230/3-74-
003
THE COST OF CLEAN AIR
VV-'v^vV-'v:'.^ TVi'S;:'v'l
:».';:; •'».•';:; •'»; ''».''-.'*;r.• ;.•-:.•
'
ANNUAL REPORT
of the
ADMINISTRATOR
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
to the
CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES
In Compliance with Public Law 91-604
APRIL, 1974
-------
THE COST OF CLEAN AIR
ANNUAL REPORT
OF THE
ADMINISTRATOR
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
TO THE
CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES
In Compliance with
Public Law 91-604
APRIL, 1974
-------
PREFACE
This report, the sixth submitted to Congress, complies with
Section 312(a) of the Clean Air Act, as amended by Public Law 91-604,
the Clean Air Amendments of 1970, and is the fourth prepared under the
direction of the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency.
Section 312(a") reads as follows:
Sec. 312(a). In order to provide the basis for
evaluating programs authorized by this Act and
the development of new programs and to furnish
the Congress with the information necessary for
authorization of appropriations by fiscal years
beginning after June 30, 1969, the Administrator,
in cooperation with State, interstate, and local
air pollution control agencies, shall make a
detailed estimate of the cost of carrying out
the provisions of this Act; a comprehensive study
of the cost of program implementation by affected
units of government; and a comprehensive study
of the economic impact of air quality standards
on the Nation's industries, communities, and other
contributing sources of pollution, including sources
of pollution, including an analysis of the national
requirements for and the cost of controlling
emissions to attain such standards of air quality
as may be established pursuant to this Act or
applicable State law. The Administrator shall
submit such detailed estimate and the results of
such comprehensive study of cost for the five-year
period beginning July 1, 1969, and the results of
such studies, to the Congress not later than
January 10, 1969, and shall submit a re-evaluation
of such estimate and studies annually thereafter.
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
I. INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY I-1
PURPOSE AND SCOPE 1-1
COSTS OF IMPLEMENTING THE ACT 1-2
BENEFITS FROM IMPLEMENTING THE ACT 1-6
II. GOVERNMENTAL PROGRAMS II-1
INTRODUCTION II-1
FEDERAL PROGRAMS II-1
STATE AND LOCAL PROGRAMS. II-1
III. MOBILE SOURCE EMISSION CONTROL III-l
INTRODUCTION III-l
LIGHT-DUTY VEHICLE CONTROLS III-l
Standards III-l
Emission-Control Equipment Costs III-3
Incremental Maintenance Costs Ill-10
Fuel-Consumption Penalties Ill-12
Light-Duty-Truck Control Costs Ill-15
Fuel Cost Increases 111-15
Aggregate National Costs for Light-Duty-Vehicle
Emission Controls 111-18
State Transportation Controls 111-21
AIRCRAFT EMISSION CONTROLS 111-25
HEAVY-DUTY VEHICLE CONTROLS 111-28
Heavy-Duty Gasoline Engines 111-28
Heavy-Duty Diesel Engines 111-31
TOTAL NATIONAL COSTS FOR FEDERAL MOBILE-SOURCE
EMISSION CONTROLS 111-33
REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER III 111-37
II
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Page
IV. INDUSTRIAL SOURCE CONTROL COSTS IV-1
INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY IV-1
Industrial Sources Included IV-1
Emission Estimates IV-2
Control Cost Estimates IV-3
FUEL INDUSTRIES GROUP IV-5
Coal Cleaning IV-5
Natural-Gas Processing Plants. . IV-12
Petroleum Industry IV-17
CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES GROUP IV-30
Carbon Black IV-30
Chlor-Alkali Industry IV-36
Nitric Acid IV-41
Phosphate Fertilizer Industry IV-46
Sulfuric Acid IV-54
METAL INDUSTRIES GROUP IV-60
Ferroalloy Industry IV-60
Foundries (Iron) IV-64
Foundries (Steel) -. . IV-70
Iron and Steel Industry IV-74
Primary Aluminum Industry IV-85
Primary and Secondary Beryllium IV-91
Primary Copper Smelting Industry IV-94
Primary Lead Industry IV-101
Primary Mercury Industry IV-105
Primary Zinc Industry IV-109
Secondary Aluminum Industry IV-113
Secondary Brass and Bronze IV-119
Secondary Lead Industry IV-123
Secondary Zinc Industry IV-127
BURNING AND INCINERATION GROUP IV-131
Dry Cleaning IV-131
Sewage Sludge Incineration IV-136
Solid Waste Disposal IV-141
Teepee Incinerators IV-146
Uncontrolled Burning: Agricultural IV-152
Uncontrolled Burning: Forest Fires IV-160
Uncontrolled Burning: Structural Fires IV-165
Uncontrolled Burning: Coal Refuse IV-166
iii
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Page
QUARRYING AND CONSTRUCTION GROUP IV-169
Asbestos Industry. IV-169
Asphalt Concrete Processing IV-176
Cement Industry IV-181
Crushed Stone, Sand, and Gravel IV-186
FOOD AND FOREST PRODUCTS GROUP IV-191
Foreword to Grain Industry IV-19i
Feed Mills IV-192
Grain Handling IV-198
Kraft Paper Industry IV-203
Neutral Sulfite Semichemical Paper IV-212
V. FOSSIL FUEL BURNING SOURCES V-1
STEAM ELECTRIC POWER PLANTS V-l
Introduction V-l
Background: Legislative Requirments and EPA Policy . . V-2
Discussion of Problem: Emissions from Alternative
Fuels V-4
Cont. ol Technology ..,„..„ V-6
Control Costs V-15
COMMERCT a,, INDUSTRIAL, AND RESIDENTIAL HEATING V-20
Introduction and Summary V-20
Industry Structure „ V-21
Emission Sources and Pollutants V-22
Control Technology V-24
VI. BENEFITS OF AIR POLLUTION CONTROL VI-1
INTRODUCTION VI-1
iv
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Page
POLLUTION COSTS VI-1
Psychic Costs VI-1
Damage Costs VI-2
Avoidance Costs VI-2
METHODS OF ASSESSING AIR POLLUTION COSTS VI-3
POLLUTION COST ESTIMATES VI-5
Aesthetic and Soiling VI-8
Health VI-9
Materials VI-11
Vegetation VI-13
COMPARING COST AND BENEFIT VALUES VI-14
-------
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 1-1,
Table 1-2.
Table II-1.
Table II-2.
Table II-3.
Table III-l.
Table III-2.
Table III-3.
Table III-4.
Table III-5.
Table III-6.
Table III-7.
Table 1II-8.
Table III-9.
Table III-lO.
Cumulative National Costs for Air Pollution
Abatement from FY 1971 Through FY 1979 . . .
Incremental National Costs of Air Pollution
Abatement for the Coming Five Years FY 1975-1979), .
Federal Funding for Air Pollution Programs of the
Environmental Protection Agency FY 1973-1974 . . ..
Projected Hardware Costs - Federal Facilities. . .
Summary of EPA Grants for State and Local Control
Agency Program .
Federal Exhaust Emission Standards and Control
Levels for Light-Duty Vehicles
Federal Standards for Light-Duty Truck Emissions .
Estimated Automotive Emission-Control Equipment
Cost, 1968-74
Estimated Automotive Emission-Control Equipment
Cost, 1975 and 1976 Model Years
Estimated Automotive Emission-Control Equipment
Cost, 1977 Model Year
Estimated Incremental Maintenance Costs for Vehicle
'Emission-Control Systems
Effect of Emission Control on Light-Duty Vehicle
Fuel Economy
Anticipated Effect of Lead Phase-Down Schedule . .
Projected United States Sales of Light-Duty
Passenger Vehicles
Estimated National Costs Attributable to Light-
Duty Vehicle Emission Controls
Table III-ll. Mix of Emission Sources in Urban Areas - 1971. . .
1-3
1-4
II-2
II-2
II-3
III-4
III-5
III-7
III-9
III-ll
III-13
III-14
111-16
111-19
111-22
111-23
vi
-------
LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
Page
Table 111-12. Contemplated In-Use-Vehicle Emission Control
Measures and Associated Unit Costs Ill-26
Table 111-13. AQCR's with Transportation Control Plans 111-27
Table 111-14. Aircraft Emission Standards and Estimated Cost
Impacts 111-29
Table 111-15. Federal Standards for Heavy-Duty Gasoline-Engine
Emissions 111-30
Table 111-16. Estimated Per-Vehicle Cost Penalties for Heavy-
Duty Gasoline Engine Emission Control 111-31
Table 111-17. Estimated National Costs for Heavy-Duty Gasoline
Engine Emission Controls 111-34
Table 111-18. Federal Standards for Heavy-Duty Diesel Engine
Emissions 111-35
Table 111-19. Estimated National Costs for Mobile-Source
Emission Control 1970-1979 111-36
Table IV-1. Costs of Control for Model Plants in the Coal-
Cleaning Industry IV-11
Table IV-2. Costs of Control for Selected Model Natural Gas
Processing Plants IV-16
Table IV-3. Cost of Control for Petroleum Industry IV-29
Table IV-4. Costs of Control for Selected Model Plants in
the Chlor-Alkali Industry (Mercury Cells) IV-40
Table IV-5. Costs of Control for Selected Model Plants for
the Nitric Acid Industry IV-45
Table IV-6. Costs of Control for Selected Phosphate Fertilizer
Model Plants IV-52
Table IV-7. Costs of Control for Selected Model Plants for the
Sulfuric Acid Industry IV-59
Table IV-8. Costs of Control for Model Ferroalloy Plants . . . IV-63
Table IV-9. Estimated Costs of Control for Model Iron
Foundries IV-6 9
Table IV-10. Estimated Costs of Control for Model Steel
Foundries IV-73
vii
-------
LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
Table IV-11.
Table IV-12.
Table IV-13.
Table IV-14.
Table IV-15.
Table IV-16.
Table IV-17.
Table IV-18.
Table IV-19.
Table IV-20.
Table IV-21.
Table IV-22.
Table IV-23.
Costs of Control for Model Integrated Iron and
Steel Plants
Cost of Control for Selected Model Plants for
the Primary Aluminum Industry. .
Costs of Control for the Model Plants in the
Primary Copper Industry
Costs of Control for the Model Plants in the
Primary Mercury Industry
Costs of Control for the Model Plants in the
Primary Zinc Industry
Costs of Control for Selected Model Plants for
the Secondary Aluminum Industry
Cost of Control for Selected Model Plants for
the Secondary Brass and Bronze Industry. . . .
Costs for Control for Selected Model Plants for
the Secondary Lead Industry
Costs of Control for Selected Model Plants for
the Secondary Zinc Industry
Costs of Control for the Model Plants for
the Dry Cleaning Industry
Costs of Control for the Model Plants - Sewage
Sludge Incineration
Costs of Control for Selected Solid Waste
Disposal Models
Table IV-24.
Table IV-25.
Yield of Hydrocarbon, CO, and C02 in Kilograms per
Metric Ton of Waste Material from the Burning of
Various Agricultural Wastes Collected in the San
Joaquin Valley and San Francisco Bay Area of
California
Estimated Emissions from Sugar-Cane Burning, 1972.
A Summary of Increases in Total Costs per Acre
Over Open-Field Burning with Alternative Residue-
Removal Techniques
Page
IV-83
IV-90
IV-100
IV-108
IV-112
IV-118
IV-121
IV-126
IV-130
IVJ.35
IV-140
IV-145
IV-153
IV-155
IV-158
viii
-------
LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
Table IV-26. Emissions Data from Testing of a Mobile Field
Sanitizer for Burning Straw and Grass Residues,
Oregon Willamette Valley, 1971 IV-159
Table IV-27. Annual Particulate Production from Forest Fires
in the South IV-164
Table IV-28. Costs of Control for Selected Model Plants for
the Asbestos Industry IV-174
Table IV-29. Asphalt Concrete Processing. Costs of Control
for the Model Plants IV-180
Table IV-30. Costs of Control for the Model Plants - Cement
Manufacturing IV-185
Table IV-31. Costs of Control for the Model Plants - Feed
Manufacture IV-19 7
Table IV-32. Costs of Control for the Model,Grain-Handling
Plants IV-202
Table IV-33. Costs of Control for the Model Plants - Kraft
Processes IV-211
Table V-l. Costs of Control for the Model Plants, Commercial
and Industrial Heating Systems V-27
Table VI-1. National Estimates of Air Pollution Costs, By
Pollutant and Effects, 1970 VI-6
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure III-l. Estimated Passenger-Car Population 111-18
Figure III-2. Projected Population of Heavy-Duty Gasoline-
Engine Trucks ... 111-32
ix
-------
I. INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY
PURPOSE AND SCOPE
Section 312(a) of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970 requires
an annual report on the prospective costs and impacts of governmental and
private efforts to carry out the provisions of the Act. This report is the
sixth submitted under the Act.
National cost estimates are presented for governmental programs
as well as those for the control of the major sources of air pollution. For
this purpose the sources of air pollution are broadly divided into three
major categories: transportation sources, industrial sources, and sources
related to stationary fossil fuel consumption. Coverage includes not only those
pollutants for which national ambient air quality standards have been
promulgated, but also pollutants covered by proposed hazardous air-pollutant-
emission standards and by new source performance standards.
Estimates of costs, benefits, and impacts reported herein are
based, wherever possible, upon actual regulations specified by the states
in implementation plans submitted to EPA. All costs in this report are in
1973 dollars.
This report does not presume to include all costs of abating air
pollution. Even before the Clean Air Act of 1967, costs were incurred in
response to obvious pollution problems and to local legislation. Therefore,
the costs herein are estimated incremental costs, over and above any cost of
control incurred or the level of control practiced prior to the Act of 1970.
Fiscal year 1971 was judged as the appropriate baseline from which
incremental costs are to be assessed. This is in keeping with the passage of
the clearer and more specific Clean Air Amendments of 1970, and with the
wording of Section 312(a) of that legislation, as may be seen from the preface
to this report.
Within this framework, the estimated direct costs and benefits of
air pollution control for industrial and other sources are detailed.
Investments are projected through FY 1979 and are shown with the anticipated
annual costs in that year. A large number of simplifying assumptions were
necessary. Industry and motor-vehicle growth and technology trends were
forecast and are described in their appropriate places in the text. Legis-
lation which is pending under the Clean Air Act and which reasonably can be
expected to become law was included in the calculations. The best available
information on control technologies, associated control costs, and related
information were employed. This information is being modified and updated
continuously by the growing experience with applied emissions control
systems. The situation has been complicated further by recent uncertainty
in the overall fuels/energy situation.
-------
1-2
It should be noted that this document specifically does not dictate
EPA policy with regard to the application of presently available or projected
emissions-control technology to any industry or activity. Simplifying
assumptions were required in order to estimate the effect of EPA regulations
on the industries included herein. The control technologies which were assumed
in order to provide these estimates are not specifically required by law or
by EPA; no interpretation of the contents of this document to the contrary should
be made.
A relatively new and uniform cost estimating methodology has been
applied, for the first time and to the maximum extent possible, to these
industry groups. The expected minimum and maximum estimates of capital
investment, annualized charges, and cash requirement have been treated by a
stochastic simulation procedure for deriving the probable range of the
estimates.
COSTS OF IMPLEMENTING THE ACT
Estimates of the capital investments required for implementing the
Act over the period FY 1971-1979, and the annualized cost are summarized in
Table 1-1. Costs for the 5-year period FY 1975 through FY 1979 are estimated
in Table 1-2. Each number in Table 1-2 is repeated in the appropriate chapter
of this report, where the assumptions and background data are presented and
discussed.
It is not possible to estimate actual cash outlays over the
reporting period with any precision since the compliance schedules for
implementation of state plans are not yet determined. The earlier imple-
mentation of state plans is commenced, the larger will be the cash outlay
over the period because operation and maintenance expenses will be incurred
for more years.
The uncertainties of forecasting even five years into the future
are well known. The estimates are based mainly on present technology, with
no allowance for innovation. In some situations, control technology has been
assumed to be available that has not been commercially demonstrated at the
present time. These estimated costs are derived from an extrapolation of
current practice; rarely in this century would such a five-year extrapolation
have held true.
Estimates of the cost per vehicle of attaining Federal automotive
emission standards becoming effective in 1975 and 1976 have been updated.
A more complete discussion of the factors entering into this cost may be"
found in Chapter III.
-------
1-3
TABLE 1-1. INCREMENTAL NATIONAL COSTS FOR AIR POLLUTION ABATEMENT FROM
FY 1971 THROUGH FY 1979 (millions of dollars)
Cumulative
Investment
Annualized Costs (FY 1979)
Expected Minimum Maximum Expected Minimum Maximum
(a)
Mobile Sources
Sub-Total
Fossil Fuels
Steam Electric Power
Commercial and Industrial
Sub Total: Fossil Fuels
Fuel Industries Group
Coal Cleaning
Natural Gas Processing
Petroleum Industry
Chemical Industries Group
Carbon Black
Chlor-Alkali
Nitric Acid
Phosphate Fertilizer
Sulfuric Aoid
Metals Industries Group
Ferroalloy
Foundries(Iron)
Foundries(Steel)
Iron and Steel
Primary Aluminum
Primary Beryllium
Primary Copper
Primary Lead
Primary Mercury
Primary Zinc
Secondary Aluminum
Secondary Brass and Bronze
Secondary Lead
Secondary Zinc
Burning and Incineration Group
Dry Cleaning
Sewage Sludge Incineration
Solid Waste Disposal
Teepee Incinerators
Uncontrolled Burning
Agricultural
Coal Refuse
Forest Fires
Structural Fires
23,107.0 23,107.0 23,107.0 7,382.(fbi 7,382.0* ^7,382.C
7,460.0 5,990.0 9,310.0
5.534.0 3.433.0 7.186.0
12,994.0 9,423.0 16,496.0
15.8
90.0
850.0
16.7
35.4
19.4
407.2
74.3
339.0
77.2
2,039.0
1,047.0
491.0
27.3
.9
32.4
18.5
9.5
10.8
2.1
144.0
62.7
1,638.0
14.5
79.0
716.0
15.2
28.6
16.8
366 '.4
70.8
241.0
70.9
1,963.0
998.0
449.0
16.8
.8
27.3
15.6
7.2
6.4
1.2
120.2
54.5
1,520.0
17.2
105.0
993.0
18.4
42.0
21.7
457.1
77.9
422.0
83.6
2,113.0
1,098.0
539.0
38.6
.9
39.6
23.4
12.8
15.1
2.9
170.3
70.7
1,880.0
4,630.0 3,450.0 5,530.0
6,'l09,0 4,117.0 7,'742.0
3.3
27.3
240.8
6.4
14.2
9.8
105.6
12.1
15.5
694.0
3.1
23.9
170.4
6.0
12.8
8.9
96.Z
6.7
13.7
619.0
3.6
30.9
302.0
6.8
15.9
10.6
114.3
29.4
180.0
25.5
68?-. 9
424.0
147.0
6.8
.2
8.2
5.7
3.8
2.5
.7
28.4
149.0
24.1
667.9
411.0
138.0
4.1
.2
6.9
4.9
2.9
1.2
.4
30.7
234.0
27.0
708.2
438.0
156.0
9.5
.3
10.0
6.8
5.0
3.8
.9
17.9
17.4
766.0
Quarrying and Construction Group
Asbestos industry
Asphalt Concrete Industry
Cement Industry
Crushed Stone, Gravel, Sand
Lime Manufacturing
Food and Forest Products Group
Feed Mills
Grain Handling
Kraft Paper
Semichemical Paper
Sub Total: Industrial Sources
TOTAL
11.3
604.0
444,0
60.8
10.4
401. Q
364,0
52.1
12.9
828,0
526.0
68'. 9
3.9
119.0
129,0
13.3
3.3
89.0
113,0
12.0
4.3
155.0
144.0
14.9
1,377.0
985.0
234.0
11,191.0
1,228.0
827.0
201.0
22.7
9,895i'4
1,537.0
1,111.0
272.0
31.2
12,629*2
255.0
149.0
78.0
12.3
3,410.2
231.0
125.0
70.0
10.5
3,053,3
281.0
170.0
92.1
14.5
3,791.4
47,292.0 42,425.4 52.232.2 16,901.2 14,552.3 18,915.4
(a) Estimated on the basis that all the required capital investment has been made as in FY 1979.
(b) The annualized cost for Mobile Sources for the year FY 1979 is that estimated actually to
occur in FY 1979. This annualized cost includes estimated operating and maintenance
expense for light and heavy-duty vehicles, plus an estimated $1,085 billion for the
cost of implementing in transportation control plan.
-------
1-4
TABLE 1-2. INCREMENTAL NATIONAL COSTS OF AIR POLLUTION ABATEMENT FOR
THE COMING FIVE YEARS (FY 1975-1979) (millions of dollars)
Investment
Mobile Sources
Sub-Total
Fossil Fuels
Steam Electric Power
Commercial and Industrial
Sub Total: Fossil Fuels
Fuel Industries Group
Coal Cleaning
Natural Gas Processing
Petroleum Industry
Chemical Industries Group
Carbon Black
Chlor-Alkall
Nitric Acid
Phosphate Fertilizer
Sulfuric Acid
Metals Industries Group
Ferroalloy
Foundries (Iron)
Foundries(Steel)
Iron and Steel
Primary Aluminum
Primary Beryllium
Primary Copper
Primary Lead
Primary Mercury
Primary Zinc
Secondary Aluminum
Secondary Brass and Bronze
Secondary Lead
Secondary Zinc
Burning and Incineration Group
Dry Cleaning
Sewage Sludge Incineration
Solid Waste Disposal
Teepee Incinerators
Uncontrolled Burning
Agricultural
Coal Refuse
Forest Fires
Structural Fires
Quarrying and Construction Grouts
Asbestos Industry
Asphalt Concrete Industry
Cement Industry
Crushed Stone, Gravel, Sand
Lime Manufacturing
Food and Forest Products Group
Feed Mills
Grain Handling
Kraft Paper
Semlchemlcal Paper
Sub Total: Industrial Sources
TOTAL
Expected
19,810.0
5,540.0
1,175.0
6,715.0
13.1
89.1
450.4
-
9.3
32.0
19.2
361.5
21.4
142.6
17.2
947.9
443.5
-
85.0
27.3
.9
32.4
8.1
.6
2.2
.3
123.4
42.7
1,046.8
-
.
_
.
-
5.0
142.3
93.4
.
15.5
1,108.9
860.7
167.9
25.8
6,336.4
32,861.4
Minimum
19,810.0
4,440.0
682.9
5,122.9
12.0
79.1
378.3
-
' 8.6
25.7
16.1
348.7
20.3
109.7
15.3
910.9
"415.5
-
74.0
16.8
.8
27.3
6.8
.4
1.3
.2
102.6
36.8
949.5
-
_
_
_
-
4.2
85.7
70.0
_
13.6
987.4
722.9
143.7
5k606.2
30.539.1
Maximum
19,810.0
7,640.0
1.532.1
9,172.1
14.2
105.0
519.2
-
10.2
38bO
22.0
405.8
22.4
175.3
19.1
987.5
473.3
-
96.5
38.6
.9
39.6
10.4
.8
3.3
.5
146.7
48.6
1,157.0
_
_
_
-
5.7
200.8
116.9
17.3
1,243.7
971.6
196.2
7,117.3
36,009.4
Annualized
Costs (FY 1979)
Expected Minimum Maximum
7,382.0 7
4,630.0 3
1.479.0
6,109.0 4
3.3
27.3
240.8
-
6.4
14.2
9.8
105.6
29.4
180.0
25.5
687.9
424.0
147.0
6.8
.2
8.2
5.7
3.8
2.5
.7
12.1
15.5
694.0
_
_
_
_
-
3.9
119.0
129.0
13.3
255.0
149.0
78.0
3,410.2 3
16,901.2 14
,382.0 7,
,450.0 5,
667.0 2.
,117.0 7,
3.1
23.9
170.4
-
6.0
12.8
8.9
96.2
28.4
149.0
24.1
667.7
411.0
-
138.0
4.1
.2
6.9
4.9
2.9
1.2
.4
6.7
13.7
619.0
_
_
_
_
-
3.3
89.0
113.0
12.0
231.0
125.0
70.0
10.5
.053.3 3,
,552.3 18,
382.0(b)'
530.0
212.0
742.0
3.6
30.9
302.0
-
6.8
15.9
10.6
114.3
30.7
234.0
27.0
70872
438.0
-
156.0
9.5
.3
10.0
6.8
5.0
3.8
.9
17.9
17.4
766.0
.
_
_
_,
-
4.3
155.0
144.0
14.9
281.0
170.0
92.1
_ 14.5
• ~iT • K.
791.4
915.4
(a) Estimated on the basis that all the required capital investment has been made as in FY 1979
(b) The annualized cost for Mobile Sources for the year FY 1979 is that estimated actually to
occur in FY 1979. This annualized cost includes estimated operating and maintenance
expense for light and heavy-duty vehicles, plus an estimated $1,085 billion for the
cost of implementing in transportation control plan.
-------
1-5
The current estimate of incremental national abatement costs has
increased considerably over that presented in the 1973 Cost of Clean Air
Report ,($23.4 billion in 1973 to $47.3 billion in 1974). The largest increases
were in mobile source and fossil fuel burning source abatement costs. These
accounted for $9.2 billion apiece. The remainder, almost a $6.0 billion
increase, is associated with industrial abatement.
The primary sources of these differences can be identified. In part,
the differences are due to the significantly different approaches used in the
two reports and the availability of considerably new data. For mobile sources,
$3.9 billion of the increase is due to revision of the control cost estimate
per vehicle, another $4.2 billion is due to the addition of one more year (1979)
to the time period covered. A further increase is due to the inclusion of
$1 billion for urban transportation control programs which were omitted from
the 1973 report.
The increase in fossil fuel burning source abatement costs is due
first to increased costs for control of power plants and for commercial and
industrial boilers. Power plant cost increases are due to the addition of
$1.8 billion fpr particulate control which had previously been considered as a
standard industry practice prior to promulgation of the Clean Air Act. Also
added was $1.7'billion for abatement on one year's growth in power plant
capacity (1978-1979), and $1.1 billion due to the increase in estimated unit
costs for sulfur oxide control.
The increases in industrial source control cost are distributed over
many of the industries studied. The majority of the increase occurred in the
feed milling industry ($1.4 billion), solid waste disposal ($1.1 billion) and iron
and steel ($1.5 billion). Abatement costs for feed milling had been understated
in previous years due to the consideration of only one emission source and 1,112
mills. The current report includes up to seven sources for large mills (four for
the smallest) with control costs of about $200,000 per mill. Cost for a similar
mill in the previous report was only $15,000 per mill. The current report also
uses recent survey data which indicates an industry population of 7,600 mills.
The increase in solid waste disposal cost is due to the inclusion of
investment cost for land and equipment ($1.4 billion). The previous report
assumed no incremental investment cost over the open-burning alternative. This
increase was reduced by $.3 billion due to a revised assumption on the cost of
abatement for municipal incinerators. The previous report included the entire
cost of hew incinerators under the premise that incineration was a required
control technique to replace open burning. In contrast, this report includes
only the cost of particulate emission control from the incinerators under the
alternative premise that most new incinerators would have been built even
without the Act. Thus only the incremental cost of particulate control is
attributable to the Act. The real cost probably is between these two assumptions.
-------
1-6
Other industries for which estimated abatement costs increased signi-
ficantly were grain milling, and petroleum. These estimates increased by
450 million and 350 million, respectively. As in the case of feed mills, . number
of emission sources from grain mills were not considered in the previous report.
Inclusion of these sources along with associated control devices resulted in
higher abatement costs per mill. New cost data for the petroleum industry was
developed by the Industrial Gas Cleaning Institute. The increase in total cost
for this industry is the result of the higher unit control costs presented
by IGCI.
A significant factor in the cost increases is a change in the base year
for the price deflator. The previous year's report used 1970 dollars while the
current report uses 1973 dollars. The price indices rose about 15% during this
period thus accounting for $2.9 billion of the $19.3 billion increase.
BENEFITS FROM IMPLEMENTING THE ACT
Air pollution has clearly observable effects in terms of increased
morbidity and mortality, deterioration of aesthetic qualities, damage to
artifacts, soiling, and damage to vegetation. Society's desire to reduce or
eliminate these adverse effects has led to establishment of laws, programs and
policies designed to control air pollution and improve air quality.
The many kinds of costs pollution imposes upon society are grouped
as psychic costs, damage costs,and avoidance costs. Damage costs are those that
result in out-of-pocket expenses or direct economic losses because of exposure
to pollution. Psychic costs are the mental discomfort and anguish persons feel
because of pollution. This includes physical effects, such as smarting eyes
and shortness of breath, that people experience, but which do not result in
direct expenses or economic losses. Avoidance costs are expenses, such as
extra painting, air conditioning, and moving, incurred to reduce or avoid
pollution effects.
It is not yet possible to measure all the benefits (reduced pollution
costs) of improved air quality. Estimates of some of the benefits have been
made and are presented in Table VI-1. These estimates, while providing some
understanding of benefits of current programs, are inadequate as a basis for a
comparison of the costs and benefits of the entire program or any particular
part of the program. The major difficulty is that many benefits have not yet
been estimated.
-------
II. GOVERNMENTAL PROGRAMS
INTRODUCTION
This chapter reports projected costs of governmental programs
at all levels (Federal, state, and local) directed toward implementa-
tion of the purposes of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970.
FEDERAL PROGRAMS
Fiscal 1973 Environmental Protection Agency funding for air
programs and budget requests for fiscal 1974 are given in Table II-1.
Since most programs are organized along functional rather than pollutant
lines, it is not possible to allocate costs among the various pollutants.
In addition to expenditures for administration of governmental
programs, the Federal government also incurs expenditures to abate
emissions from Federally owned and/or operated facilities. Estimated
hardware expenditures required to abate such emissions from existing
facilities in the period beginning with FY 1974 and beyond are presented
in Table II-2.
STATE AND LOCAL PROGRAMS
The Act reaffirms the original jurisdiction of state and local
governments over matters pertaining to protection of the quality of the
air resource. To aid these units of government in effective prosecu-
tion of their responsibilities, EPA maintains ten regional offices
covering the ten census regions and devotes by far the largest portion
of the budget for air programs to control non-Federal agency development
and maintenance. Table II-3 summarizes this support; the state totals
in this table include grants to local control agencies during fiscal
1972 with estimates for funding in fiscal 1973 and 1974 within the
state.
-------
II-2
TABLE II-1. FEDERAL FUNDING FOR AIR PROGRAMS OF THE
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
(THOUSANDS OF CURRENT DOLLARS)
FY 1973-1974
Research and Development
Pollution Processes and Effects
Pollution Control Technology
Subtotal
Abatement and Control
Mobile Sources
Stationary Source Standards and
Guidelines
Ambient Trend Monitoring
Technical Assistance
Academic Training Grants
Control Agency Support
Subtotal
Total
1973
29,624
37,758
67,382
9,325
6,246
952
10,925
3,415
50,802
81,665
149,047
1974
29,849
27,248
57,097
9,808
6,280
977
9,052
2,100
51,518
79,735
136,834
Source: Agriculture Environmental and Consumer Protection Appro-
priations for 1974. Hearings before a Subcommittee of the
Committee on Appropriations, House of Representatives,
Ninety-Third Congress First Session 1973. Part 5.
TABLE IIT2. PROJECTED HARDWARE COSTS - FEDERAL FACILITIES
(MILLIONS OF CURRENT DOLLARS)
Department of Defense $141.8
Atomic Energy Commission .2
Department of Agriculture 3.0
Tennessee Valley Authority 38.1
Department of Transportation .8
All Agencies $183.9
Source: Office of Federal Activities, EPA.
-------
II-3
TABLE II-3. SUMMARY OF EPA GRANTS FOR STATE AND
LOCAL CONTROL AGENCY PROGRAM
State or Territory
Alabama
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
District of Columbia....
Florida
Georgia
Hawaii
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Minnesota
Missouri
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico .,
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
1972
Actual
527,324
69,775
207,049
208,527
3,690,260
900,784
1,335,796
189
225,000
885,741
630,218
96,445
81,687
2,423,520
826,034
559,243
335,761
159,028
175,000
987,000
794,385
1,613,520
365,669
421,724
717,574
231,460
231,929
245,702
185,409
2,118,844
706,440
3,967,790
1,489,069
45,000
1973
Estimated3
709,427
152,518
512,614
280,295
3,893,615
576,524
1,014,406
260,054
173,088
1,363,097
684,100
157,395
141,074
2,830,000
1,109,927
498,841
470,228
1,016,034
349,959
245,349
852,115
1,247,799
2,010,073
700,097
477,699
1,123,344
237,022
304,422
248,532
227,609
2,583,130
302,543
4,232,424
1,050,998
62,207
1974
Estimated3
861,100
142,090
563,400
407,000
3,769,990
501,200
839,400
212,200
214,600
1,186,600
1,085,400
101,200
271,200
2,640,000
1,738,480
687,600
562,324
766,660
807,200
315,000
850,800
1,375,400
1,853,600
873,600
590,430
956,670
222,800
274,960
248,200
238,500
1,734,000
328,800
3,755,800
1,154,400
89,600
-------
II-4
TABLE II-3 (Continued)
State of Territory
Ohio
Oklahoma
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Texas
Utah
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
American Samoa
Guam
Puerto Rico
Virgin Islands
1972
Actual
1,798,153
484,906
486,828
2,080,700
133,899
111,783
32,025
703,614
2,603,299
224,426
1,062,000
1,129,910
317,620
965,448
68,133
54,774
464,417
100,043
1973
Estimated3
2,450,000
481,408
667,492
3,645,052
197,117
708,247
86,943
1,157,469
2,789,526
216,945
173,669
618,516
1,194,024
322,693
900,000
102,667
33,210
54,990
512,261
89,212
1974
Estimated3
2,644,390
471,600
532,300
3,259,890
269,000
719,600
137,870
910,800
2,398,800
319,600
98,800
1,007,400
1,003,050
500,700
1,039,200
59,900
13,800
51,470
489,800
71,200
' $40,280,874
Grant and contract support for State
Implementation Plan revision and
development
State Assignee
Total
$48,500,000 $48,219,374
3,014,500 3,000,000
855.000° 280,626b
$50,659,500 $51,500,000
Source: Agriculture - Environmental and Consumer Protection appropriations
for 1974. Hearings before a subcommittee of the Committee on
Appropriations, House of Representatives, Ninety-Third Congress,
First Session 1973. Part 5
aDollar amounts are estimates of the actual amounts that may be awarded to
States during FY 1973. Estimates include funds to support the program that
provides Federal employees to the states on a temporary basis.
Funds for temporary Federal employees assigned to States other than by payment
through the grant mechanism.
CReduction resulting from the establishment of the grant and contract review funds,
-------
III. MOBILE SOURCE EMISSION CONTROL
INTRODUCTION
Mobile sources are recognized as significant contributors to
national air-quality problems. In areas that are subject to excessive
incidences of photochemical smog formation, over half the reactants can
generally be attributed to motor-vehicle emissions. Similarly, motor-
vehicle emissions frequently are the source of excessive concentrations
of carbon monoxide in high-traffic-density urban areas during traffic
peaks. In many cities, aircraft operations are the source of high levels
of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, and particulates in
the vicinity of air-traffic terminals.
Passenger cars and light trucks have been highly significant
and visible pollutant sources, and accordingly, have been intensively
controlled by the Federal Government beginning as early as 1968. Federal
controls on heavy-duty motor vehicles have been in effect since 1970, and
Federal aircraft emission controls will be implemented beginning in 1974.
Other mobile sources such as motorcycles ; railroad locomotives;
off-road farm, construction, and garden equipment; and marine engines
have been under study by EPA, but no regulations for these sources have
been promulgated to date.
This chapter describes briefly the applicable standards and
technology employed for mobile-source emission controls, and presents
estimates for the equipment cost and operating cost of these controls.
Totals are given for the 1968-1979 time interval.
LIGHT-DUTY VEHICLE CONTROLS
Standards
Since 1968, the Federal Government has regulated the output of
air pollutants from the exhaust of new light-duty motor vehicles. Emission
standards are expressed in terms of maximum levels of gaseous emissions per mile
permitted from the vehicle while operating on a prescribed duty cycle.
Sampling procedures and test equipment are also prescribed by the regula-
tions. While the standards apply only to new vehicles, the certification
procedure requires that test cars meet emission standards after being
driven over a prescribed durability schedule.
Both emission levels and test procedures have been revised
periodically in several steps of increasing stringency. Changes in the
-------
III-2
Federal Test Procedure were implemented for the 1972 and 1975 model years.
Changes in emission levels were prescribed by the Environmental Protection
Agency (or its predecessors) for 1970, and 1973 (N0x), and were based
largely on evolving technology for emission control. In effect, the
1973/74 Federal Standards required a reduction in hydrocarbon (HC) and
carbon monoxide (CO) exhaust emissions of about 66 percent and a reduction
in oxides of nitrogen (NOX) of 44 percent from uncontrolled (pre-1968)
levels.
The 1970 Amendments to the Clean Air Act called for the Admin-
istrator to prescribe 1975 Federal emission standards effecting a 90
percent reduction in the HC and CO emissions from 1970 levels, and to
prescribe 1976 Federal standards effecting a 90 percent reduction in NOX
emissions from 1971 levels. The 1970 Amendments further gave the Admin-
istrator the authority to grant a 1-year suspension of the 1975 and 1976
standards under specified conditions if it could be established that
effective control technology was not available for compliance.
On April 11, 1973, the Administrator announced his decision
(III-l) to suspend the 1975 statutory Federal Motor Vehicle Emissions
Standards covering carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon for a period of 1 year.
After extensive hearings in March, 1973, the Administrator found that,
although the necessary technology existed to meet the 1975 standards
(based on the use of catalytic converters) there was a high degree of un-
certainty concerning the industry's ability to certify and produce catalyst-
equipped cars in 1975 in large enough numbers to meet production require-
ments for their full model line. In addition, in-use reliability of the
catalysts had not been established. Because of this, it was found that
the risk of introducing catalysts on all vehicles in 1975 outweighed the
risk to human health if the standards were delayed.
The suspension was applied in two parts:
• National 1975 interim standards were established which
are more strict than standards now in force, but which
should not necessarily require catalysts on the majority
of vehicles sold.
• More stringent standards were established for vehicles
sold only in California which would require catalysts
on cars sold in that state. The California waiver pro-
vision in the Clean Air Act was utilized to establish
the California HC and NOX standards, while a more
stringent standard was prescribed fqr CO.
The 1975 statutory standards as originally established were to
be applicable to all cars sold in the U.S. in 1976.
* Numbers in parentheses denote references listed at the end of this
chapter.
-------
III-3
Similarly, the Administrator's decision (III-2) to suspend the
1976 Clean Air Act Standards was announced on July 31, 1973. This
decision was based on the belief that technological success in meeting
the 1976 statutory standards could not be predicted reasonably. In
applying this suspension, the Administrator established an interim NOX
Federal standard of 2.0 gram per mile which is attainable with existing
advanced emission-control technology.
Table III-l summarizes the resulting present and future Federal
exhaust-emission standards for light-duty passenger cars.
Federal regulations also prescribe control of crankcase blowby
and evaporative fuel emissions from light-duty vehicles. Crankcase
emissions have been virtually eliminated since 1963 by the use of positive
crankcase ventilation (PCV) valves. Federal regulations have also pre-
scribed evaporative fuel-emission controls beginning with the 1971 model
year which impose a limit of 2.0 grams of hydrocarbons per test.
Beginning in 1975, light-duty trucks (less than 6,000 Ib GVW)
will be regulated as a separate vehicle class, while previously they will
have been subject to the same standards as passenger cars.
Emission standards applicable to light-duty trucks are shown
as Table III-2. As shown, the 1975 standards are somewhat less stringent
than 1975 National Interim standards for passenger cars.
Emission-Control Equipment Costs
Control Devices. 1968-74 Model Years
In the years 1968 through 1972, compliance with Federal emission
standards was achieved principally by two types of engine modification:
• Changes in the engine fuel-induction system, ignition
system, and combustion-chamber design
• The above changes and the addition of air injection
into the exhaust manifold(s).
Changes to the fuel-induction system included recalibration and tighter
precision of carburetor fuel metering, a system to preheat and control
the temperature of intake air, modification of carburetor idle-setting
controls, and choke-calibration changes. Various types of ignition-
system modifications were used to retard ignition timing at idle and low
speed. Some changes in combustion-chamber shape were made which included
lowering the compression ratio in 1971 for operation on nonleaded gasoline.
Valve seats were hardened on some engine models to reduce mechanical
problems associated with the use of nonleaded gasoline.
-------
TABLE III-l. FEDERAL EXHAUST EMISSION STANDARDS AND CONTROL LEVELS FOR LIGHT-DUTY VEHICLES
(Under 6,000 Ib Gross Vehicle Weight)
(a)
Hydrocarbons
Model Year of
Implementation
Pre-1968
1973/74
1975
1976
1977
S tandard
Uncontrolled vehicles
1973/74 Federal Standards
1975 National Interim
Standards Cb'
1975 Statutory Clean
Air Standards and
1976 Interim Standards
1976 Statutory Clean
Air Standards
Gram/Mile
8.7
3.0
1.5
0.41
0.41
Reduction,
percent
--
66
83
95
95
Carbon Monoxide
Gram/Mile
87
28
15
3.4
3.4
Reduction,
percent
--
67
83
96
96
Nitrogen Oxides
Gram/Mile
5.5
3.1
3.1
2.0
0.4
Reduction,
percent
--
44
44
64
93
(a) Emission levels are measured on the 1975 Constant Volume Sample, Cold/Hot Weighing Mass Test Procedures (CVS-CH),
(b) Interim California Standards: 0.9 gram/mile hydrocarbons, 9.0 gram/mile carbon monoxide, and 2.0 gram/mile
nitrogen oxides.
-------
TABLE III-2. FEDERAL STANDARDS FOR LIGHT-DUTY
TRUCK EMISSIONS
Pollutant
Emission. Standard
1968-74
1975-76^
HC
CO
NO,
Subject to light-duty 2.0 gram/mile
vehicle emission
standards
Ditto
20 gram/mile
3.1 gram/mile
(a) Motor vehicles rated at 6,000 Ib GVW or less
designed primarily for transportation of
property, or derivatives of such vehicles.
(b) Emissions averaged over a CVC-CH driving-
cycle test.
-------
III-6
In addition, some engine models incorporated an air pump and
an air-distribution system for the injection of air into the exhaust
manifold(s) .
Beginning in 1973 (1972 in California) changes in valve timing
and/or the use of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) were incorporated for
NOX control.
Evaporative fuel emission controls used since 1971 employ char-
coal canisters or a system to store evaporative losses in the engine
crankcase.
A breakdown of EPA (III-3) and National Academy of Science
(NAS) (III-4) initial-equipment cost estimates for 1968-74 emission con-
trols is shown as Table III-3. The investment costs shown are cumulative
and result in an estimated average list price increase of $82.50 for the
1973/74 models. This estimate is based on an emission-control system not
employing air injection.
Control Devices, 1975 and 1976 Model Years
The statutory Clean Air Act exhaust emissions standards as
initially established for 1975 model-year automobiles are significantly
more stringent than previous standards. To this effect, the U.S. automobile
industry has concluded that engine modifications will not be sufficient
in themselves to meet the Federal standards and that posteombustion
emission control devices will be required. The particular devices selected
will primarily be concerned with the reduction of HC and CO emissions.
For light-duty motor vehicles, the NAS Committee on Motor Vehicle
Emissions (III-4) concluded that four types of systems could meet the 1975
Federal Statutory Clean Air emission standards. These are the following:
• A modified conventional engine equipped with an
oxidation catalyst
• A carbureted stratified-charge engine
• A rotary (Wankel) engine equipped with an exhaust
thermal reactor
• A diesel engine.
The Committee also recognized that 1975 vehicles using Wankel
engines or catalyst-equipped, spark-ignition piston engines might use
significantly more fuel than the 1973 model-year automobile. Carbureted
stratified-charge engines are expected to suffer only a slight fuel
penalty, and the diesel engine will actually offer improved fuel economy—
enough to offset its higher initial cost within a few years of driving.
However, recent data from the automobile industry indicate that those
-------
III-7
TABLE III-3. ESTIMATED AUTOMOTIVE EMISSION-CONTROL
EQUIPMENT COST, 1968-74
List Price
^
Year Item EPA^b) NAs(c)
1968-69 Positive crankcase ventilation $ 0.40 $ 2.85
(PCV) valve
Inlet air temperature control 5.00 3.80
1970-72 Fuel evaporation control 13.00 14.30
system
Idle control solenoid 11.10 4.75
Carburetor changes 3.00 0.95
Hardened valves and seats 2.00 1.90
(for unleaded gasoline)
Transmission control system — 3.80
Ignition timing -- 0.95
Choke heat bypass — 4
Compression ratio dhanges — 1.90
Cumulative costs through 1972 $34.50 $39.38
1973-74(d'e^ Exhaust gas recirculation 24.00 9.50
(EGR), 11-14 percent
Speed controlled spark timing 24.00 0.95
Precision cams, bores, pistons -- 3.80
Transmission changes -- 0.95
Cumulative costs through 1974 $82.50 $54.53
(a) List price includes both dealer and manufacturers profits.
(b) From Reference III-3.
(c) From Reference III-4.
(d) Federal emission standards for 1973 and 1974 are identical.
Manufacturers may add additional EGR to some of their 1974
vehicles to meet more restrictive 1974 California standards
for NOX.
(e) This emission control configuration will most likely be
installed on noncatalytic 1975 model-year autos.
-------
III-8
1975 conventionally powered vehicles equipped with catalytic converters
and meeting the statutory standards may have little or no fuel penalty
compared with 1973 vehicles.
While each have shown the ability to reduce emissions, the
catalytic converters were clearly preferred by the U.S. automobile in-
industry for automobiles meeting the 1975 statutory standard.
With the 1-year suspension of 1975 statutory standards having
been granted by the Administrator and with the establishment of 1975
Interim Federal Standards (not necessarily requiring catalysts) and 1975
Interim California Standards (requiring catalysts), it is now apparent
that two types of emission-control systems will be used for the 1975
model year: (1) catalyst-equipped systems, and (2) systems incorporating
advanced engine modifications but not incorporating catalysts.
For the 1976 model year, it can be expected that the emission-
control equipment will be the same as that for the 1975 model-year catalytic
systems with the addition of proportional EGR, if not previously used, or
with recalibrated EGR devices, if previously used, to meet the Federal
1976 model year interim NOX standard of 2.0 g/mi established in conjunc-
tion with the 1-year suspension of the 1976 statutory clear air standards.
Shown as Table III-4 are estimated costs of emission-control
equipment for the 1975 and 1976 model years. The estimated cost increment
for 1975 noncatalytic systems over 1973-74 models is $95.00, and the
addition of an oxidation catalyst is estimated to cost $90.00. Thus,
cumulative equipment costs per vehicle are estimated to be $177.50 for
noncatalytic systems and $267.50 for the catalyst-equipped systems.
The average 1975 model-year equipment costs will, of course,
depend upon the fraction of vehicles sold with catalytic systems. It is
presently estimated from industry sources that about 75 percent of the
1975 model-year vehicles will be catalyst equipped: all California cars
(over 10 percent of national sales) and a substantial segment of the
remaining vehicles. If this prediction proves to be accurate, the
average national cost can be estimated as follows:
Cumulative Estimated
1975 Model Year Fraction of
Equipment Cost 1975 Sales
Catalytic Systems $267.50 x 0.75 = $200.62
Noncatalytic Systems 177.50 x 0.25 = 44.38
Estimated Average Cumulative Cost $245.00
for 1975 Model Year Equipment
-------
III-9
TABLE III-4. ESTIMATED AUTOMOTIVE EMISSION'CONTROL EQUIPMENT
COST, 1975 AND 1976 MODEL YEARS
Year
List Price<
Item
changes
Assembly line changes and testing
Subtotal
Cumulative costs through 1975
5.65
$267.50 $224.30
Industry^d>
1975
Some 1975
and all
1976
Cumulative costs through 1974(e)
Quick heat manifold
High energy ignition
Advanced carburetor
Proportional EGR
Air injection
Subtotal for noncatalytic systems
Oxidation catalyst^) (includes
long-life exhaust system)
Cooling system changes
Body revisions and material
$ 82.50
5.00
15.00
15.00
20.00
40.00
95.00
90.00
—
$ 54.53
4.75
12.35
14.25
43.32(§)
104.67
54.70
1.90
2.85
$ 83
--
—
—
—™
75-120
75-110
—
$233-313
(a) List price includes both dealer and manufacturer profits.
(b) From Reference III-3.
(c) National Academy of Science, Reference III-4.
(d) Estimated industry ranges, from data submitted by the domestic manufacturers.
(e) See Table III-3.
(f) 1974 through 1975 model years.
(g) 1973 through 1975 model years.
(h) This emission-control configuration will most likely be deferred to 1976 model-
year vehicles as a result of the 1975-standards-suspension decision.
-------
111-10
Control Devices, 1977 Model Year
With the implementation of the 1977 model year (1976 Statutory
Clean Air) Federal emission standards, an 80 percent reduction in NOX
standards from the previous year (90 percent from 1971) will have been
effected. Additional control technology will be required to achieve this
substantial NOX-level reduction.
The capability of many different systems to achieve the statutory
1976 emission standards has been investigated. Some of these systems in-
volve the use of alternative (noninternal-combustion Otto cycle) engines
(e.g., Rankine cycle, Brayton cycle, Diesel, Stirling). Such systems are
not considered candidates because insufficient lead time remains to mass
produce a significant number of passenger cars powered by alternative
engines in model year 1977 and no vehicle powered by an alternative engine
has yet demonstrated the capability to meet all of the requirements of the
Clean Air Act.
Eight systems that are applicable to modified conventional in-
ternal combustion engines have demonstrated the capability to meet the
levels required for 1976 at low mileage. These systems are:
Dual catalyst
Three-way catalyst
Dual thermal reactor and reduction catalyst
Stratified charge engine
Fast-burn combustion system
Thermal reactor plus exhaust-gas recirculation (EGR)
Oxidation catalyst plus EGR
Triple-bed catalyst.
At this time the dual catalyst system has received the most attention
and is considered the most advanced of the above options.
The dual catalyst system is compatible with the oxidation
catalyst system which many manufacturers will use to meet the 1975 California
interim standards. The reduction catalyst used in this system is similar
to an oxidation catalyst. No drastic modifications are made to the 1975-
type system other than the installation of the reduction catalyst upstream
of the oxidation catalyst. Minor changes include recalibration of the
carburetion and different plumbing of the air injection system. Accordingly,
the estimated cost of emission-control equipment for the 1977 model year
(meeting 1976 statutory clean air standards) are based on the use of a
dual catalyst. Various estimates of this cost are shown as Table III-5.
The EPA estimate of incremental cost is $60 for the addition of a reducing
catalyst. The estimated cumulative cost through 1977 is $327.50.
Incremental Maintenance Costs
The additional per-vehicle maintenance costs attributable to
emission-control devices has been estimated by EPA (III-5) to be $16 for
-------
III-ll
TABLE III-5. ESTIMATED AUTOMOTIVE EMISSION-CONTROL EQUIPMENT
COST, 1977 MODEL YEAR
Year
1977
Item
Cumulative costs through 1976
Reduction catalyst
Electronic control
Sensors
Subtotal
Cumulative costs through 1977
List Price
EPA
$267.50 $224.30
60
-------
111-12
model years 1968 through 1974. For post-1974 systems, there will be addi-
tional maintenance costs associated with catalyst replacement as well as
certain benefits associated with high-energy electronic ignition systems
and long-life exhaust systems. It is estimated that these benefits will
result in a saving of approximately $3 from 1973 maintenance costs.
Although future catalyst-replacement requirements are uncertain at this
time, the additional maintenance cost for catalytic converters is based
on the assumption that one catalyst change will be required over the life
of the vehicle. Averaged over 10 years, this cost is estimated to be $7.
Hence, it is estimated that the average yearly cumulative additional
maintenance costs for 1975 model-year emission control equipment will be
$13 for noncatalytic systems and $20 with an oxidizing catalyst.
For the 1977-79 model year vehicles, assuming dual-catalyst
systems are employed, an additional $8 average annual maintenance cost
increment is predicted, primarily associated with the replacement of the
additional catalytic converter.
Annual maintenance cost penalties for the various model years
are shown as Table III-6. The value for 1975 is based on an assumption
that 75 percent of vehicles sold in the U.S. will be catalyst equipped.
Fuel-Consumption Penalties
The average fuel economy of motor vehicles has been decreasing
gradually over the past several years. This change can be attributed to
variations in vehicle weight, engine size, optional equipment, and to the
effects of emission-control equipment. In particular, the specific con-
trol measures that adversely effect fuel consumption are retarded ignition
timing, reduced compression ratio, and exhaust-gas recirculation.
In 1973, the EPA published the results of an extensive study
(III-6) of passenger-car fuel economy involving tests of nearly 4,000
vehicles ranging from 1957 production models to 1975 prototypes. From
this study, it was concluded that, for current vehicles, weight is the
dominant factor affecting fuel economy. The use of emission controls has
had little effect on lighter vehicles (under 3,700 Ib inertia weight), but
heavier 1973 model-year cars have suffered fuel consumption penalties
ranging from 14 to 18 percent. On a sales-weighted average, it is estimated
that the loss in fuel economy due to emission controls for the 1973 models
is 10.1 percent compared to that for 1957-1967 uncontrolled vehicles.
Penalties for the years 1968-1972 have been less severe but
significant. EPA estimates for fuel consumption penalties by model year
are shown as Table III-7- The 1974 model year fuel economy penalty esti-
mate has been derived from 1974 certification data (III-7) and 1972 sales
data. A shift in sales toward lighter cars will offset this.
-------
111-13
TABLE III-6.
ESTIMATED INCREMENTAL
MAINTENANCE COSTS FOR
VEHICLE EMISSION-CONTROL
SYSTEMS
Model Year
1968-72
1973-74
1975 (a)
1976
1977-79 (b)
Annual Maintenance Cost
Increase Per Vehicle
$16.00
16.00
18.00
20.00
28.00
Source: Environmental Protection Agency,
Reference III-5.
(a) Based on assumption that 75 percent
of 1975 vehicles sold will employ
catalytic emission~control systems.
(b) Based on the use of a dual-catalyst
system.
-------
111-14
TABLE III-7. EFFECT OF EMISSION CONTROL
ON LIGHT-DUTY VEHICLE FUEL
ECONOMY
Fuel Economy
Model Year Loss, percent
1957-67 (Uncontrolled)
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
-------
111-15
For subsequent years, of course, fuel economy estimates are less
certain. Although early 1975 prototype systems meeting the statutory HC and
CO standards had, in general, shown additional fuel-consumption penalties,
various industry sources have recently indicated that catalytic systems
meeting 1975 clean air statutory standards may deliver fuel economy superior
to 1973 vehicles. Accordingly, the fuel-consumption penalty for 1976 model
year listed in III-7 is assumed to be about a 3% loss over 1975 vehicles meeting
the interim standards for HC and Co, and an additional 1% penalty is assumed
for the 1977 model year to result from the more stringent NO regulation for
that year. x
For 1977 model-year dual-catalyst systems, no firm estimate of
fuel consumption is possible at this time. However, with the use of a
reducing catalyst, it may be possible to eliminate some of the engine
modifications previously used for NOX control, and, further, it is fore-
seen that the use of excessively rich fuel/air mixtures is not inherent
in the control of NOX by a catalyst. Most of the excess fuel used in
prototype systems is not needed for the operation of the catalyst itself,
but to protect against exposing the reducing catalyst to oxidizing (lean)
conditions due to the occurrence of unwanted fluctuations in the fuel/air
ratio. To the extent that the accuracy of fuel-metering systems can be
improved to eliminate these fluctuations, this margin for error can be
reduced and fuel economy can accordingly be improved. In fact, it appears
it may be possible to restore fuel consumption to pre-1968 levels with
catalysts for NOX control. However, the fuel consumption penalty for
the 1977 model year is shown in Table III-7 as a slight loss over the
previous year since there is no firm basis at this time for predicting
how much lower it may be.
Light-Duty'Truck Control Costs
The per-vehicle costs for emission control for light-duty trucks
can be considered equivalent to that for passenger cars through 1974, since
both types of vehicles are covered by the same standards and the power-
plants used are basically the same.
With light-duty trucks covered by separate and less stringent
standards beginning in 1975, per-vehicle control costs for light trucks
will become somewhat less than for passenger cars.
For this report, it is assumed that costs associated with emission
controls for light-duty trucks of model years 1975-79 will be the same as
costs associated with noncatalytic 1975 passenger-car emission control
systems.
Fuel Cost Increases
On January 10, 1973, EPA promulgated regulations requiring that
by July 1, 1974, gasoline marketers make 91 research octane number (RON)
lead-free gasoline generally available for use in vehicles equipped with
-------
111-16
lead-sensitive control systems. At the same time EPA reproposed low-lead
regulations, requiring that the lead content of leaded gasolines be reduced
to an average of 1.25 grams per gallon (gpg) by January 1, 1978, for the
purpose of protecting the public health. On November 28, 1973, EPA
announced (III-8) that revised ,lead regulations had been promulgated which
provide for a phased reduction in the average lead content of all grades
of gasoline produced by any refinery over a 4-year period. Refineries are
restricted to 1.7 gpg beginning January 1, 1975, with annual reductions to
0.5 gpg by January 1, 1979. The new regulations do not offset the earlier
regulation requiring the general availability of at least one grade of
lead-free gasoline by July 1, 1974.
The promulgated schedule stretches the removal over a relatively
long period of time and the allowable lead content of leaded gasoline in the
national pool is not significantly lowered until 1977-1978. Two of the most
important reasons for the lengthiness of the promulgated schedule are to
ensure an adequate margin of industry construction capability and to minimize
refinery raw material penalties.
For the next several years, the lead content of leaded gasoline will
remain relatively high. Our latest national projections on the allowable
lead content of leaded gasolines are summarized in the following table,
which shows the lead phase-down schedule as promulgated and our best estimates
of the lead-free need. From these we have calculated the allowable lead in
leaded gasoline. Note that the allowable lead increases after 1979 because
the phase-down remains constant while the number of cars using leaded gasoline
decreases each year. Total lead emissions from all gasoline, however, will
remain relatively -onstant.
TABLE III-8, ANTICIPATED EFFECT OF LEAD PHASE-DOWN SCHEDULE
Year
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
Promulgated
Lead Phase-down
.grams/gallon
— w —
1.7
1.4
1.0
0.8
0.5
0.5
Portion of
Pool Lead-
free (7=)
7
15
30
44
51
63
72
Allowable Lead in
Leaded Gasoline
grams/gallon
2.0 to 2.2*
2.0
2.0
1.78
1.63
1.27
1.66
*Current average.
-------
111-17
EPA's analysis (III-9) shows that the lead-free regulations will
cost the consumer approximately $2.4 billion from 1974 to 1979* Ninety
percent of this cost is attributable to the need to install a third pump
at service stations and to modify the gasoline trailers and storage tankers
to distribute lead-free gasoline. The impact of the low-lead regulation
over the same period has been estimated at $200 million. Taken together,
the total impact on the consumer will be around $2.6 billion. This trans-
lates into less than a 0.4 cent per gallon increase in the cost of gasoline
given that nearly 700 billion gallons of gasoline will be consumed during
the period.
The analysis also considers the energy impact of the lead regulations
in combination with fuel economy improvements afforded by the use of catalysts.
It is true that if one considers the impact of the lead regulations on
petroleum refineries separately, a finite penalty results that affects our
current energy shortage. However, when the most recant information concerning
fuel economy is included, we find that a net energy savings emerges. These
data on energy impact are summarized in the following tabulation.
Energy Impact of EPA's Lead Regulations and Emission Standards
(thousands of barrels per day)
1975 1977 1980 '
Penalty
Lead-free 30 35 65
Low-lead 20 70 20_
50 105 85
Fuel Economy Savings
1975/76 Emission Standards (55) 148 180
Net Crude (Penalty)/Savings ( 5) 43 95
The energy penalty is the BTU content of the original crude oil
which is consumed in refining in order to raise the octane level of gasoline.
Most of the energy will be lost as heat in hydrocracking, reforming and
alkylation. In 1975, part of the loss will be due to dislocations in
existing product logistics. By 1977, the penalties for lead-free and low-
lead gasoline will be rising in proportion to the amount of those products
required by new cars. The penalty for low lead gasoline will gradually
decrease after 1977.
-------
111-18
Aggregate National Costs for Light-Duty-
Vehicle Emission Controls
Costs to the nation for light-duty-vehicle emission control will
be comprised of the aggregate of equipment, maintenance, and fuel-consumption
cost increments attributable to the control devices. Since the various
costs attributable to emission controls are different for each model year,
total costs to the nation have been estimated separately for each model
year using vehicle-population data for previous years and projections
for future years.
Vehicle Population Estimates
Registration data (111-10) are available at this time for vehicle
model years up to 1972 for each calendar year up to 1972. Estimates of
vehicle populations for future years are based in part on the U. S.
passenger-vehicle sales projections shown as Table III-9. These projections
were made prior to the major downturn in new car sales late in 1973 and so
do not reflect the market shifts which may occur. Using these projections
and typical scrappage-rate histories for previous model years, the vehicle
population trends shown in Figure III-l are estimated. As shown, uncontrolled
passenger vehicles will constitute only 6 percent of the population by 1979,
and 29 percent of the vehicles will have been manufactured under 1970 Clean
Air Act stabilization level controls.
In estimating light-duty truck population, it is assumed that
survival factors for presently registered light trucks will be the same as
those for passenger cars, and, further, that new registrations of light
trucks will be 1.5 million annually for the interval 1975-79. This is a
revision of the projections for truck sales presented in Reference III-ll
which factors in the recent rapid increase in sale of vehicles in this
category.
Estimated Total Costs, 1968-1979
A breakdown of annual National cost estimates for light-duty-
vehicle emission control is presented in Table 111-10. Equipment costs
for each calendar year are taken as the equipment cost attributable to
the new model-year vehicles. Maintenance and equipment costs for each
calendar year are attributable to all controlled vehicles over 1 year old
in the vehicle population for that year. Costs attributable to fuel price
penalties are applied to all gasoline consumed by light-duty vehicles for
the affected years.
-------
111-19
TABLE III-9 PROJECTED UNITED STATES
SALES OF LIGHT-DUTY
PASSENGER VEHICLES
Model Year
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
Sales, millions
of vehicles
;L1.83
10.7
10.9
11.2
11.5
11.7
12.0
Source: Department of Transportation,
Reference III-10.
-------
111-20
120
100
co
c
o
c
o
o.
o
Q-
k-
o
o
0)
0>
c
0)
CO
CO
o
Q_
Uncontrolled
/ A/ / / / /
20
1969
73 75
Calendar Year
79 ) )
FIGURE III-1. ESTIMATED PASSENGER-CAR POPULATION
-------
111-21
As shown in Table 111-10, estimated cumulative costs are $8.9
billion as of 1973. Total annual costs to the nation will continue to
increase as the result of both increasingly stringent control and an in-
creasing population of controlled vehicles. Annual costs for 1974 and 1979
are estimated to be 4.62 and 10.15 billion dollars, respectively. Cumulative
national costs are presently estimated to reach about $13.5 billion by
1974 and $57.3 billion by 1979.
State Transportation Controls
The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970 directed EPA to set National
i air quality standards which would protect the public health and welfare
from the known effects of the major air pollutants. In 1971, such air
quality standards were established for six pollutants, including the four
primarily associated with motor vehicles, i.e., carbon monoxide (CO),
nitrogen dioxide (N02), photochemical oxidant (OX), and hydrocarbons (HC).
Hydrocarbons are reactants in the formation of oxidants and at ambient
concentrations have no known health effects.
The standards for the motor-vehicle-related pollutants have
been exceeded in a number of our major urban areas. Out of the 247 Air
Quality Control Regions (AQCR's) in the United States, in the period
1970-71, 54 regions exceeded the air quality standard for oxidant, 29
exceeded the carbon monoxide standard, and 2 exceeded the nitrogen dioxide
standard. In all, 58 AQCR's representing nearly 55 percent of the nation's
population exceeded the ambient-air-quality standards for one or more or
these pollutants. r
The Environmental Protection Agency's plan (111-12) to achieve
the air quality standards on a National basis includes the implementation
of controls on stationary sources (power plants, industrial facilities,
and general area sources), the Federal new-car emission standards, and in-
use vehicle emission controls. The anticipated reductions in pollutant
concentrations resulting from the implementation of stationary-source
.controls and new-vehicle emission standards are projected to r,educe the
'number of AQCR's exceeding the air quality standards to 29 by 1975. These
include approximately 40 percent of the nation's population.
Having controlled the emissions from stationary sources and new
vehicles to the extent possible, those states containing the AQCR's still
projected to exceed the air quality.standards will be required to implement
appropriate transportation controls (i.e., controls of in-use vehicles) to
meet the requirements of the Clean Air Act. The control of emissions from
these vehicles is essential because, although motor vehicles are not the
only source of HC, CO, and NOX emissions, they are the primary source of
these pollutants in our urban areas. Table III-11 shows the general range
of relative contributions of emission sources in our urban areas. The
data clearly indicate the importance of automotive emission controls.
-------
TABLE 111-10. ESTIMATED NATIONAL COSTS ATTRIBUTABLE TO LIGHT-DUTY VEHICLE EMISSION CONTROLS^)
Cost- Increment
Category
Equipment
Maintenance
Fuel-consumption
penalties10'
Fuel price
penalties
Annual total
Cumulative
national total
Annual National Cost. $ billions
1968<»
0.05
0
0.11
0
0.16
0.16
1969
0.06
0.11
0.36
0
0.53
0.69
1970
0.19
0.28
0.50
0
0.97
1.66
1971
0.35
0.44
0.65
0
1.44
3.10
1972
0.40
0.58
1.12
0
2.10
5.20
1973
1.13
0.76
1.76
0
3.65
8.85
1974
1.01
0.96
2.30
0.35
4.62
13.47
1975
2.94
1.20
2.69
0.41
7.24
20.71
1976
3.26
1.31
2.89
0.43
7.89
28.60
1977
4.03
1.47
3.04
0.45
8.99
37.59
1978
4.10
1.69
3.29
0.47
9.55
47.14
1979
4.20
1.92
3.54
0.49
10.15
57.29
M
l-t
M
1
ls>
ro
(a) Vehicles less than 6,000 Ib GVW including light-duty trucks.
(b) No costs incurred nationally prior to 1968.
(c) Fuel prices assumed: $0.36/gal, 1968/71; $0.40/gal 1972; $0.45/gal, 1973; $0.50/ga».l, 1974-79.
-------
111-23
At present, there are transportation control plans for 38 cities
located in 24 states covering approximately 43% of the United States population.
Additional areas that will probably require control plans in the near future
include some 19 cities in 13 states. If this occurs, 57 cities representing
over half of the nation's population will be subject to some type of transpor-
tation controls (including additional stationary source controls). Only 29
AQCR's have transportation control measures; the additional AQCR's achieve
ambient standards through stationary source control alone.
Plans for 11 of the 38 cities were totally approvable as submitted
by the states. In the other 27 cities, plans were either partially approved
by EPA and required additional EPA-devised strategies, or states failed to
submit any plans, necessitating EPA development of complete transportation
plans.
In 21 of the cities, the plans had to address both a carbon
monoxide and oxidant problem. Strategies designed to achieve satisfactory
oxidant levels are sufficient to also ensure the attainment of the CO stan-
dards. In 10 of the cities there is only an oxidant problem, while 7 must
control only carbon monoxide.
The number of transportation control plans containing various
measures are as follows:
Inspection/Maintenance
Mass Transit Improvements
Retrofits
Parking Supply Restrictions
Additional Stationary Source Controls
Gas Limitation for Mid-1977
27
25
21
20
18
10
In addition to emissions reductions, there are substantial energy
savings possible from the implementation of the plans. The vehicle miles
traveled reduction strategies, when fully operational, could result in fuel
savings of over 5 million gallons each day without the implementation of
gasoline rationing measures.
TABLE III-ll. MIX OF EMISSION SOURCES IN URBAN AREAS--1971
Percent of Total Emissions
Pollutant
CO
HC
NOX
Automobiles
77-87
50-65
40-50
Trucks, Buses,
and Motorcycles
8-10
5-10
8-13
Stationary
Sources
3-15
25-45
37-52
Source: Environmental Protection Agency, Reference III-11.
-------
111-24
The control of in-use vehicle emissions generally takes one or
more of the following forms:
o The use of equipment to control emission of gasoline
vapor from service stations during vehicle refueling
(not strictly a vehicle-emission control, but very
closely related).
o The reduction of vehicle miles traveled (VMT) through
the use of various measures including traffic controls,
mass transit augmentation, parking restrictions,
car-pool systems, and gasoline supply limitations.
o The mandatory inspection and maintenance (I/M) of vehicles
to ascertain and maintain adequate emissions performance.
o The retrofitting of vehicles with systems or devices which
directly reduce exhaust emissions.
Vehicle control measures being considered in AQCR implementation
plans and their effects, applicability, and estimated cost per vehicle are
listed in Table 111-12.
Vehicle Miles Traveled (VMT) controls are not listed in Table 111-12
because the costs and impacts are not readily identifiable. Assuming that
VMT reductions are compensated for by increased use of car pools or mass
transit, a reduction in transportation costs for the affected miles traveled
can be anticipated. Also, many other mass transit improvement strategies
exist, but no cost estimates have been developed. Depending upon the
effectiveness of the alternative means, some penalties in convenience can be
expected, although some improvements could be possible.
Table 111-13 lists those AQCR's for which implementation plans
include transportation controls and whose plans have promulgated at this
time. Implementation of these plans will be completed in the 1975-77 time
interval. Also shown in the table are the specific control measures under
consideration.
Total costs for state-imposed transportation controls are
indefinite at this time; however, for those AQCR's listed in Table 111-13,
more than 20 million vehicles are affected and an estimated $2 billion may
be required for implementation through 1979. About half of this will be
for retrofit equipment and half will be accumulated costs of inspection
and maintenance (I/M) programs and service-station vapor controls. This
total will, of course, be larger when additional state implementation plans
are analyzed to determine their costs.
-------
111-25
AIRCRAFT EMISSION CONTROLS
Aircraft emissions have been identified as significant contri-
•utors to the regional burden of pollution in comparison to other sources
rtiich will have to be controlled to meet National Ambient Air Quality
> tandards.
Airports are concentrated sources of pollutant emissions which
will in many cases reduce local air quality to unsatisfactory levels even
though emissions from automobiles and stationary sources are within accept-
able levels within the general area. That is, unless aircraft emissions
are reduced, airports Will still remain intense area emitters of pollutants
even after emissions from other area sources have been greatly reduced.
The Clean Air Act directs the Administrator of the EPA to
"establish standards applicable to emissions of any air pollutant from
any class or classes of aircraft or aircraft engines which in his judgment
cause or contribute to air pollution which endangers the public health or
welfare". In July, 1973, Federal emission standards and test procedures
were established for various classes of new and in-use aircraft engines
(III-14). These regulations are based on the need to control emissions
occurring under 3000 feet to protect ambient air quality in urban areas.
However, the standards are not quantitatively derived from the air quality
considerations in affected areas but, instead, reflect EPA's judgment as
to the emission levels that will be practicable with present and projected
technology. The requisite technology is assumed to include advanced
combustion-system concepts for turbine engines and improved fuel systems
for piston engines.
The standards cover (a) fuel venting regulations beginning
January 1, 1974, (b) smoke emission regulations taking effect in 1974,
1976, and 1978 for various engine classes, and (c) gaseous emission (CO,
HC, and NOX) standards for 1979 and 1981. Gaseous emissions regulations
are based on a simulated landing-and-takeoff operating cycle which includes
(1) taxi/idle (out), (2) take-off, (3) climb-out, (4) approach, and
(5) taxi/idle (in). Piston engines are included in the standards beginning
in 1979.
In general, the influence of the regulations will be to contri-
bute to the maintenance of the quality of the air in and around major air
terminals throughout the post-1979 era in which air traffic is undergoing
expansion. The timing of these standards is Such that they will not make
contributions to achievement of ambient air-quality levels required by
1975 through the state implementation programs.
Present aircraft emission standards and their estimated cost
impact are listed in Table III-1.4. Costs of fuel venting and smoke-
emission controls through 1978 totaling $17 million are minor in comparison
to costs of controlling other sources in that time period.
-------
TABLE III-12
CONTEMPLATED IN-USE-VEHICLE EMISSION CONTROL
MEASURES AND ASSOCIATED UNIT COSTS
Estimated Pollutant
Control Measure
Inspection/Maintenance
(I/M) Programs
Retrofit (Vacuum Spark
Advance Disconnect)
(VSAD) U> )
Retrofit (Air Bleed)
Retrofit (Catalyst)
Service Station
Vapor Control
Model Year
Applicability
All years
Pre-1968
Pre-1968
1968-74
All years
Reduction, percent
HC CO NOX
11
25
21
68
n/a
10
9 23
58 0
63 48
n/a n/a
Estimated Cost
in Year of
Implementation
$1.20 -
$30
$56
$90
$ 3
31.20(a)
- 64
- 140
.20
Source: EPA, Reference III-11.
(a) Range of costs reflects the fact that some cars will require maintenance, others
will not.
(b) Including lean idle air/fuel adjustment.
(c) Assuming the average cost per car of controlling service station vapor emissions is
passed on to the consumer over a 5-year period.
M
I
ro
ON
-------
111-27
TABLE 111-13. AQCR'S WITH TRANSPORTATION CONTROL PLANS
AQCR
Control Measure
Alaska
Fairbanks
Arizona
Phoenix-Tucson
California
Los Angeles
Sacremento
San Diego
San Francisco
San Joaquin Valley
Southeast Desert
Colorado
Denver
National Capital
(Metro. D.C., Md., Va.)
Illinois
' Chicago
Indiana
Indianapolis
Maryland
Baltimore
Massachusetts
Boston
Springfield
Minnesota
Minneapolis-St. Paul
New Jersey
VMI, I/M, Air Bleed, Catalyst
VMT, I/M, Air Bleed, Catalyst
VMT, I/M, VSAD, Catalyst, Service Station
VMT, I/M, VSAD, Catalyst, Service Station
VMT, I/M, VSAD, Catalyst, Service Station
VMT, I/M, VSAD, Catalyst
VMT, I/M, VSAD, Catalyst, Service Station
VMT, I/M, VSAD, Catalyst, Service Station
VMT, I/M, Air Bleed, High Altitude Mod.,
Service Station
VMT, I/M, VSAD, Catalyst, Air Bleed
VMT, I/M
I/M, Service Station
VMT, I/M, VSAD, Air/Fuel, Catalyst,
Service Station
VMT, I/M, VSAD, Air Bleed, Catalyst,
Service Station
VMT, I/M
VMT
VMT, I/M, Exhaust Gas Recirculation,
Catalyst, Service Station
New York
New York
(Metro. NYC: NYC, Conn., N.J.)
Rochester
Ohio
Cincinnati
Oregon
Portland
Pennsylvania
Metro. Philadelphia Interstate VMT, I/M, Air Bleed, Service Station
Southwest Pennsylvania
Interstate
Texas
Austin-Waco
Corpus Christ!
Dallas-Ft. Worth
El Paso
Houston-Calveston
San Antonio
Southeastern Texas -
Southern Louisiana
VMT, I/M, VSAD, Air Bleed, Catalyst
I/M
I/M
VMT, I/M, Air Bleed
VMT, I/M, Air Bleed, Service Station
VMT
VMT
VMT, Service Station
VMT, Service Station
VMT, I/M, VSAD, Service Station
VMT, I/M, Service Station
VMT
Utah
Wasatch Front
VMT (Salt Lake City), I/M, Air Bleed,
(Salt Lake City, Provo, Ogden) High Altitude Modification
Washington
Seattle-Spokane VMT, I/M, Air Bleed, Exhaust Gas
Recirculation
Sources: EPA, References 111-13 and 111-14.
Definitions Used in Tablet
"VMT" - Measures to reduce Vehicle Miles Traveled
"Service Station" - Gasoline vapor control at service stations
"I/M" - Inspection and Maintenance of motor vehicles
"VSAD" - Vacuum Spark Advance Disconnect Retrofit
"Catalyst" - Catalyst Retrofit
"Air Bleed" - Air Bleed Retrofit
"High Alf. Mod." - High Altitude Modification
"Exhaust Gas Recirculation" - EGR Retrofit
"Air/Fuel" - Air/Fuel Control Retrofit
-------
111-28
The estimated cost of development and recertification efforts
for compliance with the 1979 gaseous Demission standards is $65 million,
and the additional engine-hardware costs which will be incurred in* 1979
is estimated to be $3.5 million. No fuel-consumption penalties are ex-
pected to result from the 1979 standards. The 1981 standards will), of
course, have had no cost impact within the time period of concern in this
report.
The 1979 standards promulgated for piston-type aircraft are
expected to result in significant fuel savings: $29 million over 10 years,
No credit for these savings has been assumed in estimating the cost of
aircraft emission control.
In total, cumulative national costs through 1979 for aircraft
emission control are expected to total approximately $85 million.
HEAVY-DUTY VEHICLE CONTROLS
Separate emission-control regulations have been in effect since
1970 for new heavy-duty gasoline and diesel truck engines manufactured for
use in over-the-highway trucks and buses of over 6000 Ib GVW. Trucks
under 6000 Ib GVW are considered light-duty vehicles and have been dealt
with in a previous section of this report.
Heavy-duty-truck engine-certification procedures are performed
on the engine itself and do not pertain to the vehicle as do light-duty
truck and passenger car regulations.
Consideration is being given by EPA to the need for establishing
a medium-duty truck category which would cover vehicles in the range from
6,000 Ib to 10-14,000 Ib GVW weight class. However, at present, no such
regulations have been formally proposed by EPA.
Heavy-Duty Gasoline Engines
Federal regulations for emissions from heavy-duty gasoline engines
are shown as Table III-15. For 1970 through 1973, regulations covered HC
and CO emissions only measured in terms of average concentration in the
engine exhaust over a constant-speed, variable-load dynamometer cycle.
For 1974, new standards are in effect which are based on the same test pro-
cedure, but in which emissions are reported in terms of average grams per
horsepower hour. The sum of HC and NOx emissions are limited to 16 g/hp-hr
while the standard for CO is 40 g/hp-hr.
-------
Year
Standards
Implementation
Technology
Estimated Cost
of Implementation,
by 1979
1974 JT8D smoke standards
1974 Fuel venting restrictions
for new and in-use engines
(1975 for business-aircraft
engines)
1976 Smoke standards, new turbine
engines except JT3D, JT8D,
and supersonic
1978 JT3D smoke standards
1979 Gaseous emission(HC, CO,
and NOX) standards for all
engines manufactured
1981 Gaseous emission standards
for newly certified
engines
1979 Total
Combustor and fuel
nozzle retrofit
Plumbing and/or
operational changes
Fuel nozzle retrofit
Modified engine hot
section
Advanced combustor
and engine concepts
None (already volun-
tarily completed)
$2 million
None
$15 million
$68 million(a,b)
None by 1979
$85 million(b)
M
I
NJ
Sources: EPA, References III-14 and III-15.
(a) Principally development and recertification costs. Includes additional engine hardware
costs which will be incurred in 1979. Maximum additional engine cost estimate to be:
$10,000 per large turbine engine
6,000 per small turbine engine over 8000 Ib thrust
2,000 per small turbine engine under 8000 Ib thrust, and per turboprop or
APO engine
52 per piston engine.
(b) Estimated $29 million in piston engine fuel savings is not included.
-------
111-30
TABLE III-15. FEDERAL STANDARDS FOR HEAVY-DUTY
GASOLINE-ENGINE EMISSIONS(a)
Pollutant
Hydrocarbons
Oxides of nitrogen
Carbon monoxide
Emission Standards (^)
1970-73 (c) 1974
275 ppm HC + NOX:
16 g/hp-hr
1.5 percent 40 g/hp-hr
(a) For use in vehicles of more than 6,000 Ib GVW
designed primarily for transportation of
property or having a capacity of more than 12
persons.
(b) Emissions averaged over a 9-mode, 300-sec,
constant speed dynamometer cycle.
(c) 1973 California standards were equivalent to
1974 Federal standards for heavy-duty engines.
The emission control technology used for heavy-duty gasoline
engines through 1973 is similar to that employed for light-duty trucks
and passenger cars through the 1972 model year. In fact, many heavy-
duty gasoline engines are derivatives of passenger-car engines For
1974, the NOX control standards are generally attainable without the use
of EGR, although some EGR engines were certified in the previous year to
meet California standards for 1973 which were at the same level as Federal
standards for 1974.
No detailed equipment-cost estimates have been made by EPA for
heavy-duty gasoline truck engine emission controls. In the absence of such
estimates, it is assumed for purposes of this report that the per-vehicle
cost increment of 1970-73 engines is equivalent to that for 1970 Jdel
year passenger-car engines less the cost of fuel evaporation controls or
$21 50. It is further assumed that the 1974 and following-year control
equxpment costs will be equivalent to that for a 1973 pasLnger car engine
less the cost of EGR and evaporative controls, or $45.50.
Incremental annual maintenance costs for heavy-duty gasoline
truck controls for all years are assumed to be the same as passenger-car
costs, or $16. & T
-------
111*31
Fuel consumption penalties are estimated to be 3 percent for
1970-73 and 5 percent for 1974 and beyond. Estimate of total per-vehicle
costs attributable to emission controls for this class of trucks are
summarized in Table 111-16.
TABLE 111-16. ESTIMATED PER-VEHICLE
COST PENALTIES FOR HEAVY-
DUTY GASOLINE ENGINE
EMISSION CONTROL
Incremental Model Years
Cost Item 1970-73 1974-79
Emission-control
equipment cost $21.50 $45.50
Annual maintenance $16.00 $16.00
Fuel consumption
penalty 3 percent 5 percent
Population projections for controlled heavy-duty gasoline trucks
are shown as Figure III-2. It is estimated that the population of 1970-73
trucks of this class will peak at about 4.5 million in 1973 and that the
total controlled population will have reached approximately 8.5 million in
1979.
Total estimated annual costs for heavy-duty gasoline truck Federal
emission controls are presented as Table III-17. The cumulative total for
the 1970-79 interval is $1.9 billion.
Heavy-Duty Diesel Engines
Heavy-duty truck diesel engine Federal standards are shown as
Table 111-18. Through 1970-73, standards covered smoke emissions only.
In 1974, the standards were revised to include HC, NOX, and CO emissions
as well as more stringent smoke emissions. The permissible gaseous-emission
levels are the same as for heavy-duty gasoline engines for 1974 but the test
procedure is different. For diesels, emissions are averaged over a 13-mode,
variable-speed, variable-load dynamometer cycle.
Both smoke and gaseous emission standards including those for
1974 have been attainable largely through fuel-injection-system modifica-
tions. (NOX ai*d smoke are the more difficult emissions to control; even
uncontrolled diesels are usually well within CO standards.) Equipment
cost penalties are considered nominal; further, it is estimated that no
fuel consumption penalties have been incurred. Accordingly, no national
cost penalty is attributed to diesel-truck engine emission controls.
-------
111-32
10
v>
c
o
2 8
O.
O
Q_
0>
c
"o
(A
O
ID
Q
i
>>
O
0>
0)
c
o
o
1974-79
vehicles
1968-73 vehicles
1969
71 73 75
Calendar Year
77
79
FIGURE IH-2. PROJECTED POPULATION OF HEAVY-DUTY
GASOLINE-ENGINE TRUCKS
-------
111-33
TOTAL NATIONAL COSTS FOR FEDERAL MOBILE-
SOURCE EMISSION CONTROLS
Table 111-19 summarizes the total national costs attributable to
Federal regulations controlling mobile-source emissions for the period
1968-1979. The $57.3 billion light-duty emission control costs substantially
surpass other mobile-source costs in this time period, Total cumulative
costs for mobile-source controls are estimated to be $61.3 billion.
-------
TABLE IH-17. ESTIMATED NATIONAL COSTS FOR HEAVY-DUTY GASOLINE-ENGINE EMISSION CONTROLS
Annual National Cost, $ millions
Cost Item
Equipment
Maintenance
Fuel- consumption
penalties
Annual total, $ millions
Cumulative total, $ millions
1970
14
0
8
22
22
1971
14
7
20
41
63
1972
17
18
37
72
135
1973
23
30
63
116
251
1974
39
46
92
117
428
1975
39
61
123
223
651
1976
39
74
154
267
918
1977
39
86
184
309
1,227
1978
39
98
212
349
1,576
1979
39
108
239
386
1,962
I
CO
-------
111-35
TABLE 111-18 FEDERAL STANDARDS FOR HEAVY-DUTY
DIESEL ENGINE EMISSIONS(a)
Kmtaairm .Standard
Pollutant 1970-73(b) 1974
Smoke
Percent opacity in
accelerating mode 40 20
Percent opacity in
lugging mode 20 15
Peak opacity in
either mode — 50
HC + N0,j9 g/hp-hr(c) — 16
CO, g/hp-hr
-------
TABLE III-19, ESTIMATED NATIONAL COSTS FOR MOBILE-SOURCE EMISSION CONTROL 1970-1979
Annual National Cost, $ billions
Year
€ost-Increment Not
Category 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 Specified
Federal light-
duty vehicle
emission control 1.66 1.44 2.10 3.65 4.62 7.24 7.89 8.99 9.55 10.15
Federal heavy-
duty vehicle
emission control 0.022 0.041 0.072 0.116 0.117 0.223 0.267 0.309 0.349 0.386
State transpor-
tation controls 2.00
Federal air-
craft emission
controls 0.085
-------
111-37
REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER III
1. Decision of the Administrator on Removal From the United States
Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit on Applica-
tions: for Suspension of 1975 Motor Vehicle Exhaust Emission
Standards, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C,,
April'11, 1973.
2. Decision of the Administrator on Applications for Suspension of
1976 Motor Vehicle Exhaust Emission Standards, Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., July 30, 1973;
3. The Economics of Clean Air, Annual Report to Congress, Environmental
Protection Agency, March, 1972.
4. Report by the Committee on Motor Vehicle Emission, National Academy
of Sciences, February 12, 1973/EPA Contract No. 68-01-0402.
5. EPA Memorandum: Analysis of Estimated Maintenance Costs for
Emission Control Systems Meeting the 1975/76 Federal Standards.
6. A Report on Automotive Fuel Economy, Environmental Protection Agency,
October, 1973.
7. Automobile Gasoline Mileage Test Results, 1974 Cars and Light Duty
Trucks, Environmental Protection Agency, September 18, 1973.
8. EPA Press Conference on Reducing Lead in Gasoline, November 28, 1973.
9. Economic Impact of Lead Removal from Gasoline, Bonner and Moore
Associates, Inc., July 27, 1973.
10. Automotive News 1973 Almanac, April 30, 1973.
11. Forecast of Motor Vehicle Distribution Production, and Scrappage,
1971-1990, U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway
Administration, October, 1971.
12. The Clean Air Act and Transportation Controls: An EPA White Paper,
Environmental Protection Agency, August, 1973.
13. Transportation Control Plans, Statement by Russell E. Train,
Administrator, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, October 15, 1973.
14. EPA Summary of Vehicle Control Measures Included in Approved Transportation
Control Plans. Transportation control regulations, approvals, and
corrections begin on the following pages of the Federal Register in 1973
and 19(74. Often several plans are contained in a simgle issue of the
Federal Register: 38 FR - 16550, 17682, 30626, 30818, 39060, 31232,
31388, 31536, 32656, 32884, 33368, 34240, 34464, 35487; 39.FR - 1025,
1848, 2483, 4880.
-------
111-38
REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER III (Continued)
15. Control of Air Pollution From Aircraft and Aircraft Engines, Emission
Standards and Test Procedures for Aircraft, Federal Register, Vol. 38,
No. 136, Tuesday, July 17, 1973.
16. Cost estimates provided by R. Sampson, Environmental Protection Agency,
Ann Arbor, Michigan.
-------
IV. INDUSTRIAL SOURCE CONTROL COSTS
INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY
Industrial Sources Included
The industrial sources covered in this report are basically the
same as those covered last year. They represent the large and identifiable
sources which are judged to represent the major elements of the total in-
dustrial cost of control. These industries are grouped into six groups,
as shown in the following list.
Fuel Industries Group
Coal Cleaning
Natural Gas Processing
Petroleum Industry
Chemical Industries Group
Carbon Black
Chlor-alkali
Nitric Acid
Phosphate Fertilizer
Sulfuric Acid
Metals Industries Group
Ferroalloy Industry
Foundries (Iron)
Foundries (Steel)
Iron and Steel
Primary Aluminum
Primary Beryllium
Primary Copper
Primary Lead
Primary Mercury
Primary Zinc
Secondary Aluminum
Secondary Brass and Bronze
Secondary Lead
Secondary Zinc
-------
IV-2
Burning and Incineration Group
Dry Cleaning
Sewage Sludge Incineration
Solid Waste Disposal
Teepee Inincerators
Uncontrolled Burning
Agricultural
Coal Refuse Burning
Forest Fires
Structural Fires
Quarrying and Construction Group
Asbestos Industry
Asphalt Concrete Industry
Cement Industry
Crushed Stone; Sand; and Gravel
Lime Manufacture
Food and Forest Products Group
Feed Mills
Grain Handling
Kraft Paper Industry
Semichemical Paper Industry
Coal refuse burning and teepee incinerators are included in the functional
Burning and Incineration Group instead of in the Fuel Industries and Food
and Forest Products Groups, respectively.
Emission Estimates
For each industrial source category, two sets of emission levels
have been calculated: (1) the level of emission of each pollutant with
pollution control equal to that exercised prior to the Clean Air Act of
1970, and (2) with control exercised in accordance with standards set under
the provisions of that Act. In the emissions tabulations in Chapter IV,
the former is identified by the words "without further controls", and the
latter by the words "with further controls". These standards are provided
in the State Implementation Regulations to achieve ambient air-quality
levels for the six critical pollutants for which criteria have been estab-
lished, New Source Performance Standards, and Hazardous Materials Emissions
Standards.
-------
IV-3
Future airborne industrial emissions levels will be affected by
the growth of the industry in question, together with the control achieved
over the process emissions. Growth of industrial emissions for the next
5 years can be extrapolated with a fair degree of confidence from trends
in the past 5 years, when technological innovations are not involved. In
those industries where new source performance standards have been set up at
significantly more stringent emission limitations than existing sources,
the contribution of growth to total emissions becomes less significant.
In addition to industry growth, changes in production methods affect
emission levels. The steel industry, for example, exhibits an internal trend
whereby open-hearth production is decreasing, while production by the less
polluting basic oxygen process and electric arc processes are increasing.
Available data on shifting percentages of production, as in the steel industry,
were included in the analysis when different modes of production yield dif-
ferent emission levels.
The magnitude of industrial output for each industry studies was
projected through the 1975-1979 period, on the basis of 1970 output and growth
rate. The levels of emission in 1979, with and without additional control,
are given in each of the following industry discussions.
Control Cost Estimates
For each industry or industrial operation listed above,'the estimated
total investment cost (in constant 1973 dollars) for air pollution control
equipment in the 5-year period FY 1975 through FY 1979 was presented in
Table 1-2. The cumulative estimated total investment costs (in constant 1973
dollars) for the 9-year period FY 1971 through FY 1979 were presented in
Table 1-1. These estimated investment costs include the normal capital
charges associated with the installation of emissions control systems. These
charges include estimates of the costs of site preparation, equipment purchase,
transportation, equipment installation, process hookup and modification where
applicable, and any required auxiliary systems. Where appropriate or known, a
standard allowance was made for construction, loan interest, engineering charges,
and similar capital expenses. The capital cost of emissions monitoring equip-
ment was included only on those special cases where such costs were well-defined
and known to the .process analyst.
Estimated annualized costs (sometimes used interchangeably with the
ten annual costs) associated with the estimated capital investments in the two
time periods of interest also are shown in Tables 1-1 and 1-2 and in each of
the following industry sections. These estimated annuali^ed costs are presented
-------
IV-4
for only the last year of the period (FY 1979) to reflect the cost per year to
each industry after all air pollution abatement equipment has been installed.
The annualized costs reflect interest and depreciation-related charges through
the use of a capital recovery factor based on the known or estimated life of the
chosen emissions-control systems and upon the assumption of a uniform interest
rate of 10 percent per annum. The estimates of annualized costs include
estimates of operating and normal maintenance charges, but do not include
additional charges for operating emissions-monitoring equipment.
Capital and annualized costs for equipment installed prior to
FY 1971 were not included. The costs associated with any required process
modifications judged attributable to the implementation of the requirements
of the Act were included.
Cash requirements for each industry were estimated for each of the
two time periods of interest. The estimate of cash requirements includes the
following items:
• estimated total investment requirement for the period
• estimated interest expense (at 10 percent per annum)
for all years
• estimated total net operating and maintenance charges
for the period, after any byproduct credits have been
taken.
Cash requirement is an approximation of the total amount of cash that will be
required during the period in order to implement required emissions-control
regulations.
It should also be noted that in the course of constructing model
plants for industries contained in this report, the computation of unit
cost has, in some instances, been based on dollars per unit of capacity
(rather than dollars per unit of production) . This was done in cases where
capacity figures were more readily available than production numbers.
Consequently, the user must, if unit production costs are desired, scale
STlSs £ap?ci*y nUmb6L8 himself. It is anticipated that unit costs in
the 1975 Cost of Clean Air will be defined for all industries in terms of
dollars per unit of production.
-------
IV-5
FUEL INDUSTRIES GROUP
Coal Cleaning
Introduction and Summary
Nature of the Product and Process. In the mining of coal,
various inert materials and other impurities such as pyritic sulfur
are recovered along with the coal which, if present in quantity, must
be removed. Approximately 50 percent of the marketed coal is mechani-
cally cleaned.
In 1971, 328 million metric tons of raw coal were cleaned
recovering 246 million metric tons of coal and removing 82 million
metric tons of refuse. Because of the mechanical cutting and loading
methods used in underground coal mining about 70 percent must be
mechanically cleaned. In strip mining, in which the coal seams are
uncovered, impurities are much lower so that only 30 percent requires
cleaning.
The cleaning of coal by physical means involves methods similar
to the separation of solids in ore-dressing industries. Wet-processing
methods are used for about 95 percent of the coal that is mechanically
cleaned; pneumatic (air cleaning) methods account for the other 5 per-
cent. While particulate emissions from pneumatic cleaners are relatively
low, dust-abatement regulations of the Occupational Health and Safety Act
will require a higher moisture level inhibiting air table operations, so
it is assumed that cleaning by this method will be discontinued by 1975.
In order to reduce the moisture content of coal to satisfactory
levels following wet-process cleaning, thermal drying may be required.
In 1971, there were 103 thermal-drying plants processing almost 45 million
metric tons of coal.
Emissions and Control Costs. In order to meet New Source Per-
formance Standards on particulate emissions, venturi scrubbers (or the
equivalent) will be required. Emissions without controls are estimated
at 280,000 metric tons in FY 1971, and the controlled emissions are
estimated at 62,000 metric tons. In FY 1979, controlled emissions are
estimated at 3400 metric tons.
Installation of these controls is estimated to require an in-
vestment of $16 million. The estimated annualized cost associated with
this investment is $3.3 million. Cash requirements are estimated at
$27.5 million for the period FY 1971 through FY 1979.
-------
IV-6
Industry Structure
Characteristics of the Firms. Almost one-half of all bituminous
coal mined in the United States in 1971 was produced by the top 15 coal
company groups. This represents a gain of 8.6 percentage points since
1961. All of the producing groups have increased production substantially
over the 10-year period. During the same time period, the character of the
coal mining industry has been shifting to both fewer mines and a greater de-
pendency on stripping operations.
In 1961, the Bureau of Mines listed a total of 7,648 mines operat-
ing in the United States. Of these 5,843 were underground mines, 1,477 were
strip mines, and 328 were auger operations.
By 1971, the number of operating mines had dropped to 5,149. Of
this number, 2,268 were underground mines; 2,290 were strip mines, and 591
were auger mines. This large decrease in the number of underground mines is
a direct result of the 1969 Coal Mine Health and Safety Act which placed
strict regulations on underground operations. Increasing constraints on
stripping operations will also affect the growth in coal production and the
character of coal-mining operations over the next several years.
Large mines account for a majority of the total coal produced.
In 1971, there were 152 underground mines having an annual output of 454,000
or more metric tons of bituminous coal. In total, these mines produced 138
million metric tons of coal. There were 104 strip mines producing 454,000
metric tons per year or more, and these mines produced a total of 94 million
metric tons. Together, these 256 large mines produced almost half of the
coal mined in 1971.
On the other hand, there was a total of 1,600 mines operating in
1971 with annual outputs less than 9,200 metric tons. These mines produced
only 7.1 million metric tons of coal, not much more than the output of the
largest producing mine in the U.S. in 1971.
In 1961, 65.7 percent of the bituminous coal mined in the U.S. was
mechanically cleaned to reduce the ash and sulfur components of the coal.
In 1971, a much smaller percentage, 49.1 percent, was mechanically cleaned.
This decline has resulted from expanded strip-mine operations, in which less
foreign matter is present and from increased shipments to electric utilities,
who traditionally have bought coal on a price-per-million Btu basis and who
have furnaces capable of handling unwashed coals.
Coal Cleaning (Preparation). The primary objective of mechanical
cleaning is to upgrade the quality of the coal. Activities include:
(1) crushing and sizing in accordance with requirements of the market, (2)
moval by physical separation of as much of the noncoal and other ash-forming
mineral constituents as possible economically without excessive loss of coal
substance, (3) removal of as much pyritic sulfur as possible concurrent with
(2) , and (4), removal of mineral matter and sulfur by special chemical
treatment, which represents an area of current research rather than current
practice.
re-
-------
IV-7
The cleaning of coal by physical means involves methods similar
to separation of solids in the ore-dressing industry. Generally, these
utilize washing methods based on the differences in specific gravity be-
tween the impurities (including removable forms of sulfur) and the main
constituents of coal. Coal cleaning has been carried out for the past
several decades using such techniques singly or in combination. In 1971,
the percentages of coal cleaned by type of equipment was as follows:
Process Percentage
Jigging 42.5
Dense-Medium 33.2
Tabling 13.1
Pneumatic 5.3
Classifier 0.8
Launder 1.8
Flotation 3.3
Total 100.0
All of these but the pneumatic (air) methods are 'wet11 methods.
Much of the cleaned coal is shipped wet and often mixed with salt or oil
to minimize freezing in the winter months. About 18 percent of mechani-
cally cleaned coal is thermally dried before loading. Drying is practiced
for one or more of the following reasons: (1) to avoid freezing difficul-
ties and to facilitate handling during shipment, storage, and transfer to
points of use; (2) to maintain high pulverizer capacity; (3) to reduce heat
loss due to evaporation of surface moisture from the coal in the burning
process, thus increasing heating efficiency; (4) to improve the quality of
the coal used for special purposes, such as production of coke, briquettes,
and chemicals; and (5) to decrease transportation costs.
Particulate emissions from coal-drying operations are the major
source of air pollution from coal-cleaing plants.
Current Capacity and Growth Prelections. The capacity of coal-
cleaning plants is impossible to calculate precisely because data concern-
ing individual plants or mines are not specific. The U.S. Bureau of Mines
lists the number of thermal-drying plants and quantity dried by state per-
mitting an estimated distribution of plant sizes by state from which model
plant sizes were developed. In 1971, production of thermally dried coal was
43.6 million metric tons.
A basic factor inhibiting the rapid growth of coal production is
the high sulfur content of most readily available Eastern coals. Low-sulfur
coals exist both in the Eastern and Western sectors of the nation; however,
most of these Eastern coale are coking coals and little excess capacity
exists. A great potential of untapped low-sulfur coal reserves exists in
the West, but the high cost of transporting these coals to Midwest and
-------
IV-8
Eastern markets has, until recently, precluded large-scale consumption.
Major factors affecting the future of the domestic coal industry are
listed as follows:
• Air-pollution regulations relating to SC>2 emissions
from coal-buring power plants cannot be met in 1975
without the widespread use of S02 stack-gas control
devices or very rapid, and perhaps unachievable,
increases in strip mining in Western states.
• Only with widespread availability of SC>2 control
devices and substantial reductions in their costs
(50 percent below current estimates) can Eastern and Mid-
western strip-mined coal maintain a competitive
position versus Western low-sulfur strip-mined coal
• Widespread availability of combined-cycle power
plants and the availability of low-Btu (and possibly
medium-Btu) coal gasification can offer significant
opportunities for Eastern coals in Eastern markets
• Without significant cost reduction, high-Btu gasifi-
cation of coal will not find substantial application
in energy delivery systems to electric utilities
• Due to the small contribution of the costs of coal
washing or preparation, decreases in unit costs
(or increases in efficiency) will have little impact
upon the utilization of coal
• From the point of view of the overall costs of supplying
fossil fuels, the most economically attractive locations
for expansion of mining capacity is in the West.
The recently announced policy of prohibiting the wide-scale con-
version of coal-fired electric power plants to oil should have a beneficial
effect on the coal industry, if implemented.
Based on this background, an overall projection of an annual
4 percent growth rate in the coal industry to 1979 has been used. It is
also assumed that there will be an equivalent growth rate in the demand for
mechanical cleaning and thermal drying of coal. Strict adherence to air
quality regulations or sulfur oxides emissions limitations would slow the
growth in demand for coal considerably. On the other hand, restrictions on
imports of petroleum will lead to an accelerated demand for coal.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
The particulate emissions of primary concern from coal-cleaning
plants are generated in the drying operation. The dryer is simply a
device in which hot flue gases and air are used to heat the wet
-------
IV-9
cleaned coal, evaporate much of the moisture, and transport the water
vapor out of the system. This simple principle becomes quite complex
because of the large weight of materials that must be handled on a con-
tinuous basis.
New Source Performance Standards will require a substantial re-
duction in particulate emissions from coal-cleaning operations. The major
emission sources are thermal dryers and pneumatic cleaners. Typical un-
controlled emission factors are 2.5 kg per metric ton of dried coal from
flash dryers, 6.5 kg per metric ton from fluidized-bed dryers, and 0.09 kg
per metric ton from pneumatic cleaners.
Available data on the level of present control indicate that 87
percent of the thermal dryers are controlled to an efficiency of 90 per-
cent. An additional 1 percent is controlled to an efficiency of 99 percent.
The remaining dryers are assumed to be uncontrolled. To meet New Source
Performance Standards, it is assumed that venturi scrubbers will be added
to thermal dryers.
For pneumatic operations, 57 percent of capacity was controlled
in 1971, resulting in total emissions of 1655 tons. The future use of
pneumatic cleaning of coal is in doubt. To meet the dust-abatement re-
gulations of the Occupational Health and Safety Act will require a high
moisture content in the coal that will inhibit operation of air tables.
Under these constraints, it is assumed that no pneumatic cleaners will be
constructed and that existing operations may have to be discontinued.
Estimated controlled and uncontrolled particulates emissions from
coal-cleaning operations (in thousands of metric tons) are as follows:
Fiscal
Year Mode Particulates
1971 Without Control 280
Without Further Control 62
1975 Without Control 365
With Further Control 2.9
1979 Without Control 430
With Further Control 3.4
Control Technology
Operators have traditionally relied on low-energy cyclones to re-
cover fines from the dryer and to reduce emissions. The overall collection
efficiency of these devices is about 90-95 percent. Cyclones alone are not
capable of the high collection efficiency required to meet the 0.03 gr/dscf
proposed Federal standard. The selection and design of the cyclone is nor-
mally confined to providing the most economic product recovery consistent
with the lowest maintenance and operating costs. Typical emissions from a
cyclone range from 0.5 to 15 gr/dscf, averaging about 4 gr/dscf.
-------
IV-10
Baghouses or high-energy wet scrubbers are generally required by
industrial process operators to meet strict air pollution regulations on
particulate emissions. Bag filters are not applicable for coal-cleaning
operations because of the susceptibility to fire and explosion, and high bag
replacement cost. Gas inlet temperature to the filter must be kept above
the dew point to prevent the formation of a mud which will blind the filter.
This is particularly difficult on dryer effluents, where the dew point of
the exit gas approaches the gas temperature. For these reasons, bag filters
are seldom used in coal-cleaning operations.
Currently, the most applicable wet scrubber for coal-cleaning
operations is the venturi. This scrubber type is virtually free from the
plugging problems which plague other scrubber types. Also, the scrubbing
liquid can be recirculated--thus, keeping water usage to a minimum. The
venturi provides the highest collection efficiency when operated at high-
pressure drop. The major disadvantage of the venturi scrubber is the high
operating cost when a high-pressure drop is required across the throat
section.
The estimated cost of meeting New Source Performance Standards
for coal-cleaning plants is based on the investment and annual costs of
installing venturi scrubbers on thermal dryers. Investment, annualized,
and unit costs for controls on selected model plants are shown in Table
IV- 1. It is estimated that the costs are approximately the same for new
and existing plants.
Estimated investment and annual costs for installing control equip-
ment on existing coal-cleaning plants and new facilities for the period
FY 1971 to FY
$ Millions
Expected
Minimum
Maximum
Existing Facilities
Investment
Annual Costs
Capital Charges
Operating and Maintenance
Total Annual Costs
Cash Requirements
New Facilities
Investment
Annual Costs
Capital Charges
Operating and Maintenance
Total Annual Costs
Cash Requirements
12.52
1.47
1.16
2.63
22.05
3.24
0.38
0.31
0.69
5.42
11.52
1.38
1.09
2.47
20.80
2.98
0.35
0.29
0.65
5.08
13.70
1.58
1.23
2.81
23.56
3.52
0.41
0.32
0.73
5.78
-------
TABLE IV-1. COSTS OF CONTROL FOR MODEL PLANTS IN THE COAL-CLEANING INDUSTRY
Model Size,
metric
tons /day
91
363
544
910
Investment ,
$1,000
Expected
80.4
248.6
360.5
558.6
Minimum
63.2
213.3
329.0
508.4
Maximum
105.5
285.5
393.3
610.9
Annualized Cost,
$1,000
Expected
15.08
51.23
77.48
125.76
Minimum
11.84
45.02
70.43
114.80
Maximum
19.69
57.45
84.19
137.02
Unit Cost,
$ /annual metric ton
Expected
0.66
0.56
0.56
0.55
Minimum
- 0.52
0.50
0.51
0.51
(a)
Maximum
0.87
0.63
0.62
0.61
(a) Dollars per metric ton of annual capacity, based on a 250-day operation.
-------
IV-12
Natural-Gas Processing Plants
Introduction and Summary
Nature of the Product and Process. Natural gas, which is largely
composed of methane, is often discovered in association with other hydro-
carbons and may contain varying quantities of other gases such as carbon
dioxide, nitrogen, helium, and hydrogen sulfide. The liquid hydrocarbons
are separated, and other gases must often be removed in order to obtain a
natural gas of pipeline quality. Because of the corrosive qualities, odor,
and poisonous nature of hydrogen sulfide, it must be reduced to very low
levels. About 8 percent of the natural gas produced in the United States
requires some form of treatment for removal of hydrogen sulfide. Hydrogen
sulfide in this sour natural gas may vary from trace quantities to a high
of 75 percent by volume of the natural gas.
Where hydrogen sulfide is present in sufficient quantity to jus-
tify economic recovery, Glaus plants have been installed. In other plants,
hydrogen sulfide has been separated from the natural gas and flared to the
atmosphere as sulfur oxides. In order to meet the 1975 air-quality stand-
ards, it will be necessary to install Glaus plants (or equivalent control
processes) in natural-gas processing plants presently flaring the hydrogen
sulfide and to install tail-gas scrubbers on all Glaus plants to reduce sul-
fur emissions to acceptable levels.
Emissions and Control Costs. In FY 1971 emissions of sulfur
oxides from processing plants containing Glaus units are estimated to be
184,000 metric tons per year, and uncontrolled emissions from other plants
are estimated to be 852,000 metric tons per year. These uncontrolled emissions
are estimated to be about the same in FY 1979. In contrast, controlled
emissions would be about 20,000 metric tons in FY 1979.
Control costs from FY 1971 to FY 1979 are estimated to require an
investment of $90 million, with an associated annualized cost of $27.3 million.
Industry Structure
Characteristics of the Industry. The natural gas industry may be
viewed as having two major elements: production and transmission/distribu-
tion. The production sector is dominated by large firms but with many
smaller firms contributing a sizeable share of the total output. The trans-
mission/distribution sectors are primarily organized as public utilities,
operating under Federal and/or state regulations. Although many gas utili-
ties are now integrating back to production, the basic structure remains.
Processing plant operations are a necessary part of the production sector in
providing a natural gas suitable for pipeline transmission.
-------
IV-13
While the vast majority of natural gas fields discovered in the
United States contain little or no hydrogen sulfide (H2S), a sizeable num-
ber of gas fields in the United States contain hydrogen sulfide in
quantities requiring treatment. A much smaller number of fields have hydrogen
sulfide in sufficiently large quantities to warrant the recovery of elemental
sulfur from the natural gas. A breakdown of the ownership of Claus plants
for sulfur recovery from natural gas is as follows:
Percentage
Share of
Company Capacity
Shell Oil 25
Amoco Oil 16
Humble Oil (Exxon) 9
Getty Oil 6
Cities Service 5
Warren Petroleum 5
Phillips Petroleum 4
Other Oil Firms 5
Other Firms (Chemical or Natural Gas Producers) 25
Total 100
In addition to these plants, there are other natural gas plants
that remove and incinerate the small quantities of t^S contained in the
natural gas, releasing SC>2 to the atmosphere. A listing of these plants is
not available. Emissions and cost of control from these plants have not been
estimated in the past.
Current Capacity and Growth Projections. No reliable data are
published on the total amount of sulfur recovered annually from natural-gas
plants. Based on published figures for the average daily sulfur recovery
from 20 specific plants, an equipment-utilization factor of 63 percent was
computed. This operation level was assumed for the entire industry.
It is difficult to estimate the required increase in Claus plant
or equivalent capacity that may be required to remove the hydrogen sulfide
from natural gas. Most projections of natural gas supply assume little or
no increase over the next several years. While many new fields may be dis-
covered in the Southwest United States, on the Gulf coast both on-shore and
off"shore, in the Rocky Mountain Area and elsewhere, it has been assumed that
the capacity of these plants will remain essentially constant through FY 1979.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Natural Gas Plants Without Claus Units. Emissions from these plants
have not been considered in the past. The emissions from any given plant are
a function of the sulfur content of the gas feedstock. Hydrogen sulfide is
-------
IV-14
reduced to acceptably low levels in amine scrubbing units or equivalent '
treatment methods. The hydrogen sulfide recovered from the amine solution'••;•-'
is then converted to sulfur oxides by flaring, with subsequent release- to the'
atmosphere. In 1972, EPA estimated the daily sulfur oxides emissions from
these plants to be 852,000 metric tons per year. The installation of a Glaus
unit capable of 94 percent sulfur recovery efficiency would lower these
emissions to 55,000 metric tons per year. The addition of a tail-gas scrubber
to the Glaus unit would further lower overall emissions to 4500 metric tons
per year.
Natural Gas Plants With Glaus Units. Based on the assumption of
a 94 percent sulfur recovery factor, the emissions from these plants at x.-
63 percent operating capacity would total 184,000 metric tons per year. The'-'
installation of a tail-gas scrubber, required to meet 1975 regulations, would
further lower the total emissions to 15,000 metric tons per year. "
Total Emissions. Estimated controlled and uncontrolled emissions
(in millions of metric tons) for selected years are as follows:
Fiscal
Year Mode Sulfur Oxides
1971 Without Further Control 1.16
1975 Without.Further Control 1.16
With Further Control 0.02
1979 Without Further Control 1.16
With Further Control 0.02
Control Technology
The sulfur content of natural gas is related to the field from <
which the gas originates. Most of the sulfur present in natural gas is in
the form of hydrogen sulfide. The hydrogen sulfide content of natural gas
may vary from virtually nil to as high as 76 percent by volume. Natural gas
which is transported and sold in the United States has a hydrogen sulfide
content of less than 0.25 grains per 100 standard cubic feet of methane.
If the sulfur content of the gas is sufficiently high, a Glaus
unit may be installed to economically recover up to 94 percent of the input
sulfur. Additional control will be required to meet the 1975 :air quality
regulations. A tail-gas scrubber must then be installed in conjunction with
the Glaus unit.
Glaus Plants. These units produce elemental sulfur from the hydro-
gen sulfide in sour gas obtained principally from natural gas and petroleum
refining. Several variations of the Glaus process are available: the process
choice is primarily a function of the H2S concentration in the sour gas feed.
-------
IV-15
The unrecovered sulfur appears in the Glaus plant tail-gas principally as
hydrogen sulfide, elemental sulfur, and sulfur oxides. In the past, thisi
tail-gas normally has been incinerated to convert the unrecovered sulfur
compounds to sulfur oxides prior to release to the atmosphere.
Tail-Gas Scrubbers. In order to meet the 1975 air quality stand-
ards , it is necessary to use additional processing to reduce the quantity
of sulfur in the Glaus plant tail-gas. Three promising systems are considered
here for the development of cost information.
The Shell Process is said to be capable of virtually complete sul-
fur removal. The process features a reduction stage, in which all sulfur
compounds and elemental sulfur in the Glaus off-gas are reduced to hydrogen
sulfide. The reduction stage is followed by an absorption stage in which
the hydrogen sulfide is selectively removed by amine scrubbing. After re-
generation, recovered hydrogen sulfide is recycled to the Glaus unit.
The Beavon Sulfur Removal Process is reportedly proven in a pilot-
plant operation in California. The Glaus plant tail-gas is mixed with hot
combustion gas produced by burning fuel gas with air. This mixture is passed
through a catalytic reactor to convert all the sulfur to hydrogen sulfide.
Water is then condensed before this gas is passed through a Stretford sec-
tion, where the hydrogen sulfide is removed and converted to elemental
sulfur.
The Cleanair Sulfur Process has been installed in a Glaus plant
in Canada. This process employs a Stretford Process section. Claus-Cleanair
units are available,as a tandem unit; alternatively, a Cleanair Unit can be
added to an existing Glaus plant.
Control Costs
Control costs have been computed for eight model plant sizes for
plants with Glaus units and for plants without Glaus units. Selected model
plant control costs are presented in Table IV-2.
A summary of the estimated direct, control costs for natural gas
processing plants in meeting air quality standards on sulfur oxide emissions
in the period from FY 1971 through FY 1979 is as follows:
$ Millions
Expected Minimum Maximum
Existing Facilities
investment 90 79 104.6
Annual Costs
Capital Charges 10.6 9.3 12.3
Operating and Maintenance 16.7 14.6 18.6
Total Annual Costs 27.3 23.9 30.9
Cash Requirements 216.9 199.2 235.2
New Facilities ' (not applicable)
-------
TABLE IV- 2. COSTS OF CONTROL FOR SELECTED MODEL NATURAL
GAS PROCESSING PLANTS
Model Size, Investment,
metric tons sulfur $1,000
per day
Expected
Minimum
Annualized Cost,
$1,000
Maximum Expected Minimum
Maximum
Unit Cost,(a)
$/unit
Expected Minimum Maximum
Glaus Plant Plus Tail-Gas Scrubber
5
60
100
750
454
1718
2242
6488
314
1258
1639
4589
608
2244
2981
8674
Tail-Gas Scrubber
5
60
100
750
253
869
1157
3149
168
628
810
2300
334
1127
1534
4142
125
652
884
3586
on
46
220
316
1356
84
429
612
2235
Existing Glaus
28
159
207
898
165
734
1182
4946
Plant
61
297
436
2889
108
29
24
13
25
10
9
5
I
I-1
o->
(a) Unit cost = $/annual metric ton sulfur capacity.
-------
IV-17
Petroleum Industry
Introduction and Summary
Nature of the Products and Processes. The three major sources of
air pollution in the petroleum industry covered in this study are: (1) re-
generation of catalysts used in catalytic cracking, (2) burning of off-gases
from various refinery process operation in order to recover the fuel values,
and (3) handling and storage of volatile petroleum products and crude oils.
A consolidated view of the type and extent of the emissions from refining
and related operations, and the costs that may be involved in reducing them
to levels meeting state and Federal regulations, is presented below.
In catalytic cracking, carbon deposited on the catalyst must be
removed continuously in order to maintain catalyst activity. In burning the
carbon from the catalyst, substantial quantities of particulates, carbon
monoxide, unburned hydrocarbons, and any sulfur contained in the carbon are
carried off in the flue gases. Particulate emissions may be controlled by
use of electrostatic precipitators. The carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons
can be burned to less noxious gases either with or without the recovery of
energy in the form of steam. Reduction in sulfur oxide emissions will re-
quire the use either of low-sulfur charging stocks or treatment of flue gas.
Refinery off-gases (fuel gases) from crude-oil distillation and
various subsequent high-temperature processing operations contain about one-
half of the sulfur present in the crude oil in the form of hydrogen sulfide.
If present in sufficient quantities to cause corrosion, catalyst poisoning,
or odor emissions problems, the hydrogen sulfide is separated from the off-
gases by absorption in an amine solution (or by an equivalent treatment) and
recovered as hydrogen sulfide which is either burned in a flare which emits
sulfur oxides to the atmosphere, or is converted to sulfur in a Glaus plant
(or the equivalent). Proposed new Federal standards on sulfur oxide emissions
would require installation of amine treatment facilities, Glaus plants, and
tail-gas treatment systems on virtually all U.S. refining capacity.
The most significant contribution to total hydrocarbon losses in
the petroleum industry are associated with the necessary use of vast storage
facilities. The National Petroleum Council has shown that the entire indus-
try has found it necessary to maintain a total storage capacity of at least
two barrels for each barrel of actual inventory. This surplus storage is
the minimum amount of storage to maintain flexibility in refinery operation
and to provide for seasonal variations in demand.
Crude oil is supplied to refineries through a transportation system
which includes tank farms, bulk terminals, and other storage points outside
the refinery. Many refineries serve as the first link in the system for mar-
keting and distribution of petroleum products. The bulk of all refinery pro-
ducts are transported by pipeline to large storage facilities such as bulk
terminals and bulk stations.
-------
IV-18
Hydrocarbon emissions from storage vessels depend on three basic
mechanisms: breathing loss, working loss, and standing storage loss.
Breathing and working losses are associated with fixed-roof tanks, while
standing storage losses are associated with floating-roof tanks. The magni-
tude of hydrocarbon emissions from storage vessels depends on many factors
including the physical properties of the material being stored, climatic and
meteorological conditions, and the size, type, color, age, and physical condi-
tion of the tank.
New Federal standards on hydrocarbon emissions will require instal-
lation of floating-roof tanks (or the equivalent) for the storage of crude
oil and petroleum products which exhibit vapor pressures in the range 78 to
570 millimeters mercury.
Emissions and Control Costs. Emissions from catalytic cracking,
fuel-gas burning at refineries, and storage of crude oil and volatile petro-
leum products in FY 1971 (without further controls) and in FY 1979 (with
further controls) are estimated in thousands of metric tons per year.
Fiscal
Year
1971
Mode Source
Without Further Catalytic
Control Cracking
1979
With Further
Control
Partic-
ulates
130
Sulfur Carbon Hydro- Nitrogen
Oxides Monoxide carbons Oxides
260 7,400
120
36
Fuel Gas
Burning
Storage
Total 130
Catalytic 3&
Cracking
Fuel Gas
Burning
Storage
Total 36
3,400
910
3,660 , 7,400 1,030
\
10 Neg
68
275
68 10 275
94
130
55
105
160
Total industry control costs for the period FY 1971 through FY 1979
are estimated to require an investment of about $850 million. Annualized
costs for the industry are estimated at $130 million, allowing no credit for
additional steam recovery through installations of CO- boilers in catalytic
cracking units. On the basis of an assumed credit of $0.82 per million Btu
for this steam, annualized costs might be reduced by a maximum estimated
$109 million. At the present time, it is judged that only a small but in-
determinate fraction of this by-product steam could be utilized effectively.
-------
IV-19
Industry Structure
Characteristics of the Firms. The petroleum industry can logically
be divided into five major divisions: exploration, production, refining,
transportation, and marketing. Exploration is concerned with the search for
new. crude-oil supplies. Production includes the operations involved in drill-
ing oil fields, determining best production methods, removing oil from the
ground, and pretreatment at the well site. The extent of pretreatment depends
on the type of crude oil, and usually involves removal of gas and brine. Re-
fining is limited to the operations necessary to convert the crude oil into
salable products, namely: gasoline, kerosene, distillate fuel oils, residual
fuel oils, lubricants, asphalt, and a host of specialty products. Petroleum-
derived chemicals such as ethylene, propylene, toluene, and benzene, also serve
as vital feedstocks to the petrochemical industry. Transportation involves
movement of crude oil to the refinery and refined products to market areas.
Marketing involves the distribution and sale of the finished petroleum products.
Integration and diversification prevail within the industry. Most
of the firms involved in refining also produce crude oil or market the re-
fined products, or do both. In fact, the refinery portion of the business
is generally not the major activity. Refinery investment is only some 13 per-
cent of the total gross investment in the domestic oil industry. All large-
and medium-sized firms have diversified into chemical production. A few
companies have entered into other nonrelated areas of business.
Current Capacity and Growth Pro lections. As of January 1, 1973, the
247 refinery operations in the United States were capable of processing 13.4
million barrels of crude oil daily. A distribution of these refineries by
size and percent of total capacity is
Average
Refinery
Capacity,
1000 barrels
per
calendar day
5
10
15
25
50
75
75 to 100
100 to 200
200 and up
Totals
0 to
5 to
10 to
15 to
25 to
50 to
Number
of
Refineries
43
35
17
26
46
19
20
26
15
247
Total
Capac ity,
1000 barrels
per
calendar day
117
221
194
484
1,644
1,136
1,756
3,449
4,410
13,414
Percent of
Total Industry
Capacity
0.87
1.65
1.45
3.61
12.26
8.47
13.09
25.72
32.88
100.00
Average
Capacity,
1000 barrels
per
calendar day
2
6
11
18
35
59
87
132
294
-------
IV-20
During the period of 1967 to 1973, total crude processing capability
increased by 2.3 million barrels per day, despite a drop in the number of re-
fineries from 261 to 247, indicating a gradual trend toward larger installations.
Over 80 percent of the total refining capacity is dominated by 16 major firms,
each of which controls crude processing capacity in excess of 200,000 barrels
per day. A breakdown of refinery capacity and number of plants operated by
these firms is as shown on the following page.
fc
In 1972, petroleum products (crude oil and natural-gas liquids)
supplied about 45 percent of the total energy requirements of the United
States. By way of comparison, natural gas supplied 32 percent, coal 17 per-
cent, hydropower 4 percent, and nuclear energy less than 1 percent of the
energy budget. A recent study by the National Petroleum Council estimated
a growth in demand for petroleum products of 4.2 percent per year between
1970 and 1980. To maintain the same relative relationship of U.S. crude oil
refining capacity to domestic demand would require a growth in capacity from
about 12.4 million barrels per day in mid-1970 to 18 million barrels per day
by mid-1980. The uncertainties regarding import regulations and availability
of crude oil and refined products and difficulties in obtaining suitable sites
for new grass-roots refineries, have resulted in essentially zero growth during
the past 2 years. While plans to expand present refining operations and to
build new plants have been announced, it will take a minimum of 2 to 3 years
to construct these new units and to get them into full production. In the
meantime, construction of new and enlarged refineries in .the West Indies,
the Caribbean, and eastern Canada will absorb some of the anticipated increased
demand for petroleum products over the next few years.
Company
Exxon
Texaco
Shell
Amoco
Standard (Calif.)
Mobil
Gulf
ARCO
Sun
Union
Sohio/BP
Phillips
Ashland
Conoco
Cities Service
Marathon
Subtotals
Remaining 115 Firms
Totals
Number of
Refineries
5
12
8
10
13
9
8
6
5
4
5
6
7
7
1
3
109
138
247
Crude
Capacity,
1000 barrels
per
calendar day
Cat Cracking
Feed,
barrels per
stream day
Percent
of Crude
Capacity
6.3
-------
IV-21
In the following paragraphs, current capacity and growth projections
for catalytic cracking, fuel-gas burning, and petroleum and petroleum-product
storage are presented.
Of the 247 petroleum refineries in the United States in 1973, 146
operate catalytic cracking units. Total processing capacity is about 4 million
barrels per day of fresh feed, with an additional recycle stream of about 1
million barrels per day.
Additions to catalytic cracking capacity will depend upon the demand
for gasoline. This capacity is anticipated to increase from 4.5 million
barrels per day of fresh feed in 1973 to about 5.85 million barrels per day
by mid-1979, assuming a continuation of existing refining practices. Improve-
ments in catalytic-cracking technology are expected to reduce recycle operations
from 1 million barrels per day in 1973 to less than one-half million barrels
per day by FY 1979.
More than 80 percent of the crude-oil processing and catalytic crack-
ing operations are presently conducted in refineries of at least 50,000 barrels
of crude oil capacity per day. The trend to larger refining operations is
expected to continue. Over the next 5 years, it is believed that less than
100,000 barrels per day of new catalytic cracking capacity will be installed
in refineries of approximately 10,000 barrels per day, compared with about
1.2 million barrels of new catalytic cracking capacity installed in re-
fineries of approximately 50,000 barrels per day.
It is estimated that the 247 domestic refineries produce about
2.3 billion scfd of refinery fuel gases. By 1979, new refinery capacity
is expected to produce an additional 0.62 billion scfd of gas. Present
Glaus plant capacity for recovering sulfur from refinery gases is about
6,500 metric tons sulfur per day. The expected increased sulfur content
of crude oils, plus growth in refining capacity, will require a growth in
Glaus plant capacity and tail-gas scrubbing systems to about 18,700 metric
tons per day by FY 1979.
Crude-oil storage capacity is estimated at about 400 million
barrels in FY 1971, increasing to 425 million barrels in FY 1979. Gasoline
storage capacity is estimated at about 350 million barrels in FY 1979. Jet
fuel__(naphtha) storage capacity will increase from about 9.2 million barrels
in FY 1971 to 9.8 million barrels in FY 1979. Less volatile products such as
distillate fuel oils, kerosene, gas oils, residual fuel oils, and heavy
crude oils have not been included;, these products can be stored in fixed-
roof tanks without excessive evaporation, and they are not included in the New
Source Performance Standards for petroleum-products storage.
-------
IV-2 2
Emissions Sources and Pollutants
Refinery emissions and typical sources are
Emissions Sources
Sulfur Oxides Boilers
Process Heaters
Cat Cracker/Regenerators
Treating Units
Flares
Decoking Operations
Nitrogen Oxides Boilers
Process Heaters
Catalyst Regenerators
Flares
Compressor Engines
Particulates Catalyst Regenerators
Boilers
Process Heaters
Decoking Operations
Incinerators
Carbon Monoxide Catalyst Regenerators
Decoking Operations
Compressor Engines
Incinerators
Hydrocarbons Loading Facilities
Turnarounds
Sampling
Storage Tanks
Waste Water Separators
Slowdown Systems
Catalyst Regenerators
Pumps
Valves
Blind Changing
Cooling Towers
Vacuum Jets
Barometric Condenser
Air-blowing
Process Heaters
Boiler
Compressor Engines
-------
IV-23
Emissions from catalytic-cracking operations, fuel-gas burning,
and petroleum storage comprise the vast bulk of air emissions requiring
additional controls to enable the petroleum industry to meet state and
Federal regulations. Total estimated emissions from these three sources .are
(in thousands of metric tons per year):
Fiscal Partic- Sulfur Carbon Hydro- Nitrogen
Year Mode ulates Oxides Monoxide carbons Oxides
1971 Without^Further ^ ^^ ?
1975 Without^Further
With Further 45 85Q
Control e
1979 Without Further fi(J
Control ' '
With Further % 6g 1Q 2?5 UQ
Control
In the following paragraphs, emission sources and estimates for
catalytic cracking, fuel-gas burning, and petroleum crude and product stor-
age are presented.
The carbon deposited on the catalyst used in catalytic cracking
must be removed continuously to maintain activity of the catalyst in con-
verting charging stocks to high-octane gasoline and other desired products.
In burning the carbon from the catalyst with air, substantial quantities of
particulates, carbon monoxide, unburned hydrocarbons, and any sulfur contained
in the carbon are generated. Some nitrogen oxides are formed at the combus-
tion temperatures normally used in catalyst-regeneration operations. Emissions
of sulfur oxides depend upon the sulfur content of the feedstock processed in
catalytic-cracking operations; approximately 5 percent of the feed sulfur is
retained by the carbon on the catalyst pellets. This retained sulfur sub-
sequently is burned off during regeneration. The use of higher cracking
temperatures arid newer catalysts--which reduces the amount of carbon de-
position on the catalyst—tends to reduce sulfur oxides emissions during
catalyst regeneration. So also would the use of desulfurized or low-sulfur
feedstocks.
-------
IV-24
The best achievable but necessarily rough estimates of emissions
from cracking-catalyst-regeneration operations are as follows (in thousands
of metric tons per year),
Partic- Sulfur Carbon Hydro- Nitrogen
Mode ulates Oxides Monoxide carbons Oxides
Without Further 13Q 26Q ?)400 120 36
Control
Without Further 16Q 31Q 8>800 135 45
Control
With Further 2? _. neg neg 45
Control
1979 Without Further 21Q 40Q n 3QO 18Q 55
Control
With Further ^ __ 1Q n 55
Control
Emissions of sulfur oxides from fuel-gas burning are a function
of the sulfur content of the crude oil being processed, the complexity of
the refinery, and its energy balance. Sulfur enters the refinery in the
crude oil, in any purchased fuel oil or gas, and in sulfuric acid purchased
for use in various processes. A large part of this sulfur routinely leaves
the refinery in the various products, as spent sulfuric acid shipped out for
regeneration, as sulfides or sulfates in the liquid wastes, or as by-products
of sulfur-recovery plants. The remainder could be emitted to the atmosphere
mainly as sulfur dioxide, although some higher sulfur oxides and hydrogen
sulfide may be released.
Proposed Federal standards for new refineries or additions to
existing refineries would limit sulfur oxide emissions from heaters, boilers,
and flare stacks by specifying a limit on the hydrogen sulfide content of
the fuel burned, unless the combustion gases are treated in a manner equally
effective in preventing the release of sulfur oxides to the atmosphere.
Accurate estimation of refinery sulfur emissions based on average
values is extremely difficult if not impossible. Each refinery should be
considered separately. Such a massive effort was beyond the scope of the
present program; therefore, very rough material balances were based on model
refineries and average crude oil sulfur contents. Estimated sulfur emissions
were based on the assumptions that the average sulfur content of the crude
oil processed in U.S. refineries in 1975 is 0.9 percent, and that present
sulfur-recovery capacity exists to recover slightly more than one-half of
this sulfur. It was further assumed that all refining capacity installed in
the U.S. between 1975 and 1979 will process a mixture of imported Middle East
crude with an average sulfur content of 2 percent.
-------
IV-2 5
The estimate of sulfur oxides emissions from fuel-gas burning in
refinery operations for FY 1971 was based on the assumption of full utiliza-
tion of existing sulfur-recovery facilities. The following estimates of
sulfur oxides emissions (in thousands of metric tons per year are based on
the assumption of a present recovery of 2.2 million metric tons of sulfur in
FY 1971:
Fiscal Sulfur Nitrogen
Year Mode Oxides Oxides
1971 Without Further Control 3,400 94
1975 Without Further Control 4,400 90
With Further Control 45 90
1979 Without Further Control 9,340 105
With Further Control 68 105
Hydrocarbon emissions from storage vessels depend on three basic
mechanisms: breathing loss, working loss, and standing-storage loss. Breath-
ing and working losses are associated with fixed-roof tanks; standing-storage
losses are associated with floating-roof tanks.
The magnitude of hydrocarbon emissions from storage vessels depends
on many factors, including the physical properties of the material being
stored, climatic and meteorological conditions, and the size, type, color,
age, and condition of the tank. Emissions from tanks with known physical
characteristics can be calculated with reasonable accuracy. For the purposes
of this study, average factors which cover a wide variety of tank sizes and
conditions have been used. Emissions without controls are estimated for
FY 1971 at 1 million barrels, increasing to 1.1 million barrels in FY 1979.
Estimated hydrocarbon emissions (in thousands of metric tons per
year) are as follows:
Fiscal
Year Mode Hydrocarbons
1971 Without Further Control 910
1975 Without Further Control 940
With Further Control 850
1979 Without Further Control 1,000
With Further Control 275
-------
IV-2 6
Control Technology
Catalytic Cracking. Equipment to control emissions of carbon
monoxide, hydrocarbons, and particulate matter is commercially available.
P'articulate emissions may be controlled by the use of electrostatic pre-
cipitators. Carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons can be burned to less noxious
gases with or without heat recovery in the form of steam. Sulfur oxide
emissions can be reduced to acceptable levels through use either of low-
sulfur charging stocks or treatment of the flue gas after burning. In the
past, process economics have precluded installation of waste-heat (carbon
monoxide) boilers on about 40 percent of the fluid catalytic-cracking
capacity. To meet new state and Federal regulations, more CO-boilers will
be required on existing facilities to save waste energy. Improved designs
on new refinery facilities will minimize the total refinery energy requirement.
Fuel-Gas Burning. Currently, amine scrubbing units are used to
remove hydrogen sulfide from refinery gases. New processes that employ other
scrubbing media also are being applied to refinery process gases.
In the usual amine scrubbing practice, hydrogen sulfide is thermally
stripped from the amine scrubbing liquor, then either burned to sulfur dioxide
which is emitted to the atmosphere through a flare, or sent to a sulfur re-
covery plant (usually a Glaus plant) for conversion to sulfur.
The control system consists of amine treatment facilities capable
of meeting the proposed new source performance standards (or their equivalent)
followed by a sulfur recovery (Claus) plant. In anticipation of more restric-
tive future regulations on emissions of sulfur oxides, further treatment of
the tail gas leaving the Claus plant is included. At least seven tail-gas
treatment systems are being offered commercially. With the exception of
those in Los Angeles County and the San Francisco Bay area, few refineries
have installed tail-gas processing units. Therefore, four model plant cate-
gories were set up to account for the different situations encountered with
existing equipment and the different requirements imposed by the control
technology:
• Type 1: Existing refineries that now flare stripped
hydrogen sulfide directly to atmosphere will need to
expand and/or modify existing amine scrubbing capacity,
and install new sulfur recovery (Claus) plant capacity
with tail-gas processing facilities.
• Type 2: Existing refineries that now recover sulfur
but which do not have adequate capacity to meet
emissions standards will need to expand and/or modify
existing amine scrubbing capacity and install new sulfur
recovery (Claus) plant capacity with tail-gas processing
facilities.
-------
IV-27
• Type 3: New grass-roots refineries that will be built
complete with amine scrubbing units and sulfur-recovery
(Glaus) plant capacity with suitable tail-gas processing
facilities in accord with required emissions standards.
• Type 4: Existing refineries that have adequate sulfur-
recovery (Glaus) plant capacity but which need to expand
and/or modify existing amine scrubbing facilities, and
, add Glaus plant tail-gas processing facilities.
Petroleum and Petroleum Product Storage. New Source Performance
Standards for petroleum storage vessels are couched in terms of specific
control equipment rather than in terms of allowable hydrocarbon emissions.
Petroleum products having a true vapor pressure (at actual storage condi-
tions) between 78 and 570 millimeters mercury must be stored in tanks equip-
ped with a floating roof, or the equivalent. This standard would require
the conversion of existing fixed-roof tanks to floating-roof tanks; all new
storage facilities for petroleum products in this vapor-pressure range would
require floating-roof tanks. For petroleum products having a vapor pressure
greater than 570 millimeter mercury, normal industry practice generally has
been to employ vapor-recovery systems in line with the New Source Performance
Standards and in consideration of the value of the stored product.
Control Costs
A summary of the total direct control costs for the period FY 1971
through FY 1979 to reduce emissions from catalytic cracking, fuel-gas burning,
and petroleum-storage operations to the required levels is
Expected Cost. $ millions
Fuel-Gas
Burning
Catalytic
Cracking^3'
Petroleum
Storage
Total
Existing Facilities
306
Inves tment
.Annual Costs
Capital Charges 40
Operating and Maintenance 50
Total Annual Costs 90
Cash Requirements 771
New Facilities
Inves tment
Annual Costs
Capital Charges
Operating and Maintenance
Total Annual Costs
Cash Requirements
170
22
42
64
348
175
25
28
53
387
100
14
15
29
176
96
11
-6
5
0.3
-0.6
-0.3
577
76
72
148
1274
273
36.3
56.4
92.7
526
(a) Assumes no steam credit for operation of CO-boilers; Steam credit at
$0.82 per million BTU would reduce operating and maintenance costs
and cash requirements by the following amounts:
$, millions
Operation and Maintenance
Cash Requirements
Existing
$ 58
325
New
$50
152.
-------
IV-28
Investment costs are estimated at $476 million for control of
fuel-gas burning, $275 million for catalytic-cracking operations, and
$100 million for conversion to and/or installation of floating-roof storage
tanks, for a total of $850 million. The ranges for the estimated control
costs for the Petroleum Industry are presented in Table IV-3.
Annualized costs are estimated at $240 million, assuming no
credit for steam produced in CO-boilers. On the other hand, a steam
credit of $0.82 per million Btu would reduce these costs by $108 million.
The actual value of the steam would depend on the economic feasibility
of utilization of existing installation. The increasing cost of energy
and growing scarcity of low-cost natural gas should improve the economics
of increased steam use over time.
Cash requirements for the period FY 1971-1979 are estimated at
$1.8 billion, assuming no steam credits; a steam credit of $0.82 per mil-
lion Btu would reduce the cash requirement by almost $400 million.
The costs of controlling hydrocarbon emissions from loading
and unloading of small tanks, tank trucks, and servicing of vehicles at
terminals, bulk plants, and service stations are not covered in this study.
The costs involved in controlling these hydrocarbon emissions may be well
in excess of $1 billion, or considerably more than the cost of the primary
industry controls. Other costs relevant to the petroleum industry have
been addressed in other sections of this report. These include the use
of lead-free and low-lead gasoline in Chapter III; Mobile Source Emission
Control; oil desulfurization in Chapter V; Fossil Fuel Burning Sources;
and control of sulfur in natural gas in the section on Natural Gas Pro-
cessing Plants.
-------
TABUE Iff-3. COST OF CONTROL FOR PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
Catalytic Cracking, (a)
$ Millions
Expected Minimum
Existing Facilities
Investment
Annual Costs
Capital Charges
Operating and Maintenance
Total Annual Costs
Cash Requirements
New Facilities
Investment
Annual Costs
Capital Charges
Operating and Maintenance
Total Annual Costs
Cash Requirements
(a) Assumes no steam credit for
costs and cash requirements
175
25.1
27.6
52.7
412
101
14.0
15.2
29.2
177
operation
as follows
145
21.9
21.5
43.4
353
83.7
11.6
11.7
23.5
153
Fuel Gas Burning,
$ Millions
Maximum Expected
206
28
33
61
471
118
16
18
35
202
of CO-boilers
306
.3 40.2
.6 49.8
.9 90.0
771
472
.4 22.3
.7 42.2
.1 64.5
348
; Steam credit
Petroleum Storage
$ Millions
Minimum Maximum Expected Minimum
259
34.1
19.2
53.3
551
395
18.2
30.0
48.2
284
at $0.82
$
364
47.8
70.5
118.3
945
559
26.1
54.3
80.4
403
per million
millions
96.3
10.3
-5.7
4.6
114
2.64
0.28
-0.51
-0.23
1.80
Btu would
86.8
9.2
-6.7
2.5
98.5
2.52
0.27
-0.59
-0.32
1.55
reduce
Maximum
103.9
10.9
-4.6
6.3
130
2.74
0.29
-0.46
-0.17
2.04
operating
Total Industry,
$ Millions
Expected
577
75.6
71.7
147.3
1297
576
59.3
56.9
527
Minimum
491
65.2
34.0
99.2
1003
481
30.1
41.1
439
Maximum
674
87.0
99.5
186.5
1546
680
42.8
72.5
607
and maintenance
Existing New
Operation and Maintenance $ 58 $50
Cash Requirements 325 152.
-------
IV-30
CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES GROUP
Carbon Black
Introduction and Summary
Nature of the Product and Processes. Almost 94 percent of the
carbon black production is used by the rubber industry, largely in the
manufacture of tires. Other major consumers include inks, paints, plas-
tics, and paper industries. Various grades and types of carbon black are
produced to meet the varied end-use requirements.
The oil furnace process comprises almost 90 percent of present
capacity, while most of the other production is by the thermal process.
Production by the channel process is presently less than 1 percent of the
total production.
In the furnace process, emissions of carbon black participates
are controlled through utilization of bag filters for the separation and
collection of carbon black, and by utilization of bag filters or water
scrubbers on the vent gas from driers, pneumatic conveyor systems, and
vacuum clean-up systems. Spills that may occur through handling opera-
tions or equipment failure will result in periodic discharges of carbon
black. Other major emissions are carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and
hydrogen sulfide. Flares, either singly or in combination with waste-
heat boilers, could be used to reduce the emissions of carbon monoxide,
hydrocarbons, and hydrogen sulfide to low levels if required to meet
air-quality standards; the sulfur dioxide content would increase due
to the oxidation of the hydrogen sulfide.
In the thermal process, which involves cracking of natural gas
to carbon and hydrogen, the sulfur contained in the natural gas would
be the only emission other than carbon black emissions that may occur in
handling operations.
The only means of controlling emissions in the channel process
is through restriction of production. Only two channel plants were operat-
ing in 1972.
Emissions and Control Costs. Carbon monoxide emissions without
controls are estimated to increase from 1.6 million metric tons in FY 1971
to 2.3 million metric tons in FY 1979. Installation of plume burners on
existing plants and thermal incinerators plus waste-heat boilers on new
plants would reduce these emissions to about 175,000 metric tons in FY 1979.
Such installations would also reduce emissions of hydrocarbons and hydrogen
-------
IV-31
sulfide, but would increase sulfur oxides emissions from 13,000 metric
tons to 44,000 metric tons, based on present sulfur content of feed
stock.
Control costs have not been estimated for the carbon black in-
dustry as emission standards have not been established. Preliminary
studies on costs for plume burners and incinerators with waste-heat
boilers have indicated that costs involved in the installation of such
equipment might add 0.5 to 1.5 percent to the cost of carbon black, or
about $1 million to $3 million annually at present production rates.
Actual costs may be appreciably higher.
Industry Structure
Characteristics of the Industry. In 1972, eight producers of
carbon black operated 34 carbon-black plants in nine states. Production
of carbon black was 1.45 million metric tons or about 77 percent of the
rated capacity. Almost 94 percent of the carbon black is used by the
rubber industry, 70 percent of which is utilized in manufacturing tires.
Other major consumers include the inks, paints, plastics, and paper
industries.
Three processes for making carbon black in order of importance
are
• Oil furnace process
• Thermal process
• Channel process.
The oil furnace process comprises almost 90 percent of present
capacity. In this process technological methods that have been developed
permit control of particulate emissions at better than 99 percent effi-
ciency and meet air-pollution regulations when the equipment is operating
properly. In present practice, natural gas is generally burned to furnish
the required heat.
The thermal process involves cracking natural gas to carbon and
hydrogen. In this process, the hydrogen, unrecovered carbon, and uncon-
verted methane are recycled or used for fuel. Under optimum processing
operations, the only emissions would be from the sulfur contained in the
natural gas and the carbon black from various handling operations.
The channel process, under normal operations, allows large
quantities of carbon black to escape to the atmosphere. The low effi-
ciency of this process and the inability to control the production process
to eliminate venting to the atmosphere led to the development of the
furnace and thermal processes. Improvements in processing methods have
enabled the manufacturers to produce virtually all grades of carbon
black as satisfactory replacements to those produced by the channel process,
-------
IV-32
Seven major grades of furnace black plus thermal and channel
blacks are produced. Within these major categories are a substantial
number of variations in specifications for different uses. Individual
producers are also constantly working to improve characteristics of their
carbon blacks. Increasing prices and potential shortages of natural gas
will reinforce the trend to oil furnance blacks as the major production
method.
Current Capacity and Growth Projections. The capacity of
carbon black plants has increased at an annual growth rate of almost
4.5 percent over the past decade, compared with a growth in production
rate of 4.3 percent per year. A breakdown of estimated capacities by state
showing new and replacement capacities from 1974 to 1979 is shown below:
Ala.
Ark.
Calif.
Kan.
La.
Ohio
Ok la.
Texas
W. Va.
Total U.S
Furnace
Capacity,
U.S.
Capacity
Million
kg/yr
23
44
79
26
66l(a>
73
39
804'b'
114
. 1863
1663
, 1972
Furnace,
% of
total U.S.
1.38
2.64
4.75
1.56
30.19
4.39
2.34
46.00
6.86
New and Replace-
ment Capacity, 1979
Million
? kg/yr
11
23
23
23
136
64
34
255
68
637
Total Capacity, 1979
Furnace,
% of
total U.S.
Million
kg/yr
34
45
91
45
750
-------
IV-3 3
Estimated 1971 capacity is about 1,800 million kilograms. On the basis
of an estimated increase in demand of 4.5 percent per year, production
in 1979 would be about 2,000 million kilograms, or an increase of 36
percent. Present capacity is greater than that required to meet present
demand, but increased prices and the scarcity of natural gas will force
a continuing shift from the thermal process to increased , dependence on
the oil furnance process to meet requirements for carbon black. Assuming
(1) growth in demand will be met from new and/or expanded capacity and,
(2) an annual production rate of 85 percent of total capacity will be
attained, a minimum increase in capacity of almost 0.45 million metric
tons per year will be required by 1979. In addition, some replacement
and/or modernization and expansion of present facilities will take place.
Assuming a 10 percent replacement of existing capacity would indicate
the need for an additional 0.18 million metric tons per year of new
capacity. While the trend has been to expand production capabilities
close to major markets, Texas and Louisiana are expected to continue as
the major producing states.
Only two channel black plants remained in operation in 1972,
during which year, production declined to 10 million kilograms compared
with 21 million kilograms in 1971. No production by this process is
projected for 1979.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Emissions from the furnace processes comprise carbon-black
particulates (from the processing, drying, and handling operations), and
hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides, and nitrogen oxides as
combustion products from the processing operations. These emissions
vary depending on the process design, types of carbon black being
produced, emission-control equipment presently installed, and raw materials
used.
-------
IV-34
Emissions from thermal-process plants would consist of carbon-
black participates escaping during pulverizing, pelletizing, storage, and
loading operations, plus combustion products from contaminants in the
excess hydrogen used to fire boilers for plant steam and electric power.
Emissions from these sources are believed to be well within air-quality
standards under normal operations.
Emissions from the two operating channel-black plants have
not been determined. Cabot has stated that when production is limited to
high-color blacks, one channel-black plant is able to comply fully with
the Texas Clean Air regulations.
Emission standards have not been established for carbon black
plants. When required, order-of-magnitude reductions in emissions could
be achieved through installation of plume burners on existing furnace
plants. Sulfur oxides emissions would be increased (replacing hydrogen
sulfide emissions). There would be some increase in nitrogen oxides
emissions.
Estimated emissions (in thousands of metric tons) from furnace
black plants are as follows:
Fiscal Partic- Sulfur Carbon Hydro- Nitrogen
Year Mode ulates Oxides Monoxide carbons Oxides
1971 Without further control 3.5 9.1 1,630 69 3.0
1975 Without further control 4.1 10.9 1,900 79 3.4
With further control - -
1979 Without further control 4.9 12.7 2,270 93 4.2
With further control 2.8 34.5 175 6.4 5.5
The emissions without further control shown for 1979 assume (1) continuation of
present practices, (2) installation of plume burners on existing plants with
thermal incinerators and waste-heat boilers installed on new and replacement
facilities, and (3) no increase in sulfur content of charge stock. Note
that estimated controlled emission of sulfur and nitrogen oxides increases
in FY 1979 as a result of the application of controls for emissions of
hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and particulates.
Control Technology
The history of the carbon-black industry is one of developing
technologies (1) to control the emissions of carbon black, (2) to in-
crease the yield of carbon black, and (3) to improve the qualities of
the various grades and types of carbon black in meeting end-use require-
ments. In recent years, the development of high-temperature bag filters,
-------
IV-3 5
leading to substantial improvements in separation and collection equip-
ment for the furnace process, permitted a recovery efficiency of partic-
ulates of better than 99 percent. Installation of bag filters or
water scrubbers on the vet gas from the driers, pneumatic converyor
systems, vacuum clean-up systems, and additional concrete surfacing in
plant areas have further minimized the escape of the finely divided carbon
black into the atmosphere. Spillage and leaks, however, will result in
periodic discharges of carbon black and will require continuing attention
and stress on good housekeeping practices and maintenance of equipment in
top operating condition.
Control Cost
In the past, the low cost of energy made recovery of heat from
the low-Btu gas containing carbon monoxide economically unattractive.
Where hydrogen sulfide is present in objectionable quantities in the off-
gas plume, flares have been used to remove the odor by converting the hydrogen
sulfide to sulfur dioxide. Most of the carbon monoxide would be burned.
Increasing concern over carbon monoxide pollution of the atmosphere, coupled
with higher costs for steam and electric power, indicate the possible need
and desirability of installing flares. These could be installed either
singly or in combination with waste heat boilers on existing plants, and on
thermal incinerators with steam generation on new plants. Preliminary
estimates based on unpublished data indicate that the costs of installing
such equipment might add from 0.5 to 1.5 percent to the cost of the carbon
black, or about $1 million to $3 million annually.
-------
IV-3 6
The Chlor-Alkali Industry
Introduction and Summary
Nature of Project and Process. High-purity caustic soda and
chlorine are coproducts in the electrolytic process which uses flowing
mercury metal as a moving cathode. The caustic soda product finds major
markets in those chemical manufacturing operations where high-purity and
freedom from sodium chloride and metal impurities are in demand. Of the
two basic processes for producing chlorine, only the one employing the
mercury cell can cause mercury emissions.
Emissions and Control Costs„ Mercury emissions occur from the
hydrogen by-product stream, the cell-ventilation gas, and from the cell-
room ventilation air. In order to meet the new EPA hazardous emission
regulations for mercury emissions, the users of mercury cells will be
required to reduce emissions by approximately 95 percent from uncontrolled
plant emissions. Mercury emissions are estimated to be 490 metric tons
for FY 1971 without controls. With required controls in FY 1979, mercury
emissions are estimated to be 24 metric tons.
Investment costs for the control of mercury emissions in the
period FY 1971 to FY 1979 are estimated at $16.7 million. Annual costs
are expected to be $6.5 million.
Industry Structure
Characteristics. Chlorine is produced almost entirely by the
electrolysis of fused chlorides or aqueous solutions of alkali-metal
chlorides. Chlorine is produced at the anode, while hydrogen and potas-
sium hydroxide or sodium hydroxide derive from processes taking place at
the cathode. Anode and cathode products must be separated, such as in a
cell which employs liquid mercury metal as an intermediate cathode.
The use of the mercury cell in the United States has grown from
5 percent of the total installed chlorine capacity in 1946, toward a
maximum of 28 percent of the installed U.S. chlorine capacity through
1968. 6
Current Capacity and Growth Projections. Current capacity is
estimated at 6,970 metric tons chlorine per day for the 30 plants in opera-
tion in 1971. The size distribution of these plants is as follows:
-------
IV-3 7
Capacity Range (Chlorine Production) Number of Percent of Total
Tons/Day Metric Tons/Day Plants Capacity
0-100 0 - 90.7 5
101 - 200 90.8 - 181 9
201 - 300 182 - 272 8
301 - 500 273 - 454 5
501 - 750 455 - 580 _3
Total 30
One new plant is scheduled for start-up in the first quarter of 1974; no
other new mercury-cell plants are projected through 1979. After the new
plant start-up, industry chlorine capacity is estimated to be 7,160 metric
tons per day.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
The major sources of direct emissions of mercury to the atmosphere
are:
• Hydrogen by-product stream
• End-box ventilation system
• Cell-room ventilation air.
The minimum known treatment of the by-product hydrogen gas leaving
the decomposer consists of cooling the stream to 110 F followed by partial
removal of the resulting mercury mist. For hydrogen saturated with mercury
vapor at this temperature, the daily vapor loss is estimated to be 3.4 kg
of mercury vapor per 100 metric tons of chlorine produced. The entrainment
of condensed mercury in the hydrogen stream will result in additional
emissions. The estimated uncontrolled emission of mercury vapor and mer-
cury vapor and mercury mist, after minimum treatment has occurred, is
estimated to be up to 25 kg per 100 metric tons of chlorine produced.
Mercury vapor and mercury compounds are collected from the end-
boxes, the mercury pumps, and the end-box ventilation system. Preliminary
results of source testing by EPA indicate that the mercury emissions from
an untreated or inadequately treated end-box ventilation system range from
1 to 8 kg per 100 metric tons of chlorine produced.
In addition to cooling the cell room, the cell-room ventilation
system provides a means of reducing the cell-room mercury-vapor concen-
tration to within the recommended Threshhold Limit Value (TLV) for human
exposure to mercury vapor. On the basis of data obtained from operating
plants, it has been estimated that mercury emissions from the cell-room
ventilation system vary from 0.2 to 2.5 kg per day per 100 metric tons of
daily chlorine capacity, assuming a concentration equal to the TLV of
50 micrograms per cubic meter of ventilation air.
-------
IV-38
The Environmental Protection Agency has estimated that uncon-
trolled emissions from the production of chlorine in mercury cells
averages approximately 20 kg of mercury per 100 metric tons of chlorine
produced. On this basis, the estimated average annual mercury emissions
for the Chlor-Alkali Industry are:
Fiscal Mercury,
Year Mode metric tons
1971 Without further control 490
1975 Without further control 490
With further control 24
1979 Without further control 490
With further control 24
Control Technology
The cost estimates presented in this report are based upon the
consideration and selection of the available control techniques in such
a way as to insure compliance with the National Emission Standards for
Hazardous Air Pollutants promulgated by EPA. This standard requires that
the maximum daily emission of mercury from all sources be not greater
than 2,300 grams from any single site.
Control techniques applicable to the hydrogen gas stream include:
cooling, condensation, and demisting; depleted brine scrubbing; hypo-
chlorite scrubbing; adsorption on molecular sieve; and adsorption on
treated activated carbon. The adsorption of mercury vapor on treated
activated carbon is a commercially available alternative; it was not
applied in these estimates because regeneration and/or disposal of the
spent carbon may pose emissions problems, and because the cost is roughly
comparable to that for molecular-sieve adsorption.
With appropriate modification, the control techniques applicable
to the end-box ventilation stream include cooling, condensing, and de-
misting; depleted brine scrubbing; and hypochlorite scrubbing. It is
judged that the molecular-sieve adsorption system will become applicable
in the near future to the end-box ventilation-gas stream. This control
technique therefore has been applied to the estimations of costs for
controlling mercury losses in the end-box ventilation stream in those
situations where the application of no other control technique will
permit compliance with the hazardous emission standard.
Mercury vapor from the cell-room ventilation air can be minimized
by strict adherence to recommended good housekeeping and operating pro-
cedures. No other control technique is commercially tested at this time.
The actual cost of instituting and promoting exceptionally good house-
keeping and operating procedures cannot be assessed directly.
-------
IV-3 9
All mercury emissions could be eliminated by the conversion of
mercury-cell plants to the use of diaphragm cells plus a special caustic
soda purification system. Such conversion is judged to be an unaccept-
able alternative in terms of the very high estimated cost.
Control Cost
Because the hazardous emissions standard for mercury limits the
maximum daily emission to 2,300 grams per plant, regardless of plant
size, the cost computation was performed on a plant-by-plant basis.
For each plant, specific control techniques were chosen to permit com-
pliance with this emissions standard. Each plant therefore is its own
mode. Table IV-4 presents estimated model plant control costs for
selected plant sizes.
The estimated mercury emissions control costs for the chlor-
alkali industry for the period FY 1971 through FY 1979 are:
$ Millions
Expected Minimum Maximum
Existing Facilities
Investment 16.2 14.8 17.8
Annual Costs
Capital Charges 3.23 3.02 3.43
Operating and Maintenance 3.02 2.87 3.16
Total Annual Costs 6.25 5.89 6.59
Cash Requirements 39.2 37.2 41.4
New Facilities
Investment 0.50 0.38 0.62
Annual Costs
Capital Charges 0.10 0.07 0.13
Operating and Maintenance 0.09 0.07 0.11
Total Annual Costs 0.19 0.14 0.24
Cash Requirements 1.24 1.02 1.49
-------
TABLE IV-4. COSTS OF CONTROL FOR SELECTED MODEL PLANTS IN
THE CHLOR-ALKALI INDUSTRY (MERCURY CELLS)
Chlorine Capacity, Investment,
metric tons $1,000
per day
68
135
320
410
625
680
Expected
221
363
846
975
1270
1310
Minimum
172
244
724
846
1080
1100
Maximum
261
522
986
1124
1490
1520
Annualized Cost,
$1,000
Expected
74
147
309
354
444
474
Minimum
61
108
261
302
372
390
Maximum
86
193
361
413
522
563
Unit Annual Cost*
Expected
1.09
1.09
0.97
0.86
0.71
0.70
Minimum
0.90
0.80
0.82
0.74
0.60
0.57
Maximum
1.26
1.43
1.13
1.01
0.84
0.83
$ per daily metric ton of chlorine capacity.
-------
IV-41
Nitric Acid
Introduct ion and Summary
Nature of Product and Process. Nitric acid is used in the manu-
facture of ammonium nitrate and in numerous other chemical processes.
Ammonium nitrate, which is used as both a fertilizer and in explosives,
accounts for about 80 percent of the nitric acid consumption. Nitric
acid is produced by oxidation of ammonia followed by adsorption of the
reaction products in dilute acid solution. Nitrogen oxides, the primary
pollutants of concern in the production of nitric acid, are emitted in
the tail gas from the absorption tower. Numerous variations on the basic
nitric acid production process affect both the emissions and the difficulty
of control. Two of the more important variables are the amount of excess
oxygen present in the absorption tower and the pressure under which the
absorption tower operates.
Most nitric acid plants in the United States are designed to
manufacture acid with a concentration of 55 to 65 percent, which may then
be subsequently dehydrated to produce 99 percent acid.
Many plants practice partial pollution abatement (decolorization)
in accordance with local regulatory agencies. Under this practice, the
highly visible reddish-brown nitrogen dioxide is reduced then to colorless
monoxide. Although visible emissions are reduced, the practice does nothing
to prevent emission of nitrogen oxides to the atmosphere. The following
presents the emissions and costs attributable to the control of these
nitrogen oxide emissions.
Emissions and Control Costs. Emissions of nitrogen oxides from the
nitric acid industry in FY 1971 are estimated to be about 120,000 metric tons
per year. In FY 1979, controlled emissions are estimated to be about
19,000 metric tons.
The required investment costs for the period from FY 1971 to FY 1979
are expected to be $35 million, most of which will be expended after July, 1974.
The annualized cost expenditure is estimated at $13 million.
Industry Structure
Characteristics of the Firms. Nearly all nitric acid production in
the United States is for captive consumption. In 1971, of the 6.7 million
tons produced, less than 5 percent was sold in the merchant market.
Production estimates for FY 1975 and 1979 are 6.9 million and 7.2 million
metric tons, respectively.
-------
IV-42
At the beginning of 1973, there were 77 privately owned and operated
nitric acid plants in the United States. In 1971, only 72 establishments
reported to the Bureau of Census. It is believed that some captive pro-
ducers did not report production. In addition to the privately owned
facilities, 7 nitric acid plants are owned by the United States Government
and operated by various contractor companies. These Government-owned
nitric acid plants have not been included in cost estimates as part of
the nitric acid industry.but instead are included in the Government Programs
chapter.
Growth Projections. To meet industry growth, it is projected that
two new facilities each with capacities of 910 metric tons per day and three
new plants each with capacities of 318 metric tons per day will be
required by FY 1979.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Emissions from nitric acid plants consist of the oxides of nitrogen
in concentrations of about 3000 ppm nitrogen dioxide and nitric oxide,
and minute amounts of nitric acid mist. Nitrogen dioxide accounts for
the reddish-brown color of unabated emissions from these plants„ The
major source of the emissions is the tail gas from the acid absorption
tower. Emissions from nitric acid plants are typically of the order of
22 kg nitrogen oxides per metric ton of 100 percent acid produced.
-------
IV-43
Estimated controlled and uncontrolled emissions (in thousands of
metric tons) of nitrogen oxides for selected years are as follows: '
'.'. t'
Fiscal Nitrogen
Year Mode Oxides
.1971; Without further control 120
1975 Without further control 106
With further control 19
1979 Without further control 170
With further control 19
Control Technology
Four control technologies are available to reduce the nitrogen
oxide emissions to 1.5 kg per metric ton (the standard for new plants).
These technologies are (1) catalytic reduction with natural gas, ammonia,
or hydrogen; (2) scrubbing with urea/nitric acid solution; (3) extended
absorption; and (4) adsorption molecular sieves.
Catalytic reduction with natural gas is a feasible and proven
technology used in nitric acid plants both here and abroad. The absorber ,
tail gas is mixed with 38 percent excess natural gas and passed over a
platinum or palladium catalyst. Catalytic reduction with ammonia or
hydrogen has the advantage of being selective in the sense that only the
nitrogen oxides are reduced. In addition to higher costs, reduction with
ammonia requires close temperature control to prevent the reformation
of nitrogen oxides at higher temperatures or the formation of explosive
ammonium nitrate at lower temperatures.
The tail gas can also be scrubbed, at least in principle, with
aqueous urea solutions. The major products of the reaction of nitrogen
oxides with urea are nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and water. Two significant
factors detract from the commercial use of this process. First, the ratio
of nitric oxide to nitrogen dioxide should be controlled precisely.
Second, there are serious disposal problems associated with salt forma-
tion in the scrubber liquor.
Extended absorption, which has the advantage of not requiring
additional natural gas, has been installed on two nitric acid plants.
The industry is currently awaiting operating results from these units.
Costs of extended absorption are sensitive to absorber operating pressure,
which varies considerably from plant to plant. Extended absorption
systems have been installed at two plants. Some industry observers
believe this method will prove superior to catalytic reduction.
Molecular sieves selectively absorb the nitrogen oxides from the tail
gases. The molecular sieve beds are regenerated periodically with hot gas.
The NOo-containing regeneration gas is recycled to the absorption tower.
-------
IV-44
The molecular sieve process will be tested on a commercial scale at a
nitric acid plant owned by the U.S. Government. Molecular sieves are
currently being installed in two additional nitric acid plants. When
zeolite life becomes established in actual plant operation, it is ex-
pected that nitrogen oxide emissions abatement by this technique may be-
come the method of choice.
Catalytic reduction with natural gas is the predominant control
technology. In 1971, 10 plants producing weak nitric acid .incorporated
this abatement technology. About 30 to 40 percent of existing plants
also employ plume decolorizers to convert visible nitrogen dioxide
emissions to colorless nitric oxide. Use of catalytic reduction technology
will be continued in many existing and new plants until installations using
extended absorption or molecular sieves demonstrate comparable annual
costs of operation. Therefore, costs of using catalytic reduction tech-
nology were taken as representative of the industry cost regardless of
the technology in actual use.
Control Costs
For assessing the cost of abatement, a catalytic reduction unit
(employing palladium catalyst) and two steam generators for waste heat
recovery was assumed. For the base case, it was assumed that existing
plants include tail-gas heaters and turbine expanders for power recovery.
The investment, annualized costs, costs for selected model plants are
given in Table IV-5.
The estimated nitrogen oxides emissions control costs for the
nitric acid industry during the period FY 1971 through FY 1979 are:
$ Millions
Expected Minimum Maximum
Existing Facilities
Investment , 33.8 27.4 39.9
Annual Costs
Capital Charges 5.2 4.4 6.1
Operating and Maintenance 8.0 7.5 8.7
Total Annual Costs 13.2 11.9 14.8
Cash Requirements 89.9 82.4 99.7
New Facilities
Investment 1.6 1.2 2.1
Annual Costs
Capital Charges 0.3 0.2 0.3
Operating and Maintenance 0.7 0.7 0.8
Total Annual Costs 1.0 0.9 1.1
Cash Requirements 4.3 3.8 4.9
-------
TABLE IV-5 . COSTS OF CONTROL FOR SELECTED MODEL HANTS FOR
THE NITRIC ACID INDUSTRY
Model Size,
1000 metric
tons /year
23
85
121
121
208
340
340
425
Investment ,
$1,000
Expected
193
381
476, .
251(a)
633
861.
451(a)
988
Minimum
116
234
274
179
365
526
331
588
Maximum
305
614
756
314
981
1341
566
1457
Annualized Cost,
$l,000/year
Expected
57
141
181, .
131
267
399, '
305(a)
457
Minimum
42
108
136
115
202
307
276
353
Maximum
80
193
246
145
355
524
333
607
Unit Cost,
$/ton
Expected
2.50
1.66
l'50(a)
1.08U;
1.28
1-17(a)
0.90W
1.08
Minimum
1.80
1.28
1.12
0.95
0.97
0.90
0.81
0.83
Maximum
3.49
2.28
2.04
1.20
1.71
1.54
0^98
1.41
M
<
-P-
Ul
(a)
New facilities.
-------
IV-46
Phosphate Fertilizer Industry
Introduction and Summary
Nature and Products and Processes. The major end products of
the phosphate fertilizer industry are ammonium phosphates, triple super-
phosphate, normal superphosphate, and granular mixed fertilizers.
Phosphoric acid and superphosphoric acid are intermediate products.
All phosphate fertilizers are processed from ground phosphate
rock treated with sulfuric acid to produce either," normal superphosphate ,
or wet-process phosphoric acid. A phosphoric acid intermediate may then
be reacted with ammonia to produce diammonium phosphate and other Ammon-
ium phosphates, or reacted with ground phosphate rock to manufacture
triple superphosphate. Superphosphoric acid, produced by dehydration of
wet-process phosphoric acid, is used in preparing some mixed fertilizers.
Granular mixed fertilizers are made from either normal superphosphate or
triple superphosphate, with ammonia and potash. Bulk-blended mixed fer-
tilizers are manufactured by physically mixing particles of other
fertilizer components and liquid mixed fertilizers. Bulk blends ,and
liquids are not major sources of air pollution and are not considered in
estimating the industry abatement cost.
Emissions and Control Costs. Particulate emissions,from phos-
phate fertilizer plants (triple superphosphate, ammonium phosphate, normal
superphosphate, and granulation)' in FY 1971 are estimated at about 1.5
million metric tons per year. With controls, emissions can be reduced to
an estimated 2800 metric tons in FY 1979.
Investment costs for control of particulate 'emissions in the
phosphate fertilizer industry for the period from FY 1971 to FY. 1979 will
require an estimated investment of $19.4 million. Estimated annualized costs
amount to $9.8 million.
Industry Structure
Characteristics of the Firms. The phosphate fertilizer indus-
try is characterized by a number of large, modern efficient plants located
near the source of raw materials. In general, these manufacture the more
concentrated forms of fertilizer: diammonium phosphate (DAP) and triple
superphosphate (TSP). These industries are particularly concentrated in
Florida. Smaller plants, located near the retail markets, manufacture the
less concentrated forms: granulated, mixed fertilizer (NPK) and normal
superphosphate (NSP). The smaller NSP, NPK, and bulk-blend plants are located
-------
IV-47
in the farming states. At the beginning of 1973, there were 33 DAP plants,
13 TSP plants, 45 NSP plants, and 344 ammoniation-granulation (NPK) plants.
In addition, about 5,000 bulk blending plants were operating in 1973.
The recent trend has been toward increased consumption of the
higher analysis fertilizers, TSP and DAP, at the expense of NSP. The NSP
plants were at an economic disadvantage with respect to transportation
and economies of scale available to the large producers of concentrated
phosphates, and several of these installations were shut down in the early
1970's. In 1973, however, phosphate fertilizer supply was extremely tight
and all remaining NSP plants were economically producing fertilizer. In-
dustry observers suggest that in the absence of pollution-abatement regu-
lations/ the remaining NSP plants would be viable.
Due to the seasonal demand for fertilizer, many plants manu-
facturing NSP and NPK operate only a portion of the year. In contrast,
those plants manufacturing DAP and TSP generally operate year round.
Current Capacity and Growth Projections. Present capacity of
NSP plants is estimated at 14,500 metric tons per day, well in excess
of the annual production level of 3.2 million metric tons per year which
has been assumed to remain constant through 1979. Similarly, capacities
of NPK plants are well in excess of annual production levels of 13.6
million metric tons which have been assumed through 1979.
Annual capacity of TSP plants is estimated at 4.3 million tons
and is projected to increase to 4.8 million metric tons by BY 1979, or
about 19 percent of the expected growth in phosphoric acid fertilizer
capacity.
Capacity of DAP plants is projected to increase from 8.1
million metric tons of 1973 to 12.1 million metric tons by FY 1979, repre-
senting 81 percent of the expected growth.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Emissions from phosphate fertilizer processing plants are mainly
fluorides (in the form of hydrogen fluoride and silicon tetrafluoride)
and particulates. Fluorides are generated in the processes of acidulation
of phosphate rock which contains calcium fluoride. Particulate emissions
may arise from such processes as acidulation, "denning", granulation,
product milling and screening, drying, and cooling.
-------
IV-48
In the phosphate fertilizer industry particulate emissions of
significance originate from (1) phosphate rock grinding and beneficiation.
(2) triple superphosphate manufacture, (3) ammonium phosphate production,
(4) normal superphosphate manufacture, and (5) NPK bulk blending and
granulation plants.
In phosphate grinding and beneficiation, particulate emissions
arise in the drying, grinding, and transfer processes. The emission
factors for these processes are 7.5, 10, and 1 kg per metric ton of rock,
respectively. Furthermore, 20 kg of particulate per metric ton may be
lost from open storage piles.
In granular triple superphosphate production, particulafe emis-
sions may originate from a number of points in the process. Most of the
particulates are given off in the drying and product-classification
processes. The off-gas from the reactor (in which phosphate rock is
acidulated with phosphoric acid) and the blunger (in which the reactor
effluent is mixed with recycled product fines to produce a paste) may
account for a considerable percentage of the total particulates emitted.
Particulate emissions from diammonium phosphate manufacture
originate mainly from the granulator and the dryer. It has been esti-
mated that the total emissions amount to approximately 20 kg per metric
ton of product from both sources together.
Emissions from the manufacture of run-of-pile (ROP) normal
superphosphate originate from both the acidulation and "denning" processes.
Although the emission factors for particulates are not known, they are
estimated to be of the order of 5 kg per metric ton.
The NPK or granulation plants manufacture a variety of products.
Many different emission factors probably will apply for this class of
fertilizer plant. In fixing the emission factors, these plants are
assumed to employ an ammoniation-granulation process similai-. to that used
in the DAP process, or approximately 20 kg of particulates per metric ton
of product.
The emission factors given above for particulates seem to be
high for triple superphosphate, diammonium phosphate, and NPK plants.
The bulk of these emissions, in all three processes, most probably origi-
nate from the granulation process. There is a strong economic incentive
to reduce these emissions since they contain valuable products and in
many cases are associated with ammonia vapors (from the ammoniation
process), the recovery of which is an economic necessity.
The following tabulation shows the estimated particulate
emissions based on the factors noted above:
-------
IV-49
Fiscal Particulate Emissions, 1000 metric tons
Year Mode TSP DPA NSP NPK Total
1971 Without Further Control 257 595 30 576 1458
1975 Without Further Control 265 720 30 576 1591
With Further Control 5.7 0.8 0.5 1.1 2.4
1979 Without Further Control 294 910 30 576 1810
With Further Control 0.3 1.0 0.5 1.0 2.8
Cont ro1 Technology
>
Most of the phosphate rock of higher available phosphorus pentoxide
content is ground and beneficiated to enhance its reactivity and to eliminate
some of the impurities. The particulate emissions from the grinding and
screening operations may be effectively controlled by employing baghouses
wherein the dust is deposited on mechanically cleaned fabric filters. The
dust-laden gas from the rock-drying (and perhaps defluorination) operations
may first pass through a cyclone, then through a wet scrubber (such as a
venturi). The efficiency of this combination should be better than
99 percent.
Particulate (and fluoride) emissions from phosphate fertilizer
plants traditionally have been removed from waste gaseous streams by wet
scrubbing. While efforts have been directed at removing fluorides, up
to 99 percent of the particulates are simultaneously removed. Wet
scrubbers of varying efficiencies have been used for this double purpose.
The fluoride and particulate-laden scrubber water is usually disposed of
in a "gypsum pond".
For control of particulate emissions from granular TSP plants,
various wet scrubbers will be provided for a number of gaseous waste streams.
The effluent from the reactor-granulator will be scrubbed in two stages. The
first stage will be a cyclone and the second a cross-flow packed scrubber.
The gases from the drier and cooler will be scrubbed in venturi-type packed
scrubbers. Waste gases from storage of the granular product are usually
scrubbed in a cyclone scrubber, although some plants use packed scrubbers.
The scrubbing liquid used in all scrubbers will be recycled pond water except
for the first-stage scrubbing of gases from the reactor granulator, in which
weak phsophoric acid will be used and recycled to the reactor.
In DAP plants, control of particulates will be achieved for
gaseous streams originating from the reactor granulator, the drier, and
the cooler, together with combined gaseous streams ventilating such
solids-processing equipment as elevators, screens, and loading and
-------
IV-50
unloading. Two-stage scrubbing will be employed for each of the streams
listed. The first stage will consist of a cyclone scrubber; the scrub-
bing medium will be dilute (30 percent) phosphoric acid for purposes of
recovering ammonia and product. Most of the particulate matter will be
removed in the first stage. The balance will be removed in the second
stage consisting of a crossflow packed scrubber in which recycled pond
water is used as the scrubbing medium.
It is assumed that only run-of-pile (ROP) normal superphosphate
is produced in NSP plants. A cyclone scrubber will be employed, in re-
moving particulates in gaseous streams originating from the reactor-
pugmill, den, and curing operation.
An ammoniation-granulation process is assumed for most NPK
plants. Cyclones will be installed ahead of primary scrubbers. The
primary scrubber (typically employing dilute phosphoric acid as scrub-
bing medium) is considered an integral part of the process in which
valuable reactants (ammonia) and product are recovered.
Cro.ssf low scrubbers have been used in estimating costs of con-
trolling emissions of both particulates and fluorides. Most of the
control technologies described above have been applied for more than a
decade. Wet scrubbers of varying efficiencies have been integral parts
of many phosphate fertilizer processes. The collection of waste gaseous
streams and the removal of fluorine compounds therefrom has long been
practiced for the health and safety of process operating personnel.
Collection of particulate materials from those waste gaseous streams is
dictated by economic necessity since valuable products may be involved.
In general, it can be stated that particulate controls of
varying efficiency are practiced in all phosphate fertilizer processes.
In some processes this control is achieved simultaneously with fluoride
control. In others the incentives for control have been economic.
Control Costs
The sizes of model plants for each of the TSP, DAP, NSP, and
NPK processes were obtained from the plant inventory. Each model plant
represents at least one actual facility; many represent the average size
plant for a number of plants in a given size category. The investment
and annualized costs for these model plants (both new and existing) is
given in Table IV-6. Unit costs in dollars per annual ton of capacity
are also computed.
A summary of the estimated direct control costs for the total
phosphate fertilizer industry (FY 1971 - FY 1979) is shown in the
following tabulation:
-------
IV-51
$ Million
Expected Minimum Maximum
Existing Facilities
Investment 16.9 14.9 18.5
Annual Costs
Capital Charges 2.6 2.3 2.9
Operating and Maintenance 6.0 5.6 6.3
Total Annual Costs 8.6 7.9 9.2
Cash Requirements 36.9 34.9 38.9
New Facilities
Investment 2.5 1.9 3.2
Annual Costs
Capital Charges 0.4 0.3 0.5
Operating and Maintenance 0.8 0.7 0.9
Total Annual Costs 1.2 1.0 1.4
Cash Requirements 5.9 5.0 6.7
-------
TABLE IV-6. COSTS OF CONTROL FOR SELECTED PHOSPHATE
FERTILIZER MODEL PLANTS
Model Size,
metric
tons /year
Triple Superphosphate
Existing Facilities
32,000
91,000
210,000
420,000
540,000
675,000
New Facilities
135,000
180,000
Di ammonium Phosphate
Existing Facilities
91,000
140,000
343,000
490,000
635,000
Investment,
$1,000
Expected
262
557
992
1621
1892
2095
739
903
171
351
647
997
1220
Minimum
194
396
735
1153
1393
1545
516
669
125
257
567
695
906
Maximum
340
698
1268
2062
2403
2696
923
1130
219
448
953
1277
1589
Annualized Cost,
$1,000
Expected
135
252
477
805
1004
1170
343
429
68
104
274
428
547
Minimum
109
201
389
642
808
948
272
345
54
114
255
316
444
Maximum
162
301
573
969
1184
1381
412
510
82
174
378
487
667
Unit Cost,
$/annual metric
Expected
4.25
2.77
2.28
1.93
1.84
1.73
2.51
2.36
1.39
1.02
0.80
0.67
0.60
Minimum
3.42
2.21
1.86
1.54
1.49
1.40
1.99
1.90
1.10
0.81
0.74
0.50
0.48
ton
Maximum
5.09
3.31
2.74
2.32
2.17
2.04
3.03
2.82
1.67
1.23
1.10
0.77
0.74
f
Ul
ro
-------
TABLE IV-6. (Continued)
Model Size,
metric
tons /year
New Facilities
150,000
270,000
790,000
1,000,000
Normal Superphosphate
Existing Facilities
57,000
150,000
210,000
NPK Plants
40,000
Investment.
$1.000
Expected
363
552
1150
1342
57
118
157
37
Minimum
266
393
863
968
42
87
114
Maximum
470
691
1463
1699
73
152
201
Annual ized Cost,
$1,000
Expected
150
233
501
589
23
49
66
9.5
Minimum
122
184
404
468
18
39
53
Maximum
181
281
607
695
28
60
80
Unit Cost,
$/annual metric
Expected
1.00
0.86
0.64
0.59
0.40
0.33
0.31
0.23
Minimum
0.81
0.67
0.51
0.47
0.32
0.26
0.25
ton
Maximum
1.21
1.03
0.77
0.69
0.50
0.40
0.39
f
Ui
10
-------
IV-54
Sulfuric Acid
Introduction and Summary
Nature of the Product and Process. About half of the sulfuric
acid produced in the United States is used in the manufacture of phosphate
fertilizers; the rest is used in myriad industrial applications ranging
from steel pickling to detergent manufacture.
Sulfuric acid is manufactured by chemical companies and by
companies engaged primarily in smelting nonferrous metals. Both sources
compete for the same markets. Nevertheless, the manufacture of sulfuric
acid by the smelter industry is primarily a means to reduce sulfur dioxide
emissions to the atmosphere, and secondarily, an attempt to generate addi-
tional revenue. For the purposes of this investigation, smelter acid is
considered to be part of the smelter industry rather than the sulfuric
acid industry.
Some electric utilities may choose to manufacture sulfuric acid
as a means of controlling sulfur dioxide emissions. Such utility acid is
unlikely to significantly impact the market prior to 1979. In estimating
emissions and costs to the sulfuric acid industry, it has been assumed
that the utility industry will be generating negligible sulfuric acid.
The major products of the sulfuric acid industry are concen-
trated sulfuric acid (93 to 99 percent) and oleum. A few sulfuric acid
plants associated with the fertilizer industry produce less-concentrated
grades of acid. Essentially all sulfuric acid in the United States is
currently produced by the contact process, less than 1 percent being
produced by the older chamber process.
In sulfur-burning plants, sulfuric acid is produced by burning
elemental sulfur with dry air in a furnace to produce sulfur dioxide.
The latter is catalytically converted to sulfur trioxide. The hot con-
verter effluent is cooled and introduced to an absorption tower where
the sulfur trioxide is absorbed in a sulfuric acid solution to form more
sulfuric acid by reaction with water.
Some plants (including spent-acid plants and smelter-gas plants)
operate on the same principle as sulfur-burning plants except that the
sulfur dioxide is obtained from the combustion of spent acid and hydrogen
sulfide or from smelter off-gas. In these plants, the sulfur-bearing gas
is dried with sulfuric acid and cleaned (particulate and mist removal)
before introduction to the acid plant.
-------
IV-55
Emissions and Control Costs. In the manufacture of sulfuric
acid, sulfur dioxide and acid mist are emitted. In FY 1971 annual
emissions from all acid-plant operations (excluding smelter-gas plants)
are estimated at 609,000 metric tons of sulfur oxides and 19,000 metric
tons of acid mist. In FY 1979, with further controls, sulfur oxide emis-
sions are estimated to be 64,000 metric tons and acid-mist emissions to
be 10,000 metric tons.
Investment costs from FY 1971 to FY 1979 are estimated at about
$400 million. Annual costs are estimated at slightly more than $100
million.
Industry"Structure
Characteristics of the Firms. In 1971, 184 sulfuric acid plants
reported to the Bureau of Census. Of these, 167 were contact process
plants and 16 were chamber process plants. Of the 25.5 million metric
tons of new sulfuric acid produced, 25.3 million metric tons was made in
contact process plants. These amounts include sulfuric acid produced by
the.sulfuric acid industry as defined in this report and by the smelter
industry. While much smelter acid is produced in the Western states,
particularly in Arizona, Utah, and New Mexico, significant smelter acid
is produced in Tennessee and along the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers. Sul-
furic acid plants associated with the phosphate fertilizer industry are
mainly located on or near the Gulf Coast and tend to be large, modern,
efficient plants. The remainder of the industry is scattered throughout
the United States, with a distribution approximately parallel to that
for population density.
Current Capacity and Growth Projections. In 1972 production
of sulfuric acid in the United States was 29.5 million metric tons, of
which slightly less than 1.8 million metric tons was smelter acid, By
1975, the nonsme^ter U.S. production is expected to increase to 29.5
million metric tons. By 1979, nonsmelter production of sulfuric acid
is expected to reach 39 million metric tons. Here it has been assumed
that all increases in production between 1975 and 1979 will be in the
sulfuric acid industry and not in the smelter industry. An average in-
dustry growth rate of 4.1 percent per year was assumed. Most of the
smelter acid is produced at isolated locations where long shipping dis-
tances make competition difficult. By 1977, it is expected that these
smelters will -have saturated the available markets.
Emissions Sources and Pollutants
Emissions from sulfuric acid plants consist of sulfur dioxide
gases and sulfuric acid mist. These derive from incomplete conversion
-------
IV-5 6
of sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide in the converter and from the for-
mation of a stable mist consisting of minute particles of sulfuric acid
which resists absorption in the acid absorber.
In computing the sulfur oxides and acid-mist emissions, emis-
sion factors were used in accordance with EPA specifications. The con-
trolled emission factors for existing facilities for FY 1975 are as
specified by the SIP's; there were assumed to apply both to existing and
to new facilities in FY 1979. Estimated emissions for the sulfuric acid
industry are:
1000 Metric Tons Per Year
Fiscal Sulfur
Year Mode Oxides
1971 Without Further Control 610
1975 Without Further Control 680
With Further Control 154
1979 Without Further Control 790
With Further Control 78
Control Technology
Four sulfur-emissions control processes are available for sul-
furic acid plants: (1) molecular sieves, (2) the Wellman-Lord process,
(3) ammonia scrubbing, and (4) two-stage (dual) absorption. Each tech-
nology is described briefly; and the advantages and disadvantages of each
are discussed.
Molecular Sieves. The S02-bearing tail gas from the absorption
tower first goes through a demister (electrostatic precipitator or fiber
type) for removal of the acid mist and then through a fixed bed of pelle-
tized specialty zeolites. The S02 in the gas is selectively adsorbed on
the zeolite until the whole bed is saturated. The S02 is recovered and
recycled to the acid plant and the zeolite bed is regenerated simultaneously
by the passage of a stream of hot air desorbing the S02. In a commercial
installation one bed would be adsorbing S02 and another is regenerating.
A zeolite bed would go through many such cycles, the number of which would
depend upon the degree of acid-mist removal among other factors yet un-
known. One molecular-sieve-type plant is in commercial operation.
-------
IV-57
Wellman-Lord SC^ Removal Process. The tail gas from the
absorber is scrubbed with a caustic solution containing sodium hydroxide
bisulfite, sulfite, and sulfate in a packed column. The main absorbant,
sodium sulfite, is converted to the bisulfite as a result of the absorp-
tion of SO-. In a recovery section, most of the bisulfite is regenerated
to the sulfite by steam stripping the scrubbing solution. The S02 evolved
in the stripping operation is recycled to the sulfuric acid train. A
fraction of the regenerated scrubbing liquid is purged and the balance
recycled to the scrubber after addition of appropriate amounts of sodium
hydroxide solution. The purging is to avoid build up of the sodium sul-
fate produced by oxidation of the sulfite and reaction with acid mist.
Antioxidants such as hydroquinone are added to the scrubbing liquid to
help prevent oxidation.
This process has been proven in many commercial installations.
The major disadvantage associated with its use for S02 control is the
relatively high capital and operating cost. Disposal of the sodium sul-
fate purge stream may add to the water-pollution problem or increase the
disposal costs.
Ammonia Scrubbing. The tail gas is scrubbed with an ammoniacal
solution. Bisulfite, sulfite, and sulfate salts are formed in reaction
with S02- The scrubbing liquid is then acidified with sulfuric acid and.
air stripped to release the absorbed SCL for recycle to the sulfuric
acid plant. The resultant ammonium sulfate solution is disposed of in
a variety of ways. Incorporation into a diammonium phosphate process
has been claimed as a profitable means of disposal. Incineration to
water vapor, nitrogen, and sulfur dioxides has been suggested.
Although, in principle, ammonia scrubbing has been found to be
the cheapest method for SC^ removal in sulfuric acid plants, some prob-
lems are associated with its use. Barring the use of highly efficient
mist eliminators, fine particles of ammonium sulfite and bisulfite in
the scrubbed tail gas may contribute to a highly visible white plume.
The ability of available technology to effectively eliminate this prob-
lem remains to be fully demonstrated in long term, continuous operation.
Interstage or Dual Absorption. For an existing plant the gas
from the first acid absorber is first heated (and sometimes the mist is
removed therefrom) and then sent through a single-stage converter where
the S02 is converted to SOo. The gas from the converter is sent to an
absorber and a demister before release to the atmosphere.
Dual absorption reliably met EPA standards of performance for
new and modified sources in application to all types of sulfuric acid
plants (sulfur-burning, smelter, and wet gas) of all sizes. In addition
to controlling S02 emissions, dual absorption offers the added advant-
age of not requiring new operational skills on the part of acid plant
-------
IV-58
operators. Finally, this control technology has been used in computing
the SOo control costs for all new and existing sulfuric acid plants.
Control Costs
Existing (excluding smelter gas) sulfuric acid plants were
grouped into size categories for which the total cost of control in each
size category was obtained from the cost (both investment and annual) of
the average size and the number of plants therein. The plant investment
and annualized costs of sulfur oxides emissions control by dual inter-
stage absorption for selected model plants are given in Table IV-7.
A summary of the estimated total cost of control in the period
FY 1971 through FY 1979 in the sulfuric acid industry (apart from that
produced from smelter gases) is as follows:
$ Millions
Expected Minimum Maximum
Existing Facilities
Investment 385.8 349.2 432.1
Annual Costs
Capital Charges 59.4 53.2 65.9
Operating and Maintenance 38.1 36.0 39.5
Total Annual Costs 97.5 89.2 105.4
Cash Requirements 753.4 646.8 767.1
New Facilities
Investment 21.4 17.2 25.0
Annual Costs
Capital Charges 3.3 2.7 3.8
Operating and Maintenance 4.8 4.3 5.1
Total Annual Costs 8.1 7.0 8.9
Cash Requirements 45.1 34.8 45.2
-------
TABLE IV-7 COSTS OF CONTROL FOR SELECTED MODEL PINTS'
FOR THE SULFURIC ACID'INDUSTRY
Model Size,
metric
tons /day
Sulfur-bearing
Plants
180
450 -
900
1,350
1,800
1,800*
By -Product (wet -gas)
Acid Plants
180
• 450
900
1,800
Investment,, , ,
$1.000
Expected
1040
1760
2600
3400
3980
1180*
2000
3495
5415
8450
Minimum
560
955
1400
1800
2000
870*
1160
1830
2765
4625
Maximum
1565
2665
4020
5200
6150
1500*
2935
4970
8190
12700
Annual ized Cost,
$1,000
Expected
260 -i '
460
715
955
1125
470*
475
845
1310
2050
Minimum
170
•- "
300
470
615
725
385*
310
540
800
1300
Maximum
,. 345
635
990
1320
1570
560*
655
1040
1830
2870
Unit Cost,
$/ton
Expected Minimum Maximum
4.32 2.83 5.73
3.03 1.97 4.18
2.37 1.55 3.28
2.10 1.35 2.90
1.80 1.19 2.60 M
0.77 0.63 0.91 w
VO
7.91
5.63
4.38
3.42
* New Facilities.
-------
IV-60
METALS INDUSTRIES GROUP
Ferroalloy Industry
Introduction and Summary
Nature of the Products and Processes. Alloying elements required .
for making different steels often are added in the form of ferroalloys which
contain iron and at least one other element. The ferroalloys are named
according to the major alloying element: ferromanganese contains manganese
as the additive; ferrochromesilicon contains both chromium and silicon.
Another group of additives in which the iron content is very small (such
as silicomanganese and silicon-chrome-manganese) are also considered as
ferroalloys.
Ferroalloys are made by three methods. Submerged-arc electric
furnaces are used for making most of the ferroalloys. These furnaces are
of three types: open furnaces, semicovered furnaces, and sealed furnaces.
Metalothermic reduction furnace production has been included with electric
furnace production in the absence of sufficient information on number,
location, emissions, and air-pollution-control methods. Two domestic pro-
ducers use blast furnaces for making ferromanganese and (occasionally)
ferrosilicon.
Emissions and Control Costs. Particulate emissions are generated
during the handling of ores, fluxes, and reductant used in the production
of ferroalloys. Particulates and gaseous emissions are continuously evolved
during the smelting operation. Fuming occurs when the ferroalloy is poured,
the amount varying with the particular ferroalloy.
Particulate emissions in the ferroalloy industry are estimated to
be 137,000 metric tons in FY 1971. Emissions with additional controls are
estimated to be 3600 metric tons by FY 1979.
The estimated total investment and annualized control costs for
the ferroalloy industry between FY 1971 and FY 1979 are $74.3 million and
$29.4 million, respectively.
-------
IV-61
Industry Structure
Characteristics of the Firms. In 1971, there were 29 companies
operating 48 ferroalloy plants. The industry is composed of steel companies,
chemical and mineral companies having access to particular alloying elements,
and specialist producers of ferroalloys. Five companies use the tnetalo-
thermic process to make specialty ferroalloys containing molybdenum,
tungsten, vanadium, columbium or tantalum. Seven companies operate 10
plants for making ferrophosphorus. The remaining companies, operating
30 plants, use the submerged-arc electric furnace to produce about one-half
of the ferromanganese, and virtually all of the silicon- and chromium-
containing ferroalloys used in steelmaking.
Current Capacity and Growth Projections. The capacity of the
ferroalloy industry is believed to be considerably in excess of production
rates. Production of the six major ferroalloys in 1972 was 1,740,000
metric tons.
A growing trend toward processing ferroalloys within the country
of origin has resulted in a significant loss in U.S. exports. Therefore,
no growth in capacity is forecast by FY 1979, although there may be
modernization programs within existing facilities to improve production
methods and reduce costs.
Emission Sources and Emissions
Particulate emissions are generated during the handling of the
ores, fluxes, and reductants used in the production of ferroalloys. Par-
ticulate and gaseous emissions are continuously evolved during smelting
operations. Fuming occurs when the ferroalloy is poured, the amount varying
with the particular ferroalloy. Submerged-arc electric furnaces of the
open type are required because of the formation of crusts with certain
ferroalloys; these crusts must be broken mechanically.. With semicovered
submerged-arc furnaces, the charge is fed to the furnace through openings
around the electrodes. In open furnaces, the collection hood is raised
sufficiently to provide room for charging between the hood and the charging
floor; in semicovered furnaces the hood is lower and water-cooled. Open
and semicovered furnaces produce greater emissions than sealed furnaces,
which are used to prevent the escape of emissions and to minimize the
influx of air.
Metallic silicon and aluminum are very strong deoxidizers which
are used under high-temperature conditions to reduce the mineral oxides of
-------
IV-62
molybdenum, titanium, zirconium, and similar metals in metalothermic
reduction furnaces. This process has been included with the electric fur-
nace production types due to the absence of sufficient information pertaining
to number^ location, emissions, and air-pollution control methods.
In blast furnace smelting operations, particulates and "gaseous
emissions are carried out of the furnace in the same off-gas stream.
Particulates emissions (in thousands of metric tons) are estimated
as follows:
Fiscal Year Mode Particulates
1971 Without Further Control 137
1975 Without Further Control '137
With,Further Control '"' 9
1979 Without Further Control 137
With Further Control 3.6
Control Technology
Baghouses, electrostatic precipitators, and high-energy scrubbers
are all used to control emissions from submerged-arc electric furnaces.
Fumes evolving from the casting of ferromanganese in blast-furnace operations.
must also be controlled by baghouses.
A total of 155 ferroalloy furnaces were used in developing the
model furnaces used to produce cost estimates. Only 56 furnaces could be
identified as to specific ferroalloy produced and the furnace electric,
power rating. The distribution for these 56 furnaces was assumed to
represent the size distribution for all the existing furnaces. Emissions
from ferroalloy furnaces are related to the furnace electric power input.
A relationship between furnace power input and production was -
used to estimate furnace capacity. Capacities of open-hood and low-hood
electric furnaces were related to the capacities of baghouse, scrubber,
and electrostatic precipitator control devices required to satisfy the
requirements.
-------
IV-63
Control Costs
The estimated control costs for four model plants using baghouse
particulate control systems are shown in Table IV-8. For these model
plants, the associated costs were developed both from industry and published
information, and from recent EPA reports.
The estimate of the total direct cost of emissions control in
the ferroalloy industry between FY 1971 and FY 1979 is:
$ Millions
Existing Facilities
Investment
Annual Costs
Capital Charges
Operating and Maintenance
Total Annual Costs
Cash Requirements
Expected
74.3
20.6
8.8
29.4
139.1
Minimum
70.8
19.9
8.5
28.4
134.3
Maximum
77.9
21.5
9.2
30.7
144.1
New Facilities
None anticipated
TABLE IV-8. COSTS OF CONTROL FOR MODEL FERROALLOY PLANTS
Model Size, Investment,
metric $1.000
tons
25,000
65,000
77,000
525,000
expected
571
3,748
8,863
19,911
. min
512
3,428
8,049
18,662
max
636
4,172
9,680
21,186
Annualized Cost,
$1.000
expected
314
1,109
1,915
4,269
min
294
1,003
1,747
4,005
max
337
1,230
2,093
4,550
Cash Requirements,
$1,000
expected
1,555
4,622
10,222
22,931
min
1,477
4,244
9,314
21,594
max
1,638
5,116
11,111
24,337
-------
IV-64
Foundries (Iron)
Introduction and Summary
Nature of Product and Processes. Castings for machine parts,
automotive parts, and soil pipe are produced from both pig iron and scrap.
Cupola, electric-arc, electric-induction, and reverberatory furnaces are
used. In 1972, 80 percent of the production was by cupolas, 11 percent
by electric-arc furnaces, and the remainder by induction and reverberatory
furnaces. The latter two types emit relatively small quantities of pollu-
tants and require little or no emissions-control equipment.
The cupola furnace is a vertical, cylindrical furnace in which
the heat for melting the iron is provided by injecting air to burn coke
which is in direct contact with the charge. An electric arc furnace is an
enclosed, cup-shaped refractory shell that contains the charge. Three
graphite or carbon electrodes extend downward from the roof. An electric
arc between the electrodes and the charge generates the required heat.
Whereas the cupola melts continuously, the arc furnace operates in the
batch mode.
Emissions and Control Costs. Emissions from cupolas are carbon
monoxide, particulates, and small amounts of hydrocarbons. Arc furnaces
produce the same kinds of emission, but to a lesser degree because of the
absence of coke and limestone in the charge. Existing cupolas are required
to reduce particulate emissions by an average of 95 percent. New cupolas
will be required to apply 99 percent particulate emission reduction.
Estimated total annual emissions of particulates and carbon mon-
oxide for FY 1971 are 170 and 1500 thousand metric tons, respectively.
Estimates for FY 1979 (with further controls) for particulates and carbon
monoxide are 5 and 210 thousand metric tons, respectively.
The estimated total investment required for the iron-foundry in-
dustry between FY 1971 and FY 1979 is $339 million. The estimated annualized
cost is $180 million.
Industry Structure
Characteristics. Iron foundries may be found in almost all urban
areas. The economies of scale for the industry do not prohibit the con-
tinued existence of relatively small foundries. Because many of the foundries
-------
IV-65
are operated in conjunction with steel making facilities, iron foundries
tend to be concentrated in the major steel-producing states : Pennsylvania,
Ohio, Michigan, Illinois, and Alabama.
Iron foundries range from primitive, unmechanized hand operations
to modern, highly mechanized operations. Captive plants (owned or con-
trolled by other businesses) are more likely to be mechanized and better
equipped with emission-control equipment than are noncaptive plants.
In 1972, about 5 percent of the 1470 plants were classified as
large (over 500 employees), 29 percent as medium (100 to 500 employees),
and 66 percent as small (less than 100 employees) .
The major markets for iron castings include motor vehicles,
farm machinery, and industries that build equipment for the construction,
mining, oil, metalworking, and railroad industries. Captive plants have
the capability of economical production of large lots of closely related
castings. Most of the largest plants are captive and do not generally
produce for the highly competitive open market.
Current Capacity and Growth Pro lections. Annual production of
castings is expected to increase from 13.0 million metric tons in 1972 to
15.3 million metric tons in 1979, excluding iron molds produced for blast-
furnace pig iron. The number of foundries, number of furnaces by type,
and production capacities in 1972 and in 1979 are :
1972 1979
Furnace Size, metric tons/hr Furnace Size, metric tons/hr
40 12.9 4.0 Total 40 12 4.0 Total
Foundries 80 420 970 1,470 100 420 680 1,200
Cupolas 92 486 1,122 1,700 114 480 776 1,370
Arc Furnaces 0 164 116 280 0 246 174 420
Hot Metal, 1000
metric tons
By Cupola
By Arc Furnace
Total
Total Industry 19,000 22,500
7,200
0
7,200
5,800
1,900
7,700
2,200
230
2,630
15,200
2,130
17,330
9,000
0
9,000
5,700
2,900
8,600
1,540
360
1,880
16,260
3,240
19,480
-------
IV-6 6
Production by cupolas will increase at a rate of about 1 percent
per year while the total number of cupolas will decrease at a rate of
about 3 percent per year. All of the decrease will be small cupolas,
while' the number of medium ones remains constant and the number of large
ones increases. Production by arc furnaces will increase at a rate of
about 6 percent per year; the number of arc furnaces also will increase
at the rate,of 6 percent per year.
The 80 percent of total industry production attributed to cupola
furnaces in 1972 will decrease to approximately 72 percent in 1979. This
decrease in cupola production will be balanced by a corresponding increase
to 14 percent of the total production by arc furnaces in 1979. The total
industry production will increase at the rate of approximately 2.5 percent
per year. The number of foundries is expected to decrease at an annual
rate of 2.5 percent.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Emissions from cupolas are carbon monoxide, particulates, and
oil vapors. Particulate emissions arise from dirt on the metal charge and
from fines in the coke and limestone charge. Hydrocarbon emissions arise
primarily from partial combustion and distillation of oil from greasy scrap
charged to the furnace. Arc furnaces produce the same kinds of emissions
to a lesser degree because of the absence of coke and limestone in the
charge.
The particulate emission factor for uncontrolled cupola opera-
tion is taken to be 8.5 kg per metric ton. The best available estimate of
the particulate emission factor for uncontrolled arc furnaces is taken to
be 5 kg per metric ton.
An uncontrolled cupola generates approximately 150 kg carbon
monoxide per metric ton of charge. Half of this carbon monoxide burns in
the stack. On this basis, the estimated emission factor for carbon
monoxide discharged from an uncontrolled cupola is approximately 75 kg per
metric ton of charge. This emission factor is applicable to uncontrolled
arc>furnaces.
Estimates of £otal particulates and carbon monoxide emissions (in
thousands of metric tons per year) for selected fiscal years are as follows:
-------
IV-6 7
Fiscal Partic- Carbon
Year Mode ulates Monoxide
1971 Without further control 170 1560
1975 Without further control 270 2360
With further control 5 140
1979 Without further control 290 3500
With further control 5 210
Control Technology
For economic reasons, large cupolas use high-energy scrubbers to
control the emission of particulates to acceptable levels. Medium-size
cupolas can use either a high-energy scrubber or a baghouse. For small
cupolas and arc furnaces, baghouses are preferred.
High-energy scrubbers usually are operated at a particulate
collection efficiency of 95 percent. This efficiency can be increased to
99 percent by increasing the pressure drop. Fabric filters (baghouses)
have an efficiency of 98 percent. Electrostatic precipitators also have
a high efficiency, 96 percent.
Afterburners are used to control carbon monoxide emissions from
cupolas and arc furnaces. The efficiency of afterburners to control that
emission of carbon monoxide generally is taken to be 94 percent.
Control Costs
Estimates of control costs for selected model iron foundries are
presented in Table IV-9.
The estimated total direct control costs for the iron foundry in-
dustry in the time period FY 1971 to FY 1979 are:
-------
IV-68
Existing Facilities
Investment
Annual Costs
Capital Charges
Operating and
Maintenance
Total Annual Costs
Cash Requirements
New Facilities
Investment
Annual Costs
Capital Charges
Operating and
Maintenance
Total Annual Costs
Cash Requirements
$ Millions
Expected
303
46
114
160
1083
36
7
13
20
96
Minimum
235
40
93
133
922
28
6
10
16
83
Maximum
375
59
150
209
1314
47
9
16
25
114
-------
TABLE IV-9. ESTIMATED COSTS OF CONTROL FOR MODEL IRON FOUNDRIES
Type of
Furnace
Cupola
Cupola
Cupola
Electric arc
Electric arc
Estimated Estimated
Operating Time Production
Melting Rate, per Year, per Year,
metric tons/hr hours metric tons
39.5
11.9
4.0
il.9
4.0
2,000
1,000
500
1,000
500
79,000
11,900
2,000
11,900
2,000
Investment ,
$1.000
Expected
510
224
82
182
161
Minimum
353
162
60
123
116
Maximum
750
325
114
271
245
Annual! zed Cost,
$1,000
Expected
328
119
47
86
66
Minimum
221
88
34
60
46
Maximum
467
169
66
127
95
$/metric
Expected
4.15
10.20
23.50
7.23
33.00
Unit Cost
ton of iron melted
Minimum Maximum
2.80
7.39
17.00
5.04
25.00
5.91
14.20
33.00
10.67
47.50
-------
IV-70
Foundries (Steel)
Introduction and Summary
Nature of Product and Process. The electric-arc furnace is the
established equipment for the melting of steels that are subsequently
poured into molds to make castings. The electric-arc furnace is a short,
cylindrical-shaped furnace having a shallow hearth. Three carbon
electrodes project through the furnace roof. Electric energy passing
through the electrodes and into the charge creates the required heat for
melting. The production sequence consists of charging the furnace, melting
the charge, refining the steel, adding alloying elements, tapping the
metal, and pouring the molds.
The charge consists entirely of scrap metal loaded through the
opened top of the furnace. Refining is accomplished by the addition of
specially prepared slag materials and by blowing the melt with high-purity
oxygen when required. Ferroalloys are added to achieve the required steel
composition. Prepared molds are filled with finished molten steel.
Once the steel has solidified, the castings are removed from the
molds and passed on for further processing. Castings may be in a semi-
finished form that requires considerable machining before use in other com-
ponents, or in a high-quality product that requires a minimum of additional
work before subsequent use.
Emissions and Control Costs. Particulates comprise almost the
total emissions load during the production of steel castings. Minor
amounts of carbon monoxide may be produced by the furnaces. Small amounts
of nitrogen oxides are produced.
The estimated total annual emission of particulates in FY 1971
is 15,000 metric tons. For FY 1979 (with additional control), the
estimated particulate emission is 1,720 metric tons.
Estimated total investment and annualized costs for the steel
foundry industry between FY 1971 and FY 1979 are $77.2 million and $25.5
million, respectively.
-------
IV-71
Industry Structure
Characteristics. There are approximately 217 operating
merchant and captive steel foundries in the United States. Steel castings
are produced which vary in size from a few pounds up to approximately
250 metric tons. These foundries produce castings in alloys ranging
from carbon steel through the high-alloy stainless steels. Consequently,
the quantity and quality of the emissions from steel-foundry operation
varies over the entire range experience elsewhere in the steel industry.
Current Capacity and Growth Projections. Production of steel
castings peaked in 1966 at 1.96 million metric tons. Production in 1972
was 1.46 million metric tons. No net new steel foundry capacity is pro-
jected through 1979. Any construction will be for replacement of obsolete
capacity.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Particulate emissions comprise almost 100 percent of the emis-
sions occurring during the production of steel for castings. Minor amounts
of carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and hydrocarbons may be emitted.
Most of the particulate emissions occur during the charging
operation. The particulates are carried upward by the thermal gas currents
created by the hot furnace. Emissions generated during the charging
operation are the most difficult to control.
Small amounts of particulates are generated during the melting
operation. If the melt is blown with oxygen to a great extent, the major
emissions of particulates and gases may occur during this operation. Minor
amounts of emissions are generated during the tapping and pouring operations.
Controlled and uncontrolled particulate emissions (in metric tons)
are estimated as follows:
Fiscal Year ^ode Particulates
1971 Without further control 15,000
1975 Without further control 15,000
With further control 3,540
1979 Without further control 15,000
With further control 1,720
-------
IV-7 2
Control Technology
Baghouses are used exclusively for the control of emissions from
steel-foundry electric-arc furnaces. A general lack of space for installing
the required water-treatment facilities apparently precludes the use of wet
scrubbers.
Control Costs
The allowable emissions under State Implementation Plans and
Federal New Source Performance Standards for steel foundries were used as
guidelines in establishing the level of control required for electric-arc
furnace steel foundries, and the subsequent costs.
As a means of minimizing the factors influencing the capacity
of the various foundries, plant furnace-holding capacity was judged an
acceptable indicator of plant capacity. A relationship based on infor-
mation in the published literature was established between the plant
furnace-holding capacity and estimated production capacity for foundries
producing carbon steel castings, others producing alloy and stainless
steel castings, and a third group producing low-alloy steel castings.
Control costs were determined for foundries producing carbon-
steel castings on a one-shift basis, those producing on a two-shift basis,
and those producing a three-shift basis. Control costs were similarly
obtained for foundries producing alloy and stainless steel castings.
Estimated control costs for selected model steel foundries are presented
in Table IV-10.
The estimated total direct control costs for the steel foundry
industry (FY 1971-FY 1979) are:
$ Millions
Existing Facilities
Investment
Annual Costs
Capital Charges
Operating and
Maintenance
Total Annual Costs
Cash Requirements
New Facilities
Expected
77.2
21.4
4.1
25.5
121
Minimum
70.9
20.2
3.9
24.1
114
None anticipated
Maximum
83.6
22.7
4.3
27.0
128
-------
TABLE IV-10. ESTIMATED COSTS OF CONTROL FOR MODEL STEEL FOUNDRIES
Model Size Range, (a)
metric tons/yr
180-5350
BH-1, Carbon PENN
BH-2, Alloy PENN
BH-2, Carbon FED
BH-2, Alloy FED
5440-9890
BH-2, Carbon PENN
BH-2, Carbon FED
BH-3, Alloy FED
9980-14,425
BH-2, Carbon PENN
BH-2, Carbon FED
14,450-22,680
BH-2, Carbon PENN
BH-3, Alloy PENN
BH-2, Carbon FED
27,215
BH-2, Carbon PENN
BH-3, Carbon FED
108,862
BH-1, Carbon PENN
Model
metric
3,
1,
3,
1,
6,
8,
6,
12,
11,
21,
16,
16,
43,
43 '
108,
Size,
tons/yr
039
975
125
873
668
991
260
655
430
772
329
329
091
545
862
Investment,
$1.000
expected
237
237
171
211
483
301
317
674
325
917
869
377
1,530
615
1,610
min
128
219
106
133
301
172
189
460
209
581
590
245
1,420
421
1,480
max
356
259
263
330
693
473
461
980
492
1,267
1,255
549
1,672
877
1,733
Annualized
$1,000
expected min
52.0
57.9
35.0
46.0
118.0
63.0
65.5
168.0
68.0
223.0
207.0
80.0
327.0
131.0
336.0
33.2
54.2
24.8
33.2
87,7
43.1
44.9
129.0
49.7
155.0
156.0
58.8
308.0
98.8
312.0
Cost,
max
73.4
62.7
47.8
63.5
158.0
90.8
89.7
224.0
94.1
300.0
289.0
101.0
350.0
175.0
360.0
Unit Cost,
$ /me trie ton
expected
17.4
29.3
11.2
24.5
17.6
7.0
10.4
13.3
5.98
10.2
12.7
4.90
7.59
3.02
3.09
min
10.9
27.4
7.93
17.7
13.1
4.8
7.17
10.2
4.35
7.11
9.54
3.60
7.14
2.27
2.86
max
24.1
31.7
15.3
33.9
23.6
10.1
14.3
17.7
8.23
13.7
17.7
6.21
8.14
4.04
3.31
f
(a) BH-1, BH-2, BH-3 refer to 1, 2, and 3 shifts per day operation. Carbon or alloy refer to the
production of plain carbon steel or alloy steel (including stainless steel) castings. PENN or
FED refer to air pollution control regulations in the State of Pennsylvania or Federal regulations.
-------
IV-7 4
Iron and Steel Industry
Introduction and Summary
Nature of the Products and Processes. The iron and steel in-
dustry for the purposes of this study is considered to consist of the
following processes: sintering, coke production, blast-furnace opera-
tion, open-hearth steelmaking (OH), basic-oxygen-furnace steelmaking
(EOF), and electric-arc furnace steelmaking. Other processes such as
those used in iron and foundries are covered in preceding sections of
this report.
Sintering is the process by which iron-ore fines and reclaimed
iron dusts, sludges, and scale generated in various iron and steelmaking
processes are agglomerated and prepared for charging into blast furnaces.
Coking is the process used to convert suitable grades of coal to metal-
lurgical coke for charging into the blast furnace. Blast-furnace operation
is a smelting process by which iron is reduced to pig iron; and open-hearth,
basic oxygen and electric-arc furnaces are used to make steel.
Emissions and Control Costs. Emissions from the sintering proc-
ess are primarily particulates which are entrained in the combustion air
drawn through ttv sinter mixture into the windowbox, or are due to transport
of the sinter duiing the cooling operation, or are generated as dust during
crushing and scr ening of the sinter-product. Sulfur present in the sinter
mix or in combustion fuel will be emitted as SO.,..
X.
Emissions from coking operations are particulates generated dur-
ing coal preparation, coke-oven charging, coke pushing, and coke quenching;
gases (H2S, HC, CO, etc.) emitted to the atmosphere during various coking
operations; and I^S contained in the coke-oven gas produced during opera-
tion of the coke oven.
Emissions from open-hearth, basic-oxygen, and electric-arc fur-
naces are primarily particulates; although gaseous discharges from flash- '
ing of combustible products present in the gas are common.
Estimated emissions for the integrated iron and steel industry
in FY 1971 are 3.1 million metric tons of particulates, 147,000 metric
tons of SOX, 5.4 million metric tons of CO and 153,000 metric tons of
hydrocarbons. It is estimated that with additional controls, the emissions
in FY 1979 can be reduced to 91,000 metric tons of particulates, 53,000 metric
tons of SOX> 463,000 metric tons of CO, and 42,000 metric tons of hydro-
carbons .
The basic-oxygen furnace plant is the source of 75 percent of
the particulate emissions and 99 percent of the CO emissions, while the
-------
IV-7 5
coke plants are responsible for virtually all of the sulfur oxide and
hydrocarbon emissions.
The estimated total industry control cost for the period FY
1971 to FY 1979 and the estimated cost are as follows:
Estimated Estimated
Investment Annualized Cost
($ Million)
Sinter Plants 399 130
Coke Plants 852 250
Steelmaking Furnaces _788 3Q8
Totals 2,039 688
Industry Structure
Characteristics of the Process Operations. The characteristics
of the industry structure and operations for each of the processes under
review are discussed below.
There are 15 companies operating 43 sinter plants ranging in
size from about 180,000 metric tons per year to 4.3 million metric tons
per year. Total annual capacity is estimated to be about 56 million
metric tons. Sinter plants have been grouped into 14 categories based
on size and applicable pollution control regulation.
Sintering consists of agglomerating (1) ore fines and (2) re-
cleaimed iron-containing dusts, sludge, and scale generated in various
iron and Steelmaking processes. Sinter is made by mixing these fines
with limestone and coke (or anthracite coal), charging the mixture onto
a continuous traveling grate, and igniting the mixture. Air is blown
through the mixture to support combustion. The sintering is complete by
the time the end of the grate is reached. The sinter clinker is cooled,
crushed, and screened to size for charging to the blast furnace.
There are about 60 coke plants operating in the United States
ranging in size from about 220,000 metric tons to 6.4 million metric tons
of coal through-put per year. The vast bulk of the coke production is
owned by iron and steel companies (or affiliates). About 10 percent of the
coke is produced in merchant plants for sale in the open market to foundries,
other industrial users, or for internal consumption for other than steel-
producing purposes.
-------
IV-76
Coking coals are received at a coal preparation facility where
they are finely pulverized and mixed in the required proportions to meet
specifications for blast furnace or other end uses. The prepared coal
mixture is delivered to storage bunkers above the coke oven batteries.
Measured quantities of the mixture are withdrawn from the bunkers and
carried in lorry cars to individual ovens for charging. The coal is
heated in the absence of air for a period of 14 to 18 hours to convert
the coal to coke having the desired properties. During the coking cycle,
volatile constituents and noncondensible gases are distilled and trans-
ferred via collecting mains to the by-products plant for the recovery of
the gas and various chemicals. When the coking cycle is completed, the
doors on the ends of the oven are removed and a ram pushes the incades-
cent coke from the oven into a quench car. The hot coke is transported
to a quench tower where it is cooled under a direct water spray. The coke
is then crushed and screened for use in the blast furnace or for other
purposes. The fines from the crushing operation are used as a fuel in
sintering operations, or are sold commercially.
Open hearth steelmaking is the oldest of the three steelmaking
processes presently being used to produce raw steel. Open-hearth steel
production has declined from a peak of '89 million metric tons in 1964 to 32
million metric tons in 1972. There are an estimated 22 operating open-hearth
shops in the integrated iron and steel industry. It is doubtful that any
new plants will be constructed. Furnace capacities range from 50 to 300
net metric tons of steel.
Average Size,
1000 metric
tons/year
283.5
982.8
1360.8
1814.4
3099.6
Number of
Plants
2
3
6
4
3
Capacity,
million metric
tons/year
0.57
2.95
8.16
7.26
9.30
Percent of
Total Capacity
2.0
10.4
28.9
25.7
32.9
The open-hearth furnace is a shallow-hearth furnace that can be
alternately fired from either end. The process consists of charging scrap,
fluxes, and molten pig iron into the furnace where the required melting and
refining operations are performed to produce the desired analysis of steel.
Firing of an open hearth can be done with a variety of fuels, depending on
availability, cost, and sulfur content in the fuel.
The basic-oxygen furnace (EOF) was first used to produce steel in
the United States in 1955. By 1965 economic replacement of the open-hearth
-------
IV-7 7
furnace by the EOF had been well established. EOF steelmaking expanded
rapidly to about 68 million metric tons in 1972. Recently, a newer process
called "Q-BOP" has been used for the commercial production of steel.
This new process has been included with the EOF process for the purposes
of this review.
There are 19 companies operating 38 EOF plants, ranging in
size from 450,000 metric tons to 4.3 million metric tons of annual capacity,
For the purposes of this study they have been grouped into four model sizes
as follows:
Average Size, Capacity,
net metric Number of million metric Percent of
tons/heat Plants tons/year Total Capacity
68-127 10 11.2 14.7
136-172 5 8.1 10.7
181-240 20 46.0 60.7
263-295 3 10.5 13.9
In EOF steelmaking, the pear-shaped, open-top vessel is posi-
tioned at a 45-degree angle and charged with the required amount of steel
scrap and molten pig iron. The vessel is vertically positioned and high-
purity oxygen is blown into the molten bath through a wate,r-cooled oxygen
lance positioned above the bath. Products of the oxygen reaction with the
carbon, the silicon, and the manganese in the charge pass off as CO-C02
gases and manganese and silicon oxides in the slag. When the required con-
tent of carbon, silicon, and manganese is obtained in the melt, oxygen
blowing is stopped, and ferroalloys are added as needed to attain the de-
sired final chemical composition of the steel. The molten steel is then
poured into a ladle for transfer to subsequent operations.
The electric-arc furnace has long been the established unit for
the production of alloy and stainless steels. More recently, it has been
widely used in mini-steel plants to make plain carbon steels for local
markets. In 1972, electric-arc furnace production amounted to 15 million
metric tons of stainless steel. There are almost 100 companies operating
electric-arc furnace plants ranging in size from 9 thousand metric tons to
1.2 million metric tons annual capacity. For the purposes of this study
electric-arc furnaces have been grouped into six model sizess as follows:
-------
IV-78
Average Size,
1000 metric
tons/year
45-77
82-127
136-204
218-340
363-544
907-1197
Number of
Plants
11
26
21
11
21
6
Capacity,
million metric
tons/year
1.0
2.5
3.4
3.1
9.1
6.1
Percent of
Total Capcity
4.0
10.1
13.4
12.3
36.1
24.2
The electric-arc furnace is a short, cylindrical-shaped furnace
having a rather shallow hearth. Three carbon electrodes project through
the fixed or moveable roof into the furnace. Charge materials consist of
prepared scrap, although one or two electric furnace shops make use of
molten pig iron as part of the charge. After charging, the melting
operation is started by turning on the electric power to the electrodes
which are in contact with the scrap. Electrical resistance of the
scrap produces heating and eventual melting of the scrap. Additional scrap
is added and refining is accomplished by blowing high-purity oxygen into
the molten scrap to remove carbon and silicon. Ferroalloys are added as
needed to attain the desired final chemical composition of the steel.
Power is shut off and the molten metal is tapped into a ladle,.
Current Capacity and Growth Pro lections. Overall growth has
been minimal in recent years as the industry has attempted modernization
programs to counter the threat of increased imports. The recent growth
in world demand for iron and steel has brought supply-demand relationships
into better balance, but the low profit margin of the U. S. producers
probably will inhibit growth of new facilities largely to replacement of
existing obsolete plants for making sinter, coke, and iron.
Steel production during 1973 is estimated to be at or near what
is considered a maximum available capacity of 135 million net 'metric tons.
A consensus suggests that the requirement for all types of' steel in 1980
will be approximately 160 million net metric tons, an increase of 18 per-
cent over 1973. How will this additional capacity be obtained?
i
Operators of EOF shops have developed techniques to permit alter-
nate blowing of two vessels, instead of using only one vessel while keeping
the second on standby status. Two EOF shops have reported production in-
creases of 30 to 50 percent as a result of using these techniques.
The projected production requirement for 1980 probably can be
satisfied with existing EOF facilities provided techniques for the
-------
IV-79
alternate blowing of vessels in two-vessel EOF shops are adopted. In addi-
tion, some EOF shops have been constructed to permit the installation of a
third vessel when capacity is needed in the future.
It is judged that the modified operating procedures for two and
three-vessel shops will not require the installation of additional emission-
control equipment above the requirements for high-efficiency control of a
single EOF vessel. The estimated costs herein are based on this assump-
tion. It should be noted that successful implementation of these new EOF
procedures will depend in part on the availability of sufficient blast
furnace (pig iron) capacity.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Sinter Plants. The emissions associated with sinter plant opera-
tion are particulates that (1) become entrained in the combustion air as
it is drawn through the sinter mixture into the windbox, (2) are generated
during the cooling operation, and (3) are generated during the crushing
and screening operations. Sulfur contained in the fuel is not considered
to be a major problem.
Coke Plants. Emissions from the production of coke occur as
particulates, SO , CO, HC, and NO . Particulate emissions occur from the
following sou-rces: (1) coal receiving and stockpiling, (2) coal grinding
and handling, (3) charging of coke ovens, (4) pushing the coke from the
ovens, and (5) coke quenching. Gaseous emissions occur during the follow-
ing operations: (1) charging the coke ovens, (2) the coking cycle, and
(3) subsequent combustion of coke-oven gases.
Open-Hearth-Furnace Steelmaking. Particulates are the primary
emissions occurring in open-hearth-furnace operations. Emissions of iron
oxide occur during the time the scrap is melted and large quantities of
iron, silicon, and manganese oxides are formed and carried into the
exhaust system of the furnace when high-purity oxygen is blown into the
steel bath to remove the carbon. Gaseous emissions are largely carbon
dioxide, but SO may result through use of sulfur-containing fuels. If
the scrap used in the charge contains combustibles, greater volumes of
gaseous contaminants will be evolved.
Basic-Oxygen-Furnace Steelmaking. Particulates and CO are major
emissions in EOF Steelmaking. Particulate emissions occur at (1) the hot-
metal transfer stations, (2) the flux and alloy material-handling and
transfer points, and (3) the EOF vessel. Carbon monoxide and carbon
dioxide are emitted at the EOF vessel.
-------
IV-80
Electric-Arc-Furnace Steelmaking. Particulates are the pri-
mary emissions occurring in electric-arc furnace steelmaking. Charging,
scrap melting, oxygen blowing, and tapping are major sources of particu-
late emissions. Blowing the molten steel with high-purity oxygen produces
the highest emission rates. Emissions from the scrap charge and other
operations are similar to those from other steelmaking processes and con-
stitute the largest portion of the total emissions.
Estimated Emissions. Estimates of emissions (in thousands of
metric tons per year) are as follows:
Partic- Sulfur Carbon Hydro- Nitrogen
Mode ulates Oxides Monoxide carbons Oxides Other
Without Further 305Q 15Q 546Q 15Q 1>5 g
Control
Without Further 31QO 21Q 54go 21Q 2-Q n
Control
With Further 24Q 15Q 310 13Q 1>4 ?
Control
1979 Without Further 434Q 21Q 8ggo 22Q 2>1 13
Control
With Further gg _3
Control
Control Technology
Sinter Plants. Electrostatic precipitators, high-energy scrub-
bers, and baghouses are used to control the particulates originating from
the sinter strand. Dry cyclones and baghouses are used to control particu-
lates from other emission sources. Developments' in blast-furnace technology
which require additions of limestone and dolomite to the sinter mix make
continued use of electrostatic precipitators problematical because of the
difference in electrical properties between limestone dusts and iron-
containing dusts. Installation of high-energy wet scrubbers may be required
as replacements for some existing electrostatic precipitator installations.
Coke Plants. The technology for controlling emissions from coke
ovens is still in the developmental stage; definitive control measures
have not been established. Scrubbers are being used as the principal con-
trol technique for particulates in the control systems now under develop-
ment. In addition to air-pollution-control devices, improved coke oven
design and improved operating practice (such as sequence charging) are
factors offering significant means of control. Methods used in determining
estimated costs of control along with alternative techniques are discussed
in detail in the section on cost methodology in the Appendix. There is
some difference of opinion as to the cost of quench-tower baffle systems.
The accepted industry cost has been used here.
-------
IV-81
Open-Hearth-Furnace Steelmaking. Electrostatic precipitators
and high-energy scrubbers are used in controlling emissions from open-
hearth furnaces. Baghouses apparently have not been used as a means of
control.
Basic Oxygen Furnace Steelmaking. Electrostatic precipitators
and high-energy scrubbers are the principal control systems applied to
the EOF. Baghouses have been suggested for use in the United States and
have been tried in Europe. Baghouses are used for collecting particu-
lates at the hot-metal transfer stations and the flux and ferroalloy
handling locations.
Electric-Arc-Furnace Steelmaking. Baghouses are the principal
means of controlling particulate emissions from electric-arc furnaces.
In addition, five plants of record use high-energy scrubbers; one uses
an electrostatic precipitator. Means of collecting emissions from the
furnace include the following:
(1) Hot gases and particulates are withdrawn through the
roof of the furnace through a water-cooled duct which
connects with the baghouse.
(2) A hood is placed over the furnace to collect the
emissions; auxiliary hoods are used around electrode
openings, pouring spout, and service doors.
(3) The entire electric-arc-furnace building is used as
the collection hood for the emissions.
Combinations of these control systems, such as a combination of systems
1 and 3, are used to prevent "fugitive" emissions.
Control Costs
The cost of control for model integrated iron and steel plants
are presented in Table IV-11 for five representative models:
(1) Open-hearth shop
(2) Open-hearth plus electric furnace shop
(OH-Elect. Fee.)
(3) Open-hearth-basic oxygen furnace shop
(OH-EOF)
(4) Basic-oxygen furnace shop (EOF)
(5) Basic-oxygen furnace-electric furnace shop
(BOF-Elect. Fee.).
-------
IV-8 2
Note that the unit costs for control of each of the subprocesses
in these five categories.are not additive in terms of total steel capacity
for each model.
The estimated direct control costs for the integrated iron land
steel industry (FY 1971-FY 1979) are:
$ Millions
Existing Facilities
Investment
Annual Costs
Capital Charges
Operating and
Maintenance
Total Annual Costs
Cash Requirements
New Facilities
Investment
Annual Costs
Capital Charges
Operating and
Maintenance
Total Annual Costs
Expected
2,036
551
134
685
3,280
1.0
1.9
2.9
Minimum
1,960
534
131
665
3,200
3
0.9
1.8
2.7
Maximum
2,110
566
139
705
3,370
1.1
2.1
3.2
Cash Requirements
10
10
11
-------
TABLE IV-11. COSTS OF CONTROL FOR MODEL INTEGRATED IRON AND STEEL PLANTS
Sub-Process
Model
Size
Investment, Annual ized Cost,
$1,000,000 $1,000,000
net metric tons expected
Open Hearth
Sinter Plant
Coke Plant
Open Hearths
Total Costs
OH - Elect. Fee.
Sinter Plant
Coke Plant
Open Hearths
Electric Furns
Total Costs
OH - EOF
Sinter Plant
Coke Plant
Open Hearths
B.O.F.
Total Costs
EOF
Sinter Plant
Coke Plant
B.O.F.
Total Costs
3,200,000
2,150,000
1,870,000
3,200,000
3,430,000
2,450,000
1,870,000
3,070,000
ice 360,000
4,500,000
1,000,000
3,570,000
1,800,000
2,720,000
2,060,000
380,000
2,680,000
2,060,000
7.77
17.71
18.10
43.58
3.29
17.71
33.50
6.05
60.55
15.60
29.21
10.90
1.83
57.54
6.49
21.46
8.21
36.16
min max expected min
7.21 8.35
16.14 19.83
16.30 20.00
39.65 48.18
2.99 3.59
16.14 19.83
30.90 36.30
5.61 6.71
55.64 66.43
14.60 16.90
26.46 32.42
9.97 12.00
1.67 2.04
52.70 63.36
5.94 7.10
19.51 23.93
7.48 8.87
32.93 39.90
2.17
3.78
3.77
9.72
0.94
3.78
6.62
1.22
12.56
4.34
5.92
2.30
1.06
13.62
1.84
4.45
2.22
8.51
2.04
3.46
3.47
8.97
0.88
3.46
6.20
1.14
11.68
4.07
5.39
2.13
0.97
12.56
1.70
4.04
2.05
7.79
max
2.30
4.21
4.06
10.57
1.01
4.21
7.10
1.31
13.63
4.67
6.54
2.46
1.16
14.83
2.00
4.94
2. 40--
9.34
Unit Cost,
$/unit
expected
2.01
2.04
1.19
4.08
0.39
2.04
2.16
3.36
1.27
4.35
1.65
1.27
0.39
3.52
4.80
1.66
1.08
5.14
min
2.05
1.85
1.09
2.78
0.36
1.85
2.02
3.14
1.28
4.07
1.51
1.17
0.35
3.07
4.41
1.51
0.99
4.71
(*)
max
2.17
2.24
1.28
3.21
0.41
2.24
2.31
3.60
1.52
4.68
1.83
1.35
0.43
3.61
5.20
1.85
1.17
5.60
Control
Type Regulation
ESP
Various
ESP
ESP
Various
ESP
Baghouse
ESP
Various
ESP
Scrubber
ESP
Various
ESP
Federal
Federal
Federal
Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania
Pennsy Ivan ia
Pennsylvania
M
f
OO
UJ
Federal
Federal
Federal
Federal
Federal
Federal
Federal
-------
TABLE IV-11. COSTS OF CONTROL FOR MODEL INTEGRATED IRON AND STEEL PLANTS (Continued)
Sub-Process
Model
Size
Investment, Annualized Cost,
51,000,000
$1,
net metric tons expected min max expected
EOF - Elect. Fee. 4.
Sinter Plant 2
Coke Plant 2
B.O.F. 3
Electric Furnace
Total Costs
,090,000
,150,000
,680,000
,670,000
220,000
7.77
21.26
3.25
4.28
36.56
7.21 8.35
19.51 23.93
2.97 3.59
3.85 4.73
33.54 40.60,
2.17
4.45
2.02
0.89
9.54
000,000
min max
2.04
4.04
1.86
0.81
8.75
2.30
4.94
2.20
0.97
10.41
Unit Cost,
(*)
Control
$/unit
expected min
2.01
1.66
0.55
2.11
2.24
2.05
1.51
0.51
1.94
2.12
max
2.17
1.85
0.59
2.31
2.45
Type Regulation
ESP
Various
Scrubber
Baghouse
Federal
Federal
Federal
Federal
(a) Sub-process unit costs are not additive. Unit cost, net metric ton of raw steel calculated on the basis of
0.58 net metric ton of sinter and 0.77 net metric ton of coal per net metric ton of pig iron; 0.65 net metric
ton of pig iron per net metric ton of open hearth steel and 0.70 net metric ton of pig iron per net metric ton
of EOF steel.
<
oo
-------
IV-85
Primary Aluminum Industry
Introduction and Summary
Nature of Product and Process. Aluminum metal and aluminum
alloys are used in a great variety of products because of their low density,
high electrical and thermal conductivity, resistance to corrosion, mal-
leability, and high strength-to-weight ratio. Aluminum competes directly
with steel, copper, magnesium, wood, plastics, and fiberglass in many of
its applications. The prime markets for aluminum are building and con-
struction, transportation, packaging, and the electrical industry.
The only commercial process for the production of aluminum is
the Hall-Heroult process which involves the electrolytic reduction of
alumina in a fused-salt bath. There has been recent interest in the
development of new electrochemical and chemical processes.
Emissions and Control Costs. The continuous evolution of
reaction products, both particulate and gaseous, from the reduction cell
is the major source of, air pollutants. Six states, including Oregon,
Washington, Montana, Louisiana, Alabama and Maryland have regulations
relating to primary aluminum production. At present, there is no New
Source Performance Standard for primary aluminum smelters; the proposed
New Source Performance Standard would limit fluoride emissions to
1 kg/thousand kg of aluminum produced. Fluoride emissions are reasonably
well controlled at present, so that no great problem is anticipated in
meeting the proposed New Source Performance Standard when it becomes
effective.
Control technology for aluminum reduction cells was chosen to
provide 98 percent control of particulates overall, which should meet
Federal requirements.
Total industry particulate emissions for 1971 are estimated at
174,000 metric tons with existing controls. Total emissions with no further
controls in 1979 would be 246,000 metric tons and 5,000 metric tons with
controls.
The total industry control cost for FY 1971 - FY 1979 is $1,047
million for investments and the annualized costs are $424.1 million.
-------
IV-8 6
Industry Structure
Characteristics. The domestic primary aluminum industry is
presently comprised of 12 companies operating 31 reduction facilities in
16 states. Three companies-Alcoa, Reynolds, and Kaiser-operate about
two-thirds of the total capacity, but their dominance has been diluted
during the past decade by entrance of new companies into the industry.
In general, the plants are located in areas where cheap electric power is
available. As a result, the plants are concentrated in the Pacific North-
west, in TVA territory, and Texas. The plant-size distribution for the
industry is as follows:
Size, Number of Percent of
Thousand kg/year Plants Capacity
0 - 90.7 6 8.8
90.8 - 136 11 28.1
136.1 - 190 8 30.8
191 - 254 6 32.3
31 100.0
Current Capacity and Growth Projections. As of July, 1973, the
rated annual capacity of the primary aluminum industry was 4,340,000 metric
tons. This total rated capacity can be broken down by anode system.
Presently there are 20 plants using prebaked anodes having a total annual
capacity of 2,873,000 metric tons, or 66.2 percent of the total. Four
plants use vertical Soderberg anodes with a total capacity of 508,000
metric tons, or 11.8 percent of the total. Horizontal Soderberg anodes
are used in 7 plants having an annual capacity of 956,000 metric tons, or
22 percent of the total.
The primary aluminum industry is not a seasonal operation and
prefers to operate at a relatively constant percent of capacity the year
around. Over the past decade the aluminum industry has operated at an
average of 92 percent of capacity.
In the past the Industry has been accused of failing to expand
capacity as demand rises, then building additional capacity far in excess
of demand with a resultant over-capacity situation. If demand continues
as forecast, there will not be excess capacity for the next several years.
It is estimated that demand will grow at an annual average rate of 7 per-
cent through 1979. This growth will require that primary production
capacity grow by 1,746,000 metric tons during that time, assuming that the
present relationships in components of total supply (primary ingot, domestic
secondary recovery, and imports of mill shapes) continue in the future.
-------
* 8 7
Production capacity will be increased to an estimated 6,085,000
metric tons by mid-1979. It is further assumed that all new plants,
expansions, and replacements will use the prebaked-anode system^because
this system is easier and less expensive to control from an air-pollution
viewpoint than is either of the Soderberg systems. Three additions to
capacity have been announced, but none will be in operation before 1979.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
All primary aluminum is produced by electrolytic reduction of
alumina in electrolytic (Hall-Heroult) cells. Three anode systems are
used-prebaked, horizontal Soderberg, and vertical Soderberg. It is
apparent that the vertical Soderberg system emits the lowest quantity
of particulates, where the prebaked and horizontal Soderberg systems are
higher in pollutant emissions. On the other hand, the prebaked system is
easiest to control, the vertical Soderberg somewhat more difficult, and
the horizontal Soderberg the most difficult to control.
The continuous evolution of the gaseous reaction products from
the aluminum-reduction cell yields a large volume of fumes consisting
primarily of volatile fluoride compounds, sulfur oxides, carbon monoxide,
and fine dust evolved from the cryolite, aluminum fluoride, alumina, and
carbonaceous materials used in the cell. The removal of this fume from
the working area, as well as the requirements for cell cooling, involve
extensive air-quality control that may extend to the design of the plant
building and hoods, ducts, dust collectors, and gas scrubbers.
Emphasis was placed on controlling particulate emissions in
this study. Based upon contacts with the aluminum industry, it is assumed
that both gaseous and solid fluoride emissions are reasonably well con-
trolled at present. Hydrocarbon emissions from the Soderberg anode
systems are ignited by a burner; the combustion gases are removed from the
vicinity of the cells through a duct system.
Estimated particulate emissions from aluminum smelters (thousands
of metric tons) are presented in the tabulation which follows. The 1975
estimate is based on 92 percent control using the best demonstrated control
technology.
-------
IV-88
Fiscal Year Mode Particulates
1971 Without further control 174
1975 Without further control 174
With further control 14
1979 Without further control 246
With further control 5
Control Technology
The control technology for each of the three anode systems was
chosen on the basis that 98 percent overall control of particulates will
meet Federal requirements. The states of Oregon and Washington have
regulations relating to primary aluminum production. The Oregon regula-
tion requires that visible emissions may not exceed 20 percent opacity.
The Washington regulation requires that total particulate emission on a
daily basis may not exceed 7.5 kg per metric ton of aluminum produced.
At the present time there is no New Source Performance Standard
for primary aluminum smelters. The proposed New Source Performance Standard
would limit fluoride emissions to 1.0 kg per metric ton aluminum produced.
At the present time, fluoride emissions are reasonably well controlled;
no unusually severe problem is anticipated in meeting the new standard
when it goes into effect.
It was judged that the following control systems should meet the
requirement of 98 percent control of particulates.
Cell Type Primary Control Secondary Control
Prebaked Primary collection
plus dry scrubber
Horizontal Primary collection Spray screen and
Soderberg WESP, FBDS*, spray water treatment
tower
Vertical Primary collection Spray screen and
Soderberg FBDS, WESP, spray water treatment
tower
*FBDS = fluidized-bed dry scrubber
-------
IV-8 9
Control Costs
The cost of control for the 11 model plants used to compute
the industry costs are presented in Table IV-12. The best available in-
formation suggests that there may be no economy of scale insofar as
emission control is concerned, i.e. the unit of emission control equipment
is the constant regardless of the size of the plant. For lack of additional
information a constant unit cost was used to calculate industry control costs,
Using a constant unit cost, the investments of emission control may be over-
stated for large plants and understated for small plants. The error so in-
troduced is minimal by virtue of the symmetric distribution of plant sizes
given under Industry Structure.
The following tabulation presents a summary of the estimated
direct control costs for the primary aluminum industry during the period
between FY 1971 and FY 1979:
$ Millions
Expected Minimum Maximum
Existing Facilities
Investment 806.0 776.7 835.0
Annual Costs
Capital Charges 113.5 110.9 116.5
Operating and Maintenance 216.9 209.6 225.1
Total Annual Costs 330.4 320.5 341.6
Cash Requirements 2464.7 2398.4 2533.9
New Facilities
Investment 241.2 221.1 262.6
Annual Costs
Capital Charges 34.0 31.1 37.0
Operating and Maintenance 59.7 59.7 59.7
Total Annual Costs 93.7 90.8 96.7
Cash Requirements 488.3 462.6 515.8
-------
TABLE IV-12. COST OF CONTROL FOR SELECTED MODEL PLANTS FOR THE PRIMARY ALUMINUM INDUSTRY
Model Size,
metric tons /year
Prebaked
70,
110,
167,
232,
Electrode
760
770
150
850
Horizontal Solderberg
70,
110,
167,
232,
Vertical
70,
110,
232,
760
770
150
850
Investment,
$1,000,000
expected
9.76
15.27
22.96
32.21
Electrode
23.4
36.67
55.28
77.13
min
8.88
13.9
21.15
28.95
21.14
33.12
50.40
69.92
max
10.68
16.69
25.20
34.91
25.65
39.76
60.50
84.12
Annual ized
$1,000,000
expected min
3.79
5.94
8.92
12.47
10.10
15.77
23.82
33.27
3
5
8
11
9
14
21
36
.44
.37
.14
.32
.21
.30
.72
.21
Cost,
max
4.14
6.47
9.77
13.64
11.05
17.17
25.93
36.18
Unit Cost,
^/metric ton/year
expected min
48.62
48.69
48.43
48.58
129.50
129.14
129.27
129.62
44.12
44.00
44.15
44.09
118.13
117.15
117.90
117.71
max
53.09
53.01
53.01
53.12
141.69
140.59
140.75
140.94
Solderberg Electrode
760
770
850
13.14
20.57
30.90
11.80
18.80
28.11
14.37
22.40
33.76
5.68
8.89
13.36
5
8
12
.13
.08
.17
6.19
9.66
14.66
72.84
72.82
72.52
65.79
66.21
66.05
79.33
79.09
79.58
M
-------
IV-91
Primary and Secondary Beryllium
Introduction and Summary
Nature of Product and Processes. Beryl (beryllium ore) is
normally recovered as a coproduct or by-product from mining of other
minerals. The ore bertrandite is the only source of beryllium ore mined
in the United States exclusively for beryllium content. There are two
primary beryllium producers; each uses one or more of three production
processes: fluoride, sulfate, and acid-leaching followed by organophos-
phate extraction.
Beryllium metal products are made mostly from pressed powder
and are forged, extruded, and machined. Beryllia powders are pressed,
extruded, fired, and machined by ordinary ceramic techniques. Finished
beryllium-copper alloy products are made from melts of copper and a master
copper alloy containing 4 percent beryllium. Small quantities of beryllium-
nickel and beryllium-aluminum alloys are also produced. Alloy products take
the form of bar, plate, rod, wire, forgings, and billets.
i
It is apparent that there is no distinct arid independent second-
ary beryllium industry in the sense usually applied to the secondary non-
ferrous metals industries (aluminum, copper, lead, zinc, and mercury).
It is judged that the major portion of the beryllium metal and
beryllium oxide wastes is being processed for reclamation by the primary
producers. Admittedly, a minor fraction of beryllium-metal scrap probably
is being remelted in foundry operations which are not, included in the defi-
nitions of primary and secondary operations used herein.
Emissions and Control Costs. It .is estimated that controlled
beryllium emissions from machine shops are 8 g/day. ;A beryllium-alloy
plant emits 13 g/day. A typical emissions factor for a beryllia-ceramic
plant are 454 g of beryllium per ton of beryllium processed.
Beryllium is a hazardous air pollutant. Accordingly, the
Administrator of the EPA has determined that in order to provide an
ample margin of safety, emissions of beryllium dust, fume, or mist into
the atmosphere should be controlled to insure that ambient concentrations
of beryllium do not exceed 0.01 p,g/m3 - (30-day average).
The beryllium standard covers extraction plants, foundries,
ceramic manufacturing plants, machine shops processing beryllium or
beryllium alloys containing in excess of 5 percent beryllium, and disposal
of beryllium-containing wastes. Most affected beryllium sources are
limited to emissions of not more than 10 g/day.
-------
IV-92
Beryllium is a very expensive material, and most gas streams emitting
significant quantities of beryllium are controlled with high-efficiency
dry collectors. The collected material is recycled or sold back to the
primary producers. Absolute filters are often used as final filters
and collect small quantities of beryllium from very low-concentration
gas streams. These filters are usually buried in company-owned or seg-
regated dumps or stored in unused mines or buildings. Most of the solid
wastes are prepackaged prior to burial to prevent escape of beryllium to
the environment.
Although the standard is not based on economic considerations,
EPA is aware of the economic impact of the standard. Since most of the
sources of beryllium emissions already are controlled and in compliance
with the standard, the economic impact will be very small.
On this basis, and because the total cost undoubtedly will be
minimal compared to the total cost of clean air, no estimates of these
costs are included herein.
Industry Structure
Characteristics of the Firms. Ninety-five percent of all
beryllium metal applications are for the government, approximately one-
half of which is used in nuclear weapons applications, and the other
half in noncommercial nuclear reactors. Other uses include applications
in electrical switchgear, electronic microcircuits and welding equipment.
Manufacturing plants may be categorized as metal, alloy, and ceramic.
Estimates are in the range of something over 100 metal plants, 5,000-7,000
alloy plants and something less than 100 ceramic plants.
Current Capacity and Growth Pro lections. Beryllium production
in 1970 was about 356 metric tons. The estimated tonnage of beryllium
found in the various beryllium-contained products of the primary plants
is presented in the tabulation below. These amounts of beryllium equiva-
lent by type product are considered as inputs to the various manufacturing
plants:
Equivalent Beryllium,
Product Type metric tons
Beryllium billets (metal) 133
Master alloy 203
Beryllium oxide 20
-------
IV-93
Exact production figures are not published in order to avoid disclosure of
the activities of individual firms. The estimates used in this report
appear to be the most accurate available at the time. Production has
declined in recent years; it may be that these figures are significantly
high.
The National Resources Council indicates that the growth rate in
the use of beryllium alloys (using 1967 as a base year) is about 5-15
percent per year.
-------
IV-9 4
Primary Copper Smelting Industry
Introduction and Summary
Nature of Product and Process. Copper is one of the most
important of the nonferrous metals, surpassed in ore tonnage produced in
the United States only by iron. Its extensive use depends chiefly upon
its electrical and heat conductivity, corrosion resistance, ductility, and
the toughness of its alloys. Mechanical properties (and sometimes special.
properties) are enhanced by alloying with zinc to form brass, with tin to
form bronze, with aluminum or silicon to form the higher strength bronzes,
with beryllium to form high strength-high conductivity bronzes, with
nickel to form high-electrical-resistance alloys and corrosion and
erosion-resistant alloys, and with lead to form bearing metals.
Principal users of copper include the electrical, electronic,
and allied industries for manufacturing transmission lines, other elec-
trical conductors, and machinery. The automobile (radiators, wiring, and
bearings) and building-construction industries (tubing, plumbing) are
second- and third- largest consumers of copper in the United States.
Copper ore either is surface or underground mined, concentrated
by ore-beneficiation techniques, then sent to the smelter. Processing
of copper concentrates at a smelter involves the following steps.
Roasting normally is used to dry the finely ground concentrates and to
remove some sulfur, arsenic, antimony and selenium impurities. Roasting
is frequently by-passed in modern smelters because better concentration
methods remove free pyrite and permit the substitution of simple dryers
for roasters at some smelters. The roasted concentrate is treated in a
reverberatory furnace to produce an intermediate material called matte^
which nominally contains copper, iron, and sulfur. The matte is converted
to impure blister copper by blowing with air or an air-oxygen mixture in
a vessel called a converter to remove the sulfur and the iron. Removal
of the impurities from blister copper is sometimes limited to fire refining,
in which the impurities are removed in a furnace by volatilization and
oxidation. More often, it entails a two step procedure: fire refining
to produce electrodes for further refining by electrolytic methods.
Emissions and Control Costs. The estimated emissions of par-
ticulates and sulfur oxides are 122 and 4,300 thousand metric tons in
1971, respectively. With additional controls, the estimated emissions
in 1979 would be 3,000 metric tons for particulates and 780,000 metric
tons for sulfur oxides.
-------
IV-95
The estimated total investment to achieve control of particulates
and sulfur oxides emission in the primary copper smelting industry is $491
million; the estimated annualized cost is $147 million.
Industry Structure
Characteristics of the Firms. The principle sectors of the
primary copper industry-mining, smelting, refining, fabricating and
marketing — are dominated in varying degrees by three large vertically
integrated companies. In the smelting sector, four companies account for
about 85 percent of the smelting capacity. The smelting sector comprises
8 companies operating 15 active smelters with a total annual smelter
charge capacity of about 7.96 million metric tons, equivalent to about
1.9 million metric tons of copper metal. In early 1973, one company operated
only a smelter, while eight operated both smelters and refineries. The plant
size distribution for 15 active smelter operations, based on equivalent roaster
charge, is shown in the tabulation below:
Capacity Range, Percent of
1000 metric Number of Total
tons/year Plants Capacity
0-181 2 3.1
182-363 3 12.0
364-544 4 23.3
545-816 3 27.9
817-907 3 33.7
Growth Projection. Total copper production is expected to
rise approximately 2 percent per year. This could rise slightly, as two
new smelters are under construction; one is about three fourths completed,
the other is in the engineering (planning) stage. Hydrometallurgical
processes are expected to come on stream to meet need for some of this
capacity during the remainder of this decade. These include liquid ion-
exchange methods, direct pressure leaching of copper-iron sulfides, and
the precipitation of copper powder with sulfur dioxide directly from
ammonia leach solutions.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Emissions from copper smelters are primarily particulates and
sulfur oxides from the roaster, reverberatory, and converter furnaces.
The density and continuity of emissions vary with the furnace type.
Particulates can contain considerable by-product credits, particularly
noble metals and selenium. Accordingly, part of the traditional production
process is to recycle particulates up to the limit of economic viability,
between 90 to 99.5 percent control, leaving the rest to be discharged as
uncontrolled emission.
-------
IV-9 6
Sulfur dioxide is emitted from all three smelter operations; how-
ever, the concentration of S02 in the gases varies considerably among the
three. Sulfur dioxide concentrations for fluid-solid roasters, reverbera-
tory, and converter furnaces are 6-10 percent, 0.50-2 percent, and 2-5 per-
cent by volume, respectively.
Estimated controlled and uncontrolled emissions of sulfur oxides
and particulates for the primary copper industry are shown as follows:
Fiscal Particulates, Sulfur Oxides,
Year Mode 1000 metric tons 1,000,000 metric tons
1971 Without Further Control 122 4.3
1975 Without Further Control 65 4.1
With Further Control 3.3 0.73
1979 Without Further Control 73 4.4
With Further Control 3.6 0.78
Control Technology
Sulfur Emission Control. The various techniques being used and pro-
posed to control sulfur oxides emission in the gaseous effluents from copper
smelters have been described in detail in public literature. It is assumed
that most smelters will manufacture sulfuric acid by the contact process from
the sulfur dioxide in the roaster and converter gases. Two major conditions
must be met: (1) the concentration of SO^ in the gas stream should be at
least 4 percent by volume, and (2) the gas must be practically free of par-
ticulate matter to avoid poisoning the catalyst in the acid plant. Ten
smelters already have acid plants (one of the plants produces copper as a
by-product only).
Several methods have been proposed and have been considered here
for the purpose of removing the SO,., from the reverberatory gas stream.
These include:
• Absorption of sulfur dioxide in dimethylaniline, followed
by desorption and recovery.
• Cominco absorption process in which S0? is absorbed into
an ammonium sulfite solution, which yields concentrated
sulfur dioxide and an ammonium sulfate by-product.
• Wet lime scrubbing, whereby the reverberatory furnace gases
are scrubbed in a slurry of lime and water.
• Wet limestone scrubbing, essentially similar to wet lime
scrubbing except a slurry of limestone is used as the
scrubbing medium.
-------
IV-9 7
The assumed control technology used to estimate costs herein has
been taken from unpublished EPA work which has been based upon cooperation
from company engineering departments, quotations and specifications from
vendors, and from announced and unannounced company plans.
Known company plans are postulated largely upon the use of
surfuric acid plants for primary sulfur oxide emission control. This often
requires modifications to the basic process to permit operation in the range
of sulfur dioxide concentration specified above to take advantage of lower
capital and operating costs for the acid plant controls. The only other
technology considered here is control of sulfur dioxide emission by dimethyl-
analine adsorption, followed by recovery of liquid sulfur dioxide or by
conversion of the sulfur dioxide to elemental sulfur. Of the two new
copper plants, it is known that one will use dimethyl-analine conversion
followed by liquid sulfur dioxide recovery.
Particulate Emission Control. At present, most smelters exert a
good measure of control on particulate emissions, usually by means of electro-
statis precipitators. The addition of an acid plant to handle gases from the
roaster and the converter requires almost complete removal of particulate
from these streams prior to processing in the acid plant. Ipi addition, a
wet scrubber should be preceded by an electrostatic precipitator to prevent
scrubber plugging and to permit most of the furnace dust to be returned to
the smelting process or to dust by-product recovery.
Control Costs
From a statistical point of view, the 13 plants in the primary
cooper industry are too few and too variable in current practice to permit
the use of representative model plants for the estimation of control costs.
The estimating of total industry cost of control was based on individual
plant estimates. In effect, each plant becomes its own model. The model
unit costs of control for three smelters which require additional control
are given in Table IV-13.
The cost estimates are based on the assumption that the 13 major
plants in the copper industry will meet the stated standards by employing
the control methods specified in the following list:
1. Dust collection, precipitators, DMA and acid plant
2. Ambient: Roaster, reverb, converter gas handling and gas
cleaning, field monitoring equipment.
90%: Company estimate.
3. Ambient; Reverb modernization (1), converter aisle changes, gas
handling and gas cleaning, acid plants.
Local: Roasters, converter aisle changes, gas handling, and gas
cleaning, acid plants, slag flotation.
90% Sulfur Recovery: Closed-in reverbs, waste-heat boilers, gas
handling and cleaning, acid plants.
-------
IV-98
4. Ambient: Converter gas handling, gas cleaning, dust collection, acid
plant.
Local: Roasting, electric furnace, converter gas handling, gas
cleaning, dust collection, acid plants. ; :
5. Ambient: Converter gas handling, gas cleaning, dust collection,
acid plant, neutralization.
Local: Converter gas handling, gas cleaning, dust collection,
acid plant, neutralization, limestone scrubbing.
6. Ambient: Converters, converter gas handling, gas cleaning, dust
collection, acid plant.
Local; Electric furnace, converters, converter gas handling, gas
cleaning, dust collection, acid plant.
7. Ambient: Converter gas handling, gas cleaning, dust collection,
slag flotation, acid plant expansion, monitoring equipment.
8. Ambient: Converter gas handling, gas cleaning, dust collection,
acid plant, neutralization, monitoring equipment.
90%: Ambient plus lime/limestone scrubbers.
9. Ambient: Converter gas handling, gas cleaning, dust collection, acid
plant, tall stack, monitoring equipment.
90%: Ambient plus lime/limestone scrubbers. ,K ,
10. Ambient: Roasters, converter gas handling, gas cleaning, monitoring
equipment.
90%: • Roasters, dryer, new furnace (1), converter gas handling,
gas cleaning, dust collection, slag flotation, monitoring equipment.
11. Ambient: Converter gas handling, gas cleaning, dust collection, acid
plant, monitoring equipment.
90%: Ambient plus acid plant expansion, lime/limestone scrubbing.
12. Ambient: Converter gas handling, gas cleaning, dust collection,
acid plant, monitoring equipment.
Local; Ambient plus roasters, acid plant expansion, slag flotation,
furnace modernization.
90%: Ambient plus closed-in furnaces, DMA scrubbers, SO- plant,
elemental sulfur plant.
13. Ambient: Converter gas handling, gas cleaning, DMA scrubbing,
liquid SO- plant, monitoring equipment.
Local: Ambient plus closed-in reverb, gas cleaning, DMA scrubbing,
SO. plant, elemental sulfur plant.
The estimated direct control costs for existing facilities of the
primary copper industry during the period FY 1972 through FY 1979 are:
-------
IV-99
$ Millions
Expected Minimum Maximum
Existing Facilities
Investment 491 449 539
Annual Costs 147 138 156
Capital Charges 84 78 89
Operation Maintenance 63 60 67
Cash Requirements 1089 1025 1162
New Facilities
(a) New nonpolluting process technology will be emphasized.
These estimates have been derived as nearly as is possible from
the detailed costing and statistical procedures used in this work, and are
based in part on an estimate of the probable range of costs as specified
above.
-------
TABLE IV-13. COSTS OF CONTROL FOR THE MODEL PLANTS
IN THE PRIMARY COPPER INDUSTRY _
Model Size(a) Investment,
Metric $1,000,000
tons /Year
227,000
544,000
907,000
Expected
22.8
42.0
55.3
Minimum
17.8
32.3
51.1
Maximum
28.7
53.1
86.0
Annualized Cost,
$1,000,000
Expected
6.3
12.3
19.1
Minimum
5.0
9.4
15.1
Maximum
8.1
15.6
25.0
Unit Cost, $ per daily
metric ton furnace charge
Expected
27.75
22.61
21.06
Minimum
22.03
17.28
16.65
Maximum
35.68
28.68
27.56
(a) Furnace Charge.
o
o
-------
IV-101
Primary Lead Industry
Introduction and Summary
Nature of Product and Process. Lead is the third most important
nonferrous metal, surpassed only by aluminum and copper in ore tonnage
produced in the United States. The extensive use of lead depends chiefly
upon its corrosion resistance, density, malleability, alloying properties,
and its chemical compounds.
Lead products are vital to the U.S. economy. Lead acid bat-
teries are indispensable to the motorized industry and society. These
require great quantities of lead, in the range of 30-40 percent of total
consumption. Cable coverings, building construction, solder, type metal,
and bearing metal in total are almost equally critical and demanding of
lead supplies. Paint pigments and tetraethyl lead in gasoline have been
important chemical uses; they accounted for 73,000 and 240,000 metric tons,
respectively, out of a total of 1,297,000 metric tons consumed in the
U.S. in 1971. Both uses have been cited as environmental hazards which have
resulted in depressing the market for lead. This depression is expected to
be partially compensated for by expanded demand in other uses. The U.S.
Bureau of Mines "Low" forecast which takes into account the loss of these
markets for lead, is 2.3 million metric tons by the year 2000.
Emissions and Control Costs. The major emissions from lead
smelters are particulates and S02 from two sources: sintering machines
and blast furnaces. Estimated emissions in FY 1971 were 440 metric tons
of particulates, and 99,300 metric tons of sulfur oxide. Estimates for
FY 1979, with further controls, are 300 metric tons of particulates and
21,200 metric tons of sulfur oxide.
For the period beginning 1971 and ending 1979, the expected cash
requirement for existing facilities will be $51 million, the expected
investment will be approximately $27 million, while annualized costs in
1979 will be about $6.8 million. There are six lead smelting plants, only
three require acid plants in order to meet emission standards. The
remaining smelters already have acid plants.
Industry Structure
Characteristics of the Firms. As many as 300 companies have
comprised the overall primary lead industry in the U.S.; i.e., mining,
smelting, refinpig, and marketing. Now, however, the industry is
dominated by a relatively few companies, of which one, St. Joe Minerals,
is vertically integrated from mine through marketing, and two others,
Amax and Asarco, are vertically integrated from smelter through marketing.
-------
IV-102
In the smelting sector, U.S. smelters currently process about
1,297,000 metric tons of concentrate to produce 637,000 metric tons of
pig lead. In terms of feed charge, however, the capacity is much more than
this but some of the capacity is obsolescent. The silver-bearing ores of
the Western states comprise about 10 percent of supply, and are treated at
lead/silver smelters and refineries in Idaho, Montana, Texas, and Nebraska.
The remainder, the nonsilver ores of Missouri, are processed at soft-
lead smelters and refineries in Missouri.
Four companies control the entire capacity: Asarco, St. Joe,
Amax, and Bunker Hill.
Secondary lead processing, which is to recover scrap lead, has
about equalled U.S. mine production for the past several years. Both primary
lead smelters and scrap resmelters participate in secondary lead recovery.
Current Capacity and Growth. The product of lead smelting and
refining is pig lead suitable for rolling into sheet, casting, alloying,
and converting into high-purity oxide and chemicals. Primary lead
production in 1972 was as follows: Asarco 208,000 metric tons; St. Joe
189,000 metric tons; Amax 121,000 metric tons; and Bunker Hill 120,000
metric tons.
Lead consumption in 1973 is estimated at 1,248,000 metric tons,
up 3 percent over 1972. The major consumer of lead is the transportation
industry for lead batteries and gasoline additives. Other using industries
are construction, electrical machinery and products, and paint and varnish,
typically as follows:
Industry Percent Consumption
Storage batteries 29
Gasoline 17
Construction 9
Cable covering 4
Paint and varnish 2
All other 39
Total 100
Gasoline consumption, paint/varnish, and cable covering are under
downward consumption pressures, while storage batteries and construction are
upward. Total consumption is expected to grow between 1 to 3 percent per
year during the 1970's, without any need for additional smelting capacity.
This growth rate takes into account reductions in use for gasoline, paints,
and cable covering. Mining capacity is expected to increase, however,
displacing imports. After a five-year period of growth in mining capacity
in Missouri, little additional growth is expected. However, in 1973, St. Joe
will add 59,000 metric tons per year in underground mining and concentrating
capacity in Missouri.
-------
IV-103
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Emissions from lead smelters are primarily particulates and
S02 from two sources: sintering machines and blast furnaces. Most of
the sulfur is removed in the sintering machine. The density of emissions
varies with the source.
Flue-gas particulates contain as high as 30 percent lead, as
well as zinc, antimony, cadmium, and copper, and in western smelters,
often significant by-product credits of noble metals; in one case over
30 ounces of silver per ton and 0.14 ounce of gold. Thus, there is
an economic reason to recover particulates in addition to that of fume
control. The emissions from the slag furnaces used in the Western U.S.
smelters to recover zinc yield particulates containing zinc oxide and
zinc dust. These were accounted for in the emissions reported in industry
questionnaires.
Particulates, Sulfur Oxides,
Fiscal Year Mode metric tons metric tons
1971 Without further control 440 99,300
1975 Without further control 440 99,300
With further control 300 21,200
1979 Without further control 440 99,300
With further control 300 21,200
Control Technology
Sulfur oxide and particulates in sintering machine off-gases
are being controlled by the use of sulfuric acid plants in three of the
six U.S. smelters. In these smelters, particulate control is required in
order that the acid-plant systems function effectively.
In the three U.S. smelters without acid plants, most of the
particulates in the processing off-gases are removed from the cooled off-
gases in a baghouse prior to the stack; sulfur oxide in the off-gases is
not controlled. (One of these has an acid plant which is used only on the
off-gases from a copper converter in an adjoining plant.)
Control Costs
Each of the six U.S. plants was examined in terms of equipment
required to bring the plant within Federal control standards. Acid plants
were assumed for those plants which do not now control sulfur oxides
emissions. Methods of metallurgical operation at all six plants are
similar, the differences stem from the type of ore handled by the three
Missouri smelters and by the three Western U.8, smelters. In the West,
-------
IV-104
concentrates are leaner with much higher amounts of gold, silver, zinc,
cadmium, copper, antimony, and arsenic present. Except for a slag-fuming
furnace operation in the Western smelters to remove the higher amounts of
zinc in the concentrates, there are no major differences in the basic
smelter operations. There is a difference in degree in the refining
operations, but off-gases are not a problem in the refineries. Refining
involves kettle operations at low temperatures just above the melting
point of lead. There are no fumes produced.
Estimated costs of control for model plants are presented in
Table IV-14.
TABLE IV-14.
COSTS OF CONTROL FOR SELECTED MODEL PLANTS
FOR THE PRIMARY LEAD INDUSTRY
Model Size,
metric tons/
year (sinter
charge)
Annualized Cost,
$1,000,000
expected min max expected min max
Investment,
$1,000.000
Unit Cost,
$/metric ton
of annual capacity
expected min
max
107
131
,000
,000
8.9
9.9
4.3
5.1
12.5
13.8
2.1
2.5
1.0
1.2
3.0
3.4
17.
17.
8
4
8.8
8.3
26.3
23.6
The estimated total direct costs of control in the primary lead
industry during the period FY 1971 through FY 1979 are:
Existing Facilities
Investment
Annual Costs
Capital Charges
Operating and Maintenance
Total Annual Costs
Cash Requirements
New Facilities
$ Millions
Expected
27.3
Minimum
16.8
Maximum
38.6
4.4 2.7 6.3
2.4 1.4 3.2
6.8 4.1 9.5
51.0 35.6 64.4
None anticipated
-------
IV-105
Primary Mercury Industry
Introduction and Summary '
Nature of Product and Process. Cinnabar ore is surface or deep
mined, crushed, screened, and roasted in a rotary kiln. Mercury vapors
leave the kiln in the hot combustion gases. Mercury metal is recovered by
condensation in an air-cooled heat exchanger. Prime virgin liquid mercury
metal is separated from the accompanying flue dust by treatment with lime
on a hoe table. U. S. Bureau of Mines pilot plant tests on a patented
electro-oxidation process on cinnabar show promise but, as yet, the process
is not commercial.
The mercury market has been severely depressed in recent years
by the abundance of relatively cheap prime virgin mercury of foreign origin,
and by decreased usage in the U. S. as a result of efforts to limit mercury
emissions to the environment.
Emissions and Control Costs. Mercury emissions in the form of
vapor and mist are confined almost entirely to the discharge of stack
gases from the system after the major portion of the mercury vapor from
the kiln is removed in the condenser. In order to meet EPA hazardous-
emission regulations of 2300 grams per day of mercury, the users of mercury
cells will be required to reduce mercury emissions by approximately 95
percent. Based on the assumption that the eight subject plants operate at
full capacity, the estimated emissions are 50-60 metric tons per year in
FY 1971, and 3 metric tons per year in FY 1979 with further controls.
Total investment costs for the control of eight major plants are
estimated to be $0.88 million. Annualized costs are estimated at $0.22
million, with a total cash requirement for the period FY 1971-FY 1979 of
$1.66 million.
Industry Structure
Characteristics. The following tabulation presents statistics
related to the primary mercury industry:
1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972
Number of Producing Mines 122 87 109 79 30 21
Average Price per flask, $ 489 536 505 408 292 218
Production, flasks at 34.5 kg 23,800 28,900 29,600 27,300 17,400 7,290
Consumption, flasks 69,500 75,400 77,400 61,500 52,700 52,900
-------
IV-106
A sharp decrease in domestic production beginning in 1970 has continued
through mid-1973. Primary mercury production during the remainder of this
decade probably will be depressed as a result of abundant foreign supply,
decreased domestic demand, and the high cost of production from relatively
poor domestic ores.
Current Capacity and Growth Projection. The ore-processing
capacity of eight major producers of prime virgin mercury is as follows:
Capacity Range
(Ore-Processing), Number of Percent of
metric tons/day Plants Total Capacity
0 - 68.0 1 4.0
68.9 - 136 4 29.7
137.0 - 272 2 38.2
273.0 - 544 1 28.1
8 100.0
Six of these plants are in California, and there is one each in Idaho and
Nevada.
Mercury consumption in the U. S. declined significantly in 1970,
1971, and 1972. Major mercury users in 1972 include manufacturers of
electrical and measuring apparatus (29 percent), electrolytic preparation of
chlorine and caustic soda (22 percent), antifouling and mildew proofing for
paint (16 percent), and industrial and control instruments (12 percent). The
use of mercury in mildewcides and antifouling paint is expected to be sub-
stantially reduced in the future. The implementation of mercury-emission
control in chlorine/caustic manufacture has and will continue to reduce
significantly the demand for virgin mercury by this industry. New capacity
for chlorine manufacture will not use mercury cells, with the exception of
one new plant scheduled for startup in the first quarter of 1974.
The U. S. primary mercury industry is in a state of flux as the
result of low prices and slackened demand brought about by the cancellation
of biocidal and cosmetic uses of mercury and by the implementations of
mercury-emission controls. The eight plants included in the tabulation above
for which control costs were estimated in this report, operated only inter-
mittently; not more than two or three of these are operating at the present
time. Their capacity is such that they could process annually about 27,000
metric tons, the rate of production in the 1968-1970 period.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Mercury ore is processed almost exclusively by roasting in rotary
kiln equipment. The major portion of mercury vapor, which leaves the kiln
-------
IV-10 7
in the hot combustion gases, is recovered in air-cooled condensers. The
major source of mercury emissions in primary processing operations is the
partially cooled and treated stack-gas discharge to the atmosphere.
The hazardous pollutant, mercury, is the only pollutant considered
here. Relatively minor sulfur emissions from the ore and from the combustion
of sulfur-bearing fuel oils, and nitrogen oxides emissions from the combustion
process are not considered.
The maximum estimated mercury emissions in units of metric tons are
given below:
Fiscal Year Mode Mercury
1971 Without Further Control 50-60
1975 Without Further Control 14.7
With Further Control 3.0
1979 Without Further Control 14.7
With Further Control 3.0
It was assumed that in FY 1971, 30 plants operated at full capacity. For
FY 1975 and FY 1979, a maximum emission was computed on the assumption that
the eight major installations will operate at full capacity.
Control Technology
Two emission-control systems are judged to be applicable over the
full range of situations and plant operating conditions which are expected
through 1979:
• Cooling to 13 C (55 F) followed by mist elimination
• Wet scrubbing to 13 C (55 F) outlet temperature.
All necessary equipment is commercially available at the present time. A
necessary degree of flexibility in application of emission controls to a
specific plant situation is provided by the choice of these two systems.
In three cases, only high-efficiency demisting equipment is needed.
.Control Costs
Cost computations were performed on a plant-by-plant basis, so
that each of the eight plants is its own model. For three representative
plants, the investment, annualized cost, and unit costs of control are
shown in Table IV-14.
-------
IV-108
TABLE IV-14. COSTS OF CONTROL FOR THE MODEL PLANTS
IN THE PRIMARY MERCURY INDUSTRY
Model Size,
metric tons
per day
45
158
318
Investment,
$1,000
expected
27
149
221
min
22
127
184
max
33
173
254
Annualized Cost,
$1,000
expected
7.3
39
65
min
6.0
30
51
max
8.7
49
78
Unit Cost,
$/metric ton/day
expected
0.16
0.24
0.21
min
0.13
0.19
0.16
max
0.19
0.30
0.24
The estimated direct control costs for the primary mercury industry
during the period FY 1971 through FY 1979 is as follows:
$ Millions
Existing Facilities
Investment
Annual Costs
Capital Charges
Operating and Maintenance
Total Annual Costs
Cash Requirements
New Facilities
Expected Minimum Maximum
0.877 0.823 0.946
0.142 0.134 0.154
0.081 0.067 0.097
0.224 0.201 0.251
1.66 1.52 1.78
None anticipated.
All costs have been computed on the basis that the eight major plants will
operate at full capacity through 1979. The computed cost therefore is a
maximum which can be interpreted as the investment and annualized expendi-
ture that will be required to restart the primary mercury industry.
-------
IV-109
Primary Zinc Industry
Introduction and Summary
Nature of Product and Process. Among the nonferrous metals
produced in the U. S., zinc ranks fourth in tonnage after aluminum, copper,
and lead. The manufacture of galvanized-steel products provides the major
demand for pure zinc. Zinc sheet is used in the manufacture of dry cells,
and for building-construction materials. Zinc-alloy die castings find
major uses in automobile parts, electrical and electronic equipment, lighting
fixtures, and office equipment. Zinc alloys with copper to make brass for
use in armaments, electrical fixtures, marine hardware, and construction.
Zinc chemicals find important uses in pigments, agricultural preparations,
rubber, and paper.
There are three major processing steps in the manufacture of zinc:
• Mining
• Ore concentration
• Elimination of metal production
Sulfide ore concentrate is roasted to produce the oxide; the sulfur leaves
as sulfur oxide in the roaster gas. Calcines are sometimes sintered into
briquets which in a pyrometallurgical plant are sent to the reduction
furnace to produce zinc metal.
Emissions and Control Costs. Emissions from the zinc reduction
plant are primarily particulates and sulfur oxide from the roaster and
sintering furnaces in the pyrothermic plants, and from fluid-bed roasters
in the electrolytic plants. In FY 1971, particulate emission amounted to
18,600 metric tons and sulfur oxide emission amounted to 263,000 metric
tons, without control. In FY 1979, with further control, the estimates are 1900
metric tons of particulates and 31,000 metric tons of sulfur oxide.
The .expected cash requirement for existing facilities is $60.7
million, with an investment requirement of $32.4 million and a total
annualized cost of $8.15 million.
Industry Structure
Characteristics of the Firms. The major portion of zinc ore is
produced from relatively few mines in eight states: Tennessee, Colorado,
Missouri, New York, Idaho, New Jersey, Utah, and Pennsylvania. Generally,
eastern ores are lower grade but less complex; western ores are higher in
zinc, lead, and noble metals in complex mineralization.
-------
IV-110
Custom reduction plants purchase and process ores and concentrates
to slab zinc. Custom plants also provide toll-conversion service for
independent mine operators. Vertically integrated producers own mines as
well as smelters. Of the 14 plants operating in the U. S. in 1968, eight
are in operation through 1973. Accordingly, control procedures advocated
here are based on the industry practice during this period. It was
recognized that at least one of the plants which did not have an adjacent
acid plant would be closed in the near future, but since it would, no doubt,
be replaced, it was necessary to include it so as to arrive at a conservative
estimate. The plant size distribution for these eight plants is tabulated
below;
Capacity, Capacity, Number Percent of
1000 tons concentrate 1000 metric tons of Total
per year per year Plants Capacity
0-100 0-90 2 13.3
101-200 91-180 4 47.4
201-400 181-360 2 39.3
8 100.0
Current Capacity and Growth Projection. The product of the zinc
reduction plants is slab zinc. Ore concentrate capacity in 1973 is
1,331,000 metric tons per year, equivalent to 934,000 metric tons slab
zinc. Approximately 10 percent of this capacity utilizes horizontal
retort plants. All of these will be phased out by July, 1975.
In 1973, pyrothermic plant production will account for more than
one-half of capacity, electrolytic plants will account for the remainder.
Production has been diminishing in recent years, and is not expected to
increase in the next two years. Consideration is being given to the
construction of two new electrolytic plants, one in Kentucky, and one in
Oklahoma.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Emissions from zinc-reduction plants are primarily particulates
and S02 from the roasters and sintering furnaces. Pyrothermic plant
practice is to remove most of the sulfur from the concentrates in the
roaster, and complete the oxidation of the zinc in the sintering machine.
In the electrolytic plants the calcine from the roaster is substantially i
sulfur free. Therefore, heavy concentration of S02 appears in the roaster
off-gases and in the case of the pyrothermic plants, light concentrations
of S02 in sintering off-gases. Particulates are relatively heavy in both
streams.
-------
IV-111
Current emissions above the level of control achieved prior to
FY 1971 and for full-capacity operation of the industry are given (in 1000
metric tons) in the following tabulation:
Mode Particulates Sulfur Oxides
1971 Without further Control 18.6 263
1975 Without further Control 18.6 263
With further Control 1.9 31
1979 Without further Control 18.6 263
With further Control 1.9 31
In FY 1971, approximately 90 percent of the particulates emissions
were being controlled.
Control Technology
Sulfur oxide and particulates in roaster off-gas currently are
being controlled by the use of sulfuric acid plants in 5 of the 8 plants of
interest. In these cases, particulate control is required in order that
the acid plant systems function effectively.
off-gas streams are treated separately. Particulate
control can be obtained by the use of electrostatic precipitators or
baghouses (fabric filters). Sulfur emissions from the sinter operation must
be controlled where necessary with scrubbers.
.Control Cost
Each of the eight plants was looked at in terms of equipment needed
to bring the plant to within Federal control standards. Acid plants were
recommended to control heavy S02 emissions for three plants where acid plants
now are absent. Particulate control is also required for these plants. For
sinter streams where the particulate loading still fell short of Federal
Standards three baghouses and two ESP's, were recommended.
The model plant costs and unit costs are given in Table IV-15.
The summary of estimated total direct control cost for the primary zinc
industry in the period FY 1971 through FY 1979 'is as follows on the next
page.
-------
TABLE IV-15. COSTS OF CONTROL FOR THE MODEL PLANTS PRIMARY ZINC INDUSTRY
Model Size
Metric
Tons
91,000
139,000
149,000
' Investment Annualized Cost,
$1,000,000 ' $1,000,000
expected
8.67
11.6
12.2
rain max expected mm max
6.66 11.1 2.17 ' 1.65 2.77
8.82 15.0 2.91 2.23 3.76
9.42 15.6 3.09 2.37 3.97
Unit Cost,
$/unit*
expected min
23.8 18.1
20.9 16.0
22.2 17.1
max
30.4
27.1
28.6
* Metric Tons per year to roaster.
1X3
-------
IV-113
$ Millions
Expected Minimum Maximum
Existing Facilities
Investment 32.4 27.3 39.6
Annual Costs
Capital Charges 5.26 4.45 6.45
Operating and Maintenance 2.89 2.46 3.55
Total Annual Costs 8.15 6.91 10.0
Cash Requirements 60.7 53.4 69.6
New Facilities: 2 Electrolytic Plants are under consideration, one in
Kentucky, the other in Oklahoma. But these plans are
still in the early tentative stages.
-------
IV-114
Secondary Aluminum Industry
Introduction and Summary
Nature of Product and Process. Aluminum has become one of the
most important metals in industry; only iron surpasses it in tonnages
used. Major uses of the metal are in the construction industry, aircraft,
motor vehicles, electrical equipment and supplies, beverage cans, and
fabricated metal products which include a wide variety of home consumer
products. The automotive industry is a large user of secondary aluminum
ingot.
Secondary aluminum ingot is produced to specification; melting
to specfication is achieved mainly by segregating the incoming scrap into
alloy types. The magnesium content can be removed with a chlorine-gas
treatment in a reverberatory furnace.
For the purpose of this report, the secondary aluminum industry
is defined as that industry which produces secondary aluminum ingot to
chemical specifications from aluminum scrap and sweated pig. The industry
is viewed as consisting of secondary aluminum smelters excluding primary
aluminum companies, the activities of nonihtegrated fabricators, or scrap
dealers.
Emissions and Control Costs. Major emissions from secondary
aluminum smelters are products from the volatization or oils, paint, and
other coatings on borings, and turnings during the drying process; fluorides
and particulates from fluxes in the sweating and reverberatory furnaces; and
chlorine from chlorine-gas treatments in reverberatory furnaces.
Estimated particulates emissions from aluminum secondary smelters
are 5340 metric tons in FY 1971, and 2268 metric tons in FY 1979 with
.further controls.
The expected cash requirement for new and existing facilities is
$44.4 million with an investment requirement of $18.6 million, and a total
annualized cost of $5.7 million for the period FY 1971 through FY 1979.
Industry Structure
The secondary aluminum industry, as defined above, consists of an
estimated 54 firms with 65 plants. Although most sources list the industry
as having more plants, their data usually include sweaters, scrap dealers,
and nonintegrated fabricators.
-------
IV-115
Of the total estimated industry capacity of slightly over
t million tons per year, the top four firms account for about 50 percent
of the capacity.
The growth in estimated production of secondary aluminum ingot
has increased at the average rate of 5.3 percent annually for the period
1963 to 1971. It is estimated that future growth in production and
capacity will continue at this average rate.
Emission Sources and Pollutants. The most serious emissions
in secondary aluminum smelting occur in (1) the drying, of oily borings
and turnings, (2) the sweating furnace, and (3) the reverberatory furnace.
Emissions from (1) are vaporized oils, paints, vinyls, etc; from (2)
are vaporized fluxes, fluorides, etc; from (3) are emissions similar to
(1) and (2) plus HC1, A1C13, and MgCl2 from the chlorine gas treatment
to remove magnesium. As of 1970, an estimated 25 percent of chlorination
station emissions were controlled. By 1979, it is estimated that 80
percent of the chlorination stations will be controlled. The following
tabulation is an estimate of the particulate emissions for the 1971-
1979 period:
Particulates,
Fiscal Year Mode metric tons
1971 Without further control 5,340
1975 Without further control 6,940
With further control 2,780
1979 Without further control 8,500
With further control 2,270
Control Technology and Cost
Dryer emissions are known to exist and in many cases are
treated with afterburners; however, there are insufficient data relating
to the drying operations to permit evaluations of possible costs that
might be expended to meet air-quality specifications.
Sweating-furnace emissions, fluroide from fluxes, organic
materials, oils, etc., can be controlled through the use of afterburners
followed by a wet scrubber or baghouse, and control costs have been
feported; however, no data are available on the number, capacity, or
location of sweating furnaces. Thus, a realistic estimate of control
costs cannot be made.
-------
IV-116
There are several processes which cause emissions during the
operation of a reverberatory furnace. These must be understood to
calculate control costs properly. They are:
(1) Emissions at the Forewell—Secondary smelters charge
scrap directly into the forewell of the reverberatory
furnace. Any oil, paint, vinyl, grease, etc., on the
scrap vaporizes. The emissions from the charging
process vary greatly with the material charged.
Quantitative data on forewell emissions or the need
for. control are not available and costs or possible
costs cannot be estimated.
(2) Emissions from the Bath—During the time the aluminum
bath is molten, it is covered with a flux to protect
it from oxidation.
(3) Emissions Caused by Chlorination—The magnesium content
of a heat of aluminum can be reduced by chlorination.
Chlorination produces emissions of HCl, A1C1-, and MgCl9.
Particulate emissions from the chlorination process are
1,000 pounds per ton of chlorine used. Maximum
magnesium removal requires about 40 pounds of chlorine
per ton of aluminum which has an emission rate of
20 pounds of particulates per ton of aluminum. Magnesium
removal is practiced by plants representing 92 percent
of the estimated industry capacity. A small portion of
these plants use aluminum fluoride fluxing for magnesium
removal, rather than chlorine. It is assumed here that
control costs for these few plants are similar to those
that use chlorination. Wet scrubbing is the usual means
of controlling chlorination station emissions. Recent
innovations on a dry control process are being tested.
Control Costs
For the purpose of estimating chlorination control costs, the
identified secondary smelters were classified into three model plant
categories based on estimated capacity. The following tabulation shows
the basis upon which this was done:
-------
Model Group Number
II
III
Industry Total
Capacity Range, short tons
per year
Capacity Range, metric tons
per year
Number of Plants
Capacity, metric tons per
year
Member of Plants Practicing
Magnesium Removal
Capacity Subject to Magnesium
Removal, metric tons /year
Model Plant, Average Capacity,
metric tons/year
Model Plant, Average Capacity,
3,000-11,999
2,722-10,885
26
112,660
13
68,500
5,260
21.0
12,000-29,999
10,886-27.215
20
342,470
20
342,500
17,125
76.4
30,000-70,000 3,000-70,000
27,216-63504 27,222-63,504
12 58
511,160 966,780
11 44
479,000 890,000
43,550
174
M
1
I-*
J^*
~J
metric tons/day
-------
IV-118
The estimated capital cost and annual cost for control of
emissions from the chlorination station for each of the model plant sizes
chosen are shown on Table IV-16.
Estimates of the investment in control equipment, annual costs,
and cash requirements for the secondary aluminum industry for the period
FY 1971 through FY 1979 are given in the tabulation below.
FY 1971 - FY 1979,
$ Millions
Expected Minimum Maximum
Existing Facilities
Investment 14.1 12.0 17.9 .
Annual Costs
Capital Charges 1.85 1.62 2.20
Operating and Maintenance 2.41 2.07 2.80
Total Annual Costs 4.26 3.69 5.00
Cash Requirements 35.6 31.4 40.1
New Facilities
Investment 4.45 3.64 5.50
Annual Costs
Capital Charges 0.58 0.49 0.71
Operating and Maintenance 0.88 0.75 1.08
Total Annual Costs 1.46 1.24 1.79
Cash Requirements 8.84 7.77 10.6
TABLE IV-16. COSTS OF CONTROL FOR SELECTED MODEL PLANTS
FOR THE SECONDARY ALUMINUM INDUSTRY
Model
Size,
metric
tons/year
5,260
17,150
43,550
Investment,
$1,000
expected
188
280
539
min
156
213
457
max
236
394
684
Annualized
$1,000
expected
50
81
180
.0
.1
.0
min
41.4
64.1
151.0
Cost,
Unit Cost,
$ per metric ton of
annual capacity
max
62
107
228
.5
.0
.0
expected
9.51
4.73
4.13
min
7.87
3.74
3.47
max
11.88
6.24
5.24
-------
IV-119
Secondary Brass and Bronze
Introduction and Summary
. Nature of Product and Process. Brass is a copper alloy in which
the major alloying element is zinc. Bronze is a copper alloy in which
the major alloying element is tin. The secondary brass and bronze industry
may be divided into two segments: ingot manufacturers and brass mills. Not
all brass mills have a casting department.
Both segments of the industry charge scrap into a furnace where
it is melted and alloyed to meet specifications for chemical composition.
Ingot manufacturers use either a stationary reverberatory furnace or a
rotary furnace for most of the production. Small quantities of special
alloys are processed in crucible or electric induction furnaces. A few
cupolas exist in which highly oxidized metal, such as skimmings and slag,
is reduced by heating the charge in contact with coke. Ingot manufacture
invariably requires injection of air to refine the scrap. Brass mills
use scrap that does not require such extensive refining. The channel
induction furnace is the most common type used by brass mills.
Emissions and Control Costs. Metallurgical fumes consisting
chiefly of zinc oxide and lead oxide are the major emissions from rever-
beratory, rotary, and induction furnaces. Total industry emissions are
estimated at 9740 metric tons in FY 1971, and 258 metric tons with
further controls in FY 1979.
The expected cash requirement for new and existing facilities
is estimated at 29.9 million dollars. Estimated investment requirement
and estimated total annualized cost for the period FY 1971 through FY
1979 are $9.5 million and $3.8 million, respectively.
Industry Structure
Characteristics of the Firms.. In 1973, it is estimated that
there were 39 ingot manufacturers and 35 brass mills that had a casting
department.
The basic raw material is copper-bearing scrap from obsolete
consumer and industrial products and also home scrap in the case of brass
mills. Ingot manufacturers produce ingot to 31 standard compositions for
use by foundries. Brass mills produce sheet, rod, plate, and tubing from
a large number of alloys. Furnace size distribution is as follows:
-------
IV-120
Size, annual metric tons Number of Percent of
Ingot ProducersBrass Mills Furnaces Capacity
60-1,193 80 8
1,194-5,080 29 12
5,081-14,670 13 20
2,849-14,243 70 60
192 100
Current Capacity and Growth Projections. Ingot production in
1972 is estimated to be 253 thousand metric tons. No growth in capacity
has taken place since 1963. The ingot industry is expected to remain
stable at a level near 270 thousand annual metric tons. As the number
of ingot manufacturers has decreased from 60 in 1969 to 39 in 1972, plant
expansion has maintained the annual capacity approximately at a constant
level.
In 1969, brass mills reached a peak production of 474 thousand
metric tons of reprocessed brass and bronze scrap. It is estimated that
production will be 425 thousand metric tons in 1972, and 490 thousand tons
in 1979. Since 1960, growth has taken place at a rate of about 2-1/2
percent per year; this rate is expected to be maintained through 1979.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Metallurgical fumes consisting chiefly of zinc oxide and lead
oxide are the major emissions from the reverberatory and rotary furnaces
that are used by ingot manufacturers and from the induction furnaces that
are used by the brass mills. Fly ash, carbon, and mechanically produced
dust are often present in the exhaust gases, particularly from the furnaces
used by the ingot manufacturers. Zinc oxide and lead oxide condense to
form a very fine fume which is quite difficult to collect.
The emission factors for particulates are 35 kg per metric ton
of metal charged for a reverberatory furnace, 30 kg per metric ton for a
rotary furnace, 1 kg per metric ton for an electric induction furnace,*
6 kg per metric ton for a crucible furnace, and 36.75 kg per metric ton for
a cupola furnace.
* This factor was used in this report; however, the calculated factor from
data on three brass mills was 5.3, 5.7, and 8.3 kg per metric ton.
-------
IV-121
The estimated particulate emissions (in metric tons) for ingot
producers and brass mills are:
Jiscal Year Mode
1971 Without further control
1975 Without further control
1975 With further control
1979 Without further control
1979 With further control
Particulates
Ingot Producers Brass Mills Total
9,320
233
9,940
248
426
8
490
10
9,740
9,740
241
10,430
258
Control Technology
Ingot manufacturers use fabric-filter baghouses, high-energy
wet scrubbers, and electrostatic precipitators because of their high
efficiency in collecting the fine zinc oxide fumes. Fifty-nine percent
use a baghouse, 25 percent use a scrubber, 9 percent have no controls, and
7 percent use an electrostatic precipitator. The latter will drop to
5 percent shortly because one plant is dissatisfied with the low recovery
efficiency of its electrostatic precipitator.
Brass mills use fabric-filter baghouses exclusively.
Control Costs
The costs for controlling the emission of particulates from the
model furnaces representing the industry are given in Table IV-17.
TABLE IV-17.
COST OF CONTROL FOR SELECTED MODEL PLANTS FOR
THE SECONDARY BRASS AND BRONZE INDUSTRY
Model Size,
metric tons /hour
68
32
11
25
(Ingot)
(Ingot)
(Ingot)
(Brass Mill)
Investment
$1,000
expected
100
69
47
30
mm
69
48
33
22
9
max
142
102
71
40
Annualized Cost,
$1,000
expected
57
30
23
5
min
38
20
15
4
max
83
44
33
7
Unit Cost
$/metric ton/hour
expected min max
4.
9.
28.
0.
67
18
82
80
3.12
6.17
19.15
0.59
6.85
13.49
41.30
1.06
-------
IV-122
The estimated total direct control costs for the secondary brass
and bronze industry during the period FY 1971 through FY 1979 are as follows:
$ Millions
Expected Minimum Maximum
Existing Facilities
Investment 9.2 7.0 12.4
Annual Costs
Capital Charges 1.2 .9 1.6
Operating and Maintenance 2.6 , 1.9 3.3
Total Annual Costs 3.8 2.9 4.9
Cash Requirements 29.4 23.2 36.8
New Facilities
Investment .306 .228 .415
Annual Costs
Capital Charges .040 .031 .052
Operating and Maintenance .015 .011 .019
Total Annual Costs .055 .042 .071
Cash Requirements .460 .370 .589
An amortization period of 15 years was used for the control equipment.
-------
IV-123
Secondary Lead Industry
Introduction and Summary
Nature of Product and Process. Lead is used in storage batter-
ies, leaded gasolines, in construction (as caulking lead, sheet lead,
pipe, etc.) in bearing metals, brasses and bronze, for ammunition, cable
sheathing, pigments and chemical, solders, type metals, collapsible tubes,
foil, terne coatings on steel, and for weights and ballast in shipbuilding,
Only the lead used in ammunition, leaded gasolines, pigments,
chemicals, and terne coatings is not recoverable. Lead is easily re-
covered, either as an alloy or as secondary lead. Lead and lead alloys
melt at relatively low temperatures and their oxides are easily reduced.
One of the major uses for lead is for grids in storage batteries. Much
of this lead is recycled. Lead oxide on battery grids is reduced to lead
in cupolas or blast furnaces. Other metallic lead and lead-alloy scrap
is melted and refined in simple kettle or pot furnaces. Some of it is
recovered by sweating, i.e., separating the lead from higher melting con-
stituents by melting just above the melting point on a sloping hearth and
collecting the molten lead run-off.
Emissions and Control Costs. Metallurgical fumes consisting of
particulate emissions which are chiefly lead oxide. Total industry emis-
sion are 5600 metric tons in FY 1971 and 1480 metric tons in FY 1979 with
further controls.
The expected cash requirements for new and existing facilities
in the secondary lead industry is $22.1 million, with an investment re-
quirement of $10.8 million, and a total annualized cost of $2.5 million.
industry Structure
Characteristics of the Firms. For the purpose of this report,
the secondary lead industry is defined as that industry which recovers
lead or lead alloys from scrap by smelting and/or refining lead scrap.
This does not include the activities of scrap dealers who may sweat lead.
A total of 22 companies was identified as participating in the
secondary lead industry. These companies operate a total of 45 plants.
The two leading producers are estimated to account for about 65 percent
of production.
-------
IV-124
Current Capacity and Growth Pro lections. The secondary lead
recovered from scrap in 1970 was approximately 526,000 metric tons0
Industry capacity is estimated to be about 752,000 metric tons (assuming
a production rate at 70 percent of capacity). In 1971, production rose
to 528,000 metric tons. Future growth in the secondary lead industry is
projected at 3.2 percent per year. Plant capacities were estimated on
the basis of 1970 production.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Emissions of particulates occur from lead-processing furnaces.
Generally, about 2/3 or more of the output of the secondary lead indus-
try is processed in blast furnaces or cupolas which are used to reduce
the lead oxide in the form of battery plates or dross, to lead. If oxide
reduction is not needed, then lead scrap can be processed in reverber-
atory furnaces. Kettle or pot furnaces may be used to produce small
batches of alloys for holding or refining lead- These lead processing
furnaces represent obvious particulate-emission sources, the primary emis-
sions being lead oxide. Another particulate emission source is the slag
tap and feeding ports on the cupolas and reverberatory furnaces. Although
lead is occasionally sweated in a reverberatory furnace, reclamation of
secondary lead by this means is a very small portion of total production.
Emissions from slag operations are not known.
The industry estimate of 90 percent net control in 1970 indicates
that nearly all plants had emissions controls of some sort. The growth in
control to 98 percent net control in 1979 is estimated based on implemen-
tation of the proposed new source performance standards.
The past, current, and expected future control of particulate
emissions in the secondary lead industry are estimated below:
Particulates,
Fiscal Year Mode metric tons
1971 Without further control 5,600
1975 With further control 3,275
1979 With further control 1,480
-------
IV-125
Control Technology
Either a baghouse or a wet scrubber can be utilized to achieve
control of emissions. The baghouse is chosen for this cost analysis be-
cause it is generally cheaper. It is assumed baghouse life averages 15
years.
Control Costs
The assumption of an average emission factor for cupolas and
reverberatpry furnaces allows the breakdown of the secondary lead industry
on the basis of capacity alone. Available capacity data indicate three
model plant sizes. The estimated industry capacity and model plant data
are given in the tabulation below.
Plant Model I
Plant Model II
Plant Model III
Industry Total
Capacity
Range,
metric
tons/day
83-181
27-82
12-26
12-181
Number of
Plants
23
6
16
45
Total
Capacity,
metric
tons/day
2482
327
253
3061
Model Plant
Capacity,
metric
tons/day
109
54
15.8
The capital investment, annual cost, and unit cost per pound of capacity
are given for each of the three model plants shown in Table IV-18.
Annual costs include capital charges, operating and maintenance,
and credits for by-product recovery value. Since the lead oxide collected
in the control equipment is recycled into the smelting furnace, it has
value as a by-product; therefore, the recovery of this lead oxide lowers
estimated operating and maintenance costs.
The estimated secondary lead industry costs for the period
FY 1971 to FY 1979 are:
Existing Facilities
Investment
Annual Costs
Capital Charges
Operating and Maintenance
Cash Requirements
New Facilities
Investment
Annual Costs
Capital Charges
Operating and Maintenance
Cash Requirements
$ Thousands
Expected
8698.66
1143.64
882.13
18614.17
Minimum
5171.81
705.49
268.39
10753.20
Maximum
11963.36
1563.17
1457.13
25598.48
2108.15
277.17
200.74
3479.15
1214.74
173.09
57.86
2256.27
3091.17
388.26
370.10
4905.07
-------
IV-126
TABLE IV-18.
COSTS FOR CONTROL FOR SELECTED MODEL PLANTS
FOR THE SECONDARY. LEAD INDUSTRY
Model
Size,
metric
tons /day
109.0
54.0
15.8
Investment,
$1,000
expected
305
148
59
min
171
79-
37
max
434
218
82
Annualized
$1,000
expected
68.9
34.3
15.3
Cost,
min max
26.3
11.3
9.3
108.
54.
21.
1
4
7
Unit Cost,
$1, OOP/metric ton/ day
expected min max
0
0
0
.63
.64
.97
0.24
0.21
0.59
0.99
0.99
1.37
-------
IV-127
Secondary Zinc Industry
Introduction and Summary
Nature of Product and Process. Zinc is necessary in modern
living; it stands fourth among the metals of the world—being exceeded
only by iron, aluminum, and copper. Zinc is utilized chiefly in auto-
mobile, household appliances, and hardware industries. The metal has
three major uses (1) for zinc base alloy die castings, (2) for galvaniz-
ing steel, and (3) in the manufacture of the copper-zinc alloy, brass.
Other major uses are rolled zinc for dry-cell canisters, and zinc oxide
for use in rubber and paints.
Secondary zinc comes from two major sources, the zinc-base
alloys and the copper base alloys. Most of the secondary zinc recovered
is accounted for in reconstituted copper-base alloys: slab zinc is next,
then chemical products and zinc dust.
For the purpose of this report, the secondary zinc industry is
defined as that industry which uses sweating and/or distilling operations
to produce zinc slab, dust, or oxide solely from scrap. It does not in-
clude the activities of:
(1) Primary zinc producers that may manufacture zinc
from scrap and ore
(2) Secondary brass and bronze plants that recover
zinc in copper alloys,
(3) Chemical manufacturers that produce zinc compounds
by chemical treatment of zinc scrap
(4) Scrap dealers that may sweat zinc.
Emissions and Control Costs. Sweating and distilling fumes con-
sisting chiefly of zinc oxide particulates account for the major share of
the emissions from secondary zinc plants.
Estimated amounts of emissions from the zinc secondary industry
are 61? metric tons in FY 1971 without controls, and 145 metric tons in
PY 1969 with,further control.
The expected cash requirement for existing facilities is $5.45
million, with an investment requirement of $2.09 million, and an annualized
cost of $0.68 million for the period FY 1971 through FY 1979.
-------
IV-128
Industry Structure
Characteristics of the Firms. It is estimated that 14 operating
plants comprise the secondary zinc industry.
Current Capacity and Growth. The total secondary industry slab
zinc capacity stood at 18,100 metric tons at the end of 1972. Redistilled
secondary zinc slab production in 1971 was 73,400 metric tons, of that
total 11,200 metric tons were produced by the secondary zinc industry,
the remainder was produced by the primary industry.
Other zinc materials produced by the secondary zinc companies
included zinc dust and zinc oxide. Figures are not available for total
secondary zinc dust and zinc oxide capacity; estimates were derived from
the available data. To further complicate capacity estimation, some pro-
duction set-ups permit production of either oxide or slab.
In 1971, slightly over 24,500 metric tons of zinc in the form
of zinc oxide was produced from zinc scrap. It is assumed that nearly
all of this oxide is produced by the secondary zinc companies and that
this production is indicative of a secondary capacity of 31,700 metric
tons per year of contained zinc.
The production of zinc dust from zinc-base scrap in 1971 to-
taled 26,300 metric tons. It is assumed that much of this production
came from the secondary industry and that secondary capacity is 31,700
metric tons per year.
On the above basis the total secondary zinc industry (as de-
fined above) has a capacity for producing refined zinc products contain-
ing 81,700 metric tons of zinc per year.
Growth in refined secondary zinc capacity is expected to be
essentially nil. Production in the three segments of the industry re-
viewed above stood at 63,100 metric tons in 1962, and 62,100 metric tons
in 1971. Peak production occurred in 1968 and totaled 70,100 metric tons.
No data are available for sweating capacity. It is assumed
that much of the feed material for production of refined secondary zinc
is sweated. Sweating capacity is therefore placed at 63,500 metric tons/
year. Sweating can be performed in various types of furnaces.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
There are at least four .operations which generate emissions in
the secondary zinc industry: materials handling, mechanical pretreatment,
sweating, and distilling. This report is concerned with control costs for
-------
IV-129
emissions from the sweating and distilling operations, as insufficient
data are available for calculating the possible costs of controlling emis-
sions from the other sources.
In the sweating operation, various types of zinc containing
scrap are treated in either kettle or*reverberatory furnaces. The emis-
sions vary with the feed material used and the feed material varies from
time to time and from plant to plant. Emissions may vary from almost
none to 15 kg of particulates per ton of zinc reclaimed, Fpr the
purpose of this report, it is assumed that the maximum emission rate
applies.
In the case of the various types of zinc distilling furnaces,
the accepted emission rate is 23 kilograms/metric ton of zinc processed.
Some distillation units produce zinc oxide and normally utilize a bag-
house for collection of the product. In this study it was assumed that
these baghouses are sufficient to meet national process weight standards.
However, for the purpose of calculating control costs, it was assumed
that essentially all of the estimated zinc oxide capacity could be switch-
ed to slab zinc or dust production, and emission controls would be required.
Controlled and uncontrolled emissions from secondary zinc
sweating operations cannot be estimated with an acceptable degree of
probable accuracy, as there are no reliable data available.
The estimated emissions from secondary zinc distillation based
on available production estimates and an average emission factor of 23 kg
per metric ton are tabulated below. It is estimated that 57 percent of
the emissions were controlled in 1971 and that 90 percent will be controlled
in 1979.
Particulates,
Fiscal Year Mode metric tons
1971 Without further control 617
1975 With further control 219
1979 With further control 145
Control Technology
The major emission of concern is particulates, which consist
mainly of zinc oxide. Baghouses have been shown to be effective in con-
trolling both distillation- and sweating-furnace emissions except when the
charge contains organic materials such as oils.
-------
IV-130
Control Costs
A complete accounting of secondary zinc plants by type of furnaces
used and the product or products produced is not available. Based on the
limited information, it is assumed that the industry's 14 plants can be
represented by two models: two Model I plants each consisting of 7,260
metric tons per year sweating capacity and 10,900 metric tons per year
distilling capacity, and twelve Model II plants each consisting of 4,080
tons per year of sweating capacity and 4,900 tons per year of distilling
capacity.
The costs calculated for control of the model plants are given in
Table IV-19. Model I plant unit costs are estimated at an average value of
0.30 cents per pound of annual capacity; while the smaller Model II plants
have estimated unit costs that average 0.39 cents per pound of annual
capacity.
TABLE IV-19. COSTS OF CONTROL FOR SELECTED MODEL
PLANTS FOR THE SECONDARY ZINC
INDUSTRY
Model Size,
metric tons/ Investment, Annualized Cost, Unit Cost,
year (distil- $1000 $1000 $/metric ton/year
ling capacity) expected min max expected min max expected min max
4,990 138 80.4 195 43.2 22.5 64.4 7.85 4.09 11.7
10,900 225 131 345 72.3 38.6 113. 6.03 3.22 9.42
Estimated total direct cost of"control for the secondary zinc
industry during the period FY 1971 through FY 1979 are as follows:
$ Millions
Expected Minimum Maximum
Existing Facilities
Investment 2.09 1.21 2.89
Annual Costs
Capital Charges 0.27 0.19 0.37
Operating and Maintenance 0.39 0.23 0.57
Total Annual Costs 0.68 0.42 0.94
Cash Requirements 5.45 3.78 7.04
New Facilities None planned
-------
IV-131
BURNING AND INCINERATION GROUP
Dry Cleaning
Introduction and Summary
Nature of Product and Process. The dry-cleaning industry con-
tributes to air pollution by the release of organic-solvent vapors to the
atmosphere. The amount of solvent emitted to the atmosphere from any one
dry-cleaning plant is dependent upon the equipment design solvent used,
the length of certain operations in the cleaning process, the precautions
used by the operating personnel, and the quantity of clothes cleaned.
The most important of these items are the precautions used and the weight
of the clothes cleaned.
Because of the higher capital investment required for emission
controls on petroleum-solvent plants it is believed that all new plants
will use synthetic solvents, and that 50 percent of the petroleum naphtha
solvent plants will shut down or convert to synthetic solvent operations
by 1979.
Emissions and Control Costs. Total industry emissions in fiscal
year 1971 are estimated to be about 130,000 metric tons of petroleum
naphtha and 53,000 metric tons of chlorinated hydrocarbons (perchlorethylene,
etc.). In FY 1979, controlled emissions would be 6,800 metric tons of
petroleum naphtha and 41,000 metric tons of chlorinated hydrocarbons.
Direct control costs to achieve this level of emission control
will require an investment of $140 million. Annualized costs are estimated
to be about $12 million because of the net savings from recovered solvents.
Industry Structure
Characteristics of the Industry. There are basically two. types
of dry-cleaning installations; those utilizing synthetic solvents, such as
perchlorethylene, and those utilizing petroleum solvents such as Stoddard.
The trend in dry-cleaning operations of today is toward smaller packaged
installations located in shopping canters and suburban districts. These
installations utilize synthetic solvents while the older, larger commer-
cial plants tend to utilize petroleum solvents. It is estimated that
approximately 55 percent of the dry cleaning is accomplished by synthetic
solvents with the remaining 45 percent accomplished by petroleum solvents.
With the small and old petroleum solvent plant being replaced by synthetic
Plants, it is estimated by 1979, 80 percent of the dry cleaning will be
-------
IV-132
accomplished with snythetic solvents. The larger commercial plants utilis-
ing petroleum solvents will comprise only 20 percent of the market.
Current Capacity and Growth Projection. Applying an annual
growth factor of ten percent (and a cost factor of $0.97/kg of dry cleaning)
to the plant inventory of 1970 supplied by the U. S. Department of Commerce,
Bureau of Census, it is estimated as of 1973 there are 31,400 dry cleaning
establishments having a capacity of 2.0 x 10 kg of textiles/year. Applying
this same growth factor of 1.1 through 1979, it is estimated that the
capacity of the dry-cleaning industry as of 1979 will be 2.2 x 109 kg of
textiles/year. The growth factor for the dry-cleaning industry is
assumed to be equal to the growth in overall United States population.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Emission factors for the dry-cleaning industry are specified
by the type of solvent utilized and that are emitted directly to the
atmosphere from equipment vents. Solvent losses in filter muck that
could be emitted to the atmosphere have not been considered.
Synthetic Solvents. Older synthetic solvent plants using
separate vessels for cleaning and drying emit about 105 kg of hydro-
carbons per metric ton of textiles. Most modern synthetic solvent plants
combine the cleaning, extraction, and drying operations utilizing one vessel
that is equipped with a condenser for recovery of vapor solvent. Emis-
sions from the single-vessel unit average about 47 kg per metric ton of
textiles. Utilizing activated-carbon adsorption systems for further
vapor recovery, the emissions are reduced to 38 kg per metric ton for
the older plants, and about 25 kg per metric ton for the modern plants.
These emissions can be reduced further (by 30 to 50 percent) by well-
maintained equipment and good operating procedures by personnel.
Petroleum. Emissions from petroleum solvent plants can be as
high as 154 kg of solvent per metric ton of textiles. Although there
are adsorption units commercially available for petroleum solvent machines,
to date none have been installed. It is estimated, however, that these
adsorption units are capable of recovering as much as 95 percent of the
evaporated petroleum solvents.
Approximately half of the synthetic plants in operation today
are not utilizing activated-carbon adsorbers to reduce their emission
levels. Using a reduction of emissions of 24 kg per metric ton of tex-
tiles, it is estimated installation of adsorption units in these plants
-------
IV-133
would reduce the quantity of synthetic solvent vapors emitted to the
atmosphere by 13,600 metric tons per year for the United States.
Although petroleum solvent adsorption systems are being
developed, none of the petroleum solvents plants in operation today
have these systems installed. Assuming installation of adsorption units
can reduce emissions by 90 percent or 135 kg per metric ton of textiles,
it is estimated that the quantity of petroleum solvents emitted to the
atmosphere can be reduced by 127,000 metric tons per year for the
United States.
Estimated controlled and uncontrolled emissions (in thousand
metric tons) are as follows:
Mode Hydrocarbons Solvents
Without Further Control 130 53
Without Further Control 136 56
With Further Control 14 28*
1979 Without Further Control 68** 82
With Further Control 6.8 41
* Although carbon adsorbers are capable of reducing emissions by nearly
100 percent, in actual practice emissions are reduced by 50 to 70
percent.
** Assumes 30 percent of 1975 capacity switched to synthetic solvents
and 20 percent refined by 1979.
Control Cost
Table IV-20 shows the costs of control for model size plants.
Investment costs are much lower per ton of annual capacity for synthetic
solvent plants, which with the credit for recovered solvent yield, an
annualized credit amounting to about $3.30 per annual metric ton compared
with a cost of $1.82 per ton for petroleum solvent plants.
The direct control costs for the dry cleaning industry are
summarized as follows:
-------
IV-134
FY 1971 - FY 1979,
$ Millions
Expected Minimum Maximum
Existing Facilities
Investment 140.4 117.2 166.Q
Annual Costs
Capital Charges 22.8 19.6 26.6
Operating and Maintenance -10.2 -12.1 -8.4
Total Annual Costs 12.6 7.5 18.2
Cash Requirements 148.2 115.4 185.5
New Facilities
Investment 3.6 3.1 4,2
Annual Costs
Capital Charges 0.5 0.4 0.6
Operating and Maintenance -1.0 -1.2 -0.9
Total Annual Costs -0.5 -0.8 -0,3
Cash Requirements 1.0 0.0 2.2
Investment costs are estimated at $144 million, but annual costs
would amount to about $12 million because of the credit for recovered
solvents.
-------
TABLE IV-20. COSTS OF CONTROL FOR THE MODEL PLANTS FOR DRY CLEANING INDUSTRY
Model Size,
metric tons /year
Synthetic
46.8
46.8*
87.7
Investment,
$1,000
expected
1.35
1.36
14.93
min
1.17
1.13
10.82
Annualized Cost,
$1,000
max expected
1.59 -0.17
1.60 -0.20
19.06 1.76
min max
-0.28 -0.05
-0.30 -0.09
0.90 2.64
Unit Cost.
$/ annual metric ton
expected
-3.31
-3.88
1.82
min
-5.43.
-5.82
0.94
max
-0.94
-1.71
2.73
CO
Wl
* New Facilities,
-------
IV-136
Sewage Sludge Incineration
Introduction and Summary
Nature of Process. Disposal of sewage sludge from municipal
wastewater treatment by incineration generates air pollutants such as
particulates and gaseous contaminants. Only particulates are considered
to be emitted in concentrations high enough to warrant controls. Particu-
late emissions are objectionable because of their contribution to visible
smoke and adverse health effects.
Emissions and Control Costs. Total particulate emissions with-
out further control for FY 1971 are estimated to be 19.3 million metric
tons. With control, particulates emissions in FY 1979 are estimated to
be 6.1 million metric tons.
The estimated direct capital cost of control for the period
FY 1971 through FY 1979 is $62.7 million, with corresponding estimated
annualized costs of $15. million. Total cash requirements for the period
are estimated to be $118.4 million.
Industry Structure
Characteristics. Incineration is one of several methods cur-
rently practiced for the disposal of sludges generated from municipal
sewage-treatment plants. There are four types of sewage sludge incinerators;
multiple-hearth, fluidized-bed, flash drying, and cyclonic-type.
The majority of the existing installations are of the multiple-
hearth type. The size distribution of sewage sludge incineratiors as of
1968 is:
Capacity Range,
metric tons/day
(dry solids)
Capacity,
metric tons/day
(dry solids)
Percent of
Number of
Installations
Average
Capacity,
metric tons/day
0.27
9.2
45.4
90.8
- 9.1
- 45.3
- 90.7
- 272
270
2132
1705
1214
27.13
54.79
14.36
3.72
100.00
51
103
27
7
188
5.3
20.7
63.4
173.4
-------
IV-137
Capacity and Growth. Data are not available to determine cur-
rent capacity but can be estimated from past growth rates and predicted
future growth rates. The total number and installed capacity of sewage
sludge incinerators in the United States in 1968 are estimated at 171
and 5321 metric tons/day (dry solid basis), respectively, with an annual
growth rate of 14 new installations during the period 1964-1968. Accord-
ing to a recent EPA estimate, 70 new sewage sludge incinerators will be
constructed annually in the United States during the next few years. The
growth probably reflects more widespread use of incineration as an alter-
native to other disposal methods, such as landfills, barging to sea, and
fertilizer application. Accordingly, growth rates between 1968 and 1979
were estimated as below.
Number of Total Capacity,
Year Installations TPD (dry solids)
1968 188 5321
1969 230 6502
1970 272 7683
1971 314 8864
1972 356 10045
1973 398 11227
1974 468 13195
1975 538 15164
1976 608 17132
1977 678 19101
1978 748 21070
1979 818 23038
Emissions Sources and Pollutants
Particulate emissions from uncontrolled sewage-sludge incinera-
tors range from 0.9 gr/dscf for multiple-hearth type and 8.0 gr/dscf for
fluidized-bed type incinerators. Particulate emissions from existing
facilities controlled by wet scrubbers range from 0.01 to 0.06 gr/dscf
with an average value of 0.041 gr/dscf. New source performance standards
proposed by EPA limit the particulate emissions at no more than 0.031 gr/
dscf. Emissions factors are:
-------
IV-138
Particulates Emissions Factor
kg/metric ton
(dry solids)
Uncontrolled
Range 23 - 206
Average 115
Existing Controls (Wet Scrubbers)
Range 0.25 - 1.6
Average 1.05
New Source Performance Standards 0.8
Control Technology
All sewage sludge incinerators in the United States are equipped
with wet scrubbers of varying collection efficiencies. The low-energy
scrubbers typically emit 5 to 6 times the particulates emitted from the
high-energy ver.turi scrubbers.
The Federal Guidelines for Incinerators set the limit at 2 kg
particulates/metric ton (dry solids), or 0.078 gr/dscf for sewage sludge
incinerators. The well-controlled installations, therefore, are in
compliance with the Federal guidelines.
Estimates of particulates emissions from sewage sludge incin-
erators were based on the following assumptions:
(1) Incinerator operating schedules are 3,640 hours per
year for installations with capacities in the range
of 0.3 to 45 metric tons per day and 8,736 hours per
year for installations with capacities in the range
of 45.1 to 272 metric tons per day.
(2) The majority of the existing installations are con-
trolling particulate emissions to about 90 percent,
or 1.5 kg/metric ton.
(3) To meet State Implementation Plans, existing facilities
will be upgraded by 1975 to control particulate emis-
sions to no more than 2 kg per metric ton. New
facilities will be controlled to an emission level
of no more than 0.8 kg per metric ton.
-------
IV-139
Based upon these Assumptions, estimates of total particulate
emissions (millions of metric tons) are:
Year Mode Particulate s
1971 Without Further Control 19.3
1975 Without Further Control 24.4
With Further Control 4.9
1979 Without Further Control 50.2
With Further Control 6.1
Control Costs
Costs of control for the model plants are presented in Table
IV-21. The total control costs for sewage sludge incineration in the
period of FY 1971 - FY 1979 are:
FY 1971 - FY 1979,
_$ Millions
Expected Minimum Maximum
Existing Facilities
Investment 28.8 25.1 32.2
Annual Costs
Capital Charges 3.79 3.55 4.08
Operating and Maintenance 2.29 1.90 2.68
Total Annual Costs 6.08 5.45 6.76
Cash Requirements 56.0 50.2 61.8
New Facilities
Investment 33.9 29.4 38.5
Annual Costs
Capital Charges 4.46 3.91 4.95
Operating and Maintenance 4.95 4.33 5.64
Total Annual Costs 9.41 8.24 10.59
Cash Requirements 62.4 56.2 69.5
-------
TABLE IV-21.
COSTS OF CONTROL FOR THE MODEL PLANTS
(SEWAGE SLUDGE INCINERATION)
Model Size,
metric tons /day
Existing
Facilities
5.3
20.7
63.4
173
New Facilities
5.3
20.7
63.4
173
Investment,
$1,000
expected
46
72
106
150
50
79
118
168
min
38
56
88
123
41
66
96
139
max
54
89
130
173
60
92
138
198
Annual ized
$1,000
expected
8.5
14.9
24.2
37.8
12.1
21.7
35.4
56.6
min
6.8
11.3
19.0
29.1
9.4
16.9
27.1
43.5
Cost,
max
10.3
18.5
30.2
45.2
14.9
26.5
44.2
70.1
Unit Cost,
$/metric ton/day
expected
1.60
0.72
0.38
0.22
2.28
1.05
0.56
0.33
min
1.45
0.55
0.30
0.17
1.77
0.82
0.43
0.25
max
1.94
0.89
0.48
0.26
2.81
1.28
0.70
0.^1
.p-
o
-------
IV-141
Solid Waste Disposal
Introduction and Summary
Nature of the Process. Disposal of solid wastes contributes
to air pollution from incineration and open burning of solid wastes. Air
pollutants emitted to the atmosphere from such practices include particu-
lates, carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, fluorocarbons,
hydrochloric acid, and odors. The levels of these pollutants emitted are
primarily dependent on the input or the material being burned; for in-
cinerators, levels are also dependent on the specific incinerator design
and upon the specific methods of operation. Particulates are emitted in
the highest concentrations, and are the specific pollutant subject to
controls. There are no current regulations for odors, hydrochloric acid,
and fluorocarbons.
Emissions and Control Costs. Total particulate emissions from
solid waste disposal by burning processes in FY 1971 (without further
controls) are estimated to be 6.5 million metric tons. In FY 1979, con-
trolled particulate emissions are estimated to be 0.14 million metric tons.
The estimated direct investment cost to achieve this level of
control in FY 1979 is estimated to be $1.64 billion. The estimated annual-
ized cost associated with this investment is estimated to be $694 million.
Cash requirements over the period FY 1971 - FY 1979 are estimated to be
$4.80 billion.
Industry Structure
Characteristics. The solid waste disposal methods practices in
FY 1971 are as follows:
Percent of Total
Solid Waste Disposed
Disposal Method by Method
Municipal Incinerators 5.3
Conical Burners 6-1
On-Site Incineration
On-Site Open Burning
Open Dumps (burned)
Open Dumps (unburned)
Sanitary Landfills
Miscellaneous Other (unburned)
Total
-------
IV-142
Of these, the primary methods of solid disposal used in the future are ,
judged to be municipal incinerators and sanitary landfills.
Of the two types of municipal incinerators, the refractory-
lined furnace type is the more common type in the U. S.; the water-wall
or waste-heat recovery type is more common in Europe. The water-wall
units offer the advantage of steam generation, and (as a consequence)
of heat recovery in steam generation, flue-gas temperatures are lower
than refractory-lined units. Incinerators with lower gas temperatures
have smaller volumes of flue gases to control, and so require less costly
control equipment. In addition, with the low temperatures from heat
recovery, incinerators can utilize control equipment that would not
survive the high temperature flue gases from refractory-lined furnaces
unless these flue gases are cooled prior to the control system.
Current Capacity and Growth Projections. The current generation
rate and projected growth of solid wastes in the United States is based
upon: (1) generation of 4.6 kg per day per capita in 1967, (2) a 3 per-
cent yearly increase in the per capita generation rate, and (3) a popula-
tion growth of 1.1 percent per year. Accordingly, solid waste generated
iri 1973 is estimated to be 426 million metric tons. Because open burning
is outlawed and there is no anticipated growth of on-site incineration
(because of the relatively high cost of control equipment), an increasingly
proportion of solid wastes will be disposed of by municipal incineration
and in sanitary landfills.
In 1966, the 250 municipal-size incinerators in operation
in the United States had an average capacity of 272 metric tons per day.
Approximately 70 percent of these were installed prior to 1960, and so
were not designed to minimize .air pollution. Because of the increased
emphasis on control of air pollution after 1966, relatively few new in-
cinerators were built. Several municipalities ceased operations of their
incinerators.
Based on existing data, it was estimated that in 1973 there were
300 operating incinerators having a total capacity of 81,600 metric tons
per day. This capacity will have to be increased to handle the estimated
3 percent yearly increase in the per capita generation rate as well as to
handle about 10 percent of the solid wastes that were previously disposed >
of by open burning. This requires the building of new incinerators with
a total additional capacity of 9,100 metric tons per day.
Although not actually a control technology, sanitary landfill
is an alternative for solid waste disposal. It is estimated that in 1973.
approximately 23 million metric tons per year of solid wastes will be
disposed in sanitary landfill operations. This capacity will have to be.
increased to handle the 3 percent yearly increase in the per capita
operation rate and to handle about 90 percent of the solid wastes that
were previously disposed of by open burning. This requires an increase
in capacity of about 27 million metric tons per year through 1975. This
-------
IV-143
demand rate will decrease to about 6.4 million metric tons per year from
1975 through 1979. y
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Emissions of particulates and other air pollutants from solid
waste disposed by open burning, on-site incineration, and municipal incin-
eration are tabulated below.
Open Burning Emission Factor,
Pollutant kg/metric ton wastes
Particulates 8
Carbon monoxide 43
Sulfur oxides 0.5
Nitrogen oxides 3
Hydrocarbons 15
The controlled and uncontrolled particulate emissions from open
burning, on-site incineration, and municipal incineration are summarized
below (millions of metric tons per year) .
Year Mode Particulates
1971 Without Further Control 6.5
1975 Without Further Control 1.3
With Further Control .12
1979 Without Further Control 1.8
With Further Control 0.14
Control Technology
!
Because no control technology is applicable to open burning,
suitable alternatives for emissions control are municipal ^incinerators
and sanitary landfill. To.control particulate levels from municipal
incinerators to within Federal regulations, either high-efficiency wet-
scrubber or electrostatic precipitator will have to be utilized.
-------
IV-144
Control Costs
Model plant costs associated with the disposal of solid waste
are summarized in Table IV-22. Only the costs for particulate control
are included for on-site and municipal incinerators and not the actual
cost of the incinerator itself.
The direct control costs for solid waste disposal in the period
FY 1971 - FY 1979 are:
FY 1971 - FY 1979,
$ Millions
Expected Minimum Maximum
Existing Facilities
Investment 1185 1094 1391
Annual Costs
Capital Charges 146 135 158
Operating and Maintenance 358 313 400
Total Annual Costs 504 448 558
Cash Requirements 3741 3437 4044
New Facilities
Investment 453 421 489
Annual Costs
Capital Charges 57 53 62
Operating and Maintenance 132 118 146
Total Annual Costs 190 171 208
Cash Requirements 1061 1000 1131
-------
TABLE IV-22. COSTS OF CONTROL FOR SELECTED SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL MODELS
Model Size,
metric tons/da^
91
815
1360
91
815
1360
Investment,
$1,000
T expected min
301
2360
3740
336
2580
4160
256
1970
3020
283
2120
3550
Annualized Cost,
$1,000
max expected
Landfills
357
2680
4320
Landfills
395
2990
4770
Municipal Incinerators
270
270*
270
270*
530
495
Municipal
400
392
368
393
723
603
(close-in)
108
825
1320
(remote)
229
1790
2870
min
81
628
988
175
1330
2140
max €
134
1010
1630
280
2230
3550
Unit Cost,
$/metric ton/day
ixpected
3.96
3
3
8
7
7
.37
.23
.42
.29
.03
min
2.98
2.57
2.43
6.42
5.43
5.24
max
4.94
4.13
3.99
10.
9.
8.
M
1
Ui
27
09
70
(Wet Scrubber Control)
244
242
161
180
Incinerators (Electrostatic Precipitator
266
266
526
516
118
111
80
82
325
308
Control)
156
156
3
3
1
1
.58
.56
.73
.63
2.37
2.65
1.18
1.20
4.
4.
2.
2.
77
53
29
29
New Facilities.
-------
IV-146
Teepee Incinerators
Introduction and Summary
Wood wastes accumulated in the manufacture of forest products
are usually disposed of by incineration. Because of the fire hazards in
open burning, methods were developed to contain the sparks. Teepee in-
cinerators, also known as conical or wigwam burners, are the method
usually employed. A large majority of teepees are located in Western
States. Others are scattered throughout the country, but principally in
Texas, Louisiana, Arkansas, Kentucky; Georgia, and North Carolina.
Nature of the Product and Process. Typical wood wastes from
sawmill operations are slabs, edgings, lumber trim, sawdust, shavings,
and bark. In plywood manufacture, the wastes include log trim, green
veneer clippings, trim, dry veneer trim, panel trim, and sander dust.
Moisture content of these wastes may vary from 2 percent to as high as
70 percent.
Two types of waste feed systems are used in teepee incinerators.
In one, the wastes are air-lifted through a cyclone into a surge bin,
discharged at a controlled rate through a variable-speed screw feeder
to a conveyor, and dropped into the burner. The other system is used for
wastes with high moisture content in which the waste is predried in a
rotary dryer using flue gases from the burrier.
Emissions and Control Costs. The total number of active teepee
incinerators in 1973 is estimated at 835. Of these, 41 percent are
assumed to be modified in some form. By 1979, it is projected that the
total number will decline to about 490, all of which will be modified to
meet state air-pollution-control regulations. Capacities of teepee in-
cinerators are expected to decline from 10.6 million metric tons of wood
wastes, containing 50 percent moisture, in 1973, to 6.3 million metric
tons in 1979.
Nationwide emissions of particulates, carbon monoxide, and
hydrocarbons from teepee incinerators in FY 1971, FY 1975, and FY 1979,
with and without additional controls are estimated as follows:
-------
IV-147
Thousands of metric tons/year
FY 1971 FY 1979
Without Without With
further Further Further
Controls Controls Controls
Particulates 13t) 50 13
Carbon Monoxide 487 188 63
Hydrocarbons 36 14 1.5
Capital costs for installation of emission controls on teepee
incinerators have been estimated to range from $20,000 to $45,000 per
unit depending on diameter of the teepee base. Assuming an average
diameter of 18 meters, capital costs for 490 teepee incinerators would
be about $15 million. Annual costs for operations and maintenance have
not been calculated.
Industry Structure
Characteristics of the Firms. In 1967, more than 10,000
sawmills and planing mill companies and about 500 veneer and plywood
companies were reported by the U. S. Bureau of the Census as operating
one or more establishments. Industry concentration is relatively low
in the lumber industry with the top 10 producers accounting for about
20 percent of the total; while the top four producers account for
about one-third of the plywood output. Leading producers are multi-
product companies with mills in the principal producing regions in the
United States. Capital requirements for entry into the field are
relatively low; availability and cost of timber being far more important
determinants.
Current Capacity and Growth Projections. Nationwide statistics
on teepee incinerators are not available. In 1973, the total number of
active teepee incinerators in five states (.California, Georgia,
Louisiana, Oregon, and Washington) was estimated at 557, of which 227
have been modified in some form. Assuming that two-thirds of the
incinerators are located in these states, total number of active teepees
-------
IV-148
in the United States is estimated at 835. Based on the size distribution
of the modified teepees in Oregon, the total number of teepees by size
would be as follows:
Design Capacity, Number of Teepees
metric tons/hour in 1973
0.0 - 1.8 157
1.8-3.6 400
3.7 - 5.4 191
5.4 87
835
Based on an average operating schedule of 4,000 hours per year and an
average burning rate of 3.2 metric tons per hour, annual disposal of
wood wastes by teepee incinerators could be 10.6 million metric tons.
The number of teepee incinerators is expected to decrease to
an estimated 490 by 1978, all of which will be modified to meet state
air-pollution regulations. Assuming the same size distribution of teepees,
annual incineration of wood wastes would be 6.3 million metric tons.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
A teepee incinerator is a conical-shaped steel shell, with
approximately the same based diameter and height, topped with a dome-
shaped spark-arrestor screen. Wood wastes are dropped on a burning pile
from a conveyor at the side of the shell. Combustion air is provided by
natural draft or fans. Air pollutants are contained in the flue gases
exiting through the dome. Principal contaminants are smoke and ash
particulates, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons.
Control Technology
Two approaches have been used for reducing emissions from tee-
pee incinerators: modification of teepees and the use of gas-cleaning
equipment. In the latter approach, wet scrubbers and afterburners have
been used. The use of gas-cleaning equipment has been found expensive
and also ineffective in eliminating smoke. The preferred approach to
emission control is through improved combustion by modification of teepee
construction and operation.
-------
IV-149
Four methods of teepee modification are in general use. The
first is the Oregon State University modification used on most of the
modified teepees in Oregon.
A second method has been developed for use in planing mills or
plants producing relatively fine, dry wastes. In this method a refractory
ring, about 1.5 to 1.8 meters high and from 1/4 to 1/2 the teepee diameter,
is erected in the center of the teepee. This surmounts a grate or mani-
fold system supplying underfire combustion air from external blowers.
Overfire air is supplied in a tangential entry either at the refractory
ring or at the shell of the teepee. In some of these installations the
wood waste is fed into the refractory ring by gravity from a cyclone. In
others the feed is blown into the ring tangentially by an external blower.
This system can operate with essentially no visible emissions.
A third method is being used on one teepee in California handling
redwood mill wastes, including wet bark. The unit has been completely
lined with refractory. Both underfire and overfire air is supplied by
blowers. This teepee generally operates with no visible emissions. How-
ever, excessive emissions have been reported during startup on some
occasions.
A fourth method, used on the majority of the modified teepees in
California, employs a recirculating air arrangement, in which part of the
exhaust gas is collected in a dished baffle inside the top of the teepee.
The exhaust gas is drawn through external pipes to one or more blowers
which reinject the recycled gas into the teepee as overfire air. Exhaust
from the teepee is through the annulus around the baffle. The temperature
of the exhaust is controlled by thermocouple-activated dampers in the re-
circulation ducts. Balancing underfire air, recirculating air, and the
exhaust with the waste feed are important for efficient use of this system.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Controlled versus uncontrolled emissions for FY 1971, 1975, and
1979 are shown below.
Thousand of metric tons/year
Year Mode Particulates CO Hydrocarbon
1971 Without Further Control 130 487 36
1975 Without Further Control 66 248 19
With Further Control 29 122 6
1979 Without Further Control 50 188 14
With Further Control 13 63 1.5
-------
IV-150
These estimates for FY 1971 and 1975 are interpolations from estimated
numbers of teepee incinerators and annual disposal rate of wood wastes for
1968, 1973, and 1978 as follows:
Number of Yearly metric tons
Year Teepee Incinerators disposal rate. 106
1968 3330 42.4
1971 1275 16.2
1973 835 10.6
1975 650 8.3
1978 490 6.3
1979 490 6,3
It is also assumed that 490 teepee incinerators will have in-
stalled some form of controls by FY 1975 meeting air-quality regulations.
Control Costs
Capital costs of the Oregon State University (OSU) modification
during the 1970-1972 period were obtained from five mills in Oregon as
follows:
Teepee Base, Capital Costs
Diam.. meters of Controls, dollars
17 20,000
18 30,000
18 30,000
21 34,000
21 45,000
Capital costs of controls achieved through other methods of
teepee modification were provided by the State of California as follows:
Teepee Base Capital Costs
Teepee Modification Diam., meters of Controls, dollars
Refractory ring 15 5,000 to 15,000
Refractory lining 17 Too costly for avg.
mill
Exhaust gas recirculation 12-24 20,000 - 80,000.
-------
IV-151
The cost of teepee modification required for emission control
is substantial. The cost of Oregon State University modification is one
or two times the cost of the teepee itself. The high cost of controls
will probably force small mills to abandon the use of existing teepees
and look for alternative means of waste disposal.
Assuming an average diameter of 18 meters, capital cost
for modification of 490 teepee incinerators would be about $15 million.
Annual costs for operations and maintenance have not been calculated.
-------
IV-152
Uncontrolled Burning; Agricultural
Although modern tillage and fertilization practices have
eliminated many sources of agricultural burning, there remain, however,
some agricultural pursuits wherein the return of organic wastes to the
soil is not practicable under existing conditions. Under these
conditions, open burning of agricultural wastes is still practiced.
Examples of agricultural burning used to facilitate crop
harvesting include burning of potato vines, peanut vines, and sugar cane.
Other instances of open agricultural burning include grass fields in the
Williamette Valley of Oregon, rice land in California, orchard tree
wastes, marshlands in Texas and Louisiana which serve as "range" for
muskrats, incineration of cotton gin wastes, the use of orchard heaters
to prevent frost damage to fruit and fruit trees, burning of corncobs in
major corn producing areas, and burning of fence rows and brush from
wooded and rangeland areas.
One source has reported that, in 1970, crop residues on 453,OQO
hectares equivalent to 3,289,000 metric tons of residue were burned in the
United States as a means of reducing losses caused by plant diseases and
other soil-borne pests, and also as a means of disposing of crop
residues.
Estimated emissions from agricultural burning in 1970 and 1973
indicate that 2.2 million metric tons of particulates, 12.5 million metric
tons of carbon monoxide, 2.5 million metric tons of hydrocarbons, and 0.27
million metric tons of nitrogen oxides were emitted from all sources
classified under agricultural burning. Particulate and carbon monoxide
emissions from agricultural burning accounted for 9.2 and 9.3 percent,
respectively, of total emissions of these types from all sources. Hydro-
carbons and nitrogen oxide emissions from agricultural burning were 8.0
and 1.3 percent of total emissions from all sources. Emissions of sulfur
oxides from agricultural burning are believed to be less than 0.1 million
metric ton.
Agricultural wastes from orchards, grain fields, and range
lands are burned in many states as the most practical means of ridding
the land of these wastes. In order to determine the relative contribu-
tion of the burning of such material to photochemical air pollution,
California researchers measured the effluent from known weights of range
brush (both dry and green), barley and rice stubble, and prunings from
various fruit and nut trees. The effluents were monitored in a special
tower which provided an open-burning situation. Analyses were made for
total hydrocarbon, expressed as HC and for carbon monoxide and carbon
dioxide. Results of these experiments are shown in Table IV-23.
-------
IV-153
TABLE IV-23.
YIELD OF HYDROCARBON, CO, AND C02 IN KILOGRAMS PER
METRIC TON OF WASTE MATERIAL FROM THE BURNING OF
VARIOUS AGRICULTURAL WASTES COLLECTED IN THE
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY AND SAN FRANCISCO BAY AREA OF
CALIFORNIA
Waste
Material
Percent
Moisture
Total
Hydrocarbon
HC CO
co2
Rice straw
Barley straw
Native brush
Dry
Dry and green
Green
Cotton
Fruit prunings
Native brush
Fir chips
Redwood chips
-- San Joaquin Valley
4.5 + 1.2
7.3 + 1.8
2.4 + 1.3
7.6 + 2.2
13.7 + 4.4
20 + 7 1.6
Bay Area -- 1965
6 + 2
2.5 + 0.5
2.5
__
2.1 + 0.7
2.4 + 1.1
' 1.4
1.1
37 + 9
44 + 12
35 + 4
41 + 3
67 + 21
37
23 + 7
33 + 15
18
35
Bay Area — 1966
1046 + 153
854 + 195
1367 + 205
995 + 119
764 + 232
1266
1120 + 119
1310 + 102
761
1871
Fruit prunings
Native brush
18 + 8
7 + 4
4.9 + 2.1
2.2 + 1.2
33 + 11
28 + 10
998 + 179
1187 + 102
Source: "Contribution of Agricultural Wastes to Photochemical Air Pollution",
Journal of The Air Pollution Control Administration, December, 1966,
p. 687.
(a) Figures are given with standard deviations. Entries without deviations
represent one or two fires only.
-------
IV-154
Sugar Cane Burning
Before sugar cane is mechanically harvested, much unwanted
foliage remains on the plants. Therefore, it is standard practice to
burn the cane before harvesting to remove the greater part of the
foliage. Emission factors for open-field burning of sugar cane are
shown below.
Emissions,
kilograms/hectare
Particulates 250
Carbon monoxide 1700
Hydrocarbons 340
Nitrogen oxides 34
Based on these emission factors, total emissions from sugar
burning based upon acreage harvested in 1972 are presented in Table
VI-24,
It appears that there is no feasible alternative to open-field
sugar cane burning at this time. In the absence of known control tech-
niques for emissions (other than legislation banning the practice) there
are no data on control costs. >
Orchard Heaters
Orchard heaters are commonly used in various areas of the United
States to prevent frost damage to fruit and fruit trees. There are five
common types of orchard heaters — pipeline, lazy flame, return stack,
cone, and solid fuel. The pipeline heater system is operated from a
central control and fuel is distributed by a piping system from a centrally
located tank. Lazy flame, return stack, and cone heaters contain integral
fuel reservoirs, but can be converted to a pipeline system. Solid-fuel
heaters usually consist only of solid briquettes, which are placed on the
ground and ignited.
The ambient temperature at which orchard heaters are required
is determined primarily by the type of fruit and stage of maturity, by the
day-time temperatures, and by the moisture content of the soil and air.
-------
IV-155
TABLE IV-24. ESTIMATED EMISSIONS FROM SUGAR-CANE BURNING, 1972
State
Florida
Land Area
Harvested
1000 Hectares
98.6
Louisiana 30.4
Hawaii
United
Source :
44 a
States 273.1
Calculated on basis
and Compilation of
AP-42, April, 1973,
(a)
Emissions v , 1000 metric tons
Carbon Hydro -
Particulates Monoxide carbons
24.9
32.8
11.2
68.9
of data in Crop
165.7
219.1
74.2
459.0
Production,
33.1
43.8
14.9
91.8
Nitrogen
Oxides
3.4
4.4
1.5
9.3
1972 Annual Summary,
Air Pollutant Emission Factors, 2nd
p 6.12-1.
edition,
(a) Assumes that all land area is burned before harvest.
-------
IV-156
Proper location of the heaters is essential to the uniformity
of the radiant heat distributed among the trees. Heaters are usually
located in the center space between four trees and are staggered from
one row to the next. Extra heaters are used on the borders of the
orchard.
Emissions from orchard heaters are dependent on the fuel usage
rate and the type of heater. Pipeline heaters have the lowest particulate
emission rates of all orchard heaters. Hydrocarbon emissions are negligible
in the pipeline heaters and in lazy flame, return stack, and cone heaters
that have been converted to a pipeline system. Nearly all of the
hydrocarbon losses are evaporative losses from fuel contained in the
heater reservoir. Because of the low burning temperatures used, nitrogen
oxide emissions are negligible.
There are no reported data on the total number of orchard
heaters of various types in operation, nor are data available on the total
number hours of operation by these heaters. Therefore, it is not possible
to calculate total emissions from these sources.
Grassland Burning
Open-field burning is the least-cost means to dispose of harvest
residue and provide essential thermal treatment to destroy disease
organisms. One region of the United States where open-field burning is
a widely adopted agricultural practice is the Williamette Valley of
Oregon. In 1969, an estimated 91,000 hectares of grasslands and some
34-36,000 hectares of cereal grains residue were estimated to have been
burned in the Williamette Valley. The burn removed an estimated 0.91
million metric tons of residue during the post-harvest season in August
and September.
Grassland and cereal-grain residue burning is not limited to
the Williamette Valley. More than 162,000 hectares of rice and other
cereal grain straws are burned annually in California. Some 2,300 hectares
acres of bermuda grass in Arizona, some bluegrass in Minnestoa, and various
types of grasses in eastern Washington and Oregon and northern Idaho are
field burned. Research has indicated that open-field burning of crop
residue after harvest is an effective and economic means for destroying
the seed-infecting fungus that winters in crop residues and at the soil
surface.
-------
IV-157
Grassland burning in the Williamette Valley annually created seri-
ous air pollution problems, causing the practice to come under increasing
public scrutiny, particularly in the metropolitan centers such as Eugene
and Springfield. As a result, a ban on open-field burning has been en-
acted by the state of Oregon, effective January 1, 1975. This law could
force major adjustments upon Oregon's grass-seed industry.
One alternative to open-field burning of grasslands is the use
of mobile field sanitizers. Commercial development of mobile field sani-
tizers appears to be technically feasible, but their use is expected to
increase grass-seed production costs significantly. Other technically
feasible alternatives to open-field burning include alternative land use,
soil incorporation of residues, and mechanical removal of residue followed
by field sanitation. A summary of increases in total costs per hectare over
open-field burning with alternative residue removal techniques is shown in
Table IV-25.
Mobile field sanitizers (burners) have been tested in Oregon
for the past several years, but no models are commercially produced.
Data from test runs made in 1971 are shown in Table IV-26. These experi-
ments provided, among other things, data on emissions of gases and
particulate materials.
If other states follow Oregon's lead in banning open-field burn-
ing, -the problem of air pollution from this source will obviously be
eliminated. However, the economic consequences of such action in terms
of potentially reduced product supplies and higher prices must also be
considered before such legislation is enacted.
-------
TABLE IV-25. A SUMMARY OF INCREASES IN TOTAL COSTS PER ACRE OVER
OPEN-FIELD BURNING WITH ALTERNATIVE RESIDUE-REMOVAL TECHNIQUES
(Dollars per hectare)
Residue Removal Techniques
Incorporation of residues into the soil
Mobile field sanitizer
Annual
Ryegrass
$52-$64
$12-$25
Perennial
Ryegrass
$12-$25
Highland
Bentgrass
$12-$25
Fine
Fescue
$12-$25
Merion
Bluegrass
$12-$25
Mechanical removal of residues followed
by field sanitation^3)
Bunching and field bucking
Stack former and mover
Chopper-blower and hauling(b)
Baling and hauling (c)
( A\
Field cubing and hauling \a)
$30-$40
$37-$62
$106
$59-$96
$84-$168
$27-$35
$32-$52
$84
$94-$69
$84-$128
$25-$30
$27-$42
$62
$44-$69
$62-$91
$25-$30
$27-$42
$62
$44 -$69
$62-$91
$22-$27
$27-$37
$54
$40-$59
$54-$77
Source: "Farmer Alternatives to Open Field Burning: An Economic Appraisal", Special Report 336,
Agricultural Experiment Station, Oregon State University, October, 1971, p. 13.
(a) Costs include an $20/hectare charge for use of a mobile field sanitizer but exclude any expenses
which may be required for residue utilization or disposal.
(b) Due to a lack of data, no ranges in costs were calculated. Only custom rates of $ll/metric ton
for chopping, blowing, and hauling, and $20/hectare for field sanitation were used.
(c) Projecting a range in baling and hauling costs of $6.60 to $13.20/metric ton with no swathing
required.
(d) Projecting a range in cubing and hauling costs of $11 to $19/metric ton.
M
<
I
t—'
Ul
oo
-------
TABLE IV-26. EMISSIONS DATA FROM TESTING OF A MOBILE FIELD SANITIZER FOR BURNING
STRAW AND GRASS RESIDUES, OREGON WILLAMETTE VALLEY, 1971
Date
1971
8-19
8-27
9-07
9-08
9-09
9-15
10-20
11-09
Type of
material
Orchard
grass
Annual Rye
Annual Rye
Annual Rye
Wheat
stubble
Bluegrass
Rice straw
Rice straw
Rate
Hectare/ Metric
hr Ton/Hr
T>.66 6>?
1.0 9.1
0.65 5.4
0.81 8.6
1.2
0.65
0.81
0.61
Average
Smoke
Density,
Percent
20
15
15
10
-
10
10
10
Particulate, grains/ft at 12 percent C02
Equiv. By P.H.S.
Ringleman wet train
number (D.E.Q.)
1 3.12
3/4
3/4 1.04
1/2 0.69
1.48
1/2
1/2
1/2
By High-
Vol. Sampler
Average
1.07
1.74
0.244
0.24
0.526
-
-
-
By Anderson Stack Sampler
Total
-
-
0.583
0.60
0.82
0.20
0.985
0.66
Smaller than
10 Microns
-
0.14
0.06
0.07
0.02
0.04
0.088
0.160
Stack
Temp. ,
F.
1100
1100
1500
1200
1000
1000
1200
1000
Ul
VO
Source: "Report on Development and Testing of a Mobile Field Sanitizer", D. E. Kirk and R. W. Bonlie Agricultural
Engineering Department, Agricultural Experiment Station, Oregon State University, May, 1973, p. 8.
-------
IV-160
Uncontrolled Burning: Forest Fires
General Information
Forest fires may be classified into two categories--(l) uncon-
trolled "wildfires" that may be caused by lightning or by negligent or
accidental acts of man, and (2) "prescribed burning" of forested areas
which are fires set (by man) with certain definite objectives, and which
do minimum damage to the surrounding forest and the general environment.
Estimated combined emissions from fires of both types are'.
Millions of Metric Tons
Particu- SQ CQ Hydro- NQ
Year lates x carbons x
1971-1973 1.3 neg. 3.6 0.27 0.18
These data indicate that forest-fire emissions are significant
mainly in terms of particulates and carbon monoxide. Emissions of hydro-
carbons and nitrogen oxides are relatively minor, while sulfur oxide
emissions from forest fires are negligible.
A detailed research study pertaining to forest fire emissions
was completed in mid-1973 by Illinois Institute of Technology Research
Institute (IITRI). This study, conducted for EPA, was in draft form at
the time of this review and no data from the draft were available. It
was indicated, however, that few emissions have been measured from
"actual" wildfires. Almost all emissions data have been conducted under
controlled or laboratory conditions.
Recent data from laboratory burning studies conducted under the
U.S. Forest Service Smoke Management Research and Development program are
summarized below.
-------
IV-161
Burning Conditions
Live, green vegetation burned with
no wind produces
Live, dry vegetation (exposed to
heat of open flames) burned with
no wind produces
Dead, dry vegetation burned with
a head fire produces
Dead, dry vegetation burned with
a backfire produces
Estimated Effluent Quantities
Kilogram per Metric Ton
of Fuel Consumed
50 particulate
38 hydrocarbons
75 carbon monoxide
15 particulate
8 hydrocarbons
23 carbon monoxide
22 particulate
14 hydrocarbons
104 carbon monoxide
9 particulate
97 carbon monoxide
These data show the amount of effluents produced under various burning
circumstances.
Wildfires
Although there have been no data collected on emissions from
wildfires (since the major concern in the event of wildfire occurrence
is extinguishing the fire), data are available on number of fires and
total acreage, burned. These data are shown below. From 1966 through
1970, the average annual number of wildfires totaled 119,931, with an
average of slightly over 1.8 million hectares being burned. However, it
is obvious that averages in this instance can be very misleading, since in
1968 some 117,000 wildfires burned 1.1 million hectares, while in 1969
only 113,351 wildfires burned over 2.3 million hectares* Ordinarily, a
small number of big fires account for a high percentage of land area
burned.
1970
1969
1968
1967
1966
Annual Average
Number of
Fires
121,780
113,351
117,000
125,025
122,500
119,131
Hectares
Burned
1,328,000
2,709,000
1,149,000
1,886,000
1,852,000
1,782,000
-------
IV-162
Even though there have been significant advances since World War
II in fire-prevention technology and control, losses from wildfires re-
main large. The principal reasons for this are: increases in population,
more leisure time and use of forests for recreation, greater volume of
fuels, and more industrial activity in the forested areas.
Prescribed Burning
Prescribed burning is carried out only under conditions of fuel
moisture, weather, and fuel arrangement that will achieve a major objec-
tive of the burn, and do minimum damage to the surrounding forest and
the general environment.
In the South, prescribed burning is intended to reduce the fuel
supply on the floor of the pine forests by burning such cover as saw
palmetto, dry grass, ty-ty, gallberry, and smaller pine reproduction in
order to create areas of low fuel to prevent crown fires, and into which
a crown fire can be headed and brought to earth where it can be
controlled.
In the West, a different method is dictated by rugged terrain,
prevalence of fires started by lightning, and the nature of the forest.
The West is still largely in the process of converting virgin stands to
managed forests*—a task already completed in the South. In much of the
West, production of the most important species calls for clear areas in
which the seedlings can get full light. Thus, clear cutting in small
blocks has become general practice. This generates, in old-growth and
also second-growth country, huge amounts of residue on the cut areas:
cull logs, limbs, tops, foliage, and brush.
In the past, most Western states required the lowering of fire
hazards by removal of the slash or burning it. In recent years, greater
utilization has resulted in more of the tree being brought out of the
woods for conversion to products. However, it still is not economically
possible to make full use of the tree. At the present time, there is no
alternative to burning much of the slash and the fuel produced in the
woods.
Land Area Burned. Reasonably good records are maintained of
the hectares burned by wildfires, but the same information is not readily
available for prescribed burns. Also, the rate of burning differs for
wildfires and prescribed fires, and the amount of fuel consumed per
hectare varies with the fuel type, availability, and moisture content*
-------
IV-163
Although yearly records have not been kept, a 1964 survey of
prescribed burning in the South indicated that about 0.91 million hectares
were being burned annually, mostly for hazard reduction. At that time,
six states were burning over 40,500 hectares—Georgia leading all states
with over 324,000 hectares. In a 1970 survey, it was found that roughly
J..O million hectares were being burned and that the burning trend was
down for some states and up sharply for others. Most of the 1.0 million
hectares burned in 1970 was believed to be on the 23 million hectares
owned and managed by private industry. There are no data reported on
the land area of prescribed burning in the western United States.
Effects on Air Quality. Less fuel is consumed by prescribed
fire than by wildfires, resulting in less pollutant material released.
Backing fires (most prevalent prescribed burning technique) produce about
35 percent less particulate matter than do head fires with less complete
combustion.
In an 8-county area in south Georgia, particulate matter was
sampled during the annual prescribed burning season. Even on the days
of highest prescribed burning activity, the total amount of particulate
matter in the atmosphere was well below the maximum limit of 80 micro-
grams per cubic meter of air established for cities by the Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare.
The production of smoke from prescribed burns can be both
aggrevating and dangerous when encountered on expressways and other travel
lanes. Occasionally, the aftermath of a supposedly successful prescrip-
tion fire can be chaotic when residual smoke mixes with early morning fog.
However, there is no evidence to indicate that over the long term, air
quality has deteriorated more in areas where prescribed fire is used
extensively than in areas where fire is rarely used.
It has been suggested that prescribed burning may actually re-
duce the adverse environmental effects of wildfires by reducing their
number, size, and intensity. Evidence indicates that a suspension of
prescription burning might result in a six-fold increase in the land area
ravaged by wildfires in the South each year. Because the per-hectare fuel
consumption by wildfires is considerably more than that for prescribed
fires and because the particulate count per ton of fuel consumed is also
jnuch higher, the total particulate production might be about 7 times greater
Without prescribed burning than with it (Table IV-27).
-------
IV-164
TABLE IV-27. ANNUAL PARTICULATE PRODUCTION FROM
FOREST FIRES IN THE SOUTH
Without At
Prescription Present
Burning Level
With Increased
Prescription
Burning
Prescribed Fires
Hectares Burned,
Millions
Fuel Consumed,
Metric tons/hectare
Measured Particulate Produced
Kilograms/metric ton of fuel
Total, million metric tons
Hectares Burned,
Millions
Fuel Consumed,
Metric tons/hectare
Measured Particulate Produced
Kilograms /metric ton of fuel
Total, million metric tons
0
0
0
0
0
Wildfires
5.87
13.4
29.0
0.158
Total Particulate Production,
million metric tons
(Prescribed fires and wild-
fires)
3.438
0.519
0.274
(a) Predicted wildfire los§, study reported in J. Forest., Vol. 61, No. 12,
Dec. 1963.
(b) Probable minimum level to which wildfires can be reduced.
-------
IV-165
Costs of Prescribed Burning. Average costs of prescribed
burning in the South are reported to be less than $2.46 per hectare,
although specific instances of costs as high as $12.00 per hectare have
been noted. Other fuel-removal and site preparation treatments may cost
from $62-$124 per acre. Technology exists for utilizing timber harvest
residues, but the costs of collection, transportation, and processing
are high. At this time, the most practical treatment is still prescribed
burning.
Uncontrolled Burning; Structural Fires
Structural fires contribute to air pollution by a release of
pollutants to the atmosphere that include particulates, sulfur oxides,
hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, and carbon monoxide. It is estimated
that approximately one million buildings annually are attacked by fire
that cause 20 to 30 percent damage. From published emission factors and
estimates that each building structure contains about 15 metric tons of
combustiles, emission levels are estimated as shown below.
Emission Factor, Emission Levels,
Pollutant kg/metric ton burned 106 kg/yr
Particulates 8.5 38.6
Sulfur oxides 0.075 0.34
Hydrocarbons 10 45.5
Nitrogen oxides 1 4-55
Carbon monoxide 32.5 148
Emissions from structural fires are assumed to be proportional
to population and, accordingly, a growth factor of 1.1 percent per year
is assumed. There are no applicable control technologies for structural
fires other than prevention.
-------
IV-166
Uncontrolled Burning; Coal Refuse
Introduction and Summary
Before coal mines were mechanized, only the thicker and better
seams of coal were developed on a large scale., The coal was mined,
picked, and loaded by hand,, With few exceptions only marketable coal
was transported to the surface. With new and improved mining equipment,
coal seams with an increasing percentage of impurities could be mined,
and the coal could be economically transported to the surface and cleaned
of impurities before marketing. These impurities, referred to as coal
refuse, culm, or reject material, are a mixture of coal, rock, carbonace-
ous and pyritic shales or slates, etc. Because this material has no
immediate use, it is disposed of as economically as possible and in such
a manner that the disposal does not interfere with the operation. Very
often these disposal sites also become the dump for other discarded items,
such as grease-soaked rags, grease and oil containers, paper and card-
board, electrical wire and cable, wornout equipment, timber and lumber,
and other junk.
Emissions in 1970 amounted to an estimated 200,000 metric tons
of sulfur oxides, 110,000 tons of particulates, 340,000 metric tons of
carbon monoxide, 68,000 metric tons of hydrocarbons, and 34,000 metric
tons of nitrogen oxides. No estimates have been projected for FY 1979,
but in view of the concern in controlling fires from coal refuse, it is |_
presumed that emissions will be reduced substantially.
Control costs for extinguishing coal~ refuse fires are a vari-
able depending on individual conditions. No overall costs estimates have
been prepared for this reason.
Origin of Refuse. Most coal refuse comes from two sources:
(1) waste rock and other impurities generated during mine development
and operation and (2) impurities separated from the coal at the prepara-
tion plant. Mine waste accumulation begins with the development of a
mine. Large quantities of rock material are extracted in the sinking
of shafts and driving of rock tunnels and haulageways before the first
ton of coal is mined. The removal of waste rock is a continuing operation
throughout the life of many coal mines. The largest volume of solid
waste is produced at the preparation plant. Here the coal is crushed,
sized, washed, and separated from rock and other impurities to achieve
a grade of coal meeting the market demand.
Coal-refuse banks can be ignited by spontaneous combustion,
natural causes, and either intentionally or through carelessness by
-------
IV-167
people. Spontaneous combustion is the most common cause of coal-refuse
fires. Sixty-six percent of the 292 refuse banks found burning iii 1968
are believed to have started by heat spontaneously generated within the
pile. This phenomenon results from the oxidation caused by the natural
flow of air through combustion refuse material.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Emissions from coal refuse burning are tabulated below for
selected years:
Thousands Metric Tons Per Year
1968 1969 1970
Sulfur oxides 600 200 200
Particulates 400 115 110
Carbon monoxide 1,200 300 340
Hydrocarbons 240 100 68
Nitrogen oxides 48 14 34
No data are available for 1971-1972 emissions. No estimates
have been projected for FY 1979, but in view of the high degree of local
interest in controlling fires from refuse banks, emissions should contin-
ue to decline.
Control Technology and Costs
Emissions from coal-refuse banks in the future depends on three
factors:
(1) new legislation or the enforcement of existing
legislation regulating the methods of coal
refuse disposal,
(2) the level of state activity in extinguishing
fires in existing refuse banks, and
(3) the control technology available at coal-fired
electrical-generation stations.
-------
IV-168
Regarding the first factor, it is known that the three states
having majority of coal-refuse banks (Kentucky, Pennsylvania, and West
Virginia) have enacted laws to prevent and control air pollution from
this source.
The level of state effort in controlling these fires is often
a function of the refuse bank location. For instance, for fires in anthracite
banks in Scranton-Wilkes Barre area were extinguished first in the
Pennsylvania program. If control efforts continue in the individual
states at the present pace, this pollution source should be largely con-
trolled by 1979.
Coal refuse can be utilized as a fuel for electric-power gen-
eration if the volatile content of the refuse is acceptable. At least
one utility company has tested the acceptability of this fuel source in
its boilers. However, the large-scale applicability of this fuel is
hampered by pollution restrictions on burning higher sulfur coals and
fuels with low heat content per unit weight of fuel.
The number of new coal-refuse banks will not increase as a
function of total coal production. Strip-mining does not generate
refuse banks because the material is back-filled into the open pit be-
fore reclamation. Proposed new Federal mining regulations will probably
make this backfilling a uniform practice.
Extinguishing one fire in a burning refuse bank presents a uni-
que problem, making cost generalizations difficult. It is known that in
Pennsylvania, estimates of the control costs were once as high as $4 per
metric ton. As mote experience in control techniques was gained, the
cost of extinguishing a certain bank declined to 80$ per metric ton.
-------
IV-169
QUARRYING AND CONSTRUCTION GROUP
Asbestos Industry
Introduction and Summary
Nature of the Product and Process. Asbestos is used in literally
thousands of products in a wide variety of applications. The principal
properties of asbestos are its long, extremely fine and flexible fibers
that are thermally and electrically inert, having high tensile strength
and extremely favorable frictional properties. The two major
varieties of asbestos are (1) serpentine or chrysotile, and (2) amphiboles
which include crocidolite, amosite, anthophyllite, tremalite, and actino-
lite. Commercially, chrysotile is by far the most important fiber,
especially in the spinning grades of fiber.
It has long been recognized that asbestos fibers are a health
hazard, and that the primary danger arises from inhalation. Because
of their fine structure and low density, asbestos fibers may be air-
borne for significant distances and thus create an air-pollution problem.
In addition, the fibers are not destroyed by any known environmental
process.
Asbestos normally is handled by air conveyance during processing.
The air conveying system must be tightly controlled to protect workers
and to recover the asbestos. Once asbestos is mixed with a liquid medium
there are minimal problems with emissions until the finishing process.
Any operation such as breaking, grinding, or polishing required to pro-
duce a product usually will create emissions. There is no agreement as
to whether free asbestos is released in any specific case, or whether any
exposure potential is involved. In this study, it is assumed that these
emissions must be controlled just as if they were free asbestos emissions.
Emissions and Control Costs. Emissions in FY 1971 are estimated
at 6000 metric tons, increasing to 6500 metric tons in FY 1979. With further
controls, emissions in FY 1979 would be reduced to 165 metric tons, a
reduction of 97.3 percent.
Investment costs for existing and new facilities from FY 1971
to FY 1979 to control emissions are estimated at $11.4 million. Annual
costs are estimated at almost $4 million, and cash requirements are about
$28 million.
-------
IV-170
Industry Structure
Characteristics of the Firms. The asbestos industry covers these
major activities: mining of ore, milling of ore, and the manufacture of
asbestos products. The industry comprises a few larger, vertically integrated firms
and a sizeable number of firms engaged in one or more specialized fields
from mining to manufacture of the thousands of products containing asbestos.
Current Capacity and Growth Projection. In 1971, apparent con-
sumption of asbestos in the United States was 690,000 metric tons.
Domestic production amounted to 119,000 metric tons; imports, largely
from Canada, were 619,000 metric tons and exports were 49,000 metric tons.
Mining. There are nine asbestos mines' in the United States,
with four being in California, three in North Carolina, and one each in
Arizona and Vermont. California mines accounted for 67 percent of the
asbestos mined in 1971, followed in order by Vermont, Arizona, and
North Carolina.
Milling. There are nine plants milling asbestos in four states
as follows
1970 Estimated Capacity,
State Number of Plants metric tons
Maryland 1 181
Arizona 3 2,180
California 4 87,200
Vermont 1 59,000
Nine firms make up the industry. Four of them are large, vertically in-
tegrated firms that make a wide range of asbestos and other products.
These firms can use their total U.S. asbestos fiber production for making
finished products to be used by various consumers and industry. The
other firms are small and sell their output on the open market. An
annual growth rate of 1.6 percent has been projected, giving an estimated
capacity of about 173,000 metric tons in FY 1979.
-------
IV-171
Manufacture of Asbestos-Containing Products. In this category
is an extremely broad and diverse group of items that contain significant
quantities of asbestos fibers. It is estimated that some 3,000 items
used in the U.S. contain asbestos. These include asbestos cement products,
floor tile, friction materials, asbestos paper, and asbestos textiles.
So far as emissions are concerned these products can be divided into two
categories. Either asbestos remains as essentially free fiber through-
out the process and in the final product, or the asbestos is wetted or
bound into a matrix at an early stage of processing. Production of
asbestos textiles is the major manufacturing process in the first cate-
gory.
The capacity of the asbestos industry in 1971 and expected growth
to 1979 of asbestos products by major sectors, based on an expected annual
growth rate of 5 percent, is shown below.
Number of 1000 Metric Tons of Asbestos
Process/Product Plants 19711972 1973 1974";"1975 1979
Cement Pipe and 48 172.4 181.0 190.1 199.6 209.6 254.8
Building Products
Floor Tile 18 124.1 130.4 136.8 143.7 150.9 183.5
Felts and Papers 29 96.5 101.4 106.5 111.8 117.4 142.7
Friction Products 30 69.0 72.4 76.0 79.8 83.8 101.9
Textiles 34 20.7 21.7 22.8 24.0 25.2 30.5
Miscellaneous* — 206.9 217.2 228.1 239.5 251.5 305.7
*There are hundreds of plants using asbestos in manufactured products.
For example, there are approximately 300 firms manufacturing packing
and gaskets.
-------
IV-172
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Principal emission sources of asbestos are from air conveying
systems used in processing and finishing processes involving breaking,
grinding, or polishing required in making asbestos products. There is
no agreement as to whether free asbestos is released in any specific
case, or whether any exposure is involved. In this study, it is assumed
that all these emissions must be controlled just as if they were free
asbestos emissions.
Asbestos emissions from manufacture of asbestos-containing
products can be divided into two categories. Either asbestos remains
as essentially free fiber throughout the process and in the final prod-
uct, or the asbestos is wetted or bound into a matrix at an early stage
of processing.
Production of asbestos textiles is the major manufacturing
process in the first category. In this process, the long asbestos fibers
are fluffed, and then blended with a cellulosic fiber. The subsequent
processing involves carding, lapping, roving, spinning, and weaving or
braiding, and is performed on equipment similar to standard textile
machining requiring frequent access when operating.
Virtually all other processes fall in the second category.
Significant emissions may occur in finishing operations for cement pipe
and building products, felts and papers, and friction products. Asbestos
emissions from floor-tile manufacture are essentially nil as soon as the
fibers are mixed with the hot vinyl or asphalt. In friction products,
the processes of molding and curing are usually pollution free, while
the finishing processes involving shaping, cutting, and sawing may give
rise to some emissions.
In sprayed insulation, asbestos emissions arise from handling
the dry asbestos - cement mixture, escape of nonwetted fiber, overspray
and splash, and disposal of wastes. There are various measures of partial
control such as premixing the materials in the bag used to ship asbestos,
enclosing the sprayed area, and careful control over disposal of wastes.
Perhaps the best control is to ban the use of asbestos for this purpose
and substitute materials such as mineral wool, ceramic fibers, vermicu-
late, or other similar inorganic fibers.
-------
IV-173
Controlled and uncontrolled emissions for selected years are:
Particulates,
Fiscal Year . Mode metric tons
1971 Without further control 6,000
1975 Without further control 6,500
With further control 165
1979 Without further control 7,070
With further control 191
Control Technology
The only acceptable control technique for asbestos from manu-
facturing-process emissions appears to be the use of a fabric filter.
Fabric filters are considered very good for asbestos-emission control
because:
(1) Any asbestos fiber captured need not be further
processed for reuse.
(2) Once the fabric is coated with asbestos, the filter
becomes even more efficient achieving almost total
(95+ %) check removal of fibers.
(3) Baghouses provide collection efficiency equal to or
better than any other collection system.
(4) Baghouses cost less to buy, maintain, and operate
than any system with comparable asbestos collection
efficiency.
Control Costs
Estimated control costs for model plants for milling and major
manufacturing processes are shown in Table IV-28. In milling operations,
estimated investment costs are based on an evaluation of control require-
ments on existing facilities. Expected costs per metric ton of asbestos
vary on factors other than size of plant, but are generally lower for the
larger size operations.
-------
TABLE IV-28. COSTS OF CONTROL FOR SELECTED MODEL PLANTS
FOR THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY
Model Size,
1000 tons/day
Milling
Cement
Products
Tiles
Felts
and
Papers
Friction
Products
Textiles
Miscell-
aneous
0.02
0.07
0.19
0.76
2.29
6.20
22.88
61.9
1.35
3.96
2.59
7.60
1.25
3.67
0.86
2.54
0.23
0.67
0.08
0.23
Investment ,
$1,000
expected
0.98
0.66
3.82
2.55
18.73
64.96
73.59
254.79
20.17
33.58
5.58
9.83
14.92
24.95
13.11
21.37
36.16
61.60
0.89
1.42
min
0.72
0.49
2.81
1.89
13.26
47.00
55.20
193.61
15.28
23.88
4.05
7.30
10.76
17.55
9.30
15.73
26.17
45.10
0.64
1.02
Annualized Cost,
$1,000
max expected
1
0
4
3
24
83
95
326
25
42
7
12
18
31
16
27
46
77
1
1
.26
.85
.95
.30
.07
.03
.88
.82
.46
.29
.01
.80
.89
.75
.69
.01
.82-.-
.40
.14
.81
0.43
0.29
1.67
1.13
7.20
26.65
29.14
106.64
6.63
12.04
1.82
3.29
4.99
8.29
4.30
7.13
12.09 '
20.16
0.29
0.49
min
0.31
0.20
1.27
0.81
5.25
19.49
21.22
78.66
4.86
8.84
1.33
2.45
3.62
5.89
3.09
5.17
8.70
14.79
0.21
0.35
max
0.55
0.36
2.14
1.44
9.25
34.02
36.85
135.28
8.50
15.23
2.33
4.27
6.18
10.54
5.52
8.94
15.55
25.43
0.36
0.62
Unit Cost,
$/daily ton
expected
21.5
4.1
8.8
1.5
3.1
4.3
1.3
1.7
4.9
3.0
0.7
0.4
4.0
2.3
5.0
2.8
52.6
30. 1
3.6
2.1
min
15.5
2.9
6.7
1.1
2.3
3.1
0.9
1.3
3.6
2.2
0.5
0.3
2.9
1.6
3.6
2.0
37.8
22.1
2.6
1.5
max
27.5
5.1
11.3
1.9
4.0
5.5
1.6 5
i
2.2 £
•p-
6.3
3.8
0.9
0.6
4.9
2.9
6.4
3.5
67.4
38.0
4.5
2.7
-------
IV-175
Direct control costs are summarized as follows:
FY 1971 - FY 1979,
$ Millions
Expected Minimum Maximum
Existing Facilities
Investment 7.19 6.95 8.08
Annual Costs
Capital Charges 0.95 0.81 1.05
Operating and Maintenance 1.54 1.31 1.73
Total Annual Costs 2.49 2.12 2.78
Cash Requirements 19.94 17.46 21.73
New Facilities
Investment 4.16 3.47 4.80
Annual Costs
Capital Charges 0.55 0.47 0.62
Operating and Maintenance 0.83 0.73 0.93
Total Annual Costs 1.38 1.20 1.55
Cash Requirements 8.39 7.55 , 9.44
Expected investment costs for new and existing facilities from FY 1971
and FY 1979 are $11.4 million. Annual costs are about $4 million, and
cash requirements are $28.3 million.
-------
IV-176
Asphalt Concrete Processing
Introduction and Summary
Nature of Product and Process. This industry manufactures
asphalt concrete which consists of a mixture of aggregates and an asphalt
cement binder. Aggregates usually consist of different combinations of ;
crushed stone, crushed slag, sand, and gravel. Asphalt concrete plant
processing equipment consists of raw-material apportioning equipment, raw-
material conveyors, a rotary dryer; hot-aggregate elevators, screening,
weighing, and storage; mixing equipment; asphalt-binder storage, heating
and transfer equipment; and mineral-filler-storage and -transfer equip-
ment. The largest sources of particulate emissions are the rotary dryer
and the screening, weighing, and mixing equipment. Additional sources
which may be significant particulate emitters if not properly controlled
are the mineral-filler-loading, -transfer, and -storage equipment, and the
loading, transfer, and storage equipment that handles the dust collected by
the emission control system.
Asphalt-concrete production is essentially a "batch" type opera**
tion. Continuous-mix plants represent only 10 percent of the industry.
In 1972, there were approximately 4,800 plants which produced
an estimated 295 million metric tons of paving material with a dollar
value of $2,038 million. The industry employs about 300,000 people.
The current production of the industry--295 million metric tons
of asphalt paving per year—is expected to grow at an estimated compounded
annual rate of 3.0 percent to 323 million metric tons in 1975 and 364 ,
million metric tons in 1979. Because of batch-type operations and seasonal
nature of production, the average plant operates only 1500 hours per year
at 50 percent of plant capacity.
Emissions and Control Costs. According to EPA Publication
NO. AP-42 (April, 1973), the uncontrolled emissions from asphalt batching
plants are 23 kg of dust per metric ton of product. Uncontrolled emissions
in FY 1971 are estimated at 6.6 million metric tons. In FY 1979, uncon-
trolled emissions are estimated at 8.4 million metric tons, while with
controls emissions are estimated at about 4,500 metric tons. A reduction
of 99.9 percent.
Investment costs from FY 1971 to FY 1979 are estimated at $600
million. Annualized costs in FY 1979 are estimated at $120 million, and
cash requirements from FY 1971 to 1979 are estimated at $1 billion.
-------
IV-177
Industry Structure
Characteristics of the Firms. The hot-mix asphalt industry is
composed of firms engaged in the production and laydown of asphalt con-
crete. There are approximately 1320 companies operating 4800 plants in
the United States. Plant size distribution is shown below. As shown in
the table, 60 percent of the capacity is located in plants having an
average size of 182 metric tons per hour. Based on a survey conducted by
the National Asphalt Pavement Association (NAPA) in 1972, covering 1081
plants, 76 percent were stationary plants and 24 percent were portable
plants, iContinuous mixers comprised 24 percent of the portable plants,
compared with only 2 percent for stationary plants.
Size Range, Average Size, No. of Percent
metric tons/hr metric tons/hr Plants Capacity
82 - 100 91
101 - 263 182
264 - 282 273
283 - 499 391
Current Capacity and Growth Pro lections. Production of hot-mix
asphalt in 1972 was estimated at 295 million metric tons, based on the fact
that asphalt cement constitutes approximately 1/18 of the weight of hot-mix
asphalt. Assuming an estimated annual growth rate of 3 percent, production
in FY 1979 will'be about 364 million metric tons. Because of the batch-
type operations and seasonal nature of the business, capacities are
appreciably higher than annual production rates. Current capacity has been
estimated by NAPA at over 1.18 billion metric tons.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Dust particulates from the aggregates used in making asphalt
concrete are the predominant emissions. The principal source is the
rotary drier. Other major sources are the hot-aggregate elevators and
vibrating screens.
-------
IV-178
Estimated emissions with and without controls for selected
years are as follows:
Particulates,
Fiscal Year Mode million metric tons
1971 Without further control 6.6
1975 Without further control 7.5
With further control 0.056
1979 Without further control 8.4
With further control 0.005-0.09
Control Technology
Practically all plants use primary dust collection equipment
such as cyclones, or settling chambers. These chambers are often used
as classifiers with the collected aggregate being returned to the hot-
aggregate elevator to combine with the dryer aggregate load.
The gases from the primary collector must be further cleaned
before venting to the atmosphere. The most common secondary collector
is expected to be the baghouse, although venturi scrubbers are used in
some plants. The baghouse allows dry collection of dust which can be
returned to the process or hauled away to a landfill although land use
legislation makes that more and more difficult. The venturi scrubber
makes dust hauling expensive due to the wetting of the dust. Also, the
use of large settling ponds and possible need for water treatment dis-
courage use of venturi scrubbers.
Continuous mixers represent about 10 percent of total capacity.
Control equipment is assumed to be similar to that required for batch-
type plants.
Control Costs
Estimated control costs for model plants are shown in Table IV-29.
A summary of the direct control costs for asphalt concrete
processing is as follows:
-------
IV-179
FY 1971 - FY 1979,
$ Millions
Expected Minimum Maximum
Existing Facilities
Investment 479 329 650
Annual Costs
Capital Charges 78 57 103
Operating and Maintenance 17 15 20
Total Annual Costs 95 72 123
Cash Requirements 814 610 1047
New Facilities
Investment 125 72 178
Annual Costs
Capital Charges 20 13 27
Operating and Maintenance 4 45
Total Annual Costs 24 17 32
Cash Requirements 182 115 249
Investment Costs from FY 1971 to FY 1979 for existing and new facilities
are estimated at $600 million. Annual costs in FY 1979 are estimated at
$125 million, and total cash requirements from FY 1971 to FY 1979 are
estimated at $1 billion.
-------
TABLE IV-29.
ASPHALT CONCRETE PROCESSING COSTS
OF CONTROL FOR THE MODEL PLANTS
Model Size,
metric
ton/hr
Wet Scrubber 91
182
273
391
Fabric Collectors 91
182
273
391
Investment,
$1,000
expected
60
70
81
87
92
105
117
116
min
28
33
39
38
46
57
59
56
max
90
109
126
132
142
155
172
178
Annualized Cost,
$1,000
expected
12
14
16
18
18
21
23
23
min
6
8
9
9
10
12
13
12
max
17
21
24
26
27
30
33
35
Unit Cost,
$/Hpurly ton
expected
132
77
59
46
198
115
84
59
min
66
44
33
23
110
66
48
31
max
187
115
88
66
297
165
121
90
Control
Equipment
Wet Scrubber
11
"
ii
Fabric Filter
it
"
II
Note: The model size is based on retaining the feed in the batch mixer for 60 seconds. If the retention time
is only 40 seconds, then the sizes will change to 150,300,450, and 600 tons/hours respectively.
00
o
-------
IV-181
Cement Industry
Introduction and Summary
Nature of Product and Process. Portland cement, which accounts
for approximately 96 percent of cement production in the United States is
a blend of various calcareous, argillaceous, and siliceous materials,
such as limestone, shell, chalk, clay, and shale. As the binder in con-
crete, portland cement is the most widely used construction material in
the United States.
The four major steps in producing portland cement are: (1)
quarrying and crushing, (2) blending and grinding, (3) heating the
materials in a rotary kiln to liberate carbon dioxide and cause incipient
fusion, and (4) fine-grinding of the resultant clinker, with the addition
of 4 to 6 percent gypsum. Finished cement is shipped either in bulk
or in bags. All portland cement is produced by either a wet or dry grind-
ing process; the distinguishing characteristic being whether the raw
materials are introduced into the kiln as a wet slurry or as a dry mixture.
Emissions and Control Costs. In FY 1971, emission of particu-
lates without controls are estimated at 10 million metric tons. In FY
1979, these emissions without controls are estimated to increase to 11.7
million metric tons, compared with 11,800 metric tons with controls. Un-
controlled emissions of SO are minimal and are estimated to increase from
218,000 metric tons in FY ¥971 to 427,000 metric tons in FY 1979.
Cost of control of particulate emissions are estimated to re-
quire an investment (FY 1971-FY 1979) of $444 million. Annualized costs
are estimated at about $130 million, and cash requirements from FY 1971
to FY 1979 are estimated at about $1.1 billion.
Industry Structure
Characteristics of the Firms. In 1971 there were 170 plants
producing portland cement clinker plus five plants operating grinding
mills to produce finished cement. There are 51 companies located in 41
states. Fifty percent of industry capacity is owned by multiplant com-
panies and the 8 leading companies account for about 47 percent of the
total. The industry is capital intensive. Overcapacity, with consequent
low profit margins, inhibited modernization and construction of new plants
during the past several years, and more stringent air-pollution regulations
have increased both capital and operating costs. Recent trends are to
increased size of operations through installation of larger kilns to replace
old, marginal kilns, permitting more economic and efficient pollution control
-------
IV-182
Current Capacity and Growth Projections. Cement manufacturing
plant capacity and size distribution is shown below. Estimated-1971
capacity of 77 million metric tons is expected to increase to about 91
million metric tons in FY 1979 based on a 2 percent average annual
growth. Size distribution is expected to shift upwards as new plants
are constructed and existing plants modified or closed, so the total
number of plants is expected to remain about the same. It is also
assumed that there will be no majpr shift in production capacity per-
centages between dry and wet grinding processes, which is presently
estimated at 59 percent by the wet process.
Size Range,
metric
tons/day
Number
of
Plants
Number
of
Kilns
Total Annual*
Capacity,
million
metric tons
Percent of
Total
Capacity
Less than 513
514-1025
1026-1538
1539-2051
2052-2564
2565 and
6
49
65
28
11
11
10
98
170
95
37
56
170
466
0.8
12.3
27.0
16.5
8.7
12.6
77.9
1.0
15.8
34.6
21.1
11.2
16.3
100.0
* Based on 334 day operation.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Primary emission sources are from dry-process blending and
grinding, kiln operation, clinker cooler, and finish grinding. Other
sources include the feed and materials-handling systems. The primary
air pollutant is dust particulates. The other air pollutant is SO from
sulfur components contained in the ores or from sulfur contained in coal
and oil used to heat the blend of raw materials to produce the clinker.
Estimated dust-emission factor for an uncontrolled dry-process plant is
170 kg per metric ton of cement, compared with 130 kg per metric ton for
the wet-process plant, giving an average emission factor of 146 kg per
metric ton of product.
-------
IV-183
Estimated controlled and uncontrolled emissions for selected
years are:
Fiscal Millions Metric Tons/Year
Year Mode Particulate SOB
1971 Without further control 1Q.O 0.22
1975 Without further control 10.8 0.33
With further control 0.133 0.33
1979 Without further control 11.7 0.43,
With further control 0.015 0.43
1979 Percent Controlled 99.9
Control Technology and Costs
•• i
Where ambient gas temperatures are encountered such as grinding, •
conveying, and packaging, fabric filters are used almost exclusively. The
greatest problems are encountered with high-temperature gas streams which
contain appreciable moisture.
Both fabric filters and electrostatic precipitators are used in
controlling dust emissions from kilns. The condensation problems from
the high moisture content in the wet-process plant may be overcome by
insulating the ductwork and preheating the systems on start-up.
In the past, industry practice has been to employ mechanical ;'
collectors for controlling dust emissions from clinker coolers. Tests
on the few installations of baghouses and electrostatic precipitators
indicate that it is possible to meet the new source performance standard
by either method.
Costs for installation of baghouses and electrostatic precipi-
tators for various model-size plants are shown in Table IV-30. Expected
investment and annualized costs for electrostatic precipitators are slightly
lower, but variations in plant site and operating conditions could ttake,
baghouses the lower cost installation.
Direct control costs for the cement manufacturing industry, frdm
FY 1971 to FY 1979 are summarized as follows:
-------
IV-184
FY 1971 - FY 1979
$ Millions
Existing Facilities
Investment
Annual Costs
Capital Charges
Operating and Maintenance
Total Annual Costs
Cash Requirements
New Facilities
Investment
Annual Costs
Capital Charges
Operating and Maintenance
Total Annual Costs
Cash Requirements
Expected
328
36
58
94
865
116
12.8
21.8
34.6
234
Minimum
277
31
53
84
775
87
10.0
18.9
28.9
190
Maximum
381
42
62
104
960
145
15.5
24.5
40.0
276
Expected investment costs are estimated at $444 million. Annual costs are
almost $130 million and cash requirements from FY 1971 to FY 1979 are
estimated at $1.1 billion.
-------
TABLE IV-30. COSTS OF CONTROL FOR THE MODEL PLANTS
CEMENT MANUFACTURING
Model Size,
million
metric ton/yr
0.13
0.25
0.43
0.60
0.77
0.93
0.13
0.25
0.43
0.60
0.77
0.93
Investment
$1,000
expected
1290
1620
1933
1980
2189
2411
1239
1517
1711
1894
2000
2130
min
747
882
1009
1059
1154
1365
671
826
989
1186
1140
1118
max
1858
2263
2740
2845
3169
3446
1758
2104
2417
2655
2817
3050
Annualized Cost,
$1,000
expected
411
508
589
633
686
737
326
401
462
502
542
571
min
290
346
406
433
465
522
220
271
315
362
,375
383
max
532
650
765
825
901
959
428
522
598
656
697
754
Unit Cost,
$/metric ton
expected
3.16
2.03
1.37
1.05
0.89
0.79
2.50
1.60
1.07
0.84
0.70
0.61
min
2.22
1.38
0.94
0.72
0.60
0.56
1.69
1.08
0.73
0.60
0.49
0.41
max
4.09
2.60
1.78
1.38
1.17
1.03
3.29
2.09
1.39
1.09
0.91
0.81
Control
Equipment
Baghouse
Electro- ,_,
static f
Precipi- ££
tator °*'
-------
IV-186
Crushed Stone, Sand, and Gravel
Introduction and Summary
Nature of the Products and Processes. The quarrying of vast
tonnages of stone, sand, and gravel results in substantial amounts of
dust being generated and carried into the atmosphere. More importantly,
the crushing of stone and screening of aggregates releases large quan-
tities of particulates. About one-half of the particulates generated
by these operations settle out in the plant. However, the remaining fine
particulates became suspended in the atmosphere and thus are subject to
EPA regulations.
Emissions and Control Costs. Emissions of particulates in FY
1971 are estimated at 2.7 million metric tons, increasing to 3.5 million
metric tons in FY 1979.
i
No control methods have been established for handling these
emissions, however, increasing concern and local constraints have led
numerous firms to install covered bins, hoppers, and chutes and filter
systems to collect dust. Water sprays, with and without dust-control
chemicals are also used at conveyor,feed and transfer points, with quarry
drills, on roads, etc.
Industry Structure
Characteristics of the Firms. In 1971, there were 4729 quarries
in the United States producing crushed stone. Of these quarries, about
one-half produced 45,000 metric tons per year, or less, while the 185
largest quarries produced an average of 1,515,000 metric tons per year.
The vast bulk of the crushed stone was used by the construction industry,
primarily as aggregates. About 71 percent of the crushed stone was lime-
stone and dolomite, of which 16 percent was used in cement manufacturing,
5 percent for agricultural purposes and 4 percent each for lime manufactur-
ing and as flux stone.
In 1971, there were 5738 commercial sand and gravel plants. Of
these, one-half produced 45,000 metric tons per year, or less, while the
70 largest produced an average of 1,470,000 metric tons per year. Govern-
ment and contract producers accounted for about 16 percent of the
production. The construction industry used 96 percent of the total output
largely as aggregate in building and paving materials.
-------
IV-187
Current Capacity and Growth Pro lections. In 1971, production
of crushed stone, was 795 million metric tons. An annual growth rate of
3 percent is projected from FY 1971 -. FY 1979, indicating a production
of almost 1.0 billion metric tons in FY 1979.
In 1971, production of sand and gravel was almost 836 million
metric tons, a decline from the 1970 output of 858 million metric tons
because of a reduction in production by government and contractor opera-
tions amounting to 58 million; metric tons. Output from commercial
operations increased by 36 million metric tons although the number of
producers declined from 5918 to 5738. Trends to larger, more efficient
operations are expected to continue as better deposits become depleted
and operations are inhibited by urban expansion and the cost of land
rehabilitation. An average annual growth rate of 3 percent projected
indicates an output of about 1.05 billion metric tons in FY 1979.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Crushed Stone. Quarrying operations, involving mining, crush-
ing, screening, and conveyor systems are the major sources of particulate
emissions. Total particulate emissions at about 6 kg' per metric ton
about one-half of which settles within the'confines of the plant.
Sand and Gravel. Quarrying operations involving mining, screen-
ing, and conveyor systems are the major sources of particulate emissions.
Total particulate emissions are estimated at 0.05 kg per metric ton.
Estimated uncontrolled emissions from crushed stone, sand and
gravel for FY 1971 to FY 1979 are as follows.
Fiscal Year Mode Particulates. millions metric tons
1971 Without Further Control 2.7
1975 Without .Further Control 3.1
1979 Without Further Control 3.5
Improved dust-collection methods such as covering screens, con-
veyors, bins, hoppers, and chutes with installation of a system to collect
and contain dust; and water sprays, with and without dust-control chemicals
are being used in some plants. Further improvements may be expected but
no estimates can be made of costs of control until standards are established.
-------
IV-188
Lime Manufacture
Introduction and Summary
Nature of the Product and Process. Lime is formed by the high-
temperature calcination of limestone, or dolomitic limestone to expel C02
forming quicklime (CaO). Hydrated lime is made by the addition of water
to the lime. Dead-burned (refractory) dolomite is formed by the calcina-
tion of dolomite. About 73 percent of lime is produced in rotary kilns,
which are of two basic types -- the "long rotary kiln" and the "short
rotary kiln with external preheater". Vertical kilns are used to supply
the balances, Virtually all new production is by the rotary process.
Major individual uses of lime are for basic oxygen steel fur-
naces, alkalies, water purification, other chemical uses, and refractory
dolomite.
Emissions and Control Costs. In FY 1971, particulate emissions
are estimated at 1.8 million metric tons, increasing to 2.1 million metric
tons in FY 1979. Controlled emissions in FY 1979 are estimated at
625,000 metric tons.
Investment costs for controls from FY 1971 to FY 1979 are esti-
mated at $61 million. Annual costs are estimated at $13 million, and cash
requirements from FY 1971 to FY 1979 are estimated at $125 million.
Industry Structure
Characteristics of the Firms. The U. S. lime industry is con-
ventionally divided into two sectors -- open market and captive. Approximately
35 percent of the output is consumed by the producers, while the remaining
65 percent is sold in the open market. The use of lime is widespread, pri-
marily as a chemical. Other major uses were as construction and'= refractory
materials. Agricultural use has declined to about 1 percent of the total.
Plants are localized in 41 states and Puerto Rico. Plant size distribution
in 1971 is shown in the tabulation below. Recent trends are toward closing
of small, old plants and to replace old kilns with larger units.
-------
IV-189
Plant Size,
metric tons
Less than 9,090
9,090 to 22,725
22,725 to 45,450
45,450 to 90,900
90,900 to 181,800
181,800 to 363,650
More than 363,600
Number of
Plants
30
37
37
26
25
26
7
Output
Thousand metric tons
125
636
1276
1614
3459
6559
4280
Percent
1
3
77
9
19
37
24
Current Capacity and Growth Pro lections. Current production is
believed to be close of capacity. In 1972, producers at 186 plants sold
or used 18.5 million metric tons. Growth in the demand for lime has been
projected at 4 percent per year, which would indicate a demand of 23.8
million metric tons in FY 1979. Should the use of lime in the removal of
SOX from stack gases become standard practice, the demand will be increased
substantially. The number of plants has declined from 195 in 1970 to 186
in 1972. Further consolidation may be expected to economically justify
the increased cost of pollution controls.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Atmospheric emissions from lime manufacture are primarily particu-
lates from crushing the limestone to kiln size, calcining the limestone in
a rotary or vertical kiln, crushing the lime to size, and fly ash if coal
is used in calcination. Other emissions, such as SOX, are determined by
the' type of fuel used.
Uncontrolled emissions from rotary kilns are about 100 kg per
metric ton of lime processed, compared with 4 kg per metric ton from
vertical kilns. However, economics favor use of the rotary kiln, and
virtually all new and expanded production is expected to be by that method.
Estimates of controlled and uncontrolled emissions for selected
years are as follows:
Fiscal Year
1971
1975
1979
Mode
Without Further Control
Without Further Control
With Further Control
Without Further Control
With Further Control
Particulates. million metric tons
1.8
2.1
.02
2.7
.625
-------
IV-190
Control Technology and Costs
Gases leaving a rotary kiln are usually passed through a dust-
settling chamber where the coarser material settles out. On many
installations, a first-stage primary dry cyclone collector is us.ed.
The removal efficiency at this stage can vary from 25 percent to 85
percent (by weight) of the dust being discharged from the kiln.
The selection of a second stage to meet the high efficiency level
of 0.03 gr/acf may be either a high-energy wet scrubber, fabric filter, or
electrostatic precipitator. While the electrostatic precipitator has a
higher capital cost, this may be more than offset in specific installations
by lower operating and maintenance costs.
It is believed that vertical kilns can suppress particulate
emissions to allowable limits with baghouses, scrubbers, or cyclone
scrubber combinations. In the latter cases efficiencies of 98.5 percent
and above have been reported.
Control Costs
A summary of the estimated direct control costs for lime manu-
facture from FY 1971 to FY 1979 is as follows:
$ Millions
Expected Minimum Maximum
Existing Facilities
Investment 54 46 61
Annual Costs
Capital Charges 6.6 5.8 7.4
Operating and Maintenance 5.0 4.8 5.4
Total Annual Costs 11.6 10.6 12.8
Cash Requirements 113 101 123
New Facilities
Investment 7.0 6.1 7.9
Annual Costs
Capital Charges 0.88 0.78 0.98
Operating and Maintenance 0.82 0.58 1.08
Total Annual Costs 1.70 1.36 2.06
Cash Requirements 12 10 17
-------
IV-191
FOOD AND FOREST PRODUCTS GROUP
Foreword to Grain Industry
This investigation covers estimated control costs for grain
handling and feed manufacture, which are major sources of air pollution
in the grain mill industries. Other segments of the industry include:
Flour Milling
Cereal Manufacture
Rice Milling ,
Wet-Corn Milling
Blended and Prepared Flour
Soybean Processing.
Midwest Research Institute (MRI) in its recent investigation
estimated costs of air-pollution control for the total industry as
follows:
Investment, Annual Cost,
million dollars million dollars
Elevators 1,015.0
Feed mills 1,042.0
Alfalfa plants 10.5
Wheat milling 75.0
Rice mills 14.4
Soybean processing 46.7
Corn wet milling 5.9
Other 34.5
Total 2,244.0 439.8
Their estimates for grain elevators and feed-mill controls, compared with
Battelle's findings in this study are as follows:
Investment Annual Cost
($ million)
MRI 2057 394
BCL 1950 330
Based on MRI's estimates, grain handling and feed manufacturing
account for 91.7 percent of the investment requirement and 89.5 percent
of the annual cost. Using these percentages and BCL estimates for
FY 1971-FY 1979 costs of air-pollution control for grain handling and
feed milling, total costs for the grain-mill industries would require an
investment of $2575 million and an annual cost of $450 million.
-------
IV-19.2
Feed Mills
Introduction and Summary
Nature of the Product and Process. Feed manufacture is the
process of converting the grains and other constituents into the form,
size, and consistency desired in the finished feed. Feed milling
involves the receiving, conditioning (drying, sizing, cleaning), blending,
and pelleting of the grains, and their subsequent bagging or bulk loading.
Emissions and Control Costs. The primary emissions are feed -
mill dusts consisting of complex mixtures of bristles and other particles
from the outer costs of grain kernels, spores of smuts and molds, insect
debris, pollen, field dust, and various organic and inorganic materials.
Total emissions without further controls are estimated at 894,50C
metric tons in FY 1971, increasing to 1.12 million metric tons in FY 1975,
and 1.30 million metric tons in FY 1979. With further controls, emissions
could be reduced to an estimated 1180 metric tons in FY 1975, and 1360
metric tons in FY 1979.
Direct control costs (FY 1971-1979) will require an expected
investment of $1377 million and an annualized cost of $255 million.
Cash requirements are estimated at $2346 million.
Industry Structure
As of July 1, 1973, the number of existing feed mills was
7,763 plants with a total capacity of 129 million metric tons per year.
For the present study, these have been grouped into the following size
categories:
Size Range,
metric
tons/day
0-44
45-90
91-136
Capacity,
million metric
tons/year*
43.4
62.6
23.6
Percent
of Total
Capacity
33.5
48.3
18.2
Number
4,269
2,790
704
* Based on operating 40 hours per week and 50 weeks per year.
-------
IV-193
Production of feed increased by 4-1/2 percent between 1969-
1973, from 92 million to 107 million metric tons, and growth between
1973 and 1979 will be 5 percent compounded annually, amounting to 144
million metric tons in 1979. Industry capacity is expected to increase
by the addition of new plants and/or expansion of current mills when
production reaches 85 percent of capacity and will continue to expand at
the same rate as output increases. This will require an increase in
capacity to 169 million metric tons in 1979.
Small plants (primarily those less than 45 metric tons/day) will
decrease by 15 percent between 1969-1979. These plants will be replaced
largely by plants in the 91 metric ton/day capacity range.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
The primary emission from feed manufacture is dust or particu-
lates. The factors affecting its emissions include the type and amount
of grain handled, the degree of drying, the amount of liquid blended into
the feed, the type of handling (conveyor or pneumatic), and the degree
of control o An indication of the relative importance of the emission
sources in a typical feed mill are:
Operation Percent
Rail unloading 25
Cyclones collectors 21
Truck unloading 15
Truck loading (bulk loadout) 11
Bucket elevator leg vents 5
Bin vents 5
Scale vents 3
Grinding system (feeder, spills) 4
Incinerator (waste paper) 2
Small boiler (oil) 1
Rail car loading (bulk loadout) 1
Miscellaneous (conveying spouts, pellet mills, 7
feeder lines)
Total Feed Mill Dust Emission 100
-------
1V-194
Unloading of bulk ingredients is generally acknowledged to be
one of the most troublesome dust sources in feed mills. Centrifugal
collectors used for product recovery and dust control represent the
second largest emission source. Cyclones on pellet coolers and cyclones
used as product collectors on pneumatic conveying systems are the most
important sources in this category. Pellet coolers can be operated
withput being notably dusty; however, where a powder, such as cottonseed
meal, is being used to prevent caking of the pellets, dust emissions may
be profuse. Dust emissions from storage bins depend upon the size of
-the bin, the rate at which it is filled, and the method of conveying the
material to the bins. A large bin which is being filled slowly through
a chute from a distributor can act as its own settling chamber. Bulk
loading, particularly loading of meal, can be a significant source of
dust, Loading through chutes into either rail cars or trucks exposes
the product to the same winnowing action of the wind that blows dust from
raw materials during unloading. Loading a boxcar with a flinger which
thjrows feed from the door to the end of the car can be a very dusty
operation.
Factor's affecting emission rates from ingredient receiving
area of a feed mill include the type of grain and other ingredients
handled, the methods used to unload the ingredient, and the configuration
of the receiving pits.
Hammermills present the greatest dust problem due primarily
to their product conveying system. Most hammermills are installed using
a conventional attached or separate fan and cyclone collector as the
finished-product recovery system, which is the major source of dust in
, the grain-processing operation. Dust emission is influenced by the type
of grinder (standard or full circle screens), products being ground, and
"the method of conveying finished product.
The pellet coolers are also a major source of dust and they
present control problems because of the moisture content of the air
stream leaving the coolers. The pellet cooler reduces the moisture
content of the material from 17 to 11 percent. The nature of the product
,is a significant influence on the emissions from the cyclone.
Feed-mill dusts are complex mixtures of bristles and other
'particles from the outer coats of grain kernels, spores of smuts and
molds, insect debris, pollen, field dust, and various organic and inorganic
tnate, rials.
-------
IV-195
Estimates of controlled and uncontrolled emissions for selected
years are:
Participates.
Fiscal Year Mode thousand metric tons
1971 Without further control 895.0
1975 Without further control 1125.0
With further control 1.2
1979 Without further control 1295.0
With further control 1.4
Control Technology
Based on an MRI survey of 402 existing feed mills, 88.1 percent
of the volume handled in pellet-cooler operations and 56 percent of the
volume handled in grinding operations have some type of emission control,
largely by use of cyclones. In receiving, transfer, and storage opera-
tions roughly one-third of the total volume is controlled by either
cyclones or fabric filters, while in shipping only a few installations
have installed controls.
However, it is assumed that fabric filters, or their equivalent
(e.g., multicyclones might be used in certain installations), will be
required as the best available control techniques to meet standards
established under the Clean Air Act.
Control Costs
It is recognized that feed mills vary both in processing steps
and operating characteristics. Furthermore, the size of feed mills
covers a wide capacity spectrum, and operations vary with size. In
order to cover the size spectrum cost curves were prepared, on the basis of
estimated costs of installing best control equipment and on estimated
annual operating and maintenance costs for 45 metric tons per 8 hour
day and 180 metric tons per 8 hour day capacity plants.
In determining these costs the following assumptions were made:'
\ ;
• The MRI survey of 402 existing plants is representative
of the entire feed mill population.
• The best practical, available control technique for
feed mills to meet emissions standards is fabric
filters.
-------
IV-196
• Cyclones and other control techniques will be
replaced with fabric filters, and fabric filters
will be installed on existing plants without
controls.
• The cost to install fabric filters on existing
plants with no controls is 125 percent of the
cost required for control equipment on a new
plant, while the cost to replace cyclones and
other control techniques on existing plants is
110 percent of the cost required for controls on
a new plant.
• The operating costs for controls on existing
plants will be the same as the operating cost for
new plants.
Using these data and assumptions, costs of control were
determined for model sizes of 9,980 metric tons/year, 22,680 metric tons/
year, and 33,500 metric tons per year on existing facilities and for
22,680 tons per year on new facilities. These estimated costs are shown
in Table IV-31.
-------
IV-197
1979) is as
(FY 1971-
FY 1971 - FY 1979,
$ Millions
Existing Facilities
Investment
Annual Costs
Capital Charges
Operating and Maintenance
Total Annual Costs
Cash Requirements
New Facilities
Investment
Annual Costs
Capital Charges
Operating and Maintenance
Total Annual Costs
Cash Requirements
Expected
1080
142
57
199
1897
297
39
17
56
449
Minimum
981
132
51
183
1822
247
33
15
48
388
Maximum
1182
154
62
216
2031
355
46
19
65
526
Expected investment costs for existing and new facilities are estimated
at $1377 million. Annual costs are estimated at $255 million and cash
requirements at $2346 million over that time period.
TABLE IV-31. COSTS OF CONTROL FOR THE MODEL PLANTS, FEED MANUFACTURE
Model Size,
metric tons
per yr
Existing
Facilities
9,980
22,680
33,500
New
Facilities
22,680
Investment,
$1.000
expected
117
160
188
145
min
101
140
164
121
max
134
180
216
173
Annual i zed
$1,000
expected
21.2
29.9
35.9
27.2
min
18.
26.
31.
23.
3
1
1
1
Cost
, Unit Cost, $/
metric ton per yr
max
24.
33.
41.
32.
1
8
1
0
expected
2.12
1.32
1.07
1.20
min
1.83
1.14
0.92
1.00
max
2.41
1.49
1.22
1.40
-------
IV-198
Grain Handling >
Introduction and Summary
Nature of Product and Process. Grain handling comprises the
series of grain-storage facilities from delivery by the farmer to the
ultimate user. There are two main classifications of grain-storage
facilities: country elevators and terminal elevators. Country elevators
receive grains from nearby farms by truck for storage or shipment to
terminal elevators. Terminal elevators are subdivided into inland and
port terminals. Inland terminals receive, store, handle, and load the
grain into rail cars or barges for shipment to processors or port
locations. Port terminals receive grain and load ships for export.
Grain handling includes a variety of handling operations which
emit particulates, consisting largely of dirt and attrition of the grain.
Emissions and Control Costs. Primary emission sources in
country elevators involve unloading and loading operations. In terminal
elevators, cleaning, drying, and screening of the grains are additional
major sources of air pollutants.
Total emissions without further controls are estimated at 683,000
metric tons in FY 1971, and 980,000 metric tons in FY 1979. With further
controls, emissions in FY 1975 would be reduced to about 1000 metric tons.
Direct control costs (FY 1971-FY 1979) will require an expected
investment of $985 million and an annualized cost of about $150 million.
Cash requirements are estimated at $1532 million.
Industry Structure
Characteristics of the Firms. Traditionally, grain handling is
considered in terms of series of grain-storage facilities starting from
the delivery by the farmer to the ultimate user. These grain-storage
facilities, or grain elevators, provide storage space and serve as
collection, transfer, drying, and cleaning points. There are two main
classifications of grain elevators — country and terminal elevators.
Country elevators receive grains from nearby farms by truck for storage
or shipment to terminal elevators or processors. Terminal elevators
(this category is subdivided into inland and port terminals), are
generally larger than country elevators and are located at significant
transportation or trade centers. Inland terminals receive, store,
handle, and load these grains in rail cars or barges for shipment to
processors or port locations. Port terminals receive grain and load
-------
IV-199
ships for export to foreign countries. It has been noted that particulate
emission is a function of both the amount of grain handled and the operations
involved in handling. Conversely, the cost of equipment for emission control
is a function of the size of facility and operations involved. Consequently,
model sizes for types of operations and size of country elevators, inland
terminals and port terminals have been selected, ranging from 0 to 1999
thousand bushels (mb), 2000 to 19,999 (mb), and 20,000 to 200,000 (mb) of
handling capacity per year.*
Current Capacity and Growth Projections. The number and storage
capacities of the country and terminal elevators by state as of September
30, 1972. Size ranges and number of facilities per size range—on the basis
of volumes of grains handled—are estimated as follows:
Total Volume Percent Average Volume,
Ranges, Handled, of Total Total thousand
thousand bu/yr** million bu/yr Volume Number metric tons/yr
0-1,999 6,209 55.5 7,147 837
2,000-19,999 2,025 18.1 413 4,903
20,000-200,000 2,953 26.4 64 46,141
Further calculations show that the average grain volume handled in 1972 for
country elevators was 870,000 bushels; for inland terminals, 4.9 million
bushels; and for port terminals, 46.25 million bushels.
Country elevators are estimated to increase the volume handled at
a rate of 5 percent per year through 1979. Grain volume for the second and
third size range (inland and port terminals, respectively) will increase at
the rate of 10 percent during the first year and 5 percent during the
subsequent years through 1979.
While the amounts of grain handled in all categories will increase,
there will be an actual decrease in numbers of facilities operating. The
number of country elevators is estimated to decrease by 25 percent between
1974 and 1979; however, the inland elevators probably will increase by 30
facilities by 1979, and it is estimated that the third category will increase
by 7 facilities by 1979.
* It is understood that very few country elevators fall within the second
range while some inland terminal elevators may fall within first capacity
range.
** bp/yr = bushels per year
-------
IV-200
Estimates of the total number of plants and the total volume of grain to
be handled in mid-1979 are:
Total Volume
Rang e s , Hand led,
thousand bu/yr million bu/yr
0-1,999
2,000-19,999
20,000-200,000
8,320
2,710
3,960
Percent Average Volume
of Total Total New Facilities
Volume Number (1000 bu/yr)
55.5 5,360
18.1 443
26.4 71
i,ooo
-------
IV-201
Control Technology
Systems for the control of particulate emissions from grain-
handling operations consist of either extensive hooding and aspiration
systems leading to a dust collector or methods for eliminating emissions
at the source. Techniques which eliminate the sources, of dust emissions
or which retain it in the process are enclosed conveyors; covers on bins;
tanks and hoppers; and maintenance of system's internal pressure below
the external pressure BO that air flow is in rather than out of the
openings.
Control methods are also available to capture and collect the
dust entrained or suspended in the air. The dust collection systems
generally used are cyclones and fabric filters.
In order to meet the emission standards, it is assumed that
fabric filters will be installed on all existing plants that do not have
any now, or as replacements for cyclones and other control devices.
This assumption yields a conservative value and it may be possible to
use other control devices (e.g., multicyclones) in specific cases —
perhaps in some small installations.
Control Cost
Model plant sizes of 870,000, 4.9 million and 46.25 million
bushels per year throughput volume were used for existing facilities and
1 million, 23 million, and 142 million bushels per year throughput
volume for new or expanded facilities were selected. Investment,
annualized and unit costs for these model sizes are presented in Table IV-32.
Direct control costs (FY 1971-FY 1979) for grain handling are
summarized as follows:
-------
IV-202
FY 1971 - FY 1979,
$ Millions
Expected
Minimum
Maximum
Existing Facilities
Investment 868
Annual Costs
Capital Charges 114
Operating and Maintenance 14.
Total Annual Costs 128
Cash Requirements 1,353
New Facilities
Investment 117
Annual Costs
Capital Charges 15
Operating and Maintenance 6
Total Annual Costs 21
Cash Requirements 179
731
98
, 9
107
1,170
96
13
5
18
152
976
127
18
145
1,508
135
18
7
25
204
Total investment costs are estimated at $985 million, annualized costs at
$169 million, and cash requirements at $1,532 million.
TABLE IV-32. COSTS OF CONTROL FOR THE MODEL GRAIN-HANDLING PLANTS
Model Size,
thousand
bushels/
year
Investment,
$1,000
ex-
pected min max
Annualized Cost,
$1,000
ex-
pected
mm max
Unit Cost,
$/bushel
ex-
pected
min
max
Existing
Facilities
870
4900
46250
New
Facilities
(Expansion)
1000
23000
142000
103 84
230 183
650 516
117
272
774
44 35 53
474 378 552
1076 873 1268
15.6
34.8
57.5
9.0
61.3
18.8
12.4
26.2
22.7
7.1
40.0
49.0
17.9
42.8
87.5
11.0
80.0
91.1
0.018
0.007
0.001
0.009
0.003
0.0001
0.014 0.021
0.005 0.009
0.0004 0.002
0.007 0.011
0.002 0.003
0.0003 0.0006
-------
IV-203
Kraft Paper Industry
Introduction and Summary
Nature of Product and Process. The pulp and paper industry
may be divided into (a) pulp mills and (b) paper and paperboard mills.
Compared with the pulping processes, the processes used for making paper
and paperboard generally produce relatively little air pollution.
Consequently, this analysis focuses primarily on the pulping processes,
giving major attention to the most significant form of air pollution
from the process used for making the largest volume of pulp.
Pulping involves the processing of fibrous raw materials such
as wood, cotton, baggasse, or waste paper into forms suitable for use in
the manufacture of paper, paperboard, construction paper, or construction
board. The fibrous material used in making paper and paperboard is called
pulp. Wood is the major source of the fiber.
Both mechanical and chemical processes are used for making
wood pulp. Groundwood pulp, the mechanical pulp produced in largest
volume, is manufactured by grinding or shredding wood to free the fibers.
In the chemical processes, the binding material (lignin) in the wood is
dissolved in one of several chemical solutions to free the fibers. Only
chemical processes which account for about 84 percent of the total
industry, cause significant air pollution. Two of these processes, Kraft
and Semichemical, account for 67 percent and 8 percent of the industry,
respectively. The Kraft process is discussed in this section of the
report and the Semichemical process is discussed in the following
section. Kraft pulping is potentially a serious source of particulates
and odor, while Semichemical is a significant source of only sulfur
dioxide. Since no standards have been.established for odors, only
particulate-emission control is evaluated for the Kraft process.
Conventional Kraft pulping processes are highly alkaline in
nature and utilize sodium hydroxide and sodium sulfide as cooking
chemicals. One modification used for the preparation of highly purified,
or high-alpha cellulose, pulp utilizes an acid hydrolysis of the wood
chips prior to the alkaline cook; this is the prehydrolysis Kraft process.
Kraft processes enjoy the advantages of being applicable for nearly all
species of wood and of having an effective means of recovery of spent
cooking chemicals for reuse in the process.
Included in the uses of Kraft pulp are the production of liner-
board, solid-fiber board, high-strength bags, wrapping paper, high-grade
white'paper, and food-packaging materials.
-------
IV-204
Emissions and Control Costs. Main particulate-emission sources in
the Kraft process are the recovery furnace, lime kiln, smelting dissolving
tank, and the bark boilers. The Kraft pulping economics depend upon reclama-
tion of chemicals from the recovery furnace and lime kiln. Hence, emissions
from these processes are controlled to minimize losses of chemicals.
Emissions of particulates without further control are estimated at
5,620,000 metric tons in FY 1971, increasing to 7,287,000 metric tons in
FY 1979. With further controls, emissions of particulates are estimated at
270,000 metric tons in FY 1979. Implementation plans for the states of
Oregon and Washington are assumed, though boiler emissions fall short of the
assumed standard.
Total expected investment and annualized costs, FY 1971-FY 1979,
are $234 million, and $78 million, respectively. The estimated cash
requirement for this period is $534 million.
Industry Structure
Characteristics of the Firms. The numbers of mills and industry
capacity for each of the important types of pulping processes, estimated as
of July 1, 1973 are as follows.
Number
of
Process Mills
Chemical
Processes
Kraft (sulfate)
Sulfite
NSSC
Other
Mechanical
Processes
Ground wood
Other
119
31
50
14
59
16
Estimated
Capacity,
metric tons
per dayW
85,425
6,075
10,385
5,850
12,335
9,435
Annual Capacity
for 1973,
metric tons
37,939,000
30,164,000
2,114,000
3,611,000
2,050,000
7,420,000
4,281,000
3,139,000
Share
of Total
Capacity,
percent
83.6
66.5
4.7
8.0
4.5
16.-!
9.5
6.9
Total 289
45,359,000
100.0
Source: Paper, Paperboard, Wood Pulp Capacity 1971-1974, American Paper
Institute and List of U. S. Pulp Mills as of December, 1972,
American Paper Institute.
(a) All capacities are expressed as tons of air-dried pulp (ADP).
-------
IV-205
The Kraft or Sulfate process dominates both in number of mills
and total capacity, with an estimated capacity of 30.16 million metric
tons out of a total capacity of 45.36 million metric tons.
The Kraft process plant size distributions are classified into
three size ranges: 0-770, 771-1088, and 1089-2359 metric tons ADP per
day. The first size range has a total of 68 plants with total capacity
of 30,122 metric tons air-dried pulp/day (MTADP/day); the second, 28
plants with 24,621 MTADP/day; and the third, 23 plants with 30,692 MTADP/
day; the sum of the three ranges gives a total of 119 plants and a total
capacity of 85,435 MTADP/day for the Kraft process. Control cost
estimates are based on the following model plant sizes: 454, 907, 1361
MTADP/day. Plant size distribution are as follow.
Range of
Mill Capac-
ities, tons
per day
0-770
771-1088
1089-2359
Total
Number
of
Mills
68
28
23
119
Total
Capacity
of Mills in
Size Range,
metric tons
per day
30,122
24,621
30.692 . .
85,435 (a)
Average Mill
Capacity,
metric tons
per day
443.0
861.2
1,334.5
Model Mill
Capacity,
metric tons
per day
454
907
1361
Percent
Model Mill
is Above
Average
2.4
3.2
2.0
Source: Lockwood's Directory of the Paper and Allied Trades, 97th Edition,
Lockwood Publishing Co., Inc., New York, N.Y., 1973.
(a) Total daily production for all active sulfate pulp mills listed in
Lockwood's was 96,340 tons, which was 2.3 percent greater than total
estimated sulfate pulp capacity as of July 1, 1973, estimated using
data from Paper, Paperboard, Woodpulp Capacity- 1971-1974, compiled
and published by the American Paper Institute in 1972. The capacity
totals for mills in each size range as tabulated from Lockwood s
were adjusted downward multiplying by the factor 94,175 so the total
96,340
in this table corresponds to the estimate based on the API Survey.
In the Kraft process, the digesting liquor is a solution of
sodium hydroxide and sodium sulfide. The spent liquor (black liquor) is
concentrated, sodium sulfate is added to make up for chemical losses, and
the liquor is burned in a recovery furnace, producing a smelt of sodium
-------
IV-206
carbonate and sodium sulfide. The smelt is dissolved in water to form
green liquor, to which is added quicklime to convert the sodium carbonate
back to sodium hydroxide, thus reconstituting the cooking liquor. ,, The
spent lime cake (calcium carbonate) is recalcined inr a rotary lime kiln
to produce quicklime (calcium oxide) for recausticizing the green liquor^
Current Capacity and Growth Projections. Growth of Kraft
pulping is estimated to result from two sources: (1) improvement
and expansion of existing plants, and (2) construction of new
plants.
As of July 1, 1973, the existing plants have a total capacity
of 85,435 metric tons per day. It is estimated that by 1975, net im-
provements due to modernization, shifts in grades, etc., will provide
additional capacity of 476 metric tons per day, while new plants will
provide 1179 tons per day to give a total capacity of 87,090 metric
tons per day.
From 1975 to 1979, new plant capacity is estimated to
increase at a rate of five percent of industry capacity per year, while
net improvements are estimated to provide 91 metric tons per day of
added capacity each year. From 1975 to 1979, net improvements are
expected to total 364 tons per day while new plants will provide a
total of 18,416 metric tons per day, giving a total Kraft pulp capacity
of about 105,870 metric tons per day by 1979.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Particulates and gases are emitted from the various sources of
Kraft process. Numerous variables affect the quality and quantity of
emissions from each source of the Kraft pulping process. There are,
several sources of emissions in the process and the applicable control
technology and attainable efficiencies of the control methods depend
on the quantity and quality of emissions. The gaseous emissions occur
in varying mixtures, and are mainly hydrogen sulfide, methyl mercaptan,
dimethyl sulfide, dimethyl disulfide, and some sulfur dioxide. The
sulfur compounds are generally referred to as reduced sulfur compounds.
These compounds are very odorous, being detectable at a concentration
of a few parts per billion. The participate emissions, are largely
sodium sulfate, and calcium compounds.
The sources of gaseous emissions in Kraft process are the
(1) digester relief and blowing, (2) stock washers, (3) oxidation
towers, (4) evaporators, (5) recovery furnace, (6) smelt tank, and
(7) lime kiln. Particulate emissions are from the Kraft furnace, the lime
kiln, the smelt dissolving tank, and the power boiler.
-------
IV-207
The rates of uncontrolled emissions of particulates and gaseous
emissions from various sources of Kraft pulping process have been estimated.
As expected, the proportion of coal to bark used in the power boilers will
affect the amount of particulate emission; the more the coal fraction fired
the greater the particulate emissions.
The process weight-emission limitation concept is considered
unapplicable to chemical pulping, because the nature and size range of
particulates, as well as the characteristics of the processes are vastly
different. Provisions of the Washington and Oregon Regulations applicable
to pulp mills are used in this report. The regulations include the
following control provisions:
(1) Total Reduced Sulfur (TRS) Compounds from the
recovery furnace: No more than 1 kg per metric
ton (1972) reduced to no more than 1/2 pound
per ton by 1975.
(2) Noncondensible gases from the digesters and
multiple effect evaporators: Collected and
burned in the lime kiln or proven equivalent.
(3) Particulates from the recovery furnace: No
more than 2 kg per metric ton.
(4) Particulates from the lime kiln: No more than
0.5 kg per metric ton.
(5) Particulates from smelt tank: No more than 0.25
kg per metric ton.
The controlled and uncontrolled emissions (in 1000 metric tons
per year) from Kraft pulping operations over the period FY 1971 to FY 1979
are as follows;
f
Fiscal Year Mode Particulates
1971 Without Further Control 5,260
1975 Without Further Control 5,903
With Further Control 229
1979 Without Further Control 7,287
With Further Control 270
-------
IV-208
Control Technology
Control methods currently used in the wood pulping industry
consist of add-on hardware or process modifications. Various
methods are in operation. The methods used in this report are add-on
hardware which are widely used. The control methods meet the SIP
selected.
Recovery Furnace. The main functions of the Kraft recovery
furnace are recovery of chemicals from black liquor and production of
steam from the heat of combustion of organic residue in the liquor.
The recovery of the flue gases are accomplished by control devices,
usually electrostatic precipitators and or scrubbers. To meet the
particulate-emission limits, the control device may consist of a primary
and a secondary control device. Usually the cost of installation and
operation of the primary control device is offset by the recovery of
chemicals. Therefore, the cost of control will then be the cost for the
installation and operation of the secondary control device. Furthermore,
in some situations, the flue gas direct contact evaporator has served the
dual purpose of a black-liquor evaporator and particulate-emission- control
device. In recent years, it has been eliminated or modified in some new
installations, being replaced with extended multiple-effect evaporation
or operated with hot air rather than flue gas as a source of energy for
evaporation.
Three control devices are used to control particulates from
the recovery furnace in this report (1) installation of an electrostatic
precipitator in series with and located above an existing precipitator,
(2) installation of 1304 stainless .steel venturi scrubber and a concrete-
lined mild-steel separator in series with an existing electrostatic pre-
cipitator, and (3) second stage venturi in series with an existing
venturi recovery.
The first control technique is estimated to have an annual
operating efficiency (AOE) of 99.8 percent with such controls applied to
90 percent* of the Kraft industry. The second control method also has an
efficiency 99.8 percent and is applied to 8 percent* of the industry.
The third control method achieved about 97 percent efficiency, and
applied to 2 percent* of the industry's capacity.
Smelt Dissolving Tank. Control devices used to control partic-
ulates from smelt dissolving tank are mesh pads, wet scrubbers, packed
towers, and cyclones. Two control devices are used in this report:
packed towers and orifice (wet) scrubbers.
Percent control applications are estimated by private communication
with Russell Blosser of the National Council of The Paper Industry
for Air and Stream Improvement, Inc.
-------
IV-209
Packed towers and orifice scrubbers are estimated to be in
use currently by only 15 percent of the industry for smelt-dissolving-
tank particulate control. However, they were chosen because of higher
efficiency of control: 90 percent AOE for packed towers and 97 percent
AOE for orifice scrubbers.
Lime Kiln. Several types of control equipment are available
for the reduction of lime kiln particulate emissions. The water scrubber,
usually of the impingement or venturi type, is used exclusively in the
Kraft industry. However, impingement systems usually are inadequate to
meet emission standards. In most instances the higher efficiency (97 to
99 percent) venturi scrubbers will be required. Therefore, venturi
scrubbers are used in this report.
Power Boilers. Electrostatic precipitators are not generally
suitable for use on bark boilers due to (1) the poor electrical charac-
teristics of bark char and (2) the possibility of fires. Therefore,
mechanical collectors account for 95 percent of all systems used in
controlling emissions from boilers. Tall stacks also are used.
Most boilers are combination boilers. For this report a
combination boiler burning 70 percent coal and 30 percent bark is
assumed. The control method selected is a cyclonic scrubber in series
with an existing 85 percent mechanical dust collector, which gives AGE
of 94 percent.
Control Methods for the New Plants. The particulate-control
devices have been selected for each emissions source within a new
plant on the basis of efficiency, flexibility, economics, reliability,
and adaptability. Each source in the new plant will incorporate the
best available control method to meet New Source Performance
Standards. New plants must adopt some process changes, like the elimi-
nation of the direct contact evaporators between flue gases and black
liquor, to minimize gaseous emissions. The following control methods
are assumed for each source in a new plant.
Recovery Furnace - Electrostatic precipitator with venturi
scrubber in series.
Lime Kiln - Venturi scrubber (99.0 AOE)
Dissolving Tank - Orifice scrubber (95 AOE)
Combination Boiler - Cyclone collector plus cyclonic
scrubber.
All new plants are assumed to be in the 850 to 1199 metric-ton-
per-day plant capacity range.
-------
IV-210
Control Costs
For the estimation of control cost the following particulate-
control methods are used to control particulate emissions from various
sources in the Kraft mill: recovery furnace, (1) electrostatic precip-
itator added in series with an existing precipitator, (2) venturi scrubber
added to an existing precipitator, and (3) a second stage venturi scrubber
to an existing venturi; lime kiln, (1) fresh water venturi scrubber;
smelt dissolving tank, (1) packed tower and (2) orifice scrubber; combina-
tion boiler (30 percent bark and 70 percent coal), (1) cyclonic scrubber
added to an existing dust collector.
Summary of the model plants control costs is given in Table
IV-33. Also shown are the unit costs. Summary of direct control cost
for the Kraft pulp process is:
FY 1971 - FY 1979
$ Millions
Expected Minimum Maximum
Existing Facilities
Investment 209 181 241
Annual Costs
Capital Charges 27 25 31
Operating and Maintenance 40 35 46
Total Annual Costs 67 60 77
Cash Requirements 466 425 521
New Facilities
Investment 25 20 31
Annual Costs
Capital Charges 334
Operating and Maintenance 9 7 11
Total Annual Costs 11 10 15
Cash Requirements 68 59 80
Expected investment for the existing facilities is $209 million, cash
requirements are $466 million. The investment for the new facilities is
$25 million with cash requirements of $68 million. Annualized costs for
the existing facilities are $67 million and $11 million for new facilities
in 1979.
-------
IV-211
TABLE IV-33. COSTS OF CONTROL FOR THE MODEL PLANTS, KRAFT PROCESSES
Model Size,
tons/day
Investment,
$1.000
Kraft Recovery Furnace
Electrostatic + Elec-
trostatic Precipita-
tion
500
1000
1500
(Venturi Scrubber)
+ Precipitator
500
1000
1500
(new Facilities)
Venturi + Precipitator
1000
2nd Venturi + Venturi
500
1000
1500
Kraft Lime Kiln
(Ve&turi Scrubber)
(Existing Facilities)
500
1000
1500
(New Facilities)
(Venturi Scrubber)
1000
913
1464
2093
295
404
678
405
394
578
792
114
158
204
160
726
1169
1679
201
315
550
271
463
633
1134
1815
2621
312
504
854
319 501
430
714
971
91 142
129 193
164 254
126 199
Kraft Smelt Dissolving
Tank (Packed Tower)
500 62 50 77
1000 99 79 123
1500 139 112 174
Kraft Smelt Dissolving
Tank (Orifice Scrub-
ber) (Existing Faci-
lities)
506 53 43 66
1000 78 61 97
1500 103 83 129
(New Facilities)
(Orifice Scrubber)
1000 78 61 97
Kraft Combination Boiler
(Existing Facilities)
Annualized Cost,
$1.000
max
Unit Cost
$/ton
244
406
568
136
241
373
244
55
91
130
41
57
72
57
21
34
47
29
45
67
45
193
319
462
107
193
295
44
73
114
32
45
57
46
16
27
38
23
36
53
36
302
499
705
170
301
456
194 301
69
113
159
50
69
90
71
25
42
58
36
56
82
56
1,38
1.15
1.07
0.77
0.68
0.70
0.69
0.31
0.26
0.24
0.23
0.16
0.13
0.16
0.12
0.09
0.08
0.16
0.13
0.13
0.13
min
1.09
0.90
0.87
0.61
0.55
0.56
0.25
0.21
0.21
0.18
0.13
0.11
0.09
0.07
0.07
0.13
0.10
0.10
1.71
1.41
1.33
0.96
0.85
0.86
0.55 0.85
0.39
0.32
0.30
0.28
0.19
0.17
0.13 0.20
0.14
0.12
0.11
0.20
0.16
0.15
0.10 0.16
500
1000
1500
(New Facilities)
1000
254
478
683
486
202
391
549
383
316
586
852
603
112
200
274
202
88
158
217
163
138
244
342
248
0.63
0.57
0.52
0.57
0.50
0.45
0.41
0.46
0.78
0.69
0.64
0.70
-------
IV-212
Neutral Sulfite Semichemical Paper Industry
Introduction and Summary
Nature of Product and Process. Semichemical pulps are produced
by digesting with reduced amounts of chemicals, followed by mechanical
treatment to complete the fiber separation. The most prevalent semi-
chemical pulping process is the neutral sulfite Semichemical process.
In this process, sodium sulfite in combination with sodium bicarbonate,
or ammonium sulfite buffered with ammonium hydroxide, are used as cooking
chemicals. These cooks are slightly alkaline, in contrast to the highly
alkaline kraft and highly or moderately acidic sulfite cooks. The semi-
chemical pulping processes are used for production of high yield pulps -
ranging from 60 to 85 percent of dry wood weight charged to the digestion
vessel - and can include kraft and sulfite processes suitably modified to
reduce pulping action in order to produce higher than normal yield pulps.
Semichemical pulps are used in the preparation of corrugating
medium, coarse wrapping paper, linerboard, hardboard, and roofing felt
as well as fine grades of paper and other products.
Emissions and Control Costs. Air emissions in the NSSC process
are essentially limited to particulate; however, in some cases sulfur
dioxide and hydrogen sulfide may be emitted. The major sources of
emissions are recovery furnaces and power boilers.
Estimated emissions in FY 1971 were 473 metric tons of
particulates. Estimates for FY 1979 , with controls, is 40 metric
tons.
The expected total annualized cost of control for all NSSC
plants will be $10.3 million, while the total control investment for
FY 1971-1979 is expected to be $26.7 million.
Industry Structure
Characteristics of the Firms. The size distribution of NSSC
pulp mills is classified into three size ranges: 0-181, 182-363, and 364-
635 air dried metric tons (ADMT) of air dried pulp per day. The number
of plants in each size range are
-------
IV-213
Capacity
Range,
ADMT/dav
Number of
Mills
Capacity,
ADMT/dav
Average
Mill Capacity,
ADMT/dav
Model Mill
Capacity,
ADMT/dav
0 - 181 21 2,283 109 113
182 - 363 22 5,005 228 227
364 - 635 _7 3,097 442 454
Total 50 10,385
Sources: Paper, Paperboard, Wood Pulp Capacity 1971-1974, American Paper
Institute; List of U.S. Pulp Mills as of December, 1972, American
Paper Institute; Hendrickson, E.R., Roberson, J.E., and Koogler,
J.B., "Control of Atmospheric Emissions in the Wood Pulping
Industry", PB-190352, Environmental Engineering, Inc. and
J.E. Sirrine Company, March 15, 1970.
Current Capacity and Projection. According to an American Paper
Institute report the capacity of the NSSC mill estimated as of July 1, 1973
is 10,385 ADMT/day or 3,611,000 ADMT/year. It is estimated that the
capacity growth rate from 1968 to date was about 4.75 percent/year uncom-
pounded, and the same growth rate will be maintained until 1979. Thus,
the capacities for the years of 1971, 1975, and 1979 are estimated as
3,268,000 ADMT/year, 3,954,000 ADMT/year, and 4,640,000 AEMT/year,
respectively.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
For this report, discussions and calculations of air emissions
from the NSSC process will be limited to particulate; the sulfur dioxide
emission is relatively insignificant compared with those from other
chemical pulping processes as shown in the following tabulation.
Particulate, SO-
Plant Ib/ADMT Ib/ADHT
Digester 0 0.854
S02 Absorber 0 0.326
Evaporator 0 0.5
Recovery Furnace 26.6 29.2
Power Boiler 292 128
Total 318.6 158.88
-------
IV-214
The sources include the recovery furnace and power boilers. Black liquors
generated in the NSSC pulping process generally are discharged to sewers
although in some cases the black liquor is evaporated and cross-recovered .
with an adjacent kraft mill or treated in a fluidized bed system. In this
study it is assumed that all the black liquors will be recovered in some
manner. Coal and bark burning power boilers emit particulates as shown
in the kraft mill.
The rates .of emission particulates are estimated 27 Ib/ADMT*
and 292 lb/ADMT** from the recovery furnace and power boilers, respectively.
The portion of coal used in the power boiler will influence the amount of
particulate emission as shown in the kraft mill; the more the coal fraction
fired, the greater the emission.
The emissions (in 1000 metric tons per year) from NSSC pulping
operations over the period FY 1971 to FY 1979 are as follows:
Mode Particulates
Without Further Control 473
Without Further Control 572
With Further Control 34
1979 Without Further Control 671
With Further Control 40
Control Technology
Control systems for particulate emission from the recovery furnace
and power boilers are similar to those for kraft mills. Since the particu-
late emission per metric ton of air dried pulp is relatively small from the
recovery furnace, a single electrostatic precipitator would provide suffi-
cient control to meet the Washington-Oregon regulations. The annual operating
* The black liquor resulting from the NSSC pulping process is assumed
to be concentrated and burned in a recovery furnace. Particulates
emission from the furnace is assumed to be 27 Ib/ADMT.
** Thermal energy required to generate power for pulping process =
4.3 x 10? Btu/ADMT. It is assumed that 70 percent of the energy
is provided by coal and the rest by bark.
Coal to be burned = 1.1 ton/ADMT
Bark to be burned =1.4 ton/ADMT
Particulate emission factor for burning coal = 230 Ib/ton coal
(Ash content of coal, 14.4 percent).
Particulate emission factor for burning bark =27.5 Ib/ton bark
Particulate emission from power boiler = 292 Ib/ADMT
-------
IV-215
efficiency is estimated as 95 percent and about 70 percent of the existing
NSSC industry is to be equipped with the control device (It is estimated
that about 30 percent of the NSSC industry has been equipped with a
similar control system already.).
Electrostatic precipitators are not adequate to control particu-
late emissions from the power boilers as discussed in the section of this
report on kraft mills. A cyclonic scrubber in series with an existing
mechanical dust collector is needed to meet the Federal emission standard.
The operating efficiency would be about 94 percent.
Control methods for the new plants were selected to meet the new
source performance standards. An electrostatic precipitator and a cyclone
collector plus cyclonic scrubber will be employed for the recovery furnace
and power boilers, respectively. All new plants are assumed to be in the
364 to 635 ADMT/day plant capacity range.
Control Costs
The control systems employed for particulate emissions from the
recovery system and power boilers are an electrostatic precipitator and
a cyclonic scrubber in series with a mechanical dust collector such as
cyclone. The cost data are not available with specific reference to the
NSSC process. The data, however, can be estimated from the information
on similar control systems used in the kraft mills.
The summary of the estimated direct costs of control, for the
period FY 1971 through FY 1979 is as follows:
$ Millions
Expected Minimum Maximum
Existing Facilities
Investment 21.5 18.5 24.7
Annual Costs
Capital Charges 2.8 2.4 3.3
Operating and Maintenance 6.8 5.8 7.9
Total Annual Costs 9.6 8.2 11.2
Cash Requirements 65.7 60.4 72.8
New Facilities
Investment 5.2 4.2 6.5
Annual Costs
Capital Charges 0.8 0.7 1.0
Operating and Maintenance 1.9 1.6 2.3
Total Annual Costs 2.7 2.3 3.3
Cash Requirements 12.7 10.8 14.9
-------
V. FOSSIL FUEL BURNING SOURCES
STEAM ELECTRIC POWER PLANTS
Introduction
Among the largest stationary sources of air pollution are the
burners of the fossil fuels: coal, oil, and natural gas. The most significant
pollutants emitted from these sources are particulate matter and the
oxides of sulfur and nitrogen. Coal is the most polluting fuel among the
three; natural gas is the cleanest and most convenient to use. The prin-
cipal uses for these fuels include (1) electricity generation in steam
electric power plants, (2) steam generation, and space heating in the in-
dustrial and commercial sector, and (3) space heating in the residential
sector. In 1972, more than 82 percent of the steam coal (in contrast to
coking coal) produced was used for power generation. About 63 percent of
all residual fuel oil consumed and 18 percent of natural gas produced
were used for the same purpose. It is apparent from these estimates that
utility burners are the major sources of emission for the pollutants of
concern, since they burn the most polluting fuels in the largest quantities.
largest quantities.
Reduction of emissions from utility fossil-fuel burners will
require a major application of new technologies and an effective distrib-
ution of available fuels. Abatement schedules for pollutants from fossil-
fuel burners have been drawn up by the appropriate Federal and local
authorities. These regulations which are already in effect or are slated
to take effect no later than July, 1975, are aimed at preserving the quality
of our air environment for protection of the public health.
In this and following sections the main concern will be the
abatement of emissions in the time period 1975 to 1979. The possible
technologies and alternatives that may be used for abatement will be re-
viewed. Expected r.nsf.s of these technologies and alternatives will be
presented. Effort has been made to predict the cost and effectiveness
of each abatement technology and alternative with the greatest possible
certainty. Some predictions pertain to the availability of control
technology and the magnitude of its application in the period of concern;
others pertain to the types and quantities of the various fuels available
in the time period under consideration (1975 to 1979). Among the alter-
natives available for abatement of pollutant emissions is fuel switching.
This entails the burning of the less polluting fuels (low-sulfur coal,
fuel oil, and natural gas) in lieu of the more polluting ones (high-sul-
fur coal and fuel oil). In view of recent shortages in the cleaner fuels
it is anticipated that with one exception (burning low-sulfur in lieu of
high-sulfur coal) this switching to the cleaner fuels is unlikely In the
time period under consideration (FY 1975-FY 1979). Low-sulfur coal is
-------
V-2
the least expensive fuel currently available in quantities significant
enough for consideration as an alternative fuel. The coal transportation
problem is a significant one at this time; so also is the problem of ,
rapidly increasing mine output. This implies that, contrary to earlier
expectations, larger quantities of the more polluting fuels will be
burned in utility boilers. Consequently, greater efforts in the develop-
ment and application of pollution control technology will have to be
expended.
A summary of the estimated costs of controlling emissions of
particulates, sulfur oxides, and nitrogen oxides from fossil-fueled steam
electric1 power generators in the two time periods FY 1975-FY 1979 and
FY 1971-FY 1979 are as follows:
$. Millions
FY 1975-FY 1979 FY 1971-FY 1979
ExpectedMinimumMaximum Expected Minimum Maximum
Investment 5,540 4,440 7,640 7,460 5,990 9,310
Annual!zed Costs 3,770 2,620 4,560 4,630 3,450 5,530
Cash Requirement 17,480 11,950 21,650 19,870 14,030 23,640
These estimates are based upon simplifying assumptions which are presented
and discussed in the appropriate sections of this chapter.
Background; Legislative Requirements
1 ' and EPA Policy
The passage of the Clean Air Act of 1963, the Air Quality Act
of 1967 and the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970 demonstrate the concern
of both the public and government over the quality of the air environment.
The 1970 amendments of the Clean Air Act established the Environmental
Protection Agency among whose important responsibilities were (1) the
determination of ambient-air-quality standards with respect to air pollu-
tants and, (2) the approval of SIP's for existing sources of these
pollutants, and (3) the promulgation of New Source Performance Standards.
Fossil-fuel burning power plants are major sources of the air
pollutants:1 sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, .and particulate matter. On
April 30, 1971, the EPA issued national ambient air quality standards
(both primary and secondary) for these three pollutants. These standards
-------
V-3
specified the maximum allowable average 3-hour, daily, and annual con-
centrations of each pollutant. The primary standards, to be met by
May 31, 1975 (except for specific exemptions to 1977 or 1978) specify the
concentrations of pollutants (in micrograms per cubic meter) which if
exceeded would, to the best knowledge available at the time, result in
a detrimental effect on public health. The more stringent secondary
standards, defined as the levels of air quality judged necessary to pro-
tect the public from any known or anticipated adverse effects of a
pollutant, are to be met within a reasonable time as specified by the
Environmental Protection Agency.
In 1971 EPA required each State to submit by January 30, 1972,
plans (called State Implementation Plans—SIP1s) providing for the imple-
mentation, maintenance, and enforcement of the ambient-air-quality
standards in each.of the Air Quality Control Regions falling into each
of the states. At the same time. New Source Performance Standards
were issued for a number of industrial activities. Among these
were fossil-fuel-burning power plants the construction (or modification)
of which commenced after August 17, 1971. These standards which are
shown below for new p«wer plants were deemed attainable and necessary for
the achievement of the ambient-air-quality standards:/
Fuel Type
Pollutant Gaseous Liquid Solid
(Pounds per million Btu)
Particulate Matter - - - - - -
SO - - 0.8 1.2
x
NO 0.2 0.3 0.7
x
The standards set forth in the SIP's which regulate emissions from utility
fossil-fuel burners will explicitly apply to existing sources (plants
under construction or already in operation). While, in most SIP's, these
standards are somewhat less stringent than those for new sources, they
nevertheless tend to approach the latter for the larger units. Most
states set 1975 as the date to meet both primary and secondary standards
for sulfur oxides, and many states imposed sulfur regulations that would
result in air even cleaner than secondary standards.
In response to these factors, EPA has announced a "Clean Fuels
Policy". The administrator of EPA and the President have both urged the
states to delay implementation of emission regulations where primary,
(health-related) standards are not endangered. If the states comply with
this request, the limited supplies of low-sulfur coal and stack gas
cleaning technology will be restricted so as to attain primary standards
within the time framework mandated by the Clean Air Act. At the same
time it would be possible to use nearly all of the current U.S. coal
production and avoid the serious economic impacts that have been projected.
It is possible that current legislation being considered in Congress may
even give EPA the authority to change overly stringent state regulations.
-------
V-4
Discussion of Problem: Emissions from
Alternative Fuels
A choice must be made among the available fuels and to provide
sufficient environmental protection from their combustion products by
meeting ambient-air-quality standards while generating adequate quantities
of heat and power as economically as possible. In the near term, energy
resources that will be consumed in large amounts are nuclear fuels with
their radioactive-waste-disposal requirements, and the fossil fuels with
their ash-residue-disposal and gaseous-emission-control requirements.
Among the fossil fuels, natural gas is the cleanest, but is in
short supply. To demonstrate the relative cleanliness of gas relative
to coal and oil the emissions resulting from the use of each fuel in a
1,000 MWe power plant is given below.
Emissions, kilograms per hour
Fuel
Particulates
31,364
273
77
S00
2
18,636
5,682
3
NO
X
5,909
3,909
3,091
Coal
Oil
Gas
As indicated, natural gas is the preferred fuel from an emis-
sions standpoint. Indeed, gas-fired power plants provided 29 percent of
electricity in 1971, and gas provided about one-third of all heat energy
derived from fossil fuels. However, the production of gas during the
near term is expected to remain fairly constant, and growth in fossil
fuel demand will be taken up by coal and oil.
Despite current shortages in the U.S., petroleum is still an
abundant fuel internationally. For mobile sources, its derivatives,
gasoline and diesel oil, are not expected to be supplanted in the near
future. For utility burners, despite the potential switch from oil to
coal in many power plants, distillate and residual fuel oil will con-
tinue to supply a significant fraction of the energy required in 1980.
Fuel oils for utility burners contain sulfur (typically sulfur contents
average about 0.7 percent for United States crude oils and about 2.2 per-
cent for imported crude oils). Much of this is removed from the final
product. The ash from crude oil combustion is low, about 0.5 percent.
-------
V-5
The supply of crude oil and its derivatives in the United States
is becoming increasingly critical due to limited reserves of domestic
sources and increasing international demand for this versatile fuel. Fur-
thermore, oil is in most demand for electric power in areas where foreign
oil was and probably will continue to be more accessible.
The most abundant fossil fuel in this country is coal. In 1971,
about 327 million tons of coal were burned to supply about half of United
States electric power. In 1970, 100.5 million tons were used for heating,
98 million tons were used to produce coke for use in industrial processes,
and 73 million tons were exported. The resources of coal are widespread
through the United States, but coal has not been used in proportion to its
availability in comparison with the other fuels.
Coal typically has an ash content of 9 percent, of which(under
uncontrolled conditions) about 85 percent would be emitted with a dry-
bottom boiler, and 65 percent with a wet-bottom boiler. The resulting
emissions would be orders of magnitude (as the tabulation shows) higher than
those from the combustion of the other fossil fuels. Particulate controls
of varying efficiencies are found on all but the smallest coal burners.
Sulfur dioxide emissions from coal burning are even more serious
and more difficult to control. In 1970, the sulfur content of coal burned
by utilities, industry, and in heating units for household and commercial
use averaged 2,5 percent. This sulfur appears as sulfur dioxide and some
sulfur trioxide when the coal is burned. To reduce the sulfur oxides, a
coal with low-sulfur content could be chosen. However, much of the East-
ern low-sulfur coal is reserved for use as coke by the metals industries.
In only 6 percent of current production is the sulfur content low enough
to meet New Source Performance Standards. The major Western low-sulfur
coals are uneconomical to ship to power plants east of Chicago. Western
coals will be used extensively in the Central Region.
In spite of these problems, use of coal to supply most electric
power in the near future seems unavoidable. Sulfur dioxide emission con-
trol, therefore, will require much change from current practice. As well
as switching to low-sulfur coal, other strategies are possible. These in-
clude removal of sulfur from flue gases, and removal of sulfur from high
sulfur fuels before burning.
The uncontrolled and controlled emissions from utility fossil-
fuel burners may be estimated from known (measured) emission factors, for
the first case, and from the capability of the various control techniques
in the second. Utility burners are major sources of the three pollutants;
namely, the oxides of nitrogen and sulfur, and particulate matter.
The 1975 controlled and uncontrolled emissions from this source are
shown below in millions of metric tons.
-------
V-6
Controlled Emissions
Uncontrolled Emissions
Most Probable
Maximum That Nay
Be Achieved
SO
NO
x
culates
SO
NO
x
Parti-
culates
SO
x
NO
Parti-
culates
Coal 22.1 7.9
Oil 3.2 1.6
Gas -- 1.2
34
8.6 7.5
2.0 1.5
1.1
0.5
5.4
2.0
3.2
0.7
0.4
0.5
The "uncontrolled emission" levels were computed from 1975 fuel-
consumption data and emission factors for the various fuels. The "most
probable" levels of emission represent those that may be expected after the
application of the various control alternatives. Emissions labeled "maximum
that may be achieved" are those that can be expected if the New Source
Performance Standards are uniformly applied.
Control Technology
The New Source Performance Standards pertaining to util-
ities were proposed in August, 1971, after considerable effort in deter-
.cnining their feasibility. The performance standards represent emissions
(of sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter) that may be
expected following the application of the most advanced and econom-
ically feasible control technology. In principle, it is possible to
drastically reduce emissions of all pollutants mentioned by switching from
the more polluting fuels (coal and high sulfur oil) to the less polluting ones.
The availability of less polluting or "clean" fuels is limited. There-
fore, control will have to rely heavily on the installation of control
equipment except as noted above. A number of alternatives and techniques
which are currently available for the control of pollutants emitted from
utility power plants are discussed below.
Sulfur Oxide Control
The principal means to abate the emissions of sulfur oxides are-
(1) use of fuels containing less sulfur (low-sulfur coal and fuel oil)- and
(2) flue-gas desulfurization.
-------
V-7
. . Fuel Switching. In principle, it is possible to meet all the S0n
emission restrictions for steam electric plants by increasing the consumption
of the so-called "clean" fuels (natural gas and low-sulfur coal and fuel oil)
and, simultaneously decreasing the consumption of the "dirty" fuels (hieh-
sulfur coal and residual oil). This is not only true for sulfur dioxide but
also for the other two pollutants from this source; namely, nitrogen dioxide
and particulates. Deterrents to massive conversion to the "clean" fuels are
the problems of availability and cost. The cleaner fuels, with the exception
of low-sulfur coal, are increasingly becoming in short supply. And as demand
for the cleaner fuels in other uses (household and commercial) increases,
their availability for power plant usage will decline. In nearly all recent
projections by industry and government, an increase in the use of gas and
residual fuel oil for utility purposes is foreseen. This may not be true in
the case of gas, and no significant increase in fuel-oil consumption is
foreseen before 1975. Many uncertainties exist about the supply/demand
situation for fuel oil. Most of these uncertainties stem from political
instabilities existing in the crude-oil supply sources in the Middle East,
North Africa, and South America. The use of natural gas and low-sulfur fuel
oil by utilities probably will not increase, and may decrease.
The total 1975 utility requirement of fuel oil (both distillate
and residual) will probably be about 5300 trillion Btu's. In the absence
of any sulfur regulations, about 60 percent of the oil burned will con-
tain less than 1 percent sulfur. However, in order to meet the SIP's>
more than 80 percent of the oil burned will have to contain less than 1
percent sulfur. This will call for added fuel desulfurization at the
refinery level. The technology for the accomplishment of this added de-
sulfurization is available. It is uncertain whether enough desulfuriza-
tion capacity can be constructed by 1975.
For some coal-burning plants in the Midwestern states, low-
sulfur coal is an economic alternative for meeting sulfur dioxide regula-
tions. Switching to low-sulfur fuel oil is not a viable alternative in
view of current shortages. In the contiguous U.S., low-sulfur coal of
sulfur content less than 1.0 percent is found in significant quantities
in the Appalachian region (Western Virginia and Eastern West Virginia
and Kentucky), and in the western states: North Dakota, Montana, Wyoming,
Colorado, and Utah. First, the Appalachian low-sulfur coal will not be
available in significant amounts for Eastern and Central utilities for a
number of reasons. Among others, the supplies of this coal are insufficient
for meeting long-term utility requirements in the Eastern half of the U.S.
Strippable reserves of low-sulfur coal amount to only 850 million tons,
whereas reserves obtainable from deep-mining operations are about 750
million tons. The total reserves represent less than three times the 1972
utility demand in the Central and Eastern regions. Second, for most
Eastern utilities, high-sulfur coal used in conjunction with flue-gas de-
sulfurization (FGD) to meet sulfur oxide regulations will be cheaper than
-------
V-8
using Eastern low-sulfur coal. For central utilities it is cheaper to
use high-sulfur coal in conjunction with FGD or Westerji low-sulfur coal,
Subbituminous coals (with heating values of about 8500 Btu/lb)
and lignite (6500 Btu/lb) of low-sulfur content (0.7 percent or less) are
found in large quantities in a number of Western states. Lignite deposits
are found in North and South Dakota and Montana, while Subbituminous coals
are found in a discontinuous belt across easter Montana, Wyoming, and
Colorado. The recoverable reserves of the Subbituminous coals are esti-
mated at 150 billion tons. Some of the pjgpperties of lignite pose
serious problems in transportation. The high moisture content (about 30
percent) gives rise to freezing problems. It is also subject to spon-
taneous ignition,, Therefore, only the Subbituminous Western coals may
be considered for export to the Eastern 'half of the U. S. Lignite will
probably be utilized in minemouth power plants.
Western coal production in Montana, Wyoming, and the Dakotas
amounted to about 16 million tons in 1972. It is estimated that an
additional 30 million tons could be available by 1975 from this source.
The demand for Western low-sulfur coal will continue to increase between
1975 and 1980. Probably more than 90 percent of this will be exported
to utilities located in the Midwest.
There are a number of problems associated with the use of West-
ern low-sulfur coal in Central and Eastern utilities. Transportation
over long distances may triple the costs per ton. Rail capacity will
have to be expanded. Wet-bottom boilers, designed for burning high-
sulfur coal with a low ash-fusion temperature, account for a substantial
percentage of the generating capacity in the Central and Eastern regions
(perhaps more than 18 percent). Since Western low-sulfur coal has a high
ash-fusion temperature, costly and time-consuming boiler modifications
will have to be undertaken by the utilities in the Eastern and Central
regions. It is not clear at this time whether all necessary conversions
will be made by 1975. For these reasons, the use of Western coal will
probably be limited to existing Central utilities with dry-bottom
boilers and for new utilities in the Central Region.
Flue Gas Desulfurization (FGD). There are more than 50 processes
which have been proposed for the removal of sulfur oxides from stack gases.
In many of these processes flue gas containing sulfur oxide, is contacted in
a suitable device with an aqueous solution (or slurry) containing an alka-
line material which reacts with the sulfur oxides. Depending on the type
of treatment the alkaline solution receives after the contacting operation,
a desulfurization process may be either regnerative or throw-away. In a
typical regenerative process the absorbing solution containing the sulfur
oxides is treated in such a way as to obtain the sulfur oxides (as 802)
in a more concentrated form than as originally found in the flue gas. A
number of options are currently available for conversion of SO^ in this
concentrated gas stream. It can be converted to elemental sulfur on the
-------
V-9
one hand or to sulfuric acid on the other. In the throwaway-type proc-
ess, the sulfur oxides react with the alkali to form the relatively
insoluble sulfates and sulfites of, mainly, calcium. These have been
disposed of in the form of a wet sludge.
A number of FGD processes have achieved prominence as a result
of relatively extensive testing in actual and comparatively large pilot-
scale operations. Three of these processes are of the throwaway type.
These processes are (1) lime scrubbing, (2) wet limestone scrubbing, and
(3) double alkali process. The alkalis used in the first and second proc-
esses are lime and limestone, respectively, whereas soda ash is used in
the third process. Lime is used to regenerate the soda ash.
There are three prominent regenerative FGD processes. In the
first process, a slurry of magnesia is used to absorb the sulfur oxides.
The sulfites and sulfates of magnesium result from the reaction. Regen-
eration of these to magnesia is carried out by calcination of the
dewatered slurry with small amounts of coke (used to reduce the sulfate).
Sulfur dioxide in high concentration is liberated in the calcination
process. The sulfur dioxide is subsequently converted to sulfuric acid.
In another process sodium sulfite is used as absorbent. The main product
of reaction is the bisulfite of sodium. Stripping with steam releases
the absorbed sulfur dioxide which can be converted to elemental sulfur or
sulfuric acid. A relatively small but significant amount of sulfate is
formed in the process. This is continuously purged along with the associated
sulfite. Alternatives for the proper ultimate disposal of this purge stream
are currently under scrutiny.
In yet another process, the sulfur oxides are catalytically oxi-
dized to sulfur trioxide prior to absorption in dilute sulfuric acid.
The product acid (of about 80 percent concentration) may find uses in
various chemical processes or may be neutralized with limestone if market
conditions are such that sale of the product is not possible.
All of the FGD processes mentioned above are capable of reduc-
ing sulfur oxide emissions by at least 80 to 85 percent. Their use will
make possible the burning of high-sulfur fuels (coal and oil) without
exceeding the standards set forth in the SIP's as well as in the New
Source Performance Standards for power plants. However, some technical
and environmental problems will result from widespread application of
these processes.
In some of these processes (especially the throwaway types)
undesirable by-products in the form of sludges or alkaline salt solutions
are obtained. As a result of the recent public hearings on the status of
FGD technology, EPA has concluded that technology has been recently
developed to reclaim sludges for use as stable landfills. In these cases
when landfill is not applicable, regenerative FGD processes should be
considered.
-------
V-10
In some other processes, operational and reliability problems may
result from improper design, construction, or monitoring thereof. (It
seems that many of the problems encountered in the pilot testing of the
various processes might be adequately solved in the time period between
1974 and 1979). It is predicted that the period 1975 to 1980 will see a
widespread application of FGD systems. Perhaps more than 100^000 MW of
generating capacity will utilize FGD systems for sulfur oxide control in
1979. This would amount to about 20 percent of the total fossil steam
electric generating capacity.* It is noteworthy that the cumulative
capacity for manufacturing and installing FGD systems by 1979 has been
estimated but at twice that required by the above demand estimate.*
Other Options. Tall stacks and intermittent control systems
are two alternative control systems which can be used to take advantage
of the dispersion characteristics of the atmosphere to avoid heavy ambi-
ent concentrations. Tall stacks emit pollutant streams at high enough
altitudes that they disperse before reaching ground levels. Intermittent
control systems use meteorological data and air-quality measurements to
determine when high emission rates will not threaten air-quality stand-
ards. Thus, in an intermittent system a plant would use high-sulfur fuels
or high operating rates at times when the air is clean and there is good
dispersion of pollutants, but at times of dirty air or poor dispersion it
would switch to low-sulfur fuels, low operating rates, or (for certain
types of facilities) even shut down.
Such operation has the advantage of allowing maintenance of air
quality standards at much lower expense than by use of low sulfur fuels
or stack gas cleaning equipment. It has the disadvantage however of
allowing higher levels of emissions of sulfur oxides which yield high ex-
posure to the health effects of sulfates, which are formed by atmospheric
conversion of sulfur oxides. Higher sulfur oxide levels also yield
higher property damages due to acid rains. It is a difficult tradeoff to
make between substantially lower costs to achieve sulfur oxides standards
and higher risks of damages from total atmospheric loading of sulfur
oxides. EPA's current posture on tall stacks and intermittent control
systems has been to allow them only as an interim measure. In September,
1973 EPA proposed regulations that limit use of dispersion techniques to
situations where permanent controls are not available (such as where there
is not room to install a ecrubber), and where the alternatives are a per-
manent production curtailment, a shut down, or violation of air quality
standards. It is expected that these interim alternatives will be of
greatest use for coal-fired power plants and copper smelters.
EPA estimates 90,000 MW of generating capacity wil.l utilize FGD systems as
spelled out in the recently issued National Public Hearings on Power Plant
Compliance with Sulfur Oxide Air Pollution kegulatioris^ uT S.
January, 1974.
-------
V-ll
In the early 1980's, coal-refining technology will probably make
a significant contribution to the supply of clean fuels available at that
time. Two prominent types of coal-refining processes are noteworthy. In
the first, coal is converted at high temperatures and pressures, and in
the presence of air and steam to a pipeline-quality (sulfur free) fuel
gas similar in characteristics to the well-known natural gas., The other
type of coal refining involves the removal of the impurities (sulfur and
ash) by the simultaneous dissolution and hydrogenation of the coal at
high temperatures and pressures. The ash is separated from the coal solu-
tion in a suitable device. The organic sulfur in the coal is converted to
hydrogen sulfide gas (by hydrogenation) and the inorganic sulfur is asso-
ciated with ash.
Many other direct and indirect alternatives will become avail-
able for sulfur oxide abatement in the last two decades of the Twentieth
Century. As energy sources other than fossil fuels gain wide application
and chemical conversion processes for refining the "dirty" fossil fuels
become commercially available, the significance of the sulfur oxide prob-
lem will be greatly diminished. The still-untapped solar, geothermal,
and tidal energy sources may foreseeably become sole sources in the
future. Such novel sources of energy as thermonuclear fusion, fast-
breeder reactors may sometime in the future supplant the use of fossil
fuels.
Nitrogen Oxide Control
The present state of the art for control of emissions of nitro-
gen oxides from utility boilers calls for techniques that involve modifi-
cation of the combustion process. In general, they follow schemes that
were originally developed for NOX control in natural-gas-burning equipment.
Combustion modification involves reducing temperature in the furnace and
promoting conditions that prevent the oxidation of fuel-bound nitrogen (in
coal and oil only). Fuel switching (mainly to natural gas) may be consid-
ered a possible alternative in cases of adequate fuel availability.
With regard to the control of nitrogen oxides emission from steam
electric power stations, two cases have been encompassed. In Case Iv the
cost of controlling all nitrogen oxides has been estimated.
The need for absolute and uniform control appears to be unneces-
sary. In the period FY 1975 to FY 1979, it is expected that nitrogen
oxides emissions control will be required only in the Los Angeles area
(AQCR 24) and in the Chicago area (AQCR 67). Costs of nitrogen oxides
control were estimated for Los Angeles and Chicago as Case 2. In FY 1975,
the estimated electric generating capacity for Los Angeles is 11,770 MW,
fired by oil and gas. In the same year the Chicago AQCR is estimated to
include 7,700 MW of coal-fired, and 7,000 MW of oil/gas fired generating
capacity.
-------
V-12
Coal. The applicability and effectiveness of NOX control in
coal burners is largely affected by the type of burner employed, and per-
haps to a lesser degree, the sulfur content and rank of the coal. On the
basis of the total heat duty of all utility boilers, it is estimated that
85 percent are fed pulverized coal. The balance thereof (15 percent) are
fitted with cyclone burners requiring crushed (chunk) coa!0 Three types
of pulverized coal-fired furnaces are found. These are: (1) the tan-
gentially fired, (2) the dry ash type, and (3) slag-tap (wet bottom). It
is estimated that these three types make up 50, 33, and 2 percent of all
utility coal-fired boilers, respectively.
In general, the combustion modification techniques des- des-
cribed below apply only to the dry-bottom furnaces. The wet-bottom boilers
(cyclone and pulverized-coal slag-tap) will have to be retrofitted to the
dry-ash pulverized-coal variety before NOX control by combustion modifi-
cation is applied, although switching to oil or gas firing would eliminate
the retrofit problem.
The NO control techniques that may be applied to coal-fired
boilers are: (1; low (or minimum) excess air firing, (2) staged combus-
tion and off-stoichiometric firing, (3) flue-gas recirculation, (4) water
injection, and (5) fuel switching. In the first technique, the amount of
air above stoichiometric that is introduced to the burner is kept to a
minimum. NOX reductions of 50 percent have been experienced with this
technique in a tangentially fired boiler. Staged combustion and off-
stoichiometric firing involves running some or all burners rich in fuel
the introducing the balance of the air through either NO ports (usually
located above the burners) or through the fuel-lean burners if the latter
alternative is chosen. This technique offered a reduction of 60 percent
in tangentially fired boilers. The third technique involves flue-gas re-
circulation whereby a portion of the coal combustion products is divert-
ed back to the windbox. Despite a lack of experience with thi>s technique
with large-scale boilers, it is expected to yield similar reductions as
those obtained in oil firing. The fourth technique involves the injec-
tion of water into the burner. This has the effect of reducing flame
temperatures with simultaneous reduction in the thermal efficiency. The
fifth alternative involves the switching to oil or gas firing since flame
temperatures and fuel nitrogen are lower for these than for coal.
It is apparent from the above that staged combustion and off-
stoichiometric firing is the most suitable method for controlling NO
emissions from coal burners. Not only does it give the highest percent-
age reduction of NOX of the most probable techniques, (1) through
(4), but also does not result in derating the iboiler (as in water injection),
Fuel nitrogen is prevented from being oxidized because of the reducing
atmosphere occurring in the early stages of combustion.
-------
V-13
Oil* The techniques described for control of NO from coal-
firing are generally applicable to those originating from oil firing.
By the same reasoning (given for coal in the previous paragraph) staged
combustion and off-stoichiometric firing will be used to control NO
emissions. The reduction in NOX obtained may be as high as 55 percent.
Gas. NOX control in gas-fired boilers may be achieved with
either flue-gas recirculation or staged combustion and off-stoichiometric
firing. However, the latter technique seems to have lower annual and in-
vestment costs. Reductions in NO up to 70 percent NO may be expected.
•*» X
Particulates Control
Particulate control would normally be undertaken in all coal-
fired utility boilers. In most cases, particulate control is not
necessary for fuel oil-fired boilers. The uncontrolled emissions of
particulates from coal burning boilers are usually 50 to 100 times higher
than those from oil burning on a per million Btu basis. Except in soot
blowing operations, fuel oil firing will meet the standards set in the
SIP's when burners are kept at peak efficiency. This also applies to
natural gas burners. '
Coal-fired boilers are mostly of two types. The first, account-
ing for about 83 percent of steam generated electrically (from coal) are
of the dry-bottom type utilizing pulverized coal. The remainder of the
steam-electricity from coal is obtained from wet-bottom boilers. The
uncontrolled particulate emissions from dry-bottom boilers are about 80
percent of the ash contained in the coal charged. For wet-bottom boilers
(mainly of the cyclone variety) those uncontrolled emissions are about 30
percent of the ash in coal.
Particulate control may be achieved by either wet or dry meth-
ods. In the wet systems, the flue gas is scrubbed with water in a suit-
able contacting device. The ash-laden scrub water is then sent to a
thickener wherein suspended solids content is increased to about 30 per-
cent. The clear effluent from the thickener is recycled to the scrubber
whereas the stream containing most of the ash is neutralized with lime-
stone (or lime) before disposal in a pond. Neutralization is necessary
since about 20 percent of the S0£ in the flue gas is absorbed in the
scrub water. The particulate overall removal efficiency by this method
may be as high as 99.9 percent. Dry methods of particulate removal may
be divided into (1) mechanical and (2) electrostatic. Mechanical meth-
ods include passing the ash-laden flue gas through such devices as
cyclones and baghouses. In cyclones the gas-solid separation is achieved
by the development of a centrifugal force on the ash particle, inside the
device thereby inducing it to move away from the main gas stream into a
-------
V-14
compartment where solids accumulate. The baghouse is a part£culate-re-
moval device in which the partieulate matter is removed by passing the
gas through a fabric filter in the form of a number of cylindrical bags.
The dust collects on the inside surfaces of the bags and is continuously
removed by mechanical shaking of the bags along the cylindrical axis.
In electrostatic separation, the gas is subjected to a high-strength
electric field between two electrodes. A corona discharge (a process
by which gas molecules are ionized) between the electrodes causes the
solid particles to become charged. These charged particles are subse- .
quently attracted by collector electrodes which in turn are periodically
trapped to remove deposits. The collection efficiency of all dry systems
described above is 99 percent or better with the exception of cyclones
where it is about 80 percent only.
The technique to be used in any particular situation depends
largely on (1) the type of coal burned, (2) its sulfur content, (3)
availability of space and adequate water supplies and (4) the percentage
removal required by applicable standards. It has been found that SC^ in
the flue gas tends to decrease the resistivity of the ash particle in the
electric field between the electrodes in an electrostatic precipitator.
This results in faster and more efficient collection of the ash particles.
Roughly twice as much collector area is needed to collect the same amount
of flue gas resulting from the burning of 1 percent sulfur coal as compar-
ed to a coal containing 2 percent sulfur. This effect of the sulfur
content of the coal is diminished by lowering or raising the temperature
about 300 F. In cases where there are space limitations and retrofit
problems are difficult, wet scrubbing in a high-energy venturi (as ex-
plained under wet methods) may be used ,for low-sulfur coal. This is prob-
ably the case for existing units without adequate partieulate controls
although baghouses may be also applied with equal efficiency.
Prior to the promulgation of the Clean Air Act of 1970, per-
haps 95 percent of all coal-burning power plants had particulate-
removal equipment, of varying efficiency, installed. The range of the
removal efficiency may have been between 40 and 90 percent. For pur-
poses of this study, it was estimated that by 1970, 75 percent of all
coal-burning electricity generators (on a kilowatt basis) had partieu-
late control of about 90 percent efficiency. Of course, most Sip's
call for about 99 percent reduction in particulates. As a result, most
existing (1970) control equipment could not meet the standards for par-
ticulates without complete replacement or substantial additions. In
the case of electrostatic precipitators, going from an efficiency of 90
to 99 percent will require a doubling of the size of the unit. This is
a significant increase in cost as well as in size.
-------
V-15
Control Costs
The cost estimates of air pollution control developed in this
section apply to investments and operating and total annual expendi-
tures, in 1973 dollars, incurred by utilities in the periods 1970 to 1975
and 1975 to 1979 as a result of the passage of the amendments of the
Clean Air Act of 1970. The air pollutants to be abated are the oxides of
sulfur and nitrogen and particulate matter. The cost estimates were
based on projections of the sulfur content and total fossil-fuel consump-
tion in the period 1970 to 1980. With the exception of natural gas, for
which no growth in consumption was assumed, a significant growth in the
utilization of oil and coal was predicted. Where oil consumption may de-
cline in 1974, an upward trend will continue through 1980. Coal utilization
will steadily grow through 1980 with a growth rate increasing as utilities
decrease the relative proportions of oil and natural gas fuels consumption.
The annual fossil-fuel consumption (in trillion Btu) by utilities for the
period 1970 to 1979 is given below.
1970 1975 1979
(a\
Coalv ' 7,400 10,500 13,000
Oil(a^ 3,000 5,700 7,800
Gas(b* 4,000 4,000 4,000
(a) EPA data derived prior to the energy crisis.
(b) Assuming no growth over 1971 consumption.
Sulfur Oxide Control Costs
The costs were developed for both coal- and residual (and dis-
tillate)-fuel-oil burning utilities. Of course, the sulfur content of
natural gas is negligible for purposes of this study.
Three alternatives were considered for reducing sulfur oxide
emissions from coal-burning utilities. These were, (1) flue gas desul-
furization (FGD), (2) switching from high- to low-sulfur coal and (3)
switching from coal to low-sulfur residual fuel oil.
-------
V-16
While flue-gas desulfurization systems will be applied mostly
to coal-burning utilities, some will be applied to high-sulfur-oil burning
systems. The EPA believes that investment costs for these systems will
probably fall in the range of $30 to $65 per kw depending on whether they
are applied to new or existing plants. Some experts prefer a range of
$50 to $85 per kw; in this work, the EPA estimate has been used. Deprecia-
tion of the investment was carried over a period of 7 years. Generating
capacities of 1000, 7000, 50,000, and 93,000 Mw were assumed to have FGD
systems installed in mid-1972, 1975, 1977, and 1979, respectively. The
estimated costs of control of SOx emissions by FGD systems in the period
FY 1971 through FY 1974 and for the period FY 1975 through FY 1979
($ Millions) are presented in the tabulations on the following page.
Many Central and Eastern utilities burning high-sulfur coal may
elect to switch to low-sulfur coal from the Western states. The 1973
minemouth cost of Western low-sulfur coal was about 21^ per million Btu.
Transportation to the Chicago area will add about 40^ per million Btu to
the cost of this coal. In general, it may be stated that the overall cost
of this fuel will be competitive in many instances with the cost of using
Central high-sulfur coal in conjunction with FGD. It is projected that
1560, 1720, and 1810 trillion Btu's of low-sulfur coal will be burned in
utility boilers in the years 1972, 1975, and 1980, respectively. Since
most of this low-sulfur coal will be burned in lieu of Central high-sulfur
coal, an investment cost attributable to boiler conversion was included for
the period 1975 to 1979.
Based on previous projections of the cost and availability of low-
sulfur residual fuel oil, a portion of the 1975 coal-fired capacity (esti-
mated at 12,500 Mw) had planned to switch to low-sulfur oil by 1975.
Investment costs for boiler conversion would amount to $20 per kw. A 20^
to 30^ per million Btu increment in fuel cost should be expected. However,
in view of the current oil embargo by some of the oil-producing countries,
it is unlikely that any additional coal-fired plants will switch to oil.
In fact, a significant number of power plants will probably switch from oil
to coal which will result in both conversion costs and in costs for SO
control.
Nitrogen Oxide Control Costs
It was found that staged combustion and off-stoichiometric
firing is adequate for controlling NOX from all fossil-fuel utility burners,
The costs of modifying "new" boilers are about 56)4 per kw for oil and gas
burners and $2.25 per kw for coal burners. These costs are 35 percent
higher for "existing" units. Operating and maintenance costs may amount
to 2 percent of the investment costs per year.
Costs of NOx control have been estimated for two cases. For
Case 1, the estimated cost for controlling NOX emissions from all steam
electric power generation sources in the period FY 1975-FY 1979 is
-------
The estimated costs of control of SO emissions by FGD systems in the period FY 1971 through FY 1974 ($ Millions) are
as follows: x
Annual Operating Total Period
Sulfur Oxide Investment and Maintenance Annualized Costs Cash Requirements
Fuel Control Technique Avg Low High Avg Low High Avg Low High Ave Low High
Coal Flue gas
desulfurization 403 350 455 37 29 44 129 110 144 480 414 545
Coal Switch to low-
sulfur coal
-------
V-18
presented in the following tabulation:
Fuel
Coal
Oil
Gas
Total
Investment
658
94
56
808
Expected Cost (Case 1), $ Millions
Annual Operating
and Maintenance
Annualized Costs Cash Requirement
90.5
12.9
7.6
111.0
890
127
75
1,092
These estimates for Case 1 are the basis for the maximum level of nitrogen
oxides emission control.
For Case 2, the estimated costs for controlling NOX emissions
only from sources in Los Angeles (AQCR 24) and Chicago (AQCR 67) during
the period FY 1975-FY 1979 are as follows:
Expected Cost (Case 2), $ Millions
Total
Fuel Investment
Coal 10.8
Oil/gas 26.2
37.0
Annual Operating
and Maintenance
0.2
0.6
0.8
Annualized Costs
1.5
3.6
5.1
Cash Requirement
14.6
35.6
50.2
These estimates for Case 2 are the basis for both the expected and the
minimum levels of nitrogen oxides control.
Particulate Controls Costs
The costs of both wet and dry techniques of particulate removal
were obtained. The investment and operating costs of wet scrubbing were
typically $14.5 and $2.2 per kw per year, respectively, including stack-gas
reheat. The investment and operating costs of dry removal by electrostatic
preciipitation were typically $10.8 and $0.3 per kw per year, respectively.
Only coal-burning utilities will require particulate control.
In obtaining the costs of control it was assumed that 75 percent
of the 1970 generating capacity that requires particulate control will have
electrostatic precipitators of 90 percent efficiency already installed.
This efficiency will be gradually upgraded to 99 percent by 1975. The
other 25 percent of FY 1971 capacity was assumed to require wet scrubbers
the installation of which will be complete by mid FY-1975. Controls for
new capacity coming on stream between FY 1975 and FY 1979 were installed
immediately. For this new capacity, it was assumed that 50 percent will be
controlled by wet scrubbing, the balance being controlled by electrostatic
-------
V-19
precipitators. The expected costs for particulates controls for coal-
burning stationary sources for the three time periods of interest are as
follows:
Period ._• $ Millions (Expected Values)
Annual Operating
Period Investment and Maintenance Annualized Costs Cash Requirement
FY 1971- 1,550 76 195 780
FY 1974
FY 1975- -- 122 308 1,540
FY 1979
FY 1971- 1,550 122 308 2,770
FY 1979
The best available information on the possible accuracy of these estimates
suggests an error band of plus 30 and minus 20 percent about the expected
values given in the tabulation above. This error band has been assumed in
presenting the summary tabulation in the Introduction to Chapter V.
-------
V-20
COMMERCIAL. INDUSTRIAL, AND RESIDENTIAL HEATING
Introduction and Summary
Nature of the Products and Processes
Boilers and furnaces utilized in commercial, industrial, and
residential heating contribute to air pollution by the release of a
variety of pollutants as products of fossil-fuel combustion. These
pollutants include particulate, carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides, nitrogen
oxides, and hydrocarbons. The level of these pollutants emitted are
dependent upon the design and operation of the boiler and on the type of
fuel fired. Assuming proper design and operation of the boiler, fuel be-
comes the most significant variable affecting emission levels.
The majority of commercial and industrial heating is accomplished
by hot water and steam boilers. Although hot air furnaces are utilized for
space heating, these units are fired on gas or distillate oil and generally
are not major contributors to the pollution problem. Essentially all
residential heating is accomplished by hot water boilers and hot air fur-
naces that burn either distillate oil or natural gas. There are a few
coal-fired residential furnaces, but the number is insignificant and can
be ignored.
Emissions and Control Costs
Of the pollutants mentioned above, only particulates and sulfur
oxides emissions generated by commercial and industrial coal-fired boilers,
require control technologies to reduce levels to comply with regulations
established pursuant to the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970. Less than
25 percent of the current residual oil consumed has a sulfur content above
equivalent permissible S02 levels. Switching to a low-sulfur oil will re-
duce SOj levels to within regulations with essentially no costs involved
other than the slightly higher cost of fuel. Because of the current fuel
shortage and the resulting instability in fuel prices, no attempt was made
to account for cost differential between high- and low-sulfur residual
oil and coal. It is judged that these fuel costs on a consistent basis
will tend to become virtually equivalent. Presently, there are no nitro-
gen oxides emissions regulations for boilers in commercial and industrial
heating applications.
In addition, there are no air pollution regulations for boilers
and furnaces in the residential heating application; neither is there any
suitable control technology. Although fuel switching from coal to one of
the cleaner fuels could be considered a control, only a small percentage
-------
V-21
of the existing residential heating units fire coal. Conversion of these
units to a clean fuel would have an insignificant effect on the total
emissions from residential heating. For these reasons, control costs for
residential heating are not presented in this report.
Particulate emissions for commercial, industrial, and residen-
tial heating are estimated to have been 8.4 million metric tons in FY 1971.
Particulate emissions with additional controls are estimated to be 1.1
million metric tons in FY 1971. Sulfur oxides emissions for commercial,
industrial, and residential heating are estimated to have been 8.5 million metric
tons in FY 1971. Sulfur oxides emissions with additional controls (which
meet limits established in the SIP's) are estimated to be 7.5 million
metric tons in FY 1979.
The estimated total investment and annualized control costs
for commercial, industrial, and residential heating between FY 1971 and
FY 1979 are $4.1 billion and $1.1 billion, respectively.
Industry Structure
Characteristics
Commercial equipment normally is defined as equipment having
capacity in the range 0.05 to 2.11 million kg cal per hour. Industrial
equipment normally is defined as equipment having capacity in the range
2.11 to 169 million kg cal per hour. Residential equipment is defined
as equipment used in residences and individual apartments. Capacities
of residential boilers and furnaces are typically less than 0.075 kg cal
per hour, but could be higher depending upon the size of residence to be
heated. These ranges are loosely defined and in practice often overlap.
The equipment size distribution by location and fuel type is not availble.
Current Capacity and Growth Pro lection
The estimated 1973 installed capacity of commercial and industrial
boilers is 10 x lO*5 kg cal per year (approximately equivalent to 1.6
billion metric tons coal per year) based upon a 1967 inventory and
assumed growth rates of 4.5 percent per year for commercial units and 4
percent per year for industrial units. The growth rate for commercial
and industrial boiler capacity is estimated to be 3 percent per year.
It is estimated that residential boilers and furnaces consumed the energy
equivalent of 1510 x 1012 kg cal in 1973, of which 53 percent was natural
gasaand 47 percent was distillate oil. An insigificant amount of coal
was consumed for residential heating. The growth rate for residential
units is estimated to be 1.1 percent per year.
-------
V-22
The current estimated capacity for coal-fired boilers is 770
million kg per hour, with an estimated growth rate of 7 percent per year.
This substantial increase in growth rate of coal-fired boilers has been
assumed because of the current shortage of natural gas and oil.
Emission Sources and Pollutants
Pollutants emitted by fossil-fuel combustion are a function of
fuel composition, efficiency of combustion, and the specific combustion
equipment being used. Particulate levels are related to the ash content
of the fuel. Sulfur oxides levels are related to the sulfur content of
the fuel. Emissions of nitrogen oxides result not only from the high
temperature reaction of atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen in the combustion
zone, but also from partial combustion of the nitrogenous compounds con-
tained in the fuel; thus, levels are dependent both on combustion equip-
ment design and upon fuel nitrogen. Carbon monoxide, hydrocarbon, and
particulate levels are dependent on the efficiency of combustion as it is
affected by combustion equipment design and operation. Accordingly,
natural gas and distillate oil are considered clean fuels because of
their low ash and sulfur contents, and also because they are relatively
easy to burn. In contrast, coal (and some residual oils) contain signifi-
cant amounts of sulfur and ash, require more sophisticated combustion
equipment and are more difficult to burn than the clean fuels.
The estimated uncontrolled emission factors and average emis-
sion factors required by the state implementation plans (SIP) for
commercial, industrial, and residential boilers are listed below based
on the following assumptions and conditions:
• The sulfur contents of coal, residual oil, and distillate
oil are assumed to be 3, 2, and 0.2 percent by weight,
respectively.
• The ash content of coal is assumed to be 12 percent by
weight.
• The difference in particulate emissions factors between
commercial and industrial coal-burning installations
probably is related to differences in equipment design.
In the following tabulation of emissions factors (in kg per million kg cal)
parenthesis indicate factors required or allowed by SIP, where applicable:
-------
V-23
Emission Factors, kg per million kg cal
Commercial
Coal
Residual Oil
Distillate Oil
Gas
Industrial
Coal
Residual Oil
Distillate Oil
Gas
Residential
Coal
Residual Oil
Distillate Oil
Gas
Particu-
lates
1.8
(1.08)
0.29
(1.08)
0.18
(1.08)
0.032
(1.08)
11.7
(0.63)
0.29
(0.63)
0.18
(0.63)
0.031
(0'.63)
1.8
--
0.13
0.032
Sulfur
Oxides
8.6
(5.8)
4.0
(2.0)
0.36
(0.43)
0.0011
8.6
(5.7)
4.0
(2.0)
0.36
(0.43)
0.0011
8.6
--
0.36
0.0010
Nitrogen
Oxides
0.45
0.74
0.74
0.17
1.13
(1.26)
0.74
(0.54)
0.74
(0.54)
0.31
(0.45)
0.45
--
0.05
0.018
Carbon
Monoxide
0.76
0»050
0.050
0.034
1.5
0.050
0.050
0.029
0.76
--
0.063
0.036
Hydro-
carbons
0.23
0.038
0.038
0.014
0.076
0.038
0.038
0.0052
0.23
—
0.038
0.014
-------
V-24
Uncontrolled and controlled emissions from commercial, indus-
trial, and residential heating sources have been estimated on the basis
that all commercial boilers will be fired by na'tural gas or low-sulfur
fuel oil by 1975.
Emissions, Uncontrolled,
all Fuels, millions metric tons/yr
Commercial
1971
1975
1979
Industrial
1971
1975
1979
Residential
1971
1975
1979
Commercial
1975
1979
Industrial
1975
1979
Particu- Sulfur
lates Oxides
.15
.20
.23
7.73
8.3
10.3
.09
.09
.09
.57
.99
1.49
4.8
6.7
8.8
.3
.3
.3
Nitrogen Carbon Hydro-
Oxides Monoxide carbons
.50
.59
.68
1.3
1.5 1
1.8 1
.05
.05
.05
Emissions, Controlled
all Fuels, millions metric
0.20
.23
.62
.79
.99
1.49
4.9
6.1
--
1.4
1.6
.005
.005
.005
.84
.1
.3
.07
.07
.07
»
tons/yr
--
—
.03
.03
.04
.07
.08
.09
.02
.02
.02
--
--
Control Technology
It is apparent that equipment fired with gas and distillate oil
burning meets essentially all of the air pollution regulations. The most
-------
V-25
cost-effective control technology has been switching from coal and high-
sulfur residual oil to the less-polluting fuels. The current shortages
and projected price rises for natural gas and distillate oils, and the
proposed ban on switching to these fuels, fuel switching (to gas and
distillate oil) will require implementation of other control technologies.
Estimates of control costs are based on the assumption that
for commercial boilers, fuel switching from coal and high-sulfur residual
oil to low-sulfur residual oil is attainable, and that for industrial
boilers, fuel switching from high-sulfur residual oil to low-sulfur residual
oil is attainable. Alternative control technologies for coal-fired indus-
trial boilers include double alkaline scrubbers for sulfur oxides control
in series with scrubbers or electrostatic precipitators for particulates
control. For the coal-fired boilers, flue gas treatment appears plausible
for the larger units, while fuel switching appears realistic for the smaller
ones. However, because no boiler size distribution was available at this
time, all industrial coal-fired boilers were assumed to utilize flue gas
treatment as the control technology. This assumption is basically a con-
servative one.
Because of the present instability and future uncertainty of
fuel prices, no attempt was made to account for the cost differential
among fuels. On a Btu or heating valve basis, there could be little
difference in costs. Although it appears that the cost of coal and high-
sulfur residual oil would be lower than the cost of the clean fuels prior
to firing in a boiler, the higher costs of handling the coal and high-
sulfur residual oil as well as the higher equipment maintenance costs,
are judged to offset any price differential. The net effect of these
kinds of considerations would produce virtually equivalent fuel costs on
a consistent basis.
Control Costs. The estimated control costs for three model
heating plants are given in Table V- 1 . Investments and annualized costs
are considerably lower for commercial than industrial installations be-
cause of the relative ease of fuel switching compared to the use of
sophisticated flue-gas cleanup systems.
'The estimated total direct control costs for commercial, indus-
trial, and residential heating for the period FY 1971 through FY 1975 are
as follows:
-------
V-26
$ Millions
_ . ., Expected Minimum Maximum
Existing Facilities —E
Investment 4140 2610 5360
Annual Costs
Capital Charges 570 355 744
Operating and Maintenance 527 61 961
Total Annual Costs 1097 416 1695
Cash Requirements 7450 4850 9630
New Facilities
Investment 1400 820 1820
Annual Costs
Capital Charges 207 131 261
Operating and Maintenance 189 116 248
Total Annual Costs 396 247 509
Cash Requirements 3130 1690: 4100
-------
TABLE V-I. COSTS OF CONTROL FOR THE MODEL PLANTS COMMERCIAL AND
INDUSTRIAL HEATING SYSTEMS
Investment, Annual ized Cost,
Model Size, $1000 $1000
1000 kg cal/hr expected min max expected min max
Unit Cost.
1000 kg cal/hr
expected min max
Commercial Heating (Sulfur Oxides and Particulates)
315 25.2 17.9 31.7 6.4 -0.6 11.8
Industrial Heating (Sulfur Oxides only)
4250 498 292 658 147 86.5 195
Industrial Heating (Particulates only)
20.3 -1.90 37.4
34.6 20.4 45.9
<
i
to
-vl
4250 179 109 250 45.5 23.8 69.2 10.7 5.60 16.3
-------
VI. BENEFITS OF AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
INTRODUCTION
The costs of air pollution control (abatement costs) are incurred as
a result of efforts to reduce existing levels of pollution or to prevent what
would otherwise be an increase in the pollution level. These abatement costs
are incurred to reduce the pollution costs imposed upon society. Pollution
costs include damage costs, avoidance costs, and psychic costs.
The benefits of pollution control are the reductions and prevented
increases in psychic, damage and avoidance costs. The desire to obtain these
benefits has led to establishment of laws, programs and policies designed to
control air pollution and improve air quality. These programs and policies
result in abatement costs and economic impacts to society, and t^he major focus
of this report is to examine these abatement costs. Although so*me assumptions
are needed and there are data problems, it is possible to estimate the major
abatement costs involved. However, it is not as easy to estimate the benefits
(reduced pollution costs).
POLLUTION COSTS
Psychic Costs
The psychic costs imposed by pollution are distinguished from damage
and avoidance costs in that no out-of-pocket expenses are involved. People
simply tolerate or live with these costs. These costs include the following:
(1) the mental discomfort or anguish persons feel because they perceive air
pollution becoming worse and believe this threatens to destroy human life;
(2) the mental discomfort persons feel because loved ones are ill more often
or more acutely or die prematurely; (3) the discomfort resulting from direct
exposure to the pollutants like smarting eyes, shortness of breath, physical
weakness, etc. (If these effects result in additional health costs, reduced
productivity, or increased accidents, in principle, they should be included
in the pollution damage category discussed below); (4) the lost in pleasure
because there is reduced sunlight, restricted visibility, increased discolor-
ation of buildings, and damaged or discolored vegetation; and (5) the mental
discomfort or anguish some persons feel because they believe nature is being
assaulted and that there is inherent value in keeping things as near natural
as possible.
-------
VI-2
Persons desire to reduce these psychic costs. The strength of that
desire can in principle be measured as the amount people would be willing to
pay to avoid the discomfort and anguish. In practice, it is very difficult
to accurately measure this willingness to pay. To some extent, people reveal
the strength of their desire to reduce psychic costs by the support they show
for government programs and policies on air quality improvement. People adjust
their support for these programs and policies because they realize that abatement*
is obtained at some expense in terms of increased taxes, a reduction in other :
services, or increased prices.
Damage Costs
Damage costs of pollution refers to those pollution effects that
result in an out-of-pocket expense or loss in profits or income. These costs
include: (1) reduced yield of horticultural, agricultural,, and forest products
and replacement of affected horticultural plants. (Since the effects of reduced
yields may be to increase prices and thus profits for farmers, costs to society
must be determined by the effects at the consumer level); (2) hospital, doctor,
and medicine expenses; (3) reduced useful life of machinery, equipment, building
and other materials; (4) reduced productivity of persons and materials; (5) extra
expense needed to maintain a desired level of cleanliness (soiling costs);
(6) value of days of activity (housework, school, employment, etc.) lost; and
(7) reduced value of property.
Again, people desire to reduce these costs. In principle, their
willingness to pay for the damage reductions should be equal to the value of the
damages. Although there exist problems with data, particularly with accurately
determined cause and effects relationships, estimates of the value of damages can
be made for many of these kinds of damages.
Avoidance Costs
Avoidance costs are the costs incurred to reduce or avoid the potential
damages from pollution. Both the damage and avoidance costs are generally
out-of-pocket expenses. Pollution avoidance costs include the extra expenses
involved in: (1) more frequent painting of materials subject to deterioration;
(2) the purchase of horticultural plants resistent to pollution; (3) air con-
ditioning; (4) the use of resistent materials; (5) movement to a new home, job,
or both; (6) shifts in the location of agricultural crop production; and
(7) traveling further for an acceptable recreation site.
i
Reducing these costs makes people better off because resources are
released for other purposes. Some of these costs can be quantified and valued
because the response (use of resistent materials) can be related directly to
the pollution problem. For others, the action taken (moving to a new house or
traveling further to a new recreation site) may be in response to many factors
other than pollution. Determining the share that is attributable to pollution
is difficult.
-------
VI-3
The fact that certain benefits have not been quantified or valued in
economic terms does not mean that they are unimportant. Quite clearly, they
can be very important. This importance is revealed by the fact that most of
the goals stated by environmental groups deal with benefits that are typically
not measured. Exactly how important these unmeasured benefits are, compared
to benefits that have been quantified, is uncertain. In any decision analysis
that involves comparing the costs of proposed actions with the expected benefits,
all benefits, not just those that have been measured, must be considered.
A formal procedure for trading-off changes in costs or benefits to
society and shifts in the distribution of costs and benefits does not exist.
Such trade-off analysis is important and is currently done on a judgment basis,
often in the political decision-making area.
The benefits of pollution abatement are obtained in two Ways. One
is to reduce the existing pollution level to the national ambient standards or
some other target level. This additional control would reduce the level of
pollution costs (psychic, damage, and avoidance costs). The second way is to
prevent pollution levels from becoming worse. This is done to avoid additional
pollution costs. In evaluating effectiveness of current or proposed programs,
the abatement costs should be compared to the sum of the reduced pollution costs
and avoided pollution costs.
Earlier a distinction was made between psychic, damage, and avoidance
costs. These distinctions will aid in understanding the benefits of pollution
control. However, when empirical estimates of pollution costs are made, it is
not always possible to identify which categories of pollution costs are being
measured. For example, property value estimates may include some of all three
kinds of pollution costs.
METHODS OF ASSESSING AIR POLLUTION COSTS
What are the methods that can be used to measure society's willingness
to pay for improved air quality? There are basically six methods that can be
used. These methods are: (1) valuing physical (dose-response) relationships;
(2) market studies; (3) opinion surveys of air pollution sufferers; (4) litiga-
tion surveys; (5) political expressions of social choice; and (6) the delphi
method. Each method has been used under different circumstances with varying
degrees of success. These methods have attempted, in most cases, to measure
the value of the pollution costs suffered by receptors because of air pollution.
The most widely used technique is to determine a physical (dose -
response) relationship between a pollutant and an object or living thing. These
relationships are determined by designed experiments or by analysis of many
observations &f natural events. The physical relationship is then transformed
into economic terms by determining values for the effects. The aggregate or
national damage estimate is obtained by determining the population exposed to
various levels of'the pollutant.
-------
VI-4
In many cases the magnitudes of these physical and biological
damages can be predicted with some degree of accuracy because the forms of
damage under restricted conditions are known. Attempts to translate these
physical and biological damages into meaningful economic relationships, however*
have been less successful in identifying economic damages over a range of
pollution exposures. Success in this method has been obtained only within
narrowly circumscribed limits.
In using the market study approach, air pollution damages are
measured through the explicit use of market valuations. The consideration,
here is the impact of air pollution dosages on human behavior as reflected
in markets. This approach completely circumvents the need to know the
physical or biological damage function—the basic dose-response relationship.
The investigator applies statistical tools and economic models to isolate
the incremental adverse effect of air pollution on a particular activity or
behavior as expressed in the marketplace.
A specific application of the market study approach is the use of
property values to estimate air pollution damages. Given that people are
willing to pay to avoid the effects of air pollution, property values and air
pollution concentrations must vary inversely. A significant problem in using
the market study approach is that all the factors that explain consumer
preferences and behavior must be included in the analysis. Such an explanation
is, of course, a monumental task, both theoretically and empirically. Also,
if market value estimates are added to other estimates, there is the possibility
of counting an effect twice.
The third method, opinion survey of air pollution sufferers, is
closest tothe classical economic approach in that it focuses on estimating
utility and demand functions. Investigators employing this method have
attempted to ascertain what people do and do not perceive as air pollution
effect. If it can be assumed that people know explicitly the effects of air
pollution, then the objective is to elicit complete information from them in a
way that would dissuade untruthful responses.
In general, opinion surveys have shown particular usefulness in
understanding how attitudes about air pollution are formed and then affected by
changes in air quality,,and what people do and do not perceive as air pollution
effects. This method can also provide some insight into what people might be
willing to pay for improvement in the air environment, or perhaps, what their
demand might be for the reduced risk of experiencing certain adverse effects.
However, values obtained by asking people directly what they would be willing
to pay must be interpreted with care, as many factors, like lack of knowledge
of other alternatives, affect their response.
-------
VI-5
Litigation surveys could be used to determine the extent to which
people have turned to the courts for redress for air pollution damages.
Because of the pervasiveness of air pollution, especially in urban areas, and
because city dwellers become conditioned to air pollution, the use of this
method is limited.
In utilizing the fifth method, political expressions of social choice,
the investigator tries to gauge political expressions, representations, and
exhortations in the hope that their intensity somehow corresponds to intensity
of preference for one outcome over another.
In employing the delphi method, the knowledge and abilities of a
diverse group of experts are pooled for the task of quantifying variables
which are either intengible or shrouded in uncertainty. Essentially the
method is one of subjective decision-making. The use of this method provides
an efficient way to obtain best judgements from the knowledge and opinion of
experts.
Of these six methods, valuing does-response relationships, and a
particular market study application—the property value method—have yielded
the most promising insights into the true nature of air pollution damages.
Again, with effective abatement, these damages become the benefits of control.
Yet, even the application of these methods has been fraught with many problems,
Air pollution is but one environmental stress, and it is difficult to allocate
the observed damages among a number of synergistically interacting multiple
stresses; and the damages themselves cannot be easily measured and reduced to
economic terms.
POLLUTION COST ESTIMATES
The benefit numbers contained in this report pertain, for the most
part, to reducing pollution to meet the established or assumed ambient air
quality standard and should only be compared to that increment of abatement
costs incurred to reduce pollution to this level. In many cases, the costs
reported in this report serve to reduce pollution substantially below this
level, thus making the cost and benefit numbers uncomparable.
Specifically, the numbers are estimates of the reduction in some of
the pollution costs that would result from reducing the 1970 level of certain
air pollutants to meet the standars. Not all of the costs of even this change
in pollution levels have been estimated. For example, the damages to animals
and the natural environment have not been obtained. This does not imply that
the latter pollution costs do not exist, but only that there is not enough
information to make an estimate.
-------
Table IV-1. NATIONAL ESTIMATES OF AIR POLLUTION COSTS, BY POLLUTANT AND EFFECT, 1970
($ billion)
Sulfur Oxides Particulates
Effects Low High Best Low High Best
Aesthetics & Soilingb'c 1.7 4.1 2.9 1.7 4.1 2.9
Human Health 0.7 3.1 1.9 0.9 4.5 2.7
Materials0 0.4 0.8~ 0.6 0.1 0.3 0.2
Vegetation * * _ * * * *
Animals 111 111
Natural Environment 111 111
Total 2.8 8.0 5.4 2.7 8.9 5.8
Also measures losses attributable to oxides of nitrogen
Property value estimator
Adjusted to minimize double -count ing
1
Unknown
*
Carbon
Oxidantsa Monoxide Total
Low High Best Best Low High Best
111 * 3.4 8.4 5.8
111 ? 1.6 7.6 4.6
0.5 1.3 0.9 * 1.0 2.4 1.7
0.1 0.3 0.2 * 0.1 0.3 0.2
111 * 111
111 1 111
0.6 1.6 1.1 ? 6.1 18.5 12.3
M
V I
Probably negligible
Sources: Waddell, Thomas E., "The Economic Damages of Air Pollution: Unpublished Report, EPA
National Environmental Research Center, Research Triangle Park, March, 1974.
-------
VI-7
Estimates of the costs of some of these adverse effects are shown in
Table VI-1. For each kind of effect and each pollutant, a "best" estimate and
range are presented. The "best" estimate is the most likely true value. However,
the range demonstrates that the most likely true value could be much larger or
smaller than the "best" estimate. A wide range implies that little confidence
can be placed on the "best" estimate, while a narrow range implies more confi-
dence. The question mark is used to identify cells which are expected to have
pollution costs, but for which data deficiencies preclude making an estimate.
The estimate of aesthetic and soiling costs was obtained from a study
of property values. The property value estimate provided a measure of the psyhic
costs, damage costs and avoidance (including adjustment) costs that people
suffer because of sulfur oxides and particulates. There is an absence of data
on how the effects of oxidants and carbon monoxide might be capitalized in
property values. This value was obtained from original study values by adjust-
ment to avoid the double counting of health and materials damage effects.
Estimates of the cost of air pollution effects on human health, ma
materials, and vegetation have been developed by applications of the technical
coefficients approach. The estimates for health costs measure the value of
damages resulting from air pollution effects—reduced productivity because of
ill health or premature death and out-of-pocket health care expenses. Data
concerning the effects of oxidants (hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen primarily)
and carbon monoxide did not allow for the estimation of the value of damages
by these pollutants. Psychic and avoidance costs are also omitted from these
health estimates.
The materials estimates measure the value of damages and some of the
avoidance costs resulting from air pollution damage to man-made materials. It
is impossible to say what portion of avoidance costs are accounted for. Esti-
mates of the value of air pollution effects on plants mostly represent the
direct damages and generally ignore the avoidance costs and psychic costs.
The damage to anumals caused by air pollution has generally been
localized, and its economic consequences have probably been relatively unim-
portant. Though indirect, the risk to the food cycle, especially when heavy
metals or toxic substances are implicated, could be serious; and it may be
true that the economic importance of many air pollutants may lie in their
impact on animal populations. In general, little is known about the effects
of air pollutants on domestic animals and wildlife. Also, little is known
about how these problems interface with the natural environment.
-------
VI-8
The natural environment category includes the pollution costs or
disruption or destruction of ecological systems, the destruction of species,
the disruption of social systems or social patterns, and the disruption of a
man-nature balance. Many of these pollution costs affect man as psychic cost,
particularly fear of man's inadvertently destroying life on earth. Because
they are mostly psychic costs, there is great difficulty in quantifying them,
and no estimates are yet available.
AESTHETICS AND SOILING
The aesthetic effects of air pollution represent a category which
is very difficult to describe. In general, man wants an environment congenial
to his aesthetic and psychological needs. Yet air pollution restrains progress
toward such an environment. Odors from various sources deprive many of the full
enjoyment of their property. Suspended particulate matter can diminish visibility,
obscure vistas and restrict normal travel. Oxides of sulfur accelerate the decay
of works of art and statuary. Emissions from automotive combustion and their
resultant atmospheric interactions injure ornamental planting, often cause
watering of the eyes, and can have a depressing psychological effect, thereby
diminishing the quality of life.
Soiling affects individuals, households, and commercial establishments
in many ways, only a few of which are obvious. When dust particles collect, the
need to clean window sills, floors, walls, carpets, draperies, and furniture
is distressingly obvious. But the effects of air pollution in most cases are so
much more gradual as to be unnoticed. Some of these subtle costs are associated
with the following: cleaning and maintenance of homes, commercial and public
buildings; individual adjustments such as laudering; and car washing.
It is hypothesized here that many of the psychic and avoidance costs
associated with soiling and the detrimental effect of air pollution on aesthetic
properties, are capitalized in property values. Thus, tests of the relationship
between property values and air quality should provide some insight into the
magnitude of these costs. But at the same time, many significant aesthetic
and soiling-related costs are probably not capitalized in the property market,
and thus are not measured.
A number of studies have convincingly shown that differentials in
property values with respect to air quality levels exist in the housing market.
The basic hypothesis of property value studies is: if the land market were to
work perfectly, the price of a plot of land would equal the sum of the present
discounted stream of benefits and costs derivable from it; and, since air
pollution is specific to locations and the supply of locations is fixed, there
is little likelihood that the negative effects of pollution can be significantly
shifted onto other markets. Therefore, It is to be expected that many effects
are reflected in this market, and that these effects can be measured by observing
associated changes in property values.
-------
VI-9 ,
Several property value studies have been performed in urban areas and
have attempted to explain the relationship between property values, air quality,
location, heighborhood factors, occupant characteristics, and physical property
characteristics. Data measurements were obtained from cross-sectional samples
over either individual properties or aggregates of properties such as census
tracts. These studies revealed a statistically significant inverse relation-
ship between air pollution and property values or rent. The air quality para-
meter studied was for sulfation, suspended particulates, sulfur dioxide, and
dustfall. Sulfation was used most often. The value of the marginal property
value differential ranged from about $100 to $750 per residence.
To estimate total damage costs using the property value technique,
one would have to perform separate property value studies for residential,
conmercial, industrial, and agricultural land. Given the paucity of information
in areas other than residential, total damage estimates are made only for
those damages capitalized in the residential property market and measured
through site differential values. The uniformity of results, for six major
metropolitan areas, warrants confidence in the housing market estimator as a
measure of some of the aesthetic and soiling costs from air pollution.
The national estimate for 1970 of air pollution damages measured
via the property value method, comes to $3.4-$8.2 billion. A "best" approx-
imation would probably be a middle estimate for a marginal property value of
$350, or a total damage of $5.8 billion.
It is believed that the costs associated with aesthetic effects as
well as soiling-caused cleaning and maintenance expenditures are capitalized
in this estimator. These effects are the tangible, experimental aspects of
air pollution: more rapid deterioration and extra cleaning and maintenance
costs, the milder medical symptoms, such as shortness of breath and smarting
eyes, plus smells and dirt. Here the $5.8 billion is used as an estimate of
the damages to aesthetic properties and soiling, although it is recognized
that other effects may be included in the estimate.
HEALTH
Of the benefits that result from the abatement of air pollution,
those to human health rank with highest priority, particularly in the short
run. If health is defined as a general state of well-being, then a health
benefit is some improvement in one's general well-being or welfare. In an
economic sense, we want to determine, if possible, the value of that improve-
ment. Such improvement might be in: lower illness and death rates, including
partial disability; fewer absences from work, school and other normal activities;
and/or, a reduction in general expenditures on health protection and care
-------
VI-10
The traditional method of valuing human health has been to sum the
loss of output and the cost of medical care. For morbidity, this is the
approach that determines the value of out-of-pocket expenses, and the value
of work days lost—a measure of lost productivity-or, more generally, the
value of restricted activity days. In the case of mortality, this approach
determines the present value of lost future earnings due to premature death.
A major limitation of the lost productivity approach is that the "worth" of
those who do not produce--retirees, students, housewives, etc.--is often
counted as zero. It is believed that the approach that measures only lost
output and out-of-pocket medical costs, ignores a number of personal and social
valuations that could be quite significant. Because of these omissions, the
values presented are a lower bound of the value of health benefits. The
discussion of the estimation of human health benefits will fall into two .
categories—mortality and morbidity.
A general method used in investigating the mortality-air pollution
relationship is multi-variate regression. Cross-section studies have shown
that variation in mortality can be explained, in part, by air pollution
(suspended particulates and sulfation in this case), population density, race
and age. Estimates from one linear relationship between air pollution and
mortality show that a 50 percent decrease in air pollution would be associated
with a reduction in the mortality rate of 4.5 percent. By applying this'
factor of 4.5 percent to the cost of mortality, one can estimate the value of
the health benefits for increased life expectancy by reducing air pollution.
In estimating morbidity costs, one encounters many of the same
problems as those encountered in studying mortality. Again, the investigator
must consider a host of parameters if he is to isolate the incremental effect
of air pollution on hyman health and avoid developing spurious relationships.
A recent study from EPA's Community Health and Environmental
Surveillance Studies (CHESS) Program affords the opportunity to estimate the
morbidity cost of selected adverse health effects associated with the pollution
composite, sulfur dioxide-total suspended particulates-suspended sulfates.
Data from the CHESS program were collected from a number of CHESS communities
offering different pollution gradients. These communities were specifically
selected to control for major co-determinants that might affect disease rates.
Measurements on health and socio-economic characteristics, meteor-
ology, and environmental pollutant exposure measurements were taken in CHESS
on tens of thousands af individuals to estimate the relative effects of
multiple pollutant exposures. The health effects investigated were: irritation
symptoms arising from acute air pollution episodes; impairment of ventilatory
function; sumptom aggravation in the elderly, asthma attacks; acute lower
respiratory illnesses; and chronic bronchitis.
-------
VI-11
By extrapolating these findings from CHESS, it is believed that air
pollution-related morbidity costs for selected health effects can be estimated.
The following information is used to make an extrapolation. The first,
specific health effects are identified in different reports from CHESS. Second,
estimates of affected populations are based on: an internal EPA report on
populations-at-risk; data on disease rates published by the National Center for
Health Statistics; and population data from the Bureau of Census. Third, the
estimated change for each health effect is based on an interpretation of the
data reported in the individual CHESS studies, and Fourth, estimates of
cost-per-health effect are based on information taken from the Statistical
Abstract of the U.S. for 1972 and reports from the National Center for Health
Statistics, tempered with best judgment. Results of this process yield rough
estimates of the benefits to human health of controlling sulfur dioxide,
suspended particulates, and suspended sulfates. The human morbidity costs
for 1970 determined in this manner are estimated to range from roughly $.9 to
$3.2 billion.
In extrapolating the mortality regression results, if 1970 air
pollution levels (total suspended particulates) were reduced by 267o (in order
to reach the primary ambient air quality standard), the savings in mortality
and non-respiratory morbidity costs would be $3.51 billion. This estimate is
reduced to $2.58 billion to adjust for the fact that 26.5% of the population
do not live in urban areas. Adjusting by the variance about the mean, a range
of $0.7-4.4 billion is generated for 1970. Adding this range to the range of
$.9-3.2 billion generated by extrapolating the CHESS data, the range of gross
estimates of health costs associated with air pollution for 1970 becomes
$1.6-7.6 billion. This gross health estimate represents the benefits that
would be realized by reducing air pollution in major urban areas to the parti-
culate primary standard of 75 ug/m3, the sulfur dioxide primary standard of
80 ug/m3, and reducing sulfates to 6-8 ug/m3. It is concluded that the middle
of the range, $4.6 billion is the "best" estimate of the true costs of the
adverse effects of the pollutant complex considered, on human health and
longevity.
MATERIALS
Air pollution has a variety of effects on materials--the corrosion
of metals, the deterioration of materials and paints, and the fading of dyes.
There have been a number of attempts at estimating the resultant economic
losses due to the detrimental effects of air pollution. These losses represent
premature replacement costs and preventive and maintenance costs.
-------
VI-12
Studies of the economic effects of air pollution on materials seek
to: (1) identify the materials, air pollutants, and environmental factors
that should be studied in order to assess the economic damage to materials
caused by air pollution; (2) analyze systematically the physical and chemical
interactions among the variables identified for the purpose of determining
cause-effect relationships; (3) determine, where possible , the pollutant
dose-response relationship for materials that are significant because of their
relative economic value and to indicate how this may be done where such
relationships are presently defined; and (4) translate the pollutant and
dose-response relationship into a pollutant and dose-cost-damage function.
The economic value of material exposed to air pollution is determined
from annual production values, a labor factor to adjust for installation costs,
an estimate of the life of the material, and an estimate of the percent of the
material that is exposed to air pollution. The rate of economic loss was
calculated as the product of the economic value of material exposed to air
pollution times a value of interaction (the difference between the rate of
material deterioration in a polluted environment compared to that in an
unpolluted environment). The interaction value is expressed as dollars lost
per year. The results of the operations described yielded an estimate of air
pollution damages to materials of $3.8 billion.
A study of the effects of air pollution on rubber products estimated
the yearly cost of this pollution at $475 million. Costs were measured as:
(1) the increased costs at the manufacturer's level to provide products that
are resistent to atmospheric pollutants (these are normally passed on to the
consumer); and (2) the direct costs to the consumer in the form of shortened
useful life of the product. The combined costs at the consumer level are used
in estimating the total cost of pollution.
Recent work on the deterioration of exterior paints by particulate
matter (primarily) and the interaction of particulate matter and sulfur oxides
resulted in an estimate of the potential economic loss to manufacturers and
consumers because of this deterioration at $704 million.
Information on human population distributions, coupled with sulfur
dioxide data for about 150 Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas for the
years 1968-1972, provided a basis for estimating materials at risk to damage
from sulfur oxides. Measures of the average annual relative humidity by
SMSA were integrated into the analysis. This consideration is important
because the corrosion damage function shows relative humidity to be more
important than sulfur dioxide in causing corrosion. Using best availalbe
damage function data for corrosion and paint deterioration, the estimate for
1970, SOx damage (where sulfur dioxide acts as a surrogate for all damaging
sulfur compounds in the atmosphere) to metals and paints was approximately
$0.4 billion. An analysis of available dose-response data on the effect of
-------
VI-13
SOx on susceptible materials concludes that SOx effects on textiles, building
materials, leather and paper products, and dye-fading are probably negligible
from an economic standpoint. A study of the economic effects of air pollution
on textile fibers and dyes estimated damages at approximately $0.2 billion
annually. The costs of fading of dyes in fabrics by oxides of nitrogen and
ozone generally are based on: the increased cost of dyes more resistant to
fading; the cost of inhibitors for cheaper dyes; the cost of research; the
cost of quality control related to the use of more expensive dyes; and the
costs to consumers and sellers with respect to any reduction in product life.
These studies provide the basis for a gross national estimate of
air pollution damages to man-made materials. With adjustment for values obtained
in the individual studies to avoid double counting, a total gross damage
estimate for 1970 of $1.7 billion is obtained. A range of $1.0-2.4 billion is
generated by assuming the same variance for materials as- was determined for
property values. Given the nature of the studies reviewed, this estimate should
be taken as indicative of the general magnitude of damage in 1970 and not as
the "true" cost of material damage.
VEGETATION
Damage to vegetation as a result of air contamination has been
recorded in the United States since the turn of the century. What was once
a problem associated only with point sources has evolved into an air pollution
problem more commonly associated with urban expansion. The continued commercial
and noncommercial production of crops and forests in many areas has been jeo-
pardized and in some locations discontinued. A major study was undertaken to
develop an estimate of the annual economic losses to agriculture in all regions
of the United States resulting from damage to vegetation by air pollutants. The
method was: First, counties were selected in the U.S. where the major air
pollutants—oxidants (ozone, PAN, and oxides of nitrogen), sulfur dioxide, and
fluorides—were likely to reach plant-damaging concentrations. This selection
was based on fuel consumption and the existence of large single-source emitters.
Second, the relative potential severity classes of the pollution in each county
were then estimated, based on emissions area, and potential pollution episode
days. Third, crop value estimates were completed for these counties. Fourth,
estimates of the potential annual value of forests and the annual maintenance
costs of ornamental plantings were completed and apportioned by area and
population. Fifth, a continuing literature review provided information on the
relative sensitivity of different plant species to the selected pollutants, so
the percentage loss that might be expected to crops and ornamental plantings in
the most severely polluted counties could be determined. Sixth, tables were
then prepared showing the percentage loss that might be expected to crops and
ornamentals in counties in the different pollution classes described in the
second step above. And seventh, these factors were then applied to value of
the crops, forests, and ornamentals grown in the polluted counties, and the
dollar loss value for each crop in each county was recorded. From this, state,
regional, and national estimates were obtained.
-------
VI-14
When the loss factors for the various pollution intensities in the
551 selected counties were applied to the determined crop and ornamental values,
the total annual dollar loss to crops and ornamentals in the United States for
1970 is calculated to be about $0.2 billion. Assuming a variance of 50 percent,
a range of $0.1-0.3 billion for 1970 is obtained.
COMPARING COST AND BENEFIT VALUES
It is desirable for any control program, policy or action that the
benefits of reduced pollution costs be greater than the abatement costs;
otherwise society will be made worse off by the action. In principle, it
is easy to make this comparison. In fact, it is very difficult to obtain
accurate enough cost and benefit values for a given program, policy or action
to make a correct determination of the value of the action to society.
In particular, the values in this report, while providing some feel
for the general validity of current programs, do not provide an adequate basis
for accurate comparison of the cost and benefit of the entire program nor any
particular part of the program.
One major problem is that not all of the benefits have been measured.
Some judgmental value has to be assigned to the unmeasured benefits before the
numbers would be comparable to abatement cost estimates. A second problem is
that the values presented are national aggregates. A benefit-cost comparison
of national costs and benefits would not indicate the merit of pollution control
programs for individual regions of the country or for individual pollutants.
Hence, the numbers presented here should not be used to judge the value of any
particular environmental decision unless all the costs and benefits pertinent
to that decision have been counted. The current state of the art of benefit
assessment does not allow such comparisons in most cases.
*U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE! 1974 S8Z-413/5B 1-3
------- |