EPA910/R-96-012
Summary Of
Fish Habitat/Water Quality
Since The Silver Fire Of 1987
Elizabeth Kormeier
EPA/NNEMS Intern
Edited By: Chris Park
Forest Hydrologist
Siskiyou National Forest
Summer 1995
Galice Ranger District Office
Siskiyou National Forest
Grants Pass, Oregon
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Silver Fire Fish Habitat/Water Quality October 1996
Summary Of Fish Habitat/Water Quality Since The Silver Fire Of 1987
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The Silver Fire of 1987 burned almost 100,000 acres within the Siskiyou National Forest. Since the
fire, much work has been done to monitor the effects of fire and salvage logging within the burned
area. Over half of the burned area was hi the Kalmiopsis Wilderness which was left untouched
subsequent to the fire. The remaining 42,350 acres were designated as the Silver Fire Recovery Project
area. Monitoring began when the Record of Decision for the Final Environmental Impact Statement
was issued by the Forest Supervisor in the summer of 1988.
Because of the emphasis on ecosystem management, monitoring was performed on a wide variety of
elements, from fish habitat surveys to road construction to recreational use. This monitoring effort will
provide important information on how well improved management practices are performing. The
intent of this summary is to compile existing monitoring results to address the following question:
What are the effects of salvage logging and road construction on water quality/ anadromous fish
habitat in the area of the Silver Fire of 1987?
From a review of the monitoring data that has been collected to date, it appears that the watersheds are
recovering well from such a significant disturbance event. Actual effects from the fire and salvage
logging have been significantly less than the predictions of the FEIS. The lack of adverse effects is
attributed to, protection of riparian areas, improved road construction practices, and minimizing
disturbance through the use of helicopter logging. Vegetation regrowth in the burned and salvaged
areas has been very strong. Based on stream surveys, it appears that fish habitat and fish populations
were not affected by the fire or salvage logging. The anadromous fish species of concern which spawn
in the Silver and Indigo Creeks are the steelhead trout and the Chinook salmon.
The winter of 1995 produced the first storm of significant magnitude since the fire occurred.
Additional monitoring data after this storm will be instrumental in bringing closure to some elements
regarding effects of the fire and management activities. During the summer and fall of 1995,
monitoring of roads, small stream channels, current fish habitat surveys, and landslide inventory from
air photo interpretation will provide this needed information. Twelve miles of road were constructed
for the salvage operation and are currently being monitored. After a cursory look at the conditions after
the storm, it appears that management activities have not caused any adverse effects.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PROJECT OBJECTIVES 3
WILD FIRE AND TIMBER SALVAGE BACKGROUND 3
History of Fire 3
Environmental Impact Statement for Management Alternatives of the Fire Area 4
Fire Salvage Activity 4
Emergency Burn Restoration 5
MONITORING OF FIRE EFFECTS 5
Background ._. 5
Precipitation/Climate : 6
Summary of Monitoring Activities 7
Landslide Monitoring 7
Roads and Landings 8
Riparian Areas 11
Stream Buffer Areas 11
Cable Logging Compliance with Riparian Area Prescriptions 11
Low Flows and Peak Flows 13
Stream Morphology 15
Fish Habitat 16
Stream Surveys 16
Water quality/Compliance 22
Stream Shade and Temperature 22
Turbidity 26
CONCLUSIONS 28
FUTURE MONITORING 29
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Silver Fire Fish Habitat/Water Quality October 1996
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Location And Vicinity Map 2
Figure 2: New Slide Into Silver Creek (Winter 1995) 10
FigureS: Shallow Slide In Mainstem of Silver Creek (Winter 1995) 10
Figure 4: Riparian Buffers on Bald Mountain 12
Figure 5: Riparian Buffers on Chinaman Hat 12
Figure 6: Annual Precipitation and Stream Low Flows (1958-1967) 14
Figure 7: Annual Precipitation and Stream Low Flows (1986-1995) 14
Figure 8: Large Wood Pile in North Fork Silver Creek 21
Figure 9: Large Wood Pile in West Fork Indigo 21
Figure 10: Comparison of Low Flow and Stream Temperature At Illinois River 23
Figure 11: Comparison of Low Flow and Stream Measurement At Silver Creek 23
Figure 12: Stream Temperatures: 7 Day High (Figure 1) 25
Figure 13: Stream Temperature: 7 Day High (Figure 2) 25
Figure 14: Winter Turbidity Levels (Sept. 1988 - Apr. 1989) 27
Figure 15: Winter Turbidity Levels (Nov. 1989 - Mar. 1990) 27
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Wayne Elson
USDA Forest Service, Siskiyou National Forest
Mike Amaranthus
Bob Ettner
Howard Jubas
Paula Fong
Peter Gaulke
Ed Gross
Cindy Ricks
Paul Schinke
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Oregon
Silver fire Recovery Project
Location and Area Map
SUtfyou Nthanil Foreil
0/vw Fin Recovery Art*
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Silver Fire Fish Habitat/Water Quality
October 1996
PROJECT OBJECTIVES
The purpose of this report is to summarize
existing monitoring data on the effects the 1987
wild fire and subsequent salvage operations had
on water quality and fish habitat. This report
will also look at the original monitoring
objectives to see if they have been achieved,
how well do actual conditions correlate with
predictions of effects in the EIS and
recommend additional monitoring and data
analysis.
In addition to the existing data, it is essential
that new monitoring data be collected. During
the winter of 1995, there was the first large
storm event within the project area since the
fire. Monitoring after such an event is
instrumental in understanding the effects of the
fire and salvage logging. Planned monitoring
includes: small and intermittent stream cross-
sections including a stream shade survey, a
landslide inventory for the current state of the
watersheds, a fish habitat survey on some of
the fish bearing streams, and a road inventory
to complete original monitoring and assess
current condition.
WILD FIRE AND TIMBER
SALVAGE BACKGROUND
On August 30, 1987, lightning ignited, the
Silver Fire. The fire burned until November,
covering over 96,240 acres in the Siskiyou
National Forest in southwestern Oregon.
Approximately 42,350 acres were designated as
the Silver Fire Recovery Project (SFRP). The
Kalmiopsis Wilderness Area was left to recover
naturally. Before the fire was completely
controlled, work began on the Silver project.
The recovery project was located in the Silver
Creek and Indigo Creek drainages which are
just north of the Kalmiopsis Wilderness. Figure
1 shows the area and the location of the
recovery project. Approximately 50% of the
Silver Creek drainage burned; 24,200 acres out
of 51,000 acres. And approximately 37% of the
Indigo Creek drainage burned; 18,150 acres out
of 49,400 acres. Both of these watersheds are
tributaries to the lower Wild and Scenic Illinois
River.
History of Fire
The following information regarding the
history of fire was presented in the Silver Creek
Watershed Analysis, April 1995, Ver. 1.0. This
section applies to both the Silver and Indigo
Creek watersheds that were affected by the
1987 wild fire.
Southwestern Oregon and the Siskiyou
National Forest have a long history of major
wildfires. In the warm-temperate, dry-summer,
'Mediterranean' climate of the Siskiyou
Mountains, the forests are easily set afire; and
fires of widely varying intensities have been
frequent. Fires in 1987 were the third worst on
record. The Silver Fire burned 96,240 acres.
Atzet, Wheeler, and Gripp (1988) described the
settlement period of 1820-1910 as a period
when fire was forced on the land by trappers,
miners, ranchers, and settlers to eliminate
vegetation, drive game, enhance forage and
clear land. Fire suppression programs begun
around 1910 have created a relatively fire-free
condition except for the area that burned with
the 1987 Silver Fire.
Fire frequency for prehistoric or pre-settlement
times is a better reflection of the natural role of
fire in the ecosystem than data from more
recent tim s due to the large amount of burning
during the settlement era. A 30 year average
fire cycle for the Mixed Conifer forest type was
determined by Agee (1991). Atzet and Wheeler
(1982) determined fire cycles of 20 years for
inland plant associations with cycle length
increasing to 60 years or more for coastal areas.
Natural fire cycle for Silver Creek and Indigo
watershed is between 30 and 50 years.
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Silver Fire Fish Habitat/Water Quality
October 1996
The potential for future large fire occurrence is
high to extreme. This is a result of the
vegetation, steep slopes, and abundance of
south aspects and lack of road access to help
contain fires in large portions of the area.
Roads that are within the watershed can also
add to the likelihood of fire by introducing
humans starts. There are portions of the Silver
Fire area that contain heavy fuel loadings and
have a high potential of burning again. Within
the project area, 12 percent of the total burned
at high intensity, 33 percent burned at medium
intensity, and 54 percent burned at low
intensity.
Environmental Impact Statement for
Management Alternatives of the Fire
Area
Soon after the fire was out, work began on
preparing the Environmental Impact Statement
(EIS). An interdisciplinary team convened to
identify the issues, collect and interpret field
data, develop a range of alternatives, refine
mitigation measures, and estimate the
environmental impacts of each alternative.
Several major issues were at stake: rapid timber
recovery of fire-killed trees, protection of water
quality and fisheries, maintenance of site
productivity, mitigation of the impact to
wildlife habitat, reforestation, road construction
in a largely roadless area, recreation experience
and visual concerns, and the economics
involved in each of these areas.
The EIS, as required by the National
Environmental Protection Act of 1969,
described the area and proposed several
management alternatives. In the EIS all aspects
of the affected environment were considered
and the best management alternatives were
presented. The selected alternative included
significant attention to the water quality and
fish habitat issues. It also included a moderate
level of salvage logging and road construction.
Fire Salvage Activity
Commercial sized trees killed by the fire had an
estimated 262 Million Board Feet (MBF) of
timber. Of this total, approximately 95 MBF
(36 percent) was actually salvage logged. Most
of the logging was done using helicopters with
a small percentage skyline logged.
To accommodate the salvage harvest, there
were initially 20 miles of road proposed for
construction. However, due to Congressional
action, 8 miles of road were eliminated from
the proposed plan, reducing the total mileage
to 12. Because of this change and the increased
market price of timber at the time, it became
economically feasible to fly logs more than
twice the usual distance calculated for
helicopter logging. This adjustment had
considerable effect by reducing the amount of
disturbance in the project area associated with
road construction and skyline harvest. Salvage
logging was done in areas of high or medium
intensity burn where drainage hillslopes were
in low to moderate risk of landslides.
Rapid recovery of the fire-killed timber was an
important social and economic issue
subsequent to the fire. The total amount of
timber which was removed by salvage logging
was approximately 5,700 acres, or 13 percent
of the total 42,350 acres included in the Silver
Fire Recovery Project Area.
The designated salvage logging areas and their
acreage are as follows:
>• Sugar Mountain: 626 acres total, 78%
helicopter logged
> Lazy: 906 acres total, 95% helicopter
logged
* North Face: two sales 236 acres total,
helicopter logged only
*• Hat Trick: 415 acres total, helicopter
logged only
* Black Hat: 582 acres total, 60% helicopter
logged
> Half Bald: 692 acres total, 96% helicopter
logged
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Silver Fire Fish Habitat/Water Quality
October 1996
»• Old Glory: 74 acres total, (Percentage of
acreage that was helicopter logged is
unknown for the rest of this list.)
*• Silver Hog: 1484 acres total
*• Blue Indigo: 232 acres total
> Hardscrabble: 243 acres total
»• Deep Purple: 327 acres total
Emergency Burn Restoration
Immediately after the fire, emergency burn
restoration was performed. Rehabilitation
measures were designed to prevent offsite
degradation of water quality and fisheries, to
minimize soil erosion and productivity losses,
and to prevent offsite damage to life and
property. Treatments included aerial and hand
sowing of grass and legume seed, fertilization,
construction of check dams, construction of
straw bale erosion barriers, spreading of straw
mulch, planting shrubs and tree seedlings, and
contour log structures (Gross et al., 1989).
The benefits of these treatments are unknown
at this time. There is current controversy
regarding the benefits of grass-seeding. It
appears that grass and legume competition to
conifers, herb, fungi, and shrubs is often severe
in the first couple of years. Amaranthus (1993)
reported that sugar pine seedlings in grass
seeded plots experienced reduced root-tip and
mycorrhiza formation, low levels of soil
moisture to meet evapotranspirational demand,
high levels of mortality, and reduced growth. In
the monitoring which followed the Silver Fire,
Amaranthus (1989) noted that grass seeding
significantly reduced the presence of a
particular shrub that hosts important nitrogen-
fixing bacteria capable of increasing site
nitrogen. Because high nitrogen losses can
accompany intense fire, natural mechanisms
that return nitrogen to the soil are important to
long-term productivity.
MONITORING OF FIRE EFFECTS
Background
The Silver Fire Recovery Project has been
closely coordinated with both the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and
Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ).
EPA and DEQ support of the project weighed
heavily on the monitoring and communication
between the agencies. The selected alternative
included a comprehensive monitoring plan.
Total ecosystem management was the approach
taken in the plan. As a result, subsequent
monitoring has produced a lot of data covering
many aspects.
Since the fire of 1987, several government
documents have been published that guide
monitoring within the project area. These are
listed as follows:
* Record of Decision for the SFRP - July
1988. The Forest Supervisor, Ron
McCormick, identified reasons for the
selected alternative as modified for the
Final EIS. The desired alternative included
the monitoring plan to be implemented.
> Siskiyou Forest Plan, May 1989. This
document redirected the overall
management goals to be achieved
throughout the forest.
» Eligibility Studies for both Silver Creek
and Indigo Creek and their tributaries
used for determining whether or not these
streams can be designated as National
Wild and Scenic rivers.
> Record of Decision, the President's
Northwest Forest Plan - April 13, 1994.
This document presents the Aquatic
Ecosystem Management guidelines and
Aquatic conservation Strategy.
The documents listed above reflect the policy
changes toward an "ecosystem" approach. The
Silver Project is considered a pioneer in its
objectives.
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Silver Fire Fish Habitat/Water Quality
October 1996
The approach toward monitoring was
comprehensive. In 1988 and 1989, funding was
directed to the Galice Ranger District
specifically to accomplish Silver monitoring. It
became an important focus of District resource
specialists. A monitoring summary report was
produced in each of those years. Monitoring
covered many aspects, but there was little
cohesion between the individual projects and in
the documents which presented monitoring
results.
By 1991, monitoring activities were
significantly reduced from the 1989 level. This
was do to two reasons: Short term
implementation monitoring, to determine if
project activities went as planned, was
completed; funds for long term monitoring had
been significantly cut and personnel priorities
were shifted to other activities. In 1990 and
1991 the results of monitoring were briefly
summarized on one page in a newspaper
circulated to the public. The collaborative
effort between the EPA and Forest Service to
produce this report, was a joint exercise to
summarize what had been collected for water
quality and fish habitat monitoring. Therefore,
this report will focus on the aquatic section of
the Silver monitoring plan.
The monitoring was divided into individual
projects based on discipline. The individual
monitoring projects were grouped according to
how their specific objectives achieved the
overall monitoring goals and included,
implementation, effectiveness and validation
monitoring. The monitoring objectives were
divided into the following groups:
Group 1 - Monitoring to insure that
implementation is consistent with the law or by
prior agreement with an outside agency
(implementation monitoring).
Group 2 - Monitoring to insure that mitigation
measures for reduction of potential adverse
resource impacts are implemented
(implementation monitoring).
Group 3 - Monitoring that will provide
information to help make future management
decisions (effectiveness monitoring).
Group 4 - Monitoring to add to the general
data base (inventory) (effectiveness
monitoring).
Group 5 - Research (validation monitoring).
These groups describe the priority order given
to each individual monitoring project. In this
report the overall monitoring group will be
identified, but the monitoring activities will not
be described in the order of the groups listed
above.
This report will address the monitoring of
sediment delivery, stream buffers, stream
shade, and channel morphology. Following the
discussion on upland and channel response,
fish habitat will be evaluated.
Precipitation/Climate
Typically this area is characterized as
Mediterranean with cool wet winters and warm
dry summers. In the mountainous region of the
fire area, the winters bring rain, snow and often
rain on snow events. These rain on snow events
can accelerate runoff and infiltration by the
combination of melting snow with the
precipitation. Saturation, resulting from heavy
winter precipitation, can trigger landslides and
slumps. Higher turbidity and peak flows also
occur during the winter.
Within the context of observing watershed
health, comparing precipitation records prior to
and since the fire is necessary to understanding
hydrologic effects. From 1987 to 1994 this area
was been considered by many to be in a
drought state. Average annual precipitation was
below normal and there had not been a winter
storm of significant magnitude. The 1995
season was the first year that annual rain fall
were normal over the fire area. During the
winter of 1995, there was a storm that ranged
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Silver Fire Fish Habitat/Water Quality
October 1996
from a 5 to 25 year return frequency in
intensity in southern Oregon. The fact that
there was an increase in the amount of
precipitation and a storm of significance in
1995 was a strong reason to continue
monitoring following that winter season.
Comparing 1995's monitoring results with the
results collected from the years directly after
the fire will help in making conclusions
regarding the overall health and recovery of the
area.
Summary of Monitoring Activities
Table 1 presents a summary of the monitoring
activities, the years that data was collected, and
the number of sites or type of monitoring
performed.
Landslide Monitoring
The geology of the area is dominated by the
Dothan (also called Franciscan) sandstone of
Jurassic Age with numerous igneous intrusions
of diorite in the headwater of the Silver Creek
drainage. The Dothan formation is
characterized as a medium grained, well-
indurated graywacke, with alternating
mudstone layers. These rocks tend to weather
to coarser soil textures than many soils
common to other rock types of the Coast
Range.
In 1988 and 1989, landslide monitoring was
performed by Joe Cornell, geologist (now
retired). The objective of the monitoring was to
determine changes in slope failure rate due to
the wildfire and/or management. The inventory
was done using helicopter flights, aerial photos,
and ground traverse.
Several conclusions from the monitoring were
made. A historic landslide inventory was used
to characterize the rate and volumes under
natural conditions without management
activities. It was determined that major
episodes of mass wasting coincide with high
precipitation winters. Another conclusion was
that stream bank failure usually involves only
100 to 300 cubic yards.
Table 1
Summary of Monitoring Activities and
Years Collected
Monitoring Activities:
Sediment Loading:
Landslide Inventory
Infiltration Rates
Slope Erosion: Erosion Pins
Roads and Landings:
Erosion Pins
Road BMPs: Field Review
Stream Management Unit
Width
Cable Logging Layout
Channel Changes: Cross-
Sections
Class III and IV
Channel Changes: Cross-
Sections
Class I and II
Peak Stream Flows
Low Stream Flows
Fish Habitat: Stream
Surveys
Fish Population:
Electrofishing
Stream Water Temperature
Water Quality: Turbidity
Sites
air photo
interpretation
24 sites
4 sites
4 roads
field review
24 units
25 units in 8
timber sales
4 streams,
3 sets each
3 critical reaches
3 sites
5 to 1 1 sites
1 to 33 miles
3 sites
1 1 sites
auto, sampled
4 to 6 sites
Years
Collected:
1988-1989
1988-1989
1988-1990
1988-1992
1988-1989
1989
1989
1988-1989
1988-1990
1988-1989
1988-1993
1988-1993
1988-1989
1988-1993
1988-1989
Riparian areas that burned, suffered only
underburn of brush. Only a few small fire-
related landslides had occurred in the Silver
project area through fall, 1994. In 1989 a
natural landslide blocked the creek upstream of
the fire area, forming a landslide dam and small
lake. This landslide dam was reviewed by John
Costa, USGS, and a report was written on that
site. The dam was breached the following
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Silver Fire Fish Habitat/Water Quality
October 1996
winter in 1990, which trigger some slide
activity.
Surface ravel along the inner gorges notably
increased following the fire, but no calculations
were made. Sediment delivery appears to be
less than the modeled predictions in the Silver
EIS. Had the precipitation and streamflow been
average or above, landslide activity may have
been different
During the summer of 1995 a helicopter
reconnaissance flight was flown over the fire
area with the purpose of looking for changes in
the landscape that might have occurred since
the last aerial photos were flown in 1992 and
the recent storm event. Cindy Ricks, the
Siskiyou National Forest Resource Geologist,
and Elizabeth Kormeier, the EPA/NNEMS
intern participated in the reconnaissance flight.
There is photo/slide documentation of the flight
available at the Galice Ranger District office in
Grants Pass, OR.
From the helicopter flight, the following
general observations were noted. Vegetation
regrowth in the burned and salvaged areas has
been very strong. Erosion from preexisting
landslides was apparent. It appears that the
main stream sections of both Silver Creek and
Indigo Creek were not burned during the fire.
The riparian areas look intact. Some of the
riparian areas on the small intermittent streams
had been burned but were not salvaged logged.
On some slopes where both fire and harvesting
had occurred, the presence of rock debris
chutes was noted. These are natural
topographic depressions that when left exposed
to precipitation are the first to collect material
such as woody debris and the first to erode
because water will travel down slope in these
chutes. On other slopes where large woody
material was left, the wood has fallen into these
debris chutes and is slowly being transported
down the hill with the help of gravity.
A natural slide that appears to be new this year
occurred approximately 1/4 mile upstream from
the mouth of Silver Creek (Figure 2). With the
help of aerial photos taken in 1995, the amount
of material which slid into Silver Creek can be
estimated. It also appeared that there was a
very shallow, new slide in a burned and
harvested area on the south side, north-facing
slope of Indigo Creek approximately one mile
upstream from the mouth (Figure 3). As a very
rough estimate, it appeared to be approximately
400 feet long and possibly between 6 and 10
feet deep; this would need to be verified using
air photos from the flight that is scheduled for
this fall.
The aerial photos taken in 1995 will be used to
perform a landslide inventory that will be
compared to the previous landslide inventory.
By comparing the historic inventory to the post
fire, it can be determined if the rates and
volumes of landslides increased as the result of
the fire and salvage logging.
Roads and Landings
Two monitoring projects were performed with
the intention of evaluating road construction in
the Silver Fire Recovery Project area. Roads
and landings were monitored during 1988 and
1989 with the goal of verifying that the design,
location and operation met the soil and water
objectives. The hypothesis of the monitoring
was that the Best Management Practices (BMP)
for stream crossings, road construction, and
landing construction would be implemented.
The methods which were used by Paula Fong, a
Siskiyou Forest soil scientist, were observation,
fill slope measurements, and stream
morphology measurements above and below
new road drainage crossings to detect changes.
The locations of this monitoring was in 4
places, 3 newly constructed road, and 1 road
tfiat was formerly in existence that was
extended for salvage logging.
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Silver Fire Fish Habitat/Water Quality
October 1996
According to the summary of the 1989
Monitoring Report, of the 4 roads evaluated,
only 2 showed noticeable movement. There
was no fill movement on the new construction
extensions of Bald Mountain Road and the
original Bald Mountain. Road. The Black Hat
and Sugar Mountain timber sale road systems
showed measurable fill slope movement. Total
precipitation did not account for differences in
fill response. A more erosive fill material type
and steeper gradient was associated with
greater fill movement.
Barriers installed at the completion of road
construction to minimize vehicle use were
effective at protecting road drainage. Excessive
vehicle use can cause road rutting, which
results in channelizing water down the road
surface. Quite often this water will end up
draining on a fill slope which can cause erosion
or fill failure. None of the fill slope showed
signs of erosion.
It appears that the new road construction has
not significantly contributed sediment to the
stream systems. The new roads appear to have
been well constructed, although some problems
with drainage have been encountered with
plugged culverts.
During the summer of 1995 a general survey of
the new roads that were constructed for salvage
logging, was performed. Preliminary results
revealed, roads and road drainage do not appear
to increased erosion or sediment delivery to
streams. Aside from plugged drainages, no
significant gullying has been found below
culverts.
However, some of the landings are beginning
to show signs of slumping and cracking. This is
most likely caused by either natural decay of
organic material that was incorporated in the
fill or insufficient compaction at the time of
construction, or a combination of both these
factors. If these areas are allowed to continue to
move, there is a likelihood that they could fail
in the future delivering fill material downslope.
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Figure 2: New Slide Into Silver Creek (Winter 1995)
New slide into Silver Creek,
close to confluence with the Illinois River.
Figure 3: Shallow Slide In Mamstem of Silver Creek (Winter 1995)
Shallow slide in burned and harvested area,
on north slope of mainstem Silver Creek.
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Silver Fire Fish Habitat/Water Quality
October 1996
Riparian Areas
The riparian areas are the sensitive zones along
stream banks which integrate the land ecology
with that of the stream. Preserving these areas
from salvage logging has been a landmark for
this project.
Stream Buffer Areas
The width of Stream Buffer areas, known as
Stream Management Unit (SMU), were
monitored to insure that mitigation measures
for reduction of potential adverse resource
impacts were met. The objective of this
monitoring was to insure that the buffer widths,
that had been prescribed for each of the
streams, ranging from the small and
intermittent to the larger fish bearing streams,
had been accurately field located and adhered
to during logging operations. The fish bearing
stream of North Silver was given a 600 foot
width buffer. The smaller fish bearing streams
were given a 200 foot or greater width buffer.
The perennial and intermittent streams were
given buffer widths ranging from 25 to 200 feet
depending on the size of the stream.
Monitoring for the protection of riparian areas
was done in the Bald Mountain and Chinaman
Hat regions, as well as Indigo Creek. Results of
the monitoring summary, report the project
objectives and prescriptions were met during
layout and harvest.
Cable Logging Compliance with Riparian
Area Prescriptions
Cable Logging Layout monitoring was
designed to monitor protection of riparian areas
during timber harvest. Objectives of this
monitoring included documenting if cable
logging operations complied with riparian area
prescriptions and related contract provisions.
The objectives also included documenting
corrective actions when not in compliance.
Methods to monitor the harvests included
weekly and/or daily inspections and subsequent
completion of inspection reports. Of the total
5,700 acres which were salvaged,
approximately 1,400 acres or 24 percent were
cable logged. Results of the 1989 monitoring
summary indicate that the operators performed
high quality work with few violations. The
occasional corrective action included stream
clean out when material was impeding flow. It
also included leaving trees when they provided
benefit to the stream or their removal would
damage stream channel or riparian vegetation.
Protection of these riparian areas during
salvage logging operations was highly effective
in meeting objectives where shade, and
protection against erosion and sedimentation
are needed to maintain a healthy riparian
ecosystem. From helicopter observation during
the summer of 1995, it appears that the stream
buffer areas are still functioning well and that
they were very effective in maintaining stream
bank integrity as well as reducing sediment
delivery to the stream. A picture taken during
the helicopter flights shows the preservation of
the riparian buffers (see Figure 4 & 5).
11
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Figure 4: Riparian Buffers on Bald Mountain
Riparian Buffers on Bald Mountain and Chinaman Hat (below).
Figure 5: Riparian Buffers on Chinaman Hat
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Silver Fire Fish Habitat/Water Quality
October 1996
Low Flows and Peak Flows
Low flow and peak flow monitoring was
performed with the objective of determining
the change in low flow volumes associated
with fire during the critical July/August peak
stream temperature periods through time. Flow
data were also used to determine post-fire
change in the infiltration rate.
Increases in flow were predicted in the
Environmental Impact Statement prepared for
the Silver Fire Recovery Project area. The
hypothesis for the monitoring was that there is
a potential for summer stream flows to increase
if vegetation is either burned or removed
during timber harvest. The flows were expected
to increase for two reasons. First, because of
the loss of evapotranspiring vegetation,
groundwater levels would remain higher
contributing to higher base flows in the
streams. Second, because of the loss of so
many trees, the accumulation of snow in the
winter would be greater than pre-fire. This
would cause an increase in runoff or infiltration
which would increase stream flow. According
to the hydrologic technician, who directed
riparian area layout, the riparian areas had to be
remarked as the perennial streams extended
further upslope after the fire than they had
historically (Howard Jubas, personal comm.
1995).
The methods used to detect peak flows were
crest stage and staff plates. Unfortunately this
monitoring was unsuccessful for the most part.
For the low flows, measurements were taken by
the hydrologist technician manually during the
summer. Selected locations in both Silver and
Indigo drainages were monitored for low flow.
Peak flows were monitored in 1989 and low
flows have been monitored from 1988 to 1993.
Low flow measurements also exist between
1958 and 1967.
Figures 6 and 7 shows the low stream flow in
Indigo and Silver Creeks with the amount of
annual precipitation. The annual precipitation
was estimated. Four NOAA stations were
averaged with weighting placed on their
elevations and distances from the project area.
In examining the graphs of annual inches of
precipitation and the summer low flow
measurerr.rits for Indigo -ad Silver Creeks.
Indigo and Silver Creek have very similar
patterns in stream flow. They appear to
correlate very well. However, precipitation
does not appear to have a good correlation.
Low flows did not follow the pattern of
increasing in wetter years and decreasing in
dryer years.
Annual precipitation estimates are missing
several months of data for 1993 and 1994.
These values do not reflect the actual
precipitation. Unfortunately, more accurate
estimates for annual precipitation are not
available.
In an attempt to understand the effects of fire
on flow, correlations were made between the
low flow measurements from the burned
watersheds and unburned watersheds. The
Illinois River at the Kerby gauging station and
Sucker Creek were selected because of their
comparable low flows.
Silver and Indigo Creeks correlate well with
Sucker Creek from 1958 to 1967, values
between 0.48 and 0.61. However, these creeks
do not correlate with Sucker Creek after 1987.
This could indicate some effect of fire on
stream flow. However, when comparing the
Illinois River at Kerby with Silver and Indigo
Creeks, the flow measurements do not correlate
very well between 1958 and 1967, but do
correlate extremely well after 1987, especially
on Silver Creek with a correlation value of
0.83. This would indicate that the fire didn't
appear to have any effect on stream flow.
Without more information and a more detailed
look into the flow characteristics and the
13
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Silver Fire Fish Habitat/Water Quality
October 1996
precipitation patterns, it is impossible to make
conclusions regarding the effects of fire and
harvesting on streamflow.
Annual Precipitation and Stream Low Flows
Indigo and Silver Creeks: 1958-1967
1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967
Years
-Indigo -*- Silver * Precipitation |
a:\indgslvr.prs
Figure 6: Annual Precipitation and Stream Low Flows (1958-1967)
Annual Precipitation and Stream Low Flows
Indigo and Silver Creeks: 1986-1995
1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995
Years
[-•-Indigo -*• Silver * Precipitation
a:\indgslvr.prs
Figure 7: Annual Precipitation and Stream Low Flows (1986-1995)
14
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Silver Fire Fish Habitat/Water Quality
October 1996
Unfortunately, same day measurements were
not available for Sucker Creek and Illinois
River at Kerby, only monthly averages.
Monthly averages were compiled for August
and September, and depending on the day the
measurement was taken for Silver or Indigo
Creek, the corresponding monthly average was
used.
Stream Morphology
Stream channel monitoring took place during
1988 and 1989 with the goal of detecting
stream morphology changes due to increased
sediment from the fire, timber harvest and road
construction. This monitoring was performed
under Group 3, or monitoring that will provide
information to help make future management
decisions. The hypothesis of the monitoring
was that stream bank erosion and sediment
deposition in the streambed will increase. In the
FEIS, it is stated that, "vegetative recovery
within the watershed and the high natural
sediment transport rates are expected to return
stream sediment loading to pre-fire conditions
in about twenty years" (SFRP FEIS, p. IV-76).
The methods which were used for this
monitoring were cross-sections using the sag
tape method, stream channel inventories,
channel gradients, photos, stream side area fire
evaluation, R-l Stream Reach Inventory, and
Channel Stability Evaluation.
The monitoring locations were intended to be 6
headwater streams, but because of access,
unavailable personnel, and funding difficulties,
only 3 headwater streams along the east-facing
slope of Bald Mountain in the South Fork
Silver drainage were monitored. The bum
intensity of the streams varied. Riparian areas
were left intact on these streams and some of
the upslope areas were salvaged logged. The
streams that were monitored coincided with the
stream shade/stream temperature monitoring on
two headwater streams. The other headwater
stream was monitored for channel morphology
and not shade/stream temperature.
The channel cross-sections were analyzed
graphically as well as mathematically. Stream
channel cross-sections were analyzed for the
change in area between the same cross-sections
measured in two consecutive years. The three
streams analyzed were labeled streams B, C,
and D. Graphs of the actual cross-sections are
presented in Appendix B.
Cross section area is a useful tool in evaluating
total area change from one year to the next, but
it is not sufficient to understand fully what is
happening within the stream channel. Is there
aggradation or degradation occurring? It is
possible that a significant change in shape
could occur with virtually no change in area.
To get a better sense of channel change, in
addition to area, the Gini coefficient was
determine to detect change in channel shape
and width to depth ratio to determine if the
channel was becoming more deep or wider. A
computer program has been developed by Paul
Schinke, hydrology assistant, to analyze cross-
sections and arrive at these various indices.
The cross-sections taken in 1988 and 1989
have been analyzed, but significant changes in
cross-section shape have not occurred. In such
a short time period with a mild winter in
between, changes were not expected. These
measurements, however, were beneficial in
establishing a baseline that future measurement
can be compared to. The cross sections were
remeasured in 1995 and the results will be
published in a subsequent monitoring report on
collected 1995 data.
In the larger mainstem of Indigo and Silver
Creeks, stream morphology was monitored at
fish bearing critical reaches between 1988 and
1990. The main hypothesis of the monitoring
15
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Silver Fire Fish Habitat/Water Quality
October 1996
was that stream power in critical reaches will
be sufficient to transport bedload sediment
from the fire and management activities though
the critical reaches on Silver and Indigo
Creeks. To monitor changes in stream
morphology, equi-spaced cross-sections were
surveyed in pools and glides. In addition,
particle size distributions of bed material and
channel gradients were surveyed. The surveyed
units represent 50% of each critical reach
length. Stream shade was also monitored using
a solar pathfinder. An additional reach was
added to the monitoring program in 1989. As of
now, there are no significant volume changes;
however, there have been minor shifts in the
location of sediment. Large volumes of fine
sediment appeared to be the result of local
source areas, not fluvial transport of fire or
management related sediment. The monitoring
data supports the prediction that stream power
is sufficient to prevent accumulation.
Fish Habitat
Fish habitat monitoring was included in
monitoring Group 1, or monitoring to insure
that implementation is consistent with the law
or by prior agreement with an outside agency.
The first objective of the fish habitat
monitoring was to document changes in
steelhead and chinook habitat due to fire and
management activities. The second objective
was to document changes in summer steelhead
populations. The third objective was to
compare predicted habitat capability with
observed monitored values. The hypothesis was
that the steelhead and Chinook population and
habitat will change as predicted in the Smolt
Habitat Capability Index model. The methods
used were electrofishing during 1988 and 1989
to detect changes in summer steelhead
population, and the Hankin and Reeves Stream
Survey Method to document the changes in
habitat. In addition aquatic macro-invertebrate
sampling was performed. Over 750 photo
points were taken in 1988 and 1989 to provide
record of the present day stream and stream
side conditions. The stream survey results are
summarized below.
Based on the Smolt Habitat Capability Index
model used in the FEIS, steelhead smolt
populations were expected to decrease by 23
percent from pre-fire levels. The Chinook smolt
populations were expected to decrease by 4
percent from pre-fire levels. However,
population tracking is difficult when the fish of
concern are anadromous, which migrate over
long distances and are effected by many
factors, both natural and human caused.
Stream Surveys
The stream survey includes the following
parameters: fish standing crop (electrofish
selected location or use mask and snorkel),
habitat typing (pool: riffle: glide: cascade),
volume and area of each habitat unit, large
woody debris, substrate composition (visual
estimate), spawning gravel locations and
.quality, barriers to fish migration, photos, and
water temperature.
Results of the 1989 monitoring summary
indicated there was a significant increase in
pre-smolt steelhead between 1988 and 1989.
Many factors can influence the populations of
biological species which have natural
fluctuations from year to year. No significant
difference was noted in aquatic stream habitat
between the two years as indicated by benthic
macro-invertebrate sampling. Fish habitat and
populations appear healthy in Silver and Indigo
Creeks following fire and management
activities. Numerous factors may account for
this such as extremely mild winter between
1987 and 1988 which kept sediment increases
to a minimum. As of the time of monitoring,
harvest activity and roads have not caused
watershed impacts that would lead to
significant changes in stream conditions.
Increases in large woody material in the fire
area may have had a beneficial impact on
fisheries.
16
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Silver Fire Fish Habitat/Water Quality
October 1996
Stream surveys have been done every year
since 1988; however, the streams that were
surveyed each year were different. The list of
streams surveyed did not remain constant from
year to year. The streams that were surveyed in
the SFRP area and their respective ratings were
as follows:
•> Silver Creek: 9+ (surveyed 1988-1991)
»• North Fork Silver Creek: 8 (surveyed
1988-1990)
»• Little Silver Creek: 7+ (surveyed 1988-
1989, and 1991)
+ South Fork Silver Creek: 4 (surveyed
1988-1989)
•• Indigo Creek: 9 (surveyed 1988-1990)
> East Fork Indigo Creek: 8 (surveyed 1988-
1990, and 1992)
»• West Fork Indigo Creek: 8 (surveyed
1988-1992)
These survey ratings give an indicator of
stream habitat and salmonid fish production
capability. Streams were rated on a scale of 1-
10 with 1 indicating the poorest capability and
10 indicating the highest. The higher ratings
were characteristic of streams which have good
to excellent habitat for anadromous fish
migration. Waterfalls are considered barriers to
migration. South Fork Silver Creek received a
lower rating because of its steep gradient,
frequent debris jams causing passage difficulty,
low fish counts, and primarily resident trout.
During all years that surveying was done, the
ratings did not change.
.The species of fish which are particularly
susceptible to habitat changes are the
anadromous species of salmonids. Anadromous
fish are the fall-Chinook salmon, steelhead
trout, and the sea-run cutthroat trout. Resident
fish that have been observed are the rainbow
and cutthroat trout. Non-game species are
sculpins and redside shiners. The redside
shiners are indicators for higher temperatures.
These fish can withstand the higher
temperatures, whereas the anadromous species
cannot.
Silver and Indigo creeks are major tributaries to
the Illinois River. This river feeds into the
Rogue River. The Rogue River fishery is world
famous for its anadromous salmonids. Indigo
Creek contributes approximately 13.9 miles of
anadromous fish habitat and spawning ground.
Silver Creek contributes approximately 20.2
miles of anadromous fish habitat and spawning
ground.
Table 2
Silver and Indigo Fish Bearing Stream
Miles
Creek
Mainstem Silver
North Fork Silver
South Fork Silver
Little Silver
Todd Creek
Mainstem Indigo
West Fork Indigo
East Fork Indigo
Stream Miles
12.9
5.0
0.25
0.95
1.1
8.1
3.4
2.4
Overall fish populations have been high since
the fire of 1987; however, this statement is
based on the quality of fish habitat and
observation during the stream surveys. Because
the endangered fish of concern are the
anadromous species, and migration is inherent
to these species, population estimates and
figures are difficult to achieve.
It is the wild stocks of fish that are at the
forefront of concern. The wild stocks have a
greater diversity within the genetic pool.
Maintaining and protecting these fish is a very
high priority.
17
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Silver Fire Fish Habitat/Water Quality
October 1996
The Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife
(ODFW) has a list of Sensitive Species and
Stocks of Concern. Two of the species on the
list occur in mainstem Silver. They are the Fall
Chinook Salmon and the Illinois River Winter
Steelhead. The American Fisheries Society
(AFS) also has a list of Sensitive Species and
Stocks of Concern with these same fish listed.
The National Marine Fisheries Service may
review these species for potential listing under
the federal Endangered Species Act. The
Chinook does not occur on the mainstem
Indigo.
Water temperature is a critical limiting factor
for the survival of salmonids, especially during
the warm summer months. For fish survival,
temperature ranges from 45 to 59 degrees
Fahrenheit are optimal, 59-69 degrees F are
less than optimal, from 69 to 75 degrees F
growth ceases, and above 75 degrees F there is
mortality (p.III-91, Siskiyou National Forest
Plan, Final Environmental Impact Statement).
Temperature will be more thoroughly discussed
in a subsequent section. Temperatures in the
Illinois River have been somewhat higher than
optimal, thus making a stressful environment
for rearing salmonids. The problems in the
Illinois River are compounded by the presence
of a competitor species, the redside shiner. The
redside shiner is capable of survival in higher
average temperature streams than the salmon or
the trout. Increased water temperatures due to
changes in riparian vegetation from
management activities could reduce salmonid
abundance or production (Reeves et al., 1987).
As for the findings from the stream surveys,
qualitatively Silver Creek has excellent fish
habitat. However, there is opportunity for
structural and non-structural improvements in
and along the channel. During peak
temperature periods the lower reaches of Silver
Creek are creating a stressful environment.
Temperature measurements during peak
temperature periods in the upper reaches are
cooler and provide excellent water quality for
resident trout.
Table 3 presents a synopsis of the stream
surveys and the year that these surveys were
performed.
18
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Silver Fire Fish Habitat/Water Quality
October 1996
Table 3
Stream Survey Results
Stream
Years
Stream Habitat Summary
Silver
Mainstem
1988-
1991
Good to excellent for anadromous fish migration up to mile 12.7, site
of the 1989 landslide. Good resident habitat above the landslide barrier.
Fewer pools and less cover than lower reaches.
North Fork
Silver Creek
1988-
1990
Good condition. A steeper gradient, large boulder segment in the
confluence area could limit fish passage during low flow periods.
Waterfalls at approx. 5 stream miles from mouth.
Little Silver
Creek
1988-
1989,
1991
Anadromous fish passage ends at waterfalls, 1.0 miles up. Resident
habitat abundant above falls. Important salmonid habitat for the Illinois
River. Winter steelhead, no Coho or Chinook. Average stream temp.
while surveying is 52 degrees F.
South Fork
Silver Creek
1988-
1989
Steep gradient, frequent debris jams causing passage difficulty, low
fish counts, thought to be primarily resident trout. Low flow is 3.6 cfs
at mouth. Winter steelhead use the lower 0.25 miles of stream.
Rainbow and cutthroat were found for another 6 miles upstream.
Indigo Creek
1988-
1990
Important tributary for fish production. Minimal management keeps
pristine conditions. 45 ft. of wetted channel width near mouth. Increase
in fish numbers in 1990 possibly due to an increase in summer flow, an
increase in the macro-invertebrate community due to additional
nutrients entering the stream occurring from the 1987 Silver Fire.
East Fork
Indigo Creek
1988-
1990,
1992
Lower reaches have excellent fish habitat. Middle: 3 subsurface areas
between Breezy and Chief Creeks, in stream sediment, low amounts of
wood. Upper: 5 subsurface areas above Chief Creek, past timber
harvest, low flows, minimal pool habitat.
West Fork
Indigo Creek
1988-
1991
Anadromous fish habitat was excellent up to a natural landslide
(created West Indigo Lake) at stream mile 6.8. However, 3 areas of
summer subsurface flow exist. Winter steelhead and possibly sea-run
cutthroat. No Coho or Chinook salmon present. Abundance of sediment
in the systems from natural landslides. West Indigo Creek has a lower
amount of pool and glide habitat, and grater amounts of riffle habitat
than most of the other systems in the Silver Fire area. An increase in
sediment would likely increase the amount of riffle habitat and
decrease pool and glide habitat. Substrate size in riffles would likely
become more uniform, which in turn would decrease the quality of the
riffles used by the smaller size salmonids.
All of these summaries were compiled from the Stream Survey Reports, years 1988 through 1993, for the Galice Ranger
District, Siskiyou National Forest.
19
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Silver Fire Fish Habitat/Water Quality
October 1996
Large wood recruitment has increased as a
result of the fire. Increased recruitment and
delivery to channels has been identified in the
stream inventory monitoring, from aerial
reconnaissance of the area, and from the recent
low level aerial photos. Increases in the large
wood recruitment process is probably one of
the major benefits of the fire for improving
channel condition, fish habitat, and site
productivity. Large woody debris is abundant
in the stream channels at this time. During the
helicopter reconnaissance flight, large
accumulations of wood from the fire-killed
trees eight years ago were present in the North
Fork Silver Creek, Little Silver Creek, and
West Fork Indigo Creek.
Substantial amounts of large wood are present
in the tributaries delivered to the stream from
the burn areas. Large wood accumulation were
seen in North Fork Silver Creek and West Fork
Indigo Creek (Figure 8 & 9). Large wood was
also seen in the mainstem Indigo Creek. It
appears that more wood has accumulated in the
steeply sloped, burned, smaller tributary
drainages rather than the lower mainstem of
these creeks. This maybe attributed to the
larger mainstem channel and greater associated
stream power which has the capacity to move
the wood more quickly.
20
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Figure 8: Large Wood Pile in North Fork Silver Creek
North Fork Silver Creek
Figure 9: Large Wood Pile in West Fork Indigo
West Indigo Creek
-------
Silver Fire Fish Habitat/Water Quality
October 1996
Water quality/Compliance
Water quality refers to the physical and
chemical parameters which enable the
biosystem of the stream to function. Parameters
such as temperature and turbidity are important
for health of the macro-invertebrate
community, the plants, and the fish, both
resident and anadromous. These parameters,
because of their importance, are regulated by
the federal and state governments.
Stream Shade and Temperature
Fire effects, which in areas burned riparian
vegetation, were expected to increase stream
temperature as the result of the loss of stream
shade in the watershed. Standing burned trees
in the riparian area still provide some stream
shade. If these trees were salvaged logged,
stream temperature was expected to increase
further. However, with selection of alternative
I-Modified and implementation of stream
buffer zones to preserve the riparian area,
stream temperature was expected to show no
increase because of salvage logging.
Increases in stream temperatures have been
shown to cause the following: increased fish
mortality, increased fish metabolism which
increases fish oxygen demand, increased
diatom diversity (such as blue-green algae),
and increased pathogenic bacteria which links
back to fish mortality. The Oregon Water
Quality Standards for temperature pertinent to
the Silver Fire area is [OAR 340-41-365(2)(b)].
Stream temperature monitoring was done as
part of monitoring Group 1, monitoring to
insure that implementation is consistent with
the law or by prior agreement with an outside
agency. Stream shade was included in Group 3,
monitoring that will provide information to
help make future management decisions. The
objectives of this monitoring were to validate
the water temperature predictions made in the
original model used in the Environmental
Impact Statement. The selected alternative
included the prediction that temperatures would
not increase as the result of salvage logging.
The hypothesis of the monitoring was that the
buffer zone prescriptions will maintain stream
shade and water temperatures at post-fire
levels.
In October 1988, Mike Amaranthus, Howard
Jubas, and David Arthur presented a scientific
paper at the Symposium on Fire and Watershed
Management entitled "Stream Shading,
Summer Streamflow and Maximum Water
Temperature Following Intense Wildfire in
Headwater Streams". This paper reflected
stream shade monitoring that was done after
the fire. The streams analyzed were labeled
streams A, B, and C. Two of the three
headwater streams that were measured are the
same streams that were analyzed for changes in
channel morphology, streams B and C. The
focus of the paper was to compare the upstream
temperature with the downstream temperature
as they flowed through heavily burned areas.
Stream shade had been reduced from pre-fire
levels of approximately 90% or greater to less
than 30% post-fire. Flow measurements were
observed as well, and it was concluded that the
higher the rate of flow, the less of a
temperature increase will occur.
The methods employed for this monitoring
program were to establish a transect for the
solar pathfinder measurements and mark the
location with rebar. Streamflow measurements
were made in each of the streams using a
USGS (Uiited States Geological Survey)
calibrated flume. The Streamflow
measurements were taken on July 25.
Streamflow varied from 0.035 cfs to 0.076 cfs.
The reach lengths varied from 4920 feet to
7710 feet. Stream temperatures were taken
using calibrated minimum/maximum
thermometers at the above and below portions
of the selected reach. The thermometers
recorded temperatures from June 15 to
22
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Silver Fire Fish Habitat/Water Quality
October 1996
September 15. Temperature increases along the
three streams ranged from 6 degrees Fahrenheit
to 18 degrees F. The maximum stream
temperatures themselves ranged from 55
degrees F to 73 degrees F.
Comparison of Low Flow and Stream Temperature
Measurements taken at Illinois abv Silver Cr.
8/28/89 8/16/90 8/20/91 9/11/92 8/26/93 9/19/94
Yearly Measurements
Note: * Temperature tor 9/19/94 was estimated. LEX 7/31/95
Figure 10: Comparison of Low Flow and Stream Temperature At Illinois River
Comparison of Low Flow and Stream Temperature
Measurements taken at mouth of Silver Creek
80
8/28/89 8/16/90 8/23/91 9/11/92 8/26/93 9/19/94
Yearly Measurements
Note: * Temperature for 9/19/94 was estimated. LEK 7/21/95
Figure 11: Comparison of Low Flow and Stream Measurement At Silver Creek
23
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Silver Fire Fish Habitat/Water Quality
October 1996
Because these are headwater streams, stream
flow is extremely low. The length of the
reaches where temperature was measured at the
top and bottom range from over three quarters
of a mile to almost a mile and a half. Because a
"control" stream, one that had not burned or
been subject to salvage logging, was not used
for comparison, the significance of the
temperature increases cannot be concluded.
The monitoring did show that dead trees do
provide stream shade.
Summer stream temperatures have been
measured using Ryan tempmentors since 1988
at the mouth of Silver Creek and on the Illinois
River above and below the mouth of Silver.
Ryan thermographs measure the daily highs
and the daily lows. These data can be
referenced at the Galice Ranger District office
in Grants Pass, OR via Howard Jubas, the
hydrology technician. Temperatures have
varied due to natural variation in streamflow,
air temperature and other factors, but have not
measurably increased as the result of the fire.
Please see Figures 10 and 11 which are bar
graphs for the Illinois River above Silver Creek
and Silver Creek at the mouth.
The two figures compare low flow with same
day temperature for Silver Creek at the mouth
and the Illinois River above Silver Creek.
Temperatures for Silver Creek at the mouth,
corresponding to the days when low flow
measurements were taken, range between
approximately 57 degrees Fahrenheit and 66.6
degrees F. The Illinois River low flow
temperature range from approximately 59
degrees F to 72.7 degrees F.
Fish bearing stream temperatures do not appear
to have increased as a result of loss of stream
shade in the headwater streams. Review of the
monitoring data indicates that less than 5
percent of the headwater streams burned in this
manner and that post-fire maximum water
temperatures have not appreciably increased at
the mouth of large downstream tributaries
draining the fire area. One surprising
conclusion that can be drawn from examining
these graphs is that years that had lower flows
do not correspond to higher temperatures. The
flow data and the temperature readings do not
appear to be related in any way.
Figures 12 and 13 present the seven day highs
which more accurately represent the sustained
peak temperature that the stream carries. Figure
12 depicts the seven day average around the
peak temperature for South Fork Silver Creek,
Silver Creek upstream or above the mouth of
South Fork, and Silver Creek at the mouth. The
maximum temperature that Silver Creek at the
mouth has sustained is 71.7 degrees F. South
Fork Silver Creek is contributing cooler
temperature water to Silver Creek. Figure 13
depicts Indigo Creek at the mouth, Silver Creek
at the mouth and the Illinois River above Silver
Creek. It is clear that Indigo and Silver Creek
both contribute cooler temperature water to the
Illinois River.
24
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Silver Fire Fish Habitat/Water Quality
October 1996
Silver Fire Recovery Project
Stream Temperatures: 7 Day High
Temp., degrees Fahrenheit
1980 19811988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994
South Fork Silver Creek
Silver Creek Above SF
Silver Mouth 70.6
70.8
56.1
68
65.2
67.6
70
64
67.3
69.3
70.9
67.4
71.7
Years
OSoulh Fork Silver Creek • Silver Creek Above SF •Silver Mouth
South Fork Silver Creek, Silver Creek Above South Fork, Silver Creek at Mouth
Figure 12: Stream Temperatures: 7 Day High (Figure 1)
Silver Fire Recovery Project
Stream Temperatures: 7 Day High
Temp., degrees Fahrenheit
1980 1981 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994
Indigo Creek at Mouth, . 70.4 69.9 72.7 , ,
Silver Creek at Mouth! 70.6 70.8 ! 68 70 69.9 70.9 [ 67.4 71.7
i Illinois Hiver above Silver! 74 76.4 76.2 . 76.3 73.6 76.5
Years
Olndigo Creek at Mouth •Silver Creek at Mouth •Illinois River above Silver
Indigo Creek at Mouth, Silver Creek at Mouth, Illinois River above Silver Creek
Figure 13: Stream Temperature: 7 Day High (Figure 2)
25
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Silver Fire Fish Habitat/Water Quality
October 1996
Turbidity
Turbidity refers to the amount of light that is
scattered or absorbed by a fluid; thus, turbidity
is an optical property of the fluid. Turbidity is
usually due to the presence of suspended
particles of silt and clay, but other materials
such as finely divided organic matter, colored
organic compounds, plankton, and
microorganisms can contribute to the turbidity
of a water sample (EPA Monitoring
Guidelines, p. 102).
Surveillance monitoring of non-point source
pollution or turbidity monitoring was included
in Group 1, or monitoring to insure that
implementation is consistent with the law or by
prior agreement with an outside agency. The
objectives of the monitoring were two-fold: to
determine the sources of pollution when in-
stream turbidity measurements indicate
excessive turbidity, and to determine the
amount of turbidity during periodic runoff
events. The hypothesis was that the best
management practices which were
implemented, such as the riparian buffers, will
be effective in controlling non-point source
pollution and excessive turbidity will be
wildfire related.
High turbidity levels adversely affect the
feeding and growth of salmonids and other fish
species. A recent review concluded that the
ability of salmonids to find and capture food is
impaired at turbidities in the range of 25-70
NTU. NTU refers to nephelometric turbidity
units, a unit measured by a photoelectric
turbidimeter. Other studies indicate that growth
is reduced and gill tissue is damaged after 5-10
days of exposure to water with a turbidity of 25
NTU. At 50 NTU some species of salmonids
are displaced (EPA Monitoring Guidelines,
p. 103).
The Oregon Water Quality Standards for
turbidity (OAR 340-41-365) state, no more
than a 10 percent cumulative increase in natural
stream turbidities shall be allowed, as measured
to a control point immediately upstream of the
turbidity causing activity. Since the increases
must include cumulative increases, it is
important to review turbidity conditions and
management activities upstream of the Silver
Burn area.
Potential sources of turbidity in the headwaters
of Silver and Indigo Creeks include disturbed
soils associated with timber harvest and roads.
Sloughing of soils on some cut banks may be
occurring in over steepened areas. Raveling of
fills on roads with sidecast construction may be
continuing in a few areas. Some timber harvest
units contain ephemeral streams that were not
sufficiently protected during earlier harvest
practices, which may exhibit erosion. While
these may be potential sources of turbidity and
sediment, no problems resulting from these
areas are known (SFRP FEIS, p. 111-35).
The prediction from the SFRP Final
Environmental Impact Statement is that the
Silver Fire is expected to increase the potential
for turbidity in Silver and Indigo Creeks. The
predicted increase in turbidities and
sedimentation are 54 to 335 percent above the
pre-fire levels including the modeled effects of
previous harvest activities. The greatest
potential sources of turbidity increases within
the project area are in stream side inner gorge
areas. Fine sediments within the channels of
burned small and intermittent stream banks are
also potential sources of turbidity. There are no
pre-fire levels, though, to compare with current
levels.
26
-------
Silver Fire Fish Habitat/Water Quality
October 1996
Winter Turbidity Levels Sept. 1988 - Apr. 1989
abv. Silver, Illinois R. below Indigo, Indigo below N. Fork, Indigo above N. Fork, an
Ck.
Sep Oct Nov Doc Jan Fab Mar Apr
Months
Note: Same day measurements for all locations were used to compile monthly averages.
Figure 14: Winter Turbidity Levels (Sept. 1988 - Apr. 1989)
Winter Turbidity Levels Nov. 1989 - Mar. 1990
Illinois R abv. Silver, Silver Creek, North Fork Indigo, and Indigo above N. Fork
Nov
Feb
Mar
Jan
Months
Note: Same day measurements for al locations were used to compte monthly averages.
Figure 15: Winter Turbidity Levels (Nov. 1989 - Mar. 1990)
27
-------
Silver Fire Fish Habitat/Water Quality
October 1996
ISCO samplers were used as turbidimeters and
placed in several locations during the winter
months of 1988-89 and 1989-90. Bar graphs,
Figures 14 and 15, show the monthly averages
of data points. Turbidity does not appear to be a
significant area of concern. Occasional heavy
precipitation events significantly increases the
turbidity, which is normally expected. Overall
turbidity is low, and is not affecting Beneficial
uses. Determining sources of turbidity when
monitoring is done at the mouth of various
streams and tributaries is virtually impossible.
There is no way to separate fire related
turbidity increases, natural turbidity increases,
or management related turbidity increases.
CONCLUSIONS
The project area encompassed 42,350 acres.
Out of this total, approximately 5,700 acres
were logged for fire-killed timber, or 13
percent. Within the project area, 9 percent of
the total burned at high intensity, 32 percent
burned at medium intensity, and 59 percent
burned at low intensity.
Comparing the monitoring results with the
prediction of effects in the FEIS show that the
actual effects are significantly less the
predicted effects in all of the monitoring areas.
Vegetation regrowth in the burned and
salvaged areas has been very strong. The lack
of adverse effects from salvage logging is
attributed to, protection of the riparian areas,
improved road construction practices, and
minimizing disturbance through the use of
helicopter logging.
Surface ravel along the inner gorges increased
following the fire. It appears that the new road
construction has not significantly contributed
sediment to the stream system. However, some
of the landings are beginning to show signs of
slumping and cracking. If these areas are
allowed to continue to move, there is a
likelihood that they could fail in the future.
Riparian area layout and protection has been a
landmark for this project. Results of
implementation monitoring show that riparian
prescriptions were met during layout and
harvest. Protection of riparian areas during
salvage logging operations was highly effective
in meeting objectives where shade and
protection against erosion and sediment are
needed to maintain a healthly riparian
ecosystem. Helicopter observations during the
summer of 1995 show that the stream buffer
areas are still functioning well and that they
were very effective in maintaining stream bank
integrity and reducing sediment delivery to the
stream. Monitoring results showed that the
salvage operators performed high quality work
in protecting riparian areas.
Stream flows were predicted to increase in the
FEIS as the result of the loss of
evapotranspiring vegetation and the
accumulation of snow in the burned areas.
Results of the monitoring effort indicate that
the fire didn't appear to have any effect on
stream flow in the fish bearing streams. It was
noted that perennial streams did extend further
upslope in burned areas than they historically
had.
There have been no noticeable effects in
increases in turbidity or sediment. The FEIS
predicted that vegetative recovery and the high
natural sediment transport rates will return the
stream sediment loading to pre-fire conditions
in about twenty years. Stream channel cross
sections show some shifting of sediment
storage areas but no overall increase or
decrease in aggradation or degradation. The
main hypothesis of the monitoring was that
stream power in critical reaches will be
sufficient to transport bedload sediment from
the fire and management activities through
28
-------
Silver Fire Fish Habitat/Water Quality
October 1996
Silver and Indigo Creeks. The monitoring data
supports this prediction. The cross sections
were remeasured in 1995 following a
significant storm and the results will be
published in a subsequent report.
It appears that fish habitat and fish population
were not detrimentally affected by the fire of
timber salvage operations. These conclusions
are based on the fish habitat surveys. Results of
1989 monitoring indicated there was a
significant increase in pre-smolt steelhead
between 1988 and 1989. Based on the model
used in the FEIS, steelhead smolt populations
were expected to decrease by 23 percent from
pre-fire levels. Fish habitat and populations
appear healthy in Silver and Indigo Creeks
following fire and management activities. At
this point in time, fire-killed wood is making its
way to the stream channels. Although not
thoroughly examined, the benefit to the fish
habitat will most likely be significant.
In the headwater streams that were burned,
stream shade had been reduced by as much as
60 percent. The objective of stream
temperature monitoring was to validate
predictions that stream temperature will not
increase over post fire levels as the result of
salvage logging. Temperatures have varied by
year due to natural factors such as air
temperature and flow. The stream temperature
in fish bearing streams did not increase as the
result of the fire. In the headwater stream
where salvage logging occurred, there was no
additional loss of stream shade. One surprising
conclusion that can be drawn from the
monitoring data is that years that had lower
flows do not correspond to higher temperatures
or years of higher flows to lower temperatures.
Stream flow and temperature do not appear to
have a correlation.
The effects of salvage logging are still being
monitored. After a look at the preliminary
results from this monitoring it appears that the
watershed is in good condition because of
improved harvest and road construction
techniques that are not contributing sediment to
the stream system. The road monitoring/erosion
pin study will be extremely helpful in
understanding fill movement and its rate of
movement over time which is expected to be
very low.
The results of the intermittent stream cross-
sections which were performed in the summer
of 1995 will be helpful to understand how the
watershed responded to a significant storm.
The baseline data which was collected in 1988
and again in 1989 showed virtually no
difference; thus, no significant stream bank
erosion or sediment deposition in the streambed
has been observed.
It appears that the disturbance created by fire
resulting in the abundance of new growth, the
addition of large woody material and nutrients
to the stream were all beneficial to the
ecosystem. However, the watersheds appear to
still be recovering.
One of the biggest areas where monitoring has
made a difference in management is in the
mere presence of data. More site specific
relationships are known, so that better
recommendations to management can be made.
Thus, more substantiated decisions will be
made on other projects in the Silver Creek area
or in geoclimatically similar watersheds.
FUTURE MONITORING
In the near future, it will be meaningful to
quantify the landslides and estimate the
sediment delivery to streams using the air
photos taken during fall of 1995. Duplicating
the previous monitoring efforts for small and
intermittent stream cross-sections on the east-
facing slope of Bald Mountain, as well as
duplicating the stream shade monitoring will be
of tremendous value for comparing current
29
-------
Silver Fire Fish Habitat/Water Quality October 1996
conditions to the baseline conditions. For future
management decisions, knowing and having
the ability to quantify the differences will be
invaluable.
The road inventory which is currently in
process will need to be analyzed. Conclusions
regarding the roads and landings and their
effect on sediment delivery to the stream can be
finalized. Another recommendation is to
perform a stream survey with the intent of
surveying those areas where large woody
material has collected in the stream.
30
-------
APPENDIX A
-------
ENTIRE SILVER FIRE AREA
Indigo Watershed
SILVER FIRE
ED INDIGO WATERSHED
22 SILVER WATERSHED
1—3 KALMIOPSIS WILDERNESS
E3 STREAMS
AUGUST 071995
Silver Watershed
SCALE 1:300000
-------
SILVER FIRE RECOVERY PROJECT AREA
HARVESTED STANDS WITH REFORESTATION ACTIVITY
MANAGED STANDS
STREAMS
AUGUST 05 1995
SCALE 1:100000
-------
fjgure 11
/
Stream Temperatures for Indigo Creek-Siskiyou National Forest
ModeJed post-management Alternative C
Modeled post-fire temperature
Measured pre-fire temperature"
JULY
AUGUST
SEPTEMBER
80 v
o%
i
p
mortality
less than optimum t
aflflMa UM&AMAiaffJM?ffJttftF) 1 U U
optimum
CO
C3
•o
-c
,i?
Hr
Stream temperatures are caluclated as the mean of high and low values
during each 24 hr period
-------
Figure 13a
_o
LL_
(0
C/D
O
Unburned versus Burned Watershed Flow Correlations
Silver and Indigo Creeks compared to the Illinois River at Kerby
120
Overall Correlation Coefficient: Indigo - Illinois = 0.48
Overall Correlation Coefficient: Silver - Illinois = 0.36
Correlation 1958-67 Indigo - Illinois = 0.39
Correlation 1958-67Silver- Illinois = 0.15
Correlation 1986 - 94 Indigo - Illinois = 0.51
Correlation 1986-94Silver- Illinois = 0.83
1958 1960 1962 1964 1966 GAP 1987 1989 1991
Years
1993
Indigo -A-Silver —Illinois
Indigo and Silver Creeks (burned) compared to Illinois River at Kerby (unburned), 1958 -1994. Average monthly flow in
Aug. or Sept. in the Illinois River plotted next to single day low flow measurements in Indigo and Silver Creeks.
-------
f-igure 13b
Unburned versus Burned Watershed Flow Correlations
_o
LL
CO
0)
•«-•
CO
o
Silver and Indigo Creeks compared to Sucker Creek
120
_ 100
80
Overall Correlation Coefficient: Indigo - Sucker = 0.36
Overall Correlation Coeeficient: Silver - Sucker = 0.21
Correlation 1958 - 67 Indigo - Sucker = 0.61
Correlation 1958 - 67Silver- Sucker = 0.48
Correlation 1986 - 94 Indigo - Sucker = 0.30
Correlation 1986 - 94 Silver - Sucker = 0.31
1958 1960 1962 1964 1966 GAP 1987 1989 1991
Years
1993
Indigo -A Silver —Sucker
Indigo and Silver Creeks (burned) compared to Sucker Creek (unhurried), 1958-1994. Averaged rtionthly flow in Aug.
or Sept. in Sucker Ck. plotted next to single day low flow measurements in Indigo and Silver Creeks.
-------
Figure 13c
Unburned versus Burned Watershed Flow Correlations
Sucker Creek and Illinois River at Kerby Comparison
42
^o,
_o
u_
(0
0)
120
100
80
60
40
Overall Correlation Sucker - Illinois = 0.20
Correlation 1958 - 67 Sucker - Illinois = 0.47 Correlation 1986 - 94 Sucker - Illinois = 0.02
1958 1960 1962 1964 1966 GAP 1987 1989 1991
Years
1993
—Sucker —Illinois
-------
Figure 15a
Silver Fire Recovery Project
Stream Temperatures: 7 Day High
Temp., degrees Fahrenheit
South Fork Silver Creek
Silver Creek Above SF
Silver Mouth
Years
CDSouth Fork Silver Creek BSilver Creek Above SF HSilver Mouth
South Fork Silver Creek, Silver Creek Above South Fork, Silver Creek at Mouth
-------
Figure
Silver Fire Recovery Project
Stream Temperatures: 7 Day High
Temp., degrees Fahrenheit
Illinois River above Silver
Years
dIndigo Creek at Mouth ^Silver Creek at Mouth BIllinois River above Silver
Indigo Creek at Mouth, Silver Creek at Mouth, Illinois River above Silver Creek
-------
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-------
Silver Fire Recovery Area
1958 Monthly Average Precipitation Estimate
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Months
YeuVTotd: 31.3
SunmniNOAA*Mion>
Silver Fire Recovery Area
1960 Monthly Average Precipitation Estimate
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Months
YaariyToul: SB.O MwiWyaverageacornptod from llbfo. Cave Junction, Gold Beacii. and Salon
SiimmJNOAA nations
Silver Fire Recovery Area
1959 Monthly Average Precipitation Estimate
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Months
Yeen> Tout «L5 MonlhV««^aloanf>fcdfioni liana, CM Junofen,GoldBaach.andSalon
SummiNOAAMatlona
Silver Fire Recovery Area
1961 Monthly Average Precipitation Estimate
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Months
YeaiV ToM: as.4 Monthly avngatcompfcd from Itehft CM Junction. Gold Beach, and SaMon
Sunrn»NDAA««llon«
-------
Silver Fire Recovery Area
1966 Monthly Average Precipitation Estimate
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Montte
YtaiV Tout 35.2 Monty WBragmcanphd hontlMw, Cave Jundbn. Gold Baach. «nd Sarton
SumnlNOAAitifcina
Silver Fire Recovery Area
1967 Monthly Average Precipitation Estimate
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Monfra
YeaiV Tout «2.0 Monthly «wageaoon*>lBd farm lhh«(>iBjuncdoa Gold Baidi, and Saoon
SufnTtNOAAttriom
-------
Silver Fire Recovery Area
1991 Monthly Average Precipitation Estimate
YiMyTcbl: 278
NQAAUtfkM
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JULY AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
i. «nd Swton Summit
Montte
agu crmf*«d tan titm. CM* Juiakn.
Silver Fire Recovery Area
1993 Monthly Average Precipitation Estimate
20
15
10
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JULY AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
YHily ToU: K7 MmthUr •vwagn nd Sotoi Summit
Y»My Total: « 3 MoiNy iveUBM nm0l>d tan lah.. On
-------
Silver Fire Fish Habitat/Water Quality October 1996
APPENDIX B
-------
Silver Fire Fish Habitat/Water Quality October 1996
References
Agee, J.K. 1991. Fire History of Douglas-fir Forests in the Pacific Northwest. In: USD A Forest
Service. Wildlife and Vegetation of Unmanaged Douglas-fir Forests. Pacific Northwest Research
Station, Portland, OR. General Technical Report PNW-GTR 285. 533 pp.
Amaranthus, M., Jubas, H., and Arthur, D. 1988. Stream Shading, Summer Streamflow and
Maximum Water Temperature Following Intense Wildfire hi Headwater Streams. In: USDA Forest
Service. Proceedings of the Symposium on Fire and Watershed Management. Pacific Southwest
Forest and Range Experiment Station PSW-109. Pp. 75-78.
Amaranthus, Michael. 1989. Effect of Grass Seeding on Reforestation following Wildfire.
Monitoring Summary Report for the Silver Fire Recovery Project. 11 pp.
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Silver Fire Fish Habitat/Water Quality October 1996
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Newspapers distributed to public.
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