burning on Population Dynamics
     of Pine Forest Soil Nematodes."  11th Inter.  Symp.  on Nematology.

Muraro, S.J.  1970a.  "Slash Fuel Inventories from 70 mm Low-Level  Photo-
     graphy."  Publ. For. Ser. Can.  #1268.  p.  12.

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          .  1971.  "Prescribed Fire Impact in Cedar-Hemlock Logging Slash."
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     Conference on Fire and Forest Meteorology.   November 16-18,  1976.
     St. Louis, Missouri.  pp. 228-31.

Murphy, James L. and Leo J. Fritschen.  1970.   "Slash Burning:   Pollution
     Can Be Reduced."  Fire Control Notes  31(3):3-5.

Murphy, J.L. and C.W. Philpot.  1965.   Do Petroleum-Based Protective
     Coatings Add Fuel  Value to Slash?  USDA Forest Service  Research Note
     PSW-81 .
Murphy, James L., Leo J. Fritchen and Owen P-  Carmer.   1970.   "Research
     Looks at Air Quality and Forest Burning."  J.  For.   68(9) :530:35.
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Mutch, Robert W.  1970.  "Wildland Fires and Ecosystems  - A  Hypothesis."
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     p. 7.

	.  1975.  "Fire Management and Land Use Planning Today:   Tradi-
     tion and Changes in the Forest Service."  Western Wildlands.   pp.  13-19.

Mutch, Robert W. and George S. Briggs.   1976.  "The Maintenance  of  Natural
     Ecosystems:  Smoke as a Factor."  In Air Quality and Smoke  from  Urban
     and Forest Fire Inter. Symp.   National  Academy of Sciences.p.  255.
                                    -212-

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Nappo, C.J.  1975.  Time Dependent Mesoscale Wind Fields over Complex Ter-
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National Academy of Sciences.  1972.  Participate Polycyclic Organic Matter.
     Contract No. CPA 70-42.  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

          _.  1975.  Directory of Fire Research in the United States, 1971-
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     Research Council.  361 pp.

	.  1976.  Air Quality and Smoke from Urban and Forest Fires
     Inter. Symp.  October 24-26, 1973, Washington, D.C.

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          .  1969b.  Control Techniques for Particulate Air Pollutants.
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	.  1970.  Air Quality Criteria for Hydrocarbons.   U.S. Public
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National Environmental Research Center.  1975.  Scientific  and Technical
     Assessment Report on Particulate Polycyclic Organic Matter (PPOM)~
     Contract No. EPA-60016-74-001.U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

National Forest Products Association.  1974.  Summary of Research Projects:
     Fire in Forest Management.  Smithsonian Science Information Exchange.
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NcNitt, B.  1977.  Modern Forest Management.  ITF-FSU.  Exhibit B.

Nelson, T.  1972.  Conference Purpose and Expected Results.  Close Timber
     Utilization Committee Report.USDA Forest Service.pp. 1-3.

Newport, Carl A.  1963.  Forest Statistics for Chelan and Douglas Coun-
     ties.  USDA Forest Service Resource Bulletin PNW-5.

             1964.  Forest Statistics for Northwest Oregon.  USDA Forest
     Service Resource Bulletin PNW-7.

	.  1965.  Timber Resource Statistics for the Pacific Northwest.
     USDA Forest Service Resource Bulletin PNW-9.

Newton, Michael.  1975.  "Constructive Use of Herbicides in Forest Resource
     Management."  J. Forestry  73(6):329.

	.  1977.  SiIvicultural Chemicals and Protection of Water Quality.
     EPA Report Number EPA 910/9-77-036.
                                    -213-

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Newton, M.  1977. " Herbicides in Forestry."  Oregon Weed Control  Handbook.
     pp. 116-21.

Nikleva, S.  1972.  "The Air Pollution Potential  of Slash Burning  in South-
     western B.C."  Forestry Chronicle  48(4):187-89.

Noll, K.E., P.K. Mueller and M. Imada.  1968.   "Visibility and Aerosol  Con-
     centration in Urban Air."  Atmos. Env.  2:465-75.

Norum, R.A.  1974.  Smoke Column Height Related to Fire Intensity.   USDA
     Forest Service Research Paper INT-157-7 pp.

             1975.  "Characteristics and Effects  of Understory Fires in
     Western Larch/Douglas-Fir Stands."  Dissertation Abstracts  Inter.
     6(1975) 36(5):1989.

	.  1977.  Preliminary Guidelines for Prescribed Burning Under
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     Service Research Note INT-229.

Norum, Rodney A., Nellie Stark and Robert W.  Steele.   1974.   "New Fire
     Research Frontiers in Montana Forests."   Western Wildlands  1(3): 34-38.

Notzon, E.M.  1977.  Nonpoint Source Control  Guidance,  Silviculture.  U.S.
     Environmental Protection Agency, Office  of Water Planning Standards.
     Technical Guidance Memorandum:   Tech 37.
                                    -214-

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Oberle, M.  1969.  "Forest Fires:  Suppression Policy Has Its Ecological
     Drawbacks."  Science 165(3893):568-71.

Oregon, State of.  1972.  Smoke Management Plan.  Directive 1-1-3-410.

             1976a.  Annual Report 1975 - Oregon Smoke Management Plan.
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     	.  1976b.  Memorandum:  Slash Burning Averages, Update of 1968
     Trends - Western Oregon.Plans, Studies and Development Section,
     Forest Protection Division, Forestry Department.

             1977a.  Summary Report - Fall and Buck Study #53.  Interim
     Task Force on Forest Slash Utilization.Forest Management Subcom-
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     	.  1977b.  Financing of the Oregon Forestry Department Fire
     Protection Program.  Interim Task Force on Forest Slash Utilization.
     Forest Management Subcommittee.  Exhibit A.

     	.  1977c.  Minutes of the Alternative Uses Subcommittee.   Octo-
     ber  25, 1977-  ITF-FSU.

             1977d.  Minutes of the Interim Task Force on Forest Slash
     Utilization.  Forest Management Subcommittee.  October 12, 1977.
     Hearing Room F, State Capitol.

     	.  1977e.  Forestry Program for Oregon, Timber Supply Today  and
     Tomorrow.  Department of Forestry.

          .  1977f.  Minutes of the Interim Task Force on Forest Slash
     Utilization.  Forest Management Subcommittee.September 13,  1977.
     Hearing Room A, State Capitol.

             1977g.  Minutes of the Interim Task Force on Forest Slash
     Utilization.  Forest Management Subcommittee.September 27,  1977.
     Hearing Room A, State Capotol.

          .  1977h.  The Role of Fire in Oregon Forests.  General  File
     1-1-3-400, Smoke Management.

             1977i.  Changes in Smoke Management Operation Details.   Office
     of the State Forester, Forest Protection Division.

          .  1977J.  A Slash Burning Priority Rating Form for the Coastal
     Range - Western Oregon.Department of Forestry.

    	.  1977k.  Minutes of the Interim Task Force Slash Utilization.
     Smoke Management Subcommittee.
                                     -215-

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Oregon, State of.  19771.  Minutes of the Interim Task Force on Forest
     Slash Utilization.  Alternative Uses Subcommittee.  October 13,  1977.
     Hearing Room A, State Capitol.

	.  1977m.  Annual Report 1976 - Oregon Smoke Management Plan.
     Department of Forestry.p. 39.

          .  1977n.  Miscellaneous Timber and Slash Statistics.  ITF-FSU.
     September 27, 1977.Exhibit A.

     	.  1977o.  Wood Residue Utilization Methods.   Hearing Minutes
     of Task Force on Forest Slash Utilization,  Subcommittee on Alternate
     Use.  October 4, 1977.

             1977p.  Slash Burning in Western Oregon -  1976 Emissions by
     County.  Department of Environmental  Quality.

     	.  1977q.  Forest Land Burning Priority Rating System - Interim
     Policy.  Forestry Department Memo dated July 15,  1977.

     	.  1977r.  ITF-FSU.  Forest Management Subcommittee.   November 17,
     1977.  Exhibit A.

     	.  1977s.  ITF-FSU.  Forest Management Subcommittee Minutes.
     November 17, 1977:State Capitol.

          .  1977t.  ITF-FSU.  Alternative Uses Subcommittee Minutes.
     November 7, 1977.  Portland State University.

           .  1977u.  ITF-FSU.  Alternate Uses Subcommittee.   November 17,
     1977.  Exhibit A.

           .  1977v.  ITF-FSU.  Legislative Bill.   November 7,  1977.
     Exhibit F.
          .  1977w.  ITF-FSU.  Smoke Management Subcommittee Minutes.
     November 10, 1977.University of Oregon,  Eugene.

             1977x.  ITF-FSU.  Alternate Uses Subcommittee Minutes.
     November 17, 1977^

     	.  1977y.  ITF-FSU.  Smoke Management Subcommittee.   Novem-
     ber 17, 1977.  Exhibit C.

     	.  1977z.  ITF-FSU.  Forest Management Subcommittee.   Novem-
     ber 17, 1977.  Exhibit D.
                                    -216-

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Oregon, State of.  1977aa.  ITF-FSU.  Alternate Uses Subcommittee.  Novem-
     ber 17, 1977.  Exhibit B.

          _.  1977bb.  ITF-FSU.  Minutes.  November 17, 1977.  Hearing Room A.
     State Capitol.
             1977cc.  ITF-FSU.  Smoke Management Subcommittee Minutes.   Novem-
     ber 17, 1977.  Hearing Room A.  State Capitol.

          .  1977dd.  ITF-FSU.  Smoke Management Subcommittee.   November 17,
     1977.  Exhibit A.
          .  1977ee.  Report on the Joint Interim Task Force on Forest Slash
     Utilization.  Senator John Powell, Chairman.

	.  1977ff.  FY  '78 Federal Air Progam Grant Application.   Depart-
     ment of Environmental Quality.

Oregon State University.  1968.  "Slash Disposal Burning Sees Significant
     Reduction."  For. Log 38(48):!,4.

	.  1976.  Forest Research Laboratory:  Annual  Report 1976.
	.  1977a.  Potential Energy Uses for Diseased and Beetle-Killed
     Timber and Forest Residues in the Blue Mountain Area of Oregon.USDE
     Research Project Proposal.

	.  1977b.  Densified Hood and Bark Fuels.  Department of Forest
     Products.  ITF-FSLLExhibit B.

Osterli, Victor P.  1970.  "Air Pollution Caused by Agriculture,  Forestry
     and the Forest Products Industries:  Combustion."  Project Clean Air.
     California University, Berkeley, Task Force 5, Vol. 1, Section 5.

Ottawa, S.J.  1971.  Prescribed Fire Impact in Cedar-Hemlock Logging Slash.
     Canadian Forestry Service Publication No. 1295.20 pp.
                                     -217-

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Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station.   1970a.   Annotated
     List of Publications of Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment
     Station for Year 1969.Portland, Oregon.14 pp.

	.  1970b.  Annotated List of Publications of the Pacific North-
     west Forest and Range Experiment Station for Year 1970.Portland,
     Oregon.18 pp.

Packham, D.R. and 6.B. Peet.  1967.  Developments in Controlled Burning from
     Aircraft.  Commonwealth Scientific and Indust. Res. Organ., Melbourne.
     p. 18.

Pagni, P.J. and L.D. Houck.  1972.  Prescribed Burning.  Mich.  Eng. Dept.,
     U. Calif. TS-71-5.

Palmer, T.Y. and D.J. Anvil.  1975.  Recording Wind Velocity, Direction and
     Temperature in Fires by Logarithmic Technique.USDA Forest Service
     Research Note PSW-304.  5~pp~;

Pandolfo, J.P- et al.  Refinement and Validation of an Urban Meteorological -
     Pollutant Model.  USEPA Publ. #EPA-600/4-76-037.22 pp.

Patterson, H.M.  1976.  "Laws, Standards and Regulations for Smoke Abatement
     in Oregon."  In Air Quality and Smoke from Urban and Forest Fires Inter.
     Symp.  National Academy of Sciences.p. 183.

Pearson, H.A.  1967.  Relationship Between Timber and Cattle Production on
     Ponderosa Pine Range.  USDA Forest Service.  Ft. Collins,  Colorado.

Perkins, Carroll J.  1971.  "The Effects of Prescribed Burning  on Outdoor
     Recreation."  In Prescribed Burning Symposium Proceedings.   April  14-16,
     1971, Charleston, South Carolina.pp. 59-63.

Pharo, J.A.  1976.  Aid for Maintaining Air Quality During Prescribed Burns
     in the South.  USDA Forest Service.Southeastern Forest Experiment
     Station Research Paper SE-152.  11 pp.

Pharo, J.A. and C.A. Hauck.  1975.  Smoke Dispersion Model for  Prescribed
     Burning.  USDA Forest Service Research Note SE-220.

Philpot, C.W., C.W. George, A.D. Blakely et al.   1972.   The Effect of Two
     Flame Retardants on Particulate and Residue Production.USDA Forest
     Service Research Paper INT-117-  p. 14.

Pickford, Stewart G.  1972a. " Some Interaction  of Open Burning Regulations
     with Fire Control Plans and Forestry Operations."   Unpublished transcript.

             1972b.  "The Study of Air Pollution From Open Burning of Logging
     Wastes:  A Critical Analysis of a Field Experiment Performed by  the
     University of Washington and the U.S.  Forest Service."   Ph.D.  Thesis.
     Washington University, Seattle, College of Forest Resources.   109 pp.
                                    -218-

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Pickford, Stewart G.  1972c.  Some Interactions of Open Burning Regulations
     with Fire Control Plans and Forestry Operations.Preprint,  Combustion
     Institute, Western States Section.16 pp.

Pierovich, John M.  1977a.  "Facing Up to Smoke Management."  Southern
     Lumberman, February 1, 1977.  pp. 8-9.

             1977b.  Smoke Management Research and Development Program  -
     Charter.  USDA Forest Service SEF&RES.

Pierovich, John M. and R.C. Smith.  1973.  Choosing Forest Residues,
     Management Alternatives.  USDA Forest Service.  Pacific Northwest
     Forest and Range Experiment Station General  Technical  Report PNW-7.
     11 pp.

Pierovich, John M., E.H. Clarke, S.G. Pickford and F.R.  Ward.   1975.
     Forest Residues Management Guidelines for the Pacific Northwest.
     USDA Forest Service.  Pacific Northwest Forest and  Range  Experiment
     Station General Technical Report PNW-33.  280 pp.

Pirsko, A.R. and L.M. Sergius.  1965.  Causes and Behavior of  a Tornadic
     Fire-Whirlwind.  USDA Forest Service Research Note  PSW-61 .

 Place, T.A. and T.M. Maloney.  1975.  "Thermal Properties of  Dry Wood-
     Bark Multilayer Boards."  For. Prod. J.  25(l):33-39.

Pokela, R.W.  1972.  "Rolling Chopper Disposes of Pine Slash."  Fire
     Control Notes  33(2):7-8.

Pollanschuetz, J.  1966.  "Method for Smoke Damage Determination as  it
     is Presently Applied by the Federal Forestry Research Institute."
     Mitt. Forst. Bundesvers.  73:81-89.

Pong, W.Y. and J.W. Henley.  1976.  Characteristics of Residues in a
     Balloon Logged Area of 01 d-GrowTh" Douglas Fir.  USDA Forest Service
     Research Note PNW-272.

Posekany, D.  1977.  A Study of Forest Utilization in Relation to Slash
     Residues and Economics.  Forest Slash Utilitization.  Forest Man-
     agement Subcommittee.  Exhibit F.

Powers, Quincy.  1977.  Western Markets for Slash Material.  Weyerhauser
     Co., Exhibit A,
Prakash, C.B. and F.E. Murray.  1972.  "Air Emissions from the Combustion
     of Wood Waste."  Combus. Sci. Technol .  6(l-2):81-88.
                                    -219-

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Radke, L.F., J.L. Stith, D.A. Hegg and P.V. Hobbs.  1978.  "Airborne
     Studies of Particles and Gases from Forest Fires."  J. Air Pollution
     Control Association 28(1): 30-34.

Raisch, R.  1972.  Improve Timber Utilization on State and Private Forest
     Lands.  USDA Forest Service.  Close Timber Utilization Committee
     Report,  pp. 79-84.

Ralston, Charles W. and G.E. Hatchell.  1971.  "Effects of Prescribed
     Burning on Physical Properties of Soil."  In Prescribed Burning Sym-
     posium Proceedings.  April 14-16, 1971, Charleston, South Carolina.
     pp. 68-85.

Ramaker, T.J. and W.F. Lehmann.  1976.  High-Performance Structural Flake-
     boards from Douglas-fir and Lodgepole Pine Forest Residues.USDA
     Forest Service Resource Paper FPL-286.

Reeves, Hershel C.  1973.  "Fire in the Management of Vegetation."  J. of
     Geography 72(2):31.

           .  1975.  "Communicating the Role of Fire in the Forest."  Fire
     Management 36(1):12-14.

Reid, D.G. and R.G. Vines.  1972.  A Radar Study of the Smoke Plume from a
     Forest Fire.  Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organiza-
     tion, Division of Applied Chemistry.  Technical  Paper 2.  Melbourne,
     Australia. 15 pp.

Reiquam, H.  1970.  "An Atmospheric Transport and Accumulation Model for
     Airsheds."  Atmos. Env. 4:233-47.

Resch, H.  1977.  ITF-FSU.  November 17, 1977.  Exhibit C.

Richardson, B.Y.  1976.  Equipment for Reduction and Conversion of Forest
     Residues.  USDA Forest Service.San Dimas Equipment Development
     Center.

	.  1977.  Equipment Development for Timber and Fuels Manage-
     ment.  USDA Forest Service, San Dimas Equipment Development Center.

Richardson, James H.  1976.  "U.S. Department of the Interior Programs for
     Smoke Control."  In Air Quality and Smoke from Urban and Forest Fires
     Inter. Symp.  National Academy of Sciences.p.  338.
                                  -220-

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Roberts, C.A.  1975.  "Initital Plant Succession After Brown and Burn Site
     Preparation on an Alder-Dominated Brush Field in the Oregon Coast Range."
     Unpublished thesis.  Oregon State University.

Roberts, Charles F.  1976.  "Meteorological Problems in Smoke Management."
     In Air Quality and Smoke from Urban and Forest Fires Inter. Symp.
     National Academy of Sciences.p. 214.

Robinson, D.D.  1974.  Fire in the Pacific Zone Forests.   National  Forest
     Product Association"^30 pp.

Robinson, E. and R.C. Robbins.  1969.  Sources, Abundance, and Fate of
     Gaseous Atmospheric Pollutants.  Stanford Research Institute.77 pp.

             1971.  Emissions, Concentrations, and the Fate of Particulate
     Atmospheric Pollutants.Stanford Research Institute.108 pp.

Roe, Al, W.R. Beaufait et al.  1971.  "Fire and Forestry in the Northern
     Rocky Mountains - A Task Force Report."  J. For.   69(8):464-70.

Rombach, J.L.  1977.  The Importance of Slash Burning  for Oregon's  Future
     Timber Supply.  Weyerhaeuser Company.

Rosene, J.  1978.  Air Pollution Index Values.  Olympic Air Pollution
     Authority.

Rothacher, J. and W. Lopushinsky.  1974.  Soil Stability and Water  Yield
     and Quality.  USDA Forest Service.  Pacific Northwest Forest and  Range
     Experiment Station General Technical Report PNW-24.

Roussopoulos, Peter J. and Von J. Johnson.  1976.  Help in Making Fuel  Man-
     agement Decisions.  USDA Forest Service.  North Central  Forest Experi-
     ment Station Research Paper NC-112.  20 pp.

Rudermann, F.K.  1977.  Production, Prices, Employment and Trade in NW
     Forest Industries.  USDA Forest Service PNW F&RES.

Ruskin, R.E.  1971. "Consideration in the Measurement  of Pollution  Effects
     on the Number of Cloud Condensation Nuclei."  J.  Applied Meteorology
     10:994-1001.

Ruth, Robert H. and A.S. Harris.  1975.  Forest Residues in Hemlock-Spruce
     Forests of the Pacific Northwest and Alaska:  A State-of-Knowledge
     Review with Recommendations for Residue ManagementUSDA Forest  Service.
     Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station General  Technical
     Report PNW-39. 52 pp.
                                    -221-

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Ryan, B.C.  1977-  "A Mathematical  Model  for Diagnosis  and Prediction  of
     Surface Winds in Mountainous Terrain."  J.  App.  Meteor.   16(6)571-84.

Ryan, P.M.  1974.  "Quantity and Quality  of Smoke Produced by  Southern
     Fuels in Prescribed Burning Operations."  In Proceedings  of the
     National Conference on Fire and Forest Meteorology.American  Meteo-
     rological Society and Society of American Foresters.   Lake Tahoe,
     California.
                                    -222-

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Saeman, J.F.  1975.  "Fitting Wood into an Energy and Materials  Policy."
     In Proceedings of Rocky Mountains Forest Industry Conference,   pp.  1-6.

Sackett, Stephen S.  1975.  "Scheduled Prescribed Burning for Hazard Reduc-
     tion in S.E."  J. For.  73(3):143-47.

             1976.  "Prescribed Fire Technology for Minimizing Smoke Hazards."
     In Air Quality and Smoke from Urban and Forest Fires  Inter.  Symposium.
     National Academy of Sciences.pp.  241-46.

Sackett, Stephen S. and D.D. Wade.  1970.  "Prescribed Burning  at Night."
     For. Farmer 29(5):11.

Saint Louis City, Missouri.  1974.  Waste Wood and Bulky Refuse Disposal,
     Saint Louis Facilities.  Final Report.50 pp.

Sandberg, David V.  1975.  "Measurements of Particulate Emissions from Forest
     Residues in Open Burning Experiments."  Ph.D. Thesis.   College  of Forest
     Resources, University of Washington.

          . 1977.  ITF-FSU.  November  7, 1977.   Exhibit A.
Sandberg, David V. and Robert E. Martin.  1975.   Particle Sizes  in  Slash  Fire
     Smoke.  USDA Forest Service.  Pacific Northwest Forest and  Range  Experi-
     ment Station Research Paper PNW-199.  7 pp.

Sandberg, D.V. and S.G. Pickford.  1974.  "An Approach to Predicting Slash
     Fire Smoke."  In Proceedings of Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference.
     October 16-17, 1975"Tall Timbers Research  Station, Portland, Oregon.

Sandberg, D.V., S.G. Pickford and E.F- Darley.  1975.  "Emissions  from Slash
     Burning and the Influence of Flame Retardant Chemicals." J. Air  Pollu-
     tion Control Assoc. 25:278-81.

Sandberg, D.V. et al.  1978.  Fire Effects on Air Quality:   A State of the
     Knowledge Report.  Review Draft.USDA Forest Service, No.  FS-8520.

Sando, R.W.  1969.  The Current Status of Prescribed Burning in  the Lake
     States.  USDA Forest Service Research Note NC-81.2 pp.

Sandor, J.  1972.  Forest Residues in the East.   Close Timber Utilization
     Committee RepoTtTUSDA Forest Service.pp. 85-89.

Schaefer, Vincent J.  1969.  "The Inadvertent Modification of the  Atmo-
     sphere by Air Pollution."  Bulletin on the American Meteorological
     Society 50:199-206.

             1974.  "Some Physical Relationships of Fine Particle  Smoke."
     Ann. Proc. Tall Timbers Fire Ecol. Conf.

          .  1976.  "The Production of Optimum Particle Smokes in Forest
     Fires."  In Air Quality and Smoke from Urban and Forest Fires Inter.
     Symp.  National Academy of Sciences,  p. 27.


                                    -223-

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Schuldt, J.P. and J.O. Howard.  1974.  Oregon Forest Industries 1972
     Wood Consumption and Mill Characteristics.  Oregon State Univer-
     sity Extension Service.p. 113.

Serrell, M.A.  1974.  "Wood Waste:  A Modern Fuel."  ASME National
     Incinerator Conference Proc. Pap.  Mi ami,  Flori da, pp.  267-70.

Shearer, R.C.  1975.  Seedbed Characteristics in Western Larch Forests
     after Prescribed Burning.  USDA Forest Service Research Paper
     INT 167.  26 pp.

Shendrikar, A.D. and P.W. West.  1973.  "Determination  of Selenium  in
     the Smoke from Trash Burning."  Envir. Letters 5(10):29-35.

Shenk, W.D. and R.H. Harlan.  1972.  "Crusher-cutter Efficiency Disposes
     of Slash."  Fire Control Notes 33(2);5-7.

Shum, Y.S. and W.D. Loveland.  1974.  "Atmospheric Trace Element Concen-
     trations Associated with Agricultural Field Burning in the Willamette
     Valley of Oregon."  Atmos. Environ.  8:645-55.

Siegel, G.R.  1975.  "Wood Residue as a Fuel in the Commercial Production
     of Electricity."  Proc. Wood Residues as an Energy Source.  FPRS #P-75-13.
     pp. 94-97.

Silversides, C.R.  1969.  "Changing Harvesting  Techniques and Equipment:  How
     They Affect Forest Protection."  Pulp Paper Mag.  Can.  70(19):105-06.

Sims, H.P-  1974.  "Some Ecololigical Effects of Prescribed Burning  on
     Cut-Over Jack Pine Sites, S.E. Manitoba."   Piss.  Abstr. Int.  B(1974)
     34(9): 4147-48.

Skarra, P.E.  1969.  "Some Observations on Indian  Forests and Prescribed
     Burning."  In Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference,  pp. 209-12.

Slowik, A.A. and J.J. Austin.  1977.  "Plume Dispersion Modeling  in
     Complex Terrain Under Stable Atmospheric Conditions."  In Pro-
     ceedings of Air Pollution Control Association.  June 20-24,  1977.

Smith, David H.  1962.  The Practice of Silviculture.   7th edition.   John
     Wiley & Sons, New York"!p. 578.

Smith, J.H.G.  1970.  "A British Columbian View of the Future of  Prescribed
     Burning in Western North America."  Commonw.  For.  Rev.   49(4)#142:356-67.

Smith, J.H. and D.E. Gilbert.  1974.  "Rates of Spread and Fire Damage to
     Timber Cover Types in British Columbia."  In  Proceedings Tall Timbers
     Fire Ecology Conference.  October 16-17, 1974"Tall  Timbers Research
     Station.Portland, Oregon.
                                   -224-

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Smith, James R. and Jack C. Suggs.  1976a.  "Goals of a National  Program
     in Smoke Research."  In Air Quality and Smoke from Urban and Forest
     Fires International Symposium.National Academy of Sciences.p.  296.

             1976b.  "Smoke Composition."  In Air Quality and Smoke from
     urban and Forest Fires Intern. Symp.  National Academy of Sciences,
     p. 296.

Smith, R.  1977a.  ITF-FSU.  November 10, 1977.  Exhibit D.

	.  1977b.  ITF-FSU.  November 10, 1977.  Exhibit K.

	.  1977c.  ITF-FSU.  November 10, 1977-  Exhibit L.

	.  1977d.  ITF-FSU.  November 10, 1977.  Exhibit M.

"Smoke from Prescribed Burning."  Bush Fire Bull.  9(4):10-11, 1974.

Sneeawjagt, R.J. and W.H. Fandsen.  1977.  "Behavior of Experimental  Grass-
     fires vs. Predictions Based on Rothermel's Fire Model."  Can.  J. of
     For. Res.  7(2):357-67.

Snowden, W.D.  1977.  Alternative Fuel Evaluation - WA Corrections  Center.
     Alsid, Snowden & Associates.State of Washington, Department  of
     General Administration.  Contract Number 76-79214.

Snowden, W.D. et al.  1975.  Source Sampling Presidential Fireplaces  for
     Emission Factor Development.U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
     Agency Publication Number 450/3-76-010.

Snyder, G.G. et al.  1975.  Clearcutting and Burning Slash Alter Quality  of
     Stream Water  in Northern Idaho.USDA Forest Service.Intermountain
     Forest and Range Experiment Station Research Paper INT-168.  34  pp.

Society of American Foresters.  1977.  "Prescribed Burning:  A Position of
     the Society of American Foresters."  J. For. 75(11):744-45.

Southwest Interagency Fire Council.  1970.  Prescribed Burning and  Management
     of Air Quality.  Seminar Sponsored by Southwest Interagency Fire Council,
     Tuscon, Arizona, November 21, 1968.  81 pp.

Sprout, Waldron &  Co.  1961.  Bark Pelleting ... A New Solution to  an Old
     Problem.

Stankey, G.H. 1976.  Wilderness Fire Policy:  An  Investigation of Visitor
     Knowledge and Beliefs.USDA Forest Service Research Paper INT-180.

Steele, Robert.  1974.  "Smoke Considerations Asociated with Understory Burn-
     ing in Larch/Douglas-Fir."  Proc. Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conf.
     pp. 597-607.                	
                                    -225-

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Steele, R.W. and W.R. Beaufait.   1969.   Spring and Autumn  Broadcast Burning of
     Interior Douglas-Fir Slash.   Montana Forest Conserv.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  3b.
     12 pp.

Steffensen, M.  1973.  "Pellets  from Sawmill  Waste for Efficient Fuel."
     Proc. Forest Prod. Res. Soc., California Section.  November 1-2,  1973.

Stern, F-  1977.  ITF-FSU.  November 10, 1977-  Exhibit I.

Stewart, R.E.  1976.  "Chemical  Site Preparation in the Inland  Empire."
     Proc. of Washington State University Conference.   February 1976.
     pp. 158-71.

Stinson, M.  1977.  ITF-FSU.  November 10, 1977-  Exhibit  G.

Stockstad, D.S.  1975.  Spontaneous and Piloted Ignition of Pine Needles.
     USDA Forest Service Research Paper INT-194.14 pp.

Stoddard, L.A.   1931.  The Bob-White Quail,  Its Habits, Preservation  and
     Increase.  Scribner, New York.

Stoddard, L.A., A.D. Smith and T.W. Box.  1975.  Range Management.   3rd
     edition.  McGraw-Hill, New  York.  pp. 435-38.

Stone, Earl L., Jr.  1971.  "Effects of Prescribed Burning on Long-Term
     Productivity of Coastal Plain Soils."  In Prescribed  Burning Symposium
     Proceedings.  April 14-16,  1971.  Charleston, S.C.pp. 115-29.

Stone, R.N.  1976.  "Timber, Wood Residues,  and Wood Pulp  on Sources of
     Culture."  In Biotechnical  and Bioengineering Symposium Number 6.
     pp. 223-34.

Stone, R.N. and J.F. Saeman.  1977-  "World Demand and Supply of Timber  to
     the Year 2000."  For. Prod.  J.  27(10):49-54.

Sturos, John A.  1973.  Segregation of Foliage from Chipped Tree Tops  and
     Limbs.  North Central Forest Experiment Station Research Note  NC-146.
     5 pp.

Sutherland, C.F. Jr.  1973.  "Cost of Forest Closure in Two Oregon  Counties."
     J. For.  71(10):644-47.

Swanson, J.R.  1974.  "Hazard Abatement by Prescribed  Underburning  in  West
     Side Douglas-fir."  In Proc. Tall  Timbers Fire Ecology Conference.
     October 16-17, 1974.  Tall  Timbers Research Station.Portland, Oregon.
                                    -226-

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Swanson, P.O., G.W. Lienkaemper and J.R. Sedell.  1976.   History,  Physical
     Effects, and Management Implications of Large Organic"Debris  in Western
     Oregon Streams.USDA Forest Service.Pacific Northwest Forest and Range
     Experiment Station General Technical Report 56.  15 pp.

Swanston, D.N.  1974.  Slope Stability Problems Associated with Timber
     Harvesting in Mountainous Regions of the Western U.1T7USDA Forest
     Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station General
     Technical Report PNW-21.  14 pp.

Sweet, H.R. and R.H. Fetrow.  1975.  "Ground Water Pollution by Wood Waste
     Disposal."  Ground Water  13(2):227-31.
                                     -227-

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Takeshita, Takenari, Toshio Yasutomi and Teiji  Yokota.  1975.  "Continuous
     Carbonization of Crushed Waste Wood in a Stirred Fluidized Bed."
     Funtai Kogaku Kenkyu Kaishi 12(4):199-203.

Tall Timbers Research Station.  1974.  Proceedings of the Tall  Timbers Fire
     Ecology Conference.  October 16-17, 1974.Portland, Oregon.

Tang, W.  1970.  Study of Air Flow in and Above a Forest Over Different
     Terrain.  Defense Documentation Center.

Tangren, C.D.  1976a.  "Smoke from Prescribed Fires."  Forest Farmer 35(10):6-7.

Tangren, C.D., C.K. McMahon and P.W. Ryan.  1976.  "Contents and Effects of
     Forest Fire Smoke."  Southern Forestry Smoke Management Guidebook.  USDA
     Forest Service General Technical Report SE-10.

Tarrant, Robert F.  1956a.  "Effects of Slash Burning on Some Soils of the
     Douglas-fir Region."  Soil Science Society of America Proceedings
     20:408-11.

	.  1956b.  "Effects of Slash Burning on Some Physical  Soil Proper-
     ties."  Forest Science 2:18-22.

Tatom, J.W., A.R. Colcord, J.A. Knight, L.W. Elston and P.M. Har-Oz.  1975.
     "Mobile Pyrolytic System - Agricultural and Forestry Wastes into Clean
     Fuels." In Proc., Cornell Agric. Waste Manage. Conf.  Published by Ann
     Arbor Sci. Publ., Inc.Michigan.pp. 271-88.

Taylor, A.R.   1975.  Fire Ecology Questions Survey of Research  Needs.  USDA
     Forest Service General Technical Report INT-18.

Thermal Efficiency, Inc.  1977.  Environmental  Waste - Energy Conversion System.

Thompson, Robert E.  1974.  Process for Recovering Forest Product Plant Wastes.
     Environment Inc., Guilford, Connecticut.  U.S. Pat. 3,783,128.  16 pp.

Thornton, P.   1972.  Research Implementation.  Close Timber Utilization
     Committee Report.  USDA Forest Service,  pp. 74-78.

Thuillier, Richard H. and James S. Sandberg.  1971.  "Development of a
     Meteorologically Controlled Agricultural Burning Program."   Bull. Am.
     Meteorol. Soc. 52(12):1193-1200.

Towne,  R.S.  1975.  "Woodwaste Handling Trends."  Proc. of Wood  Residues as
     an Energy Source.  FPRS #P-785-13.  pp. 42-45.

"Trench Burner Could Answer Slash Problems."  Bri. Col. Lumberman   58(2):
     32-33.
                                    -228-

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Truax, M.R.  1977.  "Visibility Criteria for Class 1  Airsheds."  Private
     Communication.

	.  1978.  "Simpson Timber Company Projected Acres and Costs for
     Slash Burning."  Private Communication.

Truesdale, P.S.  1969.  "Pollutants of the Prescribed Burning Program of
     the Bureau of Indian Affairs."  In Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Confer-
     ence,  pp. 236-40.
                                     -229-

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University of California.  1971.   Prescribed Burning.   Berkeley College of
     Engineering, Thermal Systems Division,  Natural  Science Foundation Grant
     GY-9112.  Report No. TS-71-5.

U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service.   1971.   Prescribed Burning
     Symposium Proceedings.   Southeast Forest Experiment Station.  160 pp.

          .  1972a.  "Fuel Treatment Methods."   Forest Service Manual,
     Title 5153.

    	.  1972b.  Multipurpose Brushland Modification on Seven Plant
     Associations on National Forest Lands in California^Region 5 Draft
     Environmental Impact Statement No.  USDA-FS-DES(ADM)-72-33.   San Francisco,
     California.  72 pp.

          .  1972c.  "Fire in the Environment."  Symp.  Proceed.   May 1-5,
     1972. Denver, Colorado.   151 pp.

          .  1972d.  Assessment of Present Position,  Needs and Conclusions,
     and RecommndationTiClose Timber Utilization Committee Report.

     	.  1972e.  Forest Born of Fire.   Northern Region.   Missoula,
     Montana.  U.S. Government Printing Office.   1972-796-959.

      	 .  1973a.  "Slash Treatment Statistics,  PNW National  Forest Lands,
     "1963-1972."  Unpublished memorandum.

     	.  1973b.  Slash Disposal Information  Sheet.   Region  6.
             1973c.  Big Game Habitat Improvement.   Burning of Serai  Brush-
     fields in the Spokane, St. Joe, Clearwater,  and Salmon River Drainages of
     Idaho.Northern Region Final Environmental  Impact Statement No.  USDA-FS-
     FES(ADM)-73-15.  Missoula, Montana.   84 pp.

    	.  1973d.  Northern Region's Slash Disposal  Program.   Northern
     Region Draft Environmental Impact Statement  USDA-FS-DEM(ADM)-73-79.
     Missoula, Montana.  126 pp.

             1973e.  Slash Disposal Information Sheet.   Oregon  Interim Task
     Force.

    	.  1974a.  Fire Management Considerations for Land Use Planning.
     Washington, D.C.

    	.  1974b.  "New 'Hydro-Ax' Machine Tested for Precommercial  Thin-
     ning and Slash Treatment."  R-6 Fuel  Management Notes  2(2):l-4.

    	.  1974c.  Logging Leftovers:   A Study of Wood Use.   Pacific
     Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station.
                                    -230-

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U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service.   1975a.   Logging Leftovers:
     A Study of Wood Use.  PNW F&RES.  8 pp.

             1975b.  "Timber Shaded Fuelbreaks  in Region 6."   R-6  Fuel
     Management Notes 3(1):1-13.

          .  1975c.  "Projecting Costs for Use in B.D.  Appraisals  -  An  Example."
     R-6 Fuel Management Notes 3(3):l-3.

      	.  1975d.  Fuel Management for the Central  Rocky  Mountains and  the
     Southwest.  Research Work Unit.

      	.  1975e.  1974 Wildfire Statistics.  Cooperative Fire Protection
     Staff Group, State and Private Forestry.

    	.  1976a.  Forest Interpreter's Primer on Fire Management. TT-53.
          .  1976b.  Research Publications List, 1922-1976.   General  Technical
     Report RM-31.
             1976c.  Fire Management in the Selway-Bitteroot Wilderness  - A
     Proposed Change.Final Environmental Statement.U.S.  Government Print-
     ing Office.T976-796-018/10.

     	.  1976d.  1975.  Renewable Resource Program, Oregon and Washington.
     Pacific Northwest Summary.

          .  1976e.  The National Forest Management Act of 1976.  Current
     Information Report No. 16.28 pp.

     	.  1977a.  "Rogue River National Forest Conducts Westside Prescribed
     Underburning Demonstration Trip."  R-6 Fuel Management Notes  5(3):1.

          .  1977b.  "Free-Use Firewood Permits - Utilizing Public Assistance
     in Fuels Management."  R-6 Fuel Management Notes  5(1):1.

             1977c.  "Forest Service Energy Research Coordination."  Communica-
     tion Memorandum.

          .  1977d.  Forest Survey Field  Instructions for Eastern Oregon.
     PNW FARES.  67 pp.

     	.  1977e.  Improved Harvesting  Program:  Field Instructions.  State
     and Private Industry.Interim Task  Force on Forest Slash Utilization.
     Forest Management Subcommittee.  October 12, 1977.  Exhibit C.

     	.  1977f.  National Fuel Inventory and Appraisal Research Project.
     Washington, D.C.
                                     -231-

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U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service.   1977g.   Vegetation Manage-
     ment with Herbicides.   Draft Environmental  Statement^Region 6.

             1977h.  The Nation's Renewable Resources - An  Assessment,  1975.
     Forest Res. Report #21.

U.S. Department of Commerce.  1974.   Clouds.   National  Oceanic and Atmospheric
     Administration.  U.S. Gov't.  Printing Office  1974-0-549-662.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  1977a.   Technical  Support Document on
     the Phase Down of Oregon Open Field BurningTRegion X.p. 16.

          .  1977b.  Technical Support Document on the  Phase  Down of  Oregon
     Open-Field Burning.Region X.p.  88.

U.S. General Accounting Office.  1973.  Increased Use of Felled Wood Would Help
     Meet Timber Demand and Reduce Environmental  Damage in Federal  Forests.
     Washington, D.C.52 pp.

Urone, P., W.H. Benner, C.K. McMahon and P.  Ryan.  1977.  "Photochemical  Poten-
     tial of Forest Fire Smoke."  In Proceedings  of APCA.   June 20-24,  1977.
                                    -Z32-

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Vandegrift, A.E. et al.  1971.  Particulate Pollutant System Study.   Volume I;
     Mass Emissions.  PB-203-128";National Technical Information Service.
     U.S. Department of Commerce.  Springfield, Virginia.

VanDerveer, Paul D. and Kenneth E. Lowe (eds.).  1975.   "Fiber Conservation
     and Utilization."  In Proceedings of the May 1974 Pulp and Paper Seminar.
     Chicago, Illinois.  San Francisco, Miller Freeman Publications.288 pp.

VanGelder, Randall J.  1976.  "A Fire Potential Assessment Model  for  Brush
     and Grass Fuels."  Fire Management Notes 37(3):14-16.

VanSickle, C.  1972.  Quality and Character of Logging Residues.   USDA Forest
     Service.  Close Timber Utilization Committee Report.pp. 4-8d.

VanVliet, A.C.  1971.  Converting Bark into Opportunities.  School  of Forestry.
     Oregon State University.

Veilleux, J.-M.  1972.  Effects of Controlled Burning on the Physical  and
     Chemical Properties of the Humus Layer.Ministry of Soils and Forests
     Research Note 9.Quebec.30 pp.

Vines, R.G.  1974a.  "Bush-Fire Smoke and Air Quality."  Proc. 13th Tall
     Timbers Fire Ecol. Conf.  pp. 303-307.

             1974b.  "Air Movements Above Large Bush-Fires."  Proc.  13th
     Tall Timber Fire Ecol. Conf.

          .  1975.  "Bushfire Research in C SIRO."  Search  6(3):73-8.
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     On the Nature, Properties, and Behavior of Bush-Fire Smoke.   Commonwealth
     Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, Division of  Applied
     Chemistry Technical Paper 1.  Melbourne, Australia.  33 pp.

Viro, P.O.  1969.  "Prescribed Burning in Forestry."  Commmun. Inst. For.
     Fenn. 67(7):49.

Vlug, H. and J.H. Borden.  1973.  "Soil Acari and Collembola Populations
     Affected by Logging and Slash Burning in a Coastal British Columbia Coni-
     ferous Forest. "  Environ. Entomol.  2(6):1016-23.

Vogl, Richard J.  1971.  "The Future of Our Forests."  Ecology Today  1(1):6.

          .  1974.  "Ecologically Sound Management:  Modern Man's  Road to
     Survival."  Western Wildlands 1(3):6-10.
                                     -233-

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Vogl,  Richard J.  and C.  Ryder.   1969.   "Effects  of Slash Burning on Conifer
     Reproduction in Montana's  Mission  Range."   Northwest Sci.  43(3):135-47.

Vyse,  A.M. and S.J.  Muraro.   1973.   Reduced  Planning Cost. A Prescribed Fire
     Benefit.  Canadian  Forestry Service. Pacific Forest Research Centre Infor-
     mation Report BC-X-84.   13 pp.
                                   -234-

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Wade, D.D.  1969.  "Research on Logging Slash Disposal  by  Fire."   Proc.  9th
     Tall Timber Fire Ecol. Conf.  pp. 229-34.

Wagar, J.A.  1974.  Recreation and Esthetic Considerations.   USDA  Forest
     Service.  Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station  General
     Technical Report PNW-24.

Wagener, W.W. and H.R. Offord.  1972.  Logging Slash:   Its Breakdown  and
     Decay at Two Forests in Northern California.USDA Forest Service
     Research Paper PSW-83.11 pp.

Waggener, T.R.  1976.  Equity and Redistribution Implications of Residues
     Policy. A Social VTewIPACFORNET WU-FOR-76-09-104.

Wagner, C.E.  1970.  "Temperature Gradients in Duff and Soil During Pre-
     scribed Fires."  Bi-Mon. Res. Notes  26(4):42.

Wahlgren, H.E., R. Barger and H. Marx.  1977.  Stretching  Our Nation's Timber
     Supply:  Close Timber Utilization.  USDA Forest Service Program  Aid 1189.

Wake, B.F. et al.  1974.  "Is Prescribed Burning Compatible with Environ-
     mental Quality - A Panel Discussion."  Proc. of Tall  Timbers  Fire
     Ecology Conf.  pp. 627-44.

Wall, B.R.  1972.  Log Production in Washington and Oregon - An Historical
     Perspective.  USDA Forest Service Resource Bulletin PNW-42.

Walsh, Stephen and Richard W. Boubel.  1975.  Combustion of Wood Residue in
     Conical Burners, Emission Controls and Alternatives.   EPA, Washington,
     OH  EPA/340/1-76/002.

Ward, Darold E.  1974.  Particulate  Source Strength Determination  for Low-
     Intensity Prescribed Fires.Southern Section and Technical Council,
     Control Technol. Agric. Air Pollut., Memphis, Tennessee,  pp. 39-54.

Ward, D.E. and R.C. Lamb.  1971.  "Prescribed Burning and Air Quality -
     Current Research in the South."  Proc. 10th Tall Timbers Fire Ecol. Conf.
     pp.129-40.

Ward, Darold E. and Ernest R. Elliot.  1976.  "Georgia Rural Air Quality:
     Effect of Agricultural and Forestry Burning."  APCA J. 26(3):216.

Ward, Darold E., Charles K. McMahon  and Ragnar W. Johansen.  1976.  "An
     Update on Particulate Emissions  from Forest Fires."  69th Air Pollution
     Contr/ Assoc. Ann. Meeting, Portland, Oregon.  15 pp.

Ward, D.E., C.K. McMahon and D.D. Wade.  1974.   "Particulate Source Strength
     Determination for Low-Intensity  Prescribed Fires."  In Specialty Confer-
     ence on Control Technology for  Agricultural Air Pollutants.Air Pollu-
     tion Control Association.Memphis, Tennessee.
                                     -235-

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Ward, F.R. 1975.  Evaluations on Accelerating Mood Decomposition in the
     Field.  USDA Forest Service.Pacific Northwest Forest and Range
     Experiment Station Research Note PNW-245.  8 pp.

Ward, F.R. and H.R.  McLean.   1976.   Burying Forest Residue - An Alternative
     Treatment.  USDA Forest Service"!!  Pacific Northwest Forest and Range
     Experiment Station Resource Note PNW-270.  Portland, Oregon.   7pp.

Ward, F.R. and J. W. Russel.  1975.  High-Lead Scarification:   An  Alternate
     for Site Preparation and Fire Halard Reduction.Fire Management.
     pp. 3,4,19.

Warner, J.  1968.  "A Reduction in Rainfall Associated with Smoke  from  Sugar
     Cane Fires - An Inadvertent Weather Modification?"  J. Appl.  Meteor.
     7:247-51.

Warren, W.G. and P.F. Olson.  1964.  "A Line Interest Technique for Assessing
     Logging Waste."  For. Sci.  10(3):267-76.

Washington State Department of Natural Resources.  1975a.  Smoke Management
     Program, 1975.

	.  1975b.   "Prescribed Slash Burning:  An Essential  Tool  in Forest
     Management."  Washington Dept. Nat. Res. Bulletin.

	.  1975c.   Washington Forest Productivity Study.  Project NR-1014.

          .  1977.  1976 Annaul Fire Statistics.
Wasserman, S.E. and J.D. Kanupp.  1968.  A Climatology of Weather That Affect
     Prescribed Burning Operations at Columbia,  South Carolina~.   Scientific
     Services Div. and Weather Bureau Forecast Center, Columbia,  South Carolina.
     WB-TM-ER-EE.  33 pp.

"Waste Problems of Agriculture and Forestry."  Environ.  Sci.  and  Tech.
     2:498, July 1968.

Wayne, L.G. and M.L. McQueary.  1975. Calculation of Emission Factors  for
     Agricultural Burning Activities.  U.S. Environmental Protection
     Agency Publication Number 450/3-75-087.

Weaver, H.  1964.  "Fire and Management Problems in Ponderosa Pine."   In
     Proceedings of the 3rd Annual Tall Timbers  Fire Ecology  Conference.
     April 9-10, 1964.pp. 61-79.

             1967.  "Fire and Its Relationship to Ponderosa  Pine."  In
     Proceedings of the California Tall  Timbers Fire Ecology  Conference.
     November 9-10, 1967.pp.  127-49.
                                   -236-

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Weaver, H.  1974.  "Western United States."  In T.T.  Koslovski  (ed.),
     Effects of Fire on Temperate Forests.  New York, Academy Press.

Welk, J.B.  1977.  Horn Prescribed Burn.  Environmental  Analysis Report.
     Okanogan National Forest.Tonasket Ranger District.

Wellman, E.  1976.  Emission Test Report - E.W. Mines Lumber Co. #5
     Boiler.  BWR Associates, Environmental Consultants.

Wells, Carol G.  1971.  "Effects of Prescribed Burning on  Soil  Chemical
     Properties and Nutrient Availablility."  In Prescribed Burning Sympo-
     sium Proceedings.  April 14-16, 1971.  Charleston,  South Carolina.
     pp. 86-99.

Western Forestry Industrial Assoc.  1977.  ITF-FSU.   November 10, 1977.
     Exhibit N.                            	

"What to do About Slash."  Truck Logger  25(8):7-8.   Vancouver, 1969.

Widden, P.  1975.  "The Effects of a Forest Fire on  Soil Microfungi."
     Soil Biol. and Biochem. 7(2):125-38.

Willamette National Forest.  1977.  Smoke Management.  Directive 1-1-3-410.
     February.  40 pp.

Williams, D.E.  1971.  Forest Fires and Pollution.   Convention  September
     26-30, Cleveland, Ohio.

Williams, Dansey T.  1972.  "Smoke at Palm Beach During the 1971 Ever-
     glades Wildfires."  Manual of the Fire Danger and Fire Weather
     Seminar.   USDA Forest Service, Bureau of Land  Management (U.S.
     Department of the Interior), and National Weather Service (National
     Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration).  9 pp.

             1974.  "A Smoke Volume Model for Prescribed Fire."  In
     Symposium on Atmospheric Diffusion and Air Pollution.   September 9-
     13, 1974.Santa Barbara, California.Published by the American
     Meteorological Society, Boston, Massachusetts,   pp. 159-62.

Williams, E.B.  1975.  The Value of Fire in Management of the Forests of
     the Southern RegioTHNational Forest Products  Association.62 pp.

Wilson, C.A.  1977-  How to Protect Western Conifer  Plantations Against
     Fires.  Presented":Western Forestry and Conservation  Association,
     November 30, 1977.

Wilson, C.L. and J.D. Dell.  1971.  "The Fuels Buildup in American Forests.
     A Plan of Action and Research."  J. For.  69:471-75.
                                    -237-

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Wilson, K.O.  1970.  "Forest Fuels Management - The Problem and the
     Challenge."  J. For. 68(5):274-79.

Wilson, W.H.  1977.  WOODEX Pelletized Hood Fuel  Test Report -
     Toppenish #2 Boiler.Toppenish District U and I, Inc.

Winkworth, Ralph C.  1976.  "State Forestry Programs for Smoke Control."
     In Air Quality and Smoke from Urban and Forest Fires Inter.  Symp.
     National Academy of Sciences.p. 335.

Woodward, Paul M., Stewart G. Pickford and Robert E. Martin.  1976.
     "Predicting Weights of Douglas-fir Slash for Materials up to 3
     Inches in Diameter."  Fire Management Notes 37(3):8-9, 12.

Worthington, D.  1972.  Cleanup Standards for Residues on National  Forests.
     USDA Forest Service"!!  Close Timber Utilization Committee Report.
     pp. 9-12.

Worthington, R.E.  1977.  Fire is an Important Management Tool  .  .  .  .
     ITF-FSU.  Exhibit E.
                                   -238-

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Yamate, George.  1973.  Development of Emission Factors for Estimating
     Atmospheric Emissions from Forest Fires.IIT Research Institute
     unal Report.  Chicago, Illinois.  T47~pp.

	.  1974.  Emissions Inventory from Forest Wildfires,  Forest
     Managed Burns, and Agricultural Burns.  USEPA Publ. #450/3-74-062.

Yamate, George, John Stockham, William Vatavak, and Charles Mann.   1975a.
     "An  Inventory of Emissions from Forest Wildfires,  Forest Managed Burns,
     and  Agricultural Burns."  Presented at 68th Ann. Meeting Air  Pollut.
     Contr. Assoc.  12 pp.

Yamate, George, John Stockham, David Becker, Thomas Waterman, Patricia
     Llewellen, and William M. Vatavak.  1975b.  "Development of Emission
     Factors for Estimating Atmospheric Emissions for Forest Fires."  Pre-
     sented at 68th Ann. Meeting Air Pollut. Contr. Assoc.  14 pp.

Young, Harold E.  1975.  "Utilization of Forest Residues, A Segment of the
     Complete Tree Concept."  Proc. Soc. of Amer. Foresters Nat. Conv.
     pp.  479-84.

Young, R.  1972.  Residue Utilization Research at Forest Products  Labora-
     tory.  Close Timber Utilization Committee Report.USDA Forest Service.
     pp.  45-49.

Yurich, S. and J. L. Volz.  1973.  The Natural Role of Fire.  USDA Forest
     Service and U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service.
     U.S. Government Printing Office.
                                    -239-

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Zerbe, J.  1972.  Particleboard from Residues.   Close Timber Utilization
     Committee Report.  USDA Forest Service,   pp.  50-54a.
                                    -240-

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                                 APPENDIX D

                      Listing of Field Experts Contacted
                               for This Report
Key:

          1 - Fire and fuels management

          2 - Forestry burning emissions and impacts on air quality

          3 - Burning techniques

          4 - Alternatives to burning
                              E - Economics

                              h - Management

                              k - Research
                                    -241-

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Adams, Thomas C.
Principal Economist, Forest Residue Program
USDA-FS PNWF & RES
809 NE 6th Ave. (P.O. Box 3141)
Portland, OR  97208
(503) 234-3361  [1-E, 4-E]

Baker, Glenn E.
Fire Management Officer
USDA-FS Willamette National Forest
211 E. 7th Ave.
Eugene, OR  97401
(503) 425-6533 [1-M, 3-M, 4-M]

Baker, Junius (Joe) 0.
Fire Management Specialist
USDA-FS, Aviation and Fire Management
P.O. Box 2417
Washington, D.C.  20013
(703) 235-8666 [1-M, 1-R]

Bjorklund, Norm E.
Vice President
Industrial Forestry Association
1220 S.W. Columbia St.
Portland, OR  97201
(503) 222-9505 [1-M, 1-E, 3-E, 4-E]

Bray, David C.
Air Prog. Branch
USEPA
Region X, MS-625
1200 6th Ave.
Seattle, WA  98101
(206) 442-1125 [2-M, 2-R]

Brunn, Russell
Meteorologist
Oregon State Department of Forestry
2600 State St.
Salem, OR  97310
(503) 378-2506 [2-M, 4-R]

Campbell, R.A.
Ministry of Forestry
Province of British Columbia
Victoria, B.C.
(604) 387-5965 [1-M]
                                   -242-

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Chandler, Craig C.
Director
USDA-FS, Forest Fire and Atmospheric
  Science Research
P.O. Box 2417
Washington, D.C.  20013
(703) 235-8195 [1-R, 2-R, 3-R,  4-R]

Clarke, Edward H.
Program Manager
Forest Residues Program
USDA-FS PNWF & RES
809 NE 6th Ave. (P.O. Box 3141)
Portland, OR  97208
(503) 234-3361 [1-E, 1-M]

Cleary, Brian D.
Extension Forester
Oregon State University
Forest Research Laboratory
Corvallis, OR  97331
(503) 753-9166 [1-M]

Core, John E.
Department of Environmental Quality
State of Oregon
P.O. Box 1760
Portland, OR  97207
(503) 229-6458 [2-M, 2-R]

Corlett, James B.
Manager, Oregon Forest Protection Association
1326 American Bank Bldg.
Portland, OR  97205
(503) 226-462 [1-M]

Cornelius, Royce 0.
Director of Forest Resource Relations
Weyerhaeuser Company
Tacoma, WA  98401
(206) 924-2326 [1-M, 3-M, 4-M]

Craig, Charles D.
Air Resources Center
Oregon State University
Corvallis, OR  97331
(503) 754-4955 [2-R]
                                   -243-

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Currier, Raymond A.
Associate Professor
Forest Reseach Laboratory
Oregon State University
Corvallis, OR  97331
(503) 753-9166 [4-R]

Debell, Dean S.
USDA-FS PNWF & RES
Rt. 4, Box 500
Olympia, WA  98502
(206) 434-9470 [2-R]

Dell, John D.
Fuels Management Specialist
USDA-FS, PNW
319 Pine St.
Portland, OR  97208
(503) 221-2931  [1-M, 2-M, 3-M, 4-M]

Denison, Janes M.
Division-Forester
Publishers' Paper Times Mirror
P.O.  Box 370
Toledo, OR  97391
(503) 336-2203 [1-M,  3-M, 1-E, 3-E]

Durham, Richard L.
Special Projects Officer
U.S.  Department of Energy
P.O.  Box 550
Richland, WA  99352
(509) 942-6553

Ellis, Thomas H.
Economist
FDA-FS, Forest Products Laboratory
P.O.  Box 5130
Madison, WI  53705
(608) 257-2211 [4-E]

Feddern, Edward T.
Division Forester
Publishers Paper Times Mirror
P.O.  Box 471
Tillamook, OR  97141
(503) 842-5551  [1-M, 3-M, 1-E, 3-E]
                                   -244-

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Fosberg, Michael A.
USDA-FS RMF & RES
240 W. Prospect St.
Ft. Collins, CO  80521
(303) 221-4390 [2-R]

Fox, Douglas G.
USDA-FS RMF & RES
240 W. Prospect St.
Ft. Collins, CO  80521
(303) 221-4390 [1-R, 2-R]

Freeburn, Scott
State of Oregon
Department of Environmental Quality
16 Oak Way Mall
Eugene, OR  97401
(503) 686-7601 [2-M, 2-R]

French, Richard E.  (Dick)
Prevention and Protection
USDI - BIA
1425 NE Irving (P.O. Box 3785)
Portland, OR  97208
(503) 234-3361, Ext. 4740 [1-M, 3-M, 4-M]

Fritschen, Leo
School of Forestry
University of Washington
Seattle, WA  98195
(206) 543-6210 [1-R, 2-R]

Graf, Fred
District Forester
State of Oregon Department of Forestry
Star Route 2, Box 1-B
Philomath, OR  97370
(503) 929-3266 [1-M, 3-M, 4-M]

Hall, Frederick C.
Plant Ecologist
USDA-FS, PNW
319 SW Pine St.
Portland, OR  97208
(503) 221-3817 [1-M, 3-M]

Haddow, Dennis
Air Quality Bureau
Department of Environmental Health and Science
State of Montana
Helena, Montana  59601
                                    -245-

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Hartman, Harold E.
Environmental Specialist
Industrial Forestry Association
1220 SW Columbia St.
Portland, OR  97201
(503) 222-9505 [1-M, 3-M, 4-M]

Hedin, Albert T.
Forester
Washington State Department of Natural  Resources
General Administration Building
Olympia, WA  98504
(206) 753-5350 [1-M, 2-M, 3-M]

Hickerson, Carl W.
Director, Fire Management
USDA-FS PNW
319 Pine St.
Portland, OR  97208
(503) 221-2931 [1-M, 3-M]

Hooven, Edward F.
Associate Professor, Wildlife Ecology
Forest Research Laboratory
Oregon State University
Corvallis, OR  97331

Hough, Walter A.
Staff Fire Scientist
USDA-FS, Forest Fire and Atmospheric
  Science Research
P.O. Box 2417, Washington, D.C. 20013
Washington, D.C.  20013
(703) 235-8195 [1-R, 2-R]

James, Donald H.
Supervisor
USDA-FS Siuslaw National Forest
P.O. Box 1148
Corvallis, OR  97330
(503) 757-4493 [1-M, 3-M]

Johansen, Ragnar (Bill) W.
Principal Research Forester
USDA-FS, Southern Forest Fire Laboratory
Southeastern Forest Experiment Station
P.O. Box 5106
Macon, GA  31208
(912) 746-1477 [1-R, 2-R]
                                   -246-

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Keesee, Robert H.
Senior Economist
Georgia-Pacific Corporation
900 SW Pine St.
Portland, OR  97204
(503) 222-5561 [1-E, 3-E, 4-E]

Krauss, Paul E.
Deputy Supervisor
Washington State Department of Natural
  Resources
General Administration Building
Olympia, WA  98504
(206) 753-1935 [1-M, 3-M]

Kunz, Ralph H.
Fire Prevention and Fuel Management
USDA-FS PNW
319 Pine St.
Portland, OR  97208
(503) 221-2931 [1-M, 3-M]

Lamb, Robert C.
Formerly Regional Meteorologist
USDA-FS PNW
  Contact:  Deeming, J.E.
  Regional Meteorologist
  USDA-FS PNW
  319 SW Pine Street
  Portland, OR  97208
  (503) 221-2931  [2-M, 2-R]

Lawrence, William
Research Coordinator
Weyerhaeuser Corporation
Centralia, WA
(206) 736-8241 [1-R, 4-R]

Lingler, Gene E.
District Silviculturalist
USDA-FS Siuslaw National Forest
Alsea, OR
(503) 487-5811 [1-M, 3-M]

Martin, Robert E.
Project Leader
USDA-FS PNW Bend Silviculture Lab
1027 NW Trenton Ave.
Bend, OR  97701
(503) 422-6283 [1-M, 1-R]
                                  -247-

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Matthews, Robert P.
Director - Forest Management
Washington Forest Protection Association
1411 4th Ave. Bldg.
Suite 1220
Seattle, WA  98101
(206) 623-1500 [1-M, 3-M, 4-M]

Maxwell, Wayne G.
Forest  Residues Research
USDA-FS PNWF & RES
809 NE  6th Ave. (P.O. Box 3141)
Portland, OR  97208
(503) 234-3361 [1-R, 2-R, 3-R]

McCleese, William L.
Supervisor
USDA-FS, Ochoco National Forest
Prineville, OR  97754
(503) 447-6247 [1-M, 3-M, 4-M]

Mclaughlin, William D.
Supervisor
USDA-FS Okanogan National Forest
219 2nd Ave./S.
Okanogan, WA  98840
(509) 422-2704 [1-M]

McMahon, Charles K.
Principal Research Chemist
USDA-FS, Southern Forest Fire Laboratory
Southeastern Forest Experiment Station
P.O. Box 5106
Macon,  GA  31208
(912) 746-9436

Mick, Allen H.
Senior  Environmental Engineer
Georoia-Pacific Corporation
900 SW  5th Ave.
Portland, OR  97204
(503) 222-5561 [1-M, 2-R]
                                   -248-

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Monteith, Lee E.
Senior Chemist
Department of Environmental  Health
University of Washington
Seattle, WA  98195
(206) 543-4252 [2-R, 4-R]

Mote, David
Manager Land and Timer Resources Group
International Paper Company
121 SW Salmon
Portland, OR  97204
(503) 243-3259 [1-M, 3-M, 4-M]

Murphy. James L.
Wildfire Prevention
USDA-FS PSWF & RES
1960 Addison
Berkeley, CA  94701
(415) 449-3482 [1-M, 2-R]

Mutch, Robert
Fire Management Specialist
USDA-FS Lolo National Forest
Missoula, MT  59801
(406) 585-3011 [1-M, 1-R]

Newton, Michael
Associate Professor
School of Forestry
Oregon State University
Corvallis, OR  97331
(503) 753-9166 [1-M, 4-R]

Paulson, Neil R.
Air Quality Management Officer
USDA-FS, Aviation and Fire Management
P.O. Box 2417
Washington, D.C.  20013
(703) 235-8666 [2-M, 2-R]

Pickford, Stewart G.
Assistant Professor
College of Forest Resources  AR-10
University of Washington
Seattle, WA  98195
(206) 543-6210 [1-R, 2-R]
                                   -249-

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Pierovich,  John M.
Program Manager
USDA-FS, Southern Forest Fire Laboratory
Southeastern Forest Experiment Station
P.O. Box 5106
Macon, GA  31208
(912) 746-1477 [2-R, 3-R]

Rey, Mark E.
Environmental Forester
National Forest Products Association
1619 Massachusetts Ave., NW
Washington, D.C.  20036
(202) 797-5869 [1-M, 3-M, 1-E, 3-E]

Roberts, Charles F-
Principal Research Meteorologist
USDA-FS, Aviation and Fire Management
P.O. Box 2417
Washington, D.C.  20013
(703) 235-8666 [2-R]

Robertson, John R.
Data Management Leader
USDA-FS PNW
319 SW Pine St.
Portland, OR  97208 [1-M]

Rosene, John
Olympic Air Pollution Control Authority
120 East State Ave.
Olympia, WA  98501
(206) 352-4881 [2-M, 2-R]

Ryan, Paul W.
Principal Research Forester
USDA-FS, Southern Forest Fire Laboratory
Southeastern Forest Experiment Station
P.O. Box 5106
Macon, GA  31208
(912) 746-9436 [1-R, 2-R]

Sandberg, David V.
Forest Residues Program
USDA-FS PNWF & RES
4507 University Way, NE
Seattle, WA  98105
(206) 442-7815 [1-R, 2-R]
                                   -250-

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Shenk, William D.
Cooperative Fire Management
USDA-FS, PNW
319 SW Pine St.
Portland, OR  97208
(503) 221-2727 [1-M]

Shrader, Paul H.
Deputy Director
Northwest Energy Policy Project
1096 Lloyd Bldg.
700 N.E. Multnomah St.
Portland, OR  97232
(503) 234-9666 [4-R]

Stenkamp, Paul R.
USDA-FS, Gifford Pinchot National  Forest
500 W. 12th St.
Vancouver, WA  98660
(206) 696-4041 [1-M, 3-M, 1-E, 3-E]

Strand, Robert
Research Forester
Central Division Research
Crown Zellerbach Corporation
Wilsonville,  OR
(503) 682-2141 [1-R, 4-R]

Teitel, Jeff
Environmental Counsel on Air Quality
National Forest Products Association
1619 Massachusetts Ave., NW
Washington, D.C.  20036
(202) 797-5868 [2-M, 2-R]

Todd, John E.
Director of Timber Management
USDA-FS PNW
319 SW Pine St.
Portland, OR  97208
(503) 221-2955 [1-M]

Tokarczyk, Robert D.
Forest Supervisor
USDA-FS, Gifford Pinchot National  Forest
500 W. 12th St.
Vancouver, WA  98660
(206) 696-4041  [1-M, 3-M,  1-E,  3-E]
                                    -251-

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Torrence, James F.
Deputy Regional Forester
USDA-FS PNW
319 SW Pine St.
Portland, OR  97208
(503) 221-3627 [1-M]

Truax, Michael R.
Resource Planning Analyst
Simpson Timber Company
900 Fourth Ave.
Seattle, WA  98164
(206) 292-5217 [1-M, 3-M, 4-M]

VanSickle, Charles C.
Forest Survey
USDA-FS, PNW F & RES
809 NE 6th Ave
Portland, OR  97208
(503) 429-3361, Ext. 4935 [1-M, 1-E]

Ward, Darold E.
School of Forestry
University of Washington
Seattle, WA  98195
(206) 543-6210 [1-R.2-R]

Ward, Frank R.
Forest Residues Research
USDA-FS PNWF & RES
809 NE 6th Ave. (P.O. Box 3141)
Portland, OR  97208
(503) 234-3361 [1-R, 2-R, 3-R]

Weaver, Darrell F.
Meteorologist, Air Programs
State of Washington Department of Ecology
Olympia, WA  98504
(206) 753-2800 [2-M, 2-R]

Wells, Stuart N. Jr.
Operations Director
Forest Protection Division
State of Oregon Department of Forestry
2600 State Street
Salem, OR  97310
(503) 378-2506 [1-M, 2-M]
                                    -252-

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Williams, Dansy (Dan) T.
Principal Research Meteorologist
USDA-FS, Southern Forest Fire Laboratory
Southeastern Forest Experiment Station
P.O. Box 5106
Macon, GA  31208
(912) 746-5191 [1-R, 2-R]

Zerbe, John I.
Program Manager
USDA-FS Forest Products Laboratory
P.O. Box 5130
Madison, WI  53705
(608) 257-2211 [4-R]
                                     -253-

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                                              TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
                                    •(Please read Inuructions on the reverse before completing/
 1. REPORT NO.
      EPA 910/9-78-052
   2.
                                                                             3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION"NO.
 L TITLE AND SUBTITLE
  IMPACT OF FORESTRY BURNING UPON AIR QUALITY
  A State-of-the-Know ledge Characterization in Washington and Oregon
                                         5. REPORT DATE
                                           October 1978
                                         6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
 7. AUTHOR(S)
  Jonathan D.  Cook, James H. Himel,  and Rudolph H. Moyer
                                         8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
                                           GEOMET Report Number EF-664
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
  GEOMET, Incorporated
  15 Firstfield Road
  Gaithersburg, MD  20760
                                                                              10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
                                          11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
                                                                               Contract Number 68-01-4144
 12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
  Region X
  1200 Sixth Avenue
  Seattle, Washington  98101
                                          13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
                                          Final—8/15/77-8/15/78
                                          14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
 15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
 16. ABSTRACT
        This document presents a state-of-the-knowledge characterization of the air quality impact of prescribed forestry burn-
  ing in the Pacific Northwest.
        Prescribed forestry burning has been shown to be a useful management tool in the Pacific Northwest.  Techniques for
  burning are well developed.  Much is known about fire behavior under controlled burning conditions; less is known about
  emissions.
        Emissions from prescribed forestry burning in this region cannot be accurately estimated from data presently available.
  The emission factors reported in the literature vary widely, therefore, this report presents ranges of estimated emissions which
  may reflect the magnitude of forestry burning emissions.
        The impact of these emissions cannot be accurately assessed using available dispersion models or air quality monitoring
  networks.  Potential impacts of concern include human health and visibility impairment.  The total particulate,  hydrocarbon
  and carbon monoxide emissions from forestry burning are significant and may contribute to exceedance of air quality standards
  in Washington and Oregon.  Some research has been directed toward evaluation of the impact of forestry burning  on  ambient
  air quality, particularly in the Willamette Valley, but a consensus of findings does not exist at this time.  However, some
  individual studies have  indicated  a clear impact.
        The impact o' prescribed burning can be reduced.  Smoke management programs are largely successful in preventing
  observable smoke intrusions into populated areas; however,  the potential for air quality degradation  from residual smoke still
  exists.  Alternative  burning techniques and alternatives to burning are available.  Alternative burning techniques include the
  use  of optimal burn  periods, optimal standard techniques and new  burning technology.  The  alternatives to forestry burning
  include the use of mechanical or  chemical treatments, improved harvesting systems, slash utilization and no treatment./     >
17.
                                          KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
                        DESCRIPTORS
                        b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS   C.  COSATI Field/Group
 Air  Quality  Impact
 Forestry Burning
 Slash Burning
 Prescribed  Burning
 Open  Burning
 Emissions
Alternatives
Wood  Residues
Smoke Management
Utilization
 8. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT

  Release to the Public
                        19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)
                          UNCLASSIFIED
21. NO. OF PAGES
       270
                                                            20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
                                                              UNCLASSIFIED
                                                           22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)

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16.  ABSTRACT (Continued)

      Future legislation and the implementation of legislative mandates of the  Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977 may have
significant implications.  Visibility standards in EPA Class I areas and fine particle legislation by EPA and Congress could
impose stricter regulations on forestry burning in the Pacific Northwest.
      This report was submitted in fulfillment of Task Order 4 of Contract Number 68-01-4144 by GEOMET, Incorporated
under the sponsorship of the  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

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