Hazard Ranking System Issue Analysis: Potential Human Food Chain Exposure MITRE ------- Hazard Ranking System Issue Analysis: Potential Human Food Chain Exposure Ming P. Wang Thomas F. Wolfinger Sharon Saari November 1987 MTR-86W142 SPONSOR: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency CONTRACT NO.: EPA-68-01-7054 The MITRE Corporation Civil Systems Division 7525 Colshire Drive McLean, Virginia 22102-3481 ------- Department Approval: MITRE Project Approval: _± ii ------- ABSTRACT This report examines the feasibility of incorporating factors into the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Hazard Ranking System (HRS) that reflect the potential risks posed to humans by food chain contamination arising from releases from uncontrolled waste sites. The literature on contaminant migration through the human food chain was reviewed. Significant gaps in scientific knowledge were identified in the terrestrial component of the human food chain. The aquatic component is better understood at this time. Five systems other than the HRS were examined to determine if any methods developed by others could be adapted. Several options for incorporating aquatic food chain assessment factors into the HRS are presented. Deficiencies in empirical data and limitations in knowledge of the terrestrial food chain preclude the development of options for the terrestrial food chain. Important factors that should be incorporated into a future terrestrial food chain factor are discussed. Suggested Keywords: Bioaccumulation, Food Chain, Hazardous Waste iii ------- TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS vii LIST OF TABLES viii 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Issue Description 3 1.3 Objectives and Approach 7 1.4 Organization of Report 8 2.0 OVERVIEW OF THE HUMAN FOOD CHAIN 11 2.1 Exposures to Hazardous Substances Through the 11 Aquatic Food Chain 2.2 Exposures to Hazardous Substances Through The 13 Terrestrial Food Chain 2.2.1 Loadings 14 2.2.2 Availability 15 2.2.3 Plant Uptake and Translocation 17 2.2.4 Animal Uptake and Translocation 24 2.2.5 Human Intake 26 2.2.6 Conclusions 33 3.0 EXISTING SYSTEMS FOR EVALUATING FOOD CHAIN EXPOSURES 35 FROM UNCONTROLLED WASTE SITES 3.1 Hazard Assessment Ranking Methodology II (HARM II) 36 3.2 Prioritization of Environmental Risks and Control Options 37 (PERCO) 3.3 Action Alert System (AAS) 38 3.4 Remedial Action Priority System (RAPS) 39 3.5 Preliminary Pollutant Limit Value (PPLV) System 40 3.6 Summary 41 4.0 OPTIONS FOR INCORPORATING FOOD CHAIN RISK FACTORS 43 INTO THE HRS 4.1 Structure of the Current HRS 43 4.2 Aquatic Food Chain Methodology 44 4.2.1 Overview of the Proposed Methodology 44 4.2.2 Waste Characteristics Factors 47 4.2.3 Target Factor Evaluation 60 ------- TABLE OF CONTENTS (Concluded) Page 4.3 Terrestrial Food Chain Methodology 76 4.3.1 Factors for Inclusion in Terrestrial Food 77 Chain Options 4.3.2 Conclusions and Recommendations 88 4.4 Additional Issues Concerning Human Food Chain Risks 88 and the HRS 5.0 CONCLUSIONS 93 6.0 REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY 95 APPENDIX A—CLASSIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES 115 APPENDIX B—AVERAGE FISH STANDING CROPS REPORTED 133 vi ------- LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Figure Number Page 1 THE COMPONENTS OF THE PROPOSED AQUATIC FOOD 45 CHAIN METHODOLOGY 2 DECISION TREE FOR RANKING SUBSTANCES FOR 48 POTENTIAL TO BIOACCUMULATE IN THE FOOD CHAIN vii ------- LIST OF TABLES Table Number Page 1 SOIL TO PLANT UPTAKE FACTORS FOR SELECTED 20 ORGA1NC COMPOUNDS 2 CADMIUM AND ZINC CONCENTRATIONS IN DIFFERENT 21 CULTIVARS OF SOYBEAN, LETTUCE, AND CORN 3 PLANT PHYTOTOXICITY AS A BARRIER TO ANIMAL 23 CONTAMINATION 4 CONCENTRATION OF HEXACHLOROBENZENE (HCB) AFTER 27 12 WEEKS OF ADMINISTRATION TO PIGS 5 PLATEAU LEVEL ORGAN CONCENTRATIONS IN RHESUS 28 MONKEYS AFTER CHRONIC FEEDING OF 1 PPM HCB OR 2 PPM PCNB IN DAILY DIET 6 DISTRIBUTION OF PCB AMONG BODY PARTS OF CATTLE 29 (ppm Arochlor 1260) 7 U.S. CONSUMPTION OF MAJOR FOOD COMMODITIES PER 30 PERSON (1980) (Pounds per person per year) 8 EVALUATING WASTE CHARACTERISTICS FOR AQUATIC 52 FOOD CHAIN OPTION—OPTION I 9 WASTE CHARACTERISTICS EVALUATION SHEET FOR THE 55 AQUATIC FOOD CHAIN METHODOLOGY-OPTION II 10 RATING MATRIX FOR TOXICITY/BIOACCUMULATION 57 FACTOR VALUE FOR THE AQUATIC FOOD CHAIN METHODOLOGY—OPTION II 11 METHOD FOR EVALUATING THE BIOCONCENTRATION 58 FACTOR VALUE 12 BIOACCUMULATION RATING MATRIX FOR AQUATICS 59 FOOD CHAIN METHODOLOGY—OPTION II 13 RATING MATRIX FOR TOXICITY/PERSISTENCE/ 61 BIOACCUMULATION VALUE FOR THE AQUATIC FOOD CHAIN METHODOLOGY—OPTION III vlil ------- LIST OF TABLES (Concluded) Table Number Page 14 PROPOSED FISH PRODUCTION FACTOR EVALUATION 65 TABLE 15 PROPOSED FISHERY RESOURCE FACTOR EVALUATION 67 TABLE 16 EXAMPLE TARGET FACTOR EVALUATION TABLE FOR. 70 AQUATIC FOOD CHAIN METHODOLOGY 17 FOOD CHAIN POPULATION VALUE 74 18 FOOD PRODUCTION VALUE TABLE 75 19 CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS (R2) FROM 79 LOGARITHMIC REGRESSION ANALYSES PERFORMED BY GARTEN AND TRABALKA 20 TRANSFER FACTORS FOR SELECTED ORGANIC COMPOUNDS 82 Ix ------- 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA) (PL 96-510) requires the President to identify national priorities for remedial action among releases or threatened releases of hazardous substances. These releases are to be identified based on criteria promulgated in the National Contingency Plan (NCP). On July 16, 1982, EPA promulgated the Hazard Ranking System (HRS) as Appendix A to the NCP (40 CFR 300; 47 FR 31180). The HRS comprises the criteria required under CERCLA and is used by EPA to estimate the relative potential hazard posed by releases or threatened releases of hazardous substances. The HRS is a means for applying uniform technical judgment regarding the potential hazards presented by a release relative to other releases. The HRS is used in identifying releases as national priorities for further investigation and possible remedial action by assigning numerical values (according to prescribed guidelines) to factors that characterize the potential of any given release to cause harm. The values are manipulated mathematically to yield a single score that is designed to indicate the potential hazard posed by each release relative to other releases. This score is one of the criteria used by EPA in determining whether the release should be placed on the National Priorities List (NPL). ------- During the original NCP rulemaking process and the subsequent application of the HRS to specific releases, a number of technical issues have been raised regarding the HRS. These issues concern the desire for modifications to the HRS to further improve its capability to estimate the relative potential hazard of releases. The issues include: • Review of other existing ranking systems suitable for ranking hazardous waste sites for the NPL. • Feasibility of considering ground water flow direction and distance, as well as defining "aquifer of concern," in determining potentially affected targets. • Development of a human food chain exposure evaluation methodology. • Development of a potential for air release factor category in the HRS air pathway. • Review of the adequacy of the target distance specified in the air pathway. • Feasibility of considering the accumulation of hazardous substances in indoor environments. • Feasibility of developing factors to account for environmental attenuation of hazardous substances in ground and surface water. • Feasibility of developing a more discriminating toxicity factor. • Refinement of the definition of "significance" as it relates to observed releases. • Suitability of the current HRS default value for an unknown waste quantity. • Feasibility of determining and using hazardous substance concentration data. ------- • Feasibility of evaluating waste quantity on a hazardous constituent basis. • Review of the adequacy of the target distance specified in the surface water pathway. • Development of a sensitive environment evaluation methodology. • Feasibility of revising the containment factors to increase discrimination among facilities. • Review of the potential for future changes in laboratory detection limits to affect the types of sites considered for the NPL. Each technical issue is the subject of one or more separate but related reports. These reports, although providing background, analysis, conclusions and recommendations regarding the technical issue, will not directly affect the HRS. Rather, these reports will be used by an EPA working group that will assess and integrate the results and prepare recommendations to EPA management regarding future changes to the HRS. Any changes will then be proposed in Federal notice and comment rulemaking as formal changes to the NCP. The following section describes the specific issue that is the subject of this report. 1.2 Issue Description The issue examined in this report is whether it is feasible to define and implement factors reflecting human food chain contamin- ation risks into the HRS. The emphasis is on risks relating to human health, although resource loss risks are addressed as warranted. ------- Human consumption of substances clarified as hazardous by EPA can cause severe illness or death. Inadvertent comsumption of such substances by consuming contaminated food is a serious public health issue. The danger of contamination of the human food chain by releases of hazardous substances into the environment and resulting human consumption of hazardous substances in food are well established world-wide. Methyl mercury contamination of fish and other foodstuffs in Japan has resulted in several outbreaks of Minamata Disease, named after the bay in Japan where the disease was first identified. The first outbreak in Japan was in the early 1950s; the most recent was in 1973 (Fbrstner and Wittmann, 1983). Symptoms of methyl mercury poisoning have also been identified in native communities in Canada, apparently resulting from the presence of methyl mercury in fish. Several instances of human consumption of food (primarily rice) contaminated with PCBs have occurred in Japan and Taiwan, resulting in a disfiguring condition known as Yusho. In the United States, relatively strict control of commercial food quality and a relatively high dependence on commercial food have probably interacted to limit the occurrence of adverse human health affects from food contamination by hazardous chemicals. Nonetheless, numerous instances have been recorded of human food chain contamination sometimes coupled with human health impacts that have resulted from releases of contaminants that could be addressed ------- under CERCLA. These instances include numerous fishkills (as many as 1 million fish in one instance in Warrior Creek Alabama), closings of commercial fisheries (e.g., PCB contamination in Lake Weiss and the Coosa River in Alabama and Georgia in 1976, kepone contamination in the James River in 1975, and mirex contamination in Lake Ontario), animal poisonings (such as the death of 56 cattle in Newton, Kansas from PCB poisoning and the quarantining of 20,000 head of cattle in Louisiana due to HCB contamination), and crop damage (contamination of 550 acres of farmland near Baton Rouge, Louisiana in 1979). Two instances of human health impacts from food contamination can be identified as well. As reported by EPA (1980), three children living in Albuquerque, New Mexico became seriously ill in 1971 after eating a pig that had been fed feed contaminated with mercury. An investigation located additional bags of contaminated feed in a local dump. The Superfund Section 30l(e) Study Group indicated that hundreds of people in Michigan exhibited persistent illness probably associated with the contamination of animal feed by PCBs and subsequent migration up the food chain through meat, milk, and eggs (Superfund Section 301(e) Study Group, 1982). The following three reports list numerous other examples of releases of hazardous substances into the environment that have resulted in contamination of the human food chain: ------- • Congressional Research Service, Resource Losses from Surface Water, Groundwater, and Atmospheric Contamination; A Catalog, (Serial No. 96-9), prepared for the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works, 96th Congress, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1980. • Superfund Section 301(e) Study Group, Injuries and Damages from Hazardous Wastes—Analysis and Improvement of Legal Remedies, Parts 1 and 2, (Serial No. 97-12), prepared for the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works, 97th Congress, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, September 1982. • U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Damages and Threats Caused By Hazardous Material Sites, (EPA-430/9-80-004), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, January 1980. Congress, recognizing the potential for human food chain contamination by uncontrolled waste sites required modification to the National Contingency Plan as part of the The Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986. The Act modifies Section 105, expressing Congress's desire to protect human health from exposure to hazardous substances through the food chain. On the issue of setting criteria and priorities among releases or threatened releases, CERCLA (as amended) now directs that the criteria used in determining priorities among sites take into account, "to the extent possible the population at risk, the hazard potential of the hazardous substances at such facilities, the potential for contamination of drinking water supplies, the potential for direct human contact, the potential for destruction of sensitive ecosystems, the damage to natural resources which may affect the human food chain and which is associated with any release or ------- threatened release, the contamination or potential contamination of the ambient air which is associated with the release or threatened release, ..." (emphasis added). Currently, the HRS explicitly addresses risks to human health through direct ingestion of contaminated water and through inhalation of contaminated air (47 FR 31180, July 16, 1982). The HRS also addresses risks of environmental damage and resource loss in many of its factors (e.g., the sensitive environments factors in the surface water and air pathways). The only factors in the HRS that address food chain-related risks are contained in the ground water and surface water target population factors. Food chain contamination risks from the use of potentially contaminated irrigation water are reflected in the procedure for estimating the target population: an additional 1.5 persons per acre of irrigated land are added to the population total in evaluating the target population factors. 1.3 Objectives and Approach This study has two objectives. The first is to examine the feasibility of evaluating human food chain-related risks within the context of the HRS. The second is to develop options for evaluating these risks in the HRS. A multi-stage approach was taken to fulfill these objectives. In the first stage the NPL data base and site files were reviewed to identify both the potential threat to the public health from food ------- chain exposure and the substances that are of principal concern at the NPL sites. Second, a literature review was conducted addressing the structure and other characteristics of the aquatic and terrestrial human food chain. There are several purposes to the review: • To identify the important mechanisms of transfer for toxic substances from the contaminated environment to the food consumed by humans. • To identify methods for estimating the concentration of the hazardous substance in the human foodstocks from the concentration of hazardous substances in the environment (i.e., estimating the chemical concentration in fish from the chemical concentration in water, estimating the chemical concentration in plants from the concentration in air or soil). • To compile the important parameter values needed for the hazardous substances found at NPL sites. In the third stage, several existing schemes were reviewed that evaluate risk through human food chain exposures, in order to evaluate their usefulness as a basis for developing HRS options. Finally, the present structure of the HRS was examined and options of incorporating human food chain factors within the HRS were developed, where feasible. 1.4 Organization of Report This report is organized into six chapters. Section 2 presents an overview of the human food chain, reflecting the results of the review of the literature on human food chain risk assessment. Section 3 presents the results of the review of the existing waste site ranking systems that address human food chain risks. Options 8 ------- for incorporating human food chain factors, where feasible, into the HRS are discussed in Section 4. This chapter also includes a discussion of issues that must be resolved if the options are implemented. Section 5 presents the conclusions of the report. Section 6 presents the references and a selected bibliography. Appendix A contains bioaccumulation factor evaluations for over 300 contaminants found at uncontrolled waste sites. Appendix B contains estimates of fish standing crops for selected surface water bodies in the United States. ------- 2.0 OVERVIEW OF THE HUMAN FOOD CHAIN This chapter presents an overview of the human food chain. The purpose of this overview is to identify those aspects of the human food chain that would need to be reflected in options for evaluating food chain risks in the HRS. Due to differences in the complexity of the aquatic and terrestrial food chains and due to resulting differences in the state-of-knowledge of critical components in the two food chains, separate sections are presented addressing each. 2.1 Exposures to Hazardous Substances Through the Aquatic Food Chain Hazardous substances enter the aquatic food chain by contaminating the surface water environment in which the aquatic organisms live. The surface water environment includes both the water column and underlying sediment. Once the surface water environment is contaminated, aquatic organisms may accumulate hazardous substances in their tissue. These accumulated substances may harm the organisms directly or they may pose a threat to animals which feed upon the organisms. Aquatic organisms may accumulate substances from their environment via at least three different pathways (Swartz and Lee, 1980): • Direct adsorption to the body wall or exoskeleton. • Direct absorption through the integument, gills, or other respiratory surfaces. • Ingestion of contaminated sediment, food, or water followed by absorption through the gut. 11 ------- Soluble forms of contaminants are considered to be bioavailable, thus sorptlon is an important uptake mechanism for aqueous-phase contaminants. Dietary uptake via ingestion of contaminated organisms may also be a major route of uptake. For example, Weininger (1978) has estimated that approximately 98 percent of the total PCB residues in lake trout in Lake Michigan results from dietary uptake. Contaminated sediments can also be an important source of contaminants for biological uptake. Uptake from sediment can occur via two potential avenues: (1) desorption to interstitial and interfacial water followed by bioaccumulation, either by sorption through gills or epithelial tissue; or (2) through ingestion of contaminated sediment particles. The relative contribution of those two mechanisms has not been estimated, but depends upon the feeding and respiratory patterns of the organism. Deposit-feeding is of primary interest with respect to uptake from sediment. The extent of the elevation of contaminant concentration in biota with respect to the aquatic medium they reside in is often expressed by the bioconcentration factor (BCF). The bioconcentra- tion factor is the ratio of contaminant concentration in the biota to the contaminant concentration in water, independent of the process of biological uptake. This definition is consistent with the definition used by McBrien, Saari, and Goldfarb (1987) and is adopted for use in this report. That is, the term BCF in this 12 ------- report includes the result of bioconcentration and bioaccumulation. With the exception of controlled environments in which the organism is only allowed to be in contact with water, the reported BCF for an organism in a natural environment is most appropriately considered as the result of bioaccumulation. McBrien, Saari, and Goldfarb (1987) give a more detailed description on factors affecting BCF and potential surrogates for BCF, as well as BCF data collected for more than 300 hazardous substances. The health risk to an individual human from ingesting contaminated fish and shellfish is often compared with the risk from drinking water. Because of the tendency for an aquatic organism to bioaccumulate contaminant in its body, the threat to human health from an aquatic food chain exposure has the potential to be more serious than that from drinking water even though the amount of fish and shellfish consumed is much less. For example, Black (1983) estimated that eating one pound of fish, contaminated at average PCB levels for the Great Lakes, presents a risk equal to drinking the water for about 1,000 years. 2.2 Exposures to Hazardous Substances Through The Terrestrial Food Chain Exposure to hazardous substances through the human terrestrial food chain is somewhat more complex than its aquatic counterpart. This complexity is reflected in the somewhat larger number of exposure paths. In part as a result of its greater complexity, less is known about the terrestrial food chain than the aquatic food 13 ------- chain. Five semi-independent but interrelated topics of importance in assessing food chain contamination risks are discussed below: • Loadings (e.g., routes of exposure) • Availability for uptake • Plant uptake and translocation • Animal uptake and translocation • Human uptake These topic areas correspond generally to the major components of the terrestrial food chain. 2.2.1 Loadings Loadings addresses the routes by which contaminants enter into the terrestrial food chain. Various authors (e.g., Chaney, 1983; Dixon and Holton, 1984; Dreesen et al., 1982; Edwards, 1983; Ritter and Rinefierd, 1983; Ronneau et al., 1983; Thomas, Ruhling, and Simon, 1984; Wagstaff, McDowell, and Paulin, 1980; and Walton and Edwards, 1986) have identified the following as potentially important pathways for environmental contaminants to enter into the terrestrial food chain: • Direct deposition of contaminants onto soils and crops. • Deposition of airborne contaminants onto soils and crops. • Use of contaminated irrigation water. • Ingestion of contaminated soils and water by animals. • Inhalation of airborne contaminants by animals. 14 ------- • Volatilization of contaminants from ground water into the soil and the near soil air zone. • Ingestion of contaminated feed. The overall relative importance of these loading mechanisms in determining food chain risks for both organic and inorganic contaminants migrating through plants and animals is unknown. Several authors indicate direct ingestion of contaminated soil poses the greatest risk to the grazing animal portion of the food chain (e.g., Chaney, 1983; Ronneau et al., 1983; and Walton and Edwards, 1986). This position is supported by the observation made by Chaney (1983) that livestock have been poisoned by ingesting lead from soils at natural background concentrations. The importance of the contaminated soil ingestion mechanism is compounded by the potential for concurrent inhalation of contaminated soil gases. 2.2.2 Availability Once contaminants have been deposited onto soils, several factors interact to determine the availability of the contaminants for plant uptake. Contaminants may bind to soil, may continue to migrate (e.g., through leaching or volatilization), may degrade or transform (e.g., through photolysis, hydrolysis, or other chemical or biological transformation processes), or they may enter into the food chain. Lack of knowledge of soil degradation kinetics was identified as a major deficiency in terrestrial food chain modeling at the 1983 workshop on food chain modeling for risk analysis (Breck and Baes, 1985). 15 ------- The possibility for binding of contaminants in soil has received considerable attention in the literature since the ratio of plant contaminant concentrations to soil contaminant concentrations is used by many to define the plant bioconcentration factor (see, for example, Breck and Baes, 1985; Dixon and Holton, 1984; and Schaeffer, 1985). Contaminant availability depends on the interaction between contaminant, soil, and other environmental characteristics. Numerous authors have investigated the dynamics of plant uptake of both organic and inorganic compounds. More is known about the dynamics of inorganic contaminant (particularly radionuclide) uptake by plants than is known about organic uptake. However, investigations of plant uptake of certain organics (e.g., many pesticides such as DDT, their derivatives, and other contaminants such as TCDD) have been performed (e.g., Bollag and Loll, 1983). Contaminants deposited onto soil may either become bound to soil constituents (either loosely or tightly) or they may continue to migrate. Several soil characteristics have been identified as important in determining the ability of the soil to bind contaminants: • Organic matter content • Clay content • Cation exchange capacity • Soil pH 16 ------- • Soil texture • Soil moisture content • Soil particle size and surface area • Soil temperature Bollag and Loll (1983) note that binding of contaminants to soils may be temporary due to changes in the soil chemistry over time. These authors also caution that under some conditions bound contaminants also may persist in the soil. These authors state, however, that most researchers doubt that bound contaminants pose immediate health threats, although the contaminants may accumulate in the food chain over time. Contaminant characteristics of particular importance in regard to availability include: • Contaminant concentration • Phase (e.g., gaseous) • Polarity • Persistence • Solubility and lipophilicity It is important to remember that contaminant characteristics may change as a result of environmental factors, further complicating assessments of availability. 2.2.3 Plant Uptake and Translocation Available contaminants may assimilate into plants through two basic routes, root uptake from soils and soil water, and foliar 17 ------- absorption. Recent studies have indicated that foliar absorption is an important entry route for such substances (see, for example, Breck and Baes, 1985; Chaney, 1983; and Schaeffer, 1985). Adsorption for many contaminants also is important since limited available information indicates that some contaminants (particularly in sludges) may not be removed by rainfall (Chaney, 1983). Thus, contaminants on edible surface areas may be consumed. Once a contaminant has entered into a plant, it may migrate (translocate) to a portion of the plant other than in the area in which it entered. If the portion of the plant to which the contaminant has translocated is inedible for both animals and humans, it would not constitute a threat to the remainder of the human food chain. An example of such tissue are the leaves of tomato plants. Otherwise, the threat from the contaminant to the food chain would continue. Translocation, therefore, may result in differences in contaminant concentrations between different parts of plants. High concentrations in edible portions are of concern in the human food chain. As in the case of soil availability, plant uptake and translocation depend on the interplay of several plant and contaminant characteristics. However, less is known about plant uptake and translocation than about soil availability on a micro-scale. Plant uptake and translocation processes are known to depend on several plant characteristics: 18 ------- • Plant species and cultivar • Plant growing rate • Time • Relative humidity as well as several contaminant characteristics such as concentration, solubility, and phase. The extent of variation in uptake between contaminants and plants is indicated in Tables 1 and 2. As indicated in Table 1, plant uptake varies considerably among polychlorinated biphenyls (PCS), dioxin (TCDD), benzo-A-pyrene (BaP), and trichloroethylene (TCE). Furthermore, Table 1 shows that the variation between studies for a single contaminant is even greater than the variation between contaminants. Table 2 indicates that zinc and cadmium concentrations vary significantly among species of plant and plant tissue. Further, Chaney (1983) notes that zinc, cadmium, manganese, molybdenum, selenium, and boron are easily absorbed by plants and tend to translocate to edible tissues within the plant. In contrast, several other heavy metals (e.g., lead and trivalent chromium) either are strongly bound to soil or are retained in plant roots and hence do not migrate to plant foliage in injurious amounts. Finally, citing other studies, Carey et al., (1973) indicate evidence of translocation of pesticides residues has been found for corn, soybeans, alfalfa, carrots, potatoes, turnips, 19 ------- TABLE 1 SOIL TO PLANT UPTAKE FACTORS* FOR SELECTED ORGANIC COMPOUNDS Compound PCS TCDD BaP TCE Best Estimate 1.0 0.001 0.1 0.1 Minimum 3 x 10~3 3 x 10~5 7 x 10~6 1 x 10~5 Maximum 10 1 40 10 *Soil to plant uptake factor is defined as the ratio of contaminant concentration in the plant to the contaminant concentration in the soil. Source: Schaeffer, 1985. 20 ------- TABLE 2 CADMIUM AND ZINC CONCENTRATIONS IN DIFFERENT CULTIVARS OF SOYBE Soybean Cultivar Clark 63 Mandarin Corsoy Amsoy 71 Grant Jackson Richland Dunfield Arksoy Harosoy 63 T.pttuce Cd in shoot me/kg 1.4 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.9 3.2 3.5 4.3 4.8 6.0 Cultivar Romaine Boston Bibb Valmaine Tania Dark Green Boston Belmay Butterhead 1033 Butterhead 1044 Buttercrunch Butterhead 1034 Summer Bibb Zn in leaf ma/kg 51 63 68 77 72 68 89 100 124 94 104 125 Cd in leaf 1.8 1.9 4.2 3.8 4.4 5.0 5.2 5.3 5.7 5.8 6.2 8.1 Inbred line B77 R177 H96 H99 H100 R805 B37 Oh545 A619 H98 Oh43 Zn in leaf 61.8 88. C 94.2 102. S 140.] 148.] 164.2 170. < 193.: 217.2 281.2 Source: Council for Agricultural Science and Technology, 1981. ------- and peanuts. The authors indicate that pesticide residues in corn tend to appear in the leaves rather than in the edible kernels. The existence of a "soil-plant barrier" for many plants and contaminants that tends to protect humans and animals from contamination in the lower levels of the food chain is important in assessing terrestrial food chain risks (Chaney 1983). This barrier arises for three basic reasons. First, the low solubility of certain contaminants prevents their uptake by plants. Second, certain contaminants are immobilized in fibrous roots preventing their translocation to edible plant tissues. Third, contaminant phytotoxicity is sometimes lower than animal and human toxicity. Thus, the plant will die before its contaminant concentration reaches high enough levels to warrant concern. The potential importance of phytotoxicity in protecting human and animal health is illustrated in Table 3. However, as indicated by Chaney (1983), and as shown in Table 3, the soil-plant barrier does not protect animals from contaminants such as cadmium, selenium, and molybdenum. Food is considered to be the major source of cadmium ingestion by humans in the general population (Hammons, Huff, and Braunstein, 1978). The final aspect of plant uptake and translocation is of uncertain importance. As indicated in Edwards (1983), plants may contain substances that effect or transform assimilated contaminants, rendering the contaminants less toxic. Citing other 22 ------- TABLE 3 PLANT PHYTOTOXICITY AS A BARRIER TO ANIMAL CONTAMINATION Maximum Levels Chronically Tolerated* Phytotoxic Level (mg/kg dry diet) Element As, inorganic B Cd** Cr+3, oxides Co Cu F Fe Mn Mo Ni Pb** Se V Zn (mR/kR/drv foliage) 3-10 75 5-700 20 25-100 25-40 - - 400-2,000 100 50-100 - 100 10 500-1,500 Cattle 50 150 0.5 (3,000) 10 100 40 1,000 1,000 10 50 30 (2) 50 500 Sheep 50 (150) 0.5 (3,000) 10 25 60 500 1,000 10 (50) 30 (2) 50 300 Swine 50 (150) 0.5 (3,000) 10 250 150 3,000 400 20 (100) 30 2 (10) 1,000 Chicken 50 (150) 0.5 3,000 10 300 200 1,000 2,000 100 (300) 30 2 10 1,000 *Based on data presented in National Research Council, 1980. Mineral Tolerance of Domestic Animals, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC. Continuous long-term feeding of minerals at the maximum tolerable levels may cause adverse effects. Levels in parentheses were derived by interspecific extrapolation by NRG. **Maximum levels tolerated based on human food residue consideration, rather than toxicity to livestock. Source: Chaney, 1983. 23 ------- sources, Edwards (1983) states that many polyarometic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are innocuous by themselves but may form epoxides that are carcinogenic or mutagenic when biologically activated. The author also indicates that some research indicates that green plants contain a substance (ellagic acid) that may inactivate the carcinogenic and mutagenic potential of the diol epoxide form of BaP. The extent of similar phenomena for other contaminants is unknown. 2.2.4 Animal Uptake and Translocation Animals take in contaminants through at least five basic mechanisms. First, is direct ingestion of contaminated plant tissues (including feed). A second mechanism is through the ingestion of contaminated animal products such as milk. A third mechanism is through the ingestion of contaminated soil. Fourth, is the direct ingestion of contaminated surface or ground water. A fifth is through the inhalation of contaminated air. This last mechanism is not considered in the following discussion as there is little information in the literature concerning its importance. However, the possible presence of volatile organic contaminants in the air very near the soil surface indicates that this intake mechanism may warrant further study. The relative importance of the four other intake mechanisms is unknown. Each is potentially important depending on the animals and contaminants under study. Wagstaff, McDowell, and Paulin (1980) state that contaminated feed is the primary source of organochloride ------- pesticide ingestion in animals. Chaney (1983) presents the thesis that soil ingestion is important, especially for persistent, lipophilic, toxic organic compounds. Chaney also observes that cattle have been poisoned by lead at naturally occurring concen- trations due to soil ingestion. According to Chaney, 20 percent of the diet of cattle is soil, since cattle consume complete plants including soil-laden roots. It is also important to note that contaminants adsorbed on plant surfaces may be ingested. Chaney*s thesis is supported in part by Walton and Edwards (1986). These authors state that direct contact with soil is the most important route for transfer of contaminants from soil to livestock in particular, and herbivores in general. These authors also indicate that lactation provides a route for the elimination of polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs) from the bodies of cows thus providing an intake route for PBBs into the bodies of dairy or beef calves. Similarly, consumption of contaminated water is an important intake route for soluble substances. As in the case of plants, once within the body of an animal, contaminants may translocate to different parts of the animal and, potentially, accumulate there. These body parts include fat or nonfat tissue, including bone tissue. Alternately, the contaminants may be temporarily stored in organs such as the liver or kidneys and eventually excreted. These various storage patterns are important since humans consume both animal fat and nonfat tissues and animal 25 ------- products such as milk. The information in Tables 4 through 6 is presented as an indication of the potential extent of differential migration and accumulation in body parts. Numerous other examples of contaminant concentrations in various animal body parts can be found in Cone, Faust, and Baldauf (1984) and Cone et al., (1986). Accumulation in animals occurs through both lipid partitioning and covalent bonding (Trabalka and Garten, 1982). The applicable accumulation mechanism depends on the characteristics of the contaminant; some contaminants, such as pentachlorophenol (PCP), are readily metabolized and eliminated from the body and do not accumulate. Contaminants such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCS) accumulate by lipid partitioning. Such bioaccumulation can be predicted by octanol-water partition coefficients. Contaminants such as methyl mercury, which accumulate through covalent bonding, tend to invalidate the universal use of octanol-water partition coefficients in assessing bioaccumulation in animals. 2.2.5 Human Intake Table 7 presents an overview of the average yearly diet (in 1980) of an individual in the United States, by major food commodity. As indicated in this table, an average individual in the United States consumes over 1,220 pounds of food yearly. The largest commodity groups are dairy products (24 percent), vegetables (23 percent), and meat and poultry (17 percent). Most of dairy product consumption is in the form of milk. Fresh vegetable and potato consumption are the 26 ------- N3 TABLE 4 CONCENTRATION OF HEXACHLOROBENZENE (HCB) AFTER 12 WEEKS OF AD Feed Rate (mz HCB/ke/dav} 0 (control) 0.05 0.50 5.00 50.0** Organ Concentration (me HC Blood 9 ± 1 29 + 5 235 ± 18 2,520 ± 400 30,600 ± 3,900 Fat 4 ± 0.8 14.3 ± 1.2 121.2 ± 16.1 1,286 ± 200 15,453 + 7,851 Liver* 0.12 ± 0.06 0.27 ± 0.02 3.3 ± 1.3 42.3 ± 15.9 NA Concentration determined after 13 weeks after sacrifice of animali **Concentration determined after 8 weeks. No animals in this group Source: Adapted from den Tonkelaar et al., 1978. ------- TABLE 5 PLATEAU LEVEL ORGAN CONCENTRATIONS IN RHESUS MONKEYS AFTER CHRONIC FEEDING OF 1 PPM HCB OR 2 PPM PCNB IN DAILY DIET Organ Blood Muscle Brain Liver Kidney Adrenal Cortex Thymus Lymph nodes* Bone marrow Omental fat HCB (ppm) 0.22 0.1 0.6 0.7 0.2 2.7 3.8 2.0 7.7 13.6 PCNB (ppm) 0.07 0.01 0.03 0.19 0.14 0.08 0.20 0.12 0.13 0.21 *Large intestine HCB: Hexachlorobenzene PCNB: Pentachloronitrobenzene Source: Muller et al., 1978. 28 ------- TABLE 6 DISTRIBUTION OF PCB AMONG BODY PARTS OF CATTLE* (ppm Arochlor 1260) Body Part Adipose Heart Kidney Liver Lung Muscle Spleen Number of Cases 7 8 8 8 7 7 8 Mean 924 9.4 4.8 11.9 3.8 10.5 5.3 Range 170-1,900 2-26 1.8-7.5 2.7-36 1.9-8.5 1.4-26 1.3-8.6 *Previously taken tailhead fat biopsy levels 120-2,200 ppm. Feedlot cattle. Source: Cone, Faust, and Baldauf, 1984. 29 ------- TABLE 7 U.S. CONSUMPTION OF MAJOR FOOD COMMODITIES PER PERSON (1980) (Pounds per person per year) Commodity Dairy Products Fluid Milk Other Vegetables Freshb Potatoes0 Sweet Potatoes0 Cannedd Frozen6 Meat and Poultry Beef Pork Poultry Other Fruit Fresh Processed* Wheat Flour Refined Sugar Eggs Other Food CommoditiesS Fishh Rice Other Grains TOTAL Consumption 288.7 250 38.7 277.9 99.5 112.8 5.4 49.8 10.4 208.2 76.5 68.3 60.6 2.8 141.0 85.7 55.3 126.4 83.7 34.6 38.1 12.8 9.4 NA 1,220.8 Percent of Total3 24 20 3 23 8 9 0 4 1 17 6 6 5 0 12 7 5 10 7 3 3 1 1 NA 30 ------- TABLE 7 (Concluded) FOOTNOTES aTotals may not add due to rounding. "Commercial production for sale as fresh produce. clncludes fresh equivalent of processed. "Excludes potatoes and sweet potatoes. eExcludes potatoes. fIncludes canned fruit and juices, frozen juices, chilled citrus juices, and dried fruit. ^Includes coffee, tea, cocoa, shelled peanuts, dry edible beans, and melons. ^Edible portion only. Source: Newspaper Enterprise Association, Inc., 1984. 31 ------- principal components of vegetable consumption. Meat and poultry consumption is about equally split among beef, pork and poultry. Fruit, meat, and wheat flour constitute somewhat over 10 percent each of the average diet. Consumption of fresh fruit is slightly over half of total fruit consumption. It is important to note that the dietary patterns of the individuals in the United States may be changing, as illustrated by a decline in pork consumption between in recent years (World Almanac of Facts). Further, these data do not account for potential regional differences in food consumption patterns (e.g., per capita consumption of fish is likely to be higher in coastal regions than in the interior). An important consideration concerning the potential ingestion of hazardous substances through human food intake is the role of the U.S. Department of Agriculture and State and local public health agencies in protecting the public food supply. Two of the main objectives of these programs are to ensure, to the extent possible, that contaminated food does not enter the food distribution system and, failing that, to identify and remove contaminated food from the commercial food distribution system before widespread effects are felt in the general population. For example, the USDA Food and Safety Inspection Service inspects 94 percent of the meat that enters the commercial food distribution system (United States Department of Commerce, 1983). This system of public health 32 ------- protection would play an important role in preventing adverse human health effects from contamination of the human terrestrial (and aquatic) food chains arising from uncontrolled waste sites. The protection of human health from noncommercial food contamination (e.g. consumption arising from subsistence agriculture, hunting, and fishing) is more uncertain. 2.2.6 Conclusions Several conclusions can be drawn from this discussion concerning the terrestrial food chain and the potential for incorporating terrestrial food chain factors in the HRS. First, the terrestrial food chain is very complex. A relatively large body of information is available on the potential for and mechanisms of terrestrial food chain contamination by metallic inorganics and many pesticides. Relatively little is known about other classes of compounds. As summarized by Chaney (1983) in regard to the question of risks from land application of toxic organic compounds (TOs), "insufficient information is available to assess food chain risk of waste-borne TOs. Environmentally relevant information on TOs is quite limited, even among pesticides. Little is known about fate and potential for food chain effects of industrial TO wastes and by-products that may be considered for application to land treatment sites." The extent of current knowledge concerning food chain risks associated with toxic organics and other uncontrolled waste site contaminants is also limited. As discussed in below, the 33 ------- limitations in knowledge about the terrestrial food chain make the development of options for incorporating terrestrial food chain risks into the HRS impractical at this time. However, given the quantity of food consumed by individuals, the high levels of contamination sometimes found in and around uncontrolled waste sites, and the demonstrated potential for bioaccumulation in the terrestrial food chain, the potential exists for some sites to adversely affect human health through the terrestrial food chain. The magnitude of this potential is unknown. 34 ------- 3.0 EXISTING SYSTEMS FOR EVALUATING FOOD CHAIN EXPOSURES FROM UNCONTROLLED WASTE SITES Five systems which evaluate potential risk of hazardous substances to human health through the food chain were identified and reviewed as part of this effort. They are: • Hazard Assessment Rating Methodology I (HARM II) • Prioritization of Environmental Risks and Control Options (PERCO) • Action Alert System (AAS) • Remedial Action Priority System (RAPS) • Preliminary Pollutant Limit Value (PPLV) System. The first four of these systems are reviewed in greater detail in Haus and Wolfinger (1986). The review of each of these systems undertaken in this effort focused on whether each of the five systems addressed the aquatic and/or the terrestrial food chain in their ranking system, the general methodology used in each of the systems which did address the food chain, and the data requirements for addressing food chain contributions to potential exposure. This review indicated that each of the five systems did address at least some aspect of food chain exposures from waste sites, although only three addressed both aquatic and terrestrial food chains as a composite input to their overall ranking system. 35 ------- Because of differences between the systems, each is discussed separately below. A final section presents a summary of the results of the examination. 3.1 Hazard Assessment Ranking Methodology II (HARM II) The HARM II ranking system is the only one of the five systems considered which does not attempt to take into account any aspect of the terrestrial food chain in its calculations. Rather, HARM II calculates hazard scores for the ingestion of contaminated fish. This contaminant intake is calculated as a function of the estimated consumption of fish by individuals, the contaminant concentration in relevant surface waters, and fish bioconcentration factors. This calculation of food chain hazard potential is a part of the HARM II process of evaluating overall human health and ecological hazard potential. The results of these calculations are fed into the contaminant hazard score which, in turn, makes up a portion of the overall model structure designed to provide a single site score for comparison with other sites under investigation. The primary data requirements for the food chain portion of the HARM II system are related to site-specific collection of information on the concentrations of contaminants in surface waters near the site. This information, combined with species-specific information on bioconcentration factors taken from the literature and data on individual fish consumption, is the basis of all data used to calculate potential human contaminant intake. Once hazard 36 ------- quotients for all detected contaminants have been derived in this manner, they are summed and a single health hazard index is derived from the model documentation and used in remaining calculations. 3.2 Prioritization of Environmental Risks and Control Options (PERCO) The PERCO system has the capability to evaluate both the terrestrial and the aquatic food chain in its evaluative structure, but only the information related to the terrestrial food chain is carried through the final calculations of the system. The information derived for the aquatic food chain is designed to be used by individual analysts as an additional subjective input to the total evaluation conducted with the aid of PERCO. The basic analytic structure for calculation of both the terrestrial and the aquatic food chain components in PERCO relies on the use of bioconeentration factors in both fish and in surface vegetation. The factors are combined with information on usage rates for agricultural and fishing grounds, and with information on individual contaminants, to form two distinct components of a health score used by the PERCO system. The data requirements for the food chain in PERCO are limited to information on bioconcentration factors as well as use rates for items such as number of acres tilled or the number of fish which are (or could have been, were a site not contaminated) harvested. This information is combined with toxicity data for individual contami- 37 ------- nants to form a final score, which is forwarded to the remainder of the PERCO system. 3.3 Action Alert System (AAS) The AAS provides a framework to determine risk to human health, focusing on the impact of waterborne pollutants. Within the AAS, risk is expressed as a potential per capita effect. The primary mechanism of estimating risk in AAS is to determine the potency of a pollutant and the exposure (or average daily intake/ingestion) of an individual to that pollutant. The per capita risk is then defined in terms of the product of the exposure and the potency. In those instances in which it is not possible to directly estimate exposure, a supplementary module of AAS uses exposure through both the aquatic and terrestrial food chains to form a part of the calculations determining total exposure. These calculations rely on estimates of per capita per day consumption of various categories of foodstuffs, along with bioconcentration factors for each contaminant being considered at a site. The results of these calculations are an estimate of the amount of an individual contaminant ingested through the food chain; these estimates are in turn fed into the per capita risk calculations. The primary data required for calculations involved in the aquatic food chain exposure module are the amounts of each food type ingested by an individual and the bioconcentration factors for each pollutant. For the terrestrial food chain, data on the residue of a 38 ------- pollutant in that food is used in lieu of the bioconcentration factor along with consumption data to determine the amount of a pollutant ingested along with the food being considered. 3.4 Remedial Action Priority System (RAPS) The RAPS system was designed to rank sites according to their relative hazard potential; it is not designed to be used to simulate actual risks at a particular site resulting from the release of contaminants. Within the RAPS system, risk is expressed as a fraction from zero to one on a per person basis. The basic computational structure of the model is to derive exposure to the aquatic and terrestrial food chains through four distinct transport pathways. Exposure derived from these calculations is used, in turn, to estimate the potential exposure of the surrounding population from both the food chains and from other exposure routes. Exposure through the food chain is calculated as the product of the daily usage rate (e.g., amount of food eaten), the concentration of a contaminant in the media of exposure (e.g., mg of contaminant per kg of food), and appropriate conversion factors which take concentrations and convert to dose rates. The sum of all such exposures is then normalized to determine an overall average individual risk factor, which indicates the level of potential risk to an average member of the exposed population. Once again, the major data requirements for determining the potential exposure for the food chains include information on the 39 ------- bioconcentration of individual contaminants in each food item and the quantity of food consumed by an individual. Other conversion data is obtained from both model documentation and from the literature. 3.5 Preliminary Pollutant Limit Value (PPLV) System The primary goal of the PPLV System is to provide a simplified method to establish limits on allowable pollutant exposure from hazardous waste sites. The primary focus of the system is to establish an acceptable individual daily dose of each contaminant associated with an individual site, and to calculate whether the site meets these requirements. The use of the aquatic and terres- trial food chain as exposure paths to these contaminants is an integral portion of the overall system. Within the PPLV System, the primary focus is to determine the amounts of contaminant which might be allowed through each of the various exposure routes, and still not exceed the total allowable dose for that contaminant. These relationships are formed as a series of equations which bring together all exposure components, expressed as a function of the allowable exposure and concentrations which are found in various media, including the water and soil, surrounding a site. The exposure through the food chain routes is calculated as a function of the concentration of a contaminant in a type of food, and the amounts of that food which are ingested. 40 ------- The data requirements for the PPLV System are the most extensive of the five systems included in this study. Data on parameters for chronic human exposure to contaminants, including information on body weight, food intake and the fraction of different food types is required. In addition, the System requires information on values for acceptable daily doses of toxic pollutants, and information on bioconcentration factors. Finally, the System requires data on the chemical properties of each of the contaminants of concern. 3.6 Summary Although there are some very real differences among each of the systems examined above, it is clear that, insofar as treatment of the food chain exposure route, there are fundamental similarities. Each of the systems uses essentially the same method to determine exposure through the food chain. That is, bioconcentration factors must be derived for each of the pollutants and food types involved, these factors are coupled with the amount of the food ingested, and the resulting product provides the exposure of an individual to a specific contaminant. While the uses which each of the models makes of these data, once they have been calculated, is somewhat different, the fundamental use of food chain as an exposure route is identical. Even for those models which consider only a portion of the food chain, the basic structure remains unchanged. The exposure through the food chain is expressed as the concentration of a contaminant in 41 ------- the food (a value typically estimated from the concentration of the contaminant in surrounding water bodies), coupled with the volume of food ingested. 42 ------- 4.0 OPTIONS FOR INCORPORATING FOOD CHAIN RISK FACTORS INTO THE HRS This chapter examines options for incorporating food chain risk factors into the HRS. Completed options for aquatic food chain factors are described. As mentioned in Section 2, limits in the state-of-knowledge of certain aspects of the terrestrial food chain make development of terrestrial food chain options inpratical at this time. However, several aspects of the terrestrial food chain that should be included in future options, should the state-of- knowledge improve, are discussed. 4.1 Structure of the Current HRS The current HRS (47 FR 31180, July 16, 1982) considers three migration pathways; ground water, surface water and air, in evalu- ating the risks to human health or the environment from releases of contaminants from uncontrolled waste sites. Within each migration path, the HRS considers three categories of factors: release, waste characteristics, and targets. The release characteristics reflect the probability that a release has occurred, is occurring, or will occur based on either monitoring data or similar evidence (observed release) or based on route characteristics and containment practices (potential to release). No "potential to release" option is incorporated in the current HRS air pathway. The waste characteristics category reflects the hazard posed by the contaminants that may be released from the site (either in the past, currently, or in the future). The targets category reflects the 43 ------- characteristics of the population and environmental resources that might be affected by releases from the site. A total of 32 rating factors are evaluated in these categories. The factor category values are multiplied and normalized to a scale of 0-100 to yield a route score for each pathway: • Ground water (S ) gw • Surface water (S ) • Air (Sfl) The total migration score (S ) is calculated using a root mean square algorithm: S - (1/1.73) x (S2 + S2 + S2)1/2 (1) m gw sw a 4.2 Aquatic Food Chain Methodology Due to deficiencies in the state-of-knowledge of intermedia transfer of many contaminants of concern to the HRS, no options for evaluating aquatic food chain risks associated with releases of contaminants to ground water or air could be developed. This section presents options for incorporating only aquatic food chain factors in the HRS surface water pathway. 4.2.1 Overview of the Proposed Methodology Figure 1 presents the structure of the proposed aquatic food chain methodology in the surface water pathway. The options envision changes to the waste characteristics and targets factor categories. The release category would remain unchanged. ------- Observed Release or Waste Characteristics Targets Route Characteristics X Containment Consider the same factors as those in the current surface water route of the HRS Consider BCF in addition to the factors currently in the surface water Consider population affected through consumption of contaminated fish in addition to current factors FIGURE 1 THE COMPONENTS OF THE PROPOSED AQUATIC FOOD CHAIN METHODOLOGY 45 ------- The waste characteristics factors in the surface water pathway account for important parameters affecting the concentration and toxicity of hazardous substances in water. The waste characteristics factors in the aquatic human food chain component account for important parameters affecting the concentration and toxicity of hazardous substances in aquatic organisms. No information was identified indicating that the toxicity of a particular dose of a substance is different if that substance is ingested from water as compared with its being ingested from such an aquatic organism. Thus, the assumption is made that the fish ingestion toxicity of a substance is the same as the water ingestion toxicity. The concentration of a contaminant in fish can be estimated using the bioconcentration factor and the water concentration, as discussed in Section 2. Therefore, the waste characteristics category in the aquatic human food chain component is the same as that of the surface water pathway with the addition of a factor reflecting bioconcentration potential. Options for evaluating waste characteristics in the aquatic human food chain component are described in Section 4.2.2. The population at risk from eating contaminated fish, shellfish and other seafood is the logical target in an aquatic human food chain component. This population is not necessarily the same as those who might be at risk from drinking contaminated water, although some 46 ------- overlap is likely. However, the risks to those people potentially exposed through the ingestion of both contaminated drinking water and contaminated food would be greater than those exposed to only one contamination source. The risk to those people doubly exposed should conservatively be estimated to be the sum of the risks from each exposure. Thus, separate target factors are discussed for drinking contaminated water and eating contaminated food for the aquatic human food chain options. Options for aquatic human food chain target factors are discussed in Section 4.2.3. 4.2.2 Waste Characteristics Factors Three options were developed as possible modifications to the waste characteristics category. 4.2.2.1 Option I. McBrien, Saari, and Goldfarb (1987) proposed an evaluation scheme for assessing the differential potential of substances found at uncontrolled waste sites to bioconcentrate in the aquatic food chain. Substances were evaluated on a 1 to 6 scale* based on measured or estimated bioconcentration factors. The maximum value of 6 indicates the substances which are most likely to accumulate in fish tissue and a value of 1 indicates little accumulation in fish tissue. The proposed scheme is illustrated as a decision tree in Figure 2 (McBrien, Saari, and Goldfarb, 1987). The data used to *The scale employed in McBrien, Saari, and Goldfarb, 1987 served solely to illustrate the evaluation method. 47 ------- CO Bioconcentration actor (BCF) Known n-Octanol Water Coefficient (Log Row) Available and < 6.00 Yesa BCF > 10,000 > 1,000-9,999 > 100-999 > 10-99 1-9 <1 Assigned Value (V) 6 5 4 3 2 1 ^ , Value = 0 Value = V + r Value = V . Yesb ^ Log Pow 5.5-6.0 4.5-5.49 3.2-4.49 2-3.19 0.8-1.99 <0.8 Assigned Value (V) 6 5 4 3 2 1 ^ t ^^Tboes it Biomagnify' Value = V + 1 Value = V . Yes ^ Water Solubility > 1500 mg/1 501-1 500 mg/1 25-500 mg/1 < 25 mg/1 Assigned Value (V) 1 4 5 6 ^^^ ^ Yes ^ I No ^ Value = v + 1 Value = V b Use EPA bioconcentration values provided in EPA Water Quality Criteria documents if available, otherwise use maximum value found in literature. c Either as reported from published literature; or calculated by Leo's Fragment Constant Method; or from Log P Data Base. " " -= 6, then final score is 6, regardless of biomagnification. If V FIGURE 2 DECISION TREE FOR RANKING SUBSTANCES FOR POTENTIAL TO BIOACCUMULATE IN THE FOOD CHAIN ------- evaluate substances Include: biomagnlfication data, biocon- centration data, logarithm n-octanol-water partition coefficient (log Pow) data, and water solubility data. The first question in the decision tree is to determine whether information on bioconcentration for a specific substance is available. If this data is available, the substance is ranked according to the scheme presented in Figure 2 (e.g., if the BCF is greater than 10,000, the substance is scored as 6). If information on BCF is not available, the substance is ranked on the n-octanol-water partition coefficient, if log Pow data are available and log Pow is less than 6.0. If data on the n-octanol-water partition coefficient are not available or if the log Pow is greater than 6.0, the substance is ranked on water solubility. At each stage in the decision tree, it is necessary to ask a second question after a "yes" response is obtained and an initial estimate of a score for a specific substance is generated. That is, it is necessary to determine if the substance being considered has been shown to biomagnify through the food chain. If the substance has been shown to biomagnify, and if the initial score obtained from using BCF, Pow, or S data Is less than 6, than 1 should be added to the initial score to elevate the rating value because of the biomagnification potential. In no instance should a substance be scored higher than 6. 49 ------- For those substances for which there Is no information on BCF, Pow, or S, a score of zero would be assigned. The rationale for assigning a "zero" in this instance is that in employing a screening mechanism, it is not desirable to impute knowledge concerning a substance when there is none. Also, it is possible to "tag" substances for which there are no data available for further investigation. This-identification would allow, at least, a laboratory analysis of the water solubility of the substance, and could lead to a preliminary score for that substance. Hazardous substances which biomagnify in the food chain are a great concern, since, at each level in the food chain, substance concentrations will increase significantly. Examples of substances which biomagnify significantly in the aquatic food chain include DDT, DDE, toxaphene (Niethammer et al., 1984); PCBs (Thomann and Connolly, 1984); mercury, kepone, mirex, benzo-A-pyrene, and naphthalene (Kay, 1984). These would be assigned a value of 6 using the approach of McBrien, Saari and Goldfarb (see Appendix A for further examples of scoring with this method). The bioaccumulation factor value can be added to the current toxicity and persistence factor values to form the surface water waste characteristics category value. This value could be expressed as: 3 (TP) + B (2) where TP equals the toxicity-persistence factor value in the surface water pathway and B equals the bioaccumulation potential factor 50 ------- value determined as indicated above. Note that the implied weighting of "3" is arbitrary and would need to be established by EPA, as well as the numerical values assigned in the bioaccumulation factor scale. Another method of incorporating bioaccumulation potential is to use a matrix like that shown in Table 8. Based on the surface water toxicity/persistence factor value and the bioaccumulation potential factor value, a factor value for toxicity/persistence/bioaccumulation is then read from the table. For example, a substance with a surface water toxicity/persistence value of 18 and a bioaccumulation poten- tial value of 4 would receive a toxicity/persistence/bioaccumulation factor value of 17. This value would then be added to the waste quantity factor value to yield the waste characteristics category value in the aquatic human food chain component. 4.2.2.2 Option II. Option II also employs the BCF of a hazardous substance to calculate the waste characteristics factor value in the aquatic human food chain component. The difference is that, in assigning the waste characteristics value in the aquatic food chain component, Option II considers the relative risks between ingesting drinking water and consuming fish from the same contaminated surface water body. Under this option, the risk for salt water fish is calculated as though the water was drinkable. The relative risk to an individual between the two ingestion routes—fish and drinking water—depends on the relative amount of contaminants ingested via the two ingestion routes. If the amounts 51 ------- TABLE 8 EVALUATING WASTE CHARACTERISTICS FOR AQUATIC FOOD CHAIN OPTION—OPTION I HRS SW Toxicity/ Persistence* Value 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 Bioaccumulation Potential** 1 0 3 5 7 9 11 13 2 0 4 6 8 10 12 14 3 0 5 7 9 11 13 15 4 0 6 8 10 12 14 16 5 0 7 9 11 13 15 17 6 0 8 10 12 14 16 18 *The toxicity/persistence value of the substance in in the surface water pathway. **As evaluated according to methodology presented in McBrien, Saari, and Goldfarb, 1987. 52 ------- of contaminant ingested are the same for the two ingestion routes, the risk is assumed to be the same, lacking information to the contrary. For example, ingesting 0.1 kg of fish with a contaminant concentration of 20 ppm is equivalent to drinking 2 liters of water with a 1 ppm contaminant concentration because the amounts of contaminant ingested are the same (i.e., 2 milligrams). Therefore, in assigning a waste characteristic factor value to the aquatic human food chain component, the factor value should be the same as that in the surface water methodology if the amount of contaminant ingested is the same. Several concepts must be explained before the Option II methodology can be discussed. The first is equivalent concentration (EC). Equivalent concentration here is defined as the concentration of a contaminant in drinking water that would result in the same amount of contaminant being ingested by an individual from eating fish. Thus, EC is calculated as: E£ - (cone, in fish) x (amount of fish ingested) (3) (amount of drinking water ingested) In the absence of actual measurements in fish, the contaminant concentration in fish may be estimated from contaminant concentration in water (C) and the BCF for the contaminant: concentration in fish = BCF x C (4) Substituting equation (4) into equation (3): — = BCF x amount of fish ingested (5) C amount of drinking water ingested 53 ------- The ratio EC/C reflects the multiplicative increase in the risk to an individual if the route of exposure is changed from drinking contaminated water to eating contaminated fish from the same surface water body. For purpose of simplicity, the ratio EC/C is referred to as the fish factor (FF). If FF is 1, it means the individual is exposed to the same risk from drinking water and eating fish. If FF is greater than 1, the individual is exposed to higher risk from eating fish. If FF is less than 1, the risk is lower for the individual from eating fish. As indicated in equation 5, the value of FF depends on the relative quantities of fish and water ingested and the bioconcen- tration factor for the contaminant in question. Assuming that 2 liters (2 kg) of drinking water are ingested by an individual each day (Barnthouse et al., 1985) and that 0.016 kg of fish is ingested by an individual each day (Thompson, 1984), FF is equal to 0.8 percent of the BCF. Equivalently, for the assumed ingestion rates (2 liters of water and 0.016 kg of fish), if BCF is greater than 125 for the ingested fish, the individual is exposed to a higher risk from ingesting fish than drinking water. If BCF is equal to 125, the risk is the same; and if BCF is less than 125 the risk is lower from ingesting fish. The Option II waste characteristics factor value in the aquatic food chain component is shown in Table 9. The hazardous waste 54 ------- TABLE 9 WASTE CHARACTERISTICS EVALUATION SHEET FOR THE AQUATIC FOOD CHAIN METHODOLOGY-OPTION II 1 1 Rating Factor 1 1 Waste Characteristics 1 1 Toxicity/Bioaccumulation 1 I Hazardous Waste** 1 Quantity 1 |Multi-| Assigned Value* Iplier I Value 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 012345678 1 1 Total Value Max Value 24 8 32 *Numerical values shown are for illustrative purposes only. **Same as the Hazardous Waste Quantity Factor Value in surface water route. 55 ------- quantity factor value is the same as that in the current HRS (47 FR 31180, July 16, 1982). A toxicity/bioaccumulation factor value, ranging from 0 to 24, is used in place of the toxicity/persistence factor value of the surface water route in the aquatic human food chain component. The toxicity/bioaccumulation factor value would be calculated from the toxicity factor value of the substance and the bioaccumu- lation factor value of the substance using Table 10. The toxicity factor value would be the same as that used in the drinking water component of the surface water pathway because it reflects ingestion toxicity. The bioaccumulation factor value may be evaluated differ- ently depending on the approach used to evaluate the persistence of the contaminant as described in Wang (1986). If the persistence factor value is based on the expected concentration change (C/C ) over the target distance limit (as proposed in Wang, 1986), the bioaccumulation factor value would be that indicated in Table 11. If, however, the persistence ranking is not explicitly related to the expected concentration change, then the bioaccumulation factor value may be obtained using the matrix shown in Table 12. For example, if a substance receives a persistence factor value of 3 in the surface water pathway, and its FF value is 50, it receives a bioaccumulation factor value of 4. 4.2.2.3 Option III. In the third option, the bioconcentration factor would not be used to determine a waste characteristics factor 56 ------- TABLE 10 RATING MATRIX FOR TOXICITY/BIOACCUMULATION FACTOR VALUE* FOR THE AQUATIC FOOD CHAIN METHODOLOGY—OPTION II Bioaccumulation*** Toxicity** 1 1 1 0 | 0 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 2 1 6 1 1 3 | 9 1 2 0 6 9 12 3 0 9 12 15 4 0 12 15 18 5 0 15 18 21 6 1 1 0 1 1 1 18 I 1 1 21 I 1 1 24 | 1 *Numerical values shown are for illustrative purposes. **Toxicity factor value of the substance in surface water pathway. ***Bioaccumulation factor value of the substance in aquatic food chain methodology. 57 ------- TABLE 11 METHOD FOR EVALUATING THE BIOCONCENTRATION FACTOR VALUE Criteria Rank* Factor Value** (C/C0 x FF) Greater than 10 Very High 1 to 10 High 0.5 to less than 1 Moderate 0.11 to less than 0.5 Low 0.001 to less than 0.1 Very Low Less than 0.001 None 5 4 3 2 1 0 *Note that for the four lower ranks (i.e., with factor value of 0, 1, 2, or 3), the numerical ranges (i.e., less than 0.001; 0.001 to 0.1; 0.1 to 0.5; and 0.5 to 1) for the criteria are identical to that in the proposed persistence ranking method. **Numerical values shown are for illustrative purposes. 58 ------- TABLE 12 BIOACCUMULATION RATING MATRIX FOR AQUATICS FOOD CHAIN METHODOLOGY—OPTION II Persistence** 3 2 1 0 0.1 1 0 0 0 Fish Factc 0.1 to 1 2 1 0 0 >r* 1 to 10 3 2 1 0 10 to 100 4 3 2 1 100 5 4 3 2 *Fish Factor, calculated as: bioconcentration factor x daily fish per capita consumption per capita daily drinking water consumption **Persistence factor value of the substance in surface water pathway. Note: Numerical values shown are for illustrative purposes. 59 ------- value. Rather, it would be used to select the contaminant(s) to be used in assigning a value to the toxicity/persistence value. Those chemicals with the highest combined toxicity/persistence/ bioconcentration values as indicated in Table 13, would be used to evaluate the toxicity/persistence factor, the value assigned to the toxicity/persistence factor, however, would be based on the toxicity and persistence of the contaminant(s) only. 4.2.3 Target Factor Evaluation Since the emphasis in the human food chain issue analysis is on human health impacts of food chain contamination, the number of people potentially affected (target population) by consumption of fish contaminated by a release from a site is a logical basis for a target category factor. The target population in the aquatic food chain component may be distinctly different from the local population, particularly if the contaminated fish are caught for nonlocal commercial distribution. The potentially wide distribution of contaminated fish in the commercial food distribution system (assuming no USDA intervention) makes the direct accounting of the people who consumed the contaminated fish infeasible. One feasible, surrogate approach to estimating the target population is to estimate the amount of fish harvested from the contaminated surface water body. The amount of fish harvested is commonly referred to as "catch data," "commercial landings," or "yield." Yield data for a specific 60 ------- TABLE 13 RATING MATRIX FOR TOXICITY/PERSISTENCE/BIOACCUMULATION VALUE FOR THE AQUATIC FOOD CHAIN METHODOLOGY—OPTION III Bioaccumulation Potential** HRS Toxiclty/ Persistence Value* 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 2 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 3 0 4 4 5 6 7 8 4 0 4 5 6 7 8 9 5 0 5 6 7 8 9 10 6 0 6 7 8 9 10 11 *The toxicity/persistence value of the substance in the surface water pathway. **As evaluated according to methodology present in McBrien, Saari, and Goldfarb, 1987. 61 ------- region affected by a release would, therefore, Indicate the maximum amount of contaminated fish which could be consumed. Commercial catch data are available and are reported annually by the National Marine Fisheries Services (e.g., Thompson, 1984). However, commercial landings are recorded by the port where the fishing boat enters and does not necessarily reflect the catch taken from the vicinity of the port. Thus, the geographic location associated with commercial catch data may bear only a tenuous relationship to the location of the contamination. Since the proposed methodologies would require catch data for a host of water bodies which are in the proximity of a hazardous waste site, available fish landings data may be of little use in evaluating the target population. However, other information can be employed. A surrogate for yield data could be the productivity of a given body of water, expressed as production of fish in pounds per acre and modified by percent of production harvested. Unfortunately, specific data on productivity are also very difficult to obtain. It is desirable to use a common measure of fish which could be used as an indicator of yield. One common method of reporting fish statistics is "standing crop" or the biomass of all fish present in a given area at one time. Measures of standing crop are strongly correlated with the annual fish productivity, (as defined above) (Whiteside and Carter, 1972). Measures of standing crop are relatively easy to obtain. Appendix B 62 ------- provides a table with estimates of fish standing crops for a wide variety of habitats. These data could be used as an indicator of yield for a given area. Yield data generally represent only a portion of the productivity. Henderson, Ryder and Kidhongania (1973) estimate that 30 to 50 percent of the production in lakes and reservoirs is harvestable. Carline (1975) reported that for wild brook trout, the harvest ranged from 13 to 69 percent of annual productivity. Snow and Beard (1972) reported 9 percent harvest for pike in a northern lake. These figures indicate that it is necessary to incorporate an explicit or implicit estimate of the percentage of the fishery exploited to determine the amount of fish taken from a body of water, given productivity. In order to use a surrogate such as standing crop for yield, the standing crop data would have to be adjusted to obtain productivity, and adjusted again to obtain yield. The following sections describe two options for evaluating the target factor in the aquatic food chain component of the surface water pathway. In both options the target factor value is based on two independent factor values: a resource factor value and a fishery use factor value. 4.2.3.1 Option I. In Option I, the resource factor value is based on the area affected and the standing crop of the affected area. The fishery factor value indicates the extent of the fishery that is exploited. 63 ------- Resource Factor. To determine the fish resources which would potentially be affected by a release from a site, two parameters must be estimated. One is the fish productivity, based upon standing crop in pounds per acre. The other is the acreage affected. Table 14 presents a method for evaluating the first of these two parameters. To determine the standing crop of fish in pounds per acre, one would contact the State Game and Fish Department, the State University's Fishery Unit or Department of Fishery Science to see if local data were available. If not, literature data could be used for the particular body of water in question. If site-specific data are not available, one could use the information contained in Appendix B (or similar data from the literature), choosing a site similar to the one being assessed. Given an estimate of fish production, fish production would then be evaluated using Table 14. To evaluate the area potentially affected by the release from the site, one could using site-specific data on the extent of contamination from the site. Such data might include sampling data from points downstream for water, sediments or biota. In using such data, care must be taken to ensure that the contamination is attri- butable to releases from the site in question. Such data might be available as part of the site inspection. Alternately, information on the areal extent of previous episodes of fish contamination might be obtained from a number of sources, including: State 64 ------- TABLE 14 PROPOSED FISH PRODUCTION FACTOR EVALUATION TABLE Standing Crop Fish Production (pounds per acre) Value* More than 500 3 51-500 2 50 or less 1 *Numerical values are for illustrative purposes only. 65 ------- Game and Fish Department, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, County Health Department, Food and Drug Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service, Office of Oceanography and Marine Science within NOAA, or local fisheries laboratories. If the extent of actual or past contamination were unknown, the potential area could be estimated as the surface area of the potentially contaminated reach as defined in the current surface water pathway (47 FR 31180, July 16, 1982). Alternately, the area could be calculated as the product of the surface water target distance limit and the average width of the surface water body in question over the reach defined by the surface water target distance limit. In estimating the areal extent of potential contamination, surface water bodies which cannot be connected to the site by an overland flow or surface water body flow pathway (e.g., a surface water connection or a known ground water connection to the site) should not be included. Given estimates of the affected acreage and the fish production factor value, the resource factor value can be evaluated using Table 15. It should be noted that this approach might not include the impact on migratory fish which spend only a portion of their lives in the contaminated zone. This potential underestimate probably is acceptable given the overall uncertainty in this screening procedure. Fishery Use Factor. The type of area potentially contaminated will significantly affect the number of people potentially exposed 66 ------- TABLE 15 PROPOSED FISHERY RESOURCE FACTOR EVALUATION TABLE Area Affected 10 acres or less 11-100 101-1,000 1,001-10,000 Fish 1 1 2 3 4 Production Value* 2 2 3 4 5 3 3 4 5 6 *Numerical values are for illustrative purposes only. 67 ------- to contaminated fish. Assuming no intervention by the USDA, fish harvested from a contaminated commercial fishery will affect significantly more people than fish caught by subsistence or sport fishermen. The fishery use factor is a scalar value which reflects the effect that the type of fishery has on the size of the population at risk. If an area potentially or actually contaminated were harvested commercially, it would be considered to be in the commercial category and would be assigned a fishery use factor value of 3. The commercial category could also include areas which were previously fished commercially (within the past 10 years), but which have been closed because of contamination of fish from a release. If the area were used locally as a source of food for subsistence or if the area were used for year-round recreational fishing, it could also receive a fishery use factor value of 3. However, if the area were used only seasonally, for example when a locally popular fish run is evident, then it would be assigned a fishery use factor value of 2. Finally, if the area were used infrequently, illegally, had no public access, or was used only on a "catch and release" basis, it would be assigned a fishery use value of 1. Generally, this low factor value reflects the belief that the exposed population would be small in size. In areas where there is a significant amount of illegal fishing (for reasons other than contamination), this 68 ------- approach might lead to an underevaluation of the size of the population potentially exposed. Combined Target Population Factor Value. The combined target population factor value would be evaluated using the resource factor value and the fishery use factor value as indicated in Table 16. Note that the numerical values shown are for illustrative purposes only. Effects of Consumption Patterns for Different Fisheries. In the options discussed above, no consideration was given to the difference in consumption patterns of catch from different fisheries. The size of the catch from different fisheries is assumed to reflect the number of people potentially affected by the contaminated fish. United States sources of fish are diverse. Therefore, the consumer of fish purchased commercially rarely consumes fish from only one area. On the other hand, subsistence and sport fishermen do consume a large portion of their catch and might be assumed to obtain a large portion of their overall fish consumption from their own fishing activities, and thus from a single fishery. The overall result of these differences is that although the number of people exposed to contamination from a commercial fishery is larger than that from a subsistence fishery, the overall contaminant dose received by an individual consuming commercially harvested fish may be lower. Similarly, subsistence fishermen and those depending on subsistence fishing in a contaminated fishery 69 ------- TABLE 16 EXAMPLE TARGET FACTOR EVALUATION TABLE FOR AQUATIC FOOD CHAIN METHODOLOGY Fishery Use* Resource Value 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 2 2 4 6 8 10 12 3 3 6 9 12 15 18 *1 = Infrequent, illegal, or "catch and release" fishing. 2 = Seasonal fishery. 3 = Subsistence or year-round recreational fishing or commercial use in past ten years for either fish or shellfish. Note: Numerical values are for illustrative purposes only. 70 ------- would be smaller in number but would receive a higher total dose, since a larger fraction of their total fish consumption would be contaminated. If the consumption pattern is to be included as a factor, the evaluation methods proposed above for the waste characteristics and target categories could be modified to reflect the smaller dose (therefore, lower toxicity) but wider distribution (therefore, more people affected) of the fish distributed through commercial fishing. A simple modification of the previously described options is to reduce the waste characteristics score value but to increase the target score according to the following: • Waste Characteristics Category: - No change for subsistence and recreational fisheries. - Lower the toxicity/bioaccumulation factor value by 3 for commercial fisheries. • Target Category: - No change for subsistence and recreational fisheries. - Increase the target factor value by 3 for commercial fisheries, but maintain the maximum target score of 18. 4.2.3.2 Option II. Under this option, a human food chain population value is assigned based on the production of the fishery under consideration (pounds per year) and the bioconcentration potential of the contaminants that might escape from the site. For a given fishery production level and bioconcentration potential, the value assigned to the human food chain production factor represents 71 ------- the equivalent number of people exposed through contaminated drinking water to the same exposure level as is indicated by the fishery production level. This relationship can be expressed mathematically as: P = S. x (D x P )/BCF (6) tr w w where: Sf = unit conversion factor approximately equal to 804.69 Pf = annual fish production (pounds per year) Dw = daily personal drinking water consumption (liters per day) Pw = the number of people drinking the water BCF = bioconcentration factor (as per McBrien, Saari, and Goldfarb, 1987) It is important to note that this relationship is independent of both the ambient concentration of the contamination and the daily personal fish consumption rate. As an example of the use of this equation, a food chain production level of approximately 1,000,000 pounds of fish per year would be expected to result in the same exposure in the population consuming the fish (assuming a BCF of 10), as would occur in a population of 6,214 people drinking 2 liters of water per day. This equation allows the human food chain population value to be employed in the same fashion as the drinking water population in determining a target factor category value for a site. Thus, a food chain production level of 1,000,000 pounds per year coupled with a BCF of 10, would be assigned the same factor value for food chain production as might be assigned to 6,214 people in a drinking water factor (e.g., the population served by drinking water factor in the 72 ------- current HRS). Based on the evaluations in the current HRS, a site affecting a fishery with a production of 1,000,000 pounds of fish per year with contaminants having a BCF of 10 might receive a human food chain production factor value of 24, given a distance of between 1 and 2 miles from the probable point of entry or from the point of known contamination (47 FR 31180, July 16, 1982). Given the uncertainties in the data for fishery production and the uncertainties in available estimates of bioconcentration factors, this option employs Table 17 rather than the exact equation described above in determining the human food chain population value. The values in this table were derived using the equation and the midpoints of the indicated ranges. In this option, the fishery production is the annual production (in pounds) of human food chain organisms (e.g., fish, shellfish) from within the fishery under evaluation. Fishery production is estimated using the following hierarchy of data and assigned a value using Table 18: • Actual data on yield from the surface water body or on the stocking rate for the surface water body. • Actual data on productivity of the surface water body. • Default values on standing crop from Appendix B.* *Standing crop (measure of productivity) needs to be converted to pounds of fish per year within fishery by multiplying by the acreage. Additionally, standing crop data also needs to be multiplied by 0.2 to convert the standing crop data to human food chain yield. 73 ------- TABLE 17 FOOD CHAIN POPULATION VALUE 09 LJ o o § 6 H § 4 8 , H 3 M 3 2 g 1 0 160 0 16 0 1.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1,600 16,000 160 1,600 16 160 1.6 16 0 1.6 0 0 2 3 HUMAN 160,000 1 16,000 1,600 160 16 1.6 4 FOOD CHAIN .6 X 106 1.6 x 107 160,000 1.6 x 106 16,000 160,000 1,600 16,000 160 1,600 16 160 5 6 PRODUCTION VALUE 2.0 x 107 1.6 X 107 1.6 X 106 160,000 16,000 1,600 7 2.0 X 107 2.0 x 107 1.6 x 107 1.6 x 106 160,000 16,000 8 *A value of 2.0 x 107 or greater will result in the maximum value for the human exposure factor for all dilution weighting factors. ------- TABLE 18 FOOD PRODUCTION VALUE TABLE Human Food Chain Production Assigned (Pounds per Year) Value 0 0 Greater than 0 to 10 1 Greater than 10 to 100 2 Greater than 100 to 1,000 3 Greater than 1,000 to 10,000 4 Greater than 10,000 to 100,000 5 Greater than 100,000 to 1,000,000 6 Greater than 106 to 107 7 Greater than 107 8 75 ------- This value is then combined with the bioconcentration potential value (as described in McBrien, Saari, and Goldfarb, 1987) to yield a human food chain population value, as indicated in Table 18. 4.3 Terrestrial Food Chain Methodology As indicated in Section 2.0, options for incorporating factors into the HRS reflecting terrestrial food chain risks could not be developed. This is primarily due to the lack of an empirical data base and limitations in knowledge of bioaccumulation processes and the resulting impracticality of developing bioaccumulation factors for use in a terrestrial food chain option. Additional difficulties of lesser importance were also encountered. Similar information gaps exists in knowledge about the aquatic food chain. However, these gaps in information are of considerably less importance for the purposes of the HRS since, for the most part, the bioconcentration factor can be employed to estimate fish contamination levels adequately. No such single factor is known that can be similarly employed for the terrestrial food chain. Despite the failure to develop options, several factors and categories of factors were identified that should be incorporated into any future options that might be developed. This section presents a discussion of these factors, and, where available, data sources that could be used to evaluate these factors in the context of the HRS. 76 ------- 4.3.1 Factors for Inclusion in Terrestrial Food Chain Options Based on an examination of terrestrial food chain risk assessment methodologies and the phenomenology of terrestrial food chain bioaccumulation, the following six factors and factor categories were identified as important in assessing terrestrial food chain risks: • Bioaccumulation factors • Soil characteristics • Agricultural characteristics • Distance • Food consumption patterns • Hunting purposes and practices Bioaccumulation Factors. Bioaccumulation factors reflect the migration of contaminants into and through the terrestrial food chain. They or their equivalent are an essential part of any system designed to reflect the risks posed by terrestrial food chain contamination. Bioaccumulation factors reflect the transfer of contaminants between components of the human food chain, including: • From the atmosphere to plant tissues. • From soil to plant tissue. • Among plant tissues. • From soil to animals (via both direct ingestion and through plant ingestion). • Within animals (e.g., from forage to milk). 77 ------- Current approaches to terrestrial food chain modeling (e.g., Dixon and Holton, 1984; Schaeffer, 1985; the aquatic food chain methodology discussed in Section 4.0; McBrien, Saari, and Goldfarb, 1987), employ either measured bioaccumulation factors for a limited number of contaminants or employ estimation approaches based on structure/ activity relationships (SARs). As indicated in the previous discussion, measured bioaccumulation factors for the terrestrial food chain are available for only a few contaminants. Charles Garten and John Trabalka of Oak Ridge National Laboratory conducted an extensive analyses of the potential for employing SARs in estimating bioaccumulation factors for use in terrestrial food chain modeling (Trabalka and Garten, 1982 and Garten and Trabalka, 1983). As a result of their examination of data originally presented by Kenaga (1980) and from analysis of additional data, they concluded that neither water solubility nor the octanol-water partition coefficient (the two parameters most commonly used in SARs for bioaccumulation) could be used to accurately predict the bioaccumulation of contaminants in the terrestrial food chain. These authors also investigated the possibility of using bioaccumulation factors for fish to estimate terrestrial vertebrate bioaccumulation factors. They concluded that this also is not reasonable. Table 19 presents the results of their regression analysis. In regard to the results listed on Table 19, the question can be raised as to whether the regression equation relating the natural 78 ------- TABLE 19 CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS (R2) FROM LOGARITHMIC REGRESSION ANALYSES PERFORMED BY GARTEN AND TRABALKA Independent Variable Dependent Variable SOL ROW FW ME Ruminant Fat BF 54 34 39 43 Nonruminant Fat BF 49 35 9 39 Bird Fat BF 48 54 20 35 Overall BF 60 37 SOL: Water Solubility KOW: Octanol-Water Partition Coefficient FW: Fish under flowing water conditions ME: Fish under model ecosystems conditions BF: Bioaccumulation Factor Source: Adapted from Trabalka and Garten, 1982 and Garten and Trabalka, 1983 79 ------- logarithm of the water solubility of a contaminant to bioaccumu- lation factor for the contaminant is sufficiently accurate for the purposes of the HRS. According to Trabalka and Garten (1982), variations in the common logarithm of water solubility account for 60 percent of the variations in the common logarithm of the bioaccumulation factor through the following equation: log BF = 0.596 - 0.694 log (water solubility) (7) Garten and Trabalka caution that the equations they developed do not reflect very well the bioaccumulation of contaminants by other than lipid partitioning (e.g., covalent bonding). They note that their equations would indicate that methyl mercury has a relatively low bioaccumulation factor when in fact it is highly bioaccumulative. The equations are prone to sometimes sizeable errors. Further, the use of SARs to reflect bioaccumulation in plants and between animal tissues has not been investigated in detail. As discussed previously, little information is available on the partitioning of contaminant concentrations between fat and nonfat tissues and among nontissue components of animals. Further, few data are available on plant bioaccumulation factors. Dixon and Holton (1984) employ the octanol-water partition coefficient to estimate all of the bioaccumulation factors (ingestion-to-beef, ingestion-to-milk, and soil-to-vegetable plant) used in the FOODCHAIN model (Dixon and Holton, 1984) despite the results of Garten and Trabalka. Dixon and Holton also assume that the 80 ------- soil-to-reproductive plant factor is one-tenth of the soil-to- vegetable plant factor. The validity of this approach is not well established, given the results of Garten and Trabalka. Schaeffer (1985) also compiled information on bioaccumulation factors for PCB, BaP, TCDD, and TCE for use in food chain modeling. His information is summarized in Tables 1 and 20. His estimates indicate the great degree of uncertainty associated with bioaccumulation factors for even these four relatively extensively studied contaminants. Values ranged as much as six orders of magnitude. Overall, the authors believe that an insufficient amount is currently known about bioaccumulation in the terrestrial food chain to support the development of bioaccumulation factors that are sufficiently accurate for a sufficient number of chemicals to support their use in the HRS. Soil Characteristics. As discussed in Section 2, the ability of soils to bind contaminants is an important factor in reducing migration through the terrestrial food chain. This indicates that the incorporation of a factor that reflects the ability of soils in and around the uncontrolled waste site under evaluation to bind contaminants into an HRS terrestrial food chain factor would be needed. Based on the review of the literature, such a factor should be based on the organic matter and clay content of the soil; the first to reflect availability of lipophilic compounds, the second to 81 ------- TABLE 20 TRANSFER FACTORS FOR SELECTED ORGANIC COMPOUNDS Forage to Meat Transfer Factors* Compound Best Estimate Minimum Maximum PCB 0.005 1 x 10~4 0.1 TCDD 0.0001 0.1 (sic) 0.1 BaP 1 x 10~5 1 x 10~7 0.001 TCE 1 x 10~6 1 x 10~8 1 x 10~6 Forage to Milk Transfer Factors** Compound Best Estimate Minimum Maximum PCB TCDD BaP TCE 0.01 0.01 0.0001 1 x 10"6 -4 1 x 10 * 1 x 10~5 -6 1 x 10 ° 1 x 10~6 0.1 1.0 0.01 1 x 10~6 *Forage to meat transfer factor is defined as the ratio of the concentration of the contaminant in animal meat to the product of the concentration in the animal feed (or forage) and the daily feed rate. **Forage to milk transfer factor is defined as the ratio of the concentration of the contaminant in animal milk to the product of the concentration in the animal feed (or forage) and the daily feed rate. Source: Schaeffer, 1985. 82 ------- reflect availability of nonlipophilic compounds. A description of such a factor is presented in Sayala (1986), which could be adapted for use as part of a terrestrial food chain factor. Further, as indicated in Breck and Baes (1985), factors reflecting the potential for contaminants to persist or degrade in the soil are also needed to adequately assess terrestrial food chain risks. These factors should reflect both soil-specific and contaminant-specific characteristics relating to the potential for the contaminants to transform or degrade as a result of processes such as hydrolysis, photolysis, and biodegradation. Suitable approaches for reflecting these processes in the HRS cannot be developed based on the available information on soil kinetics. Agricultural Characteristics. Several agricultural characteristics of the area surrounding the site are important in determining the human terrestrial food chain risk posed by the site: • Purpose of agriculture • Types of agriculture • Agricultural productivity • Agricultural acreage • Agricultural practices The first is the purpose of the agriculture. It is important to distinguish between subsistence and commercial agriculture since the risks posed as a result of each are different. Contamination of subsistence agricultural products probably would result in relatively 83 ------- high exposures to contaminants for relatively few people, all other factors being equal. Total dietary contaminant levels would most likely be relatively high since the contaminated food would probably constitute a relatively large fraction of the diet of the exposed individuals. However, by its definition, subsistence agriculture is designed to feed a relatively small number of people. Conversely, commercial agricultural contamination would probably expose a relatively large number of people to possibly low average exposure concentrations (although high individual exposures would be possible). For contaminant/effect combinations characterized by linear, no-threshold dose response functions arising from chronic exposures, these distinctions are probably unimportant. However, for contaminant/effect combinations arising from nonchronic exposures, these distinctions are important. It should be possible to determine the purposes of the agriculture being conducted around a site during a CERCLA site inspection. Thus, the evaluation of subsistence versus commercial agricultural factors should be feasible. This distinction also indicates that resident farmers, ranchers, and their families should be accorded heavier weight in evaluating population-based factors since a higher fraction of their diet would be their own agricultural products and hence they may be exposed to a higher overall dose than consumers outside the local marketplace. 84 ------- The type of agriculture is also important. The risk posed by a site via terrestrial food chain contamination depends on whether the affected biomass is animal or plant. The risk further depends on whether the animals are used for meat or milk production and also depends on the type of animal (e.g., cattle, sheep, pigs, chickens) or plant (e.g., corn, wheat, soybeans). These dependencies arise jointly from differences in bioaccumulation characteristics among these types of agriculture as well as differences in human dietary patterns. Again, development of such information would be possible as part of a CERCLA site inspection. Sources for this type of data include direct inspection, the local agricultural extension service agents, the Soil Conservation Service, and general literature sources such as Shor et al. (1982). The total quantity of food product potentially (or actually) contaminated is an important factor in determining risk from food contamination. The total quantity of food product is an indicator of both the size of the potentially exposed population and the value of the resource at risk. Since production is the product of productivity and acreage, agricultural productivity and acreage are important factors that should be included. This information should also be available during a site inspection, either from direct inspection or by contacting the local agricultural extension service agent or the Soil Conservation Service. Alternately a general literature source such as Shor et al. (1982) could be employed. 85 ------- As indicated by Breck and Baes (1985), agricultural management practices are very important in evaluating the risk of terrestrial food chain contamination. Of particular importance are practices that would indicate the degree of contaminated soil and water ingestion by food and milk animals as well as the extent of irrigation by contaminated or potentially contaminated water. For example, it would be important to evaluate the extent to which animals are allowed to graze freely over potentially contaminated fields and the extent to which they are fed uncontaminated feed. Information on animal feeding practices might be difficult to obtain. However, information should be readily available on the extent of irrigation water use. In total, the risk posed by a site will depend in part on the activities of the farmers and ranchers whose production would be potentially affected. Each of the factors discussed is potentially important, although which are most important is unknown. Distance. As is the case in any assessment of potential exposure, the distance from the source of contamination to the point of exposure is an important consideration. Distance factors are included in all of the HRS target categories to account for, among other things, a decline in exposure concentrations among people living further from the sources of contamination. Similar considerations indicate that the distance from the source of contamination to the potentially affected agriculture is an 86 ------- important consideration that should be reflected in any HRS terrestrial food chain factor. The evaluation of distance has been found to be relatively straightforward in the existing applications and there is no reason to believe that distance would be difficult to evaluate as part of a food chain factor. Actual methods for incorporating distance into such factors would depend on characteristics of the factors such as the migration pathway associated with the factor. A general question would have^ to be addressed regardless; at what distance from the site would the potential for contamination be considered acceptable (i.e., what is the target distance limit). No information is readily available in the literature that would indicate such limits. Food Consumption Patterns. The table discussed in Section 2.2.5 (Table 7) illustrates the average per person consumption of food commodities in the United States. It is possible that there is significant regional variation in these patterns, although such data could not be identified during this investigation. If significant variations exist, then such information might be incorporated into a HRS terrestrial food chain factor. The need for this would depend on the extent of the variation and the geographic extent of the distribution of the potentially contaminated food. Hunting Purposes and Practices. The type and extent of hunting in the area around a site is an important determinant of the risk from contamination of the non-commercial-food portion of the human 87 ------- terrestrial food chain. There are two general forms of hunting: subsistence and sport. Subsistence hunters would generally be at increased risk as compared with sport hunters for reasons similar to those discussed previously for subsistence farmers. Generally, sport hunters would be at risk only in potentially acute exposure situations. It is uncertain whether it is important to include such considerations in an HRS food chain factor. 4.3.2 Conclusions and Recommendations Several factors have been discussed that could be employed in a human terrestrial food chain factor in the HRS. Lack of information, however, regarding the processes of bioaccumulation and soil kinetics as they affect the terrestrial food chain, preclude the development of HRS options in this area at this time. Given that contamination of the terrestrial food chain by waste site contaminants is possible, the approach of screening potential sites for public health advisory investigations should be investigated as one way to provide for these sites under the National Contingency Plan. 4.4 Additional Issues Concerning Human Food Chain Risks and the HRS In the course of investigating options for incorporating human food chain factors in the HRS, two issues arose regarding the implementation of the options. The first of these two issues is the relative importance of food chain contamination as compared with ingestion of contaminated water and inhalation of contaminated air. The resolution of this issue is necessary before the second issue of 88 ------- how to incorporate food chain factors into the HRS can be resolved. Specifically, if food chain contamination is of equal concern with the direct ingestion of contaminated water, then an argument can be made, for example, for including food chain as a fourth "migration pathway" in the HRS. This section discusses these issues and, where possible, presents possible resolutions. As stated above, the first issue is the relative importance of food chain contamination as compared with other routes of human exposure to hazardous substances released from uncontrolled waste sites. The limited discussion of food contamination incidents presented in Section 1 indicates that food chain contamination may be of concern for some sites. It is possible that food chain contamination may exceed other contamination routes in importance in some locations, e.g., where contaminated surface water bodies are used for commercial and sport fishing but not for drinking. In addition, there are two subsidiary issues concerning the relative importance of exposure routes: subsistence and sport versus commercial food production routes and crop versus livestock consumption routes. As indicated in the previous chapters, these issues of the relative importance of various exposure routes cannot be resolved at this time. As a result, the question of whether a separate food chain pathway should be developed in the HRS cannot be completely 89 ------- resolved at this time. However, a partial resolution of this issue is possible. As discussed previously, it is not possible at this time to develop methodologies addressing food chain contamination except in the case of aquatic food chain contamination arising from surface water migration of contaminants. Tentatively, it seems improbable that risks from aquatic food chain contamination would routinely be of the same degree as risks about other exposure routes such as drinking water ingestion. Thus, the methodologies presented above address incorporation of aquatic food chain factors within the HRS surface water pathway. This decision on the placement of the aquatic food chain factors raises the issue of the relative degree of concern about contaminated surface water ingestion and surface water/aquatic food chain contamination. This issue raises the practical problem of how to combine aquatic food chain contamination risk evaluations with surface water ingestion risk evaluations within the framework of the HRS. Several integration methods were examined, as discussed below. No decision was made as to which is preferable. The proposed surface water aquatic food chain methodologies envision a branching with the surface water pathway. The surface water ingestion route score would be the product of a release category value, an ingestion-based waste characteristics category value and an ingestion-based targets category value. The surface 90 ------- water aquatic food chain route score would be the product of the same release category value, aquatic food chain-based waste characteristics category value and an aquatic food chain-based targets category value. For purposes of discussion, let the nonnormalized ingestion-based route score be RS , and the nonnormalized aquatic food chain-based route score be RS aq Similarly, let the normalized ingestion-based route score be S. (i.e., 100 x RS./RS. ), and the normalized aquatic food 1 1 j D13.X chain-based route score be S . In these terms, the challenge is to express the combined surface water pathway score (S ) in terms sw of S. and S . i aq The simplest approach is to combine the nonnormalized scores by adding them (e.g., nonnormalized combined route score equals RS + RS ). A combined normalized route score (S ) could then be aq sw calculated as that sum divided by the sum of the maximum possible scores. This approach is basically the same as is used in determining the combined targets category score in the current surface water pathway. It is important to note, however, that this approach would require the determination of the relative importance of the two routes so that appropriate factor weighting values could be developed. Several approaches employing the normalized scores can be developed. The simplest is to employ the maximum of the two as the 91 ------- combined value. A second alternative is embodied in the following equations: S = minimum (K, 100) (8) sw K = (S? + S2 )1/2 (9) i aq All of the above approaches share two important characteristics. First, the combined score is always at least the larger of the two subsidiary scores. This reflects the principle that the combined risk should be at least as large as the individual risks. The second is that the maximum possible nonnormalized score does not exceed 100. A third alternative is to employ the root mean square algorithm used to combine pathway scores in the current HRS, i.e.: o o 1/0 Ssw = [(Si + Saq)/2] (10) In this approach, the combined score may be less than the largest of the individual scores. However, the maximum possible score is less than 100. As stated earlier, no decision was made as to the desirability of any of these approaches. 92 ------- 5.0 CONCLUSIONS Several conclusions can be drawn from the preceding discussions. First, there is clearly a potential for human food chain contamination arising from CERCLA releases of hazardous substances into the environment. The relative importance of the risks to human health and of resource loss associated with human food chain contamination in comparison with risks from sources such as ingestion of contaminated ground water is problematic. Second, the state-of-knowledge of the aquatic food chain is sufficient to support the development of aquatic food chain options for the surface water pathway in the HRS. Options for reflecting aquatic food chain risks in the surface water pathway are presented, although some issues associated with implementing the options remain unresolved. Third, development of options for the ground water and air pathways cannot be undertaken at this time due to limitations in empirical data and knowledge of important intermedia transfer processes (e.g., contaminant specific deposition rates). 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Report No. 272), Fisheries Research Board of Canada, St. Andrews, New Brunswick, Canada. 114 ------- APPENDIX A CLASSIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES Appendix A contains an alphabetical listing of approximately 300 hazardous substances found on NPL sites together with the bioaccumulation values that would be assigned to them using the methods discussed in Section 2.2.2. 115 ------- APPENDIX A CLASSIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES FOR POTENTIAL BIOACCUMULATION Name of Substance Reason for Rating Value 1,1 Dichloroethylene (vinylidene chloride) 1,1,2,2 Tetrachloroethane 1,1,2,2 Tetrachloroethene 1,2 Dichloroethylene (trans; cis) 1,2 Dichloropropane 1,2 Diethylthydrazine 1,2,3-Trichloropropane 1,2,4 Trichlorobenzene 1,2,4,5 Tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,7,8-Dibenzopyrene 1,2-Dibromo-3-chloropropane (Dibromochloropropane) (DBCP) 1,2-Diphenylhydrasine 1,2-Trans-dichloroethylene 1,3 Dichloropropene 1,3 Dinitrobeneze 1,3,5-Trinitrobenzene 1,3-Butadiene BCF 6 in fish BCF 42 fish BCF 10-100 tissue BCF 2 in fish Log Pow 2.00 Not reported in biota Not reported in biota BCF 2,800 fish BCF up to 4,500 Solubility .11 Log Pow 2.29 BCF 25 in fish Log Pow 1.54 BCF 2 in fish Log Pow 1.62 Not reported in biota Log Pow 1.99 3 3 2 3 1 1 5 5 6 3 3 2 2 2 1 2 116 ------- APPENDIX A (Continued) Name of Substance Reason for Rating Value 1,3-Dichlorobenzidine 1,4 Dioxane 1-Butanol 1-Napthol 1-Napthylamine 2,3 Dinitrotoluene 2,4 Dinitrophenol 2,4, D 2,4, DimethyIphenol 2,4,5 T 2,4-Diaminotoluene 2,4-Dichlorophenol 2,4-Dinitrotoluene (DNT) 2,6-Dinitrotoluene (DNT) 2-Ac etylaminofluorene 2-Chlorophenol 2-Napthylamine 3,3 Dichlorobenzene 4,6 Dinitro-o-cresol 4-Aminobiphenyl BCF 312 in fish Log Pow -0.27-0.42 Log Pow 0.32-0.89 Log Pow 2.84 Log Pow 2.07 BCF 4 in fish Log Pow 1.53 BCF 20 in fish BCF 150 in fish BCF 25-43 in fish Not reported in biota BCF 41 in fish Not reported in biota Not reported in biota Log Pow 3.7 BCF 214 in fish Log Pow 2.07 BCF 312 in fish Log Pow 2.70 Log Pow 2.78 4 1 1 3 3 2 2 3 4 3 1 3 1 1 4 4 3 4 3 3 117 ------- APPENDIX A (Continued) Name of Substance Reason for Rating Value 4-Methyl-2,6 di-tert-butyl phenol (BHT) 4-Nitrophenol 7,12 Dimethylbenz(a) anthracene Abietic acid Acenaphthene Acenapthylene Acetaldehyde Acetate Acetic acid Acetone Acetophenone Acrolein Acrylonitrile Adipic acid Alcohol Aldrin Alkyl benzenes Allyl alcohol Aluminum and compounds Solubility 0.4 6 BCF 57 3 Solubility 5.6 6 Not reported in biota 1 BCF 242 in fish 4 BCF 387 in fish 4 Not reported in biota 1 Not reported in biota 1 No data found 1 Log Pow -0.24 1 Not reported in biota 1 BCF 344 in fish 4 BCF 48 in fish 3 Log Pow 0.08 1 No data found 1 BCF 4,600-6,300 5 Not reported in biota 1 Log Pow 0.17 1 BCF up to 10,000, bio- 6 magnifies in marine ecoystem 118 ------- APPENDIX A (Continued) Name of Substance Reason for Rating Value Amitrole Ammonium picrate Aniline Anthracene (Paranaphthalene) Antimony Arochlor (polychlorinated biphenyls, PCB) Arsenic and compounds Arsenic trisulfide Asbestos Atrazine Aziridine BHT (4 methyl-2,6 di-tert-butyl phenol) Barium Benz (c) acridine Benz(a) anthracene Benzene Benzene carbonyl chloride Benzidine Benzo (DEF) phenanthrene (Pyrene) Not reported in biota Not reported in biota BCF 6 in fish BCF 917 in fish BCF 1 (EPA) Solubility 0.057, biomagnifies BCF 350 oyster (EPA) Not reported in biota Found only in Lung BCF 2-8 Not reported in biota Solubility .4 BCF 4 Log Pow 4.56 Log Pow 5.60 BCF 10 in fish Not reported in biota BCF 87.5 in fish BCF up to 10,000 1 1 2 4 2 6 4 1 1 2 1 6 2 5 6 3 1 3 6 119 ------- APPENDIX A (Continued) Name of Substance Reason for Rating Value Benzo (J,K) fluorene (Fluoranthene) Benzo(b) fluoranthene Benzo(ghi) perylene Benzo-a-pyrene (BAP) Benz ophenanthrene Benzothiophene Benzyl chloride Beryllium Biphenyl Bis (2-chloroethoxy) methane Bis (2-chloroethyl) ether Bis(2-chloroisopropyl) ether Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Bis(chloromethyl) ether Borax Boron Bromine Bromobenzene Bromochlorobenzene Bromochloromethane BCF up to 10,000 Solubility .004 Solubility .0007 BCF 930, Biomagnifies in aquatic ecosystem Not reported in biota Not reported in biota Log Pow 2.63 BCF 19 BCF 340-437 Not reported in biota BCF 11 in fish Log Pow 2.10 Log Pow 5.11 Not reported in biota Not reported in biota BCF 0.22 in fish BCF 420 in fish Log Pow 2.99 Not reported in biota Not reported in biota 6 6 5 1 1 3 3 4 1 3 3 5 1 1 1 4 3 1 1 120 ------- APPENDIX A (Continued) Name of Substance Reason for Rating Value Bromodichloroethylene Bromodichloromethane Bromoform (tribromomethane) Bromomethane Bromoxylene Butadiene Butane Butyl cellosolve Butylbenzyl phthalate Cacodylic acid Cadmium and compounds Calcium chromate Captan Carbofuran Carbon Carbon disulfide Carbon tetrachloride (tetrachloromethane) Cerium Chlordane Chloride Not reported in biota 1 Not reported in biota 1 Log Pow 2.39 3 Not reported in biota 1 Not reported in biota 1 Not reported in biota 1 Not reported in biota 1 Not reported in biota 1 BCF 279-772 in fish 4 Not reported in biota 1 BCF 81, Biomagnifies 4 Not reported in biota 1 BCF 300 4 Log Pow 4.02 4 BCF 1,800-4,600 in fish 5 Log Pow 2.00 3 BCF 30 3 BCF 1-10 in fish 2 BCF 14,000 6 No data found 1 121 ------- APPENDIX A (Continued) Name of Substance Reason for Rating Value Chlorobenzene Chlorobenzilate Chlorodibromomethane Chlorodifluoromethane Chloroform Chloromethane Chloromethyl methyl ether Chromium and compounds Chrysene Cis-1,2 dichloroethene Cobalt Copper and compounds Creosote (Coal tar) Cresol Cumene Cyclohexane Cyclophosphanide DDD (IDE) DDE p,p' DDE BCF 650 in fish 4 Log Pow 4.51 5 Log Pow 2.09 3 Not reported in biota 1 BCF 6 in fish 2 Log Pow 0.91 2 Not reported in biota 1 BCF 134-320 in bivalves 4 Log Pow 5.61 6 Log Pow 1.54 2 Insoluble 6 BCF in shellfish 5 9,960 Log Pow 3.98 4 Log Pow 1.97 2 No data found 1 Log Pow 3.44 4 No data found 1 BCF 80,000, Biomagnifies 6 BCF 51,000, Biomagnifies 6 122 ------- APPENDIX A (Continued) Name of Substance Reason for Rating Value DDT p,p' DDT Di-n-butylphthalate Di-n-octyl phthalate Diallate Dibenzo(a,h) anthracene Dibromochloromethane Dibutyl phthalate Dichlorobenzene Dichlorobiphenyl Di chlorodi fluo romethane Dichloroethane 1,2 or 1,1 Dichloroethylene Dichloromethane Dicyclopentadiene Dieldrin Diethyl arsine Diethyl phthalate Diethylnitrosamine Diethylstilbestrol (DBS) Dihydrosafrole BCF 54,000, Biomagnifies 6 BCF 14 in fish 3 BCF up to 9,400 5 Not reported in biota 1 Solubility .0005 6 Not reported in biota 1 Log Pow 5.60 6 BCF 60-89 in fish 3 Log Pow 4.65-6.00 6 Not reported in biota 1 BCF 2 in fish 2 Not reported in biota 1 BCF 5 in fish 2 Not reported in biota 1 BCF 1,557-4,760 in fish 5 Log Pow 2.97 3 BCF 117 in fish 4 Not reported in biota 1 Log Pow 5.46 5 Log Pow 2.56 3 123 ------- APPENDIX A (Continued) Name of Substance Reason for Rating Value Dimethyl formamide Dimethyl phthalate Dimethyl sulfate Dimethylaminobenzene Dimethylaniline Dimethylcarbamoyl chloride DimethyIhydrazine DimethyInitrosamine Dinitrotoluene (DNT) Dioxin (2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo p-dioxin) Dipropylnitrosanine Disulfoton Endosulfon Endrin Epichlorohydrin Ethanol Ethion and oxygen analog Ethyl methanesulfonate Ethyl acetate Ethyl chloride Log Pow -1.01 BCF 57 in fish Not reported in biota Log Pow 3.72 Not reported in biota Not reported in biota Not reported in biota Not reported in biota Not reported in biota BCF up to 10,000 Log Pow 1.50 Log Pow 2.90 Log Pow 3.55 BCF 1324 Not reported in biota Log Pow -0.30 Log Pow 4.72 Not reported in biota Log Pow 0.66-0.73 Log Pow 1.54 1 3 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 6 2 3 4 5 1 1 5 1 1 2 124 ------- APPENDIX A (Continued) Name of Substance Reason for Rating Value Ethyl dibromide Ethyl ether Ethylbenzene Ethylene oxide Ethylene glycol Ethylenethiourea Fluoranthene Fluorene Formaldehyde Furfural HCB (Hexachlorobenzene) (Perchlorobenzene) Heptachlor Heptachlor epoxide Hexachlorobenz ene (Perchlorobenzene)(HCB) Hexachlorobutadiene Hexachlorocyclohexane (except lindane) Hexachlorocyclopentadiene Hexachloroethane Hexachlorophene Log Pow 1.76 2 Log Pow 0.83 2 BCF 95 3 Not reported in biota 1 Log Pow -1.93 1 Not reported in biota 1 BCF 1,150 5 BCF 1,300 5 Log Pow 0.35 1 Log 0.23-0.80 1 BCF 8,690, Biomagnifies 6 BCF up to 15,700 6 BCF up to 14,400 6 BCF 8,690, Biomagnifies 6 BCF 3 in fish 2 BCF 352 in fish 4 BCF 11 (EPA) 3 BCF 87 in fish 3 Solubility .004 6 125 ------- APPENDIX A (Continued) Name of Substance Reason for Rating Value Hexane Hydrazine Hypochlorlc acid Indeno (1,2,3-cd) pyrene Indomethane Iron and Iron compounds Isopropopanol (isopropyl alcohol) Isosafrole Kepone Lasiocarpine Lead and compounds Lindane Malathion (Carbethoxy malathion) Manganese Mercury and compounds Methane Methoxychlor Methyl acetate Methyl parathion Methyl chloride Log Pow 3.94 4 Log Pow -2.07 1 Log Pow -0.25 1 Solubility .00053 6 Log Pow 1.69 2 BCF in fish 1,000-5,000 5 Log 0.05 1 Log Pow 2.66 3 Solubility .0099, 6 Biomagnifies in aquatic ecosystem Not reported in biota 1 BCF 49, Biomagnification 4 potential BCF 352 (EPA) 4 Log Pow 2.89 3 BCF 400-550 in fish 4 BCF 3750, Biomagnifies 6 Not reported in biota 1 BCF up to 8,300 5 Log Pow 0.18 1 BCF 45 in fish 3 No data found 1 126 ------- APPENDIX A (Continued) Name of Substance Reason for Rating Value Methyl ethyl ketone Methyl isobutyl ketone Methyl mercury Methyl methacrylate Methylcyclohexane Methylene chloride (dichloromethane) Methylnaphthalene Methylnitrosourea Methylvinylnitrosamine Mirex Molybdenum and compounds Mustard Gas N-Nitro sodiphenylamine N-Nitrosopiperidine N-Nitrosopyrrolidine N-butyl acetate N-pentane Naphtha Naphthalene Log Pow 0.29-0.50 1 Not reported in biota 1 Solubility 25, Biomagnifies 6 Not reported in biota 1 Not reported in biota 1 Log Pow 1.25 2 Log Pow 4.22 4 Not reported in biota 1 Not reported in biota 1 Solubility 25, Biomagnifies 6 in aquatic ecosystem BCF 20-100 marine Log Pow 1.37 BCF 217 in fish 3 2 4 Not reported in biota 1 Not reported in biota 1 Not reported in biota 1 Not reported in biota 1 Not reported in biota 1 Log Pow 3.01, Biomagnifies 4 in aquatic ecosystem 127 ------- APPENDIX A (Continued) Name of Substance Reason for Rating Value Nickel Nitroaniline Nitrocellulose Octane Olefinic hydrocarbons 0-tolidine P-chloro-M-cresol PCBs (Polychlorinated biphenyls) PCP (Pentachlorophenol) Paranaphthalene (Anthracene) Parathion Pentachlorobenzene Pentachlorobutadiene Pentachloroethane Pentachloronitrobenzene Pentachlorophenol (PCP) Perchlorobenzene (Hexachlorobenzene) (HCB) Phenanthrene Phenobarbitol Phenol BCF 380 in shellfish 4 Log Pow 1.39 2 No data found 1 Log Pow 5.02 5 No data found 1 Log Pow 2.88 3 Not reported in biota 1 Solubility 0.57, 6 Biomagnifies BCF up to 1,050 in fish 5 BCF 917 in fish 4 Log Pow 3.81 4 BCF in fish 3,400 5 Log Pow 2.58 3 BCF 67 in fish 3 Log Pow 5.45 5 BCF up to 1,050 in fish 5 BCF 8,690, Biomagnifies 6 BCF up to 10,000 6 Not reported in biota 1 Log Pow 1.47 2 128 ------- APPENDIX A (Continued) Name of Substance Reason for Rating Value Phorate Phosgene (carbonyl chloride) Phosphate Phosphoric acid Phthalic anhydride Plutonium and compounds Polychlorinated biphenyls(PCBs) Propenylbenzene Pr opylenimine Pyrene (Benzo DBF phenanthrene) RDX (Cyclonite) Radon Resorcinol Safrole Selenium and compounds Silver and compounds Silvex (2,4,5 TP) Sodium Sodium cyanide Sodium hydroxide Log Pow 2.59 3 No data found 1 BCF up to 100,000 6 Log Pow -1.86 1 Log Pow -0.62 1 Insoluble 6 Solubility .057, 6 Biomagnifies No data found 1 Not reported in biota 1 BCF up to 10,000 6 Not reported in biota 1 Found only in lung tissue 1 Log Pow 0.80 1 Log Pow 2.53 3 BCF 16, Biomagnifies in 4 aquatic ecosystem BCF 3,080 in fish 5 Log Pow 1.39 2 No data found 1 No data found 1 No data found 1 129 ------- APPENDIX A (Continued) Name of Substance Reason for Rating Value Strontium and compounds Styrene TCDD (dioxin) Tetrachloroethane Tetrachloroethylene Tetrachloromethane (Carbon tetrachloride) Tetrachlorophenol Tetrahydrofuran Thallium Thioacetamide Thiourea Tin and compounds Titanium and compounds Toluene Toxaphene Tribromomethane (Bromoform) Tributyltin (TBTO) Trichloroethane Trichloroethylene (TCE) BCF 1,000 in bone tissue 5 Log Pow 2.95 3 BCF up to 10,000 6 BCF 42 in fish 3 BCF 31 in fish 3 BCF 30 3 BCF 240 in fish 4 Log Pow 0.46 1 BCF up to 100,000 6 Not reported in biota 1 No data found 1 BCF in fish 1,000 5 BCF 40-1,000 marine 3 ecosystem BCF 13.2 in eels 3 BCF 13,100, Biomagnifies in 6 aquatic ecosystem Log Pow 2.39 3 BCF 1,500-6,000 5 BCF 9 in fish 2 Log Pow 2.42-3.3 3 130 ------- APPENDIX A (Concluded) Name of Substance Reason for Rating Value Trichlorofluoromethane (freon-ll) Trichlorophenol Trlmethylbenzene Trinitrotoluene (TNT) Tris Uracil Mustard Uranium and compounds Vanadium and compounds Vinyl chloride Vinylidene chloride (1,1 dichloroethene) Xylene Zinc and compounds Zirconium Log Pow 2.53 3 BCF 110-150 in fish 4 Log Pow 4.04 4 Log Pow 2.01 3 BCF 2.7 3 Not reported in biota 1 BCF 10 in fish 3 BCF 20-100 marine 3 BCF 1.2 in fish 2 BCF 6 fish 2 BCF 21-24 aquatic ecosystem 3 BCF 47, Biomagnification 4 potential BCF up to 200 4 131 ------- APPENDIX B AVERAGE FISH STANDING CROPS REPORTED Introduction Appendix B contains a listing of surface water bodies in the United States and the average standing crops estimated in the literature for the water bodies. Data are presented in pounds per acre for different classifications of water body and geographic region. 133 ------- APPENDIX B AVERAGE FISH STANDING CROPS REPORTED Habitat River/Stream (Cold) WI Rivers PA trout stream CA trout stream WI Rivers WY tailwaters Mountain stream Trout streams Mt. trout streams MI streams WI streams OH streams MO streams MD streams (Midwestern) Chariton River, MO Chariton River, MO Chariton River, MO OH streams MO streams Midwestern smallmouth stream Midwestern largemouth stream IN streams IN streams IL streams OK streams (Warm) Warmwater Streams Warmwater Streams Warmwater Streams Warmwater Streams River backwaters and oxbows Tropical rivers Pounds per Acre 14 24 41 26 46 51 55 40-226 195 33 11 8 16 53 304 152 56 72 114 168 158 124 164 174 9-43 72 56-90 120 500 979-1600 Source Paragamian, 1975 Hoopes, 1975 Card, 1972 Paragamian, 1976 Wiley & Dufek 1980 Dumas, 1976 Carlander, 1955 Elser, 1968 Clepper, 1975 Carlander, 1977a Carlander, 1977a Carlander, 1977a Carlander, 1977a Congdon, 1973 Congdon, 1973 Congdon, 1973 Clepper, 1975 Clepper, 1975 Clepper, 1975 Clepper, 1975 Clepper, 1975 Clepper, 1975 Clepper, 1975 Clepper, 1975 Carlander, 1955 Fajin, 1975 Fajin, 1975 Johnson, 1965 Carlander, 1955 Lambou, 1959 Comments bass only trout only trout only pike only trout only not US average average bass streams smallmouth bass smallmouth bass smallmouth bass smallmouth bass channelized unchannelized carp only average average average average average largemouth average average average Courtois Creek Ozarks ave. Northern streams average lagoons 134 ------- APPENDIX B (Continued) Pounds ~~~ Habitat per Acre Source Comments River/Stream (Concluded) (Other) Upper Mississippi 7-8 Rasmussen, 1979 all species (1962-1973) Lower Mississippi U.S. Army Corps of all species borrow pit 51-3199 Engineers Lower Mississippi 530 U.S. Army Corps of Mosey Lake (mostly shad) (delta region) Engineers, 1984 Lower Mississippi 51-299 U.S. Army Corps of Wolf Lake (mostly shad) (delta region) Engineers, 1984 (River Basin) Atchafalaya R.B., LA 767 Lambou, 1985 lower basin stations Atchafalaya R.B., LA 495 Lambou, 1985 upper basin stations 135 ------- APPENDIX B (Continued) Habitat Pounds per Acre Source Comments Lakes Backwater lakes 397 NY lake 47 Northern lake 51 Cold trout lakes 50 Lakes & ponds 58 FL bass lake 97 10 lake 123 MI lakes 46 MI lakes 88 MI lakes 104 Lake Tohopekaliga, FL 59-127 Warmwater lakes 125-150 MS oxbow lakes 202 Natural lakes 50-150 KY lakes 49-200 WI lakes 210 Lake Wingra, WI 440 AR lakes 89-445 Alpine lakes .6-7 Tropical lakes 45-178 Atchafalaya Basin 270 Atchafalaya Basin 624 Floodplain lakes 440 6 oxbow lakes, LA 156-267 7 backwater lakes 397 Wallum Lake, RI 14-17 Floa Lake, WI 3 IL Lakes 18-36 Third Sister Lake,MI 86 Lambou, 1985 Green & Smith, 1976 Carlander, 1969 Carlander, 1955 Carlander 1977b Smith, 1975 Albertson & Schultz, 1968 Schneider, 1973 Schneider, 1973 Schneider, 1973 Wegener, 1975 Carlander, 1955 Lambou, 1959 Cooper, 1966 Pfeiffer, 1967 Kempinger & Christenson, 1978 Churchill, 1976 Baily, 1978 Lambou, 1985 Lambou, 1985 Lambou, 1985 Lambou, 1985 Lambou, 1985 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1984 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1984 Guthrie, 1977 Carlander, 1977a Carlander, 1977a U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1984 largemouth bass perch & bass suckers average mixed species all fish bullheads slow growing perch avg. diversity unusual populations before and after drawdown average average average average 64% are minnows large fish ave. range average average crawfish finfish no overflow mostly channel cat & centrarchids average combined fish species pumpkinseed & bluegill rotenone catch 136 ------- APPENDIX B (Continued) Habitat Pounds per Acre Source Comments Lakes (Concluded) Third Sister Lake, MI 13 5 Lakes, FL (l-10ha) 7 Backwater lakes, LA 24 Lower Lock Alpine 30 Wintergreen Lake, MI 48 Cuba lakes, Cove Sampling 83 5 Lakes, FL 22-110 Carlander, 1977a Carlander, 1977a Carlander, 1977a Carlander, I977a Carlander, 1977a Carlander, 1977a U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1984 bass (avg.) bass (avg.) only legal size bass 250mm bass bass bass (avg.) Ocala National Forest 137 ------- APPENDIX B (Continued) Pounds per Acre Habitat Source Comments Reservoirs West VA reservoir 9 IL, artificially heated 8-18 170 reservoirs 23 GA reservoir 48 CO reservoir 82 LA reservoirs 73 127 reservoirs 180-186 Reservoirs and ponds 200-300 Impoundments 200-400 Midwest reservoirs 400 Barkley Lake, KY 771 Power plant cooling lake in Texas 1000-2000 Bobwhite Lake, IA 7 Red Hawk Lake, IA 24 3 reservoirs , OK 8 Carl Blackwell Lake, OK 1 Buds Lake, IA 3 Lanier Lake, GA 8 34 reservoirs TX & MA 19 IA reservoirs 112 Fast Osceola, IA 29 Bastrop Lake, TX 33 Ridgelake, IL 49 North American Lakes & reservoirs 15 Clear Lake 1 Clear Lake 15 68 Gamefish Lakes,MN 7 44 Roughfish Lakes, MN 6 FL, WI 30 lakes 7 Woodrum, 1978 Tranguilli et al., 1981 Jenkins, 1975 Sandow, 1970 Carlander, 1969 Lambou, 1959 Jenkins, 1975 Carlander, 1955 Cooper, 1966 Carlander, 1955 Aggus et al., 1979 Noble et al., 1975 Carlander, 1977a Carlander, 1977a Carlander, 1977a Carlander, 1977a Carlander, 1977a Carlander, 1977a Carlander, 1977a Carlander, 1977a Carlander, 1977a Carlander, 1977a Carlander, 1977a Carlander, 1977a Carlander, Carlander, Carlander, Carlander, Carlander, 1977a 1977a 1977a 1977a 1977a largemouth bass bass and carp all bass all species average average ave., all species average average average small bay bass & tilapia largemouth bass largemouth bass largemouth bass (avg.) largemouth bass largemouth bass largemouth bass (avg.) largemouth bass (avg.) largemouth bass (avg.) average largemouth bass largemouth bass largemouth bass (avg.) bass (avg.) bass bass (avg.) bass (avg.) bass (avg.) bass (mean) 138 ------- APPENDIX B (Continued) Habitat Pounds per Acre Source Comments Reservoirs (Concluded) Brown's Lake, WI 24 Cacapon Lake, WV 9 14 Lakes, MI 0.3- 8.7 ha) 7 Deep Creek reservoir, MD 100 Cherokee Reservoir, 1,550 TX Carlander, 1977a Carlander, 1977a Carlander, I977a U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1984 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1984 bass (avg.) bass (avg.) bass (avg.) mixed species mixed species 139 ------- APPENDIX B (Continued) Habitat Ponds Cold ponds Carp ponds Bullhead ponds Small desert pond Kansas pond Ml ponds Southern ponds AL ponds Stocked AL pond Ashville pond, RI Pounds per Acre 69 356 178 133 168 289 230-330 498 527 48 Meshanticut pond, RI 500 MA ponds (23) OK ponds IL ponds NY ponds IA ponds (balanced) IA ponds IA ponds IA ponds MI ponds IL ponds Ridge Lake, IL Ridge Lake, IL Breon's pond, PA Rearing ponds U.S. MI ponds NY ponds AL pond MO ponds Lake Toho Pekaligo, Lake Toho Pekaligo, WV pond AL ponds 86 91 88 118 13 14 23 2 21 125 357 48 15,771 18,787 147 72 255 72 FL 43 FL 46 88 2,360 Source Carlander, 1969 Carlander, 1969 Carlander, 1969 Mannes & Jester, 1980 Carlander, 1969 Beyerle & Williams, 1972 Carlander, 1955 Forester & Lawrence, 1978 Habel, 1975 Guthrie, 1977a Guthrie, 1977a Guthrie, 1977a Carlander, 1977a Carlander, 1977a Carlander, 1977a Carlander, 1977a Carlander, 1977a Carlander, 1977a Carlander, 1977a Carlander, 1977a Carlander, 1977a Carlander, 1977a Carlander, 1977a Carlander, 1977a Carlander, 1977a Carlander, 1977a Carlander, 1977a Carlander, 1977a Carlander, 1977a Carlander, I977a Carlander, 1977a Carlander, 1977a Carlander, 1977a Comments Grebe Lake unfertilized unfertilized eutrophic channel catfish bluegills average bass & bluegill tilapia combined fish sp. combined fish sp. few catchable bass/ pickerel average sunfishes smallmouth bass smallmouth bass largemouth bass (average) largemouth bass (avg.) overpopulated w/bluegill) largemouth bass (avg.) largemouth bass (overpopulated w/bass) largemouth bass only "large" bass (avg.) largemouth bass (avg.) (over 254 mm) largemouth bass all sizes largemouth bass largemouth bass (avg.) largemouth bass (avg.) largemouth bass no harvest littoral zone limnetic zone largemouth bass bass fed 140 ------- APPENDIX B (Continued) Pounds Habitat per Acre Source Comments Fertilized Ponds Carp & bullhead 1070 Carlander, 1969 southern 3 ponds, IL 447 Carlander, 1977a largemouth bass (avg.) 3 ponds, IL 69 Carlander, 1977a largemouth bass (avg.) 3 ponds, IL 60 Carlander, 1977a only "large" bass (avg.) 141 ------- APPENDIX B (Continued) Habitat Pounds per Acre Source Comments Coastal Newport River, NC 8 Mystic River, MA 18 Narragansett Bay, RI 28 Gulf of Mexico 54 Beach canals, LA 3-367 LA estuary 351 Chesapeake Bay 250 Chesapeake Bay 750 South Atlantic 286 Gulf Coast 432 Guadalupe Bay, TX 11 CA (3-mi zone) 293 OR (3-mi zone) 152 WA (3-mi zone) 444 AL Coastal 60 LA Coastal 314 MS Coastal 1011 FL Coastal 48 GA Coastal 35 NC Coastal 128 SC Coastal 26 TX Coastal 57-68* MA Coastal 1267 NH Coastal 320 MA Coastal 1984 Rl Coastal 1209 CT Coastal 19 NY Coastal 90 NJ Coastal 155 DE Coastal 14 MD Coastal 84 VA Coastal 751 *Includes fish and shellfish. Turner & Johnson, 1973 Haedrick & Haedrick, 1974 Oviatt & Nixon, 1973 Perry, 1983 Perry, 1983 Perry, 1976 Stroud, 1978 Stroud, 1978 US Fish & Wildlife, 1981 US Fish & Wildlife, 1981 Adams, 1976 NOAA/NMFS, 1985 NOAA/NMFS, 1985 NOAA/NMFS, 1985 NOAA/NMFS, 1985 NOAA/NMFS, 1985 NOAA/NMFS, 1985 NOAA/NMFS, 1985 NOAA/NMFS, 1985 NOAA/NMFS, 1985 NOAA/NMFS, 1985 NOAA/NMFS, 1985 NOAA/NMFS, 1985 NOAA/NMFS, 1985 NOAA/NMFS, 1985 NOAA/NMFS, 1985 NOAA/NMFS, 1985 NOAA/NMFS, 1985 NOAA/NMFS, 1985 NOAA/NMFS, 1985 NOAA/NMFS, 1985 NOAA/NMFS, 1985 littoral area estuary polluted estuary demersal fish ave. Gulf Gulf canals all estuary fish nearshore saltwater all finfish fish & shellfish fish & shellfish commercial catch commercial catch commercial catch estuary commercial catch estuary commercial catch estuary commercial catch estuary commercial catch estuary commercial catch estuary commercial catch estuary commercial catch estuary commercial catch estuary commercial catch estuary commercial catch estuary commercial catch estuary commercial catch estuary commercial catch estuary commercial catch estuary commercial catch estuary commercial catch estuary commercial catch estuary commercial catch 142 ------- APPENDIX B (Concluded) Pounds Habitat per Acre Source Comments Coastal (Concluded) Laguna Madre, TX 18-337 FWS, 1977 range-winter minimum/ summer maximum Caminada estuary, LA 649 FWS, 1977 LacDes Allemands, LA 87 FWS, 1977 channel catfish Barataria-Caminada Bay, LA 9 FWS, 1977 shrimp only (1967-1972) 143 ------- REFERENCES TO APPENDIX B Aggus, L. R. et al., 1979. "Evaluation of Standing Crop of Fishes in Crooked Creek Bay, Bartley Lake, Kentucky," Proceedings of the 33rd Annual Conference of the Southeast Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies, Southeast Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies, Hot Springs, VA. Albertson, R. D. and F. Schultz, 1968. "Fishes of Little Wall Lake," Iowa Academy of Sciences, Vol. 75, pp. 164-169. Bailey, W. M, 1978. "A Comparison of Fish Populations Before and After Extensive Grass Carp Stocking," Transactions of the American Fishery Society, Vol. 107, No. 1, pp. 181-206. Beyerle, G. B. and John E. Williams, 1972. Survival, Growth and Production by Bluegills Subjected to Population Reduction in Ponds, (Michigan Department of Natural Resources Research and Development Report No. 273), Michigan Department of Natural Resources Research and Development, Ann Arbor, MI. Carlander, K. D., 1977a. Handbook of Freshwater Fishery Biology. Vol. II, Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA. Carlander, K. D., 1977b. "Biomass, Production and Yields of Walleye (Stizostedion Vitreum Vitreum) and Yellow Perch (Perca Flavescens) in North American Lakes," Journal of the Fisheries Research Board Canada, Vol. 34, No. 10, pp. 1602-1612. Carlander, K. D., 1969. Handbook of Freshwater Fishery Biology. Vol. I, Iowa State University, Ames, IA. Carlander, K. D., 1955. "The Standing Crop of Fish in Lakes," Journal of the Fisheries Research Board Canada, Vol. 12, pp. 543-570. Carline, R. F., 1975. Influence of Recruitment Rates on Production by Three Populations of Wild Brook Trout (Salvellnus pontinalis Mitchell), Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Wisconsin (Madison). Churchill, W. S., 1976. Population and Biomass Estimates of Fishes in Lake Wingra, (Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources Technology Bulletin No. 93), Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Madison, WI. Clepper, H., ed., 1975. Black Bass Biology and Management, Sport Fishing Institute, Washington, DC. 144 ------- Congdon, J. C., 1973. Fish Populations of Channelized and Unchannelized Sections of the Chariton River, Missouri, (N.C. Division of the American Fisheries Society Special Publication No. 2), NC Division of the American Fisheries Society, pp. 52-62. Cooper, G. P., 1967. Fish Production in Impoundments, (Michigan Department of Conservation, R&D Report No. 104), Michigan Department of Conservation, Ann Arbor, MI, pp. 1-21. Dumas, J., 1976. "Dynamics and Sedentariness of a Naturalized Population of Rainbow Trout (salmo gairdneri Richardson) in a Mountain Stream: The Estibere (Hautes-Pyrenees)," Annals of Hydrobiology, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 115-139. FJ.ser, A. A., 1968. "Fish Populations of a Trout Stream in Relation to Major Habitat Zones and Channel Alterations," Transactions of the American Fish Society. Vol. 97, No. 4, pp. 389-397. Fajen, 0., 1975. "The Standing Crop of Smallmouth Bass and Associated Species in Courtois Creek," Black Bass Biology and Management, Clepper, Henry, ed., Sport Fishing Institute, Washington, DC, pp. 240-249. Forester, T. S. and J. M. Lawrence, 1978. "Effects of Grass Carp and Carp on Populations of Bluegill and Largemouth Bass in Ponds," Transactions of American Fishery Society, Vol. 107, No. 1, pp. 172-175. Card, R., 1972. "Persistence of Headwater Check Dams in a Trout Stream," Journal of Wildlife Management, Vol. 36, No. 4, pp. 1363-1367- Green, D. M. and S. B. Smith, 1976. Zooplankton, Zoobenthos and Fish Populations in Canadarago Lake During the Initial Stages of Nutrient Control, NY State Department of Fjivironmental Conservation Technology, Albany, NY. Guthrie, R. C., and J. A. Stolgitis, 1977. Fisheries Investigations and Management in Rhode Island Lakes and Ponds, Rhode Island Division of Fish and Wildlife, RI. Habel, M. L., 1975. "Overwintering of the Cichlid, tilapia aurea, Produces Fourteen tons of Harvestable Size Fish in a South Alabama Bass-Bluegill Public Fishing Lake," Progressive Fish Culturist, Vol. 37, No. 1, pp. 31-32. 145 ------- Haedrich, R. L. and S. 0. Haedrich, 1974. "A Seasonal Survey of the Fishes in the Mystic River, A Polluted Estuary in Downtown Boston, MA," Estuarine and Coastal Marine Science, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 59-73. Hoopes, R. L., 1975. "Flooding as the Result of Hurricane Agnes, and Its Effect on a Native Brook Trout Population in an Infertile Headwater Stream in Central Pennsylvania," Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, Vol. 104, No. 1, pp. 96-99. Jenkins, R. M., 1975. "Black Bass Crops and Species Associations in Reservoirs," Black Bass Biology and Management, Henry Clepper, ed., Sport Fishing Institute, Washington, DC, pp. 114-124. Johnson, M. G., 1965. Estimates of Fish Populations in Warmwater Streams by Removal Method, Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, Vol. 4, No. 4, pp. 350-357- Kempinger, J. J and L. M. Christenson, 1978. Population Estimates and Standing Crops of Fish in Nebish Lake, (Res. Rep. Department of Natural Resources, No. 6), Department of Natural Resources, Madison, WI. Lambou, V. W., 1959. "Louisiana Impoundments: Their Fish Populations and Management," Proceedings of the 24th North American Wildlife Conference, Wildlife Management Institute, Washington, DC. Lambou, V. W., 1985. "Importance of Bottomland Hardwood Forest Zones to Fish and Fisheries: The Atchafalaya," To be published in the Proceedings of the Bottomland Hardwood Ecosystem Symposium, LA. Mannes, J. C. and D. B. Jester, 1980. "Age, Growth, Abundance and Biomass Production of Green Sunfish (Lepomis cyanellus) (Centrarchidal) in a Eutrophic Desert Pond, Southwestern Naturalist, Vol. 25, No. 3, pp. 297-351. Noble, R. L., R. D. Germany, and C. R. Hall, 1975[1976]. "Interactions of Blue Tilapia and Largemouth Bass in a Power Plant Cooling Reservoir," Proceedings of the 29th Annual Conference of the Southeastern Association of Game and Fish Commissioners, Southeastern Association of Game and Fish Commissioners, pp. 247-251. Oviatt, C. A. and S. W. Nixon, 1973. "The Demersal Fish of Narragansett Bay: An Analysis of Community Structure, Distribution and Abundance," Estuarine and Coastal Marine Science, Vol. 1, No. 4, pp. 361-378. 146 ------- Paragamian, V. L., 1976. "Population Characteristics of Northern Pike in the Plover River, Wisconsin," Progressive Fish Guitarist, Vol. 38, No. 3, pp. 160-163. Paragamian, V. L., 1977. Fish Population Development in Two Iowa Flood Control Reservoirs and the Impact of Fish Stocking, (Iowa Conservation Commission, Fisheries Section, Technical Series 77-1), Iowa Conservation Commission, Des Moines, IA. Perry, W. G., 1976. "Standing Crop of Fishes of an Estuarine Area in Southwest Louisiana," Proceedings of the 30th Annual Conference of the Southeastern Association of Game and Fish Commissioners, held in Jackson, MS, on October 24-27, 1976, Southeastern Association of Game and Fish Commissioners, pp. 71-81. Perry, W. G., 1983. "Observations of Finfish Standing Crop: Sabine National Wildlife Refuge," Proceedings of the Louisiana Academy of Sciences, Vol. 46, pp. 17-28. Pfeiffer, P. W., 1967. Some Physical, Chemical and Biological Characteristics of Shanty Hollow Lake, (Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources Bulletin No. 31), Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources, Frankfurt, KY. Rasmussen, J. L. (ed.), 1979. A Compendium of Fishery Information on the Upper Mississippi River; A Contribution of the Upper Mississippi River Conservation Committee, Second Edition, Upper Mississippi River Conservation Committee. Sandow, J. T., Jr., 1970. "A Comparison of Population Sampling Results with the Total Fish Population of a 90-Acre Georgia Reservoir," Proceedings of the 24th Annual Conference Southeastern Association of Game and Fish Commissioners, held in Atlanta, GA on September 27-30, 1970, Southeastern Association of Game and Fish Commissioners, pp. 321-332. Schneider, J. C., 1973. The Standing Crop of Fish in Michigan Lakes, (Michigan Department of Natural Resources, Fisheries Division, Fisheries Resources Report No. 1794), Michigan Department of Natural Resources, Ann Arbor, MI. Smith, S. J., 1975[1976], "Standing Crop, Success and Harvest in a Trophy Bass Lake, Lake Jackson, Florida," Proceedings of the ?9th Annual Conference of the Southeastern Association of Game and Fish Commissioners, Southeastern Association of Game and Fish Commissioners, pp. 135-141. 147 ------- Tranquilli, J. A., J. M. McNurney, and R. Kocher, 1981. "Results of a Multiple-Objective Fish Tagging Program in an Artificially Heated Reservoir," The Lake Sangchris Study; Case History of an Illinois Cooling Lake, (Illinois Natural History Survival Bulletin Vol. 32, No. 4)7 Larimore, R. W. and J. A. Tranquilli, eds., (Illinois Natural History Survival Bulletin 32, No. 4), State of Illinois, Department of Registration and Education, Urbana, IL, pp. 536-558. Turner, W. R. and G. N. Johnson, 1973. Distribution and Relative Abundance of Fishes in Newport River, North Carolina, (NOAA Technical Report NMFS SSRF-666), National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Washington, DC. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1984. Fishery and Ecological Investigation of Main Stem Levee Borrow Pits Along the Lower Mississippi River, (Lower Mississippi River Environmental Program, Report 1), U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Vicksburg, MS. U.S. Department of the Interior, (FWS), 1977. Coastal Marsh Productivity, A Bibliography, (FWS/OBS-77/3), U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1981. Proceedings of the Workshop on Coastal Ecosystems of the Southeastern United States,(FWS/OBS 8059), U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC. U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service, (NOAA/FWS), 1984. Marine Recreational Fishery, Statistics Survey, Pacific Coast 1981-1982, (Current Fishery Statistics No. 8323), U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, Washington, DC. U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service, (NOAA/FWS), 1985. Marine Recreational Fishery Statistics Survey, Atlantic and Gulf Coasts 1981-1982, (Current Fishery Statistics No. 8324), Washington, DC. Walton, J. M. and N. W. Bartoo, 1976. "Flatfish Densities Determined with a River-Operated Flounder Sampler," Journal of the Fisheries Resources Board Canada, Vol. 33, No. 12, pp. 2834-2836. Wegener, W. and V. Williams, 1975. "Fish Population Responses to Improved Lake Habitat Utilizing an Extreme Drawdown," Proceedings of the 29th Annual Conference of the Southeastern Association of Game and Fish Commissioners, held in St. Louis, MO, on October 12-15, 1975, Southeastern Association of Game and Fish Commissioners, pp. 144-161. 148 ------- Wiley, R. W. and D. J. Dufek, 1980. "Standing Crop of Trout in Fontenell Tailwater of Green River, WY," Transactions of the American Fishery Society, Vol. 109, No. 2, pp. 168-173. Woodrum, J. E., 1978. "Comparison of Rotenone and Electrofishing Population Estimates to Lake Draining," Proceedings of the 32nd Annual Conference of the Southeast Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies, held on November 5-8, 1978, Southeast Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies, Hot Springs, VA. 149 ------- |