EPA-450/3-76-026J
June 1976
NATIONAL ASSESSMENT
OF THE URBAN
PARTICIPATE PROBLEM
Volume XII -
Cleveland
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Air and Waste Management
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
-------
EPA-450/3-76-026J
NATIONAL ASSESSMENT OF THE URBAN
PARTICULATE PROBLEM
Volume XII
Cleveland, Ohio
FINAL REPORT
by
Rebecca C. Galkiewicz
David A. Lynn
Frank Record, Project Director
GCA/Technology Division
Burlington Road
Bedford, Massachusetts 01730
Contract No. 68-02-1376, Task Order No. 18
EPA Project Officer: Thompson G. Pace
Prepared for
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Air and Waste Management
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
June 1976
-------
j'liLs document Is part of a 16-vo.l time report assessing the urban particulate
problem, wliich was conducted by GCA/Technology Division for EPA.
This particular document is one of the 14 single city volumes that provide
working summaries of data gathered in the 14 urban areas during 1974 to
support an assessment of the gc'ncral nature and extent of the TSP problem
nat.ionw.idr. No at tempi, was made; to perform detailed or extensive analyses
j.n each urban area. Rather, the city reports are intende-d as a collection
(if pertinent data which collectively form a profile of each urban area. This,
in turn contributes Lo a comparative analysis of data among the 14 areas
in an attempt: to identify general patterns and factors relating to attainment
of the TST problem nationwide. Such an analysis has been made in Volume I
of the study-National Assessment of the Urban Particnlate 1'roblem-Nat. :i onal
Assessment. The reader is referred to this volume as the summary document
where the data is collectively analyzed.
The 16 volumes comprising the overall study are.as follows:
Volume
Volume
Volume
Volume
Volume
Volume
Volume
Volume
Volume
Volume
Volume
Volume
Volume
Vol time
Volume
Volume.
1
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
. XII
XIII
XIV
XV
XVI
National Assessment of the Urban Particulate problem
Particle Characterization
Denver
Birmingham
Baltimore
Philadelphia
Washington
Chattanooga '";
Oklahoma City
Seattle
Cincinnati
Cleveland
San Francisco
Mi.ami.
St. Louis
Providence
the
uced
'.sion£
o-
ill
-------
CONTENTS
No.
Foreword iii
1
List of Figures v
2
List of Tables vii
3
Acknowledgments ix
4
Executive Summary x
5
Section
I Introduction 1 6
II Analyses 14 7
III Summary and Conclusions 64 8
i
Appendixes 9
A Supplementary Information 68 10
B Particle Characterization 81 H
12
13
14
15
16
17
IS
19
iv
-------
LIST OF FIGURES
ige
No. Page
Li
1 Greater Metropolitan Cleveland Intrastate AQCR 2
2 Cuyahoga County and the City of Cleveland 3
Li
3 Locations of Sampling Sites in Cuyahoga County 6
c
4 Location of Sampling Sites in the City of Cleveland 7
5 1974 Annual Geometric Mean TSP Concentration in the 9
City of Cleveland
6 TSP Trends 11
4 7 Averaged TSP Trend (Average of 15 Sites in Cleveland) 12
4 8 TSP Trend at the NASN Site (Site 4) 13
9 Comparison of Weekend and Weekday TSP Concentrations 19
8 10 Locations of Point Sources, 1975 20
I 11 1974 Geometric Mean TSP Concentration Isopleths 21
12 Comparison of Actual and Predicted 1975 TSP Concentrations 24 .
13 1974 Monthly and Quarterly Citywide Mean TSP Concentrations 39
14 Monthly Rainfall, 1974 41
15 Monthly Degree-Days, 1974 41
16 Annual Precipitation 42
17 Annual Heating Degreei-Days 42
18 Annual Wind Roses (Percent of Time) 44
19 Pollution Rose - Air Pollution Control Agency (Site 1) 46
v
-------
LIST OF FIGURES (continued)
No. Page
20 Pollution Rose - Fire No. 19 (Site 10) 47
21 Pollution Rose - St. Vincent's Hospital Parking Lot 48
(Site 11)
22 Pollution Rose - Harvard Yards (Site 13) 49
23 Pollution Rose - Almira (Site 16) 50
24 Pollution Rose - Fire No. 29 (Site 17) 51 -1
2
25 Pollution Rose - Supplementary Education Center 52
(Site 21)
i
26 Locations of Air Quality Monitors Used to Determine the 58
Priority Classification of Cleveland AQCR
A-l Fuel Combustion Emissions Regulation For Cleveland and 70
the State of Ohio
A-2 Process Weight Regulation For the State of Ohio and the 71
City of Cleveland .
6
A-3 Fuel Combustion Emissions Regulation For the City of 72
Cleveland
A-4 Refuse Burning Equipment Emissions Regulation for the 73
City of Cleveland 0
o
A-5 TSP Trends - Center City, Cleveland 74
A-6 TSP Trends - East of Center City, Cleveland 75
10
A-7 TSP Trends - West of Center City, Cleveland 76
A-8 TSP Trends - South of Cleveland 77
12
A-9 TSP Trends - East of Cleveland 78
13
14
A-l
A-2
vi
-------
age
7
8
LIST OF TABLES
9
_ No. Page
0
1 Employment (Nongovernment, in 1000*s) in SMSA 5
'1
2 Sampling Sites and Comparison of Recorded Concentrations 10
With the Standards
3 Emissions Inventory For the Cleveland AQCR (Tons per Year) 15
>8
4 Cleveland and Cuyahoga County Emissions Inventory, 1973 16
NEDS (Tons per Year)
5 . Particulate Emissions of Major Sources (_> 25 TPY) in 17
Cuyahoga County, 1975
'2
Results of a Modeling Study of Particulate Emissions in 23
Cleveland
1950 to 1970 Residential Fuel Usage - Number of Dwelling 26
Units
8 Fuel Usage Trends in Cleveland 26
9 Emissions of Major Sources (> LOO TPY) in Cuyahoga 28
County by Their Compliance Status in 1975
10 Correlation of TSP Trends With Climatological Factors 38
'6
11 TSP Versus Land Use (at Visited Site) 54
70 12 Sampling Site Descriptions 56
'o
13 Emissions Inventory Summary For Particulates, 1970 60
14 Cleveland and Other Priority I Regions - Required 61
Emission Reductions
A-l Regulations of the Ohio Air Pollution Control Board 68
A-2 Cleveland Air Pollution Code 69
vii
-------
LIST OF TABLES (continued)
No. Page
A-3 Sampling Site Information 79
B-l Meteorological Data on Selected Sampling Days (Cleveland 83
Hopkins International Airport)
B-2 Annual Average Concentrations of Sulfate and Nitrate 83
Ions at the Cleveland, Ohio, NASN Site No. 361300001
(ug/m3)
B-3a Results of Filter Analyses For Selected Sites in Cleveland 84
and Vicinity (Supplementary Education Center - No. 21)
B-3b Results of Filter Analyses For Selected Sites in Cleveland 85
and Vicinity (Harvard Yards - No. 13)
B-3c Results of Filter Analyses For Selected Sites in Cleveland 86
and Vicinity (Fire Station No. 13 - No. 9)
B-3d Results of Filter Analyses For Selected Sites in Cleveland 87
and Vicinity (J. F. Kennedy High School - No. 14 and
Cleveland Health Museum - No. 4)
\
B-4 Composite Summary of Filter Analyses For Selected Sites 88
in Cleveland and Vicinity
B-5 Results of Replicate Analyses of Cleveland Filters 89
B-6 Citywide Composite Summary of Filter Analyses in Cleveland 90
GCA/
zati
supe
Deve
by tl
Polli
Steve
and F
viii
-------
79
id 83
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
83
GCA/Technology Division wishes to sincerely thank those persons and organi-
zations who made significant contributions to this effort. On-going project
land 84 supervision was provided by Thompson G. Pace of EPA's Control Programs
Development Division. The case study in Cleveland was greatly assisted
land 85 by the cooperation and helpfulness of the staff of the Cleveland Air
Pollution Control Division, particularly Howard Bergman, Robert Hermann,
.land 86 Steve Bondra, George Craig, Thomas Kinder, Gary Nied, Kenneth Murray,
and Richard A. Dell.
iland 87
as 88
89
eland 90
ix
-------
METE
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
AIR QUALITY LEVELS AND TRENDS
The 1974 geometric mean TSP concentrations in Cleveland and Cuyahoga
3
County ranged from less than 70 )j.g/m outside the city and in residential
3 3
areas to 70 to 90 ^ig/m in densely residential areas and over 100 ug/m
in the industrial areas along the Cuyahoga River and the Lake Erie shore-
line. Twelve of the 25 sites in the county exceeded the annual primary
3
standard of 75 |_ig/m and nine others exceeded the annual secondary stan-
3
dard, 60 (ig/m . The 24-hour primary standard was exceeded on 73 sampling
days (4.7 percent) and the secondary standard on 273 sampling days (17.6
percent). Citywide air quality monitoring began in 1967 and since 1970,
3
15 sites in the city have had an average decrease of 36.5 jig/m in annual
mean TSP concentrations.
REGIONAL SETTING
The City of Cleveland is located in Cuyahoga County in the northeastern
corner of the State of Ohio and is on the southern shore of Lake Erie.
Because of its location on one of the Great Lakes, Cleveland has become
an important transportation, industrial, and manufacturing center. The
terrain rises smoothly and gradually over 500 feet from the lake to the
suburban heights of land. The Cuyahoga River cuts through the plain, bi-
secting the city and forming a rather deep and narrow north-south valley.
The
year
pres
duce
the
Lake
qual:
tram
lake
short
concc
areas
trati
nific
wind
the a.
flow (
southi
URBAN
There
predor
mean 1
150^
75 ug/
the er.
Cleveland is highly industrialized the industries are mainly concerned
with primary metals, fabricated metal products, machinery, tools, and
automotive products but also include numerous other products.
-------
icerned
and
METEOROLOGY
The climate is moderately cold, averaging 6150 heating degree-days per
year, with moderate rainfall, an average of 35 inches per year. The
presence of Lake Erie strongly influences Cleveland's climate and pro-
duces a lake breeze during the summer. Inversions occur frequently in
the river valley.
dential
3
shore-
imary
stan-
ampling
(17.6
1970,
annual
Lake Erie is an important influence on Cleveland's meteorology and air
quality. During the warmer months, Lake Erie affects adversely the
transport and diffusion of shoreline emissions of pollutants stable
lake air flows inland and tends to pick up pollutants emitted along the
shoreline by the industries, utilities, and highways located there,
concentrating the pollutants and carrying them inland over populated
areas. Frequent inversions occur in the Cuyahoga River valley, concen-
trating the emissions of the industries located in the valley. A sig-
nificant correlation is observed between monthly TSP concentrations and
wind speed (r '= -0.704), a measure of dispersion. Transport of TSP into
the area cannot be determined but is probably greatest with southerly air
flow due to the presence of major industrial areas 27 and 50 miles south-
southeast of the city.
stern
,rie.
ecome \
The
o the
.in, bi-
valley.
URBAN ACTIVITY
There is a strong relationship between annual TSP concentrations and the
predominant land use surrounding the monitoring sites the 1974 geometric
mean TSP concentrations of the industrial sites together averaged over
3 3
150 ug/m , the center city sites over 100 ug/m , and the residential sites
3
75 ug/m . The effects of other urban activities are probably obscured by
the enormous influence of land use patterns on TSP concentrations.
xi
-------
REGULATIONS AND ENFORCEMENT
EMIS
The Division of Air Pollution Control of the City of Cleveland is under
contract to the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency to provide air pol-
lution control services to Cuyahoga County. The state's air pollution
regulations are in effect for the entire county and are generally more
stringent than the city's air pollution code. The deadline for compliance
with the regulations is April 15, 1977 most industries and sources are
not in compliance at present, some sources are not yet on file and prob-
ably many will not be in compliance by the deadline.
The Division of £ir Pollution Control has experienced a number of problems
in attempting to bring sources of particulate emissions into compliance.
Neither the city's nor the state's regulations and enforcement procedures
are entirely satisfactory for bringing sources into compliance promptly.
Enforcement of the state regulations by Ohio EPA can be time consuming.
Enforcement of the city regulations by the Division of Air Pollution
can only be done on city problems and only where the city regulation
is at least as stringent as the state regulation. The incinerator regula-
tion is an emission standard and requires a lot of work to enforce on j
both the city and state levels. The Cleveland area has a very large num- '
ber of air pollution sources, probably 20,000 some sources have not j
&
been identified yet and some of those identified have not received at- |
tention yet. The state and city agencies have sometimes been unable to j
reach satisfactory agreements with companies on air pollution control
and have> become involved in lengthy hearings or have had proposed actions
overturned on appeal. Long delays in achieving compliance have been
experienced due to litigation, challenges of the SIP for particulates ,
and the lack of a SIP for sulfur oxides. Companies which had planned ]
to achieve compliance by fuel switching have not been able to do so due
to the energy shortage they will continue to exceed the emission stan-
dards until the energy situation is clarified. Enforcement has resulted
in the compliance of a few major problem sources but generally not the
widespread compliance of many sources, both large and small.
xxi
It i..
The i
triaj
70 pc
monit
spond
of ov
area.
large
occur
NETWO)
The d<
qualit
that t
siting
to be
CONCLU
The hi.
County
tries :
dustri,
enced 1
been gi
coal cc
fuel cc
-------
EMISSIONS
j under
air pol-
lution
y more
compliance
rces are
nd prob-
f problems
.pliance.
rocedures
>romptly.
isuraing.
at ion
it ion
:or regula-
:ce on
.arge num-.
/e not
yed at-
aable to
ontrol ;
ed actions
been *
ulates, ;
lanned ,
o so due
ion stan-
resulted
not the
It is apparent that industry is the major source of particulate emissions.
The results of an EPA modeling study of particulates indicate that indus-
trial processes and point source fuel combustion contribute more than
70 percent of the TSP concentrations above background levels at certain
monitors in the city. Patterns of annual mean TSP concentrations corre-
spond to patterns of industrial development the highest concentrations
3
of over 150 ug/m were recorded in the highly industrialized Cuyahoga Flats
area. Emissions reductions cannot be documented but do not appear to be
large in relation to total emissions. Most of the reduction that has
occurred seems to be the result of fuel switching.
NETWORK DESIGN
The design of the network is generally adequate for recording air
quality in the various kinds of land development in the area, except
that there does not appear to be a background site. The specific
siting the height, location, and exposure of the monitors seems
to be adequate.
CONCLUSIONS
The high TSP concentrations experienced in Cleveland and Cuyahoga
County are the result of emissions from the large numbers of indus-
tries in the city and county, fugitive dust and emissions in the in-
dustrial areas of the city, and shoreline particulate emissions influ-
enced by Lake Erie's effects on dispersion. TSP concentrations have
been gradually decreasing over time due to decreasing emissions from
coal combustion and, to a lesser extent, from industrial processes and
fuel combustion. Problems with enforcing regulations have resulted in
xiii
-------
delays in achieving compliance. Considerable decreases in particulate
emissions and TSP concentrations are expected before full compliance
occurs, but is is likely that a few areas of the city and county will
continue to exceed the TSP standards due to the topography, land use
patterns and meteorology of the area and fugitive dust and emissions.
CITY
The (
eastt
are j
Quali
are /
nortV
Cuyab
its 1
porta
city
are a
Cleve
Erie.
feet
secti
secti
valle
The g
on ai
xiv
-------
ticulate
diance
ity will
ind use
.ssions.
SECTION I
INTRODUCTION
CITY CHARACTERIZATION
The City of Cleveland is located in Cuyahoga County in the north-
eastern corner of the State of Ohio. Cleveland and Cuyahoga County
are part of the eight-county Metropolitan Cleveland Intrastate Air
Quality Control Region; the other major cities located in the AQCR
are Akron and Canton (see Figure 1). The AQCR is located in the
northeastern Ohio Air Pollution Control area (NEOAPC). Cleveland and
Cuyahoga County are on the southern shore of Lake Erie. Because of
its location on one of the Great Lakes, Cleveland has become an im-
portant transportation, industrial, and manufacturing center. The
city is surrounded by several smaller, independent communities that
are also highly industrialized (see Figure 2).
Topography and Climatology
Cleveland and Cuyahoga County form a part of the 'shoreline of Lake
Erie. The terrain rises smoothly from the lake's elevation of 570
feet above sea level to over 1100 feet in the southern and southeastern
sections of the county. The Cuyahoga River cuts through the plain, bi-
secting the city and forming a rather deep and narrow north-south
valley.
The generally smooth, gradually sloping terrain has a minimal effect
on air movement throughout the region. The presence of Lake Erie offers
-------
MICH.
Figure 1. Greater Metropolitan Cleveland Intrastate AQCR
-------
*
Figure 2. Cuyahoga County and the City of Cleveland
-------
no hindrance to air masses moving in from Canada. Prevailing winds
are from the south to southwest.
i
The climate is mainly continental in character, but strongly modified
by Lake Erie. In the winter Cleveland lies in the path of many cold
air masses advancing south and east from Canada but the accompanying
low temperatures are usually moderated as the air mass crosses over
the relatively warm waters of the lake. This also results in frequent
winter cloudiness and snow. Persistence of the snow cover is seldom
great due to the temperature which rarely remains freezing for any
considerable length of time. In the summer Cleveland frequently ex-
periences a lake breeze as winds from the lake blow in over the city
during the day.
The average monthly temperature ranges, from 27 degrees, in January,
the coldest month, to 71 degrees in July, the warmest month. Cleveland
experiences relatively cold winters, averaging 6150 heating degree-days
per year. Rainfall is moderate, an average of 35 inches per year, and
well distributed throughout the year.
Land Use and Employment Patterns
Cleveland is the largest city in Ohio and.the tenth largest in the
United States. Its population is over 700,000. The Cuyahoga County
population is greater than 1,700,000. The Cleveland area is highly
industrialized as shown by the employment figures in Table 1 manu-
facturing employs the largest number of people. The principal products
are primary metals, fabricated metal, machinery, rubber and plastics,
transportation equipment, and electrical equipment.
The
Erie
the
city
larg
vail
the
Clev
dent
gene
AIR i
The
for .
Cuya)
of tl
the ;
stat
area:
in tl
-------
d.rids
Table 1. EMPLOYMENT (NONGOVERNMENT, IN 1000's) IN SMSA
adified
f cold
anying
over
frequent
seldom
any
ly ex-
e city
ary,
Cleveland
gree-days
ear, and
i the
County
lighly
- manu-
. products
Lastics,
Agricultural, forestry, fisheries
Mining
Contract construction
Manufacturing
Transportation, public utilities
Wholesale trade
Retail trade
Finance, insurance, real estate
Services
Total
2
3
44
484
66
78
200
59
199
1,339
The central business district of the city is located near the Lake
Erie shoreline and the Cuyahoga River. The largest industrial area is
the Cuyahoga River Valley which extends from Lake Erie through the
city and county and beyond to the City of Akron in Summit County. The
largest industries are located in the Cuyahoga Flats, the part of the
valley closest to Lake Erie. Other industrial areas are located along
the Lake Erie shoreline and in several suburbs. Most of the rest of
Cleveland, which is bisected by the Cuyahoga River, is densely resi-
dential. The surrounding communities are higher in elevation and
generally suburban residential.
AIR QUALITY LEVELS AND TRENDS '
The Division of Air Pollution Control of the City of Cleveland samples
for suspended particulates at 21 sites in the city and 8 sites in
Cuyahoga County outside the city. Figues 3 and 4 show the locations
of the sampling sites by their local code number and information about
the sites is summarized in Table A-3 in the Appendix. Many of the
stations are located in residential areas and several in industrial
areas. The heights of the monitors range from 4 to 65 feet; most are
in the 20- to 50-feet range.
-------
N
1 1
Figure 3. Locations of sampling sites in Cuyahoga County
43
-------
Figure
3. Locations of sampling sites in Cuyahoga County
43
45
37
35
43
44
31
32*
Figure 4. Location of sampling sites in the City of Cleveland
-------
The 1974 annual geometric mean TSP concentrations are shown at their
respective sampling sites in Figure 5. TSP concentrations ranged from
3
70 yg/m and less at sites outside the city or in residential areas to
3 3
70 to 90 ug/m in densely residential areas and over 100 yg/m in the
industrial areas.
Of the 25 monitors recording TSP concentrations during 1974, 12 sites
exceeded the national annual primary standard (75 yg/m ) and nine others
3
exceeded the annual secondary standard (60 yg/m ). The 24-hour primary '
3
standard (260 yg/m ) was exceeded on 73 days of the 1373 sampling days '
3
(4.7 percent) and the 24-hour secondary standard (150 yg/m ) was ex-
ceeded on 273 sampling days (17.6 percent) (see Table 2). Only four
sampling sites did not exceed either 24-hour standard during the year.
,i
The Division of Air Pollution Control began monitoring suspended par-
ticulates at 15 sites in 1967. The annual geometric means for 11 of I
h
these stations are plotted in Figure 6 to indicate the trends in par- j
t
ticulate levels. Since 1967, the 15 sites have had an average decreases
3
of 36.5 yg/m (see Figure 7). The largest decreases occurred at the
sampling sites near the industrial areas. On a year-toyear basis, the
largest overall decreases have occurred since 1971 and overall in-
creases occurred in 1968 and 1970. Trends in annual geometric mean
TSP concentrations for all of the sampling sites in the county are
included in the Appendix as Figures A-5 through A-9, grouped according
to geographic areas. The TSP concentrations for the sites in a partic-
ular area tend to be close and to vary similarly, with a few exceptions
due to local variations.
The NASN site in Cleveland has been operated since 1957. The smoothed
trend, shown in Figure 8, is steadily downward from about 190 yg/m in
3
1957 to the present 90 yg/m with a slight leveling off between 1968
and 1971.
I
-------
3 "C en
(TO 3
H1 -». O
vo a o
O W rt
00 3*
H- n>
3 a
ixceptions
a partic-j
are
iccording
S H-
rt> 3
Co 1
3
CO
CO
H-
CO
w
rt
3*
(0
«w-r"--
t»
rt
rt
(D
decrease
H-
3
o
CO
I-!
M
H1
O
i-h
(D
O.
13
CD
I-l
1
3*
(D
^<
(t>
Co
H
<
Ml
O
C
H
(U
CO
(D
X
H-
3
era
a
Co
v;
CO
r primary
H-
(0
O
rt
sr
ro
r-t
CO
ro
co
H-
rt
(D
CO
H-
3
vu
i-t
(D
W
CO
rt
O
uv
(D
i-h
H
O
&
rt
'(0
H-
r-1
Figure 5,
1974 annual geometric mean TSP concentration
in the City of Cleveland
-------
Table 2. SAMPLING SITES AND COMPARISON OF RECORDED CONCENTRATIONS WITH THE STANDARDS
Predominant
land use
Center city
Industrial
Residential
Code
4
21
1
9
10
11
13
2
3
5
14
15
18
Sampling site
Cleveland Health Museum
Supplementary Ed. Center
Air Pollution Control Lab.
Fire station No. 13
Fire station No. 19
St. Vincent's Hospital
'Harvard Yards
Audubon J. H. S.
Brooklyn Y.M.C.A.
Cleveland Pneumatic Tool
J.F. Kennedy H.S.
P.L. Dunbar School
J . Adams School
1974
geometric
mean TSP
90
112
175
147
124
149
168
74
76
88
50
93
70
Number of days
24-hr standard
exceeded
Primary
1
10
19
7
3
16
11
0
0
0
0
4
0
Secondary
8
26
45
36
27
35
42
3
2
7
1
16
1
-------
250
200 -
n
E
o»
a:
n
t-
1967
1968 1969 1970 1971 1972
YEAR
1973 1974
Figure 6. 'TSP trends
11
-------
150
100
Q.
V)
50
I
j I
67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74
YEAR
Figure 7. Averaged TSP trend (average
of 15 sites in Cleveland)
12
-------
I9S7 |9Je 1959
1960 I9«' 1962 1961 1964
1969 1966 1967 1968
1969 1970 1971 1972 I97J
t974
Figure 8. TSP trend at the NA.SN site (site 4)
-------
SECTION II
ANALYSES
f rot
dwa
are
ceni
estj
of ,
In this section the factors that might be expected to affect TSP levels
in Cleveland and Cuyahoga County are considered. Analyses include:
sources and emissions, regulations and enforcement, meteorology, urban
activities, and uetwork design and monitor siting.
EMISSIONS
Emissions Inventories
The Cleveland area is highly industrialized. Industries are mainly con-
cerned with primary metals, fabricated metal products, machinery, tools,
and automotive products, and the major manufacturing products are elec-
tric motors, rubber and plastic, petroleum products, stone, clay and
glass, chemicals and paints, wearing apparel, measuring instruments,
electric components, and food products.
The only recent point and area source emission inventory available is
for the entire Cleveland AQCR (see Table 3). Since the AQCR is com-
prised of eight counties and includes several major industrial cities
besides Cleveland, these inventories cannot give a good picture of emis-
sions in Cuyahoga County. The AQCR inventories are presented, however,
to show the overall importance of industry and industrial process and
fuel combustion emissions in the AQCR. In 1975 total emissions of par-
ticulates in the AQCR were close to 500,000 tons per year; 48 percent
of the emissions were from industrial processes and 36 percent were
14
-------
from Industrial fuel combustion. All other source categories are
dwarfed by the massive industrial contribution - next in importance
are utility fuel combustion at 6 percent and transportation at 3 per-
cent. It is probable that the total amount of emissions is an under-
estimate because of the magnitude of emissions and the large number
of point and area sources.
Table 3. EMISSIONS INVENTORY FOR THE CLEVELAND AQCR
(TONS PER YEAR)1
ISP levels
elude:
gy, urban
mainly con-
.ery, tools,,
are elec-
lay and
uments,
Liable is
is com-
il cities
ire of emis-
1, however,
DCCSS and
ons of par-
8 percent
nt were
Point sources
Industrial process
Fuel combustion
Industrial
Utility
Commercial/ institutional
Solid waste Incineration
Area sources
Fuel combustion
Residential
Commercial/ institutional
Industrial
Solid waste incineration
Transportation
Miscellaneous
Total
1970
estimated
emissions3
386,270
240,790
101,430
30,400
10,550
3,100
181,380
2,920
12,520
135,710
16,320
13,510
400
567,650
1975
predicted
emissions
362,830
238,040
80,040
30,510
11,170
3,070
129,350
2,300
7,410
95,810
7,630
15,730
470
492,180
Percent
change
in AQCR
-6
-1
-21
0
-6
-1
-29
-21
-41
-29
-54
+16
+18
-13
Source: NEDS.
3
Source: Area source estimates by EPA
Point source estimates by PEDCo,
15
-------
A NKDS inventory for total emissions in Cuyahoga County in 1973 is
given in Table 4, but the estimates of industrial fuel combustion and
process emissions are small when compared with the local agency's
estimate of point source emissions alone so this inventory also cannot
give a good picture of emissions in Cuyahoga County.
Table 4. CLEVELAND AND CUYAHOGA COUNTY EMISSIONS
INVENTORY, 1973 NEDS (TONS PER YEAR)
Fuel combustion 126,035
Residential 655
Electric generation 18,150
Industrial 96,336
Commercial/institutional 10,894
Industrial process 19,892
Chemical 1,009
Primary metal 8,684
Secondary metals 1,135
Mineral products 8,917
Other
Solid waste disposal 6,941
Transportation 6,409
Motor vehicles 6,210
Aircraft 129
Vessels 70
Total 159,277
The Division of Air Pollution Control of the City of Cleveland keeps
inventories of point sources larger than 25 tons per year. The most
recent inventory is given in Table 5. This shows that the most impor-
tant industrial sources are primary and secondary metals and fabricated]
metal products and that there are almost 40 sources emitting more than
100 tons per year of particulates.
The
emit
cont
past
80UI
poir
sour
16
JL
-------
Table 5.
is
.n and
s
cannot
PARTICUIATE EMISSIONS OF MAJOR SOURCES
(> 25 TPY) IN CUYAHOGA COUNTY, 1975
Steel mills
Metal products
Foundry and smelting
Motor vehicle parts
Utility
Incinerator
Institution
Machinery manufacturing
Chemicals
Pottery
Glass
Brick
Electrical products
Petroleum products
Paper
Grain
Total
Emissions,
TPY
30,927
16,209
8,277
6,020
5,967
5,052
2,708
822
411
369
259
228
150
113
90
40
77,642
No. of
sources
3
4
9
1
2
5
4
1
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
39
Source: City of Cleveland Division of Air
Pollution Control
i keeps
he most
st impor-
fabricated
more than
The available inventories are not adequate for showing the particulate
emissions situation in Cleveland and Cuyahoga County. The air pollution
control agency in Cleveland has not kept emission inventories in the
past and only recently has begun to tabulate information on major point
sources in the county. The contributions of area sources and smaller
point sources have been generally ignored. In fact, many of these
sources of particulates in the county have not been identified yet.
17
-------
Particulate Emissions and TSP
Industry and power plants are the most important sources of particulate
emissions in Cuyahoga County and, as such, the most influential factors
with respect to TSP air quality. The effects on TSP concentrations can [
be seen when comparing the concentrations on weekends and weekdays i
3 3
88.5 ug/m , the average on weekends, and 99.3 ^g/m , the average on week-'
days (see Figure 9). The difference between the weekend and weekday av- ;
erages is noticeable but not very large in comparison to other cities. '
The reduction is most likely due to traffic patterns, with most emissions
continuing through the weekend (power plants and heavy industry).
The sampling si'.es nearest the industrial areas record the highest TSP
concentrations in the county. Figure 10 shows the locations and 1975 «
emissions of the major industries in Cuyahoga County, along with the
locations of the sampling sites. Sites 1,9, 10, 11, 13, and 21 are the
closest to the industrial areas in the Cuyahoga Flats and along the Lake
Erie shoreline; all of them recorded annual TSP means greater than 100 p
in 1974 (see Table 2). When isopleths of the 1974 mean TSP concentratio
are drawn on a map as in Figure 11, they center around the Cuyahoga Flati
industrial area where the highest concentrations occurred.
Air Quality Modeling Study - Cleveland air quality was modeled in a
study performed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency to assess
the attainment of the TSP standards. The model calculated, for 1972
and 1975, the TSP concentrations at various sampling sites and the con-
tribution of the source categories provided by emission inventories to
these concentrations. The 1975 emissions inventory was based on the
1972 inventory and took into account the impact of emission control
regulations. Since fugitive emissions and fugitive dust emissions were
not provided in the inventories, the model calibration and results are
based on the assumption that such emissions are at a constant level
throughout the area and thus, part of the background. The intercept
18
-------
cticulate
1 factors |
tions can |
days [
ge on week-'
eekday av- ?'
cities. I
t emissions
y).
;hest TSP
md 1975
Lth the
21 are the
ig the Lake
than 100
Dncentratior*
i-
/ahoga FlatL
d in a
o assess
for 1972
d the con-
tories to
on the
ontrol
sions were
:sults are
. level
itercept
70
W T F
DAY OF WEEK
1974 citywide geometric mean TSP concentrations
Weekend
88.9
Weekday 99.3 Mg/
m
Figure 9. Comparison of weekend and weekday
TSP concentrations
19
-------
Ni
O
D < 500 TRY
23 500-1,000 TRY
B 1,000-5.0CO TPY
B 5,000-10,000 TPY
> 10,000 TPY
43
45
37
0
35
42
Figure 10. Locations of point sources, 1975
44
31*
32°.
-------
42
Figure 10. Locations of point sources, 1975
SOURCES J NIED
Figure 11. 1974 Geometric mean TSP concentration isopleths
-------
of 1972 actual and modeled TSP concentrations was used as the back-
o
ground level in the study the intercept was 44 yg/m .
The modeling results and analyses of them are presented in Table 6.
These indicate that the sources most responsible for TSP concentrations
above the intercept are industrial processes, point source fuel combus-
tion and area sources. Industrial processes account for 40 percent or
more of the source contribution above the intercept at all of the sites.
In Cleveland, the major contributing process is the primary metals in-
dustry, mainly iron and steel mills. The predictions of 1975 TSP con-
centrations at the nine sites indicate that the national annual primary
standard is expected to be exceeded at eight of the sites. These predic-
tions were based on a projected 1975 emissions inventory which included
some 100 point sources in the AQCR not in compliance with the regulations
In order to determine how well the model predicts, the 1975 predicted
TSP concentrations were compared with the 1975 TSP concentrations actu-
ally recorded. The comparison is shown in Figure 12. Of the nine sites,1
two were substantially (more than 10 yg/m^) overpredicted and six were
substantially underpredicted. The last column of Table 6 explains poss:
ble reasons for the discrepancies in prediction. The differences appear
to be the result of inadequate simulation of localized conditions by the
model the effects of fugitive emissions and fugitive dust, the lake
breeze effect and the effects of location in a residential area or on a
height of land do not seem to have been taken fully into consideration.
The model predicted that air quality standards would not be met in 1975
based on the projected 1975 emissions inventory which included some 100
point sources not in compliance. In addition, the model found that it
was unlikely that air quality standards would be met even when these
sources came into compliance. This is due to the fact that the impact
of the emissions of the noncomplying sources was found to be relatively
22
U-
o
10
EH
CO
-------
latively
H-
3
"O
o
rt
rr
3*
ro
CO
ro
rr
(U
ft
HJ-
ft
O
ro
o
o
H-
3
K*
VO
Ul
jration.
o
i-t
o
p
CD
MM^MH
1
^
co
o-
rt
n>
m^m
CO
01
T)
(D
i-t
M
3
CO
o
o
CO
CO
H-
***
(B
rt
(D
.!.!
ro
CO
H-
rr
ro
CO
CO
cu
o
rr
C
H-
O
rt
(D
P-
gulation
3 re
o
M TJ
C *
p. re
ro ex
CL H-
primary
o
o
3
1
CO
H-
3
re
CO
rt
ro
CO
ro
rr
o
I-t
combus -
i-t
pi c^
rt
H-
O
3
CO
\i
1
Table 6. RESULTS OF A MODELING STUDY OF PARTICULATE EMISSIONS IN CLEVELAND
N>
TSP sampling site
D Cleveland Health
Museum
E Cleveland
Pneumatic Tool
t J. F. Kennedy
High School
G Fire Station
No. 13
H Brooklyn TMCA
I Fire Station
Ho. 19
J Air Pollution
Control Lab
K Harvard Yards
L PL Dunbar School
1975
predicted
TSP
95
100
79
107 '
74
91
129
87
77
1975
predicted
Inus
intercept*
51
56
35
63
30
47
85
43
33
Percent contribution of
major source categories'"
46Z Industrial process
28Z area sources
511 industrial process
26Z point source fuel combustion
52% industrial process
301 area sources
55Z Industrial process
27Z point source fuel combustion
47Z Industrial process
33Z area sources
51Z Industrial process
25Z area sources
72Z Industrial process
16Z point source fuel combustion
592 industrial process
192 point source fuel combustion
19Z area sources
50Z industrial process
29Z area sources
1975
measured
TSP
94
89
51
173
93
108
149
139
92
Prediction
dit-repancyc
+ I
+ 11
+ 28
- 66
- 19
- 17
- 20
- 52
- 15
Possible reasons for
major prediction discrepancies
Residential area
Residential area
Fugitive emissions from nearby industrial
valley (steel mills) ; fugitive dust
from heavy traffic
Nearby industrial valley
Commercial area; heavy traffic
Fugitive emissions from steel mills;
fugitive dust from railroad yards,
unpaved roads and lots, and stock piles
Fugitive emissions from steel mills;
fugitive dust from railroad yards,
unpaved roads and lots, stock piles
and truck traffic
Nearby industrial valley
The intercept of the 1972 actual and modeled TSP concentrations was 44 i;g/m . This was the minimum
background value for the study.
This is the contribution of local sources to the TS? concentrations above the intercept.
The difference between the 1975 actual and predicted TSP concentrations.
predicted value and was considered the
-------
60 80 100 120 140 160
PREDICTED TSP GEOMETRIC MEAN, 1975
180
Figure 12. Comparison of actual and predicted
1975 TSP concentrations
sma
of
The
in
anc>
quaJ
curr
Em is
Redu
sever
tion.
emis;
Since
occur
coal
gas a
same.
schoo
184 s
change
have i
dustr?
qoal .-
Of COc
contir.
stop o
had be
fuel.
24
-------
small and that the greatest impact actually came from large numbers
of sources which contributed almost equally to the high concentrations.
These results should be viewed with caution because of the difficulties
in identifying sources out of compliance and in estimating what compli-
ance emissions will be. Nevertheless, they seem to indicate that air
quality standards will be violated even after full compliance with the
current regulations is attained.
Emissions Trends
Reductions in particulate emissions have been occurring for the past
several yer.rs and will continue for several years to come. These reduc-
tions have involved fuel switching, controls on process and combustion
emissions, and incinerators.
I BO
Since the second World War, conversion from coal to other fuels has been
occurring (see Tables 7 and 8). Residential fuel usage was 42.8 percent
coal in 1950 but dropped to 0.5 percent coal in 1970 while the usage of
gas and electricity by homes greatly increased and oil usage remained the
same. At one time, coal was the fuel used to heat schools public
schools have been switching gradually to gas so that now only 39 of the
184 schools in the city are using coal and these too will eventually
change. Decreases in coal usage by industries and electric utilities
have also occurred but these have been smaller down 12 percent for in-
dustry and down 8 percent for utilities. The relative importance of
poal as a fuel for industry has decreased more than the actual usage
of coal since industry is using more natural gas. Fuel switching is
continuing but the recent fuel shortage has caused some companies to
stop or reverse the process. One public utility and several industries
had been planning to achieve compliance by switching from coal to another
fuel. Since new allocations of oil and natural gas are not available,
25
-------
Table 7. 1950 TO 1970 RESIDENTIAL FUEL USAGE -
NUMBER OF DWELLING UNITS
Cuyahoga (County)
Fuel
Gas
Oil
Coal
Electricity
1950
214,820
11,750
169,700
215
1960
455,688
13,333
24,159
1,236
1970
521,439
11,758
2,914
12,051
A1950-1960
as 7, of
1950
+112
+ 13
- 86
+475
A1960-1970
as % of
1950
+ 31
13
- 12
+5,030
A1950-197
as 7» of
1950
+ 143
+ 0 I
98 t
+5,505 !
t
t
R
c
s
m
d
P
d>
O(
P'
bi
fj
P]
Pi
av
ox
ox
CO
Pr
CO
Te
CO
em
re
th
Pr
cl
mu
Pa
Cleveland (City)
Gas
Oil
Coal
Electricity
128,840
4,345
126,170
120
244,773
2,823
19 ,444
615
235,605
2,301
2,117
4,743
+ 90
- 35
- 85
+413
7
12
13
+3 ,440
+ 83
- 47
98
+3,853
Source: U.S. Census of Housing, 1950, 1960, 1970
Table 8. FUEL USAGE TRENDS IN CLEVELAND
Fuel .
Gas
Oil
Coal
Coke
Unit
106 ft3
1,000 bbl
1,000 tons
1,000 tons
Q
Industrial usage
1963
36,735
1,636
1,553
956
1972
62,100
719.5
1,374
1,064.8
"L A
1963-1972
+69
-56
-12
+11
Electric utility usage
1964
9
1,424
1973
67
1,305
% A
1964-1973
+644
- 8
Source: Census of Manufacturers, 1963 and 1972. Fuels and
Electric Energy Consumed (data is for SMSA level)
Source: Steam Electric Plant Factors Book, 1965 and 1974,
National Coal Association, Washington, D.C. (data is for
CITY level)
26
-------
A1950-197
as 7» of
1950
+ 143
+ 0
98
+5,505
+ 83
- 47j
98 |
+3,853!
y usage
% A
1964-1973
+644
- 8
these companies are exceeding the emission standards and will continue
to do so until the energy situation becomes clear.
Reductions of particulate emissions due to emission controls on fuel
combustion and industrial processes have also occurred. It is not pos-
sible, however, to determine from the available information just how
much of a reduction in particulate emissions has occurred or in what in-
dustries or when. There are still many companies which are not in com-
pliance with the regulations it is anticipated that considerable re-
ductions, perhaps as much as or more than the reductions to date, will
occur as these come into compliance over the next few years. Some com-
panies are on variances and in the process of coming into compliance,
but not all are on schedule. Other companies are going through adjudica-
tion hearings or are challenging the approval of the State Implementation
Plan or the state's regulations they are not required to be in com-
pliance while hearings or appeals are being conducted. Still others are
awaiting the promulgation of a State Implementation Plan for sulfur
oxides they are reluctant to apply particulates controls while sulfur
oxides controls have not been resolved due to the interdependence of the
controls. Approval of a SIP for sulfur oxides and subsequently the
promulgation of state regulations and the appeals will probably take a
couple of years so compliance of these companies is several years away.
Table 9 compares the particulate emissions of major sources by their
compliance status and shows that a large proportion of the major source
emissions come from sources not in compliance. These emissions will be
reduced eventually, though how much it is not possible to determine from
the available data.
Private and municipal incinerators are also being controlled, improved, or
closed and replaced because of their particulate emissions. The large
municipal incinerators include those operated by Cleveland, the Towns of
Parma, Euclid, and Lakewood, and Cleveland's wastewater treatment plants.
27
-------
The city's incinerator was closed and the rest are in the process of
controlling particulate emissions. It is estimated that there are some
8,000 to 10,000 apartment incinerators, very few of which have been in-
spected and given a permit to operate or ordered closed. Closing incin-
erators or installing emissions controls on them have not been significan
parts of the total emissions reductions to date.
Table 9.
EMISSIONS OF MAJOR SOURCES (> 100 TPY) IN
CUYAHOGA COUNTY BY THEIR COMPLIANCE STATUS
IN 1975
Permit to operate
Variance
Adjudication hearings
Total
Number
49
41
48
13 8a
TSP
emissions, TPY
4,259
19,305
36,562
60,126
The 138 point sources are in 50 or so companies.
Source: Division of Air Pollution Control, City of
Cleveland.
On the AQCR level, as shown in Table 3, the largest decreases in emissio
from 1970 to 1975 have been in solid waste incineration and fuel combus-
tion. Total emissions, however, did not decrease much during the 5-year
period. This gives an indication of where emission reductions probably
occurred in Cleveland, but the magnitude of the reductions in Cleveland
during that time cannot be estimated.
The ambient TSP trend has been downward since citywide monitoring began
3
1967. Fifteen sites had an average decrease of 36.5 |ig/m , the largest
annual decrease occurring between 1970 and 1971. This downward trend
seems to be due to the emission reductions resulting from fuel switching
by some industries, utilities, residences, and schools and emission con-
trols on some industries.
28
REG
Ins
In
Pro
Qua
reg
regi
eacl
ovei
com
mitf
Divi
ager
ser\
is r
tain
stat
The
orig
of r
Stat
spon
nego
to e
them
The :
exce;
Clevc
111
-------
ess of
are some
been in-
ing incin-
. significau
S
REGULATIONS, ENFORCEMENT AND COMPLIANCE
institutional Framework
In the State of Ohio, the Office of Air Quality of the Ohio Environmental
Protection Agency is responsible for air quality. The Office of Air
Quality, under the air pollution control law passed in 1972, promulgates
regulations, issues permits and variances, conducts hearings and enforces
regulations. The state is divided into areas for air pollution control,
each of which has a district office of Ohio EPA. The district offices
oversee the activities of local agencies, conduct field operations in
counties where there is no local agency to perform them and review per-
mits. In the Northeastern Ohio Air Pollution Control area (NEOAPC), the
Division of Air Pollution Control of the City of Cleveland is the local
agency under contract to the Ohio EPA to provide air pollution control
services to Cuyahoga County, which includes the City of Cleveland. It
is responsible for monitoring air quality, making inspections and main-
taining surveillance of sources, investigating complaints, operating the
state's permit system and overseeing the installation of control equipment,
in emissioi
ael combus-
the 5-year
s probably
Cleveland
ring began
he largest
rd trend
1 switching
ission con-
The Division of Air Pollution Control was first organized in 1947 and
originally worked on smoke abatement in Cleveland. The city had a set
of regulations which could be enforced only in the city. In 1972, the
State of Ohio adopted air pollution control regulations and assumed re-
sponsibility for air quality throughout the state. In 1973, the state
negotiated a contract with the Division to perform field operations and
to evaluate permits and variances in all of Cuyahoga County and advise on
them.
Regulations
The state's air quality regulations are in effect for the entire state,
except where local regulations are more strict due to local requirements.
Cleveland's Air Pollution Code was last revised in 1969 and is not as
29
-------
stringent as the state's code. It is anticipated, however, that the city
code will be revised in 1976 so that it will be as stringent as the state
code and more stringent in a couple of area,s. .The state and city regula-
tions pertaining to particulates are summarized in the Appendix (Tables A
andA-2).
An overview of the state regulations shows that they are in general about'
average when compared with the regulations of most states in the nation.;
The visible emissions regulation allows emissions of no greater than 20
percent opacity, except that visible emissions up to 60 percent opacity
are allowed for no more than 3 minutes in any hour.
The emissions standards for industrial processes and for fuel combustion!
arc shown in Figures A-l through A-3. The allowable emissions from in-
cinerators are 0.1 pounds per 100 pounds of charge for incinerators with.
a capacity equal to or greater than 100 pounds per hour, and 0.2 pounds j
i
for incinerators of less than 100 pounds per hour for the state. These |
standards are about average when compared with those of other states.
The city's incinerator regulation is less strict (see Figure A-4).
Open burning, with certain exceptions, is prohibited. Reasonable mea-
i
sures must be taken to prevent dust from materials handling from be-
coming airborne. Dust emissions from buildings or outdoors operations
which are a nuisance shall be controlled by sealing off the buildings or
operation and ventilating and treating the discharge. Permits to operat
are issued for up to 3 years.
Enforcement ;.
The Division of Air .Pollution Control inspects sources at least once eve
3 years for operation permit applications; major sources and sources wit
problems are inspected more frequently. Inspections involve the checkin
of visible emissions, possible new sources, and maintenance of emission
controls. Point source emissions receive primary consideration and fug!
tive emissions receive attention if they are localized to some degree.
30
T
c
T
a
t;
P'
ti
a
as
ti
Th
ov
En
coi
pei
trc
ob:
cat
act
the
.A C
com
wit!
tho;
Apr:
this
plis
The
POSE
-------
lat the city
is the state
:ity regula-
Lx (Tables A
eneral about
the nation.
er than 20
nt opacity
combustion
s from in- I
rators with]
0.2 pounds
te. These
states.
A-4).
able mea-
rom be-
perations
ui^dings or
:s to operat
.st once eve
sources wit
the checkii
>f emission
Ion and fugi
ne degree.
The Division has inspectors in radio-equipped patrol cars to investigate
complaints and make visual inspections of sources.
The Division has a program of activities to be followed during a pre-
alert. When the air quality index of one or more of the 'Criteria pollu-
tants reaches 175 (100 is an air quality level equal to the national
primary standard and 200 is the alert level) and meteorological condi-
tions indicate that a high index value is likely to persist for some time,
a pre-alert is called. One or more of the 12 or so major sources are
asked to cut back production by 10 percent in order to avoid alert condi-
tions. Cooperation by the industries is voluntary but is generally good.
There were, nevertheless, 15 days in 1974 when the air quality index was
over 200.
Enforcement of the state regulations is performed by Ohio EPA. The Agency
conducts litigation and hearings for variances and adjudication and issues
permits, variances and consent orders. The Division of Air Pollution Con-
trol advises Ohio EPA on compliance and enforcement actions. If a company
objects to a proposed action issued by Ohio EPA, it pan request an adjudi-
cation hearing at which evidence is presented and from which a decision on
actions to be taken is made. Since an adjudication hearing can be lengthy,
the company and Ohio EPA may negotiate a consent order.
A Company may be prosecuted for violating its permit or not keeping to the
compliance schedule of its variance, but it cannot be forced to comply
with,the regulations while hearings or appeals are taking place. For
those companies which cannot come into compliance by the deadline of
April 1977, a compliance order is issued by the Director of Ohio EPA
this is essentially a variance but it allows-for progress towards com-
pliance after the deadline which a variance, by law, cannot allow.
The Division conducts enforcement of city problems on the city level when
possible. The city's regulations, most recently revised in 1969, are not
31
-------
as stringent as the state code in some areas but where they are the same
or more stringent, they are used so that enforcement can be on the city
level.
The local regulations apply only to sources within the city and can be
enforced only in the city. The rest of the county receives state en-
forcement. The Division is planning to increase its role in actual en-
forcement in both the city and the county. In 1976, the Division will
revise the city's air pollution code and bring it to at least the level
of stringency of the state's code few problems are anticipated in the
adoption of the revised code. The Division also is planning to work for|
adoption of regulations by the county so that polluters in the whole
county can be enforced locally.
Compliance
The compliance status of the major point sources in the county was given
in Table 9 which shows that 65 percent of these particulate sources are
i
not in compliance with the emission standards. The Division estimates
that there are about 20,000 point sources in the county and about 10,000
incinerators. Only about 90 percent of the point sources and 20 percent
of the incinerators are presently in the Division's files. Not all of
those on file have been inspected or have received permits to operate so
it is not possible to determine the overall degree of compliance of par-
ticulate sources in Cuyahoga County. The Division of Air Pollution Con
trol believes that some of those which should be in compliance are not
because their control equipment has not been maintained or was never
adequate or because there are an excessive number of malfunctions as in
the case of blast furnace slips.
The Division of Air Pollution Control has experienced a number of problc
in attempting to bring sources of particulate emissions into compliance
these are discussed in the remainder of this section.
32
A:
ii
si
fc
nc
a]
th
pc
st
Di
pe
of
fo
ev
Ne
ar<
The
po!
am
th<
Am
tht
app
one
wht
cea
up
due
A 1
sio
pro
-------
re the same
n the city
.nd can be
tate en-
actual en-
.sion will
. the level
ited in the
to work for
\e whole
As stated before, Cleveland's.Air Pollution Code applies only to sources
in the city and the state's regulations apply to the entire county and
supersede the city's regulations when the latter are less stringent. En-
forcement of the state regulations for a county problem or a city problem
not under the jurisdiction of the city's code can be time consuming and
allows the Division's participation only in an advisory role. The Division,
therefore, conducts enforcement of city problems on the city level when
possible (i.e., when the city regulation is at least as stringent as the
state regulation). But there are disadvantages to this. Appeals of the
Division's decisions are decided by a city appeals board which hears ap-
peals from many other areas and does not have air pollution as its focus
of concern. Also the city code calls for criminal, not civil, penalties
for violations. The severity of the problem and the significance of the
evidence must be greater, in general, to warrant prosecution.
ty was given
sources are
estimates
about 10,000]
id 20 percent
Not all of
:o operate sc
Lance of par
)llution Con
ice are not
./as never
itions as in
ber of probl
o compliance
Neither the city's nor the state's regulations and enforcement procedures
are entirely satisfactory for bringing sources promptly into compliance.
The Division is attempting to alleviate this problem by revising its air
pollution code to at least the level of stringency of the state's code
and by working for countywide adoption of its code so that problems in
the whole county can be enforced locally.
Another problem is the inspection of incinerators. It is estimated that
there are 10,000 incinerators in the county, only 2,000 of which have
applied for permits. About half of these have actually been inspected,
one-third of which were denied permits to operate. But it is not certain
whether or not those which were denied operating permits have actually
ceased operating. The Division has not been able to inspect and follow
up on many applications and to track down those not yet on file. This is
due in part to the incinerator regulation itself (both city and state).
A lot of work is required to enforce the regulation because it is an emis-
sion standard and does not specify the types of incinerators allowed or
prohibited. Each incinerator must be inspected for visible emissions or
33
-------
for the emission rate of participates. When possible, incinerators
within the city receive enforcement on the city level. In the rest of
the county, however, since all enforcement cases, large and small, are
taken to Ohio EPA, very few cases of incinerator violations have been
presented to the state.
The very large number of air pollution emission sources in the county
has itself created problems. The Division of Air Pollution Control feels
that it is understaffed and therefore not able to identify and inspect
all sources or to enforce the regulations for more than the larger point
sources. Some sources have not yet been identified and some of those
identified have r.ot yet received attention. The Division spends most of
its efforts on larger and point sources and has not been able to keep
track of small or area sources.
The Ohio EPA and the Division of Air Pollution Control have sometimes
been unable to reach satisfactory agreements with companies when dealing
with them. Many times, a proposed action issued by Ohio EPA on the ad-
vice of the Division has not proven satisfactory to the companies in-
volved. In 1975, more than one-third of the major point sources in
Cuyahoga County were involved in adjudication hearings during which com-
panies objecting to orders could present evidence. Adjudication hearingi
can be lengthy so a consent order between the company and the Ohio EPA
may be worked out. On the city level of enforcement, the Division of Ail
Pollution Control has issued some proposed actions which were unsatis-
factory to the companies involved and were overturned on appeal to the
city appeals board.
Long delays in achieving compliance have been experienced due to litiga-
tion of companies not on permits or compliance schedules and to challenge
of the SIP by companies. The compliance of several of the largest sourd
in the county has been delayed while they challenged the U.S. EPA on the
approval of the State's Implementation Plan for particulates (Section 301
-------
rators
e rest of
mall, are
ave been
e county
ontrol feels'
d inspect I
arger point[
of those
nds most of
. to keep i'
jometimes f
;hen dealing!
on the ad- '
tnies in- ,
i|
rces in j-
j which com-I
;ion hearingi
i Ohio EPA
/ision of Ail
> unsatis-
aal to the
e. to litiga-
to challeng
argest sourc
. EPA on the
(Section 30
challenge). The SIP has recently been upheld so presumably the com-
pliance of these sources is underway. The compliance of several large
industries has also been delayed by the lack of a SIP for sulfur oxides.
Because sulfur oxides controls and particulates controls are interde-
pendent, these companies will not control particulate emissions until
the resolution of the sulfur oxides situation which is several years away.
Even though a company is on a compliance schedule, that does not indicate
that the company is keeping up with its schedule. Some companies have
been missing compliance milestones but none so far have been prosecuted
for this violation.
There has also been a problem with industry's attitude towards compliance -
some have resisted compliance and enforcement efforts and a few have acted
in concert with each other in opposing air pollution control action.
The use of fuel switching by some companies to achieve compliance has run
into problems due to the shortage of energy. These companies had planned
to use oil or natural gas but have returned to burning coal. They are
exceeding the fuel combustion emission standards and will continue to do
so until the energy situation is clarified.
Over the past several years, the major achievements of enforcement of the
regulations appear to be a general 90 percent decrease in pollutant emis-
sions by some companies after the 1962 revision of Cleveland's air pollu-
tion code and the compliance of a few major sources which have greatly
decreased their emissions since 1970. It is not known how many companies
actually reduced their pollutant emissions during the last decade, but a
downward trend in TSP concentrations (Figures 6 and 7) during that time
seems to indicate that some did. A few major problem sources have dras-
tically reduced their emissions since 1970 but this probably only affects
local air quality.
35
-------
ti
I'
The major cause of particulate emissions reductions over the past decade,
however, is probably fuel-switching, which was discussed in EMISSIONS an<
much of which is not the result of enforcement of regulations. Further
and considerable decreases in TSP concentrations are anticipated as prob-1
lems with regulations and enforcement are solved and compliance becomes
more widespread.
METEOROLOGY
Because of the frequent migration of low pressure systems and the infre-
quent stagnations of large high pressure systems through the Great Lakes
i
region, Cleveland would appear to be favorably located for the dispersion
of air pollution. On the regional scale, the frequency of high air pollii
tion potential forecast days is low. But on a more local scale, Clevelai
frequently experiences poor dispersion of pollutants due to its location
on the shore of Lake Erie and the presence of the Cuyahoga River valley.
Effects of Lake Erie
Cleveland is located along Lake Erie which influences the city's air
quality in several ways. During the colder seasons of the year when the
water is warmer than the surrounding land surface, incoming air masses
from Canada are moderated in temperature by the lake and pick up moisture]
as they pass over it. Thus Cleveland experiences frequent cloudiness anq
snowfalls which tend to remove particulates from the air. In contrast,
during the summer months the cool lake water is a stabilizing influence
on incoming air masses and shoreline pollution problems are consequently
enhanced.
2
A recent study of the impact of the Great Lakes on shoreline meteorolog:
has described three distinct mesoscale regimes which develop in conjunc-
tion with the onshore flow of stable lake air and lead to adverse disper-
sion conditions. The first of these regimes is the typical lake breeze '
36
-------
3t decade
3SIONS and
Further
d as prob
becomes
he infre-
eat Lakes
dispersion.
*_
air polltl
., Clevelatj
; locationj
:r valley.
's air
: when the]
: masses
jp moisturg
jdiness at
Contrast,
influence
nsequentlyl
.neteorolog
n conJune-
rse dispel
ke breeze
circulation which develops on days with light onshore gradient winds and
strong insolation. Under the influence of the lake breeze circulation,
pollutants from low-level shoreline sources are carried inland in a rela-
tively shallow mixing layer capped by an overlying lid of stable lake air,
while elevated sources at the shoreline emit into the stable layer aloft
and are brought to ground layer by fumigation farther inland. Recent tra-
jectory studies with constant level balloons have indicated that under the
influence of a persistent, well-developed lake breeze circulation cell, pol-
lutants which are initially carried inland by the low-level onshore flow
are transported upward and back over the lake where they may be returned
by the lake breeze to the land.
The other two mesoscale regimes giving rise to high concentrations occur
under onshore stable flow conditions when formation of the lake breeze
circulation is prevented either by relatively strong gradient winds or by
insufficient insolation. Under daytime conditions with strong insolation
and steady onshore winds, the depth of the mixing layer increases away
from the shoreline as heating by convection takes place, inducing the con-
tinuous fumigation of elevated sources. Without strong sunshine, on the
other hand, such as under overcast conditions or during nighttime, a
shallow mixing layer may persist for many miles inland with resulting
plume trapping and the concentration of pollutants. The lake breeze
occurs on about half of the days during the period April to October and
the other two patterns occur much less frequently.
Cleveland's shoreline, like that of other Great Lakes cities, is highly
i
urbanized and industrially developed. There are several electrical gener-
ating plants and a number of industries, some still burning coal, along
the shore and just inland, where much of the city's population is also
located. A major highway also hugs the shoreline. Thus, emissions of
particulates are greatest where Lake Erie's effects on transport arid dif-
fusion of pollutants are most adverse. The effects of Lake Erie on
Cleveland's air quality can be seen in the seasonal pattern of TSP
37
-------
concentrations in 1974 (see Figure 13). The highest TSP concentrations
occurred during the summer quarter, the period when Lake Erie most limits
the transport and diffusion of shoreline pollutant emissions. In 1974,
3
the summer quarter averaged 112 |ag/m and the first, second and fourth
3 3
quarters averaged, respectively, 82 ^g/m , 90 ng/m and 85
The effects of Lake Erie can also be seen when looking at Cleveland's dis
persion characteristics. Throughout the year, the mean mixing height and
the mean wind speed through the mixing layer are moderate. Summer morn-
ings, however, combine both a low mixing height (370 meters) and a low
mean wind speed (3.7 meters per second) for a high pollution potential.
These seasonal differences in dispersion seem to correspond well with the
seasonal differences in TSP concentrations. Monthly TSP concentrations
showed a significant negative correlation with monthly wind speed (r =
-0.704 in Table 10).
Table 10. CORRELATION OF TSP TRENDS WITH CLIMATOLOGICAL FACTORS
1 . Correlation of citywide monthly TSP means for 1974 with other 1974
monthly measures.
TSP versus degree-days
TSP versus precipitation0
f\
TSP versus wind speed
r = -0.817
r = -0.203
r = -0.704
Correlation of citywide TSP trend (annual geometric mean) from 1967
to 1974 with other annual measures.
TSP versus time3 r = -0.861
TSP versus annual rainfall r = 0.583
TSP versus heating degree-days r = -0.682
As expected.
Effects of Topography
i
The topography of Cleveland and Cuyahoga County also influences the air
quality. The gradually sloping plain on which the county is located is
38
(O
120
110
100
o>
4.
90
80
70
601L
-------
Land's
;ieight and
mer morn-
d a low
tential.
.1 with the
\trations
J F MAM J JASON
er
from 1967
60
Figure 13. 1974 monthly and quarterly citywide
mean TSP concentrations
,ces the air|
: located is;
39
-------
t,
cut by the relatively deep and narrow valley of the Cuyahoga River. The
depth of the valley below the plain increases from about 100 feet in the
Cuyahoga Flats area near the central business district to over 300 feet a
the county line; the width is generally less than 1 mile (see Figure 1).
The depth of the Cuyahoga River valley is sufficient to trap cold air at
night and caus'e frequent inversions. Added to this tendency to trap pol-
lutants in the valley is the fact that many industries are located in the
valley. Therefore, the already high TSP concentrations due to industrial
emissions would be magnified by the frequent inversions in the valley wh
would limit the dispersion of particulates.
Climate Effects
i
The climate in Cleveland is moderately wet (average 35 inches precipitati
per year) and the winters are relatively cold (average 6150 heating degre
days per year). These are among the factors which can influence TSP con-
centratipns. Precipitation and degree-day trends are shown in Figures 14
through 17 and compared with TSP trends in Table 10.
Over several years, TSP concentrations show the anticipated significant
correlation with time r equals -0.861 which means that TSP concentratii
have been decreasing over time. But the correlations of TSP trends with
annual rainfall and with annual degree-days have been the opposite of w
was expected TSP concentrations seemed to be higher in years of greate
rainfall and years of fewer degree days.
During 1974, TSP concentrations correlated as expected, though not signil
cantly, with precipitation (r = -0.203) - TSP concentrations were lower
months of greater rainfall. But the correlation with monthly degree-ds
was the opposite of what was expected - TSP concentrations were highest
during the summer months when the number of degree-days is lowest and f
combustion emissions from space-heating are lowest. This is due to Cle
land's shoreline location on Lake Erie, discussed earlier, which has an
40
-------
Lver. The
jet in the
300 feet a
Figure 1).
old air at
.o trap pol
:ated in the!
) industrial]
j valley whl
: precipitatij
leating degr<
mce TSP con-
Ln Figures
significant
concentratil
trends withj
>posite of wlj
irs of greate
ugh not sign
s were lower
ly degree-da}
were highest
lowest and
Is due to
\
which has an
7
6
« 5
o>
1 4
u.
I 2
1974
NORMAL
1200
HOOh
1000
9OO
ui
£ 800
o
kl
° 700
o
H 600
UJ
1 500
S
400
30O
200
100
0
DC
UJ
m
JFMAMJ JASON 0
MONTH
Figure 14. Monthly rainfall, 1974
\
\
M
M J J A S
MONTH
N
Figure 15. Monthly degree-days, 1974
41
-------
50
40
£ 30
z 20
cc
10
I960
LU
o:
o
8000
7000
S 6000
X
u.
o
(t
£ 5000
NORMAL
1965
1970
YEAR
Figure 16. Annual precipitation
1974
NORMAL
1960
1965
1970
1974
YEAR
e
o
T
c
o
A
t
m
L
a
t
f
a
1
w
n
t
Figure 17. Annual heating degree-days
T
t
a
t
i
t
6
t
t
a
s
e
42
-------
effect on monthly TSP patterns opposite to and far outweighing the effects
of monthly degree-day patterns (see Figure 13 and Effects of Lake Erie).
Though precipitation and heating degree-days are known to influence TSP
concentrations, apparently neither is important enough with respect to
other factors to cause TSP trends in Cleveland.
Transport
1974
Air movements are the means by which particulates are transported from
the emission sources to the receptors the population as well as hi-vol
monitors. Figure 18 shows wind roses for two areas in Cleveland the
Lake Erie shoreline area at the Burke Lakefront Airport and the suburban
area in the western part of the county at Cleveland Hopkins Airport. The
two wind roses are similar, showing that the predominant wind direction is
from the southwest and that the northern sector (winds off the lake) is
also important. The lakefront wind rose indicates that winds off the
lake occur somewhat more of the time than in the suburban area, also, that
winds from the south occur more frequently, perhaps due to the wind chan-
neling effects of the Cuyahoga River valley which is directly south of
the Lakefront Airport and which runs in a generally north-south direction.
RMAL
1974
Transport of particulates into the Cleveland area is probably low at most
times due to the nature of the surrounding areas - Lake Erie to the north
and northwest, largely agricultural areas to the southwest. Particulates
transport could become important under certain circumstances, though there
is not enough data at present to determine the relative contribution of
transport to Cleveland's air quality. During the summer, Cleveland is
sometimes influenced by the Bermuda High - air from the western side of
the high pressure system sweeps up from the Deep South where particulates
tend to be picked up. Cleveland is occasionally downwind of the industrial
areas of Akron and Canton which are, respectively 27 and 50 miles south-
Houthoast of the city. And sometimes, Cleveland is downwind of Us own
('missions, when Its pollutants are carried out over Lake l-'rlc and returned
43
-------
15% 10% 5%
BURKE LAKEFRONT
AIRPORT
5% 10% 15%
by tl
carr:
15% 10% 5°/<
HOPKINS AIRPORT
(SUBURBAN)
10% 15%
Figure 18. Annual wind roses (percent of time)
:i
44
-------
Ill
by the lake breeze or when inland areas are impacted by shoreline emissions
carried inland.
Particulates transport within the Cleveland area is shown by the pollutant
roses constructed for some of the particulates sampling sites. The pol-
lutant roses indicate some of the local sources of particulates and are
given in Figures 19 through 25 and discussed below.
Site 1, Air Pollution Control Agency - The pollutant rose shows several
3 3
peaks above 150 yg/m . The largest is above 200 yg/m and occurs with >
winds coming from a direction of 120 to 200 degrees - this corresponds i
to a large nearby steel mill. Another peak from 250 to 300 degrees cor-
responds fj another steel mill.
Site 10, Fire Station 19 - The largest peak, from 260 to 300 degrees, ,'j
points toward the City's Municipal Light Plant. TSP concentrations above ;|
3 ''
150 yg/m dominate the sector from 180 to 340 degrees, the direction of '{
the Cuyahoga Flats industrial area. A small but noticeable peak occurs
between 10 and 40 degrees and corresponds to another power plant.
Site 11, St. Vincent's Hospital parking lot - This site is located at the
edge of a parking lot and next to an exit ramp of an expressway. The large
paved parking lot is due east and corresponds to a peak about 200 yg/m in
the pollutant rose. The expressway is west of the site and the pollutant
3
rose shows a contribution of about 150 yg/m from that direction but no
peak. A broad peak over 160 yg/m exists for winds from 150 to 230 degrees,
the general direction of Cuyahoga Tlats industrial area. TSP concentra-
tions are lowest for wind directions pointing toward the lake - 280 to
360 degrees.
Site 13, Harvard Yards - This site is surrounded by point and area sources,
as indicated by the high TSP concentrations for all compass directions of
the pollution rose. The several peaks correspond to nearby major point
sources - smelting operations lie in the general direction of 110 to 220
45
-------
o
o_
O
O
Q.
in
.0.
st
60 120 180 2UO 300
WIND DIRECTION (DEGREES)
360
Figure 19. Pollution rose - Air Pollution Control Agency (site 1)
1)1
46
-------
o.
CM
:c-
\
o
GC
OC
\°-
'*o
o
o
.0.
360
(site 1)
60 120 180 2UO 300
WIND DIRECTION (DEGREES)
Figure 20. Pollution rose - Fire No. 19 (site 10)
360
47
-------
2<»»J
200
IO
E
^^
^%
o>
4.
0 160
<
o:
z.
LU
0
§ "20
o
a.
V)
H
80
40
0
-
-
-
~
-
o
6
_
O
-
20
1
_
BO 2
T~~
0 3(
_
30 3
WIND DIRECTION,degrees
Figure 21. Pollution rose - St. Vincent's Hospital
parking lot (site 11)
Source: G. J. Nied
48
-------
o
o_
O
ID
a:
oc
o
o
360
60 120 180 240 300
UIND DIRECTION (DEGREES)
360
Figure 22. Pollution rose - Harvard Yards (site 13)
49
-------
o
o_
CM
o
.O.
'CO
o
o
.0.
3-
60 120 180 240 300
WIND DIRECTION (DEGREES)
360
1..
ii:
Figure 23. Pollution rose - Almira (site 16)
50
-------
o_
o
(v»-
ee
GC
o.
O
O
.0-
360
60 120 180 240 300
WIND DIRECTION (DEGREES)
360
Figure 24. Pollution rose - Fire No. 29 (site 17)
51
-------
o
o.
o
a.
cc
UJ
o
tn
60 120 180 2UO 300
WIND DIRECTION (DEGREES)
360
Figure 25. Pollution rose - Supplementary
Education Center (site 21)
52
-------
degrees, aluminum and chemical industries from 270 to 290 degrees, and the
Cuyahoga Flats industrial area from 350 to 30 degrees.
Site 16, Almira This site is about 3 miles from the industrial area of
Cleveland but its pollutant rose appears to show the effects of transport
from the city. TSP concentrations are highest for the direction corre-
sponding to the direction in which the downtown and industrial areas lie
50 to 160 degrees.
3
Site 17. Fire Station 29 TSP concentrations greater than 100 ^g/m occur
for the sector between 110 and 300 degrees a medical center is south of
the site and a power plant lies in a west-northwest direction.
Site 21, Supplementary Education Center The largest peak is above 200
and occurs with winds coming from the direction of the Cuyahoga Flats in-
dustrial area 110 to 170 degrees. Another peak from 20 to 40 degrees
points toward the power plants. The site is located near Lake Erie the
low TSP concentrations occurring with winds from the direction of the lake,
270 to 10 degrees, indicate the absence of sources in that direction.
URBAN ACTIVITY
Land Use Patterns
The pattern of land use in Cleveland is influenced by the Cuyahoga River,
360 Lake Erie, and the topography. Near the mouth of the Cuyahoga River on
Lake Erie is the central part of the city. The major industrial areas are
located along the Cuyahoga River in the valley formed by the river and
along the Lake Erie shoreline. The densely residential areas which are the
older part of the city lie close to the shoreline and the river valley and
extend to the heights of land surrounding the city. The less densely popu-
lated suburban areas are built on the higher land which rings the city.
53
-------
Annual mean TSP concentrations tend to follow the land use patterns, being
highest in the Cuyahoga River valley, high in the center city and densely
populated, older sections, and relatively low in the suburbs (see Figures 5
and 11). Table 11 summarizes the 1974 annual mean TSP concentrations at th<
different types of sites. The industries sites averaged together over 150
3 3
n , the center city with over 100 ug/m , and the residential sites 75 w
Table 11. TSP VERSUS LAND USE (AT VISITED SITE)
Predominant land use
Center city
Industrial
Residential
Average of
1974 TSP
means (ig/m
101
152
75
Sites
4, 21
1, 9,
2, 3,
10, 11, 13
5, 14, 15,
18
The different kinds of land use activities surrounding a monitoring site,
especially industrial development, are felt to be the urban activities
most influencing the TSP concentrations recorded there. The effects of
factors such as traffic volume and construction and demolition activities
are probably obscured to a large extent. As the influence of point source
and fugitive industrial emissions decrease, due to enforcement and con-
trols, these other urban factors will become more important.
NETWORK DESIGN AND MONITOR SITING
t
Sampling for TSP is conducted at sites throughout Cuyahoga County, with
most of the sites being located in the city. Figure 3 shows the locations
of sampling sites and information about them is summarized in Table A-3
in the Appendix. The various kinds of land use in the county are repre-
sented by the site locations the center city by sites 1, 4 and 21;
residential and commercial areas in the city by sites 2, 3, 5 to 8, 12,
14 to 16, and 18 to 20; suburban areas by sites 31, 32, 35 and 37 in Bead1
wood, Bedford Heights, Parma and North Olmsted, and industrial areas in
the
alor
The
of a
tria
ever
oped
from
subu,
The t
adeqi
ordei
be ir
chara
sites
istic
tions
ing b
most
those
groua
sourc'
lower
recor(
two ot
the me
it is,
source
(?oo t
54
-------
, being
snsely
igures j
ns at tl
ver 150
es 75
the city by sites 9 to 11, 13 and 17. Industry tends to be concentrated
along the Cuyahoga River and the Lake Erie shoreline.
The design of the network is generally adequate for recording the variety
of air quality situations in the county. The city, suburbs, and indus-
trial areas seem to be well covered by hi-vol monitors. There are, how-
ever, no sampling sites located in areas which could be considered undevel-
oped and monitoring background TSP levels. The sampling sites farthest
from the city appear to be located in residential or commercial areas of
suburban towns.
g site,
ties
ts of
ivities
it sourci
I con-
, with
location
le A-3
t repre-
21;
8, 12,
1 in Bea<
ceas in
The specific siting of the hi-vol monitors also seems to be generally
adequate. Eleven of the 25 sites in Cuyahoga County were visited in
order to assess hi-vol exposure and possible local sources which could
be influencing the TSP concentrations which were recorded. The site
characteristics are summarized in Table 12. The characteristics of these
sites were assumed to be representative of the monitor siting character-
istics. The exposure of the monitors is generally good, without obstruc-
tions by the building on which the monitor is located or other surround-
ing buildings. The heights of the monitors range from 4 to 65 feet, with
most in the 20 to 50 foot range. This is generally adequate except for
those at the extreme lower and upper ends of the height range. The
ground-level monitors may be excessively influenced by strictly local
sources whereas the highest monitors (over 50 feet or so) may be recording
lower particulate concentrations due to the height. One of the monitors
3
recording annual levels over 100 ^g/m (site 11) was at ground level but
two others (sites 13 and 21) were over 60 feet high. The elevation of
the monitors is influential on the recorded TSP concentrations in that
it is, an indication of where the monitor is with respect to the industrial
sources near the valley or shoreline (below 700 feet) , in the city
(700 to 900 feet), or outside the city (above 900 feet).
55
-------
Table 12. SAMPLING SITE DESCRIPTIONS
Site
number
1
3
4
5
g
Location
Air Pollution
Control Lab
Brooklyn YMCA
Cleveland
Health Museum
Cleveland Pneu-
matic Tool
Fire Station
No. 13
1974 TSP
geometric
mean
175
76
90
88
Predominant
influence.
Industrial
Residential
Residential
Residential,
Industrial
147 Industrial
Total
elevation
610
738
699
789
703
10
11
13
14
15
21
Fire Station
No. 19
124 ! Industrial
! ' i
St. Vincent's 149 [Industrial
Hospital !
Harvard Yards .168 ' Industrial
: !
J. F. Kennedy 50 Residential
School . !
?. L. Dunbar
School
Supplementary Ed-
ucation Center
93 Residential
112
Center city
651
690
700
1,070
701
705
Height
20
50
24
59
23
Land use
Surrounding industrial and fugitive sources
(steel mills, railroad yards, unpaved roads,
bare ground, stock piles)
Surrounding residential; industrial valley
3/4 mile E and NE
Surrounding residential; heavy traffic;
hospitals nearby
Surrounding - residential; scattered light
industry (machine shops, junk yards); high
school; industrial valley 2 miles W
Surrounding residential; heavy traffic;
industrial valley - 1/4 mile W (steel mills)
i
25
4
60
60
20
65
Surrounding commercial; utilities 1 mile NE
and 3/4 mile NW; heavy traffic; Lake Erie
1/2 mile N
Parking lot - E; highway W; industrial
valley - 1/4 mile S to W
Surrounding - industrial (steel mills, stock
piles, unpaved roads and lots, truck traffic,
railroad yard)
Surrounding residential; supermarket, parking
lot
Surrounding - residential; industrial valley
1-1/2 mile X and E
Surrounding - commercial; Lake Erie - 3/4 mile NW;
heavy traffic; industrial valley 1 mile S
CO I-.
(0 (0
3 <
rt (D
%
rt
O
ft)
CO
tt>
i-3
(D
CO
rr
(0
rt
H-
a -
rt
vO i-t
O> H-
"^ P
g?
01
CO
|M
1
W rr <;
> n> ol
fB
G
3
a
m
i-t
OQ
11
OQ
t» 13
H- l-t
^i O
H
S
rt co
D* H.
(D O
M
C3 H
H- D"
< (D
M
3
|co
5
-------
IMPLEMENTATION PLANNING
Institutional Framework
The air pollution control program in Cuyahoga County has been run by the
Division of Air Pollution Control of Cleveland under contract to the Ohio
Environmental Protection Agency since 1971. Prior to that time, the Divi-
sion of Air Pollution Control was responsible only for air quality within
the City of Cleveland.
The City of Cleveland has had air pollution control regulations and a
program of enforcement since the 1940s. When the State of Ohio adopted
air pollution control regulations in 1972, these superseded all local
regulations except those which were more stringent than the state
regulations.
Under the present arrangement, the Division of Air Pollution Control pro-
vides air pollution control services to all of Cuyahoga County, enforces
the city regulations in the city when applicable, and advises the Ohio
EPA on enforcement matters on the state level.
Implementation Planning Methodology
Measured TSP air quality was the basis for classifying Cleveland as
Priority I (see Figure 26). Cleveland had prepared control plans in
1967 and 1970 using air quality diffusion modeling and this was used
in the preparation of the Cleveland demonstration region in the Ohio
State Implementation Plan.
The State of Ohio used the AQDM (air quality display model) or "worst
case" approach in preparing the SIP. Three demonstration regions
Dayton, Zanesville and Cleveland were chosen for the three priority
levels and each was modeled. Each of the three regions was to be repre-
sentative of other regions in its priority level. Cleveland was selected
57
-------
r - -"^
UORAIN
/^ ICUYAHOGA o0^ o' 0
I o o cr o v
0 0 Q 0
1 . o 1 '
'O 0 ( SUMMIT
' MEDINA
_j '
1 ' 1
i
1
0 00
1 0
00°
PORTAGE
I
1
STARK
o
o
°§°
O r» O
0 ^
r
as 1
ity
are.i
the
tior
for<
The
detf
in C
vali
duct
emit
an I
port
thos
Resu
Base
in t
bust
degi
Flgt-
Pric
Figure 26. Locations of air quality monitors
used to determine the priority
classification of Cleveland AQCR
58
-------
as the worst region for particulates based on existing ambient air qual-
ity data. The air quality data was obtained from monitors located in the
areas of highest concentrations and the emissions data was obtained from
the 1970 NEDS Emission Inventory (see Figure 26 and Table 13). Regula-
tions which achieve the desired air quality in this region should there-
fore also achieve the standards in the other Priority I regions.
The emission reductions necessary to meet the air quality standards were
determined by proportional reductions. The highest TSP concentrations
3
in Cleveland were an annual geometric mean of 225 ng/m and a 24-hour
value of 658 p.g/m . Based on the highest annual value, proportional re-
duction calculations indicates that a 79 percent reduction in particulate
emissions would be necessary to attain the Federal primary standard and
an 87 percent reduction of the secondary standard (See Table 14). Pro-
portional reductions to meet the daily standards were not as high as
those based on the annual value.
Resulting Regulations
Based on the control strategy started in 1970 using diffusion modeling
in the Cleveland Region, a regulation requiring strict control of com-
bustion sources, especially large units, and an increasingly restrictive
degree of control for larger industrial processes was developed (see
Figures A-l and A-2). The regulations were adopted January, 1972 for
Priority I regions.
59
-------
Table 13. EMISSIONS INVENTORY SUMMARY FOR PARTICUIATES, 1970
lource eat«(ory
X.
u.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
fuel conbuatlon
A. ftealdontLal fuel-are* lource
1. Co.1
1. Distillate all
1. Natural gai
4. Wood
S. Oliver
«. Total
l.b Bituminous cool - pt. source
I. Coke
b Si 'ill te u *'** *°urcc
4.a Residual oil - area source
t Residual oil - pC. source
b Natural gas - pc. aource
b Other - pt. lource
6. Total
2. Ritual nous coal
3. DUtillatc oil
4. Residual oil
5. Natural gas
6. Other
7 . Total
D. Total fuel combustion
Process tosiftt
A. Point source*
Solid waste disposal
A. Incineration
1.* On Site * area source
l.b Ott tlte - pt . source
B. Open burning
C. Total iolld watte disposal
Transportation - area source
A. Motor vehicle* - gasoline
Motor vehicles - diesel
B. Off highway fuel usage
C. Aircraft
D. Railroad
C. Vessels
?. Oiaoline handling evap. losses
C. Other
B. Total transportation
Miscellaneous - area sources
A. Agricultural burning
ft. Solvent
C. Total alscellaneous
Grand total
A. Area source
B* folnt source
C. Total
Clew land
AQCR
3.560
403
1.906
5,889
1(V» 884
58 ',497
821
112
96
572
67 5
7)2
2,109
168.698
30,960
16
30,976
205,363
45.151
'
3,290
1,307
7 992
12.589
6,336
188
1,226
66
196
8, 012
131.659
139.456
271,11)
60
-------
Table 14. CLEVELAND AND OTHER PRIORI!Y I REGIONS -
REQUIRED EMISSION REDUCTIONS
Air quality
standard
(ag/m3
Annual
geometric
mean
60
24 hr
150
Maximum measured
concentration
Hg/m3
Annual
geometric
mean
225
24 hr
658
Required emission
reductions3
Primary
79%
Secondary
877=
Existing
emissions
(xlO3 TPY)
271 .
Emissions required
to meet standards
(xlO3 TPY)
Primary
60
Secondary
36
Estimated
emissions
after applying
controls
(xlO3 TPY)
54
a (A-C)
Calculated by ). ; 100 based on annual average.
3 vA-B,J
(35 (ig/m ), C = desired level (standard)).
'_ 33 (100) = 78.95 percent
(A = measured concentration, B = background
I 3° (100) = 86.84 percent
-------
Estimation/Projection Methodology
The regulations were applied to all point sources in the Cleveland Region
and reduced emissions were tabulated. Estimates of area source emission
reductions were also made based on the degree of control achieved by
point sources. Applying the regulations and taking growth between 1970
and 1975 into account, it was determined that emissions by 1975 would
be about 80 percent below the 1970 emissions. Thus, it is assumed that
the Federal primary standard can be met with the application of these
regulations. Since calculations indicate that the Federal secondary
standard cannot be achieved with the regulations, Ohio was given an ex-
tension to develop a sufficient control strategy for the Cleveland Region,
The emissions inventory used in the Implementation Plan is an early ver-
sion of the NEDS inventory for 1970. A later NEDS inventory for 1970
containing a more complete source listing is shown in Table 3. It can
be seen that the later inventory indicates that total emissions equal
567,000 tons per year whereas total emissions in the earlier inventory
equal 271,000 tons per year. The total emissions in the inventory used
in the Implementation Plan are less than half of the total emissions
of a later and probably more accurate version. It appears, then, that
the emission reduction calculations and the recommended regulations were
based on an inventory which underestimated emissions by a considerable
amount. In that case, the emissions control program of the SIP would
fall short of achieving the reductions necessary to attain TSP standards.
Rj
2.
62
-------
Region
ission
by
1970
uld
that
ese
ry
n ex-
Region,
REFERENCES
1. A Modeling Study to Assess Attainment of the S02 and TSP NAAQS in
the Cleveland AQCR. Source Receptor Analysis Branch, Monitoring
and Data Analysis Division of OAQPS, Office of Air and Waste Manage-
ment, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. April 1976.'
2. Cole, H. S. and W. A. Lyons. The Impact of the Great Lakes on the
Air Quality of Urban Shoreline Areas. Proc 15th Conf. Great Lakes
Res. 1972: 436-463.
y ver-
970
. can
ual
itory
used
>ns |
that
is were
rable
mid
indards.
63
I
-------
SECTION III
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
SUMMARY
Air Quality Levels
The 1974 geometric mean TSP concentrations in Cleveland and Cuyahoga
3
County ranged from less than 70 ug/m outside the city and in residential
3 3
areas to 70 to 90 ug/m in densely residential areas and over 100 ug/m
in the industrial areas along the Cuyahoga River and the Lake Erie shore-
line. The annual particulates standards were exceeded at a majority of
the 25 sampling sites 12 of the sites exceeded the primary standard of
3 3
75 ug/m and nine others were over the secondary standard of 60 ug/m .
The 24-hour standards were exceeded frequently the primary standard
3
(260 ug/m ) on 73 sampling days or 4.7 percent of the total and the
3
secondary standard (150 ug/m ) on 273 sampling days or 17.6 percent of
the total.
The TSP concentrations experienced1in Cleveland are among the highest in
the State of Ohio and are the' result of the interaction of three factors -
a large amount of industry and the meteorological characteristics and
land use patterns of the city.
The Cleveland area is highly industrialized, the major industries being
primary metals, fabricated metal products, machinery, tools and automotive
products. An accurate emissions inventory for Cuyahoga County is not
available so total point and area source emissions cannot be determined.
64
But
coun
teri
in t
mean
qual
and
trib
site
tori
impo
of t
Many
the
subu
of t
shor
plac
The
of p
duri
when
dept
and
effe
felt
shor
mont
line
disp
-------
Ldential
ug/m
a shore-
ity of
dard of
g/m
dard
he
nt of
;hest in
factors
: and
; being
lutomotiv*
j not
armined.
But it is estimated, that there are over 20,000 larger sources in the
county, almost 700 of which emit more than 25 tons per year of a cri-
teria pollutant. The sampling sites in or close to the industrial areas
in the Cuyahoga Flats and along the Lake Erie shoreline all recorded
o
mean TSP concentrations greater than 100 yg/m in 1974. And an air
quality modeling study performed by EPA showed that industrial processes
and point source fuel combustion were the most important sources con-
tributing to the TSP concentrations above background levels at certain
sites the contributions were over 70 percent. In addition, uninven-
toried fugitive dust and emissions in the industrial areas are probably
important sources of particulates and resulted in the underpredictions
of the modeling study.
Many of the industries are located in the Cuyahoga Flats area and along
the Lake Erie shoreline. A few major industries are located in the
suburbs on the heights of land or in the Cuyahoga River valley, south
of the city. Several electrical generating plants are located along the
shore. The populated areas of Cleveland directly adjoin and, in some
places, surround the industries.
The presence of Lake Erie adversely affects the transport and diffusion
of pollutants along the shoreline, the most deleterious effects occurring
during the warm months. A study showed that under certain conditions
when stable lake air flows inland, a marked reduction in the mixing layer
depth occurs. Fumigation of elevated plumes and/or plume trapping of low
and intermediate level sources will result. Under these conditions, the
effects of the Lake Erie shoreline particulate sources are magnified and
felt by the populated areas of the city and suburbs just south of the
shore. The highest TSP concentrations are experienced during the summer
months, probably the result of the inland flow of lake air on the shore-
line emissions. In addition, frequent inversions, in the valley limit the
dispersion of particulates emitted by the industries located there.
65
-------
T
Air Quality Trends
The 15 sampling sites which have been operating since 1967 have had an
3 33
average decrease of 36.5 ng/m from about 125 (ig/m to 90 ^g/m in 1974.
This downward trend has been the result of fuel switching and, to a lesser
extent, enforcement of the regulations. The lack of emission inventories
makes it difficult to determine where changes occurred and what the present
problem areas are.
Coal, at one time, was the predominant fuel for residential space-heating,
industries and utilities. Since the second World War, conversion from
coal to other fuelo has been occurring in Cleveland as in other cities.
The number of residences using coal has dropped to an insignificant level.
Decreases in coal usage by industries and electric utilities have also
occurred but these have been smaller. The recent fuel shortage has slowed
the conversion to cleaner fuels. Several industries and a public utility
which were planning to convert as a pollution control measure have been
unable to and continue to exceed emission standards.
The enforcement of the regulations, resulting in control of particulate
emissions, has not been as successful as is necessary for full compliance.
There is a very large number of air pollution sources in the city and
county the Division of Air Pollution Control feels that it is under-
staffed and is not able to identify and inspect all sources or to enforce
regulations for more than the larger point sources. Long delays in
achieving compliance have been experienced with some of the companies
and industries with which the Division has been working. This is due
to lengthy litigation hearings at the state level, adjudication hearings
over proposed actions issued by the state or local agency and disputed by
the company involved, challenges of the SIP for particulates by industries
the lack of a SIP for sulfur oxides and the fuel shortage. Delays have
also been experienced with companies which are on compliance schedules
but have not been keeping up with the schedule none so far have been
pros<
tion:
sour*
Enfo
in s
90 p
last
know
thei
CONC
Clev
amor
the
and
city
feet
over
less
witt
plit
and
no i
dec:
are
TSP
con:
Cle-
lan
dus
are
66
-------
prosecuted for this failure. Neither the city's nor the state's regula-
tions and enforcement procedures are entirely satisfactory for bringing
sources promptly into compliance.
Enforcement of the regulations has involved problems but it has resulted
in some decreases in emissions. There appears to have been a general
90 percent decrease in pollutant emissions by some companies during the
last decade how much of a decrease and by how many companies is not
known. Since 1970 a few major problem sources have drastically reduced
their emissions but this probably only affects local air quality.
CONCLUSIONS
Cleveland and Cuyahoga County experience TSP concentrations which are
among the highest in the State of Ohio. The high TSP concentrations are
the result of emissions from the large numbers of industries in the city
and county, fugitive dust and emissions in the industrial areas of the
city, and shoreline particulate emissions influenced by Lake Erie's ef-
fects on dispersion. TSP concentrations have been gradually decreasing
over time due to decreasing emissions from coal combustion and, to a
lesser extent, from industrial processes and fuel combustion. Problems
with enforcing the regulations have resulted in delays in achieving com-
pliance. It is difficult to determine where emissions have been reduced
and what the emission problem areas are for future work because there are
no adequate inventories for Cuyahoga County. Further and considerable
decreases in particulate emissions would be anticipated if regulations
are enforced and progress towards full compliance is made. The high
TSP concentrations presently experienced will probably also decrease
considerably as emissions decrease. But it is likely that some of
Cleveland's characteristics Lake Erie's effects on meteorology, the
land use patterns, the industrial valley, and fugitive emissions and
dust will prevent the TSP standards from being attained in certain
areas of the city.
67
-------
APPENDIX A
SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION
Table A-l. REGULATIONS OF THE OHIO AIR POLLUTION CONTROL BOARD
AP-3-06 Air Quality Control Regions in the state are classified accord-
ing to priority (I, II, or III) based upon measured ambient air
quality.
AP-3-07 Visible emissions darker than Ringelmann 1 or 20 percent opa-
city are not permitted. Visible emissions not darker than Ringelmann
3 or 60 percent opacity are permitted for not more than 3minutes in
any 60 minute period.
AP-3-08 Open burning of refuse is prohibited with certain exceptions.
AP-3-09 Reasonable precautions shall be taken to prevent from becoming
airborne particulate matter from materials handling transport or
storage, or the use, construction, or demolition of buildings or
roads. If emissions from a building or equipment cause a nuisance,
the Board may order sealing off, ventilating, and treating the
discharge. . :
AP-3-10 Emissions from incinerators shall not exceed 0.1 pounds per
100 pounds of charge for incinerators of greater than or equal to
100 (pounds per hour, or 0.2 pounds per 100 pounds of charge for
incinerators of less than 100 pounds per hour capacity.
AP-3-11 Emissions of particulates caused by fuel combustion in fuel-
burning equipment in excess of the quantity shown in Figure A-l are
prohibited.
AP-3-12 Emissions of particulates from any source in excess of the
amount shown in Figure A-2 are prohibited.
68
-------
Table A-2. CLEVELAND AIR POLLUTION CODE
:ord-
Lmann
in
.is.
ning
ce,
r
o
1-
are
Chapter 7 A permit is required for the construction or modification of
any process or equipment that may be a source of air contaminant. If
work is not begun within 6 months nor completed within 1 year after
the permit is issued, the permit shall expire.
Chapter 9 An inspection and a permit are required for the operation of
any process or equipment that may be a source of air contaminant. In-
spections shall occur at least once every 2 years. Breakdowns of
equipment must be reported. Variances must be applied for and approved.
Chapter 11 Visible emissions of a shade darker than Ringelmann 1 from a
new source (built or installed after 31 December 1971) are not per-
mitted; or of a shade not darker than Ringelmann 2 are not permitted
for more than 3 minutes in any hour. Visible emissions of a shade
darker than Ringelmann 2 from an existing source are not permitted;
or of a shade not darker than Ringelmann 3 are not permitted for more
than 5 minutes in any hour. Visible emissions from refuse burning
equipment, diesel locomotives, or diesel-powered steamships darker
than Ringelmann 1 are not permitted.
Chapter 13
Section 1 Particulate emissions front fuel-burning equipment using
less than 10 million Btu per hour total input shall not exceed
0.6 Ib per 1 million Btu heat input. Emissions from sources with
heat input greater than or equal to 10 million Btu per hour shall
not exceed those allowed as shown in Figure A-3.
Section 2 Particulate emissions from refuse-burning equipment of
less than or equal to 175 pounds per hour of refuse charged shall
not exceed 0.4 Ib per hour. For installations charging more than
175 pounds per hour of refuse, Figure A-4 shows the allowable
particulate emission limitation.
Section 3 Particulate emissions from process equipment in excess of
the permitted emissions as shown in Figure A-2 are prohibited.
Chapter 15
Section 1 Open fires are allowed with written approval of the
Commissioner.
Section 3 Materials handling in the open air which allows particu-
late matter to become airborne which exceeds Ringelmann 1 or a
TSP concentration of 500 |ag/nr at or beyond the property line
for 1 hour or more is not allowed.
Section 4 Emissions which are a nuisance are prohibited.
69
-------
Ill
I I I I 11 I I I I I I I 1 l_
1.0
CD
Z
O
0.10
s
ui
u.
o
MINIMUM STRINGENCY
-<-',', '-J,,,'
I
MAXIMUM STRINGENCY
' '',, f .;,,<< /
'i. St'f.JrMlfofrf*'*'', VtStSnf* s "1 ""llfn I l^i ' n y
T
I
t ___
0.01
' '
' « i t i i i
' ' I I I I HI
' t i i i i til
loo
10'
I02 I03
FUEL INPUT RATE.IO6 Btu/hr
10*
10=
Figure A-l. Fuel combustion emissions regulation for
Cleveland and the State of Ohio
100
-------
Figure A-l. Fuel combustion emissions regulation for
Cleveland and the State of Ohio
100
J I I I I I
I I I I 1
10
z
o
V)
(O
5.
UJ
u_
o
<
K.
MINIMUM STRINGENCY
MAXIMUM STRINGENCY
O.I
i iii
i i i i 11 i i i i i i i 11
i i i i 11
I03
I04 I05
PROCESS WEIGHT RATE, Ib/hr
I06
Figure A-2. Process weight regulation for the State of Ohio and
the City of Cleveland
-------
N>
1.0
z
o
to 0.10
5
LJ
U.
O
UJ
0.01
"1 I I I I II I I
Jl I
I i i i i
-rrr
~! I ! ;::;:! s : ; !!!!!_!
MINIMUM STRINGENCY
MAXIMUM STRINGENCY
10°
I I I
LLL
I I I I I I I 11
I I I I I I I 11
I I I I I I I I I
i i i t i i nl
102
10*
10*
FUEL INPUT RATE.IO6 Btu/hr
Figure A-3. Fuel combustion emissions regulation for
the City of Cleveland
-------
FUEL INPUT RATE, 10" Btu/hr
Figure A-3. Fuel combustion emissions regulation for
the City of Cleveland
v>
in
ut
X
la
lil
o:
Ul
_l
m
o
_i
<
10
TOTAL REFUSE CHARGED, pounds/hour
Figure A-4. Refuse burning equipment emissions regulation
for the City of Cleveland
-------
250
240
230
220
210
200
190
180
170
o. 160
W
I- :
150
140
130
120
no
too
90
80
70
60
67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74
YEAR
Figure A-5. TSP trends center city, Cleveland
74
-------
OL
to
200
190
180
170
160
ISO
140
130
I 20
I 10
100
90
80
70
60
50
I I
67 68 69 70 71
YEAR
72 73 74
Figure A-6.
TSP trends east of
center city, Cleveland
75
-------
160
ISO
140
130
120
110
100
o. 90
(/>
i-
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
41
67 68 69
70 71
YEAR
72 73 74
Figure A-7. TSP trends - west of
center city, Cleveland
76
-------
100
90
60
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
12
_L
67 68 69
70 71
YEAR
72 73 74
Figure A-8. TSP trends south of Cleveland
77
-------
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
67 68 69 70 71
YEAR
72 73 74
Figure A-9. TSP trends east of Cleveland
78
-------
Table A-3. SAMPLING SITE INFORMATION
vo
SAROAD
code
36 1300 013
K06
36 1300 024
HOI
36 1300 009
HOI
36 1300 001
HOI
36 1300 005
HOI
36 1300 003
HOI
36 1300 Oil
HOI
36 1300 010
HOI
36 1300 008
HOI
36 1300 012
HOI
36 1300 033
HOI
36 1300 007
HOI
36 1300 026
HOI
36 1300 006
HOI
36 1300 027
HOI
CCA
code
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Site name
Air Pollution
Control Lab
Audubon J.H.S.
Brooklyn YMCA
Cleveland Health
Museum
Cleveland Pneu-
mati." Tool
Collinwood H.S.
Cudell Recreation
Center
Estabrook Recrea-
tion Center
Fire Station
No. 13
Fire Station
No. 19
St. Vincent
George Washington
School
Harvard Yards
J. F. Kennedy H.S.
P. L. Dunbar School
Address
2785 Broadway
3055 E. Blvd.
W. 25th and
Denison
8711 Euclid
Ave.
E. 77th and
Marble
E. 152nd and
St. Clair
W. Blvd. and
Detroit
Fulton and
Memphis
4749 Broadway
. E. 55th -and
St. Clair
E. 22nd and
Uoodlawn
16210 Lorain
4510 E. 49th
17100 Harvard
2200 W. 28th
City
Cleveland
Cleveland
Cleveland
Cleveland
Cleveland
Cleveland
Cleveland
Cleveland
Cleveland
Cleveland
Cleveland
Cleveland
Cleveland
Cleveland
Cleveland
Easting
443.8
4<.9.1
441.4
447.9
446.4
452.1
437.2
439.6
445.1
445.6
443.5
432.0
444.8
452.9
441.2
Northing
4592.4
4591.5
4588.7
4594.7
4589.3
4600.1
4592.0
4588.1
4591.3
4596.8
4593.6
4589.0
4588.2
4588.6
4592.2
Site char-
acteristics
C-I
S-R
C-R
S-R, I
S-R, I
C-C, I
C
C-I
S-R, C
S-R
Height
20
44
50
24
59
48
30
30
jT-
': '
23
25
4
25
60
60
26
Start
date
67
69
66
69
66
66
66
66
67
66
70
67
69
67
69
-------
Table A-3 (continued). SAMPLING SITE INFORMATION
00
o
SAROAD
code
36 1300 020
HOI
36 1300 017
HOI
36 1300 015
HOI
36 1300 021
HOI
36 1300 028
HOI
36 1300 029
HOI
36 0420 001
36 0460 001
36 5340 001
HOI
36 4980 001
HOI
GCA
code
16
17
18
19
20
21
31
32
35
37
41
42
43
44
45
Site name
Altnira School
Fire Station
No. 29
J. Adams H.S.
J. F. Rhodes H.S.
St. Joseph H.S.
Supplementary
Education Center
Beachwood
Bedford Hgts.
Fire
Parma City Hall
N. Olcisted Fire
Station
St. Theodosius
Independence
Noble School
Thomas Jefferson
West lake
Address
W. 98th and
Almira
E. 105th and
Superior
3817 E. 116th
5100 Biddulph
18491 Lake
Shore
1365 E. 12th
2551 Fairmont
5661 Perkins
6611
25128 Lorain
City
Cleveland
Cleveland
Cleveland
Cleveland
Cleveland
Cleveland
Beachwood
Bedford
Hgts.
Parma
N. Olmsted
Cleveland
Independence
Euclid
Euclid
West lake
E^st in**
437.3
448.6
44?. 7
439.7
454.1
442.6
458.4
458.3
437.6
421.0
Northing
4590.1
4596.6
4589.2
4586.6
4604.7
4594.8
4592.7
4583.7
4581.5
4584.2
Site char-
acteristics
C-C
S-C
S-R
Height
35
30
50
40
37
65
22
20
35
18
Start
date
66
67
66
60
69
70
73
73
73
73
74
74
74
74
74
CH
3=r
ro- ro
CO i-t (D rt tC'OCO
oroi-tH-fBOBcr
fi> rt (a n r> m o.
H- O
-------
APPENDIX B
PARTICLE CHARACTERIZATION
For most of the study cities members of the GCA study team acquired hi-vol
filters from the 1974 filter banks of the cognizant local agencies. In
addition, several filter samples for 1974 and selected earlier years were
obtained from state and federal filter banks. Although some filters
underwent chemical and/or detailed physical analysis, the principal pur-
pose of obtaining filters was to utilize optical microscopy to identify
each of the constituents that comprised more than 5 percent of the par-
ticulate mass. The selected filters, which were representative of sev-
eral different site types and TSP levels within each study area, were
returned to a clean room at GCA/Technology Division and carefully in-
spected for artifacts and evidence of sampler or filter malfunctions.
Each filter was then assigned a randomly generated five digit number which
served as the only identifier for the filter sample so that each analyst
had no information concerning the city, site, TSP loading or probable local
sources associated with the sample. Furthermore, the use of two labora-
tories for the microscopy, coupled with the randomly generated identifying
numbers, permitted a fairly comprehensive quality control program in the
form of blind replicate analyses. Since both laboratories utilized more
than one analyst, these procedures resulted in as many as four microscopists
observing* samples from the same filter and, in some cases, the same analyst
examining replicate samples from the same filter as many as three times.
The results of this quality control effort, which are presented in Vol-
umes I and II, warn against relying very heavily on the results of any
81
-------
one filter analysis. However, the random match-up between analyst and
filter sample should minimize systematic bias in composited results.
Twenty-one filters from five sites were selected for analysis in Cleveland
and the meteorological data from the Hopkins International Airport for the
selected sampling days are summarized in Table B-l. To gain some insight
into the contribution of secondary particulates, much of which is too
small to be observed by the microscopists, the annual average sulfate and
nitrate concentrations for the NASN site are shown in Table B-2. The re-
sults for each of the filters submitted for routine analysis are presented
in Table B-3. The results for the filters at each site have been averaged
to give a composite of the particulate composition as shown in Table B-4.
Six filters underwent replicate analyses, and the results are presented in
Table B-5.
The composite particulate characterization for all filters from Cleveland
that underwent routine analysis, presented in Table B-6, shows that miners
predominate but that the contribution of combustion products is also high.
Indeed only one other study city was found to have higher average percent
combustion products and only two cities displayed as low or lower levels
of minerals. The combustion products category is comprised primarily of
glassy fly ash and coal soot Which reflects the substantial utilization of
coal by industry and utilities.
The Supplementary Education Center in the downtown area showed considerabl
higher levels of minerals than the other sites. This is most likely the
result of local fugitive emissions from the nearby parking lots and urban
renewal areas. Rubber was also detected on most filters although its
average citywide contribution amounted to less than 10 percent and only
eighth highest in that category of the 14 study cities. The J.F. Kennedy
High School had the highest average percent rubber although the TSP levels
are generally low at that site.
82
-------
and .
the
;ht
md
:e-
ited
iged
4.
1 in
and
neral
igh.
ent
Is
of
n of
.rabl
he
ban
y
iedy
:vels
Table B-l. METEOROLOGICAL DATA ON SELECTED SAMPLING
DAYS (CLEVELAND HOPKINS INTERNATIONAL
AIRPORT)
Date
3/IU/74
4/17/74
4/29/74
0/04/74
6/28 '/4
7/31/74
Precipitation,
in.
Duy ot
obd.
0.08
0
c
0
0.32
0
Preced-
ing day
C
0
t
0.05
0
t
Wind speed, mph
Average
13.8
7.3
11.7
7.6
7.1
7.5
Rouul Cant
10.4
5. «
9.3
7.0
5.2
5.7
Wind direction, deg
3 -hour observation
290, 300, 260, 260
240, 200, 200, 190
220, 220, 210, 240
JOO, 300, 230, 210
190, 220, 210, 220
290. 270. 310, C
180, 220, 190, 210
240, 220, 1UO, 170
60, 110, 140, 90
30, 60, 80, 170
2j(), :'.20, 230, 230
280, 290, 320, 180
Resul-
tant
240
250
240
200
ao
250
Note: C
C
Calm
Trucu
Table B-2.
ANNUAL AVERAGE CONCENTRATIONS OF
SULFATE AND NITRATE IONS AT THE
CLEVELAND, OHIO, NASN SITE NO.
361300001 (ug/m3)
Year
1972
1973
1974
Sultate
Arithmetic
wean
16.62"
12.46"
10. 50s
Geometric
mean
15.34a
11.66a
9.97a
Nitrate
Arithmetic
mean
3.63"
4.05a
1.34a
Geometric
mean
3.05U
3.03a
1.02"
"indicates insufficient data for statiuticaliy valid year.
83
-------
Table B-3a.
RESULTS OF FILTER ANALYSES FOR SELECTED SITES IN CLEVELAND AND
VICINITY (SUPPLEMENTARY EDUCATION CENTER - NO. 21)
Date
TSF (-g/c3)
Components
Minerals
Quartz
Caicite
Feldspars
Ee=£tite
Mica
Combustion
Products
Soct:
Oil
Coal
Coked coal
soot
Classv
fly" ash
Incinerator
fly ash
Burned wood
Burned paper
ha petite
Biological
Material
Pollen
Spores
Paper
Starch
.Kisc. plant
tissue
Miscellaneous
Iron or ateel
Rubber
18 Narch 1974
71
Quan-
tity,
tenths
(8)
3+
2+
1
1
1-
(1+)
1-
1-
(CM-)
(1-)
1-
Size
range,
ua
2-90
<1-60
10-45
Avg,
size.
10
15
31
1? April 1S74
Quan-
tity,
tenths
(8)
H-
3
1-
3
(2-)
1+
1-
(W-)
(Of)
264
Size
range ,
Utt
1-60
-------
Table B-3b. RESULTS OF FILTER ANALYSES FOR SELECTED SITES IN CLEVELAND AND
VICINITY (HARVARD YARDS - NO. 13)
co
Date
TS? (-i/c3)
Component*
Hirers Is
Quartz
Calcite
Feldspars
Kesstite
Hica
Cocbustion .
Predicts
Soot:
Oil
Coal
Classy
fly ash
Incinerator
fly ash
Burned vood
Burned paper
Magr.etite
Biolcjical
Pollen
Spores
Paper
Starch
Kite, plant
tissue
Miscellaneous
Iron or it eel
Rubber
18 'torch 1974
150
Quan-
tity,
tenths
(5)
2
1+
1-
1
(3)
1
1
1-
«H)
(2)
2
Size
range.
UOl
5-93
1-125
1-100
1-50
1-40
5-100
1-75
5-75
Avg.
fize,
urn
30
25
25
10
25
35
40
40
17 April 197/.
327
Quan-
tity,
tenths
(4)
1+
1
1
1
(5+)
1
1+
1-
1
1+
(Of)
(1)
1
Size
range ,
urn
5-80
2-60
2-50
1-50
20-100
5-80
5-40
5-100
5-50
20-150
Avg.
size.
(1C
30
20
20
20
30
30
25
30
25
70
29 April 197i
238
Quan-
tity,
tenths
(i)
2
1
1-
(5+)
1+
2+
1+
(Of)
(1-)
1-
Si.-e
range.
na
10-50
5-50
5-50
10-200
2-70
4-40
10-50
Avg.
size.
jui
31 July 197i
244
Quan-
tity,
tenths
1
25
20
20
100
30
20
25
(7)
3
3
1
(3-)
1-
. 2
(Of)
(1-)
Size
rar.ge ,
L3
-------
00
Table B-3c. RESULTS OF FILTER ANALYSES FOR SELECTED SITES IK CLEVELAND AND
VICINITY (FIRE STATION NO. 13 - NO. 9)
Date
IE March
1974 j
29 April
1974
1 *
June
!974 2!
J-j-e
1974
31
July 1974
TSP (.c/c)
2^.3
339
334.
163
c,-_,-,ents
Mi-*ra:s
Quartz
Cilcite
Feldspars
Hematite
Mica
Co=b-stion
Prod-jets
Soot:
Oil
Coal
Classy
fly ash
Incinerator
fly ash
Burned wood
Burned paper
Magnetite
Biolcgical
Pol lea
Spcres
Paper
Starch
Misc. plant
tissue
Miscellaneous
Iron or steel
Rubber
Quan-
tity.
tenths
(t)
2
2
2
(4)
1
2-
1
(0*)
(04.)
Size
range ,
<1-30
<1-180
Avg.
size.
8
9
Quan-
tity,
tenths
(8-0
1
2+
S
(1)
1-
1-
(0+)
(1-)
Size
range.
<1-20
-------
Table B-3d. RESULTS OF FILTER ANALYSES FOR SELECTED SITES IN CLEVELAND AND
VICINITY (J. F. KENNEDY HIGH SCHOOL - NO. 14 AND CLEVELAND
HEALTH MUSEUM NO. 4) -
Site
Date
ISP (-ti/=3)
Corp;r.ents
Hirers Is
Q-jar:z
Calcite
Feldspar*
Keaatite
Mica
Other
Combustion
Products
Soot:
Oil
Coal
Classy
fly ash
Incinerator
fly ash
Burned wood
Burned paper
Hagnetite
Biological
Material
Pollen
Spcres
Paper
Starch
Kisc. plant
tissue
Miscellaneous
Iron or iteel
Rubber
J. F. Kennedy High Scr.ocl - No. 14
18 Karen 1974
42
Quan-
tity,
ter.ths
(4+)
2+
1
1-
(3+)
9
8
1+
1-
(o+)
(2)
2
Size
range,
-=
5-75
5-75
1-25
5-75
5-80
2-50
1-50
Avg.
size,
_n
30
30
10
30
30
15
20
17 April 1974
93
Quan-
tity,
ter.ths
(3)
1
1
1-
(5+)
2+
2
1+
-------
Table B-4. COMPOSITE SUMMARY OF FILTER ANALYSES FOR SELECTED
SITES IN CLEVELAND AND VICINITY
Site
No. of filters
Component i.
Mineral:!
Quurlz
Calclte
Keldu|iarB
Menulf tu
Mica
Other
Combustion
Product*
Soot:
Oil
Coal
V.F. aoot
Coked coal
80OC
Class y
Cly nish
Incinerator
Cly ash
Burned wood
Burned pa pur
Magnetite
Biological
Material
Pollen
Sporuo
Paper
Starch
Mine, plant
tlatiuc
Miscellaneous
Iron or otccl
Rubber
Graphite
Supplementary
Education
Center - No. 21
6
Quantity,
percent
Aver* f.c
(b!i)
21
2*.
2
17
<1
1
(3-.)
8
1
21
1
(<1>
tr
tr
tr
tr
tr
( 4)
I
3
Km lye
40-B2
10-35
9-40
0-9
4-30
0-1
0-1
13-60
0-13
0-6
4-55
0-5
0-tr
0-tr
0-tr
0-tr
0-tr
tr-10
)
13
16
13
3
4
( 2)
<1
<1
<1
<1
( 7)
<1
7
<1
KaiiKi!
35-5b
15-20
7-18
2-B
2-10
0-4
37-65
8-20 .
15-19
5-25
0-8
2-5
0-1
0-1
0-1
0-1
tr-15
0-1
J.F. Kennedy
Ht£li School
No. 14
3
Quantity
percent
Average
(41)
19
12
6
4
<1
(43)
12
14
11
5
1
( 2)
2
tr
tr
tr
tr
(14)
14
Range
32-45
12-25
10-12
2-10
2-6
0-1
35-55
8-20
8-20
5-15
0-10
0-2
tr-5
0-tr
0-tr
0-tr
0-tr
10-20
12-20
jm
i
i
i
c
Con
I
I
1
t
Bit
h
1
I
t
UL.
88
-------
Table B-5. RESULTS OF REPLICATE ANALYSES OF CLEVELAND FILTERS
Site
Date
TSP -(us/in'1)
Laboratory
Ana lysl a
Com|HMHiiic .1
Mineral:.
Qua l -i.
Cul-lic
fill lup.im
Hen u lie
Mlei
Other
Combustion
Product s
Soot:
Oil
Coal
Clusjy
fly ash
Incinerator
fly asli
Burned wood
burned paper
Magnetite
Biological
Material
Pollen
Spores
Paper
Starch
Misc. plant
tissue
Loaf
trlchouier
Ml seel l.-ineouu
Iron or tftcel
Rubber
Fire Station
No. 13
- No. 9
4 June 1974
141
A
1
(31)
b
14
5
6
(53)
12
15
16
4
6
(<1)
cr
tr
cr
tr
(16)
16
B
1
(31)
(66)
1 i/
/
1
)
(3)
«D
Harvard Yards - No. 13
18 March 1974
150
A
1
(50)
20
15
5
10
(28)
12
10
6
(
-------
Table B-6. CITYWIDE COMPOSITE SUM-
MARY OF FILTER ANALYSES
IN CLEVELAND
No. of filters
Components
Minerals
Quartz
Calcite
Feldspars
Hematite
Mica
Other
Combustion
Products
Soot:
Oil
Coal
Misc. soot
Glassy
fly ash
Incinerator
fly ash
Burned wood
Burned paper
Magnetite
Carbon black
Other
Biological
Material
Pollen
Spores
Paper
Starch
Misc. plant
tissue
Leaf
trichomer
Miscellaneous
Iron or steel
Rubber
Other
21
Quantity,
percent
Average
(51)
18
17
4
12
<1
<1
(40)
9
12
<1
15
2
2
( 1)
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
( 8)
2
6
450/3-76-
HACI
document
rsment o1
si on for
particul
ing sumnic
reports
me I of I
rt. Volu
90
iculate; M
Suspend
si on Souri
l Metho«
Qua 1 i ty M<
JI ION :.i A
able for
nical Inf(
^oad. S|
'220-1 (9-/J)
-------
TECHNICAL HEW"IT DATA
/'/'/IV/.Vi' I': 'hi I'llLlj-Hl'IIOII.'i 'III llii' IV. .'.V hffl'IV Cl
,7Ti"rK). p.
450/3-76-026J j
, AMU HIIII II I I. t
jonal A'.r,essnionl of the Urban Particular Problem;
f. XII - Cleveland
|:i. Hf-CII'll. NT'S ACCtSSION-r-iO.
cca C. Galkiewicz, David A. Lynn, Frank Record,
ect Director
; ORCANI^A i ION NAMI; AND Annul :;t;
Technology Division
ington Road
ord, MA 01730
HINT, .\;.i Nl.'Y NAMI. AND Al.inill :.':
Lnvironmental Protection Agency
ce of Air Quality Planning and Standards
arch Triangle Park, North Carolina 2/711
DATP
June 1976
>. pKRi:onMii\if? OHC.ANI;:A i ION com
U. I'L'RI OIIMINi; OIK'.ANIi'A I ION HU'OHT NO.
GCA-TR-76-25-C(12)
id. r'uOViiiAM i i.l.MCNi NO. " "'
1 i. DON I MAC I/C.HAN I NH.
68-0^-1376
in. i 'i'1'i iii MI ron r ANn ri iiioi) r:i ivi iii i)
Final
J.M..N.AMVNOTI;; Volume I, National Assessment - EPA 450/3-76-024; Volume II,
icle Characterization - EPA 450/3-76-025; Volumes III-XVI, Urban Area Reports
450/3-76-026a thru 026n.
1ACT
document is one volume of a sixteen-volume report presenting an overall
rr,ment of the jiarticulato problem, which was conducted by GCA/Technology
si on for L'PA.
particular document is one of fourteen single-area volumes that provide
ing summaries of data gathered in the fourteen urban areas studied. These
reports primarily provide documentation and background information for
me I of the study - National Assessment of the Particulate Problem - Final
-t. Volume I should be considered the primary output of.the report.
Kl V Wi HII.IS AND I.IOCIIMI N I ANA t.Y.'jIS
i dilate: Matter
1 Suspended Particulate
si on Sources
rol Methods
Quality Measurements
AMMiNT Reieasc> Unlimited.
lable for a fee, Thru the National
nical Information Service, 5285 Port
SurinnfieJd, VA P2151
Optical Microscopy
Secondary Particulates
Fuel Combustion
Process Emissions
Fugitive Emissions
Fugitive Dust
Monitor Siting
Meteorology
If). SECURITY CLASS ( I'liix KtT-ir
Unclassified
26. Gi;t;umf Y CLASS (This/<«.i.v/
Unclassified
COSATI
'\. MO. (H I'AGl:
105_
y. pinV:i'
91
------- |