United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Air
Washington
D.C. 20460
EPA 400/2-78-002b
March 1978
Transit Improvement,
Preferential Lane, and
Carpool Programs
An Annotated Bibliography of
Demonstration and Analytical
Experience
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Transit Improvement, Preferential
Lane, and Carpool Programs:
an Annotated Bibliography of
Demonstration and
Analytical Experience
FINAL REPORT
prepared for
Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Transportation and Land Use Policy
in cooperation with
U.S. Department of Transportation
EPA Contract No. 68-01-3912
March 1978
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Page
I INTRODUCTION 1.1
Objective 1.1
Development and Organization 1.1
II GENERAL II. 1
HI PREFERENTIAL TREATMENT OF HIGH OCCUPANCY
VEHICLES HI. 1
IV CARPOOL AND VANPOOL PROGRAMS IV. 1
V TRANSIT FARE AND SERVICE STRATEGIES V. 1
VI ENERGY, AIR QUALITY, EMISSIONS, AND
ECONOMIC IMPACT VI. 1
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I. INTRODUCTION
OBJECTIVE
In accordance with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977,1 the Environ-
mental Protection Agency is evaluating the use and cost-effectiveness of al-
ternative short-range transit fare and service improvement strategies, car-
pool and vanpool strategies, and strategies involving the preferential treat-
ment of high occupancy vehicles to improve air quality in urban areas.2 The
evaluation of individual strategies and combinations of the above strategies
includes their emission and air quality impacts and their related energy,
noise, and economic impacts. A comprehensive literature review was also
conducted, as part of this evaluation, to identify both observed and projected
travel, emission, air quality, energy, noise, and economic impacts of the
short-range low-cost strategies of interest.
This document presents an annotated bibliography of useful reports, pa-
pers, and other references describing the above impacts for the transit,
carpool, vanpool, and preferential treatment strategies of interest. The
bibliography should be useful to elected officials, government administrators
and their technical staffs, and citizens involved in the development of Trans-
portation Control Plans, Transportation System Management Elements and
related short-range planning activities.
DEVELOPMENT AND ORGANIZATION
Abstracts within this bibliography are organized under five subject areas.
Each area is described briefly below:
. General. Reports broadly addressing transportation system man-
agement, short-term transportation planning techniques, confer-
ence proceedings, and sources which treat several of the strate-
gies addressed in the project.
. Preferential Treatment of High Occupancy Vehicles (HQV). Des-
criptive, simulation, and case study material on reserved lanes,
priority ramp facilities, and traffic signal preemption for buses,
carpools, and vanpools on urban freeways and arterial facilities.
142 USC 7401
This evaluation is being performed in the EPA study, "Air Pollution Reduc-
tion Through Transit Improvement Program" (Control No. 68-01-3912).
I.I
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. Carpool and Vanpool Programs. Descriptive, case study, and
simulation analyses on area-wide and employer-based carpool
and/or vanpool programs.
. Transit Fare and Service Strategies. Studies addressing the
impacts of transit fare reductions or restructuring, and of
transit service improvements on transit ridership and system
performance.
. Energy, Air Quality, Emissions, and Economic Impacts. Stud-
ies addressing the potential positive and negative impacts of
various transportation-related actions on energy consumption,
air quality, emissions, and the economy of urban areas.
Abstracts included in this bibliography were selectively compiled from
the three recently published annotated bibliographies listed below:
. JHK and Associates, A Selected Bibliography and Reference
Document in Urban Public Transportation, (Prepared for Fed-
eral Highway Administration and Urban Mass Transportation
Administration), July 1976;
. JHK and Associates, A Selected Bibliography and Reference
Document in Transportation System Management, (Prepared
for Federal Highway Administration), May 1977; and
. Oram, Richard L., Transportation System Management, A
Bibliography of Technical Reports, (Prepared for Urban
Mass Transportation Administration and Federal Highway Ad-
ministration), May 1976.
In addition to these sources, abstracts prepared by the author(s) and/or
editor(s) of individual documents were used where applicable. Finally,
sources used in this study but not annotated in one of the above sources were
annotated by project staff. The sources of the abstracts are identified in pa-
rentheses at the end of each abstract. While an effort has been made to cite
each reference in a uniform manner, certain differences do occur since this
bibliography has been compiled from several different sources.
1.2
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II. GENERAL
Alan M. Voorhees & Associates, Inc., Short-Range Transit Planning,
McLean, Virginia, July 1973.
Abstract
This report is a reference document for those communities contemplat-
ing the preparation of short-range transit development programs. The basic
objectives of these programs are the revitalization of public transportation
and the provision of greater mobility for substantial groups of transit-de-
pendent persons.
The report is structured to allow those responsible for local decisions
to be better informed on the transit options available to their community. It
should be of particular interest to local elected officials, regional planning
agencies, and transit operators.
One constraint worthy of note is that the material in this report was de-
signed for communities having less than 1 million residents. The material
is not designed for areas with more than 1 million residents because of the
increased complexities of transportation/general planning relationships in
these areas.
In the development of this report, seven monographs on selected phases
of transit planning were prepared. These monographs are not meant to ad-
vance the state-of-the-art by presenting new, untried methods or proce-
dures. Nor do the monographs recommend or advocate the use of specific
techniques over others. They do, however, present techniques that have
been used successfully in selected urban areas across the country. The
monographs are for the following functional areas: routes and schedules;
fare structure and pricing; fleet mix; marketing; management; financial
planning; and citizen involvement.
(Oram)
Alan M. Voorhees & Associates, Inc., Transportation Pooling, (Prepared
for Urban Mass Transportation Administration), January 1974.
Abstract
With the advent of impending energy shortages in the winter of 1973-74,
the U. S. Department of Transportation embarked on an accelerated program
II. 1
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to promote increased use of high-occupancy vehicles—transit and carpools.
As part of this program, a series of reports was prepared that summarized
the major aspects of carpool programs designed to assist local areas in ini-
tiating successful pooling action programs. This report is a collection of
the 10 individual reports. The goal of the Carpool/Buspool Program is to
satisfy travel requirements more efficiently by increasing passenger occu-
pancy in autos and buses, thereby reducing the number of vehicles using the
streets and highways. Achievement of that goal calls for coordination among
many institutions within a metropolitan region, including public agencies
and citizen and business groups. The information and techniques presented
in this report should be considered as a guide to the development of a sound
program in a metropolitan area. The individual reports contained in this
volume are: Review of Carpool Activities, Organization for Carpooling,
Approaches to Matching, Legal and Institutional Issues, Incentives to Car-
pooling, Transit/Taxi Coordination, Vanpools, Buspools, Pooling for the
Disadvantaged, and Carpool Backup Systems.
(Oram)
American Institute of Planners, Frontiers in Transportation Planning -
Papers for the 57th Annual Conference of the AIP at Denver, Colorado,
October 1975, Transportation Planning Department, AIP, Washington,
D.C., 1975.
Abstract
This series of papers from the recent AIP conference reflects two as-
pects of transportation planning: timeliness and uniqueness. They range
from Martin Wohl's overview of where we're going with the automobile,
through what the planning schools are teaching, to a consideration of using
BART as a recreational device.
(JHK and Associates)
Benjamin, P., etal., Service and Methods Demonstration Program; An-
nual Report, UMTA, Washington, D.C., November 1975, (April 1976).
Abstract
This report contains a description of the Service and Methods Demon-
stration Program. Transit demonstration projects undertaken in previous
years are reviewed. Recently completed and current demonstration projects
are described, and project results from similar demonstrations are com-
pared. The comparisons are made by grouping projects according to the
II. 2
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program objectives addressed: (1) decrease transit travel time, (2) in-
crease transit reliability, (3) increase transit coverage, (4) increase transit
vehicle productivity, and (5) improve the mobility of transit dependents.
Demonstrations are categorized as either experimental, i.e., those intended
to develop and test concepts to the point where they merit widespread use,
or exemplary, i.e., those conducted to achieve more widespread diffusion
of proven concepts and techniques.
Independent activities carried out in support of the demonstrations are
described, such as the development of evaluation guidelines and improved
methodologies for demonstration evaluation, analytical studies in support
of the development of experimental demonstrations, and case studies of in-
dependent local innovations. Information dissemination mechanisms and
activities intended to facilitate more widespread knowledge of effective ap-
proaches to improving transit are discussed.
The Appendix contains a detailed description of each demonstration proj-
ect including the objectives, history, status, results, evaluation, and con-
clusions.
(authors)
Connecticut Department of Transportation, Status Report; Three Point Pro-
gram to Reduce Fuel Consumption, Traffic Congestion, and Air Pollu-
tion, July 1975.
Abstract
This report presents information concerning the Three Point Program
to Reduce Fuel Consumption, Traffic Congestion, and Air Pollution. The
three points of the program are as follows:
1. Foster carpooling and charter express bus service (bus pool-
ing) in private industry through the use of the Department's
computer consultation services.
2. Construct additional interchange parking facilities to facilitate
carpooling.
3. Develop additional express commuter bus service between
suburban areas and the central business districts of Connect-
icut cities,.
II. 3
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This report is subdivided into several sections so that the background,
previous status, activities, and accomplishments in fiscal years 1974 and
1975, and present status could be presented in a clear and informative man-
ner.
(authors)
Deleuw, Gather & Co. and the Urban Institute, Characteristics of Urban
Transportation Systems; A Handbook for Transportation Planners,
(Prepared for Urban Mass Transportation Administration), May 1975.
Abstract
The objective of the handbook, specifically for use by transportation
planners in the evaluation of alternative systems, is to provide a single sim-
plified reference source which characterizes the most important (from the
standpoint of evaluation) performance characteristics of the following con-
temporary urban transportation systems: (1) rail (commuter, rapid, and
light) (2) local bus and bus rapid transit; (3) automobile-highway system
(automobiles and other vehicles); (4) pedestrian assistance systems; and
(5) activity center systems—people mover systems that have been installed
at airports, zoos, amusement parks, etc. The handbook assesses the sup-
ply or performance aspect of urban transportation dealing with passenger
demand implicitly. Seven supply parameters studied are: speed, capacity
(service volume), operating cost (vehicle), energy consumption (vehicle or
source), pollution, capital cost, and accident frequency. This document is
primarily a reference manual.
(Or am)
DiRenzo, John, and Ellis, Raymond, Peat, Marwick, Mitchell & Co., An
Assessment of Immediate Action Travel Reduction Strategies for Achiev-
ing Air Quality and Energy Conservation Objectives, (Paper presented at
the 1975 Inter society Conference on Transportation, Atlanta, Georgia),
July 1975.
Abstract
The impacts of the five plans are evaluated in a detailed case study of a
representative automobile oriented metropolitan area—San Diego, Califor-
nia. The travel impacts examined include changes in person travel demand,
automobile occupancy, vehicle miles of travel (VMT), transit usage, travel
cost, and travel time.
II. 4
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This paper is organized into four major parts: the first defines the five
alternative immediate action strategies analyzed in the study; the second
presents selected aspects of the methodology used to estimate the travel be-
havior and transportation system impacts of the alternative Transportation
Control Plans (TCPs); the third presents the results of the impact analysis;
and the fourth evaluates and summarizes the study findings.
(author)
Dupree, John H., and Pratt, Richard H., Low Cost Urban Transportation
Alternatives, (3 Volumes), R. H. Pratt Associates, Inc., (Prepared for
U.S. Department of Transportation), Kensington, Maryland, January
1973.
Abstract
This report details the results of case study investigations and analyses
of seven operating exclusive bus lanes. Three of the exclusive bus lanes
operate as contraflow facilities on freeways, three as contraflow bus lanes
on arterial streets, and one as a specially constructed bus lane.
The study found that exclusive bus lanes were capable of processing
large volumes of passengers, often with substantial time savings over com-
peting modes. Findings indicate that busways offer the potential for sub-
stantial gain in total capacity to move people. There is strong evidence that
commuters are attracted to public transportation such as can be provided
via an exclusive bus lane if travel time saving is achieved. Bus lanes can
be made operable in a matter of weeks at a cost that can often be absorbed
within operating budgets-
A variety of technical, institutional, and operating experiences asso-
ciated with the various bus lanes now operational are detailed. In addition,
the potential for bus lanes in five diverse urban environments is analyzed.
Data are provided on federal funding appropriate to establishing bus lanes.
(Oram)
Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), Research and Development Pro-
gram 1975, (Annual Report), FHWA, Washington, D.C., 1975.
Abstract
This annual report of the Federally Coordinated Program of Research
and Development briefly describes the programs established by the FHWA
II. 5
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Offices of Research and Development to provide technology leadership to the
highway research community. It presents the administrative machinery
which coordinates widely scattered research activities funded by the federal
taxpayer and explains how the Federally Coordinated Program functions to
ensure that adequate effort will be applied to solve the more urgent highway-
related problems, while incorporating the latest life-saving techniques,
achieving maximum operating efficiency, reducing environmental impacts,
and holding construction and maintenance costs to the minimum possible in
the nation's highway system.
(author)
Goodman, C. R., Rosapep, T. J., Bert, M. D., and Mordecai, J. M.,
Short-Term Implications of Selected Transportation Policy Alternatives
(Prepared for the Baltimore Regional Planning Council and Maryland
Department of Transportation), May 1977.
Abstract
This report is intended to determine the effectiveness of various alter-
natives aimed at reducing traffic demand, fuel consumption, and auto emis-
sions. Seven alternatives were explored independently of other alternatives.
Alternatives evaluated include:
. a trend case (which assumes a continuation of past growth pat-
terns and planned transportation system implementation);
. area-wide carpooling;
. area-wide vanpooling;
. bus operation improvements;
. parking charges; and
. rapid transit system.
The impacts of each strategy are compared to a base case of 1975, with re-
spect to the following regional objectives:
. increase transit ridership;
. provide adequate service for transit dependents;
II. 6
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. reduce auto emissions;
. reduce fuel consumption; and
. reduce highway congestion.
(PMM&Co.)
Hemphill, JohnG., and Difiglio, Carmen, Transportation Management and
Energy Conservation, (Presented at the Fourth Intersociety Conference
on Transportation), July 23, 1976.
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to explore the energy conservation im-
pacts of various transportation management policies such as those found in
the Transportation System Management elements of the joint Urban Mass
Transportation Administration (UMTA) and Federal Highway Administration
(FHWA) Transportation Improvement Programs, in the Environmental Pro-
tection Agency's (EPA) Transportation Control Plans, and in the Federal
Energy Administration (FEA) State Energy Conservation Program.
The policies found in all three of these federal programs are aimed at
influencing an individual's decision on whether to travel and by what mode so
as to result in, among other things, less energy being used in urban trans-
portation. Energy savings are realized when:
. total miles of travel are reduced (e.g., travel is foregone,
shorter trips are substituted for longer ones, or trips are con-
solidated); and/or
. more energy-efficient modes of travel are used in lieu of less
efficient ones.
(author)
Horowitz, Joel, and Kuhrtz, Steven, Transportation Controls to Reduce Au-
tomobile Use and Improve Air Quality in Cities, Office of Air and Waste
Management, EPA, Washington, DoC., November 1974.
Abstract
This report was prepared pursuant to the Energy Supply Environmental
Coordination Act of 1974, which mandated that EPA conduct a study on the
II. 7
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necessity of parking surcharge, management of parking supply, and pref-
erential bus/carpool lane regulations as part of implementation plans to
achieve and maintain air quality standards. The report addresses the need
for transportation controls and automobile use reductions, discusses alter-
native methods of reducing automobile use (parking management, transit
improvements including preferential treatment, carpooling, transportation
pricing, bicycling, etc.) and the effectiveness of each, the background, de-
velopment process, and current status of Transportation Control Regula-
tions, the economic and social effects of reductions in auto use, and the
relationship of transportation controls to other aspects of transportation
planning and decision-making.
(Or am)
Institute for Defense Analyses, Economic Characteristics of the Urban Pub-
lic Transportation Industry, DOT, Office of Systems Analysis and Infor-
mation, Washington, D C., February 1972.
Abstract
This report analyzes and interprets economic information on the opera-
tions of bus transit, rail rapid transit, commuter rail transit, and taxicab
firms. Basic data in the report came from secondary sources and represent
annual aggregates, not daily operational data. The analyses are rather gen-
eral and are oriented towards the bus transit industry because of the greater
availability of data for that mode.
(Or am)
INTERPLAN Corporation, Integration of Transit Systems, (Prepared for the
Urban Mass Transportation Administration).
Abstract
The objective of this four-volume report is to assess the potential for
interagency and intermodal integration of transit systems in U. S. urban ar-
eas, drawing on an analysis of the successful experience of European transit
systems.
Volume I - Concepts, Status, and Criteria (May 1973) documents the
need for transit integration in U. S. urban areas, presents the conceptual and
evaluative framework, and reviews current transit integration efforts by
federal, state, and local governments.
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Volume II - Integrated European Transit Systems (May 1973) describes
in detail four major European transit systems (London, Hamburg, Paris,
Munich), gives brief descriptions of six others, and summarizes and ap-
praises the applicability of European successes to U0S<, systems.
Volume III - Transit Integration in U.S. Urban Areas (June 1973) pro-
vides application of techniques to Philadelphia, San Francisco, and Seattle,
as well as to an archetypal smaller urban area, and gives a brief assess-
ment of potential for application to six other U.S. cities.
Summary (October 1973) serves as a guide to the location of detailed
factual information upon which conclusions found in this volume are based.
Salient points of each volume are brought together, including definitions of
the forms which integration may take, evaluation of U.S. deficiencies, an
approach to identifying systems ready for integration, and estimates of costs
of U.S. expansion and improvement.
(Or am)
JHK & Associates, Working Paper #1, Review of Selected Traffic Manage-
ment Schemes, (Prepared for Federal Highway Administration), June
1977.
Abstract
The purpose of this working paper is to review and describe selected
traffic management schemes with respect to:
. objectives of the scheme;
. strategies and combinations of strategies implemented;
. evaluation procedures and measures of effectiveness (MOEs)
employed; and
. results of the scheme including, where possible, quantitative
statements of its effectiveness in improving network traffic
performance, its associated direct and indirect impacts, and
the reasons for its success or failure.
This material is to serve as resource material for the development of future
measures of effectiveness and TSM objectives. It describes the actual MOEs
and objectives which have been used in a broad range of TSM strategies in
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the United States and abroad. Having been used in actual TSM studies, the
objectives and MOEs presented herein will provide a good "practicality
check" on objectives and MOEs.
(author)
Jones, David W., et al., Managing the Future Evolution of the Urban Trans-
portation System: Interim Summary Report, ITS, Berkeley, California,
October 1976.
Abstract
This report documents the findings of year one of a two-year research
effort concerned with the impact and effectiveness of selective Transporta-
tion System Management (TSM) measures and their susceptibility to imple-
mentation given political and institutional constraints. The research effort
involves methodology development and case studies in five task areas:
. traffic management measures such as ramp metering, prefer-
ential entry, reserved lanes, and signalization improvements
on both surface streets and freeways;
. pricing rules to govern the implementation of congestion tolls
or pollution charges;
. better neighborhood transportation;
. employer initiatives in transportation, such as vanpooling, car-
pooling, and work-hour scheduling; and
. the institutional and political dimension of TSM planning—bar-
riers to implementation and strategies for coordination.
The report also includes a macroscopic analysis of TSM measures using
a sketch planning model and a qualitative analysis of TSM's efficacy as an
alternative to "built" solutions and non-transportation alternatives.
(authors)
II. 10
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Kendall, Donald et al., Service and Methods Demonstration Program Annual
Report, (Prepared for the U.S. Department of Transportation System
Center), April 1977.
Abstract
This report contains a description of the Service and Methods Demon-
stration Program, Recently completed and current and future demonstration
projects are described, and project results from similar demonstrations are
comparedo The comparisons are made by grouping projects according to the
program objectives addressed: (1) decrease transit travel time; (2) increase
transit reliability; (3) increase transit coverage; (4) increase transit vehicle
productivity; and (5) improve the mobility of transit dependents.
Independent activities carried out in support of the demonstrations are
described, such as the development of evaluation guidelines and improved
methodologies for demonstration evaluation, analytical studies in support of
the development of experimental demonstrations, studies of independent lo-
cal innovations, and case studies of transit operations in small communities.
Information dissemination mechanisms and activities intended to facilitate
more widespread knowledge of effective approaches to improving transit are
discussed.
(author)
Keyani, Barbara Ibarra, and Putnam, Evelyn S., Transportation System
Management; State of the Art, (Prepared for the Office of Policy and
Program Development, Urban Mass Transportation Administration),
September 1976.
Abstract
This report summarizes current information concerning the spectrum
of actions that are relevant to Transportation System Management (TSM).
Under Department of Transportation regulations, urban areas with popula-
tion greater than 50, 000 are required to develop TSM plans that document
their strategy for improving air quality, conserving energy, and increasing
transportation efficiency and mobility through coordinated operation and
management of existing urban transportation facilities and services. TSM
therefore includes actions to influence transportation demand as well as ac-
tions to manage the supply of service or its performance characteristics.
The report presents state-of-the-art information on 31 specific TSM
actions within the following seven major categories: improving vehicular
11.11
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flow, preferential treatment of high-occupancy vehicles, reducing peak-
period travel, parking management, promoting non-auto or high-occupancy
auto use, transit and paratransit service improvements, and transit man-
agement efficiency measures.
Each summary includes examples of successful experience, advantages
and disadvantages, guideline conditions concerning implementation, the
range of costs involved, and interrelationships with the other actions.
(authors)
Kirby, Ronald F., etal., Para-Transit: Neglected Options for Urban Mo-
bility, The Urban Institute, Washington, D.C., 1974.
Abstract
This report covers all forms of (1) hail or phone service, such as taxis,
jitneys, and dial-a-ride; (2) pre-arranged ride sharing, such as carpools,
vanpools, and subscription buses; and (3) hire and drive services, such as
regular rental cars and other experimental forms. Such para-transit forms
promise tremendous savings and greater flexibility than existing public
transportation. The authors conclude with recommendations for overcoming
the obstacles to worthwhile applications of para-transit in urban areas.
(Fletcher)
Kirby, Ronald F., Para-Transit: A Summary Assessment of Experience
and Potential, The Urban Institute, Washington, B.C., June 1974.
Abstract
This study was designed to review experience to date with para-transit
services, to assess their potential for serving urban transportation demand,
and to design a research, development, and demonstration (RD&D) program
as needed to identify and demonstrate innovations in the provisions of para-
transit services which would be beneficial to U.S. cities. The para-transit
services studied were grouped into three categories: a "hire and drive" cat-
egory comprising daily car rentals and the various forms of short-term car
rentals that have been proposed (including the Minicar and Public Automobile
Systems); a "hail or phone" category comprising taxi, dial-a-ride, jitney,
and related services; and a "pre-arranged ride-sharing" category compris-
ing the various forms of carpool, vanpool, and subscription bus services.
(author)
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Larwin, Thomas F., and Stuart, Darwin G», "Transportation Management
Strategies: Prospects for Small Cities, " TRR-603, TRB, Washington,
B.C., 1976.
Abstract
A case study transportation management program for the Santa Barbara,
California, CBD is reviewed. (The population of Santa Barbara is approxi-
mately 75, 000; the population of the urbanized area is approximately 130, 000.
The purpose is to indicate the breadth and scope which similar programs
might take in other smaller urban areas. Three alternative scenarios for
transportation management are outlined: (1) maximizing non-auto access,
(2) minimizing auto access, and (3) maximizing internal circulation oppor-
tunities. The evaluation of more specific options within these categories,
according to both potential levels of goal-achievement and local community
preferences, is described. The recommended transportation management
program is then outlined. Conclusions are drawn regarding the applicability
of case study concepts and methods to other areas.
(Oram)
Manheim, Marvin Lo, et al., "Transportation Decision-Making: A Guide
to Social and Environmental Considerations, " NCHRP R-156, Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, and TRB,
Washington, D.C., 1975.
Abstract
This report will be of particular interest to transportation administra-
tors, engineers, and planners in all disciplines involved in transportation
decision-making, as well as a variety of community groups. It presents
an integrated approach for systematically incorporating social, economic,
and environmental factors into transportation planning and decision-making.
Professionals participating in system and project development will find parts
of the report tailored to their needs. Transportation administrators will
find sections of the report cover a number of policy and institutional impli-
cations associated with implementation of the procedural recommendations.
Those involved in both project studies and agency management will find the
overview of the proposed approach to be helpful in considering (a) the coor-
dination of federal, state, regional, and local institutions; (b) the issues of
equity; (c) the amelioration of negative impacts; (d) the easing of mobility
problems for the transportation disadvantaged; and (e) the determination of
costs that include social and environmental costs.
(authors)
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Meyer, Michael, et al., "A Review of Transportation System Management
Plans Submitted in Response to New Federal Policy, " Center for Trans-
portation Studies (GTS) Working Paper 76-3, MIT, Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, October 1976.
Abstract
One year ago, the Urban Mass Transportation Administration (UMTA)
and the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) issued regulations that
required a transportation plan for a metropolitan region to consist of two
components: a transportation systems management (TSM) element and a
long-range element. For the first time, the metropolitan planning organi-
zation (MPO)--an organization responsible for developing the transportation
plan—had to include an element in this plan which directly addressed the
short-range transportation needs of the urbanized area and which identified
those options that provided for the more efficient use of existing transpor-
tation resources. The Center for Transportation Studies at the Massachu-
setts Institute of Technology (MIT) has undertaken an initial review of the
short-range (TSM) plans that have been submitted to the Federal Govern-
ment in response to the new regulations. The purpose of this paper is to
present the findings of this review and describe the current state-of-the-
art of TSM planning as it has been shown in the documents submitted by 40
MPOs throughout the country,
(authors)
Moore, Marjorie Mo, editor, "Better Use of Existing Transportation Facil-
ities, " TRB^SR^IS^, TRB, Washington, B.C., 1975.
Abstract
This Special Report contains papers presented at the Seventh Summer
Meeting of the Transportation Research Board held in Jacksonville, Florida,
August 5-7, 1974. The objective was to present timely and useful informa-
tion on the theme of the meeting: Better Use of Existing Transportation Fa-
cilities. This theme was selected because of the need for increased trans-
portation capacity in the face of growing resistance to new construction.
The Task Force responsible for the meeting program decided that, be-
fore the meeting turned to solutions applicable to specific areas and ele-
ments, those in attendance should be reminded that a metropolitan area is
a transportation unit.
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The report is divided into eight sections as listed here: (1) papers con-
cerned with the entire metropolitan area; (2) capacity and service levels of
urban freeways and intersections; (3) priority lanes for HOV; (4) intersection
capacity determination; (5) lane closure with the least disruption; (6) detec-
tion and management of traffic incidents; (7) alternatives for better use of
facilities including measures such as trip demand, staggered work hours,
and trip price; and (8) highway safety improvements.
(JHK and Associates)
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, "Better Towns
with Less Traffic, " Proceedings of the O. E. C.D. Conference at Paris,
14-16 April 1975, Paris, 1975.
Abstract
This report contains the proceedings of an international conference at
O. E. C. D. Headquarters in Paris. The aim of the Conference was to evalu-
ate the possibilities and effects of policies for limiting motor traffic in urban
areas, such as are being applied by a growing number of towns in member
countries.
These proceedings contain the seven case studies discussed at the Con-
ference, dealing with towns where overall policies are being pursued to limit
motor traffic and improve the environment (Uppsala, Bologna, Singapore,
Nagoya, Munich, Besancon, Nottingham).
The proceedings also contain summaries of the seven specialized ses-
sions arranged during the Conference to deal with the main problems of ur-
ban transport (parking; traffic limitation; cyclists and pedestrians; priorities
for public transport; para-transit; planning, financing, and implementing
the policies for urban transport; and the economic and energy implications
of these policies).
The findings of the Conference on "Better Towns with Less Traffic" are
based on practical experience in a number of large towns. In submitting
them in this report the O. E. C. D. hopes to offer some ideas to all the local,
national, or international authorities concerned with town planning and traf-
fic problems.
(Or am)
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Improvements and
Innovations in Urban Bus Systems: Proceedings of the Annual Technology
Assessment Reviews, Davis, 1969.
11.15
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Abstract
This international collection of reports, though dated, is still valuable in
the areas of bus priority, flexibility, design, and control. It indicates the
widest concern over these problems from the broadest spectrum of opinion.
(JHK and Associates)
Peat, Marwick, Mitchell & Co., Fringe Parking and Intermodal Passenger
Transportation; Operational Experience in Five Cities, (Prepared for
Federal Highway Administration), November 1971.
Abstract
This is a report on experience with 17 selected fringe parking facilities—
located within a mile of the central business district (CBD) in Atlanta and
Cleveland and between 6 and 14 miles from the CBD in Milwaukee, Philadel-
phia, and Seattle. Survey analyses show that a large percentage of commut-
ers with alternatives are using fringe lots, and peak hour automobile traffic
volumes are being lowered by these improvements.
The report discusses user socioeconomic characteristics as well as ob-
served operational characteristics of the facilities studied. Generalized
tendencies and preliminary indications of considerations, impacts, and im-
plications are posited. Some generalized findings include that fringe parking
facility use is apparently strongly affected by cost, convenience, safety, and
travel time factors. The strongest potential for fringe parking facilities
is suggested: (1) at locations on transportation corridors where there are
enough home-to-CBD work trips to support good transit service; (2) where
land is available in low-grade use, vacant, or already devoted to parking;
(3) where nearby uses are compatible with parking; and (4) where facilities
have adequate drainage, lighting, walkways, and aesthetics.
(Oram)
Peat, Marwick, Mitchell & Co., and JHK and Associates, Working Paper
#3, Basic TSM Goals and Objectives, (Prepared for Federal Highway
Administration), June 1977.
Abstract
This is the third Working Paper for the "Measures of Effectiveness for
Multimodal Urban Traffic Management" project being performed by JHK and
Associates and PMM&Co. for the Federal Highway Administration. The
11.16
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objective of this Working Paper is to develop and present an initial set of
goals and objectives for use in formulating measures of effectiveness for
preparing transportation system management (TSM) elements as required
by FHWA and UMTA regulations. The recommended goals and objectives
are related to each of the major actor groups likely to be impacted by TSM
actions, namely: transportation system users, the community, and the
managers of the transportation system (e. g., traffic engineering depart-
ments and transit operators).
(author)
Pratt, Richard H., Pedersen, Neil J., and Mather, Joseph J., Traveler
Response to Transportation System Changes--A Handbook for Trans-
portation Planners . (Prepared for U. S. Department of Transportation,
Federal Highway Administration), February 1977.
Abstract
Transportation planners and decision-makers need an understanding of
how travelers respond to changes in the urban transportation system if they
are to correctly identify the most favorable opportunities to maximize bene-
ficial use of highways and transit operations. This Handbook seeks to bring
under one cover a compendium of knowledge based on past observation and
estimation of traveler responses to different types of transportation system
change. It is intended to aid transportation planners and decision-makers
by providing familiarization with results obtained elsewhere and by provid-
ing insight pertinent to planning decisions concerning urban transportation
options.
Traveler response to the following 10 types of transportation change is
investigated: pool/bus priority lanes, variable work hours, carpooling en-
couragement activities, buspools/vanpools, area auto restraints, auto fa-
cility pricing, transit scheduling/frequency, bus routing/coverage, transit
fare changes, and transit marketing/amenities.
Within this Handbook, Chapter I is an executive introduction. Chapter
II provides a user's guide to its application. Chapter III is comprised of
topical summaries addressing the 10 types of transportation system change.
Each topical summary includes a digest of state-of-the-art information on
how travelers respond to the system change in question, and also reviews
of papers and documented case studies relevant to the subject. Chapter IV
consists of an alphabetical bibliography with cross-reference lists, covering
the 10 plus 14 additional types of transportation system change.
(authors)
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Reichart, Barbara K., Improving Urban Mobility Through Better Transpor-
tation Management, U.S. DOT, Washington, B.C., May 1975.
Abstract
This report discusses a variety of low-cost traffic engineering and pub-
lic transit operations which are available to us now and can significantly
improve urban mobility. Some of the techniques discussed in the report
concentrate on improving the people-moving efficiency of the existing road
system through more effective management, i. e., better channelization of
traffic, one-way streets, exclusive lanes for turning vehicles, and comput-
erized traffic flow control. Some techniques aim at improving transit oper-
ations, i. e., bus lanes, bus streets, transit priority at intersections, and
fringe parking facilities. Other techniques concentrate on improving utili-
zation of the automobile through ride-sharing programs. Still other tech-
niques attempt to reduce the demand for motor vehicle transportation ser-
vices and facilities.
(Oram)
Remak, Roberta, and Rosenbloom, Sandra, "Peak-Period Traffic Conges-
tion: Options for Current Programs, " NCHRP R-169, TRB, Washington,
D. C., (Remak/Rosenbloom, Santa Barbara, California), 1976.
Abstract
This NCHRP Report (#169) is the published second volume of two dealing
with traffic congestion during peak periods. It developed from the third
objective of the study which was the determination of "methods of reducing
traffic congestion" from available solutions to different types of existing
peak-period congestion problems. In addressing these problems and re-
sultant solutions, the report assists local and state governmental bodies in
assessing both the problems and solutions for congestion. Costs and bene-
fits of the various solution methods are discussed, and specific recommen-
dations are suggested.
(JHK and Associates)
Remak, Roberta, and Rosenbloom, Sandra, Solutions to Peak Period Traffic
Congestion, Volume I: State of the Art Survey, Volume II; Options for
Current Programs. August 1975.
11.18
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Ab stract
These documents are the interim reports of a study to identify possible
solutions to peak period traffic congestion in urban areas. Volume I covers
the first phase, a state-of-the-art survey of methods currently in use or
envisioned to alleviate peak period congestion. The second phase (Volume
II) develops packages of options to maximize the effectiveness of congestion
reduction programs.
Volume I identifies and discusses 11 major categories of techniques for
reducing peak period traffic: staggered and flexible work hours, shortened
work weeks, pricing and regulatory mechanisms, restricting access, land-
use planning, marketing, carpooling and ride-sharing, communications in
lieu of travel, traffic engineering, and vehicle design factors. A review of
experience with these techniques and initial conclusions on the effectiveness
of each in reducing peak period congestion are offered. An extensive anno-
tated bibliography is included.
Volume II is composed of eight "packages" of mutually supportive tech-
niques that would maximize program effectiveness. The benefits and costs
and feasibility of applying the actions are documented. Recommendations
are made for the application of the proposed packages to particular problem
areas, i. e., CBDs of large cities, CBDs of small cities, urban freeways
and arterials, roadways with strong one-directional flow, and roadways
with limited options for alternative routes. Recommendations for further
research are included.
(Or am)
Sinha, Kumares C., et al., Proceedings of the Speciality Conference on Ur-
ban Transportation Efficiency at New York, New York, July 26-27,
1976. ASCE, New York, New York, 1977.
Abstract
The purpose of the conference was to define and identify the various as-
pects related to urban transportation efficiency and to examine the different
approaches that can be taken to achieve higher efficiency and productivity in
the various modes within an urban transportation system at the least possi-
ble cost. In this context, the conference program focused on low-cost in-
novations that have been adopted in the past or are currently being tried by
various agencies and organizations. The conference concentrated more on
11.19
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the evidence of practicality of different proposals thanzon the 4heoretical as-
pects of transportation efficiency.
(authors)
Southern California Association of Governments (SCAG), A Short Range
Transit Plan, Southern California Rapid Transit District (RTD), Los
Angeles, May 1976.
Abstract
This document represents the Southern California Rapid Transit Dis-
trict's part in the development of a regional Short Range Transit Plan.
The Short Range Transit Plan is primarily oriented toward meeting the
new federal requirements for a transportation systems management (TSM)
element.
According to the regulations, the TSM element is to provide for short
range transportation needs by making efficient use of existing transportation
resources. Plans for major new facilities, such as rapid transit, are to
be part of the long range element.
The Short Range Transit Plan is also intended by SCAG to assist in
meeting federal requirements for the annual Transportation Improvement
Program (TIP). The TIP is essentially a three-year program of projects
recommended from both the TSM and the long range element of the trans-
portation plan. According to federal regulations, the TIP must indicate
priorities, include realistic estimates of costs and revenues for the pro-
gram period, and discuss how improvements from the long range element
and the TSM element were merged into the program.
This SCRTD Short Range Transit Plan is organized according to a for-
mat requested by SCAG. Part I discusses existing conditions for the SCRTD
system. Part II presents the District's plan for improvements over the next
three years. Priorities and operating improvements are discussed first,
followed by the description and justification of all capital projects planned
for the three-year period. The concluding section of Part II is the District's
three-year financial plan.
(authors)
11.20
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Stabler, Elizabeth, et al., The State of Urban Mass Transportation Re-
search, Development, and Demonstration, Vol. Ill; Bus Transit, Insti-
tute for Defense Analyses, Arlington, Virginia, May 1972.
Abstract
Urban bus systems are described in this volume of the report. Their
relationships to other transportation modes are drawn. The market for bus
transit and costs are discussed, and the impacts of urban bus transit on pa-
tronage, operation, the public, and industry are presented.
(JHK and Associates)
Symposium, Cologne, Germany, Techniques of Improving Urban Conditions
by Restraint of Road Traffic , October 1971.
Abstract
Increasing traffic in urban areas is leading to serious congestion from
limited road capacity and street parking. Summaries of the papers pre-
sented at the different sessions cover: (1) objectives of and reasons for
traffic restraint; (2) traffic flow and network planning; (3) parking control
and bus priority measures; (4) road pricing; and (5) methods of evaluation
and comparison of traffic restraint techniques.
(Oram)
Tiemann, Norbert T., "Transportation Management: A Look Ahead, " High-
way User Quarterly, Fall 1975.
Abstract
This article examines both the short and long range methods of obtaining
more efficient usage of existing highways in order to optimize transportation
flow. A full range of remedies from redesign to pricing techniques is pre-
sented to aid in reducing demand.
(JHK and Associates)
Transportation Center, University of Tennessee, Increased Transportation
Efficiency Through Ride-Sharing; The Brokerage Approach, (Prepared
for the U. S. Department of Transportation), January 1976.
11.21
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Abstract
This report explores the feasibility of a public transportation brokerage
system to achieve the following objectives: (1) identify individuals with sim-
ilar travel demands; (2) determine the specific service which specific groups
of people desire; (3) identify potential suppliers of ride-sharing services;
(4) assist each group in finding the lowest cost means of obtaining the re-
quired service; (5) overcome the legal, regulatory, informational, socio-
logical, and other barriers which inhibit increased ride-sharing, so that
agreements between users and suppliers are consummated.
Forms of ride-sharing examined include carpooling, vanpooling, taxicab
service, express subscription bus service, and fixed route transit. The
comparative economies of these public transportation systems are devel-
oped. The report also discusses the benefits of increased vehicle occupancy,
assessment of the computer ride-sharing market, determining demand for
ride-sharing, institutional considerations, and strategies for increased
ride-sharing.
(Oram)
Transportation Research Board Special Report 153, Better Use of Existing
Transportation Facilities.
Abstract
This Special Report presents the results of a 3-day conference held in
August 1974, in Jacksonville, Florida. Because demand for increased trans-
portation capacity continues in the face of increased resistance to new high-
way construction, these papers present timely and useful information. Bet-
ter use of existing transportation facilities is seen as a significant approach
to solving the interrelated transportation, environment, and resource prob-
lems now faced. Introductory material discusses how the management ap-
proach can be applied to transportation. Other papers discuss research and
experiences with various improvements leading to increased transportation
efficiency: freeway metering and control, park-and-ride, bus priority strat-
egies and simulation, traffic signal improvements, facility improvement/
maintenance and accident considerations, pricing and work schedule changes
to reduce peak period demand, and improved highway safety.
(Oram)
Transportation Research Board, Special Report 172, Transportation System
Management, 1977.
II. 22
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Abstract
This report documents the proceedings of a conference held November
7-10, 1976, conducted by the Transportation Research Board and sponsored
by the Urban Mass Transportation Administration and Federal Highway Ad-
ministration of the U. S. Department of Transportation in cooperation with
the Institute of Transportation Engineers. The report documents both work-
shop activities and conference papers. Subject matters addressed included:
. Traffic Operations Improvements to Manage and Control the
Flow of Vehicles;
. Preferential Treatment for Transit and Other High Occupancy
Vehicles;
. Management and Control of Parking;
. Management of Demand;
. Actions to Reduce Vehicle Use; and
. Actions to Improve Transit Management Efficiency.
(PMM&Co.)
Tri-State Regional Planning Commission, Short Term Effects of Transpor-
tation Policy Changes on Auto and Transit Ridership, Interim Technical
Report, August 1977.
Abstract
A set of sketch planning economic demand models has been developed to
predict changes in auto and transit use based upon alternative strategies in-
fluencing travel time and cost. Major findings include the following:
. No matter what their format, strategies designed to increase the
cost of CBD bound auto travel would only bring about significant
reductions in peak hour auto, travel if set at relatively high and
and unpopular levels.
. Transit fare reductions are similarly inefficient at reducing
peak hour auto travel.
11.23
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. Of all the strategies addressed by the models, improvements in
transit travel times would seem to have the greatest effect on
reduced peak hour auto trips. The model does not, however,
study the cost or feasibility of this strategy.
. The relative insensitivity of drivers to auto price changes makes
moderate increases in auto user charges a relatively painless
method of raising revenue to pay for the social and environmen-
tal costs of autos in the city as well as for transit alternatives.
(author)
University of Washington, Seattle, Locating and Operating Bus Rapid Transit
Park-Ride Lots; A Synthesis of Experience and Some Preliminary Plan-
ning Guidelines. August 1973.
Abstract
This report reviews and synthesizes previous experiences with locating
and operating park-ride lots throughout the country in such places as Seattle,
Washington; Washington, D. C. ; New Brunswick, New Jersey; Milwaukee,
Wisconsin; and the Northeast Corridor in general. The data represent the
experiences of seven municipalities and account for approximately 4, 500
park-ride spaces in 13 park-ride lots serving as change of mode facilities
for bus transit. The characteristics of park-ride users are investigated.
Data were analyzed to determine the characteristics of trip lengths and trip
times as well as the trip purpose, type of employment, trip origin, and
mode to bus. Further considerations included mode of travel to work prior
to the establishment of park-ride lots and environmental impact factors.
From the analysis of data gathered, some preliminary and general planning
guidelines relevant to the location and sizing of a park-ride facility in an
urban transportation corridor are developed. References are furnished.
(Oram)
Urban Consortium for Technology Initiatives Information Bulletin, Traffic
Signalization Systems, Transit System Productivity, and Institutional
Framework for Integrated Transportation Planning.
Abstract
These are three of eight "Information Bulletins" developed by the Trans-
portation Task Force of the Urban Consortium for Technology Initiatives.
An "Information Bulletin" was developed for eight of the transportation need
II. 24
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areas which were identified as the most pressing by members of the Urban
Consortium. Each Bulletin provides an overview of the current issues and
problems surrounding the need. These Bulletins also provide the informa-
tion base from which the Transportation Task Force selects several needs
for further action.
The eight needs highlighted by the "information Bulletins" were selected
in a unique process of needs identification used by the Urban Consortium.
By identifying and then focusing on the priority needs of member jurisdic-
tions, the Consortium assures that resultant research and development ef-
forts are directly responsive to existing or anticipated local governmental
problems.
"Information Bulletins" were developed on eight needs. Two of the pri-
ority needs, "Preferential and Exclusive Lanes" and "Accelerated Imple-
mentation Procedures, " are currently receiving action. The "Preferential
and Exclusive Lanes" need is being addressed in the Manual for Planning
and Implementing Priority Techniques for High Occupancy Vehicles; Exec-
utive Summary; Management Report; Technical Guide currently being pre-
pared by the PTI staff. A User Design Committee, composed of represen-
tatives from Consortium jurisdictions, is guiding the preparation of this
Manual. The Consortium's Steering Committee is considering the policy-
oriented issues (such as streamlined grant applications) involved in "Accel-
erated Implementation Procedures, " in consort with similar needs which
have surfaced in other Consortium Task Forces. Members of the Trans-
portation Task Force are also working with the Urban Mass Transportation
Administration in ensuring that Task Force concerns are addressed in the
on-going revisions to UMTA's External Operating Manual.
(authors)
Yager, Sam, and Whitehers, Douglas, Concepts for Improved Speed and
Capacity of Bus/Streetcar Routes, 1976.
Abstract
The potential for a high level of at-grade transit using existing roadways
is examined. Reasonably extreme levels of bus/streetcar operations are
compared to subway in terms of averages and variations in speed or travel
time. Factors such as speed limits, acceleration-deceleration, grade-sep-
aration, stop spacing, and boarding-fare collection are considered. A sim-
ple travel time estimation model is developed. As an initial application of
the model, the effect of stop spacings is studied in some detail for subways
11.25
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and bus/streetcar extremes with use of representative data. Based on these
data, it is tentatively concluded that:
. For four or more stops per mile surface transport can be made
to approach subway speeds.
. Subway spacings should be large to provide a speed commensu-
rate with the high cost of right-of-way and grade separation.
. Further study should be directed toward study of practical tech-
niques for realizing the potential decrease in average and vari-
ance of delays. These might be achieved through detailed sched-
uling of bus/streetcars and coordination of transit schedules
with traffic signals.
(authors)
11.26
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III. PREFERENTIAL TREATMENT OF HIGH OCCUPANCY VEHICLES
Alan M. Voorhees, Inc., Blue Streak Bus Rapid Transit Demonstration
Project, Final Report and Appendix, (Prepared for U.S. Department
of Transportation), June 1973.
Abstract
Blue Streak was an express bus demonstration project to test the effects
of increased levels of service on transit routes and the overall impact of a
park-ride lot with express service to downtown. Blue Streak buses used
the reversible lanes of Interstate 5 between their service area and downtown
Seattle, and had exclusive use of a reversible ramp in the central business
district.
The two and one-half year demonstration produced patronage increases
in the face of overall system declines. The impact of the service on the
freeway was transitory since freeway volumes were also declining. The
park-ride aspect was very successful, with an estimated potential of more
than twice the patronage generated by the project. Park-ride patronage was
limited by the parking space capacity of the lot.
Guidelines were studied for the location of park-ride lots, the impact
of exclusive transit freeway ramps was simulated, and a modal split model
was calibrated.
(Or am)
Alan M. Voorhees & Associates, Right Turn on Red; Current Practices
and State of the Art, October 1974.
Abstract
Right-turn-on-a-circular-red traffic signal (RTOR) is a practice which
has gained wider acceptance. However, there is still disagreement on wheth-
er, where, and how RTOR should be implemented. To determine past experi-
ences with RTOR, a literature review and a survey of state and city practices
was conducted. A questionnaire sent to all 50 states revealed that 24 states
presently allow RTOR as a general rule, 22 states permit it with an autho-
rizing sign and 4 states totally prohibit RTOR. The usage of the RTOR pro-
vision in those states where it is permitted by sign varies from 0.1 percent
to 64 percent of all the state-controlled signalized intersections. City RTOR
practices generally follow those of their respective states.
IE. 1
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This report is the initial output from the study whose objectives are to
determine whether permitting the RTOR maneuver is desirable and to pre-
pare guidelines for determining inclusion or exclusion of this movement.
No recommendations are included within the report because of its prelimi-
nary nature and the fact that additional work is still being performed, in-
cluding collecting field data, conducting simulation analysis, performing
before-and-after accident analysis and legal and human factor analyses. The
report does contain information on accidents, delay, capacity, level of ser-
vice, gap acceptance, and signing. The data collected to date indicates that
RTOR does not significantly increase accidents but does reduce right-turn
delay.
(Oram)
Alan M. Voorhees and Associates, Inc. , Status of the Urban Corridor Demon-
stration Program, prepared for U.S. Department of Transportation, Wash-
ington, D.C., August 1977.
Abstract
The U.S. Department of Transportation initiated the Urban Corridor Dem-
onstration Program (UCDP) in 1970 to test and demonstrate low capital inten-
sive techniques for relieving congestion in urban radial corridors. Projects
in eight demonstration cities were implemented. These cities represented a
wide variety of urban conditions, and their respective programs incorporated a
mix of transit and highway improvement programs. This is the final summary
report of the evaluation monitoring program. It summarizes the impact eval-
uations of the eight UCDPs with the intent of showing the relative effectiveness
of the programs in different urban environments. Also included is a discussion
of UCDP experience to suggest ways by which similar projects can be planned
and implemented.
(PMM&Co.)
Bennett, Mark, Ho, Peter H. P., and Papocostas, "Express Bus Use in
Honolulu: A Case Study, " Transportation Research Record 606.
Abstract
Selected results of a series of four on-board surveys taken to monitor
the use of a peak-period bus system in Honolulu are presented and compared
with results of an earlier door-to-door survey. The system offers express
service to two general destination areas: the Honolulu CBD and the Univer-
sity of Hawaii. The surveys queried riders on basic socioeconomic informa-
tion, characteristics of past and present travel modes, and user perceptions
III. 2
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about service improvements. The study findings indicated that express bus
patronage was significantly higher than that of the prior bus service. A
significant portion of the morning riders, however, did not use the service
for their return trips. The proportion of male and female riders was about
even, and, among workers, the predominant occupations were professional
and technical. Almost half of all riders came from households that owned
two cars. About 60 percent of CBD riders and about 40 percent of riders
on the university route were former automobile drivers. Increases in pat-
ronage over the survey period were in part due to gasoline shortages during
the early months of 1974. The group most affected by gasoline shortages
was students, who also showed a tendency over time to adjust their activity
schedules to the schedule of the express bus service.
(authors)
Bather-Ringrose-Wolfsfeld, Inc., Final Report for the 1-35W Urban
Corridor Demonstration Project, (Prepared for the U.S. Department
of Transportation), August 1975.
Abstract
Seven objectives were established for the I-35W Urban Corridor Demon-
stration Project; within each objective, specific items were identified to eval-
uate the attainment of the objectives. The results of the evaluation are pre-
sented in this report and the report is organized by project objective. Within
each of the objectives, the evaluation items are discussed. At the beginning
of each objective is a summary and conclusion for that objective. Generally,
each evaluation item is organized into the following three areas:
. brief description of the data collection study - this information
summarizes the data collection study as presented in the "Eval-
uation Operations Manual";
. presentation of data - the data are presented and comments on the
highlights of the data are given; and
. analysis of data - this section presents the analysis of the data
along with selected statistical summaries where appropriate.
Prior to the chapters on the objectives, an Executive Summary chapter and
a Project Overview chapter are presented.
III. 3
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Every attempt has been made in the evaluation project to rigorously apply
statistics in selecting sample sizes and in completing the "before" and "after"
comparisons of individual data items.
(author)
Bigelow-Grain Associates, Second Year Report; San Bernardino Freeway
Express Bus way Evaluation, Review Draft, (Prepared for the Southern
California Association of Governments), May 1975.
Abstract
The San Bernardino Freeway Express Busway is an 11-mile, double-
lane, exclusive roadway for buses. The busway lanes are physically sep-
arated by concrete and flexible barriers from those serving the automobile
traffic, making it a bus rapid transit system.
A comprehensive evaluation of the busway is being carried out. This
is a five-year effort assessing the operational and economic feasibility
and the traveler response to the new facility. The evaluation methodology
is such that findings can be related to the other major national busway ex-
periment, the Shirley Highway Busway in Washington, D.C., and to the
planning of other bus priority systems in the Los Angeles Basin and
throughout the country.
(author)
Bigelow-Crain Associates, The Golden Gate Corridor Bus Priority System,
(Prepared for the Urban Mass Transportation Administration), May 1975.
Abstract
This report describes and evaluates the bus priority system in operation
on U.S. 101 in Marin County, north of San Francisco. The combination
contra-flow and no-barrier concurrent flow reserved bus lane system has
been in operation since September 1972, and has served to speed buses and
increase total person flow and, therefore, the efficiency of the freeway in
peak periods. Of great significance is that the improvements were realized
with virtually no reconstruction and only minor operational modifications to
the eight-mile segment of roadway. The Golden Gate Corridor, the bus
priority system, and the transit services offered are described. The in-
volvement of various government agencies throughout the project history
is summarized. The costs of implementing and operating the system are
documented.
HI. 4
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Evaluation findings include time savings, ridership and cost effective-
ness, highway safety and traffic enforcement impacts, bus schedule relia-
bility, public reactions, and impacts on transit operating costs and effi-
ciencies. It is concluded that this system is a highly successful operation
testing innovations that have significant transfer ability to other urban areas.
(Oram)
Boyd, J. Hayden, et al., Evaluation of Rail Rapid Transit and Express Bus
Service in the Urban Commuter Market, Institute for Defense Analyses,
Arlington, Virginia, October 1973.
Abstract
This study analyzes and evaluates public transportation alternatives for
serving the commuter market. The two main alternatives, rail rapid transit
and integrated express bus service, are analyzed from the standpoint of full
costs (both supplier and user time costs),, User time costs of the two alter-
natives are roughly equal; however, the supplier costs of the integrated bus
service are much lower than those of rail rapid transit.
Quantitative data on fuel consumption and emissions are presented* and
the effects of political, regulatory, and institutional constraints are discussed.
(authors)
Caltrans, Busways, (First Annual Report), Sacramento, February 1974.
Abstract
This report, the first of a series for the California State Legislature,
examines the California experience with the various bus priority schemes
in practice and under study. Special attention is paid to the area of federal
responsiveness and enactments.
(JHK and Associates)
III. 5
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Crowell, W. H., Bloch, Arnold J., and Ingram, Gregory K., Carpools,
Vanpools and High Occupancy Preference Lanes; Cost Effectiveness
and Feasibility (Volume 4), May 1977.
Abstract
Our cost-effectiveness analyses suggest that employer-based voluntary
carpool and vanpool matching programs are quite attractive in the four ur-
ban areas studied. The reductions in VMT can reach 2 to 3% even in the
complete absence of any mandatory restrictions. These seemingly small
reductions represent big reductions in VMT, and big savings in dollars for
the user public. For example, a simple 1% reduction in the Washington,
B.C. annual VMT represents an 80 million VMT reduction, and a cash
savings of $4, 800, 000 to travelers - all at a meager expense of $150, 000;
the savings would be seven times as great in Los Angeles. Similarly im-
proved existing lane capacity (HOVL) for auto to bus use (during peak con-
gestion hours) can yield 1/2 to 1% reductions in VMT, and consequent cash
savings to travelers. These results indicate that voluntary carpool and
vanpool matching programs, and HOVLs can be quite cost-effective even at
very low VMT reduction levels; it also shows, however, that these volun-
tary programs cannot yield the high reduction characteristics of programs
that would utilize mandatory restrictions as well.
(author)
Engineering Experiment Station Ohio State University, Development of
Guidelines For the Application of Continuous Two-Way Left-Turn
Median Lanes, (Prepared for Ohio Department of Transportation),
July 1975.
Abstract
The objectives of the research project are to consolidate existing infor-
mation on continuous two-way left-turn median lanes as a practical measure
for increasing the capacity and improving the safety of multi-lane arterials
by accommodating mid-block left-turns and to conduct before and after studies
at sites which were selected in cooperation with the Ohio Department of
Transportation. The research approach selected includes studies in four
distinct areas: (a) literature review; (b) a nationwide expert opinion survey,
including some personal interviews; (c) a small scale simulation study; and
(d) before-and-after field studies. This report presents the results of the
literature review and the opinion survey. Both the literature review and the
survey indicate that two-way left-turn lanes work well in spite of a wide
variety of methods of signing and marking. There is a uniform agreement
III. 6
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that these lanes have excellent safety records and specifically head-on col-
lisions are practically nonexistent.
(Oram)
Federal Highway Administration, Simulation of Urban Bus Operation on
Signalized Arterials, December 1973.
Abstract
This report describes a simulation model that represents urban bus
operation on signalized arterial streets. The model can be used as an eval-
uation tool in the formulation of new schemes to improve bus service in
urban areas.
To pave the way for the development of such a model, two basic rela-
tionships in urban bus systems were investigated. They respectively in-
volve: (1) the time required to load and unload a certain number of pas-
sengers, and (2) the bus speed and acceleration characteristics.
The model developed was named "SUB" (Simulation of Urban Buses) and
its program written in FORTRAN language. Traffic is simulated on the
model by groups of vehicles that are processed at constant time intervals.
Buses, on the other hand, are represented individually and processed only
when significant events occur.
The model has been calibrated in Washington, D.C., verified and sub-
jected to sensitivity tests. It has been validated by comparing its results
with real-life data, and its usefulness has been demonstrated by applying
the model to predict the effect of an exclusive bus lane.
(Oram)
Garcia, Jesus M., Exclusive Bus and Carpool Lanes Installed and
Operated by the State of California, Caltrans, Sacramento, February
1975.
Abstract
The 17 California priority and exclusive lane projects in service at the
beginning of 1975 are fully detailed in this report. Special emphasis is
placed on the legal and legislative aspects which permit and encourage pri-
ority treatments in California,,
(JHK and Associates)
III. 7
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Kulash, DamianJ., and Bhatt, Kiran U., Preferential Bus Systems. The
Urban Institute, Washington, D. G0, March 1972.
Abstract
This paper describes various types of preferential bus operations, as
well as techniques which have been used to plan and develop these systems„
Problems associated with these techniques are discussed, and a proposal is
set out for research on the evaluation of preferential bus systems which
would help overcome current methodological problems.
(author)
The Institute of Transportation and Traffic Engineering, Simulation of
Priority Strategies at Freeway Ramps, May 1975.
Abstract
This report describes the development, computerization, and application
of an analytical procedure for entry control at freeway ramps. Two types of
control strategies are developed: control on a passenger basis and control
on a vehicle basis.
The analytical procedure encompasses two models. The first is a simu-
lation model that predicts freeway traffic performance as a function of de-
sign and allowable ramp flows. The second is a decision model that selects
a control strategy meeting the constraints and stated objectives,,
The simulation model was validated under field conditions, and the pre-
dicted traffic performance compares very favorably to actual, measured traf-
fic performance. The two models were integrated and computerized, and the
composite model was applied to a number of sites to demonstrate its applica-
tions and to provide some results for possible implementation.
(Oram)
Levinson, Herbert S., et al., "Bus Use of Highways: Planning and Design
Guidelines, " NCHRP R-155, (TRB, Washington, B.C.), Wilbur Smith
& Associates, New Haven, Connecticut, 1975,,
Abstract
This report will be of particular interest to public officials responsible
for transportation policy, planning, design, and engineering. It contains
in. 8
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guidelines for planning and designing preferential bus facilities relating to
freeways, arterials, and terminals. Transportation engineers and planners
will find the report of special value in helping to identify appropriate bus
priority treatments for specific urban situations. In addition, the report
will help the designer to incorporate the essential characteristics required
for each type of treatment. It constitutes a single reference source on bus
priority measures.
(Oram)
Levinson, Herbert S., et al., "Bus Use of Highways: State of the Art, "
NCHRP R-143, (TRB, Washington, B.C.), Wilbur Smith & Associates,
New Haven, Connecticut, 1973.
Abstract
This report will be of particular interest to those highway officials re-
sponsible for planning, design, and traffic engineering. It constitutes a
state-of-the-art of bus utilization of highway facilities and, therefore, con-
tributes to a better understanding of the effectiveness of bus operations on
highways in terms of priority treatments relating to freeways, arterials,
and terminals. Highway engineers will find this report of special value
in helping to identify the multimodal potentials of urban freeway projects,
as well as in evaluating the impact of bus operations on the capacity and
traffic flow characteristics of existing roadway facilities.
(Oram)
Levinson, Herbert L., and Sanders, David B., Reserved Bus Lanes on
Urban Freeways; A Macro Model, Wilbur Smith & Associates, New
Haven, Connecticut, January 1974.
Abstract
An increasing number of cities are becoming interested in operating buses
on reserved lanes to move people more effectively. This paper develops a
person-delay model which can be used in determining the feasibility and
practicality for implementing a contra-flow freeway bus lane in urban areas.
The model deals with peak-hour trips on a six-lane two-direction freeway,
and it uses relationships as established in the Highway Capacity Manual, 1965,
to demonstrate its applicability. The derivation of the model is shown, and the
paper then depicts how transportation planners can easily use it by way of a
step by step procedure.
(authors)
HI. 9
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Link, Dan, The Preferential Treatment of Multiple Occupancy Vehicles
in a Transportation Corridor, School of Architecture & Urban Planning,
UCLA, Los Angeles, June 1973.
Abstract
In the study of multiple occupancy lanes, this report investigates three
major areas of concern: transportation potential, engineering feasibility,
and cost, utilizing as models, the Hollywood/Golden State Freeways in
Southern California. Two areas of improvement are suggested: first, having
multiple occupancy vehicles by-pass other traffic at metered on-ramps; and
second, utilizing and establishing contraflow lanes on the off-peak directional
roadways.
(JHK and Associates)
McQueen, James T., Levinsohn, David M., Waksman, Robert, and Miller,
Gerald K., The Evaluation of the Shirley Highway Express-Bus-On-
Freeway Demonstration Project, Final Report, National Bureau of
Standards, (Prepared for UMTA), August 1975.
Abstract
The Shirley Highway Express-Bus-On-Freeway Project began in June
1971 and ended December 31, 1974. The principal goal of the project was
to demonstrate that express bus-on-freeway operations can improve the
quality of bus service and lead to an increase in the people moving capa-
bility of peak period transportation facilities for an entire urban corridor.
Secondary project goals were to demonstrate the effectiveness of this tech-
nology as a means of reducing auto pollutant emissions and gasoline con-
sumption, improving the mobility of the transportation disadvantaged and the
economic condition of the transit operator.
This report summarizes project performance with respect to the attain-
ment of the above goals. An analysis of bus operations is presented which
shows that the project effected an improvement in the quality of the Shirley
Highway Corridor bus service as evidenced by the reduction in travel times
by bus, and the increase in both the reliability and the coverage of the bus
system. Trends in peak period traffic volumes are presented which show
that the subsequent increase in bus patronage and bus1 share of Corridor
commuters led to an increase in the peak period people moving capability of
the Corridor. Corridor people moving capability was also increased by pro-
ject stimulated growth in carpooling.
III. 10
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Data from surveys of Corridor commuters were used in identifying fac-
tors important in commuters' decisions to use bus or to carpool. Bus users
who formerly had commuted by auto reported that the most important factors
in their decisions to switch from auto were the expense and discomfort of
commuting by auto, and the express features of project bus service. Factors
reported as most important in decisions to join or form a carpool were reduc-
tion in commuting costs, special parking privileges for carpools, and availa-
bility of the express bus way to carpools.
The report concludes with an analysis of project performance with re-
spect to the secondary goals. The project resulted in significant reductions
in peak period auto usage, auto pollutant emissions and gasoline consumption.
The utilization of project bus service by transportation disadvantaged persons
is discussed and project costs and revenues are analyzed.
(Oram)
McQueen, James T,, and Waksman, Robert, Increasing the People Moving
Capability of the Shirley Highway, (Prepared for 56th Annual Meeting
of the Transportation Research Board), 1977.
Abstract
With the dramatic increase in rapid rail transit construction costs in
recent years, the exclusive highway right-of-way for high-occupancy
vehicles has emerged as a possible cost-effective alternative for trans-
porting peak period commuters through congested corridors. The Shirley
Highway Busway, a section of which was opened to buses in 1969, was the
first such exclusive right-of-way. Opened to carpools with four or more
members in December 1973, it was the principal element of the Shirley
Highway Express-Bus-on-Freeway project which ended December 1974,
Priority treatment accorded buses and carpools resulted in an improve-
ment in the corridor's people moving capability, where people moving capa-
bility is measured in terms of both the magnitude of people moved and the
effectiveness with which they are moved. Peak hour person throughput on
the Shirley Highway was increased substantially. In addition, considerable
travel-time savings were realized by all commuters using the Shirley High-
way.
This paper is divided into two parts. The first part discussed increases
in the people moving capability of the Shirley Highway. The second part
discussed the reasons underlying those trends. The trends are based on
extensive auto and transit volume counts taken over the life of the project.
III. 11
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The increases in the people moving capability of the Shirley Highway can
be attributed to increases in the use of bus and carpools.
(authors)
Miller, Gerald K., and McQueen, James T0, "Park-and-Ride in the
Shirley Highway Corridor, " Transportation Research Record 606.
Abstract
The market for fixed-route transit operations is not limited to travelers
living within walking distance of transit stops. As demonstrated by the
Shirley Highway Express -Bus -on-Freeway Project, well-planned park-and-
ride operations can lead to sizable increases in bus patronage. Park-and-
riders, commuters who travel by automobile to a bus stop and then by bus
to work, greatly expanded the market for the fixed-route bus service in the
Shirley Highway corridor. After briefly describing the park-and-ride ar-
rangements in this suburban corridor, this paper presents the results of
an investigation of the perceptions and mode choice influences of the park-
and-riders at two new lots. On-board surveys were used to determine the
importance of 12 factors in the commuter's decision to switch from auto-
mobile to park-and-ride bus service,, The users' subjective satisfaction
assessments for these factors and their reported travel-time and costs
savings (or losses) were also obtained,, These results suggest that several
factors in addition to time and cost should be considered in planning park-
and-ride facilities.
(author)
Minister, R. David, et al., A Computer Simulation Model for Evaluating
Priority Operations on Freeways, ITTE, Berkeley, California,
June 1973.
Abstract
This report describes the operation of a computer program, PRIFRE,
developed to evaluate priority operations on freeways„ Model and program
background and structure are discussed; application procedures are described.,
PRIFRE was developed primarily to evaluate one-way "normal" priority
lane operations, i.e., reserved lane(s) on the same side of the freeway me-
dian as the unreserved lanes. However, with some manual interfacing,
PRIFRE can be used to evaluate contra-flow lanes, separate busways, and
ramp control schemes affording priority entry to high-occupancy vehicles.
IE. 12
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PRIFRE can calculate total travel time expended under normal freeway
operations and total travel time expended under different priority operation
strategies, and compare the two. Any travel time difference (savings or
losses) is noted in the final output. Similarly, PRIFRE can also calculate
total vehicle miles accumulated under normal and priority operations, and
compare the two. Any variety of occupancy shifts, number of priority lanes,
modal splits, and growth periods can be input to the program and results
calculated and compared using PRIFRE,
(Oram)
Mitre Corporation, Overview of Experimental Bus Priority Systems, 1975.
Abstract
The bus priority strategies tested in eight different cities used a vari-
ety of signal control techniques to award priority to buses at traffic control
intersections. The reported results range from seven seconds reduction
in average bus delay at one intersection in Leicester, England, to 24 sec-
onds reduction in average delay at an intersection in Bern, Switzerland.
But, more important, the range of travel time through an intersection in
Derby, England, was reduced by more than one half. Such reduction in the
range of travel time has a significant impact on reducing run time variation
along a bus route.
In Washington, B.C., 34 intersections were equipped with bus detectors
which fed bus arrival information to the central Urban Traffic Control Sys-
tem/Bus Priority System computers. Whenever a bus was detected, this
bus priority system used either green signal extension or red signal trun-
cation to reduce bus delay at the BPS intersection. In Bern, Switzerland,
the normal one-green phase per cycle was split into two green phases of
equal length, with the capability of extending either of the green phases
whenever a tram was detected. This resulted in a 75 percent reduction in
delay time for trams and a 50 percent reduction in delay time for buses.
The U. S. and European approaches to the BPS demonstrations differ in
that U.S. BPS demonstrations range in size from 3 to 34 intersections and
emphasize hardware and software development. In contrast, the BPS dem-
onstrations conducted in foreign countries typically include one intersection
and stress studies of how much the mean travel time and the range of travel
time through the intersection have improved with priority as compared to
buses operating without priority.
(Oram)
III. 13
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Mitre Corporation, Simplified Estimators for Benefit Assessment of Bus
Priority Systems, (Traffic Signal Preemption), August 1975.
Abstract
Simulation studies indicate that a Bus Priority System (BPS) that guar-
antees a green traffic signal to buses approaching an instrumented intersec-
tion provides substantial benefits to buses with little detriment to other
traffic. Simplified estimators that correlate well with many aspects of the
simulation results provide a better understanding of the BPS process and
a means of analyzing the effects of BPS in applications other than that sim-
ulated. A bus travel time estimator predicts values within 10 percent for
local buses, although the accuracy is less for buses with less frequent
stops. An intersection capacity estimator reflects how certain conditions
lead to greatly increased travel times for other vehicles in the simulation
network and how far-side bus stops are superior to near-side bus stops at
short bus headways.
(Oram)
Mitre Corporation, Unconditionally Preemptive Bus Priority System;
Summary of Simulation Results, (Prepared for the Urban Mass
Transportation Administration), July 1975.
Abstract
A large number of simulation runs of an urban network traffic model
have been used to evaluate a Bus Priority System (BPS) algorithm that
automatically grants a green signal to buses as they approach an intersec-
tion. BPS was found to provide substantial travel time improvements (20
to 30 percent) to buses in local service (frequent stops), limited service
(infrequent stops), and express service (no stops). The disrupting effect
of BPS on cross-street traffic is much less when far-side bus stops in-
stead of near-side bus stops are used. The use of BPS also reduced the
delaying effect of buses on other traffic. For all conditions tested, total
passenger travel time per hour of system operation improved when BPS
was used.
(Oram)
III. 14
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National Bureau of Standards, The Shirley Highway Express-Bus-On-
Freeway Demonstration Project; A Study of Reverse Commute Service,
January 1975.
Abstract
The Shirley Highway Corridor (1-95) peak period bus service has been
overwhelmingly oriented toward trips made in the direction of the primary
flow of peak period traffic. However, in early 1973, peak period reverse
commute service was established on three Shirley Highway Express-Bus-
on-Freeway Demonstration routes. Reverse commute service is an oper-
ation which provides peak period transit service in the direction opposite
the primary flow of peak period traffic. This report is based upon an
analysis of these reverse commute routes. The purpose of the report is to:
(1) describe the Shirley Highway peak period reverse commute routes;
(2) analyse success of reverse commute service; (3) determine factors con-
ducive to the success of reverse commute service; and (4) identify employ-
ment areas within the Shirley Highway Corridor which have high potential
as markets for a reverse commute service. In early 1973, two major re-
verse commute routes began service to a newly opened high-rise office
building in Northern Virginia. After 11 months, patronage was measured.
Responses to an on-board survey of riders, taken in February 1974, re-
vealed that at least 43% of riders had no other means than bus for getting
to work. The service has enabled many of these riders, therefore, to
accept jobs that they might otherwise have had to forego. The service
was also found to be slightly profitable to bus operators on an incremental
cost basis. Cost and revenue estimates showed that the bus operators'
margin of income over costs was positive. It was concluded that because
the reverse commute service was beneficial to its users and slightly prof-
itable to the bus operator, it has been a successful operation. Conditions
deemed important to success are delineated.
(Oram)
National Cooperative Highway Research Program Optimizing Flow of Existing
Street Networks. Report 113, 1971.
Abstract
This report will be of special interest to traffic engineers, public works
administrators, and other city officials interested in improving the traffic-
carrying ability of city streets. The project is unusual in that it is one of
the few research endeavors that has actually demonstrated methods of im-
proving traffic flow on complex networks of city streets as compared with
IE. 15
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spot or arterial improvements. Dozens of traffic engineering improvements
were implemented and evaluated. Newark, N. J., and Louisville, Ky., were
selected as test cities for this $ 1 million study, which sought ways for
middle-sized cities to expedite their local traffic without expensive recon-
struction. The research clearly indicates, through examples, the benefits
that can be achieved for the motoring public by application of traffic engi-
neering knowledge to improve traffic flow and prevent costly travel delays.
(Oram)
NATO Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society (CCMS), "Bus Priority
Systems, " CCMS Report No. 45, TRRL (Transport and Road Research
Laboratory), Crowthorne, England, 1976.
Abstract
This report is concerned with "Bus Priority Systems" - a topic chosen
for study because of the growing need to make bus travel more attractive
and more competitive with the private car.
Increasing car usage in urban areas has been the major factor respon-
sible for the serious decline in bus patronage over the past 30 years and
for a decrease in bus operating efficiency, due in particular to peak-period
congestion. A careful study of bus priority measures is therefore warranted
because such measures not only aim to free buses from the effects of traf-
fic congestion but also to improve their performance relative to the private
car, thus helping to redress the balance between bus and car usage. Bus
priority is also consistent with recent policies concerning the need to im-
prove the environment, to avoid high-cost solutions to traffic and transport
problems and to conserve energy„ The study of measures to afford priority
to buses, and other high-occupancy vehicles such as carpools, is therefore
most timely.
Four countries agreed to take part in the study of bus priority systems:
U.K. (in charge of the project), France, Canada, and U0S0A. The objec-
tives of the group's work were: to study bus-priority measures and pro-
duce a state-of-the-art report describing the various types of schemes avail-
able, methods of assessment, results obtained, and any problems concerning
implementation, enforcement and accidents; to give guidance on the most
suitable types of priority for different situations; to identify gaps in the
available knowledge and to encourage authorities to provide, where appro-
priate, adequate evaluation of bus-priority schemes, especially those which
include novel features; to select a number of practical examples to illus-
trate the range of bus-priority measures, preferably where full economic
IH. 16
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assessments have been carried out; and to make recommendations which can
be placed before the NATO Council for their consideration and dissemina-
tion to member governments.
(author)
Planning and Research Division, Unified Work Program, Express Bus
Service Evaluation, Port Authority of Allegheny County, September 1974.
Abstract
This report provides descriptive background information on express bus
lanes and how they will potentially benefit the Pittsburgh area. The second
part of the report describes the specific recommendations for exclusive bus
lanes. These recommendations include numerous downtown street and
arterial as well as several limited access facilities. Experience with ex-
press bus in other areas is briefly documented.
(PMM&Co.)
Rothenberg, M. J., and JHK and Associates, Priority Treatment for High
Occupancy Vehicles; Project Status Report, March 1977.
Abstract
This report discusses the current status of 14 preferential treatment
projects for buses and carpools in the United States. The range of projects
covered includes bus and carpool lanes physically separated from the flow
of other traffic, contra-flow lanes, exclusive median with-flow lanes, by-
passes of metered freeway ramps, and toll reductions for carpools. Key
historical events in the development of each project are cited and observa-
tions are made on the effectiveness of each. This report is part of FHWA's
Federally Coordinated Program (FCP) research project 2D, which is titled
"Research on Priority Techniques for High Occupancy Vehicles. " Several
of the 14 projects discussed herein as well as other additional projects will
be given detailed evaluation in the near future.
(authors)
III. 17
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Simkowitz, Howard J. , A Comparative Analysis of Results from Three Recent
Non-Separated Concurrent-Flow High-Occupancy Freeway Lane Projects:
Boston, Santa Monica and Miami, (prepared for 5th Annual Meeting of the
Transportation Research Board), 1978.
Abstract
Results from three recent non-separated concurrent-flow high-occupancy
freeway lane projects, Boston's Southeast Expressway, the Santa Monica Free-
way in Los Angeles, and Miami's 1-95, are compared. The project sites and
projects are described and contrasted. The following issue areas are explored:
supply - changes in travel times on the freeways, changes in transit level of
service; demand - modal shift to carpooling and transit induced by the reserved
lane; project costs - capital and operating, including express bus costs; safety
and enforcement - changes in accidents and incidents, violation rates, enforce-
ment; and institutions and attitudes - the public's attitude towards the reserved
lane concept, the effect of advertising and media reports, the role of politics.
Conclusions are drawn and recommendations are made concerning future re-
served lane projects.
(author)
Stanford Research Institute, Guidelines for Design and Operation of Ramp
Control Systems, (Prepared for National Cooperative Highway Research
Program), December 1975.
Abstract
This report is intended as a guide to designers of ramp metering control
systems. It is aimed at the working traffic engineer who has had a minimum
of freeway operations experience. The emphasis is on practical and proven
techniques, not on research or on experimental procedures. As a first
step, the report provides guidance in determining whether a proposed meter-
ing system is potentially effective. Assuming that cost and related criteria
are met, guidelines are given for the design, implementation, and operation
of systems using three types of metering: Pretimed, Locally Actuated,
and Centralized/Interconnected. Multiple-System Metering is also treated
briefly. A final chapter cites the benefits and costs of ramp metering at a
number of existing locations and describes techniques for a specific benefit-
cost study.
(Or am)
III. 18
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Stock, William A., Wang, Jin-J., and May, Adolf D., Priority Lane
Operations on the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge, ITTE,
Berkeley, California, April 1971.
Abstract
The two mathematical models EXCBUS (6) and FREEQ (10) were applied
to this heavily traveled freeway section, and various priority lane schemes
were tested for their potential travel-time savings. Optimum strategies
showed some savings could result if such a priority lane operation were im-
plemented in the westbound a.m. peak directions.
(authors)
Systan, The Santa Monica Freeway Diamond Lanes; Evaluation Volume
I, II, and III, (Prepared for the U. S. Department of Transportation),
April 1977.
Abstract
This three-volume effort is intended to comprehensively review and eval-
uate the Santa Monica Freeway Diamond Lanes. Much controversy surrounds
the implementation, operation, and discontinuation of the bus and carpool
lanes. The report seeks to document the transportation and safety implica-
tions of the program bus operations and ridership aspects, and environmental
and public response impacts.
(PMM&Co.)
Technology Sharing Program, Priority Techniques for High Occupancy
Vehicles; State-of-the-Art Overview, Transportation Systems Center,
DOT, Cambridge, Massachusetts, November 1975.
Abstract
This report presents an overview of priority techniques for high occu-
pancy vehicles, a set of transportation improvements that make more effi-
cient use of existing vehicle and highway capacities. The report is designed
to make more accessible the body of knowledge that now constitutes the
state-of-the-art in priority techniques. Included are discussions of the role
of priority techniques, as well as the characteristics of freeway and arterial/
street priority applications. An evaluative overview presents implementa-
tion guidelines, decision-making criteria, and a discussion of impacts.
A special feature is the inclusion of supplementary material to serve as
a source-book for further information.
(Or am)
III. 19
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Transportation System Center, UMTA Service and Methods Demonstration
Program; Annual Report, November 1975.
Abstract
This report contains a description of the Service and Methods Demon-
stration Program. Transit demonstration projects undertaken in previous
years are reviewed. Recently completed and current demonstration projects
are described and project results from similar demonstrations are compared.
The comparisons are made by grouping projects according to the program
objectives addressed: (1) decrease transit travel time; (2) increase transit
reliability; (3) increase transit coverage; (4) increase transit vehicle pro-
ductivity; and (5) improve the mobility of transit dependents. Independent
activities carried out in support of the demonstrations are described, such
as the development of evaluation guidelines and improved methodologies for
demonstration evaluation, analytical studies in support of the development
of experimental demonstrations, and case studies of independent local
innovations. Information dissemination mechanisms and activities intended
to facilitate more widespread knowledge of effective approaches to improving
transit are discussed. The Appendix contains a detailed description of each
demonstration project including the objectives, history, status, results,
evaluation and conclusions.
(Oram)
Tri-State Regional Planning Commission, Urban Corridor Demonstration
Program - Exclusive Bus Lane; Interstate 495 - New Jersey Approach
to Lincoln Tunnel, July 1972.
Abstract
December 18, 1970 marked the establishment of an exclusive bus lane
for east-bound (city-bound) buses along a 2. 5 mile stretch of Interstate 495
between the Lincoln Tunnel and the New Jersey Turnpike. This experiment
was a part of the U.S. Department of Transportation's Urban Corridor Dem-
onstration Program. The project serves as an example of how a significant
public transportation improvement can be established quickly at a relatively
low cost in an urban area where several planning and operating agencies
exercise jurisdiction. The report reviews the plan for coordinating the inputs
and activities of the Urban Mass Transportation Administration, the Federal
Highway Administration, the Tri-State Regional Planning Commission, the
New Jersey Turnpike Authority, New Jersey Department of Transportation
and the Port of New York Authority. Also discussed are the bus eligibility
criteria and traffic-control devices used as well as the public information
campaign which was carried out. Significant data on the project include the
fact that the reverse-flow exclusive lane shuttles thousands of commuters
daily at a time saving varying from 10 to 25 minutes. In 1971, more
III. 20
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than 206, 000 buses and 8. 7 million riders used the lane. During the peak
commuting period an average of 809 buses carrying 34, 000 passengers used
the lane. Few delays were experienced; during 1971, there were only 25
stoppages for such diverse reasons as engine problems and flat tires. The
success of the project is established in the analysis of commuter response
surveys, etc. Results suggest that 2, 300 commuters have become bus riders
since the lane's inception.
(Or am)
Traffic Systems Division Office of Research, Federal Highway Administration,
Urban Freeway Surveillance and Control; State of the Art, July 1973.
Abstract
This publication surveys today's state of the art in urban freeway sur-
veillance and control systems. Some surveillance and control aspects, such
as ramp metering, are beyond the research stage, and these systems are
now eligible to be implemented with federal participation. Until now, how-
ever, only a few qualified engineers have known when and where such sys-
tems should be installed and how they should be operated. This report
should assist others in obtaining this specialized knowledge, and should
result in the implementation of freeway surveillance and control systems
in many urban areas where freeways become congested. With the current
trend of limiting the construction of new controiled-access facilities, it
becomes even more important to be able to operate the exsiting facilities
at optimum safety and efficiency.
The document is so organized as to introduce the reader first to freeway
problems that are subject to solution by surveillance and control techniques.
Measures and methods to document operational problems are discussed to
aid the analyst in determining what surveillance and control systems should
be considered. Solutions to freeway problems are presented along with
descriptions of the detailed hardware requirements. A summary of existing
freeway ramp control projects is presented, and a benefit-cost study of
their effectiveness is provided.
(Oram)
U. S. Department of Transportation, Preferential Facilities for Carpools
and Buses, Seven Reports, FHWA, DOT, Washington, D.C., May 1976.
Abstract
These seven reports on preferential facilities for carpools and buses
have been assembled and reprinted by the Federal Highway Administration.
The reports provide information on several recent projects to increase the
person-moving capacity of the highway system by designating facilities for
preferential use by high-occupancy vehicles.
III. 21
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Facilities covered include bypass lanes in Los Angeles, HOV lanes in
Los Angeles and San Francisco, the Banfield Freeway, 1-95 in Miami,
Connecticut's carpool program, 1-93 in Boston, and bus and carpool lanes
in Hawaii.
(JHK and Associates)
U. S. Department of Transportation, Summary Report, Feasibility and
Evaluation Study of Reserved Freeway Lanes for Bus and Carpools,
January 1971.
Abstract
This research study was undertaken to ascertain whether the reserved-
lane concept will accommodate more people on urban highways during peak
traffic periods and, at the same time, reduce vehicular congestion during
these periods. Specific major objectives of the study were as follows:
. To determine the feasibility of moving more people with fewer
vehicles and improving traffic operation on a given freeway by
reserving one or more lanes for the exclusive use of buses and
car pools during normal weekday peak periods; and
. To develop a plan for demonstration and evaluation of the oper-
ational effectiveness of the reserved-lane concept.
Development of a demonstration and evaluation plan (the second objec-
tive) was contingent upon demonstration of feasibility in the first phase of
the study. Research objectives were pursued through the performance of
the following project tasks: (1) an analysis of freeway types and reserved-
lane rules to determine the general potential of the reserved-lane concept;
(2) the selection of a specific freeway site for a detailed feasibility study;
(3) a detailed traffic operations analysis to determine the implications of the
reserved-lane concept; (4) a user-cost analysis comparing reserved-lane
operation with normal operation; (5) a mode-choice analysis to estimate po-
tential shifts from low-occupancy vehicles to car pools and buses; (6) an
investigation of the legislative and enforcement requirements involved in
implementing the reserved-lane concept; (7) an assessment of requirements
for a public information and education program to support concept imple-
mentation; and (8) the formulation of an implementation plan for demonstra-
tion of the reserved-lane concept.
(author)
III. 22
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Urban Consortium, A Manual for Planning and Implementing Priority
Techniques for High Occupancy Vehicles, July 1977.
Abstract
This Manual on Planning and Implementing Priority Techniques for High
Occupancy Vehicles consists of three documents which, when taken together,
describe a project development process and administrative procedures that
relate project performance to community priority, costs, and phasing. These
are primary concerns of top policy makers when considering the approval of
new proposals.
This Program Manager Report is an advisory document for senior per-
sonnel or department heads who staff, plan, and manage priority treatment
projects.
The Chief Executive Report is an explanatory review for local adminis-
trators and elected officials who approve preferential treatment policies
and whose continued support is essential to project implementation.
The Technical Guide is used by members of an interagency project team
which conducts day-to-day activities in application areas selected by manage-
ment.
Priority techniques have been successfully used in Boston, Honolulu,
Los Angeles, Miami (Florida), Minneapolis, New York City, Portland
(Oregon), San Francisco, Seattle, and Washington, D.C., among other
places. A diverse group of local officials has evaluated this body of ex-
perience for its applicability and has helped document the techniques for
transfer to other jurisdictions. Since the documents are intended for
practical use by local and state governments, and local circumstances vary
significantly, no attempt is made to recommend a specific approach to
project implementation.
(author)
Vuchic, VukanR., and Stanger, Richard M., Lindenwald Line and Shirley
Bus way; A Comparison, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia,
January 1973.
Abstract
This study utilizes two existing systems for a comprehensive compara-
tive study of bus and rail technologies and their different types of opera-
tions. It differs from all previous studies in two respects. First, it per-
forms the analysis on two actual systems; thus it does not utilize any hypo-
thetical assumptions. Second, it includes more system characteristics
III. 23
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than any of the previous studies. An attempt has been made to make the
study as comprehensive as the available data permit.
(authors)
Washington State Department of Highways, Encouraging Multiple Occupancy
of Vehicles Using Toll Facilities, November 1972.
Abstract
This report is concerned with the feasibility of modifying the toll charges
on certain toll facilities to encourage multiple-passenger use of private and
public transportation vehicles. The report discusses the need for additional
capacity along State Road 520, and explores the feasibility of adjusting toll
policies on the Evergreen Point Bridge over Lake Washington to reduce the
need to construct additional roadway capacity. Observed trends in vehicle
occupancy are discussed as well as an analytical procedure (a form of a
modal split model) to estimate the effect of various toll and reserved lane
schemes on automobile occupancy levels and peak hour traffic demands.
Measures that were considered include abolishment of commuter discounts,
establishment of discounts for carpools, permitting carpools free use of the
facility, and others. For comparative reasons, the effect of enabling a five
minute time savings for high occupancy vehicles was also simulated. A
conclusion is that changes in toll structure on the bridge would have a lesser
effect on average vehicle occupancy than time savings resulting from im-
provements for carpools and transit use.
(Or am)
Washington State Department of Highways, 1-35 Urban Corridor
Demonstration Project: Final Report, August 1975.
Abstract
The purpose of the I-35W Urban Corridor Demonstration Project was to
implement and evaluate the Bus-on-Metered Freeway System. The system
concept includes the following elements:
. metering of an urban radial freeway;
. a real-time surveillance, command and control system;
. extensive express bus service in the corridor;
. priority access to the freeway via express bus ramps; and
. provision of transit passenger amenities, i.e., bus shelters,
signs, and park-ride facilities in the corridor.
III. 24
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Initial planning for the project was completed in September 1971. Ex-
press bus service was begun in the Fall of 1971; nine new express bus routes
were initiated in December 1972. Three additional routes were added during
1973 and 1974, for a total of 17 routes as of December 1974. The complete
Bus-on-Metered Freeway System became operational in April 1974.
This report evaluates the attainment of the seven project objectives:
. Improve the I-35W Corridor Level of Service through Ramp
Metering.
. Increase the Transit Modal Split in the Corridor.
. Improve the Reliability of the Freeway Operation.
. Improve the Transit System Performance.
. Obtain User Acceptance of the Bus-on-Metered Freeway
System.
. Obtain a Positive Environmental Impact for the Project.
. Implement the Bus-on-Metered Freeway System in a Cost-
Effective Manner.
(Or am)
Wilbur Smith and Associates, in association with Sverdrup and Parcel and
Associates, Inc. and Stanford Research Institute, GCA Technology
Division, Wyle Laboratories, Bus Rapid Transit Options for Densely
Developed Areas, February 1975.
Abstract
This report describes and evaluates alternative bus rapid transit sys-
tems in densely developed urban areas. It reviews the state-of-the-art,
identifies significant options and technologies, and assesses their cost,
service, and community impacts. It is intended as a guide for community
leaders and transportation planners interested in providing fast, reliable
metropolitan bus rapid transit service.
III. 25
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The report provides guidelines for providing bus rapid transit in densely
developed areas without freeways. This need has been a principal concern
of bus rapid transit planning, since ways to optimize regional express bus
service--including preferential treatment for buses on urban freeways —
have been well documented.
(Or am)
HI. 26
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IV. CARPOOL AND VANPOOL PROGRAMS
Alan M. Voorhees & Associates, Inc., and Behavior Science Corp., A Study
of Techniques to Increase Commuter Vehicle Occupancy on the Hollywood
Freeway, Los Angeles, November 1973.
Abstract
As a submission to Congress by the Secretary of Transportation, this
study realized by investigation the effectiveness of carpool projects previ-
ously authorized by DOT. It continued the study of other measures such as
tax and economic incentives to promote carpools. Several recommendations
were made in the federal area to increase participation, extend projects,
and make allocations in special cases. Attention was drawn to the most im-
portant state and local levels, where project development was stressed and
employer action sought.
(JHK and Associates)
Baltimore Regional Planning Council, Vanpooling; A New Low Capital Trans-
portation Alternative, November 1975.
Abstract
This report discusses the low capital transportation alternative of van-
pooling. The benefits of vanpooling for individual users, employer-sponsors,
and society are analyzed. The market potential for vanpooling is analyzed
generally and specifically for the Baltimore region. Legal issues concern-
ing the implementation of vanpooling are explored. Possible and likely spon-
sors of vanpooling programs are discussed, and guidelines for instituting an
employer sponsored vanpool program are suggested. The potential role of
state and local governments in fostering and ensuring the success of vanpool
programs is developed. An appendix provides information on an implemented
vanpooling program. The 3-M Commute-a-Van Program.
(Or am)
IV.1
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Bert, Mathew, Vanpooling; A Technique for Estimating Impacts, Technical
Memorandum. Number 34, (Prepared for the Baltimore Regional Planning
Council, Maryland Department of Transportation), June 1977.
Abstract
The memorandum estimates maximum vanpool potential in the Baltimore
region based on a sketch plan modeling technique. Estimates of vanpool for-
mation in 1975 and 1985 with expected VMT, fuel consumption, and air pol-
lution reductions are made. The appendices include the computational vari-
ables used in the vanpool impact analysis and flow charts of computations.
(PMM&Co.)
Bryant, David A., Study and Evaluation of Computer Carpool Programs in
Certain Metropolitan Areas, GCA Corp., Bedford, Massachusetts, April
1974.
Abstract
The report methodology is adopted in certain metropolitan areas to
arouse public interest and support for carpooling by the use of computer
matching to reduce the total number of vehicles committed to work trips, re-
duce the demand for scarce motor fuels, and reduce vehicle miles traveled.
All these combined will contribute to the improvement of air quality in con-
gested work areas in metropolitan centers.
(author)
Bush, Leon, Response to Carpool Matching Programs; A Case Study, The
Aerospace Corp., El Segundo, California, (DOT, Washington, D.C.),
January 1975.
Abstract
Car pool computerized matching programs have been initiated at many
companies. Some statistics are available on the number of applicants, but
less is known regarding the number and characteristics of car pools actually
formed as a result of the matching process. This paper documents the re-
sults of car pool efforts at the Aerospace Corporation and the Air Force's
Space and Missile Systems Organization, two employers collocated at
IV. 2
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El Segundo in the Los Angeles basin. Employee demographic and transpor-
tation statistics prior to the initiation of a computerized car pool matching
program are described, as well as the subsequent response based on a 25
percent sample telephone survey. Results are presented in terms of num-
ber and size of car pools formed, motivating factors for forming or avoid-
ing car pools, and correlations with parking lot vehicle counts. Since the
period covers the time of the rise and fall of the national gasoline shortage,
some observations are presented on those effects, and on the application of
these results to other company and area-wide car pool matching programs.
(author)
Bush, Leon, and Todd, George J., Vanpool Implementation in Los Angeles,
The Aerospace Corp., El Segundo, California, November 1975.
Abstract
This paper documents the formation and operation of a very successful
vanpool at the Aerospace Corporation and the Air Force's Space and Mis-
sile Systems Organization (SAMSO), two employers collocated at El Segundo
in the Los Angeles basin. The program is currently being expanded to in-
clude 17 company-leased vans, seating 10 to 12 passengers each and operat-
ing at breakeven fares over round-trip distances from 25 to 110 miles. De-
tailed guidelines are presented on organization, costs, data base require-
ments, and operating procedures. Some insight is also provided on factors
and unique features which have made the program successful.
(authors)
Caltrans (California State Department of Transportation), The Sacramento
Carpool Project; A Joint City, County, State, and Federal Effort, Second
Quarterly Status Report, January 1975.
Abstract
This is the second quarterly report for the Sacramento Carpool Project,
and it covers the months of October, November, and December 1974. Its
purpose is to unify efforts to encourage carpooling in the Sacramento area
and obtain benefits such as improved air quality, conserved fuel, lowered
transportation costs, decreased parking needs, and improved service on
existing streets and highways.
IV. 3
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Under the project, Caltrans (the State Department of Transp/rtation) acts
as a consultant to Sacramento County to promote carpooling using manual,
dial-in, and computer matching systems. The City of Sacramento also acts
as a consultant to the county by providing preferential carpool treatment in
city-owned parking facilities.
(author)
Cambridge Systematics, Inc., and Allan M. Voorhees and Associates, Inc.,
Carpool Incentives - Part I; Evaluation of Operational Experience and
Part II; Analysis of Transportation and Energy Impacts, (Prepared for
the Federal Energy Administration), December 1975.
Abstract
The study evaluates the potential impact on travel behavior and energy
consumption of a wide range of carpool incentives through the use of disag-
gregate demand models. In addition, the study includes a comprehensive
review and evaluation of past, present or proposed uses of carpool incen-
tives, implementation characteristics, results achieved, institutional prob-
lems encountered, and public acceptability. Explicit quantitative predictions
of impacts are made for 19 individual and for various combinations of car-
pool policy incentives using behavioral models of household travel demand
applied to 2 case study cities, Washington, D.C., and Birmingham, Ala-
bama. The changes in public use of single occupant cars, carpools, and
mass transit are estimated, and effects on work and non-work travel, auto-
mobile ownership, and energy consumption, are analyzed.
(Oram)
Federal Energy Administration, Cost Effectiveness Analysis of TVA Em-
ployee Transportation Incentive Program, (Prepared for the Office of
Conservation), May 1977.
Abstract
This report describes the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) commuter
pooling program. Included are carpool, vanpool, and commuter bus ele-
ments. The prime objective of the report is to quantify the benefits and
costs of the program and identify the non-quantifiable implications of TVA's
employee ride-share activities in Knoxville.
(PMM&Co.)
IV-4
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Federal Energy Administration, Office of Energy Conservation and Environ-
ment, Economic Feasibility of Independent Vanpool Operations, September
1976.
Abstract
The study provides summary data from several employer sponsored van-
pool programs and promotes the introduction of independent vanpool opera-
tions (IVO). The main purpose of the study is to examine the economic and
financial feasibility of IVOs in the United States. A breakeven analysis is
presented as well as a computer simulation which indicate that with an aver-
age vehicle occupancy of 9 or more riders, vanpooling is profitable for van
fleets of 30 or more. Given start-up costs, salaries, and wages, it is con-
cluded that the most likely IVO operators are those already involved in the
transportation business in some capacity.
(PMM&Co.)
For stater, Ira, and Twomey, Ed, Vanpooling: A Summary and Descrip-
tion of Existing Vanpool Programs, EPA, Office of Transportation and
Land Use Policy, Washington, D.C., January 1976.
Abstract
The purpose of this booklet is twofold: (1) to present in one source the
current data on known vanpool programs; and (2) to allow prospective van-
poolers to analyze and compare the various approaches made to vanpooling
by those programs already in operation. It is the key characteristic of van-
pool programs that, despite the essential similarity among them, each is a
unique adaptation to a particular situation. A knowledge of these possible
variations should prove helpful to an employer planning to embark on a van-
pool project.
Above all, it is hoped that this booklet will, to some extent, further the
exchange of information among vanpooling companies, prospective vanpool-
ing companies, and all levels of government that is so vital to the success-
ful expansion of the commuter van concept. To that purpose, each summary
description of a program contains a contact name and phone number so that
interested persons can obtain more specific information. The best advo-
cates and sellers of the vanpool concept are frequently the very persons who
are actually running the program. In most cases, these people are more
than willing to share their time and expertise with interested individuals
or corporations.
IV. 5
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The material contained herein is the result of extensive interviews and
information gathering during October and November 1975. Included with the
current status of existing vanpool programs are discussions of various ap-
proaches and considerations important to vanpool programs, vanpool cost
and fare parameters, and a bibliography of vanpool resource materials.
The fast expanding nature of vanpooling renders a project such as this partly
outdated almost as soon as it is completed. However, this report can con-
tinue to serve prospective vanpoolers as a source of information on pro-
grams already underway--programs which will have already .answered many
of the questions a prospective vanpooler is likely to raise and which will
have also solved many of the problems that a prospective vanpooler is likely
to encounter.
(Or am)
Gray Advertising, Inc., Marketing Plan to Accelerate the Use of Vanpools,
July 1976.
Abstract
This manual is the first step in translating the success of a few compa-
nies ' vanpool programs into a prototype for national expansion. It attempts
to present and analyze the dynamics of the vanpool market—i.e., the con-
ditions which create demand (market)--for the product (vanpools), factors
which stimulate and impede the growth of this market, supportive govern-
mental actions/incentives desired by prospective vanpool companies, and
forecasts of market conditions which would impact upon the viability of van-
pools.
(authors)
Kendall, Donald, Work Trip Carpooling and Its Potential, (Prepared for the
U.S. Department of Transportation, Transportation Systems Center).
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to approach the questions of how much an
increased level of carpooling will alleviate problems mentioned above, and
what maximum extent of carpooling is likely, considering only those trips
that are candidates for ride sharing.
The analyses reported here focus on travel to work in urban areas.
The degree of auto commuting and regularity of schedules, combined with
IV. 6
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the low current work trip auto occupancy (lower than any other t2ip purpose),
make commuter trips appear to have more potential for carpooling than most
other trip types.
National statistics regarding the current extent of work trip carpooling
are presented. A technique for estimating a practical maximum level of
carpooling in an urban area is described, together with some preliminary
results of its application to the Boston area. These results are translated
into estimates of fuel savings and impacts on congestion, pollution, and park-
ing conditions.
(author)
Miesse, C. C., Potential VMT Reductions from Carpools and Vanpools in
Major Metropolitan Areas, (Prepared for the Environmental Protection
Agency, Region III), 1976.
Abstract
Techniques are developed for determining the carpool/vanpool potential
for major employment centers, as functions of employee residential distri-
bution and income level. The techniques are based on a car occupancy
model previously developed for the National Capital area, and an empirical
vanpool model derived from the highly successful vanpool program by the
3M Corporation in St. Paul. Application of the techniques to private and
government employment centers in the National Capital area indicates a
potential 10 percent reduction in peak hour traffic and a potential saving of
3. 5 percent of total daily gasoline consumption.
(authors)
Miller, Gerald K., and Green, MelindaA., An Analysis of Commuter Van
Pools, The Urban Institute, Washington, B.C., February 1976.
Abstract
This report analyzes the planning, organization, and operation of com-
muter van programs (often called van pools) in the U.S. and Canada. More
than 30 existing operations have been examined and classified by consider-
ing the major organizational arrangements for providing the service. The
potential benefits van commuting generates for the users, employers, and
community are discussed; and the paper presents guidelines on the demand
IV. 7
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environment and indicates the service characteristics that are likely to be
important in attracting riders. Major legal issues, including public regula-
tion, competition with bus transit, liability and insurance, and implications
of driver compensation are also reviewed. The potential for widespread
van programs and the proposals for large-scale, area-wide van service are
also discussed. A second report, entitled "Guidelines for the Organization
of Commuter Van Programs, " presents detailed procedures on how to
organize and administer an employer-based van program.
(authors)
Miller, Gerald K., and Green, MelindaA., Guidelines for the Organization
of Commuter Van Programs, The Urban Institute, Washington, D.C.,
February 1976.
Abstract
This document describes the major stages in the development of a com-
pany sponsored commuter van program, including: the investigation of pro-
gram feasibility, the promotion and organization of the service, and the op-
eration and administration of an ongoing operation. These guidelines are
based on the experience of several successful programs, and potential spon-
sors should find them useful for their particular situation. Seven detailed
case studies which are representative of the major types of commuter van
services are also presented in the appendix.
This is the second of two documents on commuter vans. The first re-
port, entitled "An Analysis of Commuter Van Experience, " examines the
planning, organization, and operation of commuter van programs. Poten-
tial benefits, the demand environment, major legal issues, and potential
for the development of widespread and large-scale area-wide van service
are discussed in this report.
(authors)
Oregon Department of Transportation, Portland Metropolitan Area Carpool
Project; Interim Report, December 1974.
Abstract
The Interim Report of the Portland Metropolitan Area Carpool Project
describes the development and success of carpool promotional efforts
IV. 8
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undertaken in Portland during 1974. Elements that contributed to the suc-
cess of the program include: extensive marketing activities, carpool
matching services, employer support, and identification of park-and-ride
facilities. Based on follow-up surveys the report estimates that more than
22, 000 persons, or nearly 7 percent of area employees, were induced to
carpool as a direct result of project activities. The report also describes
the institutional and financial arrangements for area-wide carpool promotion
in Portland.
(Or am)
Owens, Robert D., and Sever, Helen L., The 3M Commute-A-Van Pro-
gram Status Report, 3M Co., St. Paul, Minnesota, May 1974.
Abstract
The 3M Commute-A-Van Program is a system whereby the 3M Company
furnishes a standard 12-passenger van to an employee willing to take at
least eight other employees to and from work. The employee driver is com-
pensated with free rides, personal use of the van at a reasonable mileage
rate and the excess fares for any passengers over the minimum of eight.
The program began as a six-van pilot operation at 3M Center in April 1973.
Since that time, the program has expanded to include, as of May 1974, a to-
tal of 57 vans. Further expansion of the program at 3M installations both in
St. Paul, Minnesota, and elsewhere is anticipated. Many transportation,
environmental, and energy benefits have been achieved as a direct result of
3M's Commute-A-Van Program. In addition, a substantial amount of ramp-
type parking construction at 3M Center has been delayed. Many other van
pooling programs have been started by other firms as a result of the 3M
experience. It is felt that van pooling can certainly make a significant con-
tribution towards solving many of our perplexing urban transportation prob-
lems.
(authors)
Pratsch, Lew, Carpool and Buspool Matching Guide, (4th Ed.), FHWA,
Washington, D.C., January 1975.
Abstract
Continuing in the pattern established by the previous three editions, this
guide examines and updates data on successful carpool, vanpool, and buspool
IV. 9
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programs. It provides a source of how-to information for the initiate pool
planner and pays particular attention to DOT-FHWA matching programs.
(JHK and Associates)
Prats ch, Lew, Vanpool Discussion Paper, (Prepared for the Federal Energy
Administration), April 1977.
Abstract
This brief paper discusses the history of vanpooling and several em-
ployee, third-party sponsored vanpool programs. The concept of individu-
ally owned and operated vanpool programs is introduced. Based on a mar-
ket research effort conducted in Minneapolis, Minnesota, for Public Service
Options, Inc., aggregate national estimates of vanpool potential in 1980,
1985, and 1990, are presented. The topics of potential fuel savings and pol-
lution reduction are addressed.
(PMM&Co.)
Transportation Center, Tennessee University, Ride Sharing and the Knox-
ville Commuter, August 1975.
Abstract
The report gives a detailed analysis of the Knoxville commuter, identi-
fies the current commuting methods and their relative importance to mem-
bers of the Knoxville work force, studies the relative importance of sharing
rides for work trips in the firms observed, and analyzes employee attitudes
towards various aspects of shared rides. The report also outlines the cur-
rent rate of travel within various corridors of the Knoxville community and
offers a detailed summary of the benefits of ride-sharing in terms of con-
gestion, fuel consumption, present and future highway capacity, and public
acceptance of ride-sharing. The report examines the legal and institutional
constraints which are currently inhibiting the development of various ride-
sharing alternatives and offers recommendations for improving public trans-
portation in Knoxville.
(Oram)
IV. 10
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Transportation Research Board, Executive Summary Carpooling Seminar,
August 1975.
Abstract
The seminar was held in Washington, D.C., on December 10 and 11,
1974. Seventy-five persons attended, representing a wide variety of inter-
ests in the specific topic of carpooling, and in the general topic of more
efficient highway transportation.
The seminar was assembled to enable the exchange of knowledge, ideas,
and experiences. To accomplish this, a five-session format was employed
wherein discussion leaders, each selected for his respective expertise,
conducted a session. To stimulate discussion, each leader first presented
a brief and informal commentary, then brought the session into open-forum.
The goals of the seminar were two-fold; to answer specific questions
relative to particular situations encountered by attendees; and to aggregate
commonalities between systems with regard to approaches taken, methods
evolved, successes and failures.
(author)
Transportation Systems Center, Carpooling; Status and Potential (Prepared
for U.S. Department of Transportation), June 1975.
Abstract
This report contains the findings of studies conducted to analyze the
status and potential of work-trip carpooling as a means of achieving more
efficient use of the automobile. Current and estimated maximum potential
levels of carpooling are presented together with analyses revealing charac-
teristics of carpool trips, incentives, impacts of increased carpooling, and
issues related to carpool matching services. National survey results indi-
cate that the average auto occupancy for urban work-trip is 1.2 passengers
per auto. This value, and average carpool occupancy of 2.5, have been
relatively stable over the last five years. An increase in work-trip occu-
pancy from 1.2 to 1.8 would require a 100 percent increase in the number
of carpoolers. A model was developed to predict the maximum potential
level of carpooling in an urban area. Results from applying the model to
the Boston region were extrapolated to estimate a maximum nationwide
potential between 47 and 71 percent of peak period auto commuters. Maxi-
mum benefits of increased carpooling include up to 10 percent savings in
IV. 11
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auto fuel consumption. A technique was developed for estimating the number
of participants required in a carpool matching service to achieve a chosen
level of matching among respondents, providing insight into tradeoffs be-
tween employer and regional or centralized matching services. Issues
recommended for future study include incentive policies and their impacts
on other modes, and the evaluation of new and ongoing carpool matching
services.
(Or am)
U.S. Department of Transportation, Carpool Incentives and Opportunities,
Report of the Secretary of Transportation to the United States Congress,
February 1975.
Abstract
Section 3(e) of the Emergency Highway Energy Conservation Act directed
the Secretary of Transportation to conduct a full investigation of the effec-
tiveness of carpool promotional methods employed in the carpool demon-
stration program, and other methods which might lead to significant in-
creases in carpool ridership in urban areas throughout the country. This
report was submitted to the U.S. Congress in response to that directive.
The report includes: (1) a description of methods and programs used
to promote carpooling; (2) a discussion of the success of these methods;
(3) an evaluation of a broad range of incentives to promote carpooling; and
(4) recommendations on government actions to encourage carpooling.
The report recommended that the Federal Government broaden its ef-
forts to encourage carpooling to set an example as a major employer. The
report also recommends that state and local governments expand efforts
to encourage carpooling through (1) the development of highway projects
providing preferential treatment for carpools, and (2) assistance to em-
ployers in promoting carpooling among their employees.
(Or am)
IV. 12
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U. S. Department of Transportation, How to Pool It, FHWA & HUFSAM,
Washington, D.C., May 1975.
Abstract
Cast from the employers' viewpoint, this highly visual guide gives de-
tailed guidance in the implementation and maintenance of pooling projects.
Besides examining individual programs, it gives careful attention to the
legal aspects and suggests competent advice be sought before completion
of any new project.
(JHK and Associates)
IV-13
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V. TRANSIT FARE AND SERVICE STRATEGIES
Bates, John W., "Effect of Fare Reduction on Transit Ridership in the
Atlanta Region: Summary of Transit Passenger Data, " Transportation
Research Record 499, 1973.
Abstract
The paper presents in summary form the findings from an intensive on-
board survey conducted by the Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority
during November 1972. On March 1, 1972, transit fares in Atlanta were re-
duced from 40 cents to 15 cents, with free transfers. Patronage immediately
increased significantly and continued to increase as the Authority initiated
implementation of service improvements as part of its short-range transit
improvements program. The research was designed to answer specific
questions generated after the ridership increase was observed, including the
magnitude of the increase and the distribution of increase between new tran-
sit riders and additional tripmaking by previous riders, the magnitude of di-
version from automobile users, and characteristics of new and old riders.
This is one of a series of reports from the overall research effort, which in-
cludes the on-board study to determine rider characteristics as well as an
in-home study to determine attitudes of nonriders and the reasons they do not
use transit.
(authors)
Boyd, J. Hayden, and Nelson, Gary R., Demand for Urban Bus Transit;
Two Studies of Fare and Service Elasticities, (Prepared for the Institute
for Defense Analyses Program Analysis Division), October 1973.
Abstract
An industry rule of thumb states that a 10 percent increase in fare
charged by an urban public transit company will cause about a 3 percent de-
cline in ridership. This paper reports the results of two separate studies
conducted at IDA. Both of these studies indicate that the fare elasticity of
demand is approximately double the industry rule of thumb (i0 e., a 10 per-
cent increase in fare will cause about a 6 percent decline in ridership).
(authors)
V.I
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Greenspan, H.P., "The Case for Prepaid Transit, " Transit Journal,
February 1975.
Abstract
Arguments for and against a transportation tax can be fashioned from
comparisons with the different means of financing other municipal services
such as schools, libraries, sidewalks, and streets. These are largely aca-
demic exercises because the magnitude and urgency of the transit problem
are sufficient reason to set a new precedent. The case for prepaid transit
cannot be judged exclusively on theoretical grounds. The success achieved
by the first city to adopt it will invite emulation by others.
(author)
Greenspon Advertising Agency, Renaissance of a Local Bus System: The
Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania Experience, Simson & Curtin, Philadelphia,
September 1974.
Abstract
In the aftermath of Hurricane Agnes and severe flooding, Wilkes-Barre,
Pennsylvania experimented successfully with free bus transit, created a new
regional transportation agency (LCTA = Lucerne County Transportation Au-
thority), and greatly improved the quality of transit service over pre-flood
conditions. This colorful report fully summarizes the step-by-step progres-
sion of this successfully planned and executed program.
(JHK and Associates)
Huron River Group, Transit Fare Prepayment; A Guide for Transit
Operators, February 1976.
Abstract
This report documents a study of transit fare prepayment techniques,
which are considered a meaningful stimulus to increasing transit ridership.
The history of fare prepayment techniques is reviewed, noting the develop-
ment and use of different fare structures, and of various prepayment meth-
ods: tickets, tokens, punch cards, passes, permits, and automatic fare col-
lection. Recent trends affecting prepayment (public operation of transit,
para-transit, payroll deduction, and transit as an employee benefit concept)
are also discussed. From a survey of U.S0 transit operators, data is pre-
sented on plans currently in use and the effects of multaple ride prepayment
and pass programs on ridership and revenue. Transit user attitudes toward
V.2
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fare prepayment were also surveyed. Conclusions and recommendations are
offered. Appendices include detailing of sampling procedures and results.
(Oram)
Kemp, Michael A., Reduced Fare and Fare-Free Urban Transit Services -
Some Case Studies, The Urban Institute, Washington, D.C., July 1974.
Abstract
This paper presents case studies of the effects of low-fare and fare-free
policies adopted in several American and European cities. There is a gen-
eral introduction to the concept of travel demand elasticities, and it is
pointed out that because the elasticity with respect to fare is usually small,
any reduction in fares will lead to loss of gross revenues and small ridership
increases. Elasticity with respect to level of service offered is generally
higher, and service improvements may have a relatively greater effect on
patronage.
Four case studies are included: Boston, Free Fare; Rome, Italy; Atlanta
Fare Reduction; and Stockholm Fare Structure Reorganization.
(author)
Kemp, Michael A., Transit Improvements in Atlanta - The Effects of Fare
and Service Changes, The Urban Institute, Washington, B.C.,
December 1973.
Abstract
The bus system in Atlanta, Georgia was purchased in February 1972, by
the Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority, a public agency. MART A,
assisted by the proceeds of a local one percent sales and use tax and a fed-
eral capital grant, immediately commenced the implementation of a "short-
range transit improvement program. " The base fare over most of the system
was reduced from forty cents to fifteen cents, and significant service im-
provements were gradually introduced.
This paper examines the operating statistics for the first 12 months of the
system's operation under public ownership in an attempt to investigate the
impacts of the short-range improvement program on system ridership lev-
els. Using aggregate data only, several longitudinal models of monthly pas-
senger volumes have been estimated, all of which provide a statistically sig-
nificant level of explanation of the month-to-month variations. It is conclu-
ded that, for the major fare cut of March 1972, the elasticity of ridership
V. 3
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with respect to base fare level was roughly -0.15 to -00 2. Over the first 12
months of operation at low fare, the fare reduction appears to have added
roughly 8.2 million revenue passengers to the 42.8 million revenue journeys
which would otherwise have been made at the forty cent base fare level,
given the MARTA service improvements. This is an increase of just over 19
percent.
(author)
Kirby, Ronald F., and Bhatt, Kiran U., Guidelines on the Operation of
Subscription Bus Services, The Urban Institute, Washington, B.C.,
August 1974.
Abstract
This report provides guidelines on the planning, organization, and opera-
tion of subscription bus services„ The report deals with identifying potential
riders; obtaining vehicles and drivers; meeting regulatory requirements; set-
ting routes, schedules and fares; revising routes and schedules as demand
changes; and obtaining special privileges such as the use of express lanes,
priority movement at intersections, and close-in parking. The term "sub-
scription" has been applied to a variety of specialized bus services tailored
to serve urban travelers who patronize them on a regular basis, usually for
their daily trips to and from work. This report concentrates on services
provided by large buses,, Guidelines are presented which are critical to the
successful operation of subscription bus services. These guidelines are
based on detailed case studies of subscription services in 10 cities. The re-
port concludes with a discussion of the potential impacts of subscription ser-
vices on the congestion, pollution, and fuel consumption associated with urban
travel. A glossary and bibliography are furnished,,
(Oram)
Leicester, Edward Hall, et a!0, Transit Technical Studies; Analysis of
Alternative Bus Fare Structures„
Abstract
The report reviews fare collect)on options„ The study was intended to in-
form WMATA on the various techniques for collecting transit fare within the
Washington Metropolitan area0 The report compares various methods and
presents pros and cons of each. The report includes a glossary of terms.
(PMM&Co.)
V.4
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Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority, and Decision Research Associ-
ates, Inc., Evaluation of a Prepaid Payroll Deduction Transit Pass, 1976.
Abstract
This report documents an evaluative study of the Massachusetts Bay
Transportation Authority (META) Prepaid Transit Pass Program. The mar-
keting program is designed to promote the increased use of transit by allow-
ing employees to buy annual travel passes through conventional payroll de-
duction. This document evaluates the concept and presents implementation
procedures for use by other transit systems.
(Oram)
Padron, Manuel, and Stranger, Richard, "No-Barrier Fare Collection, "
Transportation Research Record 614.
Abstract
This paper reviews a study performed by the Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid
Transit Authority on the feasibility of a no-barrier fare-collection system
and discusses the potential of this self-service concept in the United States.
No-barrier fare collection (often referred to as self-service or automatic) is
widely used in Western and Eastern Europe to handle fare-collection require-
ments. It is not used anywhere in North America, and good information on
European experience with it is sparse at best. The assumption that cheating
would be rampant in the United States if this concept were employed has un-
realistically dominated discussions of it and overwhelmed any rational analy-
sis of its benefits. This study found no large propensity to defraud; it esti-
mated that 3 to 5 percent of daily passengers could be expected to evade
fares. This figure is larger than that found in European cities, but can nev-
ertheless easily be handled. The no-barrier fare-collection concept thus ap-
pears to have a good potential in the United States, particularly for certain
applications. One of these is for integrated bus-rail systems using zone fare
structures and another is for light rail systems.
(authors)
Reish, Robert, and Surti, Vasant H., A Feasibility Study of Free Bus
Service for a Street Corridor in Denver, Center for Urban Transportation
Studies, Denver, 1972.
Abstract
An area of Denver was selected. The area contained most of the three
bus routes that run in an east-west direction from suburban eastern Denver
V.5
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to downtown. A survey was conducted among automobile users in the area
testing their selected mode of travel if free bus service were offered. Esti-
mates of increased bus ridership were developed by expanding the survey re-
sults. Transportation costs were analyzed for the two situations: the total
operating and travel time cost in the present state, and the operating and
travel time cost if free bus service was employed. It was found that total
transportation expense was less under a free bus system than under a pres-
ent fare system, but the margin of advantage was small.
(authors)
Scheiner, James I., "The Patronage Effects of Free Fare Transit, " Traffic
Quarterly, Volume XXIX, Number 1, January 1975.
Abstract
Data from the free transit demonstration in the Wilkes-Barre, Pennsyl-
vania area suggest that the offering of free transit will immediately attract
significant numbers of additional patrons, with the percentage patronage in-
crease dependent on the current average fare of the particular transit sys-
tem. Based on the analysis reported in this article, patronage increases due
to free fare, with service and other factors remaining constant, range from
13 percent for a system with 10 cents average fare per boarding passenger to
86 percent for a system with 50 cents average fare. A typical transit sys-
tem, with an average fare in the 30- to 35-cent range, could expect ridership
to immediately increase 50 percent with the institution of free fare.
(author)
Silberman, Joan B., Editor, Mode Change Facilities, TRB, TRR 557,
Washington, B.C., 1975.
Abstract
The Record includes four reports prepared for the 54th Annual Meeting of
the Transportation Research Board and includes data on park and ride facili-
ties and bus stops.
(JHK and Associates)
V.6
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Stokey, Stan, Tennessee Valley Authority, A Citizen-Sponsored Bus System:
The Knoxvllle, Tennessee Experience, December 1974.
Abstract
This paper traces the chronology of a citizen-sponsored express bus pro-
gram. In less than one year a citizen-sponsored express bus has ballooned
to a fleet of 12 express buses. The paper also discusses the impact of the
express bus program on the local transit corporation and the community.
(Oram)
Urban Transportation Study Group, University of Missouri, Downtown
Circulator Service in Kansas City: An Evaluation of Dime-A-Time,
February 1974.
Abstract
Since a number of cities have or are considering adopting some kind of
downtown circulator service, it is useful to describe and analyze a specific
bus circulator service such as Dime-A-Time in Kansas City, Missouri. This
study describes Dime-A-Time and its history and then goes on to analyze
Dime-A-Time by comparing its operations and characteristics with similar
service in Cleveland and Denver. It is shown that by eliminating rush hour
service (as in Denver), Dime-A-Time could cut its operating deficit, al-
though at the price of providing less service. A multiple regression model is
used to test several hypotheses and estimate the value of the relationships
among ridership, fare policy, and external conditions. The estimates ob-
tained from this regression model make it possible to evaluate the impact of
fare changes. It is shown that a somewhat higher fare would increase total
revenue but not substantially.
Conclusions are offered on Dime-A-Time operations. Other cities may
wish to adopt alternative systems such as the shorter hours used in Denver
or the provision of circulator service with regular route buses. Benefits and
costs of various alternatives are discussed.
(Oram)
V. 7
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VI. ENERGY, AIR QUALITY, EMISSIONS,
AND ECONOMIC IMPACT
Alan M. Voorhees & Associates, Inc., A Guide for Reducing Air Pollution
Caused by Transportation, (Prepared for the Office of Air Programs,
Environmental Protection Agency), September 1971.
Abstract
This Guide is designed to aid transportation professionals and state air
pollution agencies in selecting transportation controls that are suggested in
the regulations promulgated pursuant to the Clean Air Act of 1970 (Federal
Register, August 14, 1971). Actions considered here have been limited to
traffic controls and traffic volume reduction techniques which can be imple-
mented within the next three to five years and begin to make an immediate
impact on air quality. Discussion of specific legal, institutional, and ad-
ministrative problems of implementation is beyond the scope of this Guide.
The Guide has two major thrusts. First, it outlines general legislation
that requires assessment of the air pollution impact of transportation; and
second, it describes traffic strategies in terms of their impact on air pol-
lution. In addition, an appendix provides basic air pollution information so
that the reader may broaden his understanding of the problem.
(authors)
Alan M. Voorhees & Associates, Guidelines to Reduce Energy Consumption
Through Transportation Actions, (Prepared for EPA), May 1974.
Abstract
This document is intended to serve as an aid to local transportation plan-
ners, traffic engineers, and administrators in the incorporation of energy
conservation considerations into the transportation planning process, espe-
cially in reference to short-range transportation planning. Various types
of low cost, short-term transportation actions are summarized, and their
potential for reducing energy consumption is estimated. Summary tables
are presented which array the actions in terms of relevant institutional and
legal considerations as well as socioeconomic and environmental effects.,
Interrelationships between the energy consumption reduction potential of
groups of actions are discussed, and a process for formulation of coherent
packages of such actions is presented. Guidelines are presented for evalu-
ating and formulating these action packages for large (1, 000, 000 and over
VI. 1
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population), medium (250, 000 to 1, 000, 000), and small (50, 000 to 250, 000)
urban areas. General conclusions are drawn. Transportation actions may
reduce energy consumption in one or more of the following ways: improving
efficiency of vehicle operation; causing a shift of trips from one or two pas-
senger autos to higher occupancy buses, vans, and carpools; and reducing
travel demand by, for example, instituting the four-day work week. Appen-
dices are "Actions to Reduce Energy Consumption, " "How Transportation
Actions Can Reduce Energy Consumption, " and a bibliography.
(Or am)
Busching, Herbert W., Editor, etal., Energy: Conservation in Transpor-
tation & Construction; Conference Report, Atlanta, Georgia, December
2-5, 1975. DOT, Washington, D.C., May 1976.
Abstract
These papers are the first complete update of energy conservation and
consumption by the transportation industry since the recent oil shortages.
They reflect the increasing concern felt for all aspects of transportation
and construction. Special interest is drawn toward the suitability of urban
transportation conservation and the revival of locomotive rail technology.
(JHK and Associates)
Claggett, Mike, A Comparative Analysis of EPA HIWAY, California and
CALINE2 Line Source Dispersion Models, (Presented to the Transpor-
tation Research Board, National Academy of Sciences), January 1977.
Abstract
This paper provides a comparison of three different idealized line source
dispersion models that predict carbon monoxide concentrations near high-
ways. The comparison is accomplished by performing a sensitivity analy-
sis and model validation. A sensitivity analysis refers to an analysis of
the dependence of normalized concentration on variations of several inde-
pendent input parameters (e.g., stability class, wind angle with respect to
the highway, receptor distance from the highway, etc.)0 Model validation
is accomplished by comparing carbon monoxide concentrations measured
near a highway with concentrations predicted by the models. The models
under study are: (1) EPA HIWAY, (2) the original California Line Source,
and (3) CALINE2. All these models are based on the Gaussian dispersion
equations.
(author)
VI. 2
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Engineering Science, Inc., Air Quality Assessment Location and Prelimi-
nary Design Study - New Location Route 1-95, October 1975.
Abstract
This study considers the impact on air quality of alternative routes for
a new Interstate highway between Petersburg and Richmond, Virginia. In
addition, the no-build condition has also been evaluated. The northern ter-
minus of the proposed new highway is at State Highway 5, near Varina in
Henrico County. In the south, it will connect with existing interstate high-
ways south of Petersburg. In all cases, including the no-build alternative,
the section between the northern terminus and the Richmond-Petersburg
Turnpike will be constructed as a link in the Richmond circumferential high-
way.
The primary objective of the study is to establish whether or not any of
the proposed alternative routes have the potential for causing a violation of
standards and whether or not any of the proposed routes will interfere with
the Virginia plan for attainment and maintenance of the standards. A second
objective is to provide information which, with other environmental, soci-
etal, and engineering information, will permit selection of the best of the
several alternative routes. Further, this report will contribute to the air
quality technical data for the environmental impact statement required by
the National Environmental Policy Act.
(author)
Hittman Associates, Transportation Energy Research Study for the State of
Maryland, (Prepared for the Maryland Department of Transportation,
Division of Transportation Planning and Development), August 1977.
Abstract
The purpose of this short nine-week study is to provide the Maryland
Department of Transportation with two items concerning highway transpor-
tation energy use in the state:
. information on the effects of selected strategies on highway
transportation energy use; and
. an-assessment and choice of methodologies to determine energy
used in both construction and utilization of highway facilities
and case study application of chosen methodologies.
VI. 3
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These items are the basis of two tasks in this study, Tasks 1.0 and 2.0,
respectively. Part 1 contains the information for Task 1. 0, and Part 2 con-
tains the information for Task 2.0.
(authors)
Institute of Public Administration, and Technekron, Inc., Evaluating Trans-
portation Controls to Reduce Motor Vehicle Emissions in Major Metro-
politan Areas, (Prepared for the Environmental Protection Agency),
November 1972.
Abstract
The purpose of this Interim Report is to bring together in a preliminary
form a description and evaluation of those transportation controls which
could conceivably reduce motor vehicle emissions in the next few years.
The research undertaken included a review of the relevant transportation
literature, as well as of more recent works which specifically address the
use of transportation controls to reduce motor vehicle emissions (see bib-
liography attached to the report)0 The report also attempts to summarize
new pertinent evidence (e.g., recent research on traffic flow improve-
ments on a network-wide basis, demonstrations to date of public transport
improvements, accumulated experience with vehicle-free zones), much of
which has not previously appeared in print.
(authors)
INTERPLAN Corporation, Joint Strategies for Urban Transportation, Air
Quality and Energy Conservation, January 1975.
Abstract
Problems of urban mobility, air quality, and transportation-related en-
ergy consumption constitute major issues of national concern. This report
represents the joint efforts of UMTA, EPA, and FEA to develop an inte-
grated approach for resolving problems created by traffic congestion, air
pollution, and petroleum shortages. The purposes of this report were to:
(1) identify all principal strategies and actions which impact on each of the
agencies' transportation-related goals; (2) systematically elucidate the in-
terrelationships among them; and (3) devise a way of isolating those groups
of strategies and actions whose total impacts would be synergistically en-
hanced if implemented jointly,, The report represents the culmination of
VI. 4
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the study effort to attain these objectives. In Part I, the basic relationships
among the strategies and actions are summarized in a matrix display. Each
item is ranked to assess its impact on six subgoals, or phenomena, in the
near or long term: improved auto alternatives, improved vehicular flow, re-
duced auto use, reduced travel demand, reduced vehicular emissions, and
reduced vehicular petroleum consumption. Two synergistic joint action pro-
grams are presented. Part II contains an information review of experience,
impacts on goals (mobility, air quality, energy conservation), and an over-
all evaluation of 54 specific actions, based on a review of 376 sources listed
in the appendix.
(Oram)
Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments, Essential Air Quality and
Energy Data to Analyze the Local and Regional Impacts of the WMATA
Rapid Rail System, June 1975.
Abstract
This report utilizes existing Washington metropolitan land use, trans-
portation, energy, and air quality data, methodologies, and models to esti-
mate particular impacts of the development of a 98-mile METRO system.
The METRO Draft Environmental Impact Statement originally investigated
the energy and air quality impacts of the regional rapid rail system. Com-
ments on the draft EIS indicated more detailed information was required in
these areas.
This study is integrally related to the station-by-station EISs which are
studying the micro-level or immediate vicinity impacts of the development
of METRO. The regional study investigates the overall impact of the system
in reducing dependency on the automobile. The station impact studies will
ensure that over-concentration of METRO, METRO parking, and METRO-
induced growth will not cause localized violations of air quality, while the
regional system attempts to solve regional air quality problems.
This report is divided into three major sections which contain data and
results on the transportation, air quality, and energy impact analysis. A
summary of the data study is provided at the beginning of the report.
(author)
VI. 5
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Muzyka, Ann, Fantasia, JohnFo, and Goodman, Joseph M., "Bus Opera-
tions and Energy Conservation, " Traffic Engineering, November 1975.
Abstract
This article examines the bus stop-and-go driving pattern in a central
business district with an effort to reduce the number of stops by a judicious
use of re-timed signals. The resultant energy savings are noted.
(JHK and Associates)
Peat, Marwick, Mitchell & Co., A Marketing Approach to Carpool Demand
Analysis, Summary Report, (Prepared for the Federal Energy Adminis -
tration), April 1976.
Abstract
This report documents the methodology and major findings of a study
conducted for the Federal Energy Administration. The study objective was
to estimate the travel and associated energy consumption impacts of policies
designed to encourage increased carpooling in urban areas. The study fo-
cused on work trip travel as being that portion of travel most easily affected
by carpooling programs.
A quantitative marketing methodology was adapted and applied in place
of traditional modal split models to permit more effective treatment of the
significant non-cost and non-time factors associated with the decision to
carpool. A trade-off analysis model was applied to paired comparison pref-
erence responses of commuters obtained from surveys conducted in Chicago,
Pittsburgh, and Sacramento. Estimates of modal split, VMT, and fuel con-
sumption impacts were made for a number of carpool incentive and disin-
centive policies.
(PMM&Co.)
Peat, Marwick, Mitchell & Co., Socioeconomic Impacts of Alternative
Transportation Control Plans for the San Diego Air Quality Control Re-
gion. (Prepared for EPA), November 1974.
Abstract
Primary objectives of this study were to assess the economic and social
impacts which might result from implementing the EPA promulgated plan
and to assess the impact of selected alternative transportation control plans.
VI. 6
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This study was similar to a pilot study in the sense that it developed meth-
odologies for evaluating costs and transportation impacts, estimating mea-
sures, and assessing allocation techniques and socioeconomic evaluation
data. The project team feels that these data will be useful to EPA and other
urban areas as a basis for the development of policy analysis and manage-
ment tools.
(author)
R. H. Pratt and Associates, Transportation Controls for Air Quality Im-
provement in the National Capital Region, (Prepared for the Study Man-
agement Working Group National Capital Region Transportation Air
Quality Study), October 1976.
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to analyze in detail the transportation and
air quality implications of existing and alternative elements of the Trans-
portation Control Plan in the National Capital Interstate Air Quality Control
Region. This study was prompted by questions which had been raised re-
garding the implementation of certain of the transportation control measures
included in the plan promulgated by the Environmental Protection Agency in
December 1973, and by the desire to perform a detailed technical analysis
of the impacts of these and other proposed control measures.
The study included the following elements:
. an historical review and description of the existing Transporta-
tion Control Plan;
. a detailing of the implementation status of the existing Trans-
portation Control Plan;
. a review of the existing air quality and transportation data base
used in the analysis of transportation control strategies;
. an evaluation of analytical procedures used in the development
of the existing Transportation Control Plan;
. the development of a set of criteria by which to evaluate the ef-
fectiveness, appropriateness, and impact of transportation con-
trol measures and packages of measures;
VI. 7
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. a compilation and preliminary screening of a list of candidate
transportation control measures, including those measures in
the present Transportation Control Plan;
. an analysis of 62 candidate transportation control measures
using travel demand and air quality modeling procedures and a
qualitative evaluation of each measure's cost, feasibility, and
effect on other measures;
. an analysis of the transportation and air quality impacts of four
packages of transportation control measures and an evaluation
of the packages' cost, impact on regional travel accessibility,
and effect on energy consumption; and
. the development of a VMT control measure effectiveness moni-
toring program.
(authors)
Stearns, M. D., The Behavioral Impacts of the Energy Shortage; Shifts in
Trip-Making Characteristics, December 1975.
Abstract
In an attempt to detail intra-societal responses to the 1973-1974 energy
shortage, this study contrasts aggregate and disaggregate shifts in trip-
making characteristics, including frequency, mode, and purpose. National
sample survey home interview data, obtained from 700 respondents during
November-December 1973 and February 1974--the energy shortage onset and
peak, respectively—were analyzed to locate statistically significant shifts.
Analysis reveals a decreased aggregate trip frequency, unchanged mo-
dal usage, and decreased shopping trips. When disaggregated by economic
level, higher income level respondents decreased trip frequency and shop-
ping trip incidents. By contrast, lower income respondents report unchanged
trip frequencies and decreased auto-driving. All categories of respondents
report unchanged work trip modes.
This study suggests that behavioral adaptations to the energy shortage
vary by income level and that policy formulation must be sensitive to intra-
societal responses. Policy implications suggest that travel demand is shaped
by income level and that it combines essential and discretionary components.
(author)
VI. 8
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Technology Sharing Program Office, Energy Primer: Selected Transporta-
tion Topics, Transportation Systems Center, DOT, Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, 1976.
Abstract
This Energy Primer has been designed to provide broad overviews of the
current and projected transportation energy situation in the country; energy
statistics, supply and utilization forecasts, and evaluations of conservation
alternatives are the topics emphasized. A survey was made of works in the
field—articles, government reports, Congressional testimony, and confer-
ence papers—and 10 were chosen for inclusion. The abstracts contained in
this publication have been prepared from carefully selected recent literature.
The concern has been to include as much of the author's data as possible, in
order to save time by allowing the reader to consult the Primer rather than
scattered original reports. Author's tables were found to be both highly in-
formative and concise and therefore appear often.
(authors)
Transportation Assessments Group, Office of Technology Assessment,
Energy, the Economy, and Mass Transit, U. So Congress, Washington,
D.C., December 1975.
Abstract
As a response to increasingly serious energy conditions, this report for
Congress examines how these shortages affect both transit and the economy.
The report summarizes a number of findings regarding recent trends in
transit, the effects of recent economic conditions on transit, and the rela-
tive merits of utilizing alternative transit systems to increase use in order
to achieve energy conservation objectives.
*U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: I 97 8-7 20-335/60 80-31 (JHK and AS SOC 1£L t6S/
VI. 9
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