EPA-440/9-75-008
CRITERIA FOR DEVELOPING
POLLUTION ABATEMENT PROGRAMS
FOR
INACTIVE AND ABANDONED MINE SITES
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Washington. D.C. 20460
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Tliis report is issued under Section 304(e)(2)(B) of Public Law 92-500. This
Section provides:
"The Administrator, after consultation with appropriate Federal and State
agencies and other interested persons, shall issue to appropriate Federal
agencies, the States, water pollution control agencies, and agencies desig-
nated under Section 208 of this Act, within one year after the effective
date of this subsection (and from time to time thereafter) information
including...(2) processes, procedures, and methods to control pollution
resulting from
(B) mining activities, including runoff and siltation from new, currently
operating, and abandoned surface and underground mines;..."
This publication is the third in a series issued under Section 304(e)(2)(B) of
Public Law 92-500 concerning the control of water pollution from milling activities.
The initial report, "Processes, Procedures and Methods to Control Pollution from
Mining Activities", was issued in October 1973 (Publication No. EPA-430/9-73-011).
This report provides information for developing alternative pollution abatement
programs for inactive and abandoned mine sites. Sufficient descriptive information is
provided to guide the reader in the tentative selection of alternative measures to be
applied in specific cases. The details of application and methods of construction of
each measure must be ascertained on a case-by-case basis by qualified professionals
in the mining and water pollution control fields.
Mark A. Pisano, Director
Water Planning Division
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CRITERIA FOR DEVELOPING
POLLUTION ABATEMENT PROGRAMS
FOR
INACTIVE AND ABANDONED MINE SITES
Prepared for
Office of Water and Hazardous Materials
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
AUGUST, 1975
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
INTRODUCTION
The specific objective of this report is to present criteria for
statewide pollution abatement programs for inactive and abandoned (or-
phan) mine sites. This information is intended to be used by the United
States Environmental Protection Agency as a basis for providing pro-
grammatic guidance to states conducting or anticipating establishing
an abandoned mined land pollution abatement and reclamation program.
Nationwide in scope, the study involved development of abate-
ment criteria for all mined mineral commodities except gas and oil
production, well sites and offshore mining. All abandoned or inactive
surface and underground mines, attendant waste piles, roads, storage
areas and related facilities are included.
In developing criteria and determining alternative mechanisms
for a statewide pollution abatement program, the study was divided into
three major parts:
1. Background information concerning mineral commodity
extraction and pollution problems
2. Organizational, financial and legal considerations in
implementing a program
3. Technical approach to establishing a mined lands pollution
inventory and site reclamation program
Development of a comprehensive program requires knowledge and under-
standing of these interrelated aspects .
MINERAL COMMODITY EXTRACTION
In order to establish a government agency to administer an abate-
ment program, it is important that creators (of an agency) are know-
ledgeable as to the nature, extent and significance of the problem within
their state. It is toward that end this report includes basic, but general-
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ized information on mining, environmental impact and reclamation
potential.
Two primary mining methods - surface and underground - are
employed in mineral extraction. Basic factors involved in determining
types of mining method utilized for a particular mineral deposit are
grade of ore, physical character of ore deposit and associated ratio
of overburden thickness to mineral thickness. Surface mining is
preferred, where possible, over underground methods because of its
higher mineral recovery, much greater production per man-day,
more economical operation in terms of capital costs and cost per unit,
better health and safety conditions and more flexibility of operation.
The mineral industry in the United States annually produces
some 80 mineral resources to help fulfill the needs of our industrialized
society. In 1972, the value of domestic production of primary minerals
and mineral fuels was valued at $32.2 billion. Furthermore, value
of mineral production is expected to grow at an annual rate of 1.8% with
a concomitant quantitative increase of 4% to the year 2000.
By 1971, a total of 1.5 million hectares (3.65 million acres)
were disturbed by the mining industry. This represents 0.16% of total
land resources; however, 60% remains unreclaimed. Of this unre-
claimed land 80% is associated with surface mining, 8% with under-
ground mining, and 12% with mining waste area. In addition to land
affects, surface mining by 1965 adversely affected approximately
21,OOO kilometers (13,000 miles) of stream, 40,000 surface hectares
(100,000 surface acres) of natural lakes and 17,000 surface hectares
(42,000 surface acres) of reservoirs and impoundments.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
Mining activities, from exploration through and including pro-
cessing, obviously can disturb the environment. Current legislative
controls and guidelines (in most states) help minimize operational and
post-operational effects from miningj however, this has not always been
the case. The results from past mistakes or lack of control are aban-
doned mined sites. Environmental impacts from these abandoned or
inactive mine sites generally fall into one or more of the following cate-
gories:
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1. Water quality degradation
2. Altered landscapes
3. Air pollution
The degree of impact is dependent on the mining methods utilized,
physical and chemical characteristics of the mineral commodity and
overburden, along with general hydrology and climatology conditions of
the area.
RECLAMATION - ENVIRONMENTAL POTENTIAL
Once initial land disturbance occurs, natural factors influence
future land and water utility. Method of mineral extraction and sub-
sequent abandonment sets an initial determining factor in any reclama-
tion plan. Socio-economic considerations determine funding and the
desired end result of reclamation.
Justification for reclamation expenditures is usually judged by
cost-effectiveness and benefits achieved. Projects low in cost but
effecting removal of large amounts of pollutants, and gaining multiple
land and water uses receive high priority. Restoration of abandoned
mined lands and surface waters can be achieved for one of the following
categories; its associated costs will depend on initial suitability of the
disturbed area.
1. Agricultural
2. Pasture
3. Timber and pulp
4. Rangeland or forest
5. Wildlife habitat
6. Water related recreation
7. Reservoir
8. Home development
9. Industrial park
10. Commercial building site
11. Sanitary landfill
Increases in land values after reclamation are primarily dependent on
land use category and proximity to urban areas.
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ACTIVE MINE CLOSURE
The final operation of any mining activity is mine closure, which
requires careful consideration in order to minimize subsequent water
pollution, establish aesthetic scenery, eliminate potentially hazardous
conditions, and facilitate future land utilization. Planning for mine
abandonment should begin as an integral part of initial mine design and
be implemented in conjunction with final reclamation procedures.
By employing preplanned mine closure many post-mining pro-
blems can be eliminated. For example, design of underground mines
for down-dip development can facilitate inundation and sealing by
lessening the potential hydrostatic head pressure against seal installa-
tion. Surface mining operations can also accrue benefits such as pre-
venting a deficit of spoil for final backfilling through proper planning
and management of spoil placement and/or transport during overburden
excavation.
There are certain mine closure procedures that apply to all
types of mines. Listed below are general measures that pertain to
general site rehabilitation rather than the specific area directly affec-
ted by excavation and mineral extraction.
1. Remove all mineral stockpiles
2. Dispose or revegetate waste stockpiles
3. Remove all trash, equipment, buildings and structures
4. Backfill all surface depressions
5. Dewater tailings ponds and backfill
6. Revegetate all affected land including haul roads and preparation
facilities
7. Construct safety barriers such as fences and impassable flora
hedges around hazardous areas
8. Provide water infiltration control measures
9. Provide erosion control measures
The evaluation and recommendations pertaining to closure and
abandonment of mines on cessation of mining is extremely important, be-
cause active mines today will become pollution sources tomorrow if they
are improperly closed or abandoned.
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DEVELOPMENT OF STATEWIDE PROGRAMS
As increased funds become available for abatement and recla-
mation purposes, many states are expected to develop statewide pro-
grams. For many states, this will represent a first-time effort and
it will be necessary to work through intricate details of organization,
administration, management and finance. The forehand knowledge of
the key elements essential for a successful program, obstacles and
opportunities within existing state programs which would lend insight
into structuring a new program include:
1. Program coordination, integration and communication
2. Fiscal resources to carry-out program goals
3. Establishment of clear-cut lines of authority
4. Effective program planning and management
5. Well trained and experienced leadership
The establishment of an administrative authority to handle a
statewide pollution abatement program may be accomplished a number
of different ways. The most commonly used methods are the following:
1. Redefining powers and duties of an existing government
agency
2. Reorganization of an agency, thus creating a new agency
3. Establishing an interagency coordinating council
4. Creating a special board or commission
Two of the most important aspects of a program's structure are
development of goals and objectives, and implementation strategies.
Basic criteria which should be considered in developing goals and
objectives include:
1. Relevancy to existing state environmental, economic,
social and political conditions
2. Technical, economic, legal and political feasibility
3. Congruity with other federal and state environmental
programs, funding requirements and legal mechanisms
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LEGAL PROBLEMS AND AVENUES OF SOLUTION
Initially a state must define its legal status and mechanisms
available to handle a complex abatement and reclamation program.
This can be accomplished using a team of attorneys (either in-house
or a consulting law firm) to research and digest current federal, state
and local laws. This analysis should identify many of the legal pro-
blems most likely to occur during implementation of the program.
Final output from this initial legal investigation should be a re-
port with sufficient detailed recommendations for action that would
enable a bill to be introduced into state legislature which would provide
legal authority to carry out the pollution abatement and reclamation
program.
Substantial legal problems arise in determining which of three
parties is to bear the cost burden of abatement - private landowner,
current generation of miners, or the state. A program can begin with
the easiest projects first - abandoned land which is publicly owned - then
work up to the more complex problems. Other means would create
incentive programs for reaffecting previously mined lands either by
landowners or mining companies. Utilization of nuisance laws, health
codes, environmental codes, and water quality laws; all must play an
active role if significant progress is going to be made in the forseeable
future.
PROGRAM FUNDING AND ASSISTANCE POSSIBILITIES
Financial and technical assistance is available from federal,
state, local and private sources to carry-out the task of reclaiming
abandoned mined land. These sources of federal help can be divided
into two major sectors:
1. Agencies that can supply financial, management/planning
and technical help.
2. Agencies that supply only technical assistance which may be
in the form of information, equipment or manpower.
Some sources of federal financial assistance available to states
and most local government agencies are listed on the following page.
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1. Department of Interior
Bureau of Outdoor Recreation
Bureau of Mines
Bureau of Land Management
Geological Survey
Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife
2. Energy Research and Development Administration
3. Department of Agriculture
Farmers Home Administration
Forest Service
Agriculture Stabilization and Conservation Service
Soil Conservation Service
4. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Water and Hazardous Materials
Office of Research and Development
5. Department of Defense
Army Corps of Engineers
6. Department of Commerce
Economic Development Administration
7. Department of Housing and Urban Development
8. Department of Labor
9. Department of Health, Education and Welfare
10. National Aeronautics and Space Administration
11. Federal Energy Administration
12. Water Resources Council
13. Tennessee Valley Authority
14. Appalachian Regional Commission
TECHNICAL APPROACH TO ESTABLISHING THE MINED LANDS,
POLLUTION INVENTORY AND SITE RECLAMATION PROGRAM
The objective of the administering state agency in an abandoned
mined lands program is management of the state's total resources,
which involves abatement of water pollution and restoration of the land.
In order to successfully complete such a comprehensive program, a
systematic and logical approach must be utilized. The exact method
a state employs will depend on variables such as: financial resources;
magnitude and diversity of the state's problem; staff size of the adminis-
tering agency; and socio-economic needs of the state's residents. Since
this document is designed as a general guide for many users, each
step in the mined land inventory, data evaluation, and abatement and
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reclamation implementation process is presented with alternative
methods or options which relate to the specific requirements and
subsequent level of effort assigned to the project. Thus, regardless
of the variables, one of the alternative or optional methods in each
procedural step can supply some degree of information. For maximum
efficiency, it is essential to define as many variables as possible at the
start of the program and to determine the degree of detail necessary to
accomplish program objectives. This will increase the usefulness of
data and accuracy of evaluation, while reducing financial and manpower
waste associated with collection of interesting but unusable information.
An areawide mined lands inventory will assess and document
past pollution abatement and restoration efforts, and provide a sound
basis from which to establish future program planning and priorities.
In addition to summarizing and updating state mining information, it
also places the state in an advantageous position to apply for and receive
financial and technical assistance from federal sources.
A successful mine drainage abatement and mined land recla-
mation program should be comprised of the following inter-related
steps:
1. Development of base mapping
2. Watershed definition
3. Water quality survey
4. Socio-economic survey
5. Mined lands survey
6. Reclamation and abatement cost development
7. Priority establishment
8. Final map development
A number of optional approaches are presented with each aspect, along
with approximate costs where applicable.
Development of Base Mapping
Identification of the states' major problem areas must be
completed before detailed aerial mapping is started. This reduces
aerial photography cost by concentrating low level photos on areas
affected by mining. The development of working base maps such as a
U.S.G.S. topographic map is extremely important in planning and
evaluation of the program surveys.
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For final presentation of study data, it may be desirable to
develop a composite of three overlays - culture, streams, and
topography. The final map scale will depend primarily on size of
the study area and volume and detail of data to be presented.
Watershed Definition
Verification and supplementation of historical records and
aerial surveillance with ground surveillance should be undertaken
on a watershed basis. The watershed sampling survey's objective
is to supply additional data to the administering agency to establish
accurate land inventory records needed to develop abatement and
reclamation plans.
In order to develop comprehensive plans, detailed informa-
tion is needed on water quality, aquatic ecology, terrestrial impact,
reclamation potential, land use potential and socio-economic area
needs. These factors are interrelated and jointly affect a geo-
graphic area, usually in the form of topographically defined water-
sheds rather than politically defined areas (towns, cities, town-
ships or counties). This is true because mining and resultant pol-
lution follow topographic, not political boundaries. It is therefore
reasonable to develop surveys and evaluate their data by watersheds.
The size determination of the watershed depends on the com-
plexity of the individual state abandoned mined land problems. Ex-
perience has shown a watershed of 130 to 260 square kilometers
is often an ideal size for routine ground surveillance.
Water Quality Survey
Water quality evaluations in a statewide abatement assess-
ment should consist of two distinct phases:
1 . Collection, mapping and analysis of existing water
quality and stream flow data
2. Establishment of new or repeat sample collection and
flow measurement stations with subsequent sampling
and data evaluation.
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Survey parameters assessed, sampling frequency, techniques,
and location, will depend upon the requirements of each individual
study. In addition, funding availability, study area size, time con-
straints and nature of contaminants or pollutants attributed to the
specific mining industry will play an important role in selecting
biological, chemical and physical analysis parameters.
Socio-Economic Survey
A statewide pollution abatement and mine restoration pro-
gram must encompass an assessment of an area's economic needs
and developmental demands in establishing watershed ranking and
reclamation priorities. Restoration programs may not be under-
taken strictly for aesthetic environmental improvements, but can
also attempt to improve utilization of local or regional water and
land resources for the general public. Subsequent stimulation
of an area's economy and other beneficial effects of such programs
thus enhance general well-being of the citizenry.
Collection and analyses of socio-economic information may
be accomplished utilizing any of a number of options, depending
primarily on availability of state human resource data, economic
needs, development demands and aesthetic interest of the citizenry.
In areas where planning organizations are well developed at local
levels, socio-economic information will be adequately documented
and easy to assemble. However, not all states or areas will be
lucky enough to be in this situation, and alternative mechanisms
must also be considered. To accomplish the objectives of a state-
wide abandoned mined lands program, the following socio-economic
components must be considered:
1. Human resources
2. Economic needs
3. Development demands
4. Aesthetics
The level and intensity of investigation can vary with the individual
state program objectives and priorities.
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Mined Lands Inventory
The primary objective of the mined lands inventory is the
systematic and logical acquisition of information for characterization,
ranking and establishment of statewide long range plans for restor-
ation of abandoned mined land. The inventory process can consist
of the following major components:
1. Aerial photography
2. Photography interpretation
3. Terrestrial survey - ground surveillance
4. Determination of land ownership
Each task further defines and evaluates the condition of the abandoned
mined lands by some predetermined classification system. A typical
mine classification system might involve five categories of mined
land:
1. active surface mines;
2. mines that are generally completely reclaimed, re-
quiring only local spot reclamation work;
3. mines in which only a minimal reclamation effort
is required;
4. mined land requiring a moderate reclamation effort; and
5. mined land requiring extensive reclamation work.
This classification would then be refined by field effects using such
parameters as degree of regrading, revegetation and spoil slope.
These two classification systems could then be combined to form
a matrix cross index classification.
The terrestrial survey is generally performed for the following
reasons:
1. Establishing ground truth for photo-interpretation
2. Verification of existing historical data
3. Supplementing existing information through collection
and analysis of field samples
4. Increasing the investigator's familiarity with overall
field conditions
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Reclamation potential of an abandoned mine site is directly
related to the extent of environmental impact caused by extraction
methods utilized during the mining cycle. Evaluation of watershed
and mined land reclamation potentials should include data concerning
the following:
1. Mining methods
2. Mineral commodity extracted
3. Age of disturbance
4. Acreage of mined site
5. Site conditions
6. Major environmental areas
Erosion and Sedimentation
Refuse or waste materials
Water
Toxic materials
7. Adjacent land uses
A major problem in abandoned mined land reclamation af-
fecting priority establishment is the land ownership question. Public
ownership of unreclaimed mined lands simplifies reclamation work
in several ways. Access costs and problems are eliminated, and
the question of benefiting private landowners with public funds does
not arise. Land use and recreation benefits are generally higher
for reclamation on public land versus private land. Reclamation
results in upgrading of present public holding, but reclamation on
private lands also benefits nearby public holding by upgrading area
aesthetics and enhancing wildlife populations.
Reclamation Cost Development
The principal environmental damages resulting from mining
of any mineral are disruption of the land surface and/or production
of mine drainage pollutants which subsequently degrade surface and
ground water. Statewide abatement planning studies should, there-
fore include mine drainage abatement as an integral part of the com-
prehensive long range mine reclamation program that is developed.
Although many studies will be aimed at improvement of unreclaimed
strip mined land in general, past experience in several states has
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shown that reclamation of these abandoned mines can, in many
cases, only be justified by water quality improvement benefits.
Surface Mine Costs
Computation of surface mine reclamation costs for each of
the study area watersheds should begin as the surface mine class-
ification and signature work is completed. This phase of the study
can proceed in several steps, including development of average
reclamation costs, computation of areas, and calculation of costs.
Development of reclamation costs can best be accomplished
utilizing mined land categories developed earlier in the study and
applying unit costs to these classifications. This permits the total
surface mine reclamation cost to be calculated for each watershed.
Underground Mine Costs
The task of establishing deep mine contributed acid loads and
computing abatement costs can be extremely difficult, particularly
where the study area is large or where study time and available in-
formation is limited. These problems do not affect the surface
mine cost computations since those are based on accurate areas com-
puted for each category of surface mined land, and on fairly straight-
forward cost per unit area figures. Underground mine pollution
load estimates and abatement costs must be developed in an entirely
different manner, and may represent one of the most complicated
and difficult challenges of an entire statewide abatement program.
The methods with which underground mine abatement costs can be
estimated are highly variable, depending almost exclusively upon the
amounts of deep mining and mineral geology information available.
This, in turn, is at least partially related to the size of the study
area and time allotted for the study. It may not be possible to com-
pile extremely detailed information for a massive study area. The
manner by which underground mine pollution abatement costs are
estimated will, therefore, vary radically in different situations, and
the final methodology for estimation will have to be established by
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project personnel in each individual study after assessment of avail-
able data.
Regardless of the option selected or devised for determination
of deep mine pollution abatement costs, a system must still be devised
to estimate the portion of each module or watershed's pollution load
that emanates from underground mines. In nearly all situations,
at least a portion of the abatement costs will have to be based upon
the amount of underground mine pollution to be abated. The deriva-
tion of underground mine pollution abatement costs could proceed
in a series of steps similar to those discussed below, according to
the volume and detail of available background data. It must be
pointed out that the methods discussed may vary with specific min-
erals, mining techniques, and available time.
Cost Effectiveness
The cost effectiveness of a mine reclamation and mine drain-
age abatement project is the cost in dollars of eliminating each unit
weight of pollutant emanating from the subject site. These values
provide an excellent means by which the relative effectiveness of
various reclamation or abatement expenditures can be assessed and
compared. Cost effectiveness values are generally obtained by
dividing the reclamation or abatement cost by the pollution load
attributed to that point source. In certain instances where land
improvement rather than mine drainage abatement is the primary
goal, cost effectiveness may be improved by dividing the total
cost by the predicted land value increase. These values are com-
puted individually for the surface mine reclamation work, the under-
ground mine pollution abatement work, and the overall reclamation
and abatement work in each of the study area's pollution producing
watersheds.
Reclamation Priorities
Priority establishment in a statewide abatement planning pro-
gram is one of the last phases of work, and is dependent upon succes-
ful acquisition and use of all available data. This phase is best
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accomplished by establishing a numerical system for computation
of relative priority scores. Previous studies of similar nature
have clearly shown that the prejudices of personnel establishing
priorities are quite frequently reflected in the final outcome of the
work, despite all efforts to eliminate bias. Establishment of a
numerical system in which each distinct aspect of the data is as-
signed a weighted constant or rank according to its relative impor-
tance eliminates the possibility of biased rankings. Such a system
can be established at any level of detail, thus the precision of the data
acquired in the study need not be ruined by grouping it in some
general, broad category.
A typical example of such a ranking system is presented
below. For the purpose of discussion, we will assume that the
principal parameters being considered are:
1 . Mine drainage pollution
2. Development demand
3. Density of unreclaimed surface mines
4. Economic need
5. Public visibility
6. Visual quality
7. Public land ownership
Watersheds are grossly ranked individually in each of these categories
as high, medium, low, and none, each level receiving a point assign-
ment 3, 2, 1, 0 respectively.
The watershed characteristics are then assigned coefficients
to adjust the relative importance of each characteristic in the final
priority determination. This can usually be accomplished by a simple
vote among the personnel of various professional disciplines who
are involved in the project - having each memeber rate each of the
characteristics in order or on a ten-point scale. In the example
cited here, the following coefficients have been used:
Data Characteristic Coefficient
Mine Drainage Pollution 9
Development Demand 9
Density of Unreclaimed Strip Mines 7
Economic Need 6
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Public Visibility 4
Visual Quality 3
Public Land Ownership 1
The watershed priority value for each data characteristic is
then determined by multiplying the data characteristic coefficient by
the data characteristic rating. Watershed scores are then totaled,
compared and divided into groups to establish overall priority
ranking.
Final Mapping
Upon completion of data analysis and formulation of conclu-
sions, development of mapping for general presentation of findings
and conclusions can be finalized. Much of the information shown on
these maps will have been plotted on at least a preliminary basis
during the course of the study, either on the photomaps, topographic
quadrangle maps, or other working preliminary base maps. Scales
of the final mapping should be similar to the working base maps dis-
cussed in Base Map Development, and will include the photomaps
delineating and classifying mined lands.
IMPLEMENTATION
Successful completion of a statewide mined lands inventory
is a prerequisite to proper planning and performance of watershed
feasibility studies and subsequent abatement or reclamation programs.
From this initial statewide inventory program, priorities are estab-
lished for future feasibility studies. A wealth of information as-
sembled in the inventory is also available and relevant to the goals
of the feasibility study. Therefore, the statewide inventory and
subsequent watershed feasibility studies should be viewed as comple-
mentary and interdependent, although they are separate operations.
The specific objective of the watershed feasibility study is to
obtain information necessary to implement a successful mine recla-
mation and mine drainage abatement program in the watershed.
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Such a watershed feasibility study will:
1 . Determine the extent and severity of mine drainage in
the watershed's main stream and tributaries;
2. Evaluate aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems and the im-
pacts of water quality upon them;
3. Assess baseline and socio-economic conditions and varia-
tions throughout the study area;
4. Conduct a pollution source inventory to locate and measure
specific discharges associated with past and present
mining;
5. Determine the impact of mine drainage on the primary
receiving stream;
6. Recommend remedial measures for each significant
source of pollution which can be reduced or eliminated by
current technology;
7. Attempt to distinguish between the pollution loading con-
tributions of active and inactive mines and between sur-
face and underground mines;
8. Assess future mining potential within the study area;
9. Establish cost and cost effectiveness of these remedial
measures, including a ranking of the measures according
to recommended priority; and
10. Develop and recommend an "abatement plan" for the
watershed.
Necessary to the implementation of a successful abatement pro-
gram is careful, thorough analysis of the various available reclama-
tion and abatement alternatives. The planning procedure and its
execution must insure that the abatement and reclamation process
yields the highest possible benefit for every dollar expended. Use of
a specific, effective series of planning phases allow isolation of log-
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ically related, interdependent actions, and simultaneously provides
a means of gauging overall progress.
The primary difference between tasks in the implementation
phase and the statewide inventory phase is the degree of detail.
SECONDARY USES OF INVENTORY DATA
Inherent to the planning and evaluation of a statewide abate-
ment and reclamation program is collection of tremendous amounts
of qualitative and quantitative data. Depending upon the format and
techniques utilized in data collection, much of this information can
be used by other state, federal, and county government and non-
government groups and individuals.
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CONTENTS
Page
CONCLUSIONS 1
RECOMMENDATIONS 3
INTRODUCTION 5
PURPOSE ~f
SCOPE 7
STUDY DEVELOPMENT 8
Technical Aspects of Mineral Commodity
Extraction 9
Legal and Organizational Aspects of Imple-
menting a Program 9
Technical Approach to the Mined Lands and
Pollution Inventory and Site Reclamation ... 10
SECTION I - BACKGROUND INFORMATION
CHAPTER 1 - MINING 1-1
CHAPTER 2 - ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF MINING. . . 2-1
CHAPTER 3 - RECLAMATION-ENVIRONMENTAL
POTENTIAL 3-1
CHAPTER 4 - ACTIVE MINE CLOSURE PROCEDURES ... 4-1
SECTION II - THE MANUAL
CHAPTER 1 - DEVELOPMENT OF STATEWIDE PROGRAMS 1-1
CHAPTER 2 - LEGAL PROBLEMS AND AVENUES OF
DEVELOPMENT 2-1
CHAPTER 3 - PROGRAM FUNDING POSSIBILITIES 3-1
CHAPTER 4 - TECHNICAL APPROACH 4-1
CHAPTER 5 - IMPLEMENTATION 5-1
CHAPTER 6 - SECONDARY USE OF LAND INVENTORY
DATA 6-1
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A - MINING SUPPORT INFORMATION A-3
APPENDIX B - SYNOPSIS OF SELECTED STATE ABAN-
DONED MINED LANDS PROGRAMS . . . A-51
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Page
ILLINOIS ABANDONED MINE LAND RECLAMATION
PROGRAM A-52
MARYLAND ABANDONED MINE DRAINAGE
CONTROL PROGRAM A-53
PENNSYLVANIA OPERATION SCARLIFT A-54
VIRGINIA ORPHANED LAND RECLAMATION
PROGRAM A-55
KENTUCKY ORPHAN LAND RECLAMATION
PROGRAM A-55
OHIO LAND REBORN A-56
APPENDIX C - GLOSSARY A-59
APPENDIX D - REFERENCES A-69
APPENDIX E - ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS A-79
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LIST OF TABLES
APPENDICES
Table Page
A-1 Mining Method, By Mineral A-4
A-2 Mineral Values, By State A-8
A-3 Mineral Production, By State A-10
A-4 Mineral Production and Producing States, A-26
By Commodity
A-5 Number of Mines in 1972 By Commodity and
Magnitude of Crude Ore Production A-29
- xxti -
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LIST OF FIGURES
APPENDICES
Figure Page
A-1 Bauxite and Other Sources of Aluminum Reserves A-30
A-2 Sources of Bituminous and Sub-bituminous Coal
Reserves A-31
A-3 Sources of Anthracite and Lignite Coal Reserves A-32
A-4 Sources of Copper Reserves A-33
A-5 Sources of Gold Reserves A-34
A-6 Sources of Iron Ore Reserves A-35
A-7 Sources of Lead Reserves A-36
A-8 Sources of Manganese Reserves A-37
A-9 Sources of Mercury Reserves A-38
A-10 Sources of Mica Reserves A-39
A-11 Sources of Molybdenum Reserves A-40
A-12 Sources of Oil Shale Reserves A-41
A-13 Sources of Phosphate Rock Reserves A-42
A-14 Sources of Potash Reserves A-43
A-15 Sources of Salt Reserves A-44
A-16 Sources of Silver Reserves A-45
A-17 Sources of Sulfur and Pyrite Reserves A-46
A-18 Sources of Titanium Reserves A-47
A-19 Sources of Tungston Reserves A-48
A-20 Sources of Uranium Reserves A-49
A-21 Sources of Zinc Reserves A-50
- xxiii -
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CONCLUSIONS
AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
-------
CONCLUSIONS
Utilization of 1.5 million hectares (3.7 million acres) of land
by the mining industry has resulted in abandonment of 60% of
this land. The adverse environmental impacts of these lands
justifies expenditure of public funds for pollution abatement and
reclamation programs.
Development and execution of a successful statewide abatement
and reclamation program should encompass:
1. program organization and administrative structure
2. legal mechanisms and constraints
3. potential funding sources
4. water quality and land inventory status
5. technical aspects of mineral extraction
6. abatement and reclamation program implementation
including feasibility, design, construction, and post-
construction monitoring and evaluation studies.
Program effectiveness can largely be determined by the quality
of decision-making and magnitude of political and legal mech-
anisms available to convert administrative decisions into actions.
Maximum benefits may be derived from the program a if the
total watershed picture is understood and considered before
establishment of final priorities, which is based upon:
1. natural resources
2. socio-economics
3. future mining trends
4. cost effectiveness at primary and secondary benefit
level
Financial and technical assistance is available from many fed-
eral, state, industrial and private sources.
Lead time for many program tasks such as funding, watershed
feasibility studies and site feasibility and design is extremely
long and must be defined well in advance of execution dead-
lines .
-------
Technical survey methodology of an abandoned or inactive mine
site abatement and reclamation program will vary depending on
the:
1 . long term goals
2. short range objectives
3. abandoned mined land status
4. manpower and financial constraints
Effective mine closure procedures of presently active mines
can prevent the future degradation of our water and land re-
sources.
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R ECOMMEN DAT IONS
Projected increases in almost all aspects of mineral production
and anticipated accelerated costs associated with abatement and
reclamation programs, make it imperative that the federal govern-
ment and individual states proceed immediately to correct the
abuses of the past by:
1. enacting stringent but technologically achievable and en-
vironmentally sound mining and reclamation laws,
and funding to support said laws and programs;
2. individual states enacting a comprehensive but equitable
mining and reclamation program which
regulates present and future mining and reclamation
practices, and
eliminates the adverse effects of inactive mined
lands and associated areas.
Update and revise existing state mineral reserve data and maps
in order to identify those previously mined (unreclaimed) areas
which could be reaffected by mining industry under today's more
strict mining and reclamation laws.
Develop incentive mechanisms to encourage the remining of those
unreclaimed areas with remaining reserves. Potential mecha-
nisms that should be investigated include:
1. bounty (reward) per acre reclaimed;
2. reduced tax assessment;
3. reduced/prorated license fees;
4. reduced interest on loans for reclamation projects; and
5. expanded and better funded research and demonstration
of mining and reclamation methods on previously mined
areas.
Statewide abatement efforts should proceed in an orderly and
logical fashion:
1. complete a statewide land and water quality inventory and
selection of priority watersheds;
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2. study analyses of priority watersheds and establish
priority areas for feasibility studies;
3. engineering design study and development of
specifications and documents;
4. construction and work phase; and
5. monitoring and evaluation of results.
State abatement and reclamation programs should involve and
define the respective roles of:
1 . federal and state agencies;
2. regional and county governmental units;
3. today's generation of miners; and
4. private landowners.
Program administration and implementation should be within a
single agency.
Individual states should establish specific rotary funds desig-
nated for mine abatement and reclamation work.
Data gathered throughout the program should be made more
readily available to the public and private sectors as well as
other government programs.
Legal and fiscal problems should be defined and resolved be-
fore initiating the feasibility and construction design phases.
Inventory studies should yield (formulate) data base upon which
subsequent studies can refine and expand. The inventory study
phase should avoid collection of data which becomes antiquated
quickly - within 2-4 year period.
Once watershed priorities have been established, feasibility
studies on high priority watersheds should be undertaken in a
systematic manner.
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INTRODUCTION
-------
INTRODUCTION
PURPOSE
Extraction of minerals from the earth's crust occurs in all
fifty states, utilizing a variety of surface and underground mining
techniques. By 1971, a total of 1.5 million hectares (3,650,000 acres)
were disturbed by the mining industry. This represents 0.16% of
total land resources. However, 60%, or approximately 0.9 million
hectares (2,190,000 acres), remains unreclaimed.
Socio-economic stability and development of an area depends
on wise use of all resources. These abandoned lands are a large, un-
usable natural resource which can be rehabilitated, restored or re-
claimed to some useful purpose. The abandoned lands are frequently
the source of water pollution caused by water contacting soluble mater-
ials such as pyrites, salts, metallic compounds, chlorides, phosphates
and radioactive waste. The extent and chemical composition of the
polluted waters depends upon mineral commodity mined, mining method
utilized, extent of regrading and revegetation, and the area's clima-
tology. Abatement of water pollution and reclamation of these aban-
doned mined lands can provide significant economic growth stimulus.
The specific objective of this project was to develop criteria
for large area pollution abatement programs for inactive and aban-
doned mine sites. This information is intended to be used by the
United States Environmental Protection Agency as a basis for pro-
viding programmatic guidance to states conducting abandoned mined
land pollution abatement and reclamation programs. In addition,
this document will supply a unified approach and guidance to local,
interstate and other agencies involved in or proposing this type of pro-
gram.
SCOPE
Nationwide in scope, the study involved development of abate-
ment criteria for all mined mineral commodities except oil and gas
- 7 -
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production, well sites and offshore mining. All abandoned or in-
active surface and underground mines, attendant waste piles, roads,
storage areas and other related facilities are included in the study.
Objectives included developing parameters and guidelines
for basic data collection (physical, chemical and biological, land
use, and socio-economic characteristics); determination of poten-
tial land uses; estimation of land values; development of reclamation
and pollution abatement costs; definition of legal tools available for
reclaiming land; alternate solutions to legal problems; development
of financing opportunities; recommendation of an optimum state
organizational structure; develop procedural steps for mined land
inventory, watershed ranking, reclamation priorities, implemen-
tation plans, monitoring and assessing reclamation results.
Although criteria development involved only inactive or aban-
doned mined lands abatement programs, evaluation and recommenda-
tions pertaining to closure and abandonment of mines on cessation of
mining is relevant to the project, because active mines today will
become pollution sources tomorrow if they are improperly closed.
STUDY DEVELOPMENT
In developing criteria and determining alternative mechanisms
for a statewide pollution abatement program three major aspects must
be considered:
1) technical aspects of mineral commodity extraction
2) legal and organizational aspects of implementing a
program
3) technical approach to mined lands and pollution inven-
tory and site reclamation
Each of these aspects are interrelated, and knowledge of this rela-
tionship is necessary for development of a comprehensive abate-
ment program.
8
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Technical Aspects of Mineral Commodity Extraction
In order to establish a state agency to administer an abate-
ment program, it is imperative that the creators (of this agency) are
knowledgeable as to the nature, extent and significance of the prob-
lem within their state. It is toward that end this report includes basic,
but generalized information on mining, environmental impact and
reclamation.
Determination of the extent of abandoned mined lands in
general terms can be accomplished using mineral production, area
affected, and reclamation figures. Mineral commodity mined and
method of extraction are important because of their relationship with
environmental impact (water quality degradation and land use dis-
turbance) and reclamation potentials (land use, land values and recla-
mation costs). These interrelationships offer advantages in assessing
general conditions. For example, if mining methods and/or mineral
commodity mined are known, direct inferences can be made as to
environmental condition of the land or water and potential uses.
In addition to a state's present condition, an understanding of
the mineral commodity's reserves and mining trends offers an ex-
cellent opportunity to develop management plans for the future use of
its total resources.
Legal and Organizational Aspects
of Implementing a Program
At this point an organizational structure can be formulated
to deal with a state's specific abandoned mined lands problems. The
new organization's first task is to describe its long range and short
term goals and objectives. Legal and constitutional questions and
mechanisms have to be resolved prior to initiating any site reclama-
tion. As the legal problems are being resolved the state can research
potential funding sources. This research should include categoriza-
tion of these sources as to availability for specific types of reclama-
tion projects, including those which can assist in financing planning
and land inventory phases.
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Technical Approach to Mined Lands and Pollution
Inventory and Site Reclamation
The primary objective of the mined land and pollution inven-
tory survey is to systematically and logically obtain information for
management of a program. The method utilized by any state agency
will depend on: financial resources, magnitude and diversity of a-
bandoned mined land and pollution problems, administering agency's
staff size, and socio-economic needs of the state's residents.
This identification by means of literature review, aerial
mapping, and field data collection should include relevant informa-
tion on natural systems, water quality, terrestrial impact, land
use, mining, reclamation potential, pollution abatement or control
techniques, socio-economic condition and needs of the local resi-
dents. The interrelation of these factors within a geographic area
in the form of a topographic watershed rather than a political divi-
sion (town or county) suggests the use of watershed modules (or
subbasins) as a working base unit for all data collection and eval-
uation. A watershed study design can be formulated around four
distinct surveys: (1) water quality; (2) terrestrial impact; (3) recla-
mation potentials; and (4) socio-economics. Each survey, when
independently evaluated and ranked, offers flexibility necessary to
establish statewide abatement and reclamation priorities. This is
particularly necessary in states encompassing large geographic areas,
diverse mineral commodities and/or mining techniques.
Once watershed reclamation priorities have been established,
detailed abatement and reclamation feasibility studies on high priority
watersheds should be undertaken. A feasibility study involves con-
ducting a detailed land and water inventory survey within that priority
watershed to specifically identify and further define the general in-
formation obtained in the state inventory. This will supply data need-
ed for engineering design and actual abatement and reclamation con-
struction. The last step in the project is to monitor results of con-
struction, which will supply feed-back necessary to improve ef-
fectiveness of the next watershed reclamation project.
- 10 -
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SECTION I
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
-------
CONTENTS
SECTION I
Page
CHAPTER 1 - MINING 1- 1
MINING METHODS 1-3
Surface 1-3
Open Pit 1-3
Area Strip 1-4
Contour Strip 1-5
Auger 1-5
Dredge 1-6
Hydraulic 1-6
In Situ 1-6
Underground 1-7
Stoping Methods 1-7
Supported Stopes - Natural 1-8
Supported Stopes - Artificial 1-8
Caved Stopes 1-9
Conventional 1-10
Continuous 1-10
Longwall -Shortwall 1-10
Entryways 1-11
MINERAL COMMODITIES IN THE UNITED STATES. . . 1-12
AREAS UTILIZED AND RECLAMATION BY THE
MINERAL INDUSTRY 1-12
WATERWAYS AFFECTED BY THE MINERAL
INDUSTRY 1-18
FORECAST OF FUTURE MINING TRENDS 1-34
Forecast for Surface Vs. Underground Mining . . 1-46
FORECAST OF MINERAL COMMODITIES 1-50
Metals 1-50
Iron 1-50
Aluminum 1-51
Copper 1-51
Lead 1-51
Zinc 1-51
Uranium 1-52
Nonmetallic Minerals 1-52
Stone 1-52
Sand and Gravel 1-52
Clay 1-53
Salt 1-53
Phosphate Rock 1-53
Sulfur 1-53
-------
Energy 1-54
Coal 1-54
Oil Shale 1-55
CHAPTER 2 - ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF MINING 2- 1
IMPACTS OF SPECIFIC MINERAL INDUSTRIES 2-3
IMPACTS OF SPECIFIC MINING TECHNIQUES 2-5
Open Pit 2-5
Area Surface 2-6
Contour Surface 2-7
Auger 2-7
Dredge and Hydraulic 2-8
Deep Well Extraction 2-8
Underground Mining 2-8
IMPACTS OF ALL MINING TECHNIQUES 2-9
CHAPTER 3 - RECLAMATION - ENVIRONMENTAL POTENTIAL 3- 1
NATURAL CHARACTERISTICS AFFECTING LAND UTILITY. ... 3-6
Soil 3-6
Geology and Mineralogy 3-7
Hydrology and Water Quality 3-7
Topography 3-7
Climate 3-8
MINING DISTURBANCES AND RECLAMATION POTENTIAL .... 3-8
Open Pit 3-8
Area Mining 3-10
Contour Mining 3-11
Mountain-Top Removal 3-11
Auger 3-11
Dredging 3-11
Underground 3-12
LAND VALUES AND TAXES 3-12
BENERTS DERIVED FROM LAND AND STREAM
RECLAMATION 3-16
Fishing and Hunting Benefits 3-19
Recreation and Aesthetics 3-19
Stream Non-Fishing 3-21
Stream Sediment 3-21
Timber Sales 3-22
Industrial Processing and Structural
Damage 3-23
PRIORITIES AND COST 3-26
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CHAPTER 4 - ACTIVE MINE CLOSURE PROCEDURES 4- 1
GENERAL PROCEDURES FOR ALL MINES 4-3
SURFACE MINE CLOSURE PROCEDURES 4-4
Selected Mining Methods 4-4
Trash and Toxic Material Disposal 4-4
Cover Excavations 4-5
Surface Preparation 4-6
Special Cases . 4-7
Dredging Operations 4-8
UNDERGROUND MINE CLOSURE PROCEDURES 4-9
Procedures within Mine Workings 4-9
Procedures at the Mine Extremities or Surface ...... 4-11
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LIST OF TABLES
Section I
Table Page
1-1 Land Utilized and Reclaimed by the Mining Industry
(1930-1971), By State 1-15
1-2 Land Utilized and Reclaimed by the Mining Industry
(1971), By State and Commodity Group 1-19
1-3 Land Utilized by the Mining Industry for Selected
Commodity (1930-1971), By State 1-22
1-4 Land Utilized by the Mining Industry (1930-1971),
By State and Function 1-24
1-5 Land Reclaimed by the Mining Industry (1930-1971),
By State and Function 1-26
1-6 Aquatic Resources Adversely Affected by Surface
Mining 1-29
1-7 Aquatic Resources Adversely Affected by Coal
Mining, By State 1-32
1-8 Projects to Reclaim Mined Land for Improvement
of Fish, By State 1-35
1-9 Evaluation of Reclamation Needed for Improvement
of Aquatic Habitats, By State 1-36
1-10 Comparison of Primary Demand and Production for
1970, 1985, and 2000, By Commodity 1-42
1-11 Estimated Reserves and Resources, By Commodity 1-43
1-12 Comparison of Primary Demand and Production
Values for 1970, 1985, and 2000, By Commodity 1-44
1-13 Crude Ore and Total Material Handled at Surface
and Underground Mines, (1972), By Commodity 1-47
1-14 Crude Ore Handled at Surface and Underground
Mines, (1972) By State 1 -48
3-1 Mined Land Utilization Potential 3- 9
3-2 Recommended Water Quality in the Textile Industry 3-26
3-3 Effectiveness and Related Cost for Various
Abatement Techniques 3-28
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LIST OF FIGURES
SECTION I
Figure Page
1-1 Geographic Map of Lands Utilized by Mining 1-14
1-2 Geographic Map of Lands Reclaimed 1-14
1-3 Land Utilized by Mining, by Commodity,
1930 - 1971 and 1971 1-21
1-4 The Role of Minerals in the United States Economy 1-39
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CHAPTER 1
MINING
-------
MINING
MINING METHODS
Mining and agriculture are the two basic industries which have
led to the development of modem civilization. While agriculture
chiefly provides us with food and some clothing materials, mining
supplies us with structural materials (such as stone, glass sand, and
clays), fuels (coal, petroleum, natural gas), fertilizers (potash,
phosphates, nitrates), commercial metallic ores (gold, silver, cop-
per, iron ore, aluminum, lead, zinc), assorted non-metallic com-
modities (salt, mica, barite, borates, feldspar) and fissionable ma-
terials for defense and energy development (uranium, radium, thori-
um). Two basic mining methods are employed in order to extract
these materials - surface and underground. Basic factors involved in
determining types of mining method utilized for a particular mineral
deposit are grade of ore, physical character of ore deposit, and as-
sociated stripping ratio (ratio of overburden thickness to mineral
thickness). Depending upon thickness, continuity, slope and quality of
the seam, type and conditions of overburden encountered, size of mine
area, and return per ton of ore mined, this ratio can be as high as
3O:1 and still permit a profitable surface operation where possible.
Surface mining is preferred over underground methods because of its
higher mineral recovery, much greater production per man day, more
economical operation in terms of capital costs and cost per unit, bet-
ter health and safety conditions, and more flexibility of operation.
However, when physical limitations of excavating equipment or eco-
nomic feasibility of extracting the mineral are surpassed, under-
ground methods are employed.
Surface
Open Pit
Surface mining is accomplished by extracting a mineral from
the ground by first removing the overburden (topsoil, subsoil, rock
and other strata) which lies above it. Open pit mining, the most com-
monly used surface mining method (See Appendix A, Table A-1),
1 -3
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employs various sizes of shovels, draglines and bucket wheel or chain
excavators for excavation purposes. It entails drilling, blasting, and
removal of overburden (usually a proportionately small quantity when
compared to the amount of ore) in order to expose the deposit, fol-
lowed by extraction of the ore. A large enclosed hole in the earth
usually results from this process. The size of the resulting pit varies
with commodity mined; minerals which occur in massive deposits at
or near the surface, such as copper and iron ore, have reached di-
mensions measured in thousands of meters, while those which have
deposits of a smaller scale, like stone, sand and gravel, and clays,
encompass much less area and result in relatively shallow excavations
or quarries. As mining proceeds and the open pit becomes deeper,
the sides must necessarily be extended outward to accomodate slope
stability, preventing rock infalls. In larger operations, waste and ore
is usually loaded by shovel or dragline into large haulage trucks, rail-
road cars, or a combination of both, which travel up spiral benches to
the surface. Mobile beneficiation plants are also available to concen-
trate ore for further processing, and to dispose of waste at the site of
excavation (directly into the cut). Experimentation with front-end
loaders and conveyor-belt systems is now being conducted. The
abovementioned equipment is generally used for smaller quarries,
with varied options including the use of mobile cranes for flat-lying
deposits, skip systems, cable-suspended buckets, and pipeline water
transport.
Area Strip
Area mining is another surface mining technique practiced in
relatively flat or slightly rolling terrain. Its use is generally re-
stricted to a few minerals - coal, phosphate, clays, and brown iron
ore (See Appendix A, Table A-1). Excavating equipment utilized in-
cludes shovels, draglines, bucket wheel or chain excavators, front-
end loaders, pan scrapers, and dozers. Initially, a rectangular cut
or trench is excavated into the overburden in order to expose the ore
deposit, casting overburden to one side. This process is continued
with successive parallel cuts being executed until all reserves in the
area are mined; spoil from each cut being deposited into the cut just
previously made. The final cut is bordered by a spoil bank on one
side and a highwall on the other. This results in a gigantic "wash-
board effect" comprised of ridges and valleys of spoil material. Min-
eral transport is provided by off-highway vehicles, haulage trucks,
rail or conveyor belt.
1 - 4
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Contour Strip
Conventional contour strip mining, a technique characterized
by widespread use in hilly and mountainous coal regions of Appala-
chia and phosphate regions of the West (See Appendix A, Table A-1),
is initially established with a cut where the mineral is exposed or
outcrops. Successive cuts are performed into the hill or mountain,
discontinuing the operation at a specific stripping ratio, the point
where it is no longer economically feasible to further remove over-
burden. This stripping ratio compares overburden thickness to
mineral thickness, with the limit being determined in some instances
by physical limitations of the excavating equipment. In this identical
mining manner, strip cuts are continued along the hillside, following
the contour of the coal outcrop. The main excavators are shovels,
draglines, dozers, and front-end loaders. The result of contour
stripping is a long sinuous band of strip mined land around an entire
hillside or mountain; a band characterized by a bench or shelf where
the coal has been removed, bordered on the inside by a highwall and
on the outer, downslope side by indiscriminately-cast piles of spoil
material. Mineral transport is provided by truck, rail, or conveyor
belt haulage. Several alternative contour methods are presently
being employed in order to minimize environmental damages: haul-
back or lateral movement, mountain-top removal, box-cut, and block-
cut.
Auger
Auger mining, a technique often employed in conjunction with
contour stripping (although it can also be operated underground),
utilizes large cutting heads (up to 2.1 meters or 7 feet in diameter)
which operate on a principle similar to drilling; these cutting heads
can horizontally bore into the mineral seam (in lengths up to 60 meters
or 20O feet), reaming out the mineral at a rate as high as 32 metric
tons (or 35 tons) per minute. Augering is used when the stripping
ratio for contour mining is too large to permit economical recovery
of the mineral.
1 - 5
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Dredge
Dredging is a surface method used mainly in extracting gold
and sand and gravel (See Appendix A, Table A-1). The dredge is a
combination floating barge and excavating machine. This machine
has an option to employ various excavating devices, including suction,
ladder or chain buckets, clamshells, and draglines. Dredging is a
floating open-pit mining process which excavates material on one
side of a pond, while rejecting waste on the other side, transporting
the pond along with the dredge. Dredges do not always operate in
natural bodies of water; they sometimes construct their own artificial
ponds.
Hydraulic
An outdated and seldom used method of mining unconsolidated
placer deposits of gold, clay, and peat (See Appendix A, Table A-1),
hydraulic mining consists of "loosening and disintegrating in-place
material by water delivered under pressure through a hydraulic giant,
followed by transport with water into a downgrade channel." After the
ore-bearing material is eroded by a powerful jet of water, it is
usually sluiced through troughs where the desired ore is concentrated
and separated from tailings by specific gravity.
In Situ
There are a few specialized in situ mining methods which are
important to the mineral industry: the Frasch process, solution min-
ing, and in situ oil shale combustion.
A specialized technique for extraction of sulfur from salt
domes is the Frasch process (See Appendix A, Table A-1). It entails
deep well extraction of sulfur by melting subsurface deposits by in-
jection of super-heated steam and then pumping molten sulfur to the
surface for cooling. After the sulfur has cooled (in huge vats with
dimensions of over a hundred meters square and up to 35 meters
thick), it is fragmented by means of power shovels for shipping pur-
poses.
1 - 6
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Solution mining has limited use in extraction of salt, potash,
and copper ore (See Appendix A, Table A-1). Acid leaching with sul-
furic acid is sometimes employed with copper ores and, when the ore
is enclosed by limestone gangue, an alternative solvent is ammonia
(an alkaline reagent). Water leaching is sometimes adopted for un-
derground salt and potash deposits where artificial brines are pro-
duced by pumping water through wells into mineral-bearing strata.
In solution mining, the desired mineral commodity is generally ob-
tained through chemical precipitation (copper) or solar evaporation
of its solvent (water for salt, sulfur, and potash).
An in situ mining process is presently being proposed for com-
mercial extraction of oil shales. In this technique, boreholes are
drilled into the strata; the shale is fractured by either hydraulic shock
or explosives; the shale is ignited and permitted to burn along a pre-
pared path; shale oil gases are emitted from the combustion process;
these liberated gases are recovered from boreholes drilled specifi-
cally for that purpose; and the oil is obtained by a liquefaction process
using water to cool the escaped gases. A process similar to this has
been proposed for "mining" coal deposits, with collection of resultant
methane gas.
Underground
Stoping Methods
Underground mining methods are many and varied. Selection
of the proper stoping (ore extraction) method entails several factors:
Health and safety considerations
Mineral market economics
. Availability and suitability of equipment
. Grade (quality) of the ore
Shape, horizontal area, volume, regularity, con-
tinuity, dip and/or pitch of the ore body
Depth and type of overburden
Strength of ore and surrounding rock
Water and drainage requirements
1 - 7
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Resultant set of local conditions expected after
ore extraction
Topography and climate
Therefore, categorization of mines can be attained by classifying them
according to type of related stope (shape and support) - a stope is the
resultant open space or chamber after ore extraction. Using this
system, all methods of ore extraction can be classified as either sup-
ported stopes or caved stopes. A supported stope is one in which the
walls and roof are not permitted to cave, supported either naturally
or artificially; a caved stope is one in which the walls and roof are
forced to cave.
Supported Stopes - Natural
Naturally-supported stopes are those which stand open because
of natural support or through artificial aid of ore pillars, rock walls,
and occasional posts. The methods in this category are open stoping
(open stopes in small ore bodies and sublevel stoping - both applicable
to small, irregular deposits and very narrow, steeply-pitching veins),
and open stopes with pillar supports (panel, random pillars, and room
pillar - mainly applicable to thin, flat-lying beds). This method is
generally restricted to hardrock mines with associated strong walls.
Such methods may be irregular in form with no definite stoping sys-
tem followed. Several mineral commodities such as coal, iron ore,
copper, potash, phosphate rock, manganese, salt, and uranium (See
Appendix A, Table A-1), are mined by these methods.
Supported Stopes - Artificial
Artifically-supported (filled) stopes are those methods which
employ waste fill for permanent support. Three general methods are
related to this category: shrinkage stoping, square-set stoping, and
cut-and-fill,stoping. These methods, especially square-set and cut-
and-fill, are particularly adaptable to irregular ore deposits. Such
filled stoping methods are generally applied to medium and soft rock
deposits of high grade ore. The mining process incorporated into
these methods follows a more regular pattern in mining out sec-
tions than does that of naturally-supported methods. Mineral com-
modities mined by artificially-supported stoping include lead, zinc,
1 - 8
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mercury, and gypsum (See Appendix A, Table A-1).
Caved Stopes
Caved stopes are those methods which employ caving the back
or capping as mining progresses. No waste fill nor any other form of
support is used. Three general steps comprise this technique:
1) natural supports are removed from beneath the ore by undercutting
a section through drilling and blasting procedures; 2) the ore block
and/or overburden undercut is permitted to cave, allowing nature to
assist in breaking up and crushing the ore; 3) the broken ore is either
fed into chutes or finger raises (vertical shafts previously drilled un-
derneath the ore body which interconnect with a main haulageway), or
extracted by means of horizontal drifts cut into the ore body. The
methods include:
Block caving - primarily applicable to large
ore bodies having extensive lateral and ver-
tical dimensions with associated weak capping;
Sublevel stoping - mainly applicable to irregular
veins which are narrow and flat dipping or
veins which are nearly vertical (both requiring
weak walls);
Top slicing - applicable to flat ore bodies, nar-
row veins with weak walls, irregular ore
bodies, and old previously - stoped areas (all
of which need an associated weak capping).
Various combinations of supported and caved stopes (such as shrink-
age stoping with pillar caving or cut-and-fill stoping with top slicing) -
generally applicable to both large ore bodies, as well as narrow and
wide veins, where the ore is hard, firm and blocky, or strongly
packed together are also employed. Caving systems are most appli-
cable to large, low-grade copper, lead, and molybdenum deposits
(See Appendix A, Table A-1), where the ore is homogeneous and may
properly be classified as soft or medium. When compared to natural
or artificial supporting methods, caving techniques are much more
highly standardized with a defined system generally being followed.
1 - 9
-------
Conventional
Two predominant mineral extraction procedures are currently
employed in American underground mines - conventional and contin-
uous mining. The sequence of events usually incorporated into con-
ventional mining are 1) undercutting or overcutting the mineral seam
with a mechanized "cutter" to permit expansion of the mineral upon
blasting, while minimizing damage to the roof rock; 2) horizontally
drilling the mineral at predetermined intervals to enable placement
of explosives and blasting; 3) breakage of the mineral by either ex-
plosives or high pressure air; 4) loading and transporting the mineral
from the working face; and 5) roof bolting or timbering to support
overburden material where the mineral has been removed.
Continuous
Conventional mining as described above may gradually be re-
placed by continuous mining equipment. A "continuous miner" is a
single mechanized unit which breaks or cuts the mineral directly from
the working face and loads it into a transporting system. At present,
continuous miners are restricted to soft ores, like coal. By using
these miners, the separate equipment and operating personnel used in
the conventional mining phases of cutting, drilling, and blasting are
eliminated. Transportation from the working face to mine portals
varies considerably from mine to mine. The following or various
combinations thereof are currently being employed: 1) primary haul-
age - electric rail, conveyor belt systems, load-haul-dump (LHD's)
and hydraulic transport systems; 2) secondary haulage - shuttle cars,
loading machines, scrapers and gravity flow.
Longwall - Shortwall
The most automatic and efficient of mining methods is longwall
mining, a caving method which has been adapted for coal mining. Due
to its advanced technology, longwall mining is distinctly different
from its counterpart caving methods. The production potential of long-
wall mining is approximately three times that of conventional and two
times continuous miner units. It is generally restricted to seams
1 - 10
-------
0.9 to 2.1 meters (3 to 7 feet) thick which are consistent and fairly
level. The principal cutting machine employed can be a device with
fixed cutting blades call a "plow" or one with rotating drums called a
"shearer". The process consists of cutting the coal by passing the
plow or shearer along a track, over the mineral face; the severed
mineral then falls or is pushed into an armored chain conveyor run-
ning parallel to the track. The roof is supported by a long line of
hydraulically-operated steel roof jacks that are either a chock or
frame type inserted along the working face to preserve roof integrity.
As mining progresses, the chocks are advanced into the cut area, al-
lowing the roof to collapse behind them. The face of the longwall
mine is typically 90 to 245 meters (300 to 800 feet) long. Shortwall
mining is a modification of longwall which employs a continuous
miner, rather than a plow or shearer, over a shorter length of
working face. Rather than using the typical armored chain convey-
ors of longwall mining, the shortwall systems generally utilize
various types of continuous conveyor trains in tow.
Entryways
Associated with each of these mining methods is the type of
entryway. Drift mines, the cheapest method of access to underground
mines, enter the mineral at an outcrop. They provide nearly horizon-
tal access to mine workings and may be subdivided into up-dip versus
down-dip classifications. Up-dip drifts are those which mine the min-
eral seam to the rise, thus utilizing gravity assistance for mineral
haulage, while down-dip drifts are those which mine the seam to the
dip and require mechanical means of mineral haulage. Slope mines
are employed where the outcrop condition is unsafe or unsatisfactory
for drift entry or where the mineral seam lies at an intermediate
depth. They are associated with an inclined slope entry driven to the
mineral seam from the land surface above. Shaft mines are utilized
where the mineral lies too far below the surface to outcrop or the
lengths of slopes are economically excessive; vertical entryways are
driven to the mineral seam and elevators employed to provide access
to the workings.
1 - 11
-------
MINERAL COMMODITIES MINED IN THE UNITED STATES
The mineral industry of the United States annually produces
80 mineral resources to help fulfill the needs of our industrialized
society. Its extent and significance are far-reaching, affecting our
entire way of life. In 1972, domestic production of primary minerals
and mineral fuels was valued at $32.2 billion. Further, mineral pro-
duction is expected to grow in value at an annual rate of 1.8%, with a
quantitative increase of 4% to the year 2000. Therefore, the economy
of all the states should become ever more dependent upon the industry.
The scope of the mineral industry varies greatly from state to
state: mineral production ranging from a low of $2,871,000 for Dela-
\.vare to a high of $7,211,551,000 for Texas; a per square kilometer
value from $188,000 for Alaska to a high of $43,060,000 for
Louisiana; and a per capita value from a low of $5 for Rhode Island
to a high of $2,249 for Wyoming (all include petroleum and natural
gas values). See Appendix A, Table A-2. In order to appraise the
extent and impact of the mineral industry upon each of the states, Ta-
ble A-3 (Appendix A) has been included.
Table A-4 (Appendix A) presents a breakdown of mineral pro-
duction by commodity and affected states.
An important indicator of the type, extent, and intensity of ef-
fects (especially economical and environmental) generated by mineral
extraction is the size of producing mines. For a characterization of
the industry refer to Table A-5 (Appendix A) which delineates, by
commodity, the number of mines falling within various categories of
size.
AREAS UTILIZED AND RECLAMATION BY THE MINERAL
INDUSTRY
Relative to other types of land use, mineral extraction is mi-
nor. From 1930-1971, mineral extraction has only utilized 0.16%
(1.48 million hectares or 3.65 million acres) of the total land mass
of the United States, whereas forest land comprises 32% - 292 million
hectares (721 million acres), pasture and range land 27% - 244 mil-
1 - 12
-------
lion hectares (6O4 million acres), croplands 21% - 191 million hec-
tares (472 million acres), National Parks 1.3%- 12 million hectares
(29.6 million acres), and highways 1% - 9.2 million hectares (22.7
million acres) (75). In addition, the impact of mined land utilization
has been reduced through reclamation efforts affecting approximately
0.59 million hectares (1.46 million acres or 40% of total area uti-
lized during 1930-1971 See Figures 1-1 and 1-2). About half of
these reclamation efforts were performed on bituminous coal mined
land.
Since mineral extraction is practiced in each of the fifty
states, Table 1-1 has been included to show, on a state by state
basis, the total acreages and associated percentages of land utilized
and reclaimed during 1930-1971 by mining operations. The following
paragraph summarizes in metric units only, the contents of Table 1-1.
The major coal-producing states account for the largest total areas
utilized by mining operations, as well as largest percentages of total
state land area utilized: Pennsylvania (154,000 hectares utilized
1.32%), Illinois (120,000 hectares utilized .83%), Ohio (118,000
hectares utilized 1 .11%), Kentucky (95,000 hectares utilized
.92%), and West Virginia (85,000 hectares utilized 1.36%). In
contrast, there are states whose mineral industries have utilized a
much smaller amount of land and have also affected a much smaller
percentage of their total land area: Maine (4,200 hectares 0.05%),
Nebraska (5,200 hectares 0.03%), South Dakota (6,700 hectares
O.O3%), Wyoming (11,500 hectares 0.05%), and Alaska (12,000
hectares 0.01%). In general, coal-producing states have also re-
claimed the greatest amount of land and have had the largest asso-
ciated percentages of disturbed land reclaimed: Pennsylvania re-
claimed 75,300 hectares (48.8%), Illinois reclaimed 76,100 hectares
(63.3%), Ohio reclaimed 73,300 hectares (62.0%), Kentucky re-
claimed 60,700 hectares (50.0%). However, notable metal-pro-
ducing states performed relatively little reclamation: Arizona
(2,770 hectares 6.7%), Utah (2,590 hectares 9.6%), and Min-
nesota (5,260 hectares 9.6%). Basically, this is because most
mines are either presently still in operation or are considered po-
tentially-mineable in the future due to expected technological ad-
vances. These advances are expected to make mining of lower grade
ores economically feasible. From 1930-1971, the fossil fuels industry
reclaimed 64% of the land it utilized, the nonmetallic industry re-
claimed 26% of its land, and the metal industry reclaimed only 8% of
its land. However, in 1971, the fossil fuel industry actually reclaimed
more land than utilized (129%), while the nonmetallic and metallic
1 - 13
-------
Adapted From
Reference No. 75
LEGEND
UNDER 20,000 A(
20,000-50,000 ACS.
50,000- 150,000 ACS.
OVER 150,000 ACS.
Figure l-l.
Geographic map of lands utilized by mining.
Adapted From
Reference No. 75
LEGEND
UNDER 2
20% 30%
30%
P7721 OVER 40%
Figure 1-2. Geographic map of lands reclaimed.
1 - 14
-------
Table 1-1
LAND UTILIZED AND RECLAIMED BY THE MINING INDUSTRY
(1930-71), BY STATE
STATE
ALABAMA
ALASKA
ARIZONA
ARKANSAS
CALIFORNIA
COLORADO
CONNECTICUT
DELAWARE
FLORIDA
GEORGIA
HAWAII
IDAHO
ILLINOIS
INDIANA
IOWA
KANSAS
Percent of total
land area used
for mining
0.20
.01
.14
.09
.23
.07
.39
.10
.26
.09
.12
.08
.83
.76
.15
.08
Total area
utilized '
(acres)
65,100
29,600
102,000
29,500
227,000
48,800
12,300
1,330
88,800
34,300
4,810
41,300
297,000
175,000
55,300
44,000
Total area
reclaimed
(acres)
28,500
10,600
6,850
9,040
43,900
14,000
3,410
370
17,100
9,650
1,160
8,660
188,000
113,000
18,300
21,500
Percent
reclaimed
43.8
35.8
6.7
3O.6
19.3
28.7
27.7
27.8
19.3
28.1
24.1
21 .O
63.3
64.6
33.1
48.9
I
Ol
Adapted From Reference No. 75
-------
Table 1-1 Continued
STATE
KENTUCKY
LOUISIANA
MAINE
MARYLAND
MASSACHUSETTS
MICHIGAN
MINNESOTA
MISSISSIPPI
MISSOURI
MONTANA
NEBRASKA
NEVADA
NEW HAMPSHIRE
NEW JERSEY
NEW MEXICO
NEW YORK
NORTH CAROLINA
NORTH DAKOTA
OHIO
OKLAHOMA
OREGON
Percent of total
land area used
for mining
.92
.06
.05
.41
.40
.27
.27
.04
.23
.05
.03
.06
.09
.59
.06
.31
.12
.08
1.11
.08
.06
Total area
utilized"'
(acres)
234,000
18,200
10,500
25,600
20,300
99,500
136,000
10,700
102,000
42,800
12,800
41,100
5,300
28 , 4OO
47 , 800
96,300
36,600
35,100
292,000
35,500
34,000
Total area
reclaimed^
(acres)
150,000
5,210
3,170
9,170
5,610
24, 100
13,000
3,310
41,400
10,600
3,72O
4,020
1,590
7,470
9,800
24,600
9,640
23,900
181,000
16,500
8,940
Percent
reclaimed
64.1
28.6
30.2
35.8
27.6
24.2
9.6
30.9
40.6
24.8
29.1
9.8
30.0
26.3
20.5
25.5
26.3
68.1
62.0
46.5
26.3
I
0)
Adapted From Reference No. 75
-------
Table 1-1 Continued
STATE
PENNSYLVANIA
RHODE ISLAND
SOUTH CAROLINA
SOUTH DAKOTA
TENNESSEE
TEXAS
UTAH
VERMONT
VIRGINIA
WASHINGTON
WEST VIRGINIA
WISCONSIN
WYOMING
TOTAL
Percent of total
land area used
1 .32
.34
.07
.03
.25
.05
.13
.12
.31
.08
1 .36
.13
.05
.16
Total area
utilized1
(acres)
381,000
2,330
14,500
16,500
67,800
78,000
66,700
7,380
78,800
35,900
210,000
46,900
28,300
3,650,000
Total area
reclaimed 1
(acres)
186,000
54O
4,110
4,650
23,400
20,500
6,390
1.200
28,900
9,740
105,000
12,400
8,890
\ 1,460,000
Percent
reclaimed
48.8
23.2
28.3
28.2
34.5
26.3
9.6
16.3
36.7
27.1
5O.O
26.4
31.4
40.0
1
Adapted From Reference No. 75
Includes area of surface mine excavation, area used for disposal of surface mine waste,
surface area subsided or disturbed as a result of underground workings, surface area
used for disposal of underground waste, and surface area used for disposal of mill or
processing waste.
-------
groups reclaimed 56% and 35%, respectively. For an examination of
this latest trend, refer to Table 1-2 which gives a breakdown by state
of the acres utilized and reclaimed by the fossil fuel, nonmetallic,
and metallic mineral industries in 1971 .
For an analysis of the land utilized and reclaimed by the major
mineral commodities, see Figure 1-3. During the period 1930-1971,
the most significant mineral commodities in terms of land utilized
are, in decreasing order of importance: bituminous coal, sand and
gravel, stone, clay, copper, iron ore, and phosphate rock. The only
variance in this order of commodities for land reclaimed is that
phosphate rock directly precedes copper and iron ore (metals which
are mainly mined by the open pit method). The trend, if 1971 figures
are truly indicative of such, has changed somewhat the prominence of
the various minerals (See Figure 1-3). Table 1-3, delineates on a
state by state basis the total number of acres utilized (by the mining
industry during the period of 1930-1971) by commodity.
A characterization of acreages utilized and reclaimed by sur-
face and underground mining methods by state is shown in Table 1-4
and 1-5. Of the 1 .48 million hectares (3.65 million acres) utilized by
the mining industry approximately 80% is associated with surface
mining, 8% with underground mining, and 12% with milling waste
areas; whereas surface mining accounted for 95%, underground min-
ing 2%, and milling waste area 3% of the 0.59 million hectares (1 .46
million acres) reclaimed by the industry.
WATERWAYS AFFECTED BY THE MINERAL INDUSTRY
Unfortunately, the extent of damage caused by the mineral in-
dustry to our public waterways has not been specifically defined.
Even if major surveys are implemented to identify mine drainage ef-
fluents, it will be difficult, to determine the exact amount of drainage
emanating from various categories of mines. This is due to inter-
mingling of effluents from more than one source. Our waterways are
affected not only by surface and underground mines, but also by as-
sociated milling processes and natural seepage from unworked pyritic
minerals. Detection and measurement of drainage entering under-
ground waters presents another problem situation to be resolved.
When measured in terms of fish killed by mining operations,
the mineral industry has contributed minimally to the pollution of our
1 - 18
-------
Table 1-2
LAND1 UTILIZED AND RECLAIMED BY THE MINING INDUSTRY
(1971), BY STATE AND COMMODITY GROUP
STATE
ALABAMA
ALASKA
ARIZONA
ARKANSAS
CALIFORNIA
COLORADO
CONNECTICUT
DELAWARE
FLORIDA
GEORGIA
HAWAII
IDAHO
ILLINOIS
INDIANA
IOWA
KANSAS
KENTUCKY
LOUISIANA
MAINE
MARYLAND
MASSACHUSETTS
MICHIGAN
MINNESOTA
MISSISSIPPI
MISSOURI
MONTANA
AREA IN ACRES
METALS
Utilized
180
130
10,900
14O
1,760
300
-
-
89O
410
-
360
W
-
-
-
W
-
W
-
-
960
5,400
-
W
1,510
Reclaimed
380
670
80
2,060
340
-
-
120
180
-
1,000
W
-
-
240
W
-
W
-
-
180
1,640
-
W
270
NONMETALS
Utilized
1,000
680
2,260
1,120
10,300
4,460
540
200
11,000
1,930
33O
1,070
3,710
2,090
1,620
1,170
950
1,230
650
1,210
1,450
3,840
2,130
700
1,780
2,070
Reclaimed
59O
490
65O
900
6,610
970
4OO
60
2,240
1,030
80
560
2,410
1,340
1,320
760
540
670
580
740
850
2,660
1,550
410
1,030
1,430
FOSSIL FUELS
Utilized
3, 170
210
W
150
W
380
-
-
20
1
-
W
7,600
4,350
120
W
13,500
-
50
25O
W
10O
W
-
W
740
Reclaimed
2,160
75O
W
170
W
470
-
-
4
1
-
W
12,900
8,030
420
W
14,100
-
50
370
-
150
W
-
W
46O
TOTAL
Utilized
4,36O
1,020
13,200
1,420
12,000
5,140
540
2OO
11.9OO
2,340
330
1,43O
11,300
6,440
1,740
1,170
14,500
1,240
7OO
1,460
1,450
4,900
7,540
700
1,780
4,320
Reclaimed
2,930
1,630
1,320
1,150
8,670
1,780
4OO
60
2,360
1,210
80
1,56O
15,300
9,380
1,740
1,010
14,600
67O
630
1,110
850
3,000
3,190
410
1,030
2,170
I
_J.
CD
Adapted From Reference No. 75
-------
Table 1-2 Continued
STATE
NEBRASKA
NEVADA
NEW HAMPSHIRE
NEW JERSEY
NEW MEXICO
NEW YORK
NORTH CAROLINA
NORTH DAKOTA
OHIO
OKLAHOMA
OREGON
PENNSYLVANIA
RHODE ISLAND
SOUTH CAROLINA
SOUTH DAKOTA
TENNESSEE
TEXAS
UTAH
VERMONT
VIRGINIA
WASHINGTON
WEST VIRGINIA
WISCONSIN
WYOMING
UNDISTRIBUTED
TOTAL
AREA IN ACRES
METALS
Utilized
_
2,190
-
W
2,79O
360
W
-
-
W
20
110
-
-
80
W
36O
3, 140
-
W
60
-
W
1,690
2,640
36,400
Reclaimed
790
-
W
330
150
-
1
-
W
320
40
-
-
20
W
250
850
1 10
W
6O
-
W
190
2,140
12,600
NONMETALS
Utilized
940
95O
33O
1, 180
1,000
2,33O
2,240
550
3,450
690
1,620
2,510
180
790
910
1,560
4,830
99O
250
2,26O
2,OOO
5OO
2, 130
1,510
"
95,100
Reclaimed
620
440
240
970
430
2,030
960
420
2,740
490
980
1,260
80
510
7OO
1, 12O
2,500
64O
120
1,100
1,38O
360
1,540
740
53,200
FOSSIL FUELS
Utilized
_
-
-
60
W
20
-
1,000
9,56O
W
-
11,800
-
10
-
2,07O
W
W
-
2,9OO
W
11,1OO
W
750
5,230
74,900
Reclaimed
-
-
4
W
-
-
1,590
1 3 , OOO
W
1
17,900
-
-
1O
2,05O
W
W
-
2,830
W
12,500
W
540
6,440
96,900
TOTAL
Utilized
94O
3,14O
330
1,240
3,79O
2,710
2,240
1,550
13, OOO
690
1,640
14,400
180
8OO
1,000
3,630
5,190
4,130
250
5, 160
2,060
1 1 , 600
2, 130
3,940
7,870
206,000
Reclaimed
620
1,230
240
970
750
2,180
96O
2,010
15,8OO
490
1,300
19,200
SO
51O
740
3,170
2,750
1,490
240
3,930
1,440
12,900
1,540
1,460
8,590
1 63 , 000
ro
o
Adapted From Reference No. 75
W Withheld to avoid disclosing individual company confidential data; included with "Undistributed."
1 Includes area of surface mine excavation, area used for disposal of surface mine waste, surface area subsided or disturbed as a
result of underground workings, surface area used for disposal of underground waste, and surface area used for mill or pro-
cessing waste.
-------
PHOSPHATE ROCK 2 %
-CLAY 5%
'COPPER 5%
"IRON ORE 3 %
1930-71
PHOSPHATE ROCK
IRON ORE 4 %
CLAY 4%
Figure 1-3.
1971
Adopted From
Reference No. 75
Land utilized by mining, (1930-71 and 1971),
by commodity.
1-21
-------
Table 1-3
LAND1 UTILIZED BY THE MINING INDUSTRY
FOR SELECTED COMMODITY (1930-71), BY STA
STATE
ALABAMA
ALASKA
ARIZONA
ARKANSAS
CALIFORNIA
COLORADO
CONNECTICUT
DELAWARE
FLORIDA
GEORGIA
HAWAII
IDAHO
ILLINOIS
INDIANA
IOWA
KANSAS
KENTUCKY
LOUISIANA
MAINE
MARYLAND
MASSACHUSETTS
MICHIGAN
MINNESOTA
AREA I N AC RES
BITUMI-
NOUS
COAL
34,9OO
3,60O
220
3,100
30
8,630
-
-
-
40
-
1O
234,000
130,000
8,600
19.70O
210,000
-
-
4,610
-
560
-
CLAYS
6,390
10
630
2,040
10,400
1,590
830
80
1,710
13,70O
60
120
7,880
5,420
3,390
2,760
3,740
2,460
140
2,550
520
6.7OO
560
COPPER
_
22O
84.OOO
-
-
30
-
-
-
-
-
30
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
4,800
"
IRON
ORE
7,540
-
5
5
2,720
50
-
-
-
370
-
5
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
4,77O
80,300
PHOS-
PHATE
ROCK
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
47 , 900
-
-
8,220
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
SAND
AND
GRAVEL
5,28O
9,520
1O.8OO
8,870
81,000
14,700
6,350
1,130
5,970
2,58O
520
7 , 3~50
31,700
19,400
14,000
10,100
5,060
1 1 , 3OO
9,260
10,400
13,100
40,500
28 , 400
STONE
10,700
390
2,140
9,580
31,300
5,630
4,980
120
22, 100
15,000
3,470
2,070
21,900
19,200
25 , 2OO
4,960
14,800
4,320
920
7,880
6,680
33,200
3,880
URANIUM
_
1O
620
-
5
330
-
-
-
-
-
5
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
ALL
OTHER
COMMOD-
ITIES
28O
15,900
3,970
5,950
1O1,OOO
1 7 , 900
150
-
11,100
2,64O
760
23,500
900
620
4,110
6,490
270
120
220
190
10
8,980
23,100
TOTAL
65,100
29,600
102,OOO
29,500
227,000
48 , 800
12,300
1,330
88.8OO
34,300
4,810
41,300
297 , 000
175,000
55,300
44,000
234,000
18,200
10,500
25.6OO
20,300
99,500
136,000
IV)
to
Adapted From Reference No . 75
-------
Table 1-3 Continued
STATE
MICHIGAN
MINNESOTA
MISSISSIPPI
MISSOURI
MONTANA
NEBRASKA
NEVADA
NEW HAMPSHIRE
NEW JERSEY
NEW MEXICO
NEW YORK
NORTH CAROLINA
NORTH DAKOTA
OHIO
OKLAHOMA
OREGON
PENNSYLVANIA
RHODE ISLAND
SOUTH CAROLINA
SOUTH DAKOTA
TENNESSEE
TEXAS
UTAH
VERMONT
VIRGINIA
WASHINGTON
WEST VIRGINIA
WISCONSIN
WYOMING
TOTAL
AREA IN ACRES
BITUMI-
NOUS
COAL
560
-
-
33,500
6,820
-
-
-
-
8,260
-
-
27,200
207,000
13.8OO
2O
247,000
-
-
31O
17,900
77O
3,220
-
34,800
1,370
196,000
-
10,100
1,47O,OOO
CLAYS
6.7OO
560
3,500
8,790
300
500
30
130
2,100
230
4,670
8,200
140
17,300
2,370
830
1 1 , 700
-
4.8OO
94O
4,420
11,600
840
4O
3,560
890
1,230
440
3,900
167,000
COPPER
4,800
-
-
-
10,900
-
12,800
-
-
13.OOO
-
-
-
-
340
10
-
-
-
-
940
5
38,900
2OO
5
110
-
-
166,000
IRON
ORE
4,770
80.30O
-
520
10
-
54O
-
630
30
1,830
5
-
-
-
-
770
-
-
5
20
1,010
3,310
-
10
5
-
1,740
1,430
108,000
PHOS-
PHATE
RCCK
-
-
-
2,660
-
-
-
-
-
-
190
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
16,200
-
1,530
-
10
-
-
-
650
77,300
SAND
AND
GRAVEL
4O.50O
28,400
6.51O
9,550
12,300
9,820
5.83O
4,760
12,600
6,950
3O.6OO
8,790
7,540
31,300
4,810
14,000
16.5OO
1,550
3,090
1 1 , 400
6,420
27,400
8,990
1,960
9,100
20,50O
5,230
29,900
5,640
660, OOO
STONE
33, 200
3,880
71O
22,600
3,310
2,51O
1,360
210
9,880
1,690
28,3OO
14,800
100
35,500
11,700
12,10O
6,260
420
5,540
2,220
19,100
28.8OO
2,560
1,410
20,800
10.4OO
7,640
14.0OO
1,850
516,000
URANIUM
-
-
-
5
-
1O
-
-
6,670
-
-
20
-
-
2O
-
-
-
26O
-
240
20
-
-
35O
-
-
4,300
12,800
ALL
OTHER
COMMODI-
ITIES
8,980
23.1OO
-
27.4OO
6.5OO
20
2O.6OO
200
3,170
11,000
30.9OO
4,670
1O
86O
2.49O
7,110
98,300
37O
1.1OO
1,320
2.85O
8,130
7,340
3.78O
1O, 500
2.33O
7O
81O
44O
480, OOO
TOTAL
99.5OO
136.OOO
1O.7OO
102.OOO
42.8OO
12.8OO
41.1OO
5,300
28,400
47.8OO
96.3OO
36.6OO
35.10O
292.OOO
35.5OO
34,000
381, OOO
2.33O
14,500
16.5OO
67,800
78, OOO
66,700
7,38O
78,8OO
35,90O
210,OOO
46.9OO
SB,3OO
3,650,000
IV)
00
Adapted From Reference No. 75
Includes area of surface mine excavation, area used for disposal of surface mine waste, surface area subsided or disturbed as a result of underground
workings, surface area used for disposal of underground waste, and surface area used for disposal of mill or processing waste.
-------
Table 1-4
LAND UTILIZED BY THE MINING INDUSTRY
(1930-71), BY STATE AND FUNCTION
STATE
ALABAMA
ALASKA
ARIZONA
ARKANSAS
CALIFORNIA
COLORADO
CONNECTICUT
DELAWARE
FLORIDA
GEORGIA
HAWAII
IDAHO
ILLINOIS
INDIANA
IOWA
KANSAS
KENTUCKY
LOUISIANA
MAINE
MARYLAND
MASSACHUSETTS
MICHIGAN
MINNESOTA
AREA IN ACRES
SURFACE MINING
MINED
AREA
39,70O
22 , 300
26,600
18,700
105,000
30,200
8,730
980
7 1 , 50O
23,600
3,460
16,700
201,000
125,000
38,300
27,500
146,000
12,900
7 ,620
17,800
14,600
64,600
72,300
WASTE
AREA
12,900
3,550
34,900
6,180
57 , 1 00
5,750
2,180
230
10,300
5,420
810
3,980
63,800
39,300
1 0 , 1 00
7,970
49,000
3,260
1,900
4,760
3,650
17,100
37,900
UNDERGROUND MINING
SUBSIDED OR
DISTURBED AREA
2,080
100
2,910
260
2,230
1,320
-
-
-
10
-
520
6,320
1,270
260
70
9,470
-
-
180
-
1,690
SURFACE
WASTE AREA
4,830
60
360
290
12,200
3,31O
-
-
-
30
-
3,010
14,600
2,930
570
150
22, 100
10
-
400
-
840
MILLING,
SURFACE
WASTE AREA
5,510
3,610
37 , 600
4,130
50,400
8,200
1,390
130
7 ,040
5,240
540
17,100
10,500
6,060
6,030
8,290
7,030
2,070
1,020
2,540
2, 100
15,300
26,100
TOTAL
LAND
UTILIZED
65,100
29,600
102,000
29,500
227,000
48,800
12,300
1,330
88,800
34,300
4,810
41,300
297,000
175,000
55,300
44,000
234,000
1 8 , 200
10,500
25,600
20,300
99,500
136,000
I
ro
Adapted From Reference No. 75
-------
Table 1-4 Continued
STATE
MISSISSIPPI
MISSOURI
MONTANA
NEBRASKA
NEVADA
NEW HAMPSHIRE
NEW JERSEY
NEW MEXICO
NEW YORK
NORTH CAROLINA
NORTH DAKOTA
OHIO
OKLAHOMA
OREGON
PENNSYLVANIA
RHODE ISLAND
SOUTH CAROLINA
SOUTH DAKOTA
TENNESSEE
TEXAS
UTAH
VERMONT
VIRGINIA
WASHINGTON
WEST VIRGINIA
WISCONSIN
WYOMING
TOTAL
AREA IN ACRES
SURFACE MINING
MINED
AREA
7,680
55,3OO
22,200
9,170
12,OOO
3,750
18,500
19,600
55,800
24,100
25,70O
206,000
24,80O
22,100
221,OOO
1,730
9,84O
10,900
40,500
54,000
18,900
2,870
42,600
24,500
96,500
32,300
14,800
2,170,000
WASTE
AREA
1,89O
15,500
14,100
2,310
11,100
1,020
4,590
13,900
12,600
6,550
8,350
63,400
6,900
5,290
64,500
37O
2,300
2,980
12,300
13,300
19,200
860
13,100
6,47O
3O,6OO
8,73O
9,040
733,000
UNDERGROUND MINING
SUBSIDED OR
DISTURBED AREA
_
180
350
-
2,160
-
210
4,310
19O
-
70
2,980
130
-
35,600
-
100
1,430
520
920
-
3,62O
260
22,200
60
620
105,000
SURFACE
WASTE AREA
_
610
600
10
2,170
-
10O
2,140
190
-
150
6,860
300
-
43,600
-
120
2,200
570
2,200
30
8,410
400
51.80O
30
1,450
190,000
MILLING,
SURFACE
WASTE AREA
1,140
30,7OO
5,450
1,360
13,700
53O
5,000
7,840
27,400
6,020
77O
12.6OO
3,410
6,600
16,500
220
2.39O
2,420
1 1 , 3OO
9,65O
25,500
3,630
11,100
4,350
8,770
5,780
2,410
454,000
TOTAL
LAND
UTILIZED
1O,70O
102,000
42,8OO
12,800
41,100
5,300
28,400
47,800
96,3OO
36,600
35,1OO
292, OOO
35,50O
34,000
381,000
2,33O
14,500
16,500
67,800
78, OOO
66,70O
7,380
78,8OO
35,900
210,OOO
46,900
28,300
3,650,000
ro
01
Adapted From Reference No. 75
-------
Table 1-5
LAND RECLAIMED BY THE MINING INDUSTRY
(193O-71), BY STATE AND FUNCTION
STATE
ALABAMA
ALASKA
ARIZONA
ARKANSAS
CALIFORNIA
CO LORADO
CONNECTICUT
DELAWARE
FLORIDA
GEORGIA
HAWAII
IDAHO
ILLINOIS
INDIANA
IOWA
KANSAS
KENTUCKY
LOUISIANA
MAINE
MARYLAND
MASSACHUSETTS
MICHIGAN
MINNESOTA
MISSISSIPPI
AREA IN ACRES
SURFACE MINING
MINED
AREA
19,100
7,850
3,45O
5,29O
23,800
9,470
2,080
250
1 2 , 500
6,23O
620
4,71O
133,000
80,300
1 1 , 500
14,900
104.0OO
3,320
2,170
5,980
3,530
14,300
7.25O
2,280
WASTE
AREA
8,210
1,940
1,940
3,230
13,000
3,160
1,130
100
4,O30
2,980
480
1 ,560
51,600
31,500
5,960
5,710
41,600
1,570
810
2,770
1,750
8,050
4,O50
850
UNDERGROUND MINING
SUBSIDED OR
DISTURBED AREA
80
-
70
30
370
130
-
-
-
-
-
100
280
50
1O
10
350
-
-
10
-
-
-
SURFACE
WASTE AREA
580
10
-
40
640
310
-
-
-
10
280
1,730
350
7O
30
2,630
-
-
50
-
90
-
MILLING,
SURFACE
WASTE AREA
60O
850
1,550
450
6,O60
950
200
20
530
430
60
2,020
1,820
960
740
800
1,300
320
190
360
340
1,610
1,680
180
TOTAL LAND
RECLAIMED
28,500
10,60O
6,850
9,04O
43 , 900
14,000
3,410
370
1 7 , 1 00
9,650
1, 160
8,660
1 88.0OO
113,000
18,300
2 1 , 50O
150,000
5,210
3,170
9,170
5,610
24,100
13,000
3,310
I
0)
Adapted From Reference No. 75
-------
Table 1-5 Continued
STATE
MISSOURI
MONTANA
NEBRASKA
NEVADA
NEW HAMPSHIRE
NEW JERSEY
NEW MEXICO
NEW YORK
NORTH CAROLINA
NORTH DAKOTA
OHIO
OKLAHOMA
OREGON
PENNSYLVANIA
RHODE ISLAND
SOUTH CAROLINA
SOUTH DAKOTA
TENNESSEE
TEXAS
UTAH
VERMONT
VIRGINIA
WASHINGTON
WEST VIRGINIA
WISCONSIN
WYOMING
TOTAL
AREA IN ACRES
SURFACE MINING
MINED
AREA
26,500
6,500
2,430
1,720
1,070
4,470
6,110
16,900
5,810
17,100
128,000
11,400
5,1OO
131,000
340
2,650
3,050
14,800
12,800
2,970
580
18,400
6,020
70,000
7,550
5,440
987,000
WASTE
AREA
1 1 , 300
3,220
1,060
890
420
2,300
3,240
6,190
3,280
6,610
50,400
4,700
2,660
45,600
170
1,260
1,280
7,230
6,420
1,430
330
8,460
3,000
25,900
3,970
3,070
402,000
UNDERGROUND MINING
SUBSIDED OR
DISTURBED AREA
10
80
-
360
-
150
10
130
-
-
12O
1O
-
2,14O
-
30
190
80
40
-
140
50
8OO
40
20
5,870
SURFACE
WASTE AREA
200
150
-
50
-
-
5O
20
-
20
840
40
-
5,470
-
-
10
25O
20
290
10
1,010
50
6,170
-
120
21,600
MILLING,
SURFACE
WASTE AREA
3,340
650
230
1,000
1OO
55O
390
1,370
560
16O
1,880
390
1,180
2.06O
30
200
28O
92O
1,260
1,660
280
900
630
1,960
840
24O
47,100
TOTAL LAND
RECLAIMED
41,400
10,600
3,720
4.O2O
1,590
7,470
9,800
24,600
9,640
23,9OO
181, OOO
16.5OO
8,940
186.OOO
54O
4,110
4,650
23.4OO
2O.5OO
6,390
1,200
28,900
9,74O
1O5.OOO
12,400
8,890
1,460,000
I
10
Adapted From Reference No. 75
-------
waters. In 1969, mining operations were responsible for only 4% of
the total reports and 1% of the total fish actually killed from pollu-
tional sources; whereas industrial sources accounted for 39% and
69%, agricultural sources accounted for 25% and 15%, municipal
sources accounted for 18% and 3%, and transportation sources ac-
counted for 7% and 5% of the total reports and fish killed, respectively.
Although little information is available on pollutional sources
from underground mines, some studies have been done on the effects
of surface operations on our aquatic resources. By 1965, total aqua-
tic resources adversely affected by physical, chemical, and biological
changes produced by surface mining operations were quite extensive:
approximately 21,000 kilometers (13,000 miles) of stream; 40,500
surface hectares (100,000 acres) of natural lakes; and 17,000 surface
hectares (42,000 acres) of reservoirs and impoundments were thus
affected (See Table 1-6). Of 1 1,300 kilometers (7,000 miles) of
stream channels which have been reduced in size by sedimentation
from surface mines (primarily stone, clay, coal, and sand and gravel
operations) about 7,240 kilometers (4,500 miles) were moderately
to severely affected, while 4,000 kilometers (2,500 miles) were only
slightly affected (normal capacity having been reduced by less than
1/3). However, the greatest mineral water pollution problem exists
east of the Mississippi River where coal mining is predominant. Of
the total 21,000 kilometers (13,000 miles) of stream adversely af-
fected by surface operations, almost 9,700 kilometers (6,000 miles)
were contaminated by coal mining (See Table 1-7).
Little information is attainable defining the extent of different
types of mine drainage, however, there exists a considerable amount
of data on acid mine drainage associated with coal mining operations.
Although acid mine drainage is normally associated with geological
deposits of coal, acid water is known to result from mining of other
types of ores, such as copper, lead, zinc, barite, and manganiferrous
ores. In a report submitted to the Committee on Public Works for the
House of Representatives in 1962, it was "estimated that 3.5 million
tons of acid is discharged into the streams of the United States an-
nually, resulting in major damage to more than 4,000 miles of
streams;" this figure includes some acid drainage emanating from
mining of ores other than coal. It was also reported that if an esti-
mate of damages included those related to minor creeks and tribu-
taries, the total number of stream miles thereby affected might
exceed 16,100 kilometers (10,000 miles). In 1964, the Bureau of
1-28
-------
Table 1-6
AQUATIC RESOURCES ADVERSELY
AFFECTED BY SURFACE MINING
REGION AND STATE
New England
Maine
New Hampshire
Vermont
Massachusetts
Connecticut
Rhode Island
Middle Atlantic
Pennsylvania
New York
New Jersey
East North Central
Wisconsin
Michigan
Illinois
Indiana
Ohio
STREAMS
MILES
141
4
35
32
6
62
2
3,O34
3,OOO
24
10
1,603
Trace
253
60
90
1,200
SURFACE
ACRES
2,591
5
1,500
70
60O
415
1
9,290
9,10O
10O
9O
2,806
Trace
506
350
750
1,200
NATURAL LAKES
NUMBER
2
0
O
0
0
2
O
2
0
2
O
16
Trace
16
O
O
O
SURFACE
ACRES
100
O
O
0
0
10O
0
10O
0
10O
O
1,56O
Trace
1,56O
0
0
O
RESERVOIRS AND
IMPOUNDMENTS
NUMBER
0
0
0
O
O
O
O
4
4
O
O
83
Trace
32
5O
0
1
SURFACE
ACRES
0
O
0
O
O
O
O
2,02O
2,O2O
O
O
1,52O
Trace
90O
5OO
O
120
to
CD
Adapted from Reference No. 71
-------
Table 1-6 Continued
REGION AND STATE
West North Central
North Dakota
Minnesota
South Dakota
Nebraska
Iowa
Kansas
Missouri
East South Central
Kentucky
Tennessee
Mississippi
Alabama
South Atlantic
West Virginia
Maryland
Delaware
Virginia
North Carolina
South Carolina
Georgia
Florida
STREAMS
MILES
1,770
0
0
640
700
0
100
330
1,050
395
350
30
275
1,315
755
115
Trace
260
0
0
185
Trace
SURFACE
ACRES
28,014
0
0
3,250
21,60O
0
614
2,550
12,873
7,000
3,983
190
1,700
30,040
28,015
500
Trace
1,015
0
0
510
Trace
NATURAL LAKES
NUMBER
6
0
6
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
SURFACE
ACRES
1,600
0
1,600
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
RESERVOIRS AND
IMPOUNDMENTS
NUMBER
37
0
0
33
0
0
2
2
9
0
1
1
7
20
4
1
5
0
0
0
10
0
SURFACE
ACRES
15,325
0
0
9,275
0
0
50
6,000
16,700
0
100
300
16,300
5,345
4,683
72
200
0
0
0
390
0
Adapted From Reference No. 71
GO
O
-------
Table 1-6 Continued
REGION AND STATE
West South Central
Oklahoma
Texas
Arkansas
Louisiana
Mountain
Idaho
Montana
Wyoming
Utah
Colorado
Arizona
New Mexico
Nevada
Pacific
Washington
Oregon
California
Alaska
Hawaii
TOTAL
STREAMS
MILES
1,884
2O
0
150
1,714
1,347
134
136
10
16
880
3O
100
41
754
64
31O
320
60
0
12,898
SURFACE
ACRES
43,273
73
O
70O
42,5OO
4,489
654
234
20O
90
1,930
20O
1,150
31
2,594
640
62O
834
500
O
135,970
NATURAL LAKES
NUMBER
252
0
0
2
25O
0
0
O
0
O
O
0
O
0
3
0
0
3
0
0
281
SURFACE
ACRES
100,200
0
0
2OO
1OO,OOO
0
0
O
0
O
O
0
O
O
70
O
O
7O
O
O
103,630
RESERVOIRS AND
IMPOUNDMENTS
NUMBER
0
O
O
O
O
14
O
O
O
0
13
0
1
O
1
O
O
1
O
O
168
SURFACE
ACRES
209,873
O
0
0
O
6O2
O
0
O
O
6OO
O
2
O
4
O
O
4
O
0
41,516
I
CO
Adapted From Reference No. 71
-------
Table 1-7
AQUATIC RESOURCES ADVERSELY
AFFECTED BY COAL MINING, BY STATE
REGION AND STATE
Middle Atlantic: Pennsylvania
East North Central:
Illinois
Ohio
Indiana
Subtotal
West North Central:
Kansas
Missouri
Subtotal
East South Central:
Kentucky
Alabama
Subtotal
STREAMS
MILES
3,000
60
1,200
50
1,310
100
200
300
395
150
545
SURFACE
ACRES
9,100
350
1,200
350
1,900
614
1,650
2,264
7,000
16,000
23,000
RESERVOIRS AND
IMPOUNDMENTS
NUMBER
4
50
1
0
51
2
2
4
0
4
4
SURFACE
ACRES
2,020
500
120
0
620
50
6,000
6,050
0
15,300
15,300
PRINCIPAL SPORT
FISH AFFECTED
Trout
Black bass
Black bass
Black bass
Black bass
Black bass
Black bass
Black bass
Black bass
GO
ro
Adapted from Reference No. 71
-------
Table 1-7 Continued
REGION AND STATE
South Atlantic:
West Virginia
Maryland
Subtotal
Mountain: Colorado
Pacific:
Washington
Alaska
Subtotal
TOTAL
STREAMS
MILES
500
115
615
20
7
(a)
7
5,797
SURFACE
ACRES
21,000
500
21,5OO
80
70
(a)
70
47,914
RESERVOIRS AND
IMPOUNDMENTS
NUMBER
4
1
5
0
O
0
O
68
SURFACE
ACRES
/
4,683
72
4,755
O
O
O
0
28,745
PRINCIPAL SPORT
FISH AFFECTED
Trout
Trout
Trout
Trout and salmon
Trout and salmon
CO
CO
(a) Slight damage indicated.
Adapted From Reference No. 71
-------
Sport Fisheries and Wildlife announced that 97% of acid mine drain-
age in streams and 93% found in impoundments resulted from coal
mining operations. In addition, it has been documented in numerous
studies that at least 67% of all coal-related acid mine drainage dis-
charges from underground mine sources. A very high percentage
(75-90%) of this drainage emanates from abandoned mine sites.
Reclamation projects to restore offsite areas have been imple-
mented by twenty-five State fish and game departments. Moderate to
high successes were reported by 50% of the States. The predominant
amount of reclamation is being performed on coal and sand and gravel
surface mined areas (See Table 1-8). In a survey conducted by the
Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, 46 States reported their fish-
ery resources would benefit from surface mined land reclamation (See
Table 1-9). Colorado, Oregon, Kentucky, Maryland, Ohio, Pennsyl-
vania, and West Virginia (the last five of which have extensive coal-
mined areas) expect the greatest benefits (71). In addition, almost
60% of the States participating in the survey believe water quality con-
trol is the first step necessary to improve their fishery resources and
that impoundment of water to pool pollutants should initiate their ef-
forts (See Table 1-9). The cost of a National reclamation program to
restore surface mined lands, thus alleviating the major pollutional
problems of sedimentation and acid mine drainage, is an estimated
$2 billion (71).
FORECAST OF FUTURE MINING TRENDS
An adequate supply of minerals and energy is essential toward
attaining a progressive economic and social environment in such a
society as ours - one which while comprising only 6% of the world's
population, nevertheless consumes approximately 33% of the world's
energy output and about 25% of the world's current annual mineral
production. Even though mineral extraction is one of the most basic
industries in the United States, having a direct impact on 40% (and an
indirect impact on an additional 35%) of the economy (See Figure 1-4),
a planned program is necessary to meet the predicted annual growth
demand of 3.4% to 5.5% for the remainder of the century. In formu-
lating and establishing programs and policies requisite to optimum de-
velopment of our natural resources, appropriate constraints involving
the environment and health and safety must be considered. The first
step should include determination of future mining trends. This can
1 - 34
-------
Table 1-8
PROJECTS TO RECLAIM
MINED LAND FOR IMPROVEMENT OF FISH, BY STATE
REGION AND STATE
PROJECTS TO BENEFIT FISH
REPORTED SUCCESS
COMMODITY MINED
New England:
Vermont
Moderate
Sand and gravel
Middle Atlantic:
New York
Pennsylvania
High
No benefits
Clay; sand and gravel;
stone
Coal
South Atlantic:
Florida
Georgia
West Virginia
High
Unknown
Moderate
Phosphate
Clay
Coal; clay; stone;
sand and gravel
East South Central:
Kentucky
Tennessee
No benefits
Moderate
Coal
Stone; phosphate;
clayj sand and
gravel
East North Central:
Illinois
Indiana
Ohio
High
Unknown
Slight
Coal
Coal
Coal and clay
West North Central:
Iowa
Kansas
Missouri
Nebraska
Slight
Slight
High
Moderate
Coal
Coal and clay
Coal; sand and gravel
Sand and gravel
Mountain:
Idaho
Montana
New Mexico
Moderate
High
High
Sand and gravel
Copper; stone; gold;
sand and gravel
Sand and gravel
Pacific:
California
Oregon
Moderate
High
Copper
Gold
Adapted From Reference No. 71
1 - 35
-------
Table 1-9
EVALUATION OF RECLAMATION
NEEDED FOR IMPROVEMENT OF AQUATIC HABITATS, BY STATE
STATE
Alabama
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
Florida
Georgia
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
MEASURES REQUIRED
0)
D)
IT!
C
(fl
£_
Grading and c
2
4
2
2
3
3
2
3
2
1
1
2
2
1
Stream bank
stabilization
2
3
4
2
4
4
0
4-J
(fl
N
i-1
Channel stabil
1
4
2
4
2
R
Q.
o
+3
Impoundment
pollutants
1
1
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
Other
1
2
1
1
1
3
2
IMPROVEMENT
SOUGHT IN-
Water Quality
1
1
1
2
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Si
(0
4-1
Spawning habi
2
2
1
2
3
1
1
2
2
3
2
2
2
2
1
2
c
n
Flow regulati(
3
1
3
3
2
3
3
Other
2
3
2
3
2
PRINCIPAL SPECIES BENEFITING
r
Trout, salmo
1
1
1
1
1
5
1
1
Black basses
1
2
2
2
3
3
1
1
3
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
Crappies
3
4
2
3
4
5
4
3
4
2
£_
a)
PBluegills, oth
sunfishes
2
4
1
3
3
2
1
3
2
2
2
3
2
3
3
3
Esocids
Percids
4
5
Catfish
4
1
3
2
2
3
4
3
2
3
4
4
2
Shad, herrinc
2
Shellfish
5
Other
2
6
Q
0)
Adapted from Reference No. 71
-------
Table 1-9 Continued
00
STATE
Tennessee
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
Number of States
emphasizing item
MEASURES REQUIRED
0)
%
c
?
Grading and d
2
2
1
1
27
27
Stream bank
stabilization
3
14
S
*
N
P-*
Channel stabil
4
14
8
a
P,
Impoundment
pollutants
1
1
1
1
2
1
32
Other
2
12
IMPROVEMENT
SOUGHT IN-
Water Quality
2
1
1
2
1
1
38
J3
$
Spawning habi
1
2
2
1
32
K
Flow regulatic
14
Other
1
11
PRINCIPAL SPECIES BENEFITING
i-
Trout, salmor
1
1
4
1
1
1
25
Black basses
1
2
1
2
3
35
Crappies
3
2
3
4
17
0)
Bluegills, oth
sunfishes
2
3
4
2
28
Esocids
5
6
6
Percids
7
6
Catfish
6
5
23
B1
t
0)
*
D
ID
W
7
4
Shellfish
4
3
Other
5
5
Adapted From Reference No. 71
(Rank of importance indicated by 1,2,3, etc., no evaluations from Hawaii, North Caroling, South Carolina, and
Texas)
1 State benefited by creation of many small lakes
-------
Table 1-9 Continued
STATE
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Dakota1
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Dakota
MEASURES REQUIRED
0)
O)
(0
c
(8
T3
n
18
en
1--
(8
O
2
3
2
2
3
3
1
2
4
c
-^ O
tream bar
stabilizat
(/I
3
2
4
2
2
3
2
O
(C
N
1-1
.Q.
fO
4J
CO
"o!
(B
O
2
4
3
2
2
1
1
3
O
o
a
o
c
npoundme
pollutants
c
h-H
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
4
1
3
1
1
c.
O
1
1
2
1
IMPROVEMENT
SOUGHT IN-
>,
il
(8
a
L
$
">
1
3
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
fl3
ID
(0
Dawning h
CO
2
1
3
2
1
2
2
1
3
1
4
3
c
0
(8
B.
0)
0
L
1
2
3
2
3
3
2
£_
Q)
-R
o
2
3
1
3
2
PRINCIPAL SPECIES BENEFITING
0
F
"(0
co
t
4J
2
h
2
1
1
6
1
1
1
1
1
1
CO
Q)
CO
in
(0
XI
o
a
CO
1
2
3
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
2
2
rappies
O
4
2
4
i.
O
Luegills,
sunfishes
m
1
2
3
3
3
3
3
4
socids
LI
3
3
2
ercids
Q.
4
4
4
atfish
O
1
2
1
3
2
2
2
3
-------
00
CD
U.S. NATURAL u s EXTRACTIVE DOMESTIC MINERAL
U.8. EXTRACTIVE ^ ,AU1
INDUSTRIES: MATERIALS:
ROCKS, MINERALS,
CRUDE OIL, COAL, MINING, QUARRYING, PETROLEUM, COAL
GAS, WATER, AIR, OIL a GAS PRODUC- QAS, IRON ORE,
SOLAR a GEOTHERMAL TION, ETC. BAUXITE, SAND
ENERGY, ETC. GRAVEL.STONE, ETC.
VALUE
U.8. MINERAL
A PROCESSING
INDUSTRIES,
INCLUDING'
SMELTING,
REFINING,
AND
f 1 ENERGY
$30 BILLION |» |aENERATION
/ AND L
I TRANSMISSION
*
/
IMPORTS INTO U.S.
OF MINERAL RAW
MATERIALS:
PETROLEUM, IRON
ORE, BAUXITE, ETC.
VALUE
| 4 BILLION
DOMESTIC RECLAIM-
ED METALS a MIN-
ERAL MATERIALS'
SCRAP IRON, GLASS,
ETC.
VALUE OF OLD
SCRAP
f 2 BILLION
FOREIGN MINERAL ^^
FOREIGN NATURAL - OPERATIONS OF ^^
RESOURCES U.S. FIRMS
AND/OR
FOREIGN -FIRMS
Adapted From
Reference No. 13
ENERGY AND
PROCESSED MATERIALS
OF MINERAL ORIGIN
FUELS, ELECTRICITY,
STEEL, ALUMINUM,
COPPER, OTHER
METAL8.BRICK, GLASS,
CEMENT.CHEMICALS,
PLASTICS, FERTILIZERS,
ETC.
MLUE
)VER $ 150 BM ' IOM
A
^
'
U.S. RECLAIMING
a RECYCLING "~"~
INDUSTRIES'
SCRAP DEALERS, ETC.
[
U.S. ECONOMY:
GROSS NATIONAL
PRODUCT:
$ 1,047 BILLION
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
t
u.s. SCRAP a
WASTE MATERIALS:
IRON a STEEL,
_ ALUMINUM, COPPER,
BRASS. BRONZE,
LEAD, ZINC,
GLASS, BRICK, ETC.
\
IMPORTS INTO U.S. EXPORTS FROM U.S.
OF ENERGY AND OF MINERAL
PROCESSED
m
HI cniHua,
RAW
MATERIALS OF ENERGY, AND
MINERAL ORIGIN PROCESSED
U
RESIDUAL FUEL OIL, y
ATERIALS
INERAL OR
OF
IGIN
STEEL, ALUMINUM,
CHEMICALS, ETC. COAL, MOLYBDENUM
-....._ CHEMICALS, STEEL,
* J T mi , ,nu FERTI LIZERS. ETC.
f 6 BILLION
VALUE
*
6 BILLION
Figure 1-4. The role of minerals in the United States economy
(ESTIMATED VALUE FOR 1971)
-------
be attained through a quantitative forecast evaluating demand, produc-
tion, and reserve-resource statistics. A "resource" is a material
known to exist in the earth's crust or judged by geologic inference and
extrapolation as likely to exist, while a "reserve" is that portion of
the actual identified material which can be economically and legally
extracted at the time of determination. In the First Annual Report of
the Secretary of the Interior Under the Mining and Minerals Policy
Act of 1970 (Tables 1-10 and 1-11), this was precisely accomplished
(also See Appendix, Figures A-1 thru A-21), for resource locations.
Reserves, production, and demand are interrelated and must be
critically examined together for a complete understanding of the re-
source problem. One method useful in providing a clear and concise
measure of known and future available inventories is compilation of
reserve indices (expressed in years) (26);
reserves
annual production = reserve-production index
reserves
annual consumption = reserve-consumption index
However, consideration must be given to possible changes in
the index due to such variable factors as demand, economics, tech-
nology and new discoveries. These indices can be valuable for rela-
tive comparisons of which commodities will require more intensive
research and exploration, as well as possible changes in traditional
production, demand, and reserve forecasting.
Mineral reserves are not finite quantities, but rather are con-
tinually changing entities. They may be altered indirectly by reduced
production, a decrease in commodity price, an increase in extraction
and/or processing costs, increased use, or availability of substitute
materials. They may be directly increased by exploratory discoveries
and progressive technology developments. However, the influence of
these factors upon the reserve supply rests upon a basic economic rela-
tionship - that of the selling price of the mineral commodity to its re-
spective production cost. The following table is an example of the
varying reserve-resource relationship to changing costs:
1 - 40
-------
Domestic Uranium Resources, Jan. 1, 1974
(tons of UgO , cumulative)
Reasonably
assured Estimated
Cost of production* (proved additional
($ per Ib) reserves) (resources) Total
$ 8 (or less) 275,000 450,000 125,000
10 (or less) 430,000** 700,000 1,130,000
15 (or less) 525,000** 1,000,000 1,525,000
30 (or less) 700,000** 1,700,000 2,400,000
*Based on the forward cost of production, not including amortization
of past investments, interest, or income taxes; no provision is made
for return on investments, does not necessarily represent the market
price.
** Includes 90,000 tons of potentially recoverable UgOg as a by-
product of phosphate and copper mining at a cost of $10 per Ib or less.
Source: Atomic Energy Commission
Therefore, not only reserve statistics, but also resource statistics,
are necessary in order to properly assess the total resources of a
specific mineral commodity.
Table 1-12 allows the assessment of future deficits of the spe-
cific mineral commodities relative to one another. This table appro-
priately reflects relative magnitude of each deficit problem by de-
monstrating resultant monetary impact of each commodity. Demand
projections were based upon integration of several factors: historical
growth and use pattern for each commodity in relation to gross nation-
al product, population, and industrial production (their respective
growth rates); and the best technical information on probable new
uses, substitutions, and availability of resources (73). Extrapolation
of future domestic production for each mineral commodity by straight
line projection of the past 20-year trend was utilized in compiling the
production projections (73). However, such considerations are accur-
ate only in so far as historic trends are consistent and predictable,
an assumption which may very well be false.
1 - 41
-------
Table 1-10
COMPARISON OF PRIMARY DEMAND
AND PRODUCTION FOR 1970, 1985 AND 2OOO, BY COMMODITY1
COMMODITY
in
-------
Table 1-11
ESTIMATED RESERVES
AND RESOURCES, BY COMMODITY
COMMODITY
J
*
2
(/)
-i
<
l_
til
^
z
0
z
i|
Aluminum
Copper
Gold3
Iron Ore
Lead
Manganese
Mercury1*
Molybdenum
Silver3
Titanium
Tungsten
Zinc
Barite
Bo rates
Brucite
Clay
Diatomite
Feldspar
Gypsum
Magnesite
Mica
Phosphate Rock
Potash
Salt5
Sand & Gravel
Stone
Sulfur
Coal5
Peat
RESERVE1
50,400
81,000
82,000
11,200,000
36,OOO
0
380
3,150
1,300,000
1OO,500
90
3O,000
83,OOO
95,OOO
3,OOO
Large
300,000
500,000
350,000
65,OOO
Large
7,850,000
460,000
60,OOO
Large
Large
84,OOO
1,77O
14,000,000
RESOURCE2
Small
Large
Moderate
Large
Large
Large
Moderate
Large
Moderate
Large
Moderate
Large
Large
Not Known
Not Known
Large
Large
Large
Large
Not Known
Large
Large
Large
Large
Large
Large
Large
Large
Large
Adapted From Reference No. 73
1 All values expressed in Thousand Tons except where
noted.
2 Large: Domestic resources are approximately equal
to or greater than the anticipated cumulative
demand to year 2OOO A. D.
Moderate: Domestic resources are less than anticipated
cumulative demand to year 2000 A.D., but
represent a substantial proportion of that
demand. (Approximately half of demand)
Small: Domestic resources are a small proportion of
anticipated cumulative demand to year 2000 A.D.
(Approximately 20 percent of demand)
3 Thousand Troy Ounces
4 Thousand Flasks
5 Billion Tons
1 - 43
-------
Table 1-12
COMPARISON OF PRIMARY DEMAND
AND PRODUCTION VALUES1 FOR 1970,1985, AND 20OO, BY COMMODITY
COMMODITY
in
J
<
h
Lj
2
in
<
h
UJ
5
z
o
z
J
u
D
J
55
(/)
0
L
Aluminum
Copper
Gold3
Iron
Lead
Magnesium, metallic
Manganese
Mercury
Molybdenum
Silver
Titanium, metal
Tungsten
Uranium
Zinc
Barium
Boron
Clays
Diatom ite
Feldspar
Gypsum
Magnesium,
nonmetallic
Mica, scrap
Mica, sheet
Phosphorous
Potassium
Sand a Gravel
Stone, crushed
Stone, dimension
Sulfur
Coal, anthracite
Coal, bituminous
and lignite
Peat
Shale, oil
1970
UNIT
PRICE
$ 580
1,16O
363
62
320
700
48
4084
3,440
23
2,640
5,620
14,800
300
$ 25
510
5
55
13
4
85
21
1,440
39
43
1
2
61
21
$ 21
6
11
_
1 9 7 O2
DEMAND
$2,290
1,820
224
5,210
265
67
64
22
84
129
63
46
123
391
$ 391
45
26O
24
9
53
89
2
5
142
168
1,1 10
1,02O
106
211
$ 89
3,240
9
0
PRODUCTION
$ 338
2,000
63
3,660
183
78
3
1 1
192
80
0
23
160
160
$ 160
89
270
33
10
35
87
2
0
204
97
1,110
1,O2O
95
221
$ 105
3,770
6
0
1 9 8 52
DEMAND
$6,670
3,360
335
7,010
349
165
85
27
166
219
172
96
755
546
$ 25
83
47 O
52
19
83
128
5
1
°57
295
2,050
2,020
157
382
$ 54
5,290
15
PRODUCTION
f, 284
2,220
46
3,160
134
81
0
15
241
69
0
13
312
15O
$ 12
130
343
53
13
41
1 19
4
0
332
157
1,710
1,790
124
273
$ 0
3,830
12
2 0 0 O2
DEMAND
$15,300
6,260
521
9,490
458
406
1 14
33
323
372
444
208
918
900
$ 35
155
853
110
38
130
183
9
-
468
516
3,780
3,980
233
695
$ 25
6,26O
24
PRODUCTION
$ 293
2,760
36
3,100
150
99
0
18
316
71
0
6
42O
146
$ 11
176
402
69
15
44
141
5
0
456
20O
2,240
2,460
115
336
$ 0
4,320
16
Adapted From Reference No. 73
1 Demand and production value expressed in millions of 197O dollars.
^ Values based on tons of commodities except where noted.
3 Value based on troy ounce unit.
4 Value based on flask unit.
1 - 44
-------
While major uncertainties exist and are inherent in any at-
tempt to predict future demand for minerals, this situation can be
accentuated by lack of specialized regional assessment of each com-
modity. This is required since demand-supply statistics are lim-
ited; they entail no consideration as to the economic feasibility of
providing high demand regions with commodities from a distant sup-
ply source. Because of high transportation costs, some minerals
(especially large bulk, low cost materials like sand, gravel and
stone) simply cannot economically be transported long distances.
Since such supply materials are not economically available, they may
be more appropriately classified as resource, rather than reserve,
material.
In the socio-political field there are such critical forces as
public policy, population growth, and foreign nationalization impact
at work, significantly altering mine development and expansion. Pub-
lic policy can vary according to public opinion and can radically alter
mineral exploration and development through availability of public
lands, zoning laws dealing with mineral commodity extraction, public
funding for fundamental research expansion pertaining to mineral ex-
ploration, extraction, beneficiation, transportation and other auxil^
iary-related systems, and enactment and judicial interpretation of
laws concerning mineral and lands leasing, mineral disposal, pre-
discovery protection, mined land reclamation and taxation. Public
policy can alter or create demands for mineral commodities through
such actions as government stockpiling or disposal of materials and
initiating specialized government programs such as aerospace adven-
tures, national defense, or energy development. Population growth
can create a substantial increase in demand for goods, especially if
there is a concurrent increase in pen capita consumption. With concern
for overpopulation and its consequential "zero population growth"
philosophy, a dramatic change in demand could result. A substantial
affect upon our mineral supply and prices can be effected through for-
eign expropriation or forced modifications of foreign agreements.
In the environmental field there are various constraints on
industry to protect the environment, however, there is always the im-
pending possibility of a modification of these requirements. Such con-
straints include air pollution controls, water pollution controls, land
disposal controls, mined land reclamation, and the not-so-publicized
but critical restraints upon exploratory adventures.
1 - 45
-------
In the economic field, price increasing is the most important
factor and one which may have far-reaching effects; consumers of
raw materials will turn toward cheaper foreign sources (unless inter-
dicted by import controls) and will thus have an adverse affect upon
our balance of payments. When this happens, investment and employ-
ment potential in domestic mineral extraction and processing can be
severely inhibited.
In the technological area, future mineral trends may be acute-
ly affected by technological advances in synthesizing or otherwise
producing new or substitute materials, recycling resources, solving
environmental problems, and innovating exploration procedures,
mineral extraction techniques, and beneficiating processes.
These are some of the factors which significantly influence
future trends. However, it should be realized the consequence of all
previously-mentioned considerations is a lack of certainty as to the
future. This can produce a lack of investment interest with a re-
sulting negative (reverse) effect.
Forecast for Surface vs. Underground Mining
Surface mining accounts for approximately 85% of metallic
ore production, 96% of nonmetallic ore production, and 49% of fossil
fuel production in the United States. These percentages are antici-
pated to increase in the future (See Tables 1-13 and 1-14). Although
underground mining has been relatively stable, total material mined
has grown at an annual rate of 3.2% from 1960 to 1972 (78).
This discrepancy between the two techniques has emerged due
to the distinct advantages, delineated in the Mining Methods section,
associated with surface mining: higher mineral recovery (90% aver-
age recovery for surface mine vs. 50% average recovery for under-
ground mines), much greater production per man day, more economi-
cal operation in terms of capital costs and cost per production unit,
better health and safety conditions (elimination of underground fire,
explosion, and cave-in hazards, as well as reduction in noise and
dust pollution problems), and more flexibility of operation. The phen-
omenal advance in surface mining technology which has taken place
during the past forty years has permitted economic feasibility of
1 - 46
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Table 1-13
CRUDE ORE AND TOTAL MATERIAL
HANDLED AT SURFACE AND UNDERGROUND MINES1, (1972) BY COMMODITY
COMMODITY
*£
H
UJ
5
a)
*f
h
iii
5
2
O
z
0)
"3
IL
0)
0
£
Bauxite
Copper
Gold:
Lode
Placer
Iron Ore
Lead
Mercury
Molybdenum
Silver
Titanium
Tungsten
Uranium
Zinc
Others
TOTAL
Barite
Boron
Clays
Diatomite
Feldspar
Gypsum
Magnisite
Mica (scrap)
Mica (sheet)
Phosphate Rock
Potassium Salts
Salt
Sand & Gravel
Stone:
Crushed
Dimension
Others
TOTAL
Coal
TOTAL
CRUDE ORE
SURFACE
100.0
87.3
53.3
100.0
94.4
-
60.5
30.2
2.8
100.0
1 .0
58.6
0.2
NA
85.1
97.3
100.0
98.4
100.0
100.0
78.3
100.0
100.0
100.0
99.8
-
3.0
100.0
96.1
99.9
NA
96.3
48.9
49.9
UNDERGROUND
W
12.7
46.7
-
5.6
100.0
39.5
69.8
97.2
-
99.0
41.4
99.8
NA
14.9
2.7
-
1.6
-
-
21.7
-
-
-
0.2
1OO.O
97.0
-
3.9
0.1
NA
3.7
51 .1
51.1
TOTAL MATERIAL
SURFACE
100.0
96.3
91 .1
100.0
96.6
1 .O
75.7
68.9
11.8
100.0
6.5
98.1
0.2
NA
94.5
98.0
100. 0
98.4
100.0
100.0
90.3
100.0
99.9
100. 0
99.9
-
3.0
100.0
96.1
99.9
NA
96.6
NA
NA
UNDERGROUND
W
3.7
8.9
-
3.4
99. 0
24.3
31.1
88.2
-
93.5
1.9
99.8
NA
5.5
2.0
-
1.6
-
-
9.7
-
0.1
-
0.1
100.0
97.0
-
3.9
0.1
NA
3.4
NA
NA
Adapted From Reference No. 36, 78
W - Withheld to avoid disclosing individual company confidential data, included with
"Surface".
NA - Not Available
1 - Value expressed as percentage of total.
1 - 47
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Table 1-14
CRUDE ORE HANDLED
AT SURFACE AND UNDERGROUND MINES,1 (1972) BY STATE
STATE
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
Florida
Georgia
Hawaii
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
TOTAL
METALS AND NONMETALS
SURFACE
98
1OO
88
98
99
66
100
100
100
98
100
91
97
98
86
89
86
83
99
10O
100
92
100
10O
70
98
96
100
100
99
100
100
94
97
100
95
100
100
92
86
100
99
96
97
99
85
99
78
94
UNDERGROUND
2
12
2
1
84
2
9
3
2
4
1 1
14
17
1
-
-
8
-
-
30
2
4
-
-
1
-
-
6
3
-
5
-
-
8
14
-
1
4
3
1
15
1
22
6
COAL
SURFACE
64
100
1OO
98
-
44
-
-
52
94
59
100
53
-
-
91
-
-
-
-
1OO
99
-
-
-
-
1OO
68
97
-
35
-
-
-
48
100
1
30
99
18
96
49
UNDERGROUND
36
0
0
2
-
56
-
-
-
-
-
-
48
6
41
0
47
-
-
9
-
-
-
0
1
-
0
32
3
-
65
_
52
0
99
_
70
1
82
_
4
51
Adapted From Reference No. 36, 78
Values expressed as percentage of Total
1 - 48
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extracting lower grade and quality ores. At a time when mining of
higher grade ores could not fulfill the increasing needs of our indus-
trialized society, technological advances increased productivity to
meet these needs by opening a large reserve of low grade ores located
near the surface. Primary improvements were initiation of AN/FO
(Ammonium Nitrate - Fuel Oil) explosives, rotary drilling, various
auxiliary labor-saving devices, an increase in capacities of surface
excavators and trucks, and in general scale of the entire operation, a
shift from rail to truck haulage, and distinctive modifications in
mineral beneficiation. The technological advances in the surface
mine industry seem to have reached a plateau, and at least a tem-
porary restraint in size of equipment is occurring. Due to lower
operating efficiencies of larger excavating equipment, the future
trend should include a concerted effort to improve current designs.
In contrast, underground mining technology is now intensively
being employed to improve productivity through research related to
modified loading machines, versatile shuttle cars, automated roof
support bolters, longwall and shortwall mining techniques, and various
other remote and semi-remote controls. All of these, in addition to
improving productivity, should contribute to a marked reduction in
problems pertaining to the health and safety of the miner. Tech-
niques such as longwall mining could approach or equal the 90 percent
mineral recovery level of surface mine operations (8). Technological
advances in other areas (such as rock boring machines for reclama-
tion projects and rapid excavation techniques for military projects)
may be applicable to underground mineral extraction. Such advances
could very well change the productivity decline of the past six years
in underground mining (especially in coal mining, since at the present
time about 40 percent of underground coal mined is by conventional
methods, while that being mined continuously is producing less than
11 percent of its theoretical capability (85).
Other factors to be considered in forecasting the trend for
future underground mining vs. surface mining are the favorable envir-
onmental and aesthetic advantages of underground mining, the subjec-
tivity of surface operations to vagaries of weather conditions, economic
and physical limitations (stripping ratios) of surface mining, and most
importantly the physical character of mineable reserves. Because of
peculiarity of their physical environment, such important minerals
as lead, zinc, lode gold, potash, and salt are likely to continue to be
mined (at least a preponderance of each) by underground methods.
1 - 49
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However, surface mining of copper, stone, phosphate, gypsum, and
other valuable minerals which have thick-bedded or massive depos-
its are likely to be successfully challenged in the future by under-
ground mining methods. There are indications that even coal and
iron ore deposits may be competitively mined underground with the
advancement of improved underground technology (50).
FORECAST OF MINERAL COMMODITIES
By the year 2000, domestic demand for primary mineral
commodities is anticipated to be about 10 billion metric tons (11 bil-
lion tons) valued at $117 billion. If we are to meet our increasing
mineral needs while simultaneously protecting our environment, the
complex problems to be encountered and solved must be anticipated.
Since no forecasting generalization is applicable to all mineral com-
modities mined in the United States, attention must be directed to
mineral groups in order to properly assess our overall mineral posi-
tion and associated problems which lie ahead.
Metals
During the period of 1950 - 1971 , domestic demand for metals
tripled, accounting for 36% of the total mineral demand by 1971. This
increase in trend is likely to continue with a projected metallic demand
accounting for 43% of total mineral demand by the year 2000 ("73). Do-
mestically-produced metal ores were valued at over $3 billion in 1971.
The major minerals to be used as an index in this category are iron
ore, aluminum, copper, lead, zinc, and uranium.
Iron
Iron ore, the most important metal commodity, is expected
to increase in demand at a 2% rate to the year 2000. Although produc-
tion of iron ore as based upon a 20-year trend is expected to decline
(Table 1-10), anticipated technological advances should, result in
increased production.
1 - 50
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Aluminum
Primary demand for aluminum is expected to increase at a
6% annual rate. However the projected production as extrapolated
from its 20-year trend is calculated to decrease (Table 1-10). A
more realistic prediction is for a slight increase in primary alumi-
num production.
Copper
Copper's projected primary demand is an annual 4% rise to
the year 2000 with a concurrent production increase (Table 1-10).
Lead
The projection for primary demand of lead is an annual 2%
increase. As extrapolated from past trends, primary production
should decrease; however, due to high future demands (Table 1-10)
and a large domestic reserve base, lead production is expected to
moderately increase.
Zinc
An annual demand increase at a rate of 3% to the year 2000 is
projected for zinc, yet a decrease in zinc production, as based upon
past trends, is anticipated (Table 1-10). Due to foreign competition,
obsolete zinc smelters, substitution of other minerals, possible new
reserves, and improved efficiency in mining and metallurgical pro-
cesses, a more realistic prediction of future zinc production cannot
be made.
1 -51
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Uranium
The past trend for uranium has been erratic; a large growth
in the 1950's occurred due to a stimulated procurement program by the
Atomic Energy Commission and was subsequently followed by a de-
crease due to abandonment of the program. The forecast for future
demand and production of uranium is dependent upon many contin-
gencies, including successful development and use of fast-breeder
reactors, public concern over environmental problems and risk of
future accidents or related hazards, and developments by competing
energy systems. However, at this time the projected 20 year growth
for uranium mining and processing capacity is 800%. The current
energy crisis and "Project Independence" have dictated this tremen-
dous expansion program.
Nonmetallic Minerals
Nonmetallic mineral demand accounted for 8% in 1971, and is
projected to rise to 11% by the year 2000. Domestically-produced
nonmetallics are estimated to have valued $6 billion in 1971. The
major nonmetals to serve as index for this category are stone, sand
and gravel, clay, salt, phosphate, and sulfur.
Stone
Stone, the largest tonnage item, is expected to increase in
demand at an annual rate of 4% for the next few years. Its production
is also expected to increase in the future (Table 1-10), but this is
mainly dependent upon favorable conditions in the construction industry.
Sand and Gravel
Sand and gravel markets are growing at an annual rate of 4%
and production is expected (from past trends - Table 1-10) to expand
1 - 52
-------
in the future. Its production is also based upon demands of the pre-
sently unstable construction industry whose consumption accounts for
96% of total sand and gravel demand.
Clay demand is expected to increase at a 3.5% annual com-
pound rate and concurrent expansion in production is expected to
result (Table 1-10).
Salt
An annual rate increase of 4% per year in salt demand will
comprise its future long-term trend with a concurrent production
increase due to expected development of new mines and innovation
of older ones.
Phosphate Rock
A very stable and favorable situation and forecast exists for
phosphate rock. Its demand is expected to increase at an annual rate
of 4% for the next few years and slight production expansion will easily
fulfill these needs (Table 1-10^. Due to its importance in production
of fertilizer (74% of the total phosphate production is consumed by the
fertilizer industry)* phosphate rock production should steadily increase
in the future. However, anticipated higher prices and foreign compe-
tition threatens future export markets.
Sulfur
Sulfur domestic demand is forecast to increase at a 4% annual
compound rate with a predicted decrease in production (as based upon
past trends - Table 1-10). Nevertheless, not only is production real-
istically expected to increase due to high demand, but also a possible
1 - 53
-------
situation of overproduction could result from environmental-related
sources, such as sulfur removal from stack gases and from gasifica-
tion and liquefaction of coal.
Energy
During the period of 1950-1971, domestic demand for energy
doubled, accounting for 55% of total mineral demand in 1971, and an
annual growth rate of 4% has been predicted. In order to meet these
increasing needs, emphasis must necessarily be placed upon coal
mining.
Coal
Prior to the energy crisis domestic coal demand was fore-
cast to increase 4% annually (Table 1-10). However, due to the ener-
gy crisis and "Project Independence", anticipated demand and produc-
tion rate will require a total increase of approximately 100% over
present day figures. In order to fulfill energy needs by 1985, the
National Academy of Engineering, in a study published in May, 1974,
promulgated the following requirements for the coal industry:
"... Develop 140 new 2 million tons per year Eastern
Underground mines.
. . . Develop 30 new 2 million tons per year Eastern Surface
mines.
. . . Develop 100 new 5 million tons per year Western
Surface mines.
. . Recruit and train 80,000 new Eastern coal miners.
. . . Recruit and train 45,000 new Western coal miners.
. . . Manufacture 140 new 100 cubic yard shovels and
draglines.
. . . Manufacture 2,400 continuous mining machines."
1 - 54
-------
For the coal industry, such a dramatic challenge can only be met by
overcoming several serious economic, environmental, and technolo-
gical problems. However, an abundant resource base exists to fulfill
these proposed needs if the abovementioned problems can be overcome.
Less than 5% of total resources are recoverable as based upon current
technology, economics, and environmental regulations. Anthracite
coal's future is not as promising. Its demand is forecast to decline
at an annual rate of 4% - 5% with a concurrent decline in production.
Primarily, this steady decline is the consequence of its unfavorable
cost relationship to competing energy sources - its unit cost is the
highest of all fossil fuels. Basic problems involved are antiquated
mining technology, serious environmental considerations, and a lack
of skilled manpower. Although the past 20-year trend in production
can be extrapolated to zero production by 1985 (Table 1-10), anthra-
cite mining should be a viable industry in the future due to technologi'-
cal advances, training programs, and demand (caused by the energy
crisis and demand in the East for low sulfur coal to meet environ-
mental regulations).
Oil Shale
Oil shale, a mineral from which an oil similar to petroleum
can be extracted, may soon become a prominent mineral in our energy
group of resources. Although not yet commercially tapped, oil shale
deposits are expected to be producing oil in the near future. However,
research and development projects must first overcome technological
problems pertaining to in situ retorting, environmental considerations,
and legal problems dealing with land use and mining claims. Since
large volumes of water are required in the retorting and processing
phase of oil shale, availability of water in the semi-arid oil shale
regions (Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming) may become a limiting factor
to production. Therefore, production by the year 2000 may be as
high as 2 billion barrels per year or as low as zero.
1 - 55
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CHAPTER 2
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
OF MINING
-------
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF MINING
Mining activities, extraction through processing, obviously
disturb the environment. However, current legislative controls and
guidelines have helped to minimize operational and post-operational
effects from mining procedures. This has not always been the case,
evidenced by numbers of abandoned mine sites throughout the country.
Although current legislation and restrictions on active mines reduce
potential environmental disturbances, adverse impacts from aban-
doned mines can, in some instances, off-set advantages gained by
active mine regulation. Environmental impacts from vacated mines
generally emanate from one or more of the following categories:
Altered Landscapes - topography changes, landslide
potentials, vegetation changes and erosion.
Water Quality Degradation - sedimentation of streams;
acid, alkaline, or saline drainage; and heavy metal
concentration drainage and radioactivity.
Air Pollution - dust production, eye irritants, burning
refuse bank contributions (SOp, CO, etc.).
One of the most obvious impacts of orphan mined lands is that
of landscape alteration. This terrestrial disruption consists of aban-
doned overburden or spoil piles, refuse banks, open strip cuts, open
pits and quarries, haul and access roads, tailings areas (piles, ponds,
dams, sumps, dumps), underground mine openings, and mine struc-
tures (processing facilities, storage buildings, equipment). The ex-
tent of landscape alteration is very much dependent upon the mining
methodology employed at the site, as well as type of mineral extract-
ed. Minerals or ores requiring extensive preparation and classifica-
tion, such as copper and iron with their associated tailings areas,
disturb a greater land area than other minerals, such as granite or
limestone, which affect very little land in addition to the mine.
IMPACTS OF SPECIFIC MINERAL INDUSTRIES
Mine drainage and water pollution problems associated with
major minerals are indicated on the following page:
2-3
-------
Bauxite
Red mud residues result when alumina is extracted from baux-
ite ore, and consist largely of complex sodium aluminum sili-
cates, and iron oxides. Although these insoluble materials do
not contribute to chemical pollution, they can become signifi-
cant sources of sediment emissions from eroded tailings ba-
sins.
Copper
Gold
Drainage characteristics associated with copper mining include
quantities of acid, ferrous iron, copper, manganese, magne-
sium, sulfates, lead, cadmium, nickel, zinc, mercury, and
arsenic.
Being extracted as a by-product from other metal mining oper-
ations, drainage problems are similar to other metals (cop-
per). However, serious sedimentation problems do occur from
abandoned tailings areas resulting from dredging.
Iron Ore
Oxidation of iron sulfides produces acid discharges which in
turn cause dissolution of numerous metal ions, similar to
those discussed for copper.
Metal mines, in general, have similar types of mine drainage
discharges. Low pH and abnormal concentrations of metallic ions are
common, along with occasional traces of other elements (Boron,
Molybdenum, Barium, etc.).
Non-metallic abandoned mine sites do not have the major
chemical mine drainage problems associated with metal mines, i.e.
acidic highly mineralized waters. They do, however, contribute sig-
nificantly to stream sedimentation disturbances from abandoned tail-
ings ponds, settling basins, spoil banks and waste dumps.
2-4
-------
Fossil fuel production, particularly from anthracite, bitumi-
nous, and lignite coal mining, has gained the reputation of producing
severe acid mine drainage problems. Oxidation of pyritic materials
causes acid and ferrous iron production. Further oxidation of ferrous
iron results in ferric hydroxide which coats stream bottoms with a
yellowish-orange precipitate, commonly referred to as "yellow-boy."
The impacts of mine drainage from abandoned coal mines are exten-
sively outlined in numerous reports such as, "Stream Pollution by
Coal Mine Drainage in Appalachia," by the Federal Water Pollution
Control Administration, U. S. Department of the Interior, and the
series of reports by the Appalachian Regional Commission on Acid
Mine Drainage in Appalachia.
IMPACTS OF SPECIFIC MINING TECHNIQUES
Open Pit
The most commonly utilized surface mining method, this re-
sults in a large "open pit," extending well below the original ground
surface topography. Abandoned open pits vary over a wide range of
configurations. The mineral or commodity extracted greatly influ-
ences final dimensions of an open pit. Large chasms created by cop-
per and iron open pit mines allow little potential for reclamation or
land reuse. Excessively deep, and consisting of numerous operating
benches and haulage roads, these pits drastically and permanently al-
ter terrestrial surroundings.
Other open pits, those associated with non-metallic minerals
such as limestone, marble and granite, are not usually as large as
those created by metal mining. Such operations when abandoned,
often form water impoundments due to interruption of subsurface water
flows. Although water quality is not usually affected by these im-
poundments, mere existence of deep, water filled, unprotected pits
creates an attraction for youthful exploration - a hazardous situation.
Abandoned open pits invariably leave some sort of highwall or
unprotected slope conditions. Whether it consists of three faces,
characteristic of mountainside excavation, or is totally enclosed, an
2-5
-------
inactive or abandoned open pit has the potential for rock spalling,
sloughing, and sliding, creating a potentially dangerous safety and pol-
lutional situation. Backfilling open pits for reclamation and highwall
elimination has not been practiced due to prohibitive costs involved,
and also due to the great volume of mineral extracted and consumed as
compared to material available for reclamation work.
A major characteristic of most all open pit mines is the large
area required for overburden, tailings, and processing waste disposal.
In some instances, these acreages are in excess of that affected by the
actual pit. The landscape impact of tailings and waste disposal areas
is very significant. These disposed non-salable commodities inhibit
natural vegetative growth due to lack of plant nutrients, exposed toxic
salts and inert materials, and presence of dark rock capable of ab-
sorbing enough heat to be fatal to plant life. Lack of plant growth lim-
its or eliminates wildlife habitats, causes severe erosion problems,
and permits infiltration of surface water through refuse piles, often
leaching toxic chemicals into nearby streams. Erosion results from
surface streams flowing across and along the margins of tailings
areas, and from seasonal surface runoff. After periods of extensive
erosional losses, landslides and slumping of waste piles can cause
sudden toxic sediment loads to discharge into receiving streams.
Area Surface
In contrast to long-lived open pit mines (50 years or more in
most instances), area mining activities are relatively short-lived.
That is, mining time (weeks, months) is very short on a per acre dis-
turbed basis. Fifty years of area surface mining will disturb a much
greater acreage than fifty years of open pit mining, particularly when
area mining coal.
Abandoning area mines prior to any reclamation efforts leaves
the disturbed acreage in a series of sharp ridges and valleys, similar
to a "washboard" effect. Past area mining activities, especially in
the coal bearing portions of the Midwest, were conducted with little or
no regard to spoil segregation or special materials handling - the re-
sult, an inverted soil profile. Deserted spoil ridges can contain acid
forming or toxic materials which prohibit plant growth, thus providing
2-6
-------
an avenue for wind and water erosion. It is not uncommon for aban-
doned area mine sites to contain numerous small pockets of water be-
tween the ridges. Final cuts or last operating pits usually fill with
water to form impoundments, bounded on one side by a spoil bank and
on the other by a highwall.
Contour Surface
The most significant landscape impacts resulting from aban-
doned or inactive mines were created by contour mining methods.
Numerous studies and investigations have been conducted on the im-
pacts and effects of deserted contour strip mines, particularly those
operated for coal production in the Appalachian Region of this country.
Briefly, terrestrial disturbances consist of exposed highwalls along
the previous contour outcrop of the coal seam, a nearly level bench at
the base of that highwall, and a barren mound of displaced overburden
material at the end of the bench which was indiscriminantly cast on the
downslope. The impacts of these past reckless mining practices are
far-reaching. Extensive erosion and landslides commonly result from
poor outslope stability, along with very significant quantities of acid
mine drainage due to oxidation of pyritic materials. Sedimentation
and iron deposits in nearby waterways destroy aquatic biota and dis-
color stream beds. There are many variations of contour mine con-
figurations, including spoil ridges from successive cuts into the hill-
side, several "bands" of disturbances from stripping multiple coal
outcrops, and effects of augering the exposed highwall coal seams.
Auger
The augering process, which consists of "drilling" the coal
seam from the highwall with large "bits" (up to 2.1 meters in diame-
ter), has also contributed to landscape alterations. Exposed auger
holes can be direct sources of mine drainage emission, and can cause
subsurface water pollution through surface water inflow. Extensive
augering also causes surface subsidence problems similar to those
created by underground methods. Allowing auger holes to remain
2-7
-------
visible presents an additional safety consideration, where curious
youngsters can gain access.
Dredge and Hydraulic
Sand and gravel operations are conducted in most every state.
Usually of short duration and small area disturbance, abandoned sites
are scattered throughout the country. Impacts of these vacated opera-
tions are generally small, and consist mainly of disrupted contour
configurations, erosion, and visual displeasure.
Using water directly and indirectly in the mining process,
dredging and hydraulic mining have caused very serious stream sedi-
mentation problems during, and after mining. Stream channel dis-
ruption and/or relocation over previous settling basins, causes high
turbidity and sediment build-ups downstream. Inherent with any wet
dredging or hydraulic mining operation are settling or tailings basins.
If these basins are not properly "reclaimed" after mining, water ero-
sion of the impounding embankments can cause severe damage and ul-
timate bank failure, resulting in large concentrated slug discharges of
sediment and tailings into receiving streams. Waste disposal dumps
created adjacent to original stream channels can contribute to stream
pollutional problems for many decades after abandonment.
Deep Well Extraction
Sulfur mining in salt domes, by use of the Frasch process,
necessitates leaving the domes with large cavities where sulfur has
been removed. As with other near surface underground operations,
subsidence is a major problem and creates large, dangerous, unap-
pealing "potholes."
Underground Mining
Underground mining methods, commonly used for a variety of
minerals, include: room and pillar, longwall, and shortwall systems,
2-8
-------
augering, raised bore techniques, deep well extraction (superheated
H2O, similar to Frasch process), caving and stoping methods. These
methodologies, although different in their implementation, cause sim-
ilar types of environmental disturbances upon abandonment of the
mine. Used equipment and vacated structures, such as processing
plants near mine openings are safety hazards as well as "eyesores."
Mine subsidence areas are caused by roof collapse in mined out por-
tions of the mine. Having utilized underground methods that involved
filling mine voids with other materials, some vacant underground
mines experience little or no subsidence problems.
An impact or terrestrial disturbance characteristic of all
abandoned underground mines is the entry area - slope, drift, or
shaft. Many abandoned operations allowed these openings to remain,
creating safety hazards, visual scars, and mine drainage pollution
sources. Surface water can enter these openings and supplement
groundwater volume while degrading water quality. Groundwater can
also emanate from these holes and degrade surface water quality.
IMPACTS OF ALL MINING TECHNIQUES
A number of environmental impacts have been attributed to the
mineral extraction industry in general. These impacts, depending
upon topography, geology, climatology, specific minerals involved,
and mining techniques employed, may or may not have permanent ad-
verse affects. Impacts resulting from haulage and access roads, drill
holes, and air pollution are generally common, at least to a degree, in
all mineral extractive industries.
All mining activities, whether surface or underground, require
haulage and access roads. Depending on location and materials used
for construction, these roads can cause severe environmental distur-
bances. Many miners used toxic waste materials to construct haulage
routes, providing near-permanent toxic emission sources. Being ex-
posed to effects of weathering, abandoned access roads are easily
eroded, causing stltation and sedimentation of receiving streams.
Nearby community residents, at times take advantage of abandoned
mine roads to dump trash and litter on mined lands, thus contributing
further to environmental degradation and health hazards.
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Exploratory and test holes drilled during the life of the mine
and later abandoned, can become pollutional sources as well as public
safety hazards. These holes serve as avenues of transport for pollut-
ed surface water entry into groundwater aquifers. On the other hand,
when these holes intercept flooded or partially flooded mines, they can
allow subsurface mine drainage to reach the surface and enter nearby
streams.
Abandoned surface and deep mine sites are predominantly
viewed as contact areas for dispersal of water borne pollutants, how-
ever, they are sources of air pollutants as well. Essentially, envi-
ronmental degradation due to air pollutants from abandoned mine sites
is less significant than the adverse impacts of water contamination.
However, any comprehensive plan for abatement of pollution from
abandoned mine sites must be considerate of possible air pollution
impacts.
Many abandoned surface mine sites, and surface remnants of
underground mining operations have been left with little or no recla-
mation and revegetation. As a result, vast unprotected surface areas
remain exposed to the elements. These areas may range in size from
an entire unreclaimed surface mine site to smaller wind erodable
sites such as dried tailings ponds, spoil and mineral storage piles,
and haul roads.
Often, the surface of these areas is reduced through natural
weathering to a texture consisting of fine particles which can easily be
picked up and carried by air currents. This creates an atmospheric
suspension of solids very similar to the suspension of solids in water.
Unfortunately, unlike the water transport mode which is limited to the
confines of stream beds or other water courses, air-borne material
can cover a large area in a relatively short time.
For ease of discussion, air pollutants from abandoned mine
sites can be divided into three distinct categories: Inert Particulates,
Toxic Particulates, and Gases.
Inert particulates, in the context of this discussion are fine
soil particles, inactive chemically, which pose the threat of environ-
mental suffocation. Carried by wind from the mine site, the larger,
2-10
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heavier particulates in this category can be deposited over and suffo-
cate surrounding vegetation. Also, if settling occurs over populated
areas, a severe dust problem is often created. Severe consequences
can result from extremely fine particulates which do not rapidly settle
out of the atmosphere. Remaining in suspension for long periods of
time, these particulates may be inhaled by humans and wildlife,
causing damage to lung tissues.
Toxic particulates are those which either react chemically with
other elements, causing an undesirable end result, or which constant-
ly emit radioactivity. Spoil materials contain salts which can severe-
ly corrode any metal surfaces they contact, kill vegetation, and de-
grade the quality of adjacent waters. Inherent in the spoils and dry
tailings ponds of abandoned uranium mines in the West, are radioac-
tive substances. Widespread air transport of these substances could
incur long-lasting and devastating environmental damage upon both
flora and fauna species.
Although less predominant than the problem of particulates,
some abandoned mine sites do generate noxious polluting gases. For
decades abandoned "culm" banks in the Nation's anthracite region have
been burning and emitting hydrogen sulfide gas. This highly toxic gas,
escaping into the atmosphere, is carried to wooded areas, killing
vegetation, and to adjacent cities and towns, causing adverse health
effects.
Obviously the extent of air pollution or its severity must be
assessed individually for each mine site or group of mine sites in a
specific area. The amount of unprotected surface exposed to the ele-
ments, physical and chemical composition of surface materials, and
meteorological conditions are factors which will directly affect the
generation of air contaminants. Therefore, a comprehensive delinea-
tion of problem areas can only be developed through extensive air
quality monitoring programs encompassing specific study sites.
11
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CHAPTER 3
RECLAMATION - ENVIRONMENTAL POTENTIAL
-------
RECLAMATION - ENVIRONMENTAL POTENTIAL
Losses of natural resources caused by lack of reclamation
from mining activities are in direct conflict with the growing needs
of municipal, industrial, agricultural, recreational, navigational,
private and governmental groups. In many cases, absence of suit-
able land and water resources causes public and private groups to ex-
ploit more costly alternatives. The degree of permanent disruption
of land and water, relative to their former utility, is dependent on
numerous variables: orientation and distribution of the extracted
mineral, amount and type of land alteration, volume of mineral per
unit surface area, presence of toxic material leached, rainfall, top-
ography, hydrology, natural vegetative cover, size of mineral body
mined and proximity to surface (if deep mined), and the resultant
surface configuration of the abandoned mine site.
It is important to note that degradation of the air, land,
streams, and groundwater may improve slowly and stabilize or
seemingly never improve beyond barren land. For example, some
abandoned surface coal mines may revegetate naturally where suit-
able soil, nutrients, and moisture are present, thus eliminating some
land deterioration, stream and air pollution. On the other hand, toxic
spoil banks and large coal refuse piles show practically no improve-
ments. Numerous mines are continuous sources of pollutants, such
as ferrous hydroxide and high concentrations of dissolved salts, which
severely pollute thousands of miles of streams. Disturbances to land
and water may vary greatly in nature for a single mineral commodity
and mining method as well as between mineral commodities, mining
methods and regions of the country.
By 1971, about 40 percent of all land disturbed by surface
mining was reclaimed to some extent, the remaining 60 percent is
totally unreclaimed. An estimated 1.46 million hectares (3.6 million
acres) of land was disturbed by these mining operations with the fol-
lowing breakdown indicating the percentage acreage affected:
coal 41%
sand and gravel 26
stone 8
gold 6
phosphate 6
iron ore 5
3-3
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clay 3
other 5
(surface mined minerals)
The distribution of disturbed lands by commodity differs
somewhat between minerals and is related to the type mineral depos-
ition, proximity to buyer, and consumer demand. Abandoned surface
mined coal lands are situated predominantly in Illinois, Indiana, Ohio,
Pennsylvania, West Virginia and Kentucky. Stone, clay, and sand-
gravel have been mined throughout the United States and are generally
associated with population centers and consumer demands.
Elimination or reduction of environmental degradation to the
land and waters can be approached through implementation of at-
source preventive abatement measures or treatment - the two pri-
mary types of pollution controls. Preventive pollution abatement
measures - for example, deep mine sealing, surface regrading, and
revegetation - are commonly implemented at abandoned mine sites.
Preventive measures usually require one initial expenditure, and no
follow-up management or supervision. This represents a sound
economic investment in terms of benefits accrued with time and little
or no continuing costs. Treatment measures, however, are usually
utilized only at active mine sites with treatment cost being incorpoi
ated into the selling price of the product. Treatment requires high
capital investments, and ongoing labor, maintenance and materials
costs. Benefits from this approach (clean unpolluted streams) last
only as long as treatment is applied and cease if treatment stops.
Occasionally sufficient benefits can be realized to economically
justify infinite treatment of abandoned mine drainage. Such justifi-
cations may include recovery of large sections of a stream having
marginal water quality, thus providing additional sources of drinking
water and recreation facilities to a region having no alternative
sources.
The abandoned mine site's reclamation potentials, specifically
water or land-oriented utility is primarily dependent on mining
method used, soil and water conditions and available reclamation
materials. Effectiveness of abatement measures and their costs are
directly related to the desired post reclamational land and water
uses. The land use priorities and adequacy of pollution controls or
abatement measures are subjective and must be evaluated employing
a logical and systematic approach.
3-4
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Approximately 80 minerals have been surface and deep mined
in the United States and discussions of the impact, reclamation poten-
tial and land and water use restrictions for all minerals and mining
methods goes beyond the scope of this report. Fortunately the major
impact from abandoned mines involves only a few minerals utilizing
similar mining methods, enabling a discussion of the reclamation
potential of these lands.
Most land and water restrictions imposed by mining distur-
bances can be resolved by proper reclamation at justifiable costs.
However, severe subsidence problems or large discharges from
mining operations are not as easily solved and research is still in pro-
gress. Reclamation potential and success cover the full spectrum
from restoring the land and water to its original use to providing land
or water use in a higher demand than its original form. An excellent
example of improved land utilization through reclamation is flat
pasture land in mountainous eastern Kentucky, created by the moun-
tain top removal mining method. This mountainous land had little
value before mining, but increased in value immediately after recla-
mation.
Benefits commonly realized through successful reclamation and
abatement of pollution are both stream and land oriented. Stream or
water oriented benefits are generally associated with recreation and
aesthetics, fishing, waterfowl hunting, reduced structural damage
(corrosion), reduced water treatment costs, increased industrial and
public usability of the water source, greater reservoir capacities due
to reduced siltation, reduced flooding, and reductions in corrosion to
buried transmission lines. Land oriented benefits include increased
value or selling price of land, greater tax base, availability of saw
timber and pulp wood, recreation and aesthetics, improved big and
small game hunting, commercial and private building sites, agricul-
tural crop and grazing land, and refuge and feed areas for wildlife.
In planning reclamation of an abandoned mine site, full advan-
tage should be taken of the altered topography at the site to develop
the land for its best potential use, such as creating useful impound-
ments, shelter areas for grazing land, home sites and access roads
to aid travel for fishermen and hunters. However, the success and
maximum benefit from a reclamation project can only be achieved if
the total watershed problems are understood and considered. This
will hopefully eliminate cosmetic relief or limited success resulting
from other limitations imposed by either non-mining related pollu-
3-5
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tion or additional mining pollution sources within the watershed.
Justification for reclamation expenditures is usually detei
mined by cost-effectiveness and benefits achieved. Projects low in
cost effecting removal of large amounts of pollution, gaining mul-
tiple land and water uses, receive high priority. Costs associated
with specific reclamation benefits depend on initial suitability of the
disturbed area for that land or water use. A major portion of the
reclamation cost can be offset by the benefits achieved within 30
to 50 years. However, in some cases benefits have offset costs in
a few years; such as for high demand recreational and residential
or industrial site development projects. Benefits from reclamation
projects are not necessarily restricted to the reclaimed mine site;
nearby lands and streams may accrue additional multiple uses. For
example, studies of reclamation work in the Susquehanna River
Basin have indicated stream and land oriented benefits amount to
a return of $1.27 for every dollar spent.
NATURAL CHARACTERISTICS AFFECTING LAND UTILITY
Once initial land disturbance occurs, natural factors influence
future land utility. Method of mineral extraction and subsequent
abandonment sets an initial determining factor to be reckoned within
any reclamation plan - configuration of abandoned land. Socio-eco-
nomic considerations determine funding and the desired end result
of reclamation. The following parameters set a framework construc-
ted by nature within which land planners must operate:
1. Soil
2. Geology and Mineralogy
3. Hydrology and Water Quality
4. Topography
5. Climate
Soil
Quantity and quality of soil influences land use. The amount of
soil present at the abandoned mine site may be sufficient for woodland
or pasture, but not agricultural products. Nutrients such as nitrogen,
3-6
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phosphate, and potash, and parameters such as grain size (which
will affect permeability and porosity), chemical composition, or-
ganic content, color, and pH determine what species of vegetation
will grow successfully and how much precipitation will be absorbed
into the ground.
Geology and Mineralogy
Physical geologic parameters and rock type of surrounding
geologic formations play an important part in future land use planning.
Presence of numerous faults and joint systems could eliminate any
sort of landfill plans. Analysis of local structural geology will indi-
cate subsidence potentials, mine sealing feasibility, and how the atti-
tude of beds, faults, joints, fractures, porosity, permeability and
current deformation forces affect hydrologic conditions and highwall
and slope stabilities. Unsatisfactory geologic conditions could
eliminate home building and industrial parks as land use choices, but
be of little consequence concerning agricultural or grazing potential.
Mineralogic characteristics of surrounding rocks influence future
mining feasibility as well as natural pollution potential or neutral-
izing capabilities.
Hydrology and Water Quality
Hydrologic conditions and water quality strongly affect any
water related reclamation proposals. A sufficient water supply of
adequate quality must be available. Land erosion by flowing waters
should be considered. Any land use plans should avoid contaminating
aquifers. Hydrologic conditions associated with deep mining of coal
may not allow installation of mine seals at pollution sources because
of build-up of excessive hydraulic heads.
Topography
An important topographic impact on an area's utility is acces-
sibility. If terrain is too steep, farm machinery may be unable to
function properly. Industry and home developers may shy away from
3-7
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an area because adequate transportation routes by-pass mountainous
areas, as is the case in parts of Appalachia. However, disturbed
land regraded to a gentle rolling topography in mountainous regions
commands high demand for uses ranging from agriculture to housing
developments. In many cases, a land use plan calling for contrast
with regional topography in an aesthetically pleasing manner may be
most viable.
Topography also influences erosion, slope stability and flood
conditions.
Climate
Climatic conditions such as annual normals, means, and ex-
tremes of temperatures and precipitation affect species of vegetation
considered for planting, planting time, number of plantings per year,
length of growing season, and yield per acre. Disturbed land sub-
jected to extremely hot, cold, or dry conditions, such as Alaskan
tundra or southwestern deserts, may lack any immediate utility other
than wildlife habitats. Reclamation becomes difficult and costly, but
necessary if we wish to pass on a healthy environment to future gener-
ations .
MINING DISTURBANCES AND RECLAMATION POTENTIALS
Keeping these above-described nature factors affecting recla-
mation potentials of an abandoned mine site in mind, specific mining
methods will be discussed as they relate to potential land and water
use. Land use potentials are also summarized in Table 3-1.
Open Pit
Many abandoned open pit mines and adjacent processing areas,
especially the large iron ore and copper ore pits, exhibit low recla-
mation potentials due to the enormous size and depth of operations.
The larger pits cannot be backfilled because too large a volume
of mineral has been removed. However, if high demand for adjacent
3-8
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Table 3-1
MINED LAND UTILIZATION POTENTIAL
MINING
METHODS
OPEN PIT
Metals
Non-Metals
AREA STRIP
CONTOUR STRIP
MOUNTAIN TOP
REMOVAL
AUGER
DREDGE
HYDRAULIC
UNDERGROUND
DEEP WELL
EXTRACTION
Agricultural
3
3
1
2
1
2
2
3
2
2
Pasture
3
2
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
1
a
Timber & Pul
3
3
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
1
LAND USES
^
Open Space
(Forest etc
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
-u
J9
Wildlife Habi
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
a
H
Rec reati onal
2
2
1
2
2
3
1
2
2
2
T5
Water Relate
Recreation
1
1
1
2
3
3
1
2
2
3
L
I-1
0)
£
1
1
2
3
3
3
2
3
3
3
c
cl
Home Develo
3
2
1
2
1
3
2
1
3
3
i.
Industrial Pa
2
2
1
2
2
3
2
2
3
3
4J
Commercial
Building Si
3
2
1
3
2
3
2
3
3
3
i «
^
Sanitary Lan
2
1
2
£
3
3
3
3
1
2
KEY
1 High Probable Use
2 Probable Use
3 Low Probable Use
3-9
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land exists, disposal of waste and tailings into the pit, slope reduc-
tion, and revegetation of waste areas and pit slopes may be feasible.
Coal, phosphate, sand and gravel, and stone open pits and quarries
generally disturb a much smaller acreage than the larger ore type
pits, and because of transport economics are usually located near
populated areas. Higher demand affords greater reclamation poten-
tials .
Water quality associated with these non-metallic industries is
generally higher. Swimming, fishing, and other water related ac-
tivities can enter reclamation plans. Gently sloping underwater
safety benches should be constructed as safety precautions if swim-
ming is desirable. Parks, picnic areas, and playgrounds may be
practical. In crowded eastern areas, industries requiring a size-
able water supply may wish to utilize adjacent lands as an industrial
park and fence the area as a safety precaution. Communities may
utilize wet pits as reservoirs. Again, depending on location, an
adjacent planned housing community may be able to utilize an aban-
doned open pit for a water supply and recreational facility. When
hydrologic conditions permit, the pit has the potential of a ready
made solid waste disposal site.
Area Mining
Reclaiming area mined land involves grading the sharp crested
spoil into adjacent valleys. Regrading to a gently rolling topography
or approximate original contour is usually desirable. If agricultural
utility is intended, boulders should be buried and slopes made gentle
enough for operation of farm machinery.
Water impoundments formed in the final cut may be a valuable
water source for agriculture, livestock, and recreation, if it is not
chemically polluted or laden with silt.
Since area mining is most applicable to relatively flat-lying
regions, good reclamation grading, soil conditioning, and revegeta-
tion can restore disturbed land to a condition virtually indistinguish-
able from the surrounding landscapes, whether it be agricultural land,
pasture, or forest. Midwestern companies have constructed park and
lake areas in dry regions where old spoil piles once stood. A variety
of reclamation potentials include agriculture, pasture, timber and pulp
3-10
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wood, recreational parks and lakes, industrial parks, planned housing
communities, sanitary landfills, shopping plazas, and office com-
plexes .
Contour Mining
Although the techniques are different between area and contour
mining the abandoned land does offer similar reclamation potentials.
Backfilling bench areas, covering or partially covering the highwall,
and possibly highwall reduction (although more acreage becomes dis-
turbed) helps alleviate the problems resulting from past contour
mining abuses. New utilities may be realized from formerly unpro-
ductive, inaccessible woodlands. Backfilling and soil treatment can
provide pasture land in locales where none exists. Select tree plant-
ing can provide good timber or pulp wood. If located outside urban
areas, it may be desirable to retain level bench areas for private
home construction.
Mountain-Top Removal
Extensive mountainous areas are leveled, creating large tracts
of flat land. The same reclamation potentials exist for land affected
by mountain-top removal as exist for area mining; although demand
for homebuilding sites and pasture land would have higher priority.
Auger
Augering involves disturbances of small acreage and has a rel-
atively negligible effect on land utility. It is usually associated with
some other form of mining such as contour stripping.
Dredging
The relatively large body of water left behind upon abandonment
offers excellent reclamation potential for recreation, home sites, in-
3-11
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dustry, or reservoirs for domestic or agricultural uses.
Underground
Underground mining activities disturb far less acreages then
surface methods. Room and Pillar, Longwall, Shortwall, Stoping,
and Augering methods cause one similar land disturbance problem -
subsidence. Treatment facilities capable of neutralizing mine drainr
age have effectively restored many miles of streams for swimming
and fishing, but require continual operation, maintenance and, un-
fo rtu nately, fu nd i ng .
LAND VALUES AND TAXES
Value of abandoned or reclaimed mined lands as utilized in
this section is defined as being the highest selling price for a parcel
of land made available on the open market for a reasonable period
of time. The value of the land (less minerals), is controlled by
inflational increases and potential land use benefits which govern the
selling price and tax benefit values.
The value of unreclaimed abandoned mine land and reclaimed
land is controlled by supply and demand, as is true for other land uses.
Areas that are not easily accessible or are far removed from popula-
tion centers with few or no paved transportation routes have rela-
tively less value. This is common for many abandoned coal and metal
mines, however, sand and gravel operations are usually closer to
population centers and have a higher demand and sale value. The re-
sultant topography of the land and its condition relative to any intended
use the buyer may have greatly controls purchase price. Size and
shape of land tracts do not always have an impact on sales value ex-
cept when the use demands a minimum acreage. If the unreclaimed
or reclaimed land has an adequate supply of water with acceptable
quality, values are usually greater. As is true for other benefits the
selling value of reclaimed land can be decided by the appearance and
condition of surrounding land.
Many surface mined lands have been reclaimed or used for
3-12
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public recreational purposes, pasture lands, landfills, pulpwood, saw
timber, crop farming, shopping malls, and residential sites. All of
these uses are considered as high value and have a positive economic
impact on the area. Excellent commercial uses do occur but are
too dependent on the presence of heavily traveled highways and built-
up urban areas not commonly found near many abandoned coal and
metal mined lands. Often the purchaser of a tract of abandoned mined
land owns adjacent acreage and seizes the opportunity to increase
total land holdings.
It should be emphasized that abandoned mine land in extremely
steep sloped and dry arid areas has little utility and hence little re-
sale value. Some mining practices also leave land in a rather useless
state. Large open pit mines where a large volume of material has
been removed offer little utility other than possible water reservoir
usage.
A survey of coal surface mines conducted in the state of Ohio
appraised the value of unreclaimed and reclaimed land. This survey
also ascertained the primary reasons for land values to be lower and
higher than normal. The normal range of sale prices per hectare for
unreclaimed land was found to be $247 to $371. Reclaimed land was
found to sell for $371 to $618 per hectare. The value range was con-
siderable and reasons for this are mentioned below. Adjacent land
owners who purchased unreclaimed land or reclaimed land were
usually offered this land to increase their holdings at a relatively
high price verging on speculative buying. A first choice offering was
usually made by owners who could not acquire higher selling prices
from absentee buyers. The highest dollar per hectare transactions
occurred when excellent commercial land use was anticipated. The
lowest prices were paid for extremely remote and rough land where
mineral rights were retained. The presence of water and recreation
potential increased selling prices consistently.
Within Pennsylvania's central bituminous coal fields rough
mountain land adjacent to strip mines usually sells for $494 to $741
or less per hectare. Similar unmined natural land at a distance from
strip mines and unaffected by other industries often sells for $1,483
to $1,730 per hectare. This land is high in demand for cabin sites in
Pennsylvania's best deer hunting areas.
Reclaimed mined lands greatly increase the tax base of the local
community. These revenues are generally used to provide improved
3-13
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local government and services. Other state oriented tax benefits can
result from sales of produce such as farm crops, milk, saw timber
and numerous other taxable items. Private, industrial and com-
mercial land and its use are all local sources of taxable income.
However, public ownership of land (for example landfills and recrea-
tional areas), is not taxable and increased income to local govern-
ments must be acquired from fees charged to persons utilizing these
facilities.
Local or county taxes are acquired from a percentage assess-
ment of the market value and the millage rate applied. County
agencies responsible for taxes, land assessments and real estate
transactions can provide necessary information to state planning
groups from which land value and tax benefits can be determined.
One central Pennsylvania county within the bituminous coal fields
realized market value increases of $618 to $988 per hectare for
reclaimed land. The county applies a 67.5 millage rate against an
assessed value taken at 40 percent of the market value. This repre-
sents an annual tax increase of $9.88 per hectare. State taxes on
produce bought could be determined from the land use, acreage and
productivity. Returning utility to the land has other economic bene-
fits related to employment, less welfare, lower prices resulting from
increased supplies and general increases in sales and services.
A federal study conducted in 1965 assessed surface mined
lands and their success for rehabilitation to specific land uses.
Estimates of land use potential were provided by field personnel of
the Soil Conservation Service and Bureau of Sport Fisheries and
Wildlife. Land uses, areas and the percent of total lands reclaimed
for all uses are presented below.
Hectares Percent of
Land Use (thousand) Lands Reclaimed
cropland 17 2.1
forest 188 22.8
occupancy 49 5.9
pasture 98 11.9
ponds - lakes 59 7.2
rangeland 94 11.4
3-14
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recreation 88
streams 55
wildlife 178
Total 826 100.0
About 25 percent of all mined land is considered to have some
form of agriculture potential. The relatively low percentage value
for cropland is mainly due to lack of adequate soil and topography.
The geologic setting of many eastern and western coal basins is not
conducive to crop farming. Thin soil horizons are often found over-
lying resistant sandstone units whereas areas with shale outcroppings
are more likely to have reclaimable soil cover. The mid-west or
Interior Coal Province states offer the greatest potential for crop
farming. All crops require adequate rainfall, nutrients, nearly
level slopes and a minimum growing season. Truck farm crops
require prime agricultural land and are of high enough value that
irrigation can be used. Most crops planted in large quantities de-
pend on rainfall and can not justify costly irrigation. Average quality
agricultural land can be used for hay, pasture, potatoes, small grain
buckwheat and other similar crops. The poorest quality agricultural
land is used only for pasture land.
Historically, crop values have fluctuated widely. Price has
been dependent on droughts, both local and worldwide, government
controls and export prices. Com, alfalfa, wheat, and oats, for
example, currently have gross average annual values per hectare of
$309, $247, $198 and $185 respectively. If crops are used as feed for
beef, pork, and poultry, for example, this increases the average
gross annual value of about $41 per hectare annually.
Other than the mid-west and selected areas within the Appal-
achian states little prime agricultural land exists within the coal
measures. The anthracite fields of northeastern Pennsylvania, cov-
ering 1270 square kilometers (489 square miles), have practically
no agricultural potential, including pasture land. Within the bitumi-
nous coal fields of that state two to three percent of abandoned
mined lands can be rehabilitated to agricultural use. A greater pei
centage is possible at higher reclamation cost.
Some agricultural uses are primarily dependent on the land
itself. Other uses requiring stock watering are dependent on water
supplies with very limited pollution. For example, acid mine drain-
3-15
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age severely limits dairy farming. The effects of contaminants on
irrigation are not clearly understood and no doubt would depend on
the crops, soil and frequency of watering and concentration of pollu-
tants. Such pollution is limited to areas in Appalachian states and
does not constitute a real problem in the fertile midwest cornbelt
region.
Agricultural lands possess one great advantage over some other
land uses. Agricultural benefits are high relative to other single
benefits. Agricultural lands accrue other benefits as well, including
big and small game hunting, recreation and aesthetics, wildlife refuge
and home sites. The 2 percent assessed by the federal study could be
increased justifiably in light of the high agricultural benefits and
multi-land use advantages. The desirability for extra reclamation
cost for rehabilitation to agricultural use must be weighed with other
land uses, their demand and benefits accrued.
BENEFITS DERIVED FROM L^\ND AND STREAM RECLAMATION
Benefits derived from cleaning polluted streams and reclaiming
surface mined lands can be clarified by listing the various effects
which detract from the utility of streams and land. The immediate
effects mine drainage pollution has on surface and subsurface (ground-
water, springs) is, in many cases, lowered pH, reduced natural alk-
alinity, increased total hardness, iron, manganese, aluminum, sul-
fates, siltation, and the presence of other dissolved and suspended
solids. Estimates of the range of dollar value losses associated with
these conditions for specific benefit categories are discussed in the
following sections.
One of the most pollution sensitive water uses is fishing.
Damage to fish and fish food organisms is usually caused by high
concentrations of acid, iron, sulfate, salt precipitates and siltation.
Some coal and metal mine drainages discharge zinc, copper and
aluminum in lethal concentrations. Damages caused by stream pollu-
tion go beyond the destruction of aquatic life and discoloration of water.
Industrial, municipal, and some agricultural stock and irrigation
water supplies may also be affected. In water treatment plants, high
acidity and low pH may result in adverse effects on chemical coagu-
lation, softening, and corrosion control. Telephone and electrical
services are seriously hampered when pollutants contact buried trans-
3-16
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mission lines. Corrosion of lead shields and loss of conductivity can
be caused by acidic drainage. Both iron and manganese create pro-
blems in public and some industrial water supplies. Salts of these
metals stain plumbing fixtures and laundry and interfere with some
industrial processes. Iron may support a filamentous bacteria
growth which clogs distribution lines. Pollution can cause increased
water hardness, which creates a need for water softening equipment.
Permanent hardness affects boiler feed water, cutting down heat ex-
change created by scaling. The greatest water need by industry is
for cooling water. Acid water consumed by dairy cattle seriously
affects milk production in addition to causing some irrigation pro-
blems .
Most water related damages are caused directly by underground
mine discharges, some of which have their flows augmented by over-
lying surface mines. On a nationwide basis it has been estimated that
only 20 to 25 percent of all water pollution is associated with the sur-
face mine. Consequently most benefits derived from cleaning streams
will have to result from abatement of deep mine drainage, much of
which can not be economically treated. Land oriented benefits will
result mainly from reclamation of abandoned surface mines. Dis-
turbances to the land include unstable slopes, erosion and stream
siltation, exposure of toxic material, lack of soils, improper drain-
age, high infiltration, formulation of impoundments which may be use-
ful, steep topography, and no vegetative cover including feed and
shelter for wildlife.
Reclamation or rehabilitation of abandoned surface mined lands
and surface waters can be achieved for nine basic land water uses:
1) crop land; 2) forestj 3) occupancy; 4) pasture; 5) ponds and lakes;
6) rangelands; 7) recreation; 8) streams; and 9) wildlife areas. Res-
toration of lands and streams for these uses requires the reclamation
practices outlined below.
Land Use Reclamation
Croplands grading to nearly level topography,
segregation and burial of large rocks,
spreading finer material and organic
matter on surface, providing ade-
quate drainage control, soil condi-
tioning and planting.
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Pastureland
Rangeland
Wildlife Areas
Ponds
grading for proper drainage and
slope not exceeding 15 percent to
permit safe use of equipment to
harvest forage crops, soil spreading
and conditioning, and planting.
strike-off grading, impoundment
formations, planting.
some grading, erosion controls,
drainage controls, water-hole and
wetlands development, access road
building, and game food planting.
some grading, erosion and sedi-
ment controls.
Occupancy intensive grading, compacting mater-
ial, soil spreading and conditioning,
erosion and sediment controls and
some planting.
Streams stream bank grading, erosion and
sediment control measures, spawn-
ing area development, and rip-
rapping .
An evaluation or estimate of benefits accrued by performing the
above mentioned rehabilitation is discussed below for various benefit
categories. Other methods of estimation could be used and are not
limited to those mentioned.
Benefits accrued by restoring lands and streams for hunting and
fishing are measured by the expenditures of money by people actively
engaged in these activities. Estimates of these costs or benefits are
usually made periodically by state game and fish commissions (who
keep detailed records which assist such surveys). The United States
Department of the Interior's Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife
conducts a national survey of fishing and hunting every five years.
The last survey (fourth) was conducted in 1970 and the results of this
survey are discussed on the following pages.
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Fishing and Hunting Benefits
In 1970, about 128 million persons participated in various
forms of outdoor recreational activities in the United States. Among
these activities fishing and hunting were ranked very high. The sur-
vey determined that almost 55 million persons spent 780 million
recreational days fishing and hunting. As defined by the survey, "a
recreational day is a day any part of which was spent fishing, hunting,
or involved in other forms of recreational endeavor." During 1970
some 30 million fresh water fishermen spent 3.7 billion dollars on
592 million recreational days, or $6.30 per day. Small game hunters,
numbering 11.67 million, spent nearly one billion dollars on 124
million recreational days, or $7.62 per day. About 7.8 million big
game hunters spent nearly 1 billion dollars on 54.5 million recrea-
tional days, or $17.47 per day. Other recreational activities included
411 million days bird watching, 39 million days photographing wildlife,
and 337 million days hiking.
The percent of people fishing in the nine regions designated by
the survey ranged from 14 to 31 percent with a mean of 22 percent.
Percentages for hunting ranged from 6 to 17, with a mean value of
10.3. To assign a dollar value to an acre of restored land the number
of recreation days spent in a year per acre can be estimated according
to the demand for the activity. Reclamation of surface mined land
also provides increased hunting potential and benefits on adjacent lands.
Benefits are usually presented as annual accumulations of dollars
spent or saved. To justify costs for reclamation work which provides
on-going benefits more than one year's benefits should be totaled.
It should also be emphasized that providing more outdoor recreational
opportunities reduces travel time and fuel consumption which might
otherwise not be conserved. The National Survey's dollars were spent
for clothing, food, lodging, auto expenses, licenses, guns, and many
other miscellaneous items.
Recreation and Aesthetics
Benefits associated with recreation and aesthetics may not al-
ways be easily determined; however, insights are provided below for
one possible method. Recreational benefits could be determined for
a variety of activities pursued and associated attendance figures for a
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season. Determining dollar values for aesthetics is more difficult.
Aesthetics plays a very real and important role in cost determina-
tions and decision making. For example, mass urban to rural move-
ment, location and visual quality increases in real estate prices,
attendance at art museums, national parks and forests all testify to
our common everyday interest in aesthetics.
A purely objective monetary evaluation of aesthetics is extre-
mely difficult, and perhaps never to be achieved without assumptions
being made. Aesthetics can best be evaluated using known dollar
relationships with activities associated with the pure enjoyment of
nature. This in turn can be associated with the price citizens are
willing to pay to restore mined lands and polluted waters to an aes-
thetically appealing condition.
A general relationship between dollars and aesthetic values was
derived from data collected by the Fourth National Survey conducted by
the Department of the Interior in 1970. Three forms of recreational
and aesthetic related activities were surveyed: nature walks or hiking,
wildlife photography, and birdwatching. During 1970, throughout the
United States, 26.9 million persons spent 337 million recreational days
nature walking. About 4.52 million persons spent 37.83 million days
photographing wildlife. Another 6.8 million persons spent 411.4 mil-
lion recreational days birdwatching. All of these recreational activities
are directly associated with the enjoyment or the perception and appre-
ciation of nature. These activities all require expenditures for equip-
ment, transportation and food. The expenditures for these items is
approximately equivalent to an average $80 per year spent by persons
involved in other forms of outdoor recreational activities. On a
national basis at least 786.3 million recreational days were spent
during 1970 on purely aesthetic activities. This compares with only
178.6 million recreational days spent big and small game hunting during
1970. The larger number of recreational days spent on aesthetic type
activities is mainly due to the lack of time restriction or open seasons.
Aesthetic type activities can be enjoyed 12 months of the year in many
areas, as opposed to about two months for big and small game hunting
limited to certain areas. This fact increases the aesthetic value of
one hectare of reclaimed land on the basis of time alone. Within the
state of Pennsylvania a recreation and aesthetic benefit value of $74
per hectare per year (or only $0.20 per hectare per day for all persons
enjoying such benefits) was estimated. Reclaimed lands also greatly
enhance the aesthetic appeal of adjacent areas.
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Stream Non-Fishing
Stream non-fishing recreational and aesthetic improvement
benefits can be computed on a basis similar to the abovementioned
land improvement aesthetic benefits. Justification for development
of this benefit is presented below. A polluted stream is innately un-
appealing to most people. As a consequence, little recreational uses
occur on or in the vicinity of the banks of polluted streams. Watei
front values along the banks of polluted streams are far below similar
stream bank land values for non-polluted streams. The recreational
potential is minimal as long as the stream is polluted. This is evi-
denced by the number of recreational (second) homes on non-polluted
versus polluted streams.
A nonfishing recreational and aesthetic improvement value of
$74 per hectare per year is assigned to stream bank land. Assuming
that this improvement benefit could be applied within 183 meters of
both sides of reclaimed stream, this yields 358 hectares of land per
mile of reclaimed stream. The applicable benefit value would be
approximately $2,709 per kilometer of reclaimed stream per year.
As is true for other benefits, values can vary according to supply and
demand factors. Transportation networks and proximity to population
centers are important and related to supply and demand.
Stream Sediment
Sediment in streams is often tolerated for long periods of time
in many areas until hardships or damages become too great. Restric-
tions in stream channels filled with sediment often cause flooding
during high flows through the blocking of channels. Navigational ob-
structions are also caused by excessive sediment. Sediment reduces
reservoir capacities, and seriously affects aquatic life. Siltation of
streams is one of the most widespread pollution problems in the United
States, but the greatest sources are not associated with surface mined
lands. Urbanization, farming, road construction and other forms of
land disturbance yield greater concentrations of sediment.
Some surface mines are larger sources of stream siltation
while others apparently stabilize or even trap sediment before it
enters a stream. Past surface coal mining practices in mountainous
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eastern Kentucky and West Virginia contributed some of the largest
sources of stream sediment. Some forms of surface mining, namely
dredging and hydraulic mining are far greater sources of sediment
during mining.
Most streams eventually discharge into large lakes and bays
which can be adversely effected by sediment transported from sur-
face mined areas. Most stream siltation resulting from abandoned
surface mines is associated with contour strip mines and area mines.
The majority of such mines extracted coal in Appalachia and the mid-
west and the eastern predominantly contour mine area is the greater
contributor of the two. One large Appalachian watershed conveyed an
above normal annual average of 1.9 tonnes of sediment per hectare
from abandoned surface mines. Far greater tonnages were recorded
in some areas while still other regions of the watershed conveyed less.
Average annual sediment yields in heavily strip mined areas of
Appalachia are 499 to 590 tonnes per square kilometer.
Benefits associated with less sediment in streams are difficult
to fully assess. Both private and public groups can benefit in numer-
ous ways from reductions of sediment. The U.S. Soil Conservation
Service commonly justifies expenditures of $1 .10 per tonne of sediment
removed. In some special cases expenditures from $2.20 to $4.41 per
tonne can be made. Hence, for each hectare of contour surface mined
land reclaimed, a conservative value of $2.10 per hectare per year
can be applied to offset reclamation costs.
Timber Sales
Abandoned surface mined land with potential for forest land
reclamation were estimated at 188,186 hectares or 1,880 square kilo-
meters. In 1965 most of this land was within Appalachian states and
portions of the mid-west which also have large areas supporting grasses,
shrubs and farm crops. Forest land benefits are not only associated
with saw timber and pulp wood sales. This land is of value for stabil-
izing soil cover reducing erosion and sedimentation, providing wild-
life refuge areas, improved small and big game hunting, as well as
recreation and aesthetic uses. Some forest lands are cleared pri-
marily for pulp wood and saw timber although some land may be cut
for pulp wood alone.
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Benefits associated with saw timber must accumulate over a
period of 60 to 80 years depending on the number of years required
for a use maturity. The climate and species of trees are important
controlling factors. If a well managed stand of timber yields typical
lumber volumes, the landowner could receive $741 to $1,235 or an
average of $988 per hectare over a 70 year period ($14.08 per hectare
per year). Other benefits to saw mill owners associated with a stand
of timber include additional sales of slab wood for firewood and raw
material for paper mills and use in other products. Premium prices
are paid for veneer quality hardwood logs.
The laws of supply and demand control those benefit values.
In past years saw mills in the eastern United States were transpor-
ted to a site for a few years of cutting and then moved to a new area.
Presently mills are more stationary and depend on a sufficient quantity
and quality of logs being hauled to the mill from numerous cutting sites
relatively close to the mill. As haulage distances become greater the
cost of logs increases and the mill may shut down permanently or be
moved. Other factors may affect the benefits of reclaiming one hectare
of abandoned surface mined land to forest use. The $14.08 per hectare
per year value is average for mixed soft and hardwoods maturing in
70 years in accessible regions of Appalachia. Other benefits, as
mentioned above, are applied to reclaimed forest land and can be
accrued sooner than the first cutting of trees.
Industrial Processing and Structural Damages
Historically large population centers with economical depend-
ence on industry have formed along coastal areas and rivers through-
out the United States. The continued economic well being of these
communities and those they serve is extremely dependent upon a plen-
tiful and readily available supply of water, with quality suitable to
meet industry and public everday needs. Nationwide, the greatest
industrial water needs are for production of electrical power, a
demand which is nearly doubling every ten years. The electrical
utility industry requires about 70 percent of all water currently with-
drawn for industrial use. Iron and steel production, chemical and allied
products, paper products and petroleum refining, combined, use another
20 percent with the remaining 10 percent being used for other diversi-
fied products. Industry's greatest single use of water is for cooling in
production of electrical power.
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Most industries design their new production facilities to either
avoid or cut costs incurred in using polluted water, including any
treatment. Water is often recirculated or used less. For example,
older steel mills used as much as 378,500 liters of water to produce
a tonne of steel while more modern and efficient plants only use 5,420
liters per tonne of steel. Most water withdrawn for industrial use is
returned to waterways and only 6 percent is actually lost or incorpor-
ated in the product.
Industrial water use is increasing substantially. Since the
turn of this century, industrial water use per capita has increased six
times. Although streams carry more than an adequate volume of water
even for future needs, some areas may not have enough water of suit-
able quality. Industry obtains 90 percent of its water from surface
streams, which are more prone to direct pollution than are other
sources. The remaining ten percent comes from groundwater and
public supply sources. Many factors determine the source each in-
dustry draws upon: quality, quantity; transport distances, dependa-
bility of supply, and other plant oriented considerations.
Needs for good quality water go beyond avoiding extra expense
by industry to minimize plant facility damages. Damages occur to
dams, bridges, conveyance systems and other structures which can-
not tolerate acid waters or other forms of pollution unless costly
corrective measures are taken.
Estimated costs of damages, water treatment, and materials
which tolerate the corrosive attack of pollutants are difficult to fully
determine. A large number of municipalities, industries, and govern-
ment agencies with varying types of pollution problems do not always
make a retrievable or separate record of these extra costs. Extra
costs to industry, although a substantial sum of money, are usually
insignificant relative to total production costs. On the average, only
2 percent of the sales cost is associated with water use, and only 3
percent of that cost is incurred in handling polluted water- Electrical
generating plants, on the average, have the highest additional costs
due to acid mine drainage, at 0.5 percent of annual production cost.
Many existing companies are not plagued economically by coping with
pollution problems because all extra cost are incorporated in the
selling price of the product. New industries have more to gain by
building near unpolluted water sources.
Estimates of benefits or annual savings from projected increases
3-24
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in water use alone could over-estimate benefits or savings for several
reasons. Volume of water used is not proportional to costs incurred
by industry for handling polluted water, and future technological de-
velopments are providing new materials and techniques for industry
which reduce cost of handling polluted waters. For example, electric
generating plants presently under construction average an additional
$203,000 due to acid coal mine drainage, and future plants construc-
ted about 1990 will cost only an additional $164,000, based on equi-
valent dollars. Although costs to industries would be reduced due to
new technological innovations, increased costs to industry, in gener-
al, from greater production and new industries could have a compen-
sating effect.
Benefits related to structural damage or its avoidance is a
function of the amount of water consumed, magnitude of the problem
created, material expenses to avoid problems, treatment cost and
the number and type of facilities and structures effected. Among
those industries adversely affected by polluted waters (most to least)
are electrical, food processing, textiles, chemicals, paper, metal
and glass. There are a great number of water quality standards for
public water consumption and use, with drinking water having the
higher standards. Standards for process water also exist for industry.
For example, the pulp and paper industry has several different stan-
dards for fine paper, groundwood paper, bleached and unbleached.
The textile industry has a range of threshold values (See Table 3-2)
for 13 water quality parameters commonly found in process water.
Estimates of benefits related to industrial processing, drinking
water and structural damages begin with the determination of water
quality parameters relevant for each user, range of recommended
threshold values for each parameter for a specific use, users affected,
and extra costs they incur. Intake water quality records can be gathei
ed from various users and sources of the pollutants determined by an
extensive stream water quality sampling program associated with a
mined lands inventory.
Further, local, state and federal highway bridge departments
can be contacted in areas known to have acid streams, pH values less
than 5, where corrosion of pipes, culverts and other structures are
known to occur. These groups can provide estimates of additional
cost to maintain or replace these structures or the additional cost of
utilizing corrosion resistant materials. Although water quality im-
provements, namely less acid, are readily achieved by treatment, this
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Table 3-2
RECOMMENDED WATER QUALITY IN
THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY
Constituent
Range of Recommended
Threshold Values, mg/l
Hardness as
Iron
Manganese
Iron and manganese
Turbidity
Color
Chemical oxygen demand
Heavy metals
Calcium
Magnesium
Sulfate
Chloride
Bicarbonate as CaCOg
0-50
0.1-1.0
0.05-1.0
0.2-1.0
0.3-25
0-70
8
None
10
5
100
100
200
Adapted from Reference No. 83
form of pollution abatement is not a complete solution. Neutralization
with lime, which is more common, increases dissolved solids concen-
trations, thereby adding a potential problem to water users. Preven-
tive abatement measures are more desirable from a cost and water
quality standpoint but are less effective in some cases. Benefits
accrued from pollution reductions can only be assured when all of the
factors are considered and carefully evaluated.
PRIORITIES AND COST
Establishment of priorities is one of the most important plan-
ning phases to be accomplished. It should be done before more detailed
feasibility studies, project engineering and construction are under-
taken. Priorities are often developed from three major considerations;
1) cost of abatement; 2) its effectiveness in terms of specific pollutant
reductions or utility restored and; 3) total benefits achieved. Although
these considerations are of foremost importance in determining priori-
ties, other factors may cause priorities to be shifted. For example,
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if industry has secured a mining permit for a known problem area and
will re-affect the source area, responsibility may be placed on the
mine operator to correct the problem. Land ownership and the effect
reclamation may have on future mineral acquisition plays a role in
availability of land for rehabilitation. In addition, a myriad of legal
and financial problems at the federal, state or local level could affect
abatement and reclamation priorities.
Abatement or reclamation costs are usually high and far ex-
ceed costs of reclamation incorporated into active mining operations.
Costs vary greatly from one project to another even though problems
may be similar. The greatest costs are associated with material
handling, for example, grading and dozing, transportation of topsoil
and other material over moderate to great distances. Other costs for
soil conditioning, revegetation and clearing and grubbing are some-
what less. Achievement of improved land and water utility and pollu-
tion reductions should be accomplished at minimum cost for low cost-
effectiveness and high benefit-cost ratios. Establishment of rehabil-
itated abandoned mined land potential, pollution reductions, reclama-
tion cost-effectiveness and associated benefits is essential for assign-
ment of priorities. Pollution reductions and improvements to land and
water utility are not necessarily proportionate to costs. If the land
disturbance and resultant pollution is uniform, cost-effectiveness
usually remains fairly constant. An example of such a problem area
is soil erosion and stream siltation where conditions do not change.
Other disturbances, such as acid mine drainage, have a variety of
different sources which vary greatly in the type of reclamation and
cost required for equivalent pollution reductions.
Reductions of deep mine oriented disturbances, namely chem-
ical pollutants and subsidence, are usually more difficult and costly
to abate relative to surface mine related disturbances. Table 3-3
lists ranges of cost and effectiveness for techniques commonly used in
controlling coal mine drainage and other surface mined land distui
bances
The percentage of effectiveness for treatment techniques is
relatively high compared with preventive techniques. It should be
stressed that although highly effective, treatment is high in cost
(capital investments and on-going maintenance, materials and labor
costs). Benefits associated with cleaner streams, discussed in the
benefit sections, continue as long as treatment does but stops when
treatment ceases. Frequently costs for abatement of pollutants are
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Table 3-3
EFFECTIVENESS AND RELATED COST FOR
VARIOUS ABATEMENT TECHNIQUES
Techniques
% of Effectiveness
Cost
treatment
neutralization
distillation
reverse osmosis
iron exchange
freezing
electrodialysis
80-90
97-99
90-97
90-92
90-99
25-95
0.03 - 0.34/1000 I,
0.1 - 0.86/1000 I.
0.18 - 0.68/1000 I.
0.16 - 0.67/1000 I.
0.18 - 0.85/1000 I.
0.15 - 0.67/1000 I.
preventive (at source)
water diversion
mine sealing
surface restoration
revegetation
25-75
10-80
25-75
5-25
740 - 4,940/hect.
2,470 - 49,420/seal
740 - 7,410/hect.
170 - 665/hect.
Adapted from Reference No. 61
only provided by public funded programs, which have limited funding
and time constraints. On-going sources or unlimited funding may be
difficult to acquire or assure. The range of costs for treatment is
controlled by capacity of the plant and concentration and type of pollu-
tants treated. Larger capacity plants usually have lower unit treat-
ment cost. More than one form of treatment may be used to improve
water quality since the efficiency and unit cost of the method may vary.
Capital expenditures are controlled by more obvious factors such as
plant size, type and back-up systems required and disposal of solid
waste.
The range of cost and effectiveness of preventive abatement
measures is indicative of the variety and severity of pollution pro-
blems. Some surface and deep mine disturbances are minor and
easily corrected, while others constitute a major disturbance which
can be solved only at extremely high costs.
Control of surface and deep mine pollution problems usually
begins with implementation of preventive measures to permanently
eliminate the problem (or as much of the problem as possible). Com-
plete or 100 percent effectiveness is usually not required to gain utility
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of the land and streams, because most uses can tolerate limited con-
centrations of most pollutants. Threshold values of various pollutants
for specific uses should be considered. Returns (benefits) on recla-
mation investments usually diminish as costs increase. When pre-
ventive or at source abatement measures do not reduce pollution to
desired levels, follow-up reductions are achieved through treatment
if costs can be justified by additional benefits. Application of treat-
ment alone may be the only method applied to abate some large sources
of underground mine pollution. Occasionally high costs for treatment
can be offset through benefits achieved.
Establishment of reclamation costs after evaluation of mined
lands is complete can be accomplished by experienced engineering and
consultant groups, which can also fully plan such programs. Of equal
importance is development of benefits to match or partially offset
reclamation costs. Both costs and benefits are then analyzed to estab-
lish priorities.
Two priority evaluations systems and a combination of each
have been utilized by local, state and federal agencies to set priorities.
The first system is usually appropriate for large watersheds or state-
wide pollution programs and is described below. The area which is
assigned the priority is usually a subwatershed unit with a disturbance
affecting the watershed itself and downstream reaches and adjacent
lands. Reclamation costeffectiveness can be categorized as high
(most favorable), medium, and low ratings. A highly favorable cost-
effectiveness rating can be assigned a value of three and the lowest
rating a value of one. Subwatersheds with a rating of three will realize
the same relative land and water quality improvements for similar
costs. The desirability, need or benefits achieved from reductions of
pollution disturbances must also be considered. Coefficients can be
assigned to various categories comprising all benefits such as public
visibility, economic need, development demand, land ownership and
other groupings. The priority value for the subwatershed is calcula-
ted by totaling relevant coefficient values and multiplying that value
by the characteristic rating. Watershed scores can be compared and
further divided into groups. Groups with high rankings indicate
where immediate reclamation feasibility studies or reclamation is
most desirable.
The second priority ranking system can be utilized for smaller
watersheds where detailed studies have determined a full range of rec-
lamation costs and specific improvements. Benefits with dollar values
3-29
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are determined for a full range of categories (some of which are dis-
cussed in the benefit section of this report). The benefits are eval-
uated for known land and water quality improvements. Improvements
can usually be achieved by implementation of numerous abatement
methods. Calculations can be made to determine priorities or bene-
fit-cost ratios where a small number of parameters permits. If a
large number of values must be considered linealprogramming
techniques can be used to minimize costs and maximize benefits.
Computer solutions can then be analyzed for establishing priority
rankings.
Both methods discussed above are useful depending on the pro-
gram goals and the magnitude of the problem confronted. Control of
abandoned mine pollution is costly and the correct assignment of
priorities strengthens the economy and further insures appropriations
for pollution control. Most reclamation is worth doing in terms of
benefits achieved with time.
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CHAPTER 4
ACTIVE MINE CLOSURE PROCEDURES
-------
ACTIVE MINE CLOSURE PROCEDURES
As the final operation of any mining activity, mine closure re-
quires careful consideration to: minimize subsequent pollution; estab-
lish aesthetic scenery; eliminate potentially hazardous conditions; and
facilitate future land utilization. Planning for mine abandonment
should begin as an integral part of initial mine design and be imple-
mented in conjunction with final reclamation procedures.
By considering mine closure during development planning,
many post-mining problems can be eliminated. For example, design
of underground mines for down-dip development can facilitate inunda-
tion and sealing by lessening the potential hydrostatic head pressure
against seal installation. Surface mining operations can also accrue
benefits, such as preventing a deficit of spoil for final backfilling
through proper planning and management of spoil placement and/or
transport during overburden excavation.
Although mine closure is best accomplished via pre-mine plan-
ning, procedures are available to permit effective abandonment of
most existing facilities. The following narratives delineate general
mine closure procedures as related to particular techniques of min-
eral extraction.
GENERAL PROCEDURES FOR ALL MINES
There are certain mine closure procedures that apply to all
types of mines. Listed below are general measures that pertain to
general site rehabilitation rather than the specific area directly af-
fected by excavation and mineral extraction.
1) Remove all mineral stockpiles.
2) Dispose or revegetate waste stockpiles.
3) Remove all trash, equipment, buildings and structures.
4) Backfill all surface depressions.
5) Dewater tailings ponds and backfill.
6) Revegetate all affected land including haul roads and prepa-
ration facilities.
7) Construct safety barriers such as fences and impassable
flora hedges around hazardous areas.
4-3
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Operational steps comprising mine abandonment and closure
vary according to type of mining operation. Because of this, the various
mining techniques described in this report have been divided into cate-
gories to facilitate discussion of mine closure procedures. Classifica-
tion of mining operations as determined by closure procedures are:
Category 1 - Surface Mines
Area
Contour ^ Sub-category 1
Open Pit ' y y
Auger
Hydraulic, _ , _.
. . f Sub-category 2
Dredging J 3
Category 2 - Underground Mines
SURFACE MINE CLOSURE PROCEDURES
This category includes closure procedures for those mining
operations where mineral extraction is accomplished at or near the
surface, usually involving removal of overburden material. Individual
surface mining techniques are separated into two sub-categories in the
following discussions.
Selected Mining Methods
Trash and Toxic Material Disposal
Mine closure activities within the immediate vicinity of min-
eral extraction should begin with cleaning the pit floor. All equipment,
junk or trash should be removed to a disposal area or placed in a
portion of the pit for subsequent burial. If the latter disposal technique
is implemented, precautions should be taken for separating materials
that can pollute groundwater and to ensure sufficient backfill for pre-
venting exposure by erosion or subsidence at a later date. In addi-
tion to reducing pollution potential, pit clean-up efforts contribute
4-4
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to aesthetic improvement of a mine site.
Another disposal endeavor results from toxic waste materials
exposed during active mining. Acidic overburden rock units, or im-
purities physically separated within the pit from the mineral, repre-
sent a potential source of water pollution and are detrimental to most
plant growth. These and other toxic materials should be segregated
during excavation, followed by pit burial. Deep burial is recommend-
ed to help reduce free air contact and improve chances for total inun-
dation by ground water, which in turn eliminates free air contact.
Exclusion of toxic materials from free air minimizes oxidation and the
formation of pollutant by-products.
Cover Excavations
Surface mine closure should involve covering a portion or all
of the remaining exposed pit area. Backfilling with spoil is a practice
typical of most mining operations (such as coal mining and others),
where large surface areas are affected in a relatively short span of
time, and the volume of spoil is usually much greater than the volume
of mineral extracted. Depending on the mining method, pollution po-
tential and future land use, either complete or partial regrading
should be performed in conjunction with backfill efforts. Complete
regrading consists of reshaping spoil to cover the entire area exposed
during mining. Referred to as contour regrading, this practice is a
recommended procedure for preventing pollution from exposed high-
walls and establishing aesthetic continuity between mined and natural
topography.
In contrast to complete regrading, partial regrading usually
results in a portion of the pit highwall remaining uncovered following
abandonment. Nomenclature is varied for these regrading techniques
with the general effect of producing either a terrace or swale config-
uration. Terrace regrading is particularly beneficial for reducing
slope erosion in mining areas having extremely steep topography, and
produces flat land suitable for grazing or minor agricultural develop-
ment. Similar erosion protection can be accrued from swale regrad-
ing, and resultant depressions can serve as surface water collection
basins, providing water for public or wildlife utilization.
Another partial regrading technique which is not recommended
4-5
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for use is leveling of spoil pile peaks. This procedure is aesthetically
undesirable, and usually reduces land value for future use. In addi-
tion, the previously mentioned methods of partial regrading should not
be employed in areas where water pollution will occur from exposed
materials or where highwalls will present a safety hazard.
Several procedures are available as alternatives to backfilling
and regrading for covering portions of mineral excavations. Charac-
teristic of many open pit mines, these closure endeavors include high-
wall reduction and inundation. As indicated by its title, highwall re-
duction involves blasting or grading the upper highwall segment to re-
duce the effective height (this procedure is often combined with re-
grading operations). The loosened material provides minimal pit
coverage and lessens safety hazards. While highwall reduction af-
fords minimal pit coverage, inundation in many instances can provide
a significant amount of coverage. This closure procedure usually en-
tails allowing the pit to fill via ground water infiltration and direct
precipitation. If water pollution will not present a problem, resultant
impoundments may have a direct discharge, and may receive recharge
from surface flows. Potential benefits derived from creating pit im-
poundments include: inundation of pollutant materials; minimizing
highwall heights; and future use as a recreational facility.
Surface Preparation
Concurrent and following the above mine closure procedures,
the affected land surface should be prepared to minimize pollution and
improve post-mining aesthetics. Surface preparation techniques can
be grouped into one of two categories with overlapping functions:
1) Water Infiltration Control; and 2) Erosion Control. The first cat-
egory involves measures directed toward minimizing infiltration of
surface waters and thus preventing contact between water and buried
toxic materials. Erosion control procedures are primarily aimed at
reducing unsightly gullying and possible stream siltation caused by
uncontrolled surface runoff. Individual surface preparation proce-
dures are listed below for each category.
1 . Water Infiltration Control
Diversion Ditches - trenches should be constructed up-
slope from mined areas to divert runoff;
4-6
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Soil Sealants - impermeable materials such as clay,
plastic or latex can be placed over regraded spoil to
prevent infiltration;
Underdrains - sub-surface channels can be constructed
to facilitate rapid removal of near surface infiltration.
2. Erosion Control
Diversion Ditches - these should be employed as indi-
cated for infiltration control;
Surface Scarification - a series of closely spaced ridges
constructed roughly parallel to contour lines can effec-
tively limit erosion by reducing water velocity;
Terracing - a series of terraces can be cut into steep
embankments to intermittently reduce water velocity on
steep slopes;
Mulching - this procedure should be used as a temporary
measure to control erosion prior to implementing other
methods and to protect seeded areas (straw and wood
fiber mulches are relatively inexpensive and are
effective);
Topsoil Replacement - used in conjunction with revege-
tation, topsoil replacement helps establish plant growth;
Revegetation - establishing a vegetative surface cover
should be universally used to control erosion (plant
species selection should consider a stable ecosystem
and future land uses);
RipRap - this erosion control method should only be
considered as an alternative to revegetation in arid re-
gions or on extremely steep slopes.
Special Cases
Further mine closure efforts in the immediate pit area are
4-7
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required when mining operations intercept abandoned underground
mine workings, producing a direct pollutant discharge. Coal mines
are the major source of this problem, which may result from exposing
underground mine pools by auger mining, stripping into entries or
creating fracture flow paths. For these acidic discharges, two gen-
eral options are available: 1) plug the discharge; or 2) neutralize the
drainage.
Plugging the discharge should be a primary consideration from
both an environmental and an economic point of view. The basic prin-
ciple entails blocking all exit ways for underground discharge. Vari-
ous types of seals can be effective under given physical conditions, in-
cluding the potential hydraulic head build-up. Clay liners can prove
particularly useful for sealing long lengths of exposed underground
mine workings.
Neutralization of acid discharges can in some instances be ef-
fected within spoil backfill. This procedure involves regrading with
alkaline material (limestone, fly-ash, etc.) and installation of a
slurry trench to cause inundation of alkaline backfill. Although alka-
line regrading and slurry trench installation are only in the initial
stages of demonstration the procedure holds great potential for future
use.
As a final measure, polluted mine discharge should be collect-
ed and treated. Treatment technology is well documented, including
the usually high construction costs and continued operating expenses.
Extreme precautions should be taken during active mining to prevent
breaching underground mines.
Dredging Operations
A unique method of surface mining, dredging requires slightly
different closure considerations from those defined in the preceding
sections. Since most mineral and refuse excavation is from below
water surfaces, regrading and revegetatton are not necessary within
pit limits. The primary closure procedures entail disposal or recla-
mation of waste material.
Initial endeavors should attempt to replace (backfill) refuse
below water level and restore normal flow channels. However, care
4-8
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should be taken during disposal to prevent pollution as a result of
siltation or inserting concentrated toxic wastes. The next closure
procedure should entail regrading and revegetation of all remaining
refuse and disturbed surface area above water level.
Dredging operations are not common and mine closure proce-
dures have not been precisely documented. Therefore, each active
mine should be treated as an individual mine closure case with care-
ful consideration for the post-mining environment.
UNDERGROUND MINE CLOSURE PROCEDURES
Closure procedures for abandoning underground mines are
discussed within this section. Two general categories are delineated
for active mine closure methods: techniques that are directly ap-
plicable to the underground mine environment; and methods available
for implementation at the surface and extremities of mine develop-
ment. For those mining operations employing one of the deep mining
techniques previously mentioned, many of the following closure
procedures should be executed upon termination of mineral extraction
processes.
Procedures Within Mine Workings
The physical disposition of underground mine workings re-
quires diligent thought concerning final closure operations. Insuffi-
cient consideration and planning can often lead to post-abandonment
environmental problems such as pollution discharge, disruption of
public ground water supplies and surface damage from subsidence.
Primary closure procedures involve the void created by re-
moval of mineral and waste materials. Leaving the void in the form
produced by normal mining activities is the simplest closure tech-
nique, and is acceptable for mines developed in stable rock or having
sufficient pillars to provide permanent roof support. However, the
potential consequences of subsidence or water pollution should be fully
understood prior to abandonment.
Several other closure procedures are available to alter the
4-9
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mine void including: pillar extraction; backfilling; and mine flooding.
Pillar extraction consists of mining a portion or all of the mineral
blocks remaining as the primary roof support system. From an eco-
nomic point of view, pillar "robbing" is desirable because the company
realizes its highest profit per ton of coal mined. But pillar removal
with subsequent roof collapse can be a major cause of environmental
problems.
As the mine roof falls, fractures progressively develop up-
ward into overlying strata. Depending on thickness of mineral ex-
tracted and depth of mining, surface subsidence will result with pos-
sible damage to buildings and other structures. In addition, these
fractures can provide a direct avenue for surface and groundwater
influx into mine workings. Aquifers used for public water supplies
can be drained or lowered, and additional water will become conta-
minated if the mined mineral or refuse contains pyritic or other pol-
lutant forming materials.
Backfilling mine voids with mine refuse, municipal wastes or
other materials is a closure method which will help support the mine
roof and reduce free oxygen necessary for most chemical pollutant
formation. Solid stowing and hydraulic stowing are two techniques
for filling mine voids. Such procedures should be evaluated in mining
areas extremely prone to subsidence.
While mine flooding usually occurs by natural infiltration pro-
cesses, it is a closure procedure in the sense that mine development
and surface abandonment procedures can be planned to facilitate
inundation. Mining down-dip from the mine portal will allow maximum
flooding and is conducive to preventing gravity discharges. This
method of mine development is recommended in conjunction with
flooding where the mined area is a source of water pollution. Inunda-
tion will minimize contamination by limiting available oxygen for
chemical reactions. Mine entry sealing is also recommended for
possible polluted discharges. This procedure is discussed as a tech-
nique implemented from the surface.
In advance of final underground closure procedures, all equip-
ment and supplies that are of value or can cause environmental prob-
lems, should be removed. With completion of underground abatement
endeavors, final surface procedures should be initiated.
4-10
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Procedures at the Mine Extremities or Surface
In addition to the general procedures described under the Sur-
face Mines section as applicable to all mining operations, two basic
types of closure methods should be employed at or near the surface.
These abandonment operations entail either sealing mine entries and
outcrop areas, or constructing devices to control water infiltration
into mine workings.
As mentioned above, mine seals can be installed in association
with planned mine flooding. However, many existing active mines
were developed without consideration for inundation and sealing. In
some instances partial inundation and mine sealing can be effected.
Mine entry seals are classified into three general types: 1) air seals;
2) dry seals; and 3) hydraulic seals.
Air-sealing consists of closing all mine openings except for one
or two at lower elevations. Here a wet seal with an air-trap is in-
stalled to prevent air flow into the mine while allowing for normal
water discharge from the abandoned mine. This closure procedure is
not recommended as an effective method for reducing acid formation.
Installation of dry seals should be performed to close mines
developed in a down-dip direction. The procedure involves placing a
filler (concrete blocks, clay, etc.) into mine entries to prevent access
and reduce air circulation. Dry seals are recommended for mines
where little or no hydrostatic pressure will occur on the seal.
Hydraulic sealing is a procedure performed to close all mine
entries and allow mine flooding. With this type of seal, hydrostatic
pressures will be generated and should be pre-determined to ensure
sufficient seal strength for preventing pressure blow-outs. An effec-
tive hydraulic seal should also be grouted properly to prevent water
seepage.
Although mine entries are usually the major avenue for water
discharge, seepage may occur via fractures along the mineral outcrop.
Grout curtains or clay liners should be installed if the seepage is pol-
luted. Maintaining sufficient crop barriers during active mining will
usually prevent this drainage.
Under the general category of closure procedures to minimize
4-11
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water infiltration, most techniques require detailed information con-
cerning specific hydrogeologic parameters. Prior to implementing
these procedures cost benefits should be determined. At individual
sites where water supplies are being drained or polluted via infiltra-
tion into mine workings, the following closure procedures should be
considered:
Regrade and revegetate overlying surface mines;
Fill or seal subsidence areas;
Grout permeable stream channels or divert water flow
around permeable zones (rechannel or flume);
Apply surface sealants in permeable areas or over the en-
tire mine;
Plug or seal all boreholes;
Install a well dewatering system (pumping or gravity
drainage) to drain aquifers above the mine.
Since many of these closure procedures have limited use or
are still in development stages, enforced application is not recom-
mended. But, with specific problems and further research and de-
velopment, infiltration control may become a standard procedure for
implementation both during and following active mining operations.
Again, mine drainage treatment should be employed only as a
last alternative for controlling polluted mine discharge waters. All
the disadvantages of treatment that were delineated within surface
mine discussions apply to underground mines. In fact, the problem
is greater due to large volumes of drainage frequently realized from
underground workings. The numerous alternatives should be explored
before establishing permanent treatment facilities.
4-12
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SECTION II
THE MANUAL
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CONTENTS
SECTION II
Page
CHAPTER 1 - DEVELOPMENT OF STATEWIDE PROGRAMS 1-1
ESSENTIAL PROGRAMMING ELEMENTS 1-3
Communication, Coordination and Integration 1-3
Fiscal Resources 1-7
Established Authority 1-9
Effective Program Planning and Management 1-9
Well Trained and Experienced Leadership 1-10
CREATING ADMINISTRATIVE AUTHORITIES -
ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE AND FORMAT 1-10
Redefinition of Duties 1-11
Department Reorganization to Create New Agency .... 1-13
Interagency Coordinating Councils 1-17
Special Boards or Commissions 1-20
ESTABLISHING PHILOSOPHICAL FRAMEWORK,
JURISDICTIONAL AUTHORITY AND POLICY 1-24
Defining Purposes 1-24
Establishing Powers and Duties 1-26
Establishing Policy - The Dec is ion-making
Process 1-27
Developing Programs and Implementation Plans 1-30
Program Implementation Approaches 1-34
CHAPTER 2 - LEGAL PROBLEMS AND AVENUES
OF DEVELOPMENT 2-1
INTRODUCTION 2-3
DEFINITION OF LEGAL STATUS 2-3
Judicial Precedent 2-5
Legislation 2-6
LEGAL PROBLEMS 2-23
Reclamation by Current Landowner 2-25
Use of Existing Nuisance Laws 2-25
Common Laws 2-25
Statutory Schemes 2-27
Water Pollution Control Laws 2-29
Enactment of an Environmental Code 2-32
Incentive for Reaffecting Orphaned Lands 2-'33
Summary 2-35
-------
Reclamation by Mining Companies 2-36
Reclamation by the State 2-38
Privately Owned Land 2-38
Publicly Owned Land 2-40
MODEL LEGISLATIVE APPROACH 2-42
CHAPTER 3 - PROGRAM FUNDING POSSIBILITIES 3-1
POSSIBLE FUNDING SOURCES 3-3
Federal 3-3
State 3-4
Local 3-5
Private 3-5
FUNDING AGENCIES AND PROGRAMS 3-6
Appalachian Regional Commission 3-6
Department of Agruculture, Agricultural
Stabilization and Conservation Service 3-11.
Department of Agriculture, Farmers Home
Administration 3-12
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service 3-18
Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation
Service 3-19
Department of Commerce, Economic Develop-
ment Administration 3-22
Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines 3-24
Department of the Interior, Bureau of Outdoor
Recreation 3-25
Department of the Interior, Bureau of Sport
Fisheries and Wildlife 3-27
Environmental Protection Agency,
Office of Research and Development 3-28
Environmental Protection Agency,
Office of Water and Hazardous Materials 3-30
Water Resources Council 3-31
AVENUES FOR TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE 3-32
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service 3-32
Department of Defense, Army Corps of Engineers .... 3-33
Department of Interior, Geological Survey 3-34
Department of Interior, Bureau of Land Management . . . 3-34
Department of Interior, National Park Service 3-34
Department of Interior, Bureau of Reclamation 3-34
Tennessee Valley Authority 3-35
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CHAPTER 4 - TECHNICAL APPROACH 4-1
DEVELOPMENT OF BASE MAPPING 4-4
WATERSHED DERNITION 4-9
WATER QUALITY SURVEY 4-12
Assess Existing Data 4-13
Establish Sampling Program 4-14
Determine Stream Survey Parameters 4-15
Chemical Parameter Options 4-15
Physical Measurement Options 4-16
Biological Parameter Options 4-17
Sampling Frequency Options 4-18
Sample Location Options 4-18
Typical Stream Survey Program 4-19
SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY 4-22
Human Resources and Economic Needs 425
Current Land Uses and Values 4-26
Development Demand 4-26
Aesthetics 4-27
MINED LANDS INVENTORY 4-28
Aerial Photography 4-29
Photo Interpretation 4-34
Terrestrial Survey 4-39
Land Ownership 4-42
RECLAMATION COST DEVELOPMENT 4-43
Surface Mine Costs 4-44
Underground Mine Costs 4-47
Extensive Background Information 4-48
Limited or General Background
Information 4-53
COST EFFECTIVENESS 4-55
PRIORITIES 4-56
FINAL PHOTO AND MAP PRESENTATION 4-58
CHAPTER 5 - IMPLEMENTATION 5-1
TASK 1 - GATHER, MAP AND EVALUATE
EXISTING DATA 5-4
Water Quality Data 5-4
Geology and Soils 5-5
Mining 5-6
Ecology 5-6
Socio-Economic Conditions 5-7
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TASK 2 - ESTABLISH RECONNAISSANCE PROGRAM 5-7
TASK 3 - GATHER FIELD DATA 5-8
TASK 4 - INTENSIFY STUDY ON REDUCED SCOPE
AREAS 5-9
TASK 5 - DETERMINE RELATIVE MINE DRAINAGE
CONTRIBUTIONS (ACTIVE VS. INACTIVE) 5-9
TASK 6 - IDENTIFY DATA GAPS 5-10
TASK 7 - DETERMINE RECLAMATION AND ABATE-
MENT FEASIBILITY 5-10
TASK 8 -ASSESS FUTURE MINING POTENTIAL 5-12
TASK 9 - COMPUTE COST AND COST
EFFECTIVENESS 5-12
TASK 10 - ESTABLISH PRIORITIES 5-13
TASK 11 - DEVELOP QUICK START PROJECTS 5-14
TASK 12 - FINALIZE MAPPING 5-14
TASK 13 - PREPARE FINAL REPORT 5-25
TASK 14 - POST RECLAMATION MONITORING
AND ASSESSMENT 5-25
CHAPTER 6 - SECONDARY USE OF LAND INVENTORY DATA 6-1
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LIST OF TABLES
SECTION II
Table Page
1-1 Layers of Government Agencies Involved in Mined
Lands Reclamation and Abatement Projects 1-6
1-2 Internal Implementation Obstacles and Alternative
Solutions 1-35
1-3 External Implementation Obstacles and Alterna-
tive Solutions 136
2-1 Synopsis of Laws Relative to Statewide Pollution
Abatement 2- 7
2-2 Legal Bibliography 2-44
3-1 U. S. Bureau of Mines Liaison Program Officers,
February 1, 1973 3-37
3-2 State Liaison Officers to the Bureau of Outdoor
Recreation, March, 1973 3-45
4-1 Socio-Economic Ranking System 4-24
4-2 Number of Cloudless (10% or Less Cover) Days
Per Month for Selected States 4-31
4-3 Typical Surface Mine Classification System 4-38
4-4 Segregation of Underground and Surface Mine
Pollution Loads 4-50
6-1 Secondary Uses of Inventory Data 6- 4
6-2 Structure - Environmental Protection Agency 6-10
6-3 Structure - Department of the Interior 6-11
6-4 Secondary Uses of Inventory Data 6-12
6-5 Structure - Energy Research and Development
Administration 6-15
6-6 Conversion Table 6-16
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LIST OF FIGURES
SECTION II
Figure Page
1-1 Organization Chart - Department of Environmental
Resources, Division of Reclamation, Mine Pollution
Abatement and Reclamation Section 1-15
1-2 Organization Chart - Interagency Cooperation 1-19
1-3 Organization Chart - Special Board or Commission 1-23
1-4 Rational Decision Process 1-29
4-1 Illustration of Base Map 4- 6
4-2 Illustration of Major Streams 4- 7
4-3 Illustration of Major River Basins and Watershed
Boundaries Within Area Underlain by Mineral
Bearing Deposits 4-61
4-4 Illustration of Base Map 4-63
4-5 Illustration of Major Streams 4-65
4-6 Illustration of Figures 4-4 and 4-5 Superimposed 4-67
4-7 Illustration of Major Basin, Watershed, and USGS
7.5 Minute Quadrangle Boundaries and Names 4-69
4-8 Illustration of Figures 4-4, 4-5, and 4-7
Superimposed 4-71
4-9 Illustration of Sampling and Flow Measuring
Stations 4-75
4-10 Illustration of Figures 4-4, 4-5, 4-7, and 4-9
Superimposed 4-77
4-11 Illustration of Hot Areas and Severely Polluted
Stream Within Cold Area 4-79
4-12 Illustration of Marginal Areas and Marginally
Polluted Stream Within Cold Area 4-81
4-13 Illustration of Figures 4-4, 4-5, 4-7, 4-9, 4-11,
and 4-12 Superimposed 485
4-14 Illustration of Surface Mined Areas 4-87
4-15 Illustration of Underground Mine Areas 4-89
4-16 Illustration of Figures 4-4, 4-5, 4-7, 4-14,
and 4-15 Superimposed 4-91
4-17 Illustration of Composite Map 4-93
4-18 Illustration of 7.5 Minute USGS Quadrangle 4-95
4-19 Illustration of Aerial Photography 4-97
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4-20 Illustration of Overlay Depicting Mine Features
and Watershed Boundaries 4-99
4-21 Illustration of Composite Aerial Photography
and Mine Features 4-101
4-22 Illustration of Feasible Method of Updating
Mining (First Up-date") 4-105
4-23 Illustration of Feasible Method of Up-dating
Mining (Second Up-date) 4-107
5-1 Successive Resolution of Study Areas 5-16
5-2 Illustration of Composite Map 5-17
5-3 Watershed Feasibility Study Final Index Map -
Stage II Effort 5-19
5-4 Watershed Feasibility Study Abatement Area
Location and Geology Map for Underground Mines -
Stage III Effort 5-21
5-5 Watershed Feasibility Study Abatement Area
Mine Development Drawing for Surface Mines -
Stage HI Effort 5-22
5-6 Watershed Feasibility Study Abatement Area
Mine Development Drawing for Underground
Mines - Stage III Effort 5-24
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CHAPTER I
DEVELOPMENT OF STATEWIDE PROGRAMS
-------
DEVELOPMENT OF STATEWIDE PROGRAMS
As increased federal funds become available for abatement
and reclamation purposes, many states are expected to develop
statewide "clean-up" programs. For most states, this will repre-
sent a first-time effort and it will be necessary to work through in-
tricate details of organization, administration, management and fi-
nance. Toward these ends, this chapter will discuss the logistics of:
establishing administrative entity, formulating program and policy,
and executing program goals and objectives. Throughout the text an
attempt will be made to identify those key elements essential for suc-
cessful programs and the criteria which should be considered in pro-
gram formulation.
The organization, direction, and implementation of abatement
and reclamation programs is an immense and complex exercise in-
volving a myriad of natural resource, economic, legal, and social
conditions. Effective programs do not just "happen." They are the
result of painstaking planning and meticulous attention to details of
administration and management.
ESSENTIAL PROGRAMMING ELEMENTS
During the course of this study an effort was made to identify
those factors which significantly increase the net effectiveness and
efficiency of mined lands pollution abatement and reclamation pro-
grams . The rationale for this approach was that knowledge of ob-
stacles and opportunities within existing state programs would lend
insight into organizational, administrative, and management criteria
which should be evaluated when establishing new ones. Existing
state programs which were reviewed during the period of this study
included: Illinois, Kentucky, Maryland, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and
Virginia.
Communication, Coordination and Integration
Communication, coordination and program integration among
groups and persons concerned with abatement and reclamation ac-
1-3
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tivities are vital components of successful programs. Programs
must be comprehensive in scope. They must address the issues of
not only natural environments, but social, economic and political
ones as well. As such many professionals from divergent back-
grounds, occupations and viewpoints need to collaborate. Coordina-
tion of activities and programs among the following groups is para-
mount in order to maximize program effectiveness.
1. Legislative, Judicial and Executive Branches of
Government - The legislative, judicial and execu-
tive branches of government assume very distinct
but interrelated and interdependent roles in pro-
gram conceptualization, organization, adminis-
tration and implementation. Legislative coordi-
nation is essential in that State General Assem-
blies act to empower executive departments with
administrative and jurisdictional authority, par-
ticularly in the realms of:
a. appropriation of state funds for annual op-
erating budgets and matching state shares
for federal funds
b. expenditure, and use of public funds on
public and private lands, acquisition of lands
for land reclamation projects
c. defining primary administrative group re-
sponsible for directing and uniting state re-
sources toward defined goals and objectives
Executive departments of state government such as
environmental protection, natural resources, con-
servation, or mines and minerals are typically
charged with the responsibility for actual imple-
mentation of environmental improvement programs
developed by the legislative process. In these in-
stances, the executive departments also assume
roles of feedback and advisement. It is not uncom-
mon for executive departments to recommend changes
in legislation to expedite implementation of abatement
and reclamation programs.
Judicial support of programs effectively eliminates or
reduces the legal obstacles which may prevent pro-
1-4
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gram implementation. As programs are being
formulated a review of pertinent decisions in
the realms of use of public funds, land acqui-
sition and civil liberties of landowners must be
conducted.
In situations such as in Appalachia where a geo-
graphic area is characterized by a whole host of
problems of which inactive mined lands is but one
aspect, collaboration and coordination of several
federal, state and local government agencies is
essential - particularly if one of the pollution a-
batement program goals is to improve the econom-
ic conditions in a region. Table 1-1 displays the
many layers of authority and different govern-
mental agencies having roles and responsibilities
in inactive mined lands programs and projects.
The decade of the 1970's has been characterized
by two contradictory trends. One is to reduce the
number of departments and divisions in an effort
to consolidate similar type functions and activities.
The basic objective being to reduce or eliminate
duplication, interagency competition and ineffi-
ciency. (23) The other is to establish new state
agencies (example: State Environmental Protec-
tion Agencies) to undertake programs and render
services previously not available.
The proliferation of environmental legislation
during the 70's has had great impact in altering
long-established state departments' duties and has
mushroomed the number of new agencies who are
still in the process of establishing their roles.
The net result has often been a greater fragmen-
tation of responsibility in the field of mined lands
pollution abatement and reclamation.
Research Organizations - Whether they are pri-
vate foundations, academic, or industrial, re-
search organizations serve as the genesis of new
technological advances. Unfortunately these or-
ganizations frequently operate in a vacuum with
1-5
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Table 1-1
LAYERS OF GOVERNMENT AGENCIES
INVOLVED IN MINED LANDS
RECLAMATION AND ABATEMENT PROJECTS
Department of Interior - Bureau of Mines
14
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
13
Department of Defense - Army Corps of Engineers
12
Department of Health, Education and Welfare
11
Appalachian Regional Commission
10
State Department of Natural Resources
State Environmental Protection Agency
State Department of Economic and Community Development
Regional Planning District
Local Planning Council
Soil Conservation District
County Commissioners
Township Trustees
Landowners
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the potential user not being aware of the new
techniques and the researcher lacking field ori-
entation for further refinement of his experi-
mental designs. Acid mine drainage research
is a prime example of this predicament.
Mining Industry - Recent passage of more strin-
gent mining laws and water pollution control
measures has often strained working relations
between government and industry. Many mining
companies are very reluctant to share data and
information for fear that it will ultimately be
used against them. At the same time concerned
government officials are at a loss to base policy
decisions and new rules and regulations on ac-
curate data. Clearly, both government and in-
dustry need to seek each other's advisement and
proceed toward solving common problems.
Special Interest Groups - A working relation-
ship with special interest groups such as trade
organizations, mining and reclamation associa-
tions, and environmental groups is often neces-
sary in order to:
a. stimulate public and private support;
b. obtain otherwise unavailable data and
information;
c. assist in exerting influence and pressure
on policy makers;
d. provide long-term vitality to a program;
public citizens fluctuate in their input;
special interests do notj they maintain
long-term relationships.
Fiscal Resources
As might be expected, availability of fiscal resources is a
major component of viable abatement and reclamation programs.
Although preliminary program organization and planning can be
accomplished with minimum funds through interagency coop-
1-7
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eration and use of in-kind services, the ultimate field work requires
large sums of money over an extended period.
Federal funds which are available are often very limited in
scope and require tremendous accounting procedures, which states
with minimal personnel and funds cannot affort. "It takes state
money to get federal money" often seems to be the rule.
Frequently changing federal funding guidelines and procedures
often serve to limit state programs. Changes in program emphasis
restrict state programs to very short-term planning. The result is
that state agencies find themselves constantly trying to change step
in midstride to keep up with changing federal requirements. (27)
State programs which have enjoyed the greatest measure of
success in keeping programs and projects funded are those which
have established specific state funds for major aspects of a mined
lands program. The states that have comprehensive funding for
their programs include Kentucky, Ohio, Maryland and Pennsylvania.
The sources and amounts of their program funds are discussed in
Appendix B.
When special state funds are established, their administra-
tion and management should be within the same agency that will be
using them. Well defined funding avenues reduce administrative
bookkeeping chores, competition from other "pet" projects, and
time, and increase budgeting capability. Step by step procedures
within a single accounting system allow for orderly transition of
funds as the state program matures and becomes more sophisticated.
Other fiscal limitations include constitutional definitions of
how state funds may be acquired and expended. Most states are re-
quired to maintain balanced annual budgets.
State program funding needs typically are categorized as
follows:
1. In-house Operations
a. staff salaries and expenses
b. office materials
c. equipment
d. contracted services
1-8
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2. Special Planning & Inventory Studies
3. Project Feasibility Studies & Reports
4. Engineering and Design Documents
5. Contracted Construction Work
6. Monitoring and Evaluation Studies
Established Authority
Problems inherent to program coordination and implementa-
tion are reduced or eliminated when there is just one dominant ad-
ministrative group.
Lack of clear-cut (established) authority, both formal and in-
formal, produces interagency jealousies, undermining of projects,
and fragmentation of effort. To be effective in reducing legal prob-
lems, administering groups need enforcement, sanctioning, and
condemnation powers.
Budgeting problems often arise when several agencies having
responsibility for different aspects of mined lands programs must
compete for departmental funds and the director's favor. Coordinat-
ing mechanisms and cooperative attitudes are difficult if not impos-
sible to achieve under conditions of fragmented authority.
Effective Program Planning and Management
As mentioned earlier in this chapter, effective programs do
not just happen. They require long range planning not planning for
planning sake, but a methodical step by step approach which consid-
ers many alternative means for accomplishing ends. The develop-
ment of concise goals and objectives is an essential first step of
program formulation. Goals and objectives which identify priorities
and tasks lend direction and credibility to programs. Well defined
and realistic goals and objectives reduce problems of communica-
tion, coordination, funding, and role definition.
1-9
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In order to accomplish any significant results, an abatement
and reclamation program must be task oriented within time and fis-
cal constraints that represent a true picture of the actual natural,
economic, political and social conditions. Organization and direction
are also key prerequisites for successful programs. In order to gain
public and legislative acceptance and support, an administering
agency must be able to define its purposes, duties, goals, and ob-
jectives in as concrete terms as possible when possible within
physical units of output and unit operations.
Well Trained and Experienced Leadership
The measure of success afforded a program is directly re-
lated to the abilities and personalities of the people who function in
it. Strong and aggressive leadership is essential within an agency in
order for it to secure favorable support of agency activities, and in
maintaining the morale of employees and their commitment to pro-
gram goals. Unfortunately, because much decision-making is con-
ducted literally by "committee," the emergence of leaders is often
difficult.
Well-trained and experienced staff who are familiar with field
conditions and practical realities of initiating field activities greatly
increase an agency's problem solving capacity. The depth of moti-
vation and zeal for their work also enhances staff creativity in solv-
ing novel problems while a sophistication in working through red tape
reduces lag time in program implementation.
CREATING ADMINISTRATIVE AUTHORITIES' ORGANIZATIONAL
STRUCTURES AND FORMATS
Within recent years as administrative agencies have expanded
their roles and responsibilities with respect to environmental meas-
ures, there has been a greater effort to increase effectiveness of
their operations. This effort has been undertaken in three ways:
1. To reorganize the departments so that adminis-
trative authority is shifted to upper levels of the
organizational hierarchy to permit more inclusive
1-10
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interests be taken into account.
2. To resort increasingly to quantitative data and
empirical methods of analysis for policy deci-
sion and determining program direction and
action.
3. To modify traditional administrative arrange-
ments in order to encourage vitality and crea-
tivity in the bureaucratic system. C23)
Since most environmental legislation during the 1970's re-
quired immediate enforcement or administrative action to commence
policy implementation, many states were forced to create or desig-
nate administrative authorities almost overnight. The manner in
which states organized authorities to administer abatement and rec-
lamation programs was often influenced by the nature and extent of
allied new environmental programs and legislation. It is not un-
common for various departments to compete for leadership roles
which contribute to internal strife. Abatement and reclamation
activities, as a result, are often administered by more than one
agency, decreasing total program unity. A discussion of approaches
for organizing administrative authorities for abatement and reclama-
tion programs follows.
Redefinition of Duties
One means of quickly establishing an administrative authority
is to simply redefine and expand the duties of an existing agency (at a
divisional level) already organized with a state's department of na-
tural resources or conservation. Feasible choices could include
divisions of mines, reclamation, minerals, planning or research.
Under this approach there are no overt changes in staff, poli-
cy, or programming. The program and its projects would not be
depicted in separate organizational charts. Abatement and reclama-
tion projects are merely absorbed into existing programming with
personnel in-house possibly being assigned on a part-time basis.
Redefinition of the duties of an existing agency typically are
advantageous under the following circumstances:
1-11
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1. The magnitude of environmental problems asso-
ciated with inactive mined lands is not great.
2. There are minimal funds available for a program.
3. Public clamor does not necessitate immediate
action.
4. Program does not have high priority.
Key decision criteria before selection of an absorbing agency
include:
1 . Prior experience with mining and mining re-
lated problems.
2. Size, training and experience of staff.
3. Status and extent of other on-going programs
which may either hinder or aid new programs.
4. Fiscal resources available to support new
programs.
5. Equipment available to support new programs.
6. Ability to coordinate, and integrate new pro-
grams with existing ones.
7. Political clout of agency.
8. Favorable working relations and support of
special interest groups.
9. Administrative and management skills of
executives.
10. General tenor and attitudes of subordinates
toward their leaders and the program.
Staffing requirements for the low profile approach just de-
scribed is minimal. Typically an administrative assistant handles
daily administrative chores and assigns technical personnel to
1-12
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different aspects of the program. The technical staff utilized often
involves individuals with training in geology, soils, hydrology, for-
estry, material resources planning and civil or mining engineering.
Advantages of using an existing agency include:
1. Capitalizing on the experience and knowledge of
employees who are familiar with abatement and
reclamation problems.
2. Ability to incorporate a new program with minimal
resources into other programs which compliment it.
Disadvantages (which may outweigh the advantages):
1. New approaches (creativity) may be hindered by
traditional attitudes, policies, and procedures.
2. Program may be constrained by higher priority of
concurrent programs.
3. Work schedules may be so heavy that employees
never get time to devote to the new program.
Departmental Reorganization to Create New Agency
Reorganization of state departments of natural resources in-
creasingly has occurred with enactment of environmental legislation,
Reorganization as defined here entails establishing a formal admin-
istrative agency at a divisional or sectional level within a depart-
ment. Reorganization is characterized by:
1. Changing the organizational structure and hier-
archy of command.
2. Transferring personnel and changing job de-
scriptions.
3. Changing program priorities.
4. Altering policy.
1-13
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The new agency formed as a result of reorganization typically:
1. Functions within annual departmental budgets
and has its own budget.
2. Has a separate full time staff.
3. Has its own established policies and procedures.
4. Uses comprehensive delegated authority.
5. In-kind service use is limited and consultants
are contracted for extensive studies.
Creation of a new agency through reorganization is advanta-
geous when a state has:
1. Extensive environmental damage from inac-
tive mined areas.
2. Adequate funds to support the activities of a
new agency.
3. Established the program as a long-term
commitment.
4. Public constituency demanding forthright
action.
5. No existing administrative agency which can
successfully absorb the program at the magni-
tude of effort required.
As indicated in Figure 1-1, the staffing pattern for a mine
pollution abatement and reclamation section is much more compre-
hensive than the previous example. In Figure 1-1 a single adminis-
trator is responsible for both the abatement and reclamation aspects
of the program. Hopefully, under such an arrangement, coordina-
tion and integration of programming would be increased.
The advantages of utilizing the new agency approach include:
1. New agency is not constrained by traditional
1-14
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Section Administration
Office Manager
> Clerical
Administration Assistant
Program Manager
Pollution
Abatement
State Coordinator
t
Public Services
Interagency Liaison
Special
Projects
Land
Reclamation
Field Inspection
Legal Counsel
Sociologist
Earth
Sciences
Biological
Sciences
Land
Use
Engineering
Geologist
Soil
Scientist
L-Field
Technician
-Biologist
-Reid
Technician
I- Reclamation
Specialist
-Planner
- Landscape
Architect
i Economist
- Mining
- Civil
Draftsmen
Water
Quality
I Aquatic I
LEJ
Engineering
Utilization
r Chemist
*-
Field
Technician
U Biologist
L Field
Technician
-Hydrologlcal [-Recreation
Planner
-Civil LWater Resource
Specialist
"Draftsmen
Figure 1-1 . Organization chart.- Department ol Environmental Resources,
Division of Reclamation, Mine Pollution Abatement and
Reclamation Section.
1-15
-------
roles or old policy and procedures.
2. New program assumes a high priority position
and all resources are focused upon achieving
program goals.
3. Public visibility is increased.
4. New staff and duties add vitality to entire program,
5. Communication and coordination mechanisms are
increased.
6. Can make long-range plans.
7. Have established powers and authority.
8. Reduces administrative management problem
direct control of immediate fiscal and personnel
resources; one set of rules and procedures.
Disadvantages of this approach include:
1. New agency may have to compete with older
more established agencies for departmental
funds and dominance in role and responsibilities.
2. When reorganization occurs in middle of the
fiscal year, there may be no departmental
funds to secure new staff, equipment, and
contract services.
3. New agency could become a melting pot for
personnel misfits from other groups if new
personnel is not added.
4. Lead time is long. It may take up to two
years to secure departmental funds for staff
equipment, etc. Recruitment and hiring of
qualified staff is a tedious process.
5. A total in-house effort may result in a loss of
working relationships with other groups.
1-16
-------
6. Overall departmental policies, priorities and
budgets may constrain program.
The states of Pennsylvania and Maryland have in-house full
time staffs to administer their state programs. A description of
these respective programs is located in Appendix A.
Interagency Coordinating Councils
Interagency coordinating councils represent an alternative
means for establishing an administrative mechanism for initial con-
ceptualization and development of an abatement and reclamation pro-
gram. Coordinating councils are typically:
1. Organized within the executive branch and at-
tempt to combine assets of each agency.
2. Composed of appointed members from various
departments; both state and federal levels.
3. Formed in response to a recognized problem or
issue for which one agency does not have blanket
authority.
4. Have no actual implementation powers, except
through use of in-kind services.
Coordinating councils are effective when a state:
1. Has extensive natural resources and environ-
mental departments.
2. Does not have funds to support a comprehen-
sive clean-up effort.
3. Is in the process of making initial plans for a
program or desires to work on just one partic-
ular project.
Membership on coordinating councils is usually multidisci-
plinary and may include representatives from economic development,
1-17
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health, and education departments. Council membership may in-
clude both federal and state personnel. Length of membership is
usually on a short term basis often terminating as soon as an
issue is resolved or the purpose of the council is achieved. Figure
1-2 depicts the type of membership associated with a coordinating
council approach.
In some instances, such as in Kentucky and Illinois, state
abatement and reclamation programs have been initiated using an
interagency approach which utilized the resources of state univer-
sities. Further descriptions of these programs are located in
Appendix A.
Advantages of interagency coordination include.-
1. Opportunity for greater communication, coor-
dination and integration of programs.
2. Reduction of duplication of effort among groups
having common goals.
3. Membership usually involves key decision-
making personnel from other groups.
4. Increases problem solving capacity and effec-
tiveness by providing a comprehensive perspec-
tive to problems instead of isolated aspects.
Disadvantages involve:
1. Many different layers of authority in support
group. If the coordinating council does not
wield much influence - lack of subordinate
cooperation within each support group could
present major obstacles to accomplishing in-
tended goals and objectives.
2. "Committee" decision-making of many groups.
It may be difficult to obtain a majority consensus.
3. Increased administrative tasks and red tape
particularly in matters of using in-kind services.
1-18
-------
Coordinating Committee
State
Coordinator
I
CD
Environmental 1
Protection 1
Agency 1
Department ofl
Economic and!
Community 1
Development 1
-Solid Waste
Department 1 De
of Natural 1
Resources 1 AS
. Water Quality
. Air Quality
partment 1
of 1
ri culture 1
_ Reclamation
. Geological Survey
. Wildlife
- Parks
. Lands and Soils
- For
estry
Federal
Coordinator
Environmental 1
Protection 1
Agency |
Department
of Health, 1
Education 1
and Welfare |
Department 1
of 1
Interior
Appalachian 1
Regional 1
Commission 1
Department 1
of
Agriculture 1
_ Water Quality
. Solid Waste
,_ Research
- Toxic Substances
- Mines
_ Geological Survey
_ Sport Fisheries
Parks and Recreation
Land Management
Soil
Conservation
L Forestry
Figure 1-2. Organization chart - interagency cooperation.
-------
4. Very limited or no implementing powers.
5. Participating agencies may have vested in-
terests which supersede council goals.
6. Individuals having input on council may be
so tied to daily chores of their jobs that they
have limited time to devote to council. Hence,
program may take a long time to develop.
Special Boards or Commissions
Special boards or commissions have become almost as com-
mon as bureaucratic organizations themselves. It is not unusual for
boards created for short-term purposes to become literally perma-
nent standing committees long after fulfilling their original mission.
Characteristics of special boards or commissions are:
1. Creation by legislative mandate or executive
directive.
2. Membership is appointed by the governor or
director of natural resources.
3. Term of membership is 2-4 years.
4. Membership is composed of legislators, pri-
vate citizens, expert state personnel.
5. Usually function within strict fiscal and time
constraints.
6. Are task oriented.
7. Duties usually involve conducting investigations
and making recommendations.
8. May employ a staff and hire consultants to pei
form work.
1- 20
-------
9. Report findings on an annual or biennial basts.
The use of special boards or commissions is warranted when
a state:
1. Is initially conceptualizing a statewide abate-
ment and reclamation program.
2. Has no existing single state agency which can
assume preliminary program planning role.
3. Has a limited data base from which to extrapolate
information for program planning and policy
formulation.
4. Has a public constituency demanding immediate
action to correct environmental problems.
As mentioned earlier, board membership is typically com-
posed of members of the state general assembly - both House and
Senate. The legislative members are usually prominent leaders
possessing much political influence and they may serve on appropri-
ations, and/or natural resource committees. Legislative members
may comprise up to one-third of the committee.
Their active participation and support of the committee is
essential. There is no better lobbyist for a program or an adminis-
trative group than a legislator. Legislative favor is a vital ingre-
dient to all aspects of mine drainage abatement and reclamation pro-
grams from beginning to end.
Expert state personnel also play a prominent role on special
boards. Without their knowledge, experience and government skills,
the resources of state departments would largely go untapped. With-
out the expertise and power of career officials most boards could
never hope to achieve the results they desire. Influential state per-
sonnel usually have the capacity to mobilize sufficient resources
within their respective departmental organizations to break down
complex problems into smaller and hence more manageable tasks.
One half of the board membership may be comprised of expert state
personnel.
By widening the circle of those allowed to participate in pro-
1-2t
-------
gram development and policy discussions, an open system such as a
public board with a membership of private citizens allows input by
knowledgeable individuals who would otherwise be excluded from the
deliberative process. (51) Figure 1-3 depicts the associated organi-
zation charts for special boards or commissions.
Advantages of utilizing a special board or commission as an
administrative authority include:
1. A board allows for a broader canvassing of
alternatives and the emergence of majority
and minority points of view.
2. Occupational requirements for appointment
lend a formal "legal" blessing to the group in
establishing credibility. This is essential in
public, professional and political acceptance
of board's findings and recommendations.
3. Frequent professional and social contact be-
tween legislative, executive and public consti-
tuency increases familiarity and respect.
4. Varied backgrounds of membership increases
decision effectiveness.
Disadvantages:
1. Boards and commissions disperse rather than
focus executive leadership and control.
2. Diversity of individuals and backgrounds could
contribute to internal power battles between
u nco mp ro mi s i ng vi ewpoi nts.
3. Responsiveness may be diminished due to diffi-
culty in obtaining a consensus.
4. Boards often have no implementation powers.
5. Members' attendance may be erratic due to
schedule conflicts with jobs, lack of payment
for services, and lack of mandatory attendance.
1-22
-------
Department of Natural
Resources
Division of Planning
\
Board of Unrestored
Mined Lands
Technical
Review
Team
Department of Natural
Resources, Division
of Reclamation
I
Project Manager
Department of
Natural Resources
Other DNR Related
Studies
Unrestored Mined
Lands Study
Ecological
Consultants
Engineering
Consultants
University
Consultants
Socio-
Economic
Consultants
Figure 1-3. Organization chart-special board
commission.
1-23
or
-------
6. Boards are often dependent upon third parties
to actually carry out work assignments and tasks.
7. Board assumes primarily a passive role.
Special boards and commissions have been used in developing
statewide abatement and reclamation programs in Ohio and Virginia.
A description of the Ohio Board of Unreclaimed Strip Mined Lands
and its program Land Reborn is located in Appendix B.
ESTABLISHING PHILOSOPHICAL FRAMEWORK, JURISDICTIONAL
AUTHORITY AND POLICY
As the organizational structure of an administering authority
is being developed, the purposes, duties and powers of the adminis-
tering group must also be defined. Ultimately, it is the design of an
agency's political system rather than its organizational structure
which determines if programs ever become implemented. The ef-
fectiveness of a program - once defined - is limited by the quality
of decision-making and magnitude of political and legal mechanisms
available to convert those decisions into action.
Defining Purposes
Statements of purpose are usually included in the documents
which establish the administering authority whether it be accom-
plished by:
1. Constitutional amendment.
2. Legislative act.
3. Changes in departmental rules and regulation
by executive order.
4. Charter revision.
Basically a statement of purpose establishes the philosophical
framework from which duties and powers, goals and objectives,
1-24
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roles and responsibilities, scope of work, and policy decision are
generated.
Criteria to be considered in writing statements of purpose
are:
1. What are the key issues that must be addressed
by the administrative authority?
2. What are the purposes and functions of existing
agencies within a department or other depart-
ments having input to the potential program?
3. The language of the statement of purpose should
define long range roles, responsibility and
results of the administrative authority's activi-
ties in as quantitative and qualitative terms as
possible without severely limiting the flexibility
of approach.
The following are examples of possible statement of purpose
for administrative authorities. The first example is less definitive
than the last and it is open to very broad interpretation. As dem-
onstrated by the following examples, statements of purpose serve as
the first vehicle for determining course of policy decision and pro-
gram implementation.
Example A
The purpose of the Board of Unrestored Mined Lands is to
restore those lands and waters within the state which are affected by
past mining activities.
Example B
The purpose of the Inactive Mined Lands Commission is to
organize and direct the abatement and reclamation of waters and
lands polluted from past mining activities.
Example C
The purpose of the Unrestored Mined Lands Section shall be
to formulate and implement a long-term plan and program for abate-
1-25
-------
ment and reclamation of polluted waters and lands affected by past
mining activities to such ends that said waters and lands will be re-
turned to productive use.
Establishing Powers and Duties
The formal powers and duties of an administrative agency
serve as the fuel for forwarding the agency's activities. Legisla-
tively delegated powers provide the best legal means for establishing
an agency's role and activating its functions. The use of inferred
powers should be avoided as much as possible because of broad sub-
jective interpretation. Delegated powers established by legislative
acts or executive order are less apt to be subjected to the judicial
process for interpretation. To be effective, the administering au-
thority for abatement and reclamation programs must include the
powers of:
1 . Advisement and recommendation.
2. Coordination.
3. Sanctioning.
4. Enforcement and implementation.
a. litigation
b. condemnation
c. eminent domain
d. civil penalty
e. criminal penalty
When possible the language used in defining powers and duties
should enumerate tasks that the agency is to pursue. The following
are examples of types of powers and duties for an agency respon-
sible for a state abatement and reclamation program.
The mine pollution abatement and reclamation section of the
division of reclamation shall plan, administer, enforce, and imple-
ment a statewide abatement and reclamation program. In executing
their duties the section shall:
1-26
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1. Gather information, study and make recom-
mendations concerning the number of acres,
location, ownership, condition, environmental
damage resulting from the condition, cost of
acquiring and reclamation of the standards of
the existing mining laws, possible future uses
and value of lands and waters. (47)
2. Plan, develop and institute programs and poli-
cies for the abatement and reclamation of inactive
mining sites.
3. Prepare and maintain surveys and inventories of
the sources, causes and effects of mine drain-
age from inactive mining sites.
4. Assume responsibility for acquisition, super-
vision and maintenance of unreclaimed mined
lands.
5. Adopt rules and regulations regarding
a. post use of lands reclaimed with
public funds
b. bidding and contracting of work to
be conducted on state abatement
and reclamation projects.
6. Enforce by proper legal action the protection of
lands and waters of the state from pollution by
inactive mining sites.
7. Consult with and provide technical services to
non-mining groups and individuals.
8. Publish and submit to the Governor and General
Assembly, an annual report of agency activities.
Establishing Policy - The Decision-making Process
Policy formulation is the primary means of translating an
1-27
-------
agency's purposes, duties, and powers into actions. Examples of
the types of issues decided by official policy include:
1. What role does the state assume in restoring
lands and waters in the state degraded by past
mining activities?
2. Will the state expend public funds on developing
new and improved abatement and reclamation
techniques or focus its resources upon utilizing
only those approaches which have had high
success in the past?
3. What aspect of the program will receive central
focus water improvement, land reclamation,
or reduction of air pollution?
The process in which policy is formed consists of decisions
rendered by agency personnel from subordinates to middle level
administrators to top administrative executives. The ultimate ef-
fectiveness of the agency and its programs is a reflection of the
quality of the decisions made by all these persons.
Since abatement and reclamation programs encompass prob-
lems of natural systems, the decision process relies upon scientific
data and the incorporation of objectivity into decision-making. Sub-
jective factors such as political influences, funding availability, and
personal bias of staff are also inherent to the decision process, but
as an agency and its programs become more complex the subjective
input may assume precedence over the objective input. Thus, it is
incumbent for decision-making personnel to recognize the roles of
both objective and subjective influences and attempt to keep them in
perspective.
One means of accomplishing this goal is to use a rational de-
cision process such as the one depicted in Figure 1-4. Basically the
rational process is a matter of simply attempting to:
1. Identify the sources and types of objective and
subjective influences both internal and external
to the agency and its programs.
1-28
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EXTERNAL INPUT
Demands
Public Concerns
Political Interests
Trade Organizations
Environmental Activists
Political Activists
Citizen Groups
Lobbyists
Essential Support Segment
Public Constituency
State General Assembly
Other State Departments
Federal Agencies
County Officials
Professional Community
Selected Special Interests
Administrative Agency
INTERNAL INPUT
Agency Purposes
Agency Role
Agency Powers
Previous Policy Decisions
Staff Capability, Attitude and Opinion
Political Factors
Fiscal Resources
Legal Mechanisms
Data Base
Technical Achievements
Technical Consultants
Define
Issue to be
Decided Upon
Define Decision
Criteria that must
be Considered
Objective and
Subjective
Influences
Identify
Positive and
Negative Aspects
Associated with
each Criteria
Assess Consequences
of Alternatives
MAKE DECISION
Implementation
Decision Making Environment
Fiqure 1-4. Rational decision process.
1-29
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2. Anticipate the consequences of each possible
decision.
3. Base decision on the alternative which will
yield the most desirable outcome.(12)
In essence, the purpose of the rational decision process is to
help prevent agency and program administrators from becoming lost
in the maze of factors that must be considered, so they can make
intelligent decisions.
Developing Programs and Implementation Plans
Successful programs are the result of well conceived plans,
In state abatement and reclamation programs, planning is the me-
thodical process by which a program is defined in terms of:
1 . What are the problems? What is the nature,
extent and impact of unreclaimed mined lands
in the state?
2. What are the program goals and objectives?
What does the state wish to achieve? Im-
provement of socio-economic conditions as
well as environmental conditions?
3. What resources will be needed to achieve the
program's goals and objectives and how much
will the abatement and reclamation work cost?
4. How should the state's resources be organized
so that the program's goals and objectives can
be attained most efficiently and effectively?
5. Where should projects begin and what should be
done?
6. What type of results can be expected? What is
the anticipated outcome?
7. Did the program achieve what it was intended to do?
8. Why was the program a success or a failure?
1-30
-------
9. What changes should be made in the program
so it will be more successful?
Two of the most important aspects of program planning are
establishing program goals and objectives and implementation strat-
egies. Basic criteria which should be considered in developing
goals and objectives include:
1. Relevancy to existing state environmental,
economic, social, and political conditions.
2. Technical, economic, legal and political
feasibility.
3. Congruity with other federal and state en-
vironmental programs, funding requirements,
and legal mechanisms.
Examples of comprehensive program goals and objectives
include:
I. Abatement of pollution from inactive mine sites
II. Restoration of lands and waters affected by pol-
lution from abandoned or inactive mine sites to
productive use including recreation, conser-
vation, agricultural, residential and industrial
utilization.
A. Establishment of a long-range plan for
mined land reclamation and mine drainage
pollution abatement.
1. Study and make recommendations con-
cerning the number of acres, location,
ownership, condition, environmental
damages, cost of acquiring and reclaim-
ing lands to a productive use, potential
future uses and value of unreclaimed
lands and streams and their affected areas.
2. Creation of one administering authority
which would assume the primary respon-
1-31
-------
sibility for planning, organizing, direct-
ing and implementing reclamation and
abatement program.
3. Develop an implementation strategy iden-
tifying long-range and short-term goals
and objectives; major tasks, time frames,
fiscal and personnel resources necessary
to implement a program in an effective and
efficient manner.
4. Establish a system for evaluating and se-
lecting projects for field implementation.
5. Investigate, propose and establish alter-
native funding methods.
6. Monitor and evaluate results of overall
program and individual projects.
B. Study, recommend and establish mechanisms
for encouraging reclamation and abatement by
nongovernmental agencies including the
mining industry, non-profit organizations and
private citizens. The primary objective being
abatement of pollution while still allowing re-
covery of a mineral resource; and alleviating
the burden of expenditure of large sums of
public funds on lands underlain by minerals
which may be needed by future generations.
C. The investment of public funds on restoration
projects which are economically viable, tech-
nologically feasible and environmentally sound.
D. Coordinate and integrate reclamation and
abatement activities by federal, state and local
governments. The primary objective being to
bring all forces to bear in solving pollution
problems.
III. To determine extent of mineral bearing areas in
state.
1-32
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IV. To determine extent of extraction and existing
condition of environment affected by such ex-
traction .
V. To determine socio-economic parameters which
will act as constraints on future reclamation
programs.
VI. To determine legal constraints on future recla-
mation programs.
VII. Develop proposals for improving environmental
quality within the study boundaries in areas af-
fected by mineral extraction and justified by
socio-economic constraints and within scope of
current and projected technology. Proposals
shall be judged against the criteria:
A. Need to improve water quality
B. Future land use benefits to accrue from
reclamation
C. Degree of economic stimulation
D. Cost
E. Water quality improvement benefits
F. Public visibility
G. Leverage: funding
political
H. Land ownership (public vs. private)
I. Long term vs. short term use input
J. Recreation activity enhancement
K. Early action vs. long term or complex
projects (46)
1-33
-------
VIII. Recommendations will be developed according to:
A. Feasibility study programs in priority
groupings
B. Feasibility and proposals for early action
projects
C. Legal changes necessary to allow or en-
courage reclamation per "A"
D. Criteria for engineering plans and speci-
fications for reclamation plans
E. Need and criteria for monitoring results
of reclamation projects (46)
Implementation is the process by which goals and objectives
are translated into concrete and meaningful services. In this case,
it is the improvement of water quality of polluted stream or the re-
turn of barren land to productive use. As might be expected, the
more complex the problem, the greater the problem of implemen-
tation .
Just because program goals and objectives have been defined
does not mean that they will be implemented or that the results
achieved will approximate those expected. It cannot be assumed
that policy or goals formulated at executive levels will be translated
into specific actions at subordinate levels. Some of the common in-
ternal and external obstacles which may block effective program im-
plementation are listed in Tables 1-2 and 1-3 with possible solutions.
Program Implementation Approaches
Two basic approaches by which programs may be implement-
ed are:
1 . Incremental and
2. Revolutionary
1-34
-------
Table 1-2
INTERNAL IMPLEMENTATION
OBSTACLES AND ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS
OBSTACLE
ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS
Personnel: Manpower
Shortage; Lack of ex-
perience or expertise.
Hire new staff members; Transfer staff from
other divisions or sections; Through in-kind
services use skills of staff from other de-
partments; Employ consultants; Use college
students as part of an in-service training
program; Volunteer assistance from quali-
fied persons and groups.
Staff Communications;
Confusion and misunder-
standing of what is to be
accomplished and how it
is to be done.
Clarify and reduce goals and objectives to a
level of simple language. Define and
assign tasks to individual staff members
set deadlines and define outputs. Then check
up on regular intervals. Involve staff in
decision-making by soliciting their views and
evaluating their ideas. Review and analyze
communication procedures, methods and
systems. Develop explicit guidelines and
procedural documents.
Subordinate Opposition
Discharge. Transfer to another division.
Charge duties and responsibilities. Provide
incentives for support by financial reward
and upward mobility in position. Involve
persons in program in a manner which will
net them rewards greater than if they did not
participate. Hire new staff. Employ con-
sultants .
Capacity Problems:
Critical time shortage;
grossly inadequate funds;
inadequate data; lack of
equipment.
Reevaluate and design more realistic goals
and objectives. Review and redefine antici-
pated results. Restructure implementation
strategy and methods. Seek assistance from
other resource and support groups.
1-35
-------
Table 1-3
EXTERNAL IMPLEMENTATION
OBSTACLES AND ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS
OBSTACLES
ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS
Lack of State Fiscal
Resources
Use in-kind services of allied organizations
and groups. Seek federal funds. Establish
special state funds and revenues. Develop
incentives for abatement and reclamation to
be done by mining industry and private
citizens. Revise and amend existing funding
requirements.
Legal Problems Land
Acquisition
Revise duties and powers of agency. Revise
agency and department policy. Challenge
judicial decisions. Alter methods of land
acquisition by constitutional amendment.
Change land acquisition requirements. Ex-
haust conventional methods of purchase,
gift, lease, eminent domain, condemnation,
property lien.
Lack of Political Support
Initiate a lobbying effort. Designate a liaison
officer from the agency to work with general
assembly. Hold briefings for legislators.
Perform duties for legislators which will win
their favor and support. Incorporate legis-
lators views into policy and program formu-
lation process. Modify implementation
tactics.
Interest Group Opposition
Hold formal and informal briefings and meet-
ings. Incorporate their views into policy and
program formulation process. Appoint qual-
ified persons to project advisory boards.
Perform duties which will win their favor and
support. Modify some aspects.
1-36
-------
Table 1-3 Continued
OBSTACLES
ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS
Public Opposition
Poll public attitudes and opinions. Initiate
public education program. Incorporate
their views into policy and program formu-
lation process. Have public representation
on advisory boards. Provide incentives for
changing opinion. Do some aspect of pro-
gram which will yield spectacular results
that will increase public support.
Just as its name implies, incremental implementation involves the
gradual development of a program. Almost all existing state abate-
ment and reclamation programs are incremental. The advantages
and disadvantages of utilizing an incremental approach include:
Advantages Long-range plans can be generated and
adapted when obstacles occur. Allow for orderly tran-
sitions and progressive growth. Likelihood for effec-
tive opposition is decreased by developing implemen-
tation strategies which will not arouse negative public
opinion.
Disadvantages Program may become too rigid to
accommodate abrupt changes in environmental, eco-
nomic, social and political conditions.
The revolutionary approach of implementation involves abrupt
changes. Revolutionary measures are not commonly used in abate-
ment and reclamation programs. A crisis situation where there is
an overwhelming consensus of opinion is an opportune situation in
which to implement programs greatly departed from past perfor-
mance . The advantages and disadvantages of this approach include:
Advantages Immediate alteration of environmental,
economic, social or political conditions. May revita-
lize a program - "get it out of ruts."
1-37
-------
Disadvantages Likelihood for generating opposi-
tion increases. There may not be enough time for
adequate planning.
As discussed in previous sections of this chapter, implement-
ing agencies may be organized in several ways. Use of consulting
services is another viable means of implementing various aspects of
abatement and reclamation programs. Generally speaking, consult-
ant services should be utilized when a state has:
1 . Insufficient staff
2. Lack of staff expertise
3. Severe time deadlines
4. Lack of equipment
The criteria to be considered in selecting a specific consult-
ant include:
1 . Academic training
2. Job experience
3. Professional reputation
4. Previous job performance
5. Ability to meet deadlines
6. Current work schedule
7. Equipment capability
8. Cost of services
Advantages of Using Consultants
1. Are removed from subjective influences of
political and social pressures. Study results
and recommendations tend to be more objective.
1-38
-------
2. Can mobilize their resources effectively and
efficiently to meet severe time deadlines.
3. Provide new insights and observations to un-
usual problems.
4. Can generate several alternatives due to greater
problem solving capacity.
5. Are familiar with new innovations and maintain
active liaisons with other resource groups and
persons.
6. Are not constrained by bureaucratic policy and
procedures.
7. Tend to adopt positive attitudes in problem solving.
8. Maintain an inventory of high quality laboratory and
field instrumentation.
Disadvantages
1. Oversight of political realities may render inap-
propriate recommendations.
2. Consultant costs may be higher than low cost
budgets can absorb.
1-39
-------
CHAPTER 2
LEGAL PROBLEMS
AND
AVENUES OF DEVELOPMENT
-------
INTRODUCTION
The primary purpose of this legal chapter is to point out major
legal and/or constitutional questions and problems which arise during
implementation of pollution abatement and reclamation programs in-
volving inactive or abandoned mined land. Each state's or subdivi-
sion of government's solution for handling these problems may vary
significantly. Therefore, this chapter deals with the avenues and
approaches to problem solutions, rather than expressing specific
solutions.
Once it has been determined that a statewide pollution abate-
ment and reclamation program for inactive and abandoned mine sites
should proceed, legal mechanisms for implementing the program
should be identified and evaluated. Legal means available for accom-
plishing reclamation will vary from state to state and may include
use of federal, state, and local pollution control legislation, inter-
state compacts, public works programs, and judicial precedent con-
cerning nuisance, property rights and related areas.
Analysis of available legal mechanisms will identify legal
problems likely to be involved in establishing a program. Most ob-
viously, conflicts are certain to arise between the most efficient
means of accomplishing reclamation on one hand, and judicial prece-
dent defining rights of property owners on the other. Barriers are
likewise certain to result from inadequate legislation. Thus, effec-
tive implementation of a statewide pollution abatement and reclama-
tion program for inactive and abandoned mine sites is likely to
require changing, to whatever degree constitutionally permissible,
inadequate and/or unreasonably restrictive legislation and judicial
precedent. Legal mechanisms available as well as feasibility and
difficultly of changing laws are significant factors to be considered,
along with technical aspects of reclamation in setting forth a workable
plan for inactive and abandoned mine pollution abatement.
DEFINITION OF LEGAL STATUS
Initially a state must define its legal status and mechanisms
available to handle this complex abatement and reclamation program.
2-3
-------
A team of attorneys (either in-house or consulting law firm) should be
utilized to research and digest current federal, state, county, local
or watershed compact laws, such as:
1 . Federal water pollution control laws
2. Federal mined land reclamation laws
3. State water pollution control laws
4. State mined land reclamation laws
5. State laws related to property ownership, mineral
ownership, and state land acquisition (right of way, Hens
or eminent domain)
6. Relevant county, municipal and other local laws that may
supplement or help establish state's jurisdiction
In addition to technical laws and jurisdiction legislature, all
laws relevant to funding the program's admininistering agency, inven-
tory surveys, feasibility studies, land acquisition and construction
must be explored.
Final output from this initial legal investigation should be a
report with sufficient detailed recommendations for action that would
enable a bill to be introduced into state legislature which would pro-
vide legal authority to carry out pollution abatement and reclamation
program for inactive and abandoned mined land. Major areas which
should be covered by legislative authority are the following:
1 . Public financing
2. Property acquisition and authority to sell property (or
use of Lien)
3. Ability to cite abandoned mine landowners for problems
which present a public health or safety hazard
4. Ability to buy and sell a mineral resource, if appropriate
to abatement or reclamation
5. Authority to contract (negotiate) with private groups, uni-
versities, or government agencies
6. Authority to spend funds, accept funds, grants, gifts,
services, loans, and utilize mineral severance tax money
or other funding avenues
7. Authority to compensate mineral owners when their miner-
al becomes unmineable as a result of an abatement project
(i.e. flooding a deep mine or regrading a strip mine)
2-4
-------
8. Authority to make a clear distinction between abandoned
and active operation (based on time or some finite para-
meter)
9. Authority to negotiate with active miners (including pay-
ment of an incentive) to have them reclaim abandoned
mines adjacent to their active operation.
10. Authority to hire an in-house staff and/or contract with
consultants to do planning, inventory design, preparation
of construction plans and specifications, monitoring pol-
lution from abandoned mines, supervise construction of
abatement projects.
11. Authority to operate and/or monitor pollution control
plants or projects on a long term basis
12. Authority to negotiate and/or compensate property owners
who abate abandoned mine pollution at their own expense
13. Authority to assess (or have assessed) values of property
before and after pollution abatement
14. Authority to prevent someone from later disturbing a pol-
lution abatement project without becoming responsible
for the recurring pollution (i.e. opening a sealed and
flooded deep mine or reopening a reclaimed strip)
15. Ability to set abatement or reclamation standards and
criteria
16. Authority to negotiate with other state agencies and with
other states where abandoned mines are on state boun-
daries
17. Right of Entry Authority
Solution to many of these legal problems may be obtained by re-
viewing other states' relevant laws and discussions with their key personnel.
Technology is often available from other state agencies which deal with
similar problems, for example, land ownership, windfall profits, and
funding. Contracting with private groups are dealt with daily by highway
or transportation departments or agencies dealing with pollution control,
public health or active mining.
Judicial Precedent
Earliest developments in controlling use of private land were
in private lawsuits brought against private landowners. These suits,
2-5
-------
over time, developed a "nuisance theory" which gradually expanded
into a theory permitting either public or private interests to bring
an action against a private landowner to abate a condition that con-
stituted a nuisance to surrounding lands and persons. The term
"nuisance" is generally used in law to mean any condition on land
which unlawfully and tortiously causes inconvenience, discomfort
or injury to another and consists in doing an act or omitting to per-
form a duty, which act or omission damages, injures or endangers
comfort, health, or safety of others or their property.
Nuisance law plies between two antithetical interests: right to
use one's property for any purpose that one sees fit, and one's duty
to use one's property in such a manner as not to injure property
rights of one's neighbor. Nuisance cases required courts to strike
a balance between these competing principles. Over the years,
wisdom of the day and contemporary view of public policy have
produced widely differing results in similar situations, even within
the same state. A careful review of judicial precedent, therefore,
must be made in any state considering a pollution abatement program
for inactive and abandoned mine sites.
Legislation
Police power is the basis of authority in states and in muni-
cipalities to adopt laws which promote public health, safety, morals
and general welfare. Police power includes in most states power to
prevent and abate nuisances. Within constitutional limitations, leg-
islature may define what constitutes a nuisance and the method for
abatement of a nuisance. Accordingly, a careful review of all
"statutory nuisances" should be undertaken with view to the intended
pollution abatement program for inactive and abandoned mine sites.
Such a review should include local units of government within a
state because it is common for a state to have delegated abatement
of certain nuisances to city boards of health, general health districts,
or similar bodies. But most important source of existing legal
mechanisms is likely to be state statutes in areas of air quality,
energy, land use, resource recovery, solid waste management,
water quality and related areas. A listing of relevant state laws
(Table 2-1) gives an indication of the amount of legislative activity
2-6
-------
Table 2-1
SYNOPSIS OF LAWS RELATIVE TO STATEWIDE POLLUTION ABATEMENT
AIR
Alabama
Air Pollution Control Act
Air Pollution Control Rules and Regulations
Alaska
Department of Environmental Conservation Act
Air Pollution Control Regulations
Arizona
Air Pollution Control Laws
Rules and Regulations for Air Pollution Control
Arkansas
Water and Air Pollution Control Act
Air Pollution Control Code
California
Air Pollution Control Laws
Environmental Quality Act of 1970
Air Pollution Control Regulations
Motor Vehicle Emissions Regulations
Colorado
Air Pollution Control Act of 1970
WATER
Water Pollution Control Act
Water Quality Criteria
Procedural Regulations
Department of Environmental
Conservation Act
Water Quality Standards
Wastewater Disposal Regulations
Oil Pollution Regulations
Water Pollution Control Law
Rules and Regulations for Sewerage
Systems and Waste Treatment Works
Water Quality Standards
Water and Air Pollution Control Act
Regulations Establishing Water Quality
Standards for Surface Waters
State Water Resources Control Board
Water Pollution Control Laws
Water Regulations
Water Quality Control Act
SOLID WASTE - LAND USE
Solid Waste Disposal Act
Solid Waste Financing Act
Solid Waste Management Regulations
Standards for Disposal of Solid Wastes
Surface Mining Act of 1969
Department of Environmental Conservation Act
Solid Waste Management Regulations
Solid Waste Rules
Solid Waste Management Act
Solid Waste Disposal Regulations
Solid Waste Management and Resource Recovery
Act of 1972
Coastal Zone Conservation Act
Solid Waste Disposal Sites and Facilities Law
to
-------
Table 2-1 Continued
AIR
Colorado (continued)
Air Quality Control Regulations
Existing Wigwam Burners Regulations
Existing Alfalfa Dehydration Plants Regulations
Stationary Sources Standards
Hydrocarbons Vapors Regulations
Connecticut
Environmental Protection Act
Air Pollution Control Laws
Environmental Policy Act
Rules of Practice
Air Pollution Control Regulations
Delaware
Air Pollution Control Laws
Regulation I - Definitions and Administra-
tive Principles
Regulation II - Registration and Permits
Regulation III - Ambient Air Quality Standards
Regulation IV to VII and XVIII - Particulates
Regulations VIII and IX - Sulfur Dioxides
Regulation XIII - Open Burning
Regulation XIV - Visible Emissions
Regulation XV - Air Pollution Alert and
Emergency Plan
Regulation XVI - Sources Having an Interstate
Air Potential
Regulation XVII -Source Monitoring, Record-
Keeping and Reporting
Regulation XIX - Control of Odorous Air
Contaminants
District of Columbia
Air Pollution Control Act
WATER
Regulations for State Discharge Permit
System
Water Quality Standards
Clean Water Act
Water Quality Standards
Underwater Lands Laws
Water Quality Standards
Water Pollution Control Regulations
River Basin Commission Regulations -
Water Quality
Water Pollution Control Law
SOLID WASTE - LAND USE
Solid Waste Regulations
Solid Waste Management Act
Solid Waste Management Services Act
Regulation on Disposal of Refuse
Public Utility Environmental Standards Act
Environmental Control Laws
Solid Waste Disposal Regulations
Coastal Zones Act
Wetlands Act
Solid Waste Law
ro
i
CO
-------
Table 2-1 Continued
IV)
(0
AIR
District of Columbia (Continued)
Air Quality Control Regulations
Diesel Exhaust Emissions Regulations
Florida
Air and Water Pollution Control Act
Environmental Protection Act of 1971
Administrative Procedures
Air Pollution Rules
Rules on Permits
Open Burning and Frost Protection Fires
Regulations
Rules on Alternate Enforcement Procedure
Pollution Control Tax Assessment Rules
Air Quality Control Law
Vehicular Visible Emission Control Act
Air Quality Control Rules
Hawaii
Environmental Quality Law
Environmental Quality Council Law
Environmental Quality Commission Law
Air Pollution Regulations
Ambient Air Quality Standards
Idaho
Environmental Protection and Health Act
of 1972
Air Pollution Control Regulations
Illinois
Environmental Protection Act
WATER
Water Pollution Control Regulations
Air and Water Pollution Control Act
Sewage Disposal Facilities Law
Pollutant Spill Prevention and Control
Act
Water Resources Act of 1972
Rules on Pollution of Waters
Rules on Sewage Works
Rules on Assessment of Damages
Water Quality Control Act
Water Quality Control Regulations
Water Classifications
Environmental Quality Law
Water Pollution Control Regulations
Water Pollution Control Law
Water Quality Standards and Waste-
water Treatment Requirements
Environmental Protection Act
SOLID WASTE - LAND USE
Solid Waste Regulations
Resource Recovery and Management Act
Garbage and Rubbish Rules
Environmental Land and Water Management Act
of 1972
Coastal Construction Law
Solid Waste Management Act
Solid Waste Management Rules
Coastal Marchlands Protection Act
Environmental Quality Law
Solid Waste Law
Solid Waste Regulations and Standards
Environmental Protection Act
-------
Fable 2-1 Continued
WATER
SOLID WASTE - LAND USE
Illinois (Continued)
General Air Pollution Regulations
Stationary Sources Standards
Air Quality Standards
Episodes Regulations
Open Burning Regulations
Asbestos, Spray Insulation, and Fireproofing
Regulations
Mobile Sources Standards
Odors Regulations
Water Pollution Control Rules
Rules and Regulations on Cyanides
or Cyanogen Compounds
Solid Waste Regulations
ro
I
Indiana
Air Pollution Control Law
Environmental Management Act
Environmental Policy Law
Open Burning, Visible Emissions, and Indirect
Heating Regulations
Process Operations, Existing Foundries, and
Incinerators Regulations
Episode Alert Levels
Sulfur Dioxide Regulations
Ambient Air Quality
Hydrocarbons Regulation
Regulations on Carbon Monoxide and Nitrogen
Dioxide
Particulate Regulations Compliance Schedule
Permits Regulation
Fugitive Dust Regulation
Air Quality Basins Regulation
Stream Pollution Control Law
Phosphate Detergent Law
Watercraft Sewage Disposal Law
Water Quality Standards
NPDES Permit Regulations
Hazardous Substances Regulation
Refuse Disposal Act
Anti-Litter Law
Highway Junkyard Control Act
Abandoned Vehicle Act
Solid Waste Management Permit Regulations
Industrial Waste Hauler Permit Regulation
Iowa
Department of Environmental Quality Act
Rules and Regulations Relating to Air Pollution
Department of Environmental Quality Act
Water Quality Standards
Confined Feeding Operations Regulations
Department of Environmental Quality Act
Sanitary Disposal Projects Rules
Surface Mining Law
-------
Table 2-1 Continued
AIR
WATER
SOLID WASTE - LAND USE
Kansas
Air Quality Control Act
Air Pollution Emission Control Regulations
Water Pollution Control Laws
Water Quality Criteria
Underground Storage Regulations
Permits, Spills, and Grants Regulations
Agricultural Wastes Regulations
Solid Waste Management Act of 1970
Solid Waste Disposal Act
Solid Waste Management Standards and
Regulations
IV)
I
Environmental Protection Law
General Provisions and Regulations
Open Burning Regulations
Particulate Emissions Regulations
Sulfur Compound Emissions Regulations
Hydrocarbon Emissions Regulations
Carbon Monoxide Regulations
Nitrogen Oxides Regulations
Coal Refuse Regulations
Ambient Air Quality Standards
Rules of Practice
Review of Indirect Sources
Environmental Protection Law
Water Quality Standards
Waste Discharge Permits Regulations
Public Hearings Regulations
Excessive Spills Discharges Regulations
Environmental Protection Law
Garbage and Refuse Disposal Law
Solid Waste Regulations
Strip Mining Law
Louisiana
Air Control Law
Council of Environmental Quality
Air Pollution Control Regulations
Stream Control Commission Acts
Regulation on Reports of Industrial
Waste Discharges
Rules Relating to Oil and Gas
Water Quality Criteria
Solid Waste Laws
Solid Waste Regulations
Maine
Air Pollution Control Law
Air Pollution Control Rules
Hearings Regulations
Water Pollution Control Law
Oil Discharge Prevention and
Pollution Control Act
Oil Pollution Control Regulations
Solid Waste Management Act
Solid Waste Management Regulations
Land Use Law
Site Location and Development Law
Coastal Wetlands and Zoning Law
-------
Table 2-1 Continued
AIR
WATER
SOLID WASTE - LAND USE
10
I
ro
Maryland
Air- Quality Control Act
Environmental Policy Act
Air Pollution Regulations
Water Pollution Control Laws
Water Resources Law
Environmental Service Act of 1970
Water Pollution Control Definitions
Water Pollution Control Regulations
Effluent Limitations
Regulation on Toxic Materials for
Aquatic Life Management
Oil Prevention Regulation
Discharge Permits Regulation
Classification of State Waters
Wastewater Works Regulation
Water Pollution Control Principles
Receiving Water Quality Standards
Groundwater Quality Standards
Solid Waste Laws
Solid Waste Regulations
Power Plant Siting Act
Strip Mining Law
Massachusetts
Air Pollution Control Laws
Environmental Cause of Action Law
Environmental Protection Law
Air Pollution Control Regulations
Air Quality Standards
Clean Waters Act
Rules for Adopting Administration Regu-
lations for the Conduct of Adjudicatury
Proceedings, and Administrative Rules
Rules for the Prevention and Control of
Oil Pollution in the Waters of the
Commonwealth
Hazardous Waste Regulations
Water Quality Standards
Solid Waste Disposal Law
Sanitary Landfill Regulations
Michigan
Air Pollution Laws
Environmental Protection Act of 1970
Administrative Rules for Air Pollution
Control
Water Resources Commission Act
Liquid Industrial Waste Disposal Act
Cleaning Agents and Water Conditioners
Act
Water-craft Pollution Control Act
General Provisions and Procedures Regu-
lations
Wastewater Reporting and Surveillance
Fees Rules
Solid Waste Disposal Act
Solid Waste Regulations
Shorelands Protection Act
-------
Table 2-1 Continued
AIR
WATER
SOLID WASTE - LAND USE
Hearings Regulations
Oil Spillage Regulations
Cleaning Agents Regulations
Wastewater Discharge Permits
Water Quality Standards
Water Temperature Standards
Minnesota
Pollution Control Agency Law
Environmental Council Act
Environmental Rights Act
Environmental Policy Act
Ambient Air Quality Standards
Air Quality Definitions
Permits and Monitoring Rules
Fuel Burning Rules
Particulate Matter Rules
Incinerator Rules
Open Burning Restrictions
Odor Control Rules
Visible Air Contaminants Rules
Gasoline Storage Rules
Acid and Alkaline Emissions Rules
Sulfurlc Acid Plant Emissions Rules
Nitric Acid Rules
Emission Standards for Asbestos and
Inorganic Fibrous Material
Regulations for Permits for Indirect
Sources
Water Pollution Control Laws
Statutes Pertaining to Marine Tlolets
Oil Storage Regulations
Criteria for Intrastate Waters
Criteria for Interstate Waters
Effluent Standards for Intrastate
Waters
Classification of Intrastate Waters
Classification of Interstate Waters
NPDES Regulations
Criteria for Watercraft Sewage
Retention Devices
Solid Wastes Recycling Law
Solid Waste Disposal Regulations
Critical Areas Act
Mississippi
Air and Water Pollution Control Act
Air Quality Regulations
Permit Regulations
Emergency Episodes Regulations
Air and Water Pollution Control Act
Water Quality Criteria
NPDES Regulations
Solid Waste Disposal Act of 1974
Solid Waste Regulations
Sanitary Landfill Standards
-------
Table 2-1 Continued
ro
i
^
-£
AIR
Missouri
Air Conservations Law
Regulation S-I, Auto Exhaust Emission Con-
trols
Regulation S-II, Reporting of New Installations
Regulation S-III, Open Burning Restrictions
Regulation S-IV, Incinerators
Regulation S V, Restriction of Emission of
Particulate Matter from Industrial Processes
Regulation S-VI, Maximum Allowable Emissions
of Particulate Matter from Fuel Burning
Equipment Used for Indirect Heating
Regulation S-VII, Restriction of Particulate
Matter from Becoming Airborne
Regulation S-VIII, Restriction of Visible Air
Contaminants
Regulation S-IX, Restriction of Emission of
Odors
Regulation S-X, Restriction of Emission of
Sulfur Compounds
Regulation S-XI, Rules for Controlling Emissions
During Periods of High Air Pollution Potential
Montana
Clean Air Act
Air Quality Regulations
Nebraska
Environmental Protection Act
WATER
Clean Water Law
Waste Disposal Well Law
Definition Regulation
Discharge and NPDES Permits and
Spills Regulations
Effluent Regulations
Miscellaneous Water Pollution Control
Regulations
Water Pollution Control Law
Water Use Act
Environmental Policy Act
Water Quality Criteria
Regulation on Water Pollution from
Livestock Feeding
Pollutant Discharge Elimination
System
Environmental Protection Act
SOLID WASTE - LAND USED
County Option Dumping Ground Law
Junkyards Law
Solid Waste Law
Refuse Disposal Regulations
Solid Waste Rules and Regulations
Refuse Disposal Control Law
Refuse Disposal Districts Law
Refuse Disposal Regulation
Environmental Protection Act
-------
Table 2-1 Continued
AIR
WATER
SOLID WASTE - LAND USE
Nebraska (Continued)
Motor and Diesel-Powered Motor Vehicle Act
Rules of Practice and Procedure
Air Pollution Control Regulations
Water Quality Standards
Domestic and Industrial Liquid Wastes
Disposal Rules
Livestock Waste Control Regulations
Disposal Wells Regulations
NPDES Regulations
Solid Waste Disposal Sites Law
Solid Waste Control Rules
10
01
Nevada
Air Pollution Control Law
Air Quality Regulations
Water Pollution Control Laws
Water Pollution Control Regulations
Solid Waste Disposal Law
Solid Waste Management Regulations
New Hampshire
Air Pollution Control Law
Open Burning Regulations
Fluorides Regulation
Particulate Emissions Regulations
Sulfur Emissions Regulations
Incinerators Regulation
Waste Burners Regulation
Asphalt Plants Emissions Regulation
Motor Vehicles Regulation
Ferrous Foundries Regulation
Ambient Air Quality Standards
Sand, Gravel, and Cement Industries
Regulation
Nonferrous Foundries Regulation
Pulp and Paper Industry Regulation
Permit Regulation
Process, Manufacturing, Service, Miscel-
laneous Industries Regulation
Record Keeping Regulation
Emergency Episode Regulation
Requirements for Indirect Sources
Water Pollution Control Law
Waste Disposal Laws
Junkyard Control Law
-------
Table 2-1 Continued
AIR
WATER
SOLID WASTE - LAND USE
to
j^
0)
New Jersey
Department of Environmental Protection Act
of 1970
Air Pollution Control Laws
Regulations on General Provisions and Open
Burning
Regulations on Smoke from Combustion of Fuel
Regulations on Air Pollution from Manufacturing
Processes
Regulations on Sulfur
Regulations on Permits and Certificates
Regulations on Incinerators
Regulations on Emergencies
Ambient Air Quality Standards
Regulations on Diesel-Powered Motor Vehicles
Light-Duty Motor Vehicles Regulations
Department of Environmental Pro-
tection Act of 1970
Water Pollution Control Laws
Water Quality Improvement Act of 1971
Clean Ocean Act
Wetlands Act of 1970
Environmental Rights Act
Point Source Discharge Regulations
Surface Water Quality Standards
Solid Waste Laws
Motor Vehicle Junk Law
Waste Control Act
Solid Waste Management Regulations
Coastal Area Facility Review Act
New Mexico
z.nvironmental Improvement Act
Air Quality Control Act
Air Quality Standards and Regulations
Water Quality Act
Water Quality Regulations
Water Quality Standards
Solid Waste Management Regulations
New York
=.nvironmental Conservation Law
Rules on General Provisions, Permits Stack
Testing, Emergency Control Measures, and
General Prohibition
3rocesses and Exhaust and/or Ventilation
Systems
Contaminant Emissions from Ferrous Jobbing
Foundries and By-Product Coke Batteries
Rules on Open Fires
Rules on Motor Vehicle Emissions
Incinerator Rules
Rules on Cement Plants and Asbestos
Environmental Conservation Law
Watercraft Sewage Disposal Law
Classifications and Standards
Criteria Governing Thermal Discharges
Rules on Use and Protection of Waters
Environmental Conservation Law
Refuse Disposal Rules
Wetlands Law
-------
Table 2-1 Continued
AIR
WATER
SOLID WASTE - LAND USE
New York (Continued)
Rules on Fuel Composition and Use
Rules on Sulfuric Acid and Nitric Acid Plants
Rules on Indirect Sources of Air Contamination
Ambient Air Quality Standards
North Carolina
Water and Air Resources Acts
Motor Vehicle Emissions Laws
Rules and Regulations Governing the Control
of Air Pollution
Water and Air Resources Acts
Environmental Policy Act of 1971
Oil Pollution Control Act of 1973
Rules, Regulations, Classifications
and Water Quality Standards Applicable
to Surface Waters
Monitoring Regulation
Solid Waste Disposal Lam
Solid Waste Disposal Regulations
North Dakota
Air Pollution Control Act
Air Pollution Control Regulations
Water Pollution Control Act
Surface Water Quality Standards
Solid Waste Management Regulations
Ohio
Air Pollution Control Laws
General Air Pollution Regulations
Regulations for Suspended Particulates and
Sulfur Oxides
Regulations for Carbon Monoxide, Hydro-
carbons, and Photo-chemical Oxidants
Regulations for Oxides of Nitrogen
Permits System Regulations
Regulations for the Prevention of Air Pollution
Emergency Episodes
Permit Fees Regulations
Regulation on Air Permits to Operate and
Variances
Open Burning Regulation
Environmental Protection Agency
Water Pollution Control Act
Watercraft Sewage Disposal Law
Criteria of Stream-Water Quality
Resolution on Discharge of Toxins
NPDES Permit Regulations
Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation
Commission Standards on Sewage
and Industrial Wastes
Solid Waste Disposal Law
Solid Waste Disposal Regulations
Power Plant Siting Commission Law
Reclamation Law
-------
Table 2-1 Continued
AIR
WATER
SOLID WASTE - LAND USE
ro
i
x
03
Oklahoma
Clean Air Act
Pollution Control Coordinating Act of 1968
Regulation 1 - Open Burning
Regulation 2 - Motor Vehicle Pollution Control
Devices
Regulation 3 - Definitions
Regulation 4 - Air Contaminant Sources Regis-
tration
Regulation 5 - Incinerators
Regulation 6 Particulate Matter Emission
from Fuel-Burning Equipment
Regulations 7, 8, 9, 19 - Smoke, Particulates,
Hazardous Contaminants
Regulations 11, 12, 13 - Malfunction, Sampling,
and Monitoring
Regulation 14 - Permits
Regulation 15 - Organic Material
Regulation 16 - Sulfur Oxides
Regulations 17, 18 - Carbon Monoxide and Nitro-
gen Oxides
Water Pollution Control Laws
Pollution Remedies Laws
Pollution Control Coordinating Act
of 1968
Solid Waste Management Act
Pollution Control Coordinating Act of 1968
Solid Waste Management Regulations
Oregon
Air Pollution Control Laws
Air Pollution Control Regulations
Water Pollution Control Laws
Synthetic Cleaning Agent Act
Water Quality Control Regulations
Solid Waste Management Law
Solid Waste Regulations
Land Use Law
Pennsylvania
Air Pollution Control Act
Air Pollution General Rules
Standards for Contaminants
Coal Refuse Disposal Rules
Air Pollution Sources Rules
Standards for Sources
Ambient Air Quality Standards
Department of Environmental Resources
Clean Streams Law
Sewage Facilities Act
Sewage Facilities Regulations
Water Quality Criteria
Water Resources General Provisions
NPDES Permit Regulations
Solid Waste Management Act
Solid Waste Regulations
Surface Mining Conservation and Reclamation Act
Erosion Control Regulations
-------
Table 2-1 Continued
AIR
Pennsylvania (Continued)
Local Air Pollution Control Agencies Rules
Sources Reporting Rules
Air Pollution Episodes Rules
Sampling-Testing Rules
Variances and Alternate Standards
Puerto Rico
Department of Natural Resources Act
Law on the Control of Air Pollution
Air Pollution Control Regulations
Rhode Island
Clean Air Act
Air Pollution Control Regulations
Sulfur Content of Fuels Regulation
Approval of Plans Regulation
Air Pollution Episode Regulations
Nitrogen Oxides Regulation
Incinerator Regulation
South Carolina
Pollution Control Acts
Air Pollution Control Regulations and
Standards
South Dakota
Clean Air Act
Air Pollution Control Regulations
WATER
Waste Water Treatment Regulations
Industrial Wastes Regulations
Mine Drainage Permits
Sewage Facilities Grants
Water Pollution Control Law
Harmful Spills Law
Public Policy Environmental Act
Water Pollution Control Law
Water Quality Standards
Pollution Control Acts
Classification Standards
Water Pollution Law
Environmental Policy Act
Water Quality Standards
SOLID WASTE - LAND USE
(NONE)
Solid Waste Law
Coastal Resources Management Council
Solid Waste Management Corporation Act
Landfill Regulation
Industrial Solid Waste Disposal Site Regulation
Guidelines for Waste Disposal Permits
Solid Waste Disposal Act
Solid Waste Rules
CO
-------
Table 2-1 Continued
AIR
Tennessee
Air Quality Act
Air Pollution Control Regulations
Texas
Clean Air Act
Air Control Board Regulations: General
Provisions
Regulation I: Control of Air from Smoke,
Visible Emissions, and Particulate Matter
Regulation III: Control of Air Pollution from
Toxic Materials
Regulation IV: Control of Air Pollution from
Motor Vehicles
Regulation V: Control of Air Pollution from
Volatile Carbon Compounds
Regulation VI: Control of Air Pollution by
Permits for New Construction or Modification
Regulation VII: Control of Air Pollution from
Nitrogen
Regulation VIII: Control of Air Pollution
Emergency Episodes
Regulation II: Control of Air Pollution from
Sulfur Compounds
Exemptions from Permits Procedures
Permit System Procedures
Utah
Air Conservation Act
Air Conservation Regulations
Vermont
Air Pollution Control Law
WATER
Stream Pollution Control Law
General Regulations
Water Quality Criteria
Water Quality Act
Water Quality Requirements, General
Statement
Water Quality Rules
Water Quality Standards
Water Pollution Control Act
Definitions and General Requirements
Water Quality Standards
Water Pollution Control Laws
SOLID WASTE - LAND USE
Solid Waste Disposal Act
Solid Waste Regulations
Surface Mining Law
Solid Waste Disposal Act
Refuse Dumping Law
Solid Waste Regulations
Regulation on Disposal of Industrial Solid Waste
Solid Waste Disposal Regulations
Solid Waste Law
10
-------
Table 2-1 Continued
AIR
WATER
SOLID WASTE - LAND USE
Vermont (Continued)
Air Pollution Control Regulations
Water Classification and Quality
Regulations
Pollution Charges and Permit Fees Rules
NPDES Permit Program Regulations
Solid Waste Regulations
Land Use Law
Land Capability and Development Plan Law
Air Pollution Control Laws
Council on the Environment Law
Air Pollution Control Definitions
Air Pollution Control Procedures
Air Quality Standards
Regulations on Open Burning, Smoke,
and Visible Emissions
Particulates Regulations
Gaseous Contaminants Regulation
Odor Regulations
Coal Refuse Disposal Regulation
Motor Vehicle Emissions Regulation
Air Pollution Emergency Regulation
State Water Control Law
Miscellaneous Laws Relating to Water
Pollution
Environmental Impact Report Law
Water Pollution Control Regulations
Water Quality Standards
Solid Waste Disposal Law
Solid Waste Regulations
Washington
Environmental Quality Reorganization Act
of 197O
Clean Air Act
State Environmental Policy Act of 1971
General Air Pollution Regulations
Emergency Episode Plan
Open Burning Regulations
Field Burning Regulations
Regulations on State Financial Aid
Regulations on Reporting by Thermal Power
Plants, Aluminum Plants, and Chemical Wood
Wood Pulp Mills
Regulations on Motor Vehicles
Carbon Monoxide Standards
Water Pollution Qontrol Laws
Environmental Coordination Procedures
Act of 1973
Department of Ecology Organization
Waste Works Regulations
Wastes Discharge Permits
Water Pollution Control Planning
Regulations
Hearings Regulations
NPDES Permit Program Regulations
Water Quality Standards
Solid Waste Management Law
Shoreline Management Act of 1971
Thermal Power Plant Siting Law
Shoreline Development Permit Regulations
-------
Table 2-1 Continued
WATER
SOLID WASTE - LAND USE
Washington (Continued)
Regulations on Kraft Pulping Mills
Sulflte Pulping Mills Regulations
Suspended Parttculate Standards
Particle Fallout Regulations
Photochemicals, Hydrocarbons, Nitrogen
Dioxide Regulations
Fluoride Standards
Regulations on Primary Aluminum Plants
Sulfur Oxide Standards
Procedures Regulations
Ecological Commission Regulations
West Virginia
fQ Air Pollution Control Law
Regulations on Coal Refuse Disposal
Regulations on Combustion of Fuel in
Indirect Heat Exchangers
Regulations on Hot Mix Asphalt Plants
Regulations on Odors
Regulations on Coal Preparation Plants
Regulations on Combustion of Refuse
Regulations on Manufacturing Process Operations
Ambient Air Quality Standards
Regulations on Sulfur Oxides
Regulations on Emergency Episodes
Regulations on Permits
Water Pollution Control Act
Water Quality Regulations
Solid Waste Laws
Solid Waste Regulation
Surface Mining Act
Wisconsin
Air Pollution Control Laws
Environmental Impact Law
Ambient Air Quality Standards
Air Pollution Control Rules
Water Pollution Control Law
Discharge Permits Regulations
Public Participation Procedures
Interim Effluent Limitations for
Pollution Discharge Elimination
System
Water Quality Standards
Solid Waste Law
Environmental Quality Act
Wyoming
Environmental Quality Act
Air Quality Standards and Regulations
Protection of Public Water Supply Act
Environmental Quality Act
NPDES Permit Program Regulations
Water Quality Standards
Solid Waste Disposal Law
Solid Waste Management Rules
-------
in these areas and need to review these enactments and attendant
regulations in assessing available legal means for a statewide pollu-
tion abatement program for inactive and abandoned mine sites.
These statutes are aggregated and reproduced from The Bureau of
National Affairs, Environment Reporter State Air Laws, State
Water Laws, and State Solid Waste Land Use.
Even though there has also been a great deal of federal
activity, by way of legislation, executive orders, programs, etc.,
little has been done that is directly applicable to statewide pollution
abatement programs for inactive and abandoned mine sites. This
report is a major step in that direction, since it represents the
federal government's attempt to support states in their efforts to
respond to abatement and reclamation problems in their respective
areas.
LEGAL PROBLEMS
Substantive legal problems arise at the very outset in deciding
which of three conceivable parties is to bear the cost and burden of
abatement: private landowner, current generation of miners, or the
state.
If it is decided that the private landowner should be compelled
to upgrade his property, a public nuisance statute is probably the most
common means of enforcement. A large problem, however, looms
in use of such statutes, for regulation of private land use comes close
and often crosses the very thin line between acceptable exercise of
a state's police power and an unconstitutional taking of private property
for public use without just compensation. The range of cases dealing
with balancing of competing principles is as broad as scholarly matei
ial is complex. Whenever a statutory or regulatory scheme restricts
an individual's supposed right to do whatever he wants with his land,
especially when the scheme is apparently new, constitutionality of the
scheme is certain to be questioned. This delicate balance between
needs of environmental protection and right of individual to control
his own property makes litigation in early stages of a program a good
possibility.
2-23
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A second conceivable alternative is to place the burden of
pollution abatement directly on current generation of miners for inac-
tive and abandoned sites that were worked by previous generations of
operators. There is, however, little or no judicial precedent that
could be used to require outright the current generation of miners to
cure abuses of prior generations. Any such statutory scheme would
likely be unconstitutional for lack of due process and equal protection.
Of course, operators are currently paying severance taxes in some
states that are used to fund state pollution abatement programs. De-
veloping criteria for reaffecting previously mined land using schemes
such as tax breaks and licensing criteria, may be used to induce the
current generation of miners to reaffect abandoned areas with new
technology, and thus bring those lands under current standards for
mine closing.
Finally, the state itself could accept responsibility for abating
pollution from inactive and abandoned mine sites. The state could
certainly reclaim land which is already owned. If state law permits,
it might also acquire land in need of reclamation, specifically for the
purpose of pollution abatement. The problem of a state doing recla-
mation work is not so much legal as economic; states with existing
abatement programs have used various combinations of landowner,
operator and state cooperation to abate pollution.
In 1973 Ohio's Board on Unreclaimed Strip Mined Lands and
Department of Natural Resources funded a statewide pollution abate-
ment program for inactive and abandoned coal mine sites. As part
of this planning and inventory survey, a preliminary evaluation of
its legal problems and available reclamation mechanisms was under-
taken. To emphasize and cite specific examples of one state's legal
avenues, some of Ohio's legal alternatives are presented here.
Similar legal aspects, questions, and avenues of approach would also
exist in other states. However, investigations of the legal complex-
ities of each state will have to be performed to answer questions
posed in this chapter.
2-24
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Reclamation by Current Landowner
Use of Existing Nuisance Laws
There are several approaches by which unreclaimed mined
lands could be declared a nuisance and landowners could possibly
be forced to affect reclamation of those lands. The potential exists
to accomplish this objective through common law action, statutory
schemes, and water pollution control laws. These potential nuisance
law remedies are discussed in the following pages.
Common Laws
Common law action against a private landowner for maintain-
ing a nuisance is recognized in Ohio. While the maxim "sic utere
tuo ut non alienum leadas" (use your property in such a manner as to
not injure another) has frequently been employed by the courts as a
major principle of nuisance law, the Ohio courts, including the
Supreme Court, have taken a more restrictive view of permissible
land use, permitting recovery under the nuisance theory for injuries
beyond mere damage to property.
Remedies for a nuisance include recovery of damages, injunc-
tion against continuance or commission of the nuisance, and where
the nuisance is one which is expressly prohibited by statute for which
a criminal penalty is prescribed, a criminal prosecution of the of-
fender. In the case of a private nuisance, the person injured may
maintain an action at law for damages or, under proper conditions,
maintain a suit in equity to have the creation or continuance of the
nuisance enjoined. In case of a public nuisance, either the offender
may be indicted or a suit may be filed on behalf of the state to abate
the nuisance.
At common law, courts have used the nuisance theory to
resolve conflicts, especially as to water quality, between mine oper-
ators on one hand and governmental bodies or owners of neighboring
lands on the other. Each owner of land which abuts stream water
2-25
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was said to have a riparian right to use such water so long as he
did not interfere with its reasonable use by other landowners. It was
said to constitute an actionable nuisance for anyone to make dis-
charges which would interfere with its reasonable use by others down-
stream. In the area of water quality control as in other areas of
nuisance law, because balancing of antithetical principles is implicit
in the nuisance theory, the law is a mass of widely disparate and con-
tradictory judgments and results. For example, in an 1886 Penn-
sylvania case the Supreme Court of that State responded to a com-
plaint by a downstream landowner of acidic water, dead fish and
corroded pipes, saying:
The defendants are engaged in a perfectly lawful
business, in which they have made large expenditures
and in which the interests of the entire community
were concerned. They were at liberty to carry
on that business in the ordinary way, and were
not, while so doing, accountable for consequences
which they could not control. As the mining
operations went on, the water, by the mere force
of gravity, ran out of the drifts, and found its
way over to the defendant's own land to the Meadow
Brook. It is clear that for the consequences
of this flow, which by the mere force of gravity,
naturally, and without fault of the defendants,
carried the water into the small brook, and thence
to the plaintiff's pond, and there could be no res-
ponsibility in damages on the part of the defendants.
Legal precedents in Ohio, however, indicate a tendency on the
part of this State's highest court to give greater weight to the interest
of surrounding landowners. As a result, Ohio law makes coal pro-
ducers financially responsible at least nominally, for impairing the
quality of stream water. In Straight v. Hover, 79 Ohio St. 263 (1909)
plaintiff sued the defendant for allowing salt water to run off and
pollute his stream after the defendant had separated salt water from
oil extracted from his land. The defendant argued that he was using
the most modern technique available and still could not prevent runoff.
In addition, he claimed that the stream was part of the natural drain-
age basin of the area and that such runoff was therefore inevitable.
2-26
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The court answered:
However numerous may be the persons who
engage in mining for coal and petroleum, how-
ever laudable may be their undertakings, these
are but private enterprises instituted and con-
ducted for private gain which may be acquired
only with due regard to the rights of low pro1-
prietors.
This case involved an action against the landowner for the landowner's
abuses. It should be noted, however, that under general leasehold
principles in Ohio, a landowner is not responsible for wrongs com-
mited by his tenant during the term of the lease unless he has par-
ticipated in the wrong or has supervised or retained control over the
tenant's activities. The argument that the continuous receipt of
benefits by the landowner in the form of royalties and rents justifies
imposing liability on him for harm resulting from the conduct which
produces the royalties or rents has not met with significant success
to date.
One can only guess at the reasons that the common law reme-
dies have not proven adequate in abating pollution, especially pollu-
tion from unreclaimed strip mine lands. For one, a large percentage
of such land is titled in private non-mining owners, and the courts
historically have been unwilling to impose liability on private land-
owners other than miners. Secondly, as with many other legal rights,
private persons often cannot justify to themselves the economics
of bringing and maintaining a lawsuit, especially where, as in envir-
onmental and pollution areas, the results are so unpredictable and
of such negligible direct economic value to an individual or small
group of plaintiffs. Finally, the stripped acreage is so voluminous
and the sources of pollution are so many that individual lawsuits
involving individual parcels of land present monumental problems
of proof and, even if successful, a seemingly insignificant impact
on the total pollution problem .
Statutory Schemes
In recognization of the inadequacies of the common law reme-
dies, various statutes have been enacted to supplement the common
2-27
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law means of controlling land use and to provide more effective
and efficient means of controlling pollution. These statutory
schemes are of varying degrees of assistance in compelling the
landowner to reclaim his land in order to upgrade the environmen-
tal impact of his land.
The common law doctrine of nuisance as it pertains to orphaned
lands, is discussed at some length above. As to the statutory action,
Ohio Rev. Code 3767.02 provides that:
Any person, who uses, occupies, establishes, or
conducts a nuisance, or aids or abets therein, and
the owner, agent, or lessee of any interest in any
such nuisance together with the persons employed
in or in control of any such nuisance by any such
owner, agent, or lessee is guilty of maintaining a
nuisance and shall be enjoined as provided in 3767.03
to 3767.06, inclusive, of the Revised Code.
Ohio Rev. Code 3767.03 to 3767.06 provide that whenever
a nuisance exists;
The Attorney General, the prosecuting attorney of
the county in which such nuisance exists, or any
person who is a citizen of such county may bring
an action in equity in the name of the state, upon
the relation of such Attorney General, prosecuting
attorney, or person, to abate such nuisance and to
perpetually enjoin the person maintaining the same
from further maintenance thereof.
As used in all sections of the Revised Code relating to
nuisances, "person" includes any individual, corporation, associa-
tion, partnership, trustee, lessee, agent, or assignee.
Another statutory approach to the abatement of nuisances is
contained in Ohio Rev. Code 3707.01 which provides that:
The board of health of a city or general health dis-
trict shall abate and remove all nuisances within its
jurisdiction. It may, by order, compel the owners,
2-28
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agents, assignees, occupants, or tenants of any lot,
property, building, or structure to abate and remove
any nuisance therein, and prosecute such persons
for neglect or refusal to obey such orders.
When a building, erection, excavation, premises,
business, pursuit, matter, or thing, or the sewerage,
drainage, plumbing, or ventilation thereof is, in the
opinion of the board, in a (condition dangerous to life
or health) the board may declare it a public nuisance
and order it to be removed, abated, suspended, al-
tered, or otherwise improved or purified by the
owner, agent, or other person having control there-
of responsible for such condition, and may prosecute
him for the refusal or neglect to obey such order.
The board may, by its officers and employees,
remove, abate, suspend, alter, or otherwise im-
prove or purify such nuisance and certify the costs
and expense thereof to the county auditor, to be
assessed against the property and thereby made a
lien upon it and collected as other taxes.
While this statutory scheme is not directly available to the
Ohio Department of Natural Resources, it is an example of the stat-
utory exercise of the police power which compels a landowner to
make improvements.
Water Pollution Control Laws
The most active, topical and meaningful area of legislative
activity, as it relates to orphaned lands, is the area of water pollu-
tion control. Even though the Ohio General Assembly passed an act
on April 7, 1908, entitled "An Act to Authorize the State Board of
Health to Require the Purification of Sewage and Public Water
Supplies and Protect Streams Against Pollution," acid drainage and
related pollutants are relative newcomers to the list of prohibited
effluents. Chapter 6111 of the Ohio Revised Code, Water Pollution
Control, was only recently amended to comply with the Federal
Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972. The breadth of
2-29
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these amendments is demonstrated by Ohio Rev. Code 6111,01(K)
which defines "pollutant" to mean "any solid, liquid or gaseous
matter or substance, including heat" and Ohio Rev. Code 6111.01 (L)
which defines "source of pollution" to mean "any building, structure,
facility, installation, machine, device, apparatus, equipment or
operation which directly or indirectly pollutes, may pollute, or
causes the pollution of the waters of the state. "
Ohio Rev. Code 611 1. 04 provides that "No person shall
cause pollution. . . Any such action is hereby declared to be a
public nuisance, except in such cases where the director of envir-
onmental protection has issued a valid and unexpired permit, or re-
newal thereof. ..." Ohio Rev. Code 6111.03(J) provides that:
A permit shall not be used unless the discharge
of the source of pollution meets or will meet all
applicable standards, including all state and federal
water quality standards, effluent standards, pre-
treatment standards, regulations, and other re-
quirements of Chapter 6111 of the Ohio Rev. Code.
The Director may refuse to issue a permit for the
discharge of pollutants when he finds that issuance
of the permit would violate any federal law or
regulation promulgated thereunder. The Director
may set terms and conditions of permits, including,
but not limited to conditions requiring schedules
and programs for compliance with all applicable
standards in order to prevent, control, or abate
water pollution.
The sanctions in Chapter 6111 now provide that whoever know-
ingly or negligently violates certain sections of Chapter 6111 "shall
be fined not less than Five Thousand ($5,000.00) Dollars, nor more
than Twenty Five Thousand ($25,000.00) Dollars or imprisoned not
more than one (1) year, or both. At least the minimum fine shall be
imposed in all cases of conviction, and no sentence shall be sus-
pended." Other sections carry fines of up to Twenty Five Thousand
($25,000.00) Dollars per day of violation.
While the Ohio water pollution control law is quite broad,
it was neither intended nor written to deal specifically with orphaned
2-30
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lands. Many of the side effects of orphaned lands which effect
water quality fall within the existing law as amended. However,
the burden of reclamation could be more clearly imposed on the
surface owners of abandoned strip mines and refuse piles, and
owners of minerals in inactive mines with language such as the fol-
lowing from 691.316 of the Pennsylvania Clean Streams Law:
Whenever the Sanitary Water Board finds that pol-
lution or a danger of pollution is resulting from a
condition which exists on land in the Commonwealth
the board may order the landowner or occupier to
correct the condition in a manner satisfactory to the
board or it may order such owner or occupier to allow
a mine operator or other person or agency of the
Commonwealth access to the land to take such action.
For the purpose of this section, 'landowner' includes
any person holding title to or having a proprietary
interest or either surface or subsurface rights.
For the purposes of collecting or recovering the
expense involved in correcting the condition, the
board may assess the amount due in the same
manner as civil penalties are assessed. . . .
In addition to amending the existing law and promulgating the
necessary rules and regulations, the Ohio Environmental Protection
Agency would probably need a special group of investigators and
technicians to work in the field and augment present enforcement
efforts.
Before any further discussion of possible legislative approach-
es to compelling the landowner to upgrade his property, it should be
noted, in summary, that the applicable statutory law in Ohio is based
on the nuisance theory. While the public nuisance statute is probably
the most clearly defined avenue of enforcement the approach most
likely to succeed is a statutory scheme analagous to that enacted as
to boards of health but designed to compel the landowner to improve
orphaned lands pursuant to the supervision of the Environmental
Protection Agency.
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Enactment of an Environmental Code
The last word certainly has not been written in regard to
possible legislative schemes for placing the burden of reclamation
on the private landowner. An approach might lie in requiring the
landowner to bear the burden of environmentally upgrading his prop-
erty by enacting new legislation in sufficient detail to require the
owner of land to maintain certain environmental standards on his
property. The onus would be on the owner to upgrade his property
subject to some appropriate sanction. Similar responsibilities for
improving land have been placed upon landowners by municipal
housing codes. Under this alternative, the work would be done by
the owner or contractor of his choosing, or by the State with
assessment against the property. Apart from the political diffi-
culty in getting such legislation passed, however, is the probability
of a high incidence of default due to the disparity between the gener-
ally low tax valuation and the relatively high cost of reclamation.
In essence, this approach envisions the enactment of an "environmen-
tal code" analogous to municipal housing codes and zoning regulations.
The police power is the basis of the authority in the State in the
municipality to enact and enforce such laws. The power to adopt
laws which serve the public health, safety, morals and general wel-
fare is vested in the General Assembly by Article II, Sec. 1 of the
Ohio Constitution of 1851 which entrusts the legislative power of
the State to that body.
In certain areas, the General Assembly has elected not to
exercise the police power. For example, the State Legislature,
through a series of enabling acts, has delegated planning and zoning
powers to counties and townships thus granting to counties and
townships the same zoning powers which are enjoyed by municipal
corporations by virtue of the-home-rule provisions of the Constitution
of Ohio. In other areas, such as building standards, the State Leg-
islature has elected to exercise its police powers acted in the inter-
est of the public welfare. Even though it results in the impairment
of the full use of property by the owner thereof, reasonable exercise
of police power under such enactments does not constitute a "taking
of private property" within the meaning of the constitutional provi-
sions requiring compensation for the taking of property for public
use and prohibiting the deprivation of property without due process of
2-32
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law. The enactment of an "environmental code" requiring the
landowner to bear the burden of environmentally upgrading his prop-
erty would therefore appear to be a viable legislative scheme, de-
pending of course on the degree of restriction and weight of burden
placed upon the landowner.
Incentive for Reaffecting Orphaned Lands
Another possible legislative scheme is similar to that dis-
cussed above in connection with the present generation of strip
miners, i.e., granting concessions in connection with new permits
so as to induce the reclamation of orphaned lands. The State
could grant an exemption from taxation to motivate the remining
and/or reclamation of orphaned lands. Exemption laws long have
been recognized in Ohio, and it must be regarded as the settled
policy of the State to allow certain property to be exempt from
taxation. The fundamental ground for tax exemptions is a present
benefit to the general public which is sufficient to outweigh the
loss of tax revenue. Article 12, Sec. 2 of the Ohio Constitution
of 1851 permits the enactment of tax-exemption legislation: the
legislature has wide range in choosing subjects of taxation. Accoi
dingly, the legislature could enact a statutory scheme of tax exemp-
tions granted to particular persons or property, or to persons,
corporations, or things of a particular class, aimed at remining
and/or reclaiming orphaned lands. If this approach succeeded in
generating remining activity, the 1972 Strip Mine Law would be
applicable in that the State Division of Reclamation could then
establish and enforce reclamation standards. In other words.,
the existing administrative machinery could be used to monitor the
activity precipitated by the exemption. Moreover, this approach
could create an ongoing response to the current economic constraints
and technological developments in the field of remining previously
strip mined lands. If this approach succeeded in generating recla-
mation activity independent of remining, it is likely that the present
procedures for issuing permits could be used to administer such
a program.
Another approach which is quite similar to the notion of tax
exemptions is payment of a premium or bounty for the remining or
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reclamation of orphaned lands. As in the case of tax exemption,
the statutory scheme reflects the need to bring the economics of
remining and reclamation into balance with the economics of strip
mining new lands. Funds could be made available pursuant to Ohio
Rev. Code 1513.01 which provides that:
The balance of monies paid into the strip mining ad-
ministration and reclamation reserve fund shall be
expended as soon as practicable after appropriation
by the general assembly for the purpose of re-
claiming land affected by strip mining. . . .
Similarly, Ohio Rev. Code 5749.02 provides that the excise tax
levied on the privilege of engaging in the severance of natural re-
sources from the soil of this State "shall be used for the further-
ance of environmental protection activities of the State and for
the reclamation of land affected by strip mining." As in the case
of granting a tax exemption, there is a reasonable expectation
that the existing Ohio Strip Mine Law could be used to administer
any activity generated by this approach.
Still another approach to encouraging reclamation by way of
development is to generate funds to finance land uses of a more in-
tense nature, such as "new towns" encompassing commercial, in-
dustrial and residential development. Due to its limited applica-
bility, this approach would be used in conjunction with other
approaches. It would, of course, relate to a host of social and
economic considerations far above and beyond the mere reclamation
of the land. The funding might well be available on some kind of
matching basis through one or more federal programs. In concert
therewith or quite independent thereof, the State could use its
bonding capacity to underwrite bond issues and to create a revolving
fund to be used by private developers or political entities to develop
strip mined lands. An example of using the State's credit is
contained in Ohio Rev. Code 6121.06 which provides that:
The Ohio Water Development Authority may, from
time to time, issue water development revenue
bonds and notes of the state in such principal amounts
as, in the opinion of the authority, are necessary
for the purpose of paying any part of the cost of one
or more water development projects or parts thereof.
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Pursuant to Ohio Rev. Code 6121.04(E), "The Ohio Water Develop-
ment Authority may make loans and grants to governmental agencies
for the acquisition or construction of water development projects...."
The hundreds of millions of dollars deployed by the Ohio Water De-
velopment Authority are adequate testimony to the viability of this
approach.
Summary
In summary, then, at least three possible legislative schemes
place the burden of reclamation on the private landowner. The enact-
ment of an "environmental code" analagous to a housing code, is
quite possible but rather unlikely in light of the obvious political dif-
ficulties and the probable high incidence of default due to the disparity
between the value of the land and cost of reclamation. Another ap-
proach would be either granting tax exemption or paying a premium
for the remining and/or reclamation of orphaned lands so as to make
reclamation a more economically attractive alternative. This bene-
fits private landowners who would receive royalty payments for
subsequent mining and coal company landowners who would realize
lowered mining costs. Lastly, the State might use its bonding
capacity and available federal matching funds to enable private
landowners to develop orphaned lands into residential, commercial
and industrial sites.
A caveat must be expressed which touches upon the entire
issue of compelling the landowner to reclaim his own land. Since
the issue is essentially one of land use regulation, the threat is ever
present that the attempt to solve the unreclaimed strip mine land
problem by regulation of land use will exceed the very thin line be-
tween the acceptable exercise of the State's police power and the
unconstitutional taking of private property for public use without
just compensation. The distinction in any given case or in regard to
any given statutory scheme is not clear. The range of cases dealing
with the balancing of the competing principles is as broad as the
scholarly material is complex. Suffice it to note, however, that
whenever a statutory or regulatory scheme restricts an individual's
supposed right to do whatever he wants with his land, especially
when the scheme is apparently new, the constitutionality of the
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scheme will be in question. While the regulation of surface mining
has fared rather well in the balancing of these principles and courts
have approved statutory requirements that a mine operator treat his
own wastes, the delicate balance between the needs of environmental
protection and the right of the individual to control his own property
must always be borne in mind.
Reclamation by Mining Companies
The second party on whom the responsibility of doing work of
reclamation might be placed is the current generation of strip miners,
i.e. , those strip miners currently mining in Ohio. The focus of this
section, as for the entire Report, is on the conceivability of com-
pelling or persuading the current generation of strip miners to do the
actual work of reclamation as opposed to them merely bearing the
burden of cost for such reclamation. The cost issue, at least in
part, has been decided by the Legislature's enactment of Ohio Rev.
Code 1513.18 by which the cost of reclamation is placed on the
current generation of strip miners.
The current generation of strip mine operators is at once the
least likely candidate and the most likely candidate to look to for
accomplishing the work of reclaiming orphaned lands. The operator
is the least likely candidate since there is no common law theory
which could realistically be used, even stretched, to compel the
current generation of strip mine operators to do the work of re-
claiming lands owned by another, which lands were stripped and left
orphaned years before by previous generations of operators. Even
if some common law theory did exist or could be conjured up to place
vicarious liability on the current generation for the ravages of pre-
vious generations, monumental practical problems would arise such
as determining which of the several operators currently at work in Ohio
would be liable forthe reclamation of particular parcels of land. Even if
such practical problems as well as problems raised by the statutes
of limitations and the obvious political problems could be resolved,
to require a strip miner to remedy an environmental or land use
situation on lands of another which he did not create would pose in-
surmountable constitutional problems relating particularly to due
process and equal protection. This reason alone is enough to
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account for the apparent absence of any existing or proposed legis-
lation which would compel the current generation of strip mine
operators to reclaim orphaned lands.
Persuasive measures are, however, at least conceivable for
inducing the current generation of operators to remedy the abuses of
their predecessors. One method of inducing the generation of strip
miners currently operating in Ohio to reclaim orphaned land is to
amend Chapter 1513 to include a statutory condition of obtaining a
license that the operator undertake to reclaim more land than he
strips, perhaps even land designated by the State Division of Rec-
lamation. The economics and therefore the political acceptability
of such a scheme are improbable.
A method, however, of achieving much the same results is to
attempt to persuade the license applicant to reaffect areas adjacent
to or near the site for which the applicant seeks license. So, rather
than making the reclamation of orphaned lands a statutory condition
for the issuance of a license, this approach would depend upon the
State Division of Reclamation persuading the operator to rework
unreclaimed areas close to his intended field. The Chief of the
Division presently has discretion in the issuance of a license, so he
might exchange time and other concessions for the operator's agreement
to reaffect unreclaimed areas nearby. Tax rebates and other bene-
fits could be devised by the Legislature as further inducements to
the cjrrent generation operator to reaffect orphaned areas. The
State of Pennsylvania has used this persuasion method of accom-
plishing the work of reclamation and, according to sources, has found
it productive, so much so that in the opinion of persons knowledgeable
of Pennsylvania's attempts to reclaim orphaned lands, this persuasion
approach is the easiest method as well as the method least costly to
the State for dealing with the problem of unreclaimed lands. It uses
the expertise of the current generation of strip mine operators, takes
advantage of modern technology's ability to mine profitably land pre-
viously abandoned as no longer workable and costs the State the
least both in terms of tax dollars and legislative effort.
In summary, then, as for placing the burden of doing the work
of reclamation on the current generation of strip miners, the feasibil-
ity of compelling them to correct the abuses of their predecessors is
limited and mostunlikely. Persuading the operators during the licensing
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process to reaffect areas previously mined, however, has proven
elsewhere to be the most productive method of dealing with the un-
reclaimed strip mine land problem. That method, with added tax
and other benefits, has the potential for remedying a good deal of
the problem unreclaimed strip mine land as it exists in Ohio.
Reclamation by the State
The two approaches to the problem of effecting reclamation
discussed above are approaches in which the state is essentially the
party merely occasioning efforts by private parties to environmen-
tally upgrade lands affected by strip mining. Neither approach can
envision the state taking an active role in the actual work of reclama-
tion. The conceptual alternative exists, however, in which the State
of Ohio itself would be the party actually doing the work of reclama-
tion. In reclaiming orphaned land, the State could do the work in
any of three ways: (1) reclaim the land for the private landowner him-
self; (2) reclaim land which the State itself owns or which it has
acquired for the purposes of reclamation; (3) reclaim land in which
the State has acquired a long-term possessory interest or for the
private landowner himself.
Privately Owned Land
The possibility of the State of Ohio doing the work of reclama-
tion on land privately owned and in which the State has no long-term
possessory interest is a conceivable manner for the State to do the
work of reclamation. Nothing in the Constitution of the State of
Ohio appears to prohibit the legislature from providing the Depart-
ment of Natural Resources or other State agency with the authority
to agree with a private person to have the State reclaim the private
person's land. In fact, authority exists from which it can be Inferred
that the State presently has the power to reclaim lands for the pri-
vate owner with his consent. The Director of the Department of
Natural Resources has been granted broad powers in order to carry
out the purposes of the Department of Natural Resources. Among
the powers granted the Director by Ohio Rev. Code 1501.01 is the
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power to acquire interests in real property other than the full and
complete ownership. The powers of the Director are given to him
in addition to the powers given the various divisions and he may
exercise his powers on behalf of the various divisions. By the
authority given to the Director, the Department of Natural Resources
could acquire an easement onto the land of the private owner and re-
claim it. Although reclamation on private land for the private owner
appears to conflict with the terms of Ohio Rev. Code 1513.20 which
authorizes the State Division of Reclamation to reclaim only
on lands owned by the State, this alternative can be inferred from
the statutory powers of the Director of the Department of Natural
Resources.
It should be expected also that there would be strong political
opposition to a plan which has the appearance of so directly and sig-
nificantly benefiting a limited number of private landowners, es-
pecially because the possibility would always exist that the land-
owner, unless somehow restricted, might lease the mineral rights
or otherwise permit the land to be strip mined if a new vein is dis-
covered or as mining technology develops. Of course, the threat
of the landowner undoing the reclamation could be minimized if the
State, while bargaining for the easement, would also bargain for
a covenant restricting specified activities which would have the
effect of undoing the reclamation. A restrictive covenant runs with
the land and would be equally binding on any person to whom the
private owner would convey all or any part of his title to the land.
While existing law may be read to empower the State of
Ohio to reclaim land for a private owner with the owner's consent,
there is no specific authority for the State to enter upon private
land without the owner's consent in order to reclaim his land. Leg-
islation granting an agency of the State such power, however, is not
without precedent. Local health districts, for example, are granted
the power under Ohio Rev. Code 3737.02 to enter upon privately
owned land in order to abate and remove any nuisance within its
jurisdiction. The cost of labor and material necessary to perform
the work are recorded as a lien against the property. A similar
statute might be enacted giving the State Division of Reclamation
like authority to enter upon lands found to have detrimental
environmental effect as a result of strip mining, and to reclaim the
land regardless of the owner's wishes. In drafting such a statute,
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however, care should be taken to limit the amount of the resulting
lien to the value of the property after the work is completed since
serious constitutional questions are raised by the assessment of
liens in excess of the property value.
In summary, the present state of the law would permit the
State of Ohio to reclaim lands for a private owner. An agreement
with the private owner would be necessary, however, since the
present state of the law does not permit the State of Ohio to improve
the lands owned by a private person against the person's will.
Publicly Owned Land
The alternative to the State reclaiming land for the private
landowner is for the State to do the reclamation for itself, i.e. , for
the Department of Natural Resources to reclaim State lands in order
to advance the purposes set forth in the act which created the Depart-
ment of Natural Resources, 123 Ohio Laws 94. The State Divi-
sion of Reclamation has clear authority under Ohio Rev. Code
1513.20 to reclaim lands which the State owns or which it acquires
for the purpose of reclamation. Such lands may be acquired by
purchase, gift or donation or be the exercise of the Department of
Natural Resources' power of eminent domain.
Although Ohio Rev. Code 1513.20 appears to limit the power
of the State to reclaiming only those lands to which the State holds
full title, the conceptual alternative exists for the State to reclaim
lands in which it has only a leasehold interest, i.e. , an< interest in
land for a term of years. A question exists whether this avenue is
possible under the current law of Ohio and in light of the Ohio Con-
stitution. Although Ohio Rev. Code 1513.20 limits the reclamation
activity of the Division of Forestry and Reclamation to state owned
land, the limitation does not extend to the Department of Natural
Resources. The Director of the Department of Natural Resources is
granted by the provisions of Ohio Rev. Code 1501.01 the authority to
lease lands in order to further the purposes of the Department of
Natural Resources and this authority to acquire interests in land is
expressly stated to be in addition to any power of acquisition granted
to any other division of the Department. Since this power according
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to Ohio Rev. Code 1501.01 may be exercised by the Director on
behalf of any division, it can be inferred from the law as it presently
exists that the Department of Natural Resources has the power to
reclaim on leased lands. This power, however, is inferred from
several statutes, and the statutes from which the inference is drawn
are subject to more than one interpretation. The authority of the
Department of Natural Resources to reclaim on lands in which it
holds only a leasehold interest would be indisputable with but a
slight amendment of Chapter 1513 of the Ohio Rev. Code.
A further difficulty with reclamation of lands in which the
State holds only a leasehold interest is the apparent problem pre-
sented by Art. II, Sec. 22 of the Ohio Constitution of 1851. That
Section seems to limit the State's authority to enter into agree-
ments which would delegate the General Assembly to appropriate
funds for more than one two-year period. Since the Department
would be spending large amounts of money to reclaim land seem-
ingly for the benefit of private owners, unless the State acquires
full title to the land, the Department of Natural Resources should
be expected to require at least a long-term lease in the land to be
reclaimed. If indeed Art. II, Sec. 22 prohibits entering into long-
term leases, the Department of Natural Resources could enter into
a two year lease with a series of two year options, thus giving the
State the right to claim a continuing interest in the land for an ex-
tended period.
While the State is reclaiming lands which it owns or in which
it holds a leasehold interest, assuming the leasehold interest in-
cludes mineral rights, the Department of Natural Resources appears
to have the power to sell any coal mined during the reclamation
effort, reaardless of whether done under the express authority of
the State Division of Reclamation or under the implied authority
of the Department of Natural Resources. The proceeds from
such sales would be. credited to the general revenue fund for the
State. The money would go to the General fund only because no
rotary fund exists for the State Division of Reclamation. If
such a fund were created, money realized from the sale of the coal
would be credited to that fund and it would ultimately have the effect
of offsetting the cost of reclamation since any money left after opera-
ting expenses of the division at the end of the division's fiscal year,
are credited to the Strip Mining Administration and Reclamation
2 - 41
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Reserve Fund. It is from that fund that monies for reclamation are
d rawn.
Land owned by the State which has been reclaimed may be
sold by the Department of Natural Resources under authority of Ohio
Rev. Code 1513.01.
MODEL LEGISLATIVE APPROACH
The obvious approach to implementation of a statewide pol-
lution abatement program for inactive and abandoned mine sites is
enactment of new legislation or clarification of existing laws that
respond to technical aspects of mineral commodity extraction while
minimizing possibility of legal challenges to its enactment and im-
plementation. Model legislation in the area of pollution control and
abatement has been published by the Council of State Governments
and others (Table 2-2) which could be of assistance in drafting a
statute. Because of existing State statutes and judicial precedent,
the following is an outline or checklist that could be useful in pre-
paring a legislative proposal.
Purpose
Definitions
Organization
Creation of Agency; Bureau, etc. and possible
Advisory Committee
Director or other Administrative Officer Staff
Composition of Board, Advisory Committee, etc.
General Powers and Duties
Intergovernmental Relationships, i.e. interstate
Scope of Regulatory Power
Pollution Abatement Standards
Air
Water
Noise
Soil Conservation
Reclamation
Prohibition of Discharges
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Issuance and Duration of Permits
General Terms and Conditions of Permits
Requirement of Permit Prior Approval
Application for Permit
Background Information
Operating Plan
Pollution Abatement Plan
Consideration of Application
Issuance of Permits
Payments of Fees
Performance Bond
Rights Created by Permit
Revocation, Modification or Suspension
Inspection and Entry
Public Access to Information
Programs, Projects and Facilities
General Powers
Inventory of Mining Operations
Pollution Abatement Projects
Acquisition of Interests in Land
Exercise Power of Eminent Domain
Emergency Powers
Compliance Orders
Injunctive Relief
Civil Penalties
Criminal Penalties
Financing
Loans
Bonds
Pollution Abatement Fund
General Provisions
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Table 2-2
LEGAL BIBLIOGRAPHY
Abdnor, Joseph S., Industry and the environment: mined land reclama-
tion. Mining Congress Journal Ja 1969 60-64.
Author holds that the regulation of strip mining should be left
to state and local officials; it should not become a responsi-
bility of the federal government.
Arkansas. Legislative Council. Research Department., Regulation of
strip mining in the various states. Little Rock. 1964. 14p.
(Research Report 130).
Brief state-by-state summary of the regulation of strip mining
in the major coal-producing states.
Bailey, Kenneth R., Development of surface mine legislation. West
Virginia History 30:525-29 1969.
Author traces the development of legislation regulating strip
mining in West Virginia.
Beeson, A. C., Regulation of strip or open cut coal operation. West
Virginia Coal Mining Institute. Proceedings 1946:9-24.
"The regrading of spoil areas is the rock on which most of the
stripping legislation has split. Public opinion generally is in
favor and the mining interests violently opposed to it with much
propaganda of various kinds put out. " Deals largely with con-
ditions in West Virginia.
Bosselman, Fred P., The control of surface mining: an exercise in
creative federalism. Natural Resources Journal 9:138-65 1969.
Pressure for the regulation of surface mining has been felt at
all levels of government. "The resulting contest, in which
federal, state and local authorities each vie for position while
the conservation groups and affected industries push and shove
from the sidelines, is an interesting test of federalism and pro-
duces regulatory systems at three levels of government which
neither duplicate each other nor leave gaping holes."
2-44
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Bristow, J. W., Land reclamation by Illinois coal strippers. Coal
Mine Modernization Yearbook 1948:285-90.
Author opposes government regulation on the grounds that "too
often such laws stifle the incentive and imagination of operators
to the point where they are content to comply with the minimum
of the statute requirements rather than explore the possibilities
of more profitable land uses."
Brooks, David B., Analysis: surface mine regulation. Coal Mining
and Processing Mr 1970 38-41.
"This study analyzes some of the effects of surface mine regu-
lation in Kentucky, where restrictions have been imposed on the
coal industry since 1954."
Brooks, David B., The impact of surface mine regulation on the coal
industry; the case of Kentucky. In American Institute of Mining,
Metallurgical and Petroleum Engineers. Council of Economics.
Proceedings 1969: 65-92.
An examination of strip mining regulations within the state and
an analysis of the costs incurred by reclamation efforts.
Chinn, O. W., The Kentucky Strip Mining and Reclamation Act. Ken-
tucky Mining Institute. Proceedings 1954/55: 69-72.
Brief discussion of the Act and its enforcement by the director
of the Strip Mining and Reclamation Commission.
Clyde, Edward W., Legal Problems imposed by requirements of res-
toration and beautification of mining properties. Rocky Mountain
Mineral Law Institute 13:187-231 1967.
Crawford, M. A., Salient points in the new Pennsylvania strip mining
law. Mining Congress Journal Oct 1963 55-56.
Cymak, Anthony W., Effect of regulation on external diseconomies:
surface mining in northern West Virginia, 1960-1970. Ph.D.
West Virginia University. 1972.
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Dana, Samuel T., Stearns case; an analysis. American Forests Sept.
1955 18-19.
Important decision in which the Steams Coal & Lumber Co. was
denied the right to strip mine in the Cumberland National Forest.
Donley, Robert T., Some observations on the law of the strip-mining of
coal. Rocky Mountain Mineral Law Institute 11:123-68 1966.
Eposito, J., Air and Water Pollution: What to do While Waiting for
Washington. 5 Harv. Civ. Rights - Civ. Lib. L. Rev. 39(1970).
Federal strip-mine study opposed by industry. Mining Congress
Journal My 1962 68.
Industry spokesmen maintain that any regulation should be left
to the states and the industry itself.
Fieldman, Julian, The development of a regulatory policy for the coal
stripping industry in Ohio. Thesis. Ohio State University. 1950.
Frawley, Margaret L., Surface mined areas: control and reclamation
of environmental damage, a bibliography. Washington: U. S.
Department of the Interior. Office of Library Services, 1971.
63p. (Bibliography Series 27).
Contains 387 references published from 1960 through June, 1970
concerning "soil shifts, chemical modification and water pollution
resulting from surface mining, and the restoration of mined
areas for use and beauty."
Funk, D. T., Revised bibliography of strip-mine reclamation. U. S.
Central States Experiment Station. Miscellaneous Release 35,
1962. 20p.
Galpin, S. L., Discussion of regulation of strip or open cut coal opera-
tions, West Virginia Coal Mining Institute. Proceedings 1946:
24-28.
Goldberg, Everett F. and Garret Power, Legal problems of coal mine
reclamation. Washington: GPO, 1972. 236p. (U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency. Water Pollution Control Research
Series).
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"A study in Maryland, Ohio, Pennsylvania and West Virginia. "
Groff, Sidney L., Voluntary mined-land reclamation in Montana.
Mining Congress Journal Oct 1969 45-50.
"The Montana statute requiring reclamation of surface-mined
coal lands omits over-all specifications. Individual voluntary
state approved contracts contain specific requirements and
stipulations relative to reclamation. "
Hollister, G., Future of federal programs in strip mining and restora-
tion. Soil Conservation Society of America. Proceedings 1962
87-91.
Implied right to strip mine coal. West Virginia Law Review
58:197-84 1956.
Kill Illinois strip-mine bill. Coal Age Je 1939 85.
"A bill designed to compel strip mine operators in Illinois to
level off and replace soil turned in mining was defeated late in
April in committee in the State General Assembly by a vote of
18 to 7. The measure also sought to forbid uncovering more
than five acres at a time in strip-mining operations."
La Grange, J. H., Effect of wilderness policy on exploration activities.
Mining Congress Journal Mr 1971 23-27.
The Wilderness Act of 1964 imposes limitations on the use of
federal wilderness areas.
Laing, R. T., Open pit mining legislation. Coal Mine Modernization
Yearbook 1948: 280-84.
"If we are to survive we must adopt a program of reasonableness
in reclamation and convince the public in general that we are not
bandits and rogues but a legitimate part of the economy of the
nation."
Linstrom, G. A., Bibliography of strip-mine reclamation. U.S. Cen-
tral States Forest Experiment Station. Miscellaneous Release
8, 1953. 25p.
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Meiners, Robert G., Strip mining legislation. Natural Resources
Journal 3:442-69 1964.
A review of legislation in the various states.
Miller, E. Willard, Penn Township an example of local government
controls of strip mining in Pennsylvania. Economic Geography
28:256-60 1952.
Muckelston, Sandra, Strip mining reclamation requirements in Montana
a critique. Montana Law Review 32:65-79 1971.
"Regulation of the reclamation process must be strengthened
before acreage disturbed by strip-mining coal and other minerals
and fuels reaches insurmountable proportions."
Ohio. Legislative Committee. Comparative state strip mining and
reclamation laws. Columbus, 1965. 38p. (Staff Research Re-
port 67).
Overton, J. Allen, What's ahead in strip mining lesiglation. Coal
Mining & Processing Jl 1972 40-43.
Observations and speculations by the president of the American
Mining Congress.
Preate, Ernest D., A new law for an old problem. Appalachia Feb/Mr.
1972 41-53.
Account of the background and operation of Pennsylvania's Sur-
face Mining Conservation and Reclamation Act of 1971.
Ratliff, Ray E., Legal duty of broadcaster to present strip mine aboli-
tion issue adequately and fairly. Charleston, W. Va. Appala-
chian Research and Defense Fund, 1971. 6p. (ARDF Public
Interest Report No. 5).
Concerned with the issue in West Virginia.
Reitze, Arnold W., Old King Coal and the Merry Rapists of Appalachia.
Case Western Reserve Law Review 22:650-737 1971.
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"The subject of this article is the nature, scope, and effective-
ness of the laws regulating the surface mining industry."
Renkey, Leslie E., Local zoning of strip mining. Kentucky Law Jour-
nal 57:378-58 1968/69.
Kentucky strip mine laws do not distinguish between the rela-
tively level western fields and the steeply pitched eastern fields.
Author favors zoning ordinances enacted by local government
units to help regulate stripping.
Sail, George W., Reclaiming strip-mined land in Washington. West
Virginia Coal Mining Institute. Proceedings 1967:1-6.
General attack on federal regulation of strip mining.
Sargeant, Lenoard, Mineral Lessee's right to strip mine. Washington
and Lee Law Review 19:276-81 1962.
Sawyer, L.E., Future of mining industry reclamation. Mining Congress
Journal J3 1969 50-54.
"Sooner or later the industry will, no doubt, be faced with a
federal statute."
Sawyer, L.E., Reclamation and conservation of stripped-over lands.
Mining Congress Journal J2 1946 26-36.
"Before regulatory laws are enacted, the industry should be given
an opportunity to reclaim the land by its own method through its
own organization."
Schoewe, Walter H., Land reclamation. Mining Congress Journal Sept.
1960 92-97; Oct 1960 69-73.
The essence of this report is not anti-reclamation, but a brief
directed against compulsory reclamation."
Siehl, George H., Legislative proposals concerning surface mining of
coal. Washington: GPC, 1971. 25p.
"A history of legislative proposals and an analysis of pending
measures."
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Sinclair, Ward, Coal's congressmen. New Republic Ja 15, 19729-10.
Congressmen such as Edmondson and Kee have helped prevent
the passage of anti-stripping legislation.
Starnes, Richard, Jay and the strippers. Field and Stream Je 1971
8-10.
Report on the efforts of John D. Rockefeller IV (Jay), Secretary
of State of West Virginia, to win support for a bill to end strip
mining in West Virginia.
Strip-mine reformer. Business Week Ja 9, 1971 74.
John D. Rockefeller IV advocates abolition of strip mining in
West Virginia.
Surface mining legislation moving. Mining Congress Journal
Apr 1972 76-81.
Analysis by the staff of the American Mining Congress of the
various legislative efforts to control or abolish strip mining.
Thompson, William H., Government regulation of surface mining ac-
tivities. North Carolina Law Review 46:103-28 1967/68.
Under Cover. Coal Age My 1939 28.
Unless strip operators take the offensive, they may find them-
selves threatened, as in Iowa and other states, with increasing
pressure to legislate them out of business.
U. S. Congress House. Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs.
Subcommittee on Mines and Mining., Regulation of strip mining.
Washington: GPO, 1972. 890p.
Contains statement of position by individuals and organizations
on all aspects of strip mining. Much useful statistical infor-
mation is also included.
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Wallace, Tom, Stearns casej coal mining in Cumberland National For-
est. American Forests Apr 1955 24-27.
The case involved regulatory issues of great importance.
Wiener, Frederick B., Economic interest: rise and fell of a slogan.
Taxes 37:777-802 1959.
Study of the depletion allowance permitted the coal stripper.
The pertinent court decisions are cited.
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CHAPTER 3
PROGRAM FUNDING POSSIBILITIES
-------
PROGRAM FUNDING POSSIBILITIES
This chapter is designed to serve as a beginning point for any
agency undertaking the task of reclaiming abandoned mined lands.
Much financial and technical assistance is available from federal,
state, local and private sources. It is important to note that the lead
times required to secure financial assistance from most agencies are
quite long.
Sources of assistance are divided into two major sections:
(1) agencies that can supply financial assistance as well as technical,
planning and management information, (2) agencies that supply only
technical assistance (which may be in the form of information, equip-
ment or manpower).
In addition to sources of aid described in the following sections,
any state agency, local government officials or private interest groups
exploring feasibility and requirements of abandoned mined land restor-
ation, particularly for recreation benefits, should contact the Liaison
Officers of the Bureau of Mines and State Liaison Officers to the
Bureau of Outdoor Recreation. These people can supply additional
financial and technical aid and requirements at state and local levels.
The listing of these offices is found in Tables 3-1 and 3-2 at the end
of this chapter (81;
POSSIBLE FUNDING SOURCES
Federal
Federal assistance, in the form of loans, formula grants,
and project grants, is available through many agencies. Although fund-
ing legislation may not explicitly direct monies to abandoned mine pol-
lution abatement, financing can still be obtained, providing conditions
of the funding agency are met. Abatement programs can be implemented
as a part of another program, such as forestry development, rural
housing projects, agricultural land development and improvement, and
overall community land use improvement projects.
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Project grants and formula grants are important sources of
abatement program funds. Federal agencies providing such grants
that could be applicable to state projects include:
1. Department of Agriculture
. Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service
Forest Service
Farmers Home Administration
Soil Conservation Service
2. Department of Interior
Bureau of Mines
Bureau of Outdoor Recreation
Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife
3. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Water and Hazardous Materials
Office of Research and Development
4. Department of Commerce
Economic Development Administration
5. Department of Housing and Urban Development
6. Appalachian Regional Commission (Appalachian States only)
7. Water Resources Council
State
The responsibility of obtaining funds for implementation of a
statewide abatement of pollution from orphan mined lands program need
not rest on a single state agency. A coordinating department can soli-
cit funds and assistance from other branches. For example, State
Parks Departments should be consulted for advice and financial aid
where abatement programs could result in new state recreation areas;
Fish and Game Commissions could supply funds where abatement pro-
grams improve sport fishing and/or hunting opportunities.
In any event, the major source of abatement program funding
will result from legislature allocations of the State's general appro-
priation budget. Full legislative support is necessary if a successful
pollution abatement program is desired.
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Reclamation and pollution control monies can also be supplied
by performance forfeitures from active mines. In the future, much of
a state's resources for actual reclamation construction will be derived
from state and federal severence taxes on active mineral production.
Local
Local governments can sometimes provide sufficient funds to
carry out projects within their jurisdiction. Preparation of detailed
plans and procedures should be supplied by a State agency to insure
that results will be compatible with the overall abatement program.
In addition, many local governments are able to finance only project
implementation, and not problem identification, planning, and abate-
ment design. If given the opportunity, various local governments would
be very willing to assist in carrying out programs that would benefit
their community, if monies are available.
Private
Although not now a major source of program revenue, private
organizations, such as environmental groups, sportsmen associations
(hunting and fishing), trade associations and area improvement com-
mittees, can supply supplemental funds for specific projects. In some
cases, these groups will even provide volunteer labor to assist in
completing some smaller projects. State agencies should not hesitate
contacting these organizations and explaining abatement program plans
of interest to the individual groups. Private groups can serve to
arouse community support for state projects in areas where implemen-
tation problems with private landowners prevail.
If an economic benefit can be gained by reclaiming abandoned
or inactive mines, private industry can sometimes be persuaded to
execute pollution control projects. For example, if a current pollution
source could be converted into an industrial park site, an agreement
could be reached where the state would release the land to the private
company, provided current pollution problems are alleviated.
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FUNDING AGENCIES AND PROGRAMS
The federal government also provides financial assistance in
the form of Direct Loans and Guaranteed/Insured Loans to state and
local governments, private individuals, and non-private organizations
or sponsors. In some instances, states can provide private land-
owners with a detailed water pollution abatement plan, and they in turn
can apply to federal agencies for cost-sharing loans and grants. The
Farmers Home Administration of the Department of Agriculture offers
five loan programs which could be utilized to some extent for pollution
abatement work at inactive or abandoned mine sites.
1. Resource Conservation and Development Loans
2. Rural Housing Site Loans
3. Soil and Water Loans
4. Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention Loans
5. Irrigation Drainage and other Soil and Water Conservation
Loans
The Economic Development Administration of the Department
of Commerce also offers Direct Loans for an area's economic growth,
which could have application to an abatement program in some instances.
Federal funds are available for agencies involved at all levels
of reclamation from planning, lands inventory, feasibility studies, en-
gineering design and actual construction which includes all types of
land uses. Descriptions of these agencies' program objectives, limi-
tations, eligibility and funding follow this section (45, 81).
Appalachian Regional Commission
Appalachian Regional Development Program
Authorization: Appalachian Regional Development Act of 1965; Public
Law 89-4 as amended by Public Law 90-103; Public Law 91-
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123 and Public Law 92-65; 40App. U.S.C. 1-405.
Objectives; To stimulate substantial public investments in public
facilities that will start the region on its way toward accel-
erated social and economic development; to help establish a
set of institutions in Appalachia capable of permanently di-
recting the long-term development of the region; and on a
joint federal-state-local basis, to develop comprehensive
plans and programs to help accomplish the overall objec-
tives of Appalachian development.
Types of Assistance: See individual Appalachian program descrip-
tion following for details.
Uses and Use Restrictions; Appalachian funds enable the states and
local areas to develop networks of facilities and services.
The individual programs following this description illustrate
the types of investments that can be made. In considering
programs and projects to be given assistance under this act,
and in establishing a priority ranking of the requests for assis-
tance presented to the Commission, the Commission follows
procedures insuring consideration of the following factors:
(1) the relationship of the project or class of projects to
overall regional development, including its location in an
area determined by the state as having a significant potential
for growth; (2) the population and area to be served by the
project or class of projects including the relative per capita
income and the unemployment rates in the area; (3) the rela-
tive financial resources available to the state or political
subdivision or instrumentalities thereof which seek to under-
take the project; (4) the importance of the project or class of
projects in relation to other projects or classes of projects
which may be in competition for the same funds; (5) the pros-
pects that the project for which assistance is sought will
improve on a continuing rather than a temporary basis, the
opportunities for employment, the average level of income,
or the economic and social development of an area served by
the project; and (6) no financial assistance can be used (a)
to assist establishments relocating from one area to another;
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(b) to finance the cost of industrial plants, commercial facili-
ties, machinery, working capital, or other industrial facilities
or to enable plant subcontractors to undertake work theretofore
performed in another area by other subcontracts or contractors;
(c) to finance the cost of facilities for the generation, transmis-
sion, or distribution of electric energy; or (d) to finance the
cost of facilities for the production, transmission, or distribu-
tion of gas (natural, manufactured, or mixed). Each state is
required by the Commission to file a State Appalachian Develop-
ment Plan annually, appraising prospects for development in
its Appalachian area and relating to them all projects for which
Appalachian funding is requested in that year. Once a project
is approved by the Commission, the grant is administered by
the basic federal agency involved in that type of program.
Eligibility Requirements: Applicant Eligibility: (a) states, and through
the states, public bodies and private nonprofit organizations;
and (b) limited dividend organizations are eligible for the
Appalachian housing fund. All proposed projects must meet
the requirements of the State Appalachian Plan.
Financial Information:
Account Identification: 04-02-0090-0-1-507; 04-02-4190-0-3-507.
Obligations: See individual Appalachian Commission programs.
Range and Average of Financial Assistance: Not Applicable.
Appalachian Mine Area Restoration Program
Authorization: Section 205, Appalachian Regional Development Act
of 1965; Public Law 89-4, as amended by Section 110, Public
Law 90-103 Section 105, Public Law 91-123, and Section 207,
Public Law 92-65; 40App. U.S.C. 205.
Objectives: To further the economic development of the region by re-
habilitating areas presently damaged by deleterious mining
practices and by controlling or abating mine drainage pollu-
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tion, and to meet the objectives stated under the program
entitled Appalachian Regional Development (23.001).
Types of Assistance; Project Grants.
Uses and Use Restrictions; Seal and fill voids in abandoned coal mines
and abandoned oil and gas wells; reclaim and rehabilitate lands
affected by strip and surface mining and by processing of coal
and other minerals including land affected by waste piles, ex-
tinguish underground and outcrop mine fires, and control or
abate mine drainage pollution; activities to reclaim strip-mined
areas are limited to lands owned by federal, state, or local
bodies of government otherwise meeting the restrictions stated
under program entitled Appalachian Regional Development
(23.001).
Eligibility Requirements;
Applicant Eligibility: states and through the states, public
bodies owning strip-mined land in need of restoration are
eligible. The States are eligible to apply for assistance to
seal and fill voids in abandoned coal mines, plan and exe-
cute projects for the extinguishment and control of under-
ground and outcrop mine fires, seal abandoned oil and gas
wells.
Beneficiary Eligibility: Same as applicant eligibility.
Credentials/Documentation: The state must demonstrate that
the project area has a use that contributes to the economic
development investment in the region. Projects must conform
to the State Appalachian Plan which is submitted annually on
or before July 1. A State Plan coordinated with the Governor's
office is required under Part III of OMB Circular No. A-95
(revised).
Financial Information;
Account Indentification: 04-02-0090-0-1-507.
Obligations: (Grants) FY 74 est $14,174,974; and FY 75 est
$4,980,000.
Range and Average of Financial Assistance: $165,000 to
$6,171,165; $2,290,000.
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Appalachian Supplements to Federal Grant-in-Aid Program
Authorization: Section 214, Appalachian Regional Development Act of
1965. Public Law 89-4; as amended by section 116, Public
Law 90-103; and section 107, Public Law 91-123; and section
210, Public Law 92-65; 40 App. U.S.C. 214.
Objectives: To provide supplemental funds to increase the federal
contribution for projects of construction, land acquisition,
and/or equipment for eligible applicants, who, because of
their economic situation cannot supply the required matching
share of the basic federal program and to provide special
basic grants where there are sufficient funds available under
the basic Federal Grant-in-Aid Program to meet the pressing
needs of the region.
Types of Assistance: Project Grants.
Uses and Use Restrictions: The grants may be used for providing sup-
plemental funds under any Federal grant-in-aid programs auth-
orized on or before December 31, 1974. The special basic
grants are new. To be eligible for special basic grants, pro-
jects must be of high priority in the State's Appalachian Devel-
opment Plan and either of critical importance to a phased invest-
ment and development program for a multi-county area, or of
unusual economic benefit to such an area. Refer to Appalachian
Regional Development program (23.001) and section 214 of the
Appalachian Regional Commission Code for additional use re-
strictions.
Eligibility Requirements:
Applicant Eligibility: states, and through the states, their
subdivisions and instrumentalities and private nonprofit
agencies.
Beneficiary Eligibility: General public.
Credentials/Documentation: Any finding, report, certifica-
tion, or documentation required to be submitted to the head
of the department, agency, or instrumentality of the Federal
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Government responsible for the admininstration of the basic
Federal Grant-in-Aid Program shall be accepted by the Fed-
eral Co-chairman with respect to a supplemental grant for
any project under such a program. Projects must conform
to the State Appalachian Plan which is submitted annually on
or before July 1. A State Plan, coordinated with the Gover-
nor's office is required under Part III of OMB Circular No.
A-95 (revised).
Financial Information:
Account Identification: 04-02-0090-0-1-507.
Obligations: (Grants) FY 73 $39,512,567; FY 74 est
$37,975,607; and FY 75 est $46,400,000.
Range and Average of Financial Assistance: $2,200 to
$1,124,000; $237,000.
Possible Use; In areas designated under the Appalachian Act, financial
assistance can be procured to abate mine drainage pollution
and sedimentation problems from abandoned or inactive mine
sites, owned by federal, state, or local government. Funded
projects must further the economic development of the region
and coincide with the overall regional development program.
Direct grants to pollution abatement projects are common
funding approaches.
Department of Agriculture, Agricultural
Stabilization and Conservation Service
Rural Environmental Conservation Program (RECP)
Authorization: The Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act,
February 29, 1936.
Objectives; To help farmers, ranchers, and woodland owners carry
out approved soil, water, woodland, forestry and wildlife
conservation practices, to assure wise use and adequate pro-
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tection of the Nation's agricultural lands.
Types of Assistance: Cost-sharing grants to individuals.
Uses and Use Restrictions: Agricultural land only.
Financial Information: $90 million FY 74.
Possible Use: Where surface mining has destroyed agricultural areas,
or where reclamation of mined lands could result in additional
agricultural land, states could provide,a conservation or abate-
ment program to private landowners, who in turn could apply
to this agency for cost-sharing funds to improve his land for
agricultural usage.
Department of Agriculture, Farmers Home Administration
Irrigation, Drainage, and Other
Soil and Water Conservation Loans
Authorization: Consolidated Farm and Rural Development Act,
Section 306; PL 92-419.
Objectives: To increase income of farm families and other rural resi-
dents, and to readjust the use of land so that each acre is used
for a purpose which will better serve the community.
Types of Assistance: Loans to public or quasi-public bodies.
Uses and Use Restrictions: Irrigation, drainage, or other soil conser-
vation measures designed to serve farmers or rural residents.
Financial Information: $1 ,000,000 est FY 74; $1,000,000 est FY 75.
Possible Use: In previously mined areas where extensive erosion and
sedimentation cause economic problems to rural residents,
and where mined land condition is not serving a purpose to
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the community, loans could be obtained from this agency by
state or local government to implement an abatement program.
Rural Housing Site Loans
Authorization; Housing Act of 1949 as amended, Sections 523 and
524; PL 89-117 and PL 89-754.
Objectives; To assist public or private nonprofit organizations inter-
ested in providing sites for housing, to acquire and develop
land in rural areas to be subdivided as adequate building sites
and sold on a nonprofit basis to eligible low and moderate-
income families, cooperatives, and nonprofit applicants.
Types of Assistance; Direct Loans, Guaranteed/Insured Loans.
Uses and Use Restrictions; For the purchase and development of
adequate sites, including necessary equipment which becomes
a permanent part of the development; for water and sewer
facilities if not available; payment of necessary engineering,
legal fees, and closing costs; for needed landscaping and
other necessary facilities related to buildings such as walks,
parking areas, and driveways. Restrictions: loan limitation
of $100,000 without national office approval; loan funds may
not be used for refinancing of debts, payment of any fee, or
commission to any broker, negotiator, or other person for
the referral of a prospective applicant or solicitation of a
loan; no loan funds will be used to pay operating costs or
expenses of administration other than actual cash cost of in-
cidental administrative expenses if funds to pay those expen-
ses are not otherwise available.
Eligibility Requirements;
Applicant Eligibility: A private or public nonprofit organization
that will provide the developed sites to qualified borrowers on
a nonprofit basis.
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Beneficiary Eligibility: (1) Families eligible for low- and
moderate-income Section 502 Rural Housing Loans, including
self-help housing; (2) rural cooperative housing applicants and
broadly based non-profit rural rental housing applicants; and
(3) applicants eligible for HUD Section 235 and 236 insured
mortgages.
Credentials/Documents: Applicant must furnish evidence of
the following: (1) market analysis showing need for such ser-
vices; (2) legal capacity to borrow funds and develop land for
sale; and (3) a sound budget.
Financial Information:
Account Identification: 05-75-5-4141-0-3-352.
Obligation: (Direct Loans) FY 73 $9,100; FY 74 est $900,000;
and FY 75 est $900,000 (Insured Loans) FY 73 $2,283,120;
FY 74 est $5,000,000; and FY 75 est $3,000,000.
Range and Average of Financial Assistance: (Direct) $9,100.
(Insured) $58,700 to $570,000; $376,225.
Possible Use: In areas where orphan mined lands causing pollution
problems can be restored or reclaimed to housing sites,
public agencies can utilize this funding program. A pre-deter-
mined land use plan including a community layout with lot
subdivisions, roads, walks, utilities, etc. is necessary.
Pollution abatement can be achieved in conjunction with devel-
opment of rural areas for housing. Note that not all pollution
source areas can utilize these funds.
Resource Conservation and
Development Loans
Authorization: Food and Agriculture Act of 1962; Public Law 87-703
1011 (Supp. V) 1959-63; 7 U.S.C. 1010.
Objectives: To provide loan assistance to local sponsoring agencies in
authorized areas where acceleration of program of resource
conservation, development, and utilization will increase econ-
omic opportunities for local people.
Types of Assistance: Guaranteed /Insured Loans
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Uses and Use Restrictions; Loan funds may be used for (1) rural
community public outdoor-oriented water based recreational
facilities; (2) soil and water, development, conservation, con-
trol and use facilities; (3) shift in land use facilities; (4) com-
munity water storage facilities and (5) special purpose equip-
ment to carry out the above purposes. Project must be located
in an authorized ROD area. Total indebtedness for a single
ROD measure cannot exceed $250,000.
Eligibility Requirements;
Applicant Eligibility: Public agencies and local nonprofit
corporations in authorized Resource Conservation and Dev-
elopment Areas may be eligible for loan assistance provided
they: (1) are a sponsor of the ROD measure for which a loan
is requested and which is included in REC project plan; (2)
have authority to borrow funds, repay the loan and pledge
security for the loan and to operate the facilities or services
provided; and (3) are financially sound and so organized and
managed that it will be able to provide efficient service.
Beneficiary Eligibility: Same as applicant eligibility.
Credentials/Documentation: Evidence of legal capacity, fin-
ancial responsibility and economic feasibility relative to the
activity for which assistance is requested.
Financial Information;
Account Identification: 05-75-4140-0-3-351.
Obligations: (Loans FY 73 $3,225,010; FV 74 est $3,600,000;
and FY 75 est $3,600,000.
Range and Average of Financial Assistance: $6,000 to
$250,000; $99,000.
Possible Use; If pollution sources from abandoned or inactive mines are
located in authorized Resource Conservation and Development
areas, loans can be obtained from the FHA by public agencies to
carry out abatement programs. Land use plans involving pub-
lic outdoor water oriented recreation, soil and water conserva-
tion practices nearly any increased land use value and/or
water storage facilities will assist in obtaining these loans.
Pollution abatement can be achieved through development of
orphan mined lands to a useful purpose.
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Soil and Water Loans
Authorization: Consolidated Farm and Rural Development Act, Sub-
title A, Section 304, Public Law 92-419; 7 U.S.C. 1924.
Objectives: To facilitate improvement, protection, and proper use of
farmland by providing adequate financing and supervisory
assistance for soil conservation; water development, con-
servation, and use; forestation; drainage of farmland; the
establishment and improvement of permanent pasture; and
related measures.
Types of Assistance: Guaranteed/Insured Loans.
Uses and Use Restrictions: Level land; carry out basic land treatment
practices, including liming, fertilizing, and seeding; estab-
lish permanent pastures and farm forests; establish forestry
practices; improve irrigation; develop water supplies for home
use and livestock; purchase pumps, sprinkler systems and
other irrigation equipment; acquire water rights, restore and
repair ponds and tanks, ditches, and canals for irrigation;
dig ditches and install tile to drain farmland; develop ponds
and water control structures for the production of fish under
controlled conditions.
Eligibility Requirements:
Applicant Eligibility: (1) be unable to obtain credit from
other sources at reasonable terms and conditions; (2) be of
legal age; (3) be of good character; (4) have the necessary
experience, training, and managerial ability to carry out the
proposed operation.
Beneficiary Eligibility: Same as applicant eligibility.
Credentials/Documentation: Applicant must establish that
credit is not available elsewhere for the requested purpose.
Financial Information
Account Identification: 05-75-4140-0-3-351.
Obligations: (Loans) FY 73 $3,974,930; FY 74 est $3,000,000,
and FY 75 est $3,000,000.
Range and Average of Financial Assistance: $1,400 to
$100,000; $5,300.
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Possible Use: Loans can be obtained by private landowners to develop
pollution forming mined areas into useful agricultural land.
State agencies could provide private landowners with a sound
abatement program whereby the owner could then apply for
assistance from this agency to carry out the plan. Items
covered by the loan include land leveling, liming, fertilizing,
seeding, irrigation, and water supply facilities.
Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention Loans
Authorization: Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention Act of
1954, as amended, Sections; U.S.C. 1006a.
Objectives: To provide loan assistance for the local sponsors and
share of the cost of watershed works of improvement for
flood prevention, irrigation, drainage, water quality manage-
ment, sedimentation control, fish and wildlife envelopment,
public water based recreation and water storage and related
costs. The total amount of WS loans outstanding in any one
watershed cannot exceed $5,000,000.
Eligibility Requirements:
Applicant Eligibility: To be eligible for a watershed loan an
applicant must: (1) be a sponsoring local organization such
as municipal corporation, soil and water conservation dis-
trict, or other organization not operated for profit of the
approved watershed project and (2) have authority under
state law to obtain, give security for and raise revenues to
repay the loan and to operate and maintain the facilities to
be financed with the loan.
Beneficiary Eligibility: Same as applicant eligibility.
Credentials/Documentation: Evidence of legal capacity, econ-
omic feasibility and financial responsibility relative to the
activity for which assistance is requested.
Financial Information;
Account Identification: 05-75-4140-0-3-351.
Obligations: (Loans) FY 73 $19,964,100; FY 74 est
$20,400,000; and FY 75 est $20,400,000.
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Range and Average of Financial Assistance: $7,230 to
$2,000,000; $227,286.
Possible Use: Where pollution abatement programs can be shown to
benefit watershed conditions (sedimentation control, water
quality improvement, flood prevention, fish and wildlife
development), loans can be obtained by local sponsors to
carry out the programs. States can provide the detailed
procedures of the project to local agencies who in turn need
only to implement the plans. Costs of an entire watershed
improvement scheme can be distributed over several smaller
sponsors, with each responsible for only a portion of project
funding.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service
Assistance to States for Tree Planting and Reforestation
Authorization: Agriculture Act of May 28, 1956, (70 Stat. 207; 16
U.S.C. 568c - 568g).
Objectives: To provide assistance to states in their forestation and
tree improvement projects that will help assure an adequate
supply of timber.
Types of Assistance: Project Grants.
Uses and Use Restrictions: To assist states in undertaking needed pro-
grams of tree planting, other forestation and tree improvement
activities. Reforestation work is carried out to restore low-
yielding or nonproductive forest lands to fuller production.
New or expanded tree improvement projects are funded under
this program in cost-sharing arrangements.
Eligibility Requirements;
Applicant Eligibility: State Forestry agencies.
Beneficiary Eligibility: The landowners (private and non-
Federal agencies) are the ultimate beneficiaries of the program
efforts.
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Credentials/Documentation: A plan for forest land tree
planting, reforestation and tree improvement is submitted to
the Forest Service. A cooperative agreement covers arrange-
ments for all participating states.
Financial Information;
Account Identification: 05-96-1100-0-1-402.
Obligations: (Grants) FY 73 $786,000; FY 74 est $746,000
and FY 75 est $1,012,000.
Range and Average of Financial Assistance: $2,000 to
$60,000; $18,200.
Possible Use; Where mining activities have disrupted forest resource
areas and are causing pollution problems, states can obtain
grants from this federal agency to develop those areas into
productive forest lands. Reforestation work can eliminate
current pollution sources and restore these lands to full forest
production potential.
Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service
Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention
Authorization: Water Protection and Flood Prevention Act; Public Law
83-566, 68 Stat. 666; Public Law 84-1018, 70 Stat. 1088;
Public Law 85-624, 72 Stat. 563; Public Law 85-865, 72 Stat.
1605; Public Law 86-468, 74 Stat. 131, 132; Public Law 86-545,
74 Stat. 254; Public Law 87-170, 75 Stat. 408; Public Law
87-703, 76 Stat. 608; Public Law 89-337, 79 Stat. 1300; Public
Law 90-361, 82 Stat. 250; Public Law 92-419, 86 Stat. 667.
Objectives; To provide technical and financial assistance in planning
and carrying out works of improvement to protect, develop,
and utilize the land and water resources in small watersheds.
Types of Assistance: Project Grants; Advisory Services and Counseling.
Uses and Use Restrictions; Assistance is provided in planning, designing
and installing watershed works of improvement; in sharing
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costs of flood prevention, irrigation, drainage, sedimentation
control, fish and wildlife developments, and public recreation;
and in extending long term credit to help local interests with
their share of the costs. Watershed area must not exceed
250,000 acres. Capacity of a single structure is limited to
25,000 acre feet. See also Farmers Home Administration
program 10.419, Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention
Loans.
Eligibility Requirements:
Applicant Eligibility: Any state agency, county or groups of
counties, municipality, town or township, soil and water con-
servation district, flood prevention or flood control district,
or any other nonprofit agency with authority under state law
to carry out, maintain and operate watershed works of improve-
ment may apply for assistance.
Beneficiary Eligibility: Same as applicant eligibility.
Credentials/Documentation: Applicants must designate the
proposed project area, be properly signed and attested to by
all applicants, set forth the need for the proposed project,
Gubernatorial review of the State Plan is required under
Part III of OMB Circular No. A-95 (revised).
Financial Information:
Account Identification: Watershed and flood prevention opera-
tions, 05-78-1072-0-1-401; Watershed planning, 05-78-1066-
0-1-401.
Obligations: (Grants and salaries and expenses-watershed and
flood prevention operations) FY 73 $125,865,198; FY 74
$166,434,485; and FY 75 est $140,281,601; (Grants and sal-
aries and expenses-watershed planning) FY 73 $6,834,736;
FY 74 est $10,766,396; and FY 75 est $11,335,000.
Range and Average of Financial Assistance: $20,000 to
$10,000,000; $2,000,000.
Possible Use: In areas where small watersheds are adversely affected
by abandoned or inactive mine sites, government agencies can
obtain grants from this agency to achieve flood control, irri-
gation, drainage and sedimentation control, water quality
improvement, fish and wildlife development, and public rec-
reation. Incorporating orphan mined land pollution abatement
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into an entire small watershed improvement plan can open
avenues for funding from this agency.
Resource Conservation and Development
Authorization; Food and Agriculture Act of 1962; Public Law 87-703;
76 Stat. 607; U.S.C. 1010, 1011 (Supp. V) 1959-1963; Public
Law 91-343; 7 U.S.C. 1011 (e); Public Law 74-46; Public
Law 92-419.
Objectives: To assist local people in initiating and carrying out long-
range program of resource conservation and development for
purposes of achieving a dynamic rural community with satis-
factory level of income and pleasing environment, and creating
a favorable investment climate attractive to private capital.
Types of Assistance; Project Grants; Advisory Services and Counseling.
Uses and Use Restrictions; Technical planning assistance is available
only for project area authorized for such planning. Technical
and financial assistance is available for the installation of land
conservation and land utilization works of improvement speci-
fied in project plans. Works of improvement may include
measures serving purposes such as flood prevention, sedimen-
tation and erosion control, public water based recreation and
fish and wildlife developments, agricultural water manage-
ment purposes, rural community water supply, water quality
management, control and abatement of agriculture-related
pollution, disposal of solid wastes, and rural fire protection.
See also Federal Housing Administration program 10.414,
"Resource Conservation and Development Loans."
Eligibility Requirements;
Applicant Eligibility: Public agencies and organizations with
authority to plan or carry out activities relating to resource
use and development.
Beneficiary Eligibility: Same as applicant eligibility.
Credentials/Documentation: Applicant agency (s) must doc-
ument fact that application is made as a result of official ac-
3-21
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action of the governing body. Applications are honored
only from agencies for which applicant eligibility as shown
above is or has been established.
Financial Information:
Account Identification: 05-78-1010-0-1-354.
Obligations: (Grants and salaries and expenses') FY 73
$21,889,661; FY 74 est $23,876,000; and FY 75 est
$24,347,440.
Range and Average of Financial Assistance: $2,000 to
$250,000; $20,000.
Possible Use: In underdeveloped rural areas, where long-range pro-
grams of resource conservation and development can be
initiated, mined land pollution sources can be eliminated by
incorporating abatement procedures into an overall area im-
provement program. Project areas must be authorized by
this agency prior to planning. Once approved, financial and
technical assistance can be obtained to carry out the proposed
programs.
Department of Commerce,
Economic Development Administration
Economic Development - Grants and
Loans for Public Works and Development Facilities
Authorization: Public Works and Economic Development Act of 1965;
Public Law 89-136, as amended by Public Law 90-103,
91-123, 91-304, 92-65, and 93-46; 42 U.S.C. 3131, 3135,
3141, 3161, 3171.
Objectives: To assist in the construction of public facilities needed to
initiate and encourage long-term economic growth in desig-
nated geographic areas where economic growth is lagging
behind the rest of the Nation.
Types of Assistance; Project Grants; Direct Loans.
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Uses and Use Restrictions; Grants for such public facilities as
water and sewer systems, access roads to industrial parks
or areas, port facilities, railroad sidings and spurs, public
tourism facilities, vocational schools, flood control projects,
and site improvements for industrial parks. Qualified pro-
jects must fulfill a pressing need of the area and must:
(1) tend to improve the opportunities for the successful es-
tablishment or expansion of industrial or commercial plants
or facilities, (2) assist in the creation of additional long-term
employment opportunities, or (3) benefit the otherwise sub-
stantially further objectives of the Economic Opportunity
Act of 1964. In addition, proposed projects must be con-
sistent with the currently approved overall economic develop-
ment program for the area, and for the district, if any, in
which it will be located.
Eligibility Requirements;
Applicant Eligibility: States, local subdivisions thereof, In-
dian tribes, and private or public nonprofit organizations or
associations representing a redevelopment area or a desig-
nated economic development center are eligible to receive
grants and loans. Corporations and associations for profit
are not eligible.
Beneficiary Eligibility: Same as applicant eligibility.
Credentials/Documentation: Application must describe the
type of proposed facility, estimated costs, extent of proposed
project, direct job impact, estimated time for construction
implementation, and assurance that the project will satisfy
statutory requirements. Most important, documentation
must demonstrate how the project will have a positive impact
on the economic development process in the community. A
State Plan, coordinated with the Governors Office, is re-
quired under Part III of OMB Circular No. A-95 (revised).
Financial Information;
Account Identification: 06-10-2050-0-1-507
Obligations: (Grants) FY $215,018,000; FY 74 est
$130,000,000; and FY 75 est $132,000,000. (Loans) FY 73
$4,906,168; FY 74 est $3,000,000; and FY 75 est $3,000,000.
Range and Average of Financial Assistance: No specific
minimum or maximum project amount. $5,000 to
$7,138,000; $580,000.
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Possible Uses: Funding from this agency to abate pollution from
mined lands is possible. In underdeveloped areas, where
abandoned or inactive mined lands show promise for assis-
tance in the economic development of a community (sites for
schools, industrial parks, tourist facilities), grants and
loans could be obtained. Many special conditions must be
met in order to qualify for financial assistance including:
1 . Projects must fulfill a pressing need for
area development.
2. Projects must tend to improve economic
potential of the community.
3. Assist in proving long-term employment
potential.
4. Must be consistent with overall economic
development program for the area.
Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines
Mineral Resources and Environmental Development
Authorization: Grants for Support of Scientific Research, Public
Law 85-934; Contracts for Scientific and Technologic Re-
search; Public Law 89-672; 42 U.S.C. 1891 and 1900.
Objectives: To further the Bureau of Mines internal research pro-
gram in accomplishing its mission by providing for grants
and contracts for related research, development, and demon-
stration .
Types of Assistance: Project Grants; Research Contracts.
Uses and Use Restrictions: Assistance is intended to enhance the
Bureau of Mines mineral resources and environmental devel-
opment programs which are directed toward the conservation,
development and efficient utilization of minerals and fossil
fuels essential to the Nation's economy. Additionally, the
research will help to eliminate air and water pollution, re-
cover and reclaim waste materials formerly discarded into
the environment, and minimize occupational hazards to
3-24
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workers in the mineral industry.
Eligibility Requirements;
Applicant Eligibility: Public agencies, industrial organiza-
tions not for profit, individuals, institutions of higher educa-
tion or organizations with appropriate capabilities for the
conduct of scientific research.
Beneficiary Eligibility: Same as applicant eligibility.
Credentials/Documentation: The application should include a
statement as to the nature of the organization, its offices,
principal business, experience, and special qualifications for
conducting the project for which application is being made.
Financial Information;
Account Identification: 10-32-0592-0-1-403.
Obligations: (Grants and contracts) FY 73 $3,500,000; FY 74
est $8,OOO,OOO;and FY 75 est $45,000,000.
Range and Average of Financial Assistance: $10,000 to
$3,000,000; $150,000.
Possible Use: In areas where abatement programs can involve ap-
plication and demonstration of new techniques, project grants
can be obtained from this agency. States can obtain infor-
mation on current research programs, and assist in pro-
viding sites for their demonstration, eliminating pollution
sources with research fundings.
Federal Agency; Department of the Interior, Bureau of Outdoor
Recreation.
Department of the Interior, Bureau of Outdoor Recreation
Outdoor Recreation -
Acquisition, Development & Planning
Authorization; 16 U.S.C. 1-4 et seq. Land and Water Conservation
Fund Act of 1965; Public Law 88-578; 78 Stat. 897; as amend-
ed by Public Law 90-401 (82 Stat. 354); Public Law 91-485
(84 Stat. 1084); Public Law 91-308 (84 Stat. 410); Public Law
3-25
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92-347 (86 Stat. 460). and Public Law 93-81 (87 Stat. 178).
Objectives: To provide financial assistance to the states and their
political subdivisions for the preparation of comprehensive
statewide outdoor recreation plans and acquisition and de-
velopment of outdoor recreation areas and facilities for the
general public, to meet current and future needs.
Types of Assistance: Project Grants.
Uses and Use Restrictions: Acquisition and development grants may
be used for a wide range of outdoor recreation projects, such
as picnic areas, inner city parks, campgrounds, tennis
courts, boat launching ramps, bike trails, outdoor swimming
pools, and support facilities such as roads, water supply,
etc. Facilities must be open to the general public and not
limited to special groups. Development of basic rather than
elaborate facilities is favored. Priority consideration gen-
erally is given to projects serving urban populations. Fund
monies are not available for the operation and maintenance of
facilities. Grants are also available to states only for re-
vising and updating existing state outdoor recreation plans,
preparation of new plans and for statewide surveys, technical
studies, data collection and analysis and other planning pur-
poses which are clearly related to the refinement and im-
provement of the state outdoor recreation plan.
Eligibility Requirements:
Applicant Eligibility: Only the state agency formally desig-
nated by the Governor of the state legislature to administer
the state's Land and Water Conservation Fund Program is
eligible to apply for acquisition and development grants.
(Treated as States in this regard are the District of Colum-
bia, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, American Samoa, and
Guam). Only the state agency formally designated by the
Governor or state law is responsible for the preparation and
maintenance of the state outdoor recreation plan is eligible
for planning grants. For acquisition and development grants,
the above state agency may apply for assistance for itself, or
on behalf of other state agencies or political subdivisions,
such as cities, counties, and park districts. Additionally,
Indian tribes which are organized to govern themselves and
perform the function of a municipal government qualify for
3-26
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assistance under the program. Individuals and private or-
ganizations are not eligible.
Beneficiary Eligibility: The general public. For planning
grants, same as applicant eligibility.
Credentials/Documentation: The state liaison officer, ap-
pointed by the Governor to administer the program in the
state, must furnish assurance that the project is in accord
with the State Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan; i.e.,
that it meets high priority recreation needs shown in the
action program portion of the plan. The state's apportion-
ment balance of fund monies must be adequate for the project,
and the sponsoring agency must permanently dedicate the
project to public outdoor recreation and assume responsibility
for operation and maintenance. State plans must cite the
state's legal authority to participate in the Land and Water
Conservation Fund program.
Financial Information;
Account Identification: 10-16-5005-0-2-405.
Obligations: (Grants) FY 73 $212,075,000; FY 74 est
$170,000,000; and FY 75 est $220,000,000.
Range and Average of Financial Assistance: $150 to
$5,450,000; $68,178.
Possible Use.- Pollution sources from orphan mined lands can be
eliminated while developing that area into an outdoor recre-
ational facility. Construction of camping, picnicing, hiking,
and swimming areas, developed from abandoned or inactive
mine sites, can be financed through project grants from this
agency. The recreation plan must be part of a statewide out-
door recreation program, and must be open to the general
public upon completion. Fund monies provide for land acqui-
sition, planning, and site development.
Department of the Interior,
Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife
Fish Restoration
Authorization; Federal Aid in Sport Fish Restoration Act of 1950;
64 Stat. 430; as amended 16 U.S.C. 777-777k.
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Objectives; To support projects designed to restore and manage
sport fish populations for the preservation and improvement
of sport fishing and related uses of these fisheries' resources,
Types of Assistance; Formula Grants.
Uses and Use Restrictions; Approvable activities include land acqui-
sition, development, research and coordination. Activities
prohibited are law enforcement and public relations.
Eligibility Requirements:
Applicant Eligibility: Participation limited to state fish and
game departments. States must have passed laws for the
conservation fees paid by fishermen for purposes other than
the administration of the state fish and game department.
Beneficiary Eligibility: Same as applicant eligibility.
Credentials/Documentation: Notification of desire to parti-
cipate must furnish a certification of the number of paid fish-
ing license holders.
Financial Information:
Account Identification: 10-18-9999-0-2-405.
Obligations: (Grants) FY 73 $12,642,939; FY 74 $13,205,000;
and FY 75 est $16,000,000.
Range and Average of Financial Assistance: $146,300 to
$731,500; $286,750.
Possible Use; If pollution abatement from abandoned mine sites can
provide areas for sport fishing opportunities, state fish and
game departments can obtain money from this federal agency
to improve and/or develop sport fishing in designated areas.
Controlling sedimentation and improving water quality in ac-
ceptable streams are essential aspects of developing a sport
fishing program.
Environmental Protection Agency,
Office of Research and Development
Water Pollution Control - Research,
Development, and Demonstration
Authorization: Sections 104,105, 107, 108, 113, of the Federal
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Water Pollution Control Act as amended; Public Law 92-500;
33U.S.C. 1254, 1255, 1257, 1258, 1263.
Objectives; To support and promote the coordination and accelera-
tion of research, development, and demonstration projects
relating to the causes, effects, extent, prevention, reduction
and elimination of water pollution.
Types of Assistance; Project Grants.
Uses and Use Restrictions; Available for allowable direct cost ex-
penditures incident to research performance plus allowable
portions of allowable indirect costs of the institution, in ac-
cordance with established EPA policies.
Eligibility Requirements;
Applicant Eligibility: Nonprofit institutions such as universi-
ties and colleges, hospitals, laboratories, state and local
government departments, other public or private nonprofit
institutions, grants may also be awarded to individuals and
persons who have demonstrated unusually high scientific
ability.
Beneficiary Eligibility: Same as applicant eligibility.
Credentials/Docu mentations: None.
Financial Information:
Account Identification: 20-00-0107-0-1-404.
Obligations: (Grants) FY 73 $16,773,429; FY 74 est
$15,053,000; and FY 75 est $13,000,000.
Range and Average of Financial Assistance: (Research Grants)
$2,750 to $502,354; $47,536; (Demonstration Grants) $5,000
to $487,788; $127,169.
Possible Use: Although not adaptable to wide usage in a state's
abatement program, funds from this agency can be used to
finance demonstration projects that prevent, reduce, or
eliminate water pollution. In cases where state agencies can-
not obtain funding, the state can suggest or donate demonstra-
tion sites to other organizations who can acquire allocations
from this office.
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Environmental Protection Agency,
Office of Water and Hazardous Materials
Water Pollution Control - State and
Interstate Program Grants
Authorization: Section 106 of the Federal Water Pollution Control
Act, as amended; Public Law 92-500; 33 U.S.C. 1256.
Objectives: To assist state and interstate agencies in establishing
and maintaining adequate measures for prevention and control
of water pollution.
Types of Assistance; Formula Grants.
Uses and Use Restrictions: Broad support for the prevention and
abatement of water pollution including permitting, pollution
control studies, planning, surveillance and enforcement; ad-
vice and assistance to local agencies; training; and public in-
formation. Funds cannot be used for construction, operation,
or maintenance of waste treatment plants, nor can they be
used for costs financed by other Federal grants or by funds
used for matching other Federal grants.
Eligibility Requirements:
Applicant Eligibility: State and interstate water pollution
control agencies as defined in the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act. Agencies making application for funds must
submit annually their pollution-control program to the appro-
priate Regional EPA Administrator for approval. Require-
ments of the program are based on Section 106 of the Act,
and 40 CFR Part 35.
Beneficiary Eligibility: Same as applicant eligibility.
Credentials/Documentation: A State Plan is required under
Part III of OMB Circular No. A-95 (revised).
Financial Information:
Account Identification: 20-00-0108-0-1-404.
Obligations: (Grants) FY 73 $22,600,000; FY 74 est
$40,000,000; and FY 75 est $40,000,000.
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Range and Average of Financial Assistance: $65,000 to
$2,368,770; $150,000.
Possible Use; States can utilize formula grants from this federal
agency to develop pollution control programs. Studies can be
conducted to identify and evaluate pollutional sources and
recommend solutions. However, actual construction funding
is not permitted.
Water Resources Council
Water Resources Planning
Authorization; Water Resources Planning Act; Public Law 89-80; 42
U.S.C. 1962 d-1.
Objectives; Provides grants for increased participation by the states
in water and related land resources planning.
Types of Assistance; Formula Grants.
Uses and Use Restrictions; State preparation of water and related
land resources plans, participation in federal-state compre-
hensive water and related land resources planning, and train-
ing of personnel, where necessary, to develop additional
technical planning capability.
Eligibility Requirements;
Applicant Eligibility: The 50 States, the District of Colum-
bia, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Applicant must be a
state agency designated by law or the Governor to administer
the water and related land resources planning.
Beneficiary Eligibility: Same as applicant eligibility.
Credentials/Documentation: Not applicable.
Financial Information;
Account Identification: 33-35-0100-0-1-401.
Obligations: (Grants) FY 73 $3,000,000; FY 74 $3,000,000;
and FY 75 est $2,400,000.
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Range and Average of Financial Assistance: $25,000 to
$101,900; $60,000.
Possible Use: In conjunction with the federal government, states
can prepare water and related land resource plans with funds
from this agency. This planning can outline water related
land use policies and establish areas in need of pollution con-
trol measures. Abatement projects can then be developed in
accordance with the overall plan.
AVENUES FOR TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE
A matrix of problems exists in rectifying the abandoned mine
land in any state. The vast interdiscipline expertise necessary to
resolve the years of environmental damage from this land rarely are
found in any one organization or government agency. Coordination
of data collection, planning, evaluation, study and construction can
be accomplished by utilizing information and assistance from a di-
verse group of federal, state, private and industrial sources. Tech-
nical information and research results are available to anyone in-
terested in reclaiming abandoned land and abating mine drainage
pollution from local universities, colleges, mining companies and
environmental groups, in addition to the federal agencies described
in this section. Restoration agencies should not overlook the help
which can be obtained from agencies such as the Youth Conservation
Corps, Job Corps Centers, National Guard Units, and volunteer oi
ganizations - Boy Scouts, civic and conservation groups.
Many federal agencies can supply expert advice in reclama-
tion projects, from planning to reclamation techniques for revegeta-
tion and wildlife propagation. A few of these agencies and the types
of information available are described in the following pages.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service
The National Forest System as part of the administration of
the National Forests and Grasslands has special interest and ex-
3-32
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perience in the rehabilitation of surface-mined land for use as out-
door recreation, range, timber, watershed, wildlife and fish man-
agement areas. They have a long history of this type work and each
year, Forest Service crews from 154 National Forests and 19
Grasslands treat and stabilize several hundred acres disturbed by
mining, prospecting, and associated access roads.
Surface Environment and Mining (SEAM)
SEAM was started as a partnership with land managers,
mining industry and political jurisdiction personnel at all levels.
The Forest Service has the leadership and coordinating role within
United States Department of Agriculture. Its function is to demon-
strate new techniques in preliminary design of mining operations,
new methods of rehabilitation, and new mining technologies. Envi-
ronmental stewardship criteria can be simultaneously evaluated and
displayed. In connection with the demonstration projects, SEAM is
addressing three problem areas:
1. Quickly assembling facts so that delays in ad-
ministration of mineral applications will be
minimized.
2. Advancing knowledge and techniques for suc-
cessfully rehabilitating mined areas.
3. Developing methods for planning mining op-
erations in advance to harmonize eventual
utilization with rural development and envi-
ronmental stewardship. This includes con-
sideration of mineral deposits as integral
parts of greater economic, social, and bio-
logical entities.
Department of Defense. Army Corps of Engineers
The Corps has been studying effects of mining on navigable
rivers and their tributaries. Their studies have included stream in-
ventories, solutions to water resources problems, feasibility studies
and pilot demonstration projects.
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Department of Interior, Geological Survey
The activities of the Geological Survey's Water Resources
Division involve basic data collection, aerial investigation of mined
areas, hydrologic processes, effects of mine drainage on water
quality, magnitude and extent of erosion and sedimentation by mining
activities. Their reports from such studies could be utilized for
planning mined land reclamation in respect to hydrologic conditions.
Department of Interior, Bureau of Land Management
For essential information on land management and planning
this agency can supply many multiple use ideas. The Bureau is
committed to the principles of multipurpose land uses with utilization
of mineral resources being only an interim phase; not the last land
use. Using a systems approach requiring physical inventory and
analysis of natural resources (current and future potentials); social
and economic significance and implication of the resources use,
analysis of needs at local, state and federal levels; description and
analysis of major alternative land use options; all organized'with full
public participation for the best selection and allocation of resources.
These procedures are the key framework for any reclamation
project regardless of the agency or group undertaking such work.
Department of Interior, National Park Service
An agency such as the National Park Service can supply in-
formation related to reclamation of abandoned lands for specific
uses, like parks and recreational areas. They are authorized to
extend technical assistance in park and recreation facility planning
to state and local governments.
Department of Interior, Bureau of Reclamation
Through its program activities the agency extends services
3-34
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to sister federal agencies, state and local governments for recla-
mation by restoration of fish and wildlife habitat, processes for
water treatment, restoration of appropriate vegetation, watershed
management and recreation facilities.
The Bureau of Reclamation's projects use many disciplines
to develop their systems approach. Included are the following:
1. All aspects of onsite appraisal of the location
and its geological condition, project planning in-
cluding coordination and local and state partici-
pation and input of other agencies as may be
needed for repayment of cost, and continued
operation and maintenance of the restored area;
2. The preparation of economic analyses of the
costs and benefits;
3. Preparation of typical engineering, architectural,
etc., plans, and guidelines for the facilities and
other work needed to restore such an area;
4. Complete construction management, from rec-
ommending standards that should be established
and maintained in the building and associated
construction and/or grading work to preparation
of schedules showing sequences by stages of work,
time, and funds required, to gathering of ad-
vanced preconstruction data, preparation, of de-
signs and specifications, contract administration,
and inspection; and
5. The establishment of designers' operating cri-
teria, and operation and maintenance standard
operating procedures.
Tennessee Valley Authority
The objective of TVA is to promote the use, conservation,
and development of the nonwater resources of the Tennessee Valley
and related adjoining territory; to improve the economic and social
well-being of the people of the region; and to demonstrate new ap-
proaches to national development goals. Development of agricul-
tural, forest, minerals, and environmental resources; tributary
3-35
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area development; regional development planning; and demonstra-
tions in human resource development. In limited special situations,
financial assistance is available to help cover administrative costs
of local development programs.
Within the Tennessee Valley, officers and agencies of state,
county, and municipal governments; quasi-public agencies; and
private organizations, individuals, and business firms and associa-
tions may seek technical advice and assistance in general develop-
ment.
Although not generally a source of direct funding for abate-
ment projects, states within the Tennessee Valley can use this
agency for technical guidance and assistance in implementing their
individual pollution control programs.
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Table 3-1
U. S. BUREAU OF MINES LIAISON PROGRAM OFRCERS,
FEBRUARY 1,.1973
State
Liaison Officer
(Office Established)
Liaison Officer
(Office Responsible)
Alabama
James R. Boyle
P.O. Box L
University, Ala. 35486
(8) 205-345-8225
Alaska
Alfred L. Service
Room G-81, Federal Bldg.
Anchorage, Alaska 995O1
(8) (Seattle) 2C6-422-0150
Ask for 907-265-4304
Arizona
Floyd D. Everett
Room 1012
2721 No. Central Ave.
Phoenix, Ariz. 85004
(8) 602-261-3358
Arkansas
Raymond B. Stroud
Room 3331
Federal Office Bldg.
Little Rock, Ark. 72201
(8) 501-378-5965
California
Donald R. Irving
450 Golden Gate Ave.
P.O. Box 36012
San Francisco, Calif. 94102
(8) 415-556-0640
William H. Kerns
Room 3046
65O Capitol Mall
Sacramento, Calif. 95814
(8) 916-449-2417
Connecticut
William R. Barton
SEE: New Hampshire
3-37
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Table 3-1 Continued
U.S. BUREAU OF MINES LIAISON PROGRAM OFFICERS,
FEBRUARY 1, 1973
State
Liaison Officer
(Office Established)
Liaison Officer
(Office Responsible)
Delaware
Arnold H. Harvey
SEE: Pennsylvania
Florida
John W. Sweeney
Room 204
547 N. Monroe St.
Tallahassee, Fla. 32301
(8) 904-377-4262
Georgia
James D. Cooper
Room 431
19 Hunter St., S.W.
Atlanta, Ga. 3O334
(8) 404-526-6204
Hawaii
Donald R. Irving
SEE: California
Idaho
Lawrence E. Davis
Room 447; Federal Bldg.
550 W. Fort St.
Boise, Idaho 83702
(8) 208-342-2678
Illinois
Thomas O. Glover
Room 1117, Ridgely Bldg,
5O4 E. Monroe St.
Springfield, III. 627O1
(8)217-525-4368
Indiana
William S. Miska
Room 113
7th & College Sts.
Bloomington, Ind.
(80)812-339-6139
474O1
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Table 3-1 Continued
U. S. BUREAU OF MINES LIAISON PROGRAM OFFICERS,
FEBRUARY 1, 1973
State
Liaison Officer
(Office Established)
Liaison Officer
(Office Responsible)
Iowa
Joseph C. Arundale
SEE: Missouri
Kansas
Harry F. Robertson
Room 518, Capitol Federal Bldg.
7OO Kansas Ave.
Topeka, Kans. 666O3
(8) 913-234-8379
Kentucky
William T. Boyd
Room 325
3O5 Ann St.
Frankfort, Ky. 40601
(80) 502-875-4120
Louisiana
Owen W. Jones
Room 119, Federal Bldg. &
Courthouse
707 Florida St.
Baton Rouge, La. 70815
(8) 504-348-4374
Maine
Robert W. Holliday
Federal Bldg. Post Office
4O Western Ave.
Augusta, Maine 0433O
(8) 207-622-6292
Maryland
Arnold H. Harvey
SEE: Pennsylvania
Massachusetts
William R. Barton
SEE: New Hampshire
3-39
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Table 3-1 Continued
U.S. BUREAU OF MINES LIAISON PROGRAM OFFICERS,
FEBRUARY 1, 1973
State
Liaison Officer
(Office Established)
Liaison Officer
(Office Responsible)
Michigan
Edward C. Peterson
Room 1121, Commerce Center
Bldg.
3OO Capitol St.
Lansing, Mich. 48933
(8) 517-372-1681
Minnesota
Wesley A. Grosh
Room G-23, Federal Bldg.
Fort Snelling
Twin Cities, Minn. 55111
(8)612-725-4535
Mississippi
Henry P. Wheeler
Room 408, 301 Bldg.
301 N. Lamer St.
Jackson, Miss. 39202
(8) 601-948-2510
Missouri
Joseph C. Arundale
P.O. Box 1187
Rolla, Mo. 654O1
(80) 314-364-3169
Montana
George T. Krempaskt
636 N. Logan
Helena, Mont. 59601
(8) 406-442-3297
Nebraska
Harry F. Robertson
SEE: Kansas
3-40
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Table 3-1 Continued
U. S. BUREAU OF MINES LIAISON PROGRAM OFFICERS,
FEBRUARY 1, 1973
State
Liaison Officer
(Office Established)
Liaison Officer
(Office Responsible)
Nevada
Paul V. Fillo
Room 306
U.S. Post Office Bldg.
705 N. Plaza St.
Carson City, Nev. 997O1
(80) 702-882-9380
New Hampshire
William R. Barton
P.O. Box 102
Durham, N.H. 03824
(80) 603-659-3101
New Jersey
Arnold H. Harvey
SEE: Pennsylvania
New Mexico
Joel N. Van Sant
P.O. Box 1436
Socorro, N. Mex. 878O1
(SO) 505-835-1808
New York
Leonard F. Heising
Suite 2O3
1659 Central Ave.
Albany, N.Y. 12205
(80) 518-869-9536
North Carolina
Lawrence E. Shirley
P.O. Box 2828
Raleigh, N.C. 276O2
(8) 919-755-4166
North Dakota
Charles A. Koch
Suite 10
219 North 7th
Bismarck, N. Dak. 58501
(8) 701-255-4378
3-41
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Table 3-1 Continued
U. S. BUREAU OF MINES LIAISON PROGRAM OFFICERS,
FEBRUARY 1, 1973
State
Liaison Officer
(Office Established)
Liaison Officer
(Office Responsible)
Ohio
William S. Miska
SEE: Indiana
Oklahoma
Robert H. Arndt
168 Post Office Bldg.
N.W. Third St.
Oklahoma City, Okla. 73102
(8) 405-231-4521
Oregon
Walter E. Lewis
Suite 7, Standard Insurance
Bldg.
475 Cottage St., N. E.
Salem, Oreg. 973O1
(8) 503-585-1245
Pennsylvania
Arnold H. Harvey
P.O. Box 783
Federal Square Station
Harrisburg, Pa. 17108
(8)717-782-4475
Puerto Rico
Charles D. Hoyt
c/o U.S. Geological Survey
Bldg. 652
Fort Buchanan, Puerto Rico
00934
Dial 1O6-Ask for Overseas
Operator-Puerto Rico
809-783-4660
Rhode Island
William R. Barton
SEE: New Hampshire
3-42
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Table 3-1 Continued
U. S. BUREAU OF MINES LIAISON PROGRAM OFFICERS,
FEBRUARY 1, 1973
State
Liaison Officer
(Office Established)
Liaison Officer
(Office Responsible)
South Carolina
Herman W. Sheffer
403 Columbia Bldg.
Main & Gervais Sts.
Columbia, S.C. 29201
South Dakota
M. Clair Smith
P.O. Box 867
Rapid City, S. Dak.
(8) 605-348-1275
57701
Tennessee
William D. Hardeman
4O1 Security Federal Bldg.
50O Union St.
Nashville, Tenn. 37219
(8)615-749-5428
Texas
Murphy E. Hawkins
Room 980, Federal Bldg.
Austin, Tex. 78701
(8) 512-397-5781
Utah
Stephen R. Wilson
1600 E. First South St.
Salt Lake City, Utah 84112
(8) 801-524-5383
Vermont
William R. Barton
SEE: New Hampshire
Virginia
Lawrence E. Shirley
SEE: North Carolina
3-43
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Table 3-1 Continued
U.S. BUREAU OF MINES LIAISON PROGRAM OFFICERS,
FEBRUARY 1, 1973
State
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
Liaison Officer
(Office Established)
Hal J. Kelly
9O9 Capitol Center Bldg.
Olympia, Washington 98501
(8) 206-943-7315
Walter E. Burleson
P.O. Box 1796
Cheyenne, Wyo. 82001
(8) 307-778-2481
Liaison Officer
(Office Responsible)
William T. Boyd
SEE: Kentucky
Wesley A. Grosh
SEE: Minnesota
HEADQUARTERS OFFICE
Washington D.C.
Richard H. Mote
Chief, Liaison Program Office
U.S. Bureau of Mines
Room 4658, Interior Bldg.
Washington, D.C. 2O24O
(8) 202-343-5375
Adapted from Reference No. 81
3-44
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Table 3-2
STATE LIAISON OFFICERS TO THE BUREAU OF
OUTDOOR RECREATION, MARCH,. 1973
ALABAMA (5)
Claude D. Kelly, Commissioner
Department of Conservation and
Natural Resources
Administrative Building
Montgomery, Alabama 36104
205-269-7221
ALASKA(1)
Theodore G. Smith, Director
Division of Parks
323 E. Fourth Avenue
Anchorage, Alaska 995O1
907-279-5577
AMERICAN SAMOA (2)
Frank C. Mockler
Lt. Governor of American Samoa
Pago Pago, Tutuila
American Samoa 96920
ARIZONA (2)
Roland H. Sharer
Outdoor Recreation Coordinating
Commission
4433 N. 19th Ave., Suite 203
Phoenix, Arizona 85O15
ARKANSAS (7)
Charles T. Crow, Director
Arkansas Department of Planning
Capitol Hill Building, 5th Floor
Little Rock, Arkansas 722O1
501-371-1211
CALIFORNIA (2)
William Penn Mott, Jr., Director
Department of Parks & Recreation
1416 9th Street, Room 1311
Sacramento, California 95814
916-445-2358
COLORADO (3)
George T. O'Malley, Jr., Director
Division of Parks & Outdoor
Recreation
Department of Natural Resources
6060 Broadway Street
Denver, Colorado 80216
303-825-1192
CONNECTICUT (6)
Dan W. Lufkin, Commissioner
State Department of Environmental
Protection
State Office Building, Room 539
Hartford, Connecticut 06115
203-566-4667
DELAWARE (6)
David R. Keifer, Director
State Planning Office
Thomas Collins Building
530 S. DuPont Highway
Dover, Delaware 19901
302-736-1216
3-45
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Table 3-2 Continued
STATE LIAISON OFFICERS TO THE BUREAU OF
OUTDOOR RECREATION, MARCH, 1973
DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA (6)
Joseph H. Cole, Director
D.C. Recreation Department
3149 - 16th Street, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 2001O
202-628-6000
FLORIDA (5)
NeyC. Landrum, Director
Divison of Recreation & Parks
Department of Natural Resources
J. Edwin Larson Building
Tallahassee, Florida 32304
904-488-6131
GEORGIA (5)
Joe D. Tanner, Commissioner
State Dept. of Natural Resources
270 Washington Street, S.W.
Atlanta, Georgia 30334
404-656-3500
GUAM (2)
Gerald S. A. Perez, Director
of Land Management and
Executive Secretary for the
Territorial Planning Commission
Territory of Guam
Agana, Guam 96910
HAWAII (2)
Shelly M. Mark (Dr.) Director
Department of Planning and Economic
Development
State Capitol
Honolulu, Hawaii 96813
IDAHO (1)
Steven W. Bly, Director
Idaho Dept. of Parks & Recreation
Statehouse
Boise, Idaho 83707
208-964-2154
ILLINOIS (4)
Anthony Dean, Director
Department of Conservation
602 State Office Building
Springfield, Illinois 62706
217-525-6302
INDIANA (4)
Joseph D. Cloud, Director
Department of Natural Resources
6O6 State Office Building
Indianapolis, Indiana 46204
317-633-6344
IOWA (4)
Fred A. Priewert, Director
State Conservation Commission
State Office Building
30O Fourth Street
Des Moines, Iowa 50319
515-281-5384
KANSAS (3)
Lynn Burris, Jr., Director
State Park & Resources Authority
8O1 Harrison
Topeka, Kansas 66612
913-296-2281
3-46
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Table 3-2 Continued
STATE LIAISON OFFICERS TO THE BUREAU OF
OUTDOOR RECREATION, MARCH, 1973
KENTUCKY (4)
Ewart W. Johnson, Commissioner
State Department of Parks
Capitol Piaza, 10th Floor
Frankfort, Kentucky 406O1
502-564-4260
MICHIGAN (4)
A. Gene Gazlay, Director
Michigan Dept. of Natural Resources
Stevens T. Mason Building
Lansing, Michigan 48926
517-373-1220
LOUISIANA (7)
Gilbert Charles Lagasse, Director
State Parks & Recreation Commission
State Land & Natural Resources Bldg.
P.O. Drawer 1111, 625 N. 4th Street
Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70621
504-389-5761
MINNESOTA (4)
Robert L. Herbst, Commissioner
Department of Natural Resources
3O1 Centennial Building
658 Cedar Street
St. Paul, Minnesota 55101
612-296-2549
MAINE (6)
Lawrence Stuart, Commissioner
Department of Parks & Recreation
Statehouse
Augusta, Maine 043O1
207-289-3821
MARYLAND (6)
James B. Coulter, Secretary
Department of Natural Resources
State Office Building
Annapolis, Maryland 21404
; 301-267-5715
MASSACHUSETTS (6)
Arthur Brownell, Commissioner
Department of Natural Resources
State Office Bldg., Gov't Center
100 Cambridge Street
Boston, Massachusetts 022O2
617-727-3163
MISSISSIPPI (5)
Rae Sanders, Outdoor Recreation
Director
Mississippi Park System
Robert E. Lee Building
Jackson, Mississippi 39201
601-354-6321
MISSOURI (5)
Robert L. Dunkeson, Exec.
Secretary
Inter-Agency Council for Outdoor
Recreation
1203 Jefferson Building, Box 564
Jefferson City, Missouri 65101
314-635-3262
3-47
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Table 3-2 Continued
STATE LIAISON OFFICERS TO THE BUREAU OF
OUTDOOR RECREATION, MARCH, 1973
MONTANA (1)
Ashley C. Roberts, Administrator
Recreation & Parks Divison
Montana Dept. of Fish and Game
Mitchell Building
Helena, Montana 59601
406-449-3066
NEBRASKA (3)
Willard R. Barbee, Director
Game and Parks Commission
2200 N. 33rd Street
P.O. Box 30370
Lincoln, Nebraska 68503
402-477-5211
NEVADA (2)
Elmo J. De Ricco, Director
Department oF Conservation and Natural
Resources
Nye Building, Room 214
Carson City, Nevada 897O1
702-882-7482
NEW HAMPSHIRE (6)
George Gilman, Commissioner
Department of Resources and Economic
Development
State House Annex
Concord, New Hampshire 033O1
603-271-2411
NEW JERSEY (6)
Richard J. Sullivan, Commissioner
Dept. of Environmental Protection
Trenton, New Jersey 08625
609-292-2886
NEW MEXICO (7)
David W. King
State Planning Officer
Executive-Legislative Bldg., Rm. 406
Santa Fe, New Mexico 87501
505-827-2316
NEW YORK (6)
Alexander Aldrich, Commissioner
Office of Parks and Recreation
South Swan Street Building
Albany, New York 12223
518-474-0443
NORTH CAROLINA (5)
W. L. Bondurant
Secretary of Administration
Department of Administration
Raleigh, North Carolina 27602
919-829-7232
NORTH DAKOTA (3)
Gary Leppart, Coordinator
State Outdoor Recreation Agency
State Office Building
9OO East Boulevard
Bismarck, North Dakota 58501
701-224-2430
OHIO (4)
Dr. Robert Teater, Director
Department of Natural Resources
1952 Belcher Driver, Fountain Sq.
Columbus, Ohio 43215
614-469-3770
3 - 48
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Table 3-2 Continued
STATE LIAISON OFFICERS TO THE BUREAU OF
OUTDOOR RECREATION, MARCH, 1973
OKLAHOMA (7)
Chris Delaporte, Director
Division of State Parks
Tourism & Recreation Department
500 Will Rogers Memorial Building
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 73105
405-521-2413
OREGON (1)
George M. Baldwin
Administrator of Highways
State Highway Division
Room 300, State Highway Bldg.
Salem, Oregon 97310
503-378-6388
Attention: David G. Talbot
503-378-6305
PENNSYLVANIA (6)
Maurice K. Goddard, Secretary of
Environmental Resources
P.O. Box 1467
Harrisburg, Pennsylvania 17120
717-787-2814
PUERTO RICO (5)
Emilio Casellas, Administrator
Public Parks & Recreation Administration
P.O. Box3207
San Juan, Puerto Rico OO904
809-725-1966
RHODE ISLAND (6)
Dennis J. Murphy, Jr., Director
Department oF Natural Resources
Veteran's Memorial Building
83 Park Street
Providence, Rhode Island 02903
401-277-2771
SOUTH CAROLINA (5)
John A. May (Col.) Director
Division of Outdoor Recreation
Dept. of Parks, Recreation & Tourism
P.O. Box 1358
Columbia, South Carolina 29202
803-758-21111
SOUTH DAKOTA (3)
Robert Hodgins, Director
S. Dakota Dept. of Game, Fish &
Parks
State Office Building
Pierre, South Dakota 57501
605-224-3387
TENNESSEE (5)
Granville Hinton, Commissioner
Department of Conservation
2611 West End Avenue
Nashville, Tennessee 37203
615-741-2301
3-49
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Table 3-2 Continued
STATE LIAISON OFFICERS TO THE BUREAU OF
OUTDOOR RECREATION, MARCH, 1973
TEXAS (7)
Clayton Garrison, Executive Director
Parks and Wildlife Department
John H. Reagan Building
Austin, Texas 78701
512-475-3117
UTAH (2)
Gordon E. Harmston, Exec. Director
Department of Natural Resources
319 State Capitol Building
Salt Lake City, Utah 84114
801-328-5691
VERMONT (6)
Forrest E. Orr, Director, Planning
Div.
Agency for Environmental Conservation
Statehouse
Montpelier, Vermont 05602
802-828-3357
VIRGIN ISLANDS (5)
Hortense M. Rowe (Mrs.), Commissioner
Department of Conservation and Culture
Affairs
Post Office Box 390
Charlotte Amalie
St. Thomas, Virgin Islands 008O1
809-774-3320
VIRGINIA (5)
Rob R. Blackmore, Director
Va. Commission of Outdoor Recreation
8O3 East Broad Street
Richmond, Virginia 23219
7O3-770-2O36
WASHINGTON (1)
Omar Lofgren, Chairman
Interagency Committee for Outdoor
Recreation
4800 Capitol Boulevard
Tumwater, Washington 98504
206-753-7140
WEST VIRGINIA (6)
Richard D. Frum
State Liaison Officer
Office of the Governor
State Capitol
Charleston, West Virginia
304-348-2000
25305
WISCONSIN (4)
John A. Beale, Deputy Secretary
Department of Natural Resources
P.O. Box 450
Madison, Wisconsin 53701
608-266-2121
ATTENTION: Alvin E. Nelson
WYOMING (3)
Paul H. Westedt, Director
Wyoming Recreation Commission
Box 3O9, State Office Building
307-777-7695
Adapted from Reference No. 81
3-50
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CHAPTER 4
TECHNICAL APPROACH
-------
TECHNICAL APPROACH
The objective of the administering state agency in an abandoned
mined lands program is management of the state's total resources,
which involves abatement of water pollution and restoration of the land.
In order to successfully complete such a comprehensive program, a
systematic and logical approach must be utilized. The exact method
a state employs will depend on variables such as: financial resources;
magnitude and diversity of the state's problem; staff size of the ad-
ministering agency; and socio-economic needs of the state's residents.
Since this document is designed as a general guide for many users,
each step in the mined land inventory, data evaluation, and abatement
and reclamation implementation process is presented with alternative
methods or options which relate to the specific requirements and sub-
sequent level of effort assigned to the project. Thus, regardless of
the variables, one of the alternative or optional methods discussed in
each procedural step can supply some degree of information. For
maximum efficiency, it is essential to define as many variables as
possible at the start of the program and to determine the degree of
detail necessary to accomplish program objectives. This will in-
crease the usefulness of data and accuracy of evaluation, while re-
ducing financial and manpower waste associated with collection of in-
teresting but unusable information.
An area-wide mined lands inventory will assess and document
past pollution abatement and restoration efforts, and provide a sound
basis from which to establish future program planning and priorities.
In addition to summarizing and updating state mining information, it
also places the state in an advantageous position to apply for and re-
ceive financial and technical assistance from federal sources.
A successful mine drainage abatement and mined land recla-
mation program should be comprised of the following inter-related
steps:
1. Development of base mapping;
2. Watershed definition;
3. Water quality survey;
4. Socio-economic survey;
5. Mined lands survey;
6. Reclamation and abatement cost development;
4-3
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7. Priority establishment;
8. Final map development.
Each aspect of such a long range reclamation and pollution abatement
program will be discussed in subsequent sections. A number of op-
tional approaches are presented in each discussion, along with ap-
proximate costs where applicable. It must again be emphasized that
selection of the appropriate option or approach must be determined on
an individual study level, depending upon such factors as funding
availability, size of study area, intensity of mining within that study
area, size of and distance between individual minesites, and the ex-
tractive industry in question.
DEVELOPMENT OF BASE MAPPING
Identification of the state's major problem areas must be com-
pleted before detailed aerial mapping is started. This reduces the
aerial photography cost by concentrating low level photos on areas
affected by mining. Major mine site identification can be accom-
plished using one of the following options which are listed in order of
increasing level of effort:
1. Identification using existing data in the form of
mining records, water quality data, reclamation
records, or mining permits. This data is com-
monly available free or for only the cost of re-
production of the information.
2. Use of existing large scale aerial photography from
previous studies, the Soil Conservation Service
(SOS), Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS),
U-2 flights, or other sources. Costs are minimal for
all of these - SCS charges for photo reproduction only
ERTS charges $4.00 per 259 sq. km. (100 sq. mi.),
U-2 photos cost $8.50 per 259 sq. km. SCS photos
are often out-dated (as relates to this study), and
other high level photos have limited resolution capa-
bilities and often cannot be enlarged to a satisfactory
scale. (Imagery taken after January, 1975, by NASA
utilized Land and Satellite 2 and can be detained in
similar manner as ERTS).
4-4
-------
The option chosen will depend primarily on availability of
existing information (required for option 1) plus manpower resources
required to collate and plot the information. The information obtained
should then be incorporated into the working base maps.
Development of working base mapping for the study should be
completed early in the study. This base mapping may be the large
scale photos previously mentioned, but it is more advantageous to
acquire topographic base mapping. An excellent source of such maps
is the United States Geological Survey, which has available 1:250,000
scale mapping. USGS can provide overlays of the various features
printed on those topographic maps, enabling development of a base
map specifically suited to needs of the project. Utilizing these over-
lays, specific map features or colors can be emphasized, de-em-
phasized or totally eliminated as desired. Streams can be given
emphasis on the base maps, while plantmetric features such as roads
and towns, which are important in locating specific areas, can re-
main unchanged. Certain features which are not required to achieve
goals or depict results of the specific segment of the project (such as
locations of forested areas and the topographic contours), can be de-
emphasized or totally eliminated from the water quality maps. The
alteration of USGS maps results in a base map (or maps) ideally
suited for displaying the specific information obtained or utilized to
achieve the project goals.
Figures 4-1 and 4-2 show two segments of typical 1:250,000
scale USGS mapping that would be utilized either individually or in
composite form as base mapping for a statewide or regional study.
Figure 4-1 shows a composite of two map overlays available from
USGS, culture (roads, towns and political boundaries) and topography.
Figure 4-2 shows a third overlay, major streams, which is also
available from USGS. Various combinations of USGS overlays are
frequently desirable for different aspects of preliminary base map-
ping, such as plotting of existing background data, study area break-
down, establishment of primary stream sampling networks, and de-
termination of geographic priority areas for the study. The stream
overlay above may be best suited for plotting stream flow measure-
ment and sampling points, and water quality or flow data from pre-
viously completed studies. This overlay is also well suited for pre-
liminary, general delineation of individual watershed study units or
modules.
The overlay containing topographic contours also has potential
4-5
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iiininiJi
J TfT-"
NEW
LEXINGTON
,.^\r^T
OV V[- . i/T, ip'brttrsviHe
Oakfield (Jr.'.'v ''':., '^(J ;
ULllllJ'"11' -
Figure 4-1
4-6
-------
-------
uses early in a study. These overlays can be utilized alone or in
composite form with the stream overlay for more precise delineation
of sub-watershed units or modules along actual watershed and topo-
graphic divides. Since it is desirable to use topography and watei
shed divides as a basis for such a study area breakdown, the local
culture from the third map overlay is not used until the study area
breakdown has been completed. Once this breakdown is complete and
the establishment of a water sampling or mined land visitation pro-
gram is initiated, major access routes become a primary considera-
tion, and the need for topography on the preliminary base mapping
declines. At this time it may be advantageous to utilize a preliminary
base map consisting of only streams and culture, with topographic
contours eliminated. This often produces a much more easily read-
able map, particularly in steep terrain areas where the large number
of topographic contours can tend to clutter the mapping.
For final presentation of study data, it may be desirable to
develop a composite of all three of these overlays - culture, streams,
and topography - with one or more of the features highlighted for ease
of reading. For example, streams and culture are generally deemed
most important and are both clearly shown. Topography may be less
important for map presentation of data, but may still be useful at
certain times; therefore, it can be included at a reduced intensity
similar to a background on the map.
Depending on size of the study area and volume and detail of
data to be presented, it may also be possible to enlarge the 1:250,000
scale USGS sheets and overlays to a more suitable scale such as
1:125,000. Such enlargements are not illustrated here because, ex-
cept for the scale, they would be identical to the 1:250,000 mapping
shown. In some states or regions, there may also be other scales
and types of suitable base mapping more readily or economically ob-
tainable. Such mapping should be utilized when possible to reduce
costs of base map development.
Two sets of working base maps at different scales - one for
detailed, specific, precise data presentation and one for more gen-
eral, summary data display, can be very helpful. Use of such dual
mapping scales can be beneficial in initial mapping of existing water
quality data, delineation of working watershed units or modules, es-
tablishment of new sample and now collection stations, and actual
field work required for the study. Possibilities for these working
4-8
-------
base maps include:
1. State Department of Transportation or Depart-
ment of Highways County Highway Maps (scale
will vary in different states);
2. The previously described USGS 1:250,000 scale
mapping enlarged to a suitable scale such as
1:125,000; and
3. USGS 7.5 minute topographic quadrangles (scale
1 cm. = 240 m.).
These working base maps are well suited to relatively large
study areas because they contain sufficient detail for accurate mapping
or data plotting in most situations. However, where the study area is
extremely small or widely scattered, it may be beneficial to select
some different base mapping scale that would allow even more de-
tailed presentation and analysis of data.
WATERSHED DEFINITION
Verification and supplementation of historical records and
aerial surveillance with ground surveillance should be undertaken on
a watershed basis. The watershed sampling survey's objective is to
supply additional data to the administering agency to establish accu-
rate land inventory records needed to develop abatement and recla-
mation plans.
In order to develop comprehensive plans, detailed information
is needed on water quality, aquatic ecology, terrestrial impact, rec-
lamation potential, land use potential and socio-economic area needs.
These factors are interrelated and jointly affect a geographic area,
usually in the form of a topographically defined watershed rather than
a politically defined area (town, city, township or county). This is
true because mining and resultant pollution follow topographic, not po-
litical boundaries. It is, therefore, reasonable to develop surveys
and evaluate their data by watersheds.
Prior to any actual field work, size of the watershed modules
to be studied should be determined. This determination will depend
4-9
-------
on a number of variables such as:
1. Previous indications of general water quality
within various watersheds.
2. Diversity and distribution of the abandoned mined
lands.
3. Amount of available inventory funds and manpower.
4. Quantity and accuracy of detail of the data neces-
sary to meet program objectives.
Established watershed modules should be used for all phases
of ground surveillance including the water quality survey, terrestrial
survey, reclamation survey and socio-economic survey.
A number of different systems are available for delineating
watershed modules.
1. Logical delineation after assessment of existing
water quality data, mining data, topography, and
watershed size.
2. Random selection from topographic map inspection.
3. Selection using EPA STORET stream classifica-
tion system.
4. Selection using Morton stream classification.
Each of these options has obvious advantages and disadvan-
tages, and the method which best serves any one agency will depend
primarily on total area to be surveyed and complexity of the problem.
However, a short description of each system may be useful in deciding
which is most useful in a particular situation.
Watersheds established along logical topographic divisions will
be of fairly random size and shape. This offers the possibility of in-
tentionally altering the size in areas of known mine concentrations.
In such areas of high known mining or water pollution concentration,
modules can intentionally be kept smaller to permit more detailed
study and assessment. Experience has shown that watersheds ranging
in size from 130 to 1,040 square kilometers (50 to 400 square miles)
in areas of relatively concentrated mining are ideal working units.
The use of the EPA STORET stream classification system has
initial appeal, primarily due to its extensive coverage and associated
4-10
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water quality data. EPA uses a hydrologic stream classification sys-
tem to identity locations of sampling points. This hydrologic index,
or River Mile Index (RMI), is a numerical code which identifies the
location of a point on a defined river system by its hydrologic rela-
tionship to the river system and its distance upstream from the mouth
of the river. The following six codes comprise the complete index:
1. A two-digit major basin code
2. A two-digit minor basin code
3. A three-digit terminal stream number
4. Indices which define direction and level (ranking)
of stream flow
5. Mileages which define distances between and to con-
fluences in the river system
6. Code defining the stream level (rank) on which a
point is located
During the past several years, EPA has been engaged in as-
signing index (codes) to stream systems throughout the Nation.
Codings were recorded on USGS 7.5' topographic maps and are avail-
able from STORET Operations and EPA regional offices. By obtain-
ing STORET codings for streams within their states, state agencies
can obtain any available information on water quality parameters for
any desired stream.
Morton's stream classification was developed as part of a
monographic study in hydrology. The scheme has been modified and
popularized by authors such as Strahler, Leopold and Marchand, and
it has become established most strongly in studies of watershed geo-
morphology. The classification is based on the simple observation
that streams consistently bifurcate in such a way that they can be
ranked numerically. Headwater tributaries with no antecedents are
designated 1st order; union of two such units forms a 2nd order
stream; union of two 2nd order streams forms a 3rd; etc. Rank is not
increased when a stream receives tributaries of lower order than its
own. First order streams can normally be expected to have a basin
size in excess of 1 km2. The world's largest rivers are 10th order.
Although there are great differences between streams in many of their
characteristics, there is also amazing consistency among streams
with regard to certain parameters.
4-11
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The Morton system offers the following advantages:
1. Uniformity of watersheds once a stream order
is determined
2. Accuracy of determining manpower needs for
each watershed survey
3. Predictability of the quantity of detailed informa-
tion from each survey
4. Reliability of comparing one watershed with another
(working from a standardized base)
If the Morton's system is chosen the agency has a series of op-
tions in determining the actual size of watershed.
Watershed Size Options
1. Individual mine complex
2. Morton's 2nd order stream - approximately
13 square kilometers (5 square miles) watershed
3. 3rd - 4th order streams - watershed size of
52 to 260 square kilometers (20 to 100 square miles)
4. 4th order streams - watershed size of 1,295 square
kilometers (500 square miles)
Experience has shown a watershed of 130 to 260 square kilo-
meters (50 to 100 square miles) that is 3rd or 4th order streams is
often ideal size for routine ground surveillance.
WATER QUALITY SURVEY
Water quality evaluations in statewide abatement assessment
should consist of two distinct phases:
1. Collection, mapping and analysis of existing
water quality and streamflow data; and
2. Establishment of new or repeat sample collection
and flow measurement stations with subsequent
sampling and data evaluation.
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Assess Existing Data
Evaluation of existing data can be initiated by identifying and
contacting all potential sources of information relevant to the project.
Water quality data from past studies and sampling programs can be
obtained from many of the following sources:
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency's com-
puterized STORET system,
U.S. EPA's Source Investigation Surveys, con-
ducted to locate and identify point sources of pol-
lution and to delineate mined lands in various
watersheds throughout the Nation,
Watershed surveys conducted by the former Fed-
eral Water Pollution Control Administration,
Records from the U.S. Geological Survey's
stream gauging stations,
State agencies or departments concerned with en-
vironmental protection, natural resources, health,
streams, water quality, forestry or fisheries,
. Agencies established throughout the Nation solely
for the management of specific watersheds or river
basins, such as the Ohio River Basin Sanitation
Commission (ORSANCO), The Interstate Commis-
sion on the Potomac River Basin (INCOPOT), the
Susquehanna River Basin Commission (SRBC), the
Yellowstone Basin Water Users Association, and the
Powder River Basin Resource Council.
These and other similar data sources may provide important
stream-flow data on pertinent mine drainage parameters such as pH,
net acidity or alkalinity, specific metals, sulfates, turbidity, total
suspended solids, dissolved oxygen, and specific conductivity. This
data is vital in determining general water quality trends and major
source areas of mine drainage pollution, and can help to narrow down
subsequent stream sampling efforts to areas in which data gaps exist.
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Mapping of this water quality data can be initiated by renum-
bering the data points using a single, logical numbering system keyed
to the original source of information and the specific data point within
that source. All existing water quality data can then be plotted on
working base maps. Poor mapping and sample point location descrip-
tions in sources of existing data occasionally hamper plotting of some
sample points, but data can usually be replotted with a fair degree of
accuracy. To simplify interpretation and assessment of existing data
at these sample points, corresponding chemical analyses and stream
flow data from each source can be keyed to the newly assigned num-
bering system, tabulated and listed by watershed. This greatly sim-
plifies the process of locating sample points and associated water
quality and flow data available from previous studies.
Establish Sampling Program
Regardless of the parameters of importance in the specific
study area, survey planning, sample point location, sampling tech-
niques and monitoring frequency are all approached in a similar
manner. Sampling program planning should be based on quantity of
additional data needed and can be established on working prints of the
previously discussed base mapping. The number of sampling stations
per watershed depends on watershed size and historical indications of
water quality. Mining stations can be located at or near road bridges
to minimize time involved in locating stations and obtaining field
measurements. The working field maps, with all sampling points
plotted and numbered, can then be divided into workable "clusters" or
groups of maps on a watershed basis, and assigned to a field sampling
crew.
Field data sheets should be developed to facilitate simple,
rapid notation of stream conditions and characteristics at each sam-
ple location. These field data sheets are completed for every station
sampled and, as a minimum, should contain the following information:
samplers' names, date of sample collection a nd flow measurement;
sample station number; sample location by stream name, watershed,
coordinates, county, township, range and section; stream flow condi-
tions - high, medium or low; presence and extent of any pollution in-
dicators, such as iron staining on the stream bed (a positive indicator
of the presence of acid mine drainage); water discolorations; presence
4-14
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of suspended solids; siltation of the stream bottom; evidence of animal
or plant life in the stream; field pH of the water; and the number, ad-
ministering agency and stage height of any flow gauging stations at the
sample sites. The field sheets can also contain space for recording
sample chemical analyses reported by the laboratory, and stream
pollution loadings later computed by office personnel.
Stream sampling field crews must be instructed in the water
sampling and stream flow measuring techniques to be utilized prior to
initiation of a field program. The field techniques should enable
sampling crews to gather water quality or ecological and flow data
that gives the best degree of accuracy for the time and funds available.
Determine Stream Survey Parameters
Survey parameters assessed - sampling frequency, techniques,
and location - will all depend upon the requirements of each individual
study. Funding availability, study area size, time constraints and
nature of contaminants or pollutants attributed to the specific extrac-
tive industry will all play an important role in selecting biological,
chemical, and physical analysis parameters. Several options exist
for parameter selection, sampling frequency, sampling technique, and
sample point location. Considerations assessed are sub-divided into
major divisions which are further divided into options. Various com-
binations of analysis parameters and options would then represent
increasing levels of study intensity or effort as described. Parame-
ters, options, and approximate costs are listed below.
Chemical Parameter Options
Chemical properties of streams within study areas must be
analyzed to determine the presence of pollutants attributable to mining.
Parameters selected for analysis should be those known to be related
to the extractive industry or those key chemical constituent concen-
trations required to assess the presence and extent of stream pollu-
tion. Government analysis rates from recent chemical analysis price
lists are presented below for the mine drainage constituents most
commonly present in various mine drainages. Based on these costs,
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stream chemical analyses could range from a few to $40 or $50 per
sample, depending upon the number of parameters analyzed.
Parameter Cost
pH $0.75
Acidity, hot 2.75
Acidity, cold 1.75
Alkalinity 1.75
Specific Conductance 1. 50
Dissolved Oxygen 2.75
Turbidity 1.50
Total Suspended Solids 2.25
Sulfates 3.10
Metals (by Atomic Absorption) 2.75 to 3.50 each
Physical Measurement Options
Information on the physical configurations of stream channels
and their flows at sample stations is necessary for computation of pol-
lution loadings, and can be obtained simultaneously with the acquisition
of stream samples. Five options for stream flow and velocity meas-
urement, ranging from minimum to maximum level of effort, are
presented with approximate costs below:
1. Estimate based upon watershed drainage area.
No cost.
2. Estimate based upon previous flow data. No cost.
3. Rapid cross-sectional measurement (width and
average depth) and velocity (floating chip and
stopwatch method). Cost = $35 per station.
4. Detailed cross-sectional measurement (surveyed
section) and velocity (floating chip or Gurley
meter). Cost = $60 per station for first sample,
$25 per station for subsequent samples at same
surveyed station.
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5. Detailed transect with velocity profiles and
bathymetry. Cost - $100 per station.
Bottom sediment measurement and coring may also be de-
sirable during acquisition of physical data at sampling points parti-
cularly in very detailed studies. The cost of analysis of this sample
is about $25.
Biological Parameter Options
These parameters are generally only assessed in more de-
tailed studies, where funding is abundant or where the study area is
relatively small. Biological factors would also be analyzed in sub-
sequent, more detailed watershed feasibility studies.
Use of monitoring biological organisms such as benthic macro-
invertebrates or fish may prove to be helpful in monitoring pollution
levels in mining areas where discharges are intermittent and/or sub-
lethal in concentration. These organism populations' community
structure and community diversity index reflect long term integrated
and accumulated effects. Thus, they can offer better indications of
environmental impact than just grab chemical and physical data.
However, biological sampling is more expensive and time consuming
to collect and evaluate. Two biological parameters are discussed
here, but in typical detailed biological sampling, both would be as-
sessed. Costs for these analyses are relatively high, but since bio-
logical conditions generally represent long rather than short term
water quality, sample frequency is much less than that for chemical
parameters.
Benthic sampling consists of dredge samples (deeper streams)
or Surber samples (small streams) plus taxonomic identifications of
stream benthos, or bottom-dwelling organisms. Six samples are re-
quired along a transect at each stream station. Cost of sampling and
analysis is $5O per sample or $300 per stream transect.
Assessment of fish life in each stream requires a fishery in-
ventory, associated laboratory analysis, and subsequent data evalua-
tion. Each "sample" consists of analysis of approximately 450 square
meters of stream area. Samples can be taken above and below the
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confluence of each major stream. For example, one sample could be
taken at the mouth of each watershed or module and one on the main-
stream just below that stream mouth. Cost of each fish analysis or
sample is $500.
Sampling Frequency Options
Sampling frequency options are determined by size of the study
area, time available, and funding. These factors must be assessed
for each individual study to determine the frequency of sampling, and
a program must be established to permit maximum acquisition of
relevant data within study time constraints. Typical sampling fre-
quency options are listed below in order of increasing time and cost
requirements:
1 . One-time-only sampling with adjustment factors
for yearly average stream discharge volumes and
chemical loadings.
2. Quarterly sampling to determine seasonal condi-
tions .
3. Monthly sampling of all chemical and biological
parameters.
4. Continuous monitoring of chemical and physical
parameters and monthly biological sampling.
Sample Location Options
Here again, time and funding constraints play an important
role in determining the number and locations of sample points.
Sample breakdowns in typical large scale statewide abatement will
generally average about 30 stations per hundred sq. km. of study
area. Where limitations must be applied to the sampling program
for some reason, this number can be reduced to a base minimum of
one sample point at the mouth of each watershed area or module.
Where greater levels of detail are desired - in heavily funded studies
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and studies covering relatively small mined land areas - individual
mine discharges and minor tributary streams can be sampled to
obtain an even more accurate picture of water quality conditions within
the study areas.
Typical Stream Survey Program
For a typical mined land inventory program with reasonable
financial support and diverse, relatively constant mine drainage
problems, the following choice of alternatives for the stream sam-
pling program would be practical:
1. Chemical parameters as required to assess
general presence, absence and severity of mine
drainage pollutants.
2. Rapid cross-sectional stream channel measure-
ments with floating chip and stopwatch velocity
measurements.
3. No biological sampling.
4. One-time-only samples and flow measurements
with flow adjustments to represent seasonal
averages. Time permitting, quarterly sam-
pling would be even more desirable.
5. Systematically divide study area into watei
sheds or modules. Sample streams at mouths
of these modules and major tributaries to those
streams (also at mouths).
If the suggested options are utilized, a program may resemble
the following survey. Water samples and flows may be taken on a
one-time-only basis, except for the mouth of significant major
streams or tributaries within each watershed. These points may be
sampled more often, the number of times depending on amount of
water quality data desired. Average widths and depths are measured
where possible, and estimated where measurements are extremely
difficult to obtain. Velocities are measured at various points across
each stream using an electronic flow meter (such as a standard "Gur-
4-19
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ley Meter") or the floating object ("chip") and stopwatch method.
Stream conditions at the time of sampling are carefully noted; pH's,
specific conductance, dissolved oxygen are taken, and water samples
are collected for later chemical analyses.
A fast, simple and fairly dependable method of determining
stream flows involving stream cross-sectional areas and average
water velocities can be utilized for a study. This involves sample
crews wading into streams where possible to measure depths at
numerous intervals across the streams. Measurements can some-
times be made from bridges with a weighted line on large streams
that are too deep to wade. Stream depths are taken, averaged, and
the average depth value is multiplied by the measured stream width
to obtain a stream cross-sectional area.
When the floating chip method is used, measured stream
velocities are reduced by 20% to account for the higher than average
velocity that occurs in the surface water layer of the stream. Ad-
justed velocities and cross-sectional areas are then utilized to com-
pute preliminary stream discharge, which is placed on the field
data sheets.
Previous experiences with one-time-only grab sampling pro-
grams similar to the one described have shown that the minimal
amount of water quality and stream flow data generated by such pro-
grams does not give accurate indications of yearly flow and water
quality conditions. Data of this type is necessary to gain a complete
understanding of the true overall water quality and flow conditions,
particularly in polluted streams.
Water quality and flow data obtained from frequently or con-
tinuously monitored sample and flow measuring stations (for example,
in the Appalachian Coal Fields) have revealed certain characteristics
common to many drainage areas within specific watershed basins.
Flows in most streams in Appalachia exceed the yearly average flow
rate during only about one quarter of the year, mainly because half
of a stream's total yearly flow passes any given point along that
stream within the first three and one half months of the year. Flows
then generally average 20 to 30 percent below the yearly average
during the summer months. Similar relationships may exist for
other areas of the United States; such relationships should be defined
and used to adjust periodic flow measurements to yearly average
values.
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In areas affected by acid mine drainage it also appears that
slugging is a significant factor in a watershed's mine drainage pol-
lutant production capability. In many such streams, increased flow
after high rainfall periods is accompanied by an increase in con-
centration of pollutants from refuse dumps, mine spoil banks and
some underground mines. Therefore, high rainfall does not nec-
essarily improve stream quality through dilution in areas of mine
pollutant production. Instead, concentrations of mine pollutants
many times remain constant or increase during high flow periods,
resulting in higher pollution loadings. This could be supported by
the fact that fish kills attributed to mine drainage frequently occur
during or immediately following heavy rainstorms.
Based on these findings, stream flows within the study area
can be adjusted to represent yearly averages without severely mis-
representing relative pollutant loads or water quality. All flows
obtained can thus be adjusted to represent yearly averages, utilizing
daily recorded flows at several continuously monitored United States
Geological Survey stream gauging stations within the state.
To accomplish this task, designated watersheds within a
study area must be broken into groups, each represented by a dif-
ferent USGS stream gauging station. Daily flow records are ob-
tained for each of these USGS stations for the period during which
the sampling programs are conducted. Recorded stream flow for
any given day is then divided by the recording station's average flow
to yield a flow constant applicable to all flow measurements taken on
that day in the watersheds represented by the gauging station. These
calculations will yield sets of constants - one set for each group of
watersheds. Each set contains a separate constant for each day of
the study period, and that constant reflects the relationship between
the flow on that day and the average yearly stream flow in that area.
Using these constants, all measured flows obtained during the
study are adjusted to represent yearly average flows. If the flow
adjustment constant is less than 1.0 (every day in which the gauged
flow was greater than the yearly average flow), then flows measured
on such days should be adjusted downward. A flow constant greater
than 1.0 (whenever daily gauged flows are less than the yearly av-
erage) would mean that all flows measured on these days should in-
crease accordingly. This subsequently enables stream pollution
loadings to be adjusted to represent yearly average values.
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It is possible to estimate on a gross basis the costs that
would be incurred by a statewide abatement water quality survey of
intermediate difficulty level, such as the one just described, or of
higher or lower levels of detail. Statewide programs covering rela-
tively large areas and similar in detail to the one described in this
section would cost about $4.00 per square kilometer ($10 per square
mile) to complete. If funds are limited and the water quality survey
must be limited to the collection and analysis of already existing
data, the cost of this water quality survey can be reduced to about
$.77 per square kilometer ($2.00 per square mile). A full scale,
in-depth water quality study with extensive sampling of many physi-
cal and biological parameters and detailed flow measurements could
cost approximately $116 per square kilometer ($300 per square
mile) of study area.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY
A statewide pollution abatement and mine restoration pro-
gram must encompass an assessment of an area's economic needs
and developmental demands in establishing watershed ranking and
reclamation priorities. Restoration programs may not be under-
taken strictly for aesthetic environmental improvements, but can
also attempt to improve utilization of local or regional water and
land resources for the general public. Subsequent stimulation of an
area's economy and other beneficial effects of such programs thus
enhance general well-being of the citizenry.
Collection and analyses of socio-economic information may
be accomplished utilizing any of a number of options, depending
primarily on availability of state human resource data, economic
needs, development demands and aesthetic interest of the citizenry.
In areas where planning organizations are well developed at local
levels, socio-economic information will be adequately documented
and easy to assemble. However, not all states or areas will be
lucky enough to be in this situation, and alternative mechanisms
must also be considered. To accomplish the objectives of a state-
wide abandoned mined lands program, the following socio-economic
components must be considered:
1 . Human resources;
2. Economic needs;
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3. Development demands and;
4. Aesthetics.
The level and intensity of investigation can vary with the in-
dividual state program objectives and priorities.
Several optional socio-economic data collection techniques
are available. B/ increasing levels of effort required, these are:
1. Utilization of data from existing sources, such as
census bureaus, planning agencies, and envi-
ronmental action groups.
2. Initiation of a polling survey to identify public
opinion concerning watershed economic needs,
development demands and views on aesthetics,
and to collect other pertinent data from available
sources.
a. Polls conducted by telephone interviews or
mailed questionnaires.
b. Conduct personal interviews at the local
level.
A combination of the above options may be necessary because of the
diversity of conditions throughout various states.
In order to reduce subjectivity of this information, during the
analysis and evaluation phase, the data could be quantified and incor-
porated into a numerical evaluation system. One such system in-
volves the establishment of evaluating criteria and numerical ranking
as shown in Table 4-1.
The numerical watershed ranking system can then be incoi
porated into the reclamation priority establishment system by as-
signing a coefficient. This coefficient can be multiplied by the rating
value to provide overall statewide priorities. The coefficient value
should reflect the total program criteria and objectives.
Characterization of socio-economic conditions, as previously
mentioned, should include evaluation of human resources (population,
density, immigration and emigration rates, labor force and employ-
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Table 4-1
SOCIO-ECONOMIC RANKING SYSTEM
Parameter
Human Resources
Economic Need
Development Demand
Aesthetics
Current Land Uses
and Values
Criteria
Urban Population
5,000 or greater
Poverty Level
Proximity to or
Presences of Major
Roads, Airports,
Recreational
Facilities
Public Visibility
Visual Quality
Financial Value of
Reclamation
Watershed Ranking
1 . High Density
2 . Presence
3. Close Proximity
4 . None
1 . High Percentage
2. Medium
3. Low
4 . None
1 . High Level
2. Medium
3. Low
4. None
1 . High
2. Medium
3. Low
4. None
1 . Highly Intrusive
2. Medium
3. Low
4 . None
1 . High
2. Medium
3. Low
4 . None
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ment diversity), economic needs (current land use and value, trans-
portation and tax base), development demands (area needs and sub-
jective pressure), resource ownership, and aesthetics (public visi-
bility and visual quality). The importance of any one of these factors
will vary according to the specific nature of each statewide abate-
ment study; however, establishment and use of a weighing system
will insure that locally significant factors receive appropriate atten-
tion in developing reclamation priorities. A number of relevant
socio-economic factors are discussed in subsequent portions of this
section.
Human Resources and Economic Needs
The economic and social stability of an area, whether it is a
state, county or watershed, is directly affected by population density,
immigration and emigration rates, and employment diversity. The
principal effects of these factors are on the local tax base (personal
head tax, municipal wage tax, school tax, property tax and income
tax). For example, an area with low population density, a monotypic
occupational structure, and an emigration rate higher than its im-
migration rate is characterized by declining population, diminishing
tax base, and reduced employment opportunities. Such a community
cannot improve without some type of economic stimulus to alter
population trends and employment opportunities, and subsequently
improve the tax base. One such economic stimulus could be restora-
tion of abandoned mined lands to conform to specific developmental
needs of the area, such as improved tourism through creation of
recreational facilities, or development of needed home sites, indus-
trial parks or agricultural lands.
One means of measuring the economic need of an area is
assessment of the percentage of families whose income is below
poverty level, which can be broken down by watershed or political
boundaries. The Bureau of the Census, U. S. Department of Com-
merce, is an excellent source of such information. Poverty thresh-
olds are defined by the census according to head of household, age,
number of children, and whether or not the family lives on a farm.
Since data to be utilized in this analysis is usually coordinated by
township, it can be beneficial to convert census information to coin-
cide with the established watershed boundaries.
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Current Land Uses and Values
The fair market value of abandoned or reclaimed mined lands
is controlled largely by inflational increases and potential land use
benefits which govern selling prices and tax benefit values. A
number of economic and environmental, or physical factors can also
make a positive contribution to land values. These factors include
proximity of the mined lands to population centers and transportation
networks, favorable topography and physical site characteristics,
easy access, and availability of utilities. Difference in sale price
between unreclaimed and reclaimed mined lands is also influenced
by value and use of adjoining land and presence or absence of a
water supply with acceptable quality. More specific information
concerning interrelationships of land use, value and reclamation po-
tential see Section I, Chapter 3 of this report.
Development Demand
Development demands are tied directly to economic needs of
an area. The demand variable is comprised of a number of distinct
elements. These include access, proximity to urban areas, recrea-
tion resources, and availability of air transportation. Access can
be defined in terms of available interstate highways or major U. S.
routes within a watershed or close enough to serve the needs of the
watershed. The urban area element can be determined by presence
or absence of an urban area with a population of at least 5,000 per-
sons in or closely adjacent to the watershed. Recreation resources
are generally designated by the States as those areas having the
highest potential for development as recreation facilities. Water-
sheds containing a recreation resource will likely benefit more
from reclamation efforts, especially if the unreclaimed mined land
is within the area designated for future recreation expansion. The
last element, airports, can be an extremely important factor in
determination of reclamation goals for mined lands. Benefits to
communities near airports can be substantial. In many cases,
presence of the airport can stimulate other activities within the
immediate area, such as industrial, commercial, recreational, or
community service development. Thus, those watersheds with air-
ports or potential airport sites are deemed to have a high demand
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for reclamation and abatement work.
Developmental demands may be objectively evaluated by a
straight-forward weighting system utilizing overlay maps depicting
the major highway network, urban areas, recreation resources,
airports, and watershed boundaries. Each watershed is then rated
according to presence of these features, and assignment of weighting
coefficients is determined by the program administering agency
based on its statewide developmental criteria.
Ultimate land use plans depend greatly on the ability of plan-
ners to anticipate the direction and magnitude of economic needs and
resultant development demands. Planners must channel and en-
courage growth through development and utilization of all available
resources. This development may simply be an enhancement of the
intangible aspect of the environment in the form of improved aesthe-
tics. It is difficult to establish a direct link between economic
needs, development demands, and improvement of aesthetics; how-
ever, an aesthetically pleasing environment tends to have a greater
potential for development and economic stability.
Aesthetics
Aesthetic values are by far the most subjective of socio-
economic characteristics evaluated in developing watershed ranking
and reclamation priorities. The aesthetic impact of an area may be
determined by assessing two components - public visibility and
visual quality.
In order to be aesthetically displeasing, an area must first
be visible to either local residents or transients - visitors and
tourists. The significance of public visibility can be assessed and
ranked by proximity of the unreclaimed land to highways, railways,
waterways and towns combined with the number of people using these
facilities. Once the public visibility has been quantified, its impact
can be assessed by determination of stream or landscape visual
quality.
Visual quality can be based on visual intrusion of aesthetically
displeasing forms such as abandoned equipment and structures, vast
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unvegetated and eroded expanses of terrain, and heavily silted or
polluted streams. Restoration priorities should at least consider
the premise that areas with high visual intrusion receive higher
priority. Visual quality may also be equated with landscape diver-
sib/, the amount of variety and interest generated by distribution
and combination of landscape components - landform, landscape
pattern, water, vegetation, and existing land use. A more diverse
or heterogeneous landscape generally has a higher visual quality.
This method of visual quality analysis has been successfully em-
ployed in many recent environmental analysis studies.
The final watershed ranking based on aesthetics can be de-
termined by combining the results of the public visibility and visual
quality assessments and applying weighting coefficients.
MINED LANDS INVENTORY
The primary objective of a mined lands inventory is syste-
matic and logical acquisition of information for characterization,
ranking and establishment of statewide long range plans for restora-
tion of abandoned mined land. Inventory of this land can be accom-
plished in a number of ways.
Depending upon the scope of a state's abatement program and
the time and funds available, there are a number of parameters
which can be assessed in varying levels of detail. Biological assess-
ments can include types of vegetation and percentage of cover, which
can be obtained by either visual inspection or use of conventional pho-
tographs. Physical considerations include slope of spoil piles, ex-
tent of regrading completed, presence of outstanding surface features
such as buildings, ponds, highwalls, and refuse areas, and extent
of erosion. Physical data measurement may include vertical and
horizontal distances, slopes, and areas. These can be either esti-
mated from stereo-paired aerial photographs or actually measured
with field surveying techniques. Water chemistry options, excluding
the previously discussed stream quality survey, include pH and net
acidity or alkalinity of all mining-related impoundments. Soil
chemistry analysis options such as pH, alkalinity, salinity, toxicity,
4-28
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and nutrients are also available. Chemical analyses can be accom-
plished by either portable field equipment or laboratories. A mined
land inventory can employ any combination of these survey para-
meters and techniques.
There are also a host of options pertaining to specific sam-
pling or mined land inventory site selection and sampling frequency
determinations. Four optional approaches are presented below:
1. Spot sample all major disturbed minesites iden-
tified by aerial mapping.
2. Categorize minesites by method of mining, area
geology and spot sample each category.
3. Spot sample only those minesites which are pro-
ducing adverse stream effects.
4. No field sampling, obtain all data from aerial
map interpretation.
Field work can be minimized and data acquisition maximized by using
one of a number of aerial photo-mapping techniques. Preliminary
survey work which can be completed using these photo maps includes
determination of surface mine boundaries, exposed highwalls, pit
areas, ponds, waste or refuse storage areas, degree of regrading,
and degree of vegetative cover.
Aerial Photography
Careful analysis of mapped data from previous studies may
be instrumental in definition and delineation of working watershed
or subwatershed units (modules) and in determination of aerial map-
ping requirements. If problem areas or areas warranting further
study cannot be accurately delineated using existing mining and water
quality data, it may (as is often the case) be necessary to acquire
more detailed information, particularly in the form of photographic
coverage from such sources as high level aircraft or Earth Resource
Technology Satellite (ERTS). Depending upon the level of detail
required and availability of existing aerial photography or mapping,
4-29
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the agency establishing a statewide abatement program may elect to
initiate its own detailed aerial survey after the major mining areas
of the state have been identified. If new aerial photography of the
study area is to be obtained, a number of photographic technical
alternatives must first be considered and a decision made to provide
maximum photo usability at minimum project cost and effort.
There are a number of optional types of image format (film
type) that should be considered when planning acquisition of aerial
photography. The choice depends largely on degree of detailed in-
formation to be interpreted from the photographs: topographic and
geological features; stream conditions; soil conditions; or vegetation
cover and identification. For instance, the following represent a few
of the many options available to the administering agency:
Film Options
Film Type
1 . Black and White Stereo
2. Color Stereo
3. Infra-red False Color
Stereo
Use
Identify topographic features
Identify topographic and geo-
logical features, water tut
bidity, and soil conditions
Identify topographic and geo-
logical features, water tur-
bidity, soil condition, per-
cent cover and vegetation
identification
For most state's land inventory programs, Black and White
Stereo photography will supply the necessary information with max-
imum return on investment costs. However, in some parts of the
country where the number of cloudless days per month is low, Infra-
red False Color Stereo may prove to be less expensive and reduce
lag time between planning and field survey work. Table 4-2 illus-
trates the number of cloudless days per month for various parts of
the country. To understand how this affects project costs, a short
explanation of the cost elements of photographic services will help.
4-30
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Table 4-2
NUMBER OF CLOUDLESS (10% or Less Cover)
DAYS PER MONTH FOR SELECTED STATES
STATE
Massachusetts
Pennsylvania
Missouri
Arizona
California
LOCATION
Nantucket
Harrisburg
Springfield
Phoenix
Yuma
Eureka
Fresno
» &
£u.§
*°§
37
37
37
37
37
37
37
MONTH
Jan.
1.1
4.1
9.1
12.5
18.1
3.7
5.6
Feb.
1.4
4.1
8.3
10.4
15.9
3.2
6.7
Mar.
2.5
5.0
8.2
12.1
19.2
4.1
9.6
Apr.
2.0
4.5
8.7
14.8
21.7
4.4
12.9
May
1.9
4.6
9.3
18.2
25.8
4.2
10.3
June
0.7
2.9
10.2
20.7
26.6
4.6
21.6
July
1.1
3.7
12.4
10.7
20.9
3.2
25.2
Aug.
1.7
4.2
11.8
10.5
21.0
3.4
25.6
Sept.
1.8
6.6
11.4
16.9
23.4
5.9
22.4
Oct.
2.8
7.5
13.1
18.9
24.0
6.1
19.5
Nov.
1.5
4.2
10.6
15.7
20.9
4.2
12.8
Dec.
1.0
3.5
8.6
13.7
18.8
4.2
6.7
TOTAL.
PER
YEAR
19.4
54.8
121.7
174.9
256.2
51.4
184.9
AVE.
PER
MONTH
1.6
4.6
10. 1
14.6
21.4
4.3
15.4
I
00
Adapted from Reference No. 67
-------
The total cost for an aerial survey is affected by the following
factors:
1. Size of the area to be photographed
2. Final scale of the maps
3. Film type and processing
4. Actual flying time
5. Flight personnel stand-by time (weather
conditions - cloudless days)
6. Quality and quantity of map interpretation
7. Quantity of ground truth data
8. Unproductive lag time between aerial map
planning and beginning of watershed sampling
program
As can be seen readily, film and processing costs are only a
small part of the total price. The ultimate intended use of the aerial
photos will determine the need for aerial photography, the scale
(detail resolution) and type of film best suited to survey needs. Fol-
lowing is a summary of potentially suitable photo scales, their
resolutions, the scale at which original photography must be acquired
(to permit development of desired final photo scale), possible uses,
and approximate costs per 250 square kilometers (100 square miles)
coverage for photography and photomapping.
1 . Final photo scale: 1 cm. = 24O m. (1 in. = 2000 ft.)
Aerial photography at this scale would be
well suited to most major statewide inventories
covering areas of over about 250 square kilometers
(100 square miles). For smaller study areas, an
expanded map scale might be better suited. Orig-
inal aerial photography scale for developing this
final map scale is 1:80,000. Costs for this photo-
graphy are approximately $100 per 250 square
kilometers for black and white photography, $130
per 250 square kilometers for color or infra-red.
Color or infra-red enlargements are not extremely
useful because resolution is poor and much detail
is lost. Black and white enlargements are best
suited for use in these studies, and can be devel-
oped from either black and white, color, or infra-
red original photography.
4-32
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2. Final photo scale: 1 cm. = 120 m. (1 in. = 1000 ft.)
This scale of photography is well suited to
intermediate sized study areas, generally those
less than 250 square kilometers, or those with
widely scattered mined areas. In the latter case,
complete photo coverage of the state or study area
would not be required, and 1 cm. = 120 m. photo
could be produced only for the mined areas.
Original aerial photography for this final scale
must be flown at 1:40,000 scale, and costs $300
per 250 square kilometers for black and white
photography or $400 per 250 square kilometers for
color or infra-red photography. Rectified en-
largements to black and white photos at the desired
final photo scale costs an additional $300 per 250
square kilometers.
3. Final photo scale: 1 cm. = 48 m. (1 in. = 400 ft.)
This photo scale is best suited for very
small study areas such as individual sub-watershed
areas or minesites. It could also be used as spot
photography in statewide studies where mined areas
are very small and widely scattered. The original
photography required to develop this final scale
must be flown at 1:16,000 scale, and costs $800 per
250 square kilometers for black and white and $1,050
per 250 square kilometers for color or infra-red.
Rectified black and white enlargements to the de-
sired final photo scale would then cost an additional
$1,7OO per 250 square kilometers from black and
white, color, or infra-red originals.
In many cases, particularly where study areas are relatively
large, the detail resolution of the 1 cm. = 240 m. (1 in. = 2000 ft.)
scale may be optimal for mined land inventory surveys. A primary
benefit of this photo scale is its coincidence with the scale of the
USGS 7.5 minute topographic quadrangles, which are available for
nearly all portions of the Nation. Use of identical photo and topo-
graphic map scales also minimizes problems encountered in trans-
ferring data from one to another.
Photography at this scale can be obtained in several ways.
4-33
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Low altitude aerial photographs, including those used for mine
or construction site photogrammetric mapping (1 cm. = 24 m.) can
be pieced together to form a composite of the study area and photo-
graphically reduced to the desired scale. However, photographic
distortion and variations of photo quality could yield a 1 cm. = 240 m.
(1 in. = 2000 ft.) scale photo of unacceptable quality. The best
quality for photography at this scale is obtained at high altitude,
where the center of an aerial photograph can be planned to corres-
pond to the center of one of the USGS topographic quadrangles in the
study area. In this manner, the entire 7.5 minute "photomap" is con-
tained on a single aerial photograph with no breaks and no variations
in quality, and quality is much improved when the photos are en-
larged to the desired scale. A disadvantage of this high altitude
aerial photography is that perfectly clear, non-hazy days are re-
quired to permit acceptable photographs to be obtained at the re-
quired altitude (as high as 7300 m. or 24,000 feet). Thus, it may
take some time for a sufficient number of such clear days to occur,
particularly in the east where air pollution, hazy skies and tempera-
ture inversions are common.
Depending upon the extent and condition of the mined areas
in the study, other photo scales may be more desirable from both a
management and an economic standpoint. For example, states with
relatively small tracts of disturbed land in isolated areas may wish
to limit photographic coverage to those isolated areas and utilize an
expanded photo scale which can also serve as final reclamation plan-
ning photography. Where individual mined areas are extremely
large in overall size or are uniformly but widely scattered through-
out the study area, a smaller scale such as 1 cm. = 360 m. (1 in. =
3000 ft.) or 1 cm. = 480 m. (1 in. = 4000 ft.) may be able to provide
adequate detail at a lower overall cost. These options relating to
photo scale must be considered prior to initiation of aerial photo-
graphy.
Photo Interpretation
The method of completion of photo interpretive work on
1:24,000 scale photographs will depend to a large extent on size of
study area and number of parameters and level of detail required for
mined land assessments. Where the study area is large, preliminary
4-34
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photo interpretive work can be accomplished in two manners:
1. Stereometrically interpreting the stereo-paired
photographs, or
2. Using fixed wing aircraft or helicopters.
Use of aircraft or helicopters is best suited for this work
because it is faster, easier, and more accurate at this scale than
stereometric work at a comparable cost. The increased speed of
such an approach may help to regain any time lost because aerial
photography was delayed by inclement weather or hazy skies.
To simplify accomplishment of this task, and to insure con-
sistency in all interpretive work done, parameters for definition and
classification of surface mined lands should be established early and
distributed to personnel doing actual field classification work. A
careful consideration of the many important surface mine charactei
istics or combinations of characteristics is required to devise a
satisfactory system to categorize these lands. A complex classifi-
cation system may be too confusing to the field crews, particularly
when aerial reconnaissance is to be employed. A complex system
may also be impossible to simply and clearly show on the 7.5 minute
photomaps, particularly in extensively mined areas. A fairly simple
mined land categorization can be established based on the amount or
extent of reclamation effort required to return the land to a useful
condition. The phrase "reclamation effort required" refers to degree
of difficulty of an anticipated reclamation project, which is directly
related to the present physical condition of a surface mine site, and
will ultimately be reflected in the cost of reclaiming that site. A
typical surface mine classification system might involve five cate-
gories of mined land:
1. Active surface mines;
2. Surface mines that are generally completely
reclaimed, requiring only local spot reclama-
tion work;
3. Surface mines in which only a minimal recla-
mation effort is required;
4. Surface mined land requiring a moderate rec-
lamation effort; and
5. Surface mined land requiring extensive reclama-
tion work.
4-35
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Although such a surface mine classification is relatively
simple to describe and explain, much personal judgment is required
to place each surface mine observed" into one of the listed categories,
particularly one of the latter three categories. Different interpre-
tations of each category by various personnel involved in field in-
terpretation work could easily result in an inconsistent classification
system.
To simplify the classification task for field personnel, a
broad and easily defineable classification system can be developed
based on the most critical characteristics of the unreclaimed surface
mined land. The number of characteristics utilized will, of course,
vary with individual studies or extractive industries. A typical three-
characteristic classification system might consist of the following:
1. The extent of regrading completed after mining;
2. The degree of revegetation of the spoil material;
3. The angle of slope of the surface mined area,
referring to the general configuration of the land
prior to initiation of mining.
The extent of regrading might be broken down into ungraded,
completely regraded, and partially regraded. Partially regraded
here could refer to areas in which regrading was only completed in
portions of a mine or where only minimal regrading, such as spoil
bank rounding or any other poor reclamation work in compliance
with older, ineffective reclamation laws was initiated. Areas which
have been satisfactorily regraded utilizing any of the conventional
techniques could be classified as completely regraded. The angle of
slope can be judged from undisturbed land surface adjacent to each
mined area.
Field personnel doing photo interpretation and strip mine
classification work can choose any of the categories rating each of
these critical characteristics - extent of regrading, amount of re-
vegetation, and degree of slope. Each of the potential characteristic
ratings could be assigned a letter designation. Thus the description
of the condition of each strip mined area would involve a three letter
rating - one letter each for the critical site characteristics - slope,
grading, and vegetation conditions. This detailed classification can
then be cross-keyed to the five broad reclamation categories to be
used in final mapping and reclamation cost projections. An example
4-36
-------
of an entire surface mine classification system as would be used by
the field personnel is shown in Table 4-3.
Depending on the mineral industry being evaluated, under-
ground mining may also be included in watershed survey mapping or
mined land classification system. However, any underground mining
information presented must primarily be developed from field sur-
veillance, or other sources, because most abandoned underground
mine openings are not readily discernable on aerial photomaps or
during aerial or stereometric surveillance. Sources of data delineat-
ing deep mine openings are:
1. Existing specific mine drainage studies.
2. States' Departments of Environmental or Natural
Resources' mining records, geologic mapping, and
index maps showing underground mine openings.
3. The U.S.B.M. Mine Map Repository has an ex-
tensive collection of mine maps (including maps
collected by the States' Geological Surveys).
These mine openings and boundaries, once located, can be plotted
on the photomap overlays with the surface mines.
Mine opening locations should be adjusted, if possible, from
aerial reconnaissance and visual review of the photos. Underground
mine openings that are known pollution sources can also be designated
with an appropriate symbol, and may be further categorized by rela-
tive size of pollution load, where sufficient information is available
to make these distinctions. Each underground mine opening can be
given a number unique to that particular USGS quadrangle sheet, and
a list of mine numbers can then be compiled for each sheet. Names
of the mineral seams or veins mined could, where applicable, be
listed for each mine opening. Here again, the level of detail needed
for this specific information may exceed that attainable within the
individual study framework, and the information may not be available
until subsequent, more detailed, implementation stages begin.
These surface mine classifications (both the three letter
designations and the final numerical classification), and the under-
ground mining information can be shown on a set of working photo-
graphs used in the field. The photo-interpretive work also involves
several other steps, once individual surface mine conditions are
4-37
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Table 4-3
TYPICAL SURFACE MINE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
Mapped Classification of Surface Mined Land
1. Active
2. Completely Reclaimed
3. Minimal Reclamation Effort Required
4. Moderate Reclamation Effort Required
5. Extensive Reclamation Effort Required
Field Classification of Surface Mined Land
A. Ungraded
B. Partially Regraded
C. Completely Regraded
D. Unvegetated (less than 40% cover)
E. Partially Revegetated (40-80% cover)
F. Completely Revegetated (greater than 80% cover)
G. Level Slope (less than 10°)
H. Moderate Slope (10-20°)
I . Steep Slope (greater than 20°)
Classification Cross Index
Field
ADG
ADH
ADI
AEG
AEH
AEI
AFG
AFH
AFI
Mapped
4
5
5
4
5
5
3
3
4
Field
BDG
BDH
BDI
BEG
BEH
BEI
BFG
BFH
BFI
Mapped
3
4
5
3
4
4
3
3
3
Field
CDG
CDH
GDI
CEG
CEH
CEI
CFG
CFH
CFI
Mapping
3
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
4-38
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examined, ascertained and categorized by field personnel. All sur-
face and underground mines and the small bands of adjacent land
disturbed by their operations should be outlined and classified.
Highwalls can be defined, and mine impoundments can be delineated
on the photographs, as well as slurry ponds, refuse piles, undei
ground mine openings and other features on the photos where distin-
guishable .
Quarries, gravel pits, other types of extractive operations,
and logging operations, which on the photos may resemble operations
of the industry under scrutiny, can also, in many instances, be
roughly shown to insure that field crews have checked for stripping
in those areas. All pertinent information can then be transferred
from these field photographs to overlays being developed for the 7.5
minute photomaps. These map overlays are discussed in more de-
tail in the "Final Mapping" portion of this chapter.
Terrestrial Survey
To provide full assurance that field crews' aerial photo-
interpretations of mined lands are as accurate as possible within
the framework of the project's goals, field auditing of the photo-
signature data can be conducted.
This audit can be performed in conjunction with the terres-
trial survey of the study area designed to ascertain study area mine-
site conditions. The level of effort of this terrestrial survey and
photomap audit will vary according to detail required, specific study
goals, size of study area, and time and funds available. A represen-
tative sampling effort can be formulated to insure maximum area
coverage and accuracy at a minimum expenditure of time and money.
In watersheds with extensive and varied mining conditions, field
surveillance should be increased to insure accuracy in sampling.
The field audit of photomapping generally involves in-depth recon-
naissance of selected representative surface mined areas to verify
field interpretations of reclamation characteristics, accuracy of
plotted surface mine outlines, ponds and highwalls. Where mined
land classifications are derived stereometrically, intent of the audit-
ing program should be to conduct audit work as directed or requested
to aid and confirm stereoscopic photo-signature work in areas where
4-39
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difficulties are encountered. In summary, terrestrial surveys are
performed for the following reasons:
Establishing ground truth of photo-interpretation;
. Verification of existing historical data;
Supplementing existing information through collec-
tion and analysis of additional field samples; and
Increasing the investigator's familiarity with over-
all field conditions.
An essential aspect of field surveillance activities is prepara-
tion and training of field crews. Since terrestrial surveys are im-
portant to the overall accuracy of the study, it is imperative that field
personnel record, collect, and manipulate field information in a
usable and consistent format. Preparation of field crews should in-
clude:
1. Orientation to survey goals and objectives;
2. Assignment of team duties and watersheds;
3. Instruction on use of sampling and testing
equipment and completion of data sheets.
This orientation and training process should be conducted under
field conditions and a procedural document should be developed for
field personnel use throughout the survey.
Recording of visual observations, as well as results of field
tests, should be entered upon standarized data sheets specifically
designed for the terrestrial survey. Depending upon the particular
parameters selected for monitoring, the data sheets should contain
information regarding:
Name of field investigator;
Recording data;
Location of site - tier and range designation,
watershed number, township, county, state;
Estimated acreage of site;
Site access;
Biological, physical, and chemical conditions;
Wildlife use;
Special remarks by field recorder;
Results of laboratory tests of field samples;
Computations subsequently performed by field personnel.
4-40
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For best results, 7.5' topographic maps and/or photos at
7.5' topographic scale should be utilized with data sheets in recording
field observations. If results of field investigations are to be manip-
ulated by computers, data sheets must be encoded in a manner com-
patible with the software to be used. In such instances a computer
programmer is a valuable assistant in design of field data sheets.
In addition to determination of the watershed's terrestrial
quality, it should be evaluated in terms of existing reclamation status
and potential site improvement. This may be accomplished simul-
taneously with collection of terrestrial quality data.
Reclamation potential of an abandoned mine site is directly
related to the extent of environmental impact caused by extraction
methods utilized during the mining cycle. Details of the relationship
between mining, environmental impact, and reclamation potential
were described earlier in this report.
Evaluation of watershed and mined land reclamation potentials
should include data concerning the following:
Mining methods
Mineral commodity extracted
. Age of disturbance
Acreage of mined site
Site conditions
Major environmental areas
a. Erosion and sedimentation
b. Refuse or waste materials
c. Water
d. Toxic materials
Adjacent land uses
Although optional at the statewide inventory level, evaluation
of availability of reclamation resources, assessment of general
reclamation techniques, and an estimate of the degree of difficulty
in reclaiming the area, will be valuable and save time and resurvey
cost during implementation of the overall pollution abatement and
abandoned mined lands reclamation program.
Although mined lands surveys such as the two just presented
attempt to represent the major types of environmental conditions,
4-41
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the data does have certain use restrictions.
1. The data collected can only represent the
actual sites investigated. Extrapolation of
this data for conditions of the entire inven-
tory area is through inference only and is
subject to variance.
2. The data depicts only conditions that exist
at the moment the site was examined and do
not reflect seasonal changes or trends.
3. The data cannot be used to depict any one
commodity or condition for an entire water-
shed or state. It only serves as an illustration
of the conditions as they exist in a watershed
or a state.
The survey data does, however, provide a foundation for summariz-
ing characteristics and conditions of mining environment for eval-
uation and ranking purposes. This data also serves as a basis for
determining major costing factors and definition of magnitude of
remedial measures which will comprise the restoration, reclamation
and rehabilitation activities of the program.
Land Ownership
A major problem in abandoned mined land reclamation affect-
ing priority establishment is the land ownership question. Public
ownership of unreclaimed mined lands simplifies reclamation work in
several ways. Access costs and problems are eliminated, and the
question of benefitting private landowners with public funds does not
arise. Land use and recreation benefits are generally higher for
reclamation on public land versus private. Reclamation results in
upgrading of present public holdings, but reclamation on private
lands also benefits nearby public holdings by upgrading area aesthe-
tics and enhancing wildlife populations.
Ranking of watersheds into categories according to the pei
centage of abandoned mined land that is publicly owned represents
4-42
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only one means of handling this question. Categorization could use
the following system:
1. High - greater than 67% public ownership
2. Medium - between 67% and 33% public ownership
3. Low - less than 33% public ownership
4. None
In addition, categorization could include division of privately
owned land into classes corresponding to potential for reclamation.
However, this may be beyond the scope or level of detail of many
larger statewide abatement studies. A typical breakdown for pri-
vately owned land is shown below.
1. Mining Companies - ownership of surface and
mineral rights.
2. Corporation - ownership of surface rights.
3. Private Individual - ownership of surface rights
but mineral rights belonging
to mining company.
4. Private individual - ownership of both surface and
mineral rights.
The information needed to document land ownership can be
obtained from U. S. Geological Survey Topographic Maps, County
Maps, local tax records, and other available sources. If time and
budget expenditures permit, courthouse recorded deeds can be
utilized; however, this process is extremely difficult and time con-
suming at this phase of planning a statewide abatement and reclama-
tion program.
RECLAMATION COST DEVELOPMENT
The principal environmental damages resulting from mining
of any mineral are disruption of the land surface and/or production
of mine drainage pollutants which subsequently degrade surface and
ground water. Statewide abatement planning studies should, there-
fore, include mine drainage abatement as an integral part of the
comprehensive long range mine reclamation program that is
developed.
4-43
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The high cost of surface mine reclamation is seldom justified
from a future land use standpoint, because land value increases
following reclamation are relatively small compared to the actual
reclamation costs, due to the remote locations of many sites. An
economic justification for expenditure of public funding to cover the
reclamation cost - land value improvement cost differential in sur-
face mine reclamation can often be derived only from water quality
improvement benefits. Abatement of mine drainage from abandoned
underground mines has no future land use benefits. Therefore, total
justification must primarily be derived from water quality improve-
ments and the resultant socio-economic benefits within and down-
stream from each pollution source. Benefits derived from future
land use potentials should generally be only a secondary consideration.
Significant water quality improvements may not accrue from
surface mine reclamation alone in areas of extensive surface and
underground mining. Estimates based on numerous watershed studies
in the Appalachian coal fields have placed underground mine contri-
butions of acid mine drainage at 75% of the total amount of pollutants
produced in the bituminous coal fields. Underground and surface
mine drainages are often interrelated, and it may be difficult to
distinguish which source is causing pollution without an intensive
study. However, some effort should be made to distinguish between
the loadings of mine drainage emanating from surface mines and
underground mines in all pollution producing watersheds within the
study area. This will permit the relative water quality improvements
resulting from surface mine reclamation and underground mine pol-
lution abatement to be evaluated, compared, and totalled for each
polluted watershed.
Surface Mine Costs
Computation of surface mine reclamation costs for each of
the study area watersheds should begin as the surface mine classifi-
cation and signature work is completed. This phase of the study can
proceed in several steps, including development of average reclama-
tion costs, computation of areas, and calculation of costs.
Development of average reclamation costs for each category
of unreclaimed mined land can be completed as soon as the cate-
4-44
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gories are developed. These average costs should be based on all
available mined land reclamation figures or estimates. Depending
upon the specific mining industry in question, such reclamation
estimates or cost records may already be compiled in some form
or another. For example, reclamation and mine drainage abatement
costs for the Appalachian coal mining industry have been assessed and
compiled in a report entitled "Analysis of Pollution Control Costs" by
Michael Baker, Jr., Inc. for the Appalachian Regional Commission.
This study, published in 1973, examined data for all reclamation
projects completed to date, and established average reclamation
costs from this data. Similar sources of data may exist for many
other mineral extractive industries, and can provide valuable insight
during establishment of realistic reclamation and pollution abatement
costs. Where such data has not been compiled, recognized experts
can be consulted to determine the best mode of reclamation or pol-
lution abatement and to establish costs of such measures. In addi-
tion, it will frequently be possible to transfer technology and cost
estimates from one extractive industry to another, where conditions
and requirements are reasonably similar. In any event, costs in-
curred in reclamation and abatement efforts in other similar indus-
tries should at least be considered prior to establishment of costs.
Once sufficiently detailed cost data has been obtained, it is
necessary to establish individual costs for the various mined land
categories defined earlier in the study. As the level of effort re-
quired to return land to full utility increases, reclamation costs will
increase. This must be taken into account as reclamation costs,
preferably on a per hectare or per acre basis, are established for
each class of surface mine or surface feature.
The following surface mine reclamation costs, broken into
six distinct classes, represent a typical or possible division of land
categories and reclamation costs. In this case, the mined land clas-
sification relates to the coal fields of west-central Appalachia.
Brief descriptions of reclamation categories, costs applied, and
justification for applying these costs follow:
Class 1 - This class consists exclusively of active strip mines,
regardless of whether coal extraction or reclamation is in
progress. Existing state surface mining rules here require
complete reclamation of all active surface mined lands by the
operator and are stringently enforced. Therefore, no recla-
mation costs are applied to Class 1 strip mines.
4-45
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Class 2 - Class 2 strip mines have generally been satisfactorily
reclaimed, minimizing need for application of additional
reclamation costs. A reclamation cost of $250 per acre is
applied to lands in this class to permit limited spot treatment
or reclamation where required.
Class 3 - These strip mines generally exhibit some degree of rec-
lamation, whether by partial regrading and revegetation or by
natural recovery of vegetative species on unreclaimed mine
surfaces. An average reclamation cost of $700 per acre is
applied to all Class 3 lands. This value includes $400 per
acre for soil preparation and revegetation (an average cost
reported in the "Analysis of Pollution Control Costs") and an
additional $300 per acre for any additional minor regrading
or recontouring required.
Class 4 - Class 4 strip mines are those requiring a moderate rec-
lamation effort, and are expected to represent the average
condition of the coal field's unreclaimed strip mined lands.
Information presented in "Analysis of Pollution Control Costs"
was the basis for the reclamation cost derived for this class.
The report cited an average reclamation cost of $1,650 per
acre, which included backfilling, regrading, soil preparation
and revegetation. This average value based largely on recla-
mation work done in Pennsylvania, West Virginia and Mary-
land, is lowered somewhat to account for the generally less
rugged terrain of the study area's strip mined lands. An
average reclamation cost of $1,500 per acre is applied to all
Class 4 strip mined lands.
Class 5 - This class represents strip mined land in which an ex-
tensive reclamation effort is required. Such strip mines are
generally unregraded, unvegetated and located on steep slopes.
The steep slopes, in particular, greatly increase reclamation
costs for Class 5 strip mines. Based on previous reclamation
experience, a cost of $2,500 per acre is applied to all Class 5
strip mined land.
Class 6 - Surface mine reclamation techniques are also applied to
refuse piles, which consist of waste materials from under-
ground coal mines. This deep mine refuse material is gen-
erally much more toxic than strip mine spoil and as a result,
4-46
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reclamation is more difficult and costs are higher. A recla-
mation cost of $3,000 per acre is applied to all refuse piles.
Every completed photomap used in a statewide abatement study
delineates the boundaries of the area affected by each surface mine,
and places those mines or refuse areas into a category similar to
those discussed above. As the mined land classification work on these
photomaps is completed, the areas of all surface mines and refuse
areas on each map can be accurately computed using planimeters.
The acreages for each reclamation category within each of the study
area modules or watershed units can then be totalled and tabulated.
Average reclamation costs such as those presented above can be
applied to each category in each watershed. This permits the total
surface mine reclamation cost to be calculated for each watershed.
Underground Mine Costs
The task of establishing underground mine pollution loads
and computing abatement costs can be extremely difficult, particu-
larly where the study area is large and where study time and avail-
able information is limited. These problems do not affect surface
mine cost computations since those are based on accurate areas
computed for each category of surface mined land and on fairly
straight-forward cost per acre figures. Underground mine pollution
load estimates and abatement costs must be developed in an entirely
different manner, and may represent one of the most complicated and
difficult challenges of an entire statewide abatement program. The
methods with which underground mine abatement costs can be esti-
mated are highly variable, depending almost exclusively upon the
amounts of deep mining and mineral geology information available.
This, in turn, is at least partially related to size of the study area
and time allotted for the study. It may not be possible to compile
extremely detailed information for a massive study area, particu-
larly when project time is limited. The manner by which under-
ground mine pollution abatement costs are estimated will, therefore,
vary radically in different situations, and the final methodology for
estimation will have to be established by project personnel in each
individual study after assessment of available data.
Regardless of the option selected or devised for determination
4-47
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of deep mine pollution abatement costs, a system must still be de-
vised to estimate the portion of each module or watershed's pollution
load that emanated from underground mines. In most situations, at
least a portion of the abatement costs will have to be based upon the
pounds of underground mine pollution to be abated. Derivation of
underground mine pollution abatement costs could proceed in a series
of steps similar to those discussed below, according to the volume
and detail of available background data. It must be pointed out that
the methods discussed may vary with specific minerals, mining tech-
niques, and available time.
Extensive Background Information
Existence of extensive background information and availability
of time to accurately compile and utilize that data can eliminate much
guesswork and inference from the process of underground mine pol-
lution abatement cost development. The first step in this cost de-
velopment is determination of the percentage of pollution of under-
ground mine origin in a given watershed. Water quality data will
usually not provide the detailed point source information necessary to
determine this, since the water sampling programs are fairly gen-
eral in nature and strive to pinpoint pollution source areas rather
than specific sources. The method best suited for estimating un-
derground mine pollution contributions involves a two step approach:
1. Establish the relative amount of surface and
deep mining in a given module or watershed;
2. Determine percentage of total pollution load
that emanates from deep mines once the inten-
sity of deep versus surface mining has been
established.
The relative amounts of surface mining versus deep mining in
a watershed or module are first established. The percentage of each
watershed's total area that consisted of surface mines requiring sub-
stantial reclamation must first be determined. Based on these com-
puted percentages, polluted watersheds are placed into one of four
categories of surface mining intensity - heavy, moderate, light or
no surface mining.
4-48
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The second step in computing underground mine pollution
abatement costs is assessment of the extent of underground mining
in each polluting watershed, utilizing categories similar to those
applied to surface mining. The most accurate method of determining
this is to plot and compute the areas of all underground mines (or all
underground mines in known pollution forming seams or veins,
if pollution capacity varies to any noticeable extent) from the actual
underground mine mapping. Individual mine maps may be available
from the appropriate state department - one dealing with natural
resources, environmental protection, mining, or geological survey.
These same agencies may, in some cases, have compiled summary
or composite maps, possibly delineated by mineral seam or by geo-
graphic area, showing many or all of the underground mines.
Using available mine mapping information, the extent of
underground mining in each of the pollution - producing watersheds
can be classified in much the same manner as was surface mining -
heavy, moderate, light, none. Placement of each watershed into
one of these categories can be based on actual areas of underground
mining, either all mining or mining exclusively on known pollution
producing seams.
Conversion of these underground mine and surface mine
ratings to percentages representing mine drainage pollution loadings
of underground and surface mine origin in each polluting watershed
can subsequently be accomplished by developing a simple chart such
as that in Table 4-4. This chart presents various possible combina-
tions of underground and surface mining intensities and the percentage
of mine drainage pollutants attributed to each. To develop such a
chart, some basis must be established for computing or estimating
percentages. The chart presented here represents Appalachian coal
mining, where extensive studies have been conducted to assess rel-
ative surface and underground mine pollution production. These
studies have revealed that in acid-producing coal seams in areas of
approximately equal surface and underground mining activity, undei
ground mines account for at least 75% (and frequently as much as
95%) of the mine drainage pollution. Therefore, in watershed areas
or modules judged to contain equal areas of surface and underground
mining, 75% of the total measured pollution loading was attributed to
abandoned underground mines.
Similar investigations and assessments must be made for
4-49
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Table 4-4
SEGREGATION OF UNDERGROUND AND SURFACE
MINE POLLUTION LOADS
Extent of Surface Mining
A. Heavy
B. Moderate
C. Light
D. None
Extent of Underground Mining
E.
F.
G.
H.
Heavy
Moderate
Light
None
Watershed Classification Cross Index
Classification
AE
AF
AG
AH
BE
BF
BG
BH
CE
CF
CG
CH
DE
DF
DG
DA
Percent Pollution Load
of Surface Mine Origin
25
50
75
100
25
25
50
100
25
25
25
100
0
0
0
100
Percent Pollution Load
of Underground Mine Origin
75
50
25
0
75
75
50
0
75
75
75
0
100
100
100
0
4-50
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every statewide abatement study performed to establish some base
set of percentages from which pollution load contributions can be
estimated. Percentage establishment on a study by study basis is
mandatory because the respective pollution loadings for abandoned
surface and underground mines may vary according to mineral,
geographic locale, climate, and geologic and hydrologic conditions.
In all cases, figures must be either computed or estimated from
data gathered to represent the relative surface and underground mine
pollution loading percentages in a typical area where the extent of
surface and underground mining is approximately equal. Then, for
areas where underground mines are more extensive than surface
mines, a larger percentage of acid can be attributed to underground
mines. Surface mine pollution percentages can be increased where
that technique was more extensively employed.
The final step in this process, actual development of under-
ground mine pollution abatement costs, can also be complicated and
difficult, depending on the type of information available and the time
allotted for analyzing that information. The most accurate cost
estimates will be determined where specific mine mapping containing
pertinent geologic data is available. In such circumstances, a com-
bined mine sealing and pollutant treatment program cost estimate
can be developed, and relatively accurate abatement costs can be
estimated for each underground mine or mine complex within a
module. The area of a mine or mine complex and the average dip of
the strata will yield the hydraulic head. Since mine sealing is usu-
ally feasible and dependable only where hydraulic heads will be less
than 9 meters, only those mines should be cost estimated for mine
sealing. Abatement in mines or complexes in which anticipated heads
will exceed the 9 meters limit should be restricted to treatment, which
will be discussed later.
In those underground mines or complexes where sealing costs
will be computed, a fixed cost per seal should be utilized. There-
fore, an idea of the number of entries to be sealed is necessary.
Where specific mine mapping is available, the number of openings
in each mine or complex will generally be shown. However, this
information may not be available on composite mapping which shows
only the locations and general shapes of workings. In such instances,
the number of openings requiring sealing must be estimated to pei
mit cost computation. The best method of estimating the number of
openings involved is to spot check one or more representative areas
4-51
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to obtain a relatively dependable estimate of the number of mine
openings per hectare of mine workings or per hundred kilometers
of mineral outcrop.
Determination of watershed abatement costs for all workings
in which final hydraulic heads will be less than 9 meters can proceed
as soon as the number of openings to be sealed has been estimated.
The cost per seal will vary according to the thickness of the seam
or mineral vein (affecting seal size and volume of materials re-
quired) and any special procedures or precautions necessary to in-
sure seal success. For example, mine seals in underground coal
mines would average about $15,000 each, taking into account both
seal construction and auxiliary grouting adjacent to each seal, which
is often mandatory. Similar average seal costs would have to be
established for other mining and sealing situations.
Treatment cost computations for that portion of the undei
ground mine drainage not controllable through sealing are relatively
straight-forward, requiring only one assumption or determination.
Treatment costs are generally based upon the volume of polluted
water treated rather than concentrations of pollutants. Since sizes
of underground mines and complexes and general nature of the pol-
lutants are known, the controlling factor in estimating treatment
costs - volume of water to be handled - must be either computed or
estimated. To accomplish this, the flow from each underground
mine or mine complex in question must be established, using either
known hydrologic and geologic data or the results of field spot checks
(mine size versus flow volume).
Once flows are obtained total treatment costs can be easily
computed, provided general cost information for such treatment
has been obtained. For example, the cost of treating coal mine
acid drainage of any concentration ranges between $0.03 and $0.11
per thousand liters ($0.11 to $0.40 per thousand gallons). For coal
mine drainage containing only excessive suspended solids, settling
facilities cost $0.001 per liter capacity; and settling facilities must
have a 24 hour detention time. Thus, the daily discharge volume of
the mine in liters times $0.001 per liter will yield the cost of
settling facilities. Sludge disposal must also be considered, and in
this case accounts for an additional $0.03 per thousand liter ($0.10
per thousand gallon) basin capacity. These treatment costs will
vary of course for different extractive industries because the nature
4-52
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of their pollution production problems varies. Treatment costs suit-
able for use in these other mining industries are currently being
developed and presented by the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency. To obtain the treatment costs for the specific industries
and pollution problems in question, personnel performing the state-
wide abatement studies should consult the appropriate EPA
"Effluent Limitations Guidelines and Standards of Performance"
document for the mining industry with which the study deals. Once
these treatment costs are obtained, computation of realistic under-
ground mine pollution abatement costs for various modules or water-
shed units will simply be a mathematical exercise.
Limited or General Background Information
Estimation of deep mine pollution abatement costs for situa-
tions or studies in which background information on underground
mining is limited, is similar in many aspects to the procedures just
described. The primary difference between these two alternatives
arises in actual estimation of pollution abatement costs once other
base data or determinations are finalized. Intensity of underground
versus surface mining in each watershed must first be established
for each module. Without specific mapping from which accurate
areas can be computed, all available general mapping and deep
mining information must be assessed to enable accurate estimation
of relative surface versus underground mining. It may be necessary
to simply estimate the extent of mining (heavy, moderate, light, none,
etc.) from visual observation of existing data.
Following determination of the percentages or relative inten-
sities of underground and surface mining, a chart similar to that
shown and described in Table 4-4 should be developed. Data pre-
sented on the chart will permit approximation of the percentage of the
module's pollution load emanating from underground mines. Sub-
sequently, pollution loading attributable to underground mines in each
module can be computed, and development of costs can proceed.
Underground mine pollution abatement costs can be computed
by applying reclamation costs to each kilogram per day of pollutant at-
tributed to underground mines. Depending upon the mineral involved
and available abatement technology, a series of cost factors can be
4-53
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established and utilized to compute underground mine abatement costs
for a given module. These cost factors should be based upon the an-
ticipated degree of difficulty in abating pollution as determined from
previous experiences in similar underground mining situations. A
typical costing scheme employing three cost factors in the compu-
tation is presented below, based on conditions common to the Cen-
tral Appalachian coal fields:
1. A low abatement cost of $550 per kg/day ($250
per Ib/day) acid can be applied to the first 50%
of each watershed's deep mine acid. This re-
presents the portion of an area's acid that can
generally be abated with relatively simple,
inexpensive techniques.
2. A mid-range abatement cost of $1,100 per kg/
day ($500 per Ib/day) acid can be applied to the
next 25% of each watershed's deep mine acid load.
This higher cost results from the greater com-
plexity of the abatement techniques required to
eliminate this portion of the acid mine drainage,
assuming the first 50% of the watershed's acid
has already been abated.
3. A high abatement cost of $3,300 per kg/day
($1,500 per Ib/day) acid is applied to the last
25% of each watershed's acid. This portion of
the acid is extremely difficult to abate because the
required technology does not yet exist or because
the existing potential abatement techniques are not
financially feasible. This cost is applied to the
entire remaining 25% of each watershed's acid on
the assumption that existing treatment techniques
will be employed where present technology appears
inadequate for permanent abatement.
These cost values would then be applied to the derived under-
ground mine acid loads, and the total underground mine abatement
costs computed for each acid producing watershed. Of course, the
number of levels of difficulty, the percentages of abatement antici-
pated at each level, and the dollars per kilogram per day of pollutant
abated can be varied according to requirements of the study and
4-54
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characteristics of the subject industry's abatement technology. The
approach, however, will be basically the same as that described
abovej if employed consistently in each watershed or module in the
study area, the underground mine abatement costs, while only
grossly estimated, will be accurate relative to one another.
COST EFFECTIVENESS
The cost effectiveness of a mine reclamation and mine
drainage abatement project is the cost in dollars of eliminating each
pound of pollutant emanating from the subject site. These values
provide an excellent means by which the relative effectiveness of
various reclamation or abatement expenditures can be assessed and
compared. Cost effectiveness values are generally obtained by
dividing the reclamation or abatement cost by the pollution load
attributed to that point source. In certain instances where land
improvement rather than mine drainage abatement is the primary
goal, cost effectiveness may be improved by dividing the total cost
by predicted land value increase. These values are computed in-
dividually for the surface mine reclamation work, the underground
mine pollution abatement work, and the overall reclamation and
abatement work in each of the study areas's pollution producing
watersheds. The computed cost effectiveness values can then be
analyzed along with several other important factors to determine
watershed reclamation priority rankings. Where sufficient know-
ledge of pollution abatement and mine reclamation exists, it is also
possible to lump cost effectiveness values for different modules to-
gether according to the effectiveness of respective fund utilizations
in abating pollutants. For example, cost effectiveness values of less
than $880 per kg/day ($400 per Ib/day) pollutant abated may be con-
sidered good, while values ranging from $880 to $1,750 per kg/day
($400 to $800 per Ib/day) abated may be considered acceptable.
Tables can then be derived to show for each polluting watershed the
cost effectiveness values and the cost and pollution load parameters
from which the values were computed for surface mine reclamation,
underground mine pollution abatement, and overall reclamation and
abatement.
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PRIORITIES
Priority establishment in a statewide abatement planning pro-
gram is one of the last phases of work, and is dependent upon suc-
cessful acquisition of all available data on the various topics and
aspects of the study previously discussed. This phase is best ac-
complished by establishing a numerical system for computation of
relative priority scores. Previous studies of similar nature have
clearly shown that the prejudices of personnel establishing priorities
are quite frequently reflected in the final outcome of the work,
despite all efforts to eliminate bias. For example, sociologists tend
to rate development demand or economic need as the most important
consideration in each module; biologists tend to over-rate to ovei
emphasize water quality and pollution loadings, surface mine vege-
tation or wildlife conditions; and water quality experts tend minimiz-
ing the importance of aspects outside their fields of expertise. Es-
tablishment of a numerical system in which each distinct aspect of
the data is assigned a weighted constant or rank according to its rel-
ative importance eliminates the possibility of biased rankings. Such
a system can be established at any level of detail, thus precision of
data acquired in the study need not be ruined by excessive generaliza-
tion.
One aspect of determining reclamation priorities which is
wholly subjective is the political and social climate of the adminis-
tering agency or state's citizenry. Such subjective influences can be
enumerated and quantified within a watershed by considering the
presence, strength, and activity of the following groups:
1 . Politically influential groups or persons
2. Occupational and professional groups
3. Environmentally oriented groups
4. Influential news media
Few abatement and reclamation programs take this into account;
however, these external and internal pressures are a reality and
must be evaluated.
A typical example of such a ranking system is presented
below. For the purpose of discussion, we will assume that the
principal parameters being considered are;
4-56
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1. Mine drainage pollution;
2. Development demand;
3. Density of unreclaimed surface mines;
4. Economic need;
5. Public visibility;
6. Visual quality;
7. Public land ownership.
Watersheds are grossly ranked individually in each of these seven
categories as High, Medium, Low, and None. Initially, each "High"
or favorable rating is given a value of three, "Medium" ratings a
value of two, "Low" or unfavorable ratings a value of one, and a
zero rating where the particular watershed does not exhibit the char-
acteristic or where a value can not be calculated. The watershed
characteristics are then assigned coefficients to adjust the relative
importance of each characteristic in the final priority determination.
This can usually be accomplished by a simple vote among the pei
sonnel of various professional disciplines who are involved in the
project - having each member rate each of the characteristics in
order or on a ten-point scale. In the example cited here, the fol-
lowing coefficients have been used-
Data Characteristic Coefficient
Mine Drainage Pollution 9
Development Demand 9
Density of Unreclaimed Strip Mines 7
Economic Need 6
Public Visibility 4
Visual Quality 3
Public Land Ownership 1
The watershed priority value for each data characteristic is
then determined by multiplying the data characteristic coefficient by
the data characteristic rating. For example, if Development De-
mand (coefficient = 9) had a "High" rating (value = 3), the resultant
watershed priority value would be 27.
Values are totaled for each watershed. Watershed scores are
then compared and divided into four groups to establish overall
priority ranking of watersheds for the land reclamation program. A
"High" priority ranking indicates watersheds where immediate rec-
4-57
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tarnation feasibility studies are desirable. "Medium" priority water-
sheds are those in which reclamation work is desirable, but should
be initiated only after considering all of the "High" priority water-
sheds. "Low" priority watersheds are those where some reclama-
tion work is required, but is not critical and should not be initiated
until the higher ranked watersheds have been considered. Water-
sheds in which there are no unreclaimed strip mined lands are
placed in the "None" category. A similar approach could be utilized
to establish any number of final priority groupings, or to generate a
list of individual priorities rather than a ranking group.
FINAL PHOTO AND MAP PRESENTATION
Upon completion of data analysis and formulation of conclu-
sions, development of mapping for general presentation of findings
and conclusions can be finalized. Much of the information shown on
these maps will have been plotted on at least a preliminary basis
during the course of the study, either on the photomaps, topographic
quadrangle maps, or other working preliminary base maps. Scales
of the final mapping could be similar to the working base maps dis-
cussed in Base Map Development, and will include the photomaps
delineating and classifying mined lands. Scales of the sample maps
and overlays in this section are 1:250,000. The following discussion
describes the general development of both the final summary base
mapping and the detailed mined land inventory mapping.
Due to the large variability and volume of data and conclu-
sions generated in a statewide abatement study, it is desirable and
advantageous to use color overlays in the final presentation of data.
Proper use of color overlays can strongly project important facets
of the study and its conclusions, while still presenting additional
background and support information in more subtle tones or shades.
There are any number of methods by which the study data and
findings could be expressed in color, but the best suited technique
involves use of distinctive color overlays to depict the various infor-
mation. Development of full color base maps proceeds in a series
of steps with the development and compositing of distinct color over-
lays presenting different aspects of the study, the study area, or the
study conclusions. Following is a discussion of the development of
4-58
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a typical set of color overlays and a composite base map.
The first step in final map development is preparation of a
location map which shows the entire study area. This map can also
delineate in general locations of pertinent mineral deposits, outlines
of watershed boundaries, and can serve as an index to the various
segments of study mapping or base mapping such as the 1:250,000
scale maps discussed in following paragraphs. A typical location
map showing the location of the sample 1:250,000 scale map devel-
oped in this study is shown in Figure 4-3.
Preliminary base map development for this color composite
system consists of two separate overlays - one black and one blue.
The black overlay, as Figure 4-4 illustrates, contains only culture
(roads, cities, political boundaries) and topography. This will, in
many cases, be the same preliminary base mapping overlay devel-
oped for use throughout the study. The first overlay shown in
Figure 4-5 contains only important streams, and may also have been
developed earlier in the study. The first stage in the development
of final mapping is the compositing of these two overlays to form the
final map base illustrated in Figure 4-6. The product is simply a
typical topographic map showing streams, roads, towns, topography,
etc.
The second overlay illustrated in Figure 4-7 represents the
next step in the development of overlays for final mapping. This
overlay shows the boundaries of major basins and watersheds or
modules as originally defined early in the study. The major basins
are named and the watershed or module number designations are
shown. In addition, the green overlay contains the boundaries and
names of the respective USGS 7.5 Minute Topographic Quadrangles
that fall within the base map area. This enables readers to go
rapidly and easily from the summary base map to the specific quad-
rangle map or corresponding photomap if more detailed information
is desired.
Addition of this overlay illustrated in Figure 4-7 to the ori-
ginal base map developed in Figure 4-6 yields the second stage com-
posite map shown in Figure 4-8. This stage of the composite map
is the first that shows any of the information developed in the state-
wide abatement study. The composite can actually be considered the
true base map for the study itself, since the contents of the included
4-59
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Lake trie
^
*J Sandusky
IIILMTTTTdinjIII
43 4 OHIO
AREA ILLUSTRATED
ON 1 : 250,000
SCALE MAP
IVER
V
BASIN
Watershed Boundary
And Number
Mineral Bearing Deposits
Figure 4-3. Illustration of major river basins and watershed boundaries
within area underlain by mineral bearing deposits.
4-61
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I'J FMIflllfilll FT
Figure 4-4. Illustration of base map.
4-63
-------
Figure 4-5. Illustration of major streams.
4-65
-------
n.,WH, ^C
r*»1 rf Giavtl P.I ^-f-f
r-k\u.R-E^£.^. r\
ferx £^y&p4«i-
^Q srTMSbSiSS
inn itifiminmii
Figure 4-6. Illustration of figures 4-4 and 4-5 superimposed
4-67
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THORNVILLE
MUSKINGUM
JUNCTION CITY
RIVER
Figure 4-7 Illustration (of major basin, watershed, and
U.S.G.S. 75' quadrangle boundaries and names.
4-69
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FimMiMnirriiimiimiiiiiriiirtrr
Figure 4-8. Illustration of figures 4-4,4-5 and 4-7 superimposed.
4-71
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green overlay will be of major importance throughout the remainder
of the study and in most subsequent, more-detailed, implementation
studies.
Following development of the basin-module breakdown shown
on the previous overlay, stream sampling and flow measuring sta-
tions can be designated and plotted on a separate overlay, such as
the one shown in Figure 4-9. As can be seen, the only practical use
of such an overlay is for presentation of the points in a separate
color. The overlay without the base mapping it relates to is useless.
Figure 4-9 shows the location and numbers of the points, which may
represent either existing data collected in previous studies or points
newly assigned for data collection in the statewide abatement study.
The points on the overlay may also distinguish between stream sta-
tions and pollution point sources, if that is desired.
The sample point overlay can be added to the developing com-
posite map after all points have been plotted and numbered. Figure
4-10 illustrates the composite as it stands at this stage - base map
in black, streams in blue, modules in green, and sample points in
purple.
As the water quality sampling program is completed and
stream conditions are defined and grouped, general water quality
can be illustrated on the base mapping utilizing various color over-
lays. Depending upon the nature of the pollutants and the study itself,
the number of different water quality classes will vary. The example
cited here utilized three distinct classes - "hot" for seriously de-
graded streams, "marginal" for streams with borderline water
quality, and "cold" for streams with acceptable water quality. Each
of these classes can be represented by a separate color overlay
showing the locations of such sub-watershed areas. The overlay in
Figure 4-11 illustrates "hot" areas and highlights streams polluted
in their headwaters which subsequently pass through downstream
areas where drainage is of marginal or acceptable quality. The
yellow overlay, Figure 4-12, delineates sub-watershed areas which
produce waters of "marginal" quality and highlights streams which
are "marginal" in quality near their headwaters and pass through
downstream areas of acceptable water quality. "Cold" watershed
areas, those with acceptable quality, are not colored on the final
mapping. In this manner, only "hot" and "marginal" areas are high-
lighted on the maps, and less attention is focused on the "cold" area.
4-73
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* 6
19
4
18
I
'
222I
23 .3
. '
«27 6
13 28
29.
30."
13* 4 7»
29 8
. .9 I2« B , «23 .252728
7 10 15 '** 024 * '
I-* 16. «> *6 "
I7» *
22 |2
17 IZ*. ' ^4 *|0
19 »'6 II « * 16
15
.
10
18 13
14*
Figure 4-9. Illustration of sampling 8 flow measuring stations.
4-75
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.- WReDdyille
1 ""' ( ACORNIMG o'j
LE]l5\ i flj/T. °f
Figure 4-10. Illustration of figures 4-4, 4-5,4-7 and 4-9 superimposed.
4-77
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Figure 4-11. Illustration of hot areas and severely
polluted stream within cold area.
4-79
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Figure 4-12.
Illustration of marginal areas and marginally
polluted stream within cold area.
-------
To illustrate water quality findings of the statewide abatement
study, these color overlays can be added to the developing composite
map as illustrated in Figure 4-13. The composite at this state pre-
sents complete findings of the water quality phase of the study -
modular breakdown, sample point delineation, and stream quality
breakdown. Subsequent findings pertaining to the mined lands in-
ventory can be added to this composite or illustrated without the
water quality overlays.
The overlay illustrated in Figure 4-14 represents the gener-
alized findings of the inventory of surface mined lands. The mined
areas as shown on the overlay represent a summary or generalization
of the actual surface mines delineated on the photomaps or topo-
graphic quadrangles utilized in the field. The final overlay, Figure
4-15, represents the generalized findings of the second portion of the
mined lands inventory - underground mine delineation. These two
overlays can be composited with other study findings excluding water
quality to emphasize findings of the mined lands inventory portion of
the study, as shown in Figure 4-16. They can also be composited
with all other findings of the statewide abatement study, as shown in
Figure 4-17.
Another important and highly desirable product of most of the
statewide abatement planning surveys will be the photos or other maps
of an appropriate scale upon which the mined lands and associated
features have been delineated and classified. Such mapping will
prove extremely useful in subsequent follow-up investigations of in-
dividual watersheds, sub-watersheds, or reclamation or abatement
feasibility studies; and its usability can be enhanced by proper pre-
sentation of pertinent auxiliary mapping that would also be valuable.
Figures 4-18, 4-19, 4-20, and 4-21 are samples of a typical "set" of
mined land inventory mapping that would be developed, assuming in
this case that aerial photographs were obtained on a scale of 1 cm.
= 240 m. (1 in. = 2000 ft. - the same scale used on USGS 7.5 minute
topographic quadrangles). Figure 4-18 is simply an untouched portion
of one of those 7.5 minute USGS maps. Its inclusion is necessary
because it is sometimes difficult to interpret topography from aerial
photographs at such a large scale.
Figure 4-19 is an untouched segment of a typical aerial photo-
4-83
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UIU1I UliI IIIJLU1IJ.11111 111
MUSK NGUM giig
"n,-t-
Figure 4-13. Illustration of figures 4-4,4-5,4-7,4-9,4-11
and 4-12 superimposed.
4-85
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V> -" v-ri-.sV ->'/?/-» A:
Figure 4-14. Illustration of surface mined areas
4-87
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I
Figure 4-15. Illustration of underground mined areas.
4-89
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Figure 4-16. Illustration of figures 4-4,4-5,4-7,4-14 and
4-15 superimposed.
4-91
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Figure 4-17. Illustration of composite map.
4-93
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4?
Figure 4-18. Illustration of
4-95
U.S.G.S. Quadrangle
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Figure 4-19. Illustration of
4-97
aerial photography.
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28
28
Figure 4-20. Illustration of overlay depicting mine
features S watershed boundaries.
4-99
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Figure 4-21
LEGEND
CLASSIFICATION OF MINED LANDS WATERSHED BOUNDARY LINE
I - ACTIVE SURFACE MINE - ' SURFACE MINE HIGHWALL
2 COMPLETELY RECLAIMED . SURFACE MINE BOUNDARY LINE
(OCCASIONAL WORK REQUIRED) . - REFUSE BOUNDARY LINE
3 - MINOR RECLAMATION EFFORT REQUIRED - MINE IMPOUNDMENTS
4 - MODERATE RECLAMATION EFFORT REQUIRED 3 - MINE CLASSIFICATION NO.
5 - EXTENSIVE RECLAMATION EFFORT REQUIRED 27 - WATERSHED IDENTIFICATION NO.
6 REFUSE PILE >- UNDERGROUND MINE ENTRY
7 ACTIVE UNDERGROUND MINE - UNDERGROUND MINE BOUNDARY LINE
8 INACTIVE UNDERGROUND MINE
graph at 1 cm. = 240 m. (1 in. = 2000 ft.) scale. The mined lands
and associated features on this photo are delineated, defined, and
classified, along with the boundaries of the study areas, modules or
sub-watershed units. Figure 4-20 is the overlay for that aerial
photograph, and shows module boundaries and numbers, strip mine
limits and categorizations (in terms of degree of reclamation effort
accomplished or required), exposed highwalls, strip mine water im-
poundments, and deep mine refuse areas. If sufficiently detailed
data is available, additional information could be incorporated on
these photomaps. That information could include mineral seam out-
crops, structure contours, and the limits of specific underground
mine workings.
The final illustration, Figure 4-21, is a printed composite
of the aerial photo and the information contained on the photo over-
lay. This type of composite is extremely useful for subsequent, in-
depth field investigations of various areas. Depending on the level
of detail of the information acquired and utilized for the study, it
may be possible and desirable to present additional overlays for the
aerial photos (for example containing mineral structure contours,
deep mine workings or mineral outcrops) and composites of that in-
formation on the photos.
4-100
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Figure 4-21. Illustration of composite aerial photography
and mine features.
4 - 101
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Photomaps of the type illustrated here have a multitude of po-
tential uses. Agencies and organizations at all levels can utilize the
photomaps for any of the following purposes:
1. Identification and categorization
. Developed areas - urban, residential, indus-
trial, commercial, and agricultural
Vegetation - type, density, extent
Transportation facilities - highways, roads,
trails, railroads, waterways, airports, canals
Geology - faults, fracture traces, subsidence
areas
Surface drainage - watershed divides, drainage
areas and patterns, streams, rivers, ponds, lakes
Major landforms - mountains, valleys,
flood plains
Surface features - erosion gullies, ditches,
landslides, timbering, forest fire sites, pol-
lution Kills, seepage areas, construction
Mining - surface mines, surface evidence of
underground mining, reclamation techniques,
status of revegetation, water diversion, high-
walls, refuse piles, spoil banks, mine im-
poundments, flooded final cuts, sediment basins
2. Analysis and interpretation
Mine reclamation requirements
Potential stream sampling points
Future development trends and land uses -
mining at new sites or reaffected sites for same
or different minerals, residential, commercial,
industrial, recreational
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Wildlife refuge and sport fisheries locations
Woodland timbering reserves
Potential water supplies, dam and reservoir sites
Areas of high erosion or flooding potential
Addition to the photomaps of composites showing geologic
units, structural geology, soils mapping or surface contours can
greatly amplify the amount and types of data available, substantially
increasing the value and usability of the photomaps.
Several additional illustrations are included to point out the
potential future updating of the mining activities and conditions de-
lineated on the aerial photographs. Figure 4-21 shows the base photo-
map with mined lands defined and classified as would originate in a
typical statewide abatement study. Figure 4-22 illustrates the first
up-date of the Figure 4-21 photomap. Note that it is possible to
show changes in mined land classifications, surface and underground
mine permit boundaries, areas which have subsequently been com-
pletely reclaimed, requiring np_ further efforts or attention. Figure
4-23 then shows a second up-dating of the information shown in
Figure 4-21 . Again it is possible to delineate changes in mining
activity, mine conditions, and boundaries for both surface and un-
derground sites.
Figure 4-22
LEGEND
CLASSIFICATION OF MINED LANDS
I - ACTIVE SURFACE MINE
2 - COMPLETELY RECLAIMED
(OCCASIONAL WORK REQUIRED)
3 - MINOR RECLAMATION EFFORT REQUIRED
4 - MODERATE RECLAMATION EFFORT REQUIRED
5 - EXTENSIVE RECLAMATION EFFORT REQUIRED
6 - REFUSE PILE
7 - ACTIVE UNDERGROUND MINE
8 - INACTIVE UNDERGROUND MINE
(?) - CLASSIFICATION CHANGE - l«t UPDATE
3
27
- WATERSHED BOUNDARY LINE
- SURFACE MINE HIGHWALL
- SURFACE MINE LIMIT
- REFUSE BOUNDARY LINE
- MINE IMPOUNDMENTS
- MINE CLASSIFICATION NO.
- WATERSHED IDENTIFICATION NO.
- UNDERGROUND MINE ENTRY
- UNDERGROUND MINE BOUNDARY LINE
- SURFACE MINE BOUNDARY LINE
- COMPLETELY RECLAIMED
(No Work Required)
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Figure 4-22. Illustration of feasible method of updating mining.
(First update)
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The actual up-dating of mining activities could be performed
on single quadrangles or groups of quadrangles in subsequent imple-
mentation stages, which are discussed in the next chapter. The up-
dating could also be accomplished as a statewide program, per-
mitting all photomaps to be maintained at the same level of accuracy
in terms of up-dating. Such programs could be conducted annually,
every two years, five years, ten years, etc., depending upon the
size of the study area and the funds available for such activities.
Potential uses of such up-dated mapping would be greatly in-
creased. Many local, state, and federal planning and action agencies
perform studies in which they must duplicate the effort of delineating
up-to-date mining activities and conditions for specific areas. With
a complete set of up-dated aerial photomaps, much of this duplicate
effort, and the use of funds it represents, could be eliminated.
Figure 4-23
LEGEND
CLASSIFICATION OF MINED LANDS
I - ACTIVE SURFACE MINE
2 - COMPLETELY RECLAIMED
(OCCASIONAL WORK REQUIRED)
3 - MINOR RECLAMATION EFFORT REQUIRED
4 - MODERATE RECLAMATION EFFORT REQUIRED
5 - EXTENSIVE RECLAMATION EFFORT REQUIRED
6 - REFUSE PILE
7 - ACTIVE UNDERGROUND MINE
B - INACTIVE UNDERGROUND MINE
(|) - CLASSIFICATION CHANGE - |Sl UPDATE
[2! - CLASSIFICATION CHANGE - 2nd UPDATE
3
27
- WATERSHED BOUNDARY LINE
- SURFACE MINE HIGHWALL
- SURFACE MINE LIMIT
- REFUSE BOUNDARY LINE
- MINE IMPOUNDMENTS
- MINE CLASSIFICATION NO.
- WATERSHED IDENTIFICATION NO.
- UNDERGROUND MINE ENTRY
- UNDERGROUND MINE BOUNDARY LINE
SURFACE MINE BOUNDARY LINE
COMPLETELY RECLAIMED
(No Work Required)
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Figure 4-23. Illustration of feasible method of updating mining
(Second update)
4 - 107
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CHAPTER 5
IMPLEMENTATION
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IMP LEME NTAT ION
Successful completion of a statewide mined lands inventory
is a pre-requisite to proper planning and performance of watershed
feasibility studies and subsequent abatement or reclamation programs.
From this initial statewide inventory program, priorities are estab-
lished for future feasibility studies. A wealth of information assem-
bled in the inventory is also available and relevant to the goals of the
feasibility study. Therefore, the statewide inventory and subsequent
watershed feasibility studies should be viewed as complimentary
and interdependent, although they are separate operations.
The specific objective of the watershed feasibility study is to
obtain the information necessary to implement a successful surface
mine reclamation and mine drainage abatement program in the subject
watershed. Such a watershed feasibility study should:
Determine the extent and severity of mine drainage in the
subject watershed's main stream and tributaries;
Evaluate aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems and the impacts
of water quality upon them;
Assess baseline and socio-economic conditions and varia-
tions throughout the study area;
Conduct a pollution source inventory to locate and measure
specific discharges associated with past and present mining;
Determine the impact of mine drainage on the primary
receiving stream;
Recommend remedial measures for each significant so-.,rce
of pollution which can be reduced or eliminated by current
technology;
Attempt to distinguish between the pollution loading contribu-
tions of active and inactive mines and between surface and
underground mines;
. Assess the future mining potential within the study area;
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Establish the cost and cost effectiveness of remedial
measures, including a ranking of the measures according
to recommended priority; and
Develop and recommend an "abatement plan" for the water-
shed.
Necessary to the implementation of a successful abatement
program is the careful, thorough analysis of the various available
reclamation and abatement alternatives. The planning procedure and
its execution must insure that abatement and reclamation processes
yield the highest possible benefit for every dollar expended. Use of a
specific, effective series of planning phases allows isolation of logi-
cally related, interdependent actions, and simultaneously provides
a means of gauging overall progress. This chapter of the report
deals with methodology best suited for use in planning and conducting
an abatement feasibility study and subsequent reclamation or abate-
ment work at pollution sources. Tasks are discussed in the logical
order of performance.
TASK 1 - GATHER, MAP AND EVALUATE EXISTING DATA
The initial project step should be the assembly of all known
information on water quality, climatology, geology and mining that
might help to reduce the scope of the reconnaissance program. Much
of this information presently exists and can be obtained readily.
Water Quality Data
The state department or agency dealing with natural re-
sources will be a primary source of water quality information. This
data will be available from sources such as:
Statewide abatement priority planning programs;
Water inventories performed by various local, state, or
federal agencies concerned with environmental protection,
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natural resources, health, stream quality, forestry, fish-
eries, or conservation;
Pollution point source sampling conducted by or in conjunc-
tion with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency or its
predecessor, the Federal Water Pollution Control Adminis-
tration (FWPCA);
EPA's computerized STORET data system;
USGS stream gauging stations' records;
Watershed or river basin management agencies such as the
Ohio River Basin Sanitation Commission (ORSANCO), the
Interstate Commission on the Potomac River Basin (INCOPOT),
the Susquehanna River Basin Commission (SRBC), Yellow-
stone Basin Water Users Association, and the'Powder River
Basin Resource Council.
All water quality data obtained should be coded in some logical
system and plotted along with water quality data previously gathered
during the mined lands inventory. A uniform data sheet can be devel-
oped, and all relevant water quality data for each sample point can be
transferred from original data sources. This combined mapped data
should then be carefully scrutinized and utilized to establish an initial
feasibility study reconnaissance program.
Geology and Soils
Locations of mineable mineral resources, outcrops, configur-
ations, dimensions and character of the mineral deposits, and their
pollution-producing capabilities should be determined, where possi-
ble, from available geologic information. This information will be
particularly useful in the water sampling phase, since the program's
emphasis can be shifted away from areas of little pollution potential
and concentrated in areas which are major producers of mine drain-
age.
Similar efforts should be undertaken to ascertain soil types
and distribution throughout the study area. Soils mapping and
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analysis data, which can be gathered from sources such as the Soil
Conservation Service, is important for proper assessment of recla-
mation and future land use capabilities in the study area.
Mining
All available data relating to mining within the watershed should
also be gathered. Aerial photographs with up-to-date surface mine
outlines and conditions, completed for the statewide abatement study,
can be very useful when establishing water quality sampling programs,
conducting field reconnaissances, and determining reclamation feasi-
bilities. Information and mapping related to underground mines with-
in the watershed should be obtained from the State's Bureau of Mines
and from the U. S. Bureau of Mines. Additional underground mine
maps may be available from local mining engineering firms, former
or current mine operators, and local interviews, which can lead to
previously unknown sources of underground mine data. Underground
mining information is extremely critical to the project, since aban-
doned mines are frequently the major sources of mine drainage in a
watershed. Successful design and implementation of underground
mine pollution abatement projects depends on the existence of mine
maps.
Ecology
All existing data pertaining to the aquatic and terrestrial ecol-
ogy of the study area should also be accumulated. The distribution and
diversity of plant and animal life in an area and their relationships to
stream conditions are of particular interest. Also, the relationships
between ecological factors and the presence, extent, and conditions of
surface and underground mines in various portions of the study area
should be assessed. Such analyses will be valuable in the final de-
terminations of abatement and reclamation requirements and priorities.
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Socio-Economic Conditions
Baseline socio-economic characteristics of various portions
of the study area can also be important in determining reclamation
and abatement priorities. Important characteristics include popula-
tion trends, employment and housing characteristics, available
social services, recreational facilities (characteristics, utilization
statistics, economics), and aesthetics (air, water, land, accessi-
bility, scenic quality). Additional socio-economic considerations
around mined areas include public visibility, accessibility (proximity
to major highways, urban areas, local airports), public land owner-
ship of potential reclamation sites, present and future land uses,
and general visual quality of various portions of the study area as
evidenced by landscape diversity - landform variation, landscape
pattern, water and vegetation.
TASK 2 - ESTABLISH RECONNAISSANCE PROGRAM
After available information on water quality, geology, and
mining has been assembled, coordinated, analyzed, and digested, the
sampling program requirements will be evident. Thus, a prelimi-
nary sampling program, aimed primarily at completing the water
quality and mine drainage "picture" of the study area, should be
established to confirm data obtained in previous studies and to fill any
apparent gaps in that data. The statewide abatement planning study
should have divided the study watershed into a number of subwatershed
units or distinct hot, marginal, and cold areas (See Figure 4-23).
This subwatershed system should be re-evaluated based upon analysis
of data accumulated in Task 1, and then modified as necessary to pro-
vide the information required. Watersheds should be larger in lesser
mined regions where geology and water quality data indicate that mine
drainage is minimal. - In heavily mined regions, watersheds should
be kept small, to more accurately define mine drainage problems.
Once subwatersheds have been defined, initial sampling and
measuring points can be established. Initial sampling should gener-
ally cover the entire watershed and consist of 50 to 75 stream samp-
ling points.
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TASK 3 - GATHER FIELD DATA
Water quality surveys should employ three basic sampling
schemes - modular, repetitive, and point source - each with a
specific purpose and scope in relation to the nature of the overall
study. Modular sampling, employed for the first two sample runs,
is designed to evaluate and categorize the subwatersheds or modules
on a one-time-only basis. Three categories of modules can initially
be defined as follows:
1 . Hot - Significant sources of mine drainage pollution where
intensified study will definitely be required.
2. Marginal- Modules within which additional sampling will
be required before a hot or cold classification can be
made.
3. Cold - Modules within which water quality is not severely
degraded.
The first sample run will generally delineate hot, cold, and
marginal areas, while the second sample run can be used to divide
the "hot" areas into smaller workable units and to reclassify "mar-
ginal" units as either "hot" or "cold." Goals of the first sample run
were partially achieved by sampling programs conducted during the
statewide abatement study. The first sample run in this feasibility
study should therefore emphasize verification and expansion of the
statewide study's findings, while the second sample run can concen-
trate on characterizing hot and marginal areas.
Water quality sampling programs should primarily utilize
"grab" sampling methods. This enables collection of a large number
of samples over wide areas in a relatively short time period while
providing data that meets the requirements of the feasibility study.
Sampling, flow measurement, and flow adjustment procedures for
grab sampling are discussed in detail in the previous chapter.
Once the watershed has been adequately characterized and
flows have been adjusted, a series of repetitive sample stations should
be designated. These stations can be strategically located throughout
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the watershed to enable periodic assessment of stream flow and
water quality conditions during the study. The data obtained at these
stations can also be used to document the success of future reclama-
tion and abatement projects.
TASK 4 - INTENSIFY STUDY ON REDUCED SCOPE AREAS
The purpose of this task is to isolate pollution sources within
classified hot modules. This is best accomplished by point source
sampling, using "grab" samples.
Sample crews should walk streams within these hot modules,
collecting water samples and stream flow measurements at each pol-
lution source or tributary stream. Each sample point should be
flagged, numbered, mapped, and described. Surface mines and the
outcrops of potentially polluting mineral deposits or seams should be
investigated, and abandoned drifts, shafts, airways, slopes, caved
areas, seepage areas, and refuse areas should be located and mapped.
Since this should not be a long-term sampling program, most pollu-
tion sources need be sampled only once or twice. However, the
modular and point-source sampling results from this task, combined
with data obtained in previous studies, will be sufficient to accurately
identify major pollution sources.
TASK 5 - DETERMINE RELATIVE MINE DRAINAGE CONTRIBUTIONS
(ACTIVE VS. INACTIVE)
In some areas and mining industries, it has been reported that
active mining operations are serious sources of mine drainage pollu-
tants despite existing regulations and guidelines. To determine wheth-
er or not this occurs within the study area, an attempt should be made
to distinguish between active and inactive as well as surface and under-
ground pollution sources and their relative sizes. The extent of active
mining can be determined by examining the mine drainage discharge
permits held by the appropriate state agency and permit information
submitted to the federal government through NPDES permit program.
These permit applications usually contain information related to mine
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discharges (flow and quality), treatment facilities, mineral data,
and location, type and extent of mining activity.
Existing estimating methods and techniques used to separate
active, abandoned, surface and underground mine drainage can be
utilized during prosecution of this task. The best currently available
method involves simple observations of flow and water quality mea-
surements of mine discharges.
TASK 6 - IDENTIFY DATA GAPS
All information obtained during previous study segments should
be reviewed to identify data and information gaps (with primary em-
phasis on mining and water quality data). This assessment can be
conducted by establishing what specific information will be required
for future tasks, including determination of base conditions and plan
formulation. The required information should then be identified and
recommendations provided for its acquisition.
TASK 7 - DETERMINE RECLAMATION AND ABATEMENT
FEASIBILITY
Preliminary feasibility evaluations of abating each pollution
source defined in the preceding steps should generally be completed
in the office, after all obtainable data and pertinent information has
been collected, plotted and studied.
Specific and regional geology and hydrology at pollution sources
should be studied and mapped, where possible. Local residents in-
volved in or having knowledge of the local mining industry can be inter-
viewed for information pertaining to old mining sites, methods, drain-
age, and other important facts. Tax maps, mine permit information,
aerial photographs, weather bureau records, mining records and
soils information should be obtained and studied.
United States Geological Survey 7^' topographic quads can be
enlarged to 1 cm. = 120 m. (1 in. = 1000 feet) scale for each hot mo-
dule or potential abatement area. These enlargements serve as the
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base for the "Mini-Mine Development Drawings," which can be used
extensively in later work
Water quality data combined with all other accumulated infor-
mation provides the basis for preliminary evaluation of hot modules.
This preliminary evaluation makes it possible to determine potential
abatement areas and to establish some general priorities among them
based on such factors as general hydrology, geology, ecology, socio-
economic conditions, present mining status, sources of pollution, and
feasible abatement methods. From this preliminary priority ranking,
a schedule can be established for intensive field reconnaissance by a
geologist or other reclamation specialist in each potential abatement
area, using the Mini-Mine Development Drawings (Scale 1 cm. =
120 m.)- Draftsmen can plot all sample station locations, mineral
structure contours and outcrops, faults, underground mine workings,
drifts, air shafts, surface mines and active mining permits. They
can also label roads and towns and list property owners for each
area. This mapping should be periodically updated with any new in-
formation on existing topography, seepage areas, refuse areas, sur-
face mine areas, mine entries, and air shafts. Analysts of field
reconnaissance information, Mine Development Drawings, and water
quality data will determine whether abatement work of some type is
feasible and practical in each area. The latest abatement techniques
should be considered and plans should be finalized for each area with
emphasis on the greatest amount of abatement for the lowest cost.
All available and feasible abatement techniques must be considered
for recommendation, including the following:
1. diversion of surface water around surface mines and
underground mine roof fractures;
2. stream rechanneling to retain good quality water in stream
beds;
3. backfilling;
4. soil treatment and planting on unvegetated surface mines;
5. surface treatment or removal of refuse piles, storage
areas, roadbeds;
6. underground mine sealing to prevent discharge;
7. surface sealing above underground mines to prevent
water influx;
8. grouting, slurry trenching, daylighting, clay liner con-
struction;
9. use of other industrial or extractive waste products for
surface treatment to neutralize surface water percolating
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through surface mines;
10. use of fly ash, sewage sludge, or other industrial or
mining waste products to augment vegetative survival;
11 . treatment of effluents.
TASK 8 - ASSESS FUTURE MINING POTENTIAL
The potential for future mining in the watershed should be
assessed in depth. Much information currently exists on which to
make judgments in this area. Past and present work in the special-
ized field of the particular extractive industry under study fre-
quently presents or requires judgments and projections of this nature.
Establishing contacts with federal and state agencies, officials who
deal with or represent the mining industry, corporate officials, and
owners from within the watershed can help in developing these esti-
mates .
Special attention should be given to defining mineable mineral
reserves on a gross, planning basis, with emphasis on the possibil-
ities and potentials of new mines reopening or reaffecting existing
abandoned mines, if at-source pollution abatement can be accom-
plished by making active miners responsible for pollution emanating
from abandoned mines affected by their new mining, much more
abatement can be achieved at much less cost (concurrent reclamation).
Permit applications in the hands of federal, state, and/or local
governments provide some information on reserves, current mining
operations, and in some instances, their future mining plans. Con-
tact should also be made with miners currently operating in and near
the watershed to attempt to establish the mining potentials of the area
as well as their future mining plans.
TASK 9 - COMPUTE COST AND COST EFFECTIVENESS
Construction costs and benefits should be estimated for each
recommended abatement project based on the costs and benefits of
abatement as established in previous state and federal studies, such
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as The Appalachian Regional Commission's Analysis of Pollution Con-
trol Costs and other relevant publications on reclamation and abate-
ment.
The cost effectiveness of a mine drainage reclamation or
abatement project is the cost in dollars of eliminating each pound of
pollution emanating from the subject site. Cost effectiveness values
can be obtained by dividing the reclamation or abatement cost by the
pollution load attributed to the pollution source. The computed cost
effectiveness values should then be analyzed along with several other
important factors to determine the reclamation priority ranking.
TASK 10 - ESTABLISH PRIORITIES
Abatement area priority rankings can be formulated after
careful assessment, consideration, and weighing of the following im-
portant factors:
Location within watershed;
Specific stream affected;
Stream miles affected;
Amount of pollution abated;
Effects of abatement on receiving streams;
Legal complications with property owners;
Active mine permits;
Potential land uses;
Future mining potential;
Economic need;
Development demand;
Public visibility;
Ecology;
Geology;
Hydrology;
Abatement or reclamation costs;
Cost effectiveness; and
Water related benefits derived from proposed reclamation
and abatement.
Abatement projects can be listed either individually or in
groups according to priority ranking as determined after consideration
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of all these factors. High priority projects will generally be those
with either the best cost effectiveness or the greatest predicted
downstream water quality improvement. These should be given pri-
mary consideration for immediate implementation, particularly
where reclamation and abatement funding is limited.
TASK 11 - DEVELOP QUICK START PROJECTS
Early Action Projects are usually recognized during the course
of a project such as this, and obviously satisfy most or all of the cri-
teria used for establishing final priorities. Therefore, they can be
implemented immediately with the assurance that they stand on their
own merit economically, and with the further assurance that they will
eventually wind up high on any list of priorities: Benefit/Cost Ratios,
High Public Visibility, or immediate Need for Reclamation.
Should Quick Start Projects be implemented, there are a num-
ber of steps which must be taken:
1 . The selected projects should be documented in detail.
2. Applications for Federal funding should be made.
3. Where possible, sufficiently detailed project cost estimates
should be developed.
4. Specific problems related to reclamation should be iden-
tified .
5. Solutions should be proposed.
6. Recommendations should be documented.
Interim reports for each recommended Quick Start project
should be submitted as the project formulates, for use by the appro-
priate department or agency in soliciting funds and initiating recla-
mation or abatement action.
TASK 12 - FINALIZE MAPPING
The sequence of mapping in various levels of study effort
described in this report can, if properly developed and presented,
accurately represent the various phases or level of effort involved
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in reducing the scope of study from statewide to local to specific
mine site level. Properly selected mapping scales combined with
logical mapping and presentation is vital at all levels of study. As
the illustration in Figure 5-1 shows, the progression of studies and
associated mapping actually proceeds in a series of stages from the
initial statewide program to specific reclamation and abatement
sites. Stage I on the illustration represents a final map derived from
the statewide mined land inventory and reclamation priority planning
program. A typical portion of a Stage I map, representing the
visual output of a statewide study, is shown in Figure 5-2. Study
findings and watershed conditions shown on this map represent the
level of detail typically achieved in Stage I studies, i.e. sample
locations, general areas of surface and underground mine concen-
trations, and gross water quality on a subwatershed basis. This lev-
el of study effort and mapping is the specific subject of this report,
and the technical approaches to the study and development of such a
map are detailed in Chapter 4 of this section.
Stage II in Figure 5-1 represents a typical watershed feasi-
bility study that would be conducted in one of the high priority water-
sheds. Requirements and procedures for Stage II watershed studies
are discussed in detail in this chapter. Final Stage II mapping would
consist of two distinct maps or sets of maps which would represent
both Stages II and III in Figure 5-1. At the Stage II level, a water-
shed feasibility evaluation would yield a summary or index map as
illustrated for Watershed No. 29 in Figure 5-3. Such a map would
focus on the study watershed, showing detailed water quality, specific
locations and configurations of individual surface and underground
mines, locations of point sources of pollution, and delineation of
specific abatement areas. In general, this map will present water
quality and mining conditions of the watershed in summary form for
quick observation and, will serve as an index to the specific abate-
ment or subwatershed areas established throughout the watershed
study area.
The Stage III level of mapping, which would consist of speci-
fic subwatershed areas or proposed reclamation sites, would also be
generated during the watershed feasibility study discussed in the sec-
tion. Typical mine development drawings for individual underground
and surface mine sites are shown in Figures 5-4, 5-5, and 5-6. As
can be seen, these mine development drawings may be developed to
illustrate single abatement sites, or a number of sites within a
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STAGE I
STATEWIDE INVENTORY
STAGE H
STAGE III
PRIORITY WATERSHEDS
SUB-WATERSHEDS
01
l
_L
O)
Figure 5-1. Successive resolution of study areas.
-------
umnm IH i M11 imunmii i mini UILIUUU i M i
111 HIT
Figure 5-2. Illustration of composite map-stage I effort.
5-17
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Figure 5-3. Watershed no. 29 feasibility study final index map-stage H effort.
5-19
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Samp., . _.
Underground , .
Surface Mine Area ^
Structure Contours -,4so-
Figure 5-4 Watershed feasibility study abatement area location and
geology map for underground mines -stage m effort.
5-21
-------
Figure 5-5 Watershed feasibility study abatement area mine development
drawing for surface mines stage in effort.
5-22
-------
Figure 5-5
LEGEND
A E.RA. Stream Sample Station <^2^ Surface Mine
0 E.RA. Mine Discharge Point 1500 Coal Structure Contours,"A" Seam
<§) Monthly a Module Sample Station Limit of Abatement Area
Module Sample Station Major Surface Mine Pool
I Point Source Sample Station (24) Surface Mine Number
> Portal - A Outcrop Line
a Mine Shaft Active Mining Permit Boundary
Underground Mine "A" Seam
single geographic area. These illustrations are taken from com-
pleted watershed studies unrelated to the fictitious Watershed No. 29,
and are included here merely as typical mine development drawings.
Ideally, these maps should be on a fairly detailed scale such as
1 cm. = 240 m. (1 in. = 2000 ft.) USGS 7.5 minute topographic quad-
rangle scale or 1 cm. = 120 m. (1 in. = 1000 ft.) to permit the max-
imum amount of information to be presented. Data which should be
plotted on mine development maps include:
Surface and underground mine boundaries;
Underground mine entries, air shafts, refuse disposal
areas, discharge points;
Structure contours on the mineral deposit;
Stream and pollution point source sampling points;
Abandoned refuse piles;
Mineral preparation areas;
Impoundments;
Active mining permits;
Public versus private land ownership.
Depending on the specific mineral mined and extractive tech-
niques used within a watershed, it may be necessary or desirable to
alter types of data included on a Mine Development Map. Completed
mine development drawings should have all of the basic and back-
ground information necessary for initiation of engineering design work.
Color usage can greatly enhance map readability but careful selection
of symbols can also permit clear presentation of the same data in
black and white (See sample figures).
5-23
-------
Sampling
Inundated Area \*=^=a >f£ffi$3J^&₯£y£f&'- .25_ o .5
Surface Mine Area
Structure Contours -*60-M$h ^^>V f K.LOMETERS
Figure 5-6. Watershed feasibility study abatement area mine development
drawing for underground mines stage HI effort.
5-24
-------
TASK 13 - PREPARE FINAL REPORT
The methods and results of feasibility evaluation should be in-
corporated into a final report. Data must be organized and presented
in an easily readable and understandable fashion. Location maps,
regional maps, mine development drawings for all abatement areas,
graphs, charts and other appropriate visual aids should be included
for ease in digesting narrative portions of the report. The report
should include a narrative discussion of each abatement or reclama-
tion area including justification and benefits derived from recommended
procedures. All mapping completed during the feasibility study
should be submitted separately, as background information for the
final report. Reproducible originals of all mapping should be kept
available for future reproduction if required. The report should:
Describe tangible and intangible benefits of the recommended
program.
Develop scheduling and budgeting to assure adequate admin-
istrative control of the reclamation plan.
Recommend facilities and a continuing program for surveil-
lance of any mine drainage from the improved area.
. Delineate means for measuring the accomplishments of the
program with respect to the objectives.
TASK 14 - POST RECLAMATION MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT
Post reclamation site monitoring and assessment is the final
phase of the initial step towards reclaiming inactive or abandoned
mined lands, and lasts from 1 to 5 years, during which reclamation
results are evaluated. Monitoring surveys include reactivation of
sampling stations established during the inventory survey, and
installation of new stations as required to document post-abatement
water quality. Sampling networks should be designed to accurately
reflect effects on the subject streams and mine discharges.
5-25
-------
Lengthy water quality surveillance is not always possible with
today's high labor and materials costs. However, every effort should
be made to compare conditions "before and after" reclamation, thus
providing a feed-back system for overall program guidance and mod-
ification.
The state agency which conducted the initial water and land
inventory should make an assessment of benefits attained to maintain
a continuity of techniques, analyses, and evaluation procedures. A
final project critique-type report should be developed to include both
negative and positive findings, establish viable reclamation and pollu-
tion abatement alternatives, and justify future state pollution abate-
ment and reclamation projects.
5-26
-------
CHAPTER 6
SECONDARY USE OF LAND INVENTORY DATA
-------
SECONDARY USE OF L^\ND INVENTORY DATA
Inherent to the planning and evaluation of a statewide abate-
ment and reclamation program is the collection of tremendous a-
mounts of qualitative and quantitative data. Depending upon the
format and techniques utilized in the data collection, much of this
information can be utilized by other state, federal, and county
government and non-government groups and individuals. Not
surprisingly, it can be the secondary user groups which play a
major role in assisting a statewide abatement and reclamation
program establishing its:
1. public visibility
2. credibility
3. viability
These three factors are important determinants to the continuation
of a program.
Availability of massive amounts of usable data from one agency
also serves to:
1. increase communication among existing
and potential user groups;
2. help establish the lending agencies role
and dominance;
3. reduce duplication of data collection and reduce
program cost by maximizing utility of available
information.
Included within this section are tables listing potential user
groups - federal,, state and county - for inventory data. The listings
have been compiled based upon the authors' familiarity with the
groups cited and should not be considered as all inclusive.
6-3
-------
Table 6-1
SECONDARY USES OF INVENTORY DATA
0)
I
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
Department
Interior
Bureau
Bureau of Sport
Fisheries and
Wildlife
National Park
Service
Function
Preserving and en-
hancing water and
related resources for
sport fishing
Research in water-
fowl management,
migratory bird routes,
upland wildlife work
Fishery and wildlife
management
Evaluates proposed
state and federal
water use projects
Development of com-
prehensive river basin
plans with future rec-
reation needs based
on fish and wildlife
Interpretive, investi-
gative, informational
programs relating to
park resources and
use
Mapping
1
m
X
X
X
X
X
X
£
id
Q)
M
CO
X
X
X
X
X
X
13
1
1
X
X
2
%
4->
0)
U)
X
X
X
X
Water
Quality
13
O
-f*
O)
0
Q
3
X
X
X
X
X
X
id
o
0)
.c
O
X
X
X
X
X
X
s
.pj
ip
£
X
X
X
X
X
X
Terr.
Quality
U)
^
o
to
X
X
X
X
0)
c
id
i.
Q
X
X
X
X
X
X
c
id
h
X
X
X
X
X
£
jo
,J
X
X
X
X
X
X
Visual
Quality
U)
(U
i
id
X
X
X
0)
in
5
0)
a
X
X
X
U)
?
£
1-^
m
X
Socio-Economic
Character
0)
D
£
id
X
X
X
X
X
o
*J
Q
£_
D)
o
0)
Q
X
X
X
X
X
in
o
CC
X
X
X
1
>
T>
5
X
e
8 H
- (D
^ 0
a)
CO
X
X
4-)
1 1
O. i^*
O C
^^ O
Q) ^ ^
&
X
X
X
-------
Table 6-1 Continued
SECONDARY USES OF INVENTOR* DATA
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
Department
interior
Bureau
Bureau of Mines
Geological
Survey
Function
Surveillance, evalua-
tion of industrial and
commercial outlook
for minerals, fuel
deposits
Studies relationships
of mineral industries
to environmental
problems
Engineering studies
regarding effective
mining practices,
increased mineral
production
Research programs
on extraction, uses
and disposal of min-
erals and mineral fuel
Classify Federal
lands values for leas-
able minerals, reser-
voir and waterpower
sites.
Mapping
-------
Table 6-1 Continued
SECONDARY USE5 OF INVENTORY DATA
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
Department
Interior
Bureau
Geological
Survey
Function
Evaluate and limit
damage or pollution
to the total environ-
ment
Prepare maps, report
of mineral and water
resources on Federal
lands
Geologic surveys to
determine and ap-
praise mineral and
mineral fuel re-
sources and geologic
structure
Administer and assist
in exploration pro-
gram for discovery
of domestic mineral
reserves by private
industry
Mapping
-------
Table 6-1 Continued
SECONDARY USES OF INVENTORY DATA
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
Department
Interior
Bureau
Bureau of Out-
door Recreation
Bureau of
Reclamation
Bureau of Land
Management
Bureau of
Indian Affairs
Function
Prepare and maintain
inventory and evalua-
tion of U . S . Outdoor
Recreation Resources;
and develop nationwide
recreation plan
Allocate water re-
sources on arid lands
in western state
Manage public lands
and their resources
Responsible for min-
eral leasing on public
lands
Develop recreational
opportunities on
public lands
Utilize natural re-
sources for economic
and social develop-
ment of Indian people
Mapping
.
CO
X
X
X
X
X
X
?
X
X
X
X
X
X
1
1
X
X
X
X
X
X
*
!
X
X
X
X
X
X
Water
Quality
a
o
**
81
g
3
X
X
X
X
X
X
^
id
.a
o
X
X
X
X
X
X
i
£
X
X
X
X
X
X
Terr.
Quality
*
0
tf)
X
X
X
-
X
X
X
tt)
S1
a
Q
X
X
X
X
X
X
I
h
X
X
X
X
X
X
£
2
£
X
X
X
X
X
X
Visual
Quality
S
1
I
X
X
X
X
0)
i
2
X
X
X
X
(0
2
CO
X
X
X
Socio-Economlc
Character
o>
I
3
X
X
X
X
X
X
0
J5.
1
&
X
X
X
X
X
i
&
X
X
X
^-»
I
J
X
X
X
12
8|
0)
X
X
X
X
M
c
Oj JP
50
&
X
X
X
X
0)
-------
Table 6-1 Continued
SECONDARY USES OF INVENTORY DATA
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
Department
Interior
Agriculture
Bureau
Bureau of Indian
Affairs
Office of Energy
and Minerals
Forest Service
Soil Conserva-
tion Service
Function
Administers coopera-
tive services for leas-
ing of mineral deposits
Develops emergency
energy plans
Administers plans and
programs for ade-
quate maintenance of
fuels and minerals
Administers, man-
ages and protects
national forests
Administers national
soil and water conser-
vation program
including soil erosion
control, flood preven-
tion, soil mapping
Mapping
.
CO
X
X
X
X
(fl
0)
X
X
X
1
1
X
X
X
X
(1)
>
3
ft
X
X
X
Water
Quality
^
(S
o
...I
D)
O
0
3
X
X
p
(0
o
-------
Table 6-1 Continued
SECONDARY USES OF INVENTORY DATA
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
Department
Agriculture
Environmen-
tal Protec-
tion Agency
Bureau
Agricultural
Extension
Service
Mining & Spills
Control
v- -
Function
Provides free con-
sulting services to
citizens in solving
household and en-
vironmental problems
Seeks to prevent as
well as remedy envi-
ronmental impact of
coal mining. Also
performs studies to
prevent oil. spills
Mapping
m
X
X
(0
2
b
in
X
X
1
f
X
getative
:>
X
X
Water
Qualify
^logical
3
X
X
rt
.a
o
X
X
!
i
X
X
Terr.
Quality
5
0
0)
X
X
0)
i1
1
Q
X
X
rrain
£
X
X
5
T3
*r*
X
X
Visual
Qualify
I
\
X
o>
0)
a
£
x
(0
?
TJ
rs
m
X
Socio-Economic
Character
-------
Table 6-2
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of
ADMINISTRATIVE
LAW JUDGES
Office of
CIVIL RIGHTS
Office of
GENERAL COUNSEL
Office of
FEDERAL ACTIVITIES
ADMINISTRATOR
DEPUTY
ADMINISTRATOR
ASSISTANT
ADMINISTRATOR
for PLANNING
and MANAGEMENT
Office of
ADMINISTRATION
Office of
PLANNING and
EVALUATION
ASSISTANT
ADMINISTRATOR for
ENFORCEMENT
Office of
GENERAL
ENFORCEMENT
Office of
WATER
ENFORCEMENT
Office of
RESOURCES
MANAGEMENT
REGIONAL
Office of
INTERNATIONAL
ACTIVITIES
Office of
PUBLIC AFFAIRS
Office of REG.
AND INTER-GOV.
OPERATIONS
Office of
LEGIS LATION
ASSISTANT
ADMINISTRATOR for
WATER and HAZAR-
DOUS MATERIALS
ASSISTANT
ADMINISTRATOR for
AIR and WASTE
MANAGEMENT
Office of I
WATER PLANNING!
and STANDARDS I
Office of
WATER PROGRAM I
OPERATIONS I
Office of
PESTICIDE
PROGRAMS
Office of
TOXIC
SUBSTANCES
Office of
WATER SUPPLY
ASSISTANT
ADMINISTRATOR for|
RESEARCH and
DEVE LO PME NT
REGION I
Boston
I REGION II I REGION III I REGION IV I REGION V ft
New York | Philadelphia^ Atlanta [ Chicago |
OFFICES
I
Office of
AIR QUALITY
PLANNING
and STANDARDS
Office of
MOBILE SOURCE
AIR POLLUTION
CONTROL
Office of
NOISE
ABATEMENT
AND CONTROL
Office of
RADIATION
PROGRAMS
Office of
AIR, LAND AND
WATER USE
Office of
ENERGY,
MINERALS
AND INDUSTRY
Office of
HEALTH AND
ECOLOGICAL
EFFECTS
Office of
SOLID WASTE
MANAGEMENT
PROGRAMS
Office of
MONITORING AND |
TECHNICAL
SUPPORT
REGION VII
Dallas |
REGION VIII
Kansas Cityl
REGION VIIll
Denver I
REGION IXI
San I
Francisco I
REGION X
Seattle I
From "The Federal Directory'1
June 5, 1975
-------
Table 6-3
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
SECRETARY
UNDER SECRETARY
_L
Office of
INTERNATIONAL
ACTIVITIES
Office for
EQUAL
OPPORTUNITY
Office of
TERRITORIAL
AFFAIRS
ASSISTANT SECRETARY
MANAGEMENT
ASSISTANT SECRETARY
PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT
AND BUDGET
Office of
COMMUNICATIONS
ASSISTANT SECRETARY
CONGRESSIONAL AND
LEGISLATIVE AFFAIRS
SOLICITOR
0)
ASSISTANT SECRETARY
RSH AND WILDLIFE
AND PARKS
ASSISTANT SECRETARY
ENERGY AND
MINERALS
NATIONAL I
PARK SERVICE!
Bureau of
OUTDOOR
RECREATION
Office of
MINERALS POLICY
DEVELOPMENT
BONNEVILLE
POWER
ADMINISTRATION
U. S. FISH
AND WILDLIFE
SERVICE
ASSISTANT SECRETARY
LAND AND WATER
RESOURCES
H
H
Office of
RESEARCH AND
DEVELOPMENT
SOUTHWESTERN
POWER
ADMINISTRATION
SOUTHEASTERN
POWER
ADMINISTRATION
ALASKA POWER
ADMINISTRATION
Commissioner of
INDIAN AFFAIRS
Office of
LAND USE.AND
WATER
PLANNING
Bureau of
INDIAN
AFFAIRS
Office of
SALINE WATER
Office of
WATER
RESOURCES
RESEARCH
Bureau of
LAND
MANAGEMENT
Bureau of
RECLAMATION
MINING
ENFORCEMENT
AND SAFETY
ADMINISTRATION
From "The Federal Directory"
3rd Edition 1975
-------
Table 6-4
SECONDARY USES OF INVENTORY DATA
STATE GOVERNMENT
Department
Economic
Development
Agriculture
Environmental
Protection
Public
Utilities
Commission
Commerce
Taxation
Public Works
Function
City/ regional planning, zoning
Identification of development
pressures and patterns - industrial,
commercial, residential
Land use studies
Crop production potentials
Evaluate channelization, siltation
erosion, livestock waste impacts
Evaluation and regulation of
sanitary landfills, industrial
effluents, air pollution sources,
air and water abatement pro-
jects, waste water treatment
plants, water monitoring
stations, engineering projects
Evaluation of electric, gas,
telephone, water, railroad
rights of way
Evaluating real estate develop-
ment and public lands
Assess and collection state
tax revenues
Maintenance and care of state
owned buildings and properties,
particularly state institutions
Mapping
(U
3
CQ
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Stream
X
X
X
X
X
X
Mineral
X
X
X
Vegetative
X
X
X
X
X
Water
Quality
Biological
X
X
X
X
Chemical
X
X
X
X
Physical
X
X
X
X
Terr.
Quality
U)
o
(/)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Drainage
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Terrain
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Wildlife
X
X
X
Visual
Quality
Wastes
X
X
X
X
Refuse
X
X
X
X
Buildings
X
X
X
X
Socio-Economic
Character
3
j
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Demographic
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Roads
X
X
X
X
X
X
Land Value
X
X
X
X
X
X
Service
Centers
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Development
Centers
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
CD
io
-------
Table 6-4 Continued
SECONDARY USES OF INVENTORY DATA
STATE GOVERNMENT
Department
Welfare
Natural Resources
Transportation
Function
Providing services to low-
income disabled, unemployed,
handicapped
Forestry management
Land use planning
Parks and recreation planning,
expansion, improvements, pro-
tection, management
Wildlife management,
preserve establishment
Mineral reserve evaluation,
exploration
Hydrologic and geologic
evaluations
Oil and gas drilling, monitoring
Water resource management
Water quality monitoring
Soils classification base mapping
Land use evaluations
Long range drainage planning
Highway engineering
Highway assessment, expansion,
improvement
Transportation pattern evalua-
tion, long range planning
Mapping
0)
13
00
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Stream
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Mineral
X
X
X
X
X
X
Vegetative
X
X
X
X
X
Water
Quality
Biological
X
X
X
.,.,.
X
X
X
X
X
Chemical
X
X
X
.«*«
X
X
X
X
X
Physical
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Terr.
Quality
3
'o
(I)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Drainage
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Terrain
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Wildlife
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Visual
Quality
Wastes
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Refuse
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Buildings
X
X
X
Socio-Economic
Character
o
3
I
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Demographic
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Roads
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Land Value
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Service
Centers
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Development
Centers
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
0)
X
CO
-------
Table 6-4 Continued
SECONDARY USES OF INVENTORY DATA
STATE GOVERNMENT
Department
Health
Education
Function
Protects health and safety of
state residents
Directs, Administers and
Controls Quality of public educa-
tion systems
COUNTY GOVERNMENT
County Commis-
sioners
County Engineers
County Health
Taxation
Planning Commis-
sion
Electorate body governing all
county offcers . Establish
county programs and policies
Provide County engineering
services. Supervises county
construction projects and roads
Provides County health services .
Monitors local water supplies
and food services
Assess and collection of county
taxes
Responsible for planning and
developing community resources
Mapping
0
18
m
X
X
X
X
X
A
X
Stream
X
X
X
X
Mineral
X
5
Vegetati
X
Water
Quality
13
Biologic
X
X
X
s
Chemicj
X
X
X
Physica
X
X
X
Terr.
Quality
Soils
X
X
(!)
Drainag
X
X
Terrain
X
X
Wildlife
X
Visual
Quality
Wastes
X
X
Refuse
X
X
in
Building
X
X
Socio-Economic
Characte r
o)
(/)
J
X
X
X
X
X
o
t
Demogr
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Roads
X
X
X
X
0
>
o
id
X
X
X
X
!/>
Service
Center
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
L
Develop
Center
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
0)
-------
ENERGY RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION
Board of ft
CONTRACT I
1
ASSISTANT ADMINISTRATOR ASSISTANT ADMINISTRATO
FOR pop
ADMINISTRATION INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS
Adn
Fac
Lab
Mar
Per
Pro
>intstratlve Services
limes and Construction Mgmt,
or Relations
nt. Info, and Tele. Systems
curnt omo.ofth. 1
ASSISTANT ADMINISTRATOR ASSISTANT ADMINISTRATOR
FOR FOR
FOSSIL ENERGY NUCLEAR ENERGY
Divisions of: Divisions of:
Adv. Research and Supporting Tech. Naval Reactors
Petroleum, Nat. Gas ft In Situ Tech. Nuclear Fuel Cycle and Production
Coal Conversion and Utilization Space Nuclear Systems
MHD Project Office Reactor Research and Development
Albuquerque Chicago ft Idaho
Operations Office Operations Office | Operations
Oak Ridge ft Richland ft San Frwic
Operations Office 1 , Operations Office 1 Operations
PATENT ft DEPUTY ADMINISTRATOR GENERAL ft MILITARY ft
BOARD 1 ASSISTANT ADMINISTRATOR COMMlTTeE | COMMITTEE [
RELD COORDINATION
R 1 ASSISTANT ADMINISTRATOR 1
1 FOR I
PLANNING AND ANALYSIS
ERALCOUNSE' I
ASSISTANT ADMINISTRATOR
FOR
ENVIRONMENT AND SAFETY
Divisions Of:
Blamed. &Env. Research
Operational Safety
Environmental Control Tech.
Reactor Safety Res. Coord. Staff
1 Nevada ft
Operations Office |
Omce or I OfTice of 1 Office of I
AUDIT AND INSPECTION CONGRESSIONAL RELATIONS EQUAL OPPORTUNITV
Office of ft ft
INDUSTRY AND STATE I Office of
AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT 1 PUBLIC AFFAIRS
RELATIONS | J
ASSISTANT ADMINISTRATOR ASSETANT ADMINISTRATOR
D ASSISTANT ADMINISTRATOR e«
I-IX
SOLAR, GEOTrERMAL, AND FO CONSERVATION
ADVANCED ENERGY SYSTEMS NATIONAL SECURITY
Divisions of- mv.si.ons or;
Divisions of: ClassincaUon ' Electric Energy Systems
Controlled Thermonuclear Research Mlllto A ti Irterprognam Applicatiare
Bartlesville ft Grand Forks ft Laramie ft
Energy Research Center | Energy Research Center | Energy Research Center |
is co ft Savannah River ft
Office | Operations Office |
Morgantown ft Pittsburgh ft San Francisco ft
Energy Research Center 1 Energy Research Center I Energy Research Center 1
i Envtronmenbl Protection Agency
-------
Table 6-6
0)
0)
MULTIPLY (ENGLISH UNITS)
English Unit
acre
acre - feet
British Thermal Unit
British Thermal Unit/pound
cubic feet/minute
cubic feet/second
cubic feet
cubic ' feet
cubic inches
degree Fahrenheit
feet
gallon
gallon/minute
horsepower
inches
inches of mercury
pounds
million gallons/day
mile
pound/square inch (gauge)
square feet
square inches
tons (short)
yard
* Actual conversion, not a
Abbreviation
ac
ac ft
BTU
BTU/lb
cfm
cfs
cu ft
cu ft
cu in
oF
ft
gal
gpm
hp
in
in Hg
Ib
mgd
mi
psig
sq ft
sq in
ton
yd
multiplier
Conversion Table
by
Conversion
0.405
1233.5
0.252
0.555
0.028
1.7
0.028
28.32
16.39
0.555(°F-32) *
0.3048
3.785
0.0631
0.7457
2.54
0.03342
0.454
3785
1.609
(0.06805 psig+D*
0.0929
6.452
0.907
0.9144
Abbreviation
ha
cu m
kg cal
kg cal/kg
cu m/min
cu m/min
cu m
1
cu cm
°C
m
1
I/sec
kw
cm
atm
kg
cu m/day
km
atm
sq m
sq cm
kkg
m
TO OBTAIN (METRIC UNITS)
Metric Unit
hectares
cubic meters
kilogram - calories
kilogram calories/kilogram
cubic meters/minute
cubic meters/minute
cubic meters
liters
cubic centimeters
degree Centigrade
meters
liters
liters/second
kilowatts
centimeters
atmospheres
kilograms
cubic meters/day
kilometer
atmospheres (absolute)
square meters
square centimeters
metric tons (1000 kilograms)
meters
-------
APPENDICES
-------
APPENDIX A
MINING SUPPORT INFORMATION
-------
Table A-1
MINING METHODS, BY MINERAL
MINERALS
JJ)
J
<
h
UJ
5
ALUMINUM
COPPER
GOLD
IRON ORE
LEAD
MANGANESE
MERCURY
MOLYBDENUM
SILVER
TYPE OF
MINING METHODS
S
U
S
U
S
U
S
U
S
U
S
U
S
U
S
U
S
U
Open Pit
Room and Pillar
Open Pit, Solution
Caving, Supported Stoping
Open Pit, Hydraulic,
Dredging
Stoping Methods
Open Pit, Area
Room and Pillar
Open Pit
Room and Pillar, Block
Caving, Shrinkage and
Cut and-Fill Stoping
Open Pit
Room and Pillar, Long-
wall, Stoping Methods
Open Pit
Square Set, Shrinkage and
Sublevel Stoping
Open Pit
Block Caving
Open Pit
Horizontal Slice Cut,
Hydraulic Fill Stoping
USAGE
90%
10%
33%
17%
> 90%
< 10%
< 50%
> 50%
> 50%
< 50%
< 50%
>50%
50%
50%
50%
50%
SECONDARY
RECOVERY
MINERALS
Gold, Silver,
Molybdenum, Iron,
Lead, Zinc,
Sulfur
Silver
Gold, Silver
Sulfur, Copper,
Phosphate
Copper, Gold
Zinc, Silver,
Sulfur
Lead, Zinc, Gold
Copper, Silver
Stone
Iron
Sulfur, Tungsten
Copper, Lead
and Zinc
Adapted from Reference No. 76
A-4
-------
Table A-1 Continued
a
f
%
NON METALS
MINERALS
TITANIUM
TUNGSTEN
URANIUM
ZINC
BARITE
BO RATE
CLAY
DIATOMITE
FELDSPAR
GYPSUM
MAGNESITE AND
BRUCITE
S
U
S
u
S
u
S
u
S
u
S
S
u
S
S
S
u
S
u
TYPE OF
MINING METHODS
Open Pit, Dredging
General Methods
Open Pit
Stoping Method
Open Pit
Room and Pillary Long-
wall Retreat, Panel Methoc
Open Pit
Open Shrinkage, Cut-and-
Fill, Square Set Stoping
Open Pit
General Methods
Open Pit
Open Pit, Area, Hydraulic
Room and Pillar
Open Pit
Open Pit
Open Pit
Room and Pillar, Shrink-
age and Open Stoping
Open Pit
Room and Pillar, Stoping
Methods
USAGE
> 50%
<50%
<50%
> 50%
50%
50%
< 50%
> 50%
> 50%
< 5O%
100%
> 50%
< 50%
10O%
100%
75%
25%
> 50%
< 50%
SECONDARY
RECOVERY
MINERALS
Copper, Gold
Silver, Molyb-
denum
Copper, Silver
Lead, Molyb-
denum
Sulfur
Potassium
Mica, Stone
Aluminum
Mica, Sand and
Gravel
Adapted from Reference No. 76
A-5
-------
Table A-1 Continued
MINERALS
NON METALS
MICA
PHOSPHATE ROCK
POTASH
SALT
SAND & GRAVEL
STONE
SULFUR
S
U
S
U
S
U
S
U
S
S
U
S
U
TYPE OF
MINING METHODS
Open Pit, Quarry
General Methods
Open Pit, Area, Contour
Top Slicing, and Open
Stoping
Solution Mining
Room and Pillar, Pillar-
Robbing
Solar Evaporation Solution
Room and Pillar
Open Pit, Dredging
Quarry
General Methods
Open Pit
Frasch
USAGE
< 50%
> 50%
> 50%
< 50%
< 5%
> 95%
< 50%
> 50%
100%
95%
95%
> 90%
< 10%
SECONDARY
RECOVERY
MINERALS
Magnesium
Salt
Magnesium Com-
pounds
Gold, Silver
Feldspar and Clay
Adapted from Reference No. 76
A-6
-------
Table A-1 Continued
MINERALS
(ft
J
111
D
IL
J
(/)
in
o
Ij.
COAL: BITUMINOUS
LIGNITE
COAU ANTHRACITE
PEAT
SHALE OIL
TYPE OF
MINING METHODS
S
U
S
u
S
S
u
Area, Conventional Contour,
Auger, Haulback, Mountain
Top Removal, Multiseam,
Modified Block Cut, Modi-
fied Area, Box Cut, Open
Pit, Block Area
Room and Pillar, Longwall,
Shortwall
Open Pit, Conventional
Strip
Room and Pillar, Breast
and Pillar, Slant Chute
Open Pit, Dredging, Hy-
draulic
Open Pit
Room and Pillar, In Situ
Retorting
USAGE
49%
51%
85%
15%
100%
< 50%
> 50%
SECONDARY
RECOVERY
MINERALS
Sulfur
Adapted from Reference No. 76
> - MORE THAN
< - LESS THAN
U - UNDERGROUND
S - SURFACE
A-7
-------
Table A-2
MINERAL VALUES BY
STATE
ALABAMA
ALASKA
ARIZONA
ARKANSAS
CALIFORNIA
COLORADO
CONN.
DELAWARE
FLORIDA
GEORGIA
HAWAII
IDAHO
ILLINOIS
INDIANA
IOWA
KANSAS
KENTUCKY
LOUISIANA
MAINE
MARYLAND
MASS.
MICHIGAN
MINNESOTA
MISS.
MISSOURI
MONTANA
NEBRASKA
NEVADA
N. HAMPSHIRE
N. JERSEY
N. MEXICO
1972 TOTAL VALUE1
$ 371,241
286, 138
1,091,004
241,179
1,851,365
425,841
33,123
2,871
424,287
258,041
28,074
106,206
769,737
322,608
134,496
584,537
976,910
5,411,543
22,922
115,501
52,428
694,767
659,669
260,681
451,817
307,676
73,675
181,702
10,111
113,760
1,097,292
RANK
21
25
8
29
3
19
45
50
20
28
46
36
10
22
31
15
9
2
47
33
43
13
14
27
18
24
41
30
48
34
7
AREA
(sq. mi.)
51,609
586,412
113,909
53,104
1 58 , 693
104,247
5,009
2,057
58,560
58,876
6,450
83,557
56,400
36,291
56,290
82,264
40,395
48,523
33,215
10,577
8,257
58,216
84,O68
47,716
69,686
147,138
77,227
110,540
9,3O4
7,836
121,666
PER SQUARE MILE
VALUE
$ 7,193
488
9,578
4,542
11,666
4,O85
6,613
1,396
7,245
4,383
4,353
1,271
13,648
8,889
2,389
7,106
24,184
111,525
690
10,920
6,350
1 1,934
7,847
5,463
6,484
2,091
954
1,644
1,087
14,518
9,019
RANK
20
50
14
29
12
32
23
42
19
30
31
44
9
16
36
21
5
1
49
13
27
11
17
28
24
38
46
39
45
8
15
1970
POPULATION1
3,444
30O
1 ,771
1,923
19,953
2,207
3,032
548
6,789
4,590
769
713
11,114
5,194
2,824
2,247
3,219
3,641
992
3,922
5,689
8,875
3,805
2,217
4,677
694
1,483
489
738
7,168
1,O16
PER CAPITA
VALUE
$ 108
954
616
125
93
193
11
5
62
56
37
149
69
62
48
260
303
1,486
23
29
9
78
173
118
97
443
5O
372
14
16
1,080
RANK
20
4
7
18
25
14
47
49
31
33
37
17
28
32
35
13
12
2
41
4O
48
27
15
19
24
10
34
11
46
45
3
>
00
Adapted From Reference No. 78
-------
Table A-2 Continued
STATE
N. YORK
N. CAROLINA
N. DAKOTA
OHIO
OKLAHOMA
OREGON
PENNA.
R.I.
S. CAROLINA
S. DAKOTA
TENN.
TEXAS
UTAH
VERMONT
VIRGINIA
WASH.
W. VIRGINIA
wise.
WYOMING
TOTAL
1972 TOTAL VALUED
$ 320,453
116,323
98,086
724,748
1,210,728
76,516
1,231,485
4,291
82,313
65,200
269,814
7,211,551
542,809
34,868
489,791
109,806
1,430,632
89,353
746,743
$32,217,000
RANK
23
32
37
12
6
4O
5
49
39
42
26
1
16
44
17
35
4
38
11
AREA
(sq. mi.)
49,576
52,586
70,665
41,222
69,919
96,981
45,333
1,214
31 ,O55
77,047
42,244
267,338
84,916
9,609
4O.817
68,192
24,181
56,154
97,914
3,615,055
PER SQUARE MILE
VALUE
$ 6,464
2,212
1,388
17,582
17,316
789
27,165
3,535
2,651
846
6,387
26,975
6,392
3,629
12,000
1,610
59,163
1,591
7,627
8,912
RANK
25
37
43
6
7
48
3
34
35
47
22
4
26
33
10
40
2
41
18
1970
POPULATION1
18.P37
5,O82
618
10,652
2,559
2,091
11,794
947
2,591
666
3,924
11,197
1,059
444
4,648
3.4O9
1,744
4,418
332
202,455
PER CAPITA
VALUE
$ 18
23
159
68
573
37
1O4
5
32
98
69
644
513
79
105
32
82O
20
2,249
159
RANK
44
42
16
30
9
36
22
SO
39
23
29
6
8
26
21
38
5
43
1
--
>
CD
Adapted From Reference No. 78
-------
TABLE A-3
MINERAL PRODUCTION, BY STATE
STATE
ALABAMA
ALASKA
ARIZONA
MINERALS
Coal (Bituminous)
Stone
Sand and Gravel
Coal (Bituminous)
Copper
Molybdenum
Sand & Gravel
1972 PRODUCTION
QUANTITY
(1,000 Tons)
20,813
18,485
14,187
668
909
14
24,842
VALUE
$
200,430
42 , 027
15,214
(b)
930,419
46,791
32,420
MINERALS
Clays
Iron Ore (GW)
Sand and Gravel
Bauxite ~)
Mica Scrap /
Phosphate Rock >
Salt \
Stone (Dimension) J
Barite
Gold
Lead
Silver
Stone
Uranium
Clays (4)
Coal (Bituminous)
Diatomite
Gold
Gypsum
Iron Ore
Lead
Mercury
Silver
Stone
Tungsten Ore
Uranium
1972 PRODUCTION
QUANTITY
(1,000 Tons.)
2,850
366
6,352
(a)
(b)
9( 1)
_
I
Adapted From Reference No. 78
(1) - Thousand Troy Ounces
(2) - 76 Pound Flasks
(3) - Excludes certain stone, itemized separately
(4) - Excludes certain clay, itemized separately
KEY
(5) - Excludes certain salt in brine, itemized
separately
(a) - Production figures and values not disclosed
(b) - Withheld to avoid disclosing individual
company confidential data
-------
Table A-3 Continued
MINERAL PRODUCTION, BY STATE
STATE
ARIZONA
ARKANSAS
CALIFORNIA
DDTKI^TDA 1
PRINCIPAL
MINERALS
Stone
Sand & Gravel
1972 PRODUCTION
QUANTITY
(1,000 Tons)
16,317
117,288
VALUE
$
25,020
162,619
MINERALS
Zinc
Clays (Bentonite
Feldspar
Mica
Clays (4)
Coal (Bituminous)
Sand & Gravel
Barite
Clay (Kaolin)
Bauxite
Gypsum
Mercury
Barite
Boron
Clays
Copper
Gold
Gypsum
Lead
Magnesium Compounds
Mercury
Peat
Salt
Silver
Stone
Zinc
Lignite
1972 PRODUCTION
QUANTITY
(1.OOO Tons}
10
(a)
(a)
885
428
11,574
(b)
(a)
1,634
(a)
(a)
4
1,121
2,7O6
1
4(1)
1,525
1
176
5,788(2)
29
1,621
175 (1)
37,213
1
(a) .
VALUE
$
3,589
(a)
Ca)
99O
4,676
16,558
(b)
(a)
21,010
(a)
(a)
34
95,882
7,387
612
233
4,965
347
18,421
1,263
620
14,86O
296
65,811
427
(a)
>
I
KEY
(1) - Thousand Troy Ounces
(2) - 76 Pound Flasks
(3) - Excludes certain stone, itemized separately
(4) - Excludes certain clay, itemized separately
(5) - Excludes certain salt in brine, itemized
separately
(a) - Production figures and values not disclosed
(b) - Withheld to avoid disclosing individual
company confidential data
-------
Table A-3 Continued
MINERAL PRODUCTION, BY STATE
STATE
CALIFORNIA
COLORADO
CONNECTICUT
PRINCIPAL
MINERALS
Sand & Gravel
Molybdenum
Coal (Bituminous)
Sand & Gravel
Stone
Sand & Gravel
Feldspar
1972 PRODUCTION
QUANTITY
(1,000 Tons)
117,288
(b)
5,522
28,318
8,719
6,763
~
VALUE
$
162,619
(b)
35,637
34,631
19,695
11,270
~
ADDITIONAL
MINERALS
Diatom ite
Feldspar
Iron Ore
Molybdenum
Phosphate Rock
Potassium Salt
Sulfate
Tungsten
Clays
Copper
Feldspar
Gold
Gypsum
Lead
Mica Sheet
Peat
Silver
Stone
Tungsten
Uranium
Zinc
Iron Ore
Scrap Mica
Salt
Clays
Mica Scrap
Feldspar
1
3
1972 PRODUCTION
QUANTITY
(1,000 Tons.)
(a)
747
4
(b)M.
61 (1>
(b)
31
<1
39
3,664 C1)
4,507
(b)
<1
64
(a)
157
2
(a)
VALUE
$
(o)
1,533
4,039
(b)
3,580
(b)
9,423
7
210
6, 174
9,599
(b)
11,825
22,649
(a)
292
(b)
1,850
to
KEY
(1) - Thousand Troy Ounces
(2) - 76 Pound Flasks
(3) - Excludes certain stone, itemized separately
(4) - Excludes certain clay, itemized separately
(5) - Excludes certain salt in brine, itemized
separately
(a) - Production figures and values not disclosed
(b) - Withheld to avoid disclosing individual
company confidential data
-------
Table A-3 Continued
MINERAL. PRODUCTION, BY STATE
STATE
DELAWARE
FLORIDA
GEORGIA
HAWAII
IDAHO
DDTNir^TDA 1
MINERALS
Sand & Gravel
Magnesium Compounds
Clays
Phosphate Rock
Stone (3)
Clays (2)
Stone
Sand & Gravel
Stone (3)
Sand & Gravel
Silver
Lead
1978 PRODUCTION
QUANTITY
^ 1,000 Tons)
2,257
-
15
(a)
53,093
6,227
37,074
3,816
5,005
609
14,251(D
61
VALUE
$
2,660
-
9
(a)
81,621
132,322
82,484
4,729
13,494
1,893
24,012
18,459
AnPMTlOMA 1
MINERALS
Clays (2)
Peat
Sand & Gravel
Kaolin -\
Magnesium Compounds /
Stone (Lime & Shell) f
Titanium J
Barite 1
Iron Ore >
Peat J
Bauxite T
Fire Clay /
Feldspar /
Scrap Mica \
Titanium J
Clays
Salt
Clays
Copper
1972 PRODUCTION
QUANTITY
( 1,000 Tons)
922
45
20,752
(a)
(b,
(a)
(b)
(a)
57
3
VALUE
$
10,336
362
15,O25
(a)
(b)
(a)
(b)
(a)
415
3,013
>
00
KEY
(1) - Thousand Troy Ounces
(2) - 76 Pound Flasks
(3) - Excludes certain stone, itemized separately
(4) - Excludes certain clay, itemized separately
(5) - Excludes certain salt in brine, itemized
separately
(a) - Production figures and values not disclosed
(b) - Withheld to avoid disclosing individual
company confidential data
-------
Table A-3 Continued
MINERAL PRODUCTION, BY STATE
STATE
IDAHO
ILLINOIS
INDIANA
IOWA
DDTM^TDA 1
H r
1,047
851
(a)
VALUE
$
169
35
10,294
7,042
(b)
(a)
3,314
401
935
4,039
:a)
Ca)
2,465
478
(a)
2,643
4,138
(a)
>
I
KEY
(1) - Thousand Troy Ounces
(2) - 76 Pound Flasks
(3) - Excludes certain stone, itemized separately
(4) - Excludes certain clay, itemized separately
(5) - Excludes certain salt in brine, itemized
separately
(a) - Production figures and values not disclosed
(b) - Withheld to avoid disclosing individual
company confidential data
-------
Table A-3 Continued
MINERAL PRODUCTION, BY STATE
STATE
KANSAS
KENTUCKY
LOUISIANA
MAINE
DDYKI^"*T^3A 1
PRINCIPAL
MINERALS
Coal (Bituminous)
Stone (3)
Sulfur
Sand & Gravel
Stone
Zinc
1972 PRODUCTION
QUANTITY
(1,000 Tons)
121,188
34,279
4,217
11,818
1,078
6
VALUE
$
824,691
59,690
(b)
7,535
2,996
2,066
APlPffTfOMA 1
ALJU1 1 IUINMI_
MINERALS
Clays
Coal (Bituminous)
Lead
Salt <5>
Sand & Gravel
Stone ( '
Zinc
Clays ~)
Gypsum /
Salt (Brine) J
Clays (4)
Sand & Gravel
Zinc
Clay (Ball)
Stone (3)
Clays
Salt
Sand & Gravel
Stone C3)
Sypsum
Stone (Miscellaneous)
Clays (4)
Copper
Lead
1972 PRODUCTION
QUANTITY
(1,000 Tons)
1,170
1,227
1,369
11,591
14,547
-
(a)
92O
8,485
2
(a)
(a)
1,OOO
13,514
18,92O
9,190
(a)
(a)
40
1
<1
VALUE
$
1,457
7,835
2O, 562
10,920
23,849
-
(a)
1,4O6
11,967
632
(a)
(a)
1,454
67,464
26,996
14,836
(a)
(a)
57
1,249
26
Ol
KEY
(1) - Thousand Troy Ounces
(2) - 76 Pound Flasks
(3) - Excludes certain stone, itemized separately
(4) - Excludes certain clay, itemized separately
(5) - Excludes certain salt in brine, itemized
separately
(a) - Production figures and values not disclosed
(b) - Withheld to avoid disclosing individual
company confidential data
-------
Table A-3 Continued
MINERAL PRODUCTION, BY STATE
STATE
MAINE
MARYLAND
MASSACHUS-
ETTS
MICHIGAN
MINNESOTA
MINERALS
Stone
Sand & Gravel
Coal (Bituminous)
Sand & Gravel
Stone
Clays
Iron Ore
Copper
Sand & Gravel
Iron Ore
1972 PRODUCTION
QUANTITY
(1 ,000 Tons)
19,431
12,594
1,640
18,883
7,990
219
14,215
67
59,467
56,666
VALUE
$
41,973
26,557
8,961
25,655
23, 500
419
177,461
68,874
65,445
601,869
MINERALS
Peat
Silver
Clays (Miscellaneous)
Feldspar
Clays (4)
Peat
Clays (Miscellaneous) ~l
Diatom ite V
Potash j
Peat
Clays
Gypsum
Magnesium Compounds
(from sea & brine)
Peat
Salt
Silver
Stone
Potassium Salts
Clays <4)
1972 PRODUCTION
QUANTITY
(1,000 Tons)
2
16 (1)
(a)
(a)
1,104
3
(a)
(b)
2,514
1,650
378
219
4,358
785(1)
39,754
(a)
167
VALUE
$
99
27
(a)
(a)
2,121
29
(a)
(b)
3,715
7,267
31,484
2,190
50,761
1,323
50,317
(a)
251
_L
O)
KEY
(1) - Thousand Troy Ounces
(2) - 76 Pound Flasks
(3) Excludes certain stone, Itemized separately
(4) Excludes certain clay, Itemized separately
(5) - Excludes certain salt in brine, Itemized
separately
(a) - Production figures and values not disclosed
(b) - Withheld to avoid disclosing individual
company confidential data
-------
Table A-3 Continued
MINERAL PRODUCTION, BY STATE
STATE
MINNESOTA
MISSISSIPPI
MISSOURI
MONTANA
^A^ATkl^^T ^3A 1
PRINCIPAL
MINERALS
Sand & Gravel
Stone
Sand & Gravel
Lead
Stone (3)
Iron Ore
Copper
Sand & Gravel
Coal (Bituminous and
Lignite)
1972 PRODUCTION
QUANTITY
(1,000 Tons)
36,792
5,757
13,419
489
42,473
3,018
123
10,116
8,221
VALUE
$
33,454
16,318
16,133
147,113
63,219
(b:
126,064
17,149
16,690
MINERALS
Mangani Fe rous
Peat
Clays (Miscellaneous)
Clays
Stone
Magnesium Compounds
Barite
Clays <4)
Coal (Bituminous)
Copper
Sand & Gravel
Silver
Zinc
Clays ( )
Gold
Iron Ore (GW)
Lead
Manganese
Silver
Stone
Tungsten
Zinc
Clays (Miscellaneous)!
Gypsum >
Peat J
1972 PRODUCTION
QUANTITY
(1.0OO Tons)
119
(b)
(a)
1,919
1,135
(a)
213
2,571
4,551
12
10,082
1,972 (1)
62
304
24 0>
10
<1
<1
3,32s(1)
4,O74
(b)
< 1
(0)
VALUE
$
(b)
(b)
(a)
7,837
1,199
(a)
3,637
9,096
23,667
11,785
14,806
3,322
21,983
1,59O
1,390
(b)
86
(b)
5,603
5,627
(b)
4
(a)
>
I
KEY
(1) - Thousand Troy Ounces
(2) - 76 Pound Flasks
(3) - Excludes certain stone, itemized separately
(4) - Excludes certain clay, itemized separately
(5) - Excludes certain salt in brine, itemized
separately
(a) - Production figures and values not disclosed
(b) - Withheld to avoid disclosing individual
company confidential data
-------
Table A-3 Continued
MINERAL PRODUCTION, BY STATE
STATE
MONTANA
NEBRASKA
NEVADA
NEW
HAMPSHIRE
NEW JERSEY
PRINCIPAL
MINERALS
Sand & Gravel
Stone
Copper
Gold
Sand & Gravel
Diatomite
Sand & Gravel
Stone
Clays
Stone (3)
Sand & Gravel
1972 PRODUCTION
QUANTITY
(1,000 Tons)
13,720
4,251
101
420 0)
10,081
6,020
528
51
18,651
17,679
VALUE
$
15,063
7,645
103,545
24,597
12,636
6,256
3,743
70
53,083
38,O2O
MINERALS
Phosphate Rock
Stone
Clays
Barite
Clays
Gypsum
Iron Ore
Lead
Mercury
Silver
Stone
Tungsten
Zinc
Brucite
Diatomite
Magnesite
Molybdenum
Salt
Feldspar
Mica Scrap
Clays
Peat
1972 PRODUCTION
QUANTITY
(1,000 Tons)
(a)
115
317
40
860
(b)
<1
810(2)
595 0)
3,329
<1
-
(a)
(a)
(a)
212
(b)
VALUE
$
(a)
143
2,659
183
2,871
(b)
<1
177
1,003
5,926
(b)
_
(a)
(a)
(a)
856
(b)
KEY
I
CO
(1) - Thousand Troy Ounces
(2) - 76 Pound Flasks
(3) - Excludes certain stone, itemized separately
(4) - Excludes certain clay, itemized separately
(5) - Excludes certain salt in brine, itemized
separately
(a) - Production figures and values not disclosed
(b) - Withheld to avoid disclosing individual
company confidential data
-------
Table A-3 Continued
MINERAL. PRODUCTION, BY STATE
STATE
NEW JERSEY
NEW MEXICO
NEW YORK
PRINCIPAL
MINERALS
Zinc
Magnesium Compounc
Copper
Potassium Salt
Stone
Salt
Sand & Gravel
1972 PRODUCTION
QUANTITY I VALUE
(1,000 Tons) I $
38 13,524
s (a) (a)
168 172,067
2,296 91,115
38,138 77,825
5,604 43,866
26,722 36,952
MINERALS
Manganlferous T
Stone (Dimension) >
Titanium j
Clays (4)
Coal (Bituminous)
Feldspar
Gold
Gypsum
Iron Ore
Lead
Manganese
Peat
Salt
Sand & Gravel
Silver
Stone
Uranium
Zinc
Mica Scrap
Molybdenum
Stone
Clays (4)
Gypsum
Lead
Mercury
Peat
Silver
Zinc
1972 PRODUCTION
QUANTITY
(1,000 Tons)
(a)
65
8,248
-
150)
(b)
(b)
4
-
2
(b)
7,6OO
1,017O)
2,768
5
13
(a)
1,601
486
1
(b)
15
25 0)
(a)
VALUE
$
(a)
108
29,794
873
(b)
(b)
1,077
-
46
(b)
8,553
1,713
5,499
68,O91
4,521
(a)
1,919
3,O79
327
(b)
200
42
(o)
>
CO
KEY
(1) - Thousand Troy Ounces
(2) - 76 Pound Flasks
(3) - Excludes certain stone, itemized separately
(4) - Excludes certain clay, itemized separately
(5) - Excludes certain salt in brine, itemized
separately
(a) - Production figures and values not disclosed
(b) - Withheld to avoid disclosing individual
company confidential data
-------
Table A-3 Continued
MINERAL PRODUCTION, BY STATE
STATE
NEW YORK
N. CAROLINA
N. DAKOTA
OHIO
DDTMf~*TDA 1
K Kl NO 1 K/A L_
MINERALS
Stone
Sand & Gravel
Phosphate Rock
Coal (Lignite)
Sand & Gravel
Coal (Bituminous)
Stone
1972 PRODUCTION
QUANTITY
(1,000 Tons)
32,297
13,485
6,632
6,681
50,967
48,498
VALUE
$
62,741
14,615
13,416
5,757
303,819
90,821
A p\p\T-rTp\N| A 1
f~*i \J \J\. \ i \^J 1 NAA L_
MINERALS
Clays (Ball) T
Iron Ore >
Titanium J
Clays (4)
Feldspar
Mica Scrap
Mica Sheet
Clay (Kaolin)
Copper
Gold
Iron Ore
Lead
Phosphate Rock
Silver
Tungsten
Zinc
Stone
Clays ~l
Peat (1970-71) (
Salt J
Clays
Peat
Salt
Sand & Gravel
Gypsum
1972 PRODUCTION
QUANTITY
(1,000 Tons)
(a)
3,862
44O
91
(a)
_
(a)
4,125
4
6,147
43,506
(a)
VALUE
$
(a)
4,473
6,030
2,942
(a)
_
(a)
11,273
67
47 , 7 1 0
59,932
(a)
to
o
KEY
(1) - Thousand Troy Ounces
(2) - 76 Pound Flasks
(3) Excludes certain stone, Itemized separately
(4) - Excludes certain clay, itemized separately
(5) - Excludes certain salt in brine, itemized
separately
(a) - Production figures and values not disclosed
(b) - Withheld to avoid disclosing individual
company confidential data
-------
Table A-3 Continued
MINERAL. PRODUCTION, BV STATE
STATE
OKLAHOMA
OREGON
PA.
PRINCIPAL
MINERALS
Sand & Gravel
Stone
Coal
Stone
Sand & Gravel
Coal (Anthracite)
Coal (Bituminous)
1972 PRODUCTION
QUANTITY
(1,000 Tons)
24,489
10,915
67,3O7
18,757
7,106
75,939
VALUE
$
34,981
18,380
124,340
36,804
85,251
694,267
ADDITIONAL
MINERALS
Clays C4)
Coal (Bituminous)
Gypsum
Lead
Salt
Sand & Gravel
Stone
Clay (Bentonite) T
Copper i
Silver J
Clays
Copper ~l
Diatom ite /
Gold J
Lead
Mercury
Silver
Copper T
Bauxite
Clay (Fire) '
Tungsten J
Clays
Copper
Mica Scrap
Peat
Zinc
1972 PRODUCTION
QUANTITY
(1,000 Tons)
938
2,624
1,196
-
(b)
7,901
19,448
(a)
151
(b)
-
2(1)
(a)
2,682
3
(b)
22
18
VALUE
$
1,398
19,112
3,888
(b)
11,138
26,574
(a)
238
(b)
-
-
4
(a)
15,829
2,673
(b)
320
6,512
KEY
(1) - Thousand Troy Ounces
(2) - 76 Pound Flasks
(3) - Excludes certain stone, itemized separately
(4) - Excludes certain clay, itemized separately
(5) - Excludes certain salt in brine, itemized
separately
(a) - Production figures and values not disclosed
(b) - Withheld to avoid disclosing individual
company confidential data
-------
Table A-3 Continued
MINERAL PRODUCTION, BY STATE
STATE
PENNSYLVANIA
RHODE ISLAND
S. CAROLINA
S. DAKOTA
TENNESSEE
PRINCIPAL
MINERALS
Sand & Gravel
Stone (3)
Stone
Sand & Gravel
Clays
Gold
Sand & Gravel
Stone
Coal (Bituminous)
Stone
Zinc
1972 PRODUCTION
QUANTITY
(1,000 Tons)
2,079
329
12,482
7,916
2,221
407 (1)
12,748
2,665
11,260
35,942
102
VALUE
$
3,336
23
21,819
12,121
1 1 , 268
23,875
14,793
10,864
81,386
55,512
36,111
ADDITIONAL
MINERALS
Clay- Kaolin "J
Gold /
Iron Ore f
Silver J
Other Non-metals
Feldspar "J
Scrap Mica /
Peat f
Stone (Misc.) J
Clays (4)
Feldspar
Gypsum
Lead
Mica Scrap
Silver
Zinc
Uranium
Barite
Clays (4)
Copper
1972 PRODUCTION
QUANTITY
( 1,OOO Tons)
(a)
(a)
(a)
185
11
24
-
(b)
100 0)
-
(a)
(b)
1,718
11
VALUE
$
(a)
932
(a)
156
150
43
-
(b)
168
-
(a)
(b)
7,719
11,581
>
KEY
(1) - Thousand Troy Ounces
(2) - 76 Pound Flasks
(3) - Excludes certain stone, itemized separately
(4) - Excludes certain clay, itemized separately
(5) - Excludes certain salt in brine, itemized
separately
(a) - Production figures and values not disclosed
(b) - Withheld to avoid disclosing individual
company confidential data
-------
Table A-3 Continued
MINERAL PRODUCTION, BY STATE
STATE
TENNESSEE
TEXAS
UTAH
PRINCIPAL
MINERALS
Copper
Coal (Bituminous)
Gold
1972 PRODUCTION
QUANTITY
(1,000 Tons)
260
4,8O2
362 <1)
VALUE
$
265,735
42,868
21,237
ADDITIONAL
MINERALS
Gold
Phosphate Rock
Sand & Gravel
Silver
Clay (Fuller's Earth)
Clays
Coal (Lignite)
Gypsum
Salt
Sand & Gravel
Stone (4)
Sulfur
Iron Ore "",
Magnesium Compounds/
Mercury f
Uranium J
Clays (4)
Iron Ore
Lead
Manganiferous
Salt
Sand & Gravel
Silver
Stone
Tungsten
Uranium
1972 PRODUCTION
QUANTITY
(1,000 Tons)
<10)
2,154
10,839
83d)
(a)
5,175
4,045
1,542
9,744
35,151
49,314
4,3O9
(a)
266
2,003
21
-
66O
14,619
4,3OO(1)
3,384
(b)
<1
VALUE
$
10
10,732
15,328
141
(a)
11,554
(b)
5,284
36,544
56,328
66,573
(b)
(a)
79O
(b)
6,224
-
4,955
17,071
7,245
6,O05
(b)
9,425
CO
KEY
(1) - Thousand Troy Ounces
(2) - 76 Pound Flasks
(3) - Excludes certain stone, Itemized separately
(4) - Excludes certain clay, itemized separately
(5) - Excludes certain salt in brine, itemized
separately
(a) - Production figures and values not disclosed
(b) - Withheld to avoid disclosing individual
company confidential data
-------
Table A-3 Continued
MINERAL PRODUCTION, BY STATE
ro
STATE
UTAH
VERMONT
VIRGINIA
WASHINGTON
DDT M^">T D A 1
PKINOIPAL
MINERALS
Stone
Sand & Gravel
Coal (Bituminous)
Stone
Sand & Gravel
Sand & Gravel
Stone (3)
Coal (Bituminous)
1972 PRODUCTION
QUANTITY
(1,000 Tons)
3,300
3,302
34,028
39,986
14,085
23,065
14,712
2,635
VALUE
$
26,170
3,214
344,061
74,090
21 ,696
26,069
23,764
17,424
AnriTTTOMA 1
A^l ' L^l 1 H^I^^^L
MINERALS
Zinc
Clays (Miscellaneous)
Gypsum
Magnesium Compounds
Molybdenum
Phosphate Rock
Potash
Peat
Clays
Clays
Lead
Zinc
Feldspar "1
Gypsum /
Iron Ore 7
Salt \
Titanium J
Clays (4)
Copper
Gypsum
Lead
Peat
Silver
Zinc
1972 PRODUCTION
QUANTITY
(1,000 Tons)
22
(a)
<1
(a)
1,634
3
17
(a)
264
(b)
5
3
18
221 (1)
6
VALUE
$
7,758
(a)
1
(a)
1,783
1,034
5,960
(a)
584
(b)
13
772
89
372
2,301
KEY
(1) - Thousand Troy Ounces
(2) - 76 Pound Flasks
(3) - Excludes certain stone, itemized separately
(4) - Excludes certain clay, itemized separately
(5) - Excludes certain salt in brine, itemized
separately
(a) - Production figures and values not disclosed
(b) - Withheld to avoid disclosing individual
company confidential data
-------
Table A-3 Continued
MINERAL PRODUCTION, BY STATE
STATE
WASHINGTON
W. VIRGINIA
WISCONSIN
WYOMING
DDTKI^TDA 1
r" Kl Nv^ I rV^L
MINERALS
Coal (Bituminous)
Stone C3)
Sand & Gravel
Stone
Iron Ore (GW)
Uranium
1972 PRODUCTION
QUANTITY
(1,000 Tons)
123,743
11,649
36,430
19,394
993
4
VALUE
$
1,275,812
21,29!:
31,324
29,681
(b)
53,827
Ar"M"MT₯/"^N.IA t
MUU1 1 lwlNAl_
MINERALS
Bauxite ~j
Clays (Miscellaneous)/
Diatomite I
Gold \
Uranium J
Clays <4>
Salt
Sand & Gravel
Clay (Fire)
Stone (3)
Clays
Lead
Peat
Zinc
Clays
Coal (Bituminous)
Gypsum
Iron Ore
Sand & Gravel
Stone
Copper T
Feldspar /
Gold f
Phosphate Rock J.
1972 PRODUCTION
QUANTITY
(1,000 Tons}
(a)
274
1,232
5,765
(a)
(a)
4
<1
2
7
1,873
1O, 928
(b)
2,274
9,098
3,549
(a)
VALUE
$
(a)
403
5,963
15,031
(a)
(a)
7
228
179
2,440
18,5O9
4O.898
(b)
(b)
14,916
5,768
(a)
ib
Ol
Adapted From Reference No. 78
(1) - Thousand Troy Ounces
(2) - 76 Pound Flasks
(3) - Excludes certain stone, itemized separately
(4) - Excludes certain clay, itemized separately
KE V
(5) - Excludes certain salt in brine, itemized
separately
(a) - Production figures and values not disclosed
(b) - Withheld to avoid disclosing individual
company confidential data
-------
Table A-4
MINERAL PRODUCTION AND
PRODUCING STATES, BY COMMODITY
MINERALS
U)
J
<
h
llJ
5
Bauxite
Copper
Gold
Iron Ore
Lead
Manganese
Mercury
Molybdenum
Silver
Titanium
1972
PRODUCTION
TONS
2,029,440
1,664,840
1,449,943(1)
87,230,080
618,915
147,739
7,286(2)
51,099
37,233,OOO(1)
725,728
PRINCIPAL
PRODUCING STATES
Ark. , Ala. , Ga. ,
Ariz . , Utah . , N . Mex . ,
Mont.
Nev., S.Dak., Utah,
Ariz.
Minn., Mich., Calif.,
Mo.
Mo., Idaho, Colo.,
Utah.
Mont.
Calif., Nev., Alaska
Idaho.
Colo., Ariz., N. Mex.,
Utah.
Idaho, Ariz., Utah, Colo.
NY. , Fla. , N.J., Ga.
SECONDARY
PRODUCING STATES
Calif., Colo., Idaho,
Maine, Mich., Md.,
Nev., Okla., Oreg.,
Pa . , Tenn . , Wash .
Alaska, Calif., Colo.,
Idaho, Mont., N. Mex.,
Oregon, Tenn., Wash.
Ala., Arizo., Colo.,
Ga., Idaho, Mont.,
Nev., N. Mex., NY.,
Nc., Pa., Tex., Utah,
Wise . , Wyo .
Ariz., Calif., III.,
Maine, Mont., Nev.,
N . Mex . , NY . , Va . ,
Wash . , Wise .
NY, Texas
Calif., Nev.
Alaska, Calif., III.,
Maine,, Mich., Mo.,
Mont., Nev., N. Mex.
NY., Okla., Oregon,
S. Dak., Tenn., Wash.
Adapted from Reference No. 78
KEY
NA - NOT APPLICABLE
(1) - VALUES ARE SHOWN IN TROY OUNCES
(2) - VALUE IS SHOWN IN 76 POUND FLASKS
(3) - MAGNESIUM COMPOUNDS FROM SEA WATER & BRINE
(4) - EXCLUDES ABRASIVE STONE, BITUMINOUS LIMESTONE,
BITUMINOUS SANDSTONE, AND SOAPSTONE
A-26
-------
Table A-4 Continued
(I)
J
<
h
u
5
in
_i
<
h
y
§
z
o
z
MINERALS
Tungsten
Uranium
Zinc
Barite
Boron
Clays
Diatomite
Feldspar
Gypsum
Magnesite and
Brucite
1972
PRODUCTION
TONS
7,401
12,879
478,318
906,000
1,121,000
59,456,000
576,089
732,439
12,328,000
NA
NA
PRINCIPAL
PRODUCING STATES
Calif., Colo., Nov.,
Mont.
N . Mex . , Wyo . , Tex . ,
Col.
Tenn., Colo., Mo.,
NY.
Nev., Mo., Ark.,
Alaska.
Calif.
Ga., Tex., Ohio, N.C.
Calif., Nev., Wash.,
Ariz.
N.C., Calif., Conn.,
B.C.
Mich., Tex., Calif.,
Iowa.
Nev.
SECONDARY
Ariz., Idaho, Oregon,
Utah, Wash.
Alaska, S. Dak., Utah,
Wash,
Ariz., Calif., Idaho,
III,, Ky., Maine, Mont.,
N.J., N. Mex., Okla.,
Pa., Utah, Va., Wash.,
Wise.
Calif., Ga., Tenn.
All States Except;
Alaska, R.I., Vt.
Oregon
Ariz., Colo., Ga.,
S. Dak., Wyo.
Ariz., Ark., Colo.,
Ind., Kansas, La.,
Mont., Nev., N. Mex.,
NY., Ohio, Okla.,
S. Dak., Utah, Va.,
Wash., Wyo.
Adapted from Reference No. 78
KEY
NA - NOT APPLICABLE
(1) - VALUES ARE SHOWN IN TROY OUNCES
(2) - VALUE IS SHOWN IN 76 POUND FLASKS
(3) - MAGNESIUM COMPOUNDS FROM SEA WATER & BRINE
(4) - EXCLUDES ABRASIVE STONE, BITUMINOUS LIMESTONE,
BITUMINOUS SANDSTONE, AND SOAPSTONE
A-27
-------
Table A-4 Continued
MINERALS
(/)
J
<
h
lil
s
z
0
z
FOSSIL FUELS
Magnesium
Compounds
Mica
Phosphate Rock
Potassium Salt
Salt
Sand & Gravel
Stone
Sulfur
Coal (Bituminous
and Lignite)
Coal (Anthracite)
Peat
Shale Oil
1972
PRODUCTION
TONS
729,472C3)
160,007
40,831,000
2,659,000
45,022,000
913,375,OOO
923,852,OOOW
8,526,560
595,386,000
7,106,000
607,000
Currently Not
Being Commer-
cially Produced
PRINCIPAL
PRODUCING STATES
Texas, Utah, Mich.,
Calif., Fla., N.J.
N.C., Ala., Ga., S.C.,
Colo.
Fla., Idaho, Tenn.,
N.C.
N. Mex., Calif., Utah
La., Tex., Ohio, NY.
Calif., Mich., Ohio,
III.
Pa., III., Fla., Tex.
Tex . , La .
W.Va. , Ky., Pa., III.,
Pa.
Mich., III., Fla., Ind.
SECONDARY
PRODUCING STATES
Del . , Miss . , Texas ,
Utah.
Ariz . , Conn . , N . Mex . ,
Pa., S. Dak.
Mont., Utah, Wyo.
Ala., Calif., Colo.,
Hawaii, Kansas, Mich.,
Nev., N. Mex., N. Dak.,
Okla., Utah, Va., W. Va.
All Other States
All Except Dela.
Ala., Alaska, Ariz.,
Ark. , Colo. , Ind.,
Iowa, Kansas, Md., Mo.,
Mont., N. Mex., N.Dak,,
Ohio, Okla., Tenn.,
Tex., Utah, Va., Wash.,
Wyo.
Calif., Colo., Ga.,
Iowa, Maine, Md.,
Mass., Minn., Mont.,
N.J., N. Mex., NY.,
Ohio, Pa., S.C., Vt.
Wash . , Wise .
Adapted from Reference No. 78
KEY
NA - NOT APPLICABLE
(1) - VALUES ARE SHOWN IN TROY OUNCES
(2) - VALUE IS SHOWN IN 76 POUND FLASKS
(3) - MAGNESIUM COMPOUNDS FROM SEA WATER & BRINE
(4) - EXCLUDES ABRASIVE STONE, BITUMINOUS LIMESTONE,
BITUMINOUS SANDSTONE, AND SOAPSTONE
A-28
-------
Table A-5
NUMBER OF MINES IN 1972 BY COMMODITY
AND MAGNITUDE OF CRUDE ORE PRODUCTION^1)
3
<
LJ
MINERALS
Bauxite
Copper
Gold:
Lode
Placer
Iron Ore
Lead
Mercury
Silver
Titanium
Tungsten
Uranium
Zinc
Total
No. of
Mines
16
73
29
42
58
29
19
49
6
39
189
32
Number oP Mines Producing
Less than
10.000T.
3
18
22
34
9
12
16
41
-
37
111
2
10,000 to
100, 000 T.
9
9
3
7
4
3
3
6
-
1
61
9
100,000 to
1,000, 000 T.
4
15
2
1
15
9
-
2
-
1
17
21
1,000,000 to
10, 000, 000 T.
23
2
-
26
5
-
-
6
-
-
More than
10,000,000 T.
8
_
-
4
-
-
-
-
-
-
TOTAL 581 305 115 87 62 12
in
<
k
5
Z
J
UJ
D
U.
55
w
Barite
Boron
Clays
Diatomite
Feldspar
Gypsum
Mica Scrap
Mica Sheet
Phosphate R.
Potassium S.
Salt
Sand & Gravel
Stone:
Crushed
Dimension
TOTAL
Coal
TOTAL
o
1.
GRAND TOTAL
30
2
1,064
11
22
65
18
1
45
7
18
6,694
4,448
391
12,812
9,758
9,758
23,151
3
-
317
4
5
6
9
1
6
-
2
1,125
1,007
359
2,844
1,310
1,310
4,459
11
1
579
6
12
15
7
-
7
-
1
3,365
1,718
32
5,754
2,562
2,562
8,431
16
-
168
1
5
44
2
-
12
-
8
2,O98
1,550
"
3,904
924
924
4,915
__
1
-
-
-
-
-
-
18
7
7
102
172
307
83
83
452
_
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
2
1
3
-
-
15
Adapted From Reference No. 36, 78
(1) Excludes wells, ponds, or pumping operations
A-29
-------
LEGEND
BAUXITE
HIGH-ALUMINA
CLAYS
ALUNITE
(HIGH GRADE)
Figure A-l. Bauxite and other sources of aluminum reserves.
-------
Adapted from illustration in
Keystone Coal Industry Manual
(1974 Edition)
LEGEND
BITUMINOUS
DEPOSITS
SUB-BITUMINOUS
DEPOSITS
Figure A-2. Sources of bituminous S sub-bituminous coal reserves.
-------
LEGEND
ANTHRACITE
Adopted from illustration in
Keystone Coal Industry Manual
(1974 Edition)
SCATTERED
LIGNITE
Figure A-3. Sources of anthracite 8 lignite coal reserves.
-------
Figure A-4. Sources of copper reserves.
-------
Adapted From
Reference No.
Figure A-5. Sources of gold reserves.
-------
<&>
CJ1
LEGEND
MEASURED RESERVES
O POTENTIAL RESERVES
INFERRED RESERVES
Figure A-6. Sources of iron ore reserves.
-------
»«.;
°Po
o*f
/A
°Nr.
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CO
0)
r- f '
/ / '~^./__^
) /
\ \ -°
r"" \
V *w
k N'O
\ \
OS
rn.
'S4HO
^^
"r~-~(
1 y
' ur4H
o
\ r *«~*
!_
r-J---
f
,oP_/»
'N M
N.D.
$ 0
NEB.
K*N
: OKIA.
k
TEXAS
fAt
MINN.
"?. f
'«=^
WIS
"S
IOWA
^AiCH.
INC. i OHIO
«< te^
r k j/
».»
..W.
MO.
Kt
N.C.
ARK
S
^ ? I \ \
!- AMISS- i ALA. \ GA'
\ / ! \
j LA. ( , i r JN -vJ
SC.
^
LEGEND
^ MAJOR RESERVES
O MODERATE RESERVES
<=i>
FLA.
^
.t?
HI.
Adapted From
Reference No. 77
Figure A-7. Sources of lead reserves
-------
Adapted From
Reference No.
Figure A-8. Sources of manganese reserves.
-------
00
03
Adapted From
Reference No. 77
Figure A-9. Sources of mercury reserves.
-------
>
(0
Figure A-IO. Sources of mica reserves
-------
Adapted From
Reference No. 77
LEGEND
MOLYBDENUM DEPOSITS
BY-PRODUCT
MOLYBDENUM DEPOSITS
LOW-YIELD DEPOSITS
Figure A-ll. Sources of molybdenum reserves.
-------
Adapted from illustration
Coal Age publication
Figure A-12. Sources of oil shale reserves.
-------
>
Figure A-13. Sources of phosphate rock reserves.
-------
I
Figure A-14. Sources of potash reserves.
-------
i
Figure A-15. Sources of salt reserves.
-------
i
OI
1 -AMISS. A1>. X
Figure A-16. Sources of silver reserves
-------
i
0)
Adapted From
Reference No.
LEGEND
PYRITE DEPOSITS
O NATIVE SULFUR
DEPOSITS
BY-PRODUCT
PYRITE DEPOSITS
Figure A-17 Sources of sulfur and pyrite reserves
-------
>
4
LEGEND
RUTILE DEPOSITS
O ILMENITE DEPOSITS
TITANIFEROUS MAG-
NETITE DEPOSITS
Figure A-18. Sources of titanium reserves.
-------
4^
00
Figure A-19. Sources of tungsten reserves.
-------
Adapted from illustration in
Coal Age publication (April 1974]
LEGEND
V////////A KNOWN RESERVES
POTENTIAL RESERVES
Figure A-20. Sources of uranium reserves.
-------
A.
o
t Lf
\ \ S.C-
Adopted From
Reference No. 77
LEGEND
MAJOR RESERVES
O MODERATE RESERVES
MAJOR LOW-
GRADE RESERVES
Figure A-21. Sources of zinc reserves
-------
APPENDIX B
SYNOPSIS OF SELECTED STATE
ABANDONED MINED LANDS PROGRAMS
-------
ILLINOIS ABANDONED MINED LAND RECLAMATION PROGRAM
Illinois coal fields have been extensively inventoried through
the joint efforts of the Department of Mines and Minerals, Institute
for Environmental Quality and the Cooperative Wildlife Research
Laboratory - Southern Illinois University at Carbondale. Using
expert state and university personnel and consultants, the inventory
began in 1970 and concluded in 1973. Objectives of the study included:
determination of acreage, ownership, condition and utilization of
lands affected by surface mining-, development of cost-effective
alternative reclamation plans; design and development of demonstra-
tion projects that would establish and verify reclamation costs and
technological feasibility of alternative reclamation methods; and to
develop and apply data collection and management systems.
Aerial photographs and various mine, plot, and highway maps
were used to locate surface mined areas. Extensive field investiga-
tions were conducted by ground crews to gather detailed water and
terrestrial quality data. Results of study defined some 42,000 hec-
tares (103,000 acres) of land as having been mined prior to 1962
(when the first surface mining statute was enacted). Of this total, ap-
proximately 7200 hectares (17,800 acres) were identified as problem
areas.
Early in 1975, the Illinois General Assembly passed the Aban-
doned Mined Lands Reclamation Act. The Act provides for restoration
of lands affected by surface or underground mining prior to January 1,
1962.
An Abandoned Mined Lands Reclamation Council was also
created by the Act. Council memberships consist of directors of the
Departments of Mines and Minerals, Conservation, Agriculture, Busi-
ness and Economic Development, Local Government Affairs, En-
vironmental Protection, and Illinois Institute for Environmental Qual-
ity. The Lieutenant Governor serves as chairman of the Council.
The Council is responsible for designating the abandoned lands
to be acquired and reclaimed by the Department of Mines and Minei
als as well as establishing priority areas for acquisition.
A-52
-------
MARYLAND ABANDONED MINE DRAINAGE CONTROL PROGRAM
In 1970 the Maryland General Assembly passed the Abandoned
Mine Drainage Control Act which authorized the Secretary of Natural
Resources to:
a. "acquire and rehabilitate land occupied or degraded by
any abandoned deep or strip mine to prevent the land
from contributing to water pollution and take whatever
other measures are necessary to prevent, control, and
abate water pollution from any abandoned mining areas."
b. "implement the provisions of the act by methods includ-
ing, but not limited to, backfilling, grading, revegetat-
ing abandoned strip mines, sealing abandoned deep mines,
and controlling erosion and water drainage."
The Secretary of Natural Resources subsequently assigned the
operational aspects of the program to the Water Resources Admini-
stration. The act atso designated the Department of General Services
to supervise matters of land acquisition, construction to be performed,
engineering plans and specifications, listing of contracts and payment
relating thereto.
The Abandoned Mine Drainage Control Act authorized a State
loan of five million dollars ($5,000,000) known as the Mine Reclamation
and Water Quality Restoration Loan of 1970. The Board of Public
Works administers loan expenditures which are specifically designated
for contractual services, land acquisition, construction and related
expenses.
Initial planning and watershed priority establishment was con-
ducted by Water Resources staff. Consultants were then retained to
conduct abandoned mine drainage control feasibility surveys in the
top five priority watersheds designated by Water Resources.
To date, approximately $800,000 has been expended to ac-
complish comprehensive inventories and analyses of drainage sources
in five watersheds. Federal assistance totaling $122,500 has been
utilized for watershed studies and an additional $2,429,000 of federal
grants will supplement state funds for engineering plans and construc-
tion in the top five priority watershed areas.
A-53
-------
PENNSYLVANIA OPERATION SCAR LIFT
On January 19, 1968 the Pennsylvania Legislature approved
the Land and Water Conservation and Reclamation Act. Section 16
of this Act provided for the expenditure of $200 million over a ten
year period for mine area restoration. Of this total, $150 million
was designated for prevention, control and elimination of stream pol-
lution from mine drainage, $20 million for prevention, control and
elimination of air pollution from abandoned burning coal refuse banks
provided such land and bank material is publicly owned, and $30 mil-
lion for the prevention of surface subsidence above abandoned mine
operations, for the control and extinguishment of surface and under-
ground fires from abandoned mines.
Although the Act requires public ownership only in the case
of burning refuse banks and the land on which they are situated, there
are provisions also for filing liens on private property on which any
work is accomplished under this Act.
Funds under this Act are used directly by the Department of
Environmental Resources for studies, planning, design, construction,
and administration of the specified reclamation itemsgrants on
loans are not authorized. Expenditures and/or commitments to date
are:
Millions
Stream Pollution Abatement $82.0
Air Pollution Control (Refuse Bank Fire) 19.5
Underground Fires and Subsidence Control 29.5
$131.0
The acid mine drainage program is implemented in four basic
steps. First, a watershed study is conducted on those watersheds
where past mining has resulted in polluted streams from mine drain-
age. After careful analysis of the study, those recommended proj-
ects that are deemed to make significant contributions to the abate-
ment of mine drainage within a reasonable cost are further defined.
Scopes of work for these selected projects are then sent for detailed
design.
During the design period, action is taken to obtain necessary
real estate easements and releases. This has proved to be a major
A-54
-------
restraint in the program because of the unwillingness of some land-
owners to permit reclamation projects on their lands.
Once design and real estate actions are completed, the proj-
ects are then publicly advertised for construction bids. Upon com-
pletion of construction, a post-construction monitoring program is
initiated. This program seeks to evaluate the success of the project.
VIRGINIA ORPHANED LAND RECLAMATION PROGRAM
The Virginia Orphaned Land Reclamation Program began
July 11, 1972, and is administered by the Department of Conservation
and Economic Development, Division of Mined Land Reclamation.
An Orphaned Land Advisory Committee was also created to advise
the Division of Reclamation on reclaiming orphaned lands and es-
tablishing reclamation priorities. Committee membership is com-
posed of private citizens from the coal fields.
The Program is funded by coal surface mining permit fees and
renewal fees. These fees are $30 per hectare ($12 per acre) for each
permitted and $15 per hectare ($6 per acre) renewal fee for each undis-
turbed acre. As funds are accumulated, areas of high priority are pre-
sented to the Orphaned Land Advisory Committee for their approval.
Since enactment of the Program, the Division of Reclamation
has located and plotted on USGS topographic maps the location of oi
phaned mined sites in Virginia's coal fields. Reclamation has been
completed on approximately 85 hectares (210 acres). Some 7300
hectares (18,000 acres) have been identified as needing reclamation.
KENTUCKY ORPHAN LAND RECLAMATION PROGRAM
In 1972 the Kentucky General Assembly established a revolving
fund to reclaim orphaned strip mine land. The Legislature provided
$500,000 to implement the program and added $1 million in 1974. The
goal of the Orphaned Lands Program is to restore the land to produc-
tive use for recreation, conservation, industrial, residential and
agricultural purposes. The land is to be purchased, reclaimed and
A-55
-------
then resold for private use and the money returned to the revolving
fund for purchase of more land.
To date, approximately 270 hectares (670 acres) have been
purchased from coal companies 105 hectares (260 acres) in
Muhlenberg County near Greenville and 166 hectares (410 acres) in
Hopkins County near Earlington. The two sites are being reclaimed
in a pilot project sponsored by the U.S. Department of Labor, its
Job Corps Training Program, and the Kentucky Department for
Natural Resources and Environmental Protection. Some 44,500
hectares (110,000 acres) of abandoned strip mine land will be en-
compassed in the total program.
Contact Person:
Wendal Van Hoose
Division of Special Programs
Department of Natural Resources and
Environmental Protection
5th Floor
Capital Plaza Tower
Frankfort, Kentucky 40601
Telephone: (502) 564-7274
OHIO LAND REBORN
At the time of enactment of Ohio's 1972 Strip Mine Law, the
Ohio General Assembly also created a Board on Unreclaimed Strip
Mined Lands. As a part of that law, the Board was established to
guide restoration of lands and waters affected by coal mining prior
to 1972. More specifically the Board was charged with responsibility
of "gathering information, studying and making recommendations
concerning the number of acres, location, ownership, condition,
environmental damage resulting from the condition, cost of acquiring
and reclaiming to the standards in the 1972 Ohio Strip Mine Law,
and possible future uses and value of eroded lands within the State,
including land affected by strip mining for which no cash is held in
the Strip Mining Reclamation Fund (fortified performance bonds)."
The objectives established for the study included basic data
development (physical and biological, land use, and socio-economic
A-56
-------
characteristics), determination of potential land uses, estimation of
land values, development of reclamation costs, determination of
legal tools available to the State and private interests in reclaiming
land, and development of public grant/private financing opportunities.
Acting through the Department of Natural Resources, the
Board assembled a team of professionals in the needed project
disciplines, and began work on the different project tasks so that
results of the study (named Land Reborn) could be submitted to
Ohio General Assembly for their approval on January 1, 1974. The
multidisciplined team of consultant firms and State experts pro-
ceeded with a number of tasks. High level aerial photography was
made to identify the mined lands. More than 3,000 aerial photo-
graphs were taken to produce 253 photomaps outlining the mined
lands. Field crews collected ground data and gathered water samples.
The entire 28,500 square kilometer (11,000 square mile) area of
the coal field was divided into 79 watersheds for ease of handling the
amount of data being accumulated and to provide sensible working
units within this large total area.
Appraisers gathered information on current land values be-
fore and after reclamation. Public land ownership was defined. Fac-
tors such as development demand, economic need, visual quality,
and public visibility were incorporated. Cost estimates were made
for all of the required reclamation work.
Potential sources of funding were explored, implementation
procedures developed, and a series of reclamation priorities were
defined. Funds for the study were appropriated out of monies in the
state treasury for the sum of $250,000. Additional revenues for
abatement and reclamation projects are to be secured from a sever-
ance tax on natural resources.
Feasibility studies for high priority watersheds are antici-
pated to begin within the next year.
A-57
-------
APPENDIX C
GLOSSARY
-------
GLOSSARY
Abatement - Elimination of pollutional effects upon the aquatic en-
vironment caused by mine drainage.
Alkaline - Having the qualities of a base; i.e. , a pH above 7.0.
Alluvial - Describes earth materials that have recently (geologic
time scale) been deposited by moving water.
Aquatic^- Of or relating to water.
Aquifer - A water-bearing stratum of permeable rock, sand, or
gravel.
Apex - The top of terminal edge of a mineral vein on the surface or its
nearest point to the surface.
^ - Any drilling device in which the cuttings are mechanically
and continuously removed from a borehole without the use of
fluids.
Backfilling - The transfer of previously moved material back into
an excavation such as mine, ditch, or against a constructed
obj ect .
Bench - A level layer of earth or rock adjacent to a surface mine
site.
Bucket Wheel Excavator - A continuous digging machine originally
designed and used in large-scale stripping and mining of East
German brown coal deposits. Its digging mechanism is essen-
tially a boom on which is mounted a rotating vertical wheel
having buckets on its periphery. As the rotating wheel is pres-
sed into the material to be dug, the buckets cut, gather, and
discharge the material onto a conveyor belt where it is moved
to the mined-materials transport system .
A-60
-------
Bulldozer; dozer - A tractor on the front end of which is mounted a
vertically curved steel blade held at a fixed distance by arms
secured on a pivot or shaft near the horizontal center of the
tractor. The blade can be lowered or tilted vertically by
cables or hydraulic rams. It is a highly versatile piece of
earth excavating and moving equipment especially useful in
land clearing and leveling work, in stripping topsoil, in road
and ramp building and in floor or bench cleanup and gathering
operations.
Condemnation - The act of judicially declaring land convertible to
public use under the right of eminent domain.
Contour Regrading - A technique which involves regrading a mine
to a shape that closely resembles original land contour.
Deep Mine - An underground mine.
Dip - The angle at which a plane (usually a rock bedding plane) is
inclined from the horizontal.
Dragline - A type of excavating equipment which casts a rope-hung
bucket a considerable distance, collects the dug material by
pulling the bucket toward itself on the ground with a second
rope, elevates the bucket, and dumps the material on a spoil
bank, in a hopper, or on a pile.
Dredge - Any apparatus used for excavating under water. Usually
a large raft, barge, or boat on which is mounted a chain of
buckets, suction pumps, or other devices to dig and elevate
the materials from a subaqueous deposit.
Drift - A deep mine entry driven directly into a horizontal or near
horizontal mineral seam or vein when it outcrops or is exposed
at the ground surface.
Effluent - Any water flowing out of the ground or from an enclosure
to the surface flow network.
Eminent Domain - A right of government to take private property for
public use through its sovereign power over all lands within its
jurisdiction.
A-61
-------
EPA - Abbreviation for Environmental Protection Agency.
Erosion - Process whereby solids are removed from their original
location on the land surface by hydraulic or wind action.
Exploration - The work involved in gaining a knowledge of the
size, shape, position, and value of an ore body.
Front End Loader - A tractor loader with a digging bucket mounted
and operated at the front end of the tractor.
Gob - Rock that has a high carbon content - usually referring to
dark colored mining waste material.
Haul Road - A road built to carry heavily loaded trucks. The grade
is limited on this type of road and usually kept to less than 17
percent of climb in direction of load movement.
Head (of water) - Water pressure expressed as the feet of elevation
difference between the top of the water and the point at which
the pressure is exerted.
Highwall - The exposed vertical or near vertical wall associated with
strip or area surface mines.
Hydraulic Giant - A device for directing a high-pressure jet of water
in hydraulic mining. It is essentially a swivel-mounted, counter-
weighted nozzle attached to a tripod or other type of stand and so
designed that one man can easily control and direct the vertical
and lateral movements of the nozzle.
Hydrology - The science that relates to the water systems of the
earth.
Impoundment - A body of water formed by collecting and confining
water, as in a reservoir.
Infiltration - Water entering the ground water system through the
land surface.
Inundate - To cover with or submerge in water.
A-62
-------
Leaching - Extraction of a mineral from an ore by selectively dis-
solving it in a suitable solvent.
Lien - A charge upon real or personal property for the satisfaction
of some debt or duty ordinarily having arisen from an operation
of law.
Litigation - A legal contest conducted through judicial processes.
Mining - The process of obtaining useful minerals from the earth's
crust which includes both underground excavations and surface
workings.
Mulching - The addition, of materials (usually organic) to the land
surface to curtail erosion or retain soil moisture.
Neutralization - The process of adding an acid or alkaline material
to waste water to adjust its pH to a neutral position.
Ore - A mineral deposit that can be recovered at a profit under the
existing economic conditions.
Outcrop - The surface exposure of bedrock or strata.
Outslope - The face of a strip mine bench or spoil pile opposite the
highwall.
Overburden - The nonsalable rock material that overlies a mineable
mineral.
Parameter - Any of a set of physical properties whose values deter-
mine the characteristics or behavior of something.
pH -The negative logarithm to the base ten of the hydrogen ion ac-
tivity.. pH7 is considered neutral. Above 7 is basic - below 7
is acidic.
Photogrammetrics - The process of creating topographical mapping
from stereo aerial photographs.
Placer Deposit- Unconsolidated deposits of detrital material con-
taining valuable mineral.
A-63
-------
Pollution - Environmental degradation from man's activities.
Pyrites -Any of various metallic-looking sulfides of which Ferrous
Sulftde (pyrite) is the most common.
Radioactive - Of, caused by, or exhibiting the property possessed
by some elements (uranium) of spontaneously emitting alpha,
beta or gamma rays by the disintegration of the nuclear of atoms.
Raise - A vertical or inclined opening driven upward from a level
to connect with the level above, or to explore the ground for a
limited distance above one level.
Reclamation - The procedures by which a disturbed area can be
reworked to make it productive, useful, non-polluting or
aesthetically pleasing. Reclamation does not necessarily imply
return of the land to its original physical state or condition.
Refuse - Rock that has a high carbon content - usually refers to the
dark colored mining waste extracted from underground mines.
Rehabilitation - A process whereby the land will be returned to a
form and productivity in conformity with a prior land use plan
including a stable ecological state that does not contribute
substantially to environmental deterioration and is consistent
with surrounding aesthetic values.
Reserve - That portion of the actual identified resources material
which can be economically and legally extracted at the time of
determination.
Resource - Material known to exist in the earth's crust or judged by
geologic inference and extrapolation as likely to exist.
Restoration - Return of a disturbed area to its former configura-
tion or physical state to increase usefulness, productivity and
aesthetic quality while reducing pollution.
Riprap - Rough stone of various sizes placed compactly or irregularly
to prevent erosion.
A-64
-------
RunofF - That part of precipitation that flows over the land surface
from the area upon which it falls.
Scarification - Decreasing the smoothness of the land surface.
Scraper - A self-loading carrier device with a scraperlike, re-
tractable bottom, sometimes self-propelled and used especially
for excavating and hauling unconsolidated or crushed rock and
earthy materials.
Sediment - Solid material settled from suspension in a liquid medium.
Settling Pond - A holding or retention pond which provides sufficient
residence time to allow the precipitation of suspended solids.
Shovel - Any bucket-equipped machine used for digging and loading
earthy or fragmented rock materials.
Silt (Sediment) - Solid material settled from suspension of a liquid
medium.
Slope Stability - The resistance of any inclined surface, as the wall of
an open pit or cut, to failure by sliding or collapsing.
Slugging - The sudden increase in concentration of stream pollutants,
such as silt, acid, iron, or sulfate, resulting from heavy rainfall
rapidly washing the leached pollutants from the land surface
and underground mines.
Sluicing - A separation of minerals in a flowing stream of water.
Spiral System - In open-pit mining, a haul road arranged spirally
along the perimeter walls of the pit so that gradient of road is
more or less uniform from bottom to the top of the pit.
Spoil Material -The waste material removed from the strip cut that
is not considered a useful product.
Spoil Pile - The area where mine waste or spoil materials are dis-
posed or piled.
A-65
-------
Stope - An excavation from which ore has been extracted. The
term stoping is commonly applied to the extraction of ore, but
does not include the ore removed in sinking shafts and in driving
levels, drifts and other development openings.
Strike - The horizontal course or bearing of an. inclined bed, stratum,
or vein; the direction of a horizontal line in the plane of an in-
clined bed, stratum, or vein.
Strip Mine - A surface mine where the overburden is removed to
expose the mineable material.
Stripping - The removal of earth or non-ore rock material as re-
quired to gain access to the ore or mineral materials wanted;
the process of removing overburden or waste material in a sur-
face mining operation.
Stripping Ratio - The unit amount of spoil or waste that must be
removed to gain access to a similar unit amount of ore or min-
eral material.
Subsidence - The surface depression over an underground mine that
has been created by subsurface caving.
Surface Mine - A mine facility that is generally conducted from the
land surface. It does not have a. mineral roof.
Tailings - Mineral refuse from a milling operation usually deposited
from a water medium.
Terrace Regrading - Reclamation technique whereby the highwall is
reduced and a terrace is formed.
Terrestrial - Of or relating to land.
Topography -The configuration of a surface including its relief
and the position of its natural and man-made features.
Underdrain - A pervious backfilled trench containing a pipe or stone
for the purpose of intercepting ground water or seepage.
USGS -Abbreviation for United States Geological Survey.
A-66
-------
Vein - A mineralized zone having a more or less regular develop-
ment in length, width, and depth to give it a tabular form and
commonly inclined at a considerable angle to the horizontal.
Watershed - Surface region or area contributing to the supply of
a stream or lake; drainage area, drainage basin, catchment area.
Yellowboy - The unsightly, orange-red or yellow precipitate of
ferric sulfate and hydroxide observed in many streams polluted
by mine drainage.
A-67
-------
APPENDIX D
REFERENCES
-------
REFERENCES
1 . Abar, Anthony F, , Water Resources Administration, Mary-
land Department of Natural Resources, Personal Communica-
tion, April 23, 1975.
2. Albright, Timothy A. , "The Hidden Costs of Strip Mining: A
Socio-Economic Study of Belmont County, Ohio", Case Western
Reserve University, January, 1971 .
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A-71
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A-77
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APPENDIX E
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This report was prepared by Skelly and Loy Engineers and
Consultants, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania (Contract No. 68-01-2655).
This report was submitted to the office of Water and Hazardous Ma-
terials Programs -Water Planning Division.
Project Officers for U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
were Edgar A. Pash and Charles P. Vanderlyn. The assistance and
cooperation received from representatives of all Federal, State and
local agencies is gratefully acknowledged.
Skelly and Loy also wishes to express thanks and appreciation
to Mr. Bruce A. Cramer and Richard S. Walinski of the law frim
Haywood, Cooper, Straub, Walinski, Cramer and Co., L.P.A., for
their cooperation and input to the legal section of this report.
Project Officers for Skelly and Loy during the course of this
study were John D. Robins and John C. Hutchins.
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
i. REPORT NO.
EPA-440/9-75-QQ8
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESS!ON>NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Criteria For Developing Pollution Abatement
Programs For Inactive And Abandoned Mine
Sites
5. REPORT DATE
Aiinnct 1Q7CJ
ftyn
. PERF'ti
RMING ORGANIZATION CODE
'. AUTHOR(S)
John D. Robins and John C. Hutchins
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
Skelly and Loy
2601 North Front Street
Harrisburg, Pennsylvania
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
17110
68-01-2655
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Water Planning and Standards
Washington, D.C. 20460
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
This report is prepared in response to the requirements of P.L. 92-500, Section
304(e)(2)(B). The study involves the development of abatement criteria for all
mined mineral commodities except oil and gas production, well sites and off-
shore mining. All abandoned or inactive surface underground mines, attendant
waste piles, road storage areas and other related facilities are included in
the report.
17.
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0503
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