DRAFT
DEVELOPMENT DOCUMENT
for
EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES
and
STANDARDS OF PERFORMANCE
THE CLAY, GYPSUM, REFRACTORY AND
CERAMIC PRODUCTS INDUSTRIES
UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Contract No. 68-01-2633
APRIL 1975
DRAFT
-------
Notice
The attached document is a DRAFT CONTRACTOR'S REPORT. It
includes technical information and recommendations submitted
by the Contractor to the United States Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) regarding the subject industries.
It is being distributed for review and comment only. The
report is not an official EPA publication and it has not
been reviewed by the Agency.
The report, including the recommendations, will be under-
going extensive review by EPA, Federal and States Agencies,
public interest organizations, and other interested groups
and persons during the coming weeks. The report and in
particular the contractor's recommended effluent limitations
guidelines and standards of performance is subject to change
in any and all respects.
The regulations to be published by EPA under Section 304 (b)
and 306 of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, as
amended, will be based to a large extent on the report and
the comments received on it. However, pursuant to Sections
304 (b) and 306 of the Act, EPA will also consider
additional pertinent technical and economic information
which is developed in the course of review of this report by
the public and within EPA. EPA is currently performing an
economic impact analysis regarding the subject industries,
which will be taken into account as part of the review of
the report. Upon completion of the review process, and
prior to final promulgation of regulations, an EPA report
will be issued setting forth EPA's conclusions concerning
the subject industries effluent limitation guidelines and
standards of performance applicable to such industries.
Judgments necessary to promulgation of regulations under
Sections 304 (b) and 306 of the Act, of course, remain the
responsibility of EPA. Subject to these limitations, EPA is
making this draft contractor1s report available in order to
encourage the widest possible participation of interested
persons in the decision making process at the earliest
possible time.
The report shall have standing in any EPA proceeding or
court proceeding only to the extent that it represents the
views of the Contractor who studied the subject industries
and prepared the information and recommendations. It cannot
be cited, referenced, or represented in any respect in any
such proceedings as a statement of EPA's views regarding the
subject industries.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Water and Hazardous Materials
Effluent Guidelines Division
Washington, D.C. 20460
-------
DRAFT
DEVELOPMENT DOCUMENT
for
EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES
and
STANDARDS OF PERFORMANCE
THE CLAY, GYPSUM, REFRACTORY, AND
CERAMIC PRODUCTS INDUSTRIES
Prepared by
Versar, Inc.
6621 Electronic Drive
Springfield, VA 22151
Contract No. 68-01-2633
April 1975
-------
DRAFT
ABSTRACT
This document presents the findings of an extensive study of the
clay, gypsum, refractory, and ceramic products industries for the
purpose of developing effluent limitations guidelines for
existing point sources and standards of performance and pre-
treatment standards for new sources, to implement Sections 30W,
306, and 307 of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, as
amended (33 U.S.C. 1551, 131U, and 1316, 86 Stat. 816 et. seq.
the "Act") .
Effluent limitations guidelines contained herein set forth the
degree of effluent reduction attainable through the application
of the best practicable control technology currently available
(BPCTCA) and the degree of effluent reduction attainable through
the application of the best available technology economically
achievable (BATEA) which must be achieved by existing point
sources by July 1, 1977 and July 1, 1983, respectively. The
standards of performance and pretreatment standards for new
sources contained herein set forth the degree of effluent
reduction which is achievable through the application of the best
available demonstrated control technology, processes, operating
methods, or other alternatives.
Based on the application of best practicable technology currently
available, 8 of the 25 production subcategories (comprising 12
commodities) under study can be operated with no discharge of
process wastewater pollutants to navigable waters. With the best
available technology economically available, 14 of the 25
production subcategories under study can be operated with no
discharge of process wastewater pollutants to navigable waters.
No discharge of process wastewater pollutants to navigable waters
is achievable as a new source performance standard for all
production subcategories except frit; structural clay products
(wet scrubbing); china, earthenware, and pottery; porcelain
electrical supplies (dry and wet); technical ceramics; non-clay
refractories - graphite and carbon, and mullite and zircon,
pressed and cast and fused cast; and refractory magnesia both
from sea water and well brine.
Supporting data and rationale for development of the proposed
effluent limitations guidelines and standards of performance are
contained in this report.
XII
DRAFT
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DRAFT
CONTENTS
Section Page
Abstract iii
I Conclusions 1-1
II Recommendations II-1
III Industry Characterization III-1
Purpose and Authority III-1
Summary and Methods Used for
Development of Effluent
Limitations Guidelines and
Standards of Performance III-2
General Description of Industry
by Product III-8
Production of Clay, Gypsum,
Refractory and Ceramic
Products III-35
IV Industry Categorization IV-1
Introduction IV-1
Industry Categorization IV-1
Factors Considered IV-2
V Water Use and Waste Characterization v-1
Introduction V-1
Specific Water Uses V-1
Process Waste Characterization V-U
Determining the Rationale for
Effluent Limitations Guidelines
for Maximum Daily Values V-166
VI Selection of Pollutant Parameters VI-1
Introduction VI-1
Significance and Rationale for
Selection of Pollution Para-
meters VI-1
Significance and Rationale for
Rejection of Pollution Para-
meters VI-11
DRAFT
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DRAFT
VII Control and Treatment Technology VII-1
Introduction VII-1
Problem Areas in the Clay,
Gypsum, Refractory and Ceramic
Products Industries VII-1
Control Practices VII-4
Suspended Solids Removal VII-4
Treatment of Thermal Pollution VII-8
Dissolved Material Treatments VII-8
Summary of Treatment Technology
Applications, Limitations and
Reliability VII-10
Pretreatment Technology VII-12
Non-Water Quality Environmental
Aspects, Including Energy
Requirements VII-12
VIII Cost Energy and Non-Water Quality
Aspects VIII-1
Summary VIII-1
Cost References and Rationale VIII-2
Individual Product Wastewater
Treatment and Disposal Costs VIIi-8
Industry Statistics VIII-57
IX Effluent Reduction Attainable Through
the Application of the Best Prac-
ticable Control Technology Currently
Available IX-1
Introduction IX-1
General Water Guidelines IX-2
Process Wastewater Guidelines
and Limitations for the Clay,
Gypsum, Refractory and Ceramic
Products Industries Point
Source Category IX-3
VI
DRAFT
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DRAFT
X Effluent Reduction Attainable Through
Application of the Best Available
Technology Economically Achievable X-1
Introduction X-1
General Water Guidelines X-3
Process Wastewater Guidelines and
Limitations for the Clay, Gypsum,
Refractory and Ceramic Products
Industries Point Source Category X-4
XI New Source Performance Standards and
Pretreatment Standards XI-1
Introduction XI-1
General Water Guidelines XI-2
Effluent Reduction Attainable by
the Best Available Demonstrated
Control Technologies, Processes,
Operating Methods, or Other
Alternatives XI-2
Pretreatment Standards XI-i*
XII Acknowledgements XII-1
XIII References XIII-1
XIV Glossary XIV-1
VII
DRAFT
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DRAFT
CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES
1 Manufacture of Enamel and Pottery Frit
and Colors V-7
2 Manufacture of Brick and Structural Tile V-19
3 Manufacture of Quarry and Paver Tile V-25
4 Manufacture of Ceramic Wall and Floor
Tile V-26
5 Manufacture of Clay Refractories V-31
6 Manufacture of Structural Clay Products,
N.E.C. V-49
7 Manufacture of Vitreous China Plumbing
Fixtures V-53
8 Clarification System Performance, Distribu-
tion of Values from Vitrified Ceramic
Products plant V-57
9 Manufacture of China, Earthenware and
Pottery (Forming Steps Only) V-62
10 Manufacture of China, Earthenware and
Pottery (Drying through finishing steps) V-63
11 Manufacture of Porcelain Electrical
Supplies (Dry Process) V-75
12 Manufacture of Porcelain Electrical
Supplies (Wet Process) V-8H
13 Manufacture of Technical Ceramics V-97
14 Manufacture of Gypsum Products V-102
15 Manufacture of Graphite and Carbon
Refractory Shapes V-11U
16 Manufacture of Artificial Graphite
from Coke v-115
17 Manufacture of Carbon Brick and Shapes V-116
18 Manufacture of Basic (Chromite and
Magnesite) Brick and Shapes V-123
19 Manufacture of Clay and Non-Clay
Monolithics V-128
20 Manufacture of Silica Refractories V-131
21 Manufacture of Pressed and Cast Mullite
and Zircon Refractories V-136
vxn
DRAFT
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DRAFT
22 Manufacture of Fused Cast Mullite and
Zircon Refractories V-139
23 Manufacture of Silicon Carbide and
Oxide Refractories V-144
24 Manufacture of Dolomite Grain and Brick V-1U7
25 Manufacture of Magnesia from Seawater V-153
26 Manufacture of Magnesia from Well Brine V-160
27 Daily/Monthly Ratio Data of Suspended
Solids in Treated Effluent of a
Vitrified Ceramics Plant V-168
28 Daily/Monthly Ratio of Several Plants V-169
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
II- 1
II- 2
IV- 1
VII- 1
VI I- 2
VIII- 1
VIII-2
VIII- 3
VIII- U
VIII- 5
List of Commodities for the Clay,
Gypsum, Refractory and Ceramic
Products Industries
Recommended BPCTCA and BATEA for the
Clay, Gypsum, Refractory and Ceramic
Products Industries for Process Water
Only
Recommended New Source Performance
Standards
Production and Employment in these
Industries
Industry Categorization
Summary of Technology Applications,
Limitations and Reliability
Pattern of Clay, Gypsum, Refractory
and Ceramic Products Industries
Process Wastewater Discharge
Capital Investments and Energy
Consumption of Present Wastewater
Treatment Facilities
Cost-Benefit Analysis for a Represen-
tative Plant (Frit)
Cost-Benefit Analysis for a Represen-
tative Plant (Brick and Structural
Clay Tile)
Cost-Benefit Analysis for a Represen-
tative Plant (Ceramic Wall and Floor
Tile)
Cost-Benefit Analysis for a Represen-
tative Plant (Clay Refractories)
1-2
II-2, 3
II-5
111-36, 37, 38
IV-2, 3
VII- 11
VII-13
VIII-3
VIII-9
VIII-12
VIII-15
VIII-18
DRAFT
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DRAFT
VIII-6 Cost-Benefit Analysis for a Represen-
tative Plant (Structural Clay
Products, N.B.C.) VIII-20
VIII-7 Cost-Benefit Analysis for a Represen-
tative Plant (Vitreous China
Plumbing Fixtures) VIII-22
VIII-8 Cost-Benefit Analysis for a Represen-
tative Plant (China, Earthenware
and Pottery) VIII-25
VIII-9 Cost-Benefit Analysis for a Represen-
tative Plant (Porcelain Electrical
Supplies, Dry) VIII-28
VIII-10 Cost-Benefit Analysis for a Represen-
tative Plant (Porcelain Electrical
Supplies, Wet) VIII-31
VIII-11 Cost-Benefit Analysis for a Represen-
tative Plant (Technical Ceramics) VIII-33
VIII-12 Cost-Benefit Analysis for a Represen-
tative Plant (Gypsum Products, Dry
Dust Collection) VII1-35
VIII-13 Cost-Benefit Analysis for a Represen-
tative Plant (Gypsum Products, Wet
Dust Collection) VIII-37
VIII-14 Cost-Benefit Analysis for a Represen-
tative Plant (Gypsum Products, Auto-
clave Calcination) VIII-40
VIII-15 Cost-Benefit Analysis for a Represen-
tative Plant (Non-Clay Refractories,
Graphite and Carbon Br^ick and Shapes) VIII-42
VIII-16 Cost-Benefit Analysis for a Represen-
tative Plant (Non-Clay Refractories,
Basic Brick and Shapes) VIII-45
VIII-17 Cost-Benefit Analysis for a Represen-
tative Plant (Non-Clay Refractories,
Mullite and Zircon,, Pressed and Cast) VIII-48
VIII-18 Cost-Benefit Analysis for a Represen-
tative Plant (Non-Clay Refractories,
Mullite and Zircon, Fused Cast) VIII-50
VIII-19 Cost-Benefit Analysis for a Represen-
tative Plant (Non-Clay Refractories,
Silicon Carbides and Oxides) VIII-51
VIII-20 Cost-Benefit Analysis for a Represen-
tative Plant (Refractory Magnesia,
seawater) VIII-54
XI
DRAFT
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DRAFT
VIII-21 Cost-Benefit Analysis for a Represen-
tative Plant (Refractory Magnesia,
Well Brine) VIII-57
XIV-1 Conversion Table XIV-14
Xll
DRAFT
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DRAFT
SECTION I
CONCLUSIONS
For purposes of establishing effluent limitations guidelines
and standards of performance, the commodities in the clay,
gypsum, refractory and ceramic products industries
manufacturing point source category were grouped in 12
categories. For reasons explained in Section IV of this
report, the 12 commodities were further subdivided into 25
production subcategories.
Based on the application of best practicable technology
currently available, 8 of the 25 production subcategories
under study can be operated with no discharge of process
wastewater pollutants to navigable waters. With the best
available technology economically achievable, 14 of the 25
production subcategories can be operated with no discharge
of process wastewater pollutants to navigable waters. No
discharge of process wastewater pollutants to navigable
waters is achievable as a new source performance standard
for all production subcategories except frit; structural
clay products (wet scrubbing}; china, earthenware and
pottery; porcelain electrical supplies (dry and wet);
technical ceramics; non-clay refractories - graphite and
carbon, mullite and zircon, pressed and cast and fused cast;
and refractory magnesia both from sea water and well brine.
This study includes 12 commodities in the clay, gypsum,
refractory and ceramic products industries of SIC
categories, 2899, 3251, 3253, 3255, 3259, 3261, 3262, 3263,
326U, 3269, 3275, 3295, and 3297, with significant waste
discharge potential. Table 1-1 lists the commodities
studied in this report.
1-1
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
Table 1-1
LIST OF COMMODITIES IN THE CLAY. GYPSUM. REFRACTORY AND
CERAMIC PRODUCTS INDUSTRIES
1. Frit
2. Brick and Structural Clay Tile
3. Ceramic Wall and Floor Tile
4. Clay Refractories
5. Structural Clay Products, Not Elsewhere Classified
6. Vitreous China Plumbing Fixtures
7. China, Earthenware and Pottery
8. Porcelain Electrical Supplies
9. Technical Ceramics
10. Gypsum Products
11. Non-Clay Refractories
12. Refractory Magnesia
1-2
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
SECTION II
RECOMMENDATIONS
The recommended effluent limitations guidelines based on
best practicable control technology currently available
(BPCTCA) , are no discharge of pollutants in process waste-
water (defined in Section IX) to navigable waters for the
following products:
brick and structural clay tile
ceramic wall and floor tile (unglazed)
clay refractories
structural clay products, n.e.c. (dry)
gypsum products (autoclave calcination)
non-clay refractories (clay and non-clay monolithics)
non-clay refractories (silica refractories)
non-clay refractories (dolomite grain and brick)
The above effluent limitations guidelines are also
recommended as the best available technology economically
achievable (BATEA) and the new source performance standards
(NSPS) for those products listed.
The recommended effluent limitations guidelines based on
best practicable control technology currently available for
the remaining subcategories (not listed above) of the
commodities in the clay, gypsum, refractory and ceramic
products industries are listed in Table II-1. All Process
water effluents are limited to the pH range of 6.0 to 9.0.
II-1
NOTICE; THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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55
z
o
n
m
I
m
*- 73
O ^
ii
f o
m x »y^
Z _ m
—i 7 >
f> ^ 73
73 -j m
m I __|
n J7> m
m -7
•? *> £
< m rj
m -o >•
O O ±
70
m
n
O
31 m
[TJ ,- m
^O j^— ™y
73
Z
rn f*7
O ±
O
?o§
73 O CO
rn x >*"
^ Z 0
< C) r-
s£z
T> rn
r a
Subcotegory
Frit
Brick and Structural Clay Tile
Ceramic Wall and Floor Tile
Unglazed
Glazed
Clay Refractories
Structural Clay Products
Dry
Wet Scrubbing
TABlf ll-l. Recommended BPCTCA and BATEA Umitationi Guidelines-for Pollutants
In Process Wostewater for the Clay, Gypsum, Refractory and
Ceramic Products Industries
Recommended BPCTCA Guideline
for Discharge of Pollutants *
kg/kkg of product
Best Practicable
Control Technology **
Recommended BATEA Guideline
for Discharge of Pollutants *
kg/kkg of product i
Best Available
Control Technology**
TSS
0.5
Other
As(totol) 0.003 1; 2} 3
Cd (total) 0.003
Cr (total) 0.003
Ni (total) 0.003
Pb (total) 0.003
V (total) 0.003
Zn (total) 0.003
Fluoride 0.052
TSS Other
0.06 As (total) 0.000012
Cd (total) 0.000023
Cr (total) 0.00012
Ni (total) 0.00023
Pb (total) 0.00023
V (total) 0.00033
Zn (total) 0.00026
Fluoride 0.052
4; 5; I; 6; I; 7; 5;
20 mg/liter
Vitreous China Plumbing Fixtures 0.15
China, Earthenware and Pottery 1.0
No discharge of pollutants
No .discharge of pollutants
0.02 Pb (total) 0.002
Zn (total) 0.0024
No discharge of pollutants
No discharge of pol lutants
None
I;8or9
I;8or9
1; 7; 8 where
necessary
10; 1; 7; 8 where
required or 9
12
1
Pb (total) 0.002
Zn (total) 0.01
Pb (total) 0.03
Zn (total) 0.08
No discharge of pollutants
No discharge of pollutants
No discharge of pollutants
No discharge of pollutants
No discharge of pollutants
20 rng/liter None
No discharge of pollutants
0.6
Pb (total) 0.012
Zn (total) 0.08
• AH values are monthly averages; None means no recommended guideline for other pollutants
** See Legend
73
Same as BPCTCA
Some os BPCTCA
10; I; 7; 1; 11; 8
Same as BPCTCA
Same as BPCTCA
Same as BPCTCA
10; 7; 1; 11; 8 or?
10; 1; 7; 1; 7; 1
-------
n
n
m -7 '
Z*~ m
— ^
oo
70
m
>.:
i m
z§
TO n
T! n:
^ O
O3 m
^^ CJJ
m>
S
TABLE 11-1. Recommended BPCTCA and SATEA Limitations Guidelines for Pollutants
tn Process Wojtewoter for the Clay, Gypsum, Refractory and
Ceramic Products Industries (continued)
Subcotegory
Porcelain Electrical Supplies
Dry
Wet
Technical Ceramics
Gypsum Products
Dry Dust Collection
Wet Dust Collection
Autoclave Calcination
Non-Clay Refractories
Refractory Graphite and Carbon
Brick and Shapes
Basic (Chromite and Magneslte
Brick and Shapes
Cloy and Non-clay Monolithics
Silica Refractories
Mullite and Zircon (Pressed
and Cast)
Mullite and Zircon (Fused Cast)
Silicon Carbide and Oxide Ref.
Dolomite Grain and Brick
Refractory Magnesia
.Seawoter
Brine well
Recommended BPCTCA Guideline
for Discharge of Pollutants *
kg/kkg of product
TSS
0.07
0.4
0.12
Other
None
None
None
0.002 None
0.13 None
No discharge of pollutants
Beit Practicable
Control Technology*
1;7; 11 where
necessary
4.0
0.01
Oil arid grease 2.1
Cr (total) 0.00001
No discharge of pollutants
No discharge of pollutants
0.07 None
20 mg/liter None
0.025 . None
No discharge of pollutants
12
12
1
1
1
12
22
1.8
•pH6-9
pH6-9
5
10; 15 (high .
chloride waste)
and 1; 2 (low
chloride waste)
* All values are monthly averages; None means no recommended guideline for other pollutants
** LEGEND:
Recommended BATEA Guideline
for Discharge of Pollutants *
kg/kkg of product
TSS
0.04
0.2
0.12
Other
None
None
None
No discharge of pollutants
No discharge of pollutants
No discharge of pollutants
3.5 Oil and greasa 0.5
No discharge of pollutants
No discharge of pollutants
No discharge of pollutants
0.035 None
.20 mg/liter None
No discharge of pollutants
No discharge of pollutants
11
1.6
pH6-«
pH6-9
IDS 840
1. Settling 9.
2. pH adjustment 10.
3. Recycle of scrubber water 11.
4. Segregation and recycle of contact quench water for scrubber water 12.
5. Chemical precipitation of heavy metals 13.
6. Precipitation of fluoride by CaCI2 14.
7. Flocculation 15.
8. Recycle of process water
Total impoundment
Segregation of waste streams
Filtration
None required
Replace wet scrubbers with dry dust collectors
Oil skimming
Disposal to depleted brine wells
Best Available
Control Technology **
10; lor 11
10; 1;7; llwher*
necessary
1
10; 1; 8
9 or 13
Same as BPCTCA
Improved 1; 14
1; 8 or 13
Same a'l BPCTCA
Same as BPCTCA
10; 1
Same as BPCTCA
10; 1; 8
Same as BPCTCA
2; 1; 11 where
Same as BPCTCA
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DRAFT
The recommended effluent limitations guidelines based on
best available technology economically achievable are no
discharge of process wastewater pollutants to navigable
waters for the following products: (not already listed
under BPCTCA)
ceramic wall and floor tile (glazed);
vitreous china plumbing fixtures;
gypsum products (dry dust collection);
gypsum products (wet dust collection);
non-clay refractories (basic [chromite and magnesite] brick
and shapes); and
non-clay refractories (silicon carbide and oxide refractories)
The effluent limitations guidelines based on best available
technology economically available for the remaining subca-
tegories (not listed above) of this industry are listed in
Table II-1.
The new source performance standards for those subcategories
other than for those for which no discharge of pollutants in
process wastewater has been recommended are listed in
Table II-2.
The recommended pretreatment standards for existing sources,
which are users of a publicly owned treatment works, for
incompatible pollutants as defined in Section XI, are the
same as the standard of performance for best practicable
control technology currently available listed above and in
Table II-1.
The recommended pretreatment standards for new sources,
which will become users of a publicly owned treatment works,
for incompatible pollutants as defined in Section XI, are
the same as the standard of performance for new sources
listed above and in Table II-2.
11-4
NOTICE; THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
Table II-2
Recommended_New_
Subcategory
Frit
Structural Clay
Products
(wet scrubbing)
China, Earthenware
and Pottery
Porcelain Elec-
trical Supplies
(dry)
Porcelain Elec-
trical Supplies
(wet)
Technical Ceramics
Non-Clay Refractories
(Refractory graphite
and carbon brick
and shapes)
Non-Clay Refractories
(Mullite and zircon
pressed and cast)
Non-Clay Refractories
(Mullite and
zircon, fused cast)
Refractory Magnesia
(seawater)
Refractory Magnesia
(well brine)
Source Performance Standards
Limitations
Monthly Average
Same as BATEA
Same as BATEA
Same as BATEA
Same as BATEA
Same as BATEA
Same as BATEA
Same as BATEA
Same as BATEA
Same as BATEA
Same as BATEA
Same as BATEA
Daily Maximum
Same as BATEA
Same as BATEA
Same as BATEA
Same as BATEA
Same as BATEA
Same as BATEA
Same as BATEA
Same as BATEA
Same as BATEA
Same as BATEA
Same as BATEA
II-5
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
SECTION III
INDUSTRY CHARACTERIZATION
ls.0 PS AND AUTHORITY
The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is
charged under the Federal Water Pollution Control Act
Amendments of 1972 with establishing effluent limitations
guidelines which must be achieved by point sources of
discharge into the navigable water of the United States.
Section 30 1 (b) of the Act requires the achievement by not
later than July 1, 1977, of effluent limitations for point
sources, other than publicly owned treatment works, which
are based on the application of the best practicable control
technology currently available as defined by the
Administrator pursuant to Section 304 (b) of the Act.
Section 301 (b) also requires the achievement by not later
than July 1, 1983, of effluent limitations for point
sources, other than publicly owned treatment works, which
are based on the application of the best available
technology economically achievable which will result in
reasonable further progress toward the national goal of
eliminating the discharge of all pollutants, as determined
in accordance with regulations issued by the Administrator
pursuant to Section 304 (b) to the Act. Section 306 of the
Act requires the achievement by new sources of a Federal
standard of performance providing for the control of the
discharge of pollutants which reflects the greatest degree
of effluent reduction which the Administrator determines to
be achievable through the application of the best available
demonstrated control technology, processes, operating
methods, or other alternatives, including, where
practicable, a standard permitting no discharge of
pollutants. Section 304 (b) of the Act requires the
Administrator to publish within one year of enactment of the
Act, regulations providing guidelines for effluent
limitations setting forth the degree of effluent reduction
attainable through the application of the best practicable
control technology currently available and the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
DRAFT
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best control measures and practices achievable including
treatment techniques, process and procedure innovations,
operation methods and other alternatives. The regulations
proposed herein set forth effluent limitations guidelines
pursuant to Section 304 (b) of the Act for the Clay, Gypsum,
Refractory and Ceramic Products point source category.
Section 306 of the Act requires the Administrator, within
one year after a category of sources is included in a list
published pursuant to Section 306(b) (1) (A) of the Act, to
propose regulations establishing Federal standards of per-
formances for new sources within such categories«, The
Administrator published in the Federal Register of January
16* 1973 (38 F.Ro 1624), a list of 27 source categories.
Publication of an amended list will constitute announcement
of the Administrators intention of establishing, under
Section 306ff standards of performance applicable to new
sources within the clayp gypsum, refractory and ceramic
products industries. The list will be amended when proposed
regulations for the Clay, Gypsum, Refractory and Ceramic
Products Industries are published in the Federal Register.
2Ls.O SUMMARY OF METHODS USED FOR DEVELOPMENT OF EFFLUENT
LIMITATION GUIDELINES AND STANDARDS~OF PERFORMANCE
The effluent limitations guidelines and standards of per-
formance proposed herein were developed in a series of sys-
tematic tasks„ The Clay, Gypsum, Refractory and Ceramic
Products Industries were first studied to determine whether
separate limitations and standards are appropriate for
different segments within a point source category.
Development of reasonable industry categories and subca-
tegorieS0 and establishment of effluent guidelines and
treatment standards requires a sound understanding and
knowledge of the Clay, Gypsum, Refractory and Ceramic
Products Industries, the processes involved, wastewater
generation and characteristics^ and capabilities of existing
control and treatment methods,,
This report describes the results obtained from application
of the above approach to the Clay, Gypsum, Refractory and
Ceramic products industries. Thus,, the survey and testing
covered a wide range of processes* products, and types of
wastes.
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The products covered in this report are listed below with
their SIC designations:
a. Frit (2899)
b. Brick and Structural Clay Tile (3251)
c. Ceramic Wall and Floor Tile (3253)
d. Clay Refractories (3255)
e. Structural Clay Products, N.E.C. (3259)
f. Vitreous China Plumbing Fixtures (3261)
g. China, Earthenware and Pottery (3262, 3263, 3269)
h. Porcelain Electrical Supplies (3264)
i. Technical Ceramics (3269, 3264)
j. Gypsum Products (3275)
k. Non-Clay Refractories (3297)
1. Refractory Magnesia (3295)
2-.1 Categoriz at ion and Waste Load Character iz ation
The effluent limitation guidelines and standards of perform-
ance proposed herein were developed in the following manner.
The point source category was first categorized for the
purpose of determining whether separate limitations and
standards are appropriate for different segments within a
point source category. Such subcategorization was based
upon raw material used, product produced, manufacturing
process employed, and other factors. The raw waste
characteristics for each subcategory were then identified.
This included an analysis of (1) the source and volume of
water used in the process employed and the sources of waste
and wastewaters in the plant; and (2) the constituents of
all wastewaters including harmful constituents and other
constituents which result in degradation of the receiving
water. The constituents of wastewaters which should be
subject to effluent limitations guidelines and standards of
performance were identified.
2^2 Treatment and Control Technologies
The full range of control and treatment technologies
existing within each subcategory was identified. This
included an identification of each control and treatment
technology, including both in-plant and end-of-process tech-
nologies, which are existent or capable of being designed
for each subcategory. It also included an identification of
the amount of constituents (including thermal) and the
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characteristics of pollutants resulting from the application
of each of the treatment and control technologies. The
problems, limitations and reliability of each treatment and
control technology were also identified. In addition, the
non-water quality environmental impact, such as the effects
of the application of such technologies upon other pollution
problems, including air, solid waste, noise and radiation
were also identified. The energy requirements of each of
the control and treatment technologies were identified as
well as the cost of the application of such technologies.
2a3 Data Base
Cost information contained in this report was obtained
directly from industry during plant visits, from engineering
firms and equipment suppliers, and from the literature. The
information obtained from the latter three sources has been
used to develop general capital, operating and overall costs
for each treatment and control method. Costs have been put
on a consistent industrial calculation basis of ten year
straight line depreciation plus allowance for interest at
ten per cent per year (pollution abatement tax free money)
and inclusion of allowance for insurance and taxes for an
overall fixed cost amortization of fifteen per cent per
year. This generalized cost data plus the specific
information obtained from plant visits was then used for
cost effectiveness estimates in Section VIII and wherever
else costs are mentioned in this report.
The data for identification and analyses were derived from a
number of sources. These sources included EPA research
information, published literature„ qualified technical
consultation, on-site visits and interviews at numerous
manufacturing plants throughout the U.S., interviews and
meetings with various trade associations, and interviews and
meetings with various regional offices of the EPA. All
references used in developing the guidelines for effluent
limitations and standards of performance for new sources
reported herein are included in Section XIII of this report.
The following summarizes the data base for the various sub-
categories studied in this volume:
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subcategory NOj__otj?lan£8
Frit 11
Brick and Struc- 330
tural Clay Tile
Ceramic Wall 63
and Floor Tile
Clay Refractories 198
Structural Clay 69
Products, N.E.C.
Vitreous China 42
Plumbing Fixtures
China, Earthenware 109
and Pottery
Porcelain Elec- 50
trical Supplies (dry)
Porcelain Elec- 11
trical Supplies (wet)
Technical Ceramics 12
Gypsum Products 74
(dry dust collection)
Gypsum Products 3
(wet dust collection)
Gypsum Products 3
(autoclave calcination)
Non-clay Refrac- 63
tories
Refractory Magnesia 4
(seawater)
Refractory Magnesia 4
(brine well)
Total
1,046
5
14
8
8
11
10
5
6
5
7
3
1
14
3
2
109
Available
7
33
17
40
22
15
14
11
9
5
52
3
.2
26
4
3
263
UaiJiyled
1
0
*
1
5
4
1
3
1
3
0
*
5
2
2
31
*There is no discharge of process wastewater under normal
operating conditions.
Data was obtained from 25 per cent of the plants in these
industries. Ten per cent of the plants were visited and
approximately three per cent were sampled to verify data.
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2.J.4 Exemglarjr Plant Selection
The following selection criteria were developed and used for
the selection of exemplary plants.
(a) Discharge effluent quantities
Plants with low effluent quantities or the ultimate of no
discharge of process wastewater pollutants were preferred.
This minimal discharge may be due to reuse of water, raw
material recovery and recycling, or to use of evaporation.
The significant parameter was minimal waste added to
effluent streams per weight of product manufactured. The
amounts of wastes considered here were those added to waters
taken into the plant and then discharged.
Effluent contaminant level
Preferred plants were those with lowest effluent contaminant
concentrations and lowest total quantity of waste discharge
per unit of product.
(c) Water management practices
Use of good management practices such as water re-use, plan-
ning and in-plant water segregation, and the proximity of
cooling towers to operating units, where airborne contamina-
tion of water can occur, were considered.
(d) Land utilization
The efficiency of land use was considered.
(e) Air pollution and solid waste control
Exemplary plants must possess overall effective air and
solid waste pollution control where relevant in addition to
water pollution control technology. Care was taken to
insure that all plants chosen have minimal discharges into
the environment and that exemplary sites are not those which
are exchanging one form of pollution for another of the same
or greater magnitude.
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(f) Effluent treatment methods ajjd their effectiveness
Plants selected shall have in use the best currently
available treatment methods, operating controls, and
operational reliability. Treatment methods considered
included basic process modifications which significantly
reduce effluent loads as well as conventional treatment
methods.
(9) £l§nt facilities
All plants chosen as exemplary had all the facilities
normally associated with the production of the specific
product (s) in question. Typical facilities generally were
plants which have all their normal process steps carried out
on-site.
(h) Plant management philosophy
Plants were preferred whose management insists upon
effective equipment maintenance and good housekeeping
practices. These qualities are best identified by a high
operational factor and plant cleanliness.
(i) Geographic location
Factors which were considered include plants operating in
close proximity to sensitive vegetation or in densely
populated areas. Other factors such as land availability,
rainfall, and differences in state and local standards were
also considered.
(j) Raw materials
Differences in raw materials purities were given strong con-
sideration in cases where the amounts of wastes are strongly
influenced by the purity of raw materials used. Several
plants using different grades of raw materials were
considered for those minerals for which raw material purity
is a determining factor in waste control.
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(k) Diversity of processgg
On the basis that all of the above criteria are met,
consideration was given to installations having a multipli-
city of manufacturing processes. However, for sampling
purposes, the complex facilities chosen were those for which
the wastes could be clearly traced through the various
treatment steps.
On the basis that other criteria are equal, consideration
was given to the degree of production rate scheduled on
water pollution sensitive equipment.
(m) Product purity
For cases in which purity requirements play a major role in
determining the amounts of wastes to be treated and the
degree of water recycling possible, different product grades
were considered for subcategorization.
liO GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF INDUSTRY BY PRODUCT
The commodities in these industries include a number of
different products. The extent of processing varies widely
and the complexity is dependent upon the particular product
being manufactured. High water consumption is not
associated with most of these production facilities with
magnesia being a notable exception. Wastes are generated
usually in the form of suspended solids.
3.1 Chemicals Not Elsewhere Classified, frit Only (SIC 2899)
The number of plants involved in the merchant production of
ceramic frit is small, only eleven are known with an
additional one currently under construction. There are only
eight basic producers of commercial frit, however, several
other large companies produce frit for internal consumption
in enameling cast iron. These captive plants associated
with enameling cast iron are not included in this category.
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The quantities of merchant frit for glazes and vitreous
enamels produced in 1967 and 1972 are given below:
Product Unit 1972 1967
Frit thousand 107.0 91.1
metric tons
(thousand (118.0) (100.4)
tons)
Frit is a fused and pulverized glass produced from a wide
variety of minerals and inorganic chemicals* When the frit
is applied to a metal base, it is called a porcelain enamel
frit, when applied to a ceramic base, it is called a glaze
frit. The major raw materials and their specific use in the
frit are given below:
Boron products such as borax, Rasorite and boric acid
are used in most frit formulations, where they serve as
glass formers or fluxing agents.
Silica is a major raw material as it is in most other
ceramic products.
Soda ash is the second most important source of sodium
in enamel frits after borax. In borax-free frits, it is
added at 25 per cent of the formula, but in most frits
percentages run only 5-10 per cent. It is not as widely
used in glaze frits for ceramics.
Feldspar, mainly as the potash spar, is used in
porcelain enamel frits and to a lesser extent in glaze
frits. It adds potassium at low cost, and silica that
is readily fusible, and is a major source of alumina.
Fluorides as fluorspar and sodium silicofluoride act as
powerful fluxing agents and add opacity.
Titanium products such as titanium dioxide are used as
opacifiers in white enamel and glaze frits.
Barium carbonate is a fluxing agent in certain porcelain
enamels. A small amount is also used in glaze frits.
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Sodium nitrate acts as a flux and glass former in
porcelain enamel frits.
Litharge, red lead and other lead products are added to
glaze frits for brilliance, luster, and smoothness, and
they are sometimes used in enamel frit when better
fusibility and craze resistance are required.
Lithium carbonate, oxide and manganite as well as ores
such as spodumene are used in enamel ground coats and
glaze frits because of their powerful fluxing ability.
Only small amounts are added and less than 1.5 per cent
is usually sufficient in the frit batch.
Zircon sand, both milled and granular, is added to
certain frits when control of texture, resistance to
crazing and color stability are required.
Zircon opacifjers are occasionally added to frit for
enamel cover coats and glazes, however, most zircon
opacifiers are added as mill additions to ceramic
glazes.
Antimony oxide and sodium antimonate are used as opaci-
fiers in some enamel for steel but are much more widely
used for enamels for cast iron.
is added to the enamel or glaze slip prior to
milling to aid in suspending frit, colors and other
materials.
Cryolite is added to some white formulations for cover
coat enameling.
Zinc oxide provides fluxing, reduces expansion, prevents
crazing and in general, adds luster to glazes.
Cobalt oxide promotes metal adhesion in ground coat
enamel. Because of its high price, it is added in small
amounts, usually less than 0.5 per cent of the frit.
Nickel oxide is also used primarily in ground coat
enamels. It is expensive and is only added in small
amounts of 0.5 to 3 per cent.
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A variety of other materials may also be used in enamels but
their application is limited. They include alumina, potash,
manganese dioxide, whiting and colors.
Basically, frit is manufactured by melting the raw materials
in a continuous or batch smelter and quenching the resultant
material. The batch materials are first mixed from dry
minerals or chemicals and then are transferred to the
smelter and heated to 980-1430°C (1800 to 2600°F) until
fused. The molten glass flows from the smelter to water
cooled rolls or into a direct water quench bath, where it is
chilled to about 95°C (200°F) in a few seconds. This
shatters the glass into tiny fragments called frit.
There are numerous frits available from suppliers, each
designed for specific applications, using different
proportions of raw materials. For example, one manufacturer
claims to have 150 working formulas and another, 75. In
addition, there are a number of custom-made frits for
individual enamelers or glazers.
=L=.2 Brick and Structural Clay Tile JSIC 3251^
Companies mining common clay and shale usually also manu-
facture building brick or other structural clay products.
Some of these companies have numerous plants, since the
economic shipping radius for the individual plants is
generally about 483-644 kilometers (300-400 miles). The
production of the principal structural clay products in the
United States for 1967 and 1972 is given in the table below.
The total number of plants involved in the 1972 production
is 417 of which 304 employ 20 or more workers.
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Amount
Product Units 1972 J967
Brick, except ceramic,
glazed and refractory:
building or common,
and face million bricks* 8,229 7,536
other brick (paving,
floor, and sewer) million bricks* 10.2 24.1
Glazed brick and struc-
tural hollow tile:
structural clay tile
except facing tile thousand metric 108 218
tons
(thousand tons) (119) (240)
facing tile
(structural) and
ceramic glazed brick:
ceramic glazed
facing tile and
brick million bricks* 132 248
unglazed and salt
glazed facing tile million tiles2 0.8 4.2
Brick and structural
clay tile, not elsewhere
classified million dollars 18.8 16.5
Equivalent brick - 5.72 cm. x 9.21 cm. x 19.37 cm.
(2-1/4 in. x 3-5/8 in. x 7-5/8 in.)
2Equivalent tile - 20.3 cm. x 12.7 cm. x 30.5 cm.
( 8 in. x 5 in. x 12 in.)
Brick and clay tile are produced by mixing finely ground
clay or shale with water, forming it into the desired shape,
drying, and burning. The raw ore is passed through a
"grizzly", a grid of steel rods, which serves as a coarse
screen. Rock and other undesirable materials are removed at
this point. The next stage, primary crushing, uses varying
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types of equipment depending on the nature of the raw
materials and the intended end product. For hard materials,
jaw crushers or gyratory crushers are often used, whereas
for softer material, single roll crushers with breaker pins
may be used. It is common practice to store enough raw
material for several days or weeks operation and several
storage areas are provided to permit blending the clays and
shales. This provides more uniform raw materials and aids
in controlling color and the suitability of the raw material
for making a given type of product. The maximum size of
pieces after the primary crushing operation varies from 7.62
to 15.24 cm. (3 to 6 inches). This material goes next to
the grinder which may be any of the following types:
gyratory, cone, jaw, roll,, or wet or dry pan. This is
usually a closed circuit operation in which the crushed
material is screened and the oversize material returned to
the secondary grinder. Material from this operation is, in
many cases, suitable for the forming operation. In the
structural clay industries finer grinding is not usually
needed.
If additional particle size reduction is needed after
grinding, a rod mill* tube mill^ ball mill, colloid mill,
disc pulverizer, vibratory millj, or hammer mill may be used.
If all the needed ingredients are added at this stage, a
very intimate mixture is produced. Either wet or dry
grinding may be used; the subsequent processing will dictate
which is used. Maximum density is normally desired in the
"green" (not dried) product to minimize the porosity and
shrinkage during drying and firing. Maximum density is
obtained by blending materials having a definite range of
particle sizes rather than using materials having a single
particle size.
The principal processes in use for forming brick and tile
are the "stiff-mud", "soft-mud% and "dry-press" processes.
The dry-press process is particularly adaptable for clays of
very low plasticity. It is rarely used in producing common
building brick, but often used in forming refractory brick
and special tile shapes. The clay, mixed with a minimum of
water, is formed in steel molds at pressures from 35 to
105 kg/cmz (500 to 1500 psi) .
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The "soft-mud" process is the oldest process for making
brick and tile and was used exclusively before the advent of
brick-making machines, but only a minor amount of brick is
now made in the U.S. by this process.
Nearly all structural clay tile and a very large percentage
of building brick are produced by the "stiff-mud" process.
The forming technique utilized in "stiff-mud" brick manu-
facture is extrusion. A stiff plastic mass is forced
through a die of the desired cross section, and the
continuous ribbon which emerges is cut to the specified
length or thickness by a device with rotating wires known as
a "wire cutter".
The above cold-forming processes carried out at ambient
temperatures are predominant in the structural clay products
industries. Cold-formed products must be made oversize due
to shrinkage during drying and firing. To impart the
desired properties to clay and ceramic products, thermal
treatment is necessary. The most popular equipment for
thermal treatment is the tunnel kiln which has zones of
increasing temperatures.
Although not common to all clay and ceramic products,
glazing is an important operation in many. This is a highly
specialized, carefully controlled procedure with two basic
variations, high-fired and low-fired glazing. High-fired
glazes are sprayed on units before or after drying and then
kiln-burned at normal firing temperatures. Low-fired glazes
are used to obtain colors which cannot be produced at high
temperatures. Glazes are composed of several mineral
ingedients that fuse together in a glass-like coating at a
given temperature.
When wet clay units leave the forming or cutting machines,
they contain from 7 to 30 per cent moisture. Most of this
water is evaporated in dryers at temperatures ranging from
about 40° to 200°C (104° to 392°F). Depending on the type
of clay, the drying time varies from 1 to 5 days. The heat
and humidity in the drying chambers must be carefully
regulated to avoid cracking the product.
Firing, the next operation, is one of the most specialized
steps in the manufacture of clay brick and tile and requires
from 40 to 150 hours. The kilns used are either continuous
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(e.g., tunnel) or periodic types. The rate of temperature
change is carefully controlled, and the kilns are equipped
with recording pyrometers to provide constant data. Near
the end of the firing cycle the units may be "flashed" to
produce color variations. From the maximum temperature, 2
to 3 days are required for proper cooling in periodic kilns,
but tunnel kilns seldom require more than 1 day.
3.2.3 Ceramic Wall and Floor Tile JSIC 3253)^
The quantities of ceramic wall and floor tile produced in
1967 and 1972 are given in the table below. The total
number of plants involved in the 1972 production was 82, of
which 55 had 20 or more employees.
Product
Ceramic mosaic tile and
accesories:
glazed [facial area less
than 38.7 sq. cm.
(6 sq. in.) ]
unglazed [facial area
less than 38.7 sq. cm.
(6 sq. in.) ]
Other glazed floor and
wall tile and accessories
Other unglazed floor and
wall tile and accessories
Quarry tile and promenade
tile
Units
million sq.
meters
(million sq. ft.)
million sq.
meters
(million sq. ft.)
million sq.
meters
(million sq. ft.)
million sq.
meters
(million sq. ft.)
million sq.
meters
(million sq. ft.)
1922
0.61
(6.57)
1267
0.72
(7.75)
3.30
(35.5)
20.2
(217.4)
0. 1U
(1.50)
2.96
(31.9)
2.79
(30.0)
18.0
(193.8)
not given
3.25
(35.0)
The processing of products under SIC 3251, brick and struc-
tural clay tile, is similar for the most part to that for
wall and floor tile. The points where they differ will be
covered below. The raw materials used for wall and floor
tiles are common clay and shale, talc and pyrophyllite, ball
clay, kaolin, fire clay, and feldspar. In making floor tile
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the object is to finish with a well-vitrified, low porosity
article which is abrasion-resistant. To this end such tiles
are well-fired and may contain more flux than glazed wall
tiles. Floor tiles are not generally glazed because a
typical glaze is not scratch-resistant. Special scratch-
resistant glazes for floor tile are sometimes used.
Wall or near-white tiles are usually made from a white tile
body, often colored for appearance, which is glazed to be
impermeable to water, and easily cleaned. The back of the
tile is not glazed to facilitate fixing to the wall with
cement or adhesive. Both floor and wall tiles are generally
formed by pressing in steel dies to conform accurately to
size»
lii* Clay, Refractories _£SIC 3255).
Clay firebrick and other heat-resistant clay products are
made from naturally occurring or only slightly beneficiated
raw materials. Fire clays are used either "as mined" or
after calcination during which the original clay minerals
are converted to mullite, 3A1203»2SiO£, and a siliceous
glass. High purity sedimentary kaolins are suitable for
refractories after calcination. The calcining or "dead
burning" referred to above is a high temperature heat
treatment used to drive off volatile constituents and to
create a "sinter" used to eliminate excessive shrinkage in
the subsequent final burned products or to assure volume
stability in unburned products. These calcined materials
are often called "grog". The calcining equipment is
commonly a rotary kiln, but may be a tunnel kiln, shaft
kiln, or periodic kiln.
Most clay refractory shapes are formed by the dry press
method. The feed for pressing comes from a wet-pan, a dry-
pan or muller-type mixer which tempers the feed material and
extrudes it through perforations in the pan bottom. This
mixture contains about 5 per cent moisture as it is fed to
the press.
The vast majority of refractory shapes are made with the use
of mechanical forming equipment; however, some very large or
intricate shapes require hand molding. This is usually done
in wooden, steel-lined molds with loose liners for easy
removal. Most refractory shapes are produced on a
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mechanical toggle press or a hydraulic press. The mold
cavity is filled with the damp mix to start the press cycle.
During the pressing cycle, some products such as fire clay
brick are deaerated with the use of vacuum on the mold to
produce a denser product. Some special shapes are produced
by air ramming which is similar to hand molding except that
reinforced steel molds are required and the damp mix is
slowly fed to the mold while the operators manually compact
the material with pneumatic rammers. A forming method
growing in popularity is the isostatic-press. Although the
production rate is low, the isostatic press achieves very
high forming pressures and a uniformly dense product.
Extremely large fire clay shapes are sometimes allowed to
dry on a temperature-controlled hot floor which is heated by
steam or air ducts imbedded in concrete. The equipment used
for burning fire clay refractories operates at around
1200°C. A kiln used in the refractory industry for brick
and shapes is the shuttle kiln. This consists of a firing
chamber with two or more kiln cars on which the ware to be
fired are placed. While one load of products is being
fired, the second is being set. The fired ware is removed
from the kiln and is replaced by the second car of unfired
refractories. This cycle is repeated.
One of the latest developments in the refractory industry is
the treatment of burned brick with a coal-tar pitch by
impregnation. The burned brick is placed in metal baskets
and heated to about 100°C above the melting point of the
pitch. The sealed impregnation unit is then evacuated to
remove air from the pores of the refractory, filled with hot
pitch, and the vacuum released. The fluid pitch thus enters
the evacuated pores of the refractory brick or shape. The
excess pitch is allowed to drain off and after cooling the
refractory is ready for shipment.
The pitch impregnation of refractories was originally
developed to enhance performance of basic (non-clay)
refractories in certain steel making processes. Pitch
impregnation is now, however, becoming increasingly widely
used with clay refractories. The production of clay
refractories for 1967 and 1972 is given in the table below.
The total number of plants involved in this production was
155, of which 101 had 20 or more employees.
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Product
Brick and Shapes:
Fireclay except superduty
Glass house pots, tank blocks,
feeder parts and upper struc-
ture shapes
Superduty fire clay brick and
shapes
High alumina brick and shapes
Ladle brick
Sleeves, nozzles, runner
brick and tuyeres
Insulating fire brick and
shapes
Hot top refractories
Refractory bonding mortars:
Air-setting wet and dry types
Except air-setting types
Plastic refractories and
ramming mixes
972 967
thousand 214.5 277.0
brick
equivalents*
thousand 67.8 78.5
brick
equivalents*
thousand 74.7 49.7
brick
equivalents*
thousand 194.3 187.2
brick
equivalents*
thousand 47.3 45.0
brick
equivalents*
thousand 44.7 59.3
brick
equivalents*
metric
tons
(tons)
metric
tons
(tons)
metric
tons
(tons)
metric
tons
(tons) .
22.2
(24.5)
60.8
(67.0)
7.8
(8.6)
158.2
(174.4)
42.9
(47.3)
57.0
(62.8)
13.3
(14.7)
172.5
(190.2
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Unit
1972
1967
Product
Castable refractories
(hydraulic setting):
Clay
Insulating
Other clay refractories in lump
or ground form
*Brick equivalents (standard - 6.35 cm x 11.43 cm x 22.86 cm)
(2-1/2 in x 4-1/2 in x 9 in)
3.S.5 Structural Clay Products^ Not Elsewhere Classified {SIC
32591
The quantity of products produced under SIC 3259 in 1967 and
1972 is given below. The total number of plants involved in
this production was 117 of which 69 had 20 or more
employees.
metric
tons
(tons)
metric
tons
(tons)
metric
tons
(tons)
174.7
(192.6)
40.5
(44.7)
334.8
(369.1)
146.8
(161.9)
35.6
(39.3)
204.4
(225.4)
Product
Vitrified clay sewer pipe and fittings
Other structural clay products:
drain tile
flue lining
1000 metric tons
1972 ~ 1967
1,600
247
132
1,350
716
155
other such as terra cotta, roofing tile, 204 (1970)
conduit, chimney pipe, wall coping and
adobe brick
The normal types of clay materials used are clays, shales,
and fire clays to provide special properties for a specific
structural clay product. Extrusion is the most common
forming method for structural clay products of this
111-19
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category. Processing techniques fall within those covered
in SIC 3251 and SIC 3255.
3^6 Vitreous China Plumbing Fixturest China and Earthenware
Fittings^ and Bathroom Accessories - ^SIC_32.61_i_
The quantities of products under SIC 3261 produced in 1967
and 1972 are given below. The total number of plants
involved was 61 of which 42 had 20 or more employees.
Product Units 1972 1967
Vitreous plumbing fixtures, million 257 149
total dollars
Lavatories thousand units 2,602 2,213
Water closet bowls:
syphon jet thousand units 4,112 2,976
washdown thousand units 94 717
reverse trap thousand units 2,763 1,386
Flush tanks thousand units 6,660 4,292
China and earthenware million 7.0 3.6
plumbing fixture acces- dollars
series and fittings
The normal forming method for products in this category is
called slip casting. The drain casting method is used for
large bodies of holloware such as wash basins, closet bowls,
and flush tanks. In drain casting the excess slip is poured
out after a wall of the desired thickness has built up. In
solid casting, the slip is replenished until a solid cast is
made. The casting slip is made by adding less than one per
cent of deflocculant, such as sodium carbonate or sodium
silicate, to a mixture of clays, fine-ground silica, and
fluxes with about 25 per cent water.
The glazing process is used to establish the vitreous
coating. In glazing, a slip is prepared of a water
suspension of crushed frit, flux, suspending agent,
refractory compound if desired, and coloring agents or
opacifiers. The glaze slip is applied by dipping, spraying
111-20
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or flow coating and then is tired at temperatures at which
it fuses into a continuous vitreous coating, coatings of
0.0075 - 0.05 centimeters are used for bathroom fixtures.
3..1 Vitreous China Table and Kitchen Articles JSIC_3262L and
Fine Earthenware (Whiteware) Table and Kitchen Articles
.(SIC 32631
The quantities of vitreous china table and kitchen articles
produced in 1967 and 1972 are given below. The total number
of plants involved in the 1972 production was 33 of which 20
had 20 or more employees.
Product Unit 1222. .
Vitreous china food utensils, million 82.0 60.6
total dollars
Vitreous china and porcelain
articles (feldspar and bone): million 2.2 0.6
tableware items-household dozen pieces
same-hotel or commercial million 5.7 8.0
dozen pieces
The type of clay used in the manufacture of vitreous china
table and kitchen articles is a mixture of kaolin, ball
clays, fine-ground silica, and fluxes, such as feldspar.
The most widely used process in forming the vitreous china
table articles is "jiggering". In this process, after
blunging and filter pressing, the body materials are deaired
and extruded into a column which is cut into slugs. A slug
of material is placed on a plaster mold which has the
surface contour of either the outside or inside of the ware.
The slug is forced into contact with the mold surface,
forming one surface of the ware. While the mold with the
clay body is revolving, the remaining surfaces are formed by
a template brought into contact with the clay. The ware is
partially dried before it is separated from the mold. In
the case of dinnerware shapes that are not adaptable to
jiggering, slip casting is used. A coating of glaze
material is applied by spraying or dipping before the ware
is dried and fired.
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The production of fine earthenware (whiteware) table and
kitchen articles is basically the same as SIC 3262. A clay
body formulation is used including kaolin, fine-ground
silica, ball clay, and fluxes such as feldspar, nepheline
syenite, or talc. The end products are somewhat thicker
than vitreous china articles and have little or no
translucency.
The quantity or value of fine earthenware food utensils for
1967 and 1972 is given below. The total number of plants
involved in the 1972.production was 18 of which 15 employed
20 or more workers.
Product Units 1972 1967
Fine earthenware food million 58.1 16.7
utensils dollars
Tableware for serving-* million 13.9 22.9
household and commercial dozen pieces
Kitchenware, household and million 0.4 not given
commercial/for cooking, dozen pieces
preparing, and storing million 2.5 2.1
dollars
3^8 Porcelain Electrical Supplies JSIC 3264)_
The quantities or values of porcelain electrical supplies
produced in 1967 and 1972 are given below. The total number
of plants involved in the 1972 production was 81 of which 62
had 20 or more employees.
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Porcelain electrical
supplies, total
High-voltage porce-
lain (wet process)
Products shipped as
complete insulators:
low-voltage one-
piece pintype
high-voltage pin-
type and line
posts
suspension type
insulators:
19 cm. disc
and smaller
larger than
19 cm. disc
switch and bus
insulators
all other insula-
tors
High-voltage porcelain
(wet and dry process)
products for component
parts, spark plugs,
etc.
Steatite electrical
products
Ceramic permanent
magnets
Alumina materials for
electronic use
Ferrite, beryllia,
titanate and other
ceramic electrical
products
Unit
million
dollars
million
dollars
million
dollars
million
units
million
units
million
dollars
million
dollars
L.
million
dollars
million
dollars
million
dollars
million
dollars
million
dollars
1972 J967
254.8 188.6
5.0 6.0
9.8 11.3
4.7 3.7
5.3 6.4
19.9 20.9
12.7 8.7
84.0 58.3
16.4 13.4
6.7
42.7 26.8
19.3 not g
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The electrical porcelain industry is quite extensive. The
composition of high-voltage electrical porcelain approxi-
mates 50 per cent of clay material, (primarily ball clays
and kaolin), 25 per cent finely-ground quartz, and 25 per
cent feldspar. In low-voltage porcelains other ingredients
are also used, such as whiting and talc.
Many porcelain ceramic compositions have been developed.
The power lost in standard porcelain at radio frequencies
was excessive, and was traced to the sodium and potassium in
the fluxes used in porcelain. This led to a new material
known as steatite which is a mixture of magnesium, aluminum,
and silicon oxides prepared from the proper mixture of clay
and talc. Steatite bodies are widely used in radio
equipment and insulation. Other electrical ceramics are
titanium dioxide, widely used for capacitors; barium
titanate, an ultra-dielectric-constant ceramic; and lead
titanate-zirconate, a ceramic piezo-electric which can be
used at higher temperatures than barium titanate.
1-.9 Pottery. Products, Not Elsewhere Classified, JSIC 3269)
The values of pottery products, not elsewhere classified
(n.e.c.), produced in 1967 and 1972 are given below. The
total number of plants involved in the 1972 production was
425 of which 94 had 20 or more employees.
111-24
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Product
Pottery products, n.e.c., total
Art, decorative and novelty ware,
including vases, lamp bases, figures,
plaques, book ends, garden pottery,
and ash trays
Earthenware and stoneware
Chemical, industrial and technical
potteryware
Red unglazed earthenware
(flowerpots, etc.)
All other pottery products
China decorating for trade
Pottery products, not identified
completely
Tota^Product Shipments
ilZ2 ~ ™ 1267
(million $)
146.3
30.5
96.0
25.2
41.8
14.7
8.7
6.3
not given
36.5
21.6
15.0
5.8
4.0
1.5
20.9
Variances from pottery products elsewhere classified is in
firing and decorating wares and in many cases in the
materials used. Chemical porcelain is resistant to attack
by corrosive chemical substances and is used in chemical
processing. When not vitrified, the ware is called chemical
stoneware. Raw materials for chemical porcelain include
plastic and non-plastic fire clays and kaolins, silica,
feldspar, alumina, talc, and metal salts and oxides. Body
compositions and glazes are designed to be resistant to
acids and alkalies. The processing is similar to that for
other ceramic products.
Porous ceramics for use as filtering media are formed by
many of the conventional ceramic processes but care must be
taken to avoid unevenness of pore distribution. Several
methods are used to achieve this. The ceramic components
can be mixed with organic particles which burn out during
firing, leaving a porous mass. The pores may also be formed
by underfiring a regular ceramic composition.
111-25
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ItJO Gypsum Productsx 1§£C 3275V
The quantities of gypsum products made in 1967 and 1972 are
given below. The total number of plants involved in the
1972 production was 114 of which 84 had 20 or more
employees.
1000 metric, tons (thousand tons)^
Product ~ 1972 1967
Calcined gypsum building materials,. 13,180 7,880
building plasters and prefabricated (14,530) (8,690)
building materials
Other calcined gypsum products 1,207 712
(1,330) (785)
The basis for this industry is the mineral gypsum which is a
hydrous calcium sulfate, normally formed from marine
evaporites. Because of economic factors, primarily
transportation, much of the gypsum used at plants near
coastal ports is imported, some industrial gypsum, but not
a significant amount, may be derived as a by-product from
phosphoric acid manufacture.
On calcination (partial dehydration) gypsum provides plaster
of paris which is used mainly for building materials and
also for diversified industrial purposes. This accounts for
approximately two-thirds of the consumption of gypsum.
Another use for plaster of paris is the formation of molds
used in slip-casting of clay products. Uncalcined gypsum is
used in cement production to retard the setting rate, in
agriculture as soil conditioner, and in small amounts for
other industrial purposes. In Europe, gypsum is used in the
production of sulfuric acid, and during 1969 a plant to use
gypsum as a source of sulfur was completed in the United
States,
Gypsum is hydrous calcium sulfate with the composition
CaSO4«2H2O. It is only slightly soluble in water. Most
gypsum used commercially is a massive fine-to-medium-grained
material known as rock gypsum. The finest grained, white,
often translucent grade of rock gypsum is called alabaster.
Anhydrous calcium sulfate occurs as the mineral anhydrite
111-26
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and is considered to be the equivalent of gypsum. In the
presence of water it undergoes hydration at a very slow
rate.
The property of commercial importance for gypsum is the loss
of three-fourths of the combined water of hydration when
heated to about 160°C (calcination), yielding CaSO4«1/2H2O.
When this is mixed with water it can be readily molded to
desired shapes and then becomes rigid upon reverting to
CaSO4«2H2O.
Operational Techniques Used by_ the Gy.p.sum Industry Sub-
sequent to Milling ~
(a) Dry Calcining - Most calcining of gypsum is done in
large steel kettles, 2.44 to 9.57 meters (8 to 15 feet)
in diameter and 1.83 to 4.27 meters (6 to 14 feet) deep,
with charging and discharging ports. Heating is from a
firebox with a flow of hot gases in an annular space
around the sides and through horizontal flues in the
interior of the kettles. The temperature is kept
constant somewhat above 100°C (212°F) for the batch of
ground gypsum until calcination is completed, about
2-1/2 hours. The temperature is then increased rapidly
to about 160°C (320°F) at which point the batch is
withdrawn. This product is called "first boil" or
"first settle" stucco. Continued application of heat
results in the anhydrous form at about 190°C (374°F) and
is called "second settle" stucco. Stucco is also made
in flash calcination process by an impact hammer mill
with a flow of hot furnace gases, or by calcining in a
rotary kiln.
(b) Autoclave Calcining - The autoclave process is similar
in principal to a pressure cooker. Milled gypsum is
mixed with water, loaded into steel autoclaves,
calcined, and dried in vaccum filters to form an alpha-
gypsum hemi-hydrate. This product is not used in
wallboard manufacture.
(c) Product Preparation - Gypsum building plaster is
prepared by regrinding first settle stucco and then
adding certain organic substances to control the time of
setting to somewhere between 2 and 6 hours. At the same
time other materials such as hair or sisal fiber and
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pigments for color may be added. Special mixes with
such aggregates as asbestos, cork, perlite, sand,
vermiculite, and wood fiber are prepared by suitable
additions.
Prefabricated forms such as wallboard, lath, sheathing, and
tile are produced at facilities connected with calcining
plants. The sheet products are made on high-speed machines
.that spread a plaster core between sheets of tough surface
paper and cut the resultant, strips to desired dimensions.
After the initial set has been obtained, the products are
dried in specially designed kilns.
3.11
Non-Clay. Refractories, JSIC 3297)
The quantities of non-clay refractories produced in 1967 and
1972 are given below. The total number of plants involved
in the 1972 production was 92 of which 63 had 20 or more
employees.
Product
Brick and Shapes:
Silica brick and shapes
Magnesite and mag-
nesite-chrome brick
and shapes
Graphite crucibles,
retorts and other
shaped refractories
with natural graphite
Mullite brick and shapes
Extra high alumina brick
shapes
Unit
million brick
equivalents
million brick
equivalents
thousand
metric tons
million brick
equivalents
million brick
equivalents
1972
32.4
106.4
14.3
4.5
2.5
1967
71.0
116.0
15.1
6.9
2.9
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Product
Silicon carbide kiln
furniture
Other silicon carbide
brick and shapes
Zircon and zirconia
brick and shapes
Forsterite, pyrophyllite,
molten-rcast dolomite and
non-clay items
Unit
million brick
equivalents
million brick
equivalents
million brick
equivalents
million brick)
equivalents )
Carbon refractory brick, million brick)
block, and shapes equivalents )
(excluding natural graphite) )
Mortars:
Basic bonding mortars
Other non-clay refrac-
tory mortars
Non-Clay Refractory
Castables
Plastic Refractories and
Ramming Mixes:
Basic magnesite, dolomite
or chrome ore pre-
dominating
thousand metric
tons (thousand
tons)
thousand metric
tons (thousand
tons)
thousand metric
tons (thousand
tons)
thousand metric
tons (thousand
tons)
12.11
1.3
2.0
1.8
12£
1.2
2.8
1.5
33.9 25.7
(37. 4) (28.3)
10.4
(11.5)
27.1
(29.9)
44.7
(49.3)
117.2
(129.2)
72.5
(79.9)
28.7
(31.6)
28.6
(31.5)
40.5
(44.7)
111-29
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Product Unit 1222 1967
Others thousand metric 73.4 52.3
tons (thousand (80.9) (57.7)
tons)
Non-Clay Gunning Mixes thousand metric 275.0 233.3
tons (thousand (303.2) (257.2)
tons)
Other Non-Clay Refractory thousand metric 310.8 116.a
Materials Sold in Lump or tons (thousand (342.7) (128.3)
Ground Form tons)
To a large extent the technology used in making refractory
clay items (SIC 3255) is used in non-clay refractory items.
To the extent that such technology is not applicable, the
differences will be covered briefly below.
The key factor that differentiates this category from
SIC 3255 is in the types of refractory raw materials.
Although some are related to clay, most are not. The
principal raw materials for non-clay refractories are listed
below:
(a) Silica - The most common siliceous raw materials are
ganister, a high-purity dense quartzite, and silica
gravels. These materials are often further purified by
washing to form the raw material for superior silica
brick which have minimal impurities.
(b) High-Alumina Raw Materials - The naturally occurring raw
materials in this group are bauxite, the sillimanite
mineral group, and diaspore clays. Bauxites consist
mainly of the mineral gibbsite, A1(OH)3, and varying
amounts of kaolinite, and smaller amounts of iron and
titania. Since the loss on ignition is high, bauxite
can be best used in refractories only after calcination
at high temperatures. In this process it is converted
to a dense grain composed mainly of corundum, A12O3, and
mullite, 3A12O3»2SiO2. Only small deposits of siliceous
bauxite and bauxitic kaolins for refractory purposes are
found in the United States.
111-30
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The sillimanite minerals are sillimanite, andalusite,
and kyanite which have the chemical formula A1203*Si02
and convert on heating to a mixture of mullite and a
siliceous glass. Only kyanite is mined in commercial
quantities in the United States.
(c) Zirconia Raw Materials - Zircon, ZrSiO4, is the most
widely occurring zirconium-bearing mineral, found widely
dispersed in various igneous rocks and in zircon sands.
Zircon can be used without treatment as a refractory or
as a source of zirconia, ZrO2. A troublesome property
of zirconia is its volume instability around 1,000°C.
However, by adding impurities with a cubic structure
such as magnesia, zirconia can be transformed into a
cubic crystal phase stable at all temperatures.
(d) Basic Raw Materials - Calcined or "dead-burned"
magnesite is obtained by firing natural magnesium
carbonate at 1540° to 2000°C (2804° to 3632°F). This
produces a dense product composed primarily of the
mineral periclase, MgO. Calcium,, silica, and alumina-
bearing phases occur as accessory minerals in natural
magnesite. MgO is also obtained from sea water and
certain well brines.
Dolomite - Naturally occurring dolomite, CaMg(CO3)2., is
usually calcined to form a refractory grain consisting
primarily of the oxides of magnesium and calcium.
Calcined dolomite will take up water and carbon dioxide
and eventually disintegrate. The presence of fluxes
such as SiO2, Fe2O3, and A12O3 both increases resistance
to hydration and sharply reduces the fusion point of the
dolomite.
Chrome Ore - The Cr2O3-bearing spinel materials are
imported. These are generally used in combination with
magnesite.
(e) Carbon - Coke from various sources is the chief raw
material for carbon refractories. Graphite is the form
of carbon which is the mainstay of these materials. In
the preparation of graphite, petroleum coke is the major
raw material since, of all readily available forms of
carbon, it develops a higher degree of crystallinity
upon treatment at temperatures of 2500°C or higher and
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it is considered the most graphitizable. Control of the
coking operation both from the standpoint of the
chemical nature of the residues charged to the coking
units and the conditions maintained during the coking
process are important in determining the quality of the
coke. The graphitizability of petroleum coke is
established by the conditions maintained in the coking
operation. Only a small percentage of all the petroleum
coke made in the United states is suitable for the
graphite industry, depending on the ash,, sulfur, and
volatiles content and crystallographic structure. In
addition to the carbon raw material, binders are
necessary which may be coal tarj, pitch, or a number of
polymeric materials. Additive materials used include
sulfur, iron oxides, and organic lubricants.
The manufacturing methods for production of non-clay
refractory brick and shapes beyond the raw-material
processing in many cases follow the procedures for clay
refractories (SIC 3255); i.e.,, crushing and grinding,
screening, mixing and tempering,, forming, drying, and
burning. However, in using some of the refractory raw
materials listed above, the manufacturing steps are preceded
by sintering or fusing to convert materials to a stable
crystalline form and to produce a more homogeneous material
of very low porosity. This is true of high-purity alumina,
bauxite, silica, zirconia, and combinations of periclase and
chrome.
In the mixing and tempering steps there are certain pieces
of equipment which are unique to certain types of
refractories and also dependent on the forming process to be
used. In the case of pitch-bonded basic brick production,
the mixer used is frequently heated and rubber-lined. This
type of basic refractories was developed primarily for the
basic oxygen method of making steel. The refractory raw
materialse dead-burned magnesites or dolomite, are heated to
around 150°C and then charged to a heated mixing pan. Then
a hot coal-tar pitch is added and after a short mixing
period the batch is fed as required to the forming
equipment.
Many of the chemically-bonded basic brick are encased in
steel plates. During the pressing operation this is
accomplished where preformed steel plates are placed in the
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press mold box and on the press head and held in place by
magnets. The mold box is charged with the mix and the
plates become an integral part of the brick upon pressing.
Super- refractories include the carbides of such elements as
silicon, boron, zirconium, hafnium, tantalum, vanadium,
molybdenum, tungsten, and niobium and the borides of some of
the high-melting metals. For use above 250 0°C (453 2°F) in
vacuo, the carbides and borides of the high-melting metals
are about the only known suitable materials because of their
low volatility.
3il2 Refractory Magnesia MaQL JSIC 3295^
Refractory magnesium oxide (magnesia) is obtained by
calcining magnesium carbonate (magnesite) from natural
sources or by calcining magnesium hydroxide precipitated
from brine solutions.
Dead-burned magnesia is the product obtained by firing
magnesite or other substances convertible to magnesia.
Dead-burned magnesia is a necessary refractory for the
production of steel and many non-ferrous metals. Prior to
World War I, magnesia was not produced in significant
quantities in the United States. Instead, the industry
needs were met by imports,, primarily from Austrici and
Hungary.
Today the bulk of domestic production of magnesia is
obtained from calcining magnesium hydroxide precipitated
from magnesium salt solutions such as those found in sea
water or in well brines. In 1972, 825,000 metric tons
(909,000 tons) of magnesium hydroxide was produced from sea
water and well brines. Most of the magnesium hydroxide was
used in the production of magnesia for basic refractories.
Total production of refractory grade magnesia in 1972 is
reported to be 522,000 metric tons (576,000 tons).
The major commercial sources of refractory grade magnesia
from sea water are located in California, New Jersey,
Mississippi, and Florida, while magnesia from well brines is
produced primarily in Michigan and Texas, although well
brines are known to occur in many other areas.
111-33
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In the synthetic plants which manufacture magnesia by
precipitating and calcining magnesium hydroxide, the basic
operations are similar. In these plants, calcined dolomite
or lime is reacted with magnesium salt solutions to
precipitate magnesium hydroxide. The selection of the
reactants is determined primarily by economic
considerations. After the reactants are established for a
given plant, the limitations of pumping and thickening
equipment are set. Changes to a more dilute reactant can be
accomplished only at the sacrifice of production capacity.
In plants using lime as reactant, all of the magnesia comes
from the salt solution and large brine feed handling and
treating systems and thickening equipment for the
precipitate are required. In plants using dolomite, one
half of the magnesia comes from dolomite and the remaining
half from the sea water or brine.
In the sea water magnesia plants, the brine is first treated
with a small amount of slaked dolomite to precipitate the
soluble bicarbonates as calcium carbonate to insure product
purity during the precipitation of magnesium hydroxide.
Otherwise, calcium carbonate will settle from solution
during the magnesium hydroxide precipitation. The calcium
carbonate sludge is next removed by a thickener. The sea
water, thus purified, is then reacted with calcined dolomite
and the resulting magnesium hydroxide is washed and
thickened in a countercurrent system to remove calcium
chloride and to concentrate the magnesium hydroxide slurry.
In the well brine magnesia plants, the brine is pumped to
the surface from well depths of 760 to 1070 meters (2500 to
3500 feet). There are no sulfates or bicarbonates which
have to be removed from the brine. The brine is reacted
either with calcined dolomite or lime to precipitate
magnesium hydroxide. The slurry is next pumped to a series
of circular clarifiers where the product settles and the
remainder of the solution which includes large quantities of
chlorides is discharged as wastewater. The rest of the
magnesium hydroxide processing steps are parallel, with
minor differences, to the ones used by the sea water
magnesia plants. The magnesium hydroxide is dewatered,
after which it is combined with silica, iron, and lime,
conveyed to rotary kilns, and fired at temperatures that may
be as high as 1850°C (3360°F) to produce an intermediate
grade magnesite grain (88 per cent pure magnesia). This
111-34
DRAFT
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DRAFT
product is screened, crushed, and milled to several basic
sizes. A variety of chemical binders and plasticizers is
then added to different grain size combinations to produce
magnesia products with specific refractory properties for
steelmaking furnaces.
High-purity magnesium hydroxide is fired at temperatures
from 871° to 1426°C (1600° to 2600°F) for specific periods
of time to produce 98.5 per cent pure magnesia. By varying
the degree and time of burn in the kiln, the magnesia
produced ranges from soft-burned to hard-burned, and from
chemically reactive to relatively inert. The magnesia is
screened and milled to different mesh sizes. This
production flexibility allows magnesia to be custom-made for
any specific application.
High-rpurity, high-temperature periclase is produced in a
two-stage firing process. The magnesium hydroxide is first
calcined into magnesia at 1038°C (1900°F), then briquetted
under high pressures and retired at temperatures exceeding
2200°C (4000°F). The fired periclase briquettes are ground
and screened into high-temperature, refractory products.
tt.O PRODUCTION OF CLAY. GYPSUM^ REFRACTORY AND CERAMIC
PRODUCTS
The 1972 production and employment figures for the
industries producing clay, gypsum, refractory and ceramic
products were derived either from the Bureau of the Census
(US Department of Commerce) publications or from data
developed during this study. These figures are tabulated in
Table III-1.
111-35
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SIC Code
2899
3251
3253
3255
3259
3261
3262, 3263,
and part
of 3269
Table III-1
1972 Production,
Product
Frit 107,000
(118,000)
Brick and Structural —
Clay Tile
(unglazed brick) 15,000,000
(16,530,000)
(structural clay 107,700
tile except facing) (118,700)
(facing tile,
including glazed
brick)
Ceramic Wall and
Floor Tile
(quarry and paver
tile)
(mosaic tile)
(other wall and
floor tile mostly
glazed)
Clay Refractories
Structural Clay
Products, N.E.C.
Vitreous China
Plumbing Fixtures
China, Earthenware
and Pottery
211,000
(233,000)
89,500
(98,700)
47,840
(52,750)
298,000
(328,500)
3,750,000
(4,300,000)
1,982,000
(2,185,000)
452,000
(500,000)
252,000
(277,300)
Employment
unknown
20,500
6,800
8,400
6,800
8,600
unknown
111-36
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1972 Production,
SIC Code Product kkg {tops)
3264 Porcelain Elec- — 10,800
trical Supplies 36,000
(dry process) (40,000)
(wet process) 150,000
(165,000)
3269 Technical Ceramics 63,500 unknown
(70,000)
3275 Gypsum Products 9,400,000 9,000
(dry dust collec- (10,400,000)
tion)
(wet dust collec- 450,000
tion) (500,000)
(autoclave calci- 1,000,000
nation) (1,100,000)
3295 Refractory Magnesia 312,500 *
(seawater) (344,500)
(brine wells) 350,000
(386,000)
3297 Non-Clay Refractories 6,600
(graphite and 143,000
carbon) (158,000)
(basic brick 618,300
and shapes) (681,700)
(monolithics) 858,700
(946,500)
(silica refrac- 110,200
tories) (121,500)
(mullite and zir- 23,900
con pressed and (26,300)
cast)
^Included in the employment figure for non-clay refractories.
111-37
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DRAFT
1972 Production,
SIC Code Product kkg ^tons)^
3297 Non-Clay Refractories
(continued)
(mullite and zir- 18,000
con fused cast) (19,800)
(silicon carbides 18,000
and oxides) (19,800)
(dolomite grain 170,500
and brick) (188,000)
111-38
DRAFT
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SECTION IV
INDUSTRY CATEGORIZATION
ls.0 INTRODUCTION
In the development of effluent limitations guidelines and
recommended standards of performance for new sources in a
particular industry, consideration should be given to
whether the industry can be treated as a whole in the
establishment of uniform and equitable guidelines for the
entire industry or whether there are sufficient differences
within the industry to justify its division into categories.
For the clay, gypsum, refractory and ceramic products
industries, which include twelve products, the following
factors were considered as possible justifications for
industry categorization and subcategorization:
(1) manufacturing processes;
(2) raw materials;.
(3) pollutants in effluent wastewaters;
(4) product purity;
(5) water use volume;
(6) plant size;
(7) plant age; and
(8) plant location.
2.0 INDUSTRY CATEGORIZATION
These industries were categorized on a commodity basis.
Each commodity encompasses some or all of the
above-mentioned criteria (processing, raw materials, etc.).
However, some differences do exist within a given commodity,
e.g., dry and wet processing of porcelain electrical
supplies. Differences such as these were used as a basis
for subcategorization. Table IV-1 lists the twelve
IV-1
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categories and twenty-five subcategories discussed in this
report.
TABLE IV-1
Industry Categorization
SIC^Gode Category Subcategory
Commodity
Frit 2899
Brick and Struc- 3251
tural Clay Tile
Ceramic Wall and 3253
Floor Tile
Clay Refractories 3255
Structural Clay 3259
Products, N. E. C.
Vitreous China 3261
Plumbing Fixtures
China, Earthenware 3262, 3263,
and Pottery 3269
Porcelain Elec-
trical Supplies
3264
Technical Ceramics 3269, 3264
Gypsum Products 3275
Non-Clay Refrac-
tories
3297
1
2
11
None
None
3.1 Unglazed
3.2 Glazed
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
None
5.1 Dry
5.2 Wet
None
None
8.1 Dry
8.2 Wet
None
10.1 Dr^
Scrubbing
r dust coL
10.2 Wet dust collection
10.3 Autoclave calcination
11.1 Refractory Graphite
and Carbon Brick and
Shapes
11.2 Basic (Chromite and
Magnesite) Brick and
Shapes
11.3 Clay and Non-clay
Monolithics
IV-2
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Commodity glC^Code Category Subcateqory
Non-Clay Refrac- 3297 11 11.4 Silica Refractories
tories 11.5 Mullite and Zircon
Refractories
11.5.1 Pressed and Cast
11.5.2 Fused Cast
11.6 Silicon Carbide and
Oxide Refractories
11.7 Dolomite Grain and
Brick
Refractory 3295 12 12.1 Seawater
Magnesia 12.2 Well brine
3.0 FACTORS CONSIDERED
3., 1 Manufacturing Processes
The processes generally used in the clay, gypsum, refractory
and ceramic products industries include dry mixing, forming,
and firing; wet mixing, forming and firing; and in some
products glazing is used before final firing. Each of these
processes is described in detail in Section V of this
report, including process flow diagrams pertinent to the
specific facilities using the processes.
Upon examination of the various processes and wastes
generated therefrom, it is evident that the process was
justification for subcategorization of the industry but not
for major segmentation of the industry.
3^2 Raw Materials
The raw materials used are principally clays and minerals,
which vary across these industries and also vary within a *
given product. Raw materials are not a suitable basis for
categorization.
3^3 Pollutants in Effluent
The principal pollutant from these industries is total
suspended solids. There are occasional limited instances of
deleterious materials, specifically, lead, zinc and other
heavy metal compounds from glazing operations. Although
IV-3
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suspended solids are ubiquitous, the treatability of the
effluents varies widely, depending heavily, among other
things, upon the other constituents present in the raw
materials. Because of the across-the-board presence of
suspended solids, distinguished by widely varying degress of
treatability, pollutants in the effluent were not judged to
be an adequate basis for categorization.
3.4 Product Purity
The manufacturing processes covered in this report yield
products which vary in purity. Product purity was not
considered to be a viable criterion for categorization of
the industry. Pure product manufacture usually generates
more waste than the production of lower grades of material,
and thus may be a basis for subcategorization.
^i.5 Water Use Volume
In these industries, water use is determined by the needs of
the individual facility and varies greatly depending mainly
on the manufacturing process used. For the manufacturing
processes studied herein, water use varies from zero to
566,000 liters per metric ton of product.
Water use was not considered to be a workable criterion for
industry categorization.
3._6 Plant Size
For these industries, information was obtained from more
than 100 different manufacturing sites. Capacity varied
from as little as 0.5 metric tons per day to 1,600 metric
tons per day. The variance of this factor was so great that
plant size was not felt to be useful in categorizing these
industries.
liZ Plant Age
The newest plant studied was less than a year old and the
oldest was 104 years old. There is no correlation between
plant age and the ability to treat process wastewater to
acceptable levels of pollutants. Therefore, plant age was
not an acceptable criterion for categorization.
IV-4
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3..8 Plant Location
The locations of the more than 109 manufacturing sites
studied are in 37 states spread from coast to coast and
north to south.
Some plants are located in arid regions of the country,
allowing the use of evaporation ponds and surface disposal
on the plant site. Other plants are located near raw
material mineral deposits which are highly localized in
certain areas of the country.
Geographical location was not found to be an acceptable
criterion for categorization.
IV-5
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SECTION V
WATER USE AND WASTE CHARACTERIZATION
JUO INTRODUCTION
This section discusses the specific water uses in the clay,
gypsum, refractory and ceramic products industries and the
amounts of process waste materials contained in these
waters. The process wastes are characterized as raw waste
loads from specific processes in the manufacture of the
products involved in this study and are generally given in
terms of kilograms per metric ton of product. The specific
water uses and amounts are generally given in terms of
liters per metric ton of product. Where appropriate, the
water uses and raw waste loads are given in either liters
per day (GPD) or concentration, mg/liter. The treatments
used by the facilities studied are specifically described
and the amount and type of waterborne waste effluent after
treatment is characterized.
The verification sampling data measured at specific
facilities for several subcategories is set forth in
Supplement B of this report.
lz.0 SPECIFIC WATER USES
Water is used in the clay, gypsum, refractory and ceramic
products industries for seven principal purposes falling
under three major characterization headings. The principal
water uses are:
(1) Non-contact cooling water
(2) Process water - wash water
transport water
scrubber water
process and product consumed water
miscellaneous water
(3) Auxiliary processes water
Non-contact cooling water is defined as that cooling water
which does not come into direct contact with any raw
V-1
DRAFT
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DRAFT
material, intermediate product, by-product or product used
in or resulting from the process.
Process water is defined as that water which, during the
manufacturing process comes into direct Contact with any raw
material, intermediate product, by-product or product used
in or resulting from the process.
Auxiliary processes water is defined as that used for
processes necessary for the manufacture of a product but not
contacting the process materials. For example, boiler water
and flush testing water for vitreous china plumbing fixtures
are auxiliary processes.
The quantity of water use for facilities in the clay,
gypsum, refractory and ceramic products industries ranges
from zero to 95,000,000 liters per day (0 to
25,000,000 gallons per day). The plants using very large
quantities of water use it for magnesia production from
seawater or well brine. The small magnesium content of the
intake water necessitates using large quantities of water.
2«.! Non-Contact Cool ing Water
The largest use of non-contact cooling water in this segment
of the clay, gypsum, refractory and ceramic products
industries is for the cooling of equipment, such as kilns,
pumps and air compressors, and seals such as for vacuum
pumps.
2.2 Contact Cooling Water
Large quantities of contact cooling quench water are used in
frit production. Relatively small amounts of contact water
are used for saw blade cooling in other categories.
2-.3 Wash Water
This water also comes under the heading of process water
because it comes into direct contact with either the raw
material or products. Examples of this type of water use
are mold washing and filter cake washing. Waste effluents
can arise from these washing sources, due to the fact that
the resultant solution or suspension may contain pollutants
or may be too dilute a solution to reuse or recover.
V-2
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2j.it Transport Water
Water is widely used in the clay, gypsum, refractory and
ceramic products industries to transport the slip between
various process steps.
2^5 Scrubber Water
Particularly in the dry manufacturing of many of the
products in these industries, wet scrubbers are used for air
pollution control. These scrubbers are primarily used on
dryers, smelters, grinding mills, screens, conveyors and
packaging equipment.
Process and Product Consumed Water
Process water is primarily used in these industries during
wet screening, blunging, pug milling, and slip preparation.
The largest volume of water is used in the latter three
operations. Product consumed water is either evaporated or
shipped with the product.
2.7 Miscellaneous Water
These water uses vary widely among the facilities with
general use for floor washing and cleanup, safety showers
and eye wash stations and sanitary uses. The resultant
streams are either not contaminated or only slightly
contaminated with wastes. The general practice is to
discharge such streams without treatment or combine with
process water prior to treatment.
Another miscellaneous water use in this industry involves
the use of sprays to control dust at crushers and
stockpiles. This water is usually low volume and is either
evaporated or absorbed in the raw material.
2.8 Auxiliary Processes Water
Auxiliary processes water include blowdowns from cooling
towers, boilers and water treatment. The volume of water
used for these purposes in this industry is minimal.
V-3
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3j.O PROCESS WASTE CJARACTJRJZAT.ION
The clay, gypsum, refractory and ceramic products are
generally discussed in SIC Code numerical sequence in this
section. For each product the following information is
given:
— a short description of the processes at the
facilities studied and pertinent flow diagrams;
— raw waste load data per unit weight of product;
— water consumption data per unit weight of product;
— specific plant waste effluents found and the
post-process treatments used to reduce them.
ls.1 Frit - (SIC 2899)
Plants producing frit are classified under SIC 2899
(Miscellaneous Chemicals, Not Elsewhere Classified). These
plants are primarily engaged in the manufacture of merchant
frit for glazes and vitreous enamel. When the frit is
applied to a metal base, it is called a porcelain enamel
frit. When it is applied to a ceramic base, it is called a
glaze frit. The chemical composition of the frit differs
depending upon the application.
There are eleven plants engaged in the merchant production
of frit, with an additional plant under construction. There
are only eight merchant producers of frit, however, several
other large companies produce frit for captive consumption
in enameling cast iron or for ceramic glazes. The captive
plants are not included in this category.
All plants in this subcategory were contacted. Information
was obtained on seven plants. Five plants were visited and
one plant was sampled. The data base represents
approximately 60 per cent of the 1974 production. Plant
ages range from 3 to 72 years. Category production of
merchant frit was 107,000 metric tons (117,900 tons) in
1972. The production of individual plants is considered by
the producers to be confidential information. The range of
plant production was twentyfold.
V-U
DRAFT
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DRAFT
3-s.lii Process Description
The raw materials are a wide variety of minerals and
inorganic chemicals, because of the large number of
individual formulations and diverse applications of frit.
The major raw materials include:
Borax Lithium carbonate Copper oxide
Boric acid Spodumene Iron oxide
Silica Magnesium carbonate Lead monoxide (litharge)
Soda ash Calcium carbonate Manganese dioxide
China Clay Barium carbonate Nickel oxide
Ball Clay Potassium carbonate Titanium dioxide
Feldspar Potassium nitrate Zinc oxide
Nepheline syenite Sodium nitrate Monosodium phosphate
Fluorspar Antimony oxide Zircon
Potassium silico- Hydrated alumina Whiting
fluoride Cobalt oxide Wollastonite
Sodium silico-
fluoride
The raw materials are batched for specific formulations. At
some plants this operation is controlled automatically,
while at others it is a manual operation. The proportioned
batches are dry mixed, then fed to a gas, oil or electric
fired smelter. Each plant contains a number of smelters,
which may be batch-type or continuous. The smelting
temperature is adjusted to the requirement of each
formulation, but generally is in the range of 980 to 1430°C
(1800~2600°F). In the continuous operation, the batched
formulations are charged to one end of the smelter, melted
and drained from the opposite end. The molten glassy
material flows either onto rotating water cooled rolls or
into a flowing water quench bath.
In the batch operation, a formulation is charged to a
smelter, melted, the smelter is tapped and the melt drained
into a perforated basket in a water quench tank. After
cooling, the perforated basket is removed from the quench
tank, drained and air dried.
The roller quenched frit emerges from the rollers in a thin
sheet, typically 0.76 to 1.52 mm (30-60 mils) in thickness.
These sheets are broken into flakes in crushers, spray
washed, weighed and bagged for shipment. The water quenched
V-5
DRAFT
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DRAFT
frit is broken into fragments when the melt is suddenly
cooled in the flowing water quench bath. The quenched frit
is then dried, weighed and bagged for shipment. For some
products, an additional dry grinding step is employed before
bagging. Figure 1 shows a typical frit manufacturing
process.
3.1.2 Raw Waste Load
The waterborne wastes from these plants are suspended solids
of the fused raw materials in contact cooling wastewater and
fluoride and volatile raw materials in the wet scrubber
discharge from air pollution control devices on the
smelters, solid raw wastes from these plants consist of raw
materials and frits of various compositions generated from
spills, rejected product, and dust control. Other solid raw
wastes consist of firebrick and frit of various compositions
generated from rebuilding of smelters. The quantities of
solid wastes in terms of kg/kkg of product from four plants
are given below.
Plant 3208 6113 6.219 6222
Raw materials
and frit (dry
basis) 10 4.9 10.4 6.0
Firebrick not 2.8 not not
given given given
The sources of waterborne wastes are wash water, contact
quench water, and scrubber discharge. The amounts and types
of waterborne raw wastes are presented below for four
plants. These values were calculated from concentration and
process water hydraulic load data.
V-6
DRAFT
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r
RECYC
VENT
WET
SCRUBBER
RECYCLE
COOLING
TOWER
TANK
?OI!
1 SCRUBBER DISCHARGE
I
OPTIONAL
RAW
MATERIALS
WEIGH
AND
MIX
6ASES
VENT
4 WATER
SMELTER
(BATCH OR
CONTINUOUS)
VENT
DRY
DUST
COLLECTOR
—3»
DRY
DRY
GRIND
BAG
FRIT
PRODUCT
BAG
FRIT
PRODUCT
COOLING WATER
DISCHARGE OR
RECYCLE TO
COOLING TOWER
VENT
I
WATER
VENT
CALCINE
MILL
(WET)
DRY
HAMMER
MILL
BAG
POTTERY FRIT
PRODUCT(COLOR)
WASTEWER
FIGURE I
MANUFACTURE OF ENAMEL AND POTTERY FRIT AND COLORS
V-7
DRAFT
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Raw Waste Loads
Source
PH
Flow rate,
1/kkg of
product
amount , kg/kkg
TSS
TDS
Sulfate
Fluoride
As *
Cd
Cr
Pb
Zn
Fe
Mn
V
Ti
Ni
CU
Mg
Ba
Al
Oil & grease
6113
Scrubber
Discharge
5.5
416
0.073
3.45
**
0.034
—
0.00029
0.00003
0.0003
0.0009
0.011
— _
— -
___
- —
Total
Process
Hater
7.7
480
0.068
0.038
0.062
0.0029
_ —
<0.0024
<0.0005
-------
DRAFT
Raw Waste Loads Plant
6219* 6118
Source contact Quench Contact
& Scrubber Quench
pH 4.0 7.5
Flow rate, 1/kkg 4,435 44,000
of product
amount, kg/kkg
TSS 2.66 1.07
TDS 54.7 **
Sulfate 0.354
Fluoride 7.76
As*** 0.354
Cd 0.047
Cr 0.026
Pb 1.074
Zn 0.015
Fe 0.052
Mn 0.104
V
Ti •>•—
Ni 0.011
Cu 0.185
Mg 0.073
Ba 0.0024
Al 0.082 —-
Oil & grease 0.006 <0.023
* Versar measured concentration used with plant flow
** not given
*** All metals are total
The above data presentation takes into account the following
wastewater mixing practices in the plants. Plants 6090 and
6219 use contact quench water for scrubber water before
discharge. Plant 6113 combines scrubber water with contact
quench water, control lab wash water and some non-contact
cooling water prior to discharge. Plant 6118 combines
contact quench water with some non-contact cooling water
before discharge. Plants 6113 and 6090 use wet scrubbing on
only a portion of the frit production smelters and therefore
the scrubber hydraulic loads were based upon only a portion
of the production of these plants.
V-9
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3.1.3
Water Use
Water is used in these plants as process water for contact
quench cooling on both continuous and batch smelters,
scrubber water for air pollution control, and wash water for
cleaning ball mills and quality control equipment. Water is
also used for non-contact cooling of quench rolls, smelter
parts, and air compressors; for boiler feed; and for
sanitary purposes. The water use at six plants studied is
presented below.
Plant 6113
Intake 3,500
(840)
Process con- 150
tact cooling (35)
Scrubber 400
water (96)
Non-contact 776
cooling (186)
Boiler none
Other pro- 195
cess water (46)
Process evap- 263
orated (63)
Cooling evap- 535
orated (127)
Sanitary 1,980
(475)
Quantity,
6090
liters/kkg
6219
of
product
6118
(gals/ton)
6222
6,000
(1,435)
4,740 **
(1,140)
2,500
(602)
unknown
166
(40)
915
14,100
(3,375)
9,650 *
(2,310)
9,650
(2,310)
2,610
(625)
87
(21)
none
44,200
(10,600)
44,000
(10,550)
none
unknown
none
none
12,000
(2,860)
none
8,350
(2,000)
3,550
(850)
none
none
(219)
2,245
(538)
none
332
(180)
1,400
(334)
2,610
(625)
350
(83.3)
unknown
unknown
211
(51)
none
1,790
(428)
100
(24)
3208
21,307
(5,106)
150
(36)
none
21,03 2
(5,040)
none
none
150
(36)
unknowr
125
(30)
*
**
Recycled for scrubber water
Partly recycled to cooling towers, partly to scrubber
Plant 6090 segregates and recycles part of the contact
cooling water through cooling towers. The other part of the
contact cooling water is used for wet scrubbing. Other
process water at this plant is used for wash water.
Plant 6219 uses all contact cooling water for wet scrubbing
and non-contact cooling water for roll quenching. Wet
scrubber air pollution devices used at plants 6113 and 6090
are used only on a portion of the smelters. At plants 6219
and 6222, wet scrubbers are used on all smelters.
V-10
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Plant 6113 uses non-contact cooling water for roll quenching
and recycles approximately 50 per cent through a cooling
tower. Contact cooling water is used at this plant for
batch quenching on several smelters. Other process water is
used in the quality control laboratory. This plant also
recycles 67 per cent of the scrubber water. Plants 6222 and
3208 use essentially only non-contact cooling water for roll
quenching.
In summary, two plants (6090 and 6118) use contact cooling
water on all smelters, two plants (6222 and 3208) use only
non-contact cooling water on all smelters, and two plants
(6113 and 6219) use a combination of contact cooling and
non-contact cooling water. However, the combination plants
use contact cooling water on batch smelters only. Four of
the six plants use wet scrubbers but two of these plants,
6113 and 6090, use them only on a portion of the smelters.
An exemplary water use practice found at plant 6090 was to
recycle contact cooling water through cooling towers and to
route a significant amount of this water through a scrubber.
Another plant uses all of its contact cooling water for
scrubber water prior to discharge.
-SilsJi Wastewater Treatment
Process water treatment practices in these plants range from
none to a sophisticated treatment system consisting of
segregation, recycle, flocculation, chemical precipitation
for heavy metals, chemical precipitation of fluorides,
settling and filtration.
Plant 3208 evaporates all process water and discharges only
non-contact cooling water, which is not treated. Four
plants use pH adjustment and settling in tanks before
discharge. One plant uses the segregation, recycle,
flocculation, chemical precipitation, settling and
filtration treatment system. Two plants use only settling
in tanks before discharge. Two plants use no treatment
before discharge. The other plant in this category did not
provide any information. A summary of treatment methods .
used is presented below.
V-11
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Waste Water
Plant Stream__
6219 non-contact
cooling
contact
cooling
scrubber
6118 non-contact
cooling
contact
cooling
sanitary
6222 non-contact
cooling
scrubber
Treatment
cooling tower re-
cycle
settling
pH adjustment
settling
none
none
none
cooling tower
recycle
pH adjustment &
settling
Flow,
liter/kkg Disposal
2,610 evaporated
used for scrubber
5,000 sewer
combined with
cooling
44,000
211
part used for
and part
10,100
contact
stream
sewer
scrubbers
evaporated
sewer
3208
6220
6223
6224
6226
sanitary
contact
cooling
non-contact
cooling
sanitary
contact &
non-contact
cooling
contact
cooling
contact
cooling
wash water
scrubber
contact
cooling
non- contact
none
none
none
none
none
settling
none
settling
pH adjustment &
settling
none
none
100
150
21,025
125
not given
not given
not given
not given
not given
not given
not given
sewer
evaporated
stream
sewer
stream
sewer
stream
stream
sewer
sewer
sewer
cooling
V-12
DRAFT
-------
Plant
6221
6113
6090 *
Waste Water
Stream
scrubber
contact
cooling
non-contact
cooling
non-contact
cooling
contact
cooling
scrubber
sanitary
other (pro-
cess)
non-contact
cooling
other (pro-
cess)
contact
cooling
contact
cooling 6
scrubber
DRAFT
Treatment
not given
not given
not given
cooling tower
recycle
none
pH adjustment 6
settling
none
none
none
Note A
Note B
Note C
Flow,
liter/kkg
not given
not given
not given
535
150)
416}
1983) combined to sewer
195)
241)
Disposal
stream
stream
stream
evaporated
13,910
2,555
1,960
stream
stream
stream
* Plant discharge normally contains streams 1 and 3
Note A Flocculation, pH adjustment with lime, precipitation
with soda ash
Note B Segregation, recycle, flocculation and precipitation
with soda ash, pH adjustment with lime, settling,
filtration
Note C Segregation, recycle, precipitation and pH adjustment
of scrubber discharge with soda ash, settling,
precipitation of CaF2 with CaCl2, settling and
recovery of CaF2, then flocculation and precipitation
with soda ash, lime pH adjustment if necessary,
settling and filtration
v-13
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
The largest waterborne raw waste loads are attributable to
wet scrubber discharges. Six of the eleven plants are
presently using wet scrubbers on all or portions of their
smelter operations. At least one more plant will be
installing wet scrubbers by the end of 1976. Plant 6222
plans to install a treatment system by the end of 1975 for
its scrubber. This system consists of pH adjustment and
chemical precipitation with lime, followed by dual stage
settling and recycle.
^iii5 Effluent and Disposal
Effluent disposal practices at the eleven plants in this
category are described below. One plant, 3208, evaporates
all process water and discharges only non-contact cooling
water. Five plants discharge process water to municipal
treatment systems either untreated or after pH adjustment
and settling. Five plants discharge process water to
streams either treated or untreated. The effluent
characteristics for four plants are presented below.
V-14
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Effluent Concentrations:
Plant 6090* 6090** 6 V13 6118 6211***
pH 9.5 10.0 7.7 7.5 5.0
Parameters r
TSS 25 25 142 92 211
TDS 3,500 10,100 80 — 8,429
sulfate ~ — 130 — 20
fluoride 8 18 6 — 1,000
As 0.005 0.005 — — <0.003
Cd 0.01 0.01 <5 — 10.0
Cr 0.05 0.05 <1 — 3.38
Pb 0.1 0.1 <1 — 66.4
Zn 0.2 0.1 <1 — 2.60
Fe 1.0 1.0 4 ~ 12.9
V 1.0
Ti 0.2 0.1 <2
Ni 0.1 0.1 -- — 2.28
Cu 0.02 0.02 -- ~ 21.0
Mg 8.0 8.0 — — 10.2
Ba 0.2 0.6 — — 0.22
Al 6.0 - 4.0 <1 — 9.60
Sb 0.1 0.1
Co 0.02 0.02
Sn 2.0 2.0
* waste stream discharge from pottery frit
operations only
** waste stream discharge from combined scrubber
and contact cooling only
*** Versar measured data or calculated therefrom
Plant 6090 reports instantaneous samples could result in
values approximately two times those shown.
V-15
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Effluent amounts:
Plant 6090*
flow,
liter/Jckg 333
parameters,,
kg/kkg_
6113
2,845
6JLL8
TSS
TDS
sulfate
fluoride
As
Cd
Cr
Pb
Zn
Fe
V
Ti
Ni
Cu
Mg
Ba
Al
Sb
CO
Sn
0-
1.
__
0.
1.
3.
1.
3.
6.
3.
3.
6.
3.
6.
2.
6.
1.
3.
6.
6,
0083
17
0027
7x10-*
3x10-*
7x10-5
3x10-s
6x10-5
3x10-*
3x10-*
6x10-5
3x10-s
7x10-*
7x10-3
6x10-s
99x10-3
3x10-5
7x10-®
6x10-4
0
a
19
—
0
9
1
9
1
1
1
-
1
1
3
0
1
7
1
3
3
-
a
e
a
0
o.
*
e
-
e
a
.
.
.
.
*
9
e
0478
.31
034
56x10-*
91x10-s
56x10-5
91x10-*
91x10-*
91x10-3
91x10-*
91x10-*
82x10-s
015
15x10-3
65x10-3
91x10-*
82x10-s
82x10-3
0.
0.
0 =
0.
—
<0
<0
<0
<0
0.
. —
<0
—
—
—
—
<0
—
— —
—
404
228
370
0171
.014
.003
.003
.003
0114
.0057
.003
4.05
6219***
44,000 5,000
1.055
42.15
0.1
5.0
<0.000015
0.05
0.0169
0.332
0.013
0.0645
0.105
0.051
0.0011
0.048
* waste stream discharge from pottery frit
operations only
** waste stream discharge from combined scrubber
and contact cooling only
*** Versar measured data or calculated therefrom
1-_2 Brick and Structural Clay Tile - (SIC3251)
Approximately 265 companies in the U.S. manufacture face
brick, glazed brick,? and structural clay tile at
approximately 330 plants according to industry sources. A
number of brick plants recently have closed down and some of
V-16
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
these may not reopen. Thus the above number of plants may
be overstated.
All of these plants manufacture brick. Some plants
manufacture brick and structural clay tile. Other plants
manufacture brick, structural clay tile and clay drain tile
or other non-brick structural clay items (SIC 3259).
Total U.S. production of brick and structural clay tile in
1973 was 16,000,000 kkg (17,600,000 tons). Production was
broken down as follows:
Unglazed brick: 15,700,000 kkg (17,300,000 tons)
- 98.3%
Structural clay tile 91,000 kkg (100,000 tons)
(except facing): - 0.6%
Facing tile (structural)
-glazed and unglazed 175,000 kkg (193,000) tons)
including glazed brick: - 1.1 JJ
The basis for these figures is Bureau of Census data. The
conversion factor used for millions of standard bricks (or
brick equivalents) was 1.82 kg (4.0 Ib) per brick
equivalent, and for millions of facing structural tile and
glazed brick was 1.59 kg (3.5 Ib) per piece.
Glazed brick is grouped by the Bureau of Census with
structural facing tile for reporting purposes, probably
because both types of units are glazed.
Fourteen plants were visited in this study. Three produce
glazed structural tile as well as face brick. Data were
obtained from 19 other plants. Information was obtained
from 10 per cent of the plants which represents 16 per cent
of the production of the brick industry and 35 per cent of
the production of the structural tile and glazed brick
industry.
3_-.2jJ[ Process Description
Clay and shale are used for these products which are not
usually as pure as the clays used in more specialized
ceramic products. The raw materials are first crushed and
V-17
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
screened, and then fed continuously to a pug mill with
water. Additives introduced into the pug mill may include
barium carbonate,, grog and colors. Barium carbonate is used
to immobilize sulfate ion in the clay and prevent surface
discoloration and defects during and after firing. Grog is
made from crushed and recycled fired brick or tile culls.
Addition of 10 to 15 per cent grog reduces shrinkage,
reduces scrapg and if not crushed too finely, can introduce
aesthetic effects. Color materials consist of oxides of
manganese, iron<, chromium^ titanium and zinc. Colors are
also mixed with sand and applied directly to the surfaces of
molded or extruded brick immediately after forming.
The clay is formed into brick shapes, after mixing with
water, either by the soft mud or a stiff mud process. The
soft mud is used for molded brick and the stiff mud is used
for extruded brick. The product is then dried and fired.
When products are giazed<, it is usually done as an inter-
mediate step between drying and firing.
Structural tile^ most of t^hich is glazed, must be finished
prior to shipping. Finishing consists of grinding the
surfaces of oversized pieces to close tolerances so that the
walls built from these pieces will present a uniform
appearance.
Figure 2 is a schematic flow sheet representative of this
industry.
3.2^2 Raw Waste Loads
The waterborne raw wastes from these plants consist of clay
and shale suspended solids and glaze and color materials,
where glazing and decorating operations are used. These
glaze and color materials contain oxides of heavy metals
such as manganese, chromium, iron, titanium and zinc.
Nineteen of the 33 plants studied have no waterborne raw
wastes. Wash water and dust control water are the only
process wastewater streams at the 14 other plants. The
quantity of suspended solids in waterborne waste streams at
plant 3204 is 3 kg/kkg of product (5 Ibs/ton).
V-18
DRAFT
-------
r
WATER
1
WET
SCRUBBER
I
TANK
. WASTEWATER
0<; I
5 I OPTIONAL
vo
CLAY m
SHALE
CRUSH
AND
SCREEN
AADOmVES MAY INCLUDE COLORS,
6/706, 800)3
(MOLDED BRICK ONLY)
GLAZE MATERIALS
VENT
PUG MILL,
EXTRUDE
AND
CUT
-•» BRICK
*-r
g
3
WATER
FINISH
..STRUCTURAL
*TILES
WASH WATER
WASH WATER
FIGURE 2
MANUFACTURE OF BRICK AND STRUCTURAL TILE
WASTEWATER
USUALLY RECYCLED
-------
DRAFT
Solid wastes at these plants consist of fired scrap which
12 plants recycle as grog. Most plants that do not recycle
scrap to the process, landfill it or crush it for building
roads. The range of solid wastes is 0 to 668 kg/kkg of
product (0-1,336 Ibs/ton). The average value for scrap
waste is 38 kg/kkg of product (76 Ibs/ton).
3_s.2A3 Water Use
The brick and structural clay tile industry has minimal
water requirements. Water use for the plants in this study
ed^es^ liters/kjcg . of .^product (65 gallons/ton) . Water
used for process, dust control, washdown, non-contact
cooling, hydraulic actuation, vacuum pump seals and sanitary
purposes.
Process water is mixed with the clay-shale raw materials to
achieve the proper plasticity for forming. Water is also
used as the suspending agent for ceramic glaze ingredients
in glazed brick and tile production. During drying and
firing, all this water is evaporated.
Water is used in scrubbers for emission dust control.
Washdown water is used for washing ball mills, molds, pug
mill and glazing equipment. Average water use and range are
shown below.
V-20
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Water Use, Average Range
Total, liters/kkg product 270 12-800
(gal/ton) (65) (3-190)
Process 155 5-340
(37) (1-80)
Non-contact cooling 111 8-685
(27) (2-165)
Dust Control 96 5-250
(23) (1-60)
Wash Water 87 0.8-310
(21) (0.2-75)
Boiler 26 6-45
(6) (2-11)
Sanitary 37 4-150
(9) (1-36)
3.2.4 Wastewater Treatment
Settling of suspended solids or total impoundment are the
only treatment technologies found in this industry. Of the
33 plants studied only four settle prior to discharge.
One plant does not treat wastewater prior to discharge. Of
the remaining plants, seven use total containment of
wastewater and 21 have no need for treatment because they
have no process waterborne wastes. Non-contact cooling
water is generally discharged from these plants untreated.
Five plants in this study producing glazed products, ranging
from 2.5 to 100 per cent of their production, recycle glaze
washdown water after settling. The recycled water is used
for dust control water, cooling water or process water.
3.2.5 Effluents and Disposal
Waste streams from these plants consist of waterborne wastes
and solid wastes. Waterborne waste streams include process
water and non-contact cooling water. Solid wastes consist
of culls or scrap product. These solid wastes go to land
disposal or are recycled to the process. Process water
V-21
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
includes washdown of molds, ball mills and glazing equipment
and dust control water.
Nineteen of the 33 plants studied have no water effluent
either because there are no raw waste streams or because raw
waste streams are settled and recycled or impounded.
Nine plants discharge non-contact cooling or boiler water
only. Four plants discharge process water to surface water
after settling and one plant discharges untreated process
water to a municipal treatment system.
There are no analy.se.&- aatailafale for jmyjeffluents.
process water disposal is given below. ~~"'
Data on
Discharge
liter/kkg of
product
Plant (gal/ton)^
3005 1 (0.3)
3006 unknown
3011 unknown
3043 unknown
3204 unknown
3209 5 (1)
3245 310 (75)
6111 3 (1)
6192 unknown
6201 80 (20)
6212 not given
Composition of
discharge
mold and decora-
tion wash water
settled mold and
decoration wash
water
unknown
mixed sanitary
and glaze wash
water
settled scrubber
water
wash water
glaze wash water
wash water
settled wash water
process contact
water
settled, mixed
cooling and pro-
cess water
Disposal
percolation pond
surface discharge
pereolation/evapora-
tion pond
septic system
occasional surface
discharge
percolation pond
evaporation/perco-
lation pond
evaporation/perco-
lation pond
surface discharge
sanitary sewer
seasonal surface
discharge
V-22
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
It3 Ceramic Wall and Floor Tile - JSIC 32531
Sixty-three plants operated by 47 companies, produce glazed
and unglazed wall and floor tile. These tiles vary from the
unglazed paver or quarry tiles (based on a single clay or
shale raw material), to surface sculptured, glazed and
decorated floor and wall tile.
In this study, 7 plants were visited, operating and effluent
data were obtained from 10 other plants, and effluents were
sampled at 3 plants. On a total production basis, data were
obtained from 43 per cent of the industry which represents
29 per cent of wall tile, 46 per cent of mosaic tile, and
89 per cent of paver and quarry tile.
Total U.S. production of wall and floor tile in 1973 was
455,000 kkg/year (502,000 tpy) broken down as follows:
Paver and quarry tile - 99,000 kkg (109,000 tons) - 22%
Mosaic tile - 32,000 kkg (35,500 tons) - 7%
Other wall and floor tile (mostly glazed) - 324,000 kkg
(357,000 tons) - 71%
Production of tile is normally reported in square feet, but
there is some degree of standardization of tile size and
thickness. The above weight estimates are based on
area-to-weight conversion data available from several
industry sources. The factors are: paver and quarry tile,
29.3 kg/in* (6 Ib/ft*); mosaic tile, 12.2 kg/mz (2.5 Ib/ft*);
and other wall and floor tile, 14.7 kg/m« (3 lb/ft2).
3_..3._1 grocess Description
Three or more raw materials are blended in the proper
proportions (batched) as the first step in the manufacture
of wall and floor tiles. For most tiles, the common body
raw materials are talc, ball clay, and kaolin, but a large
number of other minerals are also used. These include
soapstone, feldspar, silica, pyrophyllite, nepheline
syenite, wollastonite, dolomite, whiting, and steatite.
Quarry and paver tiles are generally based on a single clay
or shale, and the mine and the plant are usually adjacent.
Most wall tile and some floor tile are glazed and a variety
of glazing materials is used.
V-23
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
During the mixing and blending of the raw materials for
floor or wall tile, a small amount of water is added to
increase the plasticity of the blend. The clay or shale
used in paver or quarry tile manufacture is frequently too
wet and drying is required. After blending and moisture
adjustment, the body materials are pressed to the desired
configuration or, in the case of quarry tile only, the
materials are extruded and wire cut.
Figure 3 is a typical schematic flow sheet for paver and
quarry tile. Figure 4 is a flow sheet which is
representative of the rest of the industry.
After pressing, the "green" tiles are processed differently
depending on the product as (a) unglazed tile, (b) glazed,
1-fire tile, or (c) glazed, 2-fire tile. Greenware for
unglazed tile and 2-fire tile are taken from the presses,
placed in open, ceramic containers called "setters" and then
fired. The glazed, 1-fire tiles are similarly handled after
an intermediate glazing step (with heating or drying
operations before and after glazing).
After firing and subsequent air cooling, 1-fire glazed or
unglazed tile is inspected and packaged. After the initial
firing of 2-fire tile, the glaze is applied, the second
firing is accomplished, and subsequent operations are
similar to those for 1-fire tile.
Normally, the small mosaic tiles are mounted and glued to
0.3 x 0.6 meters (1x2 ft.) paper or plastic sheets and air
dried. Mounting of mosaic tile requires forms for proper
spacing of individual tiles and for designs or patterns when
multi-colored tiles are used.
1-.3..2 Raw Waste Loads
Most wall tile plants have low-volume raw waste streams.
Few of the plants measure these streams, however, a small
amount of data was obtained. These wastes consist of clays
and other mineral raw materials and glaze ingredients from
washdowns and glazing operations.
V-24
DRAFT
-------
VENT
CLAY OR SHALE
.
DRYER
EXTRUSION
OR PRESSING
KILN
•PRODUCT
<
FIGURE 3
MANUFACTURE OF PAVER AND QUARRY TfLE
-------
WATER
RAW
MATERIALS
TALC
BALL
CLAYS
KAOLINS
*BCQ$&
i
MIX
GLAZING
RAW
MATERIALS
PRESS
La.^5
WATER VENT
i t
WATER
BALL
MILL
PREHEAT,
GLAZE
AND
REHEAT
VENT
KILN
WASTEWATER
v\
GLAZING SLURRY
MOUNT
WATER
1
GLAZE
WASTEWATER
WASH WATER
FIGURE 4
MANUFACTURE OF CERAMIC WALL AND FLOOR TILE
AIR
DRY
UNGLAZED
MOSAIC TILE
_^I-FIRE GLAZED AND
UNGLAZED TILE
VENT
KILN
2-FIRE
GLAZ
TILE
-------
DRAFT
Raw Waste Loads
Plant TSS. frg/kkq of product (lb/ton)
3220 19 (38)
3228 35 (70)
3230 30 (60)
3231 23 (45)
3244 34 (67)
Solid wastes occur mostly as broken or imperfect tiles,
and data on these wastes are shown below:
Plant Solid wastes kq/kkg of product .(Ibs/ton^
3201 80 (160)
3207 50 (100)
3220 154 (308)
3251 16 (32) *
3228 27 (54)
3229 190 (380)
3231 188 (376)
3244 240 (480)
* recycles all fired scrap
3.3.3 Water Use
Water is used at these plants as process water in the mixing
process for bodies and glazes, for cooling, clean up, dust
control, boiler feed and sanitary purposes.
There is a significant difference in water use between
glazed and unglazed ceramic tile plants. The average
process water use (excluding sanitary) for ten glazed tile
plants is about 1,090 liters/kkg of product (261 gal/ton),
while for the unglazed plants the average process water use
is about 84 liters/kkg of product (20 gal/ton). Water use
at the unglazed tile plants is given in the following table.
V-27
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Unqlazedjrile Plants
320.7 3225 3226 3227 ~3229 3232
Intake water,
liters/kkg 1,140 125 310 110 1110* 145
product (270) (30) (74) (26) (266) (35)
(gal/ton)
Water Use
Process ~ 100 none none none 80 71
(24) (20) (17)
Cooling not none none none 30 37
given (7) (9)
Clean-up 100 none none none 1000 none
(24) (240)
Dust control none none none none none 8
, (2)
Sanitary 940 125 310 110 unknown 29
(225) (30) (74) (26) (7)
*not including sanitary water
Water use at the glazed tile plants is shown below:
GlazedJTile Plants
3201 3206 3220 3221 3223
Intake water,
liters/kkg 470 2,340 3,600 2,600 2,600
product (110) (560) (860) (620) (620)
(gal/ton)
Water Use
Process 80 130 2,300 1,560 580
(20) (31) (560) (375) (140)
Cooling 70 1 900 520 40
(16) (200) (125) (10)
Clean-up 170 1,560 * * 1,250
(40) (375) (300)
Dust control none none minimal none none
Boiler none none none none none
Sanitary 150 650 400 520 625
(36) (155) (100) (125) (150)
»Not given
V-28
DRAFT
-------
Intake,
liters/kkg
product
(gal/ton)
Water Use
Process
Cooling
Clean-up
Dust control
Boiler
Sanitary
*Not given
*803t glazed
20X quarry tile
1,220
(290)
160
(40)
i
530
(130)
none
530
(130)
DRAFT
Glazed Tile Plants
3228* 3230 323T 32.44
1,390 3,360 2,710 4,800
(340) (805) (650) (1,140)
430
(100)
33
(8)
i
3
(0.8)
70
(16)
860
(210)
1,770
(425)
30
(7)
i
9
(2)
none
1,550
(370)
1,230
(295)
44
(11)
i
none
44
(11)
565
(136)
2,660
(640)
2,015
(480)
i
none
none
210
(50)
Wastewater Treatment
Six plants studied producing unglazed tile (quarry, paver or
mosaic) have no effluent. Three of these plants, 3225, 3226
and 3227 use no process water and, therefore, have no
waterborne raw waste to treat. Plant 3207 evaporates
process water in the process and uses a small amount of dust
control water for irrigation. Plant 3229 treats clean up
water by flocculating, settling, chlorinating, and filtering
and recycles it for clean up. Plant 3232 ponds and
evaporates process, cooling, and dust control water.
Of the ten plants studied producing glazed tile exclusively
or predominantly, four use evaporation/percolation ponds,
five settle in ponds or settling tanks and discharge and six
plants use chemical flocculants in addition to ponds or
settling. A summary of these treatment methods is given
below:
V-29
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Treatment
3201 Evaporation pond
3206 Lime and alum; 3 settling
ponds in series
3220 Lime; thickener; evaporation
pond
3221 Settling tanks
3223 Settling ponds
3251 Settling pond; percolation
3228 Alum; settling tanks and
ponds, partial recycle
3230 Alum and lime; settling
basins
3231 Alum; settling tank and 3
settling ponds; evapora-
tion; percolation; recycle
3233 Alum and sodium aluminate;
settling tank
3244 Settling ponds; percolation
3.3.5 Effluents and Disposal
None
To city sewer
None
To city sewer
To creek
None
To creek
To city sewer
None
To city sewer
None
Six of the plants studied producing unglazed tile (quarry,
paver or mosaic) have no effluent. Five of the ten glazed
tile plants studied have an effluent. Data on effluent
parameters from four of the five plants are presented below,
both in terms of concentration (mg/1) and amount (kg/kkg of
product). These discharges contain cooling water and, in
one case, boiler blowdown. Verification data for three of
these plants is also given. Solid wastes from treatment
sludges are disposed of to landfill.
V-30
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Effluept^Concentration (Company supplied)
ing/liter ~"
3206 3223 3228 3230
Flow rate, ~ ~~
liters/kkg of 1,560 500-1,250 690 est. 2, 820
product
pH 8.5 4.1 7.7 7.7
BOD
COD
TS
TDS
TSS
Cd
Cr
Fe
Pb
Mn
Ni
Zn
Effluent^Concentration (Verification data)
mg/lj.ter
3206 3223
0
0
*
492
26
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
15
39
191
170
17
*
0
*
*^
*
*
*
5
36
*
392
14
<0. 1
<0. 1
4
<0. 1
38
<0. 1
*
*
42
*
*
15
<0.3
*
*
<0.5
*
0.12
3-6
pH 9.8 4.7 7.2
COD
TS
TDS
TSS
Ba
Cd
Cr
Cu
Fe
Pb
Mn
Mo
Ni
Sr
Zn
*not given
V-31
DRAFT
146
812
492
320
0.55
<0.01
<0.05
<0.05
0.84
11.95
<0.02
<0.5
0.08
0.06
387
29
302
285
17
0.54
0.013
<0.05
0.16
0.12
1.64
0.02
<0.5
0.34
0.14
1.92
126
522
502
20
0.36
0.03
<0.05
0.064
0.036
0.54
0.07
<0.5
0.34
0.36
8.14
-------
DRAFT
Selected Eff^uent^ Amounts
kg/kkq of product 3
TSS
Pb
Zn
^Company supplied)
06 3223 3228
3230
0*04
*
0.02
*
0.0097 0.042
<0.00013 0.004
* 0.008-0.17
Selected Ef£luent_Amojants (Verification dataj
kg/kkg of product ~ 3206 3223 3228
TSS
Pb
Zn
0*5
0.019
0.6
Oo0085
0.0008
Oo001
0.0016
0.000043
0..00065
3.4 Clay Refractories - JSIC 3255J)
The clay refractories industry includes the manufacture of
clay firebrick, other fired clay shapes for miscellaneous
refractory purposes, and unfired mixes„ chiefly based on
clay, for use as castables? mortars and gunning mixes to
produce monolithic refractories.
The industry is composed of 99 companies,, who operate 198
plants, and produce about 3^750^000 kkg/year of clay
products {4,130*000 tons per year)e About 25% of this
volume is refractory monolithics. These figures were
developed within this study, since other sources list much
of the production in terms of dollar sales or in thousands
of 9" equivalent bricks. Refractory shapes vary greatly in
weight and value per 1000 equivalent bricks, therefore,
these data could not be used.
In this study, 8 plants were visited and data were obtained
from 32 other plants. On a production basis9 data was
obtained from an estimated 49 per cent of the industry.
3.4. 1
Process Description
One or more fire clays are prepared by crushing or grinding,
with or without some degree of drying. In a few casesc part
of the clay is calcined and blended with the rest of the
clay to reduce shrinkage of shapes during firing. Some fire
clays are distinguished from others by such terms as
"plastic" (acts as a binder) , °°flint08 (for high temperature
V-32
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
use) , "ladle" (for high temperature expansion capability in
ladle bricks) , and others.
In the manufacture of monolithic refractories (mortars,
castables, and gunning mixes) , the clays are batched and
mixed dry or with a small amount of water. Additional water
is used to prepare the plastic mixes. Non-clay raw
materials are often mixed with the clays to attain desirable
properties in the fired product. The mixes are then
packaged and are ready for use.
In the manufacture of refractory brick, kiln furniture, and
other shapes, three methods of forming are commonly used:
pressing; pug mill extrusion and wire cutting; and slip
casting. Pressing is the preponderantly used method for
forming. Slip casting is used in forming complex shapes,
such as kiln furniture. The final process step for all
three methods, is firing at temperatures of 1315° to 1425°C
(2400° to 2600°F) , for cycles from 15 hours to 13 days,
depending on the product and type of kiln. Pieces may be
finished by sawing, drilling or grinding when fired shape
dimensions are critical.
A process flow sheet is given in Figure 5.
Raw Waste Loads
Data are available from 40 plants. There are no waterborne
wastes at 34 of these plants.
Two plants reported small raw waste streams. At plant 3216
the waste amount is 0.22 kg/kkg of product (0.45 Ib/ton) and
is largely due to equipment washdown, which includes wash
water from an automotive equipment repair garage. The
amount of waterborne raw waste at plant 6180 is 14 kg/kkg of
product (28 Ib/ton) . This is a combination of sanitary
wastes and raw material stock-pile run-off with process raw
waste. The volume of raw waste at four plants is unknown.
There are solid wastes at some plants, mostly broken or
imperfect fired pieces and used plaster molds from a few
slip casting operations. Data on these wastes are generally
known with greater accuracy than the raw waste streams. The
table below shows 12 plants have no solid wastes, the
quantities are unknown at 4 plants, and 14 plants have solid
V-33
DRAFT
-------
VIMTER
0 <.
CLAY
STORAGE
OR
MINE
— to-
CRUSH,
GRIND
AND
DRY
te.
i
BATCH
MIX
i-3 *^
»-
^
«—»i
po tree
WATER
J
PUG
MILL
WATER
BLUNGER
_
VENT
CUT
A Kin
AIMU
DRY
SLIP
CAST
— »
VENT
DRY
•*i
VENT
t
MONOLITHIC
REFRACTORIES
»
BRICKS,
OTHER
SHAPES
WASTEWATER
FIGURE 5
MANUFACTURE OF CLAY REFRACTORIES
-------
DRAFT
waste loads ranging from 2 to 400 kg/kkg of product (4 to
800 Ibs/ton). In spite of the large range of waste values,
the modal value is low - about 10 kg/kkg of product
(20 Ibs/ton).
3035
3045
3082
3202
3212
3216
3242
6117
6135
6139
6147
6148
6149
6152
6153
6154
6155
6156
6157
6159
6160
Solid wastes
kg/kkg of product
Jlb/tonl_ Plant
10 (21) 6161
0 6163
4.4 (8.9) 6164
unknown 6165
100 (200) 6166
125 (250) 6167
400 (800) 6176
12 (25) 6177
12 (25) 6179
* 6180
0 6181
unknown 6184
unknown 6185
116 (232) 6187
0 6188
2 (4) 6193
0 6207
0 6208
10 (20) 6209
10 (20) 6210
10 (20)
Solid wastes
kg/kkg of product
Jlb/tonl
10 (20)
10 (20)
10 (20)
10 (20)
10 (20)
10 (20)
0
3 (6)
<10 (<20)
8.5 (17)
96 (193)
unknown
0
53 (106)
53 (106)
20 (40)
0
0
0
0
*Plant is primarily a producer of pottery products, and
refractories data cannot be separated.
Solid wastes result from a number of factors. All plants
have broken or imperfect pieces, but many crush and grind
their culls and make use of the resulting grog by recycling
with unfired clay. If too many culls are obtained, the
allowable ratio of grog to clay in green pieces is exceeded,
and the culls must therefore be used for landfill, or
otherwise discarded. In some plants, the fired product
consists of intricate shapes which are difficult to fire and
hold correct dimensions after allowing for shrinkage. In
these circumstances, the percentage of rejects increases and
a large solid waste load results.
V-35
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
3.4.3 Water Use
This industry is not a large user of water. The average
water requirement for 38 plants is 740 liters/kkg of product
(180 gal/ton). (Data from plant 6176 were not included,
since its water use was atypically high).
Water is primarily used as follows:
(1) Process - most of this is evaporated (in fired products)
or is shipped out with the packaged product (in
monolithics);
(2) Sanitary and personal;
(3) Non-contact cooling, hydraulic actuation, and vacuum
pump operation.
There is a smaller average water use for monolithics than
for shaped refractories. This difference is not
statistically significant and, therefore is not a basis for
subcategorization.
The following tables list the water use of 40 plants.
V-36
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Waterr Usg,
JLJters/kkg
product
(gal/top)^
Plant 3035
Total Water
Usage
Process
Cooling,
Non-Contact
Dust Control
Boiler
Other
Sanitary
Net Effluent
(excluding
sanitary)
900
(216)
782
(188)
24
(6)
3045 3082
1,750 2.0
(419) (0.5)
1,500 2.0
(360) (0.5)
105
(25)
24
(6)
270
(65)
3212 3216
1,410
(340)
530
(130)
328
(80)
200
(50)
360
(90)
32
(7.6)
1,620
(390)
370
(90)
250
(60)
430
(110)
122
(29)
250
(60)
179
(43)
2,100**
(500)
3242
1,040
(250)
63
(15)
167
(40)
208
(50)
270
(65)
335
(80)
*Not Given
**Includes 10% of plant's untreated sewage
V-37
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Water Use,
liters/kkg
product
lgal/tonj|.
Plant
Total Water
Usage
Process
Cooling,
Non-Contact
Dust Control
Boiler
6117
375
C90)
260
(63)
*
6J35
207
(50)
114
(27)
6148 6149
60
(14)
60
(14)
960
(230)
64
(15)
*
*
*Not Given
84
(20)
42
(10)
9
(2)
6152
530
(127)
417
(100)
104
(25)
Other
Sanitary
Net Effluent
(excluding
sanitary)
*
105
(25)
0
*
90
(22)
0
*
*
0
#
840
(200)
125
(30)
*
55
(13)
0
*
8.3
(2)
unknown
V-38
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Water Usg,
liters/kkg
product
(gal/ton)
Plant
Total Water
Usage
Process
Cooling,
Non-Contact
Dust Control
Boiler
Other
Sanitary
Net Effluent
(excluding
sanitary)
6153
6154 6155
6156 6157
6159
435
(105)
73
(17)
308
(74)
1,440
(350)
23
(6)
1,390
(334)
400
(95)
202
(48)
170
(41)
135
(33)
95
(23)
32
(8)
1,620
(390)
81
(19)
1,390
(334)
1,470
(355)
42
(10)
1,360
(327)
*
*
54
(13)
360***
(85)
23
(6)
24
(2)
1,400**195**
(1,400) (45)
*
*
8
(2)
65
(15)
151
(36)
70
(17)
1,390** 1,360**
(335) (325)
*Not Given
**Effluent composed of non-contact cooling water only
***Includes all plant untreated sewage
V-39
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
6160
6161 6163
Water Useg
liters/kkq
product
(gal/ton)^
Plant
Total Water
Usage
Process
Cooling,
Non-Contact
Dust Control
Boiler
Other
Sanitary
Net Effluent 1,300** 1,970**270#*
(excluding (315) (470) {65}
sanitary)
*Not Given
**Effluent composed of non-contact
6164
6165
6166
1,665
(400)
156
(38)
1,300
(313)
*
*
*
208
(50)
2,870
(688)
716
(170)
1,970
(473)
*
*
*
179
(43)
420
(100)
53
(13)
270
(65)
*
*
*
150
(36)
406
(98)
111
(27)
130
(31)
*
*
* .
167
(<*0)
1,390
(335)
287
(70)
1,020
(245)
*
*
*
88
(21)
450
(108)
67
(16)
180
(43)
*
*
*
90
(22)
130** 1,020** 180
(30) (240) (45)
cooling water only
V-40
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Water Use.
litgrs/kkq
product
(qal/ton)
6167
Total Water
Usage
Process
Cooling,
Non-Contact
Dust Control
Boiler
Other
Sanitary
Net Effluent
(excluding
sanitary)
*Not Given
**Effluent composed
6176 6177
6179 6180
6181
760
(180)
80
(19)
58,0
(140)
*
*
*
110
(26)
576
138)
53
(14
*
*
*
*
*
31
(8,
52
,400 95
,100) (23)
96
(23)
*
*
*
*
,700 *
300)
,500 0
129
(31)
72
(17)
*
*
*
*
57
(14)
0
(12,600)
296
(71)
27
(7)
35
(8)
200
(48)
*
*
34
(8)
270
(65)
1,460
(350)
780
(188)
235
(56)
104
(25)
26
(6)
235
(56)
78
(19)
230**
(55)
of non-contact cooling water only
V-41
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Water Use,
liters/kkg
product
(gal/ton)
an1
6184
6185 6187
6188 6193
6207
82
(20)
12
(3)
1,580
(380)
17
(<0
450
(107)
44
(10)
450
(107)
44
(10)
310
(72)
230
(55)
500
(120)
360
(86)
Total Water
Usage
Process
Cooling,
Non-Contact
Dust Control
Boiler
Other
Sanitary
Net Effluent
(excluding
sanitary)
*Not Given
**Effluent composed of non-contact cooling water only
*
*
*
70
(17)
0
*
*
*
1,560
(375)
0
*
*
350
(84)
54
(13)
350**
(85)
*
*
350
(84)
54
(13)
350**
(85)
*
*
36
(7)
41
(10)
36
(7)
*
101
(24)
2.4
(0.6)
Unknown
280
(65)
V-42
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Water Ijse,
litgrs/kkg
product
(gal/ton)
6208
Total water Usage 19
Process 17
Cooling, 2
Non-Contact (0.4)
Dust Control *
Boiler *
Other *
Sanitary Unknown
Net Effluent 20
(excluding sanitary) (5)
6209
112
(27)
87
(21)
25
(6)
*
*
*
Unknown
25**
(6)
6210
260
(63)
250
(60)
12
(3)
*
Unknown
12**
(3)
*Not Given
**Effluent composed of non-contact cooling water only
Wastewater Treatment
Thirty plants discharge non-contact cooling water or
auxiliary water only; four plants have settling basins or
tanks; one plant uses flocculants plus settling and recycles
all process water; one plant uses settling for part of its
waste and a percolating lagoon for the remainder; and three
plants have no waste treatment.
Wastewater treatment and disposal for plant effluents are
given in the following table:
V-43
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Plant
3035
3045
3082
3202
3212
3216
3242
6117
6135
6147
6148
6149
6152
6153
6154
6155
6156
6157
6159
6160
6161
6163
6164
6165
Treatment
None required
None required
None required
Settling in
abandoned pits;
recycle
Flocculants plus
settling;
recycle of process
water
Recycle of scrubber
water
None required
None required
None required
None required
None required
None required
None required
None
None required
None required
None
None required
None required
None required
None required
None required
None required
None required
Discharge
Non-contact cooling
water only
None
None
None
Non-contact cooling
water only
To river
Non-contact cooling
to sewer
None
None
None
Auxiliary and non-
contact cooling to sewer
None
None
To river
Non-contact cooling
water only
Non-contact cooling
water only
To river
Non-contact cooling
water only
Non-contact cooling
water only
Non-contact cooling
water .only
Non-contact cooling
water only
Non-contact cooling
water only
Non-contact cooling
water only
Non-contact cooling
water only to city sewer
V-44
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Plant Treatment
6166 None required
6167 Settling ponds
6176 Settling tanks
6177 None required
6179 None required
6180 Settling basin
(sanitary, cooling
and runoff water)
Percolation pond -
(dust control)
6181 None required
6184 None required
6185 None required
6187 None required
6188 None required
6193 None required
6207 Settling basin
6208 None required
6209 None required
6210 None required
Effluents and Disposal
Discharge
Non-contact cooling
water only
To creek
To city sewers
None
None
To creek
None
Auxiliary water only
None
None
Auxiliary water only
Auxiliary water only
Auxiliary water
only to lake
To city sewer
Non-contact cooling
water only
Non-contact cooling
water only to
sanitary sewer
Non-contact cooling
water only
Of the 40 plants studied, 12 have no process effluent; 16
discharge non-contact cooling water only; 4 discharge
auxiliary water only; 5 discharge process water to rivers,
creeks or sewers after some form of treatment; and 3
discharge process water to rivers or sewers without
treatment.
The principal pollutant in process water discharge is
suspended clay solids. Data on process effluents from 5
plants follows:
V-45
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Flow rate,
liters/kkg
of product
PH
Effluent
Parameters,
mg/1
BOD
COD
TSS
Flow rate,
liters/kkg
of product
PH
Effluent
Plant 3216
(5 outfalls - no treatment)
1,315 1 11 63
8.1
7.9
25
182
183
157
314
137
6153
(2 outfalls -
no treatment)
45
6.8
315
3.2
8.1
7.4
232
7.2
7 38
41 215
14 1507
Plant
6156 6J80 ,
(no (from
treatment) settling
basin)
70
131
89
6207
(from
settling
basin)
65
7.1
270
280
not given 9.5
Parameters,
mq/1
BOD
COD
TS
TDS
TSS
Oil
3.5
6.6
48
1286
1222
38
not given
1.0
48
1798
1644
20
not given
Structural Clay Product s,. Not
not given
not given
1144
968
177
0.5
Elsewhere
9
55
1090
1080
17
0.1
Clas'sif
10
not given
2000
1800
200
0
This category covers plants primarily engaged in the
manufacture of clay sewer pipe and fittings, drain tile and
other structural clay products such as: adobe brick, clay
V-46
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
segment blocks, clay chimney pipe and tops, vitrified clay
conduit, clay wall coping, vitrified liner bricks and
plates, clay stove and flue lining, clay roofing tile, clay
chimney thimbles and clay sewer tile.
Vitrified clay sewer pipe and fittings represent the largest
production commodity in this category with production
totaling 1,602,000 metric tons (1,767,000 tons) for 1972.
The second largest is drain tile with 247,000 metric tons
(272,500 tons), then flue lining with 132,200 metric tons
(145,700 tons).
There are 69 plants in the U.S. principally engaged in the
manufacture of clay sewer pipe and other structural clay
products. Eight of these plants were visited, one plant was
sampled and information was obtained from a total of
22 plants. This represents approximately 50 per cent of the
industry production. The plants studied were in all
geographical regions of the U.S. with annual production
ranging from 11,300 to 150,000 metric tons (12,400 to
166,000 tons) and plant ages ranging from 3 to 88 years.
S^S^J. Process Description
The raw materials used for the production of structural clay
products must be inexpensive, therefore locally available
clays are predominantly used. These clays are usually of
the shale or alluvial type that contain impurities such as
quartz, feldspar and mica. Several companies blend these
clays with plastic clays and fireclays to give additional
strength and impact resistance to the structural product.
Some additives are also used in small quantities. The
principal additives are barium carbonate for scum reduction
and lignosulfonate for improvement of plasticity and green
strength. A polyester resin or synthetic rubber jointing
compound is applied to the ends of the vitrified clay sewer
pipe to obtain a seal between pipes and fittings when
installed.
The clays are generally processed by grinding and screening,
then stored in covered areas. All of the above operations
are dry. The screened clays are weighed, then mixed with
water in either a pug mill or wet box to achieve the proper
plasticity for extrusion into the desired structural shape.
After the pug mill, entrapped air is removed from the
V-47
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
"conditioned" clay by vacuum. The clay is then mechanically
or hydraulically extruded through a die designed to produce
the desired shape of the final product. After extrusion,
the "green" or uncured product is trimmed, graded and
transported to a drying room. After drying, the "cured"
product is placed on clay supports and fired in tunnel kilns
or beehive, down-draft kilns. These kilns burn mixtures of
air and natural gas, propane, or fuel oil to generate
temperatures in the range of 980 to 1090°C (1800 to 2000°F),
which are necessary for vitrification. The.vitrification
process, which requires anywhere from 24 hours to 3 days,
causes evaporation of any remaining water in the product.
The fired and cooled product is then inspected and stored
for shipment. If the product is a vitrified sewer pipe or
fitting, the inspected ware goes to a jointing operation
where the bells and spigots or fittings of each pipe are
fitted with a plastic or rubber joint. The joint is air
cured and the pipe inspected and stored for shipment. A
simplified process flow diagram is given in Figure 6.
!iJ>i2 Raw Waste Loads
The raw wastes from plants in this category consist of scrap
vitrified clay pieces, unfired conditioned clay from
trimming and shaping, clay dust from crushing and screening,
and suspended clay solids from wet scrubbing the exhaust
gases from the clay calciner at one plant. The amounts of
unfired conditioned clay and clay dust are quite variable
from plant to plant and generally cannot be quantified.
These materials are recycled to the process. The source of
the scrap vitrified clay is rejected fired product. The
amount of this material ranges from 10 to 20 kg/kkg of
product. At some plants, this material is crushed and
screened for reuse as a raw material "grog" in the process.
Other plants landfill this material as a waste. The amount
of clay solids from the wet scrubber used at one plant is
unknown.
3-.S..3 Hater Use
Water is used in these plants for conditioning the clay
prior to extrusion, non-contact cooling of hydraulic
equipment, water seals for vacuum pump and dust control in
wet scrubbers. The water use at five plants studied is
shown below:
V-48
DRAFT
-------
WATER-*- SCRUBBER
~T WATER VENT
WASTEWATER f *
CALCINE
A ! WATER
! i J
wHUori ni i/%
i Uw
AND — » M|L,
o/^Dprki ivim»
_4*
VACUUM
PUMP
t
VACUUM
BOX
-»» WATER OUT
COOLING
WATER
T
"HBC2S2 FORM
SCRAP
TO ,
RECYCLE
COOL
WAT
_
ING
ER
VENT
DRY
^
VENT
KILN
FIRE
JOINT
FORM
T 1
«» INSPECT
SCRAP
TO
LANDFILL
OR
RECYCLE
FIGURE 6
MANUFACTURE OF STRUCTURAL CLAY PRODUCTS
-------
DRAFT
Water Use,
liter s/ickq of product Plant
(gal/ton) 6055 6108 612jf 6132 6J33
Process 73 88 122 835 373
(evaporated) (18) (21) (29) (200) (89)
Non-contact 282 not given not given 53 20
cooling (68) (13) (5)
Vacuum Seal 255 unknown unknown 103 38
(61) (25) (9)
Wet Scrubber none 600 none none none
(143)
Boiler none 73 none none none
(18)
The vacuum seal water at plant 6055 is totally recycled.
3 .,5^4 Waste water Treatment
Process water used for raw material conditioning and
extrusion is evaporated. Non-contact cooling water and
vacuum seal water are usually either discharged directly or
sent to municipal treatment plants without treatment.
Sanitary waste is either sent to municipal treatment plants
or to on-*site sewage treatment plants. Boiler blowdown is
discharged untreated to waterways or municipal treatment
plants. Plant 6108 treats the wet scrubber blowdown by
settling in a sump aided by the addition of flocculating
agents.
3.5.5 Effluents and Disposal
All process water with the exception of scrubber blowdown
water is evaporated in the process at these plants. Cooling
water, sanitary water and boiler blowdown are usually
discharged to a municipal treatment system. The composition
of the wet scrubber blowdown from plant 6108 is unknown.
The amount is 60 liters per metric ton (14.5 gal/ton). This
waste stream is combined with surface water, ground water
and boiler blowdown and discharged.
V-50
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
For the purpose of establishing an adequate data base for
settling pond treatment performance on wastewaters
containing fireclay and shale solids, the following table of
effluent data from treatment of suspended solids in mine
water pumpout from the Minerals Mining and Processing
Industries is given:
Monthly Average
Mineral Product Plant Treatment TSS (tag/liter^
Fireclay and Shale 3075 None 30
3076 None 30
3077 None 18
3082 None 22
3083 Ponds 3
3084 Ponds with lime 26
3079 Ponds with lime 20
3085 None 5
3086 None 6
Among the above fireclay and shale processing plants, 67 per
cent were found to discharge an average TSS concentration of
20 ing/liter or less. The average TSS of all nine plants was
less than 18 mg/1.
3.6 Vitreous China Plumbing Fixtures JSIC 3261.J_
There are approximately forty two plants in the U.S. which
produce vitreous china plumbing fixtures, commonly called
sanitary ware. In this study, data were available from
15 plants, 11 were visited and verification sampling was
carried out at 5 plants. Total 1972 production was valued
at $278,000,000 according to the Census of Manufacturers,
U.S. Bureau of Census. No tonnage production figures are
available from this source. Data developed in this study
indicates U.S. annual production capacity is currently about
500,000 kkg (550,000 tons). Production is estimated to have
been 450,000 kkg (500,000 tons per year) both in 1972 and
1974. The data base is about 45 per cent of the current
U.S. production. Plant ages range from 1.2 to 65 years old
and productions range from 3,760 to 25,500 kkg per year
(4,150 to 28,125 TPY).
V-51
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
-ls.6jj Process Description
Raw materials are ball clays^ kaolins, feldspar or nepheline
syenite, silica and glaze ingredients<, The body raw
materials are mixed in a folunger with water to produce a
slip. The slip is screened and usually passed through a
magnetic separator. The slip is then fed into plaster of
paris molds. The green ware is partially dried and removed
from the moldp hand rubbed„ spongedg and inspected. The
green ware is aged in a warm drying room for several days.
The ware is then sprayed with a glaze which consists
primarily of flint (silica) and feldspar with fluxes,
opacifiers, and frits or colors in a water medium. Glazed
ware is air dried, stacked on kiln cars and fired. The
finished sanitary ware is inspected,, In the case of
toilets, the inspection step includes filling with water and
flush-testing. A generalized process flow diagram is shown
in Figure 7.
Raw Waste Loads
The raw wastes from this industry are mainly clay and other
ceramic raw materials from slip preparation and glaze
clean-up. Recycling of glaze wastes is practiced in some
plants, but when changes of color occurs recycle of the
glaze stream is not possible,, Data for waterborne raw
wastes were not generally available from the plants
surveyed. One plant, 6121,, supplied data on total suspended
solids, which ranged from 1105 to 3ff365 mg/liter with an
average of 872 mg/liter= Verification sampling at
five plants provided measured concentration values
(mg/liter) of suspended solids,; lead? zinc and barium as
shown below:
Plant 32QO 3205 6100 61.21 6145
TSS 11,940 3,905 2*508 4^780 1,044
Pb, total 0.3 0.21 Oo21 2072 Oo21
Zn, total 1.51 7«0 Oo27 12=32 4.50
Ba, total 0.22 0.65 <0o1 0«,54 11.6
Solid wastes consist of broken and rejected fired ware,
plaster from mold shops, floor sweeping, fired scrap, slip
residue, sludge and glaze wastes0 These quantities of solid
Vr52
DRAFT
-------
<
Ul
WATER
WATER
DEFLOCCULANTS
I WATER WATER
MOLD
SHOP
I
GLAZE
PREPARATION
VENT
1
BLUNGE
AND
SCREEN
HI
ISTE L
WASTE
WATER
— ^
SLIP
CAST
-
-^
DRY
— ^
INSPECT
I
SPRAY
GLAZE
TAILINGS
TO
LANDFILL
WASTEWATER
WASTEWTER1
WASH
WATER
VENT
VENT
1
DRY
FIRE
TEST
AND
INSPECT
SCRAP TO
LANDFILL
•PRODUCT
D
t-3
FIGURE 7
MANUFACTURE OF VITREOUS CHINA PLUMBING FIXTURES
-------
DRAFT
wastes in kg/kkg of product were supplied by most plants as
follows:
Plant 3200 3203 3205 6031 6060 6071 6103 6.145
194 361 96 81 306 33 8 168
3».6._3 Water Use
Process water is used in this industry for slip preparation,
clean-up, and glaze spray booth dust control. Auxiliary
water uses are cooling, air conditioning^ boiler feed, and
flush testing. Process water use in these plants ranges
from 290 to 3,710 liters/kkg»
No use of contact cooling water was found at plants studied
in this industry. Glaze spray booth dust control water is
recycled in many plants.
Water use data for these plants in terms of liters/kkg of
product (gal/ton) is shown belows
Glaze Spray
Booth
Plant
3200
3203
3205
6031
6060
6071
6100
6103
Process
1,950
(470)
1,510
(360)
1,700
(400)
3,100
(750)
380
(90)
1,410
(340)
290
(70)
500
(120)
Cooling
78,400
(18,800)
none
4
(1)
960
(230)
none
480
(115)
unknown
76
(18)
Boiler
none
none
none
240
(57)
none
4
(1)
unknown
50
(12)
Dust Control
not given
47
(11)
not given
not given
38
(9)
800
(190)
not given
not given
Other
none
none
none
none
none
none
none
1,500 *
(360)
V-54
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Plant
6121
6121
6145
6196
6206
6218
1,950
(470)
3,710
(890)
3,150
(755)
920
(220)
535
(130)
1,280
(310)
Cooling
17
minimal
1,600
(390)
none
none
3,720
(890)
goi,ler Dust_Cont£gl Other
52
(12)
2
(0.5)
650
(155)
65
(16)
52
(12)
70
(17)
1,100
(265)
not. given
not given
not given
not given
not given
2,800 *
(480)
none
330 *
(80)
655 **
(155)
270 *
(64)
520 *
(125)
460 **
(110)
none
* Test flushing (incidental water)
** Hydraulic (non-contact)
3.6.4
Waste Treatment
All of the plants studied have at least some rudimentary
treatment such as sumps. Most treat more extensively with
settling ponds, thickeners or clarifiers, and in several
cases, sand bed filters. The efficiency of treatment varies
greatly.
Plant 3205 uses sumps, clarifiers, a settling tank and a
sand bed filter. This discharge, currently being sewered,
will be recycled in the near future. Plant 3203 first acid
treats the raw waste to expedite settling, then after
settling, pH adjusts with ammonia. The resulting effluent
is sent to a neighboring plant where it is used as refinery
cooling water.
Plants 6031, 6060, 6121, and 6218 pond their wastewater and
achieve no discharge through evaporation (6031 and 6218), or
a combination of evaporation and percolation (6060 and
6121). Plant 6121 treats process waste in a clarifier and
sand bed filter prior to ponding. Plant 6060 recycles the
process water used for washdown in the casting, finishing
and slip batching areas for slip make-up water. The
V-55
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
remainder, mold shop and glaze wash water, is sent to an
evaporation pond. Six other plants have in-plant treatment
plus settling ponds or lagoons which discharge to surface
waters. The three remaining plants dispose of their wastes
in sewers to municipal treatment plants.
The performance of a clarification system presently in use
at one plant is shown in Figure 8. The data plotted in this
figure represents plant measured values of suspended solids
before and after treatment.
The only other treatment efficiency data were generated in
this study. Suspended solids reduction of 95 to 99.9 per
cent was determined from verification data at five plants.
Generally speaking, lead and zinc reduction occur
concomitantly with suspended solids reduction, but the
efficiency is not always as good, i.e., it ranges from
50 per cent to better than 98 per cent. Barium is found in
the raw waste in this industry but because of the presence
of large amounts of soluble sulfates, barium is precipitated
as the highly insoluble barium sulfate.
3.6.5 Effluents and Disposal
Two-thirds of the plants studied use settling ponds as the
final treatment step. Six of the ten who use ponds have
discharges to surface waters and four of the ponds are total
impoundments. One of these four plants (6060) minimizes the
amount of impoundment necessary by segregating all process
wastewater not contaminated by sulfate or glaze and
recycling it to the blunger. Four plants discharge to
sewers and municipal treatment plants. One of these plants
(3205) plans to recycle process water. Data from plants
3200,6070, 6121, and 6145 presented below in the first table
were supplied by the plants. Data in the second table below
were measured during verification testing. The effluent
characteristics are given below both in terms of
concentrations in mg/liter and amounts in kg/kkg of product.
V-56
DRAFT
-------
10,000
5,000
V)
Q
v>
e
§
t
1,000
500
100
50
10
DRAFT
WASTEWATER CONTAINING:
FINE CLAY SUSPENDED SOLIDS
DISPERSING AGENT
DISSOLVED SULFATES
HARDNESS
TREATMENT SYSTEM.'
POLYMER ADDITION
SLOW FLOW CLARIFIES
POLYMER ADDITION
SAND FILTER
J I
2 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 95 98
CUMULATIVE PROBABILITY (PERCENTAGE)
FIGURE 8
CLARIFICATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE, DISTRIBUTION
OF VALUES FROM VITRIFIED CERAMIC PRODUCTS PLANT
V-57
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Effluent Characteristics
Discharge
flow,
liters/kkg
(gal/ton)
pH
Temperature,
°c
Effluent
3200
1,000
(240)
4.2
29
6071
1,930
(460)
7.1
*
Plant
6121
1,950
(470)
21
*not given
6115
6,560
(1,575)
6.9-7.7
Concentration .
TSS 4
Pb, total *
Zn, total *
Ba, total *
Ef f j. uent amounts
kg/kkq product
TSS 0.004
Pb, total
Zn, total
Ba, total —
Di sposal storm
sewer
7
*
0.075
1.5
0.0135
0.00014
0.003
creek
74
*
0.144
evap.
pond
32-82
<0.05
0.21-0.54
<0. 00033
river
V-58
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Effluent Characteristics
3200 3205
Discharge
1,000* 1,700*
(240) (400)
Flow,
liters/kkg
(gal/ton)
PH
Temperature,
°c
4.2
not
measured
7.3
not
measured
Plant
6100"
10,100**
(2,400)
8.2
4
6121
1,950**
(470)
7.4
15
3,150**
(760)
6.3
12
Effluent
Concentration ,
ussZi
TSS 27
Pb, total <0.2
Zn, total 0.21
Ba, total 0.06
*Plant supplied flow
**Verification flow
92
<0.2
0.14
0.98
3
0.1
0.09
<0. 1
240
0.91
5.60
0.54
14
0.1
1.98
<0. 1
kg/kkq products
TSS
Pb
Zn
Ba
Disposal
0.027
<0.0002
0.0002
0.00006
storm
sewer
0.156 0.030
<0.00035 0.001
0.0002 0.0009
0.0017 <0.001
city
sewer
river
3.7 ChinaA Earthenware and Pottery
0.468
0.0018
0.011
0.001
evap.
pond
0.044
0.0003
0.006
<0.0032
river
This section includes all products in SIC codes 3262,
Vitreous China Table and Kitchen Articles; 3263, Fine
Earthenware (Whiteware) Table and Kitchen Articles; and
selected products in 3269, Pottery Products, Not Elsewhere
Classified. These selected products include:
V-59
DRAFT
-------
DKAFT
Art and ornamental ware
Ash trays
Cooking ware
Crockery
Decoration work on china
and glass, for the trade
Coarse earthenware table
and kitchen articles
Figures, pottery
Florist articles
Flower pots
Kitchen articles, coarse
earthenware
Lamp bases, pottery
Pottery, art, garden,
decorative
Rockingham earthenware
Smaller articles, pottery
Stationery articles, pottery
Vases, pottery
All other SIC 3269, Pottery Products, are discussed in
Section 3.9, Technical Ceramics.
There are approximately 475 potteries and dinnerware plants
in the United States, but only about 130 of these plants
employ more than 20 persons. Most plants employing 20 or
fewer persons are manufacturers of artware only and were not
covered in this study. There are some large plants which
manufacture a single product line, i.e. artware, or china
restaurant ware, or semivitreous table and kitchenware. A
few plants manufacture products with different degrees of
vitrification and fall into two, or all three, SIC codes.
Total U.S. production of pottery products which includes
kitchenware, tableware, household earthenware, and art and
decorative pottery (but excludes structural, technical,
plumbing and refractory ware) is estimated at
252,000 kkg/year, (277,300 tpy). This production figure was
developed as a part of this study, since all reference
sources list production in terms of total dollar sales or by
dozens of pieces. Pottery varies greatly in weight and in
dollar value per piece, therefore, such data could not be
used.
In this study, 10 plants were visited, operating and
effluent data were obtained from 4 other plants, and veri-
fication sampling was conducted at 4 plants. On a
production basis, data was obtained from an estimated 33X of
the industry.
V-60
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
iU2i! Process Description
Body and glazing raw materials are blended in the proper
proportions (batched) as the initial step in the manufacture
of all types of pottery. The body materials common to most
pottery are ball clays, kaolins, flint (silica), feldspar,
nepheline syenite, and talc, other minerals such as
wollastonite, whiting, calcined alumina, or others are
occasionally used.
The most common method of intimately mixing body raw
materials is blending the dry materials with water in an
agitated vessel called a blunger, so that a pumpable,
pourable slurry is prepared. This slip is screened and
sometimes magnetic separation is used to remove small
amounts of iron impurities. The slip is used as is for
forming green ware by slip casting, or it is filtered, the
filter cake pug-milled, and the resulting plastic extrusion
cut prior to forming by jiggering or pressing. An
intermediate filtration, followed by a second blunging with
fresh water, is required in a few cases to eliminate an
excess of soluble salts that render de-flocculating elec-
trolytes ineffective on the slip. Another method of
preparing body raw materials for forming consists of dry
mixing followed by pug-milling or pressing. Processing to
this point is illustrated in Figure 9.
Usually, cup or pot handles are attached in a manual
operation after forming of the green ware which is then
dried and trimmed (finished). In a few cases, handles are
formed with the piece.
The ware is now ready for one of several alternate sequences
of decoration, glazing and firing. The three principal
alternate sequences resulting in 1, 2 or 3-fired ware are
illustrated in Figure 10.
Decoration is applied in many ways, however, 1-fire ware is
commonly decorated by stamping, decalcomania application^ or
engobe (dipping into a thin colored slip). Stamping,
decals, or silk screening are commonly applied between
firings for 2-fire ware. Overglaze decoration (3-fire) is
usually limited to gold or platinum decorations, but can
include decals.
V-61
DRAFT
-------
WATER VAPOR
t
WATER
*J
t-3
f
cr>
to
RAW MATERIALS
BALL CLAYS
KAOLINS
FLINT
FELDSPAR
NEPHELINE
SYENITE
OTHERS
i
BLUNGE,
SCREEN,
AND
MAGNETIC
SEPARATE
WATER
H
SLIP
CAST
SOLID WASTES
FILTER
PRESS
L
WATER
J
WASTEWATER
L
i
MIX
BLUNGE
WATER
PUG
MILL
JIGGER
TO DRY, RRE,
•^DECORATE
AND GLAZE
ll
|
PRESS
FIGURE 9
MANUFACTURE OF CHINA, EARTHENVVARE AND POTTERY
(FORMING STEPS ONLY)
-------
FORMED
GREEN-
WARE
GLAZE
RAW
MATERIALS
VENT
VENT
1
DRY
AND
TRIM
1
I
BALL
MILLS
BISQUE
FIRE
I
UNDERGLAZE
DECORATION
I
GLAZE
VENT
GLOST
KILN
•^ONE-FIRE WARE
OVERGLAZE
DECORATION
DECORATING
KILN
TWO-RRE WARE
>THREE-RRE WARE
FIGURE 10
MANUFACTURE OF CHINA, EARTHENWARE AND POTTERY
(DRYING THROUGH FINISHING STEPS)
-------
DRAFT
More expensive raw materials normally are used by producers
of fine tableware compared to makers of earthenware.
Tableware glazes must be resistant to repeated washings with
hot water and detergents, therefore, their thermal and
chemical characteristics must be matched to the body more
carefully. Thus, leaded glazes are frequently used on
vitreous ware. Finally, vitreous china is fired at higher
temperatures for longer periods to complete vitrification,
as opposed to semi- or non-vitreous ware. The resulting
costs and durability of vitreous ware are considerably
higher than less vitrified ware due to both fuel and raw
material costs.
3.7.2 Raw Waste Loads
Pottery, china and earthenware plants have waterborne raw
wastes, but the quantity of solids is highly variable. This
variability is due to many factors, both process and
non-process. The raw wastes contain suspended solids and
sometimes oxides and salts of heavy metals. At some plants
raw waste streams are recycled.
Raw wastes from these plants consist primarily of clays,
glaze ingredients, and other body materials as suspended
solids in waterborne waste streams. These wastes originate
from filter press operations, washdown of glaze equipment,
molding shop operations, finishing, and other areas.
Quantitative raw waste data from these plants is difficult
to obtain, because the flows are intermittent, generally
small, and infrequently measured.
Raw waste data were available from the following plants:
nkg/kkg of product (lb/ton]_
Eiant 3012 3014 32V[ 3224 3243 6120 6^39 614J.
TSS 72 292 2.7 * * * 28 200
(144) (584) (5.3) (56) (400)
Pb 0.8
^Unknown, but all wet scrap is recycled.
Solid wastes are mostly broken or imperfect pieces, plus
used plaster molds. Data on these wastes are given below:
V-64
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
kg/kkg of product (lb/tonj_
3012 300 (600)
3014 224 (448)
3211 137 (274)
3213 200 (400)
3214 313 (625)
3215 720 (1*440)
3224 115 (230)
3243 115 (230)
6116 40 (80)
6120 523 (1,046)
6141 138 (276)
6146 270 (550)
6204 80 (160)
The high solid scrap generated by plant 3215 is due to the
production of a large number of small lots of many types of
ware.
3.7.3 Water Use
Water is used in these plants as process water for slip
preparation, as a plasticizer in dry mixing, in glaze
preparation, for washdown, and for mold preparation.
Ancillary water is used for non-contact cooling, vacuum pump
seals, hydraulic actuation, boiler feed, dust control, and
sanitary purposes.
The water use at these plants is given in the following
table.
V-65
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Water Use. jLitgrs/kkg .of prgdu
Plant
X3012
\
3014
V 3211
3213
3215
3224
3243
6116
6204
6120
V6139
\ 6141
6146
Intake
16,500
(3,950)
27,100
(6,500)
6,070
5,300
(1,270)
18,730
(4,490)
4,700
(1,120)
20,000
(4,780)
5,560
(1,330)
15,830
(3,940)
10,200
(2,450)
24,900
(5,980)
19,800
(4,750)
12,900
(3,100)
Non- con tact Dust
Process Cooling Contro).
11,800
(2,840)
23,300
(5,600)
2,130
(511)
1,400
(340)
16,980
(4,080)
2,340
(560)
660
(160)
5,330
(1,270)
6,800
(1,700)
7,300
(1,750)
9,800
(2,360)
13,600
(3,260)
600
(150)
2,010
(480)
920
(220)
250
(61)
100
(15)
unknown
1,200
(280)
16,500
(4,000)
unknown
6,500
(1,600)
none
10,900
(2,600)
3,200
(770)
9,580
(2,300)
unknown
160
(40)
none
1,800
(440)
none
none
••^B av^B ^B«« «• w*
Other
*
600
(145)
*
*
*
*
210 none
(50)
none
*
none
*
none
*
*
2,500
(600)
*
4,200
(1,000)
*
1,900
(450)
Sanitary
3,950 est
(635)
2,290
(550)
1,400
(340)
2,000
(480)
1,750
(400)
1,200
(280)
2,090
(500)
230
(55)
2,500
(600)
2,900
(700)
2,250
(540)
1,820
(435)
900
(200)
*Not Given
V-66
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
3.7.4 w*s£e
Wastewater Treatment
One plant has no process wastewater, one plant recycles all
process wastewater after settlinga five plants use ponds,
settling basins or tanks,, two plants treat raw waste using
flocculants, clarifiers or settling basins, and five plants
do not treat raw wastes0
Thus, 13 of 14 plants have raw waste and 8 of these 13
plants treat raw waste. Treatment information is summarized
in the following tables
Plant
3012
3014
3211
3213
3214
3215
3224
3243
6116
6120
6139
6141
6146
6204
Note:
amount of wastewater
liters/kkg of product
^gal/ton])
11,300
15,800
3,670
0
unknown
13,500
*2,920
17,500
5^560
0
27,500
*13,600
*9,900
*10ff200
(2,700)
(3,800)
(880)
0
(3,200)
(700)
(4,200)
(1,300)
0
(6,600)
(3*300)
(2,400)
(2,440)
Treatment
None
None
None
Settling tanks
and basins; and
recycle
None
Part-settling basin;
remainder - none
Settling tank;
flocculants
Settling tank
Settling tank
None
Flocculants;
Clarification
Ponds;percola-
tion area
Settling basins
Settling basins
*Estimate.
Plant 3211 is installing a chemical treatment and settling
system by August 1975.
Of the plants studied, plant 6139 uses the most extensive
treatment for reduction of suspended solids. This system
includes primary settling in a central collection sump.
V-67
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
followed by settling in a tank to which flocculating agents
are added. The overflow is treated, in line, with
polyelectrolyte and sent to a primary clarifier. Additional
flocculating agent is added at this point when necessary.
Clarifier overflow is sent to a second clarifier for further
settling. The overflow from the second clarifier is sent to
a final settling tank prior to discharge. The underflows
from the initial settling tank and both clarifiers.are
filtered. The filtrate is recycled to the treatment system
and the filter cake is landfilled.
3^.7^5 Effluents and Disposal
Of the 14 plants studied, one plant has no process waste-
water, one small pottery recycles its raw wastes, and 12
discharge raw or treated effluent. The one plant (3213)
which has raw waste, but no discharge, is a small
earthenware art pottery; all water is recycled after
settling. Twelve plants discharge as follows:
5 - do not treat raw effluents and discharge.
5 - use settling basins and discharge.
2 - use settling basins plus flocculants and discharge.
Analyses of treated and untreated plant effluents are
available from ten plants. Some of these data were obtained
from the plants and they are generally deficient in heavy
metals analyses. The contractor obtained and analyzed
effluent samples from four plants. These data are presented
in the following tables:
V-68
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Effluent Constituents, Amount and Disposal
Amount
Dispo- kg/kkg product
Treatment sition lib/tool
3012
3014
3211
3215
3213
6116
6139
6141
None
None
None
River
River
Creek
Settling River
Basin (3OX
of
effluent)
Settling City
Tank sewer
Settling City
Tank sewer
Clarify, River
Floe.
Clarify
Settling Creek
1Plant data
2Versar data
TSS
»7.4
(14.7)
230.5
(61)
259
(118)
»2.6
(5.3)
»63
(127)
M
(2)
»0.5
(1.0)
iO.6
(1.2)
«0.3
(0.6)
»1
(2)
Pb
1.8
(3.6)
2.3
(4.5)
0.032
(0.064)
not
given
0
not
given
not
given
0
0.012
(0.024)
<0.001
(<0.002)
Zn
0.08
(0.16)
0.035
(0.07)
0.012
(0.024)
not
given
0.035
(0.07)
not
given
not
given
0
0.08
(0.16)
not
given
Flow rate,
1/kkg
11,300
(2,700)
15,800
(3,800)
3,670
(880)
13,500
(3,200)
17,500
(4,200)
5,560
(1,300)
27,500
(6,600)
13,600
(3,300)
V-69
DRAFT
-------
Plant 3012
001
DRAFT
002
Flow
rate,
liters/
kkg of
product
(gal/ton)
PH
Effluent
11,300
(2,700)
18.6
28.9
not
measu:
17.4
Concentrations,
mq/liter
COD
TS
TDS
TSS i
B
Ba
Cd
Cr
Cu
Fe
Pb
Mn
MO
Ni
Sr
Zn
1,093
8,124
5,417
2*707
2652
1
0.19
<0.01
<0.05
0.12
3.9
1200
2160
0.42
<0.5
<0.05
0.06
13.15
26.8
306
4,546
1,006
3,540
1
<0. 1
<0.01
<0.05
<0.05
2.5
2.2
0.62
<0.5
<0.05
0.23
0.7
not 3*670
measured measured (880)
32 JU
unknown
»7.5
342
248
233
15
1
<0.01
<0.01
<0.05
<0.05
0.45
9.10
0.41
<0.5
<0.05
0.08
0.37
Notes: iVersar data
2Plant supplied data
*Not given
29.96
*
72
*
#
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
1,630
*
<0.01
*
*
<0.03
*
<0.05
*
0.42
V-70
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Plant 3215 3243 6116
001
Flow rate, 13,500 17,500 5,560
1/Jdcg of (3,200) (4,200) (1,300)
product
(gal/ton)
pH »7.10 17.15 27.3 27.6
Effluent
Concentrations,
mq/liter
COD 54 270 110 84
TS 8,448 986 272 *
TDS 1,283 320 * *
TSS 7,165 666 54 116
B 1 2 * *
Ba 0.30 0.15 * *
Cd <0.01 0.10 * *
Cr <0.05 <0.05 * <0.01
Cu 0.14 0.06 * *
Fe 3.5 0.86 * *
Pb 0.58 0.77 * *
Mn 5.88 0.22 * *
Mo 0.54 0.54 * *
Ni 0.1 0.1 * *
Sr 0.06 0.06 * *
Zn 1.14 6.62 * *
Notes: »Versar data
2Plant supplied data
*Not given
V-71
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Plant
Flow
rate,
liters/
kkg of
product
(gal/ton)
pH
6139
27,500
(6,600)
2**
Effluent
Concentrations,
mg/liter
COD
TS
TDS
TSS
B
Ba
Cd
Cr
Cu
Fe
Pb
Mn
Mo
Ni
Sr
Zn
Notes:
**
**
**
23
**
<2.5
<0.01
<0.02
<0.01
<0.01
<0.02
X0.02
**
<0.02
**
<0.01
17.0
53
620
602
18
1
<0.1
<0.01
<0.05
<0.05
0.06
0.42
0.05
<0.5
<0.05
0.56
2.86
6141
13,600*
(3,300)
6204
0(M 002
10,200
(2,400)
27.4
40
**
1,017
69
**
**
0.08
**
**
**
0.03
**
**
**
**
**
27.3
27.9
60
**
**
4,092
<1
**
**
<0. 1
**
**
<0.1
**
**
**
**
**
20
**
**
**
0.2
**
**
1.82
**
**
**
**
**
lVersar data
2Plant supplied data
*Average of 5 daily readings
**Not given
Plants 3243, 6116, 6139, and 6141 use technologies ranging
from settling tanks to flocculation combined with two-stage
clarification to achieve greater than 95 per cent reduction
of suspended solids.
V-72
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
3«.8 Porcelain Iiect£i£§i Sup_filies - 1§JC 326UI
Porcelain electrical supplies are produced by wet and dry
processes. The dry process is used primarily for the
manufacture of low voltage electronic components,
substrates, porcelain devices or parts, technical and
industrial ceramics for electronic application, and
industrial magnets. The wet process is used primarily for
the manufacture of high voltage electrical insulators. Both
processes generate wastewater, the rinse water used for
vessels and tool cleaning in the dry process and process
water (slip water) in the wet process.
li.8 •_! Dry Process
There are approximately fifty U.S. plants using the dry
process. In this study twenty-seven plants were contacted,
information was obtained from eleven plants, five plants
were visited and one was sampled. On a production basis,
data was obtained from 60 per cent of the industry. The
plants studied were in various regions of the U.S. with
annual production ranging from 230 to 5,900 metric tons (250
to 6,500 tons) and plant ages ranging from 8 to 75 years.
Raw materials used in these plants include: feldspar, ball
clay, flint (silica), kaolin, talc, whiting, zircon, barium
and strontium carbonates, barium titanate, zirconates,
aluminas and magnesium oxide.
The plants in this subcategory are not a homogeneous group.
All the products are ceramics and are used for electrical
applications, but each product has its distinct engineering
function and, therefore, is different from the others.
^iQilil Process Description
For most dry process products, the raw materials are mixed
with a small quantity of water in Simpson-type muller
mixers, shredded, pressed in steel dies to form the desired
part, which is then fired. In some plants, for the
manufacture of a few special products and parts, the wet
process is used along with the dry process, the latter being
used for the manufacture of the bulk of the plant's
products. For the manufacture of substrates, the raw
materials are wet milled, mixed and blunged, spray dried.
V-73
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
formed and fired. For specialty products a slip is prepared
which is passed through a magnetic separator to remove iron,
and filtered to dewater the clay. The cake thus produced is
pug milled, extruded into slugs, and pressed into parts. A
portion of the product may be glazed, either by dipping or
spraying prior to firing.
Seven plants are discussed in this section. A generalized
flow diagram for the dry process is given in Figure 11.
3.8..1..2 Raw Waste Loads
These plants use wash water to clean out spray driers, ball
mills and blunger tanks after each powder change or during
maintenance. This wash water is the major source of raw
waste. This slurry containing raw materials is settled.
The settled solids and fired scrap are sent to landfill.
Scrap green ware is normally recycled to the process. At
two plants, the major raw waste is the wastewater
originating from glazing operations. Plant 2210 glazes all
products while plant 6130 glazes only one fourth of its
production. At plant 2211, additional raw wastes originate
from the photo-fabrication and plating process and from the
grinding and sawing operations. Estimated raw waste loads
for these plants are given below:
V-74
DRAFT
-------
RAW
MATERIAL
FROM
CALCINER
OR STORAGE
S
vx
£
WATER
1
f
PROCESS
WATER
1
t
SIMPSON
MIXERS
WATER
'
t
MICRO
PULVERIZE
WATER
t
t
FORM
AND
PRESS
i
T
•
WATER
WA
f
TER
WATER SCRAP
MATERIAL
MAKE-UP
WATER VENT
i t
WATER WATER
I PROCESS | ORGANIC
SCRUBBER
|
WATER
J
MILL
|
i
BINDER
J
MIX
AND
BLUNGE
WATER
FORM
AND
PRESS
t
AT
WATER
WATER
!
WATER
1
*
WATER
TO
RECYCLE
SCRAP
MATERIAL
VENT
DRY
OR
FETTLE
r
WATER
GLAZE
PREPARATION
~l
L.
MACHINE
WASTE WATER
GLAZE
KILN
•^•PRODUCT
ASSEMBLY
OR FINAL
GRINDING
PRODUCT
FIGURE 11
MANUFACTURE OF PORCELAIN ELECTRICAL SUPPLIES
(DRY PROCESS)
i I
LEGEND:
FEW PLANTS, ONLY
WATER USED FOR VESSEL
TOOL CLEANING
-------
DRAFT
Raw Waste kq/kkq of product (Ibs/ton)
2205
2208
2209
2210
2211 (2)
stream #1
stream #2
stream #3
stream 14
6070
6130
Solids in the
Filtrate or
Washup water
60 (120)
110 (220)
35-140 (70-280)
26 (52)
nil
155 (310)
0.86 (1.73)
0.015 (0.03)
35 (70)
3.5 (7)
Fired
120 (240)
10 (20)
none
58.5 (117)
unknown
Greenware(1)
235 (470)
none
105 max. (210)
unknown
unknown
100 (200)
unknown
200 (400)
200 (400)
Notes: (1) Recycled to process.
(2) Stream #1 has no suspended solids; however, it
is acidic. Waste materials in stream #2 consist of
40% alumina, 35X silica, and 25% mullite; streams
#3 and #4 contain SOX alumina and 20% talc.
3.8.1.3 Water Use
Process water is used in batch preparation, grinding and
sawing, and as wash water for cleaning vessels and tools.
Additionally, plants 2205 and 2211 use wet scrubbers for air
pollution abatement. Plants 2210 and 6130 use water as a
carrier and wash water in their glazing operation. Water is
also used in these plants for non-contact cooling of air
compressors and kiln fans and for sanitary purposes. The
hydraulic loads of these plants are given below:
V-76
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
liters/kkcr
of product (qal/ton)
Water Use
Process
Was hup
Non- con tact
cooling
Dust control
2205
460
(110)
2,100
(500)
113,000
(27,100)
<3,500
<(830)*1
2208
37,100
(8,900)
1,100
(270)
2,000
(490)
none
2209
1,100
(260)
87,600
(21,000)
144,000
(34,500)
none
2210
1,000
(250)
none
365
(88)
none
Boiler
Sanitary
Total input
In-process
evaporation
Recycle
(*1) Water used in the wet scrubber is recycled.
Water use value given is makeup water.
none
unknown
<115,000
<(28,500)
460
(110)
unknown
none
3,200
(760)
43,300
(10,420)
37,100
(8,900)
1,900
(460)
none
1,800
(430)
233,500
(56,000)
1,100
(260)
141,000
(33,800)
520
(125)
3,200
(770)
5,100
(1,230)
330
(80)
710
(170)
V-77
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
liters/kkg of
product (gal/ton^
Water^Use
Process
Washup
Non-contact
cooling
Dust control
Boiler
Sanitary
Total input
In-process
evaporation
Recycle
2111
80,500
(19,300)
*1
5,400
(1,300)
3,300
(800)
1,100
(260)
16,000
(3,800)
106,500
(25,500)
4,000
(950)
24,000
(5,700)
6070
-^M^»w •
210
(50)
330
(80)
1,720
(410)
none
none
580
(140)
2,830
(680)
60
(15)
none
6J30
220
(50)
250
(60)
580
(140)
none
none
2,000
(480)
3,040
(730)
210
(50)
none
(*1) Process water includes water used for equipment
cleaning.
3.8.
Waste Treatment
At plants in this subcategory, the raw wastes are generally
treated by gravity settling prior to discharge.
At plant 2205, the wash water flows through settling
trenches into a series of three small settling basins. The
overflows from these basins along with the plant's
non-contact cooling water are sent to a municipal treatment
system. The water used in a wet scrubber on the drying
circuit is recycled.
At plant 2208, the wash water is settled in a pond, and the
periodic overflow is discharged.
At plant 2209, the raw waste stream consisting of process
water from the presses and all the water used for washing
the vessels and tools is sent into a concrete settling
V-78
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
basin. The settled slurry from this basin is pumped out
intermittently and recycled to process. The overflow from
this basin is sent into a second settling basin. An oil
skimmer is used to remove the floating oil. The overflow
from the second basin is next sent to evaporation and
percolation ponds.
At plant 2210, the raw wastes from the glazing operation are
settled in two ponds operating in series. The pH of the
discharge from the second pond is adjusted by the addition
of sulfuric acid.
There are four raw waste streams from plant 2211. Stream
number 1 contains wash water from the photo-fabrication and
plating process which flows through a limestone neutralizer
into a small settling pond. The overflow from this pond is
discharged to a municipal treatment system. Stream number 2
contains suspended solids from body preparation and the
finishing line. Recently, a new filter unit has been
installed to recycle stream number 2. The use of this
filter is expected to increase the process water
recirculation at the plant. Future plans provide for
treating additional wastewater from other areas in this same
unit. Stream number 3 contains suspended solids from
washdown and grinding operations. The solids in this stream
are mechanically dewatered prior to discharge into a
municipal treatment system. Stream number H is the water
used in the tumbling and grinding operation. This stream is
settled in a small basin and then discharged into a
municipal treatment system.
At plant 6070, the wash water and filtrate are collected in
baffled sumps to remove suspended solids and then discharged
with cooling water into a storm sewer.
At plant 6130 water used for equipment cleaning and in the
glazing operation is sent with the sanitary wastewater into
two tanks and the overflows are sent to municipal sewers.
These tanks are cleaned every two to three months and the
collected sludge is landfilled. The water used in finish
machining is collected in small individual basins. These
are provided on each machine for the recovery of finely
divided solid particles. The decant water is recycled to
the system. These basins are cleaned every 2-3 months, and
V-79
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
the resultant wastes are discharged to a municipal treatment
system.
3.8.1.5 Effluent and Disposal
Information on the discharges from these plants is
summarized below:
Plant
2205
2208
2209
2210
2211 #1+2
#3
6070
6130
Source
Cooling and
washwater
Wash water
Wash water
Disposition
City sewer
River
Evapora-
tion pond
Creek
Water from
glazing opera-
tion
Washdown of City sewer
photo-fabrica-
tion, body prep-
aration and
corrugation
Washdown from City sewer
grinding opera-
tion
Process water City sewer
used in grind-
ing and tumbling
Cooling and Storm sewer
wash water and sanitary sewer
Wash water City sewer
FJ.ow_rate,
liters/kkq of:^ product
(gal/tgnl
115,000
(27,600)
1,100
(270)
88,000
(21,000)
900
(210)
40,500
(9,700)
16,900
(4,050)
4,800
(1,150)
2,200
(530)
850
(200)
V-80
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Effluent Parameters ,
kq/kkq of product
(Ibs/tonl
pH
TSS
TDS
TS
Barium
Iron
Manganese
Nickel
Zinc
Ef f luent Parameters ,
kq/kkq~product
_[lbs/tgnl_
pH
TSS
TDS
TS
Barium
Iron
Manganese
Nickel
Zinc
2205
7.0
13
(26)
unknown
unknown
0.145
(0.29)
*
0.0035
(0.007)
*
*
2211
Stream
#1 + #2
6.2
5,5
(11)
unknown
unknown
*
0.0145
(0.029)
0.00025
(0.0005)
0.46
(0.92)
0.0075
(0.015)
Plant
2208 ~22!p.
8.4 4.4-7.7
0.017 0.07
(0.034) (0.14)
0.162 unknown
(0.324)
0.179 unknown
(0.358)
0.008 unknown
(0.016)
* unknown
* unknown
* *
* *
6070
unknown
0.06
(0.12)
unknown
unknown
unknown
unknown
*
*
*
*Not given
V-81
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
3^8.2 Wet grocess
There are eleven U.S. plants which manufacture high voltage
electrical insulators. In this study every plant was
contacted, information was obtained from nine plants, six
plants were visited and three were sampled. On a production
basis, data was obtained from approximately 85 per cent of
the industry. The plants under study were in eight
different states with annual production ranging from 7,800
to 27,200 metric tons (8,600 to 30,000 tons) and plant ages
ranging from 50 to 67 years.
The raw materials used in these plants include: ball clays,
kaolin, flint (silica) , feldspar, calcined alumina, glaze
frit, zinc oxide, and Portland cement.
Ja.g.^ij Process Description
•- *-• J-~ """ '• ~- -1- ~~ ~~ " " •"'•"
The process consists of measuring and mixing the body raw
materials together with water to form a slurry of about
50 per cent solids. The slip is checked for pH,
temperature, specific gravity and viscosity prior to a
series of screenings and magnetic separation. The screens
remove the oversize solids, then the slip is pumped into
plate and frame filter presses and dewatered to about 80 per
cent solids. The filtrate from the presses is either
recycled to the initial mixing operations or it constitutes
one of the waste streams.
The filter cake is conditioned in humidity-controlled
chambers for a day or two and then is fed to a pug-mill
extruder. The pug-mill product is de-aerated by vacuum and
extruded into billets. The billets for apparatus insulators
are conditioned for a day, either green finished and dried,
or dried and then turned, while the billets for suspension
insulators are primarily green trimmed and then dried for
several days. All products are inspected and then glazed.
After glazing, the pieces are fired in kilns for several
days at a maximum temperature of 1175°C (about 2150°F) and
then cooled. The apparatus insulators are subjected to
visual inspection and n on- destructive electrical and
mechanical testing prior to packaging and shipping. The
suspension insulators are sent to assembly where galvanized
hardware (caps and pins) is cemented to the insulators.
Some of these plants purchase galvanized caps and pins ready
V-82
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
for assembly, others galvanize the metal fittings at their
plant site. This galvanizing operation falls outside the
scope of this study. A generalized flow diagram for this
subcategory is shown in Figure 12.
3.8.2.2 Raw Waste Loads
The raw wastes from these facilities are: (1) the filtrate
from the filter press operations and washdowns from the
trimming and glazing operations; (2) cement assembly
washdown water; (3) boiler blowdowns; and (4) scrap
insulators.
These raw wastes contain suspended solids such as clay,
cement, and fired, scrap material. Available information on
the raw waste loads is summarized below.
Source of Waste Amount A kq/kkg of product
fib/ton);
TSS TSS
Filtrate and wash-
downs of the clay
mixing, trimming 120 150
and glazing (240) (300)
Boiler blowdowns 0.035 unknown
(0.07)
Cement mixing 2.3 0.054
washdowns (4.6) (0.108)
Boiler condensates 0.88 none
(1.76)
Estimated overall raw waste loads for plants 2204 and 2206
are 25-35 kg/kkg of products (50-70 Ib/ton) .
Solid wastes from plants in this subcategory average
120-170 kg/kkg of product (240-340 Ibs/ton) of scrap fired
ceramic materials which are hauled to landfills.
V-83
DRAFT
-------
VENT
BATCH
AND
WEIGH
WATER
i— FI.TRATE (OPTtONAI
BLUNGE
— »
SCREEN
-»
MAGNETIC
SEPARATION
-
FILTER
SOLIDS
TO
LANDFILL
WASTEWATER
PUG
MILL
AND
EXTRUDE
CONDITION,
GREEN
FINISH,
DRY AND
INSPECT
WASH
CEMENT WATER
VENT
1
KILN
WASTEWCTER
FORM,
DRY AND
INSPECT
ASSEMBLY
T
.SUSPEKSON
MSULATORS
WASTEWATER
n
APPARATUS
IKSULATORS
WASTEWATER
FIGURE 12
MANUFACTURE OF PORCELAIN ELECTRICAL SUPPLIES
(WET PROCESS)
-------
DRAFT
These plants use 5,000-27,000 liters of water per metric ton
of product (1,200-6,500 gal/ton) in the slip, for washing
the filter presses, in miscellaneous equipment cleaning, for
non-contact cooling, in pug-mills, air compressors, and in
air conditioning, as boiler feed, and for sanitary purposes.
Water use in terms of liters/kkg of product (gal/ton) is
summarized below:
Intake,
City water
Well water
Water Use,
Process water *
Non-contact
cooling
Boiler feed
Sanitary
Dust control
Cooling and
process water
evaporated
Plant
2200
27,000
(6,500)
2201
9,200
(2,200)
19,000
(4,550)
1,650
(390)
4,800
(1,150)
1,250
(300)
none
3,900
(930)
2,300
(550)
500 **
(120)
600
(140)
1,340
(320)
none
840
(200)
2202
12,100
(2,900)
7,300
(1,750)
2,000
(480)
1,250
(300)
1,250
(300)
none
2,000
(480)
2203
2,630
(630)
2,420
(580)
4*100
(980)
9 **
(2)
9
(2)
unknown
none
830
(200)
Notes: * Includes water used for vessel and equipment
cleaning.
**Cooling water used on total recycle basis.
V-85
DRAFT
-------
Process water *
Non-contact
cooling
Boiler feed
Sanitary
Dust control
Cooling and
process water
evaporated
2204
13,350
(3,200)
5,000
(1,200)
5,000
(1,200)
1,700
(400)
1,700
(400)
none
1,700
(400)
DRAFT
Plant
2206 2207
8,760
(2,100)
4,400
(1,050)
1,900
(450)
670
(160)
670
(160)
1,000
(240)
2,350
(565)
10,850
(2,600)
2,700
(650)
5,400
(1,300)
1,880
(450)
1,000
(240)
none
3,900
(930)
3013
unknown
3,700
(890)
4,150
(990)
290
(70)
unknown
none
1,040
(250)
*Includes water used for vessel and equipment cleaning.
3.8.2.4 Waste Treatment
The major waste streams from these facilities are the
filtrate, washings and tailings from the clay mixing and
slip processing operations. The second source of waste
originates from wet sponging of formed pieces and cleaning
of equipment. The third source of contamination is the
glazing operation. The wastes from this area are primarily
the water from the washings and tailings from the ball mills
and other equipment and small amounts of surplus glaze
material. The fourth source of contamination is the
washdown from the cement mixing operation.
The waste abatement techniques employed by plants in this
subcategory generally consist of some form of settling but
vary widely from plant to plant. A synopsis of the
treatment methods used at those plants studied is given
below:
V-86
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
2200
2201
2202
2203
2204
2206
2207
3013
Treatment Technigues_f9r^Process Wastewater
Flocculant treatment followed by clarification
with sludge underflow dewatering in a pressure
filter.
Mechanical dewatering followed by gravity
settling in a pond.
Settling of a portion of the waste stream
followed by flocculant treatment of combined
wastewaters in a clarifier. The sludge under-
flow is dewatered by pressure filters.
Gravity settling in sumps.
No waste abatement employed presently. Future
treatment will consist of flocculant addition
followed by gravity settling in a basin with
provision for sludge dewatering by pressure
filters.
Ponding and flocculant addition.
Only the clay processing waste stream is
treated in a three-pond system operating in
series. Other waste streams are untreated.
Recycle of filtrate from process filters.
The cement mixing wash water is mechanically
dewatered prior to discharge.
Details on the waste treatment techniques employed by each
plant are covered hereafter.
Plant 2200
There are three waste streams from this facility. Stream
number 1 includes the waste streams from the clay mixing and
slip filter pressing operations and the effluent from the
green trimming and glazing operations. The waste collecting
system has seven sumps located in the areas where the waste
products originate. Through a collecting system, effluent
from these sumps is pumped to a central treatment plant.
V-87
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
The wastes are collected in a central sump and treated with
alum. A flocculating agent is added, on line, prior to the
discharge of the waste into a clarifier. Overflow from the
rake clarifier is discharged. The underflow sludge, at
about 30 per cent solids, is pumped into a filter press.
Filtrate is recycled to the central sump. The filter cake
is removed and sent to landfill.
A second waste stream consists of boiler condensate which is
discharged untreated.
A third stream includes the following: sanitary waste which
is treated in septic tanks and chlorinated prior to
discharge; the assembly house washdown which is treated in
small clarifiers with the addition of alum and acid; and
miscellaneous non-contact cooling water and boiler
blowdowns.
This plant is improving their treatment facility to incor-
porate treatment of the cement process water with their
present process waste streams.
Plant 2201
Clay wastewater and cement mixing wastewater are pumped to
two filter-clarifiers. These systems consist of several
baffled compartments connected by weirs to permit overflow
of the liquid and settling of the suspended solids. The
solids are removed by conveyor dragout to containers which
are hauled to a company landfill. These operations achieve
approximately 50 per cent reduction of suspended solids in
the clay raw waste and an estimated 90 per cent in the
cement raw waste. The lower efficiency of the equipment
used with the clay raw waste is partially due to overloading
the system. The overflow from the two clarifiers is pumped
to a settling pond. This pond has an intermittent discharge
during heavy rainfall periods.
Boiler blowdown is treated with the process water. Cooling
water is sent directly into the settling pond with some
370 liters/kkg of product (90 gal/ton) of collected rain
runoff from the buildings.
V-88
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Plant 2202
The process wastewater is pumped into nine sumps. Process
water from five of the sumps is pumped into eight gravity
settling basins in series. Basin overflows, along with the
process water from the remaining four sumps, is further
treated in a tank. This treatment uses quicklime and
flocculating agents to help coagulate the fine clay
particles. The clarified overflow is discharged to the
plant storm drain system. The sludge from the treating
system is filter pressed and trucked to an approved
landfill. The filtrate is recycled to the treatment tank.
The sludge from the primary basins is removed to an approved
landfill. Non-contact cooling water and boiler blowdowns
are discharged untreated.
Plant 2203
Process wastewater is collected in sumps. The overflow is
collected in one large sump, which discharges to a storm
sewer.
Approximately 95 per cent of the non-contact cooling water
and boiler water used is recycled to the plant.
Plant 2204
At present, no waste abatement is being employed at this
plant. A new waste treatment facility is to be in operation
by mid-1975. This will consist of flocculation followed by
settling in a basin. A portion of the overflow will be
recycled. Pressure filters will be employed to dewater the
sludge. The solids from this filter step will be sent to an
on-site landfill. The filtrate will be recycled as wash
water.
Plant 2206
Process wastewater and scrubber discharge are treated in a
settling pond. Flocculant is added daily. This pond is
dredged once a year. The sludge is hauled to a landfill.
The solid waste, consisting of broken insulators, is hauled
to landfill.
V-89
DRAFT
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DRAFT
Filtrate from the process filters and the wash water used
for equipment cleaning are treated by gravity settling in
three ponds in series. The effluent from the third pond is
discharged in a long open ditch which empties in a nearby
creek. The remaining waste streams are discharged
untreated.
Plant 30J3
This plant recycles all of the filtrate from their process
filtering operation. This is a new technique which may be
applicable to other plants in this subcategory. The
recycling of this water has reduced the suspended solids in
the discharge by about 85 per cent.
Wash water used for cleaning glazing equipment is recycled
to the glaze ball-mill. Several hundred gallons of glaze
room wash water are discharged untreated approximately every
2-3 months when a change in glaze color occurs.
The cement mixing wastewater is filtered prior to discharge.
The remaining miscellaneous process waste streams and the
non-contact cooling water are combined and discharged
untreated.
lilies Effluent and Disposal
The types, disposition, composition and flow rate of
effluents from these plants are as follows:
V-90
DRAFT
-------
2200
2201
2202
2203
2204
2206
2207
3103
#1
#3
#4
#1
#2
#3
DRAFT
Type
Process
Boiler blowdown
Process and sanitary (*1)
Process and misc.
(intermittent) (*2)
Process (*3)
Process
Process
Process
Process
Process
Process
Misc. process and
non-contact codling
Disposition
River
River
River
Pond
Creek
River
River
Pond
Creek
Creek
Creek
River or creek
Notes: (*1) Sanitary water is treated in a septic tank
system and chlorinated prior to discharge
to a river.
(*2) Includes 370 liters/kkg product (90 gal/ton)
of misc. discharges and ground drainage.
(*3) 3,400 liters/kkg of product (800 gal/ton)
is discharged untreated.
V-91
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Effluent Congtituents
2200
220
Flow rate,
liters/kkg
of product
PH
11,900
(2,850)
6.7
#3
3,800
(910)
7.3
11,000
(2,650)
7.2
8.2
Effluent Parameters,
kg/kkg product
(Ibs/ton)
2202
4,200
(1,000)
10.9
TSS
TDS
Sulfate
Chloride
Fluoride
Aluminum
Barium
Chromium
^
Iron
Lead
Manganese
Nickel
Zinc
Oil and
grease
Phenols
1.52 *
(3.04)
* *
* *
* *
* *
* *
* *
* *
* *
* *
* *
* *
0.00005 *
(0.0001)
* *
* *
0.32
(0.64)
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
0.023
(0.046)
*
*
62 (1)
282 (1)
77 (1)
71 (1)
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
0.13
(0.26)
2.08
(4.16)
0.78
(1.56)
0.07
(0.14)
*
*
*
<0.0002
(<0.0004)
*
*
*
*
*. •
0.039
(0.078)
0.00001
(0.00002)
*Not given
(1) Since no flow rate is available for this discharge,
the parameters are in mg/1.
V-92
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Effluent Constituents
2203
Flow rate, liters/
kkg product 3,300
(gal/ton) (790)
pH 7.08
Effluent Parameters,
kg/kkg product
(Ibs/ton)
TSS
TDS
Sulfate
Chloride
Fluoride
Aluminum
Barium
Chromium
Iron
Lead
Manganese
Nickel
Zinc
Oil and grease
Phenols
* Not given
72.6
(145.2)
1.75
(3.5)
*
0.021
(0.042)
0.004
(0.008)
0.003
(0.006)
0.021
(0.042)
*
0.001
(0.002)
0.002
(0.004)
*
0.1
(0.2)
*
2204
6,700
(1,600)
*
25.05
(50.1)
1.42
(2.84)
0.88
(1.76)
0.0072
(0.0145)
*
0.002
(0.004)
*
*
0.0032
(0.0064)
0.172
(0.344)
0.00002
(0.00004)
2206
4,600
(1,100)
*
0.22
(0.44)
4. 11
(8.22)
*
*
*
V-93
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Effluent Constituents
Flow rate, liters/
kkg product
(gal/ton)
PH
Effluent Parameters,
kg/kkg product
dbs/ton}
TSS
TDS
Sulfate
Chloride
Fluoride
Aluminum
Barium
Chromium
Iron
Lead
Manganese
Nickel
Zinc
Oil and grease
Phenols
* Not given
2207
#2
1,100
<270)
*
16
190
(45)
*
12
420
(100)
*
0.035
(0.07)
0.31
(0.62)
0.085
(0.19)
0.035
(0.07)
*
<0. 00035
(<0.0007)
0.12
(0.24)
0.065
(0.13)
0.004
(0.008)
0.008
(0.017)
*
0.01
(0.02)
0.375
(0.75)
0.067
(0.135)
0.098
(0.196)
3103
7,100
(1,700)
0.25
(0.50)
<0.00002 <0.000005 <0.00001 <0.00007
(<0.00004) (<0.00001) (<0.00002) (<0.00014)
<0.0011
(<0.0022)
<0.00035
(<0.0007)
*
*
*
* *
<0. 00002 *
(<0. 00004)
* *
0.00045 *
(0.0009)
* 0.0046
(0.0092)
* *
*
*
*
*
*
*
V-94
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
3.8.2.6 Permit Information
Available permit information for plant 2200 is given below:
Waste kcf/kkg of .product Jibs/ton^
streams treated 001, process water 004 process, boiler
blowdowns & septic tank
TSS, average 0.394 (0.788)
max. 0.788 (1.576)
Zinc, average 0.013 (0.026)
max. 0.026 (0.052)
pH 6-9 6-9
3-t9- Technical Ceramics 1SIC 3269^32641.
Plants producing scientific, chemical and technical ceramics
are generally covered under SIC 3269, Pottery Products* Not
Elsewhere Classified, however, some plants are classified
under SIC 3264, Porcelain Electrical Supplies. Technical
ceramic plants produce ceramic products such as grinding
jars and grinding media, towers and tower packing> heat
exchange tube sheets, wire dies, pump seal rings, chemical
porcelain ware, pyrometric cones, tubing and electronic lead
frame substrates. Some plants also produce metal ceramic
products such as pump shafts and metallized substrates.
There are approximately twelve plants in this category.
Annual production in 1972 was estimated to be 63,500 kkg
(70,000 tons). Five plants were visited in this study,
which encompassed approximately 29 per cent of the current
production. Plant ages ranged from 6 to 55 years and
productions ranged from 317 to 10,000 kkg/year (350 to
11,000 TPY).
3_t!i! Proces§ Description
These products are made from mixtures of ball clay, talc,
feldspar, silica, kaolin and additives or from high-purity
alumina or mullite. The raw materials are mixed wet or dry
either in a ball mill or in a Simpson-type mixer. The mixed
V-95
DRAFT
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DRAFT
raw materials can be processed in one of two general ways.
The clay-containing materials are filter-pressed, pug milled
under vacuum, wet formed, dried, fired and sized. Some
products are fired a second time after glazing. Products
containing alumina or mullite normally are blunged, spray
dried, dry formed, machined, fired arid sized. A general
process flow diagram is given in Figure 13.
liij.2 Raw Waste Load
The raw wastes from this industry are suspended solids of
clays, alumina and mullite in waterborne waste streams.
Solid wastes are scrap ceramics from machining, sizing and
inspection. Plant 6125 has a waterborne raw waste load of
11.5 kg/kkg of product (23 Ib/ton) of suspended solids.
Solid wastes from three of these plants in kg/kkg of product
(Ibs/ton) are shown below:
Plant 3048 6125 6213
37.5 100 1,44
(75) (200) (2.88)
3il-.3 Water Use
Water is used in the manufacture of technical ceramics for
slip preparation, equipment clean-up and machining.
Non-process water uses include boiler feed, non-contact
cooling and sanitary.
Water use in liters/kkg of product (gal/ton) for five plants
is shown below.
V-96
DRAFT
-------
WATER-
VACUUM
PUMPS
RAW _
MATERIALS
BALL
MILL
r
u
FILTER
PRESS
T
1
PUG
MILL
VENT
WATER
WET
FORM
BLUNGE
SPRAY
DRY
I
DRY
FORM
MACHINE
KILN
SIZE
WATER VENT
GLAZE
KILN
WASH WATER WASH WATER
WATER
(OPTIONAL)
CLEAN,
INSPECT
AND
SHIP
-•^PRODUCT
VENT
RAW MATERIALS
FORM
t
WATER
CURTAINS
VENT
DRY
I
KILN
^PRODUCT
FIGURE 13
-------
DRAFT
3046 3048 6125 6_131 6213
Process water 5,700 41,000 * 3,000 3,100 7,400 *
(1,370) (9,750) (730) (745) (1,770)
Non-contact not 440 1,600 not 11,500
given (105) (380) given (2,750)
Boiler none none 1,600 190 5
(380) (45) (1)
Washdown none unknown 4,600 not 6,300
(1,100) given (1,510)
* Includes washdown water
3_-.9..j£ Wastewater Treatment
Of the five plants studied, one has no process wastewater
effluent; one discharges to a municipal sewer without
treatment; two settle suspended solids in basins prior to
discharge to city sewers; and the fifth uses settling tanks
prior to discharge to a river.
3_iJL..5. Effluents and Disposal
Plant 3046 evaporates all process water during drying and
firing and uses dry dust control methods for housekeeping.
The process at this plant is less complex than the processes
at other plants and generates no process wastewater streams.
Two plants discharge all wastewater including process,
cooling, auxiliary and sanitary water, to municipal
treatment systems. One plant intermittently discharges a
small quantity of washwater to a storm sewer. The fifth
plant discharges washwater to a river after settling in
tanks.
Effluent characteristics supplied by plant 6125 (average
value and ranges) are given below.
V-98
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Flow, liter/kkg of product
(gal/ton)
PH
Concentration, mq/liter
Plant 6125
4,500
(1,100)
6.4
TSS
TDS
Al
Fe
10* (10-25)
185 (160-200)
0.09 (0-0d5)
0.06 (0-0.10)
Amount, kq/kkq of product
0.045 (0.045 - 0.1125)
0.833 (0.72 - 0.9)
0.00041 (0 - 0.00068)
0.00027 (0 - 0.00045)
*Plant supplied data
3.10
Gypsum Products - (SIC 3275).
The gypsum products industry includes establishments
primarily engaged in manufacturing plaster, plasterboard,
and other products composed of gypsum. The basic process
consists of calcination of the calcium sulfate dihydrate
(referred to as "land plaster") to a hemi-hydrate form. The
hemi-hydrate form, known as "stucco", may be finely ground,
sold as building plaster, or hydrated with water to
manufacture plasterboard.
The manufacture of gypsum products begins with calcination
in one of six different types of equipment:
a. kettles
b. rotary calciners
c. hollow-flight screw conveyors
d. beehive kilns
e. impact grinding and flash calcining mills
f. autoclaves
Except for autoclaves, a beta-gypsum hemi-hydrate is formed
from calcination; with autoclave calcination an alpha-gypsum
hemi-hydrate results. Alpha-gypsum differs from beta-gypsum
in crystalline structure, and is not used in board
manufacture.
V-99
DRAFT
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DRAFT
Eighty plants currently manufacture gypsum products in 30
states. Nine companies, operating 76 plants, account for
over 94 per cent of the total gypsum calcined.
Subcategorization is based on the method of calcination and
dust collection derived from 7 plant visits and 57 contacts
(80 per cent of the total) as shown below:
(a) Dry dust collection (7 visits and 52 contacts of the
74 plants in this subcategory).
(b) Wet dust collection (3 contacts of the 3 plants in this
subcategory).
(c) Autoclave calcination (1 visit and 2 contacts of the
3 plants in this subcategory).
The plants studied were in all regions of the U.S. with
annual productions ranging from 91,000 kkg (100,000 tons) to
397,000 kkg (438,000 tons) and plant ages ranging from 10 to
over 100 years. Total U.S. production of gypsum products in
1972 was about 14,400,000 kkg (13,000,000 tons).
3.10.1 Dry Dust Collection
3.10.1.1 Process Description
In this subcategory, gypsum dust from calcination is
collected by a dry method (e.g. electrostatic
precipitators). Gypsum stucco is manufactured to many
different in-process specifications, depending upon its use
in various types of plaster, board, and block. Gypsum
stuccos are also used in the production of preformed gypsum
tile, partition tile, and roof plank.
The largest use of calcined gypsum (stucco) is for the manu-
facture of board products. The specially prepared stucco is
mixed with water, foaming agents, and other ingredients and
poured upon a moving, continuous sheet of special heavy
paper. Under master rolls the board is formed with the
bottom paper receiving the wet slurry as another continually
moving sheet of paper is placed on top. The soft board is
supported by a long moving belt and, after the gypsum is
set, by roller conveyors. When the board is sufficiently
stiff, it is cut and fed by automatic machinery into
multiple-deck kilns. Here the excess moisture is removed
and the board emerges hard and dry through automatic "take-
offs". It is then processed through the final steps, which
V-100
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
include endsawing, bundling , and stacking. A simplified
flow diagram is shown in Figure 14.
3. 10. 1.2 Raw Waste Loads
Raw wastes for all plants in this subcategory include gypsum
dust from calciners, wallboard dust from trimming, and waste
wallboard. These wastes are not waterborne. Suspended
solids from plant washdown are the only waterborne wastes,
Suspended solids are primarily calcium sulf ate (gypsum) .
The following are raw waste loads for selected plants:
__ __ kq/kkq of product ( Ib s / ton >
Plant 1041 "" 1042 1JIOO 1775 35J1
gypsum dust 70 47 50 35 142
from cal- (140) (94) (100) (69) |285)
ciners
wallboard 10 28 18 6 505
dust from (20) (56) (36) (12) (11)
endsawing
waste wall- 50 48 40 23 6,5
board (100) (96) (80) (46)
suspended 0.001 0.002 0.002- 0.003 0=22
solids (0.002) (0.004) 0.004 (0.006) £0*44)
(0.004-0.008)
The raw wastes for plant 1100 show an increase only on those
few days when coated wallboard is produced, coated
wallboard is a product which is coated with a water based
paint. This waste occurs from washdown and clean up of this
operation. It is estimated that as many as ten plants use
this process operation for a small (approximately 5 per
cent) portion of their annual production.
Process water is used for hydration of gypsum hemi-hydrate
in making gypsum board, and for occasional board-line
washdown. Approximately 80 per cent of the water added for
hydration is evaporated to the atmosphere in the board
kilns. The remaining 20 per cent is retained in the
V-101
DRAFT
-------
DUST
COLLECTION
(WET OR DRY)
1
LA*0 m CALCINE - — * STUCCO .
PLASTER—1* CALCINE » STORAGE ^
SCRUBBER DISCHARGE
0 < (WHEN WET COLLECTION IS USED)
H3 g WATER
PLASTER * AUTOCLAVL —
CONDENSATE DISCHARGE
AND SLOWDOWN
AUTOCLAVE CALCINATION
ADDITIVES: FOAM,
STARCH, FIBER,
ACCELERATORS
AND RETARDER PAPER
WATER 1 SANDWICH
„ SLURRY ,
MIX ~~"
WASH DOWN
'^ VACUUM
FILTER
„ BOARD _^ ^
FORMATION J
WASH DOWN
DUST
COLLECTION
1'
JT TRiM GYPSUM
35 -* IND -^PRODUCTS
" BUNDLE
WASTE
WALLBOARD D
ALPHA-
^ GYPSUM
^ PRODUCT
FILTRATE DISCHARGE
RGURE 14
MANUFACTURE OF GYPSUM PRODUCTS
-------
DRAFT
product. Wash water is used to clean the board conveyor
belt and slurry mixer area, especially during startup and
shutdown. The quantity of wash water varies with the type
of gypsum products being manufactured. When making a multi-
stream run (lathe board), a spray washer is used to
continually wash the conveyor line. On the average, multi-
stream runs account for 5 per cent of the output. The
figure shown for process wash water is an average daily
amount, accounting for those periods when water use
increases during multi-stream runs. Wash water is also used
at plant 1100 to clean the coating material. As mentioned
above, this occurs on only 5 per cent of the production from
coated wallboard production.
Incidental water uses include non-contact cooling of
bearings and compressors and boiler blowdown. The following
presents water use at selected plants:
V-103
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
1041
liters/kkg
product
(gal/ton)
Intake:
Use:
hydration
1,200
(290)
1012
840
(200)
Piant
11P.4
880
(210)
1,100
(250)
washdown 0.46
(0.11)
non-contact 34
cooling (8)
sanitary none
boiler
blowdown
100
(25)
1775
760
(180)
1519
570
(140)
Consumption:
product 1,100 490 850 680 540
evaporation (250) (120) (200) (160) (130)
arid retain-
ment
*used for hydration
The intake water at plant 1112 amounts to 360 liters/kkg
product (90 gal/ton). However, water uses are not known.
3_±.!.Oil.sJ* Wastewater Treatment
Process water used for hydration is evaporated or retained
in the product at all plants. Wash water is typically
settled in a small sump, combined with ancillary water and
discharged without further treatment. Incidental water is
treated in a variety of ways. For plants with boilers,
blowdown is either discharged without treatment, sewered or
treated in a septic field. Non-contact cooling water is
either discharged without treatment, sewered, or, in the
case of plant 1775, it is used as part of the makeup water
for gypsum hydration.
3.52!
1,100
(270)
490
(120)
1
(0.25)
250
(60)
110
(26)
17
(4)
850
(200)
5
(1.2)
21
(5)
26
(6)
none
680
(160)
0.8
(0.2)
*
23
(6)
54
(13)
540
(130)
0.8
(0.2)
23
(5.5)
9
(2)
none
450
(110)
0.3
(0.07)
56
(13)
83
(20)
none
450
(110)
V-104
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
At plants 3519 and 1775, process wash water is totally
impounded in settling basins. At plant 3519, this water is
allowed to evaporate. At plant 1775 this water is used for
irrigation. Neither case results in discharge of process
water. Plants 1112 and 1041 discharge process washdown
water after settling in small sumps. Plant 3521 discharges
process wash water to a municipal treatment plant. Plant
1042 currently collects process wash water along with septic
and incidental water and discharges to a septic field.
Current plans are to recycle wash water, thereby reducing
this load. Equipment to accomplish this is currently being
installed. Plant 1100 combines process wash water with
sanitary and cooling water prior to treatment. Treatment is
the secondary biological (trickling filter) type which is
used primarily for treating wastes from an on-site paper
plant. After treatment, process washdown water is
discharged.
3.10.1a5 Effluents and Disposal
The following presents effluent and disposal information for
all seven plants visited. In each case, incidental water is
combined with process wash water, making it difficult to
isolate flow and constituents attributable to process wash
water only.
V-105
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Plant
1041
1042
1100
1112
1775
3519
3521
Effluent Disposal
Amount
in
^1041
1042
/1100
^1112
1775
3519
^3521
yes
none
yes
yes
none
none
yes
Total
Wastewater
liters/kkg
{gal/ton^
134 (32)
268 (64)
26 (6)
177 (43)
55 (13)
24 (6)
56 (14)
discharged
septic field
biotreat and
discharge
discharged
pond and
irrigation
pond and
evaporate
sewer
wastewater
kg/kkg (Ib/ton)
0.003 (0.006)
0.001 from process
0.002
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.22
0.001
(0.004)
(0.002)
(0.004)
(0.006)
(0.44)
(0.002)
Process
Wastewater
liters/kkg
(gal/ton)
0.46 (0.11)
1.0 (0.25)
5 (1.2)
not given
0.8 (0.2)
0.8 (0.2)
0.3 (0.07)
TSS concen-
tration in
total wastewater
mq/liter
22
8
39
12
55
9,200
18
pH values given for wastewater from these plants ranged from
6.5 to 8.5.
Gypsum dust from calcining and wallboard dust from endsawing
are either recycled to the process or landfilled. Waste
wallboard is usually landfilled. Plants 1775 and 3519
dispose of their waste wallboard on the gypsum ore pile
which is ultimately recycled to the calcining step.
3.. 1Q.L.2 Wet Dust collection
3.10.2.1 Process Description
The process description is the same as for the dry dust
collection subcategory, except for the method of dust
collection at the calcining step. Plants in this
V-106
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
subcategory use wet scrubbers to remove dust from the
calcining units. All plants contacted indicated they were
changing from wet to dry dust collection by 1980.
3±lSL.2s.2 Raw Waste Loads
Raw wastes for all plants in this subcategory consist of
gypsum solids from the wet scrubbers, wallboard dust from
endsawing, waste wallboard, and suspended gypsum solids from
plant washdown. The following are raw waste loads for all
plants in this subcategory:
kg/kkg of product Plant
fib/ton) 1776 1995 3502
gypsum solids from 5 7 20
wet scrubbers (10) (14) (40)
wallboard dust from 10 25 8
endsawing (20) (50) (16)
waste wallboard 33 20 16
(66) (40) (32)
suspended solids 0.05 0.075 0.25
from plant washdown (0.10) (0.15) (0.50)
3.JCL2.3 Water Use
Process water is used for hydration in making the gypsum
board and for occasional boardline washdown. Approximately
80 per cent of the water added for hydration is evaporated
to the atmosphere in the board kilns. The remaining 20 per
cent is retained in the product. Process water is used for
wet scrubbing of the calcining units and clean-up of the
board conveyor belt and slurry mixer area, especially during
startup and shutdown, and when manufacturing multi-stream
products. Incidental water uses include non-contact cooling
of bearings and compressors and boiler blowdown. The
following presents water use at all plants in this sub-
category:
V-107
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Plant
1226 1995 3502
liters/kkg
product
(gal/ton)
intake: 2,800 6,500 18,000
(680) (1,600) (4,400)
use:
hydration 420 220 450
(100) (53) (110)
washdown 56 36 92
(13) (9) (10)
scrubbing 2,300 4,700 17,000
(540) (1,100) (4,200)
non-contact * 1,400 350
cooling (340) (83)
sanitary 63 56 69
(15) (13) (17)
boiler blow- 37 110 140
down (9) (27) (33)
consumption:
product eva- 420 220 450
poration and (100) (53) (110)
retainment
*used for hydration
Plants 1995 and 3502 use brackish water for wet scrubbers.
3.10.2.4 Wastewater Treatment
Process water used for hydration is evaporated or retained
in the product at all plants. Process scrubber water at
plant 1776 is impounded, solids removed and then cooled
through cooling towers, prior to discharge. Scrubber water
at plants 1995 and 3502 is discharged without treatment.
Process wash water at plant 1776 is impounded and allowed to
evaporate and percolate. Wash water at plant 3502 is
discharged without treatment, while at plant 1995 it is
discharged to a municipal treatment plant. Incidental water
is handled in a number of ways. Plant 1776 totally impounds
boiler blowdown and cooling water. Plant 1995 discharges to
V-108
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
a municipal treatment plant, and plant 3502 discharges to a
navigable waterway.
3. 10.2.5 Effluents and Disposal
The following table presents effluent information on
scrubber water discharges for all plants in this
subcategory. Process wash water effluent information from
plant 3502 is unavailable since this portion of process
water is combined with the scrubber water discharge.
Process wash water at 1776 is impounded and allowed to
evaporate and percolate. Plant 1995 discharges process wash
water.
1776 1995 3502
discharge, liters/kkg 2,300 4,700 17,000
(gal/ton) (540) (1,100) (4,200)
TSS, kg/kkg 0.11 7 20
(Ibs/ton) (0.22) (14) (40)
TSS, concentration, mg/1: 48 1,500 1,200
7.9 8.0 8.2
Gypsum solids removed from the wet scrubber on the calcining
unit at plant 1776 are settled in a pond. This pond must be
dredged out periodically and the solids landfilled. At all
plants wallboard dust from endsawing is recycled to the
process. Waste wallboard is usually landfilled.
Two of the above plants (1776 and 1995) also mine and
process gypsum. These plants were discussed and guidelines
for them were established in the Development Document for
the Mineral Mining and Processing Industry, Volume I,
Minerals for the Construction Industry pages V-72 through
V-74, IX-28 through IX-30 and X-9 through X-11.
V-109
DRAFT
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DRAFT
3..J0...3 Autoclave Calci.natj.on
3. I0^3.jl Process Description
The process description is the same as the dry dust
collection subcategory, except for the method of
calcination. Plants in this subcategory use an autoclave
process for calcining the crushed gypsum ore. The actual
autoclave process is similar in principle to a pressure
cooker. Autoclaves are used to produce a dense alpha hemi-
hydrate gypsum. The alpha-gypsum is not used in wallboard
production. Plant 1043 calcines in kettles (beta-gypsum
process) and autoclaves (alpha-gypsum process) to produce
two different types of stucco. Raw waste loads, water use,
and wastewater treatment for the beta-gypsum portion of
plant 1043 (calcination and board manufacturing) are similar
in nature to the dry dust collection subcategory. The
following information for plant 1043 and other plants in
this subcategory refers to the alpha-gypsum process only.
liJ2iJi_2 Raw Waste Loads
Raw wastes at plant 1043 are suspended solids (CaSO4) from
autoclave calcination. The amount is 10 kg/kkg of product
(20 Ibs/ton).
l-sJOiliJ Water Use
Process water used for autoclave calcination results in an
autoclave condensate and blowdown and a slurry filtrate.
Incidental water use includes non-contact cooling of
bearings and compressors. The following table presents
water use at plant 1043 for the alpha-gypsum process only:
liters/kkg (gal/ton)
of gypsum^products
intake: 110 (26)
use: process
(slurry filtrate) 60 (15)
(autoclave condensate 20 CO
and blowdown)
non-contact cooling 30 (7)
V-110
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
ib.10il.sJi Waste water Treatment
At plant 1043 calcination condensate blowdown, filtrate, and
non-contact cooling water are combined and discharged to an
evaporation pond for total containment. Plant 1997 uses the
same wastewater treatment method for calcination condensate
and filtrate. One other plant in this subcategory sewers
its process water without treatment.
3.10.3.5 Effluents and Disposal
All process water effluents from plants 1043 and 1997 are
discharged to evaporation ponds. The other plant sewers its
process water without treatment.
Jill Non-Clay. Refractories, SIC 3297
The non-clay refractories industry includes establishments
which are primarily engaged in manufacturing refractories
made of minerals other than clay. This industry includes
plants which manufacture the following refractory materials:
(a) Graphite and carbon brick and shapes
(b) Basic (magnesite and chromite) brick and shapes
(c) Combination clay and non-clay monolithics (mortars,
ramming mixes, gunning mixes, castables and
plastics, etc.)
(d) Silica brick and shapes
(e) Mullite and zircon brick and shapes - pressed and
cast and fused cast
(f) Silicon carbide shapes and monolithics
(g) Dolomite grains and brick.
There are sixty-three significant U.S. plants in this
category. In this study, information was obtained from
twenty-six plants, fourteen plants were visited and five
were sampled. On a production basis data was obtained from
55 per cent of the industry.
The plants under study are in various regions of the U.S.
with levels of annual production ranging from 5,000 to
90,700 metric tons (5,500 to 100,000 tons) and plant ages
ranging from 4 years to greater than 80 years.
V-111
DRAFT
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DRAFT
and Carbon Brick and Shapes
Four plants are discussed under this subcategory. Carbon
and graphite refractory shapes are produced at plant 2107;
plant 2108 produces only carbon stock products; plant 2109
produces artificial graphite and plant 2110 produces carbon
brick, glass beads, and metal ceramic sleeves and tubes.
These plants represent more than 50 per cent of U.S.
production.
3. 11. 1^1 Process Descriptions
The basic processes used in manufacturing graphite and
carbon refractory shapes (plants 2107 and 2108) consist of
the blending of sized particles of calcined coke or coal
with molten tar or pitch in mixers at 100 to 115°C (212 to
239°F) and then molding or extruding into rectangular or
cylindrical shapes. The formed pieces are next packed in
silica sand and coke and baked in gas or oil fired furnaces
at approximately 850°C (1562°F) , to drive off volatiles and
completely coke the binding material so that the entire mass
is essentially 100 per cent carbon.
Artificial graphite is manufactured at plant 2109 by
processing carbon from coke in electric powered furnaces at
2600 to 2900°C (4712 to 5252°F) . Approximately 70 to 75 per
cent of this material is tar or pitch impregnated prior to
graphitization. A mixture of foundry coke, sand, and
sawdust is used as heat insulation material during the
process .
Additionally, the following processes are performed at one
or more plants in these subcategories :
(1) Sawing or machining of various products from carbon or
graphite stocks;
(2) Sizing and grinding of residual carbon and graphite
pieces;
(3) Coal calcining.
The primary product manufactured at plant 2110 is carbon
brick. The processing includes three major steps: feed
preparation, pressing or molding, and grinding. The raw
material components are blended in batches, weighed, and
formed in a hydraulic press. The various sizes of product
V-112
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
are formed through application of heat and pressure. The
materials are water-quenched after baking. The brick is
transported to the grinding facility where all surfaces are
ground to specification and then the brick is palletized for
shipment.
Generalized process flow diagrams for these processes are
given in Figures 15, 16, and 17.
Two other waste-generating materials are also manufactured
at plant 2110: glass beads and metal-ceramic sleeves or
tubes.
3.11.1-2 Raw Waste Loads
The waterborne raw wastes of the first three plants are
primarily carbonaceous materials which are discharged into
municipal sewers. At plant 2107, the waste originates from
sawing and molding operations, whereas at plant 2108, the
waste is from the carbon contact cooling. At plant 2109,
the major waste consists of the water used for cooling
electric transformers and spray cooling of electrodes on
furnace heads; this water is discharged in open channels and
becomes process water because it washes the dusty furnace
heads and the product dust settled on plant floors prior to
discharge.
At plant 2110, the wastewater contains particles of feed
components such as sand, graphite, and coal. The
wastewaters at this plant are discharged into settling
ponds.
Waterborne wastes generated at these four plants consist
essentially of carbon particles as suspended solids, as
given below:
2108 2109 2J10
kg/kkg of product >115 >0.02 >0.25 not given
(Ib/ton) (>230) (>0.04) (>0.5)
The exact amounts could not be determined. Plant 2107
carries out molding operations and extensive machining
operations not carried out at the other plants thus
V-113
DRAFT
-------
COAL—» CALCINE
•
L.
PITCH—»
GRAPHITE-H
COKE
i
ILCINE j—i
--TL
if
CRUSH
AND
MILL
SCREEN
UQUID .
CO/CE A TAR A
CHARGE
LEGEND:
UNIQUE FOR CARBON AND GRAPH/TE MANUFACTURE
UNIQUE FOR CARSON STOCK MANUFACTURE
— MAIN PROCESS
A DRY DUST COLLECTION RECYCLE TO PROCESS
O <
•n I
PITCH-BONDED CARBON PRODUCT
^CARBON PRODUCT
PRODUCT
COKE
MACHINED
CARBON
PRODUCT
WATER
PITCH-IMPREGNATED PRODUCT
LIQUID PITCH AND TAR- - M IMPREGNATE
~
FIGURE 15
MANUFACTURE OF GRAPHITE AND CARBON REFRACTORY SHAPES
~~
-------
LEGEND:
DRY DUST COLLECT/ON
RECYCLE TO PROCESS
O <
PETROLEUM COKE-
I
BAKED
CARBON
STORE
AND
CONDITION
COKE"
m
DRY
A
CRUSHER
PITCH
IMPREGNATE
1
PACK
AND
CONDITION
COOLING
WATER
GRAPHITIZE
VSTEWAl
WASTEWATER
DISCHARGE
J»
MILL
CLEAN
WATER
i
MACHINE
•PRODUCT
WASTEWATER
RGURE 16
MANUFACTURE OF ARTIFICIAL GRAPHITE FROM COKE
-------
A WATER
WATER
WATER
VAPOR
WATER
i
t
1
GRAPHITE
AND CARBON'
BLEND
'
HYDRAULIC
PRESS
BAlfF
GRIND
AMD
FINISH
WASTEWATER
TO SETTLING PONDS
WASTEWATER
TO SETTLING PONDS
LEGEND:
A DRY DUCT COLLECTION
RECYCLE TO PROCESS
FIGURE 17
MANUFACTURE OF CARBON BRICK AND SHAPES
-------
DRAFT
accounting for the much higher waterborne waste load. Dry
wastes consisting primarily of dust from various sources are
landfilled at plant 2110 in the amount of approximately
150 kg/kkg of product (300 Ib/ton).
3.11.1.3 Water Use
Plants 2107 and 2108 use city supplied water only. At plant
2109, 76 per cent of the water comes from a well and the
remainder from .the city. At plant 2110, 63 per cent of the
water comes from a nearby creek and the remainder from the
city. Water at plant 2110 is pumped into a reservoir and
passed through a sand filter prior to usage. No recycling
of the plant process and non-contact cooling water is
practiced. There is some inadvertent return of the effluent
to the process because the intake from the creek for supply
to the reservoir is below the point of plant discharge. At
plant 2107, water is used in some batches and primarily for
contact cooling in carbon sawing machines. At plant 2108,
water is used primarily for contact cooling in the carbon
mixing and forming step and for non-contact cooling
purposes. At plant 2109, water is used primarily for
electrode cooling on furnace heads. At plant 2110, water is
used for contact cooling in the carbon brick grinding
circuit and for miscellaneous noncontact cooling purposes
throughout the plant. The hydraulic loads of these plants
are given below:
Water Use,
liters/kkg of
product _Jgal/tpni
process, contact
cooling or
washing
non-contact
cooling
boilers
sanitary
2107
38,000
(9,000)
none
3,000
(800)
1,600
(380)
2108
2,100
(500)
11,000
(2,600)
3,800
(900)
1,960
(470)
2109
2110
121,000 79,000
(29,000) (19,000)
none
6,100
(1,500)
30,500
(7,300)
50,000
(12,000)
none
1,500
(350)
V-117
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
3^1.1._J14 Waste Treatment
All wastewater streams from plants 2107, 2108 and 2109 are
discharged untreated, with the exception of the waste
streams from the carbon sawing machines at plant 2107. At
this plant the contact cooling water from the sawing
machines is sent to settling basins. This plant has two
discharge streams; the first consists of process cooling
water, boiler blowdowns, washdown, and sanitary waste, and
the second is,the drainage from a nearby swamp. The water
used in the process mixes is either absorbed by the raw
materials or is evaporated during the product baking cycle.
At plant 2110, the treatment of the wastewater consists of
three settling ponds operated in series. All process water
from the grinding facility is sent to the primary pond,
while all other contact and non-contact water goes to the
second pond of the series. The ponds are dredged as needed.
Some oil is inherent in the wastewater from the process,
coming from the hydraulic presses. An oil separator is used
prior to the ponds as well as skimmers within the pond
system.
All these facilities use either dry baghouse dust collectors
or cyclones throughout the plant for air pollution control.
The baghouse dust is recycled to the process.
3.11.1.5 Effluent and Disposal
Effluents from plants 2107, 2108, and 2109 are all
discharged into municipal waste treatment systems. At
plant 2110, the non-contact cooling water from the carbon
brick operation and the sanitary wastewater are discharged
into a municipal waste treatment facility; the remaining
effluents are treated by gravity settling prior to discharge
into a nearby creek. The compositions of the major waste
streams from these facilities are given below:
V-118
DRAFT
-------
stream
flow rate,
liters/day
(GPD)
2107
0011
DRAFT
2108
001-0032
005-007 0043
(composite)
Plant
1,741,000 1,363,000 454,000
(460,000) (360,000) (120,000)
Concentrations,
mg/liter
alkalinity 243 148
BOD 8 4
COD 310 28
TS 3,582 205
TDS 444 186
TSS 3,138 19
color (units) 1 1
TVS 1,131 4.8
ammonia 0.04 0.1
(as N)
Kjeldahal 2.7 1.4
Nitrogen
Nitrate <0.01 <0.1
Phosphorus <0.2 <0.1
total (as P)
Bromide <0,1 <0.1
Chloride 16 16.9
Cyanide <0.1 <0.1
Sulfide <0.1 <0.1
oil + grease * *
163
4
14
192
175
17
3
4.9
0.1
1.2
0.1
<0. 1
20.6
<0. 1
2109
2110
005+006* 0015
2,725,000 3,785,000
(720,000) (1,000,000)
203
7
8
420
416
3.9
2
2.5
0.1
1.1
M
».3
39.4
21
*
132
*
22
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
13
* not given
1plant effluent
2combined process and cooling water
3major process stream
*major process stream
smajor process stream (includes waste streams from other
processes)
V-119
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Stream
Flow rate,
liters/kkg
(gal/ton)
Amounts, kg/kkg of
product (Ibs/ton)
BOD
COD
TS
TDS
TSS
TOC
oil and grease
Plant
2107
(Mm
36,600
(8,780)
0.29
(0.58)
11.35
(22.70)
131
(262)
16.25
(32.50)
115
(230)
0.0015
(0.003)
*
2108
001-002,
005-0072
(composite)
14,100
(3,370)
0.06
(0.12)
0.39
(0.78)
2.9
(5.8)
2.62
(5.24)
0.27
(0.54)
0.2
(0.4)
*
0043
3,700
(1,120)
0.02
(0.04)
0.06
(0.12)
0.90
(1.80)
0.82
(1.64)
0.08
(0.16)
0.075
(0.15)
*
2109
005+006*
110,000
(26,300)
0.77
(1.54)
0.88
(1.76)
46
(92)
45.5
(91)
0.43
(0.86)
1.43
(2.86)
*
2110
(KM5
139,000
(33,300)
2.92
(5.84)
*
18
(36)
*
3.06
(6.12)
*
0.42
(0.84)
pH * * * *
* not given
1 plant effluent
2combined process and cooling water
3major process stream
*major process stream
smajor process stream (includes waste streams from other
processes)
6.5
V-120
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Permit Information.
According to company officials, NPDES permits are not
required for plants 2107, 2108, and 2109, since all
effluents are discharged directly into municipal waste
treatment facilities. NPDES permit information supplied for
plant 2110 is given below:
parameters
kg/kkg prod.
jibs/ton} daily average daily maximum
TSS 4.1 (8.3) 8.3 (16.7)
BOD5 4.1 (8.3) 8.3 (16.7)
Oil + grease 2.1 (4.2)
pH 6.0-9.0
li.U.j.2 Basic (Maqnesite and Chromite}_ Brick and Shapes
The raw materials used in these plants are chromite and
magnesite. The chrome ore used is imported from the
Philippines and Africa by ship and then transported to the
plant site where it is stored in the field. The magnesite
used is either synthetic or natural from domestic and
imported sources.
3..VK2..1 process Description
The plants in this subcategory manufacture fired, chemically
bonded, or tar impregnated/bonded brick and shapes and
monolithics. The process consists of grinding and sizing
the raw materials, mixing, pressing, drying, and firing.
The magnesite and chrome ores are kept separated to prevent
contamination until they are brought together at the mixing
pans.
After the ores are processed and classified, they are fed
into bins, according to the grain size. From these bins,
batching systems measure the proportions of raw materials
into the mixing pans, where batches are prepared for the
presses. After pressing, the brick or shapes are either
fired in tunnel kilns or shipped to the customer, depending
V-121
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
upon whether they are ceramic bonded (fired) or chemically
bonded.
For some applications, the brick are encased in steel.
These plants have their own steel preparation departments
which are capable of processing sheet or coil steel into the
many sizes and shapes necessary for encasing.
A generalized flow diagram for these plants is shown in
Figure 18. Information on six basic refractory plants will
be discussed hereafter.
3.11.2.2 Raw Waste Loads
Wastewater streams from these facilities consist primarily
of the water used for miscellaneous non-contact cooling
purposes. Some plants use wet scrubbers on their mixers for
dust control purposes which create waterborne process
wastes. Additionally, the rain runoff from the chromite
stockpiles during heavy rainfalls generates waste streams
from these facilities. Magnesite is stored under cover and
does not create an analogous waste. Plant 2103 does not
have this chromite stockpile runoff. The solid waste from
these plants consists of scrap ceramic material which is
sold or hauled to landfills.
A small quantity of contact cooling water is used on masonry
saws for special orders or to cut samples for laboratory
analysis. The actual volume of water used for this purpose
and the quantity of raw waste is not known.
The raw wastes from these plants are magnesite and chrome
particulates in quantities shown below:
V-122
DRAFT
-------
STEEL
Cl
CHROMITE 6
MAGNESITE
SC
0 <
£ H
hrj M
1-3 W
TAR — &
BONDING
AGENTS WATER
i I -—a* ENCASE
*USH,
RIND,
rtlLL
AND
:REEN
i
w
GASEJ
WEIGH, 1
MIX, —J
rt FORM.
• PRESS
AND __
DRY
«TER VD1T L^ K|LN
i t
SCRUBBERS
5\f^
WEIGH, 1 FORM,
HEAT 1 PRESS
AND . * AND
MIX TEMPER
—==«* CHEMICAL BONDED ENCASED PRODUCT
EEL »>
ENCASE — — ^, PROOUCT
r*
_j
=_ TAR
1
1
a^Ca, TAR . .^^^teB^'^SGNATED
.^"^ IMPREGNATE "cmzBS' PRODUCT
1
•n
WASTEWATER
FIGURE 18
MANUFACTURE OF BASIC BRICK AND SHAPES
(CHROMITE AND MAGNESITE)
-------
DRAFT
Plant
2072
2076
Source
Kg/kkq of product
(Ibs/tonl
2077
2078 (1)
2103
2104
Scrubber effluent
Misc. non-
contact cooling
Rain runoff
Misc. non-
contact cooling
boiler condensate
Rain runoff
A portion of
misc. non-contact
cooling water
rain runoff
Misc. non^contact
cooling water
A portion of
misc. non-contact
cooling water
contact
cooling (inter-
mittent operation)
misc. non-
cooling water
wet scrubber
(intermittent due
to malfunctioning)
rain runoff
1.82 (3.64)
nil
unknown
0.0045
(0.009)
unknown
0.007-2.42
(0.014-4.83)
nil
unknown
nil
nil
unknown
nil
unknown
unknown
Notes: (1) Chrome ore is not used in this plant.
3.11.2.3 Water Use
200 to 2,500 liters of water per metric ton of product
(50-650 gal/ton) are consumed in these plants. The water is
used in mixes, for wet scrubbers, for miscellaneous non-
contact cooling purposes, and as boiler feed in some plants
to produce steam. The hydraulic loads of these plants are
given below:
V-124
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Plant
2072 2076 2077 2(578 2J03 2J04
Intake. 2,800 1,500 2,400 270 650 270
liters/kkg (670) (370) (560) (70) (160) (70)
product (gal/ton)
Water
Process none 16 260 none 25 25
consumed (4) (60) (6) (6)
Non-contact 2,300 1,100 1,800 180 420 150
cooling (560) (260) (440) (45) (100) (40)
Dust control 180 none none none none 20
(45) (5)
Boiler feed none 150 none none none none
(35)
Sanitary 300 300 260 130 220 75
(70) (70) (60) (30) (50) (18)
In addition, there is an intermittent use of water for
masonry saw cooling at all these plants. The amount is
unknown.
li-UU^l Wastewater Treatment
Process water used at these plants in brick mixes is
evaporated in dryers and kilns. Scrubber water at plant
2072 is sent to a shallow basin and the overflow from this
basin is discharged. At plant 2104, the cooling water and
scrubber water go to an evaporation pond.
The water used for saw cooling at plant 2076 is recycled
from a settling basin. At plant 2103, saw cooling water is
collected and settled. At the remaining plants, the water
used in sawing is routed to a sump and discharged with non-
contact cooling water.
The non-contact cooling water at plants 2072, 2076, and
2078, is discharged directly into the city storm sewers or
into an open drainage ditch. The cooling water at plant
2077 is passed through a cooling tower as required and then
recycled. At plant 2103, 50 to 60 per cent of the cooling
water is recycled.
V-125
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
3.11,2.5 Effluent and Disposal,
Waste stream disposal practices found in this industry are
as follows:
plant non-contact scrubber
cgoling^water wastewater
2072 directly to shallow basin
city's storm overflow to
sewers drainage ditch
to storm sewer
2076 directly to none
city's storm
sewers
2077 9Q% recycle, none
10X to river
2078 directly to none
open drainage
ditch
2103 50-60X none
recycled,
remainder to
creek
2104 evaporation evaporation
pond pond
Under normal circumstances, plant 2104 has no effluent from
its property. The overflow from the pond discharges to a
nearby creek during heavy rainfall. The composition of this
discharge is not known.
All plants using chromite, except 2103, have stockpile
runoff.
V-126
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
The composition of the scrubber sump effluent at plant 2072
is given below:
Effluent Parameters
TSS
phosphorus, total as P
chromium
magnesium
kg/kkg of product
(lb/ton)""
0.36 (0.73) 2,000
0.29 (0.58) 1,600
0.0004 (0.0008) 2.3
unknown unknown
The data shown above show ineffectual treatment. Adequate
settling pond performance in analogous mineral products
industries should reduce the suspended solids to 50 mg/liter
with a concomitant reduction of total chromium.
3_2.11i3_ Clay and Non-Clay Monolithic Refractories
Monolithics (mortars, ramming mixes, castables, plastics,
etc.) are produced as co-products in plants manufacturing
various refractory brick and shapes. There are few plants
which specialize solely in non-clay monolithic products.
Most plants in this subcategory manufacture both clay and
non-clay monolithics. Two plants manufacturing both clay
and non-clay refractory monolithics are discussed.
li-Hs-lil Process Description
The process consists essentially of crushing, screening,
mixing, packaging, and shipping. The raw materials used at
these plants are silica, alumina, mullite, zirconia,
magnesia, calcined fire clay and flint clays, perlite,
vermiculite, expanded shale, ball clays and calcium
aluminate cements. Most of the refractory forming (casting)
operations are performed at the customer1s site. However,
some plants occasionally manufacture cast finished shapes on
a special order basis. A generalized flow diagram for these
plants is shown in Figure 19.
3_il!i3_i.2 Raw Waste Loads
The only process water involved is approximately 8.5 to
30 liters/kkg of product (2-7 gals/ton) which is added to
certain products. This moisture is held by the product.
V-127
DRAFT
-------
o <
s I—«
fij NJ
•-3 co
RAW MATERIAL
(SILICA, ALUMINA
MULLITE, MAGNESIA,
ETC.)
:—-1
1 CRUSH
AND
SCREEN
WATER
1
VARIOUS
ADDITIVES
Miy
WATER
MIX
FIGURE 19
MANUFACTURE OF CLAY AND NON-CLAY MONOLITHICS
-------
DRAFT
3. 11.3.3 Hater Use
All solid ceramic materials are recycled to the process.
The dust collected in the baghouse collectors is also
recycled. The hydraulic loads of two plants are given
below:
Use liters/kkq of ^eroduct (gal/ton)
3210
process 8 30
consumed (2) (7)
cooling 40 none
water (10)
sanitary 40 unknown
(10)
Hater Treatment
Cooling water is discharged untreated.
3.11., 3. 5 Effluent and Disposal
No process wastewater is discharged from either of these
facilities.
Silica Refractories
Plants in this subcategory manufacture silica brick and
shapes or monolithics (specialties) from ganisters, washed
silica gravels or similar high purity siliceous minerals.
Four plants will be discussed in this subcategory. Plants
2071, 2074, and 2075 manufacture primarily silica brick and
shapes. Plant 2073 manufactures silica specialties. Plant
2075 also manufactures silica mortars. Water is the primary
additive in their mixes; however, other chemicals (such as
ligno-sulfonates) are also used in some mixes as binders.
Some of these plants handle as many as 2,000 different
configurations of brick.
V-129
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
3. VI ^4.J[ grogess Description
The processes involved in the manufacture of brick and
shapes are: crushing the ganister and silica gravel,
screening, mixing, pressing or hand molding into brick and
shapes, drying, and firing in kilns. The processes involved
in the manufacturing of silica specialties are batching,
milling, mixing, extruding or shredding, packing, and
shipping.
Most of the products manufactured by these plants are used
by the steel, copper, and glass industries.
A generalized flow diagram for these plants is shown in
Figure 20.
3.11.4,2 Raw Waste Loads
The process water used is either evaporated or shipped with
the product. All solid ceramic materials are recycled to
the process. The dust collected in the baghouse collectors
is also recycled.
l&mbJ Water Use
These four plants obtain their water from wells. Plants
2071 and 2073 use their water sources to satisfy the plant's
processing needs as well as the needs of the surrounding
communities. The hydraulic loads are given below:
Water^.Use liters/kkg of product (gal/ton)
2071 2073 2074 2075
process consumed 18 (4) 32 (8) 42 (10) 650 (155)
non-contact 390 190 100 270
cooling (93) (46) (25) (64)
sanitary 22 64 104 190
(5) (15) (25) (45)
boiler feed not given not given not given 110 (26)
3.11^4.4 Waste Treatment
At three plants, the non-contact cooling water, which is
used in air compressors and ball mill bearings, is
V-130
DRAFT
-------
RAW
MATERIALS.
(CANISTER
AND SILICA)
O <
WATER•
DRY MIX
WATER
-^
CRUSH
1
i
WET PAN
L-i
DRY OR
WET MILL .
AND STORE
EXTRUDE
MORTAR
GRIND
MAGNETIC
SEPARATION
I
J ^SPECIALTY PRODUCTS
SOLID WASTE
•SPECIALTY PRODUCTS
WATER
BINDERS
HAND MOLD
MIX AND
PACK
. ^MORTAR PRODUCT
^SPECIALTY PRODUCTS
1— •»
9*
— B»
MIX AND
TEMPER
1
1 0
PRESS
.DRY
AND
BURN
BRICK AND
» SHAPES
PRODUCT
D
I
I
_f
PLASTIC
MACHINE
SHRED
SPECIALTY PRODUCTS
SPECIALTY PRODUCTS
FIGURE 20
MANUFACTURE OF SILICA REFRACTORIES
-------
DRAFT
discharged without treatment. At plant 2074, 96 per cent of
the water used for non-contact cooling purposes is recycled.
3.11.4,5 Effluent
There are no process water discharges from these facilities.
Some of the characteristics of the cooling water discharges
from these facilities are as follows:
Outfall
source
flow rate
liters/kkg
(gal/ton)
PH
001
air
compressor
105
(25)
8.0
temperature °C
winter 20
summer 36
Plant 2071
002 "~
003
004
overflow from air compressor air
intake water and ball mill compressor
bearing
reservoir
intermittent 120
flow rate* (30)
7.8 8.0
9 20
16 23
160
(38)
8.0
20
41
V-132
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Effluent
E^ajngters,
kq/kkg product
fibs/ton) 001
TSS
sulfate
chloride
chromium
zinc, total
phenols
unknown
0.0035
(0.007)
0.0004
(0.0008)
1 x 10-7
(2 x 10-7)
3 x 10~«
(6 x 10'*)
1 x <10~*
<(2 x 10-*)
Plant 2071
002
unknown
37*
4.0*
0.001*
0. 19*
0.12*
003
unknown
0.0004
(0.0008)
0.0005
(0.001)
1 x 10~*
(2 x 10-7)
2.4 x 10-*
(4.8 x 10-*)
1 x 10-*
(2 x 10-*)
004
unknown
0.0053
(0.0106)
0.0007
(0.0014)
3 x 10-7
(6 x 10-7)
8 x 10-*
(16 x 10-*)
1 x 10-7
(2 x 10-*)
*since no flow rate is available for this discharge, the
parameters are in mg/liter.
Outfall
source
flow rate
liters/kkg
of product
(gal/ton)
PH
2073
001
2074
001
2075
001
air compressor air compressor in-process cooling
190 (46) 4.2 (1) 270 (64)
7.2
temperature °C
winter unknown
summer unknown
7.8
21
27
7.4
unknown
17
V-133
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Effluent
parameters,
kq/kkq product
lifes/tonj.
TSS
sulfate
chloride
chromium
zinc, total
phenols
2073
unknown
0.003
(0.006)
0.005
(0.010)
3 x 10-7
(6 x 10-7)
1.7 x 10-*
(3.4 x 10-*)
5.5 x 10-s
(11 x 10-5)
Plant
2074
4.2 x 10-5
(8.4 x 10-s)
1. 1 x 10-*
(2.2 x 10-*)
2.5 x 10-s
(5 x 10-S)
unknown
unknown
unknown
2075
0.004
(0.008)
unknown
unknown
unknown
unknown
unknown
3.11.5 Mullite and Zircon
Plants in this subcategory are of two types: those which
manufacture pressed or cast mullite and zircon brick or
shapes, and; those which manufacture fused cast refractory
products from bauxite, alumina, zircon, and zirconium oxide.
3.11.5.1 Pressed and Cast Brick and Shapes
3. IJI.5^1.1 Process Description
In this study, one plant was found (plant 2070) which
produces mullite and zircon brick and shapes on a year-round
basis. There are several other plants which produce mullite
or zircon products along with other non-clay refractory
brick and shapes.
The raw materials used for the manufacturing of these
refractories are bauxite, mullite and zircon sand. The
zircon sand is usually imported, primarily from Australia.
Molasses and kaolin clay are used at this plant as binders
in the mixes for these refractory products.
v-134
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
The processes involved in the manufacture of these products
are compacting the raw feed, grading, calcining, cooling,
crushing, milling, batching, mixing, pressing or casting,
drying, and firing.
At plant 2070, about 4 per cent of the final product is wet
ground to meet size specifications. This plant uses six
different refractory mixes, with different grain sizes for
various mixes. Most of the products manufactured in this
plant are used by the steel industry. The remainder are
used by the glass, aluminum, and copper industries.
Figure 21 is a generalized flow diagram for this process.
sLs.ll^s.1^.2. Raw Waste Loads
Process waste materials are generated in the wet grinding
operation. They are particulates of the raw materials used.
There are four raw waste streams from plant 2070. Three of
these streams are non-contact cooling water used for
compressor cooling, kiln bearing cooling, and kiln and
machine seals; the fourth stream is the wastewater from
their wet grinding operation. The raw waste loads of these
streams are not known.
3iH-.5-J.i.3 Water Use
This plant consumes 3,400 liters of water per metric ton of
product (820 gals/ton). Water is used primarily for non-
contact cooling in compressor circuits, for cooling kiln
bearings and as seals in various machines. About 70 per
cent of the water used in the wet grinding circuits is
recycled. The hydraulic load of this plant is given below:
Water_Use liters/kkg of product (gal/ton^
process consumed 103 (25)
non-contact cooling 2400 (575)
make-up water for 240 (57)
wet grinding
sanitary 680 (160)
V-135
DRAFT
-------
<
M
U)
SU-^
ZIRCON _^
PELLETS
WATER
|
GRADE
WATER
mi IY
MIA
—
ZIRCON
SAND OR
VENT WATER PELLETS VENT
t -1 1 t
COOL, I
CRUSH, BATCH DRY
KILN — * GRIND M AND — ^ PRESS — •* AND • » PRODUCT
. t 1 ,4-
DRY WFT
FIRE GRJND
WASTEWATER
FIGURE 21
MANUFACTURE OF PRESSED AND CAST MULLITE AND ZIRCON REFRACTORIES
-------
DRAFT
3.11.5.1.4
Process water used in the mixes is evaporated in dryers and
kilns.
Water used in grinding machines and in finished product
sawing enters a small settling tank attached to each
grinding or sawing unit. About 70 per cent of the clarified
water is recycled. The overflow from the settling tanks is
routed to a series of small settling basins prior to
discharge into a 305 meters (1000 feet) long drainage ditch
on the property. Part of the plant's cooling water is
routed into the catch basins and the remainder is discharged
directly into the drainage ditch.
The sanitary water goes to the city treatment plant,
3.1,1^5.11g.5 Effluent and Disposal
All of the solid wastes from plant 2070 are removed to a
state approved landfill maintained by the company.
The composition of the single effluent from this plant as
determined in June of 1974 is:
Effluent
Parameters
Alkalinity
BOD
COD
TS
TDS
TSS
Ammonia
Sulfide
TOC
Chloride
Oil and Grease
pH (Versar measurement)
Concentration,
mq/1
163.0
6.4
32.0
387.0
355.0
28.0
0.07
0.0
0.0
17.0
8.2
7.8
kg/kkg^ product
fibs/ton)
0.43 (0
0.02 (0
0.08 (0
1.02 (2
0.94 (1
0.07 (0
0.0002
0.0
0.0
0.0449
0.0216
.86)
.04)
.16)
.04)
.88)
.14)
(0.0004)
(0.0898)
(0.0432)
V-137
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Fused Cast Refractories
There are only three major manufacturers producing this
category of refractory in the U.S. The industry operates
fewer than six plants. This study covered approximately
90 per cent of U.S. annual production.
,3«.14jL.5.12.i1 Process Description
The process consists of mixing batches of dry, powdered
alumina, bauxite, zircon or zirconium oxide, melting these
materials in electric arc furnaces, and sand molding or
casting the molten mass into "ingots". The various ingot
sizes are annealed, sand blasted and cleaned. The desired
brick or blocks are produced by sawing or grinding of the
ingots to final dimensions. The products manufactured by
these plants are used primarily by the glass industry. A
generalized flow diagram for these plants is given in
Figure 22.
3. 11.5.2^2 Raw Waste Load*
The major raw waste streams from these facilities are the
water used in sawing and grinding operations. The effluent
from these operations contains suspended solids, consisting
of abraded particles from the saw blades and fine cuttings
from the fused refractory ingots.
At plant 2100, the wet grinding and sawing operation
services both a clay refractory plant and plant 2100. Two
raw waste streams from the grinding facility are sent to
settling basins for gravity settling.
At plant 2111 the waste stream from sawing and grinding is
sent to ponds for gravity settling.
The waterborne wastes from these two facilities are not
known. The solid waste load at plant 2111 is approximately
0.67 kg/kkg of product (1.34 Ib/ton) , consisting of sand,
aluminum oxide, and annealing ore, which is landfilled on
plant property.
V-138
DRAFT
-------
D <
A ALUMINA
BAUXITE
ZIRCON
ZIRCONIUM OXIDE
BINDERS
AND
WATER VENT
i t
DIATOMACEOUS
EARTH
PACKING
RAW m
MATERIALS*
BATCH
AND
MIX
— »
MELT
IN
ARC
FURNACE
— ^
SAND
MOLD
AND
CAST
ANNEAL
SAND
BLAST
AND
CLEAN
INGOTS
WATER
FINISH
SAW
AND
GRIND
WASTEWATER
O
>rl
FIGURE 22
MANUFACTURE OF FUSED CAST MULLITE AND ZIRCON REFRACTORIES
-------
DRAFT
i3 water Use
Water is used at these plants as a non-contact cooling
medium on furnace shells and in compressors. Water is also
used as boiler feed, for wet grinding, sawing, and for
sanitary purposes. The hydraulic loads at these plants are
given below:
Water^Usaqe liters/kJcq (gal/ton) of product
2100 Ull
Non-contact
cooling for 20,000 1,200
compressors (4,800) (300)
Non-contact none 72,000
furnace cooling (17,000)
Wet grinding see note 7,900
and sawing (1,900)
sanitary 400 1,700
(100) (400)
Note: »Water is used at this grinding facility for both a
clay and a non-clay refractory operation. The weight of the
products which are ground or sawed is unknown. Estimated
flow rate from this operation is 529,000 liters/day
(140,000 gal/day).
3^11.5.2.4 Waste'Treatment
At both facilities, water used in sawing or grinding
operations is treated by gravity settling prior to
discharge.
At plant 2100, the water used in the grinding operations is
discharged to small basins. The overflow from these basins
is sent to a municipal sewer system.
At plant 2111, the water used in the sawing and grinding
operations is sent to settling ponds and the overflow is
discharged.
V-140
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
3.11.5.2.5
Effluent
Plant 6216 has "essentially no process effluent" from its
manufacturing operation. The composition of the effluent
stream from plant 2111 is not known. The plant drains are
connected to the city sewers. There are two streams from
the wet grinding and sawing facility adjacent to plant 2100.
The compositions of the effluent streams and their flow
rates are:
Flow rates
liters/day (GPD)
parameters, mg/1:
alkalinity
acidity
TS
TSS
TVS
BOD
COD
Fluoride
other parameters:
settleable solids
(ml/1)
pH
Effluent from
Sawing Operation
322,000
(85,000)
Max.
112
4
3015
108U
47
28
66
2.2
0.5
10.2
Effluent from
ion
72
0
1048
421
33
14
44
0.9
0.1
8.3
207,000
(55,000)
Max-.
60
0
723
267
28
12
28
0.9
0.1
9.4
Avg«.
60
0
460
112
26
12
28
0.9
0.1
9.0
For the purpose of establishing an adequate data base for
settling pond treatment performance on wastewaters
containing mineral solids of the type present in this
subcategory the following table of effluent data from
treatment of suspended solids in mine water pumpout from the
Minerals Mining and Processing Industries is given:
V-141
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Mineral Product Plant Treatment
Talc
Fire Clay and
Shale
Kaolin
2040; 2041
2042; 2043
2036
2039
3078
3075
3076
3077
3082
3083
3084
3079
3085
3086
3074
3080
3081
ponds
ponds
ponds
ponds with
lime
none
none
none
none
ponds
ponds with
lime
ponds with
lime
none
none
none
none
none
Monthly Average
TSS (tog/liter)"
<20
9
3
unknown
30
30
18
22
3
26
20
5
6.1
10
10
10
Among the above mineral processing plants, 78 per cent were
found to discharge an average TSS concentration of
20 mg/liter or less, of those having at least a settling
pond treatment for mine water, 89 per cent had this quality
of discharge.
3. 11,
Silicon Carbide and Oxide Refractories
The primary products for plants in this subcategory are
silicon carbide shapes. Additionally, some of these plants
produce oxide refractories (from materials such as aluminum
oxide, mullite, calcined clays and Jcyanites, etc.);
refractory cements; and refractory grains along with silicon
carbide products. Two plants in this subcategory were
studied.
liiiilLsJ. Process DescriEtion
The process consists of crushing, grading, batching, mixing,
forming, drying, firing, packaging, and shipping.
V-142
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
A generalized flow diagram for these plants is shown in
Figure 23.
3. 11.6.2 Raw Waste Loads
Wastewater streams from these facilities consist of the
water used for non-contact cooling purposes, boiler
blowdown, and equipment cleaning. At plant 2113, the water
used for equipment cleaning carries silicon carbide fines,
alumina and clay fines, some water soluble oils, and organic
binders. The raw waste loads of this plant are not known.
At plant 2105, the major waste stream consists of the
cooling water used at the tunnel kiln for cooling fans and
for cooling ball mill bearings. The raw waste load for this
stream as suspended solids is 0.11 kg/kkg of product
(0.22 Ibs/ton) .
3. 11.6.3 Water Use
Water is used in mixes, for non-contact cooling, boiler
feed, equipment cleaning and sanitary purposes. The
hydraulic loads of these plants are given below:
Water Usage liters/kkg of product __ (gals/ton).
" 2105 ~" """2113
process consumed 970 (230) 170 (40)
non-contact cooling 5,800 (1,400) 920 (220)
equipment cleaning negligible 8 (2)
boiler feed 180 (45) not given
.L Waste Treatment
All the process water used in preparing batches is
evaporated in dryers or kilns. At plant 2105, 98 per cent
of the cooling water is discharged into a sump at the plant
site. The remaining 2 per cent of the cooling water is
recycled to the plant. Plant 2105 employs oil skimmers to
treat wastewater in a storm sewer for which they are
responsible, but the oil is contributed by a neighboring
trucking company. Boiler blowdown is discharged to a small
evaporation pond. The sanitary water of this plant is
treated in a septic tank and drain field system.
V-143
DRAFT
-------
RAW MATERIALS—
(SILICON CARBIDE,
ALUMINUM OXIDE,
MULLITE, ETC.
CRUSH,
GRADE
AND
BATCH
DRY
MIX
WATER BINDERS
1 i
MIX
WASH WATER
TJ
WASTEWATER
REFRACTORY GRAINS PRODUCT
REFRACTORY CEMENTS PRODUCT
VENT
I
FORM
AND
MOLD
DRY
AND
RRE |
k-r
REFRACTORY
SHAPES PRODUCT
FIGURE 23
MANUFACTURE OF SILICON CARBIDE AND OXIDE REFRACTORIES
-------
DRAFT
At plant 2113, the non-contact cooling water and the boiler
blowdovms are discharged untreated into storm sewers. The
water used for equipment cleaning is discharged into a sump
to settle part of the suspended solids. The overflow from
the sump is discharged through storm sewers into six catch
basins operating in series for solids settling. The
overflow from the last basin is discharged. The sanitary
waste of this plant is sent to the municipal sewer system.
3_» J1« 6. 5 Effluent and Disposal
Plant 2105 discharges only non-contact cooling water contam-
inated with oil and grease from neighboring facilities and
therefore its effluent is not pertinent to this discussion.
The composition of the effluents from plant 2113 along with
flow rates is given below:
source
flow rate,
liter s/kkg
of product
(gal/ton)
pH
effluent
parameter,
Alkalinity
TS
TDS
TSS
Ammonia
Plant 2113
stream 1 stream 2
non-contact non-contact
cooling water, cooling water, and
boiler blowdown, and equipment cleaning
equipment cleaning
530
(130)
7.2
390
(93)
7.1
93
406
360
30
0.15
96
-------
DRAFT
effluent parameters
kg/kkq of product (Ib/ton)
Alkalinity 0.05 0.035
(0.10) (0.07)
TS 0.215 0.16
(0.43) (0.32)
TDS 0.19 0.145
(0.38) (0.29)
TSS 0.015 0.01
(0.03) (0.02)
Ammonia <0.0001 <0.0001
(<0.0002) (<0.0002)
3.11.7 Dolomite Grain and Brick
The plants in this subcategory manufacture dolomite grain
and brick. Typically, dolomite is quarried, loaded on dump
trucks, and is hauled to the primary crusher in or near the
quarry. The crushed material enters the processing plant
and serves as the raw feed.
liililil Process Description
The process steps in the production of granular refractory
dolomite are crushing, sizing, and dead-burning.
The manufacture of the brick involves mixing, pressing, and
baking or firing depending on whether they are tar bonded or
ceramic bonded brick.
A generalized process flow diagram for the plants in this
subcategory is shown in Figure 24.
3.11.7.2 Raw Waste Characterization
The plant solid wastes consist of 200 kg/kkg of product
(400 Ibs/ton) of partially calcined dolomite, iron oxide,
and coal ash reclaimed from the kiln's dust collectors and
45 kg/kkg of product (90 Ibs/ton) of scrap products which
are sent to the plant waste pile.
V-146
DRAFT
-------
EVAPC
RAW _>^
DOLOMITE
SIZE
ROTARY
KILN
KILN
ANDCl
COOLINC
RATES 1 *
J
TAR
4
MIX
1 •-!•
u.
GAS
[WATER «»£« „
MIX
PRESS
AND
BAKE
_ TAR BONDED
"^ BRICK PRODUCT
FACTORIES DOLOMITE GRAIN PRODUCT
PRESS
FIRE
._ FIRED BRICK
PRODUCT
FIGURE 24
MANUFACTURE OF DOLOMITE GRAIN AND BRICK
-------
DRAFT
itllils.3 Water gse
There are no wastewater streams from plant 2102. The non-
contact cooling water used in the rotary kiln circuit is
100 per cent recycled and the spray cooling water is
evaporated in the process. Most water used in plant 2102
comes from the quarry. There are two deep wells on the
property which provide the plant with the remainder of water
needed. 230 liters of water per metric ton of product
(55 gallons per ton) are used in this facility.
Nineteen per cent of this water is used for non-contact
cooling of bearings and the burner pipe on the rotary kiln.
This water is routed through a cooling tower into a pond and
recycled. The remainder of the water is used in spray form
for kiln gas cooling purposes, prior to routing the gases
into the baghouse dust collectors. The hydraulic load of
this plant is given below:
liters/kkg of product
water usage .fqals/ton^
non-contact U7 (11)
cooling
spray cooling 185 (45)
sanitary 250 (60)
3.11.7^4 waste Treatment
The non-contact cooling water used in the plant is sent to a
pond and recycled.
3.11.7.5 Effluent and Disposal
There is no effluent from the processing plant.
3.-.12 Refractory Magnesia - iSIC 3295)
This category covers only those plants which produce refrac-
tory magnesia (magnesium oxide) from magnesium hydroxide
derived from brine sources, either sea water or well brine.
One plant produces refractory magnesia from naturally
occurring magnesite ore; but this plant and its operations
were discussed in detail in the Development Document for the
Mineral Mining and Processing Industry, Volume III.
V-148
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
In 1972, a total of 825,000 metric tons (909,000 tons) of
magnesium hydroxide was produced from sea water and well
brines. Most of the magnesium hydroxide was used in the
production of magnesia for basic refractories. Total
production of refractory grade magnesia in 1972 was reported
to be 522,000 metric tons (576,000 tons).
The major sources of refractory grade magnesia from sea
water are located in California, New Jersey, Mississippi,
and Florida, while magnesia from well brines is produced
primarily in Michigan and Texas, although well brines are
known to occur in many other areas.
There are eight significant refractory magnesia plants in
the U.S. Four of these plants produce magnesia from
magnesium hydroxide derived from sea water brine. The other
four plants produce magnesia from magnesium hydroxide
derived from well brine. Two of these latter plants
purchase all their magnesium hydroxide from separate
production facilities. These production facilities are not
included in this category. Thus two of the magnesia from
well brine plants employ all of the unit operations normally
found in this process, while the other two employ only a
portion of these operations, starting with magnesium
hydroxide slurry as the raw material.
Several grades of refractory magnesia are produced by the
plants in this category. An intermediate grade magnesia
grain, generally called "magnesite grain" is produced by
combining dewatered magnesium hydroxide with silica, iron,
lime or other additives and firing at temperatures as high
as 1850°C (3360°F). This product is then crushed and
screened to different sizes. High-purity magnesium
hydroxide is fired at temperatures from 871° to 1426°C
(1600° to 2600°F) to produce 98.5 per cent pure magnesia.
By varying the degree and time of firing in the kiln, the
magnesia produced ranges from soft-burned to hard-burned,
and from chemically reactive to relatively inert. The
magnesia is finally screened and milled to different mesh
sizes.
High-purity, high-temperature periclase is produced in a two
stage firing process. The magnesium hydroxide is first
calcined into magnesia at 1038°C (1900°F), then briquetted
under high pressures and refired at temperatures exceeding
V-1U9
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
2200°C (4000°F). The fired periclase briquettes are ground
and screened into high-temperature, basic refractory
products.
3il2-.l Magnesia from sea Water
3.12.1.1 Process Description
The plants in this subcategory extract magnesium hydroxide
from sea water and calcine it to refractory.magnesia. This
process employs two variations concerned with conditioning
of the intake raw material sea water. One of these
conditioning treatments uses sulfuric acid and air while the
other employs calcined lime. The result of these
conditioning steps is the removal of dissolved CO2 and
bicarbonates.
At plants 2062 and 2066, sea water is "softened" by a cold
lime process. A small amount of calcined dolomitic lime is
mixed in settling tanks to precipitate all bicarbonates and
dissolved CO2 as calcium carbonate. The carbonate sludges
are withdrawn from the tank for disposal. The overflow
water proceeds to the reactors where the calcined, dolomitic
lime precipitates magnesium hydroxide from the sea water.
At plants 2064 and 2065, sulfuric acid is added to the
incoming sea water which is then passed through a .desorption
tower countercurrent to the flow of air to reduce the CO2
content of the incoming.water. The sea water is next seeded
with a small quantity of magnesium hydroxide, mixed with
calcined dolomitic lime and sent to the reaction tanks where
magnesium hydroxide precipitates from sea water.
V-150
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
The raw material intake compositions are given below:
206
2062
8.5-9.2 7.7
2065
7.8
2066
8.0
166
4
250
39,000
38,850
150
2,000
<1 . 0
18,400
440
0.5
1,500
154
*
*
30,000
30,000
6.7
1,181
*
21,200
773
*
*
*
2
4,710
33,900
33,900
5.3
700
*
*
340
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
2,634
#
8,927
375
*
1 , 200
Intake Sea Water
Parameters,
ing/liter
PH
Alkalinity
BOD
COD
TS
TDS
TSS
Sulfate
Sulfide
Chloride
Calcium
Iron
Magnesium
* data not supplied
In all plants about half of the final product is contributed
by the sea water and the remaining half by dolomitic lime
according to the following chemical reactions:
Dolomite reaction:
MgO«CaO * 2H20 = Mg(OH) 2»Ca(OH) 2
Sea water reaction:
Mg (OH) 2«Ca (OH) 2 + MgC12 = 2Mg (OH) 2 + CaC12
The reactor underflow (unreacted lime sludge) is passed
through a screen. The undersize is recycled directly to the
reactor. The oversize is sent to an elutriator for
reprocessing and the suspension of fines is returned to the
reaction tank.
The remainder of the sea water process includes decanting
the unwanted calcium salt solutions, washing the preci-
pitated solids, and removing excess water with vacuum disc
V-151
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
filters. The filtrate originating from this operation is
recycled to the thickeners.
At some plants a small fraction of the filter cake is sold
to the paper industry without further processing. The
balance is sent to a furnace or kiln for production of
magnesia grain or periclase. Since pure magnesium oxide
sinters at temperatures above 1982°C (3600°F), various
additives are mixed with the magnesium hydroxide cake to
lower the sintering temperature and permit fluxing,
recrystallization, and shrinking of grains at the maximum
temperature of the kilns.
In the double-burning process, the magnesium hydroxide cake
is converted to periclase of high purity and less than
10 per cent porosity by using a briquetting process rather
than chemical additives for shrinkage. A hearth type
furnace is normally used to calcine the filter cake to
magnesia particles. The product from this furnace is
lightburned active magnesia. Part of this product is sold,
and the remainder is mixed with sufficient water for
adhesion and sent to a roll press to form briquettes. These
briquettes are fired in a rotary kiln, cooled, crushed and
then shipped.
A process flow diagram for the manufacture of magnesia from
sea water is shown in Figure 25.
iJ Raw Waste Loads
The major raw wastes from these facilities are magnesium
hydroxide in the spent sea water, spent sea water, unreacted
lime and dust from calciners and calcium carbonate in the
underflow from the hydrotreaters. This latter waste occurs
only at facilities where the "cold lime" softening process
is used. The major raw waste stream from these facilities
is the spent sea water. Details of these wastes from each
facility are given below.
V-152
DRAFT
-------
WATER-
SCRUBBER
OR
DRY BAG
ooLOMmc
LIMESTONE.
OR
LIMESTONE
CALCINER
DOLOMITIC
LIME OR
LIME
W f
r I"1
«J in
SEAW&TER
SETTLER,
CLARIFIER
AND
SOFTENER
SEA WATER*
AIR-
AGO
AIR
ARSON DIOXIDE
DESORPTION
TOWER
UNDERFUOW
CARBONATE
WASTE
SLUDGES
SCRUBBER
WASTE
OR DRY
FINES
WASTES
RECYCLE
REACTOR
THICKENER
WATER
SLURRY
WASH
AND
FILTER
SPENT
SEA
WATER
FURNACE
GRIND
rAND —•
SCREEN
WATER-
U6HT
BURNED
MAGNESIA
WATER
SCRUBBER
1
KILN
SCRUBBER
ADDITIVES
1
KILN
GRIND
AND
SCREEN
GRIND
AND
SCREEN
> MAGNESIUM
HYDROXIDE
O
SCRUBBER
WASTE
1
,6RAM
UAGNESITE
SCRUBBER
WASTE
FIGURE 25
MANUFACTURE OF MAGNESIA FROM SEA WATER
-------
DRAFT
Principal^Wagte
Constituents
kg/kkq
2062
Calcium carbonate
from underflow of
hydrotreater 116 *
Magnesium hydrox-
ide in spent sea>
water 50 *
Dolomitic lime Not
rejects and dust given
Unreacted Not
Mg (OH) 2«Ca (OH) 2 given
2064
None
38
500
Not
given
2065
None
21
Not
given
100
2066
1,000
27
80
Not
given
Spent sea water
(liters/kkg)
387,000** 480,000 443,000***312,000**
* Versar estimate
** plus flue gas scrubber water, bearing cooling and boiler
blowdown water
*** plus 50 per cent of slurry washing water
Iil2i1...3 Water Use
On the average, 319,000 to 565,000 liters of water per
metric ton of product (76,000-135,000 gal/ton) are used in
these facilities. At plants 2062 and 2066 well water is
used for in-process cooling, dust control, boiler feed, and
for sanitary purposes. At plant 2064, well water is used
for in-process cooling and for slurry washing. Plant 2065
purchases fresh water for in-process cooling and slurry
washing. In this plant, half of the water used for slurry
washing is recycled to the system, whereas cooling water is
completely recycled.
V-154
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
The hydraulic loads of these facilities are given below in
terms of liters per kkg of product (gal/ton):
Plant
Water^ Use
non-contact
cooling
process water
(spent sea water)
slurry washing
cooling & dust
control
boiler feed
sanitary
total use
recycle process
water
2062
7,000
(1r700)
375,000
(90,000)
none
5,000
(1,200)
470
(.110)
46
(11)
387,500
(93,020)
none
2064
74,000
(18,000)
482,000
(115,000)
9,600
(2,300)
none
none
225
(54)
565,800
(135,350)
9,600
(2,300)
2065
4^500
(1,100)
417,000
(100,000)
51rOOO
(12,000)
none
none
not given
472,500
(113,100)
25,500
(6,100)
2066
none
273,000
(65,000)
none
30,000
(7,300)
16,000
(3,700)
100
(24)
319,100
(76,020)
none
3.12.1.4 Wastewater Treatment
No treatment is given to wastewater prior to discharge at
plants 2062, 2064, and 2065. At plant 2066, the underflow
stream from settling clarification tanks, which is two per
cent of the total wastewater stream, is sent to a settling
pond. The overflow from this pond is combined with the
remaining plant effluent and discharged.
Plant 2064 plans to acid treat their effluent by the end of
1975 to meet the following limitations: pH = 6-9 and TSS
equivalent to 11.5 kg per metric ton (23 Ib/ton) of current
production.
V-155
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
3,.12.1.5 Effluents and Disposal
Some characteristics of the effluent streams are given
below:
Plant
flow.
liters/kkg
pH
Parameter
met/liter
Alkalinity
BOD
COD
TS
TDS
TSS
Sulfate
Sulfide
Chloride
Calcium
Iron
Magnesium
2062
001
230,000
9.8-10.5
002
157,000
10.8
2064
480,000
9.7
2065
443,000
11.4
2066
319,000
9.5-10.5
Concentrations
124
3
270
33,698
33,000
698
2,600
8
16,800
1,700
23
410
98
3
230
31,000
30,960
40
2,200
4
19,200
2,000
0.4
48
350
5
32
29,231
29,044
80
1,114
*
20,800
2,524
*
*
*
4
6,000
37,047
37,000
47
920
*
*
2,550
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
82
2,634
*
18,297
1,395
*
180
*Data not supplied
V-156
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Parameter_Amounts 2062 2064 2065 2066
kg/kkq ~001 002
Alkalinity 29 15.4 ' 170 * *
BOD 0.7 0.5 2.4 1.8 *
COD 62 36 15 2r700 *
TS 7,800 4,900 14,000 16,000 *
TDS 7,600 4,900 14,000 16,000 *
TSS 160 6.3 38 21 27
Sulfate 600 350 530 400 830
Sulfide 1.8 0.6 * * *
Chloride 3,900 3,000 10,000 * 6,100
Calcium 400 300 1,200 1,100 450
Iron 5.3 0.06 * * *
Magnesium 94 7.5 * * 57
* data not supplied
All of these plants dispose of their waterborne wastes with
little or no treatment. These discharges are to salt water
estuaries. Because of the lack of wastewater treatment, no
plant can be considered exemplary. However, plant 2064*s
compliance schedule calls for reduction of pH and TSS to
reasonable levels. Because of the nature of the suspended
solids in these waste streams, the reduction of pH by
acidification will dissolve solid materials, thereby
simultaneously reducing suspended solids.
3., 12.,2 Magnesia from Well Brine
3j.l2±2±l. Process Description
Three of the four plants in this subcategory are discussed
hereafter. They produce magnesia by firing magnesium
hydroxide in large kilns. The raw materials used in making
magnesium hydroxide are well brine containing magnesium
chloride and dolomitic lime or lime. Dolomitic lime or lime
is chemically reacted with well brine to form magnesium
hydroxide. The chemical reactions involved in the process
are as follows:
V-157
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
MgCl2 + CaO«MgO «• 2H20 = 2Mg (OH) 2 * GaC12
MgC12 + CaO * H20 = Mg(OH)2 «• CaCl2
Mg (OH)2 + heat = MgO + H20
At plants 2061 and 2067, most of the product is produced
using brine from company-owned brine wells. Plant 2060
purchases magnesium hydroxide as a slurry from a separate
production facility.
For plants using brine as a raw material, the brine is
reacted with dolomitic lime or lime to form a magnesium
hydroxide slurry. This slurry is pumped to a series of
circular clarifiers (thickeners) where the magnesium
hydroxide settles and the remainder of the spent brine
solution is discharged as wastewater. The magnesium
hydroxide is washed, then drawn off the bottom of the last
of the thickeners, filtered, and calcined. The calcining
process and crushing and screening operations are the same
as those described for the sea water magnesia process.
The composition of the intake fresh water used for washing
is shown below:
V-158
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Intake
Parameters, mg/liter
BOD
COD
TDS
TSS
Kjeldahl Nitrogen
Sulfate
Bromide
Chloride
Fluoride
Potassium
Magnesium
Calcium
Sodium
Oil and Grease
pH
Temperature, F°
winter
summer
* data not supplied
2060
2
10
252
12
0.18
10
*
16
0.2
*
16
45
9
2
8
40
70
2067
6
855
4
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
For several plants in this subcategory, the raw material
feed consists of a magnesium hydroxide slurry of 48 per cent
solids supplied by a separate processing facility. This
slurry is pumped to a slurry holding tank, then to a mix
tank where additives are introduced, then to a series of
rotating leaf filters where washing occurs and a 60 per cent
solids filtercake is produced. The filtrate is discharged
as a waste stream at plant 2067. At plants 2060 and 2061,
the filtrate is returned to the process.
A generalized process flow diagram for these processes is
given in Figure 26.
3.12.2.2 Raw Waste Loads
At plants 2061 and 2067, which mine their own brine, the
major raw wastes are spent brine, magnesium hydroxide and
unreacted lime from the multi-stage slurry washing
operations. The other source of raw waste originates from
exhaust gas scrubbing. Plant 2060 has no well brines.
V-159
DRAFT
-------
WATER
I
I
VENT
DUST
COLLECTOR
SCRUBBER
OR
DRY BAG
DOLOMITE.
LIMESTONE
I
KILN
BRINE-
1
MAGNESIUM
HYDROXIDE
SLURRY
WATER ADDITIVES— -M
REACTOR
H
D f '
s °*
3 o
MULTI-STAGE
THICKENERS
AND
WASHERS
WATER-
CYCLONE
AND
SCRUBBER
FURNACE
ETTER
— »
KILN
} DUST
COOL,
CRUSH
AND
SCREEN
RECYCLE
GRIND
AND
SCREEN
WA:
BRINE
TO
DISCHARGE
OR
1 DISPOSAL
f WELLS
SCRUBBER
WASTE
OR
DRY
FINES
iLRECYCLE {
TE
FILTERS
AKin
MlNU
THICKENERS
•^
LIGHT-BURNED MAGNESM
WASTEWATER
WATER-
KILN
GRIND
AND
SCREEN
SCRUBBER
FILTER CAKE MAGNESIUM HYDROXIDE
GRAIN MAGNESITE OR HARD-BURNED MAGNESU
O
• 5
SCRUBBER
WASTE
SCRUBBER
WASTE
FIGURE 26
MANUFACTURE OF MAGNESIA FROM BRINE WELLS
-------
DRAFT
This plant purchases magnesium hydroxide used to produce
magnesia. The raw waste at this plant originates from the
magnesium hydroxide filters and thickeners and from kiln gas
scrubbing. The waterborne raw waste as suspended solids and
the associated waste stream flows for these three plants are
given below:
Wa§t e§A_kg/kkg 2060 .20.61 2067
Magnesium hydroxide- not given <2.3 200
and unreacted lime
Flow, _l_iters/kkg
Thickener overflow not 23,000 97,000
given (5,500) (23,000)
Scrubbers 58,000 not 149,000*
(13,800) given (36,000)
* includes filtrate and cooling water
Iil2..2..3 Water Use
A range of 20,000 to 225,000 liters of water per metric ton
of product (4,900 to 54,000 gal/ton) is used in these
facilities. The water in the brine feed used at plants 2061
and 2067 is not included in these estimates. The brine used
at plant 2061 includes approximately 7,200 liters of water
per metric ton of product (1P700 gal/ton) and that used at
plant 2067 includes 21,000 liters of water per metric ton of
product (5,000 gal/ton).
Plant 2061 pretreats about 53 per cent of its water with
sulfuric acid and then passes it through an air purged
vertical tower to remove carbon dioxide. This treated water
is used in the thickeners to wash the magnesium hydroxide
slurry. Wash water is also used at plants 2060 and 2067.
Other process water includes that used for kiln gas wet
scrubbers. The hydraulic loads of these facilities are
given below:
V-161
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Water Use, liters/kkg 2060
of _ product (gal/ton) ~
Non-contact cooling
Process water
Sanitary & drinking
Total Use (exclusive
of recycle)
Effluents to disposal
wells
22,000
(5,200)
58,000
(13,800)
800
-O901—
58,800
(13,990)
none
2061
4,600
(1,100)
16,000
(3,800)
75
20,675
(4,918)
7,100
(1,700)
2067
149,000*
(36,000)
76,000
(18,000)
not given
225,000
(54,000)
33,000
(7,900)
*includes filtrate and scrubber water
The type of in-process cooling water and scrubber water
system used at plant 2060 is discussed below.
(a) Shaft kiln burner cooling and press roj.1 cooling.
4.9 million liters (1.3 million gallons) per day of
water are used in this system in a once-through, non-
contact cooling arrangement. The water used for cooling
is passed through a second filter treated with biocides
to prevent algae growth. The spent cooling water is
either recirculated and used for gas scrubbing or used
in a wet ball mill to grind magnesia dust.
(b) Rotary kiln cooler. 5.2 million liters (1.4 million
gallons) per day of water are used in the rotary kiln
cooler in a non-contact cooling arrangement. This
cooling water is recirculated and used for gas
scrubbing.
(c) Clean gas scrubbers. 18.9 million liters (5.0 million
gallons) per day of water are used in the clean gas
scrubbers. In this system the water comes into contact
with flue gases from gas-fired furnaces after the dust
has been removed from the gases by electrostatic
precipitators.
V-162
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
(d) Dusty gas scrubbers. 8.3 million liters (2.2 million
gallons) per day of water are used in the dusty gas
scrubbers. In this system the water comes into contact
with dusty flue gases from gas or oil-fired kilns. A
coagulant is added to the effluent from these scrubbers
and the solids settled and thickened and returned to the
process.
3x12^2^4 Waste water Treatment
Each plant in this subcategory has a different waste
treatment system. At plant 2060 the major waste streams are
the result of the exhaust gas scrubber operations. Plant
2060 disposes of part of its scrubber and in-process cooling
wastewaters to thickeners. The remainder is discharged.
Plant 2061 discharges 69% of its thickener overflow, and
also all of the in-process cooling water. The remainder of
the thickener overflow is treated and disposed of in
depleted brine wells. Plant 2067 treats its thickener
overflow and discharges both scrubber wastewater and in-
process cooling water.
Plant 2060 collects all filtrate wastewater, ball mill
wastewater and a portion of the wet scrubber wastewater and
pumps it to a thickener where a flocculant is added to aid
in settling. The underflow from the thickener is recycled
to the process. The overflow is combined with the other
portion of scrubber wastewater and pumped to a cooling tower
to reduce the thermal load, then sent to a settling pond to
reduce suspended solids before discharge. Periodic cleaning
of the settling pond removes partially dead burned magnesia
dust. The resulting solid waste is hauled to a landfill
site. The sanitary water is treated in a septic tank
system.
At plant 2061 the thickener overflow and water used for
cooling purposes throughout the plant are the main sources
of wastewater. The thickener overflow, which primarily
consists of calcium chloride, is discharged to a large sump.
About 7,100 liters per metric ton of product (1,700 gal/ton)
of this effluent is treated with excess brine to complete
the reaction; it is then filtered to remove solids and
acidified to dissolve residual solids. This treated waste
is stored in depleted brine wells which have been converted
for this purpose. The remainder of the waste stream is
V-163
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
discharged without any treatment. This effluent stream
totals approximately 16,000 liters per metric ton of product
(3,800 gal/ton) and contains a maximum of 1,100 kg/kkg of
equivalent chloride (2,200 Ibs/ton). This plant plans to
reduce their present effluent to 6,300 liters per metric ton
of product (1,500 gal/ton) and 300 kg/kkg of equivalent
chloride (620 Ibs/ton) by April, 1975. The process washing
step will be partially changed from countercurrent washing
and thickening to rotary filters to increase the
concentration of waste to wells while reducing the amount of
waste to surface waters.
At plant 2067, the cooling water and the filtrate from one
of the filtration operations are discharged without any
treatment. The high chloride and low chloride waste streams
from magnesia filtration and multi-step washings,
respectively, are sent to the waste treatment plant for
clarification. The underflows from the clarifiers are
stored in sludge ponds, and the sludge from these ponds is
eventually land disposed. The overflow of the low chloride
clarifier is combined with the plant cooling water stream
and discharged. The overflow from the high chloride
clarifier is filtered and the filtrate discharged to
depleted deep brine wells.
3±12±2±5 Effluent and Disposal
Plant 2060 combines clarified and cooled process effluent
and scrubber water with cooling water in a settling pond
which has an overflow discharge to surface water. Water
collected in storm drains is added to this discharge after
this monitoring point. The low chloride waste streams from
plant 2061 and 2067 are discharged, after clarification
treatment, to surface water. The high chloride, high
alkalinity waste streams are disposed of by deep well
injection in depleted brine wells at th«»« two plants.
Plant 2061 filters and acidifies this str«*m before
disposal. The clarifier underflow sludge at plant 2067 is
stored in sludge ponds and eventually land disposed.
Cooling water at plant 2060 is treated in a cooling tower
prior to discharge. Cooling water at the other plants is
discharged without treatment.
V-16U
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
The compositions of the discharge streams for these three
plants are given below:
2060
Process water flow
liters/kkg 58,000
Total flow
liters/kkg 58,000
pH 9.0
2061
16,000
21,000
10.4
Parameter.Amounts (based on total^flow)
kg./kkg
BOD
COD
TDS
TSS
Sulfate
Chloride
Bromide
Fluoride
Magnesium
Calcium
Sodium
Oil and Grease
Kjeldahl Nitrogen
Potassium
0.06
1.0
38
1.7
0.8
6
*
0.2
4.5
3.4
1.0
0.06
0.03
*
*
50
2,200
1.6
2.4
1,400
14
#
3
820
110
0.09
0.3
34
* data not supplied
Temperature, °C
winter 32
summer 38
5
25
2067
76,000
209,000
9.5
0.4
10
840
5
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
30
41
V-165
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Parameter Concentrations,
mg/jliter
BOD 1
COD 18
TDS 650
TSS 30
Sulfate 14
Chloride 102
Bromide *
Fluoride 2.8
Magnesium 77
Calcium 58
Sodium 18
Oil 6 Grease 1
Kjeldahl Nitrogen 0.6
Potassium *
* data not supplied
*
2,356
104,500
79
116
67,600
657
140
39,000
5,300
4.3
15
1,600
2
49
4,022
25
*
*
*
The discharges from two of these plants, 2061 and 2067, are
combined discharges and contain large amounts of non-contact
cooling water. However, the non-contact cooling water at
plant 2060 is reused for kiln gas scrubbing and becomes
process water. Based only on the flow of process water, the
amounts of suspended solids in kg/kkg are:
Plant
TSS
2060
1.7
2061
1.2
Plant 2061 has a high level of dissolved chlorides in its
effluent. The high chloride stream will be segregated and
returned to depleted brine wells by the end of 1975.
4..0 DETERMINING THE RATIONALE FOR EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS
GUIDELINES FOR MAXIMUM DAILY VALUES*
The bulk of the data used in the technical development
effluent limitations guidelines for the clay, gypsum,
refractory and ceramic products industries has been
representative of long-term performance values. For all
practical purposes, these discharge data may be regarded as
equivalent to monthly average data.
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It is recognized, however, that day-to-day discharges are
subject to a wide variety of factors which result in a
distribution of daily effluent values around a monthly mean.
Some of the reasons for wider daily variations in the
pollutant discharges are built-in process inhomogeneities
such as batch-wise process steps, process startups and shut-
downs, minor process upsets, the normal imprecision of
process controls, day-to-day weather (rainfall, ambient
temperature, humidity) variations, and the range of
differences among operating personnel.
Daily variability data for the most common pollutant para-
meter in these industries, suspended solids, is generally
not available. However, a limited amount of such is
available, partially from a related industry, the mineral
mining and processing industry. These data are presented in
Figures 27 and 28 as cumulative probabilities of two
populations of values of the ratio of daily maximum to
monthly average of TSS concentrations after treatment.
Figure 27 represents the data from a plant in these
industries, a vitrified ceramic products plant (6090) for
several consecutive months. The suspended solids materials
were clays treated in-process with dispersing agents which
in the subsequent wastewater treatment required a complex
settling and clarification with flocculants added.
Figure 28 represents the simple settling pond performance of
21 different plants for suspended solids. Additional
treatment, where used, was limited to pH adjustment with
lime.
These data therefore are representative of two different
modes of treatment, one pertinent principally to ceramic
processing wastewater with highly dispersed process
materials, and the other, wastewater with clay or gypsum
suspended solids. The variability of the daily/monthly
ratios is much higher in the latter case, probably because
of the less sophisticated treatment and control applied.
At a two-standard-deviation limit, which could contain at
least 95X of normally varying daily samples, a daily maximum
limit of about three times the monthly average would be
predicted from the data of Figure 27 and about five times
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0 <
00
6.0
Ui 5.5
O
< 5.0
§ 4.5
54.0
f 3.5
3.0
X
<
2.5
2.0-
1.5
Q
tc"
tr
1.0
2.5
10 15 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
CUMULATIVE PROBABIUTY, PERCENT
90
95 97.5 99
FIGURE 27
DAILY/MONTHLY RATIO DATA OF SUSPENDED SOLIDS IN TREATED EFFLUENT
OF A VITRIFIED CERAMICS PLANT
-------
o <
I -
**1 -3 vo
6.0
5.5
5.0
85 4-5
^ 4.0
3.5
3.0
g
o
O
h:
1.5
i.O
! ! i ! !
! ! i
2.5
10 15 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
CUMULATIVE PROBABILITY, PERCENT
95 97.5
99
FIGURE 28
DAILY/MONTHLY RATIO OF SEVERAL PLANTS
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the monthly average from Figure 28. Where discriminations
of the sort pertinent to these two sets of data can be made,
these values are recommended to set daily maximum TSS values
from subcategory data that consists of only long-term
average values.
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SECTION VI
SELECTION OF POLLUTANT PARAMETERS
liO INTRODUCTION
The wastewater constituents of pollution significance for
the clay, gypsum, refractory and ceramic products industries
are based upon those parameters which have been identified
in the untreated wastes from each subcategory of this study.
The wastewater constituents are further divided into those
that have been selected as pollutants of significance with
the rationale for their selection, and those that are not
deemed significant with the rationale for their rejection.
The basis for selection of the significant pollutant para-
meters was:
(1) toxicity to terrestrial and aquatic organisms;
(2) substances causing dissolved oxygen depletion in
streams;
(3) soluble constituents that result in undesirable tastes
and odors in water supplies;
(4) substances that result in eutrophication and stimulate
undesirable algae growth;
(5) substances that produce unsightly conditions in
receiving water; and
(6) substances that result in sludge deposits in streams.
2^0 SIGNIFICANCE AND RATIONALE FOR SELECTION OF POLLUTION
PARAMETERS
2..1 Arsenic
Arsenic is found to a small extent in nature in the
elemental form. It occurs mostly in the form of arsenites
of metals or as pyrites.
Arsenic is normally present in sea water at concentrations
of"2 to 3 ug/liter and tends to be accumulated by oysters
and other shellfish. Concentrations of 100 mg/kg have been
reported in certain shellfish. Arsenic is a cumulative
poison with long-term chronic effects on both aquatic
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organisms and on mammalian species and a succession of small
doses may add up to a final lethal dose. It is moderately
toxic to plants and highly toxic to animals especially as
AsH3.
Arsenic trioxide, which also is exceedingly toxic, was
studied in concentrations of 1.96 to 40 mg/liter and found
to be harmful in that range to fish and other aquatic life.
Work by the Washington Department of Fisheries on pink
salmon has shown that a level of 5.3 mg/liter of As2O3 for
8 days was extremely harmful to this species; on mussels, a
level of 16 mg/liter was lethal in 3 to 16 days.
Severe human poisoning can result from 100 mg concentra-
tions, and 130 mg has proved fatal. Arsenic can accumulate
in the body faster than it is excreted and can build to
toxic levels, from small amounts taken periodically through
lung and intestinal walls from the air, water and food.
Arsenic is a normal constituent of most soils, with concen-
trations ranging up to 500 mg/kg. Although very low
concentrations of arsenates may actually stimulate plant
growth, the presence of excessive soluble arsenic in
irrigation waters will reduce the yield of crops, the main
effect appearing to be the destruction of chlorophyll in the
foliage. Plants grown in water containing one mg/liter of
arsenic trioxide showed a blackening of the vascular bundles
in the leaves. Beans and cucumbers are very sensitive,
while turnips, cereals, and grasses are relatively
resistant. Old orchard soils in Washington that contained 4
to 12 mg/kg of arsenic trioxide in the top soil were found
to have become unproductive.
Arsenic may be found in the wastewaters from frit
manufacture.
2.2 Cadmium
Cadmium in drinking water supplies is extremely hazardous to
humans, and conventional treatment, as practiced in the
United States, does not remove it. Cadmium is cumulative in
the liver, kidney, pancreas, arid thyroid of humans and other
animals. A severe bone and kidney syndrome in Japan has
been associated with the ingestion of as little as
600 ug/day of cadmium.
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Cadmium is an extremely dangerous cumulative toxicant,
causing insidious progressive chronic poisoning in mammals,
fish, and probably other animals because the metal is not
excreted. Cadmium could form organic compounds which might
lead to mutagenic or teratogenic effects. Cadmium is known
to have marked acute and chronic effects on aquatic
organisms also.
Cadmium acts synergistically with other metals. Copper and
zinc substantially increase its toxicity. Cadmium is
concentrated by marine organisms, particularly mollusks,
which accumulate cadmium in calcareous tissues and in the
viscera. A concentration factor of 1,000 for cadmium in
fish muscle has been reported? as have concentration factors
of 3,000 in marine plants, and up to 29,600 in certain
marine animals. The eggs and larvae of fish are apparently
more sensitive than adult fish to poisoning by cadmium, and
crustaceans appear to be more sensitive than fish eggs and
larvae.
Cadmium may be found in the wastewaters from frit
manufacture.
2-.3 Chromium
Chromium, in its various valence states, is hazardous to
man. It can produce lung tumors when inhaled and induces
skin sensitizations. Large doses of chromates have
corrosive effects on the intestinal tract and can cause
inflammation of the kidneys. Levels of chrornate ions that
have no effect on man appear to be so low as to prohibit
determination to date.
The toxicity of chromium salts toward aquatic life varies
widely with the species, temperature, pH, valence of the
chromium, and synergistic or antagonistic effects,
especially that of hardness. Fish are relatively tolerant
of chromium salts, but fish food organisms and other lower
forms of aquatic life are extremely sensitive. Chromium
also inhibits the growth of algae.
In some agricultural crops, chromium can cause reduced
growth or death of the crop. Adverse effects of low
concentrations of chromium on corn, tobacco and sugar beets
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have been documented. A permissible criterion of
0.05 mg/liter has been proposed for public waters.
Chromium is found in the wastewaters from manufacture of
frit and basic brick and shaped refractories.
2A4 Dissolved Solids
Total dissolved solids are a gross measure of the amount of
soluble pollutants in the wastewater. It is an important
parameter in drinking water supplies and water used for
irrigation. Total dissolved solids are found in significant
quantities in magnesia production from well brine. From the
standpoint of quantity discharged in this subcategory, TDS
is considered a pollutant.
In natural waters the dissolved solids consist mainly of
carbonates, chlorides, sulfates, phosphates, and possibly
nitrates of calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium, with
traces of iron, manganese and other substances.
Some communities in the United States and in other countries
use water supplies containing 2,000 to 4,000 mg/liter of
dissolved salts, when no better water is available. Such
waters are not palatable, may not quench thirst, and may
have a laxative action on new users. Waters containing more
than 4,000 mg/liter of total salts are generally considered
unfit for human use, although in hot climates such higher
salt concentrations can be tolerated whereas they could not
be in temperate climates. Waters containing 5,000 mg/liter
or more are reported to be bitter and act as bladder and
intestinal irritants. It is generally agreed that the salt
tbncentration of good, palatable water should not exceed
500 mg/liter.
Limiting concentrations of dissolved solids for fresh-water
fish may range from 5,000 to 10,000 mg/liter, according to
species and prior acclimatization. Some fish are adapted to
living in more saline waters, and a few species of
fresh-water forms have been found in natural waters with a
salt concentration of 15,000 to 20,000 mg/liter. Fish can
slowly become acclimatized to higher salinities, but fish in
waters of low salinity cannot survive sudden exposure to
high salinities, such as those resulting from discharges of
oil-well .brines. Dissolved solids may influence the
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toxicity of heavy metals and organic compounds to fish and
other aquatic life, primarily because of the antagonistic
effect of hardness on metals.
Waters with total dissolved solids over 500 mg/liter have
decreasing utility as irrigation Water. At 5,000 mg/liter
water has little or no value for irrigation.
Dissolved solids in industrial waters can cause foaming in
boilers and cause interference with cleanness, color, or
taste of many finished products. High contents of dissolved
solids also tend to accelerate corrosion.
2^5 Fluorides
As the most reactive non-metal,, fluorine is never found free
in nature but as a constituent of fluorite or fluorspar,
calcium fluoride, in sedimentary rocks and also of cryolite,
sodium aluminum fluoride,; in igneous rocks. Owing to their
origin only in certain types of rocks and only in a few
regions, fluorides in high concentrations are not a common
constituent of natural surface waters, but they may occur in
detrimental concentrations in ground waters.
Fluorides are used as insecticides, for disinfecting brewery
apparatus, as a flux in the manufacture of steel, for
preserving wood and mucilages,, for the manufacture of glass
and enamels, in chemical industries, for water treatment,
and for other uses.
Fluorides in sufficient quantity are toxic to humans, with
doses of 250 to 450 mg giving severe symptoms or causing
death.
There are numerous articles describing the effects of
fluoride-bearing waters on dental enamel of children; these
studies lead to the generalization that water containing
less than 0.9 to 1.0 mg/liter of fluoride will seldom cause
mottled enamel in children, and for adults, concentrations
less than 3 or 4 mg/liter are not likely to cause endemic
cumulative fluorosis and skeletal effects. Abundant
literature is also available describing the advantages of
maintaining 0.8 to 1.5 mg/liter of fluoride ion in drinking
water to aid in the reduction of dental decay, especially
among children.
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Chronic fluoride poisoning of livestock has been observed in
areas where water contained 10 to 15 mg/liter fluoride.
Concentrations of 30-50 mg/liter of fluoride in the total
ration of dairy cows is considered the upper safe limit.
Fluoride from waters apparently does not accumulate in soft
tissue to a significant degree and it is transferred to a
very small extent into the milk and to a somewhat greater
degree into eggs. Data for fresh water indicate that
fluorides are toxic to fish at concentrations higher than
1.5 mg/liter.
Fluorides may be present in the wastewaters from frit
manufacture.
2.6 Lead
Lead is considered to be a highly toxic constituent in
public water supplies, the permissible criterion has been
set at 0.05 mg/liter. Lead is found in significant
quantities in china, earthenware, and pottery manufacture,
other glazed ceramic product manufacture, and frit
manufacture.
Elemental nickel seldom occurs in nature, but nickel
compounds are found in many ores and minerals. As a pure
metal it is not a problem in water pollution because it is
not affected by, or soluble in, water. Many nickel salts,
however, are highly soluble in water.
Nickel is extremely toxic to citrus plants. It is found in
many soils in California, generally in insoluble form, but
excessive acidification of such soil may render it soluble,
causing severe injury to or the death of plants. Many
experiments with plants in solution cultures have shown that
nickel at 0.5 to 1.0 mg/liter is inhibitory to growth.
Nickel salts can kill fish at very low concentrations. Data
for the fathead minnow show death occurring in the range of
5-43 mg, depending on the alkalinity of the water.
Nickel is present in coastal and open ocean concentrations
in the range of 0.1-6.0 ug/liter. Marine animals contain up
to 400 ug/liter, and marine plants contain up to
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3,000 ug/liter. The lethal limit of nickel to some marine
fish has been reported as low as 0.8 ppm. Concentrations of
13.1 mg/liter have been reported to cause a 50 per cent
reduction of the photosynthetic activity in the giant kelp
(Macrocystis pyrifera) in 96. hours, and a low concentration
was found to kill oyster eggs.'
Nickel may be present in the wastewaters from frit
manufacture.
2ii Oil and Grease
Oil and grease exhibit an oxygen demand. Oil emulsions may
adhere to the gills of fish or coat and destroy algae or
other plankton. Deposition of oil in the bottom sediments
can serve to exhibit normal benthic growths, thus
interrupting the aquatic food chain. Soluble and emulsified
material ingested by fish may taint the flavor of the fish
flesh. Water soluble components may exert toxic action on
fish. Floating oil may reduce the re-aeration of the water
surface and in conjunction with emulsified oil may interfere
with photosynthesis. Water insoluble components damage the
plumage and coats of water animals and fowls. Oil and
grease in water can result in the formation of objectionable
surface slicks preventing the full aesthetic enjoyment of
the water. Oil spills can damage the surface of boats and
can destroy the aesthetic characteristics of beaches and
shorelines.
2^1 pH, Acidity and Alkalinity
Acidity and alkalinity are reciprocal terms. Acidity is
produced by substances that yield hydrogen ions upon
hydrolysis and alkalinity is produced by substances that
yield hydroxyl ions. The terms "total acidity" and "total
alkalinity" are often used to express the buffering capacity
of a solution. Acidity in natural waters is caused by
carbon dioxide, mineral acids, weakly dissociated acids, and
the salts of strong acids and weak bases. Alkalinity is
caused by strong bases and the salts of strong alkalies and
weak acids.
The term pH is a logarithmic expression of the concentration
of hydrogen ions. At a pH of 7, the hydrogen and hydroxyl
ion concentrations are essentially equal and the water is
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neutral. Lower pH values indicate acidity while higher
values indicate alkalinity. The relationship between pH and
acidity and alkalinity is not necessarily linear or direct.
Waters with a pH below 6.0 are corrosive to water works
structures, distribution lines, and household plumbing
fixtures and can thus add such constituents to drinking
water as iron, copper, zinc, cadmium and lead. The hydrogen
ion concentration can affect the "taste" of the water. At a
low pH, water tastes "sour",, The bactericidal effect of
chlorine is weakened as the pH increases and it is
advantageous to keep the pH close to 7. This is very
significant for providing safe drinking water.
Extremes of pH or rapid pH changes can exert stress
conditions or kill aquatic life outright* Even moderate
changes from "acceptable" criteria limits of pH are
deleterious to some species. The relative toxicity to
aquatic life of many materials is increased by changes in
the water pH. Metalocyanide complexes can increase a
thousandfold in toxicity with drop of 1.5 pH units. The
availability of many nutrient substances varies with the
alkalinity and acidity. Ammonia is more lethal with a
higher pH.
The lacrimal fluid of the human eye has a pH of
approximately 7.0 and a deviation of 0.1 pH unit from the
norm may result in eye irritation for the swimmer„
Appreciable irritation will cause severe pain.
.2jL.19. Total Suspended Solids
Suspended solids include both organic and inorganic
materials. The inorganic components include sand, silt, and
clay. The organic fraction includes such materials as
grease, oil, tar, animal and vegetable fats, various fibers,
sawdust, hair and various materials from sewers. These
solids may settle out rapidly and bottom deposits are often
a mixture of both organic and inorganic solids. They
adversely affect fisheries by covering the bottom of the
stream or lake with a blanket of material that destroys the
fish-food bottom fauna or the spawning ground of fish.
Deposits containing organic materials may deplete bottom
oxygen supplies and produce hydrogen sulfide, carbon
dioxide, methane, and other noxious gases.
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In raw water sources for domestic use, state and regional
agencies generally specify that suspended solids in streams
shall not be present in sufficient concentration to be
objectionable or to interfere with normal treatment
processes. Suspended solids in water may interfere with
many industrial processes, and cause foaming in boilers, or
encrustations on equipment exposed to water, especially as
the temperature rises. Suspended solids are undesirable in
water for textile industries; paper and pulp; beverages;
dairy products; laundries; dyeing; photography; cooling
systems, and power plants. Suspended particles also serve
as a transport mechanism for pesticides and other substances
which are readily sorbed into or onto clay particles.
Solids may be suspended in vater for a time, and then settle
to the bed of the stream or lake. These settleable solids
discharged with man's wastes may be inert, slowly
biodegradable materials9 or rapidly decomposable substances.
While in suspension, they increase the turbidity of the
water, reduce light penetration and impair the
photosynthetic activity of aquatic plants.
Solids in suspension are aesthetically displeasing. When
they settle to form sludge deposits on the stream or lake
bed, they are often much more damaging to the life in water,
and they retain the capacity to displease the senses.
Solids, when transformed to sludge deposits, may do a
variety of damaging things, including blanketing the stream
or lake bed and thereby destroying the living spaces for
those benthic organisms that would otherwise occupy the
habitat. When of an organic and therefore decomposable
nature, solids use a portion or all of the dissolved oxygen
available in the area. Organic materials also serve as a
seemingly inexhaustible food source for sludgeworms and
associated organisms. Total suspended solids are the single
most important pollutant parameter found in the clay,
gypsum, refractory and ceramic products industries.
2..11 Vanadium
Metallic vanadium does not occur free in nature, but
minerals containing vanadium are widespread. Vanadium is
found in many soils and occurs in vegetation grown in such
soils. Vanadium adversely affects some plants in
concentrations as low as 10 ing/liter.
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Vanadium as calcium vanadate can inhibit the growth of
chicks and in combination with selenium, increases mortality
in rats. Vanadium appears to inhibit the synthesis of
cholesterol and accelerate its catabolism in rabbits.
Vanadium causes death to occur in fish at low concentra-
tions. The amount needed for lethality depends on the
alkalinity of the water and the specific vanadium compound
present. The common bluegill can be killed by about 6 ppm
in soft water and 55 ppm in hard water when the vanadium is
expressed as vanadryl sulfate. Other fish are similarly
affected.
Vanadium may be present in the wastewater from frit
manufacture.
2iJ2 Zinc
Zinc in various dissolved forms may be present in
significant amounts in the wastewater from the processing of
china, earthenware and pottery, vitreous china plumbing
fixtures, frit and any other glazed ceramic product.
Occurring abundantly in rocks and ores, zinc is readily
refined into a stable pure metal and is used extensively for
galvanizing, in alloys, for electrical purposes, in printing
plates, for dye-manufacture and for dyeing processes, and
for many other industrial purposes. Zinc salts are used in
paint pigments, cosmetics, Pharmaceuticals, dyes,
insecticides, and other products too numerous to list
herein. Many of these salts (e.g., zinc chloride and zinc
sulfate) are highly soluble in water; hence it is to be
expected that zinc might occur in many industrial wastes.
On the other hand, some zinc salts (zinc carbonate, zinc
oxide, zinc sulfide) are insoluble in water and consequently
it is to be expected that some zinc will precipitate and be
removed readily in most natural waters.
In zinc-mining areas, zinc has been found in waters in
concentrations as high as 50 mg/liter and in effluents from
metal-plating works and small-arms ammunition plants it may
occur in significant concentrations. In most surface arid
ground waters, it is present only in trace amounts. There
is some evidence that zinc ions are adsorbed strongly and
permanently on silt, resulting in inactivation of the zinc.
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Concentrations of zinc in excess of 5 mg/liter in raw water
used for drinking water supplies cause an undesirable taste
which persists through conventional treatment. Zinc can
have an adverse effect on man and animals at high concen-
trations.
In soft water, concentrations of zinc ranging from 0.1 to
1.0 mg/liter have been reported to be lethal to fish. Zinc
is thought to exert its toxic action by forming insoluble
compounds with the mucous that covers the gills, by damage
to the gill epithelium,? or possibly by acting as an internal
poison. The sensitivity of fish to zinc varies with
species, age and condition, as well as with the physical and
chemical characteristics of the water. Some acclimatization
to the presence of zinc is possible. It has also been
observed that the effects of zinc poisoning may not become
apparent immediately, so that fish removed from
zinc-contaminated to zinc-free water {after 4-6 hours of
exposure to zinc) may die 48 hours later. The presence of
copper in water may increase the toxicity of zinc to aquatic
organisms, but the presence of calcium or hardness may
decrease the relative toxicity <,
Observed values for the distribution of zinc in ocean waters
vary widely. The major concern with zinc compounds in
marine waters is not one of acute toxicity, but rather of
the long-term sub-lethal effects of the metallic compounds
and complexes. From an acute toxicity point of view,
invertebrate marine animals seem to be the most sensitive
organisms tested. The growth of the sea urchin, for
example, has been retarded by as little as 30 ug/liter of
zinc.
Zinc sulfate has also been found to be lethal to many plants
and it could impair agricultural uses.
3-.0 SIGNIFICANCE AND RATIONALE FOR REJECTION OF POLLUTION
PARAMETERS
A number of pollution parameters besides those selected were
considered, but had to be rejected for one or several of the
following reasons;
(1) insufficient data on degradation of water quality;
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(2) not usually present in quantities sufficient to cause
water quality degradation;
(3) treatment does not "practicably" reduce the parameter;
and
(4) simultaneous reduction is achieved with another
parameter which is limited.
Ji.1 Toxic Materials
Although antimony, barium, boron, cobalt, copper, cyanide
ion, iron, manganese, mercury, selenium, and tin are harmful
pollutants, they were not found to be present in quantities
sufficient to cause water quality degradation.
3j-.2 Aluminum +£
Aluminum may be present in significant amounts in the
wastewater from this industry. Soluble aluminum in public
water supplies is not considered a health problem and
therefore was not included in the Public Health Service
Drinking Water Standards.
lil Calcium ±£
Although calcium does exist in quantities in the wastewater
of a number of these plants, there is no treatment to
practicably reduce itc
lil Carbonate ^£
There ir. insufficient data for dissolved carbonate to
consider it a harmful pollutant.
3^5 Chloride -
Chloride is present in large quantities in process
wastewaters of magnesia production from brine, but it is
simultaneously reduced with another parameter which is
limited. A total chloride content of less than 250 mg/liter
is considered desirable in drinking water supplies.
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3 ..6 Magnesium +2
There is insufficient data for dissolved magnesium to
consider it a harmful pollutant.
- Nitrate - and
There is insufficient data for dissolved nitrates and
nitrites to consider them harmful pollutants and there is no
treatment to practicably reduce them.
3^8 Phosphates
Phosphates , reported as total phosphorus (P) , contribute to
eutrophication in receiving bodies of water. However, they
were not found in quantities sufficient to cause water
quality degradation.
3 .,9 Potassium +
Although potassium does exist in quantity in the wastewater
of some of these plants, there is no treatment to
practicably reduce it.
lilO Silicates
Silicate may be present in the wastewaters from the
refractories processing industry, but there is no treatment
to practicably reduce it.
3_.J_1 Sodium t
Although sodium does exist in quantity in the wastewater of
a number of these processes, there is no treatment to
practicably reduce it.
3..12 Sulfate -£
Although sulfate does exist in quantity in the wastewater of
some of these processes, there is no treatment to
practicably reduce it.
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Temperature is a sensitive indicator of unusual thermal
loads where waste heat is involved in the process. Excess
thermal load, even in non-contact cooling water, has not
been and is not expected to be a significant problem in
these industries.
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SECTION VII
TREATMENT AND CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
-L.O INTRODUCTION
Pollutants in the wastewater of plants manufacturing clay,
gypsum, refractory, and ceramic products are a variety of
suspended and dissolved materials whose nature depends on
the industry involved. Suspended solids include clay
minerals, lime, lime inerts, magnesium hydroxide, metal
precipitates and oxides, gypsum, and carbon. Dissolved
solids include brines, alkalies, heavy metal salts, and
fluorides.
Equipment used in the processes of these industries can
often also be used for wastewater treatment. For example,
plate^-and-frame type filter presses used to prepare ceramic
mixes are also used to remove suspended solids from the
wastewater. Clays are often found to be suspended solid
pollutants in these industries. The small particle size of
some clays may require the use of sand filters in some
industries. Other industries rarely use sand filters on
wastewaters, relying instead on ponds, thickeners, and
clarifiers.
Municipal sewers are often used for wastewater disposal in
these industries. Unlike mineral processing plants, which
are usually in isolated locations at or near the mine, the
clay, gypsum, refractory, and ceramic products plants are
often in or near centers of high population density where
this type of disposal can be used,
2-.0 PROBLEM AREAS IN CLAYj. GYPSUMg REFRACTORY, AND CERAMIC
PRODUCTS INDUSTRIES
Four significant wastewater problems areas were found in
these industries:
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(1) Clay, in the form of suspended solids, is a wastewater
pollutant in many ceramic operations and is difficult to
remove.
(2) Frit contains compounds of heavy metals such as lead,
cadmium, chromium, and zinc. Quenching and scrubbing
with contact water during frit manufacture results in
suspended and dissolved heavy metals in the water.
Fluorides are also picked up in furnace exhaust gas
scrubbing water. Wastewater from the frit industry
contains both suspended and dissolved pollutants.
(3) Ceramic glazes also may contain heavy metal compounds,
and portions of these glazes are picked up in the
process water. The problem of treating glazing wastes
is similar to that for frit operations, but usually of
reduced magnitude.
(4) Manufacture of magnesia from sea water or well brines
leaves large quantities of spent brine for disposal.
This brine has a high pH and contains suspended solids
and dissolved solids.
2-.1 Fine Particles Removal
Fine-particle-sized clays are widely used in ceramic
formulations. Process wastewaters containing these small
particles often require extensive treatment before efficient
removal is possible. Even after pond or thickener settling
with flocculants, suspended solids concentrations may be
high. In some cases they are treated further with
additional ponds, clarifiers, flocculants, or sand filters
prior to discharge.
2.2 Frit Wastewater
Frit formulations contain oxides or silicates of heavy
metals. At one stage in the processing of frits the product
is quenched either with cooled rollers or by direct contact
with water. If rollers are used for quenching there is no
quench wastewater generated. If direct water contact is
employed, heavy metal solids are suspended and the
wastewater must be treated. Other sources of pollutants
include scrubber wastewater and waste laboratory quality
control samples. Since both suspended and dissolved
pollutants are involved, treatment technologies include
chemical precipitation and neutralization, as well as
flocculation, pond and tank settling, and filters.
VII-2
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Wastewater treatment is in a state of transition at several
facilities.
2T3 Glazes
Ceramic glazes are prepared from frits or glaze colors and
other materials and are ubiquitous in the ceramic
industries. These coating materials are introduced into the
wastewaters at various stages of the processes and they
often contain heavy metal compounds. Treatment practices
for removal of these heavy metals from wastewaters vary from
plant to plant. Some plants have so little glaze material
in their wastewater that no problem exists. Others
currently discharge to surface water or municipal sewers
without significant treatment while some carry out treatment
procedures. Wastewater treatment and treatment costs often
depend on the presence or absence of glazing operations in
ceramic plants.
2^U Magnesia Wastewater
The production of magnesia from either sea water or well
brine involves more than just extracting a component and
returning the residual to the source. Lime precipitation of
magnesium hydroxide leaves the spent brine at pH 9 to 11.
For sea water process plants* treatment should consist of
suspended solids removal by settling, pH adjustment by acid
addition, followed by discharge of all wastewater to the
sea.
The existing well brine process plants are so heterogeneous
with respect to treatment practices that they defy
generalization. Two of the four existing plants purchase
magnesium hydroxide and therefore have no spent brine
disposal problems, A third plant is relatively small and,
with large treatment expenditures, is able to segregate its
wastewater streams, disposing of the high chloride
wastewater to spent brine wells and discharging only
relatively low chloride wastewater to surface water. A
fourth plant has a large production and finds it difficult
to segregate and dispose of all spent brine and other
process water to injection wells. Attempts at minimizing
brine discharge to surface water have already led to large
treatment expenditures. Additional treatment facilities at
VII-3
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
this plant are planned, with improved segregation of high
and low chloride streams, which will further increase
treatment costs.
ls.0 CONTROL PRACTICES
Control practices such as selection of raw materials, good
housekeeping, minimizing leaks and spills, in-process
changes, and segregation of process wastewater streams are
important in these industries.
In-process changes can reduce pollutants in wastewater in
some instances. Heavy metals from glazes may be eliminated
in ceramic industry wastewaters by changing the glaze
formulations. In-process changes and segregation of process
wastewater constitute the basic approach utilized by two of
the three magnesia plants discussed above.
Spills, leaks, washdowns, and other incidental wastewaters
often make up most, if not all, of the discharge for some
plants. Control, segregation, and reuse of this water can
often be achieved.
Total containment of treatment ponds is not a prominent
problem since ponds, if used, are usually small. Also,
storm water runoff is not a significant factor in these
industries.
Monitoring of wastewater discharges is performed
infrequently in these industries. Major parameters include
suspended solids, heavy metals, and pH. Monitoring is made
more difficult by the fact that many flows are intermittent.
i^O SUSPENDED SOLIDS REMOVAL
The treatment technologies available for removing suspended
solids from clay, gypsum, refractory, and ceramic products
manufacturing wastewater are numerous and varied, but a
relatively small number are used widely. The following
shows the approximate breakdown of the various techniques as
experienced in these industries:
VII-U
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
per cent^of ^treatment facilities
removal technique usipg technology ' "~
settling ponds or tanks 75-90
(unlined) '
settling ponds (lined) <1
evaporation/percolation 5-10
ponds (
cooling towers
-------
DRAFT
whether land for additional ponds is available. When
suspended solids levels are low and ponds large, settled
solids build up so slowly that neither dredging nor pond
abandonment is necessary for many years.
Settling ponds and tanks used in these industries are
usually small to medium sized. The present performance of
these ponds and tanks varies from excellent to poor,
depending on the nature of the suspended particles, pond or
tank size and configuration.
jt.,2 Clarifiers and Thickeners
An alternative method of removing suspended solids is the
use of clarifiers or thickeners, which are essentially tanks
with internal baffles, compartments, sweeps, and other
directing and segregating mechanisms to provide efficient
concentration and removal of suspended solids in one
effluent stream and clarified liquid in the other.
Clarifiers differ from thickeners primarily in their basic
purpose. Clarifiers are used when the main purpose is to
produce a clear overflow with the solids content of the
sludge underflow being of secondary importance. Thickeners,
on the other hand, have the basic purpose of producing a
high solids underflow with the character of the clarified
overflow being of secondary importance. Thickeners are also
usually smaller in size and more massively constructed for a
given throughput.
Clarifiers and thickeners have a number of distinct
advantages over ponds:
(1) Less land space is required. On an area basis these
devices are much more efficient in settling capacity
than ponds.
(2) The effect of rainfall is much less than for ponds. If
desired, the clarifiers and thickeners can be covered,
and, in some instances, are covered.
(3) No seepage or runoff problems. Since the external
construction of clarifiers and thickeners usually
consists of concrete or steel tanks, ground seepage and
rain water runoff do not affect them.
VI I-6
DRAFT
-------
On the other hand, clarifiers and thickeners suffer some
distinct disadvantages as compared with ponds:
(1) They have more mechanical parts and maintenance.
(2) They have only limited storage capacity for either
clarified water or settled solids.
The internal sweeps and agitators in thickeners and
clarifiers require more power and energy for operation
•hhan nonds..
(3)
than ponds
Clarifiers and thickeners are usually used when sufficient
land for ponds is not ^available or the land is very
expensive.
itil Centrifuges
Centrifuges are not widely used" for clay, gypsum,
refractory, and ceramic products manufacturing wastewater
treatment. Present industrial type centrifuges are
relatively expensive and not particularly suited for this
purpose. Future use of centrifuges will depend on cost,
need, land availability, and the development of specialized
units suitable for these operations.
4.4 Flocculation
Flocculating agents increase settling efficiency. They are
of two general types: ionic and polymeric. The ionic types
such as alum, ferrous sulfate, and ferric chloride function
by destroying the repelling double layer ionic charges
around the suspended particles and thereby allowing the
particles to attract each other and agglomerate. Polymeric
types function by forming physical bridges from one particle
to another and thereby agglomerating the particles.
Flocculating agents are mpst commonly used after the larger,
more readily settled particles (and loads) have been removed
by a settling pondff hydrqpyclone, or other such scalping
treatment. Agglomeration, or flocculation, can then be
achieved with less reagent and less settling load on the
polishing pond or clarifier.
VII-7
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Flocculating agents can be used with minor modifications and
additions to existing treatment systems, but costs for
flocculating chemicals are often significant. Ionic types
are used in 10 to 100 mg/liter concentrations in the
wastewater while the higher priced polymeric types are
effective in 0.5 to 20 mg/liter concentrations.
iL.5_ Filtration
Filtration is accomplished by passing the wastewater stream
through solids-retaining screens, cloths, or particulates
such as sand, gravel, coal, or diatomaceous earth using
gravity, pressure, or vacuum as the driving force.
Filtration is versatile in that it can be used to remove a
wide range of suspended particle sizes.
Two general types of filters are used in the clay, gypsum,
refractory, amd ceramic products industry - sludge filters
and polishing filters. Sludge filters used include pressure
leaf, plate-and-frame, and vacuum models. Polishing filters
used are mixed-media and sand filter models as well as
coated cartridge pressure filters.
5^0 TJREATMENT OF THERMAL POLLUTION
Where thermal pollution of wastewater is encountered,
installation of conventional cooling towers will alleviate
the problem.
§-.0 DISSOLVED MATERIAL TREATMENT
Treatments for dissolved materials are based on either
modifying or removing the undesirable materials.
Modification techniques include chemical treatments such as
neutralization and precipitation reactions. Acids, alkaline
materials, toxic or hazardous metals, and fluorides are
examples of dissolved materials modified in this way. Most
removal of dissolved solids is accomplished by chemical
precipitation. Techniques such as ion exchange, carbon
adsorption, reverse osmosis and evaporation are rarely used.
Chemical treatments for abatement of waterborne wastes are
common. Included in this overall category are
neutralization, pH control, coagulation, and precipitation.
VI I-8
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
§.2.1 Neutralization
Before disposal to surfac§ water or other medium, excess
acidity or alkalinity needs to be controlled to the range of
pH 6 to 9. The most common method is to treat acidic
streams with alkaline materials such as limestone, lime,
soda ashp or sodium hydroxide. Alkaline streams are treated
with acids such as sulfur|.c acid. Whenever possible,
advantage is ta2ten of the availability of acidic waste
streams to neutralize basic waste streams and vice versa.
Neutralization often produces suspended solids which must be
removed prior to wastewater disposal.
6^2 gH Control
The control of pH is similar to neutralization. Sometimes
chemical addition to waste streams is designed to maintain a
pH level on either the acidic or basic side for purposes of
controlling solubility.
Examples of pH control b^ing used for precipitating metallic
pollutants are:
(1) Fe+3 * 30H- = Fe(pH)3
(2) Mn*2 * 20H- = Mn (OH) 2
{3) Zn+2 «• 2OH- = Zn(OH)2
{>4) Pb+2 * 2OH- = Pb(OH)2
"A
(5) Cu+2 + 2OH- = Cu(OH)2
6.S..3 Precipitations
The reaction of two soluble chemicals to produce insoluble
or precipitated products is the basis for removing many
undesired waterbome wastes. Examples include lime
treatments to precipitate sulfates, fluorides, carbonates
and hydroxides of lead, 'and other heavy metals or sodium
sulfide precipitations of copper. Precipitation reactions
can generate large suspended solids loads.
VII-9
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Examples of precipitation reactions used for wastewater
treatment are:
(1) (SO4=) + Ca(OH)2 = C3SO4 + 20H~
(2) 2F- + Ca(OH)2 = CaF2 -fr 2OH~
(3) Zn** + Na2CO3 = ZnC03 + 2Na*
(4) Pb++ + Na2C03 = PbCO3 + 2Na*
2^.0 Summary of Treatment Technology Applications^
Limitations and Reliability
Table VII-1 summarizes comments on the various treatment
technologies as they are utilized for the clay, gypsum,
refractory, and ceramic products industries.
Estimates of the efficiency with which the treatments remove
suspended or dissolved solids from wastewater given in the
table need to be interpreted in the following context.
(1) These values will obviously not be valid for all circum-
stances, concentrations„ or materials, but they should
provide a general guideline for treatment performance
capabilities;
(2) At high concentrations and optimum conditions, all
treatments can achieve 99 per cent or better removal of
the desired material;
(3) At low concentrations, the removal efficiency decreases;
and
(4) Minimum achievable concentration ranges are not appli-
cable in every case. For example, pond settling of some
suspended solids might not reduce the concentration to
less than 100 mg/liter. However, many pond settling
treatments achieve 10 to 20 mg/liter without difficulty.
Failure to achieve the minimum concentration levels
listed usually means that either the wrong treatment
methods have been selected or that an additional
treatment step is necessary (such as a second pond or a
polish filtration) .
VII-10
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Table Vll-l. Summary of Technplogy, Applications, Limitations and Reliability
Wo.ro
Wnter
Comtituenli
Suspended
Soil*
Dissolved
Solid,
Treolmcnt
Proc«H
(1) Pond
Settling
(2)Clorifior
Thickener!
(3) Hydro-
cyclone!
(4) Tubo ond
Lamella
Settlo'rl
(5) Screen!
(6) Rotary
Vacuum
Filter!
(7) Solid Bowl
Centrifuge
(8) Leaf and
Pressure
Filler,
(9) Cartridge
ond Candle
Filler,
(10) Saru! and
M'lKX'l
Media
niter)
(1) Nc'.lroli-
zvtion und
pH Control
(J) P.oe'plto-
lion
Application
Uied For alt
concentration*
Used for oil
concentration!
Removal of larger
particle llzel
Removal of inullcr
particle lizol
Removal of larger
particle ilzei
Mainly for iludgei
'and other high
impended solid!
Itrearm
Mainly for iludges
and other high
suipendcd lolidi
itreorm
U,ed over wide
concentration
rango
Mainly for polish'
ing filtration! of
Suspended solicit
Mainly for polish-
inn filtration! of
unpcndcrl solidl
General
Broadly o;cd to
remove tolubloi
Percent
Solid,
Removal
60-99
60-9?
50-99
90-99
50-99
90-99
60-99
90-99
50-99
50-99
99
50-99
Expected
Concert- •
(ration
t
5-200
!
5-1000
'1
--
-
-
5-1000
--
10-100
2-10
2-50
NA
0-2(1
Minimum
Concen-
tration
Achievable
(ma/I)
5-30
5-30
-
- '
-
5-30
5-30
2-10
2-10
NA
0-10
Avollo-
blllly
of
Equip-
ment
none
needed
nodlly
ovolloble
ovollobl.
readily
available
t
ready
available
readily
available
readily
aval lob! e
readily
available
readily
available
readily
available
• eodily
available
readily
available
Lead
Time
(months)
1-12
3-M
3-12
3-12
3-12
3-12
3-12
3-o
1-3
3-6
3-12
3-6
Space
or
Land
Needed
large
1-500 ocrei
imall
0.05-1.0
ocrel
< t acre
opprox.
10' x 10-
approx.
10' x 10'
opprox.
10' x 10'
opprox.
10' X 10'
opprox.
10' x 10'
opprox.
10' x 10'
opprox.
10' x 10'
opprox ,
10' x 10'
smult
20' x 201 or
less
tmall
20' x 20'
Mainten-
ance
Required
— ,
•mall
nominal
small
imall
nominal
nominal
nominal
imalt
imall
imall
minor
minor
'
Sensitivity
to
Shock
load.
small
sensitive
sensitive
iBfuIrlve
tmall
laralltve
lorolHve
lemltive
sensitive
ten-lit tvc
nominal
sensitive
Effectl
of
Shutdown
and
Startup
' '
imall
nominal
imoll
nominal
trail
nominal
imoll
imoll
imoll
Imall
imall
•mall
Energy
Require-
ment!
trnoN
nominal
•mall
imall
imoll
nominal
nominal
imoll
imall
•rail
imall
imall
VII-11
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
iLO PRETREATMEMT TECHNOLOGY
Municipal sewers are widely used for disposal of wastewaters
from the clay, gypsum, refractory, and ceramic products
plants. Depending on the industry subcategory, sewer
disposal is used by 5 to 40 per cent of the involved plants.
Table VII-2 summarizes sewer and other wastewater disposal
practices for the various subcategories.
In many cases wastewater is discharged without pretreatment
directly into the sewer system. In other instances
pretreatment consists of reducing suspended solids by
settling or filtration. Removal of suspended solids prior
to discharge to municipal sewers is often done not only at
municipality direction, but also to reduce surcharges for
these solids.
In addition to reduction of suspended solids, pretreatment
for undesirable dissolved solids involves pH control and
removal of constituents such as heavy metals and fluorides.
Acid addition will lower pH levels. Lime addition will
raise pH levels and precipitate fluorides and heavy metals.
9..0 NON-WATER QUALITY ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS^ INCLUDING
ENERGY REQUIREMENTS
The effects of these treatment and control technologies on
noise pollution and thermal pollution are usually small and
not of significance. Some thermal pollution is involved in
wastewater from well brine process magnesia plants, but it
can be readily treated by the use of cooling towers.
Large amounts of solid waste in the form of both solids and
sludges result from treatment of suspended solids as well as
chemical treatments for neutralization and precipitations.
Some of this solid waste contains substantial quantities of
hazardous materials and requires disposal in approved or
secure landfills rather than conventional sanitary disposal
sites.
Easy-to-handle, settled solids are usually left in settling
ponds or dredged out periodically and dumped onto the land
or landfilled.
VII-12
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
TABLE VI hi I
Disposal of Clay, Gypsum, Refractory and Ceramic Products Industries
Process Wastewater Discharge (Percent)
Industry Municipal
Category Sewer
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Frit
Brick and Structural
Clay Tile
Ceramic Wall and
Floor Tile
Clay Refractories
Structural Clay
Products
Vitreous China
Plumbing Fixtures
China, Earthenware
and Pottery
Porcelain Electrical
Supplies
Technical Ceramics
Gypsum Products
Non-Clay Refractories
Magnesia
42
3
22
5
0
29
15
27
60
20
30
0
Surface
Water
50
12
11
12
5
43
76
53
20
30
9
100
Pond Total
Evaporation Recycle
JO 0
27
28
0
0
29
0
20
0
50
4
0
0
11
5
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
No process
Wastewater
8
58
28
78
95
0
1
0
20
0
57
0
VII-13
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
In summary, the solid wastes and sludges from the clay,
gypsum, refractory, and ceramic products industries waste-
water treatments are much.smaller than those from raw mate-
rial mining operations, and rarely have major economic
impact. These wastes may have toxic or hazardous
components.
For the best practicable control technology currently
available the added annual energy requirements are estimated
to be 13.25 x 10* Kcal. This amounts to about 10 per cent
of the present estimated energy use for control technologies
of the clay, gypsum, refractory, and ceramic products
industries.
VII-1U
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
SECTION VIII
COST, ENERGY, WASTE REDUCTION BENEFITS AND NON-WATER ASPECTS
OF TREATMENT AND CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES
liO SUMMARY
The clay, gypsum, refractory and ceramic products industries
in general do not handle large quantities of wastewater.
Also, waterborne sludge and solid wastes are not major
factors either for disposal or disposal costs. The one
exception is in the category of refractory magnesia. The
refractory magnesia prpcess uses either sea water or well
brine as a raw material for magnesium extraction. After
extracting the magnesium the entire sea water or well brine
stream is discharged as process water. Treatment and
treatment costs for this process reflect the size of the
discharge stream which!may be of the order of 25 million
gallons per day,,
The relatively small volumes of process wastewater for the
categories other than magnesia lead to several situations
that are not as likely 'to be encountered for large waste-
water volumess
(1) Cooling and process waters are often mixed and dis-
charged together
(2) Process water is often discharged to municipal sewers
with little or no treatment
(3) Evaporation/percolation ponds with no discharge are
frequently encountered.
For several of the categories the specialized nature of the
process and products Ie4ds to heterogeneity as far as waste-
water quantities^ pollutants, treatments and treatment costs
are concerned. These are pointed out in the individual
category cost effectiveness descriptions later in this
section.
VIII-1
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
In general, plant age and location have little influence on
the type of waste effluent or treatment costs involved.
Treatments and costs are influenced by differences in some
of the industries^ so that no general statement can be made
as to effects of plant size and type. It is necessary to
refer to the individual category descriptions for this
information.
In view of the large number of manufacturing facilities and
the significant variables listed above, costs, have been
developed for representative plants rather than specific
exemplary plants that may have advantageous geographical
terrain. In the few cases where this approach required
modification, the circumstances are defined in the
individual category cost effectiveness writeups.
A summary of cost and energy information for the present
level of wastewater treatment technology for these
industries is given in Table VIII-1. Present capital
investment for wastewater treatment in the clay, gypsum,
refractory and ceramic products industries is estimated at
$13,400,000.
2..0 COST REFERENCES AND RATIONALE
Cost information contained in this report was assembled
directly from industry, from waste treatment and disposal
contractors, engineering firms/ equipment suppliers, govern-
ment sources, and published literature. Whenever possible,
costs are taken from actual installations, engineering
estimates for projected facilities as supplied by
contributing companies, or from waste treatment and disposal
contractors quoted prices. In the absence of such
information, cost estimates have been developed insofar as
possible from plant-supplied costs for similar waste
treatment and disposal for other plants or industries.
VIII-2
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Table VIII- 1
Capital Investments and Energy Consumption of
Present Wastewater Treatment Facilities
present
capital energy total annual per cent
spent use costs of selling
Jfdollarsl IKCalx10*j_ ($/kkg prod) p.rice
Frit
Brick and struc-
tural tile
Ceramic wall and
floor tile
Clay refractories
Structural clay
products
Vitreous china
plumbing fixt.
China, earthen-
ware and pottery
Porcelain elec-
cal supplies
(dry)
(wet)
Technical ceramics
Gypsum products
Non-clay refract.
1- -graphite and
carbon
2-basic brick
and shapes
3-monolithics
4-silica
5-mullite and
zircon
6-silicon carbides
and oxides
7-dolomite grain
and brick
500,000
850,000
460,000
170,000
50,000
2,500,000
1*250,000
300,000
500,000
450ffOOO
800^000
100,000
140,000
0
0
60,000
10,000
0
5,000
8,500
5,500
4,200
700
16,000
7,000
1,000
1,430
2,000
5,000
500
200
0
0
200
500
0
2.
0.
0.
0.
0.
2.
1.
3.
0.
1.
0.
0.
0.
0
0
0.
0.
0
90
02
40
01
01
09
48
28
50
00
03
10
05
40
05
0.4
<0. 1
0.2
<0. 1
<0. 1
0.4
0.1
<0.2
<0. 1
<0. 1
<0. 1
<0.1
<0. 1
0
0
<0. 1
<0,1
0
Refractory magnesia
s ea water
brine wells
•3,000,000
4,300,000
38,000
36,000
1o
3.
00
90
Oo5
2.0
Total 13,400,000 132,000
VIII-3
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
2°.l Interest Costs and Eguity Financing Charges
Capital investment estimates for this study have been based
on 10 per cent cost of capital, representing a composite
number for interest paid or return on investment required.
2.2.2 Time Basis for Costs
All cost estimates are based on August 1972 prices and when
necessary have been adjusted to this basis using the
chemical engineering plant cost index.
2.3 Useful Service Life
The useful service life of treatment and disposal equipment
varies depending on the nature of the equipment and process
involved, its use pattern, maintenance care and numerous
other factors o Individual companies may apply service lives
based on their actual experience for internal amortization.
Internal Revenue Service provides guidelines for tax pur-
poses which are intended to approximate average experience.
Based on discussions with industry and condensed IRS guide-
line information, the following useful service life values
have been used:
General process equipment 10 years
(2) Ponds, lined and unlined 20 years
(3) Trucks, bulldozers* loaders
and other such material
handling and transporting
equipment 5 years
2..4 Depreciation
The economic value of treatment and disposal equipment and
facilities decreases over their service lives. At the end
of the useful life, it is usually assumed that the salvage
or recovery value becomes zero. For IRS tax purposes or
internal depreciation provisions, straight line, or
accelerated write-off schedules may be used. Straight line
depreciation was used solely in this report.
VIII-4
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
2^5 Cagital Costs
Capital costs are defined as all front-end out-of-pocket
expenditures for providing treatment and disposal
facilities. These costs include costs for research and
development necessary to establish the process, land costs
when applicable^, equipment, construction and installation,
buildings, servicesg engineering, special start-up costs and
contractor profits and contingencies.
2^6 Annual Cagital Costs
Most if not all of the capital costs are accrued during £h'e
year or two prior to actual use of the facility. This
present worth sum can be converted to equivalent uniform
annual disbursements by utilizing the Capital Recovery
Factor Methods
Uniform Annual Disbursement = Pi (1*±\nth^power
(1*i) n*.h power - 1
Where P = present value (capital expenditure),
i = interest rate, &/100, n'- useful life in years
The capital recovery factor equation above may be rewritten
cis:
Uniform Annual Disbursement = P(CR - i.% - n)
Where (CR - ±% -n) is the Capital Recovery Factor for
i% interest taken over "n" years of useful life.
2.=.2 Land Costs
Lcnd-destined solid wastes require removal of land from
other economic use« The amount of land so tied up will
depend on the treatment/disposal method employed and the
amount of wastes involved. Although land is non-depreciable
according to IRS. regulations, there are numerous instances
where the market value of the land for land-destined wastes
ha:s been significantly reduced permanently, or actually
becomes unsuitable for future use due to the nature of the
stored waste. The general criteria applied to costing land
are as follows:
VIII-5
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
(1) If land requirements for on-site treatment and disposal
are not significant,, no cost allowance is applied.
(2) Where on-site land requirements are significant and the
storage or disposal of wastes does not affect the
ultimate market value of the land, cost estimates
include only interest on invested money.
(3) For significant on-site land requirements where the
ultimate market value or availability of the land has
been seriously reduced, cost estimates include both
capital depreciation and interest on invested money.
(4) Off-site treatment and disposal land requirements.
and costs are not considered directly,, It is assumed
that land costs are included in the overall contractor's
fees along with its other expenses and profit.
(5) In view of the extreme variability of land costs,
adjustments have been made for individual industry
situationso In generalf isolated, plentiful land has
been costed at $2,470/hectare ($1rOOO/acre) «,
2^8 Operating Experts eg
Annual costs of operating the treatment and disposal
facilities include labor, supervision? materials,
maintenance„ taxes, insurance and power and energy.
Operating costs combined with annualized capital costs give
the total costs for treatment and disposal operations. No
interest cost was included for operating (working) capital.
Since working capital might be assumed to be one sixth to
one third of annual operating costs (excluding
depreciation), about 1-2 per cent of total operating costs
might be involved. This is considered to be well within the
accuracy of the estimates,,
^ii Rationale for "Representative Plants^
All plant costs are estimated for representative plants
rather than for any actual plant. Representative plants are
defined to have a size and age agreed upon by a substantial
fraction of the manufacturers in the subcategory producing
the given productg org in the absence of such a consensus,
the arithmetic average of production size and age for all
plants.
VIII-6
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Location is selected to represent the industry as closely as
possibly. For instance, if all plants are in northeartern
U.Sop typical location is noted as "northeastern states".
If locations are widely scattered around the U.S., typical
location would be not specified geographically.
The unit costs to treat and dispose of wastes at any given
plant may be considerably high or lower than the represen-
tative plant because of individual circumstances.
2^.-10 Definition of Levels of Treatment and Control
Costs are developed for various types and levels of techno-
logy:
Minimum JA or basic level),. That level of technology which
is equalled or exceeded by most or all of the involved
plants. Usually money for this treatment level has.already
been spent (in the case of capital investment) or is being
spent Jin the case of operating and overall costs).
B^C^DgE—-Leygls. Successively greater degrees of treatment
with respect to critical pollutant parameters. Two or more
alternative treatments are developed when applicable.
2ill Basis For Treatment Costs
(1) All non-contact cooling water is exempted from treatment
(and treatment costs) provided that no pollutants are
introduced.
(2) Water treatment, cooling tower and boiler blowdown
discharges are not treated provided they contain no
pollutants.
(3) Removal of dissolved solids, other than harmful
pollutants, is generally excluded, except in the case of
magnesia from well brine.
(U) All solid i*aste disposal costs are included as part of
the cost development.
VIII-7
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
2^.12 Cost Variances
The effects of age, location,, and size on costs for treat-
ment and control have been considered and are detailed in
subsequent sections for each specific subcategory.
3.0 INDIVIDUAL PRODUCT WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL
COSTS
3,1 Frit
Of the eleven plants producing merchant frit, one plant
evaporates all process water„ two plants use little or no
treatment prior to discharge, two plants use settling prior
to discharge, four plants use settling plus pH adjustment,
one plant uses an extensive treatment system combining floc-
culation, settling and chemical precipitation. The
remaining plant did not furnish any data.
Two plants studied have contact quench water whereas two
other plants use non-contact roll quenching and two plants
have a combination of botho Process waste streams also come
from laboratory quality control and equipment washing. The
majority of waterborne wastes, however, come from wet
scrubbers on the smelters« Some plants have wet scrubbers
on a portion of their smelters, while others have no
scrubbers at all. Scrubbers will be installed on
practically all smelters in the future*
Wastewcvters from these plants contain suspended solids,
suspended and dissolved heavy metals, and fluorides.
Treatment of these wastewaters involves multiple step
operations including chemical precipitation of metals and
fluorides, settling tanks, and flocculants. Water recycling
and reuse are common practices. However, total recycle is
not generally feasible due to an unfavorable water balance
and intermittent surges in wastewater rate.
Table VIII-2 gives costs for a typical plant at three
different levels of treatment technology.
Level A represents no treatment prior to discharge. Level B
represents the situation where air pollution abatement
scrubbers have been installed and the wastewater is treated
in settling basins for reduction of suspended solids
VIII-8
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
TABLE VI11-2
COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS FOR A REPRESENTATIVE PLANT
(ALL COSTS ARE CUMULATIVE)
SUBCATEGORY F"t
PLANT SIZE 8,000
PLANT AGE 35 YEARS
METRIC TONS PER YEAR
PLANT LOCATION Varied
INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS'.
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS:
ANNUAL 0 ft M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS
COST/ METRIC TON of products
WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg /metric ton of promts )
Suspended solids
Lead
Cadmium '.
Zinc
Fluoride
Chromium
RAW
WASTE
LOAD
<4.0
w-
0.05
0.013
5
0.03
LEVEL
A
(WIN)
0
0
0
0
0
0
3.0
w-
0.05
0.013
5
0.017
B
30,000
4,200
13,000
2,000
19,200
2.40
0.5
0.003
0.003
0.003.
0.05
0.003
C
200,000
28,000
87,000
10,000
125,000
15.62
0.06
0.00023
0.000023
0.00026
0.05
0.00012
D
E
L£Vi:L DESCRIPTION:
Level A - No treatment, direct discharge.
Level B - Settling tanks or basins, pH control and partial recycle of scrubber water.
Level C - Segregation of process wastewater and recycle of contact cooling water,
chemical treatment to remove heavy metals and fluoride, settling in
clarifiers or tanks, flocculation and filtration.
VIII-9
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
followed by pH control prior to discharge. Level C
represents costs and performance for a complex treatment
system for removal of suspended solids, suspended and
dissolved materials, pH control and major recycle for both
process and scrubber water. This type of treatment system
has been installed at one facility. The chemical treatments
involved include precipitation of fluoride by soluble
calcium salts and precipitation of heavy metals by the
addition of soda ash and lime.
^ilil Cost Variance
Age. Known plant ages range from 3 to 72 years. The one
plant with a complex and exemplary treatment system is
72 years old. Age is not a cost variance factor.
Location. Plants are in varied locations throughout the
United States. Since treatment depends primarily on tanks,
basins, clarifiers, and filters (all of which require a
minimum of land area) climate, land availability and other
geographical factors are not cost variance factors.
Size. Plant sizes are considered confidential but there is
an approximate twenty fold variation in plant production.
Capital costs are estimated to vary as the 0.8 exponential
of plant size while operating costs, other than those
directly relatable to capital costs, are estimated to vary
directly with plant size.
VIII-10
DRAFT
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DRAFT
Cost Basis For Table VjIl-2
Small tanks and basins: $5,000
pH adjustment facilities: $5,000
Tanks and basins (scrubber systems) : $15,000
Pumps and piping (scrubber systems) : $10,000
Tanks and clarifiers (integrated $40,000
systems) s
Chemical feeders (integrated systems): 510,000
Filters (integrated systems) : $20,000
Segregation (integrated systems): $10,000
Pumps and piping ([integrated systems) : $20,000
Operating Costs
Powers $74.60 per kw-yr
Chemicals: $3,000-$30,000
Other operating expenses: 10 per cent of capital investment
J.s.2 S£i£k and Structural Clay, Tile
The brick and structural clay tile industry has minimal
process water requirements. Of 33 plants studied 28 plants
have no discharge of process water, 4 plants discharge to
rivers, creeks or sewers after settling of suspended solids
and one plant discharges to a sewer with no treatment. Of
the 28 plants x?ith no effluent some accomplish this by
virtue of having no process wastewater, some by discharge to
evaporation or percolation ponds and some by pond settling
and recycle o Average process wastewater quantities are
30,000 liters per day (7,600 GPD) .
Table VIII- 3 shows the treatment technology and costs for
different levels of pollutant removal, and total
impoundment.,
Levels A and A° represent plants with no process water
effluent or those that discharge without treatment. Level B
represents those plants that reduce suspended solids in
small settling basins or ponds. Level C represents plant^
that send their wastewater -to evaporation or percolation
ponds as well as those with a discharge from ponds. Level D
VIII-11
DRAFT
-------
TABLE VIII-3
COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS FOR A REPRESENTATIVE PLANT
(ALL COSTS ARE CUMULATIVE)
SUBCATEGORY Brick and Structural Clay Tile
PLANT SIZE 90,000 METRIC TONS PER YEAR
PLANT AGE 50 YEARS
PLANT LOCATION AM states
INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS!
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS:
ANNUAL 0 a M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS
COST/METRIC TON product
WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kci /metric ton of products )
Suspended solids
RAW
WASTE
LOAD
3
LEVEL
A
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
A1
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
B
5,000
600
550
200
1,350
0.02
0.6
C
13,000
1,525
1,700
_300
3,525
0.04
0-0.01
D
30,000
4,375
4,000
Ir500
9,875
0.11
0
LEVEL DESCHIPTIQN:
Level A - No treatment necessary, no waterborne raw waste.
Level A - No treatment, direct discharge to sewer or surface water.
Level B - Small settling basins or ponds followed by discharge to sewer or surface water.
Level C - Larger settling ponds and flocculation and discharge, or total impoundment.
Level D - Level C + recycle to scrubber or use for wash down.
VIII-12
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
represents recycle of process wastewater for reuse.
J_2_2j!_l Cost Variance
Age,, Known plant ages range from 2 to 101 years, with an
average of approximately 50 years. Age is not a cost
variance factor„
Location.. The plants of this category are located
throughout the United States. Use of settling pond arid
basin treatment technology is relatively independent of
location except where Space is a major problem. For areas
where space is a problem settling tanks are practical. The
use of evaporation or percolation ponds does depend on loca-
tion, but guideline recommendations were not based on utili-
zation of this specific technology. Evaporation ponds can
not. be considered zero discharge installations in all
locations. This is particularly the case for eastern U.S,
ponds where net rainfall usually exceeds net evaporation.
Size. Plant sizes range from 10,000 to 327,000 kkg/yr
CnJOOO to 360,000 TPY) with the typical plant size taken as
90,000 kkg/yr (990,000 TPY). Capital investment is estimated
to vary with plant size as the 0.8 exponential while
operating costs,, other than those directly relatable to
capital investment„ are directly proportional to plant size.
J-t2il Cost Basis For Table VIII-3
Capital Costs
Small settling basins and ponds: $5,000
Larger settling ponds: 10,000
Flocculation system: 3,000
Recycle system: 30,000
Operating Costs
Overall operating costs: 15 per cent of capital investment
Power costs: $74.60/kw-yr
VIII-13
DRAFT
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DRAFT
1-2.3 Ceramic Wall and Floor Tile
The ceramic wall and floor tile industry is divided into
unglazed and glazed product subcategories. Glazed tile
plants have wastewater discharges of the order of
76,000 liters per day (20,000 GPD). Glazed product plants
have glazing wastes plus ceramic suspended solids while
unglazed plants have only suspended ceramic solids.
Unglazed Tile Wastewater Treatment
Several known plants producing unglazed tile have no process
wastewater and therefore no treatment technology or costs.
Others eliminate discharge through evaporation ponds or
recycle for miscellaneous on-site uses. No plants were
found having discharges to surface water.,
Glazed Tile Wastewater Treatment
All known glazed tile plants have at least some treatment
facilities. At a minimum, small settling tanks and ponds
are used. More sophisticated treatment facilities include
flocculating equipment, improved settling fadilities, and
sludge treatment. One plant recycles all its treated
process water.
Table VIII-4 summarizes the treatment costs for various
levels of employed technology. Levels A and B are for
plants producing unglazed products. Level C represents
minimum treatment technology and costs for glazed product
plants. Levels D and E represent better technologies for
pollutant removal.
JLi.3.2.1 Cost Variance
Age. Known plant ages range from 1 to 90 years. Age is not
a significant factor in cost variance.
i-O-SStioa- Location is a significant factor in cost
variance. Plants located in dry climates or rapid
percolation areas can eliminate discharge with evaporation
ponds. Costs for these treatment facilities are low. When
land is available, ponds are usually the preferred treatment
VIII-14
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
TABLE VIII-4
COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS FOR A REPRESENTATIVE PLANT
(ALL COSTS ARE CUMULATIVE)
Ceramic Wall and Floor Tile
SUBCATEGORY
PLANT SIZE '2,000
PLANT AGE 25 YEARS
METRIC TONS PER YEAR
PLANT LOCATION Vqr?ed
INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS'.
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS:
ANNUAL 0 a M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY )
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS
COST/METRIC TON of product
"i
WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg /metric ton of product )
Suspended solids
Lead
Zinc
RA\V
WASTE
L0$>
25
* '•
* '"
r-
LEVEL
A
(MINI)
0
0
0
0
Minimal
0
-------
DRAFT
facilityo In locations where land is not available, costs
for thickeners are significantly higher.
Size. Plant sizes range from 3,600 to 68,000 kkg/yr (4,000
to 75yOOO TPY), The representative plant size is
12,000 kkg/yr (13,200 TPY)„ There appears to be no cost
variance pattern with size0
l^J.2 Cost Basis For Table VIII-4
Costs were primarily based on the adjusted average of
investment and operating costs supplied by several plants.
Capital^Cost
Settling basin (Level B); $3,000
Settling pond or tank (Level C) s 5,000
Larger settling pond (Level Dj ; 15,000
Treatment system (Level E -
flocculation, thickener,
filter, recycle): 60,000
Operating Costs
Power unit costss $7U«60/kw-yr
Total operating costss Level B $1,350
Level C 3,585
Level D 6,760
Level E 12,300
3,_i4 Clay_ Refractories
Most of the plants studied that make clay refractories have
only non-contact cooling water and sanitary wastes for
wastewater effluent. The plants that do have process
wastewater usually have quantities of the order of 3,800 to
380,000 liters per day (1,000 to 100,000 GPD). The load of
pollutants in these wastewaters is small and consists
primarily of suspended solids. Currently, treatment of
wastewater is minimal. Most process wastewater streams are
directly discharged.
One practice, found at one plant in this category, is the
mixing of sanitary wastes and process water. This
introduces BOD, COD and coliform into the process discharge.
VIII-16
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
The segregation of these wastes may cost more than their
treatmento
Table VIII-5 gives the cost for treatment at different tech-
nology levels for a typical plant„ Level A is
representative of plants that discharge directly to surface
water or sewers without treatment. Level B represents minor
treatment by means of settling basins, tanks or small ponds.
Level C represents plants where treatment system has to be
installed in order to segregate, treat to 25 mg/liter or
less suspended solids, and discharge. Level D is similar to
Level C except that the wastewater is recycled.
.iiiiiJ Cost Variance
Age. Known plants have an age range of 6 to 102 years.
There is no correlation of cost variance with plant age.
Location.. Plants are widely distributed throughout the
United States» Use of treatment basins, tanks, ponds,
clarifiers, filters, and flocculating agents is independent
of geographic location,, Cost variance does not correlate
with locationn
Sj,ze«, Plant sizes vary from 73 to 300,000 kkg/yr (80 to
330,000 TPY)o Cost variance with size is obscured by other
variables such as process wastewater quantities and
segregation of streams. Recommended cost variance with size
is estimated as 0=8 exponential for capital investment and
its related annual costs, and directly proportional for
operating costs other than taxes, insurance and capital
recovery.
VIII-17
DRAFT
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DRAFT
TABLE VI11-5
COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS FOR A REPRESENTATIVE PLANT
(ALL COSTS ARE CUMULATIVE)
SUBCATEGORY_
PLANT SIZE
Cloy Refractories
90,000
PLANT AGE 45 YEARS
METRIC TONS PER YEAR.
PLANT LOCATION Varied
INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS!
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS:
ANNUAL 0 a M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS
COST/METRIC TON of Product
WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg /metric ton of Product )
Suspended solids
RAW
WASTE
LOAD
0-14
LEVEL
A
(MIN)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0-14
B
4,000
650
500
100
1,250
0.01
<0.01-
0.006
C
90,000
14,600
9,500
500
24,600
0.27
0.005
D
115,000
18,600
10,000
600
29,200
0.32
0
E
LEVEL DESCRIPTION:
Level A — No treatment; discharge to sewer or surface water.
Level B — Settling tanks,basins, or ponds.
Level C — Segregation of process wastewater; settling; flocculation; filtration; discharge
(scrubber water, if any, settled and recycled).
Level D — C plus recycle of treated process water.
X
VIII-18
DRAFT
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DBAFT
lsl.s.2 Cost BasjLs For Tab^e VIJi-5
Capital Costs
settling basins, dollars/sq m (dollars/sq ft): $21.52 ($2)
settling basin area, sg m (sq ft); 46.5 (500)
settling pond costs $10,000
segregation installations: $30,000
process recycle installations; $25,000
scrubber recycle installations: $25,000
installed sand filters $25,000
Operating Costs
Power unit, cost: $74060/kw-yr
Total operating cost: 25 per cent of capital investment
3.5 Structural Clay Products^ Not Elsewhere Classified
The only process water effluent for this category comes from
scrubber blowdown, found in only one of the 22 plants from
which information was obtained. This amounts to
16,000 liters per day (4ff300 GPD) . None of the other plants
has any discharge of process wastewater. Therefore, there
are no wastewater treatment costs for over 95 per cent of
this industry. Treatment costs based on the one plant with
a scrubber system are given in Table VJII-6 . Level A
represents no treatment. The scrubber water itself is
currently treated at the plant studied with flocculation
followed by 90 per cent recycle of scrubber water. The
remaining 10 per cent is discharged as blowdown.
Level B represents segregation of the scrubber water blow-
down stream from non-process wastewater followed by floccu-
lation and pond settling.,
Level C incorporates Level B treatment plus recycle of
treated blowdown to the scrubber system.
3».5 .J[ Cost Variance
There is only one kno^n plant with process water discharge.
VIII-19
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
TABLE VI11-6
COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS FOR A REPRESENTATIVE PLANT
(ALL COSTS ARE CUMULATIVE)
SUBCATEGORY Structural Clay Products, Not Elsewhere Classified
PLANT SIZE
70,000
PLANT AGE 40 YEARS
METRIC TONS PER YEAR
PLANT LOCATION Var'ed
INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS:
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS:
ANNUAL 0 8 M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS
COST/METRIC TON Products
WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(mg/liter)
Suspended solids
RAW
WASTE
LOAD
fjnknowr
LEVEL
A
(MIN)
0
0
0
0
0
0
unknown
B
' 22,000
2,600
1,300
200
4,100
0.06
20
C
27,000
3,400
2,100
400
5,900
0.08
0
D
E
LEVEL DESCRIPTION:
Level A — No treatment; discharge.
Level B — Segregation of process water; flocculation; pond settling.
Level C — Level B plus recycle of treated water to scrubber system.
VIII-20
DRAFT
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DRAFT
3.5.2 Basis For Costs of Table VJII-6
Costs for Level B were supplied by the one plant involved.
Additional costs for complete recycle {Level C) were
estimated as $5,000 capital investment for pumps and piping
and 20 per cent operating expenses on additional investment.
3.6 Vitreous China Plumbing Fixtures
Process wastewater quantities from vitreous china plumbing
fixture plants are not largeff averaging 190,000 liters per
day (50,000 GPD) and as high as 760^000 liters per day
(200,000 GPD)o A number of plants eliminate discharge to
surface water or sewer by use of evaporation or percolation
ponds. This disposal method cannot be applied at every
plant location in this category0
The process wastewater has two principal pollutants;
suspended clay solids and suspended heavy metals compounds
from glazing formulations. The suspended clay and heavy
metal-containing solids are slow settling components and
usually require flocculating agents for reasonably complete
removal. In a number of cases„ sand filters are used for
polishing.,
Table Vlll-7 gives the costs for four treatment technology
levels. Level A represents minimum treatment by settling in
sma.ll basins for removal of some suspended solids. Level B
represents improved treatment technology as compared with
Level A. For plants having little or no heavy metal
compounds and easily settleable suspended solids,, Level B
installations may give excellent performance. Level C
represents improved removal of suspended solids principally
by treating the clarifier overflow from Level B with a sand
filter and the underflow with a sludge filter- There is one
system of this type in operation and two or three others can
be brought to this level with moderate modifications to
present facilities and operating conditions. Level D is
designed to eliminate discharge of pollutants through
recycle of all waste streams* To accomplish this, the
various waterborne waste streams must be kept separate so
that they can be treated appropriately and returned to the
specific parts of the process where their reuse can be
tolerated.
VIII-21
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
TABLE VIII-7
COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS FOR A REPRESENTATIVE PLANT
(ALL COSTS ARE CUMULATIVE)
SUBCATEGORY Vitreous China Plumbing Fixtures
PLANT SIZE 14/000
PLANT AGE 35 YEARS
METRIC TONS PER YEAR
PLANT LOCATION Varied
INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS!
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS:
ANNUAL 0 8 M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POV/ER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS
COST/ METRIC TON of products
WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg /metric ton of product )
Suspended solids
Lead - u
Zinc 0
RAW
WASTE
LOAD
5-10
>to 0.0
> to 0 . 1
LEVEL
A
(MIN)
10,000
1,180
4,500
500
6,180
0.44
0.5
1 0.005
0.08
B
150,000
24,400
14,000
1,000
39,400
2.81
0.15
0.002
UP6°01
C
250,000
40,700
23,500
1,500
65,700
4.69
0.03
0.001
0.001
D
400,000
65,100
37,600
4,500
107,200
7.66
0
0
0
E
LEVEL DESCRIPTION'.
Level A - Settling in sumps, discharge.
Level B - Settling in sumps, add flocculanrs, clarify, discharge.
Level C - Level B plus clarifier underflow to sludge filter, overflow to sand filter,
discharge sand bed filtrate, recycle sludge filtrate.
Level D - Segregation of all raw waste streams, return slip preparation wash down to slip,
treat other streams as in Level C, and recycle for wash down.
VIII-22
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
-I±.*bJ. £°.§3~ Variance
Age. Known plant ages range from 12 to 65 years- Age is
not a significant factor in cost variance*
Location.. Plants are in various locations throughout the
U.So Some plants take advantage of local conditions to
evaporate or percolate process wastewater . However „, tanks,
sumpsff clarifierSf chemical -treatment and sand filters are
appropriate for treatment anywhere in the country. Location
is not a significant factor in cost variance0
Size. Known plant sizes range from 3ff775 to 25*500 kkg/yr
(4,150 to 28^100 TPY^ with an average size of 14,000 kkg/yr
J15,400 TPY) . Capital costs are estimated to vary with size
as the 0.8 exponential. Operating costs, other than those
directly relatable to capital investmente are estimated to
vary directly with plant size*
12.6^2 Cost Basis For Table yill-7
Industry furnished costs were normalized for size and then
averaged. This industry category is relatively uniform as
far as treatment technology and costs are concerned. One
exception is evaporation or percolation ponds 0 The
differences in costs are probably related to differences in
terrain at the plant sites.
Earthenware and Pottery Production
Wastewater from the pottery industry involves two principal
pollutants s
(1) Suspended solids from the clays and other basic raw
materials s
(2) Compounds of heavy metals from the glazing formulation.
Present treatment is primarily for the reduction of
suspended solids „ Since the heavy metal compounds are
principally in the particulate solids e the reduction of TSS
accomplishes a reduction of heavy metals* There is growing
recognition in the industry <, howeverff that further reduction
of heavy metals may be necessary. The extent of the heavy
meteil problem for any given plant in the pottery industry
VIIl-23
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
depends on the glazing formulations used. Many plants may
be able to adequately reduce heavy metals by settling and
filtration treatment while other plants may also require
chemical precipitation ; although the need for this has not
yet been demonstrated.
Of the 14 pottery plants for which information exists, 2
plants have no wastewater effluent, 3 plants have no
wastewater treatment, and 7 use settling plus flocculation.
Of the two small plants that have no discharge of process
wastewater, one (3213) recycles less than 3,800 liters per
day (1,000 GPD) after settling for removal of suspended
solids, and the other (6120) has no process wastewater.
Costs for recycling the small amount of process water at
plant 3213 are similar to those of Level B in Table VIII-8.
No treatment costs are required for plant 6120.
Table VIII-8 gives costs for different levels of treatment
technology. Level A represents the minimum situation
encountered, no treatment of any kind. Level B represents
the most commonly used treatment technology, settling of
suspended solids in sumps, basins, tanks, or ponds. This
level of treatment eliminates 50 to 99+ per cent of the
suspended solids, but still leaves an average of at least
50 mg/liter suspended solids plus some heavy metals. Level
C is Level B plus additional clarification. Level D
represents a treatment system which combines settling,
flocculation, dual stage clarification and final settling.
This is an engineered system which reduces suspended solids
levels down to the 10 to 30 mg/liter range; it does not
include treatment for dissolved heavy metals. Level D
technology is currently used in plants 6139 and 3224. There
are plans to use this technology in several other plants
where heavy metals are 'present primarily in the suspended
form. Level E technology, which includes dissolved heavy
metal removal in addition to Level D suspended solids
treatment, is not currently used in any known pottery plant.
It is used in at least one frit industry plant reported
elsewhere in this volume. In some cases, companies may
prefer to reduce or eliminate lead, zinc and other heavy
metals from their glazing formulations.
VIII-24
DRAFT
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DRAFT
TABLE VIII-8
COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS FOR A REPRESENTATIVE PLANT
(ALL COSTS ARE CUMULATIVE)
SUBCATEGORY China, Earthenware and Pottery
PLANT SIZE 6,000
PLANT AGE 55 YEARS
METRIC TONS PER YEAR
PLANT LOCATION Varied
INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS!
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS;
ANNUAL 0 a M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS
COST/ METRIC TON of products
WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg/metric ton of products )
Suspended solids
lead
Zinc
RAW
WASTE
LOAD
*'fe
0->6.5
0-5Q.08
LEVEL
A
(WIN)
0
0
0
0
0
0
2'7292
0->6.5
0-50.08
B
20,000
2,350
2,500
500
5,350
0.89
0.6-3
0-6.5
0-0.08
C
50,000
7,250
8,000
1,000
16,250
2.71
0.6-3
0.03
0.08
D
85,000
10,000
15,000
2,000
27,000
4.50
0.36-0.6
0.012
0.08
E
135,000
15,800
25,000
3,000
53j800
8.97
0.36-0.6
0.001
0.01
LEVEL DESCRIPTION:
Lewi A - No treatment. Direct discharge to surface water or sewer.
Leve I B - Small settling basins, sumps, tanks or ponds.
Level C - Level B plus additional clarification.
Level D - A treatment system consisting of settling, flocculation, dual stage clarification
and final settling.
Levsl E - Level D and treatment for heavy metal removal.
VIII-25
DRAFT
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DRAFT
Elimination of process wastewater discharge by total recycle
in this subcategory is not possible because of buildup of
dissolved sulfates which interfere with the casting
properties of slips. Some partial recycle is practiced,
however.
3.7.1 Cost Variance
Age. Known plant ages range from 5 to 75 years., The
average age for the 14 plants is 55 years. Only 1 plant is
under 40 years age. Age is not a significant factor in cost
variance.
Location. The relatively small average wastewater flow of
284,000 liters per day (75,000 GPD) and the general use of
tanks, sumps, basins, and small ponds to reduce suspended
solids make it possible to consider wastewater treatment in
a general way and at approximately the same unit cost
regardless of location. Location is not a significant cost
factor for this industry.
Size. Plants size range from 131 to 19,300 kg/yr (144 to
21,300 tpy).
!s.li2 Cost Basis For Table VIII-8
Cafiital_Costs
Collection system: $10,000-20,000
Settling basins, tanks
(Level B): $10,000
Ponds or clarifiers
(Levels C, D, and E) : $40,000
Sand filter (Level D
and E) s $25,000
Chemical treatment
system (Level E): $50,000
VIII-26
DRAFT
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DRAFT
Levels B, C, D, and E; 25-40SS of capital investment
Power: $74060/Jcw-yr
Lime costs (Level E) s $1,000
Polymer costs
(Levels D and E) : $3,000
3..8 Porcelain Electrical Sugglies
Production of porcelain electrical supplies may be subcate-
gorized into two processes^ dry and wet. This distinction
is based on whether or not water is used in forming the
porcelain product shapes from the raw materials. Both
processes have wastewater discharge,, The average annual
production for dry process plants is almost an order of
magnitude smaller than for the wet process plants.
3.8.1 Dry Process
The dry process subcategory is comprised of plants producing
low voltage insulators, electrical components, porcelain
devices, industrial magnets and other specialty items.
Four of the six plants for which cost data are available
have less than 19,000 liters per day (5,000 GPD) of waste-
water, the largest plant in terms of production has
49,000 liters per day (130000 GPD) of combined process water
and cooling water, and the other plant has 950,000 liters
per day of wastewater (250,000 GPD). There is no wastewater
discharge from the latter plant; all wastewater is
evaporated or percolated in settling ponds.
Table VTII-9 gives the breakdown of costs for treatments to
remove pollutants to the designated levels. Levels A, B and
C are typical costs for the five plants with wastewater
volumes less than 76,000 liters per day (20,000 GPD). For
the representative plant of Table VIII-9 this corresponds to
8,600 liters/kkg (2*100 gal/ton). Level B costs are
applicable as well to a sixth plant (2209) which has no
discharge.
Elimination of wastewater discharge by total recycle is
impractical in these plants because of insufficient in-
process evaporation to handle water buildup from rain.
VIII-27
DRAFT
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DRAFT
TABLE Vlllr9
COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS FOR A REPRESENTATIVE PLANT
(ALL COSTS ARE CUMULATIVE)
SUBCATEGORY
PLANT SIZE
Porcelain Electrical Supplies (Dry Process)
2,300
PLANT AGE 40 YEARS
METRIC TONS PER YEAR
PLANT LOCATION
INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS!
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS:
ANNUAL 0 a M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS
COST/ METRIC TON of products
WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg/metric Ion of products )
Suspended solids
RAW
WASTE
LOAD
3.5-155
LEVEL
A
(WIN)
0
0
0
0
0
0
3.5-155
B
' 12,000
1,400
4,000
500
5,900
2.56
0.07
C
19,000
2,250
4,250
500
7,000
3.04
0.04
D
E
LEVEL DESCRIPTION:
Level A — No treatment, direct discharge.
Level B — Settling sumps, basins, tanks or ponds.
Level C — Level B plus segregation plus flocculation and settling in ponds, basins, or
tanks.
VIII-28
DRAFT .
-------
DRAFT
Where climate permits, pond evaporation with or without
recycle could achieve this«
Jililii £2st Variance
Age. Known ages range from 8 to 75 years, with an average
age of 42 years. Age was not found to be a significant
factor in cost variance.
Ji°.£!£i°!i' With the exception of the one plant with no
discharge, location was not found to be a significant factor
in cost variance. This plant (2209) is a special case where
advantage is taken of local terrain„ Other plants are
scattered over a wide geographical area.
Size. The six plants for which production is known range
from 230 to 5,900 kkg/yr (250 to 6,500 TPY). Capital and
operating costs should be taken as directly proportional to
size.
3.8.1.2 Cost Basis For Table VIII-9
Costs were primarily based on values supplied by the plants.
Cap_ital costs
All capital costs were adjusted to a 1972 basis using the
chemical engineering plant cost index.
Operating Costs
Reported operating costs were proportionally adjusted for
size.
l.sJLs.2 Wet Process
The primary pollutant in the wastewaters from the wet
process is suspended solids from the filtrate, washings and
tailings from the clay mixing and slip processing operation.
Other miscellaneous waste streams include those from
sponging, glazing, and cementing operations on the formed
ceramic pieces. Wastewater quantities ranged from 125,000
VIIJ-29
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
to 760,000 liters per day (33,000 to 200,000 GPD) with an
average of 284,000 liters per day (75,000 GPD). This latter
corresponds to 4,600 liters/kkg (1,100 gal/ton) for the
representative plant of Table VIII-10.
Treatment technology used to remove suspended solids
included settling of suspended solids in sumps, tanks,
ponds, and clarifiers as well as use of filters and
flocculation agents.
Table VIII-10 gives treatment costs related to different
levels of suspended solids removal. There are some plants
that use only minimum sump treatment to take out some
suspended solids. These plants would fall somewhere between
Levels A and B, with costs depending largely on the degree
of removal. Level B represents good performance (9936
removal) for small ponds, sumps, tanks and other facilities
but the treatment systems still need improvement to bring
them to desired performance. Level C gives the costs for
settling lagoons and flocculation systems. Level D is for
systems that have made the necessary improvements needed to
bring Levels B and C facilities to desired performance.
This may involve an additional filter or more residence time
in tanks or ponds. At least one plant is now operating at
Level D and at least two others have plans to achieve this
level in the near future.
Elimination of process wastewater discharge by total recycle
is not possible in these plants because of the buildup of
solubles and consequent interference with processing steps.
3.8.2.1 Cost Variance
Known plant ages range from 50 to 67 years. Age is
not a factor in cost variance.
Location, The plants are located in eight different states.
All use essentially the same treatment technology, which is
not materially affected by rainfall, temperature or other
climatic conditions. Location is not a significant cost
variance factor.
Size. Known plant sizes range from 7,800 to 27,200 kkg/yr
(8,600 to 30,000 TPY). Representative plant
VIII-30
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
TABLE VIII-10
COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS FOR A REPRESENTATIVE PLANT
(ALL COSTS ARE CUMULATIVE)
SUBCATEGORY Porcelain Electrical Supplies (Wet Process)
PLANT SIZE
16,000
PLANT AGE 55 YEARS
METRIC TONS PER YEAR
PLANT LOCATION Var!ed
INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS!
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS:
ANNUAL 0 & M (EXCLUDING
PO\VER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS
COST/ METRIC TON Products
WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg /metric ton of product )
Suspended solids
RAW
WASTE
LOAD
25-73
LEVEL
A
(WIN)
0
0
0
0
0
0
25-73
B
" 31 ,000
3,650
1,500
500
5,650
0.35
0.4
C
50,000
5,850
11,000
600
17,450
1.09
0.2
D
150,000
17,600
29,000
1,000
47,600
2.98
<0.2
E
LEVEL
Level A — No treatment. Direct discharge to surface water or sewer.
Level B — Small ponds, sumps, tanks, settling devices.
Level C — Settling lagoons plus flocculation.
Level D — Integrated treatment system, including settling ponds, tanks, or clarifiers;
plus filters plus flocculation.
VIII-31
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
size is 16^000 kkg/yr (18,000 TPY). Within this range size
is not a significant cost variance factor,,
3-.8j.2..2 Cost Basis For £able VIIj-10
Costs were primarily based on supplied capital and operating
values.
Capital Costs
All capital costs were adjusted to 1972 basis using the
chemical engineering plant cost index.
Operating Costs
Supplied operating costs were proportionally adjusted for
size.
Ii2 Technical Ceramics
Wastewater quantities and treatment technologies in this
category are heterogeneous. Of the five plants for which
data were obtained, one has no process wastewater effluent,
one discharges intermittently to a storm sewer with no
treatment, two use settling sumps, followed by discharge to
a sewer, and the fifth uses settling tanksf followed by
discharge to a river. Costs are available for two plants
(6125 and 3048). The first plant (6125) presently spends
$13.50/kkg of product for settling. Wastewater effluent for
this plant has a reported 10-25 mg/liter suspended solids
content. The second plant (30U8) spends about $2o50/kkg of
product for settling. Calculated costs for reduction of
suspended solids to 25 mg/liter are $2.38/kkg of product.
Table VIII-11 summarizes values for three different
treatment levels.
JU.2il CP.§£. Variance
The heterogeneous nature of the plants in this category
outweighs cost variance factors such as age, plant size, and
location. Cost estimates given for the two plants are
believed to be above industry average and therefore may be
used conservatively to represent all plants.
VIII-32
DKAFT
-------
DRAFT
TABLE VIII-11
COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS FOR A REPRESENTATIVE PLANT
(ALL COSTS ARE CUMULATIVE)
SUBCATEGORY Technical Ceramics
PLANT SIZE
i,000
METRIC TONS PER YEAR
PLANT AGE 20 YEARS
PLANT LOCATION
INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS!
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS:
ANNUAL 0 G M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS
COST/METRIC TON of products
V.'ASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kq/metric ton of products )
Suspended solids
RAW
WASTE
LOAD
12
LEVEL
A
(MIN)
0
0
0
0
0
0
12
B
70,000
8,200
1,100
200
9,500
2.38
0.12
C
180,000
21,100
2,800
500
24,300
6.07
0.09
D
E
LEVEL DESCRIPTION:
Level A - No treatment; direct discharge.
Level B - Small settling basins or ponds.
Level C - Level B, plus pressure filtration.
VIII-33
DRAFT
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DRAFT
3.J..10 Gypsum Products
The gypsum products industry includes establishments
primarily engaged in manufacturing plaster, plasterboard,
and other products composed of gypsum. Subcategorization of
the industry is based on the method of calcination and dust
collection used. Of the eighty known operations,, seventy-
four use dry dust collection, three use wet dust collection,
and three use autoclave calcination, and these constitute
the three subcategories.
lilP-sJ. Dry Dust Collection
Of the seventy-four plants using this process, approximately
20 per cent discharge to a city sewer, one-third to surface
waterways, and one-half have no discharge., Of the latter
group most impound all wastewater through on-site
evaporation or percolation. Only one is plannning to use
total recycle. Of those plants discharging to surface
waterways or municipal sewers, some pretreat their
wastewaters; others do not.
In all cases dry dust collection plants have small
wastewater volumes. Equipment washings, other than
intermittent belt washings, average approximately
3,800 liters per day (1»000 GPD). Plants with belt washing
use approximately 2,800 liters per hour (750 gal/hour) over
a 48 hour period. Total belt washing water is
136,000 liters (36,000 gallons) every two weeks.
A few plants also have small amounts of soluble paint
washings, approximately 3,800 liters per day (1,000 GPD).
Costs for treatment of wastewater other than paint washings
are given in Table VIII-12. Costs for segregation and
treatment of paint washings are an additional $0.05/kkg of
gypsum products produced for those plants where paint washes
are used. In the event of a discharge from a pond,
treatment costs would be similar to Level B values.
JiJOilil Cost Variance
Age. Known ages range from 4 to greater than 100 years.
Age was not found to be a significant factor in cost
variance.
VIII-34
DRAFT
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DRAFT
TABLE VW-12
COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS FOR A REPRESENTATIVE PLANT
(ALL COSTS ARE CUMULATIVE)
SUBCATE60RY Gypsum Products (Dry Dust Collection)
PLANT SIZE 170,000 METRIC TONS PER YEAR
Varied ?
PLANT AGE 30 YEARS
PLANT LOCATION
INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS!
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS:
ANNUAL 0 a M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS •
COST/ METRIC TON product
WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg/metric ton of product )
Suspended solids
RAW
WASTE
LOAD
0.26
LEVEL
A
(MIN)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.26
B
5,000
600
900
100
1,600
0.01
0-
0.002
C
25,000
3,000
4,500
500
8,000
0.05
0
D
E
LEVEL DESCRIPTION:
Level A — No treatment; discharge to sewer or surface water.
Level B — Settling in ponds or clarifiers or total impoundment.
Level C — Total recycle; no discharge.
VIII-35
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Location. Geographical location is a significant factor in
treatment technology and costs. Plants in dry climates can
eliminate discharge by means of evaporation. Plants in
wetter climates may not be able to evaporate all process
water and need to recycle or percolate to eliminate
discharge.
Plants in this subcategory have production rates
ranging from 71,000 to 389,000 kkg/yr (78,000 to
428,000 TPY) . The representative plant is 170,000 kkg/yr
(187,,000 TPY). Size was not found to be a significant
factor in cost variance .
3.10.1.2 Cost Basis For Table VIII- 12
Capital Costs
Pond cost, dollars/hectare (dollars/acre) s 74,000 (30,000)
Pond area, hectares (acres): 0.040 (0.1)
Pumps and piping: $2,000
Operating and Maintenance^Costs
Power unit cost: $74.60/kw-yr
Total operating costs: 20 per cent of investment
3±1$L.2 Wet Dust Collection
Three plants are in this subcategory, one of which treats
its wastewater prior to discharge. The other two plants
discharge without treatment. Wastewater quantities
discharged are much larger for this subcategory than for the
previously discussed dry dust collection process, with an
average volume of 2.6 million liters per day (700,000 GPD) .
Almost all of this wastewater comes from the wet scrubbers.
The same washdown quantities as shown for the dry collection
process are also present in this category.
Costs for treatment of wastewater are given in
Table VIII- 13. It should be noted that all plants studied
which use wet scrubbers intend to install dry dust
collection at some time in the future. The capital
investment for this change was reported by one plant as
$167,000. The annual capital recovery for such a system
VIII-36
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
TABLE VIII-13
COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS FOR A REPRESENTATIVE PLANT
(ALL COSTS ARE CUMULATIVE)
SUBCATE60RY Gypsum Products (Wet Dust Collection)
PLANT SIZE 150,000
PLANT AGE 30 YEARS
METRIC TONS PER YEAR
PLANT LOCATION Pennsylvonia-Colifornia'-MassQchusetts
INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS!
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS:
ANNUAL 0 ft M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS
COST/METRIC TON of product
WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg /metric ton of product )
Suspended solids
RAW
WASTE
LOAD
9
LEVEL
A
(MIN)
0
0
0
0
0
0
9
B
" 95,000
11,000
13,400
1,000
25,400
0.17
0.13
C
125,000
16,500
15,000
2,000
34,000
0.23
0
D
170,000
20,000
19,400.
3,000
42,400
0.28
0
E
LEVEL DESCRIPTION:
Level A — Direct discharge to sewer or surface water.
Level B — Settling pond and cooling prior to discharge.
Level C — Level B plus recycle to scrubber system (no discharge of process water).
Level D — Thickener removal of suspended solids plus cooling prior to recycle (no
discharge or process water).
VIII-37
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
would be $27,200 which results in a cost of $0.14 per kkg of
gypsum produced ($0,, 13/ton) .
Cost Variance
Age. Known ages range from 17 to 45 years. Age was not
found to be a significant factor in cost variance.
Location. Geographical location is a significant factor in
treatment technology and costs. Plants located in wet
climates would need to use thickeners instead of ponds for
suspended solids removal. Lack of sufficient space for
ponds would also make it necessary to use thickeners and
holding tanks in order to treat and achieve zero discharge.
Size. Plants in this subcategory range from 910000 to
197,000 kkg/yr (100,000 to 217,000 TPY) production. The
representative plant was taken as 150,000 kkg/yr
(165,000 TPY) „ Variation in plant size is not sufficient to
have any significant cost variance.
3..100.2..2 Cost Basis For Table VIII-13
Capital Costs
Pond cost, dollars/hectare (dollars/acre)s 12,300 (5,000)
Pond area, hectares (acres): 2 (5)
Cooling towers $50,000
Pumps and pipings $20,000
Operating and Maintenance Costs
Sludge disposal; $7,500
Maintenance (pond) : 2% of pond investment
Maintenance (non-^pond) s 5% of non-pond investment
Taxes and insurance; 2% of total investment
Power: $74.60/kw-yr
3ilO.«.3 Autoclave Calcination
There are three known plants using autoclave calcination.
This subcategory has process water from the calcination
process in addition to the washdown wastewater. In the
autoclave process, gypsum ore and water are mixed in a
pressurized calciner to produce a dense, low-consistency
VIII-38
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
alpha-hemi-hydrate. Wastewater results from both autoclave
condensate and a slurry filter filtrate* Average total
wastewater volume is approximately 190,000 liters per day
(50,000 GPD). Therefore, the volume of wastewater to be
treated is intermediate between the dry dust collection
process and the wet dust collection process„
Costs for wastewater treatment are given in Table VIII-14.
3.10.3.1 Cost Variance
Age. Known plant ages range from 14 to greater than
70 years. Although some older plants may have some problems
with integrated lines, age was not in general found to be a
significant factor in cost variance.
Location. Geographical location is a significant factor in
treatment technology and costs,, Plants in dry climates can
impound all process wastewater and dispose of it by
evaporation. Plants in wet climates or in areas where there
is not room for evaporation ponds may need to go to storage
tanks and recycle*
Size. Plant capacities range from 145,000 to 345,000 kkg/yr
(160,000 to 380,000 TPY)= The representative plant size was
taken as 250,000 Jckg/yr (275,000 TPY) within this size range
there is no significant cost variance.
3.10.3,2 Cost Basis For Table VIII-14
Capital Costs
Pond cost, dollars/hectare (dollars/acre): 7,400 (3,000)
Pond area, hectares (acres); 10 (25)
Pumps and piping: $10,000
VIII-39
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
TABLE VIII-14
COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS FOR A REPRESENTATIVE PLANT
(ALL COSTS ARE CUMULATIVE)
SUBCATEGORY Gypsum Products (Autoclave Calcination)
PLANT SIZE 250,000
PLANT AGE 55 YEARS
METRIC TONS PER YEAR
PLANT LOCATION Iowa-Oklahoma-New York
INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS!
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS:
ANNUAL 0 a M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS •
COST/ METRIC TON product
. WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(ka/metric ton of product )
Suspended solids
RAW
WASTE
LOAD
10
LEVEL
A
(MIN)
0
0
0
0
0
0
10
B
' 85,000
10,000
3,700
1,000
14,700
0.06
0
C
40,000
6,500
7,300
1,200
15,000
0.06
0
D
E
LEVEL DESCRIPTION:-
Level A — Discharge to sewer without treatment.
Level B — Total containment in evaporation ponds.
Level C — Settling pond plus recycle of process water (no discharge of process water).
VIII-40
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Operating and Maintenance,Costs
Power: $74.60/kw-yr
Maintenance: $2,000
Taxes and insurance: 2% of investment
jLJM Non-Clay. Refractories
The non-clay refractories industry includes all plants which
manufacture:
(1) Graphite and carbon brick and shapes
(2) Basic (magnesite and chromite) brick and shapes
(3) Combination clay and non-clay monolithics (mortars,
ramming mixes, gunning mixes, castables, plastics, etc.)
(4) Silica refractories
(5) Muliite and zircon brick and shapes - pressed and cast
and fused cast
(6) Silicon carbide and oxide shapes and monolithics
(7) Dolomite grains and brick
3.11.1 Graphite and Carbon Brick and Shap.es
The primary pollutants at these plants are carbonaceous
materials. In most cases the wastewaters are discharged to
municipal sewers with or without treatment to reduce sus-
pended solids. For purposes of cost and treatment
discussion, the plants are subdivided into two groups:
those with extensive carbon-machining operations and those
without. Machining operations such as sawing and grinding
generate significantly higher suspended solids waste loads
in wastewai;er than is in other contact cooling water of
these plants and treatment costs reflect this difference.
Levels A through C of Table VIII-15 have been demonstrated
by plants in this subcategory. Level D (total recycle) has
not.
VIII-41
DRAFT
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DRAFT
TABLE VIII-15
COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS FOR A REPRESENTATIVE PLANT
(ALL COSTS ARE CUMULATIVE)
SUBCATEGORY Graphite and Carbon Brick and Shapes
PLANT SIZE 15,000 METRIC TONS PER YEAR
PLANT AGE 50 YEARS PLANT LOCATION New York-Tennesee '
INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS!
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS:
ANNUAL 0 9 M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS
COST/METRIC TON of products
WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(Ka /metric Ion of Products )
Suspended solids
Oil and grease
RAW
WASTE
LOAD
0.5-
>115*
0-5*
LEVEL
A
(WIN)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.5-
>115*
0-5*
B
10,000
1,200
750-
2,000*
200
2,150-
3,400*
0.14-
0.33*
0.5-115*
0-5 *
C
30,000
3,500
6,300
700
10,500
0.70
3.5
0.5
D
50,000
6,000
2,000-
10,500*
1,000
9,000-
17,500*
0.60-
1.17*
0
0
E
LEVEL DESCRIPTION:
*Range_corresponds to extremes of use of carbon machining
•operations on site.
Level A — No treatment, direct discharge.
Level B — Settling in small basins.
Level C — For plants with extensive carbon machining only: settling ponds, oil separators
and skimmers.
Level D — C plus recycle, or pond plus recycle for those without extensive carbon
machining.
VIII-42
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Age. Known plant ages range from 17 to 75 years. Age was
not found to be a significant factor in cost variance.
Location. Location was not found to be a significant factor
in cost variance.
Size. Plant sizes range from 9,000 to 35,500 kkg/yr (10,000
to 39,000 TPY). The representative plant is 15,000 kkg/yr
(16,500 TPY). Size was not found to be a significant factor
in cost variance, when costs are expressed per unit of
product.
l Cost Basis_For Table VIII-15
Capital Costs
Pond cost, dollars/hectare (dollars/acre):
Level B (concrete lined):
Levels C and D (no lining):
12U,000 (50,000)
74,000 (30,000)
Pond area, hectares (acres):
Level B:
Levels C and D:
0.04 (0.1)
0.2 (0.5)
Pumps, piping, ditches:
Level B: $5,000
Level C: 10,000
Level D: 25,000
Operating and Maintenance Costs
Power unit cost:
Pond maintenance:
Pump and piping maintenance
Pond cleaning:
Taxes and insurance:
$7U.60/kw-yr
256 of pond investment
531 of non-pond investment
$5.50/kkg ($5/ton) of removed solids
2% of total investment
VIII-43
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DRAFT
Basic JMagnesite and Ch.romitel_ Brick and Shages
The raw materials used in these plants are chrome ore and
magnesite. Magnesite is stored separately in buildings.
Chrome ore is stored outdoors. Most of the wastewater from
these facilities results from non-contact cooling. However,
some plants use wet scrubbers. Some also have a very small
quantity of contact cooling water from product sawing
operations. Process wastewater effluent is small in volume,
usually on the order of 38,000 liters per day (10,000 GPD)
or less. In general, this small quantity of process
wastewater is passed through small settling pits or ponds
and then discharged to evaporation ponds, ditches, surface
water or municipal systems.
In addition to the process wastewater there is rainwater
runoff from the chrome ore storage piles, containing
suspended particles of chrome ore. Some plants would need
to erect a storage building to avoid runoff contaminatioh,
as is now used for magnesite.
Costs for different treatment levels are given in
Table VIII- 16. . Treatment Level B represents partial removal
of suspended solids in scrubber and other miscellaneous
process water in a small pit. Level C represents a higher
level of suspended solids removal through use of
flocculating agents and a larger pond or pit. Level D is
for total recycle of all scrubber water. Level E combines
Level D suspended solids removal plus the erection of a
storage building to avoid any rainwater runoff from chrome
ore piles.
DRAFT
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TABLE VIII-16
COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS FOR A REPRESENTATIVE PLANT
(ALL COSTS ARE CUMULATIVE)
SUBCATEGORY Basic (Chromite and Magnesite) Brick and Shapes
PLANT SIZE 75,000 METRIC TONS PER YEAR
PLANT AGE 35 YEARS PLANT LOCATION Maryland, Ohio, Indiana, Pennsylvania
INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS!
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS:
ANNUAL 0 a M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS
COST/ METRIC TON Products
WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg /metric 1on of Products )
Suspended solids
Chromium
RAW
WASTE
LOAD
2
unknowr
LEVEL
A
(MINI)
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
unknown
B
5,000
600
900
100
1,600
0.02
0.36
0.0004
C
17,500
2,000
1,350
100
3,450
0.05
0.01
0.00001
D
32,500
4,440
3,800
200
8,540
0.11
0*
0*
E
82,500
10,350
4,800
200
15,350
0.20
0
0
LEVEL DESCRIPTION:
* Applies to process discharge only.
Level A — No treatment, direct discharge.
Level B — Treatment of scrubber wastewater by settling in smalL,pit followed by discharge.
Level C — Treatment of scrubber wastewater by settling in pond or clarifiers with flocculating
agents. Pond can also serve as evaporation-percolation facility for zero discharge
in suitable location.
Level D — Complete recycle of all scrubber water.
Level E — Level D plus a storage building for chrome ore to eliminate non-point source of
chromium contamination.
VIII-45
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^ili2..1 Cost Variances
Age. Known ages range from 17 to greater than 50 years.
Age was not found to be a significant factor in cost
variance.
Location. Location is a factor influencing both disposal
options~and treatment costs. One plant uses an evaporation
pond to achieve zero discharge of process wastewater except
in times of heavy rainfall. Others use drainage ditches for
much the same purpose. Plants located in wet climates or
poor percolation areas cannot utilize such methods of
disposal to avoid a discharge.
Size. Known plant sizes range from 65,000 to 113,000 kkg/yr
(72,000 to 124,000 TPY) production. Size was not found to
be a significant factor in cost variance.
3.11.2.2 Cost Basis For Table VIII-16
Capital Costs
Pond cost, dollars/hectare (dollars/acre):
Pond area, hectares (acres):
Pumps, piping, flocculating equipment:
Ore storage building:
74,000 (30,000)
0.1 (0.25)
$10,000
$50,000
Operating and Maintenance Cost
Power unit costs:
Flocculant costs:
Maintenance:
Taxes and insurance:
$74.60/kw-yr
$2.20/kg ($1.00/lb)
5% of investment
2% of investment
3.11.3 Combination Plants Producing Clay, and Non-Clay
Monolithics
There are no process waste streams from these facilities.
Therefore, there is no treatment or treatment costs.
liUi^t Silica Refractories
There are no waterborne pollutants generated at these
facilities. Therefore, there is no treatment or treatment
costs.
VIII-46
DRAFT
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DRAFT
lilliS Mullite and Zircon
Mullite and zircon plants are subcategorized into:
(1) those which manufacture pressed and cast mullite and
zircon brick or shapes;
(2) those which manufacture fused cast bauxite, alumina,
zircon, and zirconium oxide refractory products.
3. J1L5.1 Pressed or Cast Brick and Shap.es
There is one plant (2070) in the U. S. which produces
mullite and zircon brick and shapes on a year round basis.
Several other plants produce these products on an occasional
basis. Table VIII-17 summarizes costs for this subcategory.
Level A represents present treatment. Level B represents
segregation of process water and subsequent treatment to
achieve reasonable levels of suspended solids in the
separate streams. Elimination of discharge through total
recycle of water is not practical because of insufficient
evaporation in the process.
3.11.5.1.1 Cost Variance
Age, location and size are not involved since there is only
one major plant in this subcategory.
liUiS^l..^ Cost Basis For Table VIII-V7
Values are calculated from information supplied by the major
plant.
3.11^5.2 Fused Cast Refractories
The major raw waste streams from these facilities are the
water used in their sawing and grinding operations.
Wastewaters from these operations are about 380,000 liters
per day (100,000 GPD). Treatment consists of settling the
VIII-47
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
TABLE VIII-17
COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS FOR A REPRESENTATIVE PLANT
(ALL COSTS ARE CUMULATIVE)
SUBCATEGORY_
PLANT SIZE
Mullite and Zircon (Pressed and Cast) Refractories
15,000
PLANT AGE 70 YEARS
METRIC TONS PER YEAR
PLANT LOCATION Kentucky
INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS!
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS:
ANNUAL 0 S M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS
COST/METRIC TON of Products
WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg/metric ton of Products )
Suspended solids
RAW
WASTE
LOAD
>0.07
LEVEL
A
(MIN)
15,000
1,750
7,000
500
9,250
0.62
0.07
B
' 22,500
2,650
12,000
500
15,150
1.01
0.035
C
D
E
LEVEL DESCRIPTION:
Level A — Settling of suspended solids in small basins.
Level B — Segregation of waste streams and separate settling of suspended solids.
VIII-48
DRAFT
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suspended solids in sumps, basins, and ponds after which the
wastewaters are discharged to surface water or sewer
systems.
Estimated costs for two levels of treatment are given in
Table VIII-18. Elimination of discharge by total recycle is
not believed to be possible because of insufficient in-
process evaporation.
3.11.5.2.1 Cost Variance
Agg. Ages of the two known plants are 15 and 26 years. Age
is~"not a factor in cost variance.
Location. Treatment of wastewater in small settling ponds
or pits is not influenced by location or climate. Location
is not a factor in cost variance.
Size. The representative plant size is 10,000 kkg/yr
(11,000 TPY). For the pit and pond sizes involved, size is
not a significant factor in cost variance.
3. 11.5.2.2 Cost Basis For Table VIII-18
Capital Costg
Pond cost, dollars/hectare (dollars/acre): 124,000 (50,000)
Pond area, hectares (acres): 0.2 (0.5)
Pumps and piping: $2,000
Operating^and_ Maintenance Costs
Estimated at 2056 of invested capital
power unit cost: $7U.60/kw-yr
liJJ.i.6 Silicon Carbide and Oxide Refractories
The process water for this subcategory is for equipment
cleaning. The amount of this water is very small,
380 liters per day (100 GPD) or less.
Cost developments are given in Table VIII- 19.
VIII-49
DRAFT
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DRAFT
TABLE VIII-18
COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS FOR A REPRESENTATIVE PLANT
(ALL COSTS ARE CUMULATIVE)
SUBCATEGORY Mullite and Zircon (Fused Cast Refractories)
PLANT SIZE 10,000
PLANT AGE 20 YEARS
METRIC TONS.PER YEAR
PLANT LOCATION New York-Missouri
INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS!
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS:
ANNUAL 0 & M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS •
CCST/METRIC TON. Products
WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(mg/liter)
Suspended solids
RAW
WASTE
LOAD
>1,000
LEVEL
A
(MIN)
5,000
500
900
100
1,500
0.15
1
< 1,000
B
9,000
1,050
1,600
200
2,850
0.29
20
C
D
E
LEVEL DESCRIPTION:
Level A — Small pit settling of suspended solids prior to discharge.
Level B — Pond settling to reduce suspended solids to 20 mg/liter level prior to discharge.
VIH-50
DRAFT
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DRAFT
TABLE VIII-19
COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS FOR A REPRESENTATIVE PLANT
(ALL COSTS ARE CUMULATIVE)
SUBCATE60RY Silicon Corbide and Oxide Refractories
PLANT SIZE 6,300
PUNT AGE 65 YEARS
METRIC TONS PER YEAR
PLANT LOCATION New Jersey, Pennsylvania
INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS!
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS:
ANNUAL 0 a M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWtR
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS
COST/ METRIC TON products
WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg/metric ton of Products )
Suspended solids
RAW
WASTE
LOAD
0.11
LEVEL
A
(MIN)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.11
B
1,000
100
200
Minimal
300
0.05
0.025
C
5,000
800
500
Minimal
1,300
0.21
0
D
E
LEVEL DESCRIPTION:
Level A — No treatment, direct discharge.
Level B — Basin settling prior to discharge.
Level C — Segregation of washwater, and reuse or on-site disposal.
VIII-51
DRAFT
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DRAFT
3. 11.6.1 Cost Variance
Age, location, and size have no significant influence on
cost variance.
3.11.6.2 Cost Basis For Table VIII-19
Capital Costs
Pits and ditches: $1,000
Operating and Maintenance Costs
20% of capital investment
3.11.7 polomitg Grains and Brick
There is no discharge of process wastewater from the known
plant of this category. Therefore, there are no treatment
costs.
li.12 Refractory Magnesia
There are 9 U.S. plants that produce refractory magnesia
products. One plant manufactures magnesia from naturally
occurring magnesite ore (discussed in Mineral Mining and
Processing Industry Report, Volume III). Four plants
produce magnesia from sea water and the remaining four from
well brine. Subcategories within this industrial segment
are, therefore, seawater processes and well brine processes.
Ji_12il Sea Water Processes
Wastewater from plants using the sea water processes
includes spent brine, process sludges, slurry washings, flue
gas scrubbing, miscellaneous blowdowns, and cooling water.
Wastewater volumes are very large, 57 to 91 million liters
per day (15 to 24 MGD). Pollutants in these spent brine
wastewaters include suspended solids, and high pH.
Treatment of these waste streams is accomplished by conven-
tional means in ponds, thickeners and with flocculating
agents for suspended solids removal and acid addition for
neutralization of residual lime. Acid neutralization also
reduces suspended solids since many of them are present as
VIII-52
DRAFT
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DRAFT
magnesium hydroxide which is more soluble at lower pH
levels.
Table VIII-20 gives costs of treatment for wastewater from
sea water plants at four treatment levels. Elimination of
discharge by recycle or evaporation is not considered
feasible because of the dissolved solids.
3..1.2.1.1 Cost Variance
Age. Plant ages range from 16 to 33 years. Age was not
found to be a significant factor in cost variance.
Location. Plants are located on the Atlantic, Pacific and
Gulf coasts of the U.S. At least two cost factors, acid
availability and price and land availability for settling
ponds and solid waste disposal are involved. Acid treatment
costs depend on both access to waste acid and cost per ton
of the acid itself. Gulf coast prices for sulfuric acid,
for example, have been approximately thirty per cent less
than those on the Pacific Coast.
Size. Plant sizes range from 43,600 to 149,000 kkg/yr
(U87000 to 164,OOOTPY). The representative plant is
80,000 kkg/yr (88,000 TPY). The cost variance of size over
this range is estimated t be 0.9 exponential function for
capital and its related annual costs, and directly
proportional for operating costs other than taxes, insurance
and capital recovery.
Cost Basis For Table VIII-20
Capital Costs
Settling pond system $500,000
Acid handling system 200,000
Filter or centrifuge 200,000
VIII-53
DRAFT
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DRAFT
TABLE VIII-20
COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS FOR A REPRESENTATIVE PLANT
(ALL COSTS ARE CUMULATIVE)
SUBCATEGORY Refractory Magneslo (Sea Water Process)
PLANT SIZE 80,000 METRIC TONS. PER YEAR
PLANT AGE 25 YEARS PLANT LOCATION Eas* Coast,Gulf Coast, Pacific Coast
INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS!
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS:
ANNUAL 0 G M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL. COSTS
COST/METRIC TON of Product
WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg /metric ton of Product )
Suspended solids
pH
RAW
WASTE
LOAD
>166
10—
11.5
LEVEL
A
(M!N)
Minimal
40,000
Minimal
40,000
0.50
166
10-11.5
B
500,000
59,000
62,000
40,000
161,000
2.01
40
10—
11.5
C
700,000
91,200
270,500
50,000
411,700
5.15
<25
6-9
D
1,050,000
171,000
464,000
60,000
695,000
8.69
11
6-9
E
!
LEVL'L DESCRIPTION:
Level A — Flocculating agents in existing thickeners.
Level B — Level A plus settling ponds.
Level C — Level B plus acid treatment.
Level D — Integrated treatment system consisting of settling ponds-oil clarifiers; acid
addition; flocculation; and filtration or centrifuging of sludges.
VIII-54
DRAFT
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DRAFT
Operatingnjan4 Maintenance,Costs
Flocculating agents $2.20/kg ($1/lb) .
Power unit costs $74.60/kw-yr
Pond maintenance 2% of pond costs
Acid costs $200,000/yr
Solid waste disposal $125,000
Taxes and insurance 2% of total capital investment
3-..12...2 Well Brine Processes
Of the four known plants that produce magnesia from well
brine, two purchase their magnesium hydroxide from other
suppliers and have none of the spent brine disposal problems
of the other two. For the plants without spent brine
disposal problems operating costs are estimated as $0.70/kkg
($0.63/ton) of product.
The two plants with complete well brine processes have an
entirely different situation. Large volumes of waste brines
almost always result in heavy treatment and disposal
problems and costs in a fresh water environment. The most
common and inexpensive disposal method is injection in spent
brine wells. This disposal method is practiced by well
brine magnesia plants, but rinse and washwater, cooling
water and other additive wastewater components increase the
total wastewater quantity to the level that not all of it
can be injected. Major treatment and cost measures need to
be taken for:
(1) segregation of wastewater so that the high-chloride
brines may be returned to the deep wells;
(2) handling, filtration and injection of high-chloride
wastewater into deep wells; and
(3) treatment and disposal of low-chloride wastewater excess
to surface water.
Treatment costs for the two plants having complete well
brine processes are given in Table VIII-21. Costs are
developed mainly from information supplied by the companies
operating the plants and represent present or in-process
installations. Purging of spent brine precludes elimination
VIII-55
DRAFT
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DRAFT
TABLE VIII-21
COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS FOR A REPRESENTATIVE PLANT
(ALL COSTS ARE CUMULATIVE)
SUBCATEGORY Refractory Magnesia (Well Brine Process)
PLANT SIZE 100,000
PLANT AGE 25 YEARS
METRIC TONS PER YEAR
PLANT LOCATION Michigan, Texas
INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS!
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS;
ANNUAL 0 a M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS
COST/ METRIC TON of product
WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg/metric ton of product )
Suspended solids
Dissolved solids
pH
RAY/
WASTE
LOAD
2-200
3feoo
6-10.4
plants with
no brine
A
(MIN)
19.200
31,200
33,400
5,000
69,600
0.70
1.7
38
6-9
B
19.200
31,200
40,000
5,000
76,200
0.77
1.6
38
6-9
LEVEL
(Mlft)
1.500,000
244,000
240,000
60,000
544,000
5.44
1.6-5
2,200
10.4
D
2.375.000
387,000
379,200
62,500
828,700
8.29
1.8
2,200
6-9
E
3.500,000
570,000
800,000
75,000
1,445,000
14.45
<1.6
840
~6-9 ~l
LEVEL DESCR/PT/OM1
Level A - Process with no waste brine disposal (purchased magnesia hydroxide).
Present wastewater treatment level; thickeners.
Level B - Level A plus flocculation to reduce suspended solids in discharge.
Level C - Treatment of portion of wastes by clarification and disposal in brine wells.
Level D - Level C plus segregation of process and cooling water plus acid treatment to
lower pH.
Level E - Segregation of high chloride wastes and disposal to brine wells; treatment of low
chloride wastes by ponding, clarification or filtration and pH adjustment.
VIII-56
DRAFT
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of discharge by such means as recycle or evaporation without
injection in spent wells.
JLtl2_i2.J Cost Variance
Age. Known plant ages range from 18 to 34 years. Age is
not a significant cost variance factor.
Location. Both complete well brine process plants are
located in Michigan. Both have high spent brine treatment
and disposal costs. Location is not a significant cost
variance factor for the existing plants. Location could be
a most significant factor for any new well brine process
plant.
Size. Sizes for the two complete well brine process plants
are quite different. Capital costs are estimated to be 0.7
exponential function with size. Overall direct operating
costs are estimated to be 0.9 exponential function with
size.
3.12.2.2 Cost Basis For Table VIII-21
Both capital and operating costs are based mainly on
information supplied by the companies. These costs have
been adjusted to 1972 values and factored to representative
size using cost variance exponents given in the previous
subsection.
iUO INDUSTRY STATISTICS
Below are summarized the estimated 1972 selling prices for
the individual products discussed in this report. These
values are taken from current price quotation from the
producers and from other industry sources.
VIII-57
DRAFT
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DRAFT
Estimated 1972 Selling Price Range
j/kkg
Frit 660 (600)
Brick and structural Clay Tile
Unglazed brick 29 (26.50)
Structural clay tile 22.50 (20.00)
Facing tile 75 (68)
Ceramic Wall and Floor Tile
Quarry, paver tile and mosaic 293 (266)
Glazed wall and floor tile 370 (335)
Clay Refractories 77 (70)
Structural Clay Products, N.E.C. 72 (66)
Vitreous China Plumbing Fixtures 570 (520)
China, Earthenware and Pottery 1,050 (950)
Porcelain Electrical Supplies
Dry Process 3,000 (2,700)
Wet Process 700 (650)
Technical Ceramics 2,250-4,500 (2,050-4,100)
Gypsum Products 40 (36)
Non-Clay Refractories
Graphite and Carbon Brick
and shapes 1,100 (1,000)
Basic (magnesite and chromite)
brick and shapes 210 (190)
Monolithics 120 (110)
Silica refractories 117 (106)
Mullite and zircon 575 (522)
refractories
Silicon carbide and oxides 1,000 (910)
Dolomite brick and grains 188 (169)
Refractory Magnesia 165 (150)
VIII-58
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SECTION IX
EFFLUENT REDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH THE
APPLICATION OF THE
BEST PRACTICABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
CURRENTLY AVAILABLE
JL.O INTRODUCTION
The effluent limitations which must be achieved by July 1,
1977, are based on the degree of effluent reduction
attainable through the application of the best practicable
control technology currently available. For the clay,
gypsum, refractory and ceramic products industries, this
level of technology was based on the average of the best
existing performance by facilities of various sizes, ages,
and processes within each of the industry's subcategories.
In Section IV, these industries were divided into twelve
major categories. Several of these major categories have
been further subcategorized and, for reasons explained in
Section IV, each subcategory will be treated separately for
the recommendation of effluent limitations guidelines and
standards of performance.
Best practicable control technology currently available
emphasizes treatment facilities at the end of a manufac-
turing process but also includes the control technology
within the process itself when it is considered to be normal
practice within an industry. Examples of waste management
techniques which were considered normal practice within
these industries are:
(a) manufacturing process controls;
(b) recycle and alternative uses of water; and
(c) recovery or reuse of some wastewater constituents.
IX-1
NOTICE; THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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Consideration was also given to:
(a) the total cost of application of technology in relation
to the effluent reduction benefits to be achieved from
such application;
(b) the size and age of equipment and facilities involved;
(c) the process employed;
(d) the engineering aspects of the application of various
types of control techniques;
(e) process changes; and
(f) non-water quality environmental impact (including energy
requirements).
The following is a discussion of the best practicable
control technology currently available for each of the
subcategories, and the proposed limitations on the
pollutants in their effluents.
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DRAFT
(a) Thermal pollution be in accordance with standards to be
set by EPA policies. Excessive thermal rise in once
through non-contact cooling water in the clay, gypsum,
refractory and ceramic products industries has not been
a significant problem.
(b) All non-contact cooling waters should be monitored to
detect leaks of pollutants from the process. Provisions
should be made for treatment to the standards
established for process wastewater discharges prior to
release in the event of leaks of greater magnitude than
those encountered during normal operations.
(c) No untreated process waters shall be added to the
cooling waters prior to discharge.
The above non-contact cooling water recommendations should
be considered as interim, since this type of water plus
blowdowns from water treatment, boilers and cooling towers
will be regulated by EPA at a later date as a separate
category.
liO PROCESS WASTEWATER GUIDELINES AND LIMITATIONS FOR THE
QLAY^ GYPSUM REFRACTORY AND CERAMIC PRODUCTS INDUSTRIES
POINT SOURCE CATEGORY
3-.1 Frit Production §ubcategory_
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII, a determination has been made that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently available is:
IX-3
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
Effluent^Limitatign
Effluent^Characteristic Monthly Average Daily Maximum
TSS 0.5 (1.0) 1.0 (2.0)
Fluoride 0.052 (0.104) 0.104 (0.208)
As, Total 0.003 (0.006) 0.006 (0.012)
Cd, Total 0.003 (0.006) 0.006 (0.012)
Cr, Total 0.003 (0.006) 0.006 (0.012)
Ni, Total 0.003 (0.006) 0.006 (0.012)
Pb, Total 0.003 (0.006) 0.006 (0.012)
V, Total 0.003 (0.006) 0.006 (0.012)
Zn, Total 0.003 (0.006) 0.006 (0.012)
The above limitations were based on the performance
currently achieved by two plants studied.
The above limitations were based on an average process
wastewater discharge of 2,845 liters per metric ton
(682 gallons per ton) of product.
Identification of BPCTCA
Best practicable control technology currently available for
the production of frit is settling and pH adjustment of
scrubber water followed by recycle of a portion of the
scrubber water.
To implement this technology at plants not already using the
recommended control techniques would require installation of
settling tanks or clarification equipment, pH control
equipment, and recycle pumps and piping for scrubber water.
Reason for Selection
At least four plants in this category are presently using
the recommended control technologies.
IX-4
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
al Cost of Application
Based upon the information contained in Section VIII of this
report, the subcategory as a whole would have to invest up
to an estimated maximum of $250,000 to achieve limitations
prescribed herein. There is also an anticipated increase in
the operating cost equivalent to less than 0.5 per cent of
the 1972 selling price of this product.
It is concluded that the benefits of the reduction of the
discharge pollutants by the selected control technologies
outweigh the costs. Approximately 43 per cent of this
industry subcategory is presently achieving this level of
pollutant discharge.
Aa§ and Size of Equipment and Facilities
The data obtained on this subcategory represents plants with
ages ranging from 3 to 72 years and the plant production
range was twentyfold. Plant production capacities were
considered confidential.
The best control technology currently available is
practicable regardless of the size or age of plants since
the use of existing technologies is not dependent on these
factors.
Procesjs Employed
The general process employed in this production subcategory
involves dry mixing raw materials, followed by smelting,
quenching, drying, crushing and bagging frit.
Engineering Aspects
From an engineering standpoint, the implementation of the
recommended best control technologies currently available is
practicable in this production subcategory because the
technologies of settling and pH adjustment and recycle of
scrubber water are widely practiced in this category.
IX-5
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
Process Changes
The recommended control technologies would not require major
process changes. These control technologies are presently
being used by plants in this production subcategory.
Non-Water Quality Environmental Impact
The single major impact on non-water quality factors of the
environment is the potential effect of land disposal of the
solids removed from the process wastewaters. These solids
may sometimes contain harmful constituents which could be
detrimental to the soil system in the area of disposal or
possibly contaminate ground waters due to rainwater run-off
and percolation through the soil. There appear to be no
major energy requirements for the implementation of the
recommended treatment technologies.
3^2 Brick and Structural Clay Ti^e Production Subcategory
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII, a determination has been made that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently available is
no discharge of pollutants in process wastewater.
The above limitations were based on the performance
currently achieved by 28 plants studied.
Identification of BPCTCA
Best practicable control technology currently available for
the production of brick and structural clay tile is settling
of suspended solids and recycle of process water, where
necessary, or total impoundment.
To implement this technology at plants not already using the
recommended control techniques would require installation of
settling ponds or clarification equipment and piping and
pumps for recycle or construction of impoundments.
IX-6
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
Reason for Selection
The technologies of settling and recycle of process
wastewater are used by at least five plants in this
subcategory. Other plants are partially recycling process
water. At least seven plants in this subcategory impound
all process wastewater.
Total Cost of Application
Based upon the information contained in Section VIII of this
report, the subcategory as a whole would have to invest up
to an estimated maximum of $1,500,000 to achieve limitations
prescribed herein. There is also an anticipated increase in
the operating cost equivalent to less than 0.5 per cent of
the 1972 selling price of this product.
It is concluded that the benefits of the total elimination
of the discharge pollutants by the selected control
technology outweigh the costs. Approximately 88 per cent of
this industry subcategory is presently achieving this level
of pollutant discharge.
Age and Size of Equipment and Facilities
The data obtained on this subcategory represents plants with
ages ranging from 2 to 104 years and productions ranging
from 10,000 to 327,000 metric tons per year (11,000 to
360,000 tons per year).
The best control technology currently available is
practicable regardless of the size or age of plants since
the use of existing technologies is not dependent on these
factors.
Process Employed
The general process employed in this production subcategory
involves crushing and grinding of raw materials, pugging,
IX-7
NOTICE; THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
extruding or molding, decorating, drying, glazing, firing
and finishing of brick and structural clay products.
The processes used by the establishments in this subcategory
are very similar in nature and their raw wastes are also
quite similar. These similarities will enhance the
application of the recommended treatment technologies.
Engineering Aspects
From an engineering standpoint, the implementation of the
recommended best control technologies currently available is
practicable in this production subcategory because the
technologies of settling, clarification, and recycle where
necessary are commonly employed in this industry.
P£2£§ss Changes
The recommended control technologies would riot require major
process changes. These control technologies are presently
being used by plants in this production subcategory.
Non-Water Quality Environmental Impact
There appear to be no major non-water quality environmental
impact or major energy requirements for the implementation
of the recommended treatment technologies.
Ceramic Wall and Floor Tilet Un^lazed^ Production
Subcategory.
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII, a determination has been made that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently available is
no discharge of pollutants in process wastewater.
The above limitations were based on the performance
currently achieved by six plants studied.
IX-8
NOTICE; THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
Identification of BPCTCA
Best practicable control technology currently available for
the production of unglazed ceramic wall and floor tile is
settling by ponding or clarification and recycle or total
impoundment.
To implement this technology at plants not already using the
recommended control techniques would require installation of
settling ponds, clarification equipment, piping and pumps
for recycle or construction of wastewater impoundments.
Reason for Selection
The recommended control technologies are currently in use at
three plants in this industry subcategory,
Total Cost of
Based upon the information contained in Section VIII of this
report, the subcategory as a whole would have to invest a
minimal amount to achieve limitations prescribed herein.
There is no anticipated increase in the operating cost.
It is concluded that the benefits of the total elimination
of the discharge pollutants by the selected control
technology outweigh the costs. Approximately 80 per cent of
this industry subcategory is presently achieving this level
of pollutant discharge.
§ and Size of Equipment and Facilities
The data obtained on this subcategory represents plants with
ages ranging from 1 to 75 years and productions ranging from
1,360 to 28,690 metric tons per year (1,500 to 31,630 tons
per year) .
The best control technology currently available is
practicable regardless of the size or age of plants since
IX-9
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
the use of existing technologies is not dependent on these
factors.
Process Employed
The general process employed in this production subcategory
involves mixing, drying, pressing and firing of paver,
quarry and unglazed wall and floor tile.
The processes used by the establishments in this subcategory
are very similar in nature and their raw wastes are also
quite similar. These similarities will enhance the
application of the recommended treatment technologies.
Engineering Aspects
From an engineering standpoint, the implementation of the
recommended best control technologies currently available is
practicable in this production subcategory because the
technologies of settling and recycle of wash water or total
containment are currently in use in at least three plants in
this subcategory.
E£2££§§ Changes
The recommended control technologies would not require major
process changes. These control technologies are presently
being used by plants in this production subcategory.
Non- Water Quality Environmental Impact
There appear to be no major non-water quality environmental
impact or major energy requirements for the implementation
of the recommended treatment technologies.
IX-10
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Subcategory
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII, a determination has been made that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently available is:
Eff luent_Limitation
Effluent kg/metric ton Jibs/ton^
Characteristic Monthly Ave. Daily^Max.
TSS 0.02 (0.04) 0.06 (0.12)
Pb (total) 0.002 (0.004) 0.006 (0.012)
Zn (total) 0.0024 (0.0048) 0.0072 (0.0144)
The above limitations were based on the performance
currently achieved by two plants studied.
The above limitations were based on an average process
wastewater discharge of 1,250 liters per metric ton
(300 gallons per ton) of product.
Identification of BPCTCA
Best practicable control technology currently available for
the production of glazed ceramic wall and floor tile is
settling by ponding or clarification and flocculation and
recycle where necessary.
To implement this technology at plants not already using the
recommended control techniques would require installation of
settling ponds, clarification equipment and piping and pumps
for recycle where necessary.
The recommended control technologies are currently in use in
at least six plants in this subcategory and two of these
plants are currently achieving the proposed limitations.
IX-11
NOTICE; THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Cost of
Based upon the information contained in Section VIII of this
report, the subcategory as a whole would have to invest up
to an estimated maximum of $200,000 to achieve limitations
prescribed herein. There is also an anticipated increase in
the operating cost equivalent to less than 0.5 per cent of
the 1972 selling price of this product.
It is concluded that the benefits of the reduction of the
discharge pollutants by the selected control technology
outweigh the costs. At least 30 per cent of this industry
subcategory is presently achieving this level of pollutant
discharge.
Age and Size of Equipment and Facilities
The data Obtained on this subcategory represents plants with
ages ranging from 11 to 90 years and productions ranging
from 980 to 41,000 metric tons per year (1,080 to
U5,200 tons per year).
Process Employed
The general process employed in this production subcategory
involves mixing, drying, forming, glazing and firing of
glazed wall and floor tile.
The processes used by the establishments in this subcategory
are very similar in nature and their raw wastes are also
quite similar. These similarities will enhance the
application of the recommended treatment technologies.
Engineering Aspects
From an engineering standpoint, the implementation of the
recommended best control technologies currently available is
practicable in this production subcategory because these
technologies are currently in use in at least two plants in
this industry subcategory.
IX-12
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Process Changes
The recommended control technologies would not require major
process changes. These control technologies are presently
being used by plants in this production subcategory.
Non-Water Quality Environmental Impact
The single major impact on non-water quality factors of the
environment is the potential effect of land disposal of the
solids removed from the process wastewaters. These solids
may sometimes contain harmful constituents which could be
detrimental to the soil system in the area of disposal or
possibly contaminate ground waters due to rainwater run-off
and percolation through the soil. There appear to be no
major energy requirements for the implementation of the
recommended treatment technologies.
3.4 Clay Refractories Production Subcategory
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII, a determination has been made that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently available is
no discharge of pollutants in process wastewater.
The above limitations were based on the performance
currently achieved by two plants studied.
Identification of BPCTCA
Best practicable control technology currently available for
the production of clay refractories is segregation of waste
streams, settling in ponds or clarification equipment,
flocculation and recycle of process water where required or
total impoundment.
To implement this technology at plants not already using the
recommended control techniques would require installation of
settling ponds, clarification equipment and piping and pumps
IX-13
NOTICE; THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
for segregation and recycle where required or construction
of wastewater impoundments.
Reason for Selection
These technologies are already employed in at least two
plants in this category. At least 30 other plants in this
category currently meet the proposed limitations by methods
other than recycle.
Total Cost of Application
Based upon the information contained in Section VIII of this
report, the subcategory as a whole would have to invest up
to an estimated maximum of $1,250,000 to achieve limitations
prescribed herein. There is also an anticipated increase in
the operating cost equivalent to less than 0.5 per cent of
the 1972 selling price of this product.
It is concluded that the benefits of the total elimination
of the discharge pollutants by the selected control
technology outweigh the costs. At least 85 per cent of this
industry subcategory is presently achieving this level of
pollutant discharge.
Age and Size of Equipment and Facilities
The data obtained on this subcategory represents plants with
ages ranging from 5 to 102 years and productions ranging
from 136 to 299,000 metric tons per year (150 to
330,000 tons per year).
The best control technology currently available is
practicable regardless of the size or age of plants since
the use of existing technologies is not dependent on these
factors.
IX-
NOTICE; THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Process Employed
The general process employed in this production subcategory
involves mixing, forming and firing of clay refractories.
The processes used by the establishments in this subcategory
are very similar in nature and their raw wastes are also
quite similar. These similarities will enhance the
application of the recommended treatment technologies.
Engineering Aspects
From an engineering standpoint, the implementation of the
recommended best control technologies currently available is
practicable in this production subcategory because the
technologies of settlinge clarification and recycle are
commonly employed in this industry.
Process Changes
The recommended control technologies would not require major
process changes. These control technologies are presently
being used by plants in this production subcategory.
Non^Water Quality Enyironmental Impact
There appear to be no major non-water quality environmental
impact or major energy requirements for the implementation
of the recommended treatment technologies.
3^5.1.1 Structural Clay Products^ Drvj. Production
Subcategory
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII, a determination has been made that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently available is
no discharge of pollutants in process wastewater.
IX-15
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
The above limitations were based on the performance
currently achieved by all plants studied.
Identification of BPCTCA
There is no control technology currently necessary for the
dry production of structural clay products, because all
process water is evaporated in the process.
3.5^2 Structural Clay^ Products^ Wet Scrubbing^ Production
Subcateggrv.
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII, a determination has been made that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently available is:
Ef f luent_ Limitation
Effluent ~~ mg/1 ~
Characteristic Monthly Aye. Daily Max.
TSS 20 100
The above limitations were based on settling pond technology
from the fireclay and shale mining industry. These
limitations are tentative and subject to revision pending
further study by the Agency and the contractor.
The quantity of water used in this subcategory is
independent of the quantity of product. Therefore, effluent
limitations based on quantity of pollutant per unit of
production are not practical.
Identification of BPCTCA
Best practicable control technology currently available for
the production of structural clay products, wet scrubbing,
is settling in ponds or clarification equipment.
IX-16
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT, AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
To implement this technology at plants not already using the
recommended control techniques would require installation of
ponds or clarification equipment.
B§§§°.Q for Selection
The technologies recommended and the limitations prescribed
are based upon data from effective treatments in the
fireclay and shale mining industry.
i Q2§£ of Application
Based upon the information contained in, Section VIII of this
report, the subcategory as a whole would have to invest up
to an estimated maximum of $60,000 to achieve limitations
prescribed herein. There is also an anticipated increase in
the operating cost equivalent to less than 0.1 per cent of
the 1972 selling price of this product.
It is concluded that the benefits of the reduction of the
discharge pollutants by the selected control technology out-
weigh the costs. At least 95 per cent of this industry is
presently achieving this level of pollutant discharge.
Age and Siz^e of Equipment and Facilities
The data obtained on this subcategory represents one plant
28 years old. In this category, as a whole, plant ages
range from 3 to 88 years and productions range from 11,300
to 150,000 kkg/year (12,400 to 166,000 tons per year).
The best control technology currently available is
practicable regardless of the size or age of plants since
the use of existing technologies is not dependent on these
factors.
IX-17
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
Process Employed
the general process employed in this production subcategory
involves grinding, screening, pugging, extruding, drying and
firing structural clay products.
The processes used by the establishments in this subcategory
are very similar in nature and their raw wastes are also
quite similar. These similarities will enhance the
application of the recommended treatment technologies.
Engineering Aspects
From an engineering standpoint, the implementation of the
recommended best control technologies currently available is
practicable in this production subcategory because these
technologies are currently in use at plants processing
fireclay and shale.
Process Changes
The recommended control technologies would not require major
process changes.
Non-Water Quality Environmental Impact
There appear to be no major non-water quality environmental
impact or major energy requirements for the implementation
of the recommended treatment technologies.
3.6 Vitreous China Plumbing Fixtures Production Subcategory
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII, a determination has been made that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently available is:
IX-18
NOTICE; THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
Effluent Limitation
Ef f jLuent JSS^fflSttiS—ton (Ibs/ton^
Character], stic Monthly^ Ay e. Daily^Max.
TSS 0.15 (0.30) 0.45 (0.90)
Pb (total) 0.002 (0.004) 0.006 (0.012)
Zn (total) 0.01 (0.02) 0.03 (0.06)
The above limitations were based on the performance
currently achieved by 3 plants studied with respect to total
suspended solids. Limitations on total lead and zinc were
based upon concomitant reduction with suspended solids.
Four other plants achieve these limitations by total
impoundment of process wastewater.
The above limitations exclude water used for flush
testing, which may be discharged. No untreated process
waters or other pollutants may be added to the flush testing
water prior to discharge.
Identification of BPCTCA
Best practicable control technology currently available for
the production of vitreous china plumbing fixtures is
settling in ponds or clarification equipment with the
addition of flocculants.
To implement this technology at plants not already using the
recommended control techniques would require the
installation of settling ponds or clarification equipment,
plus flocculation addition equipment.
Reason For Selection
This technology is widely used in plants in this category
and presently is used by at least three plants achieving
these limitations.
IX-19
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
Cost of
Based upon the information contained in Section VIII of this
report, the subcategory as a whole would have to invest up
to an estimated maximum of $2,500,000 to achieve limitations
prescribed herein. There is also an anticipated increase in
the operating cost equivalent to less than 0.5 per cent of
the 1972 selling price of this product.
It is concluded that the benefits of the reduction of the
discharge pollutants by the selected control technology
outweigh the costs. At least 20 per, cent of this industry
subcategory is presently achieving this level of pollutant
discharge.
Age and Siz_e of Equipment and Facilities
The data obtained on this subcategory represents plants with
ages ranging from 12 to 65 years and production ranging from
3,760 to 25,500 metric tons per year (4,150 to 28,000 tons
per year) .
The best control technology currently available is
practicable regardless of the size or age of plants since
the use of existing technologies is not dependent on these
factors. .
Process Employed
The general process employed in this production subcategory
involves blunging, casting, drying, glazing, and firing
vitreous china plumbing fixtures.
The processes used by the establishments in this subcategory
are very similar in nature and their raw wastes are also
quite similar. These similarities will enhance the
application of the recommended treatment technologies.
IX-20
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
From an engineering standpoint, the implementation of the
recommended best control technologies currently available is
practicable in this production subcategory because the
technology of settling is widely used in this category and
currently practiced by at least ten plants.
P£2£ess Changes
The recommended control technologies would not require major
process changes. These control technologies are presently
being used by plants in this production subcategory.
Non-Water Quality Environmental Impact
The single major impact on non-water quality factors of the
environment is the potential effect of land disposal of the
solids removed from the process wastewaters. These solids
may sometimes contain harmful constituents which could be
detrimental to the soil system in the area of disposal or
possibly contaminate ground waters due to rainwater runoff
and percolation through the soil. There appear to be no
major energy requirements for the implementation of the
recommended treatment technologies.
3i2 Q^iSSi Earthenware and Pottery Production Subcategory
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII, a determination has been made that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently available is:
IX-21
NOTICE; THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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Effluent Limitation
Effluent kg/metric ton __ (lbs/tgn]_
Mont h.ly_Aye .
TSS 1 (2) 3 (6)
Pb (total) 0.03 (0.06) 0.09 (0.18)
Zn (total) 0.08 (0.16) 0.24 (0.48)
The TSS limitations were based on the performance currently
achieved by four plants studied. The lead limitations were
based on the performance currently achieved by three plants.
The zinc limitations were based on the performance currently
achieved by four plants studied. One plant meets all the
above limitations.
Identification of BPCTCA
Best practicable control technology currently available for
the production of china, earthenware and pottery is settling
by ponding or thickening and clarification, followed by
flocculation and further clarification if necessary.
To implement this technology at plants not already using the
recommended control techniques would require the
installation of settling ponds or clarification equipment.
Reason for Selection
The recommended control technologies are currently used in
at least one plant in this subcategory.
Cost of Ap.pl icat ion
Based upon the information contained in Section VIII of this
report, the subcategory as a whole would have to invest up
to an estimated maximum of $1,300,000 to achieve limitations
prescribed herein. There is also an anticipated increase in
the operating cost equivalent to less than 0. 3 per cent of
the 1972 selling price of this product.
IX-2 2
NOTICE: THESE ARE. TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
It is concluded that the benefits of the reduction of the
discharge pollutants by the selected control technology out-
weigh the costs. Approximately 3 per cent of this industry
subcategory is presently achieving this level of pollutant
discharge.
Age and Size of Equipment and Facilities
The data obtained on this subcategory represents plants with
ages ranging from 5 to 75 years and productions ranging from
131 to 19,300 metric tons per year (144 to 21,300 tons per
year).
The best control technology currently available is
practicable regardless of the size or age of plants since
the use of existing technologies is not dependent on these
factors.
Process Employed
The general process employed in this production subcategory
involves batching and mixing of ceramic raw materials,
followed by forming, drying, glazing and firing of china,
earthenware and pottery.
The processes used by the establishments in this subcategory
are very similar in nature and their raw wastes are also
quite similar. These similarities will enhance the
application of the recommended treatment technologies.
Engineering Aspects
From an engineering standpoint, the implementation of the
recommended best control technologies currently available is
practicable in this production subcategory because these
technologies are widely used and are currently being
practiced by at least three plants in this industry
subcategory.
IX-2 3
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Changes
The recommended control technologies would not require major
process changes. These control technologies are presently
being used by plants in this production subcategory.
Non-Water Quality. Enyi r onment al Impact
The single major impact on non-water quality factors of the
environment is the potential effect of land disposal of the
solids removed from the process wastewaters. These solids
may sometimes contain harmful constituents which could be
detrimental to the soil system in the area of disposal or
possibly contaiminate ground waters due to rainwater run-off
and percolation through the soil. There appear to be no
major energy requirements for the implementation of the
recommended treatment technologies.
3.8. 1 Porcelain Electrical Supplies „ Dry, Production
Subcategory
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII, a determination has been made that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently available is:
Effluent_Limitations
Effluent kg/metric^ ton __ (Ibs/ton).
Characteristic Mont hly_Ave . Daily Max.
TSS 0.07 (0.14) 0.21 (O.U2)
The above limitations were based on the performance
currently achieved by four plants studied.
Identification of BPCTCA
Best practicable control technology currently available for
the production of porcelain electrical supplies by the dry
process is settling in ponds or clarification equipment.
IX-2 4
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
To implement this technology at plants not already using the
recommended control techniques would require installation of
settling ponds or clarification equipment.
Season for Selection
The recommended control technologies are currently in use at
three plants in this industry subcategory which are meeting
the proposed limitations.
Total Cost of Application
Based upon the information contained in Section VIII of this
report, the subcategory as a whole would have to invest up
to an estimated maximum of $90,000 to achieve limitations
prescribed herein. There is also an anticipated increase in
the operating cost equivalent to less than 0.5 per cent of
the 1972 selling price of this product.
It is concluded that the benefits of the reduction of the
discharge pollutants by the selected control technology
outweigh the costs. At least 50 per cent of this industry
subcategory is presently achieving this level of pollutant
discharge.
Age and Size of Equipment and Facilities
The data obtained on this subcategory represents plants with
ages ranging from 8 to 75 years and productions ranging from
230 to 5,900 metric tons per year (250 to 6,500 tons per
year).
The best control technology currently available is
practicable regardless of the size or age of plants since
the use of existing technologies is not dependent on these
factors.
IX-2 5
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Employed
The general process employed in this production subcategory
involves mixing and milling raw materials, and forming,
drying and firing of porcelain electrical supplies.
The processes used by the establishments in this subcategory
are very similar in nature and their raw wastes are also
quite similar. These similarities will enhance the
application of the recommended treatment technologies.
Engineering Aspects
From an engineering standpoint, the implementation of the
recommended best control technologies currently available is
practicable in this production subcategory because these
technologies are widely used and are currently being
practiced in all plants studied.
P£2£§ss Changes
The recommended control technologies would not require major
process changes. These control technologies are presently
being used by plants in this production subcategory.
Non-Water QualitY Environmental Impact
There appear to be no major non-water quality environmental
impact or major energy requirements for the implementation
of the recommended treatment technologies.
3.8.2 Porcelain Electrical Supplies ^ Wet^ Production
~~
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII, a determination has been made that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently available is:
IX-2 6
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Effluent Limitation
Effluent
Characteristic Monthly Aye. Daily Max«
TSS 0.4 (0.8) 1.2 (2.4)
The above limitations were based on the performance
currently achieved by five plants studied.
Identification of BPCTCA
Best practicable control technology currently available for
the production of porcelain electrical supplies by the wet
process is settling in ponds or clarification equipment and
flocculation and filtration where necessary.
To implement this technology at plants not already using the
recommended control techniques would require installation of
ponds or clarification and filtration equipment.
Reason for selection
The recommended technologies are currently in use at several
plants in this industry subcategory, and five plants using
these technologies are meeting the proposed limitations.
Total Cost of Application
Based upon the information contained in Section VIII of this
report, the subcategory as a whole would have to invest up
to an estimated maximum of $120,000 to achieve limitations
prescribed herein. There is also an anticipated increase in
the operating cost equivalent to less than 0.1 per cent of
the 1972 selling price of this product.
It is concluded that the benefits of the reduction of the
discharge pollutants by the selected control technology
outweigh the costs. At least 60 per cent of this industry
IX-2 7
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
subcategory is presently achieving this level of pollutant
discharge.
Age and Size of Equipment and Facilities
The data obtained on this subcategory represents plants with
ages ranging from 50 to 67 years and productions ranging
from 7,800 to 27,200 metric tons per year (5,600 to
30,000 tons per year).
The best control technology currently available is
practicable regardless of the size or age of plants since
the use of existing technologies is not dependent on these
factors.
Process Employed
The general process employed in this production subcategory
involves batching of ceramic raw materials, forming, drying,
and firing insulator shapes, and assembling insulator
components.
The processes used by the establishments in this subcategory
are very similar in nature and their raw wastes are also
quite similar. These similarities will enhance the
application of the recommended treatment technologies.
Engineering Aspects
From an engineering standpoint, the implementation of the
recommended best control technologies currently available is
practicable in this production subcategory because these
technologies are widely used and are currently being
practiced in at least six plants in this industry
subcategory.
IX-28
NOTICE; THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Changes
The recommended control technologies would not require major
process changes. These control technologies are presently
being used by plants in this production subcategory.
Non- Water Quality En vj r onment al Impact
The single major impact on non-water quality factors of the
environment is the potential effect of land disposal of the
solids removed from the process wastewaters. There appear
to be no major energy requirements for the implementation of
the recommended treatment technologies.
Jil Technical Ceramics Production SubcategorY
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII, a determination has been made that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently available is:
Effluent_ Limitation
kg/metric ton __ (Ibs/ton)
Effluent Characteristic M2Qthly_Average Daily Maximum
TSS 0.12 (0.24) 0.36 (0.72)
The above limitations were based on the performance
currently achieved by one plant studied.
Identification of BPCTCA
Best practicable control technology currently available for
the production of technical ceramics is settling in sumps,
ponds or clarification equipment.
To implement this technology at plants not already using the
recommended control techniques would require installation of
sumps, ponds or clarification equipment.
IX-2 9
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Season for Selection
This technology is currently used in at least three plants
in this subcategory.
Total Cost of Application
Based upon the information contained in Section VIII of this
report, the subcategory as a whole would have to invest up
to an estimated maximum of $1,000,000 to achieve limitations
prescribed herein. There is also an anticipated increase in
the operating cost equivalent to less than 0.1 per cent of
the 1972 selling price of this product.
It is concluded that the benefits of the reduction of the
discharge pollutants by the selected control technology
outweigh the costs. At least 15 per cent of this industry
subcategory is presently achieving this level of pollutant
discharge.
e. and Size of Equipment arid Facilities
The data obtained on this subcategory represents plants with
ages ranging from 6 to 55 years and productions ranging from
317 to 10,000 metric tons per year (350 to 11,000 tons per
year) .
The best control technology currently available is
practicable regardless of the size or age of plants since
the use of existing technologies is not dependent on these
factors.
Process Employed
The general process employed in this production subcategory
involves mixing clays, alumina or mullite in mixers, ball
mills or blungers, filtering or spray drying, forming,
machining, firing, sizing, cleaning and inspecting technical
ceramics.
IX-30
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
The processes used by the establishments in this subcategory
are very similar in nature and their raw wastes are also
quite similar. These similarities will enhance the
application of the recommended treatment technologies.
Engineering Aspects
From an engineering standpoint, the implementation of the
recommended best control technologies currently available is
practicable in this production subcategory because the
technology of settling is widely used and is currently being
practiced in at least three plants in this category.
Process Changes
The recommended control technologies would not require major
process changes. These control technologies are presently
being used by plants in this production subcategory.
Non-Water Quality. Environmental Impact
There appear to be no major non-water quality environmental
impact or major energy requirements for the implementation
of the recommended treatment technologies.
liJJLs.1 Gypsum Products^. Dry. Dust Collection^ Production
Subcategory.
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII, a determination has been made that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently available is:
Effluent ^Limitation
Effluent kg/metric ton (Ibs/tpn)
Character! stic Monthly Ave. Daily^Max.
TSS 0.002 (0.004) 0.01 (0.02)
IX-31
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
The above limitations were based on the performance
currently achieved by four plants studied.
I^entif iQatiOn °.£. BPCTCA
Best practicable control technology currently available for
the production of gypsum products with dry dust collection
is settling or clarification of washdown water.
To implement this technology at plants not already using the
recommended control techniques would require installation of
settling ponds or clarification equipment.
Reason for Selection
This technology is currently used by at least four plants in
this industry subcategory.
Total Cost of Application
Based upon the information contained in Section VIII of this
report, the subcategory as a whole would have to invest tip
to an estimated maximum of $75,000 to achieve limitations
prescribed herein. There is also an anticipated increase in
the operating cost equivalent to less than 0.1 per cent of
the 1972 selling price of this product.
It is concluded that the benefits of the reduction of the
discharge pollutants by the selected control technology
outweigh the costs. Approximately 75 per cent of this
industry subcategory is presently achieving this level of
pollutant discharge.
Age and Size of Equipment and Facilities
The data obtained on this subcategory represents plants with
ages ranging from 10 to over 100 years and productions
ranging from 91,000 to 397,000 metric tons per year (100,000
to 438,000 tons per year).
IX-3 2
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
The best control technology currently available is
practicable regardless of the size or age of plants since
the use of existing technologies is not dependent on these
factors.
Process Employed
The general process employed in this production subcategory
involves calcining, mixing, forming, cutting, and drying
gypsum products.
The processes used by the establishments in this subcategory
are very similar in nature and their raw wastes are also
quite similar. These similarities will enhance the
application of the recommended treatment technologies.
Aspects
From an engineering standpoint, the implementation of the
recommended best control technologies currently available is
practicable in this production subcategory because settling
of suspended solids is a widely used technology in this
industry.
The recommended control technologies would not require major
process changes. These control technologies are presently
being used by plants in this production subcategory.
Non-Water Quality Environmental Impact
There appear to be no major non-water quality environmental
impact or major energy requirements for the implementation
of the recommended treatment technologies.
IX-33
NOTICE; THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
3..1Q.-.2 Gyjgsum Products^ Wet Dust Collection^ Production
SubcategorY
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII, a determination has been made that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently available is:
Effluent Limitation
Effluent kg/metric ton (Ibs/ton)
Characteristic Monthly Aye. Daily Max.
TSS 0.13 (0.26) 0.65 (1.3)
The above limitations were based on the performance
currently achieved by one plant studied. The limitations
are identical to those proposed for two of these same plants
in the gypsum mining and processing industry. These
limitations were established in the Development Document for
the Mineral Mining and Processing Industry, Volume I,
Minerals for the Construction Industry, pages IX-28 through
IX-30.
Identification of BPCTCA
Best practicable control technology currently available for
the production of gypsum product with wet dust collection is
settling in ponds or clarification equipment.
To implement this technology at plants not already using the
recommended control techniques would require installation of
settling ponds or clarification equipment.
Season for Selection
The recommended control technology is currently in use in
one plant in this industry subcategory.
IX-3 U
NOTICE; THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Total Cost of Application
Based upon the information contained in Section VIII of this
report, the subcategory as a whole would have to invest up
to an estimated maximum of $20,000 to achieve limitations
prescribed herein. There is also an anticipated increase in
the operating cost equivalent to approximately one per cent
of the 1972 selling price of this product.
It is concluded that the benefits of the reduction of the
discharge pollutants by the selected control technology
outweigh the costs. Approximately 43 per cent of this
industry subcategory is presently achieving this level of
pollutant discharge.
Age and Size of Equipment and Facilities
The data obtained on this subcategory represents plants with
ages ranging from 17 to 45 years and productions ranging
from 91,000 to 194,000 metric tons per year (100,000 to
214,000 tons per year).
The best control technology currently available is
practicable regardless of the size or age of plants since
the use of existing technologies is not dependent on these
factors.
P£ocess Employed
The general process employed in this production subcategory
involves calcining, mixing, forming, cutting and drying
gypsum products.
The processes used by the establishments in this subcategory
are very similar in nature and their raw wastes are also
quite similar. These similarities will enhance the
application of the recommended treatment technologies.
IX-3 5
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Engineering Aspects
From an engineering standpoint, the implementation of the
recommended best control technologies currently available is
practicable in this production subcategory because settling
of suspended solids is a widely used technology in this
industry.
Process Changes
The recommended control technologies would not require major
process changes. These control technologies are presently
being used by plants in this production subcategory.
Non-Water Quality. Environmental Impact
There appear to be no major non-water quality environmental
impact or major energy requirements for the implementation
of the recommended treatment technologies.
3.10.3 GyjDSum Productsf- Autoclave Caj.cj.nation« Production
Subcategory,
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII, a determination has been made that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently available is
no discharge of pollutants in process wastewater.
The above limitations were based on the performance
currently achieved by two of the three plants studied.
Identification of .BPCTCA
Best practicable control technology currently available for
the production of gypsum products by the autoclave
calcination process is total impoundment of all process
wastewater.
IX-36
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
To implement this technology at plants not already using the
recommended control techniques would require the
installation of a suitable impoundment.
Reason for Selection
Two of the three plants studied currently employ the
recommended technology.
Total Cost of Application
Based upon the information contained in Section VIII of this
report, the subcategory as a whole would have to invest no
additional money to achieve limitations prescribed herein.
It is concluded that the benefits of the total elimination
of the discharge pollutants by the selected control techno-
logy outweigh the costs. All of this industry subcategory
is presently achieving this level of pollutant discharge
either by impoundment or discharge to municipal treatment
system.
and Size of Equipment and Facilities
The data obtained on this subcategory represents two 70 year
old plants with productions of approximately 300,000 metric
tons per year (332,000 tons per year).
The best control technology currently available is
practicable regardless of the size or age of plants since
the use of existing technologies is not dependent on these
factors.
Process Employed
The general process employed in this production subcategory
involves autoclaving, filtering, drying, and bagging of
alpha-gypsum products.
IX-37
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
The processes used by the establishments in this subcategory
are very similar in nature and their raw wastes are also
quite similar. These similarities will enhance the
application of the recommended treatment technologies.
Engineering Aspects
From an engineering standpoint, the implementation of the
recommended best control technologies currently available is
practicable in this production subcategory because it is
currently being demonstrated by two plants in this industry
subcategory.
Process Changes
The recommended control technologies would not require major
process changes. These control technologies are presently
being used by plants in this production subcategory.
Non-Water Quality Environmental Impact
There appear to be no major non-water quality environmental
impact or major energy requirements for the implementation
of the recommended treatment technologies.
3il.l-.Jl Refractory Graphite and Carbon Brick and Shapes
Production Subcategory
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII, a determination has been made that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently available is:
IX-38
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
kg/metric_ton_Jibs/tonl.
Effluent^Characteriptic Monthly Average Dailv~Maximum
TSS 4.1 (8.2) 8.2 (16. 4)
Oil and Grease 2.1 (4.2) 4.2 (8.4)
The above limitations were based on the performance
currently achieved by three plants studied.
Identification of BPCTCA
Best practicable control technology currently available for
the production of graphite and carbon brick and shapes by
the standard process is settling of suspended solids in
ponds or clarification equipment and skimming to reduce oil
and grease.
To implement this technology at plants not already using the
recommended control techniques would require installation of
settling ponds or clarification equipment and skimming
equipment to reduce oil and grease.
Reason for Selection
One plant studied uses the recommended control technologies
and achieves the limitations.
Total Cost of Application
Based upon the information contained in Section VIII of this
report, the subcategory as a whole would have to invest up
to an estimated maximum of $60,000 to achieve limitations
prescribed herein. There is also an anticipated increase in
the operation cost equivalent to less than 0.1 per cent of
the 1972 selling price of this product.
It is concluded that the benefits of the reduction of the
discharge pollutants by the selected control technology
outweigh the costs. At least 40 per cent of this industry
IX-3 9
NOTICE; THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
subcategory is presently achieving this level of pollutant
discharge.
Age and Size of Equipment and Facilities
The data obtained oh this subcategory represents plants with
ages ranging from 17 to 75 years and productions ranging
from 9,100 to 35,500 metric tons per year (10,000 to
39,000 tons per year).
The best control technology currently available is
practicable regardless of the size or age of plants since
the use of existing technologies is not dependent on these
factors.
Process Employed
The general process employed in this production subcategory
involves mixing, forming, baking and machining of graphite
or carbon brick and shapes.
Engineering Aspects
From an engineering standpoint, the implementation of the
recommended best control technologies currently available is
practicable in this production subcategory because the
technologies of suspended solids settling by ponding or
clarification and oil separation are currently used in this
industry.
Process Changes
The recommended control technologies would not require major
process changes. These control technologies are presently
being used by plants in this production subcategory.
IX- UQ
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
Non-Water Quality Enyironrg^gtal Impact
There appear to be no ITVS.JOV non-water quality environmental
impact or major energy requirements for the implementation
of the recommended treatment technologies.
3.11.2 Basic iMagnesite and Chromite^ rrick and Shapes
Production
Based upon the information contained in .lections 7. J.I through
VIII, a determination has been made that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently available is:
Effluent^Limita^ion
kg/metric ton __ (Ibs/ton)
Ef f luent^ Character is tic 5?2Qthly_ Average Daily^Maximum
TSS Oo01 CO. 02) 0.03 (0.06)
Chromium, total 0.00001 (0.00002) 0.00003 (0.00006)
The above limitations include runoff from chrome ore stock-
piles.
These limitations are based on adequate settling pond per-
formance to reduce suspended solids to 50 mg/liter with a
similar (40 to 1) reduction of chromium.
Identification of BPCTCA
Best practicable control technology currently available for
the production of basic brick and shapes is settling in
ponds or clarification equipment.
To implement this technology at plants not already using the
recommended control techniques would require the installa-
tion of settling ponds or clarification equipment.
IX-
NOTICE; THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
. Selection
One plant studied uses the recommended control technologies.
tSi Cost of Application
Based upon the information contained in Section VII I of this
report, the subcategory as a whole would have to invest up
to an estimated maximum of $65,000 to achieve limitations
prescribed herein. There is also an anticipated increase in
the operating cost equivalent to less than 0. 1 per cent of
the 1972 selling price of this product.
It is concluded that the benefits of the reduction of the
discharge pollutants by the selected control technology
outweigh the costs. At least 60 per cent of this industry
subcategory is presently achieving this level of pollutant
discharge.
Age and Size of Equipment and Facilities
The data obtained on this subcategory represents plants with
ages ranging from 17 to 52 years and productions ranging
from 65,000 to 91,000 metric tons per year (72,000 to
100,000 tons per year).
The best control technology currently available is
practicable regardless of the size or age of plants since
the use of existing technologies is not dependent on these
factors.
Process Employed
The general process employed in this production subcategory
involves grinding, sizing, mixing, pressing, drying, and
firing to produce magnesite and chromite brick and shapes.
The processes used by the establishments in this subcategory
are very similar in nature and their raw wastes are also
IX-4 2
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
quite similar. These similarities will enhance the
application of the recommended treatment technologies.
E.ngine.erin.g Aspects
From an engineering standpoint, the implementation of the
recommended best control technologies currently available is
practicable in this production subcategory because the
control technologies for settling are widely used in this
industry.
£E°.£§§§ Changes
The recommended control technologies would not require major
process changes. These control technologies are presently
being used by plants in this production subcategory.
Non7Water Quality Envi r onment al Impact
The single major impact on non-water quality factors of the
environment is the potential effect of land disposal of the
solids removed from the process wastewaters* These solids
may sometimes contain harmful constituents which could be
detrimental to the soil system in the area of disposal or
possibly contaminate ground waters due to rainwater runoff
and percolation through the soil. There appear to be no
major energy requirements for the implementation of the
recommended treatment technologies.
^..tlLs.! Clay and Non-Clay Monolithic Refractories
Production Subcategory.
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII, a determination has been made that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently available is
no discharge of pollutants in process was tewater.
IX-43
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
The above limitations were based on the performance
currently achieved by two plants studied.
Identification of BPCTCA
There is no control technology necessary for the production
of clay and non-clay monolithic refractories because there
is no process water effluent.
3.11.4 Silica Refractories Production Subcateggry
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII, a determination has been made that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently available is
no discharge of pollutants in process wastewater.
The above limitations were based on the performance
currently achieved by four plants studied.
Identification of BPCTCA
There is no control technology necessary for the production
of silica refractories, because there is no process water
effluent.
3.11.5. 1 Mullite and Zircon Refractories^ Pressed and Cast
Production Subcategory.
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII the application of the best practicable control
technology currently available is:
Effluent Limitation
kg/metric ton
Effluent Characteristic Monthly Average DailY_Maximum
TSS -0.07 (0.14) 0.21 (0.42)
IX-4 4
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
The above limitations were based on the performance
currently achieved by the major plant in this industry.
Identification of BPCTCA
Best practicable control technology currently available for
the production of mullite and zircon refractories by the
pressed and cast process is settling in ponds or
clarification equipment.
To implement this technology at plants not already using the
recommended control techniques would require the
installation of settling ponds or clarification equipment.
for Selection
The use of settling ponds for sedimentation of suspended
solids is widely practiced and, furthermore, is used by the
major plant in this subcategory.
tai Cost of Application
Based upon the information contained in Section VIII of this
report, the subcategory as a whole would have to invest up
to an estimated maximum of $15,000 to achieve limitations
prescribed herein. There is also an anticipated increase in
the operating cost equivalent to approximately 0.1 per cent
of the 1972 selling price of this product.
It is concluded that the benefits of the reduction of the
discharge pollutants by the selected control technology
outweigh the costs. Approximately 40 per cent of this
industry subcategory is presently achieving this level of
pollutant discharge.
A36. and Size of Equipment and Facilities
The data obtained on this subcategory represents one plant
70 years old whose production is withheld.
IX-4 5
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
The best control technology currently available is
practicable regardless of the size or age of plants since
the use of existing technologies is not dependent on these
factors.
Process Employed
The general process employed in this production subcategory
involves production of mullite and zircon refractories by
pressing or casting followed by firing.
The processes used by the establishments in this subcategory
are very similar in nature and their raw wastes are also
quite similar. These similarities will enhance the
application of the recommended treatment technologies.
Engineering Asgects
From an engineering standpoint, the implementation of the
recommended best control technologies currently available is
practicable in this production subcategory because they are
currently used in the major plant in this subcategory.
Process Changes
The recommended control technologies would not require major
process changes. These control technologies are presently
being used by plants in this production subcategory.
Non-Water Quality Environmental Impact
There appear to be no major non-water quality environmental
impact or major energy requirements for the implementation
of the recommended treatment technologies.
IX-4 6
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
j.'!.lls.§^i Mullite and Zircpg Refractories^ Fused Cast
Production. SubcategojCY
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII, a determination has been made that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently available is:
Effluent^Limitation
mg/ liter
Effluent Characteristic Monthly Average Daily^Maximum
TSS 20 100
^
The above limitations were based on settling pond technology
on analogous mineral products* These limitations are
tentative and subject to revision pending further study by
the Agency and the contractor.
The quantity of water used in this subcategory is independ-
ent of the quantity of product. Therefore, effluent
limitations based on quantity of pollutant per unit of
production are not practical.
Identification of BPCTCA
Best practicable control technology currently available for
the production of mullite and zircon refractories by the
fused cast process is settling in ponds or clarification
equipment,,
To implement this technology at plants not already using the
recommended control techniques would require the
installation of settling ponds or clarification equipment.
Reason for Selection
The data furnished by the plants in this subcategory show
ineffectual treatment. The technologies recommended and the
IX-47
NOTICE; THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
limitations prescribed are based upon data from effective
treatment in industries processing similar mineral products
T°.£§i Q°J>t Q£ Application
Based upon the information contained in Section VIII of this
report, the subcategory as a whole would have to invest up
to an estimated maximum of $10,000 to achieve limitations
prescribed herein. There is also an anticipated increase in
the operating cost equivalent to approximately 0.05 per cent
of the 1972 selling price of this product.
It is concluded that the benefits of the reduction of the
discharge pollutants by the selected control technology
outweigh the costs.
Age and Size of Equipment and Facilities
The data obtained on this subcategory represents plants with
ages ranging from 15 to 30 years and productions ranging
from 5,000 to 22,500 metric tons per year (5,500 to
25,000 tons per year).
The best control technology currently available is
practicable regardless of the size or age of plants since
the use of existing technologies is not dependent on these
factors.
Process EmplOYed
The general process employed in this production subcategory
involves melting mullite and zircon raw materials, pouring
into molds and cutting finished products from the resulting
ingots.
The processes used by the establishments in this subcategory
are very similar in nature and their raw wastes are also
quite similar. These similarities will enhance the
application of the recommended treatment technologies.
IX-4 8
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
From an engineering standpoint, the implementation of the
recommended best control technologies currently available is
practicable in this production subcategory because these
technologies are currently in use in at least one plant in
this subcategory.
Process Changes
The recommended control technologies would not require major
process changes , These control technologies are presently
being used by plants in this production subcategory.
Quality Environmental Impact
There appear to be no major non-water quality environmental
impact or major energy requirements for the implementation
of the recommended treatment technologies.
3.11.6 Silicon Carbide and Oxide Refractories Production
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII, a determination has been made that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently available is:
Effluent Limitation
kg/metric_ton __ (lbs/toni_
Monthly_Average
TSS 0.025 (0.05) 0.075 (0.15)
The above limitations were based on the performance
currently achieved by one plant studied.
IX-U 9
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Identification of BPCTCA
Best practicable control technology currently available for
the production of silicon carbide and oxide refractories is
settling in ponds or clarification equipment.
To implement this technology at plants not already using the
recommended control techniques would require the
installation of settling ponds or clarification equipment.
for Selection
The use of settling ponds is currently practiced by a major
plant in this subcategory.
Total Qost of Application
Based upon the information contained in Section VIII of this
report, the subcategory as a whole would have to invest up
to an estimated maximum of $1,200 to achieve limitations
prescribed herein. There is also an anticipated increase in
the operating cost equivalent to less than 0.01 per cent of
the 1972 selling price of this product.
It is concluded that the benefits of the reduction of the
discharge pollutants by the selected control technology out-
weigh the costs. Approximately 70 per cent of this industry
subcategory is presently achieving this level of pollutant
discharge.
Age and Size of Eguipjnent and Facilities
The data obtained on this subcategory represents plants with
ages ranging from 50 to 80 years and productions ranging
from 11,300 to 29^000 metric tons per year (12,500 to
32,000 tons per year).
The best control technology currently available is
practicable regardless of the size or age of plants since
IX-50
NOTICE; THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
the use of existing technologies is not dependent on these
factors.
i!£2£§§§ Employed
The general process employed in this production subcategory
involves crushing, grading, batching, mixing, forming,
drying, and firing the silicon carbide and oxide
refractories.
The processes used by the establishments in this subcategory
are very similar in nature and their raw wastes are also
quite similar. These similarities will enhance the
application of the recommended treatment technologies.
Engineering Aspects
From an engineering standpoint, the implementation of the
recommended best control technologies currently available is
practicable in this production subcategory because they are
currently used by at least one plant in this subcategory.
Process Changes
The recommended control technologies would not require major
process changes. These control technologies are presently
being used by plants in this production subcategory.
Non-Water Quality Environmental Imgact
There appear to be no major non-water quality environmental
impact or major energy requirements for the implementation
of the recommended treatment technologies.
3«_J1,_7' Dolomite Grain and Brick Production Subcategory
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII, a determination has been made that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
IX-51
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
best practicable control technology currently available is
no discharge of pollutants in process wastewater.
Identification °.£ BPCTCA
There is no control technology necessary for the production
of dolomite grain and brick because all process water is
evaporated in the process.
^iJ[2._J. Refractory Magnesia from Seawater Production Sub-
"" category
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII, a determination has been made that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently available is:
Effluent Limitation
Ef.fl.uent kg/metric ton __ (Ib/tonJ,
Characteristic Monthly_Ave.
TSS 22 (4U) 110 (220)
pH 6-9 6-9
The above limitations for TSS were based on the performance
currently achieved by one of the four plants studied. The
pH limitations are not being achieved.
Identification of BPCTCA
Best practicable control technology currently available for
the production of refractory magnesia from seawater is pH
adjustment and, where necessary, suspended solids reduction
by ponding, filtration or clarification.
To implement this technology at plants not already using the
recommended control techniques would require installation of
acid treating facilities and monitoring equipment to control
pH and settling ponds or clarification equipment for
reduction of suspended solids.
IX-5 2
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Selection
The recommended control technologies are widely used and
demonstrated in numerous subcategories of the inorganic
chemical and mineral mining and processing industries.
Control of pH is necessary to control the effects of alka-
linity and suspended solids in the discharge,
Total Cost of APE lie at ion
Based upon the information contained in Section VIII of this
report, the subcategory as a whole would have to invest up
to an estimated maximum of $3,000,000 to achieve limitations
prescribed herein. There is also an anticipated increase in
the operating cost equivalent to approximately 3.1 per cent
of the 1972 selling price of this product.
It is concluded that the benefits of the reduction of the
discharge pollutants by the selected control technology
outweigh the costs. Approximately 15 per cent of this
industry subcategory is presently achieving this level of
pollutant discharge with respect to total suspended solids.
None of this subcategory is achieving the pH limitations.
Ag.e and Size of Equipment and Facilities
The data obtained on this subcategory represents plants with
ages ranging from 15 to 33 years and productions ranging
from 43,100 to 149,000 metric tons per year (47,500 to
164,000 tons per year).
The best control technology currently available is ,
practicable regardless of the size or age of plants since
the use of recommended technologies is not dependent on
these factors.
IX-53
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Employed
The general process employed in this production subcategory
involves the production of magnesia for refractory purposes,
by hydrotreating sea water and reacting it with dolomitic
lime, with subsequent separation of magnesium hydroxide and
calcining to magnesia.
The processes used by the establishments in this subcategory
are very similar in nature and their raw wastes are also
quite similar. These similarities will enhance the
application of the recommended treatment technologies.
Engineering Aspects
From an engineering standpoint, the implementation of the
recommended best control technologies currently available is
practicable in this production subcategory because the
technologies of pH adjustment and suspended solids settling
are widely used and require simple control equipment which
is readily available.
Process Changes
The recommended control technologies would not require major
process changes.
Non-Water Quality Environmental Impact
The single major impact on non-water quality factors of the
environment is the potential effect of land disposal of the
solids removed from the process wastewaters. There appear
to be some major energy requirements for the implementation
of the recommended treatment technologies.
IX- 5 4
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
3^12.2 Refractory Magnesia from Well grine Production Sub-
category
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII, a determination has been made that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently available is:
Effluent^Limitation
Effluent kg/metric~tgn_jib/ton^
Characteristic Monthly__Ave. Daily^Max.
TSS 1.8 (3.6) 9 (18)
pH 6-9 6-9
The above limitations for TSS were based on the performance
of three plants studied. One plant achieves the pH
limitation.
Identification of BPCTCA
Best practicable control technology currently available for
the production of refractory magnesia from well brine is
segregation of high chloride wastes from other process
wastes, treatment where required and disposal to depleted
brine wells, treatment of the low chloride waste by ponding,
clarification or filtration, where necessary, and pH
adjustment.
To implement this technology at plants not already using the
recommended control techniques would require the
installation of acid treating facilities and monitoring
equipment to control pH plus settling ponds or clarification
equipment for reduction of suspended solids.
IX-5 5
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Selection
These control technologies are currently used by the three
plants studied in this subcategory.
Total Cost of Application
Based upon the information contained in Section VIII of this
report, the subcategory as a whole would have to invest up
to an estimated maximum of $1,450,000 to achieve limitations
.prescribed herein. There is also an anticipated increase in
the operating cost equivalent to approximately 1.7 per cent
of the 1972 selling price of this product.
It is concluded that the benefits of the reduction of the
discharge pollutants by the selected control technology
outweigh the costs. Fifty- eight per cent of this industry
subcategory is presently achieving this level of pollutant
discharge.
Age and Size of Ec[uip_ment and Facilities
The data obtained on this subcategory represents plants with
ages ranging from 18 to 34 years and productions ranging
from 5,500 to 172,000 metric tons per year (6,100 to
190,000 tons per year).
The best control technology currently available is
practicable regardless of the size or age of plants since
the use of existing technologies is not dependent on these
factors.
E£2£§§§ Employed
The general process employed in this production subcategory
involves the production of magnesia for refractory purposes
by treating well brines with dolomitic lime, subsequent
separation of magnesium hydroxide, and calcining to
magnesia.
IX-r56
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Engineering Aspects
From an engineering standpoint, the implementation of the
recommended best control technologies currently available is
practicable in this production subcategory because the
technology of pH adjustment is widely used and requires
simple control equipment which is readily available. The
rest of the technology is currently employed.
£E2£ess Changes
The recommended control technologies would not require major
process changes. These control technologies are presently
being used by plants in this production subcategory.
Non-Water Quality Environmental Impact
The single major impact on non-water quality factors of the
environment is the potential effect of land disposal of the
solids removed from the process wastewaters. There appear
to be no major energy requirements for the implementation of
the recommended treatment technologies i
IX-57
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
TRAFT
SECTION X
EFFLUENT REDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH THE
APPLICATION OF THE BEST AVAILABLE
TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE
JLO INTRODUCTION
The effluent limitations which must be achieved by July 1,
1983
-------
DRAFT
In contrast to the best practicable technology currently
available, best available technology economically achievable
assesses the availability in all cases of in-process
controls as well as control or additional treatment
techniques employed at the end of a production process.
Available in-process control options which were considered
in establishing these control and treatment technologies
include the following:
alternative water uses
(2) water conservation
(3) waste stream segregation
{<*) water reuse
cascading water uses
by-product recovery
{1} reuse of wastewater constituents
(8) good housekeeping
{9} preventive maintenance of equipment
OO)quality control (raw material, product, effluent)
(11)monitoring and alarm systems.
Those plant processes and control technologies which at the
pilot plant, semi-works, or other level, have demonstrated
both technological performances and economic viability at a
level sufficient to reasonably justify investing in such
facilities were also considered in assessing the best avail-
able technology economically achievable. Although economic
factors are considered in this development, the costs for
this level of control are intended to be for the
top-of-the-line of current technology subject to limitations
imposed by economic and engineering feasibility. However,
this technology may necessitate some industrially sponsored
development work prior to its application.
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
IX of this report, the following determinations were made on
the degree of effluent reduction attainable with the appli-
cation of the best available control technology economically
achievable in the various subcategories of the clay, gypsum*
refractory and ceramic products industries.
X-2
NQTflCE; THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
2-_0 GENERAL WATER GUIDELINES
2il Process Water
Process water is defined as any water contacting the raw
materials, intermediate products, by-products or products of
a process including contact cooling water* All process
water effluents are limited to the pH range of 600 to 9.0.
2-.2 Cooling Water
In the clay, gypsum* refractory and ceramic products
industries, cooling and process waters are sometimes mixed
prior to treatment and discharge. In other situations,
cooling water is discharged separately. Based on the
application of best available technology economically
achievable, the recommendations for the discharge of such
cooling water are as follows.
An allowed discharge of all non-contact cooling waters
provided that the following conditions are met:
(1) Thermal pollution be in accordance with standards to be
set by EPA policies. Excessive thermal rise in
non-contact cooling water in these industries is not a
significant problem.
(2) All non-contact cooling waters should be monitored to
detect leaks of pollutants from the process. Provisions
.should be made for treatment to the standards
established for the process wastewater discharges prior
to release in the event of leaks of greater magnitude
than those encountered during normal operation.
(3) No untreated process waters shall be added to the
cooling waters prior to discharge.
The above non-contact cooling water recommendations should
be considered as interim, since this type of water plus
blowdowns for water treatment, boilers and cooling towers
X-3
NOTICE? THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
will be regulated by EPA at a later date as a separate
category.
3A0 PROCESS WASTEWATER GUIDELINES A.JJD LjLM^ATIQNS FQg JgE
SEFRACJQRY AN.D SERAJJJC PRQDyCT§ INDUSTRIES
The following industry subcategories were required to
achieve no discharge of process waste water pollutants to
navigable waters based on best practicable control
technology currently available:
brick and structural clay tile
ceramic wall and floor tile (unglazed)
structural clay products (dry)
gypsum products (autoclave calcination)
non-clay refractories (clay and non-clay monolithics)
non-clay refractories (silica refractories)
non-clay refractories (dolomite grain and brick)
clay refractories
The same limitations guidelines are recommended based on
best available technology economically achievable.
3x1 'frit gSfigfiS&SD Subcategory
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
IX, a determination has been made that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best available tecimology economically achievable is:
X-4
THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
Effluent^Characteristic
TSS
Fluoride
As (Total)
Cd (Total)
Cr (Total)
Ni (Total)
Pb (Total)
V (Total)
Zn (Total)
DRAFT
Efflugnt^Limitation
kg/me ttric ton jibs/ton^
Monthly Average Daily Maximum
0.
0.
0.
0,
0.
0,
0,
0.
06 (0.
052 (0
000012
000023
00012
00023
00023
00033
0=00026
12)
.104)
(0.000024)
(0.000046)
(0=00024)
(Oo00046)
(0,00046)
(Oo00066)
(Oc00052)
0.12 (0.
0.104 (0
0.000024
0.000046
0^00024
0.00046
0.00046
0.00066
0.00052
24)
.208)
(0.000048)
(0.000092)
(0.00048)
(0.00092)
(0.00092)
(0.00132)
(0.00104)
The above limitations were based on the performance
currently achieved by one plant in this subcategory.
The above limitations were based on an average process
wastewater discharge of 2,245 liters per metric ton
(538 gallons per ton) of product.
Identification of BATEA
Best available technology economically achievable for the
production of frit is segregation and recycle of contact
quench water for scrubber water, followed by precipitation
of metals with soda ash and settling, followed by
precipitation of fluoride with CaC12ff settling and recovery
of CaF2, then flocculation and precipitation with caustic,
pH adjustment with lime if necessary, and settling.
To implement this technology at-plants not already using the
recommended control techniques would require installation of
settling tanks, chemical precipitation equipment, pH
adjustment equipment, and recycle pumps and piping.
X-5
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
Beason f2E Selection
At least one plant in this category is currently using the
recommended technologies.
Total Cost of Application
Based upon the information contained in Section VIII of this
report, the subcategory as a whole would have to invest up
to an estimated maximum of $2,250,000 to achieve limitations
prescribed herein. There is also an anticipated increase in
the operating cost equivalent to approximately 2.5 per cent
of the selling price of this product.
It is concluded that the benefits of the reduction of the
discharge pollutants by the selected control technology
outweigh the costs. Approximately 18 per cent of this
industry subcategory is presently achieving this level of
pollutant discharge.
&2§ siBJ Size of Equipment and Facilities
The data obtained on this subcategory represent plants with
ages ranging from 3 to 72 years and the plant production
range was twentyfoid. Plant production capacities were
considered confidential.
The best available technology economically achievable is
practicable regardless of the size or age of plants since
the use of existing technologies is not dependent on these
factors.
§ Em.J2l2Y.ed
The general process employed^ in this production subcategory
involves dry mixing raw materials, followed by smelting,
quenching, crushing, drying and bagging frit.
X-6
N.OTI£E: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT <3?O CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
The processes used by the establishments in this sub'category
are very similar in nature .and their raw wastes are also
quite similar. These similarities will enhance the
application of the recommended treatment technologies.
Engineering Asgects
From an engineering standpoint, the implementation of the
recommended best available technology economically
achievable is practicable in this production subcategory
because the treatment technologies of segregation, recycle,
chemical precipitation, settling and filtration are widely
practiced in the chemical industry and are currently in use
at one plant in this category <,
Changes
The recommended control technologies would not require major
process changes0 These control technologies are presently
being used by plants in this production subcategory .
iiizWJiiSIIL Quality Environmental Impact
The single major impact on non-water quality factors of the
environment is the potential effect of land disposal of the
solids removed from the process wastewaters. These solids
may sometimes contain harmful constituents which could be
detrimental to the soil system in the area of disposal or
possibly contaminate ground waters due to rainwater run-off
and percolation through the soil. There appear to be no
major energy requirements for the implementation of the
recommended treatment technologies.
3^2 Ceramic Wall and Floor Tile, Glazed^ Production
Subcategory
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
IX, a determination has been made that the degree of
ef fluent reduction attainable through the application of the
X-7
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
best available technology economically achievable is no
discharge of pollutants in process wastewater.
The above limitations were based on the performance
currently achieved by one plant in this subcategory.
of BATEA
Best available technology economically achievable for the
production of glazed ceramic wall and floor tile is
segregation of waste streams, settling, flocculation,
settling in ponds or clarification equipment, filtration and
recycle for reuse as clean up water. An alternative method
is total containment.
To implement this technology at plants not already using the
recommended control techniques would require installation of
settling ponds, clarification equipment, filters and piping
and pumps for segregation and recycle; or construction of
wastewater impoundment areas.
££§fiP.Q f 2E Selection
The recommended control technologies are currently in use in
at least one plant in this industry subcategory. Four other
plants in this subcategory are currently achieving the
proposed limitations.
Total Cost of Application
Based upon the information contained in Section VIII of this
report, the subcategory as a whole would have to invest up
to an estimated maximum of $1,100,000 to achieve limitations
prescribed herein. There is also an anticipated increase in
the operating cost equivalent to less than 0.5 per cent of
the selling price of this product.
It is concluded that the benefits of the total elimination
of the discharge pollutants by the selected control
technology outweigh the costs. Approximately 26 per cent of
X-8
NQTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
this industry subcategory is presently achieving this level
of pollutant discharge*
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DRAFT
Process Changes
The recommended control technologies would not require major
process changes. These control technologies are presently
being used by plants in this production subcategory.
Npn- Water Quality Environmental I2!2a£t
The single major impact on non-water quality factors of the
environment is the potential effect of land disposal of the
solids removed from the process wastewaters. These solids
may sometimes contain harmful constituents which could be
detrimental to the soil system in the area of disposal or
possibly contaminate ground waters due to rainwater run-off
and percolation through the soil. There appear to be no
major energy requirements for the implementation of the
recommended treatment technologies.
prQducts, Jj[e.t Scrubbing, Production
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
IX, a determination has been made that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best available technology economically achievable is the
same as fiPCTCA because there are no economically achievable
methods available to reduce the suspended solids further.
Vitreous Chips Plumbing Fixtures Production Subcateqory
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
IX, a determination has been made that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best available technology economically achievable is no
discharge of pollutants in process wastewater.
The above limitations were based on the performance
currently achieved by <4 plants in this subcategory.
X-10
JJOT1C.E: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
The above limitations exclude water used for flush testing,
which may foe discharged., No untreated process waters or
other pollutants may be added to the flush testing water
prior to discharge.
Identification of BATJA
Best available technology economically achievable for the
production of vitreous china plumbing fixtures is
segregation of all raw waste streams„ recycle of process
water used for washdown in the casting^ finishing, and slip
batching areas for slip make-up water. Mold slip and glaze
washwater are settled, treated with flocculation agents,
clarified, filtered and reused for washwater. An
alternative method is total impoundment of all process
wastewaterSo
To implement this technology at plants not already using the
recommended control techniques would require the
installation of settling ponds or clarification equipment,
flocculation addition equipment, and pumps and piping
necessary for recycling.
Reason For Selection
The segregation and recycle technologies have been
demonstrated currently in at least one plant and are being
implemented in a second plant. Four other plants impound
all process wastewater.
3!2Jsli Cost of Application
Based upon the information contained in Section VIII of this
report, the subcategory as a whole would have to invest up
to an estimated maximum of $10,500,000 to achieve
limitations prescribed herein. There is also an anticipated
increase in the operating cost equivalent to approximately
1.5 per cent of the selling price of this product.
X-11
NOTICE; THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
It is concluded that the benefits of the total elimination
of the discharge pollutants by the selected control
technology outweigh the costs. Approximately 25 per cent of
this industry subcategory is presently achieving this level
of pollutant discharge.
and Size of Egulfimerjt and
The data obtained on this subcategory represent plants with
ages ranging from 12 to 65 years and productions ranging
from 3,760 to 25,500 metric tons per year (4,150 to
28,000 tons per year).
The best available technology economically achievable is
practicable regardless of the size or age of plants since
the use of existing technologies is not dependent on these.
factors.
P£0££ss Einpj.oved
The general process employed in this production subcategory
involves blunging, casting, drying, glazing and firing
vitreous china plumbing fixtures.
The processes used by the establishments in this subcategory
are very similar in nature and their raw wastes are also
quite similar. These similarities will enhance the
application of the recommended treatment technologies.
EQg4neerinq Aspects
From an engineering standpoint, the implementation of the
recommended best available technology economically
achievable is practicable in this production subcategory
because the technologies of settling and clarification are
widely used in this category and the recycle technology has
been demonstrated at one plant and is being implemented at a
second plant. An alternative technology of impoundment is
being used in climatically suitable locations.
X-12
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
Changes
The recommended control technologies would not require major
process changes* These control technologies are presently
being used by plants in this production subcategory.
Non-Water Quality Enyirpnmental Impact
The single major impact on non-water quality factors of the
environment is the potential effect of land disposal of the
solids removed from the process wastewaters. These solids
may sometimes contain harmful constituents which could be
detrimental to the soil system in the area of disposal or
possibly contaminate ground waters due to rainwater runoff
and percolation through the soil. There appear to be no
major energy requirements for the implementation of the
recommended treatment technologies.
3..5 China^ Earthenware and Pottery Production Subcategory
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
IX, a determination has been made that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best available technology economically achievable is:
Effluent Limitation
Effluent kg/metric ^ton (Ibs/ton^
Characteristic Monthly_Ave» Daily^Max.
TSS 0.6 (1.2) 1.8 (3.6)
Pb (total) 0.012 (0.024) 0.036 (0.072)
Zn (total) 0.08 (Od6) 0.24 (0.48)
The above limitations were based on the performance
currently achieved by one plant in this subcategory.
X-13
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
Identification of B&TJA
Best available technology economically achievable for the
production of china , earthenware and pottery is segregation
and treatment of process waste streams by settling, floccu-
lation with polyelectrolytes, clarification and further
fiocculation, further clarification and settling prior to
discharge.
To implement this technology at plants not already using the
recommended control techniques would require installation of
pumps and piping for segregation, settling tanks and
clarification equipment.
The recommended technologies are currently in use in at
least one plant in this industry subcategory.
22fc§l £2§£ Qi Application
Based upon the information contained in Section VIII of this
report, the subcategory as a whole would have to invest up
to an estimated maximum of $3,800,000 to achieve limitations
prescribed herein. There is also an anticipated increase in
the operating cost equivalent to less than 0.5 per cent of
the selling price of this product.
It is concluded that the benefits of the reduction of the
discharge pollutants by the selected control technology out-
weigh the costs. Approximately 2 per cent of this industry
subcategory is presently achieving this level of pollutant
discharge.
The data obtained on this subcategory represent plants with
ages ranging from 5 to 75 years and productions ranging from
131 to 19,300 metric tons per year (144 to 21,300 tons per
year) .
X-14
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
The best available technology economically achievable is
practicable regardless of the size or age of plants since
the use of existing technologies is not dependent on these
factors.
Process Employed
The general process employed in this production subcategory
involves batching and mixing of ceramic raw materials,
forming, drying, glazing, and firing of china, earthenware
and pottery,
The processes used by the establishments in this subcategory
are very similar in nature and their raw wastes are also
quite similar,. These similarities will enhance the
application of the recommended treatment technologies,
Engineering Aspects
From an engineering standpoint, the implementation of the
recommended best available technology economically
achievable is practicable in this production subcategory
because these technologies are widely used and are currently
being practiced by at least one plant in this industry
subcategory.
The recommended control technologies would not require major
process changes. These control technologies are presently
being used by plants in this production subcategory.
Non- Water Quality Environmental Impact
The single major impact on non-water quality factors of the
environment is the potential effect of land disposal of the
solids removed from the process wastewaters. These solids
may sometimes contain harmful constituents which could be
detrimental to the soil system in the area of disposal or
possibly contaminate ground waters due to rainwater run-off
X-15
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
and percolation through the soil. There appear to be no
major energy requirements for the implementation of the
recommended treatment technologies.
Supplies. l)ry,x groductiop
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
IX, a determination has been made that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best available technology economically achievable is:
Eff j.uent Limitation
Efilaent kg/metric ton (Ibs/ton)
Characteristic Monthly Ave. Daily Max.
TSS 0.04 (0.08) 0.12 (0.24)
The above limitations were based on the performance
currently achieved by two plants and the expected
performance of one other plant studied.
I3§fl£i£i£§tion. of BATJA
Best available technology economically achievable for the
production of porcelain electrical supplies by the dry
process is segregation of waste streams, settling by ponding
or clarification and filtration with optional recycle.
To implement this technology at plants not already using the
recommended control techniques would require installation of
piping and pumps, settling ponds, and clarification and
filtration equipment.
for selection
The recommended technology of settling is commonly employed
in this subcategory. One plant is currently meeting the
proposed limitations using this technology. One other plant
has installed filtration and recycle equipment.
X-16
. THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO .CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
£§i gogt of Application
Based upon the information contained in Section VIII of this
report, the subcategory as a whole would have to invest up
to an estimated maximum of $215,000 to achieve limitations
prescribed herein,, There is also an anticipated increase in
the operating cost equivalent to less than 0.5 per cent of
the selling price of this product.
It is concluded that the benefits of the reduction of the
discharge pollutants by the selected control technology
outweigh the costs. Approximately 25 per cent of this
industry subcategory is presently achieving this level of
pollutant discharge.
Age and Size of Equipment and Facilities
The data obtained on this subcategory represent plants with
ages ranging from 8 to 75 years and productions ranging from
230 to 5,900 metric tons per year (250 to 6,500 tons per
year).
The best available technology economically achievable is
practicable regardless of the size or age of plants since
the use of existing technologies is not dependent on these
factors.
EE22SSS Employed
The general process employed in this production subcategory
involves mixing, milling, forming, drying and firing of
electrical porcelain.
Engineering Aspects
From an engineering standpoint, the implementation of the
recommended best available technology economically
achievable is practicable in this production subcategory
because these technologies are widely used and are currently
being practiced in similar industries., Each of these
X-17
NOTICE; THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
technologies are currently used in one or more plants in
this sufccategory.
The recommended control technologies would not require major
process changes.
Non-Water Quality Environmental Impact
There appear to be no major non-water quality environmental
impacts or major energy requirements for the implementation
of the recommended treatment technologies.
Ii§i2 Porcelain Electrical Supplies, Wetj,. Production
Subcategory
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
IX, a determination has been made that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best available technology economically achievable is:
Effluent Limitation
kg/metric ton jibs/ton^
Effluent
Characteri stic Monthly Aye. Daily Max.
TSS 0.2 (O.U) 0.6 (1.2)
The above limitations were based on the performance
currently achieved by three plants in this subcategory.
Identification of BATEA
Best available technology economically achievable for the
production of porcelain electrical supplies by the wet
process is segregation of waste streams, settling by ponding
or clarification and flocculation and filtration where
necessary,
X-18
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
To implement this technology at plants not already using the
recommended control techniques would require installation of
piping and pumps for segregation and installation of ponds
or clarification and filtration equipment.
for Selection
The recommended technologies are currently in use at several
plants in this industry subcategory, and three plants using
these technologies are meeting the proposed limitations.
Total Cost of Application
Based upon the information contained in Section VIII of this
report, the subcategory as a whole would have to invest up
to an estimated maximum of $300 ,,000 to achieve limitations
prescribed herein. There is also an anticipated increase in
the operating cost equivalent to approximately 0.15 per cent
of the selling price of this product.
It is concluded that the benefits of the reduction of the
discharge pollutants by the selected control technology out-
weigh the costs. Approximately 40 per cent of this industry
subcategory is presently achieving this level of pollutant
discharge.
Age and Size of Equipment and Facilities
The data obtained on this subcategory represent plants with
ages ranging from 50 to 67 years and productions ranging
from 7,800 to 27,200 metric tons per year (8,600 to
30,000 tons per year).
The best available technology economically achievable is
practicable regardless of the size or age of plants since
the use of existing technologies is not dependent on these
factors.
X-19
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
Process Employed
The general process employed in this production subcategory
involves batching of ceramic raw materials, forming, drying
and firing insulator shapes, and assembling insulator
components.
The processes used by the establishments in this subcategory
are very similar in nature and their raw wastes are also
quite similar. These similarities will enhance the
application of the recommended treatment technologies.
Engijieering Aspects
From an engineering standpoint, the implementation of the
recommended best available technology economically
achievable is practicable in this production subcategory
because these technologies are widely used and are currently
being practiced in at least three plants in this industry
subcategory.
The recommended control technologies would not require major
process changes. These control technologies are presently
being used by plants in this production subcategory.
Non- Water Quality Environmental Impact
The single major impact on non-water quality factors of the
environment is the potential effect of land disposal of the
solids removed from the process wastewaters. There appear
to be no major energy requirements for the implementation of
the recommended treatment technologies.
X-20
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
Technical Ceramics Production
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
IX, a determination has been made that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best available technology economically achievable is the
same as BPCTCA because there is no economically achievable
method for further reducing the wastewater pollutants.
li§iJ. Gypsum Products , Dry Dust Collection^ Production
Subcateqory
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
IX, a determination has been made that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best available technology economically achievable is no
discharge of pollutants in process wastewater.
The above limitations were based on the performance
currently achieved by at least two plants in this
subcategory,
Identification of BATEA
Best available technology economically achievable for the
production of gypsum product with dry dust collection is
segregation of washdown water, settling or clarification,
and recycle.
To implement this technology at plants not already using the
recommended control techniques would require segregation of
the washdown stream, installation of settling ponds or
clarification equipment, and installation of piping and
pumps for recycle.
E®§§°.Q £ 2E Selection
This technology is currently being installed by at least one
plant in this industry subcategory.
X-21
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
Total Cost, of Application
Based upon the information contained in Section VIII of this
report, the subcategory as a whole would have to invest up
to an estimated maximum of $700,000 to achieve limitations
prescribed herein. There is also an anticipated increase in
the operating cost equivalent to approximately 0.1 per cent
of the selling price of this product.
It is concluded that the benefits of the total elimination
of the discharge pollutants by the selected control
technology outweigh the costs. None of this industry
subcategory is presently achieving this level of pollutant
discharge.
£a§ and Size of Eguijsment and Facilities
The data obtained oh this subcategory represent plants with
ages ranging from 10 to over 100 years and productions
ranging from 91,000 to 397,000 metric tons per year (100,000
to 438,000 tons per year) 0
The best available technology economically achievable is
practicable regardless of the size or age of plants since
the use of existing technologies is not dependent on these
factors.
Process Employgd
The general process employed in this production subcategory
involves calcining, mixing, forming, cutting, and drying
gypsum products.
The processes used by the establishments in this subcategory
are very similar in nature and their raw wastes are also
quite similar. These similarities will enhance the
application of the recommended treatment technologies.
X-22
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
Aspects
From an engineering standpoint, the implementation of the
recommended best available technology economically
achievable is practicable in this production subcategory
because one plant is currently implementing the recycle
technology in this industry,
The recommended control technologies would not require major
process changes,,
Q~WSi§£ Quality Environmental Impact
There appear to be no major non-water quality environmental
impacts or major energy requirements for the implementation
of the recommended treatment techno logies«
l_«_8.-..2 GyjDSum Products, Wet Dust Collection, Production
Subcategory.
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
IX, a determination has been made that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best available technology economically achievable is no
discharge of pollutants in process wastewater.
Identification of
Best available technology economically achievable for the
production of gypsum products with wet dust collection is
the elimination of wet scrubbers by dry collection methods
or total impoundment of scrubber water.,
To implement this technology at plants not already using the
recommended control techniques would require the
installation of dry collection apparatus or impoundments for
scrubber water »
X-23
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
Reason for Selection
All the plants presently using wet scrubbers have stated
their intention to convert to dry collection methods.
Totaj. Cost of Apj2li£ation
Based upon the information contained in Section VIII of this
report, the subcategory as a whole would have to invest up
to an estimated maximum of $200,000 to achieve limitations
prescribed herein. There is also an anticipated increase in
the operating cost equivalent to approximately one per cent
of the selling price of this product.
It is concluded that the benefits of the total elimination
of the discharge pollutants by the selected control
technology outweigh the costs. None of this industry
subcategory is presently achieving this level of pollutant
discharge.
&a§ and sj.?e of Equipment and FaciJ. j-tj.es
The data obtained on this subcategory represent plants with
ages ranging from 17 to 15 years and productions ranging
from 91,000 to 194,000 metric tons per year (100,000 to
21U,000 tons per year).
The best available technology economically achievable is
practicable regardless of the size or age of plants since
the use of existing technologies is not dependent on these
factors.
The general process employed in this production subcategory
involves calcining, mixing, forming, cutting and drying
gypsum products.
X-2U
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
The processes used by the establishments in this subcategory
are very similar in nature and their raw wastes are also
qliite similar. These similarities will enhance the
application of the recommended treatment technologies.
Engineering Aspects
From an engineering standpoint, the implementation of the
recommended best available technology economically
achievable is practicable in this production subcategory
because it is demonstrated that 74 plants use dry collection
methods in this industry.
Process Changes
The recommended control technologies would not require major
process changes. These control technologies are presently
being used by plants in this production category.
Non-Water Quality Environmental Impact
There appear to be no major non-water quality environmental
impacts or major energy requirements for the implementation
of the recommended treatment technologies.
3_.9..1. Refractory graphite and Carbon Brick and Shapes
Production Subcategory.
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
IX, a determination has been made that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best available technology economically achievable is:
X-25
NOTICE; THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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Effluent_Limitation
kg/metric toh (Ibs/ton)
Monthl^_Average Dailv^Maximum
TSS 3.5 (7.0) 7.0 (14.0)
Oil and Grease 0.5 (1.0) 1.0 (2.0)
The above limitations were based on the performance
currently achieved by at least one plant in this
subcategory.
Identification of BATEA
Best available technology economically achievable for the
production of graphite and carbon brick and shapes by the
standard process is settling of suspended solids in ponds or
clarification equipment and skimming to reduce oil and
grease.
To implement this technology at plants not already using the
recommended control techniques would require installation of
settling ponds or clarification equipment and skimming
equipment to reduce oil and grease.
B§§§2Q for Selection
One plant studied uses the recommended control technologies
and currently achieves the limitations.
Total Cost of Application
Based upon the information contained in Section VIII of this
report, the subcategory as a whole would have to invest up
to an estimated maximum of $275,000 to achieve limitations
prescribed herein. There is also an anticipated increase in
the operating cost equivalent to less than 0.1 per cent of
the selling price of this product.
X-26
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
It is concluded that the benefits of the reduction of the
discharge pollutants by the selected control technology
outweigh the costs. Approximately 10 per cent of this
industry subcategory is presently achieving this level of
pollutant discharge.
Age and size of Equipment and Facilities
The data obtained on this subcategory represent plants with
ages ranging from 17 to 75 years and productions ranging
from 9,100 to 35,500 metric tons per year (10,000 to
39,000 tons per year).
The best available technology economically achievable is
practicable regardless of the size or age of plants since
the use of existing technologies is not dependent on these
factors.
Process Employed
The general process employed in this production subcategory
involves mixing, forming, baking and machining of graphite
or carbon brick and shapes.
Engineering Aspects
From an engineering standpoint, the implementation of the
recommended best available technology economically
achievable is practicable in this production subcategory
because the technologies of suspended solids settling by
ponding or clarification and oil separation are currently
used in this industry.
Changes
The recommended control technologies would not require major
process changes. These control technologies are presently
being used by plants in this production subcategory.
X-27
NOTICE; THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
Non-Water Quality Environmental Impact
There appear to be no major non-water quality environmental
impacts or major energy requirements for the implementation
of the recommended treatment technologies.
3^9._2 Basic jMagnesite and Chrgmite^ Brick and Shapes
Productiori Subcategory.
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
IX, a determination has been made that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best available technology economically achievable is no
discharge of pollutants in process wastewater.
The above limitations were based on the performance
currently achieved by at least one plant in this
subcategory., The above limitations include runoff from
chrome ore stockpiles.
Identification of BATEA
Best available technology economically achievable for the
production of basic brick and shapes is settling in ponds or
clarification equipment followed by recycle or replacement
of wet scrubbers by dry dust collection equipment.
To implement this technology at .plants not already using the
recommended control techniques would require the
installation of settling ponds or 'clarification equipment,
and recycle equipment or the replacement of wet scrubbers by
dry dust collectors.
B§§§QQ for Selection
The recommended control technologies are currently used by
plants in this subcategory.
X-28
NOTICES THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
T9£§i QQ£t of Application
Based upon the information contained in Section VIII of this
report, the subcategory as a whole would have to invest up
to an estimated maximum of $650,000 to achieve limitations
prescribed herein. There is also an anticipated increase in
the operating cost equivalent to approximately 0.1 per cent
of the selling price of this product.
It is concluded that the benefits of the total elimination
of the discharge pollutants by the selected control
technology outweigh the costs. At least 10 per cent of this
industry subcategory is presently achieving this level of
pollutant discharge.
Age and Size of Equipment and Facilities
The data obtained on this subcategory represent plants with
ages ranging from 17 to 52 years and productions ranging
from 65,000 to 91,000 metric tons per year (72,000 to
100,000 tons per year).
The best available technology economically achievable is
practicable regardless of the size or age since the use of
existing technologies is not dependent on these factors.
Process Employed
The general process employed,in this production subcategory
involves grinding, sizing, mixing, pressing, drying, and
firing to produce magnesite and chromite brick and shapes.
The processes used by the establishments in this subcategory
are very similar in nature and their raw wastes are also
quite similar. These similarities will enhance the
application of the recommended treatment technologies.
X-29
. NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
-------
DRAFT
From an engineering standpoint, the implementation of the
recommended best available technology economically achiev-
able is practicable in this production subcategory because a
portion of the recommended control technologies is currently
used by at least one plant in this subcategory. The use of
dry dust collectors is also commonly practiced in this
industry.
Process changes
The recommended control technologies would not require major
process changes. These control technologies are presently
being used by plants in this production subcategory.
Non-Water Quality. Environmental Impact
The single major impact on non-water quality factors of the
environment is the potential effect of land disposal of the
solids removed from the process wastewaters. These solids
may sometimes contain harmful constituents which could be
detrimental to the soil system in the area of disposal or
possibly contaminate ground waters due to rainwater runoff
and percolation through the soil. There appear to be no
major energy requirements for the implementation of the
recommended treatment technologies.
3.9.3 Mulljte and Zircon RefractoriesM_ Pressed and Cast^
Production Subcategory, ~" ~~
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
IX, a determination has been made that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best available technology economically achievable is:
X-30
NOTICE; THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
Effluent Limitation
kg/metric ton {Ibs
Effluent Characteristic Monthly Average Daily Maximum
TSS 0.035 (0.07) 0.105 (0.210)
The above limitations were based on the predicted
performance of the major plant in this subcategpry after
segregation and settling of the process waste stream.
Identification of BATE A
Best available technology economically achievable for the
production of mullite and zircon refractories by the pressed
and cast process is segregation of the process waste stream
followed by settling in ponds or clarification equipment.
To implement this technology at plants not already using the
recommended control techniques would require segregation of
process waste streams from non-contact cooling streams,
installation of piping and pumps, and necessary ponding or
clarification facilities.
for selection
Segregation of process wastes and the use of settling ponds
or clarifiers is widely practiced in these industries.
Total Cost of ApjDlication
Based upon the information contained in Section VIII of this
report, the subcategory as a whole would have to invest up
to an estimated maximum of $40,000 to achieve limitations
prescribed herein. There is also an anticipated increase in
the operating cost equivalent to approximately 0.2 per cent
of the selling price of this product.
It is concluded that the benefits of the reduction of the
discharge pollutants by the selected control technology
X-31
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
outweigh the costs. None of this industry subcategory is
presently achieving this level of pollutant discharge.
Age and Size of Eguigment and Facilities
The data obtained on this subcategory represent a 70-year
old plant.
The best available technology economically achievable is
practicable regardless of the size or age of plants since
the use of existing technologies is not dependent on these
factors.
Process Emp_loy_ed
The general process employed in this production subcategory
involves production of mullite and zircon refractories by
pressing or casting followed by firing.
The processes used by the establishments in this subcategory
are very similar in nature and their raw wastes are also
quite similar. These similarities will enhance the
application of the recommended treatment technologies.
Engineering Aspects
From an engineering standpoint, the implementation of the
recommended best available technology economically achiev-
able is practicable in this production subcategory because
some of the required technologies are already employed and
segregation of waste streams is widely employed elsewhere in
the ceramic industry.
Process Changes
The recommended control technologies would not require major
process changes.
X-32
NOTICE; THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
Son-Water Quality Envirgnmental Impact
There appear to be no major non-water quality environmental
impacts or major energy requirements for the implementation
of the recommended treatment technologies.
JL&1L&4 Mullite and Zircon Refractories^ Fused Castx
Production SubcategorY ""
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
IX, a determination has been made that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best available technology economically achievable is the
same as BPCTCA because there are no economically achievable
methods available to reduce the suspended solids further.
Silicon Carbide and Oxide Refractories Production
Sul
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
IX, a determination has been made that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best available technology economically achievable is no
discharge of pollutants in process wastewater.
Identification of BATEA
Best available technology economically achievable for the
production of silicon carbide and oxide refractories is
segregation of process wastewater followed by settling of
suspended solids and recycle.
To implement this technology at plants not already using the
recommended control techniques would require the
installation of settling ponds or clarification equipment
and pumps and piping for recycle.
X-33
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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Season for Selection
Segregation, settling of suspended solids and recycle of
wastewater are currently demonstrated in many similar
industries.
Total Cost of Ap.pl ig at ion
Based upon the information contained ,in Section VIII of this
report, the subcategory as a whole would have to invest up
to an estimated maximum of $10,000 to achieve limitations
prescribed herein. There is also an anticipated increase in
the operating cost equivalent to approximately 0.02 per cent
of the selling price of this product.
It is concluded that the benefits of the total elimination
of the discharge pollutants by the selected control
technology outweigh the costs. Approximately 30 per cent of
this industry subcategory is presently achieving this level
of pollutant discharge.
Age and Size of Equipment and Facilities
The data obtained on this subcategory represent plants with
ages ranging from 50 to 80 years and productions ranging
from 11,300 to 29,000 metric tons per year (12,500 to
32,000 tons per year).
The best available technology economically achievable is
practicable regardless of the size or age of plants since
the use of existing technologies is not dependent on these
factors.
Process Employed
The general process employed in this production subcategory
involves crushing, grading, batching, mixing, forming,
drying and firing the silicon carbide and oxide
refractories.
X-34
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
The processes used by the establishments in this subcategory
are very similar in nature and their raw wastes are also
quite similar. These similarities will enhance the
application of the recommended treatment technologies.
Engineering Aspects
From an engineering standpoint, the implementation of the
recommended best available technology economically
achievable is practicable in this production subcategory
because a portion of the recommended control technologies is
currently used by at least one plant in this subcategory.
Segregation of wastewater streams is a commonly employed
tactic in many industries. Recycle of 379 liters/day
(100 gal/day) is both technically and economically
achievable.
Process Changes
The recommended control technologies would not require major
process changes.
Non-Water Quality Environmental Impact
There appear to be no major non-water quality environmental
impacts or major energy requirements for the implementation
of the recommended treatment technologies.
3.10.1 Refractory Magnesia from Seawater Production Subca-
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
IX, a determination has been made that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best available technology economically achievable is:
X-35
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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Effluent Limitation
Effluent kg/metric ton_JjLb/ton)
Charact eri st ic Monthly Ave.
TSS 11 (22) 55 (110)
pH 6-9 6-9
The above limitations were based on the performance to be
achieved by one plant by the end of 1975.
Identi f icat ion of BATE A
Best available technology economically achievable for the
production of refractory magnesia from seawater process is
pH adjustment, and where necessary, suspended solids
reduction by ponding, filtration or clarification.
To implement this technology at plants not already using the
recommended control techniques would require the
installation of acid treating and monitoring equipment to
control pH, and settling ponds or clarification equipment
for reduction of suspended solids.
B§asgn f 2£ Selection
The recommended control technologies are widely used and
demonstrated in other subcategories . One plant in this
subcategory will be achieving the limitations by the end of
1975.
of Application
Based upon the information contained in Section VIII of this
report, the subcategory as a whole would have to invest up
to an estimated maximum of $4,500,000 to achieve limitations
prescribed herein. There is also an anticipated increase in
the operating cost equivalent to approximately 5 per cent of
the selling price of this product.
X-36
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
It is concluded that the benefits of the reduction of the
discharge pollutants by the selected control technology
outweigh the costs. None of this industry subcategory is
presently achieving this level of pollutant discharge.
Age and Size of Equipment and Facilities
The data obtained on this subcategory represent plants with
ages ranging from 15 to 33 years and productions ranging
from 43,100 to 149,000 metric tons per year (47,500 to
164,000 tons per year).
The best available technology economically achievable is
practicable regardless of the size or age of plants since
the use of recommended technologies is not dependent on
these factors.
Process Employed
The general process employed in this production subcategory
involves the production of magnesia for refractory purposes
by hydrotreating seawater and reacting it with dolomitic
lime, with subsequent separation of magnesium hydroxide and
calcining to magnesia.
The processes used by the establishments in this subcategory
are very similar in nature and their raw wastes are also
quite similar. These similarities will enhance the
application of the recommended treatment technologies.
Engineering Aspects
From an engineering standpoint, the implementation of the
recommended best available technology economically
achievable is practicable in this production subcategory
because the technologies of pH adjustment and suspended
solids settling are widely used. The installation of acid
neutralization by 1975 at one plant demonstrates the
engineering applicability of the recommended technologies.
X-37
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
The recommended control technologies would not require major
process changes. These control technologies will be used by
one plant in this production subcategory by the end of 1975.
Non-Water Quality Environmental Imp.act
The single major impact on non-water quality factors of the
environment is the potential effect of land disposal of the
solids removed from the process wastewaters. There are
major energy requirements for the implementation of the
recommended treatment technologies.
lilOi.2 Refractory Magnesia from Well Brine Production
Subcategory ~ ' ~~ ~"
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
IX, a determination has been made that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best available technology economically achievable is:
Effluent Limitation
Effluent kg/metrie ton (lb/ton)
Characteristjc Monthly Ave. Daily Max.
TSS 1.6 (3.2) 8 (16)
TDS 8UQ (1,680) 1,680 (3,360)
pH 6-9 6-9
The above limitations for TSS were based on the performance
of one plant studied. The TDS limitation is currently
achieved by two of the three plants studied.
X-38
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
Identification of BATEA :
Best available technology economically achievable for the
production of refractory magnesia from well brines is the
segregation of high chloride wastes from other process
wastes, treatment where required and disposal to depleted
brine wellsj treatment of the low chloride waste by ponding,
clarification or filtration where necessary and p.H
adjustment.
To implement this technology at plants not already using the
recommended control techniques would require the segregation
and treatment of the high chloride waste stream by
filtration, pH adjustment and pumping to a depleted brine
well; installation of clarifiers or filters and acid
treatment facilities for the low chloride waste stream.
Reason for Selection
One plant studied is currently using the recommended control
technologies and another plant studied is currently
implementing these technologies.
Total Cost of Application
Based upon the information contained in Section VIII of this
report, the subcategory as a whole would have to invest up
to an estimated maximum of $3,250,000 to achieve limitations
prescribed herein. There is also an anticipated increase in
the operating cost equivalent to approximately 3.8 per cent
of the 1972 selling price of this product. This is less
than 2.5 per cent of the 1974 selling price.
It is concluded that the benefits of the reduction of the
discharge pollutants by the selected control technology
outweigh the costs. None of this industry subcategory is
presently achieving this level of pollutant discharge.
X-39
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
Age and Size of Eguipment and Facilities
The data obtained on this subcategory represent plants with
ages ranging from 18 to 34 years and productions ranging
from 5,500 to 172,000 metric tons per year (6,100 to
190,000 tons per year).
The best available technology economically achievable is
practicable regardless of the size or age of plants since
the use of existing technologies is not dependent on these
factors.
Process Employed
The general process employed in this production subcategory
involves production of refractory magnesia by reacting well
brines with dolomitic lime, subsequent separation of
magnesium hydroxide, and calcining to magnesia.
Engineering Aspects
From an engineering standpoint, the implementation of the
recommended best available technology economically
achievable is practicable in this production subcategory
because the technologies of waste stream segregation,
treatment of the high chloride wastes and disposal in
depleted brine wells is currently employed by one plant and
being implemented at another. The technologies of pH
adjustment and suspended solids reduction are widely used.
Process Changes
The recommended control technologies would require major
process changes. These control technologies are presently
being used by plants in this production subcategory.
X-40
NOTICE; THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
Non-Water Quality Environmental Imp_act
The single major impact on non-water quality factors of the
environment is the potential effect of land disposal of the
solids removed from the process wastewaters. There appear
to be no major energy requirements for the implementation of
the recommended treatment technologies.
X-U1
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
SECTION XI
NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
AND PRETREATMENT STANDARDS
JUO INTRODUCTION
This level of technology is to be achieved by new sources.
The term "new source" is defined in the Act to mean "any
source, the construction of which is commenced after the
publication of proposed regulations prescribing a standard
of performance." This technology is evaluated by adding to
the consideration underlying the identification of best
available technology economically achievable,, a
determination of what higher levels of pollution control are
available through the use of improved production processes
or treatment techniques. Thus,, in addition to considering
the best in-plant and end-of-process control technology, new
source performance standards are how the level of effluent
may be reduced by changing the production process itself.
Alternative processes, operating methods or other
alternatives were considered,. However, the end result of
the analysis identifies effluent standards which reflect
levels of control achievable through the use of improved
production processes (as well as control technology), rather
than prescribing a particular type of process or technology
which must be employed,,
The following factors were considered with respect to
production processes which were analyzed in assessing the
best demonstrated control technology currently available for
new sourcess
(a) the type of process employed and process changes;
(b) operating methods;
(c) batch as opposed to continuous operations;
(d) use of alternative raw materials and mixes of raw
materials;
XI-1
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION. IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
(e) use of dry rather than wet processes (including
substitution of recoverable solvents from water); and
(t) recovery of pollutants as by-products.
In addition to the effluent limitations covering discharges
directly into waterways, the constituents of the effluent
discharge from a plant within the industrial category which
would interfere withf pass through, or otherwise be
incompatible with a well designed and operated publicly
owned activated sludge or trickling filter wastewater
treatment plant were identified. A determination was made
of whether the introduction of such pollutants into the
treatment plant should be completely prohibited.
2^.0 GENERAL WATER GUIDELINES
The process water, cooling water and blowdown guidelines for
new sources are identical to those based on best available
technology economically achievable.
3.0 EFFLUENT REDUCTION ATTAINABLE BY THE APPLICATION OF THE
BEST AVAILABLE DEMONSTRATED CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES,
PROCESSES, OPERATING METHODS^. OR OTHER ALTERNATIVES
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
X of this report, the following determinations were made on
the degree of effluent reduction attainable with the
application of new source standards for the various sub-
categories of the clay, gypsum, refractory and ceramic
products industries.
The following industry subcategories were required to
achieve no discharge of process wastewater pollutants to
navigable waters based on best available technology
economically achievable:
ceramic wall and floor tile (glazed)
vitreous china plumbing fixtures
gypsum products (dry dust collection)
gypsum products (wet dust collection)
XI-2
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
non-clay refractories (basic brick and shapes)
non-clay refractories (silicon carbide and oxides)
The same limitations are recommended as new source per-
formance standards.
The following industry subcategories are required to achieve
specific effluent limitations as given in the following
paragraphs?
li.1 Frit
Same as BATEA«,
3.2 Structural Clay. Productsf N^E^C. IWet Scrubbing^
Same as BATEAo
3°. 3 China^ Earthenware and Pottery
Same as BATEA.
liJtil Porcelain Electrical Supplies (Dry)
Same as BATEA.
3.4.2 Porcelain Electrical Supplies (Wet)
Same as BATEAo
^^.5 Technical Ceramics
Same as BATEAo
3»_6...I Non-Clay Refractories ^Graphite and Carbon Brick
and Shapes}
Same as BATEAo
XI-3
NOTICE; THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
i.6j,_2 Non-Clay Refractories jMullite and Zircon Pressed
and Cast],
Same as BATEA.
li6.-_3 Non-Clay. Refractories iMullite and Zircon Fused
Cast)
Same as BATEA.
3-.Zil Refractory Magnesia ISeawaterJ,
Same as BATEA.
Magnesia IWell BrineJ_
Same as BATEA.
iiO PRETREATMENT STANDARDS
Recommended pretreatment guidelines for discharge of plant
wastewater into public treatment works conform in general
with EPA Pretreatment Standards for Municipal Sewer Works as
published in the July 19, 1973 Federal Register and
"Title 40 - Protection of the Environment, Chapter 1 -
Environmental Protection Agency, Subchapter D - Water
Programs - Part 128 - Pretreatment Standards" a subsequent
EPA publication. The following definitions conform to these
publications:
§_:. Compatible Pollutant
The term "compatible pollutant" means biochemical oxygen
demand, suspended solids, pH and fecal coliform bacteria,
plus additional pollutants identified in the NPDES permit,
if the publicly-owned treatment works was designed to treat
such pollutants, and, in fact, does remove such pollutants
to a substantial degree. Examples of such additional
pollutants may include;
XI-
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
chemical oxygen demand
total organic carbon
phosphorus and phosphorus compounds
nitrogen and nitrogen compounds
fats, oils, and greases of animal or vegetable
origin except as defined below in 401 Prohibited
Wasteso
QS. Incomgatible Pollutant
The term m incompatible pollutant88 means any pollutant which
is not a compatible pollutant as defined belowo
£1 Joint Treatment Works
Publicly owned treatment works for both non-industrial and
industrial wastewater.
d^ Mai or Contributing Industry
A major contributing industry is an industrial user of the
publicly owned treatment works that; has a flow of 50,000
gallons or more per average work days has a flow greater
than five per cent of the flow carried by the municipal
system receiving the waste; has in its waste, a toxic
pollutant in toxic amounts as defined in standards issued
under Section 307 (a) of the Acts or is found by the permit
issuance authority,, in connection with the issuance of an
NPDES permit to the publicly owned treatment works receiving
the waste , to have significant impact „ either singly or in
combination with other contributing industries,, on that
treatment works or upon the quality of effluent from that
treatment works,
Treatment of wastewaters from sources before introduction
into the joint treatment works,
XI-5
NOTICES THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
Wastes
No waste introduced into a publicly owned treatment works
shall interfere with the operation or performance of the
works. Specifically, the following wastes shall not be
introduced into the publicly owned treatment works:
(a) Wastes which create a fire or explosion hazard in the
publicly owned treatment works;
(b) Wastes which will cause corrosive structural damage to
treatment works, but in no case wastes with a pH lower
than 5.0r unless the works are designed to accommodate
such wastes;
(c) Solid or viscous wastes in amounts which would cause
obstruction to the flow in sewers, or other interference
with the proper operation of the publicly-owned
treatment works, and
(d) Wastes at a flow rate or pollutant discharge rate which
is excessive over relatively short time periods so that
there is a treatment process upset and subsequent loss
of treatment efficiency.
Ua2 Pretreatment for Incompatible Pollutants
In addition to the above, the pretreatment standard for
incompatible pollutants introduced into a publicly-owned
treatment works by a major contributing industry shall be
best practicable control technology currently available;
provided that, if the publicly-owned treatment works which
receives the pollutants is committed, in its NPDES permit,
to remove a specified percentage of any incompatible
pollutant, the pretreatment standard applicable to users of
such treatment works shall be correspondingly reduced for
that pollutant; and provided further that the definition of
best practicable control technology currently available for
industry categories may be segmented for application to
pretreatment if the Administrator determines that the
XI-6
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
definition for direct discharge to navigable waters is not
appropriate for industrial users of joint treatment works.
^14 Recommended Pretreatment Guidelines For New Sources
Recommended pretreatment standards for new sources ares
(a) No pretreatment required for removal of compatible
pollutants - biochemical oxygen demand, suspended solids
(unless hazardous), pH, and fecal caliform bacteria;
(b) Suspended solids containing hazardous pollutants such as
heavy metals, cyanides and chromates should conform to
or be restricted to those quantities recommended earlier
in Section XI Guidelines for Best Available Demonstrated
Control Technologies„ Processes„ Operating Methods, or
Other Alternatives;
(c) Pollutants such as chemical oxygen demand, total organic
carbon, phosphorus and phosphorus compounds, nitrogen
and nitrogen compounds, and fats, oils, and greases,
need not be removed provided the publicly owned
treatment works was designed to treat such pollutants
and will accept them. Otherwise levels should be at or
below NSPS Guideline Recommendations;
(d) Innocuous dissolved solids such as sodium chloride,
sodium sulfate, calcium chloride, and calcium sulfate,
should be permitted provided that the industrial plant
is not a "major contributing industry;"'
(e) Plants covered under the "major contributing industry"
definition should not be permitted to discharge large
quantities of dissolved solids into a public sewer even
though they might be at the NSPS Guideline
Recommendations of this report., Each of these cases
would have to be considered individually by the sewer
authorities, and.
XI-7
NOTICES THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
(f) Discharge of all other incompatible hazardous or toxic
pollutants from the manufacturing plants of this study
to municipal sewers should conform to NSPS guidelines
levels for discharge to surface water.
XI-8
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
DRAFT
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DRAFT
SECTION XII
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The preparation of this report was accomplished through the
efforts of the staff of General Technologies Division,
Versar Inc., Springfield, Virginia, under the overall
direction of Dr. Robert G. Shaver, Vice President. Mr. Lee
Co McCandless and Mr., Robert C, Smith,? Jro? shared the
direction of the day-to-day work on the program0
Messrs. Michael W0 Kosakowski and Ralph A» Lorenzetti,
Project Officers,, Effluent Guidelines Division, through
their assistance, leadership, and advice have made an
invaluable contribution to the preparation of this report.
Messrs, Kosakowski and Lorenzetti provided a careful review
of the draft report and suggested organizational, technical,
and editorial changes,, They were also most helpful in
making arrangements for the drafting, presenting, and
distribution of the completed report,
Mr. Allen Cywin, Director, Effluent Guidelines Division, Mr.
Ernst P. Halle Jr,, Assistant Director, Effluent Guidelines
Division, and Mr. Harold B0 Coughlin, Branch Chief, Effluent
Guidelines Division, offered many helpful suggestions during
the program,,
Acknowledgement and appreciation is also given to the
secretarial staffs of both the Effluent Guidelines Division.
and General Technologies Division of Versar Inc., for their
efforts in the typing of drafts, necessary revisions, and
final preparation of the effluent guidelines document<,
Appreciation is extended to the following trade associations
and state and federal agencies for assistance and
cooperation rendered to us in this programs
American Dinnerware Emergency Committee
American Restaurant China Council
Brick Institute of America
Facing Tile Institute
Gypsum Association
International Masonry Institute
XII-1
DRAFT
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DRAFT
National Clay Pipe Institute
Porcelain Enamel Institute
Refractories Institute
U.S. Potters Association
Appreciation is also extended to the many clay, gypsum,
refractories and ceramics producing companies who gave us
invaluable assistance and cooperation in this program.
Also, our appreciation is extended to the individuals of the
staff of General Technologies Division of Versar Inc., for
their assistance during this program. Specifically, our
thanks to:
Dr. R. L. Durfee, Senior Chemical Engineer
Dr. L. C. Parker, Senior Chemical Engineer
Mrs. G. Y. Contos, Chemical Engineer
Mr. M. W. Slimak, Environmental Scientist
Dr. I. Frankel, Chemical Engineer
Mr. M. DeFries, Chemical Engineer
Ms. C. V. Fong, Chemist
Mrs. D. K. Guinan, Chemist
Mr. R. S. Wetzel, Environmental Engineer
Ms. M. A. Connole, Biological Scientist
Ms. M. Smith, Analytical Chemist
Mr. M. C. Calhoun,, Field Engineer
Mr. D. McNeese, Field Engineer
Mr. E. Hoban, Field Engineer
Mr. P. Nowacek, Field Engineer
Mr. B. Ryan, Field Engineer
Mr. R. Freed, Field Engineer
Mr. N. O. Johnson, Consultant
Mr. F. Shay, Consultant
Mr. W. Burriss, Consultant
XII-2
DRAFT
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DRAFT
SECTION XIII
REFERENCES
1. "American Ceramic Society Bulletin," Vol0 54, No, 1,
January 19750 Columbus, Ohio0
2, Bates, Ro Loy Geology, of the Industrial Rocks and
Minerals,, Dover Publicationsa IncT, New York, T969.
3, Battelless Columbus Laboratories, ""A Study of the
Refractories Industry - Its Relationship to the U0S0
Economy and Its Energy Needsem Refractories Institute
Program, October 5, 1973.,
4. "Census of Manufactures,89 1972, Bureau of the Census,
U0So Department of Commerce^ U=S0 Government Printing
Office, Washington, D=C0> MIC 72 (P)-32B-2 through MIC
5. "Ceramic Raw Materials,"" Report of Charles Ho Kline &
Co» „ Fairfielde, W,Jo, October 1973=
6. "Commodity Data Summaries^ 1974, Appendix I to Mining
and Minerals Policy,18 Bureau of Mines, UoSe Department
of the Interior, U0S« Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C,
7. "Directory of Brick Manufacturers,00 Brick Institute of
America, McLean, Virginiaf 1974,
8. "Dictionary of Mining, Mineral, and Related Terms,"
Bureau of Mines, U0S» Department of the Interior, U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington^ D.C., 1968.
9. "Directory of U=So Manufacturers of Ceramic Tile and
Accessories,88 Tile Council of America,? Inc.,, Princeton,
N.J., 1974=
10. "Engineering and Mining Journal," McGraw-Hill, September
1974.
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11. Fitzgerald, J.V., and Kastenbein, E.L., "Tests for and
Engineering Properties of Ceramic Tile," ASTM Bulletin
No. 231, July, 1958, pp. 74-80.
12. "Handbook for Ceramic Tile Installation," Tile Council
of America, Inc., Princeton, N.J., 1975.
13. McNeal, w., and Nielsen, G., "International Directory of
Mining and Minerals Processing Operations," E/MJ,
McGraw-Hill, 1973-1974.
14. "Minerals Yearbook, Metals, Minerals, and Fuels,
Vol. T," U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1971,
1972.
15. "Mining Engineering, Publication of the Society of
Mining Engineers of AIME, Annual Review for 1973,"
Vol. 25, No. 1, January 1973; Vol. 26, No. 3, March 1974
through Vol. 26, No. 8, August 1974.
16. Popper, H., Modern Engineering Cost Techniques,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1970.
17. "Product Directory of the Refractories Industry in the
U.S.," The Refractories Institute, Pittsburgh, Pa. 1972.
18. "Refractory-Ceramics Materials Handbook," U.S. Air Force
program, Battelle Memorial Institute Contract
No. AF33(657)-8326, March 1962.
19. Wilson, R.C., and Koenig, C.J. "Stability of Forming
Characteristics of Bodies Containing Nepheline Syenite,"
Qhio State University Engineering Experimental Station
Bulletin No. 196, April 6, 1973, pp. 1-52.
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SECTION XIV
GLOSSARY
Absorption - The relationship of the weight of the water
absorbed to the weight of the dry specimen,, expressed in
per cent0
Air setting Refractories - A composition of finely ground
materialsa marketed in either a wet or dry condition^
which may require tempering with water to attain the
desired consistency and which is suitable for laying
refractory brick and bonding them strongly upon drying
and upon subsequent heating at furnace temperatures«,
Alumina Porcelain - A vitreous ceramic whiteware for
technical application in which alumina {A1J203) is the
essential crystalline phase=
Ball Clay - A secondary clay,, commonly characterized by the
presence of organic matter, high plasticity,, high dry
strength„ long vitrification range, and a light color
when firedo
Ball Milling - A method of grinding and mixing material,
with or without liquids in a rotating horizontal
cylinder partially filled with grinding media such as
balls or pebbles,
Baghouse - Chamber in which exit gases are filtered through
membranes (bags) which arrest solids,
Batching - The weighing and proportioning of two or more raw
materials which go into the manufacture of fired or
unfired ceramic bodies,,
Beehive kiln - An intermittent kiln* circular in plan? with
fireboxes arranged around the circumference,,
Blistering - The development during firing of enclosed or
broken macroscopic vesicles or bubbles .in a body,, or in
a glaze or other coating„ • •,
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Blunger - A cylindrical vessel containing a rotating shaft
with fixed knives, used for amalgamating clay with water
in making slips or slurries.
Blunging - The wet process of blendingj, or suspending
ceramic material in liquid by agitation in a blunger.
Brick equivalent - Unit used to measure most shaped facing
brick and refractories.,
Calcine - To fire a ceramic material or mixture to less than
fusion for use as a constituent in a ceramic
composition.
Castables - A refractory mix containing heat resisting
hydraulic setting cement, A refractory concrete.
Casting - Forming ceramic ware by introducing a body slip
into a porous mold which absorbs sufficient water from
the slip to produce a semirigid article.
Ceramic Whiteware - Fired ware consisting of a glazed or
unglazed ceramic body which is commonly white and of
fine texture. This term designates such products as
china, porcelain, semivitreous ware and earthenware.
Chemical Porcelain - Vitreous ceramic whiteware used for
containing, transporting, or reacting of chemicals.
China - A glazed or unglazed vitreous ceramic whiteware used
for non-technical purposes. This term designates such
products as dinner-ware,? sanitary ware* and art ware when
they are vitreous,,
Chromite - Chrome iron oreff FeCr2O4; cubic; iron-black
color. Mohs hardness, 5,5% specific gravity, 4.6. A
commercial source of chromium» When purey contains
about 68 per cent Cr2O3j, but rarely exceeds 50 per cent
in commerce.
Chromium - A steel-grey metallic element obtained from
chromite (FeOCr2O3) alloyed with nickel in
heat-resisting alloys and with iron and nickel in
stainless and heat-resisting steels. Symbol, Cr,
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Clarifier -. A centrifuge^ settling tank, or other device,
for separating suspended solid matter from liquid.,
Clay - A naturally occurring mineral aggregate* in crude or
purified foot, consisting essentially of hydrous
silicates of alumina„ Clay normally is plastic when
sufficiently wettedQ rigid when dried en masse, and
vitrified when fired to a sufficiently high temperature.
Culls - Brick rejected because of imperfection in size?
shape0 or quality,,
Decalcomania (decal) - Picture or design on glass,, ceramic
wareff or enamel surfaces produced by transferring from
specially prepared paper,
Decorated - Adorned^ embellished, or made more attractive by
means of color or surface detaii=
Decoration^ Qverglaze - A ceramic or metallic decoration
applied and fired on the previously glazed surface of
ceramic ware,,
Decorationa Underglaze ~ A ceramic decoration applied
directly on the surface of ceramic ware and subsequently
covered uith a transparent glaze,,
Dolomite - The double carbonate of lime and magnesia having
the general formula CaCO3 ° MgCO3o
t
Dry Edging - Rough edges and corners of glazed ceramic ware
due to insufficient glaze coating„
Dryer,, Rotary - A dryer in the shape of an inclined rotating
tube used to dry loose material as it tumbles through
the inclined cylinder, *
Drying -* Removal of uncombined water or other volatile
substance from a ceramic raw material or product,,
usually expedited by low-temperature heating.,
Earthenware - A glazed or unglased non-vitreous ceramic
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Engobe - A slip coating applied to a ceramic body for
imparting color, opacity, or other characteristics; and
sometimes subsequently covered with a glaze.
Electrical Porcelain - Vitrified whiteware having an
electrical insulating function.
Extrusion - Plastic clay forced through a mouthpiece of a
pug-mill or press, forming a rod or a tube, which can be
cut to the desired length.,
Feldspar - A mineral consisting chiefly of microcline,
albite or anorthite.
Fettle - To clean and smooth after casting or molding. To
remove fins, mold marks„ and rough edges from dry, or
nearly dry ware.
Filter cake - The compacted solid or semi-solid material
separated from a liquid and remaining on a filter after
pressure filtration.,
Filter press - A machine utilizing pressure to increase the
removal rate of solids from filtrate.
Filter, vacuum - A filter in which the air beneath the
filtering material is exhausted to hasten the filtering
process.
Fire, Bisque - The process of kiln-firing ceramic ware prior
to glazing.
Firebrick - Bricks made from very refractory clay to
withstand intense heat.
Fire clay - A clay that is high in alumina or silica. Fire
clays may be sedimentary or residual, plastic or
non-plastic, and are dominantly composed of kaolinite.
Fire, Decorating - The process of firing ceramic or metallic
decorations on the surface of glazed ceramic ware.,
Fire, Glost - The process of kiln-firing bisque ware to
which glaze has been applied for the purpose of maturing
or fixing- the glaze.
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Fire, Single - The process of maturing an unfired ceramic
body and its glaze in one firing operation.
Firing - The controlled heat treatment of ceramic ware in a
kiln or furnace,, during the process of manufacture, to
develop the desired properties.
Firing Range - The range of firing temperature within which
a ceramic composition develops properties which render
it commercially useful.
Flint clay - A very hard refractory clay which is largely
composed of well-crystallized kaolin that breaks with a
conchoidal fracture, similar to flint, hence the name.
Flocculant - An agent that induces or promotes gathering of
suspended particles into aggregations,.
Flux - A substance that promotes fusion in a given ceramic
mixture.
Forming - The shaping or molding of ceramic ware.
Frit - A glass which contains fluxing material and is
employed as a constituent in a glaze, body or other
ceramic composition.
Fused Cast Refractories - Refractory bricks or blocks formed
by means of complete melting, as in an electric furnace;
after forming into "ingots" and cooling, the bricks are
sawed from the cast ingots.
Glaze - A ceramic coating matured to the glassy state on a
formed ceramic article, or the material or mixture from
which the coating is made.
Glazed tile - Tile with a fused, impervious finish composed
of ceramic materials, fused into the body of the tile
which may be a non-vitreous, semivitreous, vitreous or
impervious body. The glazed surface may be clear,
white, or colored.
Green - As applied to ceramic ware, means the ware has been
shaped, but before it has been fully dried and fired.
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Greenware - Damp, recently made, unburned pottery or other
ceramic ware requiring drying before firing.
Grog - Burned clay. It is used to reduce .the shrinkage of
plastic clays and to give additional porosity. Grog
enables refractory goods to withstand sudden changes of
temperature. It is often obtained by grinding old
firebricks, or by burning a high-grade fire clay in a
shaft kiln or rotary kiln and grinding the product to a
coarse powder.
Grog, fire clay mortar - Raw fire clay mixed with calcined
fire clay, or with broken fire clay brick, or both, all
ground to suitable fineness. Used in laying fire clay
brick.
Ground fire clay mortar - Ground fire clay for use as a
refractory mortar in laying fire clay brick.
Gunning mixes - Monolithic refractories applied by means of
air-placement guns.
Hard-burned - As applied to magnesia, means calcined at high
temperature and is generally characterized by relatively
high density and low reactivity.
Hearth Furnaces - Furnaces in which the charge rests on the
hearth or kiln wall and is heated by hot gases passing
over it.
Jiggering - Forming ceramic ware from a plastic body by
differential rotation of a profile tool and mold, the
mold having the contour of one surface of the ware and
the profile tool that of the other surface.
Kaolin (China Clay) - A refractory clay consisting
essentially of minerals of the Kaolin Group and which
fires to a white or nearly white color.
Kiln - A large furnace used for final drying and burning or
maturing of firebrick or other ceramic articles or for
calcining ores or minerals.
Kiln furniture - General term for the pieces of refractory
material used for the support of pottery ware during
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kiln firing; since the use of clean fuels and
electricity has made possible the open setting of ware,
a multiplicity of refractory shapes has been introduced
for this purpose.
Kiln, rotary - A kiln in the form of a long hollow cylinder,
usually slightly inclined from horizontal and slowly
rotated about its axis; the kiln is fired by a burner
set axially at its lower end.
Ladle - In smelter, steel plant or foundry, a steel holding
vessel usually refractory lined used in transfer and
transport of molten metal, matte, or slag.
Ladle Brick - Fire clay brick suitable for lining ladles
used to contain molten metal.
Leaf Filters - An intermittent method of filtration, used to
clarify liquids or separate small quantities of
suspended matter.
Magnesia - Magnesium oxide, MgO, a light earthy, white
substance. A constituent of lime made from dolomitic
limestone. Is used extensively as a refractory material
and is obtained by calcining magnesite.
Magnesite - Carbonate of magnesium, crystallizing in the
triagonal system,, Magnesite is a basic refractory used
in open-hearth and other high-temperature furnaces and
is resistant to attack by basic slag. It is obtained
from natural deposits (mostly magnesium carbonate,
MgCO3) which is calcined at a high temperature to drive
off moisture and carbon dioxide, before being used as a
refractory.
Magnetic Separator - A device used to separate magnetic from
less magnetic or non-magnetic materials,,
Molten Cast Refractories - Refractory bricks and shapes made
by fusing refractory oxides as in an electric furnace,
and pouring the molten material into molds to form
finished shapes. (See Fused Cast Refractories.)
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Monolithic - Furnace lining made in one piece, usually
formed by casting, ramming, or tamping the refractory
mix into position.
Mosaic tile - Small tiles less than 6 sq. in- and usually
1/U" thick normally mounted on sheets !• x 21 in size.
Mosaic tile can be glazed or unglazedo
Mortar - A material used in a plastic state which can be
troweled, and becomes hard in place, used to bond units
of masonry structures.
Mortar, heat setting - A refractory mortar of finely ground
materials whose potential strength is dependent on use
at furnace or process temperature.
Mullite Refractories - Refractory products consisting
predominantly of mullite K3A1.2O3 • 2Si02!) crystals
formed by conversion of one or more of the sillimanite
group of minerals.
Nepheline Syenite - A feldspathic mineral aggregate
consisting chiefly of albite, microcline and nephelite,
each in significant amount.
Neutralization - Making neutral or inert, as by the addition
of an alkali or an acid solution.
Non-vitreous (non-vitrified} - That degree of vitrification
of a ceramic body evidenced by relatively high water
absorption.
Note. The term non-vitreous generally signifies more
than 10.0 per cent water absorption, except for floor
and wall tile which are considered non-vitreous when
water absorption exceeds 7 per cent.
Pavers - Unglazed porcelain or natural clay tile, usually
formed by the dust-pressed method and similar to ceramic
mosaics in composition and physical properties, but
relatively thicker and with 6 sq. in. or more of facial
area.
Periclase - High purity (98«5* per cent) magnesium oxide,
MgO, usually obtained from a two-step burning process.
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Plasticizer - A material, usually organic, capable of
imparting plastic properties to non-plastics or
improving the plasticity of ceramic mixtures.
Plastic Refractory - A refractory material, tempered with
water, that can be extruded and that has suitable
workability to be pounded or tamped into place to form a
monolithic structuree
Porcelain - A glazed or unglazed vitreous ceramic whiteware
used for technical purposes. This term designates such
products as electrical, chemical, mechanical, structural
and thermal wares when they are vitreous.
Pottery - All fired ceramic ware that contain clay when
formed, except technical, structural, and refractory
products, A factory for producing same*,
Pressing, Dry - Forming ceramic ware in dies from powdered
or granular material by direct pressure.
Pressing, Hot - A jiggering or pressing process wherein a
heated profile tool or plunger is employed,
Pressing, Wet (Plastic Pressing) - Forming ceramic ware in
dies from a plastic body by direct pressure.
Process, Dry (Dry Mix) - The method of preparation of a
ceramic body wherein the constituents are blended dry,
following which liquid may be added as required for
subsequent processing.
Process, Wet (Slip Process) - The method of preparation of a
ceramic body wherein the constituents are blended in
sufficient liquid to produce a fluid suspension for use
as such or for subsequent processing.
Pug-mill - A machine for mixing water and clay which
consists of a long horizontal barrel within which is a
long horizontal shaft fitted with knives which slice
through the clay, mixing it with water which is added by
sprays from the top. The knives are canted to give some
screw action, forcing the clay along the barrel and out
one end.
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Quarry tile - Unglazed tile* usually 6 sq. in. or more in
surface area and 1/2 to 3/4 in. in thickness, made by
the extrusion process from natural clay or shales.
Refractory - Nonmetallic materials suitable for use at high
temperatures in furnace construction.. While their
primary function is resistance to high temperatures,,
they are usually called upon to resist other destructive
influences also* such as abrasion, pressure, chemical
attack, and rapid change in temperature.
Rockingham Ware - A semivitreous ware or earthenware having
a brown or mottled brown bright glaze. Originated in
England on the estate of the Marquis of Rockingham.
Scrap Fired Ceramics - Fired ceramic product that is
defective and is not suitable for sale.
Scrap Green Ware Ceramics - Dampff recently made, unburned
ceramic material that is defective and is not suitable
for further processing* Is normally recycled to the
process.
Seeding - In chemical treatment, addition of tiny crystals
of material to a supersaturated solution to induce
nuclear precipitation.,
Semivitreous (Semivitrified) - That degree of vitrification
of a ceramic article evidenced by moderate or
intermediate water absorption.
Note. The term semivitreous generally signifies 0.5 to
10.0 per cent water absorption, except for floor and
wall tile which are considered semivitreous when water
absorption is between 3.0 and 7.0 per cent.
Settling Trench - An elongated but proportionally narrow
basin, with steeply sloping longitudinal borders.
Silicon Carbide Refractories - Refractory products
consisting predominantly of silicon carbide (SiCJ.
Sinter - A ceramic material or mixture fired to less than
complete fusion, resulting in a coherent mass, or the
process involved.
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Slip (Slurry) - A suspension of ceramic material in liquid,
almost always water.
Slip Coating - A ceramic material or mixture other than a
glaze,, applied to a ceramic body and fired to the
maturity required to develop specified characteristics.
Slurry - Pulp not thick enough to consolidate as a sludge
but sufficiently dewatered to flow viscously.
Soft burned - As applied to magnesia means calcined at
relatively low temperature. It is characterized by high
porosity and chemical reactivity.
Steatite Porcelain - A vitreous ceramic whiteware for
technical application in which magnesium metasilicate
(MgO « SiO2) is the essential crystalline phase.
Steatite Talc - Massive talc or the pulverized product
thereof having the general formula 3MgO ° usio2 « H2O.
Stoneware - A vitreous or semivitreous ceramic ware of fine
texture, made primarily from non-refractory fire clay.
Stucco - A material used in a plastic state, which can be
troweled to form, when set, a hard covering for the
exterior walls or other exterior surfaces of any
building or structure. A fire plaster made of gypsum
and glue-water, or of gypsum* and watert for walls or
their relief ornaments.
Tableware - All utensils and decorative articles used on the
table for meal service.
Talc - A natural hydrous magnesium silicate,
Mg(Si4K)Jj)) (OH) 2, usually occurring as a natural
alteration of magnesium silicate rocks or in
metamorphosed dolomites. High resistance to acids,
alkalies and heat.
Thickener - Equipment for reducing the proportion of water
in a slip or pulp.
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Titania Porcelain - A vitreous ceramic whiteware for
technical application in which titania (TiO2) is the
essential crystalline phase.
Trimmers - Units of various shapes consisting of such items
as bases, caps, corners, moldings, angles, etc.,
necessary or desirable to make a complete installation
and to achieve sanitary purposes as well as
architectural design for all types of tile work.
Unglazed Tile - A hard, dense tile of homogeneous
composition throughout, deriving color and texture from
the materials of which the body is made. The colors and
characteristics of the tile are determined by the
materials used in the body, the method of manufacture,
and the thermal treatment,.
Vitreous (Vitrified) - The degree of vitrification evidenced
by very low water absorption.
Vitrification - The progressive reduction in porosity of a
ceramic composition as a result of heat treatment, or
the process involved.
Vitrification Range - The maturing range of a vitreous body.
Wall Tile - Tile used for wall surfaces, counter tops, etc.
Wall tile is almost always glazed.
Weir - An obstruction placed across a stream for the purpose
of channeling the water through a notch or an opening in
the weir itself.
Wet Milling - The grinding of ceramic materials, e.g., glaze
batches, with sufficient liquid to form a slurry.
Usually done in ball mills.
Wet Pan - An edge runner mill used for grinding relatively
wet material in the refractories and structural clayware
industries. The pan bottom has slotted grids with a
proportion of solid plates on which the muller can
grind.
Wet Scrubber - Special equipment for cleaning the waste
gases with water prior to discharge.
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Whiting - Calcium carbonate powder of high purity.
Zircon Porcelain - A vitreous ceramic whiteware for
technical application in which zircon (ZrO2 • SiO2) is
the essential crystalline phase.
Zircon Refractories - Refractory products made predominantly
of zircon (ZrSiCW) and Zirconia (Zirconium dioxide,
Zr02) .
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TABLE XIV-1
O
I
X
H
I
M
£*
Multiply (English Units)
ENGLISH UNIT ABBREVIATION
METRIC UNITS
CONVERSION TABLE
by To obtain (Metric units)
CONVERSION ABBREVIATION METRIC UNIT
acre
acre - feet
British Thermal Unit
British Thermal Unit/
pound
cubic feet/minute
cubic feet/second
cubic feet
cubic feet
cubic inches
degree Fahrenheit
feet
gallon
gallon/minute
horsepower
inches
inches' of mercury
pounds
million gallons/day
mile
pound/square inch
(gauge)
square feet
square inches
tons (short)
yard
ac
ac ft
BTU
BTU/lb
cfm
cfs
cu ft
cu ft
cu in
F°
ft
gal
gpm
hp
in
in Hg
Ib
mgd
mi
psig
sq ft
sq in
t
y
0.405
1233.5
0.252
0.555
0.028
1.7
0.028
28.32
16.39
0.555 (°F-32)*
0.3048
3.785
0.0631
0.7457
2.54
0.03342
0.454
3,785
1.609
(0.06805 psig +1)*
0.0929
6.452
0.907
0.9144
ha
cu m
kg cat
kg cal/kg
cu m/min
cu m/min
cu m
1
cu cm
°C
m
1
I/sec
kw
cm
atm
kg
cu m/day
km
atm
sq m
sq cm
kkg
m
hectares
cubic meters
kilogram - calories
kilogram calories/kilogram
cubic meters/minute
cubic meters/minute
cubic meters
liters
cubic centimeters
degree Centigrade
meters
liters
liters/second
killowatts
centimeters
atmospheres
kilograms
cubic meters/day
kilometer
atmospheres (absolute)
square meters
square centimeters
metric tons (1000 kilograms)
meters
*Actual conversion, not a multiplier
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