Costs and Air Quality Effects
of Selected Alternatives to
Annual Open Field Burning in
Northern Idaho
June, 1983
Prepared for
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region X
1200 Sixth Avenue
Seattle, Washington 98101
ENGINEERING-SCIENCE
DESIGN RESEARCH PLANNING
125 WEST HUNTINGTON DRIVE P.O. BOX 538 ARCADIA, CALIFORNIA 91006 273/445-756o||
OFFICES IN PRINCIPAL CITIES
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ES ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
COST AND AIR QUALITY EFFECTS
OF SELECTED ALTERNATIVES TO
ANNUAL OPEN FIELD BURNING
IN NORTHERN IDAHO
PREPARED FOR:
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REGION X
1200 SIXTH AVENUE
SEATTLE, WASHINGTON 98101
MAY, 1983 !
PREPARED BY
SCOTT A. FREEBURN
ENGINEERING-SCIENCE, INC.
760 WARM SPRINGS AVENUE
BOISE, IDAHO 83702
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
1. REPORT SUMMARIES
1.1 Brief Summary i
1.2 Extended Summary vii
2. INTRODUCTION
2.1 Purpose and Scope of Report 2-2
2.2 Information Sources 2-4
2.3 Grass and Grass Seed Industry Background 2-7
3. THE NEED FOR ANNUAL BURNING OF GRASS SEED AND CEREAL
GRAIN CROPS
3.1 Ecological Perspective on Burning 3-3
3.2 Historical Background of Burning in Grass Seed
Production 3-4
3.3 Effects of Fire on Grass Seed Production 3-7
3.4 Economic Advantages and Disadvantages of Burning 3-26
4. EVALUATING POST-HARVEST TREATMENT ALTERNATIVES
4.1 Control Program Objectives 4-2
4.2 Cost Factors Relative to Post-Harvest Treatment
Alternatives 4-10
4.3 Required Increases in Seed Prices to Offset
Additional Costs of Reduced Burning 4-40
4.4 Benefit-to-Cost Analysis for Reduced Burning
Alternatives 4-47
4.5 Rating of Alternative Post-Harvest Treatment 4-57
4.6 Rating of Fields for Open Burning 4-63
4.7 Determining Acreage to be Burned 4-67
4.8 Identification and Tracking of Field Information 4-69
4.9 Effects of Implementing the Reductions in Burning 4-71
5. REFERENCES
6. APPENDIX
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1 United States Kentucky Bluegrass
Seed Production, 1974-1981.
Figure 2-2 Average Price Received for Various
Grass Seeds, 1974-1981.
Figure 2-3 Kentucky Bluegrass Seed Producing
Areas in N. Idaho and E. Washington.
Figure 2-4 Acreage in Seed Production for All Varieties
and Proprietary Varieties of Kentucky Blue-
grass in Idaho and Washington, 1976-1981.
Figure 2-5 Field Burning Related Complaints
Received by Air Quality Regulatory
Agencies in Idaho and Washington,
1975-1982.
Figure 2-6 Kentucky Bluegrass Seed Production
as a Percentage of the Previous
Year's Production for Idaho, Oregon,
and Washington, 1975-1981.
Figure 3-1
Figure 4-1
Figures 4-2
through 4-5
Figure 4-6
Figures 4-7
through 4-9
Ranges of Yield Data for Various
Post-Harvest Treatments.
Additional Production Costs and Yield
Reductions for Various Percent Reductions
in Burning.
Percentage Price Increase Required to
Maintain Noted Profit Levels for Kentucky
Bluegrass and Cereal Crops.
Emission Benefit-to-Cost Ratios for Various
Alternative Post-Harvest Treatments,
Burning Schedules, and Seed Prices for
Kentucky Bluegrass and Cereal Crops.
Emission Benefit-to-Cost Ratios for Various
Alternative Post-Harvest Treatments, Burning
Schedules, and Seed Prices for Three Kentucky
Bluegrass Varieties.
Figure 4-10 Flow Diagram for Procedure for Determining
Acreage for Open Burning.
Figure 4-11 Estimated Cummulative Additional Costs Accruing
to Idaho Seed Producers Resulting from Reduced
Open Burning.
PAGE
2-15
2-23
**
2-27
2-29
2-37
2-41
3-15
4-39
4-42
4-50
4-53
4-70
4-75
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2-1 Commercially Significant Species of Cool Season
Turf and Forage Grasses Grown in the Pacific
Northwest
Table 2-II Major Cool-Season Grass Seed Producing Countries,
1974-1978
PAGE
2-8
2-10
Table 2-III
Table 2-IV
Table 2-V
Table 3-1
Table 3-II
Table 3-III
Table 3-IV
Table 4-1
Table 4-II
Table 4-III
Average Annual Production of Cool-Season Grass
Seed for Major Producing States, 1979-1981 2-13
Summary of Selected Idaho Seed Certification
Requirements for Kentucky Bluegrasses 2-31
Ranges of Specific Emission Rates for Pollutants
from Field Burning 2-60
Yield Response of Kentucky Bluegrass to Alternative
Post-Harvest Treatments 3-11
Average Yields of Kentucky Bluegrass Cultivars
for Various Post-Harvest Residue Treatments
Expressed as a Percentage of Average Yields
Resulting from Comparable Annual Open Burning 3-19
Control of Grass Seed Pests by Open Field
Burning 3-25
Ranges of Selected Kentucky Bluegrass Farming
Costs (Powell, 1983) 3-39
Objectives for Proposed Field Burning Control
Programs 4-5
Estimated Additional Production Costs and Yield
Reductions Due to Reduced Burning 4-18;
Ratings of Alternative Post-Harvest Treatment
Programs 4-61
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SECTION 1
REPORT SUMMARIES
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1. REPORT SUMMARIES
1.1 Brief Summary
Agricultural field burning is conducted in northern
Idaho Kentucky bluegrass seed fields to control
diseases, weeds, and insects and related pests. The
practice also economically eliminates straw residues
and stimulates greater seed yields. Cereal crop
residues also are burned in some areas of northern
Idaho to substantially reduce residue loads, thereby
reducing the costs of incorporating this material
into the soil and allowing complete decomposition of
remaining residue and root materials.
The burning of these residues also results in the
emission of large quantities of air contaminants,
mostly fine particulate matter, carbon dioxide,
carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbon gases. The effects
of these emissions on visibility, particulate
loading, and odors are dramatic. In addition, the
air quality effects of field burning smoke have been
associated with adverse respiratory health effects in
some individuals. The control of these air quality
effects is normally approached through two means:
reductions in the actual emissions from burning; and
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reductions in the level of exposure of people to
smoke through appropriate scheduling of burning
(smoke management). Since emission reductions and
operational smoke management can only be accomplished
imperfectly both approaches should be considered to
effect the greatest feasible reduction in smoke
impacts. This report focuses on methods to reduce
emissions through alternative post-harvest treatments
involving reduced burning. The results of this
analysis and proposals based on it should be
considered in light of present and projected smoke
management capabilities and the goals established
through the public regulatory processes for control
of field burning smoke impacts.
From this analysis of the effects of reduced - burning
alternatives, key findings may be stated:
1. Air contaminant emissions and net returns to
seed producers would be reduced in proportion
to reductions in burning. The reduction in
returns to producers would be due to increased
production costs, more frequently incurred
establishment costs, and reduced seed yields;
2. A reduction in burning would result in
increased costs and reduced net returns for
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cereal growers in irrigated and gravelly soils
where burning has been used to reduce straw
loading and related straw incorporation costs;
3. Increases in crop prices are not likely to be
sufficient to offset the increased costs to
w
farmers in the near term;
4. On the basis of minimum costs per unit of
emission reduction, the various post-harvest
treatment alternative analyzed here are rated
as follows:
a. Elimination of burning of cereal stubble
in dryland areas;
b. Elimination of cereal stubble burning in
all other areas; and
c. Elimination of all cereal field burning
and reduction or elimination of grass
seed residue burning.
5. Data is so limited regarding the response to
reduced burning of the 32 varieties of
Kentucky bluegrass certifiable in Idaho that a
distinction between varieties on this basis
cannot be made. Of the varieties for which
data is available, only "Merion" clearly is
less affected by reduced burning;
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6. Though maximizing residue removal generally is
best for yield retention and stand
maintenance, none of the three residue
treatments (straw removal, straw and stubble
removal, no residue removal) was clearly
superior based upon an emissidn
benefit-to-cost analysis;
7. With the understanding that:
a. The understanding the control of air
pollution from field burning would
result in increased expenses;
b. As with other sources of air pollution,
these costs would be borne primarily by
the source operators (the seed
producers); and
c. To noticeably lessen the present impact
of field burning on air quality in
sensitive areas of northern Idaho,
emissions likely would need to be
significantly reduced, the following
steps are recommended as the most
effective approach to making such
general emission reductions:
1) Eliminate the burning of all
cereal grain;
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2) If implementation of step (1) and any
associated smoke management restrictions
have not adequately reduced smoke
effects, also restrict the burning of
Kentucky bluegrass fields to no more
than two years out of three; and
3) Consider further reductions in burning
after a detailed economic analysis of
the effects of steps (1) and (2).
Though such emission reduction could be implemented
through additional operational smoke management
restrictions, such an approach could not
differentiate as to the need to burn a given crop.
Long-term additional annual costs of these steps
would vary from approximately $34 dollars per acre
for step (1) to approximately $60 per acre for step
(2) based on present seed prices. Additional costs
would vary depending on farm circumstances, but would
increace with reduced burning reaching approximately
$200 per acre in the absence of burning;
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8. Reductions in burning would likely cause a
shift in Kentucky bluegrass acreage to areas
of lower production costs, that is, areas
where annual open burning is allowed.
Reductions in burning beyond the two years out
of three option would be expected to cause a
very rapid acreage movement to other suitable
growing areas where burning remains relatively
unrestricted. At present, these areas would
be in eastern Washington and various locations
in Oregon; and
9. Methods for partially reducing burning of any
crop would require careful tracking of burning
activities by a regulatory agency to insure
(a) compliance with any necessary regulations
and smoke management procedures and (b) that
there was an equitable reduction in burning.
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2 Extended Summary
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.) is the
principle grass seed crop grown in northern Idaho.
The seed from this perennial grass is used for both
forage (pastures) and turf. Some thirty-two
varieties of the species are eligible to be certified
in the state as meeting requirements for genetic
trueness, seed purity and quality, and minimum
gemination levels. Such certified seed from Idaho is
marketed throughout the United States and foreign
countries at prices established by U. S. and world
supply of and demand for the seed.
Most of the U. S.'s (and world's) production of
Kentucky bluegrass seed is from the Pacific Northwest
states of Idaho, Oregon, and Washington with each
state producing almost one-third of the U. S. supply.
The Inland production region of eastern Washington
and northern Idaho is in competition with and
influenced by seed production in Oregon and vice
versa. Thus, changes in production levels due to
weather or other factors in one region influence
price and production in the other. Due to this
competitive market situation, increased costs of
production in one area will not necessarily result in
a proportional increase in seed price, especially in
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the short-term.
Field burning has been used as a routine cultural
practice for grass seed cultivation in the Pacific
Northwest since the late 1940's when it was found to
be an effective control of some troublesome grass
diseases. With annual use, it also was found to
control many undesirable weeds and most stem and leaf
dwelling insects. It was established that the seed
yields of most species grown in the area were
substantially increased when burning was conducted
annually, compared to when burning was not used.
Pacific Northwest climatology and cultural practices
have resulted in seed yields and quality that have
allowed the industry to compete very effectively
against other seed-producing areas. Burning is
considered by agricultural experts as perhaps the
most important cultural practice.
As reduced burning is contemplated to reduce air
pollution, the effectiveness of alternative means to
control weed, disease, and pest problems must be
considered as well as the effect of reduced yield.
Studies of all these effects have been conducted, and
though data is not as complete as desired, the role
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of field burning in each of these areas have been
reasonably well defined.
Without burning, Kentucky bluegrass yields decline
with increasing .age of the crop stand until a stable
yield equal to about 40% of the young stand yield is
obtained. Routine burning maintains yields near
those of a young stand. Yield reduction, rate of
reduction, and responsiveness to fire are all variety
dependent. The effect of burning on yield can be
partially reproduced by mechanical removal of straw
and stubble. The effectiveness of such mechanical
straw and stubble removal in maintaining seed yields
declines with increasing stand age.
Diseases and insects which attack the stems, leaves,
and seed head of the grass plant are effectively
controlled by burning. Disease innoculum, growth
media, insects, and insect eggs are all eliminated
through burning. Root- and crown-feeding pests are
not effectively controlled by burning and must be
treated chemically. Fire, through the resulting
elimination of straw and stubble residue, is
instrumental in assuring contact between chemicals
and such underground feeders.
Weed seed and any lost crop seed is incenerated or
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killed by burning, thus eliminating potential plant
competition to the perennial crop. Elimination of
weeds also can be critical to maintaining seed purity
standards.
A reduction in burning from the present levels may
result in any combination of the following: 1)
Decreased yields; 2) Increased incidence of weeds; 3)
Increased incidence of diseases; and 4) Increased
incidence of insect and related pests. To partially
offset these adverse effects of reduced burning, seed
producers can implement a variety of other treatments
including: 1) Mechanical straw and stubble removal;
2) Increased use of chemical pesticides; 3) More
frequent crop rotations; 4) Increased seed cleaning;
and 5) Flaming or machine burning (normally after
straw removal). In the case of cereal crops burned
to reduce the overall residue loading, not burning
would require increased straw chopping and tilling
activities to prepare a satisfactory seed bed
immediately following harvest. Each of these
post-harvest operations increases production costs.
In analyzing methods to effectively reduce emissions,
a number of post-harvest treatment alternatives were
reviewed. The additional costs of these treatments
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compared to open burning were assessed, based on
available economic data and research of the effects
of non-burning alternatives on yield. Reductions in
emissions were assumed to be proportional to acreage
not burned with either factor acting as a surrogate
for improved air quality, assuming some baseline
conditions. Thus, benefits (improved air quality)
and costs could be assessed based upon a weighted
analysis of post-harvest treatment alternatives.
Also, estimates on the required increase in crop
prices to maintain assumed profit levels or net
returns could be determined.
Benefit-to-cost relationships were determined for
three Kentucky bluegrass varieties on representative
soils for a variety of post-harvest treatments
including: no burning, burning on alternate years,
and burning two of three years. In non-burn years,
straw, straw and stubble, and no removal were
considered. Benefit-to-cost relationships were also
determined for winter wheat on average and gravelly
soils.
Based on these determinations, the most cost
effective reduction in emission would be derived
through eliminating the burning of cereal residues.
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Additional costs associated with this practice would
range from $1 to $35 per acre with the highest cost
for the gravelly soils typical of the Rathdrum
Prairie.
Additional production operations and costs to offset
the effects of reduced burning were much more
substantial for grass seed fields. Increased
production costs ranged from $16 to $130 per acre.
Average yield reductions varied between 5% and 52%,
depending upon variety, treatment, and assumed crop
stand life. Consequently, benefit-to-cost ratios are
much lower for grass seed crops than the winter wheat
analyzed. Of the alternative grass seed treatments
reviewed, burning two of three years resulted in a
high benefit-to-cost ratio and the smallest increases
in additional costs.
Based on this analysis, a procedure is provided that
would prohibit burning of cereal crops. If
additional emission reductions are necessary, the
procedure would support burning of grass seed crops
two out of three years. To achieve this, a reduced
priority for burning would be given to fields that
had received annual burning for the previous two
years and to young stands.
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During the initial years of such a program, burnable
acreage of any ownership would be limited to existing
grass seed acreage. Any subsequent reductions in
grass seed residue burning would be effected by
limiting burning to two-thirds of the existing grass
seed acreage.
The procedure would maximize, to the extent possible,
farm management decisions regarding burning by
establishing an upper limit only on acreage to be
burned by a given ownership. The upper limit, based
on the fields registered for burning, would not
restrict the burning of any individual field. To
avoid over-registration aimed at garnering additional
acreage for burning, registered acreage would need to
be checked against historical acreage amounts for
each ownership.
It is noted that such a procedure would require
extensive collection and year-to-year tracking of
data on individual fields. The data could be
collected in conjunction with the registration for
the smoke management program under which the fields
would be burned.
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SECTION 2
INTRODUCTION
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2. INTRODUCTION
Some 21,000 acres of perennial grass seed crops are
"
grown in Northern Idaho. Virtually all of the
acreage is dedicated to Kentucky bluegrass (Poa
pratensis L.) varieties with very minor acreages of
other perennial grasses. For reasons to be discussed
in this report, the grass seed 'fields are burned each
year after harvest. This activity results in large
quantities of air contaminants being released to the
atmosphere causing pronounced increases in
particulate loadings, reductions in visibility, and
adverse effects on the health of individuals. In
addition, because of the adverse effect on aesthetic
air quality values, it has been proposed that the
burning of fields has resulted in a reduced tourist
'trade in this area. (Porter, 1982)
In addition to grass seed crops, some 5000-7000 acres
of cereal crops are burned each year in the same
area. Though the character of the smoke is somewhat
different from that produced by grass seed residues,
the net effect is a further degradation of air
quality and a possible lengthening of the burning
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season.
2.1 Purpose and Scope of Report
Idaho air pollution regulations allow agricultural
open burning to be conducted provided no alternative
non-burning method "producing a similar public
benefit" is available. (Idaho Board of Health and
Welfare, 1979) The rules further require that the
burning must be "necessary" and may be conducted
"only when an economical and reasonable alternate
method of disposal is not available."
The State of Idaho, in developing "compliance
schedules" designed to control open burning
activities, has reviewed previously both the question
of necessity and the availability of "alternative
methods of disposal". None of these reviews resulted
in reductions in acreage burned but did establish
guidelines for the control of burning activities to
reduce smoke effects and safety hazards. The last
"compliance schedule" (Idaho Department of Health and
Welfare, 1977) covering the period June, 1977 through
December, 1981, provided for a continuing review of
non-burning alternatives. However, no specific
review had been completed when, in 1981, Idaho's Air
Quality Bureau, the responsible regulatory agency,
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was temporarily dissolved.
With this background, it is intended that this
analysis and report serve several functions. First,
this document is proposed to fulfill the review
process regarding alternative methods contemplated by
the aforementioned regulations and "compliance
schedule". Second, it is proposed to accumulate,
organize, and document results of diverse research
activities regarding the need to burn field residues
and alternative methods of treatment upon which to
base further judgments regarding the regulation of
field burning. Finally, it is proposed that this
document provide information to aid in the selection
of methods to reduce emissions from open burning.
This report is not proposed to simply relate all
investigation regarding burning and grass seed
production but to present an analysis limited to
information applicable to the Northern Idaho
situation. Thus, research results or operational
approaches used in areas distinct from the Inland
Pacific Northwest seed producing region have been
screened carefully as to their potential usefulness
in reducing burning in Idaho. It should be made
clear that this screening process was utilized to
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conserve resources rather than eliminate a
potentially successful method for reducing emissions.
Screening was applied only after a broad review of
related investigations was first completed.
2.2 Information Sources
In compiling this report special efforts were made to
collect information from a range of sources
encompassing experiences beyond that of the Northern
Idaho/Eastern Washington seed producing area. Of
particular interest were the approaches to reducing
burning of agricultural crops undertaken by
regulatory agencies with air pollution problems
paralleling those in northern Idaho. Far and away
the bulk of efforts to reduce agricultural burning of
crop residue have been centered in Oregon and
California. Other states for the most part have not
had to deal with the concentrated acreages subject to
burning or have not had direct conflicts of interest
occasioned by large amounts of open burning near
population centers. As a result much of the
information in this report is based upon* research
activities in these states where smoke control issues
have led to extensive research sponsored by
regulatory agencies. In the West and the South,
smoke problems related to forestry burning have
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stimulated considerable research by the U. S. Forest
Service and state forestry groups. Where this
research or other operational procedures have
appeared applicable to thhe Idaho situation, these
sources of information have been drawn upon.
In seeking additional external perspective, sources
in Europe and eastern states were contacted where
grass seed production is an established industry.
Though it was found that alternative crops and
pricing structure make close comparison of cultural
practices infeasible, these sources did help
establish limits on practical alternatives to the
present Idaho situation.
Finally, it has been recognized that much of the
research on grass seed production to date has been
sponsored and completed by university and industrial
agricultural groups. The goal of much of this
research has been to increase net seed yields while
maintaining crop purity. In most instances, the use
of open burning or some form of thermal sanitation
has been supported by these research efforts. In
fact, annual field burning was formalized as a
cultural tool for grass seed production based on U.S.
Department of Agriculture-supported research at
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Oregon State University's School of Agriculture.
Prior to the start of this report, there was concern
expressed regarding the use of these same research
institutions to evaluate the applicability of
non-burning alternatives. In particular, there was
concern that agronomic researchers, may be biased in
analyzing alternatives to burning because:
1. Use of such alternatives may require
acceptance of reduced yields or seed quality-a
result in direct opposition to a goal of much
of the previous research; and
2. The long, close association between
agricultural research organizations and the
grass seed industry make it difficult for such
organizations to support alternatives that
could make grass seed a less profitable
enterprise.
To minimize the potential for any such bias to
influence the conclusions of this report, the results
of research supported by regulatory agencies were
carefully weighed with those supported by
agricultural interests. Where appropriate
limitations or shortcomings of these research efforts
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are noted, a final conclusion was drawn by the author.
2.3 Grass and Grass Seed Industry Background
Though grass grows throughout the world and is
adapted to a- wide variety of climates, this
background section will deal only with so-called cool
season or cool climate grasses since Kentucky
bluegrass is a member of this group. The several
commercially significant species are often
dichotomized into turf and forage catagories based on
their growth habit, and usage.. Turf type grasses are
normally characterized by a relatively fine leaf and
stem structure. Major varietal development efforts
have aimed at improving green color retention;
tolerance to shade; droug'ht; traffic; diseases; and
reducing maintenance requirements.
Forage grass often has a coarse, upright growth
habit. Rapid growth and regrowth in response to
cropping while maintaining high nutrition levels are
critical attributes of forage grasses. Researchers
have also sought improvements in drought and disease
tolerance.
Table 2-1 lists the commercially significant species
of both turf and forage cool-season grasses.
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Table 2-1
Commerically Significant Species of Cool-Season Turf and Forage
Grasses Grown in the Pacific Northwest
TURF GRASSES
Red Fescue
Kentucky Bluegrass
Bentgrasses
Fine-leaf Perennial
Ryegrass
(Festuca rubra L. )
(Poa pratensis L.)
(Agrostis sp.)
(Lolium perenne L.)
FORAGE GRASSES
Kentucky Bluegrass
Tall Fescue
Perennial Ryegrass
Annual Ryegrass
Timothy
Orchard Grass
Meadow Fescue
Various Bromegrasses
Various Wheatgrasses
(Poa pratensis L.)
(Festuca arundinacea Schreb.)
(Lolium perenne L.)
(Lolium multiflorum L.)
(Phleum pratense L.)
(Dactylis glomerata
(Festuca pratensis L
(Bromus sp.)
(Agropyron sp.)
)
Huds)
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Grass seed is grown throughout the world with various
levels of sophistication and productivity. However,
only in relatively few areas is grass seed the major
crop. Significant production of cool season grass
seeds, such as bluegrass, is limited to areas of
Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Northern Europe
(principally Denmark), and the United States. The
development of these seed production areas is based
on a variety of factors including agricultural and
economic desirability or a substantial internal use
of and, therefore, need for grass seed. To a greater
or lesser extent, all have climatological conditions
conducive to seed production.
Accurate data on production levels for these areas is
limited. Only the U. S. (through 1981) and Denmark
have reasonably detailed reporting of grass seeds
produced. Significant species are shown in Table
2-II. Production levels for countries without
specific amounts are believed to be significantly
less than those of Denmark.
These seed producing areas compete against each other
for the export market, principally Europe. The
United States is by far the largest exporter of grass
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Table 2-II
Major Cool-Season Grass Seed Producing Countries 1974-1978
Country
United States
Denmark
Canada
New Zealand and
Australia
Major Species
Annual Ryegrass
Tall Fescue
Perennial Ryegrass
Kentucky Bluegrass
Orchard Grass
Fine fescues
Perennial Ryegrass
Annual Ryegrass
Fine Fescues
Bluegrass
Orchard Grass
Tall Fescue
Fescue
Bluegrasses
Annual ryegrass
Perennial Ryegrass
Other EEC Countries
(France, West Germany,
Belgium, The Netherland,
United Kingdom)
Annual Ryegrass
Perennial Ryegrass
Fescues
Kentucky Bluegrass
Total Annual
Production
(millions of pounds)
426.6
93. 1
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seeds of any nation with about 15 percent of its
total production dedicated to this market. (Wilson
and Conklin, 1981)
2.3.1 U. S. Grass Seed Industry
2.3.1.1 Areas of Production/Types of Seed Produced
Though some cool season grass seed production
occurs throughout the United States,
significant seed production areas are limited
to the Pacific Northwest states of Oregon,
Washington, and Idaho, and Minnesota,
Missouri, Kentucky, and Kansas. Oregon is far
and away the largest producer of grass seed
due principally to its near monopoly of
ryegrass seed production which accounts for
approximately 57% of all grass seed produced
in the U. S. Oregon accounts for about 36% of
the total grass seed acreage in the U. S. and
about 70% of the total production of clean
grass seed. Missouri, also with about 36% of
the nation's grass seed acreage, produces
about 16% of the seed, almost all tall fescue.
The great disparity in production per acre
reflects the higher yielding ryegrasses grown
in Oregon as well as the generally higher
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
yields achievable in the Pacific Northwest.
Table 2-III gives average annual clean seed
production for major producing states of cool
season grass seeds. As may be seen, the
Pacific Northwest states account for nearly
78% of total production.
National Kentucky bluegrass seed production is
even more concentrated in the Pacific
Northwest with 93% of Kentucky bluegrass seed
being produced in this area at present. Of
the remaining 7%, most is produced in Northern
Minnesota. Production on the average has been
evenly divided among each of the Pacific
Northwest States and all other states as
illustrated in Figure 2-1.
2.3.1.2 General Quality Requirements
Quality criteria for grass seed fall in three
general areas:
1. Genetic purity;
2. Level of germination; and
3. Freedom from unwanted seed types and
inert materials.
Satisfying appropriate criteria in each of
2-12.
-------
Table 2-III
Average Annual Production of Cool Season Grass Seed for Major Producing States, 1979-1981
(millions of pounds of clean seed)
States
Annual
Ryegrass
Perennial
Ryegrass
Tall
Fescue
Kentucky
Bluegrass
Timothy
Orchard
Grass
Red
Fescue
Bentgrass Total
ARK
IDAHO
KANSAS
KY
MINN
MO
OREGON
WASH
TOTAL
198.1
59.7
198.1
59.7
3.7
3.9
4.1
71.9
8.2
96.5
12.6
16.5
15.7
44.8
11.9
1 .0
13.4
0.2
0.8
12.4
13.4
15.2
5.9
15.2
5.9
3.7
12.6
3.9
4.3
11.9
73.7
316.0
15.7
442.0
m
10
m
O
m
3)
O
i
O
m
Z
m
Percent of
Total U.S. 100
Production
96.5
100
93
91
95
100
100
-------
ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
these catagories specifies to the consumer the
quality and value of the product purchased and
does much to minimize the role of point of
origin in selection.
Genetic purity requirements are normally
satisfied by limiting the number of
generations between product seed and original
breeders' stock. This is limited to only
three or four generations. Original breeder
stock seed is distributed to specially
selected growers who plant it and produce
"foundation" seed. Foundation seed is in turn
planted with the subsequent generation termed
"registered" seed. This registered seed is
purchased by seed growers for production of
the "certified" seed eventually purchased by
consumers. (Garrison, 1960) To maintain
acceptable genetic purity, certified seed may
not be planted for seed production purposes
except as uncertified seed. (Idaho Crop
Improvement Association, 1982) Therefore,
maintenance of a uniform generation field is
important if the more profitable certified
seed is to be grown. Such considerations are
of particular importance for grass seed
2-14
-------
ISJ
I
PRODUCTION
(millionsof Ibs 30
of seeds)
TOTAL U.S.
PRODUCTION
IDAHO
OREGON
WASHINGTON
ALL
OTHER
STATES
m
in
m
O
m
m
3J
O
w
O
m
Figure 2-1
United States Kentucky Bluegrass Seed
Production, 1974-1981.
-------
ENGINEER ING-SCIENCE -
varieties that tend to "shatter" or drop
seed prior to or during harvest operation.
Since such seed could conceivably germinate
and eventually produce unwanted fifth
generation seed, it is of some importance
to control shattered seed germination.
The percentage of seed that is viable and
will successfully germinate is critical to
the consumer since it in part determines
the amount of seed that needs to be
purchased. Most grass seeds provide
germination rates above 90% with lower
percentages adversely affecting salability
of the crop. A number of factors can
affect the final germination value achieved
in the product including growth and harvest
circumstances, incidence of disease and
other pests and transport and storage
methods. Obviously, any of these factors
that significantly affects germination
values and is controllable is of interest
to seed producers.
Seed purity is determined and recorded in
order to establish compliance with quality
requirements since the customer is not
2-16
-------
ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
interested in buying off-variety seed types,
inert materials, or problem seeds along with
the desired crop seed. Of particular concern
are seeds of noxius weeds (either poisonous or
non-poisonous) or diseased seeds. Either
general class of seed presents a potentially
serious problem for the consumer.
Consequently, regulations regarding impurity
in seed crops set specific, and often severe,
limitations on noxius weed seed and diseased
seed in the final product.
2.3.1.3 Use of Burning in Grass Seed Producing Areas.
Because of its utility in controlling a number
of factors tending to reduce seed quality, the
burning of post-harvest stubble is a common
practice. In fact, such burning is standard
procedure in all areas where grass seed is the
principal crop. An' exception to the routine
practice of burning . occurs in Missouri and
other states where tall fescue is grown
extensively for forage purposes. In seasons
when it appears economically advantageous, a
seed crop will be taken from these pastures as
a by-product to cattle production. The
relatively low quality seed produced is
2-17
-------
ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
subsequently processed and used for reseeding
of pastures. Burning can not be conducted
since it substantially reduces the forage
available for fall pasturing. (Wheaton, 1982)
The use of burning in grass seed production is
strongly influenced by local climatology. It
appears that much of the agronomic benefit of
burning is lost if it occurs when the grass
plant is not in a fully dormant state such as
normally exists in the dry, post-harvest
summer months of the far west. If an actively
growing plant is burned, adverse physiological
responses are noted, resulting in yield
reductions. This effect has been demonstrated
in studies on early versus late burning in the
Pacific Northwest. (Chilcote and Youngberg,
1975) Also, in European seed growing areas
where summers are much wetter than in the
western U.S., seed production response of the
plants to burning is very much reduced. As a
consequence, burning of post-harvest residues
is not common practice in Europe. In
Australia and New Zealand where climatic
conditions resemble those of the near-coastal
areas of the northwest U.S., burning of grass
2-18
-------
ENGINEERING -SCIENCE-
seed residues has found favor and is
recommended by local grass seed experts.
(Youngberg, 1982; Hebblethwaite, 1982)
Farm economics also significantly influence
the selection of burning as an integral part
of grass seed culture. In many areas (for
example, Missouri) grass seed is a secondary
crop or by-product to the preferred
enterprise. Typically this is due to lower
profits associated with grass seed as opposed
to cereal or roww crop alternatives or
livestock production. In some areas, grass
seed is grown only as a short rotation crop
for the more predominate money makers. As a
result, even turf-type perennial fields have
no long-term production potential. Such is
the case in most of the grass seed production
areas of Europe.
Under such short production cycles, (for
example, two seed crops) burning becomes much
less significant as a cultural tool for
maintaining yields and controlling diseases.
Routine cultivation associated with changes in
crops normally is effective in controlling
2-19
-------
ES ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
disease problems. Also, cool season grass
seed varieties normally produce their maximum
yields in the first two harvests and
subsequent yield reductions that might occur
without burning are of no concern.
To put it simply, the long term production of
low cost, high quality grass seed does not
have the high priority on farm operations
where grass seed is a secondary crop as it
does on operations where it is a principal
source of income. As a result, the necessity
for and use of burning is significantly less
in areas where grass seed is a minor or
incidental crop, even if the cumulative
acreage is large.
2.3.1.4 Grass Seed Marketing
National grass seed sales occur in an
essentially free market setting. Prices
respond to the supply of seed (annual
production and stocks) and demand. There is
relatively minor economic interaction between
the various grass species; however, Kentucky
bluegrass varieties are normally separated
into, at least, proprietary and public variety
2-20
-------
ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
groupings from an economic perspective.
Proprietary varieties are those varieties
developed by individuals, corporations,
associations or similar entities who retain
control of their production and marketing.
Since most proprietary varieties have been
developed for turf production, there is an
implied association between the term
proprietary and thesee relatively low yielding
turf varieties.
Grass seed normally is produced by independent
growers and moves through processors and
dealers into the market. A number of large
companies conduct all functions while others
serve only as processors and marketers. In
Oregon there are numerous small
grower/processors who deliver the seed in a
form suitable to the end user.
Because of the free market regulation of
prices, seed growers have little direct
control in setting prices of their product.
Prices tend to show considerable variation
from year-to-year. These swings reflect
seasonal weather conditions and grower acreage
decisions, as well as previous demand, current
2-21
-------
ES ENGINEER ING-SCIENCE -
demand, and consumer planning and optimism.
There exists only an indirect link between
production costs, which tend to change
predictably, and prices received. As a result
the profitability of grass seed, like other
farm commodities, varies greatly from
year-to-year. Figure 2-2 illustrates the
price variation for selected .grass seed crops
and areas.
2.3.2 Northern Idaho and Eastern Washington Grass
Seed Industry
In the last two decades the Inland Pacific
Northwest has become well established as a
producer of high quality grass seed. Though
much of the initial growth was through the
efforts of a single seed producer/processor,
there are now over two hundred seed growers
involved. About 44,000 acres were in
production during 1982, a figure which, until
recently, has shown continued growth.
Unfortunately, much of the grass seed acreage
is located near populated areas where growth
has matched that of the seed industry. Now
grass seed field and residential neighborhoods
2-22
-------
CO
I
KJ
U)
80
70
60
50
AVERAGE
PRICE 40
($/cwt.)
30
\
\
OREGON
IDAHO
WASHINGTON
m
01
m
O
m
m
3)
2O
in
IU
7
Figure 2-2
^ MISSOURI TALL FESCUE jj
OREGON ANNUAL RYEGRASS
I I i I I | |
4 75 76 77 78 79 80 81
Average Price Received for Various Grass
Seeds, 1974-1981.
-------
ENGINEERING -SCIENCE-
are juxtaposed in many areas and uncomfortably
close in others. Under this circumstance, the
annual burning of seed fields with its
attendant air contaminants results in serious
public outcry. Also it is perceived by some
that the air pollution caused by the open
burning of fields adversely affects the
tourist trade of nearby resort communities.
Though efforts have been undertaken by local
and state air pollution control agencies and
the Intermountain Grass Growers Association to
ameliorate smoke effects through a burn
management program, problems still exist at a
level which elicits significant public
concern. Also research efforts, conducted
through local universities under the aegis of
various groups, have not arrived at
alternative methods to burning that would
significantly improve the air pollution
problem.
2.3.2.1 General Production Information
Grass seed production in the Inland Pacific
Northwest area is almost exclusively Kentucky
bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.). Though other
2-24
-------
ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
varieties of grass seed are grown, Burt and
Wirth (1976) reported that, in 1969, some 92%
of the grass- seed produced in Washington and
Idaho was Kentucky bluegrass. Kentucky
bluegrass acreage in _ the area has increased
significantly since 1969.
Local climatology and economics argue strongly
for selection of Kentucky bluegrass. Warm,
dry summers and cold, moderately wet winters
produce conditions suitable for Kentucky
bluegrass seed production. In addition, soils
are generally good with good to excessive
drainage. These factors allow bluegrass yields
to be among the highest of any area. However,
yields of the major competing area, Oregon,
are also high. (USDA Crop Reporting Board,
USDA, 1979 and 1982) In addition to these
physical factors, the Kentucky bluegrass seed
industry of the Inland Pacific Northwest has a
well-established local processing and
marketing infrastructure.
Areas of major Kentucky bluegrass production
are illustrated in Figure 2-3. As may be
seen, grass seed production is centered in
2-25
-------
ENGINEER ING-SCIENCE -
Spokane County, Washington, and Kootenai and
Benewah Counties of Idaho. Though grass seed
is grown in surrounding areas, by far the
largest concentration of production is located
in these three counties. Also, the effect of
r
field burning in these surrounding areas, on
air quality in populated areas, is very small
and has not become a public issue.
As may be seen from Figures 2-3 and 2-4,
acreage has been essentially evenly split
between the two states. Kentucky bluegrass
acreage amounts experienced general growth
during the late seventies. However, this
growth has reversed during the last three
seasons, reflecting somewhat lower prices and,
most recently, sharply lower demand.
Though Kentucky bluegrass is by far the
predominant species grown in the area, a large
number of varieties of the crop are in
production. Both public and proprietary
varieties are grown with Idaho traditionally
having roughly half of its acreage dedicated
to the higher priced proprietary varieties.
Washington, on the other hand, has had no more
2-26
-------
ENGINEERING -SCIENCE-
~1
~1
r-
K O O T E N A
O O
o no o
°o
°o°o ,
0 o'8°,
0 O IQ 90
95
5 P O K A
WASHINGTON
EN E W A H
WHITMAN a
L A T A H
MOSCOW
FIELD BURNING AREAS
N.IDAHO &
E. WASHINGTON
16 Ml.
O-EACH CIRCLE REPRESENTS
1000 ACRES
Figure 2-3
Kentucky Bluegrass Seed Producing Areas
in Northern Idaho and Eastern Washington
2-27
-------
ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
than 20% of all acreage committed to
proprietary varieties.
2.3.2.2 Idaho Crop Quality Requirements
2.3.2.2.1 Grass Seed Crops
As noted previously, seed quality
requirements are generally quite rigorous.
Each state normally establishes its own
quality standards for seeds used within
that state, either through direct state
regulation development or identification of
an appropriate organization to set such
standards and regulations. In Idaho, seed
quality requirements are set forth in the
Idaho State Seed Law and related
certification procedures of the Idaho Crop
Improvement Association, Inc. Grass seed
certification regulations in Idaho
establish standards regarding virtually all
factors that could affect seed quality.
These include regulations on the
eligibility of the proposed seed variety
and field site, handling and inspection of
the crop, field isolation, and seed
handling,sampling, inspection, and tagging.
2-28
-------
30
20
to
I
ACRES OF
KENTUCKY
BLUEGRA55
(1000's of acres)
10
0
m
in
m
m
m
33
D
m
76
77
78
79
80
81
Figure 2-4
Acreage in Seed Production for All
Varieties and Proprietary Varieties of
Kentucky Bluegrass in Idaho and Washington,
1976-1981.
-------
ES ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
Table 2-IV summarizes Kentucky bluegrass
seed certification requirements from these
regulations.
As may be seen from Table 2-IV, stringent
purity requirements apply to grass seed
proposed for certification. Of particular
concern are limitations on weed content,
especially of noxious weeds where any
appearance in a sample can prevent
certification, resulting in a reduced price.
2.3.2.2.2 Cereal Crops
Cereal crops are also inspected prior to
marketing with ultimate grade depending
upon numerous subjective quality factors
and, to a lesser extent, impurities.
Grains are graded into one of four or five
classes based upon species.
"Certification" of grain does not occur
except for grain crops grown for seed.
However, like loss of ceritfication, lower
grade grain results in lower market prices.
It is an accurate generalization that
2-30
-------
ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
Table 2-IV
Summary of Selected Idaho Seed Certification Requirement for
Kentucky Bluegrass
Eligible Varieties(a)
A-34
Adelphi*
Arboretum
Argyle*
Baron*
Birka
Bonnieblue
Bristol
Cheri
Delta
Eclipse
Fylking*
Galaxy
Geronimo
Glade
H-7
Holiday*
1-13
Kenblue
Majestic
Merion*
Newport*
Nugget
Parade
Park*
Pennstar
Plush*
Ram I
Sydsport
Touchdown
Victa
Wabash
Land and Field Eligibility
Foundation
Seed
Registered
Seed
Certified
Seed
Years since same species
last grown or seeded in
proposed field
Isolation distance (feet)
from same species which
bloom at the same time
160
32
16
Occurance of off-variety
plants in field as may be
identified by normal in-
spection procedures
none
0.5%
1.0%
a. Varieties noted with an asterisk (*) are under the four class generation
system (Breeder, Foundation, Registered, Certified). All other varieties
are under the three class generation system (Breeder, Foundation, Certified)
2-31
-------
ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
Table 2-IV (continued)
Seed Standards
Minimum percent
pure seed
Maximum percent
inert matter
Maximum percent
, ,n
weed seed
Maximum percent
other crop
Minimum percent
germination
Sod
Quality
Seed
0.02y
o.id'f
80
Foundation Registered Certified
Seed Seed Seed
97
0.5
0. 1
80
97
0.5
0. 1
80
97
0.3
0.5
80
b. Merion Kentucky Bluegrass: 92%
c. Merion Kentucky Bluegrass: 8%
d. Other K. Bluegrass varieties in Merion: 3%; in other than Merion: 2%
e. Merion Kentucky Bluegrass: 95%
f. Must be free of numerous specified coarse grasses
g. Must be free of dock, chickweed, crabgrass, plantain, short-awn foxtail,
black medic, annual bluegrass, velvetgrass
h. Must be free of noxious weed identified in Idaho General Seed Standards
Section VII, paragraph C.
2-32
-------
ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
purity and quality standards for grains for
general marketing are signficantly less
stringent than those that apply to seed
crops. There are no requirements regarding
genetic purity, and tolerances of inert and
non-crop materials are much greater.
Tolerance of weeds is very broad compared
to seed crops.
The net effect of these regulations is
that, compared to cereal grains, seed crops
require greater attention to field and
establishment details to maintain genetic
purity and overall seed quality. However,
it is still necessary to insure an adequate
yield of live seed to cover production
cost. In the case of perennial crops such
as Kentukcy bluegrass, this attention to
detail must be maintained throughout the
multi-year life of the stand.
2.3.2.3 Use of Burning and Burning Problems in Idaho
Almost without exception, Idaho Kentucky
bluegrass fields are burned each year after
harvest. As will be reviewed in Section 3,
2-33
-------
ES ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
this practice produces a number of substantial
agronomic benefits which has supported its
routine use in a number of seed growing areas.
As noted earlier, some 40,000 acres of grass
seed are burned each year in areas identified
in Figure 2-3. In addition to grass seed
burning, some 5,000 acres of cereal crop
residue, mostly wheat, is burned each year.
This latter activity has been found to be an
effective short-term solution to reduce
residue removal costs and has been
concentrated in the Rathdrum Prairie where,
due to soil conditions, straw and stubble
incorporation is expensive.
The most obvious adverse affect of this
burning is the huge quantity of air
contaminants released which can become a
source of air pollution in downwind areas.
The cities of Spokane, Washington and Coeur
d'Alene, Idaho have been impacted each year as
well as smaller cities and resort communities.
Smoke intrusions in these areas have resulted
in citizen complaints. Seasonal totals of
these complaints have tended to increase over
the last several years, a trend illustrated in
2-34
-------
ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
Figure 2-5. Other adverse effects of burning
on air quality include increases in
particulate loading, odors, ash fallout, and
reductions in visibility. None of these
effects violates specific laws or regulations
relating to air quality control. However,
most of the effects cause a significant
nuisance and, in some circumstances, health or
safety problems. A small percentage of
individuals appear to have great sensitivity
to the fine particulate and/or gaseous
elements of field burning smoke which causes
the onset of severe physical discomfort when
they are exposed. Sufferers of asthma and
emphysema appear to be especially affected.
Often complainants report of discomfort due to
headache or eye irritation. (Gray, 1981)
Traffic safety is of particular concern near
major highways and airports where smoke
reduces visibility. Special air traffic
control precautions are implemented whenever
visibility is reduced to three miles or less,
while automobile traffic is impeded only when
visibility is less then one-fourth mile.
2.3.2.4 Relationship of Grass Seed and Cereal
2-35
-------
ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
Crops-Typical Cropping Patterns
Cropping patterns of the Kentucky bluegrass
growing area vary somewhat depending upon
soils and farm resources, but in most areas
grass seed and cereal crops may be grown
interchangeably- Under such circumstances,
economic consideration dominates the selection
of either crop. Since grass crops require a
longer-term commitment of the acreage than the
annually cropped cereals, as well as some
specialized harvest equipment, a farmer must
consider carefully these investments,
potential income, and lessened liquidity of
his land prior to initiating bluegrass seed
production. Occasionally, short- or
intermediate-term concerns for profits may be
modified based upon a need to protect or
properly utilize existing soil conditions.
Acreages with significant slopes may be
subject to excessive erosion under an annual
cropping pattern so that a more permanent crop
is required to reduce soil loss.
Occasionally, root diseases may dictate
routine crop changes and tilling for control.
Given these types of general concerns,
cropping patterns involving Kentucky bluegrass
2-36
-------
Field
Burning
Complaint
400
TOTALS
300
200
100
0
-I H-H-H-H-H H+t4+Jd+hH+tti^+H-HtmWtiittiililJjmjJ±hH±hhtif
[J-IDAHO Dept of Health & Welfare, Coeur d'Alene |
| SPOKANE Co. Air Pollution Control Authority
76
77
78
Figure 2-5
Field Burning Related Complaints Received
by Air Quality Regulatory Agencies in
Idaho and Washington, 1975-1982.
-------
ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
are highly influenced by two factors:
1. The availability of irrigation; and
2. The relative prices of wheat, or other
alternative crops, and Kentucky
bluegrass.
r-
Of course, once Kentucky bluegrass has been
selected, there is a strong tendency to
maintain the stand in order to amortize the
comparatively high costs of establishment.
Accordingly, a stand life of five to seven
years is common for fields that have been
routinely burned. (Wirth, Hurt, Canode, and
Law, 1977) Some Kentucky bluegrass fields
have been in continuous production in excess
of fifteen years. (Youngberg, 1982)
A convenient separation of Kentucky bluegrass
producers is made by considering farms where
seed production is a major enterprise (more
than 25% of sales derived from Kentucky
bluegrass) and those where seed production is
a minor enterprise (less than 25% from grass
seed). Studies by Burt and Wirth found 55% of
growers in the Inland Pacific Northwest
Kentucky bluegrass area to fall into the
"major" category using this scheme. (Burt and
Wirth, 1976 and 1979)
2-38
-------
ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
Cropping patterns when considered on a field
basis, are similar. Fields normally stay in
production for at least six years before
rotating to other crops. "Minor" seed growers
will leave a field out of production for three
to eight years while this period is on the
order of four years for farms where grass seed
is a major enterprise. For all growers, wheat
is the major alternative crop, though barley,
peas, and lentils are also rotated. (Burt and
Wirth, 1979) It was also noted that major
enterprise growers accounted for an
overwhelming percentage of the proprietary
varieties grown in the area.
2.3.2.5 Idaho Grass Seed Marketing
In the marketing of grass seed in Idaho, like
other areas, the free market prevails.
However, almost all seed is processed and
marketed through relatively few major
commercial processors to distributing
wholesalers. Individual contracts, when
prepared, are written between these dealers
and growers. Growers of proprietary varieties
deal with the proprietor either directly or
through the designated local dealer.
2-39
-------
ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
Prices for Idaho seed are established by free
marketing principals with Idaho seed competing
against Kentucky bluegrass seed from
Washington and Oregon. Since Idaho and
Washington production areas adjoin one
another, they are subject to similar growing
conditions, alternative crop choices, and
economic factors, and similar decisions
regarding production would be expected. This
is in fact the case, as illustrated by Figure
2-6, which shows percentage swings in annual
production. As may be seen Idaho and
Washington changes track closely with one
another. As may also be seen in Figure 2-6,
acreage shifts in Oregon do not follow the
Idaho-Washington pattern and, in fact, are
much less dramatic. Significantly different
growing conditions, crop alternatives, and
economic conditions of western Oregon has
resulted in this much different production
pattern. In particular, yields in western
Oregon can vary dramatically from those of the
Inland areas. Since in general prices will
respond to the overall supply of and demand
for Kentucky bluegrass on a national and
international basis, the role of Oregon
2-40
-------
300 r-
250
200
PERCENTAGE
(of previous yr.'s 150
production)
100
50
0
m
in
m
a
z
m
m
30
O
8
\/
WASHINGTON
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
Figure 2-6
Kentucky Bluegrass Seed Production as a
Percentage of the Previous Year's
Production for Idaho, Oregon, and
Washington, 1975-1981.
-------
ENGINEER ING - SCIENCE-
bluegrass seed production can be significant
in affecting prices. Proprietary varieties,
popular in Idaho and Oregon, are produced and
marketed under much more controlled and highly
specified arrangements than common varieties
and do not seem to significantly affect market
movement and overall prices. This may be due
to the fact that prices for proprietary
varieties often are tied to those of common
varieties.
The supply of Kentucky bluegrass is largely a
matter of prevailing seed prices and the
prices of alternative crops. In Inland areas,
the principal alternative crop is wheat with
peas and lentils as secondary alternatives.
In Oregon, wheat and other perennial grasses
are primary alternatives, while row crops and
nursery stock may be alternatives on acreage
with irrigation. As noted earlier, the need
to amortize the high cost of Kentucky
bluegrass establishment mitigates in favor of
its retention, even when short-term
profitability would favor an alternative crop.
Major end-uses of Kentucky bluegrass include
home and golf course turf, pasture
2-42
-------
ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
establishment, and export. Internal use for
turf is dramatically affected by factors which
affect construction in general; that is the
availability and cost of money. As new
housing starts drop, so generally will
Kentucky bluegrass prices. Export quantities
of seed are affected by U. S. prices, the rate
of exchange, and external supply and reserves.
An econometric model has been developed
incorporating these variables to better
discern the structure of the U. S. Kentucky
bluegrass seed industry. (Folwell, Burt, and
Wirth, 1978)
This model showed strong interaction between
Oregon and Inland Kentucky bluegrass seed
production. In an examination of the effects
of reduced yield, such as those attributable
to reduced burnirig, this model predicted
long-term increases in acreage stimulated by
producer-anticipated higher prices. The model
also showed Inland acreage amounts to be much
more responsive to yield variation and other
stimuli than Oregon acreage amounts. Also, U.
S. Kentucky bluegrass prices responded more
dramatically to changes in Inland supply than
similar changes in Oregon supply.
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2.3.2.6 Kentucky Bluegrass Seed Production
In assessing the need to burn, it is important
to understand the annual production cycle for
perennial grass seed. In addition, to assess
the economic consequences of reduced burning,
it is of importance to understand how fire is
utilized to reduce costs, what costs
alternatives to burning may involve, and what
elements of the production cycle are most
significant from an economic and cost
perspective. To help understand the
subsequent discussion of these issues, this
section presents a summary of the activities
involved in the production of Kentucky
bluegrass seed.
2.3.2.6.1 Planning for Seed Certification
Certification is a necessary part of the
seed industry. Since the production of
certified seed offers real financial
rewards to the seed grower over
non-certified seed, it is important to
consider the requirements of a successful
certification program, especially during
the establishment period. Of primary
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importance in establishing a certifiable
stand of Kentucky bluegrass is the use of
an approved stock seed (either foundation
or registered) for sowing. Since Kentucky
bluegrass (Poa pratensis) has several
varieties, a selection of cultivar must be
made based on marketability, predicted or
known adaptability to seed production in
the Inland Pacific Northwest, cost of
production, seed prices, experience, and
other factors.
Choice of the field requires some special
precautions when planning for a certified
seed crop. In particular, the plot of
ground selected for certified Kentucky
bluegrass must have a record indicating the
crop history of that field. No other
varieties of Po'a pratensis may have been
planted in the field during the last two
seasons. This essentially precludes the
mixing of the new crop of Kentucky
bluegrass with the plants resulting from
surviving seeds or plants from previously
established Poa pratensis varieties.
To further minimize the potential for
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mixing with other varieties of Poa
pratensis, the new field must be isolated
from any such surrounding fields. Because
Kentucky bluegrasses largely are apomictic,
crossing with other nearby plants is only
of minor concern; therefore, the minimum
distance required for isolation is only
sixteen feet. (Idaho Crop Imrovement
Association, 1982 and Brewer, 1976)
Once a field has been selected, its
history must be presented to certification
personnel who also will inspect the field
for compliance with certification
qualifications. Field inspections will be
made within sixty days of planting and
prior to harvest each year. Plans must
also be made for qualified seed cleaning,
sampling, and certification testing. Final
testing will be completed by appropriately
qualified seed certification laboratories
in each state and tags affixed by
Association or county agent
representatives. (Long, 1982)
2.3.2.6.2 Crop Establishment
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Soil Preparation
If unknown or if not acquired recently, a
soil analysis would normally be obtained
from a testing laboratory to determine any
soil deficiencies prior to planting. A pH
test is fundamental. Previous studies in
Oregon have shown that Kentucky bluegrass
produces satisfactorily in soils of pH 5.3
to 5.7 and neutralization to higher pH's
showed no appreciable improvement in seed
quality or yield. (Rampton, Jackson and
Lee, 1971) Treatment with lime does not
appear necessary if soil tests indicate
this degree of acidity and is not normally
required in Inland areas. (Van Slyke, 1982)
However, sucessive application of nitrogen
fertilizers will tend to depress the pH
with time.
Other -soil deficiencies in either
phosphorous, potassium, or sulphur are
corrected at the time of seeding by banding
and later by broadcasting. Trace element
(calcium, magnesium, etc.) deficiencies may
be corrected at the time of seedbed
preparation and worked into the soil.
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The seedbed is generally prepared by
plowing followed by some form of
pulverizing operation. A firm, fine
seedbed is the desired final state prior to
planting with soil supplements thoroughly
integrated.
Planting
Many studies have been made examining the
most efficient width of row spacing for
various grass types. (Rampton, et. al.,
1971; Austenson and Peabody, 1964; Canode,
1968; and Roberts, 1961) Rampton, Jackson,
and Lee (1971) found twelve-inch spacing to
be superior under all circumstances to
30-inch rows for Newport Kentucky bluegrass
while Canode (1968) found higher average
yields in 30 and 60 cm (11.81 and 23.62
inches) over 90 cm (35.43 inches) spacing
for Cougar Kentucky bluegrass. The
Cooperative Extension Service in Western
Oregon(Gardner and Warren, 1969) indicates
a drill width spacing of twelve to fourteen
inches as optimum for that area.
A sowing depth of one-quarter to one-half
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inch (6.2-12.5 mm) has been found
satisfactory for Kentucky bluegrass and
fertilizer banding at this time has been
found to increase seedling vitality.
Applications of twenty to forty pounds of
nitrogen per acre sometimes are recommended
in this manner. Also, phosphorous and
potassium can be applied in the band if
soil tests indicate the necessity.
Seeding rates of three pounds per acre are
generally accepted, but rates will vary on
the availability of approved stock seed.
(Garrison, 1960, and Brewer, 1976)
Fertilizing
Generally, Kentucky bluegrass is fertilized
at establishment and each year thereafter.
Fertilizer is applied in the fall, spring,
or split between fall and spring. Nitrogen
is most critical to maximizing yield
potential. Canode (1968) found 100 pounds
per acre of nitrogen to give highest yields
for the first two seasons, but the highest
five-year mean yield was produced by
application rates of eighty pounds per
acre. It is generally thought that when
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more moisture is available, higher nitrogen
rates can be used satisfactorily- (Canode,
1972; Evans and Canode, 1971) However,
care must be exercised since spring
application and/or high rates of nitrogen
(greater than 100 pounds per acre) can
cause premature lodging and seed loss
unless cold weather retards growth.
Fertilizer rates often are increased in
older stands to maintain yield. (Gardner
and Warren, 1969)
Weed and Pest Control
Weed control can take many forms but,
generally, crop rotation, cultivation,
roguing, burning, and chemical controls are
most important. Of course, with any
perennial grass stand, crop rotation is
eliminated for the three to ten year life
of the stand. Also, cultivation of
established bluegrass fields has been shown
to reduce yields. (Canode, 1972)
For Kentucky bluegrass or other perennial
grass seed crops, weed control is critical
at the time of establishment. During
planting operations, pre-emergence
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application of herbicides is often used
effectively- Seedlings may be protected by
activated carbon banding. (Lee, 1973)
Broadleaf weed killers are used in seedling
stage grass stands after the third or
fourth leaf stage has been reached by the
grass plant. (Garrison, 1960)
2.3.2.6.3 Stand Maintenance
Weed and Pest Control
Control of off-variety plants, weeds, and
pests is critical to the maintenance of
seed quality and certification. Normally a
combination of burning and chemicals are
used. For widespread problems, chemicals
are available to control annual grasses and
broadleaf weeds in established stands of
Kentucky bluegrass. (Garrison, 1960;
Rampton et. al., 1971)
Chemical and mechanical roguing (hand
weeding) is an effective, though labor
intensive, method of weed control and is
limited by the availability and skill of
personnel. Since visual differences
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between crop and weed may only be obvious
for part of the growing season, roguing
practices are further limited by time and
growth habits.
Important to all chemical weed control
strategies is ensuring contact between
chemical and weed. . Burning is noted as
instrumental to this potential application
problem since it most effectively
eliminates residues which would absorb
chemicals and shield weeds from contact.
Burning also kills, outright, a large
percentage of shattered weed seed which, if
allowed to germinate, would represent large
increases in weed populations. (Lee, 1974)
Destructive insects, which can be
chemically controlled, include grass mite,
grass sawflies, grass mealybug, thrips,
aphids, sod webworms, grass gelechiid, and
grasshoppers. Billbugs, generally a
problem in orchardgrass, have also been
found in Kentucky bluegrass and are also
controlled chemically. Control of sod
webworms, gelechiid, and other pests living
in the root and crown areas by chemicals is
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important as field burning is not a
particularly effective means of control.
Wireworm, meadow plant bug, and glassy
cutworm are difficult to effectively
control with chemicals so that primary
control of these pests is through thermal
sanitation. Silvertop, when caused by
these pests, will most likely be evident in
Kentucky bluegrass if burning is poorly
accomplished. (Cooperative Extension
Services, 1981a)
The most serious bluegrass disease
infestations result from ergot, smut,
rusts, and powdery mildews. Though
chemical control of rusts have been
developed, field burning is the only
economical control of the wide range of
diseases and is the only control of ergot.
(Hardison, 1974)
Harvest Practices
After its spring growth period, seed set,
and maturing, Kentucky bluegrass may be
swathed. The appropriate swathing time is
judged based on experience or seed moisture
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content may be used effectively to
determine the proper time to harvest.
(Klein and Hammond, 1972.)
After swathing, seed is allowed to dry in
the windrow until moisture content is
fifteen percent or below to eliminate
heating when placed in bulk storage.
During the harvest operation, windrows are
picked up by a combine in which seed is
removed. Straw residue is spread on the
field in preparation for burning.
Seed cleaning of bluegrass seed, of course,
occurs, to some degree, in the combine.
However, high quality seed must be cleaned
at least by a primary and probably a
secondary operation. Samples of seed are
taken for certification tests (purity and
germination) and bags tagged. Seed
moisture must again be maintained at low
levels (below ten percent) for long-term
storage.
Post-Harvest Field Treatment
Presently, the most important post-harvest
treatment is the burning of straw residues.
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Of prime importance from an agronomic
standpoint is that residue burning be
accomplished soon after harvest, during the
plant dormant period when green tissue is
minimal. Chilcote and Youngberg (1974) and
Pumphrey (1965) found minimal but negative
effects on bluegrass yield due to late
burning. This minimal effect is beneficial
in light of smoke management programs which
tend to delay burning accomplishment.
2.4 Field Burning Air Contaminant Emissions
2.4.1 Source Description
Straw and stubble residue loadings on Kentucky
bluegrass and cereal fields typically fall between
one and one-half and five tons per acre and under
dry conditions contain between 6% and 20% moisture
content (wet weight basis). However, even under
very dry conditions attached stubble may exceed
30% moisture content. (Rimov,1978)
Total fuel load may drop below two ton/acre when
loose straw has been removed using typical removal
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practices. (Miles, 1976) The remaining fuel
(mostly stubble) will also have a significantly
higher moisture content than the pre-removal value.
Under "good" field conditions for burning, both
straw and stubble would be dry, with a combined
fuel moisture less than about 20%, and with straw
loosely and uniformly scattered over the stubble.
Also, regrowth of green material would be minimal.
Under such conditions straw obviously burns
rapidly and leaves little residue. These more or
less ideal, but common, conditions can result in
burning rates exceeding 100 acres/hr for typical
field sizes. (Larger fields usually can achieve
even higher combustion rates.) Fires with these
burning rates and typical geometry are not easily
controlled by normally available fire suppression
equipment. Once started they are practically
controlled only after they have consumed nearly
all the fuel within the prepared area. Because of
this situation, once a field is started, a minimum
time period for emissions is normally on the order
of one hour.
As field fuel conditions degrade due to straw
decomposition, fuel bed settling, development of
green regrowth or general increase in fuel
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moisture content, the time required to complete
the burning of a field increases. However, under
these slower burning conditions, fires are more
easily controlled and under suitable conditions
can be extinguished.
The total emission of air pollutants, mostly fine
particulate matter, can be reduced to some extent
by the appropriate selection of ignition
techniques. Also, certain ignition techniques can
drastically affect the burning rate. Thus, the
rate of particulate evolution may be modified
within limits. (Miller, Thompson, Duckworth, et.
al. , 1976) Unfortunately, the slower burning
techniques often result in a lower average plume
rise with the net ground level impacts being
higher. This effect is discussed more thoroughly
later in this section.
Slower burn rates (area/time) and lower specific
emission rates (mass of particulate/mass of fuel
burned) result when a backing fire (burning into
the wind) is used. Much higher acreage rates and
specific emissions result when headfiring
techniques are used and the fire advances with the
wind. A third technique, strip-lighting, in which
lines of fire are lit by advancing into the
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prevailing wind results in intermediate burning
rates and specific emission levels. All of these
burning rates may be dramatically increased by
increasing the number of points of ignition or the
length and number of ignition lines.
From these considerations it is clear that some
adjustment of emission levels and burn rates is
possible. However, precise modification and
control of these factor is not feasible and
extending the emission release rate to very low
values is currently both impractical and beyond
technological capabilities.
2.4.2 Nature of Emissions
As is typical of the combustion of most fuels
containing hydrogen and carbon, the products of
open field burning contain a huge variety of
hydrocarbon species in addition to carbon dioxide,
carbon monoxide, water and ash. The hydrocarbons
have wide ranging molecular weights and upon
cooling form both gases and liquids in the
atmosphere. Along with suspended solids, mostly
ashy materials, the liquid hydrocarbon droplets
form the substantial emission of fine particulate
matter typical of most open burning.
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In the source sampling and analysis work that has
been completed on field burns a substantial range
of emission rates has been identified. (Boubel,
Darley, and Schuck, 1969; Miller, et. al., 1976;
Erickson and Hartford, 1979; Boubel, 1980) Table
2-V lists the important pollutants emitted by
field burning and, for each, a range of values
inclusive of most sampling results.
To some extent, the wide range of value for each
pollutant is due to differing measurement
techniques. However, wide variations are commonly
noted even within the same sampling protocol and
field conditions and are common to these types of
field studies. From data regarding particulate
matter emissions, normally the pollutant of most
concern, an average emission factor of 25 Ib/ton
of residue would appear to be reasonable.
Field burning particulate matter is extremely fine
with mass mean diameters of less than 0.lum
reported from source sampling and approximately
0.25um from sampling of aged plumes. (Miller, et.
al, 1976; Craig and Wolf, 1979) While this size
range is consistent with other combustion sources,
field burning smoke contains a high percentage of
condensed hydrocarbon materials compared to
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TABLE 2-V
RANGES OF SPECIFIC EMISSION RATES
FOR POLLUTANTS FROM FIELD BURNING
EMISSION FACTOR
POLLUTANT Ib/TON
PARTICULATE MATTER 4-100
CARBON MONOXIDE 83-139
OXIDES OF NITROGEN 1-5
SULFUR DIOXIDE Negl.
ORGANICS 10-33
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emissions from more traditional combustion
sources. This hydrocarbon content of grass field
smoke accounts for its odor, reactivity and, to
some extent, effectiveness in reducing visibility.
Typically, it takes from 30 minutes to two , hours
to complete the burning of most grass seed fields.
During this period the rates of emission and
energy release undergo dramatic variation.
Burning and emissions rates rise from zero to a
peak value very early in the burn, drop or rise
during the active burn period depending upon wind
and atmospheric stability, drop very rapidly near
the end of the active burn phase, and then remain
at very low values during what may be several
hours of after-smoulder.
To a large extent, the vertical distribution of
the emissions in the atmosphere will be affected
by the burning rates achieved, with high burn
rates resulting in strong smoke column development
and higher plume rise. Emissions from slow
burning fires are released, in effect, at ground
level and move upward mainly through turbulent
diffusion only. With sufficiently active fires,
however, a convective column will extend rapidly
upward until it is impeded by stable layers in the
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atmosphere. Since there are a variety of burning
rates during a given fire, emissions tend to be
distributed from ground level to the upper stable
layers. This upper limit typically is located
from three to seven thousand feet above ground
level in most areas.
The specific distributon of pollutants throughout
this "mixed layer" depends upon a number of
factors including the energy release rate,
atmospheric stability throughout the intervening
layers, ignition methods, and surface wind speeds.
Under good plume rise conditions a large
percentage of the total pollutants released
stabilize at or near the maximum plume height with
very little ground smoke. However, under poor
burning conditions and high surface wind speeds
all of the smoke is effectively entrained in
atmospheric layers near ground level. In
nearly all circumstances, smoke is dispersed
eventually throughout the mixed layer downwind of
the field. However, the high effective release
point of the emissions under good plume rise
conditions greatly lessens their effect on people
since greater dispersion of pollutants occur prior
to ground impact. Obviously then, vertical smoke
management and most programs place great emphasis on
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utilizing atmospheric conditions and burning
techniques that will maximize plume rise.
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SECTION 3
THE NEED FOR ANNUAL BURNING
OF GRASS SEED AND CEREAL GRAIN CROPS
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THE NEED FOR ANNUAL BURNING OF GRASS SEED AND CEREAL
GRAIN CROPS
Under present technology, the effects of pollutants
from open field burning are controlled through two
means: reduction of emissions or dispersion of
emissions. In many areas, emission reductions mean a
ban on open burning. In California and Oregon, open
burning regulations require specific burning methods
and compliance with other criteria in efforts to
reduce overall emissions. (Oregon Environmental
Quality Commission, 1978; Kinney, 1982.) However,
practical methodologies for open burning, at best,
can reduce emissions by about 50% and this often is
accompanied by a serious increase in downwind ground
level smoke impact. (Miller, Thompson, Duckworth,
et.al., 1976; Craig and Wolf, 1979.) Because of the
potentially significant smoke effects in some areas
where it has been determined to allow burning to
continue, smoke management systems are often employed
to reduce the likelihood and severity of smoke
intrusions. Unfortunately, smoke management program
success is limited by available resources, an
imperfect technology and human abilities to predict
and carryout change. As a result, smoke management
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is less desirable from an air pollution control
perspective than a practical elimination of the
emissions altogether. For field burning, this means
finding ways to not burn fields, and thereby,
predictably and dependably reduce smoke effects.
It is recognized that each agricultural field
represents a unique set of environmental, agronomic,
and economic circumstances affecting its need to
burn. As a result, it is believed that the degree of
need to burn some fields, taking, such factors into
consideration, is greater than for others. If, in an
effort to reduce emissions, it is anticipated that
not all burning can be eliminated, it would seem most
sensible to consider those reductions first that
cause the least affect on farmers and provide the
greatest air quality benefit. Obviously, to carry
out this approach on an equitable basis, some method
is required to rate the need to burn and the air
quality benefit of not burning associated with each
field. Since in northern Idaho a smoke management
program exists which makes daily assessment of the
air quality effect of burning (benefit of not
burning) a given field, this report concentrates only
on factors affecting the need to burn.
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Though a large number of advantages have been listed
as resulting from open burning, it is reasonable to
summarize these in four general categories:
1. Better control of plant pests;
2. In many cool-season perennial grass plants,
stimulation of yield;
3. Better control of plant competition; and
4. Lowered production costs over alternatives.
The following sections of this report discuss each of
these areas as well as disadvantages of burning on
farm and agricultural activity. No discussion of the
effects of burning on air quality are included in
this report since this problem is properly addressed
through smoke management planning and rulemaking
activities.
3.1 Ecological Perspective on Burning
Cool season grasses for the most part developed and
evolved in the great grasslands of the world such as
the Great Plains and other areas. Such areas are
subject to frequent and widespread fire prior to
man's control of such burning in the last century.
In such an environment, fire would cause the
destruction of many plants and the elimination of
much plant material. In other words, plant
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competition and shading would be much reduced in the
aftermath of fire. Since new, prime growing sites
would be available, the plants which responded most
quickly to establish offspring in these areas would
improve their species' likelihood of survival.
Routine fire would then select plant species that
would respond quickly to reproduce in the post-fire
environment. For seed producing plants, this would
mean rapid growth, prolific seed development, and
eventual seed germination. These traits are all
evident in many of the commercially important
cool-season grasses used for turf and forage
production.
3.2 Historical Background of Burning in Grass Seed
Production
Prior to the 1940's, grass seed production in the U.
S. was a largely decentralized industry, supplying
grass seed as a by-product of other activities. This
type of production continues in many areas of the
nation particularly, Missouri and other southern
states where pastures are often harvested for seed.
Problems with seed quality and genetic purity plagued
the seed industry making such factors as point of
origin and producer reputation important in
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the selection of a satisfactory product. In addition
to this problem, there was a need for reproduction of
newly developed varieties of plants that would insure
maintenance of genetic traits for which they were
bred. These concerns for varietal purity were
addressed through the U. S. Seed Act and
corresponding state laws establishing standards for
reproduction and certification of seeds.
During the 1940s, as the result of a search for a
marketable crop for some 180,000 acres of poorly
drained, heavy clay soils in the Willamette Valley of
Oregon, annual and perennial ryegrass began to be
planted in the area in large quantities. This
increase in grass seed acreage formed the basis for a
localized seed industry, eventually justifying
specialized support industries and research
activities.
However, early in its development, the ryegrass
industry was plagued with grass seed and plant
diseases which were not controllable through
previously effective means. Breeding for disease
resistance was considered impossible since there were
a large number of diseases to be addressed. Also
such breeding would alter varietal genetic
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characteristics, the maintenance of which is
fundamental to seed production. Crop rotations were
not possible for long-term perennial stands or on
lands for which annual ryegrass was the only
alternative crop. Chemical controls were not
available for most diseases.
After some experimentation, researchers found the
annual post-harvest burning of the grass seed residue
effectively controlled most diseases of ryegrass. By
1948, open burning of seed fields had become general
practice in Oregon to combat serious blind-seed
disease and ergot problems. (Hardison, 1964)
Once this program of routine burning was established,
the other benefits of annual burning were noted:
improved control of other pests (chiefly weeds and
insects), increases in seed yield, and reduced
production costs. The profitability of seed
production went up causing it to spread outside the
wetland and steep slope habitats and displace some
acreage of other crops in areas of better soil
conditions. Eventually, numerous other cool-season
grass species were in production in the Willamette
Valley using the same post-harvest burning
prescription applied to ryegrasses. Kentucky
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bluegrass production, being better adapted to colder
winter conditions, was initiated in the Inland areas
of eastern Washington, northern Idaho, and central
and northeastern Oregon.
3.3 Effects of Fire on Grass Seed Production
3.3.1 Effect on Grass Diseases
As noted in the discussion above the initial
purpose of burning was to control grass seed
disease, particularly blind-seed disease and ergot
in perennial ryegrass. Additional analysis of why
burning controls grass diseases has been conducted
since its use was found effective. From this
work, the mechanisms for control of grass diseases
may be broken down into four areas:
1. Direct destruction of fungus sclerotia
residing in crop residues through incineration
or extreme heating;
2. Destruction of reproduction material of many
pathogens;
3. Elimination of habitat (straw and stubble
residue, fall seed heads) for overwintering
sclerotia; and
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4. Removal of organic material (straw and
stubble) that interfere with use of chemical
disease controls. (Hardison, 1957 and 1974)
Because of its effectiveness in all of these
areas, burning helps control most rusts and many
of the numerous other leaf and stem diseases.
(Hardison, 1964)
Kentucky bluegrasses are particularly susceptible
to both rusts and a number of leaf and stem
diseases. Also ergot has been a periodic problem
in Inland production areas. On some varieties,
powdery mildews have been a problem. (Fenwick,
1982) Burning of straw and stubble (or fall
propane flaming of a spring seedling crop) is
recommended for control of these diseases.
(Cooperative Extension Services, 1981b)
Root rot diseases which have infected both cereal
and Kentucky bluegrasses is not normally
controlled by burning since it is largely
soil-borne. However, since burning reduces the
above-soil innoculum, its rate of spread and
severity may be reduced by burning crop residue.
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(Fenwick, 1982) Rice residues in California's
Sacramento Valley are burned annually in efforts
to control leaf, stem and root diseases in this
crop. (Keppner, 1982) Of course, burning also
reduces the substantial straw and stubble loading
r
produced by rice.
3.3.2 Stimulation of Yield
Increases in net yield of clean seed were noticed
subsequent to the initiation of a regular burning
program. This increase in yield was noted when
coincident control of weeds, diseases, and insect
pests were not an apparent factor. Indeed, the
yield stimulation effect of burning is often cited
as the principal reason for burning Kentucky
bluegrass. (Van Slyke, 1982; Fenwick, 1982;
Ensign, 1982)
Numerous experiments were conducted by Chilcote,
et. al. in an effort to identify the actual effect
of burning on plant development and, in
particular, seed yield. In this work measurements
of environmental conditions, seed yield and seed
yield components were made for a variety of
post-harvest treatments. Pest problems were not a
factor in the studies. (Chilcote, Youngberg,
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Stanwood, Kim, 1980)
Seed yields and yield components were determined
for several species including Kentucky bluegrass.
Data from these plot studies is shown in Table 3-1
for Kentucky bluegrass only.
Compared to other grasses tested in these
experiments, Kentucky bluegrass yields
demonstrated medium response to open burning. In
the more detailed studies of highly responsive red
fescues, the increase in yield was attributed to
the development of greater numbers of new tillers,
axillary tillers per tiller unit, fertile tillers,
and number of seeds per tiller. It is believed
the greater number of young tillers with
potentially more active photosynthetic material
and a more prostate initial growth habit make
better use of available light than unburned
plants. Also by complete removal of residual
straw and stubble, soil and, presumably, plant
temperatures were more extreme with greater
diurnal variation. Burned plants showed earlier
spring panicle emergence, allowing flower
development under cooler conditions which has been
shown to lead to greater potential seed yields in
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Table 3-1
Yield Response of Kentucky Bluegrass to Alternative
Post-Harvest Treatments
Seed
Yields
Flail Chop and
Remove Straw 996
Mean No. of Auxiliary Corresponding
Tiller per Tiller Unit Yields
(Ibs/A)
Sept. Oct. Nov.
0.3
674
Burn
1 ,160
0.2
0.5
2.7
945
3-1 1
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
perennial ryegrass and which may be a response
common to other species.
Work by Canode and Law (1977) has shown similar
short-term response to burning by Kentucky
bluegrass for sites in Idaho and Washington.
Long-term alternative treatment studies were also
part of this study, designed to determine the
effect on yields of burning and non-burning
post-harvest treatments. Replicated plots of
several varieties of Kentucky bluegrass were
established in separate locations representative
of soil conditions of seed growing areas in
Washington and Idaho. Post-harvest treatments
included open burning, straw removal, straw and
stubble removal, straw and stubble chopped and
left on the field, and no post-harvest treatment.
In addition, these treatments were carried out at
two different row spacings.
Though not designed to assess the physiological
causes of increased yield as was the work by
Chilcote, et. al., similar treatments were applied
to the test plots. Thus data from treated and
untreated plots, which did not experience
interferences from significant weed or disease
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE -
infestation or other anomolies, could be used to
assess the effect of yield stimulation.
As might be expected from a study involving a
large number of independent variables and samples,
yield results covered a wide range, making
interpretation difficult. However, a few
generalizations are clear. Routine open burning
of residue resulted in higher yields in general
and clearly provided superior long-term yield
maintenance. It is also clear that no removal of
straw or stubble residue normally brings on the
poorest yields.
The variety of straw/stubble treatments met with
mixed success compared to open burning depending
upon the cultivar and, in some cases, row spacing.
The effectiveness of mechanical straw and stubble
removal on yield (compared with open burns) was
generally better early in stand life. This is
probably due to the openness of young stands which
may be thinned unnecessarily by burning resulting
in a net yield reduction. Yield suffered
noticeably in stands not burned for several years.
Also, yields on these plots did not recover fully
after rejuvenation by thermal sanitation methods.
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
though there was significant improvement. Figure
3-1, a plot of yield data ranges, shows the
effectiveness of the open burning treatment in
maintaining yields in old stands and the much less
obvious, but still identifiable, benefit in
younger stands.
High temperature exposure appeared significant to
the yield attained in the following season. Low
temperature treatments by open and machine burns
resulted in lower yields than high temperature
burns. Merion Kentucky bluegrass yields, however,
were not clearly improved by the higher
temperature treatments.
Other studies conducted by Chilcote and Youngberg
(1975) on Merion and Newport varieties of Kentucky
bluegrass (as well as other cool-season grass
species) indicate at least a 25% yield reduction
for continued use of non-burning post-harvest
residue treatments. A 38% reduction in yield was
noted for Merion if no straw or stubble was
removed from plots. The prior figure compares
favorably with Canode and Law (1977). In tests
conducted to determine the effectiveness of field
burning machines, similar yield reductions were
3-14
-------
1000
800
YIELD
(Ib/A)
600
I
CM
400
200
0
D OPEN BURN I] MACHINE BURN
i
STRAW
REMOVAL
D
NO
TREATMENT
ID
2345
NUMBER OF SEED CROP AFTER PLANTING
m
in
m
O
m
m
3J
O
(A
O
Figure 3-1
Ranges of Yield Data for Various
Post-Harvest Treatments.
-------
ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
noted in unburned plots, though the testing period
was brief. (Youngberg, Chilcote, and Kirk, 1975)
In these studies, burned plots of Newport Kentucky
bluegrass showed slight yield reduction compared
to unburned which is in substantial contrast to
Canode's results.
The effects of alternate year burning on yield
have been investigated in Oregon beginning in the
late 1960s. Straw removal was conducted in years
when burning was not conducted. In these early
studies, Merion bluegrass showed a 95% yield
retention compared to annual open burning.
(Chilcote and Youngberg, 1975) However, these
results were based on only three years of data
which, for an alternate year burning program, is
minimal. In this study, mechanical removal
without burning showed a 31% yield reduction for
the Merion variety.
More recent studies of the use of specialized
straw and stubble removal equipment have shown
good yield retention compared to annual open
burning for fine fescue and Kentucky bluegrass
species. (Chilcote, Youngberg, and Young, 1981)
Some yield increases, compared to open burning,
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
were noted in the young stands of these species
where straw and chaff were collected from the
combine rather than spread on the field. These
results parallel some observations by Canode on
Kentucky bluegrass. The specialized "crew-cutter"
equipment used in the Oregon studies is designed
to close cut stubble left by normal straw removal
and "vacuum" the loose -residue and seed on the
ground. Normal operation rate has been less than
two acres per hour.
In association with the above "crew-cut" studies,
a program analyzing the effects of
less-than-annual burning was initiated. These
studies also were designed to assess the effects
on yield and production costs of a program
involving combined burning and non-burning
post-harvest treatment. After four years of data
collection, control plots which have been
continuously crew-cut show poorest yields and seed
quality. In addition, crew-cutting in non-burning
years has shown superior to less effective straw
and stubble removal methods. Alternate year
burning in general has shown good yield retention
compared to annual open burning. Though only two
cycles have been completed, yields in a
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
well-established Newport Kentucky bluegrass stand
are comparable to routinely burned plots. Similar
results were found with fine fescue, but yield
reduction of approximately 15% per year were noted
in a turf-type perennial ryegrass. (Chilcote,
1982)
In summary.- grass seed yield studies applicable to
the Pacific Northwest have shown that long-term
yield reductions in Kentucky bluegrasses are to be
expected if post-harvest burning is not used.
Yield reduction effects seem to be least
noticeable in young stands but become greater with
time. Table 3-II summarizes yield reduction data
for various varieties and post-harvest treatment
compared to the open burned control plots in each
of the studies. As may be seen by this data, a
program of alternate year burning coupled with
off-year straw and stubble removal, appears to
provide reasonable yield maintainence for at least
five years, the length of studies conducted to
date. In saying this, it should be reiterated
that these studies did not provide for the
analysis of the effects of disease and insect
infestation. Only the Oregon crew-cutter studies
address and attempt to quantify specific weed
3-18
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Table 3-II
Average Yields of Kentucky Bluegrass Cultivars for Various Post-Harvest Residue Treatments
Expressed as Percentages of Average Yields Resulting from Comparable Annual Open Burning
Reported Percentage of Comparable
Variety Experimenter Study Period Type of Post-Harvest Treatment Open Burn Average Yield
Merion OSU 1972-1973
Newport OSU 1973-1974
Merion OSU 1970-1971
1972-1973
Merion OSU 3 year period
Merion OSU Alternative year
^> burn with SSR
^ Merion OSU 4 year period
Garfield WSU 4 crop period
Merion WSU 3 crop period
Fylking WSU average of 5th
and 6th crops
only
Merion WSU 4 crops
SR - Straw removed; SSR - Straw and
None
None
None
None
SSR
SR
None
SR
None
SSR
SR
SSR
SR
SR
SSR
stubble removed;
76.8%
109.1%
40.0%
77.0%
69.0%
95.0%
75.0%
73.0%
62.0%
51 .0%
30.0%
85.0%
72.5%
61 .0%
33.0%
87.0%
104.0%
None - no residue removal.
rn
n
u
2
£
n
m
2
C
1
ft
rf
ri
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
infestations. Thus, the effects of not burning on
these problems is very imperfectly known, except
that certain diseases can thrive and spread
rapidly in the absence of burning. (Hardison, 1964)
3.3.3 Effects of Burning on Competitive Plants
3.3.3.1 Control of Weeds and Weed Seed
Control of weeds in the field is particularly
important in grass seed production. Weed
infestations, when of sufficient magnitude,
can cause:
1. Direct loss of seed production through
competition for light and nutrients;
2. Loss of seed quality, resulting in possible
loss of certification and a lower price;
3. Loss of seed production due to clean out of
saleable crop seed when attempting to
remove unwanted weed seed;
4. Loss of seed marketability due to abundance
of noxious weed seed;
5. Extensive additional production costs to
control weeds including application of
additional chemicals and flaming, premature
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
crop rotation, extended fallow periods, and
extraordinary establishment costs; and
6. Loss of potential grazing and straw sales
income due to noxious weeds in the field or
application of chemicals potentially
f
poisonous to livestock.
Control of weeds in perennial seed fields is
normally accomplished through establishment of
a weed-free stand (normally aided by chemical
weedicides), routine burning, and chemical
roguing (hand weeding) of the field. In
almost all studies of Kentucky bluegrass
mechanical removal of thatch and disturbance
of the soil has shown yield reductions in the
following year arguing against the use of
cultivation for weed control. (Rampton,
et.al., 1971; Canode, 1972; and Canode, 1977)
Routine field burning has been shown very
effective in maintaining a clean field.
Burning is credited with destroying in excess
of 95% of the live weed seed on the soil
surface. (Lee, 1974) In addition, it kills
many annual and perennial weeds. Of course,
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
burning is not effective on perennial grassy
weeds which must be removed chemically or
mechanically. In these circumstances, removal
of crop residue is important to visually
identifying non-crop varieties and insure
proper contact between chemicals and the plant
to be controlled.
3.3.3.2 Effect on Shattered Seed
Like most grasses, Kentucky bluegrass is
subject to extreme crop loss due to seedhead
shatter as the crop approaches maturity-
Though steps are taken to minimize this
problem, anywhere from ten to fifty percent of
available seed has been lost in the harvesting
process. Much of this seed falls back on the
field. If allowed to germinate, the field
would be over populated which normally results
in a net yield reduction. However, more
importantly, from the standpoint of
certification, seed from these new plants can
not be certified. In sufficient quantity,
such seed could cause loss of certification
for the entire crop. As with weed seed, open
burning destroys a very high percentage of
these shattered crop seeds. (Lee, 1974)
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
3.3.4 Effect on Insects and Other Pests
Grass seed crops in the Pacific Northwest are
affected by more than a dozen major pest groups.
Methods of attack of these pests are varied but
may be dichotomized into those that attack the
leaf and stems and those that feed in the crown
and root area. Some pests, such as the billbug,
feed in both areas in the course of their life
cycle. (Kamm and Robinson, 1976)
Life cycle habits, of course, determine to a large
extent, the method of and ability to control these
pests. For burning to be effective, the pest must
be vulnerable to the fire during the summer
burning season. Aphids, thrips, meadow plant
bugs, and other stem and leaf feeders are in this
circumstance, and their populations are
dramatically reduced by burning. However,
billbugs, sod webworms, and grass gellechiids feed
on roots during this period and are all but immune
to the effects of burning. (Kamm, 1982; Holman,
1982) Since pests that attack the leaf and stem
are considered relatively minor problems in the
Inland bluegrass areas, open field burning plays a
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
relatively minor role in direct control of pests.
However, its effectiveness in removing
post-harvest residue is important to pest control.
(Cooperative Extension Services, 1981a; Kamm,
1982) Residues tend to absorb and de-activate
pesticides directed toward crown and root dwelling
pests. After removal of this straw residue by
burning or mechanical means and subsequent
dissipation of the residual charcoal, chemical
controls can better penetrate to underground
larvae.
Table 3-III summarizes the role of open field
burning in controlling pests in the Inland area.
As may be seen, those pests which are of most
significance are not controlled effectively by
burning and require applications of chemicals.
Burning is not mandated for the control of these
crown and root dwellers except to the extent that
it is the most economical method to remove straw
and stubble prior to chemical application.
Burning is very effective in controlling (not
eliminating) stem dwelling thrips and aphids.
These, however, are not considered a major problem
in the Inland area and are subject to control by
chemicals. (Holman, 1982)
3-24
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Table 3-III
Control of Grass Seed Pests by Open Field Burning
Kentucky Bluegrass Level of Seriousness Effectiveness of
Pest of Pest to Inland Burning
Kentucky Bluegrass as a Control
Production
Sod Webworm Moderate None
Grass Gellechiid Moderate None
U)
1
Alternative Comments
Control
Method
Chemical Removal of
straw and
stubble aids
in applica-
tion of
chemical to
affected
areas .
Chemical Same as
above .
IT
If
n
C
2
rr
n
2
U1
Billbug
None
None
Chemical
Aphids
Thrips
Meadow Plant Bug
Minor
Minor
Minor
High
Very High
Very High
Chemical
Chemical
Chemical
Normally
limited to
orchardgrass
and mature
bluegrass.
o
(A
o
Time of
appearance
of meadow
plant bug
near maturity
makes ef-
fective appli-
cation of chem-
icals difficult
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ENGINEER ING-SCIENCE-
3.4 Economic Advantages and Disadvantages of Burning
The use of open field burning as a cultural tool
affects farm income both through its direct effect on
production costs and its somewhat less direct effect
on seed prices and marketability. Since grass seed
production (and much of farming in general) is a low
margin enterprise, both of these areas can grossly
influence net returns. Since the effects of burning
on seed production are broad, a discussion is
provided in the following section of the specific
areas where field burning plays a major role in
influencing the cost and price of grass seed. The
following is not intended to be a comprehensive
economic analysis of Inland Kentucky bluegrass and
cereal farming; however, it is intended to provide
substantiated information on the economic impact of
field burning on these enterprises.
3.4.1 Effect of Burning on Production Costs
Production costs include all costs associated with
in-field activities such as tilling, seeding,
application of chemicals, harvesting, and burning,
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
as well as associated materials and equipment
costs. In the case of Kentucky bluegrass,
production costs include the expenses of
establishment and eventual tear-out, both of which
are exceptional compared to cereal production
f
costs.
3.4.1.1 Tilling Costs
Tilling costs are largely affected by soil
type, final seed bed preparation needs, weed
control needs, and straw incorporation needs.
For Kentucky bluegrass production, all tilling
is limited to the years of establishment and
removal; cultivation in between having been
shown detrimental to seed yields.
Alternatively, cereal grains require, under
typical cultural practices, annual field
preparation involving some level of tilling
activity. In general, reducing overall
tilling results in at least short-term cost
reductions leading to improved profitability.
Burning most directly effects tilling costs in
two ways: straw incorporation costs and the
ability to conduct certain no-till or
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
minimum-tillage practices. Since cereal and
other annual crop fields are normally
cultivated each year, the effects of burning
on plowing costs are especially important to
the production expenses of these crops. The
remaining discussion will be limited to straw
and stubble management of cereal crops as
affected by the use of burning.
Typically, there is some three to five tons of
stubble and straw residue per acre after
harvest of wheat. Similar amounts will be
found for most annual grass seed and other
cereal crops. To incorporate this amount of
material into the soil so that a suitable seed
bed may be prepared, normally would require
several operations. Depending on location,
residue may be chopped and then plowed or
disked. Secondary harrowing operations
prepare the seedbed for drilling. In
extremely heavy stubble (irrigated)
conditions, additional disking or chopping may
be required to expedite straw decomposition
and provide a suitable seedbed. Heavy residue
commonly cannot be decomposed within the
available time if insufficient moisture or
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
oxygen slow the soil biological activity.
Plowing in heavy residue situations is further
complicated by the tendency for straw to
"plug" plows, requiring interruption of the
operation while the mold board plow or disk is
cleared.
The time required for ground preparation
activities in general can be reduced by
reducing or eliminating the amount of residue.
Under most near-term considerations, burning
provides the most cost effective method for
the farmer to eliminate this material.
As was noted, soil plays a significant role in
the cost of seedbed preparation. Soils with
high per acre energy requirements, slow straw
decomposition, or soils which cause abnormally
high equipment wear increase seedbed
preparation costs, and therefore, accentuate
the short-term economic benefits of residue
removal through burning. This circumstance
exists on the Rathdrum Prairie where soil
stone content commonly exceeds 50% and plowing
costs are high due to excessive wear. In
Garrison soils common there, plowshare life
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
has been noted at about ten acres (equivalent
to plowing roughly 300,000 lineal feet). (Van
Slyke, 1982; Carlson, 1982) This high rock
content limits residue treatment options for
similar reasons. Flail chopping or rotovating
of residues which have been demonstrated to
improve decomposition (Burkhardt, Keppner, and
Miller, 1975) are limited by the equipment
wear and cost associated with the operation.
(Van Slyke, 1982) Absent these treatments,
decomposition of the heavy residues of the
irrigated Prairie is slow.
The slow decomposition rates for grass sod and
cereal stubble and straw on the Prairie have
been noted by several sources. (Van Slyke,
1982; Ensign, 1982; Carlson, 1982; McDole,
1982; and Morrison, 1982) Low moisture
retention (soils on the Rathdrum Prairie are
noted as well-drained to excessively-drained
(Weisel, 1981), low microbial activity, and
low soil temperature (both presumably due to
the high rock content) have all been suggested
as reasons for the slow decomposition rates,
but none have been singled out as key-
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
Though burning of cereal residue, rather than
its incorporation, nets direct short-term
reductions in production costs, there are also
costs attributable to this practice. These
costs are both immediate and long-term in
nature. Upon burning, much of the nutrient
value of straw is lost. Routine burning also
results in general loss of soil organic matter
along with a corresponding loss of tilth and
water-holding capacity.
Though not of particular importance on the
Rathdrum Prairie, burning' has been associated
with much increased erosion in hilly areas.
On annually cropped cereal fields, soil losses
on burned fields were noted as two to four
times the soil loss on fields where straw and
stubble were incorporated. (Engle, 1976)
Except for the need to maintain overall farm
profitability burning of cereal crop residues
is not recommended because of the long-term
adverse effects on farm land. (Van Slyke,
1982; Ensign, 1982; and Morrison, 1982;
Peterson, 1982)
3.4.1.2 Fertilizer and Chemical Use
Fertilizer needs are determined by evaluation
of soil condition, crop needs, and residue
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ES ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
management decisions. Of particular
importance is the maintenance of adequate
nitrogen levels to avoid nitrogen deficiency
in the crop when changes in residue management
occur. Normally, increases in decomposing
crop residues require the addition of
fertilizer nitrogen to avoid a deficiency in
the crop. Nitrogen added for this purpose is
not lost but is "tied-up" and not available to
the crop until it is recycled at the end of
the decomposition process.
Initiating the incorporation of heavy loadings
of organic material with inadequate native
nitrogen after a period of routine burning of
post-harvest residues, therefore, requires
additional nitrogen. A twenty-five to forty
percent increase in nitrogen may be needed
depending upon residue loading. Since
fertilizer applications represent
approximately ten to fifteen percent of
production costs, a substantial increase in
fertilizer needs may alter short-term
profitability- Several years of residue
incorporation (with additional fertilizer)
eventually results in a stabilized nitrogen
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
picture with net nitrogen release offsetting
that which is required by the annual mass of
residue. Once this equilibrium is
established, increased nitrogen, over crop
needs, is only required in those field areas
of unusually high residue loading. (Engle and
Halvorson, 1978)
Though it would require a short-term increase
in nitrogen fertilizer, a cessation of burning
would result in retention of other nutrient
materials lost as a result of burning. Thus
in the long-term analysis, a reduction in
fertilizer needs results when burning is
eliminated. In particular nitrogen, sulfur,
and phosphorus compounds, which tend to be
lost in various volatilized products of
combustion, are retained if straw is
incorporated. (Engle, 1976)
Of course, important non-volatile minerals and
trace elements contained in residues are
returned to the soil upon burning of the
materials, making them immediately available
to a subsequent crop. If straw is
incorporated, they would become available as
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ES ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
the straw decomposes.
As has been noted, chemicals are routinely
applied to both grass seed and cereal grain
fields for control of weeds, diseases, and
other pests. Open burning tends to reduce the
need for the amount of spraying through
several mechanisms, some of which have been
discussed previously:
1 . Outright destruction of a large percentage
of undesirable organisms through
incineration;
2. Elimination of straw and stubble as a
medium or habitat for reproduction and
growth; and
3. Elimination of material that interferes
with application of chemical controls to
infested areas.
Though it is clear that burning greatly aids a
chemical application program, the exact
benefit is difficult to quantify since there
is significant variability in the levels of
disease, animal pest, and weed problem. Even
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
with a good combined burn and spray program,
serious disease outbreak is noted. The extent
of insect and related pest problems are highly
influenced by severity of winter weather and
the effect of favorable environmental
conditions can greatly overpower what are
normally very effective chemical control
measures. (Kamm, 1982; Holman, 1982; and
Ensign, 1982)
The removal of the straw and stubble is
critical to efficient, if not always
effective, application of chemicals. Heavy
residues can absorb or block large amounts of
applied chemical. Since most modern chemicals
have a limited residual potency once applied,
direct or immediate contact with the organism
to be controlled is essential for
effectiveness. (Kamm, 1982) To the extent
straw and stubble residues remain exposed on
the soil surface, spray application program
effectiveness is proportionately reduced.
Depending upon chemical costs and economic
conditions, such increased residue would be
expected to result in the increased use of
chemical controls (heavier or more
applications); however, because of the
3-35
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ES ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
widespread use of burning little information
exists to quantify the level of increase.
3.4.1.3 Straw Removal and Marketing
Essentially, all non-burning alternative
treatments of perennial grass seed require the
removal of at least the loose straw. (Miles,
1976) Similarly, the difficulties of plowing
heavy cereal straw loads could be addressed
through removal of straw and/or stubble.
Obviously.- straw removal would then be a
critical production activity in the absence of
annual open burning. The cost of straw
removal and the value of the collected
material would be important aspects of overall
production costs.
Historically, demand for straw from cereal
grain and grass seed production has been low
while potential supply has been high. A
conservative estimate of straw available from
seed and grain production in the Pacific
Northwest would exceed twelve million tons
annually or about fifty bales for every person
living in the area. As a result of the
Based upon data of Boyle, Oliveira, and
Whittaker, 1982.
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ENGINEERING -SCIENCE-
limited market, mostly for livestock bedding
and minor amounts for feed, few serious
efforts have been made at large-scale straw
collection. Integrated, "whole-harvest"
concepts, where crop and residue are collected
together, have been tried recently only on an
experimental basis. Efficient collection and
handling systems for hay and forage have been
developed, and are in use, but the low market
value of straw has not stimulated the use of
such systems for its collection. As a result,
most grass and cereal straw are collected and
removed using standard balers and bale
handling equipment.
Though it is recognized that standard baling
is not the most efficient method for removing
and transporting straw, it does leave straw in
what is perhaps its most marketable form.
Methods of bulk removal resulting in large
straw packages requiring machine handling
severely limit potential users. Such methods
really require the establishment of
producer-consumer agreements that would
support specialized straw marketing and
handling systems. (Miles, 1976) This, of
course, assumes consumers of significant
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
quantities of straw in these forms exist.
Without changes in straw use patterns, no
significant market for straw removed from
Kentucky bluegrass and cereal fields can be
assumed, requiring the farmer to underwrite
the costs of straw removal and disposal.
(Wells, Currie, Mazzucchi, and Eakins, 1979)
Table 3-IV shows the relative cost of this
activity with other production costs.
3.4.1.4 Effect of Loss of Field Certification
In the absence of burning, increases in weeds
and non-crop plants can normally be
anticipated. Also, off-generation plants
would be anticipated, though perhaps not
detectable, in an old stand. A higher
probability of disease infestation would be
anticipated too.
In severe cases, such problems can result in a
loss of field certification leading to lower
crop sale prices and, depending on contracted
commitments, possible tearout. Such premature
rotation requires the original establishment
3-38
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
Table 3-IV
Ranges of Selected Kentucky Bluegrass
Farming Costs (Powell, 1983)
Cost Category Cost Ranges
($/Acre)
Preharvest costs
Fertilizing 60-102
Pesticide 31
Bags, tags, etc. 40-58
Irrigation 57-72
Interest on Operating Capital 10-15
Harvest Costs
Swathing 8-9.50
Combining 97-127
Transportation and Miscellaneous 5-6.50
Post-Harvest Costs
Open Field Burning 2.50-3.00
Straw Removal (custom) 38-62
Stubble removal 23.00
Other Fixed Costs
Amortized Establishment (7year rotation) 35-53
Land 20-50
Overhead 7.10
Management 10-14
3-39
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ENGINEERING -SCIENCE-
costs to be amortized over a shorter time
period than a field in which certified seed
production was maintained. The net effect of
the shortened rotation is an increased cost
burden on each crop year and a reduced profit
over the life of the stand. Again, Table 3-IV
provides a comparison of amortized
establishment costs compared to annual costs
for Kentucky bluegrass seed production.
3.4.2 Effect of Burning on Crop-Related Income
Income from crops sold is influenced by yield
and eventual unit selling price. Price is in
turn a function of the quality of the grain or
seed crop. The yield and quality of annually
cropped grains are much less influenced by
burning than are the yield and quality of the
perennial Kentucky bluegrass crops.
As noted in section 3.3.2, yield tends to
decline with time after the first or second
seed crop if Kentucky bluegrass is not burned.
An equilibrium yield level of approximately
40% of the yield of annually burned field is
indicated in the complete absence of burning.
For any given seed price, this of course
3-40
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ENGINEER ING - SCIENCE-
represent a 60% decrease in income.
Alternative post-harvest treatments and
rotation periods can both raise this
equilibrium level and retard the rate of yield
decline with concommitant increases in
production costs.
Similar declines' in yields have been noted in
other cool-season grasses, though the eventual
equilibrium yield and rate of decline varies
dramatically among species and varieties. As
an example, "Merion-type'1 Kentucky bluegrass
tends to maintain yields better absent burning
than do some coarser varieties.
Losses in seed quality have also been noted to
occur from reduced field burning. Normally,
this is due to increases in the percentage of
weed seed and sometimes due to increases in
the quantities of diseased seed. Such losses
are not well documented in most studies
because, most often, determining basic yield
values have been the goal of research and
because it is normally possible to clean seed
sufficiently to allow it to be certified.
However, the cleaning process causes some good
3-41
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
seed to be lost; effectively reducing yields.
Thus, there is an inter-relationship between
seed quality and net yield. Research results
are quoted typically on the basis of "clean
seed" which takes into account yields,
quality, and processing factors.
3.4.3 General Effect of Burning on Public Costs
Public costs may be separated into two areas:
direct operational expenses such as those
associated with the operation of a regulatory
program, and costs associiated with public exposure
to resulting air contaminants. This latter
category includes costs related to personal health
effects, property damage and cleanup, loss of
trade, property loss due to escaped fire, and
visibility-related delays or accidents. As noted
earlier, these public exposure costs are diverse
and difficult to assess especially if aesthetic
and other subjective factors are included. Also
as noted reductions in field burning emissions
(acreage not burned) is deemed a satisfactory
surrogate for assessing the relative change in
public exposure effects as results from
alternative burning programs. Thus improvements
in these exposure-related problems are assumed to
3-42
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
be proportional to reductions in burning and are
quantified here on that basis.
Direct public costs are associated with planning
and implementing regulatory activities to limit
smoke impact. These activities include special
studies of alternative control methods,
operational smoke management, enforcement of
regulations, development of regulations and
associated research and public participation
efforts. The costs of these activities vary
according to the overall program size and levels
of effort aimed at smoke control program
improvement. Improvement efforts in turn are
stimulated by existing air pollution levels and
public interest.
It would not be anticipated that alternative
post-harvest treatments would significantly affect
the size or complexity of the smoke management
operational program except when a significant
reduction (say greater than 50%) in annual burning
is contemplated. Much of the expense of smoke
management is related to data collection and
interpretation which are largely fixed costs. The
greatest cost savings are effected by shortening
3-43
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ES ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
of the season, arbitrary reductions in service
(hours per day, days per week, etc.) and service
area, or a substantial reduction in allowed
burning.
Enforcement costs vary according to methods of
restricting burning. Enforcement of burning
authorized through a smoke manager is relatively
straightforward with overall costs proportional to
seasonal burning activity and level of desired
enforcement. Enforcement of limitations on
acreage burned requires extensive tracking of
individual burning activity and the costs
associated with this effort would be in addition
to costs of enforcing daily management program
directives.
Planning, regulation development, and research
costs are extremely variable since they are scaled
often to meet anticipated rather than current
needs. Fortunately, selection of any particular
alternative post-harvest treatment considered in
this report would not effect significantly these
costs except if the selection subsequently proves
to be inadequate or otherwise inappropriate or
requires parallel research. Consequently,
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ENGINEERING -SCIENCE-
planning, regulation development, and research
costs remain relatively independent of the
specification of individual control program
elements. However, a need for substantial
efforts in these areas should be expected as
long as smoke control efforts do not satisfy
public concerns.
Some of the public cost of open burning can be
ameliorated through reducing the effects of
smoke by emission reduction or smoke
management. Costs would be expected to change
linearly with emission reduction. However,
beneficial effects due to emission reductions
or modifications in smoke management procedure
probably could be assessed only through
monitoring air quality, public satisfaction,
cumulative personal health costs or other
factor relatable to the public costs.
Public costs may be also be offset through a
fee or tax program based upon emissions, cost
of regulation, planning and research costs or
other criteria. Such fees are collected in
the Pacific Northwest states and California.
However, only in Oregon is the fee designed to
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
cover all direct costs of operation and
research. Of the $3.50 per acre fee in
Oregon, 45% is dedicated to research with the
remainder going to smoke management,
enforcement, and program administration.
(Oregon Department of Environmental Quality,
1982)
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
SECTION 4
EVALUATING POST-HARVEST TREATMENT
ALTERNATIVES
-------
ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
4. EVALUATING POST-HARVEST TREATMENT ALTERNATIVES
The basis for rating and eventually selecting any
alternative program for control of a source such as
field burning must consider a variety of elements
important to the public; regulatory officials; and
seed producers, processors, and consumers. Little
can be expected in terms of a long term solution to
this issue, if the interests of these groups are not
recognized and addressed in considering alternatives.
The consideration of these diverse interests requires
the assessment of a range of air quality impacts as
well as regulatory and enforcement requirements. The
extent to which a proposed control effort needs to
address each of these areas as well as the effects on
farm crops and costs is largely a matter of
individual interests and investments. Since only one
such plan can be used, some equitable process must be
employed to assess and weigh the effect of any
proposed plan on interested parties and the general
public. Normally this is a laborious process
involving assembly and evaluation of information,
development of tentative pllans, and plan review by
affected groups, elected officials or their
representatives, and the public. Alternatives to
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
burning in northern Idaho, if any, will be subject to
similar processes. It is hoped the background
information in this report and the subsequent ratings
of alternative burn programs will serve as a useful
starting point for subsequent public decision-making.
4. 1 Control Program Objectives
As a first step in rating a potential control
program, program objectives must be identified and
classified as to their significance. Some program
objectives are of such importance that the effort
would be meaningless or impossible if they are not
met. Following the terminology of Kepner and Tregoe
(1965), these required components are "MUSTS." Less
critical elements of an alternative are those which
are not necessary to basic function but are important
to improved operation or conservation of labor and
financial resources. These less critical objectives
are termed "WANTS." A preliminary identification of
MUST and WANT objectives assists in elimination of
the poor or unuseable alternatives.
Table 4-1 lists MUST and WANT objectives for
alternative field burning control programs.
Additional MUST and WANT criteria may be added for
specific issues but the listed categories were
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ES ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
designed to address the northern Idaho situation.
MUSTS were based upon the need to make some net
improvement in smoke effects in the area and the
expressed opinion by parties on both sides of the
issue that seed producers should remain in business.
The two year time stipulation establishes the urgency
of the current need and would eliminate, of course,
any alternative with a very long lead time.
The WANT objectives were established based on a
previous analysis of northern Idaho field burning
issues (Freeburn, 1982) and a review of other
desireable traits of control programs. The WANT list
was compiled to insure that all major issues and
needs would be addressed but with each WANT being
relatively independent of one another. (Inclusion of
additional WANT objectives that are really only a
subset of another general WANT can unfairly bias
subsequent analysis toward alternatives that best
satisfy that general WANT criterion.) Because the
approach results in generalized categories, a brief
listing of the factors included in each category is
also given in the table.
The relative importance of each WANT objective must
be considered when assessing a given program
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EES ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
alternative. Those programs which better fulfill
important WANT objectives are more valuable than
those which only address successfully the less
significant objectives. Based on a paired comparison
analysis (see Appendix), the WANT objectives of Table
tr
4-1 have been prioritized according to importance. A
weighting value, indicating relative importance,- is
included in the table after each WANT objective.
Because of the evident importance of the net effects
on air quality (WANTS 1. and 3.) and the costs of
making improvements in air quality (WANT 2.), these
factors are the subject of detailed analysis in a
subsequent section of this report. The remaining
WANT objectives are discussed below.
4.1.1 Minimize Changes in Farm Management Needs
Any significant change from present grass seed and
cereal cultural practices will require the farmer
to adjust his farm management practices to meet
those new requirements. Perhaps of most concern
would be new farm operations requiring major
investments in additional equipment or additional
time and labor requirements of the busy harvest
and post-harvest period. Major concerns would be
4-4
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ES ENGINEERING-SCIENCE
Table 4-1
Objectives for
Proposed Field Burning Control Programs
MUSTS
The program must:
Result in a net reduction in smoke effects
Have no significant effect on farm solvency
-Be implementable within two years
WANTS
The program should:
1. Minimize the net exposure of people to smoke
(requiring considerations of net population
exposure levels on an annual, daily, and hourly
basis; peak concentration levels; total dosage;
and methods to determine and track such infor-
mation ) [11];
2. Minimize net costs to growers and the public
(requiring consideration of all factors af-
fecting net return to the grower (i.e., yield,
seed price, production costs) and costs of regu-
lation and enforcement) [10];
3. Minimize adverse aesthetic effects (requiring
consideration of general and local visibility
reductions, plume blight, loss of scenic vistas
with special consideration given to high use
periods and recreational areas) [5];
4. Minimize changes in farm management needs (re-
quiring consideration of additional time, equip-
ment, and labor need of alternative post-harvest
treatments, smoke management constraints, or al-
ternative farm enterprises) [4];
5. Minimize season length and uncertain scheduling
of burning (requiring consideration of methods
of compressing burning activity, eliminating
early and late season burning, and standardizing
daily, weekly, and annual burning periods) [ 1 ] ;
6. Make pollution control costs comparable to
other sources (requiring consideration of net
pollution control costs for similar source cir-
cumstances ) [ 1 ] .
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
post harvest operations such as straw and stubble
removal or machine burning with inherently low
acreage rates. Such operations require
significant time for completion whether the work
is actually done by the farmer or on a custom
basis. Subsequent operations such as fall
fertilizing then also would be delayed. Also,
unless these operations are performed on the more
expensive custom basis, such additional cultural
activities could delay fall preparations for other
unrelated crops. Similar delays can be induced
through more restrictive smoke management
alternatives.
When alternative treatment procedures are selected
which severely limit burning, seed producers may
elect to grow an alternative crop such as peas,
lentils, corn, or alfalfa. Such forced selection
of alternative crops requiring a major change away
from a farmer's traditional practices would be
expected to result in a net reduction in
productivity in the period of transition. The
additional costs due to these losses in
productivity and new equipment purchases necessary
to grow and harvest alternative crops are not
included in the subsequent cost analyses in this
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
report.
4.1.2 Minimize the season length and the uncertainty in
the scheduling of burning
Because crop growth, harvest and burning
activities are all weather dependent, there is
considerable variability in the date of the start
of burning, daily burning levels, and the date of
completion of burning. This variability, combined
with the impracticality of disseminating
continuous, accurate information regarding routine
smoke management decisions have left the public
and business community with no way to predict or
plan regarding the smoke effects of burning.
These smoke effects are of particular concern to
those involved in recreational activities or who
suffer adverse health effects. As a consequence
their has been substantial public support for firm
limits on the times of burning activity.
Especially desirable to recreational businesses is
a shortening of the burning season to define and
minimize that portion of the summer recreation
season affected by field burning smoke.
Though alterations to the timing of burning are
mainly concerns of operational smoke managers.
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
decisions regarding the amount and types of crops
to be burned can also affect season length. A
general reduction in burning could allow earlier
completion provided: (1) growers continue to
match current daily burn rates; and (2) current
late season burning is due to smoke management
concerns rather than field availability. Whether
a shorter season results from a reduction in
burning will depend on operational smoke
management priorities since an argument can be
made for maintaining season length and reducing
daily burn totals in order to reduce short-term
smoke concentrations.
Wheat crops generally are harvested after Kentucky
bluegrass seed crops. Also winter wheat is not
seeded until late summer or early fall. This
schedule coupled with the lower priority for
burning wheat stubble (compared to grass) results
in wheat residues being burned, in general, later
than grass seed residues. Restrictions on burning
wheat residues would tend to reduce late season
burning preferentially and thus could be used,
without other major smoke management restrictions,
to shorten the season.
-------
EES ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
4.1.3 Make Pollution Control Costs Comparable To Similar
Sources
Programs for controlling the emissions of open
burning pollutants exist in all Pacific Northwest
states as well as many states in the Southeastern
U. S. and California. Cost for these operations
are borne by both landowners and regulatory
agencies. Direct costs of smoke management
programs are the most readily determined cost of
pollution control since they are often supported
by permit or production fees. However, in some
cases,costs are obscured in an agency's overall
operating costs and management expenses.
Another cost related to most control programs is
due to lost opportunity. Both smoke management
programs and alternative post-harvest treatment
require the dedication of additional time to
post-harvest activities. In some instances such
additional activities result in delays that
prevent desired crop or treatment options from
being implemented. These costs generally have not
been addressed in previous estimates of control
programs since they would be based largely on
gross assumptions, if not speculation. For these
same reasons, estimates of these costs are not
4-9
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
included in this report.
Costs of alternative, non-burning post-harvest
treatments should be included in pollution control
costs. These in general, are much larger than
smoke management expenses even if associated
research and permitting fees are included in the
latter. As a result costs of smoke control
alternatives that include emission reductions
through reduced burning would be expected to be
substantially higher than upgraded smoke
management strategies. For example, in Oregon,
burning fees are the highest of all programs
investigated at about $3.80 per acre burned.
However, this amount represents only about one
seventh the cost of the least expensive
reduced-burning alternatives discussed in
subsequent sections.
4.2 Cost Factors Relative To Post-Harvest Treatment
Alternatives
As may be seen from Section 3, burning of grass
seed and cereal grain fields affects potential
production of crop and production costs in a
variety of ways. Because the specific effects of
burning, or lack of it, (such as yield reduction,
additional farming operations, altered rotation
schemes) are so varied, it is difficult to compare
4-10
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ENGINEERING -SCIENCE-
one effect with another and make inferences about
their relative importance to the crop, the farmer,
air quality, or other relevant variables.
Fortunately, numerous economic analyses of farm
operations have been completed providing detailed
cost information on most farm activities. Such
cost data allow the various farm functions to be
compared to each other, as well as to the income
provided by the crop in question, alternative
crops, and alternative crop expenses. In most
states, farm enterprise data sheets are routinely
updated, providing reasonably current estimates of
these farm costs. Numerous grass seed enterprises
have been so detailed. Similar data, based on
special economic studies, are available for
Kentucky bluegrass seed production in eastern
Washington. (Burt and Wirth, 1976 and 1979)
Using these economic data, it is possible to
evaluate, on a common basis, a variety of the
effects of lessened burning. The net effect of
handling increased residue, applying additional
chemicals, and absorbing yield reductions are then
comparable in terms significant to farm operations.
4-1 1
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ES ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
Though the economic impacts of air pollution have
been estimated in various studies, such an
undertaking is well beyond the scope of this
report. Rather than develop an economic impact
model specific to the northern Idaho situation,
overall field burning emissions is proposed as a
measure of air quality effects due to field
burning. A further simplification equates acreage
to emissions, thus making the acreage burned an
indicator of air quality impacts. Estimated
reductions in acreage burned then may be used as
the estimator of improvements in field
burning-related air quality effects for comparison
with related additional costs. The worth of a
proposed alternative then may be represented as
the net emission reduction per additional dollar
of cost, or:
Reductions in emissions _ Reduction in acres burned
Increased costs to producers Increased costs to producers
The assumption of emissions as an indicator of air
quality effects is valid when area-wide impacts
are averaged over many seasons with random
variations in field and weather conditions and
smoke management effectiveness. Because of the
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
variability of these factors, it is well
understood that acreage burned may not reflect
impacts in the short-term, especially in some
selected locations. In addition, some specific
effects of field burning, such as the length of
the burning season or the number of smoky days in
a season which may be important to those affected,
are not necessarily directly relatable to reduced
emissions. However, the correlation between
emissions and these factors is believed to be
positive and to support the use of the "acreage
burned" statistic as the simplest and most
practical indicator of the overall air quality
effects of field burning.
4.2.1 Analysis of the Costs of Not Burning
As noted in the background sections of this
report, burning of both Kentucky bluegrass and
cereal grain residues are conducted in areas of
northern Idaho with Kentucky bluegrass
concentrated in Kootenai and Benewah counties.
Soil conditions, terrain, and rainfall vary
dramatically between the Rathdrum Prairie seed
growing areas and other areas of this region.
These varied conditions require somewhat different
cultural practices and cropping patterns to be
4-13
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ENGINEERINGrSCIENCE-
used depending upon location. Accordingly,
production costs are distributed differently among
farm operations with some higher than others. In
particular, large cost items, such as land,
irrigation, and establishment expenses, can vary
significantly due to location, farm history, and
growers' decisions. However, these decisions are
made to maintain profitability, which is closely
tied to yields. As a consequence, yield values
vary remarkably little with no consistent gradient
across the area. Yield can vary significantly,
however, depending on the specific variety
(cultivar) selected by the grower.
To avoid dealing with the wider variation which
would result from assessing the total farm
operation, the analysis used in this report
addresses only the incremental costs and benefits
(reductions in emissions) that result from
alternative post-harvest treatments. Using this
approach, significant and highly variable expenses
such as land cost, fixed cost due to capital
investment, and the cost of other farm management
decisions are not included which, leaves a clearer
picture of the cost/benefit relationship and range
of options for a reduction in field burning. The
resulting analysis, though not descriptive of any
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
particular farm circumstance, is more uniformly
applicable to all farms with a grass seed or
cereal enterprise.
An incremental cost approach results in a much
simplified analysis of the cost of those factors
affected by burning. This is because, for major
categories of farms, incremental costs tend to be
very similar. In this analysis, the following
categories were found useful and representative of
a significant portion of the acreage subject to
burning in northern Idaho:
1. Common Kentucky bluegrass grown for seed under
dryland conditions;
2. Proprietary Kentucky bluegrass grown for seed
on irrigated, gravelly soils;
3. Cereal crops grown on irrigated gravelly
soils; and
4. Cereal crops grown on non-gravelly soils under
dryland conditions.
Further subdivision beyond these four catagories
gave no further insight into the cost analysis.
For each of the assumed circumstances identified
by the categories above, a number of post-harvest
treatment options are available to the farmer.
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
These include, for Kentucky bluegrass, open
burning, various forms of removal of straw and/or
stubble, or no post-harvest treatment. For cereal
crops, similar options are available, though all
are followed by some level of cultivation.
Alternating or rotating these post-harvest
treatments may also be assumed.
Table 4-II displays the assumed soil/crop
circumstances and several post-harvest treatment
options for cereal and Kentucky bluegrass crops
burned in northern Idaho. Supplemental
information regarding the cost derivations of
Table 4-II are included in the Appendix.
Since the annual post-harvest burning of fields
has been selected over time, due largely to its
cost effectiveness, it is logical to expect
additional net costs to be incurred, either
through increased production costs or decreased
revenues from seed sales (reduced yield of clean
seed) when burning is reduced. Evaluation of
literature referenced in Section 3 of this report
supports inclusion of a number of cost categories
that may potentially affect net returns. These
cost categories are also listed in Table 4-II.
Obviously, with a number of cost category
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
activities affected by burning, the seed producer
may select any of perhaps one hundred alternative
treatment programs with costs varying accordingly.
Which program is selected would depend upon
observed field conditions, availability of
resources, and probability of success. In a newly
established stand with no special weed or disease
problems, the additional costs of not burning may
be limited to straw removal expenses and
anticipated yield reductions. On the other hand,
an established stand suffering from clear weed and
pest problems may require extensive straw and
stubble removal, additional chemical applications,
and extraordinary seed cleaning to obtain a,
readily marketable product. This considerable
variability in needs results in a range of
potential costs for each cost category, keeping in
mind that these are additional costs related to
reduced burning. From these values, an estimated
average expected cost has been determined for
inclusion in Table 4-II. These cost estimates
are based upon assumptions discussed in subsequent
sections and detailed in the Appendix.
4.2.1.1 Post-Harvest Residue Treatments
4-17
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Table 4-II
Estimated Additional Production Costs and Yield Reductions Due to Reduced Burning
Total
Additional Costs, Average Annual per Acre Addition
Field/Crop Type Number
Treatment of Crops
Merion Kentucky
Bluegr ass-Gravelly
Soil
1 . Biennial Burn 5
SR
SSR
None
2. No Burn 4
SR
SSR
None
^ 3. Burn 2 of 3 Years 6
I SR
> SSR
00 None
Newport Kentucky
Bluegr ass -Other
Soils
1 . Biennial Burn 5
SR
SSR
None
2. No Burn 4
SR
SSR
None
3. Burn 2 of 3 Years
SR
SSR
None
Annual Open Burn 7
Annual Machine Burn 7
Straw/Stubble Incorp./ Weed
Removal and Cultivate Control
Disposal
25
37
0
50
74
0
17
25
0
25
37
0
50
74
0
17
25
0
0
50
7
7
1 1
7
7
15
7
7
1 1
7
7
1 1
7
7
15
7
7
11
.50
.50
.25
.50
.50
.30
.50
.50
.25
.50
.50
.25
.50
.50
.00
.50
.50
.25
0
0
Pest/Disease
Control
15
15
15
30
30
30
10
10
10
15
15
15
30
30
30
10
10
10
.00
.00
.00
.00
.00
.00
.00
.00
.00
.00
.00
.00
.00
.00
.00
.00
.00
.00
0
0
Amort.
Est. Cost
@ 12%
14
14
14
27
27
27
7
7
7
13
13
13
25
25
25
6
6
6
.70
.70
.70
.75
.75
.75
.00
.00
.00
.40
.40
.40
.30
.30
.30
.00
.00
.00
0
0
Machine Product
Burn Costs
62.
74.
40.
115.
139.
72.
41 .
49.
28.
60.
72.
39.
112.
136.
70.
40.
48.
27.
0
71 121.
20
20
95
25
25
75
50
50
25
90
90
65
80
80
30
50
50
25
0
00
Average
Clean Seed
Yield Net
Reduct Loss
10
10
25*
20
20*
38
6 59
6 65
12* 69
18
18
30*
27
22
52
8
8
12
0
0
m
z
c
z
tr
fv
[1
3
O
I
W
r
n
f
m
-------
Table 4-II
Estimated Additional Production Costs and
Field/Crop Type
Treatment
Fylking Kentucky
Blueg^rass-Gravel ly
Soil
1 . Biennial Burn
SR
SSR
None
2. No Burn
SR
SSR
None
3. Burn 2 of 3 Years
SR
SSR
.C, None
I
^° Cereal Grain-
Gravelly Soil
1 . Biennial Burn
SR
None
2. No Burn
SR
None
Cereal Grain-
Other Soil
1 . Biennial Burn
SR
None
2. No Burn
SR
None
Annual Open Burn
These yield reduction
Additional Costs,
Number Straw/Stubble Incorp./
of Crops Removal and Cultivate
Disposal
5
25
37
0
4
50
74
0
6
17
25
0
1
28 9.00
0 17.75
1
66 18.00
0 J5.50
1
28 5.80
0 11. 'JO
1
56 11.60
0 23.80
1 0 0
Yield Reductions Due to
Reduced Burning
Average Annual per Acre
Weed
Control
7.50
7.50
11 .25
7.50
7.50
15.00
7.50
7.50
11 .25
2.00
3.00
7.50
7.50
2.00
3.00
7.50
7.50
0
percentages were estimated based on available
Pest/Disease
Control
15
15
15
30
30
30
10
10
10
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Amort. Machine
Est. Cost Burn
@ 12%
14.70
14.70
14.70
27.75
27.75
27.75
7.00
7.00
7.00
0
0
0 0
Total Average
Addition Clean Seed
Product Yield Net
Costs Reduct Loss
(%)
62.20 27
74.20 20*
40.95 36*
115.25 48
139.25 28
72.75 52*
41.50 15
49.50 10
28.25 17*
39.00
20.75
81 .50
43.00
35.80
14.90
75. 10
31 .30
0
m
V
^
z
Q
Z
m
if
X
z
c
i
V,
n
n
r
m
related research data.
-------
ENGINEER ING - SCIENCE -
4.2.1.1 Post-harvest residue treatments used in
determining the expected costs of not burning
included those used in research efforts in
Washington and Oregon, and are reflective of
the practices likely to be substituted by seed
producers. They also reflect the likely
result of the application of regulations
designed to reduce burning emission; that is,
the prohibition of the burning of at least
some acreage in each year. As a result,
proposed alternative treatments include: no
burning; burning on alternate years; and
burning two years out of three. A baseline of
essentially zero additional costs also is
provided for the annual burning alternative.
Since post-harvest straw removal activities
are a very significant factor in simulating
open burning effects and also greatly
influence the effectiveness of applied
chemicals, they were selected as additional
criteria for subdividing post-harvest
alternatives. Post-harvest straw removal
methods include two approaches expected to be
used should burning restrictions be placed in
effect: removal of straw only; and removal of
straw and stubble. Baling of straw (standard
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ES ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
bales) is assumed. Removal of stubble is
anticipated to be accomplished through close
clipping or chopping followed by removal or no
further treatment. Since straw removal is
costly, the "no removal" options is included
since it may be the most or only feasible
alternative under some circumstances.
Two other alternative treatments should also
be discussed briefly as they have been the
subject of discussion and research efforts.
These are burning by use of a mobile field
sanitizer or field burning machine and burning
partial residue loadings. Mobile field
burners have been and are under continuing
development in various locations where open
field burning restrictions have been
threatened. To date, overall cost and poor
reliability have severely limited their
application, though agronomic results have
generally been good. Also, based upon
experiences in Oregon, machine burning did not
appear a viable option because of the
additional time required by the machines to
accomplish sanitation. Under the best
circumstances, Oregon experts anticipated
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
machine use to be limited to the highest
priced, proprietary varieties of seed. As a
result of these expectations and what would be
a slow growth in the population of such units,
they are not considered as a viable
alternative treatment in this analysis, though
costs are included for comparison purposes.
Burning only the stubble after removal of
straw could result in a substantial reduction
in emissions, perhaps as much as forty
percent. (Miller, et. al., 1976, Erickson,
et. al, 1979) However, removal of straw fuel
also results in two deleterious effects.
First, the santizing effects of burning are
reduced as ground temperatures are reduced due
to the lessened fuel load and greater number
of "skips" under open field burn conditions.
(Canode, 1977) Second, the reduced energy
released during combustion results in a
reduced plume rise and increased amounts of
low elevation smoke. As a result, downwind,
ground-level smoke concentration at locations
downwind are greater per pound of emission
than under conditions where a full fuel load
is burned. Again, Oregon studies have shown
low elevation emissions from modified back
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
fire burns (with energy release rates similar
to those by reduced fuel loads) to have a much
greater impact on downwind air quality than a
full fuel load burned under conventional
conditions. (Craig and Wolf, 1979) For this
reason, partial straw removal followed by
burning is not recommended as a post-harvest
treatment option.
Based upon the research and expertise cited in
Section 3, a more rapid deterioration of grass
seed field cleanliness, as indicated by weed
and non-crop populations and incidence of
disease, may be expected when burning is not
conducted annually. As a result, the
profitable life of a bluegrass stand is
shortened, requiring the stand's removal and
replacement by a different crop. Therefore,
the anticipated stand life is less for a field
that receives no burning than those that
receive burning.
Stand life is important in farm and crop
economics since substantial costs are incurred
in establishing a perennial bluegrass field.
These initial fixed costs may be assessed on
an annual basis if they are amortized over the
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
life of the stand and offset by the annual
revenue derived from crop sales. Obviously,
the magnitude of these annualized costs is
directly tied to stand life and can noticeably
affect annual net returns.
Stand life estimates have been made for each
category of burning activity noted in Table
4-II. The estimates are based upon the
success of researchers at maintaining viable
stands without burning. Most of this research
has been limited to six years or less and data
on consistent non-burning treatments for more
than five years are extremely limited. Thus,
stand life estimates are in some cases
extrapolations of available experimental
results. Since burning has been ubiquitous in
Pacific Northwest seed production areas, these
experimental results are the best information
available on the effects of reduced burning on
shortening stand life.
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ENGINEER ING - SCIENCE -
4.2.1.2 Other Crop Treatments and Bases for Costs
As noted earlier in this section, the cost
analysis for assessing the need to burn is
based on additional incremental costs
associated with production activities and
yield losses. This section reviews the bases
of these additional assigned costs and the
reason(s) for their inclusion in the analysis.
The costs noted below are presented
independently of one another and this is
something of an oversimplification in the
analysis. Treatments such as straw removal
effect subsequent chemical treatments and seed
cleaning expenses. Where possible, a general
relationship was assumed based on research and
the comments of experts. However, it is
realized that such generalizations are just
that and will not apply in all cases. Routine
applications of pesticide under unfavorable
conditions may simply not provide the control
normally achieved resulting in measurable
clean seed yield loss. Alternatively, in some
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
circumstances, leaving stubble in place may
have no apparent effect of the following
yield. It is clear from experimental work
that great variability in results should be
expected.
4.2.1.2.1 Straw Removal and Disposal
Straw removal costs may be based on the use
of bulk removal systems. These normally
result in the lowest per acre cost for
removal. These systems also produce straw
in a large bale or stack with their
attendent handling and resale problems.
Using these systems, removal of straw to
field side on a custom basis is costed at
$20 to $35 per acre. (Miles, 1976; Kropf,
1983) If straw is removed in the somewhat
more marketable standard bale form, removal
costs increase to $37 to $62 per acre.
However, since custom straw removal
normally would be by standard baling, this
cost is used for analysis purposes.
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
Disposal of straw will, of course, depend
upon its marketability. However, as noted
previously only a small percentage of the
available straw can be expected to be sold
before the market is over-supplied. Thus,
most seed producers would need to dispose
of straw by other means. Straw may be
burned in clean stacks with a reduction in
visible emissions. (Miles, 1976) Data on
the total emissions of this approach are
not known, but are expected to be less than
for burning the distributed straw.
Disposal of the straw through normal or
accelerated decomposition could also be
undertaken for straw not disposed of for
other purposes. If straw is to be disposed
of at field side, approximately one to two
percent of the available acreage would need
to be devoted to this purpose. If straw is
to be disposed of at other nearby sites,
loading, shipping, and unloading cost need
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
to be included. Based on studies by Wirth,
et. al. (1977) and inflation in the
intervening period, baled straw removal,
loading, and trucking to a nearby location
would cost $49 per acre. This compares
favorably with similarly escalated costs
developed by Miles. (1976)
Custom raking, baling, and stacking rates
are quoted as $45 to $60 per acre depending
upon straw loading (Kropf, 1983; Ringsdorf,
1983) Significant hauling distances would
increase these costs.
4.2.1.2.2 Incorporation of Residue
The economic benefit of burning with regard
to incorporation is due to the reduction in
solid matter that must be processed and
mixed with soil to allow preparation of a
seed bed. Because burning eliminates
approximately 70% of the above ground dry
matter (90% for cereal crops), plowing,
disking, and related operations are much
reduced.
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ES ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
"No-till" methods of seeding are under very
active investigation and are in use on
cereal crops in areas wih moderate to light
straw loadings. Data on cost effectiveness
of no-till methods is not available for
gravelly soils and heavier straw loads
common to the Rathdrum Prairie.
Consequently, cost estimates for this
method on cereal or direct seeding of
annual crops into herbicide-treated,
established Kentucky bluegrass stands is
not available. The latter technique is in
use on the Rathdrum Prairie and there is
concern that without burning chemical
effectiveness would be much reduced due to
residual straw. This circumstance is
comparable to other chemical application
without straw and stubble removal.
Tillage costs represent only a small part
of the overall costs of a stand of Kentucky
bluegrass, especially if it is maintained
for seven or more years, as is now common.
Virtually all tillage costs are encumbered
during the establishment year. Traditional
economic analyses then amoritize this cost
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
over the life of the stand. Thus, the
major impact of higher tillage costs is
shown in the amortized establishment costs
of Table 4-II for Kentucky bluegrass.
Incorporation costs for cereal crops are
shown as annual costs.
Costs of residue incorporation are based on
cultural practice costs (Oregon State
University, Department of Agriculture and
Resource Economics, 1975 and 1979; Powell,
Lindeborg, and Mclntosh, 1980; and Powell,
1983) and actual operations conducted by
grass seed and cereal producers. (Van
Slyke, 1982; Carlson, 1982) For most
areas, cost estimates collected by
university economics researchers are
adequate. However, application of these
estimates to the Rathdrum Prairie would not
reflect the higher costs of cultivation in
this area. Investigation of increased plow
wear due to the high stone content of soils
of the areas lead to additional costs of
incorporation that are significantly higher
than those in other soil conditions.
Additional costs were based on the
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE -
processes identified in Appendix Table A3-I
being used in each case.
4.2.1.2.3 Weed, Disease and Pest Control
Reduced burned is anticipated to result in
increased incidence of pest problems
serious enough to warrant additional
treatment. For many seed producers,
routine burning constitutes their weed,
disease, and other pest control program.
It is not uncommon for no chemical controls
to be used. (Van Slyke, 1982; Holman,
1982; Peterson, 1983)
With reduced burning, it is anticipated
that chemical treatments will need to be
applied to grass seed fields at least in
years when burning is not conducted.
Further, the number of applications
required for control is assumed to be
related to the level of residue removal.
With reduced burning one additional
application of weedicide is assumed in all
years. Hand roguing is assumed in years
when burning is not conducted. Without
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ENGINEERING -SCIENCE-
straw removal, one additional application
of weed sprays is anticipated in non-burn
years and higher spray concentrations are
assumed in the complete absence of burning.
As noted in previous sections, these
activities and costs are in addition to the
present control program.
For disease control cost estimates, it was
assumed 25% of the acreage not burned would
be treated. The amount of acreage to be
treated each year increases for consecutive
years without burning-the no burn option.
The amount of acreage treated would
increase each year by 25% of the total
acreage so that in a four-year, no burn
rotation, 75% of the acreage would be
treated prior to the last harvest.
Of course, the need for such treatments is
highly variable depending upon annual
weather, cleanliness of fields at
establishment, and nearby sources of weed
seed; disease innoculum; etc. Also, the
benefit of a chemical application over a
load of straw residue may not be considered
4-32
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
worth the effort by some producers since
much of the chemical will be absorbed by
that material. Recommended upper limits on
the number of applications of certain stem
and leaf disease controls may also limit
the application of additional chemicals to
below the amounts anticipated in developing
the costs of Table 4-II.
4.2.1.2.4 Amortized Establishment Costs
As noted earlier, experimental results
indicate reduced burning would lead to a
shorter rotation cycle to maintain yield
(income) than is possible with annual
burning. Under this circumstance, the
costs of establishing and removing the
stand of Kentucky bluegrass will need to be
amortized over this shorter stand life.
The annualized costs, of course, will
increase roughly in inverse proportion to
the reduction in stand life.
Establishment costs for Kentucky bluegrass
are similar throughout the northern
Idaho/eastern Washington grass seed
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
producing areas, except where soil
conditions require special fertilizer,
irrigation, and seed bed preparation
practices. Of these, only the
significantly more expensive tillage costs
and irrigation, due to gravelly soil, can
be separated into a meaningful subcategory.
Establishment costs for the Rathdrum
Prairie (and other gravelly soil areas) are
based upon economic analyses provided by
Powell (1983).
4.2.1.2.5 Seed Cleaning
Increased incidence of weeds and diseased
seed in crop seed may be adequately removed
by additional cleaning operations.
However, associated with these additional
cleaning operations would be some clean
seed loss. Experience indicates this loss
to be about 15 to 30 percent for each
cleaning. The cost of cleaning is normally
assessed by weight, on a weight-in and
weight-out basis, making per acreage costs
dependent upon yield and harvest
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ENGINEER ING-SCIENCE-
procedures, and therefore, highly variable.
Costs due to seed loss through clean-out
are more evenly distributed; however, as
lower yielding varieties normally demand
higher prices per pound and vice versa.
Additional cleaning requirements would be
affected by the type of treatment applied
to the field. Loss of burning and lack of
straw removal would be assumed to result in
greater recleaning requirements over the
life of the stand. Applications of
chemicals would also affect seed loss
during cleaning and the amount of cleaning
required. These assumptions are based upon
results of experiments in Oregon (Chilcote,
et. al., 1981) and Washington (Canode and
Law, 1977), but actual recleaning
requirements would be anticipated to be
extremely variable. For example, of
particular expense would be crop seed
containing noxious weed seeds, such as
quackgrass, that are of a size and shape
similar to the Kentucky bluegrass variety
being cleaned. Several operations may be
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ENGINEER ING-SCIENCE-
necessary to clean such a seed lot.
Alternatively, a heavy infestation of a
large seeded weed may reduce yields through
competition, but its seed would be easily
removed from the crop seed.
Experimentation with non-burn alternatives
in Oregon have generally indicated that
existing weed problems would be difficult
to control without the use of burning,
while a "clean" field may have a reasonable
chance of remaining so without burning
given proper chemical controls. Because of
the extreme variability demonstrated in
cleaning requirements, and because of the
important role of residue removal and
chemical controls in providing clean seed,
estimating an appropriate cost for this
production element is extremely difficult.
As a result, specific costs for additional
cleaning are not included. For the
purposes of this analyses, the cost of
maintaining clean seed (including
additional cleaning costs) will be
considered to accrue to the assumed straw
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ENGINEER ING-SCIENCE-
removal and additional chemical application
programs.
4.2.1.3 Clean Seed Yield Loss
Reductions in clean seed yield represent lost
revenue to seed producers. Based on the
alternative treatment scenarios presented here
and historical prices, yield losses
attributable to reduced burning would be the
largest single factor affecting profitability.
On this same basis, dollar losses associated
with yield reductions often will be larger
than the total of all increased production
costs.
Because both yield and seed prices can vary
dramatically from year to year, revenue losses
due to yield reduction cannot be reliably
forecast. Therefore, it is more useful to
simply estimate yield losses as a percentage
of expected yield under check conditions,
normally that of annual open burning. This is
the approach taken by most researchers in
reporting yield effects of post-harvest
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
treatments.
Table 4-II identifies the average percentage
yield reductions that may be anticipated
through application of the listed post-harvest
treatments. The values are based upon
research, involving Kentucky bluegrass
cultivars, aimed at the question of the
effects of post-harvest treatments. This
includes the work of primarily Canode, Law,
et. al. (1972) in eastern Washington and
northern Idaho; Chilcote, Youngberg, et. al.
(1975) in Oregon; Nordestgaard, et. al. (1976)
in Denmark; and Elling (1982) in Minnesota.
The yield reductions listed in Table 4-II are
based upon the assumed crop rotation period
also listed and the year-by-year yield
reductions available in the literature.
(Wirth, et. al., 1977; Canode and Law, 1977)
The method is illustrated in the Appendix. As
a result, average yield reductions listed here
may be somewhat less than those based upon
longer rotations. Based on these data and
Table 4-II, Figure 4-1 illustrates the general
effect of reduced burning on additional
production costs and yield.
4-38
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
150
ADDITIONAL 5
PRODUCTION
COSTS (ARC)
($/A) 100
75
PERCENT
YIELD
REDUCTION
50
25
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
PERCENT REDUCTION IN BURNING (PRB)
Figure 4-1
Additional Production Costs and Yield
Reductions for Various Percent Reductions
in Burning.
4-39
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
4.3 Required Increases in Seed Prices to Offset
Additional Costs of Reduced Burning
The combination of increased production costs and
reduced yields which would be anticipated as a result
of reduced post-harvest burning could be offset with
a sufficient increase in seed prices. Further, seed
price increases could restore net returns to levels
equivalent to those achieved under an annual burning
program. It is possible to calculate the needed
price increases if one makes use of current
production costs and utilizes the incremental cost
data of Table 4-II.
Calculations were conducted to determine the
increases in seed prices required to maintain net
returns equivalent to those possible under an annual
open burning program. Similar analyses could be
completed using other criteria such as maintenance of
return on investment; however, net return (profit) is
probably most clearly understood and will identify
the trend of price requirements.
Equating net return levels for annual burning and
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
various alternative burning programs, using
procedures outlined in the Appendix, allows the
calculation of the required increase in price for the
given crop. Since existing prices determine the
level of present profits, the required price increase
is a function of prices under annual burning
circumstances. Figures 4-2 through 4-5 illustrate
the effect of reduced burning on the required crop
prices to maintain the identified relationship
between net profits under annual and reduced burning
circumstances. Net return levels, expressed as a
percentage of the annual burning net return, are
included to address:
1 . The potential for assessing an additional
cost for control of air pollution; and
2. The increasing or decreasing cost of living.
As may be seen from these figures, in order to
maintain net returns near current levels, dramatic
increases in crop prices would have to occur.
Required seed prices are well beyond the historical
price of Kentucky bluegrass seed of the last few
seasons.
4-41
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I
4i>
to
200
PERCENT OF180
CURRENT
PRICE
REQUIRED
TO MAINTAIN 16°
NOTED PROFIT
LEVEL
140
120
100
400LB/A
$380/A
S60/A
20%
PROFIT, REDUCED BURNING
' 'x PROFIT, ANNUAL BURN ING
I l l I l
>0 60
70 80 90 100
Figure 4-2
SEED PRICE ASSUMING ANNUAL
BURNINGOF RESIDUE ($/cwt)
Percentage Price Increase Required to
Maintain Noted Profit (Net Return) Levels
for Kentucky Bluegrass.
m
in
m
O
m
m
3J
I
Q
m
O
m
-------
225
200
I
.£
U>
PERCENT
OF CURRENT
PRICE
REQUIRED
TO MAINTAIN 175
NOTED PROFIT
LEVEL
150
125
100
YIELD
Cp0
ACP
YR
PR =
= 575 LB/A
= $330/A
=$104/A
= 27%
m
in
m
O
z
m
m
3)
O
i
8
PROFIT. REDUCED BURNING
PROFIT, ANNUALBURNING
I I I I I
40 50 60 70 80 90 100
SEED PRICE ASSUMING ANNUALBURNING OF
RESIDUE ($/cwt)
Figure 4-3
Percentage Price Increase Required to
Maintain Noted Profit (Net Return) Levels
for Kentucky Dluegrass.
-------
350
PERCENT 300
OF CURRENT
PRICE
REQUIRED
TO MAINTAIN 25°
NOTED PROFIT
LEVEL
200
150
100
YIELD=400LB/A
Cp0 = $380/A
ACp = $114/A
YR = 48%
PR =
PROFIT, NO BURNING
m
in
m
O
z
m
m
a»
O
i
m
PROFIT, ANNUAL BURNING
I I I I I I
50 60 70 80 90 100
SEED PRICE ASSUMING ANNUAL BURNING OF
RESIDUE ($/cwt)
110
Figure 4-4
Percentage Price Increase Required to
Maintain Noted Profit (Net Return) Levels
for Kentucky Bluegrass.
-------
125
PERCENT OF
CURRENT
PRICE
REQUIRED
TO MAINTAIN
NOTED PROFIT
LEVEL
12Q
115
I
*>
Ul
110
105
100
YIELD
Cpo
ACp
YR
= 55Bu/A
= $240/A
= $35.50/A
=0
PR =
PROFIT, REDUCED BURNING
PROFIT,ANNUAL BURNING
m
in
m
z
o
m
m
3)
O
m
S
m
Figure 4-5
3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00
GRAIN PRICE, ASSUMING ANNUAL BURNING OF
RESIDUE ($/BU)
Percentage Price Increase Required to
Maintain Noted Profit (Net Return) Levels
for Cereal Crops.
-------
ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
The loss in yield due to reduced burning would result
in increasing seed prices in the short-term as
production decreases and seed inventories are
depleted. Beyond this initial change, net effect of
the reduced burning sceario on acreage and production
is not clear. The econometric model of Folwell,
Burt, and Wirth (1978) predicted increases in acreage
in respnse to long-term higher prices for seed.
However, the acreage prediction element of this model
was based on seed prices and did not take into
account net returns to growers. These net returns
would be reduced substantially unless prices would
increase to levels comparable to those of Figures 4-2
through 4-5. It is not clear whether growers would
respond most strongly, in selecting crop
alternatives, to market price or net return.
It seems clear that the loss in Idaho production and
associated short-term seed price increase would
stimulate acreage increases in areas not affected by
restrictions on burning. As illustrated in Figure
2-6, seed growers in Idaho and Washington have shown
a remarkable responsiveness to such market changes
whereas changes in Oregon acreage have been less
dramatic. It could be anticipated then that reduced
4-46
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
production in Idaho due to burning restrictions would
be replaced by additional production in these two
areas, principally Washington.
Also, a distinct production cost advantage would
accrue to these competitive areas that retained
annual burning. Lower production costs in what are
otherwise equivalent circumstances would tend to keep
seed prices low; perhaps below profitable levels for
Idaho producers. Under this scenario, long-term
grass seed production would tend to migrate toward
these lower production cost areas, provided
replacement crops in Idaho were more profitable than
Kentucky bluegrass under a reduced burning program.
4 . 4 Benef it-to-Cost Analysis for Reduced Burning
Alternatives
As noted in Section 4-1, the air quality benefits and
resulting cost increases to achieve them were the two
most important WANT objectives of the previously
compiled list. Any program devised for smoke control
should attempt to maximize air quality benefits for a
given additional financial burden to seed producers
and processors and the public. In fact, for the
post-harvest alternatives discussed here, perhaps the
most significant factor to establishing the worth of
4-47
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
proposed changes in practices is the ratio of the
resulting emission reduction and the associated cost
to the seed producers. Using acreage not burned as
an indicator of the net emission reduction and
increased production expenses and reduced seed
revenues as costs, the selected alternative treatment
preferably would maximize the ratio:
B
Acreage Not Burned
Increased production cost
plus reduced revenues
or
B
A.
/C
or more simply
B
NB
V,
where
B
%ANB
A (A Cp + YRP)
%ANB
(A Cp + YR-P)
Benefit-to-cost ratio
Percent of the total Acreage
which will no longer be burned
A Cp = The increase in production costs($/A
YR = The reduction in yield (lbs./A)
P = Prevailing seed price ($/lbs.)
It should be understood the Benefit-to-Cost ratio
proposed here is for comparison purposes only and
should not be confused with B/C ratios used in
traditional analysis. Those analyses rely upon a
4-48
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ENGINEER ING-SCIENCE -
value in dollars being assigned to benefits, a task
beyond the scope of this report. Using this
traditional approach a B/C ratio greater than 1.0 is
desireable. However, B/C ratio values used here have
no particular meaning except in comparison to B/C
ratios of other alternatives. (Riggs, 1968)
Clearly, the maximum achievable benefit-to-cost is a
function of prevailing seed price with the ratio
being highest when seed prices are low and vice
versa. Thus, as is usually the case, a reduction in
emissions can be effected most economically when
there is the least amount of capital to pay for the
change.
Plotting of the above equation against seed price
displays the range of benefit-to-cost (B/C) ratios
that are possible under various market conditions.
Several examples are plotted in Figure 4-6. The
plotted examples were selected to describe the range
of the B/C variable under the variety of crops and
treatments included in Table 4-II. As may be seen,
by far the best B/C ratio is achieved when
alternatives to the burning of cereal residues are
selected. Compared to this cereal B/C grouping,
alternatives to grass seed field burning are grouped
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ENGINEER ING-SCIENCE-
B/C
RATIO
BURNING SCHEDULE CROP TYPES
2/3- BURN 2 OF 3 YEARS Cer -Cereal Grain
1/2 - BURN I OF 2 YEARS Mer - Merion Kentucky Bluegrass
NB - NO BURN ING New-Newport // //
Fyl -Fylking // //
RESIDUE
REMOVAL
Straw Removed
Straw & Stubble Removed
None Removed
SOIL TYPES
GS- Gravelly Soils
AS- Average Soils
OTHER SYMBOLS
FBM-Field Burning
Machine
ER -Emission Reduction
Figure 4-6
CROP PRICE ($/CWT. or $/IO BU.)
Emission Benefit-to-Cost Ratios for
Varipus Alternative Post-Harvest Treatments,
Burning Schedules, and Seed Prices for
Kentucky Bluegrass and Cereal Crops. 4-50
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
at much lower values. B/C values for grass seed
field burning alternatives are roughly one-half to
one-tenth those for cereal burning. Based solely on
B/C values, reductions in cereal acreage burning
should be sought first. Reduction in cereal burning,
of course, is indicated also from agronomic and in
most areas, soil conservation viewpoints.
Among grass seed varieties, it is very difficult to
separate on the basis of cost/benefit a
crop/treatment circumstance which is clearly better,
especially when the variability of the data is
considered. Also, it must be remembered that the
great variability in individual farms operations have
been condensed into the few cultural, harvest and
post-harvest treatment options presented here. Of
necessity the number of varieties selected for this
analysis had to be small, however, they were selected
to cover a wide range of expected circumstances.
Merion Kentucky Bluegrass was included in the
analysis because research indicated it to be the
variety perhaps least affected by reduced burning.
It is also a relatively low-yielding variety that
would act as a surrogate for the generally lower
yielding proprietary varieties commonly grown under
4-51
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
irrigation on the Rathdrum Prairie. Fylking Kentucky
Bluegrass was included because it is particularly
responsive to the effects of burning, and Newport is
a relatively high yielding public variety commonly
grown in dryland areas of Kootenai, Benewah, and
Latah counties. Of course, the overall selection of
varieties for this analysis are limited to those on
which post-harvest treatment effects have been
studied; and this was a key factor in selecting these
varieties, also.
Even with the range in yields and apparent
responsiveness to fire presented by these varieties,
resulting B/C values for any given seed price all
fall within about 25% of th mean B/C value. General
inspection of the B/C plots of Figures 4-7, 4-8, and
4-9 show Merion to sustain the highest values and
Fylking and Newport to overlap broadly. However, the
author believes it is inappropriate to use this
observation to support a differentiation of the need
to burn based on variety. At present, there is no
information on the effects of reduced burning on 80%
of the Kentucky bluegrass varieties eligible for
certificaton in Idaho. Thus, it is impossible,
without doing supporting research, to determine
whether a particular variety is Merion-like or
4-52
-------
Ul
OJ
40 60 80 100
SEED PRICE ($/CWT)
Figure 4-7
Emission Benefit-to-Cost Ratios for
Various Alternative Post-Harvest Treatments,
Burning Schedules, and Seed Prices for
"Merion" Kentucky Bluegrass.
-------
Ui
40 60 80 100
SEED PRICE (S/CWT
m
in
o
m
m
so
O
Figure 4-8
Emission Benefit-to-Cost Ratios for
Various Alternative Post-Harvest Treatments,
Burning Schedules, and Seed Prices for
"Newport" Kentucky Bluegrass.
-------
I
Ul
Ul
'FYLKING1 KENTUCKY BLUEGRASS
IRRIGATED, GRAVELLY SOILS
YIELD: 575 LB./A
; RESIDUE REMOVAL
STRAW REMOVED
STRAW 8. STUBBLE REMOVED
NONE REMOVED
BURNING SCHEDULES
2/3 - BURN 2 OF 3 YEARS
1/2 - BURN 1 OF 2 YEARS
NB - NO BURNING
RATIO
Figure 4-9
40 60 80 100
SEED PRICE ($/CWT)
Emission Benefit-to-Cost Ratios for
Various Alternative Post-Harvest Treatments,
Burning Schedules, and Seed Prices for
"Fylking" Kentucky Bluegrass.
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
Fylking-like in its response to reduced burning and,
therefore, whether reduced burning is reasonable for
that cultivar.
Though there is some difference among varieties based
on B/C evaluation, no such differences can be
identified among treatments with the exception of
machine burning. However, the superiority of the
machine is dependent on its net emission reduction
capabilities. If the machines can reduce emission by
eighty percent compared to open burning, it would
maintain a superior B/C ratio compared to other
alternatives.
No straw removal alternatives clearly rate high B/C
values; however, as noted in research, the value of
straw removal is variety-dependent. Thus, straw and
stubble removal is effective at reducing net costs
for Fylking and consequently the Fylking straw and
stubble treatments score higher B/C's under each
burning scenario. Similarly, Merion straw removal
treatments rate highest for that species. However,
no other across-the-board statements on cost
effectiveness of treatments can be made based on this
data and analysis.
4-56
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ES ENGINEER ING-SCIENCE-
An analysis of the levels of burning was conducted
assuming acreage reductions of 33%, 50%, and 100% for
the two-out-of-three (2/3), alternate year (1/2), and
no burn options. Summary results are contained in
the Appendix. Mid-range seed prices were assumed.
Regardless of variety or straw removal technique, the
highest B/C ratios were for the no burning option,
indicting the somewhat slower growth in production
costs compared to yield reduction as burning is
progressively reduced. However, also in all
circumstances, the two-out-of-three year option B/C
levels were very close to those of the non-burning
option. In one case, for Newport with no straw
removal, the 2/3 option obtained the highest B/C
value.
In both the total and incremental B C analysis B/C
values for the 2/3 and non-burn options were tightly
grouped while those for the 1/2 option were
distinctly lower. Thus, on a B/C basis, alternate
year burning would not be favored. Of course, the
2/3 option represents the lowest additional cost to
grass seed producers of the reduced-burning
alternatives analyzed here.
4.5 Rating of Alternative Post-Harvest Treatments
4-57
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
Alternatives to open field burning are all more
expensive than continuation of the present practice.
However, alternatives involving a reduction in the
number of acres burned also would have a lessened
impact on air quality. In most instances where air
pollution reductions have been sought, regulatory
agencies have required sources of air contaminants to
pay for such equipment or procedural changes that
were necessary to bring about the reductions.
Generally, such pollution abatement efforts have been
so designed as to assure retention of competition and
profitable operation. The methodology and schedule
for reducing emissions is normally agreed upon
between the source and agency with the exact
technological approach selected by the source and
approved by the agency.
As noted earlier in this report, efforts to develop a
control technology that simulates open burning
effects on grass seed crops have been only partially
successful. Field burning machines, while apparently
capable of satisfying agronomic requirements, have
been considered too expensive and unreliable. In the
near term, they also must be considered unavailable.
Research indicates low emission burning techniques to
have net higher air quality impacts at locations
4-58
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE -
downwind and within several miles of the fire. Thus,
reductions in the amount of open burning may be one
of few available alternatives, if significant
emission reductions are desired in addition to smoke
management controls.
Reductions in emissions (burning) of 33%, 50%, and
100% were analyzed in this report assuming various
post-harvest treatments. Each of these alternatives
must be rated as to its potential success in
fulfilling program requirements (MUSTS) and other
desirable traits (WANTS). Table 4-III displays the
ratings of several alternative burning programs based
on the MUSTS and WANTS defined in Section 4.1. The
higher the numerical rating, the more nearly the
proposed program alternative meets the identified
objectives.
All of the reduced burning alternatives for grass
seed would require substantial increase in crop
prices to maintain even reduced net return levels.
To keep required seed price increases to a minimum,
the reduction of burning would need to be minimized,
recognizing the goal of decreased overall emissions.
Of the alternatives presented in Table 4-III, the
program eliminating cereal burning ranks highest,
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ENGINEER ING-SCIENCE-
would eliminate approximately sixteen percent of the
grass field burning emissions, and would not
significantly effect the grass seed enterprise.
Also, these emission reductions would occur almost
entirely in the sensitive Rathdrum Prairie area. The
increased costs, however, would be near $30 per acre
not burned. There would be no yield reduction. The
high ranking for this option is traceable to the
benefit-to-cost ratios for reduced cereal burning,
which are the highest of any alternative post-harvest
option.
Reduced burning affects cereal grain growers'
operations and prices to a much lesser extent than
those of grass seed producers. Since yield would not
be noticeably affected, net cost increases are due
primarily to increased tilling costs. Benefits of
improved erosion control and soil tilth were not
costed, though in some circumstances, may be of
considerable value. Net fertilizer savings were of a
small consistent benefit, while short-term nitrogen
augmentation to meet increased residue decomposition
requirements was assumed to have no effect on costs
over a long-term crop rotation cycle. Because of the
much less significant costs and adverse agronomic
effects, efforts to reduce total agricultural open
4-60
-------
Table 4-III
1 .
Alternative
Treatment
Program
Prohibit Cereal
Burning (Dryland Only)
2. Alt. (1) + Prohibit
5 Irr. Cereal
3. Prohibit All Cereal
4. Alt. (3) + 2/3 Program
for Grass Seed
5. Alt. (3) + 1/2 Program
for Grass Seed
6. Prohibit All Burning
7. Machine Burn All
Acreage*
8. Present Open Burning
Program*
Ratings of Alternative Post-Harvest
Treatment Programs
Objectives (See Table 4-1)
Exposure to Net Adverse Changes InSeasonComparableWeighted
Smoke Costs Aesthetic Farm Length and Poll. Control Score
Effect Management Uncertainty Cost
(1)
(11)
6
10
( 10)
10
10
10
5
0
5
10
(5)
0
1
4
7
10
(4)
10
9
9
(1)
0
1
3
10
3
10
0
0
9
10
148
162
202
184
176
172
194
147
m
to
m
O
i
o
in
* Do not meet MUST requirements. Included for comparison purposes.
-------
ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
burning emissions should include, as a first
priority, the reduction of cereal grain burning.
The program allowing burning in two of three years
(2/3) alone would provide an emission reduction
roughly equivalent to that of eliminating cereal
(Idaho Department of Health and Welfare, 1983), but
at a higher cost. This option would increase
production costs by $20 to $50 per acre. Yield
reductions would be 5-35%, depending upon variety-
post-harvest treatment, and length of rotation.
Obviously, it would rank lower than the alternative
eliminating cereal burning only.
However, alternatives including reduced grass residue
burning in addition to the elimination of cereal
residue burning were rated because of their greater
emission reduction potential.
Since the effect of reduced cereal burning is fixed,
it is the benefits and costs of reduction grass
residue burning that affect the eventual rating of
these combination alternatives.
As noted earlier, benefit-to-cost ratios for 2/3
4-62
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
grass seed options are only slightly lower than for
no burn alternatives. These two options have
benefit-to-cost ratios clearly superior to a biennial
burning program. However, greater reductions in
burning place greater stress on farm finances and
management. Based on minimizing the on-farm
financial burden and maximizing B/C ratios, the 2/3
program is selected as the most desirable emission
reducing option for grass seed crops.
4.6 Rating of Fields for Open Burning
4.6.1 Cereal Grain Fields
Reductions in emissions to ameliorate field
burning-related air quality effects should be
sought first through elimination of all cereal
crop residue burning. This finding is based on
the deleterious effects of the practice on soils,
lack of substantial agronomic value, and
relatively small additional cost of not burning.
Under this approach, requests for burning of
cereal residues should be refused. Under a rating
system in which 1.0 means all acreage should be
burned and 0.0 means no acreage should be burned,
cereal requests would receive a 0.0 rating.
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ES ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
The above recommendation is made recognizing the
difficulty in obtaining rapid residue
decomposition in the gravelly soils of the
Rathdrum Prairie area. In addition, it is
understood that the costs of tilling in these
soils is substantially higher than in non-gravelly
areas. These agronomic and economic
considerations argue in favor of cereal burning on
the Prairie. A straw removal program, while
eliminating decomposition concerns, would add
greatly to production costs, assuming no straw
market. However, without straw removal, net
additional costs to cereal growers on the Rathdrum
Prairie would be substantially less than any other
program resulting in equivalent emission
reductions.
4.6.2 Kentucky Bluegrass Fields
The combined program including the elimination of
cereal burning and the 2/3 program for burning
Kentucky bluegrass seed residue rates very near
the elimination of cereal burning alone in
successfully fulfilling the identified rating
criteria. The higher costs, principally, result
in a somewhat lower overall rating for this
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
approach. It is therefore, not recommended as an
initial step in emission reduction through
alternative post-harvest treatment. However, it
should be considered as a subsequent phase of
emission reduction after the elimination of cereal
burning and the weighing of any emission
reductions brought about through operational smoke
management.
Should it be considered appropriate to implement a
2/3 program, it should be remembered that Kentucky
bluegrass fields that have been consistantly
burned can better withstand the loss of a burning
treatment than those that have not been so burned.
Younger, more open stands seem to better maintain
yields than, old, heavily thatched stands. Though
straw removal activities will affect subsequent
yields, air quality management decisions regarding
field burning should not consider this element of
the grass seed enterprise since the selection of
non-burning residue management options are more
properly addressed by the farm manager.
Otherwise, a procedure designed to
cost-effectively reduce emissions would
unnecessarily regulate post-harvest residue
management practices.
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
To promote the 2/3 burning schedule for Kentucky
bluegrass fields, a program should assign a high
rating (1.0) to a field that had been burned less
than two times in the last two years. A lower
rating of two-thirds (0.67) would be assigned to
fields that had received annual burning for each
of the last two post-harvest treatments. Kentucky
bluegrass stands having been harvested two times
or less also would receive ratings of two-thirds.
4.6.3 Emergency Circumstances
Occasionally, weed, insect, or disease
infestations become severe even when best farm
management practices are used to avoid them.
Under such circumstances, burning may be the only
reasonable alternative to control the problem;
either to avoid financial disaster or avoid rapid
spread to other crops. Such circumstances may
warrant consideration of additional burning for
individual fields beyond the limitations of a ban
on cereal burning or a 2/3 program for grass seed.
To allow for such circumstances, any program
instituted to reduce burning also should provide
for additional burning to be conducted under
emergency circumstances. The nature and extent of
4-66
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ENGINEERING -SCIENCE-
the problem should be fully described and the
special need-to-burn attested to by a recognized
agricultural expert.
Applications to burn properly supported by such
information would receive a high rating of 1.0.
4.7 Determining Acreage to be Burned
To the greatest extent possible, decisions regarding
the needs of specific fields should be made by farm
management. Thus, decisions regarding the burning of
individual fields should be made by the seed producer
within agreed upon overall acreage limitations and
smoke management constraints. Such an approach would
allow a grass seed producer to burn a cereal field in
lieu of equivalent grass seed acreage that had been
authorized for burning.
To implement such a program, an overall acreage
limitation would be established by multiplying the
previously discussed field rating by the acreage of
the field to which it applies. The resulting acreage
amount (from 0 to 100% of the field size) would be
added to similarly derived acreage amounts for all
fields submitted under each ownership. The total
4-67
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ENGINEERING -SCIENCE-
acreage so calculated is the upper limit on burning
for the ownership to be distributed as necessary to
meet farm needs. Under a program to eliminate cereal
burning, all cereal fields would receive 0.0 ratings
and all grass seed fields would receive 1.0 ratings.
The total allowed acreage would be equal to the grass
seed acreage submitted by the ownership. If a ban on
cereal burning were to be combined with a 2/3 program
for grass seed fields, the total acreage allowed
would be approximately 67% of the grass seed acreage
submitted.
This approach to burning restriction would tend to
encourage over-registration of fields (registering
fields that are not really planned to be burned) in
order to increase the amount of acreage authorized
for burning. To prevent such registration, an upper
limit for each ownership, based on historical burn
registration data, would be established. The upper
limit would be set initially at a level considered
representative, perhaps the average of recent grass
seed acreage registrations. Should a 2/3 program for
grass seed be implemented in addition to a
prohibition on cereal burning, the limit would be set
at two-thirds the historical grass acreage.
4-68
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EES ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
Figure 4-10 is a flow diagram for determining the
acreage to burned under the proposed allocation
procedure.
4.8 Identification and Tracking of Field Information
A less-than-annual burning program such as the 2/3
program for grass seed,must include the capability to
track the burning history of individual fields. A
system to collect the needed information and retain
it for future use must be developed. Normally, this
would require methods for identifying fields on a
continuing basis, allowing year-to-year analysis of
treatments and allowed burning. To establish an
enforceable procedure, the exact field location and
size must be identified. Field data would require
annual updating to incorporate changes in crops,
field size, burn history, and the results of
inspections.
Currently, field registration, year-to-year,
tracking, and inspections are conducted in Oregon.
Fields are registered in California, Washington, and
Idaho. Both the Oregon and California systems are
automated, allowing rapid processing and
pre-registering of fields. Similar systems likely
would need to be developed for any program that
4-69
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
REGISTER FIELDS
Ownership
Field Size and Location
Crop Type
Burning History
Assign Field to Tracking
System
Cereal
POTENTIAL -
ADDITIONAL
EMISSION
CROP TYPE
Grass Seed REDUCTIONS
Rating=0
Rating=0.67
yes
1
t
IS AN EMERGENCY
BURNING PROBLEM
DOCUMENTED?
no
Rating=1.0 I
I
MULTIPLY RATING
BY FIELD ACREAGE,
ADD TO OWNERSHIP TOTAL.
yes
ADDITIONAL FIELDS
FOR OWNERSHIP?
no
AUTHORIZE BURNING OF
ACREAGE BY OWNERSHIP UP TO
THE SUMMATION OF THE PRODUCTS
OF INDIVIDUAL FIELD RATINGS
AND ACREAGES OR OWNERSHIP'S
OVERALL UPPER LIMIT.
FIGURE 4-10. Flow diagram illustrating procedure
for determining acreage to be authorized
for open burning.
4-70
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ES ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
tracked acreage over even a few years.
4.9 Effects of Implementing the Reductions in Burning
4.9.1 Air Quality
The integrated effects of smoke on air quality
would be reduced in proportion to the seasonal
emission reduction, somewhere between 100 and 350
tons of particulate for the elimination of cereal
burning depending on the selected emission
factor. Because burning would occur under a smoke
management program, the reduced burning may not
result in smaller daily acreage-burned totals;
however, it could if the management philosophy
were so directed. Alternatively, management
efforts could be bent toward effecting a shorter
season. The elimination of the typically
late-season cereal would aid most significantly in
such an endeavor, but season length is also much
influenced by seasonal weather and the
availability of appropriate atmospheric
conditions. Little could be guaranteed in the way
of a shorter season without establishing arbitrary
limits.
Air quality improvements may be observable
4-7
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ES ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
(especially' if a shorter season results), but
probably would not be measurable due to very
limited particulate monitoring in the area and a
reasonably effective smoke management program
which now limits smoke intrusions to sporadic and
short-term events.
4.9.2 Acreage Burned
The acreage burned in northern Idaho would be
reduced by approximately 4,000 acres.
Implementation of a 2/3 program would reduce
burning an additional 7,000 acres per year based
on 1982 burning data. Grass seed field burning
would be limited to about 14,000 acres in Kootenai
and Benewah counties. These reductions, of
course, would be affected by changes in overall
acreage reflective of market conditions.
4.9.3 Production Cost/Seed Prices/Acreage
As noted in Table 4-II, production costs would be
anticipated to increase. Kentucky bluegrass
yields would decrease under a 2/3 reduced burning.
The effect of these changes are difficult to
predict. However, the econometric model of
Folwell, et. al. (1978) indicated the short-term
result would be increased seed prices as supply
4-72
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
was reduced. (Cereal prices would not be affected
by changes to these small acreages.) However,
this result would be altered, no doubt, if burning
was not also restricted in Washington. Folwell
did not differentiate between Idaho and Washington
production areas or practices. For growers with
the option, one would anticipate efforts to
relocate grass seed acreages in Washington, while
cereal grains and other alternative would be
established in Idaho. Certainly, any short- or
long-term price increase would stimulate acreage
increases in areas where net returns justify it.
Since burning restrictions tend to reduce net
returns, any acreage increases would likely occur
sooner and be larger in areas without such
restrictions. Thus it should be anticipated that,
should Idaho unilaterally impose a program that
reduces grass seed field burning, the state's
share of the Kentucky bluegrass seed market would
diminish.
Assuming, because of its high benefit-to-cost
ratio, cereal crop burning is eliminated first,
the cumulative cost to grower of not burning may
be estimated using the data of Table 4-II, Figure
4-1, and burn accomplishment records for the 1982
4-73
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
burning season. Such cumulative costs are
illustrated in Figure 4-11. Relative to these
costs, regulatory expenses are small; however,
other public costs (related to health recreation,
safety, etc.) may not be comparably small. The
determination of these latter costs is an
extremely complex problem and is beyond the scope
of this study; however, it is clear that such
costs would diminish as burning is reduced.
4.9.4 Regulatory Changes
General authority to modify and restrict burning
now exists in the Rules and Regulations for the
Control of Air Pollution in Idaho. A ban on
cereal burning would be relatively easy to
implement provided no challenges to the regulatory
authority surfaced. Field enforcement of a
specific ban on cereal burning would be
straightforward in most cases.
Should a 2/3 program be determined appropriate,
field enforcement difficulties would increase
significantly since acreage totals by ownership
would need to checked to determine compliance.
Individual fields would need to be inspected and
totalled for each ownership selected for review.
4-74
-------
Ul
COST OF
REDUCED
BURNING
(Millions of
Dollars)
0
ASSUMPTIONS:
SEED PRICE - $50/CWT
BASE YIELD- 500 LB/A
YIELD REDUCTION -FROM FIGURE 4-1
ADD. PRODUCTION COSTS-FROM TABLE 4-II
GRASS SEED
ACREAGE
CEREAL
ACREAGE
m
w
m
z
g
z
m
m
3)
O
i
w
g
m
Z
m
0
5 10 15 20
ACREAGE NOT BURNED
(Thousands of Acres)
25
Figure 4-11
Estimated Cummulative Additional Costs
Accruing to Idaho Seed Producers Resulting
from Reduced Open Burning.
-------
ES ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
Also, emergency burning requests would require
review and, possibly, investigation to determine
appropriate additional burning.
Regardless of the authority implied in the
existing general language of the Idaho rules, the
author strongly recommends, in light of the
potential impacts of the changes in post-harvest
treatments discussed in this report, that clear
and specific regulatory language be adopted
regarding burning restrictions, methods for
allocating burning, and methods for treating
exceptions. Regulatory limits on operational
smoke management activities also should be clearly
defined and constructed to integrate with and take
advantage of other limitations on burning.
4-76
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ENGINEER ING-SCIENCE-
SECTION 5
REFERENCES
-------
ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
REFERENCES
1. Austenson, M. N., and V- D. Peabody. "Effect of Row
Spacing and Time of Fertilization on Grass Seed
Production." Agronomy Journal 56:461-463, 1964.
2. Boubel, R. W. "Analysis and Critical Review of 'An
Emission Factors Study of Alternative Firing
Techniques, Volume 6, 1978'." Engineering Experiment
Station, Oregon State University, 1980.
3. Boubel, R. W., E. F. Darley, and E. A. Schuck.
"Emissions from Burning Grass Stubble and Straw."
J.APCA, Volume 19, No. 7, July, 1969.
4. Boyle, Kevin J., Ronald A. Oliveira, and James K.
Whittaker. "An Econometric Model of Barley Acreage
Response to Changes in Prices and Wheat Acreage in
the Northwest". Special Report 647, Agricultural
Experiment Station, Oregon State University, January
1982.
5. Brewer, Don. Oregon State University. Personal
communication. June 8, 1976.
6. Burkhardt, T. H., R. A. Kepner, and G. E. Miller, Jr.
"Management of Rice Straw by Soil Incorporation." In
Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural
Engineers Vol. 18, No. 3, 1975.
7. Burt, L. A., and M. E. Wirth, "Economics of Grass
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Bulletin 835, College of Agriculture Research Center,
Washington State University, September, 1976.
8. Burt, L. A., and M. E Wirth, "Estimated Costs of
Establishing and Producing Kentucky Bluegrass Seed in
the Inland Pacific Northwest: For Farms on Which
Grass Seed Is a Minor Enterprise", Circular 0619,
College of Agriculture Research Center, Washington
State University, 1979.
9. Canode, C. L. "Grass Seed Production as Influenced
by Cultivation, Gapping, and Post-Harvest Residue
Management." Agronomy Journal 64:148-151, 1972.
10. . "Influence of Row Spacing and Nitrogen
Fertilization on Grass Seed Production." Agronomy
Journal 60:263-267, 1968.
5-1
-------
ES ENGINEERINQ-SCIENCE-
11. Canode, C. L. and A. G. Law. "Post-Harvest Residue
Management in Kentucky Bluegrass Seed Production."
Bulletin 850, College of Agriculture Research Center,
Washington State University, 1977.
12. Carlson, Dennis. Rathdrum Prairie Seed Grower.
Personal communication. December 27, 1982.
13. Chilcote, D. 0., H. W. Youngberg, and William C.
Young. "Agronomic and Economic Effects of
Crew-Cutting and Non-Yearly Burning Programs in the
Willamette Valley 1979-1980." Oregon Department of
Environmental Quality Field Burning Research Series,
Volume 17B., 1981.
14. Chilcote, D. 0., and H. W. Youngberg, "Field Burning
Techniques and Alternatives." In Oregon State
University Research on Field Burning. Agricultural
Experiment Station, Oregon State University,
Corvallis, Oregon. December, 1974.
15. Chilcote, D. 0., and H. W. Youngberg, "Non-burning
Techniques for Grass Seed Residue Removal." Progress
Report EXT/ACS9, Agricultural Experiment Station,
Oregon State University. March, 1975.
16. Chilcote, D. 0., Professor of Crop Physiology,' Oregon
State University. Personal communication. December
22, 1982.
17. Chilcote, D. 0., H. W. Youngberg, P. C. Stanwood, and
S. Kim. "Post-Harvest Residue Burning Effects on
Perennial Grass Development and Seed Yield."
Department of Crop Science, Oregon State University,
1980.
18. Chilcote, D. 0., and H. W. Youngberg. "Techniques
and Timing of Post-Harvest Grass Seed Field Burning."
Progress report EXT/ACS7, Agricultural experiment
station, Oregon State University, March, 1975.
19. Claridge, Curt, U. S. Steel Farm Service Center.
Personal Communication. February 10, 1983.
20. Cooperative Extension Services of Oregon State
University, Washington State University, and
University of Idaho. "Pacific Northwest Insect
Control Handbook." February, 1981.
21. Cooperative Extension Services of Oregon State
5-2
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ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
University, Washington State University, and
University of Idaho. "Pacific Northwest Plant
Disease Control Handbook." March, 1981.
22. Craig C. D., and M. A. Wolf. "An Observational Study
of Field Burning Plume Behavior." Air Resources
Center, Oregon State University. For Oregon
Department of Environmental Quality, June, 1979.
23. filling, Laddie J. "Residue Management of Park
Kentucky Bluegrass for Seed Production in Northern
Minnesota. The International Herbage Seed
Production Research Group Newsletter. July, 1982.
24. Engle, Carl F. "Burning Grain Stubble Is a Costly
Practice." Agronomy and Soils Tips No. 274,
Cooperative Extension Service, Washington State
University, October, 1976.
25. Engle, Carl F. and A. R. Halvorson. "Management of
Fertilizer Nitrogen with Heavy Grain Stubble
Residue." July, 1978.
26. Ensign, Ronald D. Professor of Agronomy, University
of Idaho. Personal communication, November 18, 1982.
27. Erickson, Spencer R. and William Hartford.
Unpublished data on field burning emission factors.
Oregon Department of Environmental Quality, 1979.
28. Evans, David W. and C. L. Canode. "Influence of
Nitrogen Fertilization, Gapping, and Burning on Seed
Production of Newport Kentucky Bluegrass." Agronomy
Journal, 63:575-580, 1971.
29- Fenwick, Harry. Field Crop Pathologist, University
of Idaho. Personal communication. December 20, 1982.
30. Folwell, R. J., L. A. Burt, and M. E. Wirth, "An
Econometric Analysis of the United States Kentucky
Bluegrass Seed Industry," College of Agriculture
Research Center, Washington State University,
Technical Bulletin 90, 1978.
31. Freeburn, Scott A. "Evaluation of the Grass Seed
Field Burning Program in Northern Idaho." Prepared
for the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Contract No. 68-02-3509,- Assignment No. 16.
September, 1982.
32. Gardner, E. Hugh and Rex Warren. "Fertilizer Guide
5-3
-------
ES ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
for Blue Grass Seed." Cooperative Extension Service,
Oregon State University, November, 1969.
33. Garrison, C. S. "Maintaining Varietal Purity and
Cultural and Management Practices." In Advances in
Agronomy Vol. 12, 1960.
34. Gray, Fred. Director, Spokane County Air Pollution
Control Association. Personal communication.
November, 1981.
35. Hardison, J. R. "Field Burning and Grass Disease
Control." In Oregon State University Research on
Field Burning. Agricultural Experiment Station,
Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon. December
1974. Pages 34-39.
36. Hardison, John R. "Justification for Burning Grass
Fields." In Proceedings of the Twenty Fourth Annual
Meeting of the Oregon Seed Growers League, 1964.
37. "Disease Control in Forage Seed
Production." In Grassland Seeds edited by W. A.
Wheeler and D. D. Hill, D. Van Norstrand Co., Inc.,
1957.
38. Hebblethwaite, P. D. Professor of Agronomy,
University of Nottingham. January 5, 1983.
39. Holman, Hugh. Extension Entomologist, University of
Idaho. Personal communication. December, 1982.
40. Idaho Board of Health and Welfare, Rules and
Regulations for the Control of Air Pollution in
Idaho. December 1979, Section 1-1151.
41. Idaho Crop Improvement Association, "Idaho Rules of
Certification," Boise, Idaho. 1982.
42. Idaho Department of Health and Welfare. "Proposed
Schedule for Compliance for Control of Open Burning
of Field and Turfgrasses Grown for Seed," June, 1977.
43. Idaho Department of Health and Welfare. "A Report on
the 1982 Northern Idaho Smoke Management Program for
Field Burning," January, 1983.
44. Kamm, James A. and Robert R. Robinson. "Billbug
Control in Orchard Grass Seed Fields." Extension
Circular 850, Oregon State University Extension
Service, 1976.
5-4
-------
E=S ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
45. Kamm, James A., Entomologist, USDA, ARS Oregon State
University. Personal communication. December, 1982.
46. Kepner, Charles H. and Benjamin B. Tregoe. The
Rational manager. McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1965.
47. Keppner, Robert. Agricultural Engineer, University
of California, Davis. Personal communication.
December 7, 1982.
48. Kinney, John R. Chief Meteorologist, California Air
Resources Board. Personal communication. December
20, 1982.
49. Klein, Leonard M. and Jesse E. Hammond. "Seed
Moisture-A Harvest Timing Index for Maximum Yields."
In Transactions of the American Society of
Agricultural Engineers 14(1), 1971.
50. Kropf, Victor. Custom Baling and Straw Handling.
Personal communication. January 8, 1983.
51. Lee, William 0., "Clean Grass Seed Crops Established
with Activated Carbon Bands and Herbicides." Weed
Science 21(6):537-541, 1973.
52. "Field Burning Effects on Weed
Control in Grass Seed Crops." In Oregon State
University Research on Field Burning. Agricultural
Experiment Station, Oregon State University,
Corvallis, Oregon, December 1974.
53. Long, Raymond. Secretary-Manager, Idaho Crop
Imporvement Association. Personal communication.
December 17, 1982.
54. McDole Robert. Soils Specialist, University of
Idaho. Personal communication. November 19, 1982.
55. Miles, Thomas R. "Annual Report to the Legislative
Committee on Trade and Economic Development." Oregon
Field Sanitation Committee, 1976.
56. Miller, George E., Jr., James F. Thompson, Spencer
Duckworth, John F. Williams, Ellis F. Darley, John R.
Goss. "A Program to Minimize the Effects of
Agricultural Burning in California." Presented at
the Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution Control
Association, Portland, Oregon, 1976.
5-5
-------
ES ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
57. Morrison, Kenneth. Extension Agronomist, Washington
State University- Personal communication. November
19, 1982.
58. Nordestgaard, Anton. "Autumn Treatment of Seed
Fields with Cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata L.),
Perennial Ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.), Meadow Fescue
(Festuca pratense Huds.), and Smooth Meadow Grass
(Poa pratensis L.). Tidsskrift for Planteavl,
80:759-784.
59. Oregon Department of Environmental Quality. "Annual
Field Burning Report to the Legislative Committee on
Trade and Economic Development." December, 1982.
60. Oregon Department of Environmental Quality, "Field
Burning Research and Development," January 1983.
61. Oregon Environmental Quality Commission, 'Oregon
Administrative Code Chapter 340, Section 26. 1978.
62. Oregon State University, Department of Agricultural
and Resource Economics. "Enterprise Data Sheets" for
various crops, 1975-1981, Oregon State University
Extension Service.
63. Peterson, Paul. Extension Agronomist, Spokane
County, Washington. Personal communication. January
7, 1983.
64. Porter, Alan. Field burning in the Inland Empire.
Unpublished issue paper. June 1982.
65. Powell, T. A., K. H. Lindeborg, C. S. Mclntosh.
"North Idaho Crop Enterprise Budgets." Misc. Series
No. 62. Agricultural Experiment Station, College of
Agriculture, University of Idaho, 1980.
66. Powell, T. A. "North Idaho Crop Enterprise Budgets
for Irrigated and Non-irrigated Kentucky Bluegrass."
Unpublished data. 1983.
67. Pumphrey, F. V., "Residue Management in Kentucky
Bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.) and Red Fescue (Festuca
rubra L.)." Agronomy Journal 57:559-561, 1965.
68. Rampton, H. H., T. L. Jackson, and W. o. Lee
"Kentucky Bluegrass Seed Production in Western
Oregon." Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station
Technical Bulletin 114. 1971.
5-6
-------
ENGINEER ING - SCIENCE -
69. Riggs, James L., Economic Decision Models .
McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1968.
70. Rimov, Karen. "Diurnal Variations in Grass Straw
Moisture Content." Oregon Department of
Environmental Quality. 1978.
71. Ringsdorf, Marvin. Environmental Fibre, Inc.
Personal communication. January 8, 1983.
72. Roberts, M. H. "The Effect of Drill Width on the
Seed Production of Leafy Varieties of Three Grass
Species." Journal of the British Grassland Society,
1:37-42, 1961.
73. Roberts, Mike. Campbell Tractor and Implement
Company, Nampa, Idaho. Personal communication.
January 14, 1983.
74. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Crop Reporting
Board, "Seed crops, Final estimates by states,
1974-78." Statisical Bulletin No. 658.
75. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Crop Reporting
Board, "Seed crops, Preliminary, 1981." January 12,
1982.
76. Van Slykes, Carl. Personal communications. November
18, and December 17, 1982.
77. Wheaton, Hal. Forage agronomist, University of
Missouri. Personal communication. December 13, 1982.
78. Weisel, Charles J. "Soil Survey of Kootenai County
Area, Idaho." U. S. Department of Agriculture, Soil
Conservation Service, et. al., April, 1981.
79. Well, K. D., J. K. Currie, R. P. Mazzucchi, and D. E.
Eakin. "A Market Analysis of Grass Straw Commercial
Use Potential.'" Prepared for the Oregon Department
of Environment Quality, May 18, 1979.
80. Wilson, W. Robert, and Frank S. Conklin, "Supply and
Disposition of Cool Season Grass Seed in U. S. and
Overseas Markets," Circular of Information 689,
Agricultural Experiment Station, Oregon State
University, Corvallis, Oregon, 1981.
81. Wirth, M. E., L. A. Burt, C. L. Canode, and A. G.
Law, "Economics of Alternatives to Open Burning of
Kentucky Bluegrass Residue," Bulletin 852, College of
5-7
-------
ES ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
Agriculture Research Center, Washington State
University- September, 1977.
82. Wirth, M. E., and L. A. Hurt, "Estimated Costs of
Establishing and Producing Kentucky Bluegrass Seed in
the Inland Pacific Northwest for Large Farms on Which
Grass Seed Is a Major Enterprise," Circular 597,
College of Agriculture Research Center, Washington
State University- 1976.
83. Youngberg, H. W., D. 0. Chilcote, and D. E. Kirk.
"Evaluation of a Field Sanitizer for Controlled
Burning of Grass Seed Fields." Progress Report
EXT/ACS 10, Agricultural experiment station, Oregon
State University, May, 1975.
84. Youngberg, Harold W. Extension Agronomist, Oregon
State University. Personal communication. November
10, 1982.
5-8
-------
ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
SECTION 6
APPENDIX
-------
ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
DERIVATION OF ASSUMED YIELD REDUCTIONS OF TABLE 4-II
Yield data from applicable research, primarily Canode
and Law (1977) and Chilcote, et. al. (1975, 1981,
1982), is summarized in Table A-I. From these data
average yields (as percentages of annual open burn
yields) were calculated for periods of 4, 5, and 6
seed crops. Missing data points were calculated
based upon a linear regression using available data,
however, a minimum yield of 25% was used when a
linear regression would predict a lower value. The
methodology for missing data calculation is
illustrated in Figure A-I.
Data used in determination of yield averages is shown
for each variety in Tables A-II through A-VI.
6-1
-------
TABLE A-1
SUMMARY OF YIELD DATA FOR FIVE VARIETIES OF
KENTUCKY BLUEGRASS SUBJECTED TO REDUCED-BURNING
POST-HARVEST TREATMENT
(EXPRESSED AS PERCENTAGE OF COMPARABLE ANNUAL OPEN BURN YIELD)
Seed
Crop
No.
1
SR
SSR
AY
NONE
SR
SSR
AY
Newport
100
80,64
77,64
88
55
53
Fylking
100
66,29,28
68,53,57
70
20
37
54
VARIETY
Merion
100
100,68,82
93,72,71,100
101
77,55,76
59,92
Cougar
100
75,64
78,58
80
32
23
Garfield
100
75
85
60,
46
m
ui
D
Z
m
m
O
CO
O
m
O
m
NONE
i
4 SR 67
SSR 89
AY 75
NONE
5 SR
SSR
AY
6 SR
SSR
12,
30 64,97 52 38
74 102,126 48
68 82 76
24
34
60
0
0
-------
Table A-1 (Continued)
Other Average Yield Data (No. of Seed Crops)
m
Newport Fylking Merion Cougar Garf ield W
- - m
SR 73(4) |
SSR 75(4), 69(3) "}
AY 95(3) 2
NONE 108(2) 62(4), 76(2) 47(4) o
in
O
POST-HARVEST RESIDUE TREATMENTS:
SR-Straw Removed
SSR-Straw and Stubble Removed
AY-Alternate Year Burn With SR
NONE-No Residue Removal
-------
100
cr>
I
75
PERCEN TAGE
OF 50
ANNUAL
OPEN BURN
YIELD 25
0
-EXPERIMENTAL DATA
REGRESSION LINE BASED UPON
EXPERIMENTAL DATA
CALCULATED
DATA POINTS
X
u
^ ASSUMED MINIMUM ^X.
I
YIELD VALUE
I I
I
x
I
2345
NUMBER OF SEED CROP
m
tn
m
O
z
m
m
31
-------
ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
TABLE A-11
YIELD REDUCTION DATA
VARIETY: NEWPORT
POST-HARVEST
TREATMENTS
Seed
Crop
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
Parentheses
SR
(1)
100
72
55
67
(44.5)
(32.90)
SSR
(2)
100
70.5
53
89
(65.5)
(60.45)
AY
(3)
100
88
(82.29)
75
(66. 14)
(58.07)
indicate calculated values.
CALCULATED AVERAGE SEED
YIELDS
iod (years)
73
67
61
.5
.7
.9
78
75
73
. 1
.6
.1
86
82
78
.0
.3
.3
IUO
% OF
OPEN
BURN 5°
YIELD
0
3 2
12 :
-
2 3
NO. OF SEED CROP
6-5
-------
ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
TABLE A-111
YIELD REDUCTION DATA
VARIETY: FYLKING
POST-HARVEST
TREATMENTS
Seed
Crop
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
Parentheses
SR
(1)
100
41
37
30
34
(5.50)25
SSR
(2)
100
60
54
74
60
(49.80)
AY
(3)
100
70
(73.1)
68
(54.57!
(45.3)
indicate calculated values.
CALCULATED AVERAGE SEED
YIELDS
iod (years)
52
48.4
44.5
72
69.6
66.3
76.
73.
68.
7
1
5
100
% OF
OPEN
BURN
YIELD
n
23
1
2
1
23
1
2 3
NO. OF SEED CROP
6-6
-------
ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
TABLE A-IV
YIELD REDUCTION DATA
VARIETY: MERION
POST-HARVEST
TREATMENTS
Seed
Crop
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
Parentheses
SR
(1)
100
83
69
80.5
(65.00)
(57.75)
SSR
(2)
TOO
84
75.5
1 14
(101.75)
(105.10)
AY
(3)
100
101
(90.00)
82
(77.00)
(70.50)
indicate calculated values.
CALCULATED AVERAGE SEED
YIELDS
Averaging
% OF
OPEN
BURN
YIELD
Period (years)
4 83.1 93.5 93.5
5 79.5 94.9 90.0
6 75.8 96.6 86.6
2
100
50
n
I2 ,o 13
1-
*
2 3
NO. OF SEED CROP
6-7
-------
ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
VARIETY : COUGAR
TABLE A-V
YIELD REDUCTION DATA
POST-HARVEST
TREATMENTS
Seed
Crop
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
Parentheses
SR
(1)
100
70
32
52
(18.00)25 (9
(-0.2)25 (-
indicate calculated
SSR
(2)
100
68
23
48
.5)25
10.60)25
values.
ALT
(3)
100
80
(80.57)
76
(66.29)
(59. 14)
CALCULATED AVERAGE SEED YIELDS
id ( years )
63
55
50
.5
.8
.6
59.7
52.8
48
84.1
80.5
76.9
100
% OF
OPEN
BURN
YIELD
0
i 3
12
,
2
3
1
2 3
NO. OF SEED CROP
6-8
-------
ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
TABLE A-VI
YIELD REDUCTION DATA
VARIETY: GARFIELD
POST-HARVEST
TREATMENTS
Seed
Crop
No.
1
2
3
4
5 (11
6 (-10.
Parentheses indicate
SR SSR
100
75
46
38
)25
50)25
calculated values.
CALCULATED AVERAGE SEED YIELDS
ALT
Average Period (years)
4 64.7
5 56.80
6 51.50
100
% OF
OPEN
BURN
YIELD
n
1
1
1
2 3
NO. OF SEED CROP
6-9
-------
ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
DERIVATION OF ADDITIONAL PLOWING COST OF TABLE 4-II
Assumptions regarding the type and number of plowing
operations are based upon Idaho crop budgets (Powell,
1983 and Powell, et. al., 1980) and conversation with
agricultural representatives familiar with the
gravelly soil conditions of the Rathdrum Prairie.
The assumptions used are shown in Table A-VIII.
Exceptional repair costs, as encountered in gravelly
soils, were utilized to adjust crop budget plowing
cost upwards for such area as the Rathdrum Prairie.
The extraordinary repair costs were based on actual
repair expenses for moldboard plows (Roberts, 1983)
and assumed 50% additional repair costs for all other
tilling operations.
Additional plowing costs were based on the difference
between annual burning and reduced burning tillage
costs.
6-10
-------
Operation
Implement
Rates
($/hr.)
Table A-VII
Data Used to Determine Additional
Plowing Costs
Assoc.
Power
Unit
Power
Unit
Rate ($/hr.)
HR/A Cost Gravelly Gravelly
($/A) Soil Soil
Cost Factor Cost $/A
Mold Board Plow Dry
(5B) Irr.
cr>
Offset Disk
Cultivator
Harrow
Packer
Dry
Irr.
Dry
Irr.
Dry
Irr.
Dry
Irr.
9.29
9.29
50.76
39.18
13.81
14.71
10.23
7.33
11.83
15.93
CRT68
CRT68
CRT125
CRT 90
CRT68
CRT68
T125
T125
T30
T30
18.27
18.31
36.07
33.00
18.27
18.31
49.49
55.32
10.51
23.78
0.31
0.06
0.06
0.03
0.06
8.54
8.55
5.21
4.33
1.92
1.98
1 .79
1.87
1 .34
2.38
6.95
.30
.15
.03
.05
15.49
15.50
5.51
4.63
2.07
2.13
1.82
1.90
1 .39
2.43
m
in
m
0
z
m
O
i
u>
O
m
s
m
Total Costs
Dry
Irr.
Notes:
KBg costs are for establishment year only
[ ] indicate gravelly soil costs.
-------
Table 4-VII cont.
Number of Times Across Field
cr>
I
Operation
Mold Board Plow Dry
5B Irr.
Offset Disk
Cultivator
Harrows
Packer
Total Costs
Notes:
Dry
Irr.
Dry
Irr.
Dry
Irr.
Dry
Irr.
Dry
Irr.
Dry
Irr.
KBg KBg KBg Wheat Wheat Wheat
w/burn w/o burn w/o burn w/burn w/o burn w/o burn
No SR SR No SR SR
0
111 1
1
22.51
22.96
[30.17]
[30.62]
1
32.93
31.62
[41.19]
[39.88]
1
27.72
27.29
[35.68]
[35.25]
7.87
7.87
[8.35]
[8.35]
10.19
24.57
[10.82]
[32.45]
7.87
11.63
[8.35]
[12.41]
m
in
rn
to
m
m
3)
O
i
W
O
m
KBg costs are for establishment year only
[ ] indicate gravelly soil costs.
-------
ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
PAIRED COMPARISON ANALYSIS
FOR THE RATING OF "WANT"
OBJECTIVES
LISTED WANT OBJECTIVES
A. Minimize net exposure to smoke
B. Minimize season length and burning
uncertianty
C. Minimize adverse aesthetic effects
D. Minimize changes in farm management
needs
E. Minimize reductions in net return
F. Make pollution control cost comparable to
those of similar industries
A
B
C
D
E
F
A3
A2
A2
A1
A3
A
C2
B1
E3
F1
B
D1
E2
C3
C
TOTALS :
11
1
5
E2
D3 E3
D E
4 10 1
LETTER - Indicate preferrable objective
NUMBERS - 1-little difference; 2-some difference;
3-significant difference.
6-13
-------
ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
EXAMPLE CALCULATIONS OF AUTHORIZED ACREAGE
(Assuming cereal burning is prohibited and a 2/3
burn program is in effect for Kentucky Bluegrass)
Registration Information
Specific
Field Identifier
1021
1021
1021
1034
1034
1099
1099
01
02
03
01
02
01
02
Crop
Type
G
G
G
C
G
C
C
Location
(T, R, S)
51N,4W,18
51N,4W,18
51N,4W,19
51N,4W,19
51N,5W,32
47N,5W,9
47N,5W,9
Acreage
42
28
120
40
100
240
80
For grass seed, list the
no. of times this stand
has been burned in the
last two years
2
2
2
Historical Information
Registration for grass seed residue
burning for this ownership:
Last
Year
320
Two yrs.
Ago
3 yrs.
Ago
350
Average
335
Authorized Acreage
Based
on present application
0.67 X (42
0.0 X (40)
1.0 x uoo;
0 X (320)
+ 28 + 120)
Based
on historical data
Based on 2/3
historical data
= 248
335
223
6-14
-------
ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
Supplement to Table 4-II
COST DETERMINATIONS
FOR EQUIPMENT OPERATIONS
OPERATION: Machine burning of post-harvest residue
(does not include straw removal costs)
MACHINE COSTS
Field Burning Machine
Cost (new): $65,000
Salvage : 6,000
Life : 7 years @ 200/hrs./yr.
Operating Rate: 3A/hr.
Depreciation
Interest @ 14%
Ins. and Tax
Fuels (75hpg)
Repair
Lube
Subtotal
Annual
Cost
$8,428
5,325
500
2,000
50
$16,303
Hourly
Cost
$42.14
26.62
2.50
4.50
10.00
.25
86.01
Per Acre
Cost
$14.05
8.88
0.83
1.50
3.33
.08
28.67
Tractor (3 yrs. old, 30hpg)
Subtotal
$10.00
3.33
Pull Tank & Pump (for machine fire control)
$ 3.00 1.00
.50 0.17
All fixed cost
Repair, lube
Subtotal
$ 3.50
1 . 17
Auxiliary fire
Pickup (3/4 T,
Subtotal
control
4WD, 5 yrs.
old)
$10.00
3.33
6-15
-------
ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
Supplement to Table 4-II cont.
COST DETERMINATIONS
FOR EQUIPMENT OPERATIONS
Annual Hourly Per Acre
Cost Cost Cost
Pack Tank & Pump
All fixed costs $ 2.00 $ 0.67
Fuel, repair and lube 2..00 Q.67
Subtotal $ 4.00 1.34'
Labor
1 @ $6.50/hr. incl. ohd 6.50 2.17
1 @ 5.00/hr. incl. ohd 5.00 1.67
Subtotal $11.50 $ 3.84
TOTAL $125.01 $41.68
6-16
-------
ENGINEER ING-SCIENCE-
Supplement to Table 4-1I
COST DETERMINATION
FOR EQUIPMENT OPERATIONS
OPERATION: Stubble removal by crew-cutting (does
not include straw removal costs)
MACHINE COSTS
Crew-Cutter
Cost (new):
Salvage :
Life :
Operating Rate:
$18,000
3,000
10 years @ 200 hrs./yr.
2A/hr.
Depreciation
Interest @ 14%
Ins . and Tax
Fuel
Repair
Lube
Subtotal
Annual
Cost
$1,500
1,470
210
0
500
25
$3,705
Hourly
Cost
$ 7.50
7.35
1.05
0
2.50
.13
$18.53
Per Acre
Cost
$ 3.75
3.68
0.53
0
1.25
.07
$ 9.28
Tractor (3 yrs. old, 100 hpd)
21 .64
Subtotal 21.64
10.82
10.82
Labor
1 @ $6.50/hr. incl. ohd 6.50 3.25
Subtotal 6.50 3.25
TOTAL $46.67 $23.33
6-17
-------
ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
Supplement to Table 4-II
AMORTIZED ESTABLISHMENT COSTS
(Based on Powell, 1983)
IRRIGATED KENTUCKY BLUEGRASS
1983 Variable Costs $ 96.44
1983 Fixed Costs 146.66
1983 FC adjusted to
reflect 1980 FC's
(0.7277 X 1983 FC on
all mach. & overhead,
no change in land value)(.7277 X 96.66) +50. = 120.33
$216.77
NON-IRRIGATED KENTUCKY BLUEGRASS
1983 Variable Cost $ 62.91
1983 Fixed Cost 95.52
1983 FC adjusted
to reflect 1980 FC's
(as above) (.7277 X 45.52) + 50.00 83.12
$146.03
AMORTIZED
AMOUNT 7 yr.
216.77
146.03
52.10
35.10
COSTS FOR
6 yr.
57.28
38.59
i = 15%
5 yr.
64.67
43.56
4 yr.
75.93
51.15
6-18
-------
ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
Supplement to Table 4-II
WEED CONTROL COSTS (Powell, 1983; Claridge, 1983)
IRRIGATED AREAS
MACHINERY
$/HR X HR/ACRE = $/A
Tractor 30G 23.78 0.09 2.14
Sprayer 7.13 0.09 0.64
MATERIALS
Chemical 2.4-D (Broad leaf cont.) =2.00
Roundup (Rogue) 1.50
LABOR 6.50 0.09
4.50 2.25
NON-IRRIGATED AREAS
MACHINERY
$/HR X HR/ACRE = $/A
Tractor 30G 10.51 0.09 0.94
Sprayer 8.77 0.09 0.79
MATERIALS
Chemical 3.50
LABOR 4.50 2.25
6.50 0.09
6-19
-------
ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
DETERMINATION OF RELATIVE
PRICE INCREASES REQUIRED WITH TO MAINTAIN
IDENTIFIED PROFIT LEVELS
REDUCED OPEN BURNING
Profit levels at any time are assumed to be equal to
the difference between revenues and production costs.
Profits with annual burning and with reduced burning
are equated as follows:
(YoPo-Cpo) PR= (YTP-I-CPI) where,
Yo = Yield of seed with annual burning
Po = Price of seed with annual burning
Cpo= Production costs with annual burning
Y-j = Yield of seed with reduced burning
P-] = Price of seed with reduced burning
Cpi= Production costs with reduced burning
PR = Profit Ratio
The following variables and relationships are also
introduced:
CP-j= Cpo + Cp
Y1 = Yo 1.1-YR) where,
Pi = Po + P
YR = Yield reduction due to reduced burning
P = Change in price associated with a reduced burning
program
Cp= Change in production costs associated with a
reduced burning program
6-20
-------
ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
DETERMINATION OF RELATIVE
PRICE INCREASES REQUIRED WITH TO MAINTAIN
IDENTIFIED PROFIT LEVELS
REDUCED OPEN BURNING
(cont.)
Rearrangement of the original equation gives:
PR Yo Po - PR Cpo = Y1 (Po + P)- Cpi
or
P = PR Yo Po - Y! Po - PR Cpo + Cpi
Yl
and
P = Po Yo [PR -CI-YR)] + Cpo (1-PR) + Cp
Yo (1-Yr)
Percentage price increases are thus given by:
100 P = [PR - (1-YR)] Cpo (1-PR) + Cp ,no
Po (1-YR) Po Yo(1-YR)
6-21
-------
ENGINEERING-SCIENCE-
INCREMENTAL BENEFIT/COST ANALYSIS FOR
ALTERNATIVE REDUCED-BURNING POST-HARVEST TREATMENTS
"MERION" KENTUCKY BLUEGRASS
Price = $60/cwt
Open Burn Yield = 400 lb./.A
Post-harvest residue treatment-Straw Removal
Burning
Program
2/3
1/2
No Burn
Benefit
[Burned acreage
reduction)
Additional
Cost
($/A)
0.33
0.5
1 .0
0. 17
0.5
Total
B/C
59.5 0.0055
32.7
92.2 0.0054
83.05
175.25 0.0057
Incremental
B/C
0.0052
0.0058
Post harvest residue treatment-Straw and Stubble Removed
2/3
1/2
No burn
0.33 67.5 0.0049
0.17 36.7
0.5 104.2 0.0048
0.5 95
1.0 199.2 0.0050
Post harvest treatment-No straw removed
2/3
1/2
No burn
0.33
0.5
1 .0
0.17
0.5
64
1 16
187
52
71
0.0052
0.0043
0.0053
0.0046
0.00508
0.0032
0.0054
6-22
-------
INCREMENTAL BENEFIT/COST
ANALYSIS FOR ALTERNTIVE REDUCED-BURNING
POST-HARVEST TREATMENTS
en
I
CO
"NEWPORT" KENTUCKY BLUEGRASS
Price= $50/cwt
Open Burn Yield= 650 Ib/A
Burning
Program
2/3
1/2
No burn
2/3
1/2
No burn
Post-harvest residue treatment- Straw Removed
Benefit
(Burned acreage
reduction)
Additional
Cost
($/A)
0.33
0.5
1 .0
0. 17
0.5
66.5
119.5
200.0
53
80
Total
B/C
0.0050
0.0042
0.0050
Incremental
B/C
0.0032
0.0050
Post-harvest treatment- Straw and Stubble Removed
0.33
0.5
1 .0
0. 17
0.5
74.5
131.5
208.0
57
77
0.0044
0.0038
0.0048
0.0030
0.0050
m
in
m
g
z
m
Q
m
-------
INCREMENTAL BENEFIT/COST
ANALYSIS FOR ALTERNATIVE REDUCED-BURNING
POST-HARVEST TREATMENTS
(cont.)
Post-harvest residue treatment- No removal
i
NJ
Burning
Program
2/3
1/2
No burn
Benefit
(Burned acreage
reduction)
0.33
0.5
1 .0
0. 17
0.5
Additional
Cost
($/A)
66.0
137.0
239.0
71
102
Total
B/C
0.0050
0.0036
0.0042
Incremental
B/C
0.0024
0.0049
m
to
m
g
m
m
3J
O
i
(A
O
-------
INCREMENTAL BENEFIT/COST
ANALYSIS FOR ALTERNATIVE REDUCED-BURNING
POST-HARVEST TREATMENTS
"FYLKING" KENTUCKY BLUEGRASS
Price= $60/cwt
Open burn yield= 500 lb./A
Post-harvest residue treatment- Straw Removal _
m
Benefit Additional *"
Burning (Burned acreage Cost Total Incremental z
Program reduction) ($/A) B/C B/C |
m
2/3 0.33 86.5 0.0038 |
0.17 57. 0.0030 o
1/2 0.5 143. 0.0034 w
0.5 116 0.0039 m
No burn 1.0 259. 0.0039 E
m
Post-harvest residue treatment- Straw and stubble removed
2/3 0.33 79. 0.0041
0.17 55. 0.0031
1/2 0.5 134. 0.0037
0.5 89. 0.0047
No burn 1.0 223. 0.0045
-------
INCREMENTAL BENEFIT/COST
ANALYSIS FOR ALTERNATIVE REDUCED-BURNING
POST-HARVEST TREATMENTS
(cont . )
Post-harvest residue treatment- No removal
Benefit
Burning
Program
2/3
1/2
^ No burn
i
(Burned acreage
reduction )
0.33
0.5
1 .0
0.17
0.5
Additional
Cost
($/A)
79.
70.
149.
80
229.
Total
B/C
0.0041
0.0033
0.0043
Incremental
B/C
0.0024
0.0045
r
o
r
£
2
n
r
2
CTi
O
i
Q
m
------- |