x>EPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Air Quality
Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park NC 27711
EPA-450/2-80-065
February 1980
Air
APTI
Course 427
Combustion Evaluation
Instructor's Guide
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United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Air Pollution Training Institute
MD20
Environmental Research Center
Research Triangle Park NC 27711
EPA 450/2-80-065
February 1980
Air
APTI
Course 427
Combustion Evaluation
Instructor's Guide
Prepared By:
J. Taylor Beard
F. Antonio lachetta
Lembit U. Lilleleht
Associated Environmental Consultants
P.O. Box 3863
Charlottesville, VA 22903
Under Contract No.
68-02-2893
EPA Project Officer
James 0. Dealy
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Manpower and Technical Information Branch
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
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Notice
This is not an official policy and standards document. The opinions, findings, and
conclusions are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the Environmental
Protection Agency. Every attempt has been made to represent the present state of
the art as well as subject areas still under evaluation. Any mention of products or
organizations does not constitute endorsement by the United States Environmental
Protection Agency.
Availability of Copies of This Docuhient
This document is issued by the Manpower and Technical Information Branch, Con-
trol Programs Development Division, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards,
USEPA. It was developed for use in training courses presented by the EPA Air Pollu-
tion Training Institute and others receiving contractual or grant support from the
Institute. Other organizations are welcome to use the document for training purposes.
Schools or governmental air pollution control agencies establishing training programs
may receive single copies of this document, free of charge, from the Air Pollution
Training Institute, USEPA, MD-20, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711. Others may
obtain copies, for a fee, from the National Technical Information Service, 5825 Port
Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22161.
11
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* ~~ _ * AIR POLLUTION TRAINING INSTITUTE
MANPOWER AND TECHNICAL INFORMATION BRANCH
v CONTROL PROGRAMS DEVELOPMENT DIVISION
**. PBO^ OFFICE OF AIR QUALITY PLANNING AND STANDARDS
The Air Pollution Training Institute (1) conducts training for personnel working on the develop-
ment and improvement of state, and local governmental, and EPA air pollution control programs,
as well as for personnel in industry and academic institutions; (2) provides consultation and other
training assistance to governmental agencies, educational institutions, industrial organizations, and
others engaged in air pollution training activities; and (3) promotes the development and improve-
ment of air pollution training programs in educational institutions and state, regional, and local
governmental air pollution control agencies. Much of the program is now conducted by an on-site
contractor, Northrop Services, Inc.
One of the principal mechanisms utilized to meet the Institute's goals is the intensive short term
technical training course. A full-time professional staff is responsible for the design, development,
and presentation of these courses. In addition the services of scientists, engineers, and specialists
from other EPA programs governmental agencies, industries, and universities are used to augment
and reinforce the Institute staff in the development and presentation of technical material.
Individual course objectives and desired learning outcomes are delineated to meet specific program
needs through training. Subject matter areas covered include air pollution source studies, atmos-
pheric dispersion, and air quality management. These courses are presented in the Institute's resi-
dent classrooms and laboratories and at various field locations.
R. Alan Schueler /James A. Jaha&e
Program Manager Technical Dffector
Northrop Services, Inc. Northrop Services, Inc.
Jeanjf Schueneman
Chief, Manpower & Technical
Information Branch
ill
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
A. Introduction 1
B. Goals for Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollution Control .... 2
C. Instructional Objectives for Combustion Evaluation
in Air Pollution Control 3
D. Course Background and Description 11
E. Agenda for Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollution
Control 13
F. Course Prerequisite Skills .... 15
G. Intended Student Population 15
H. Discussion About Course Presentation 15
I. List of Text and Other Handout Materials 18
J. Pre-Test and Post-Test 18
K. Class Problems and Homework Assignments 19
L. Master List of Slides ' 19
M. Lesson Plans for Each Agenda Item 19
1 Introduction to Combustion Evaluation 1-1
2 Fundamentals of Combustion I — Basic Chemistry 2-1
3 Fundamentals of Combustion II — Thermochemical
Relations 3-1
4 Film — "Three T's of Combustion" 4-1
5 Reaction Kinetics 5-1
6 Fuel Properties 6-1
7 Problem Session I 7-1
8 Review of Homework 8-1
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Lesson Plans (continued)
9 Combustion System Design ." 9-1
10 Problem Session II 10-1
11 Pollution Emission Calculations I 11-1
12 Problem Session III 12-1
13 Pollution Emission Calculations II 13-1
14 Problem Session IV 14-1
15 Introduction to Combustion Control, including
Film — "Boilers and Their Control" 15-1
16 Combustion Installation Instrumentation 16-1
17 Gaseous Fuel Burning 17-1
18 Fuel Oil Burning 18-1
19 Film — "Combustion for Control of Gaseous Pollutants" . . . 19-1
20 Direct-Flame and Catalytic Incineration 20-1
21 Problem Session V 2]-l
22 Coal Burning 22-1
23 Solid Waste and Wood Burning 23-1
24 Problem Session VI 24-1
25 Controlled-Air Incineration 25-1
26 Combustion of Hazardous Wastes 26-1
27 NOX Control Theory 27-1
28 Improved Performance through Combustion Modification .... 28-1
29 Optional Topic 1: Flares 29-1
30 Optional Topic 2: Municipal Sewage Sludge Incineration . . 30-1
31 Course Pre-Test and Post-Test 31-1
vi
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A. INTRODUCTION
This notebook contains the basic materials for use by the course modera-
tor and lecturers teaching "Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollu-
tion Control." Among the materials included are:
Course goals
Instructional objectives
Course description and agenda
Course prerequisite skills
Intended student population
General discussion about course presentation
List of text and other handout materials
Pretest and post-test with answers
Class problems and homework assignments
Lesson plans for each agenda item
The lesson plans include:
Lesson title, number, and time required
Lesson goal and objectives
Student prerequisite skills
Level of instruction
Intended students' professional background
List of support materials and equipment
Special instructions (if any)
List of key references
List of slides
Lesson content outline keyed to slides and student manual
Discussion questions
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B. GOALS
FOR COMBUSTION EVALUATION IN AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
AIR POLLUTION TRAINING INSTITUTE COURSE NO. 427
The goals of Combustion Evaluation are to provide engineers, other tech-
nical and regulatory officials, and others with the knowledge of funda-
mental and applied aspects of combustion, as well as an overview of the
state-of-the-art of combustion technology as it relates to air pollution
control work. This knowledge will improve the ability of the partici-
pants to perform their work with combustion-related air pollution prob-
lems : evaluating actual and potential emissions from combustion sources,
performing engineering inspections, and developing recommendations to
improve the performance of malfunctioning combustion equipment.
In order to achieve these goals, the participants will be taught to
perform calculations typical of those required for Combustion Evalua-
tion.
Emphasis will be placed on those combustion sources and control devices
which are frequently encountered by engineers, including selected:
1. Combustion sources burning fossil fuel to generate steam
or direct heat,
2. Combustion sources burning liquid and solid waste, and
3. Pollution control devices which utilize combustion for the
control of gaseous and aerosol pollutants.
At the conclusion of this course, the participants will be familiar with
combustion principles and with the more important design and operational
parameters which influence the air pollution emissions from typical com-
bustion sources. Furthermore, they will be able to perform selected
fundamental calculations related to emissions quantities and requirements
for complete combustion. The participants will understand some of the
more important mechanisms by which trace species are formed in and emitted
by stationary combustion processes. The participants will understand the
ways in which certain design and operation variables may be employed to
minimize emissions.
To achieve the maximum benefit from this course, participants should
possess some engineering or scientific background.
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C. INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES FOR
COMBUSTION EVALUATION IN AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
1. Subject: Introduction to Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollution
Control
Objective: The student will be able to:
a. identify three major goals of Combustion Evaluation in Air
Pollution Control;
b. list four of the subject areas which will be emphasized in the
course (fundamentals of combustion, fuel properties, combus-
tion system design, emission calculations, various combustion
equipment topics, NOX control);
c. present two reasons for applying the fundamental concepts of
combustion when trying to solve combustion evaluation prob-
lems in air pollution control;
d. list three of the important air pollutant emissions which may
be limited by combustion control.
2. Subject: Fundamentals of Combustion
Objective: The student will be able to:
a. use the basic chemical equations for combustion reactions,
with or without excess air, to calculate air requirements
and the quantities of combustion products;
b. apply the ideal gas law to determine volumetric relationships
for typical combustion situations;
c. distinguish between different types of combustion as char-
acterized by carbonic theory (yellow flame) and hydroxyla-
tion theory (blue flame);
d. define heat of combustion, gross and net heating values,
available heat, hypothetical available heat, sensible heat,
latent heat, and heat content;
e. determine the available heat obtained from burning fuels
at different flue gas exit temperatures and with various
amounts of excess air, using generalized correlations;
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f. list the chemical elements which combine with oxygen when
fuels burn;
g. list the four items necessary for efficient combustion;
h. describe qualitatively the interrelationships between time,
temperature, turbulence, and oxygen required for proper com-
bustion of a given fuel;
i. recite the conditions for equilibrium;
j. describe how an excess quantity of one reactant will affect
other concentrations at equilibrium;
k. cite the expression for the rate of reaction;
1. identify the Arrhenius equation as a model for the influence
of temperature on combustion rate;
m. define the activation energy;
n. describe the mechanism of catalytic activity; and
o. list the reasons for the deterioration of catalytic activity.
3. Subject: Fuel Properties
Objectives: Hie student will be able to:
a. state the important chemical properties which influence air
pollutant emissions;
b. use the tables in the student manual to find representative
values for given fuel properties;
c. describe the difference in physical features which limit the
rate of combustion for gaseous, liquid, and solid fuels;
d. explain the importance of fuel properties such as flash point
and upper and lower flammability limits which relate to safe
operation of combustion installations;
e. use either specific or API gravity to determine the total
heat of combustion of a fuel oil;
f. describe the influence of variations in fuel oil viscosity
on droplet formation and on completeness of combustion and
emissions;
g. list the important components in the proximate and ultimate
analyses;
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h. define "as fired," "as received," "moisture free," and "dry
basis" as they apply to the chemical analysis of solid fuels;
and
i. explain the significance of ash fusion temperature and caking
index in the burning of coal.
4. Subject: Combustion System Design
Objective: The student should be able to:
a. describe the relationship between energy utilization, furnace
heat transfer, and excess air as means of furnace temperature
control;
b. understand the limits which may be imposed by thermodynamic
laws and how these limits dictate choice of energy-recovery
devices following the furnace; and
c. calculate the energy required from fuel to meet an output
energy requirement.
5. Subject: Pollution Emission Calculations
Objective: The student should be able to:
a. describe the nature and origin of most of the published emis-
sion factors and state what is necessary for more precise
estimates of emissions from a specific installation with
specified design features;
b. apply the proper method for using emission factors to deter-
mine estimates of emissions from typical combustion sources;
c. define and distinguish between concentration standards (Cvs
and C^), pollutant mass rate standards (PMRS), and process
standards (Es);
d. use average emission factors to estimate the emissions from
typical combustion installations;
e. calculate the degree of control required for a given source
to be brought into compliance with a given emission standard;
f. perform calculations using the relationships between anti-
cipated SO2 emissions and the sulfur content of liquid and
solid fuels;
g. identify the proper equation for computing excess air from
an Orsat analysis of the flue gas of a combustion installa-
tion;
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h. state the reasons for expressing concentrations at standard
conditions of temperature pressure, moisture content, and
excess air;
i. identify and use the proper factors for correcting field
measurements to a standard basis, such as 50% excess air,
12% CC>2, and 6% O2; and
j. use F-factors to estimate emissions from a combustion source.
6. Subject: Combustion Control and Instumentation
Objective: The student will be able to:
a. list the important variables (steam pressure, steam flow
rate, gas temperature) which may serve as the controlled
variables used to actuate fuel/air controls for combustion
systems;
b. describe the primary purpose of a control system which is
to maintain combustion efficiency and thermal states;
c. understand the interrelationships between varying load
(energy output) requirements and both fuel/air flow and
excess air;
d. identify instrument readings indicating improper combustion
or energy transfer; and
e. describe the influence of excess air (indicated by 02 in
stack gases) on the boiler efficiency, fuel rate, and eco-
nomics of a particular boiler installation.
7. Subject: Gaseous Fuel Burning
Objective: The student will be able to:
a. describe the functions of the gas burner;
b. define pre-mix and its influence on the type of flame;
c. list burner design features and how these affect the limits
of stable flame operating region;
d. name four different types of gas burners and their special
design features;
e. cite typical gas furnace, breeching and stack operating
temperatures, pressures, and gas flow velocities;
f. describe the relationship between flue gas analyses and the
air-to-fuel ratio;
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g. list the causes and describe the signs of malfunctioning
gas-burning devices; and
h. describe techniques used to correct a malfunctioning gas-
burning device.
8. Subject: Fuel Oil Burning
Objective: The student will be able to:
a. describe the important design and emission characteristics
of oil burners using air, steam, mechanical (pressure), and
rotary-cup atomization;
b. describe the influence of temperature on oil viscosity and
atomization;
c. describe how vanadium and sulfur content in fuel oil influ-
ence furnace corrosion and air pollution emissions;
d. describe burner nozzle maintenance and its influence on air
pollutant emissions from oil combustion installations; and
e. locate and use tabulated values of oil fuel properties and
pollutant factors to compute uncontrolled emissions from
oil-burning sources
9. Subject: Direct-Flame and Catalytic Incineration
Objective: The student will be able to:
a. cite examples of air pollution sources where direct-flame
and catalytic afterburners are used to control gaseous
emissions;
b. describe the influence of temperature on the residence time
required for proper operation of afterburners;
c. apply fundamental combustion calculations to determine the
auxiliary fuel required for direct-flame and catalytic
incineration with and without energy recovery;
d. perform the necessary calculations to determine the proper
physical dimensions of an afterburner for a specific appli-
cation;
e. list three reasons for loss of catalytic activity and ways
of preventing such loss; and
f. cite methods available for reducing afterburner operating
costs.
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10. Subject: Coal Burning
Objective: The student will be able to:
a. describe the design characteristics and operating practice
of coal burning equipment, including overfeed, underfeed,
and spreader stokers, as well as pulverized and cyclone fur-
naces;
b. discuss the parameters that influence the design of overfire
and underfire air (in systems which burn coal on grates)
and for primary and secondary air (in systems which burn
coal in suspension);
c. describe the influence of the amount of volatile matter and
fixed carbon in the coal on its proper firing in a given
furnace design; and
d. describe how changing the ash content and the heating value
of coal can influence the combustion as well as the capacity
of a specified steam generator.
11. Subject: Solid Waste and Wood Burning
Objective: The student will be able to:
a. list the important similarities and differences in both the
physical and chemical properties of solid waste, wood waste,
and coal;
b. describe the mechanical configurations required to complete
combustion of solid waste and wood waste and compare with
those for burning coal; and
c. describe the unique combustion characteristics and emissions
from burning unprepared solid waste and refuse-derived fuel.
12. Subject: Controlled-Air Incineration
Objective: The student will be able to:
a. describe the combustion principles and pollution emission
characteristics of controlled-air incinerators contrasted
with those of single and multiple-chamber designs;
b. identify operating features which may cause smoke emission
from controlled-air incinerators; and
c. relate the temperature of gases leaving the afterburner to
the amount of auxiliary fuel needed by the afterburner.
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13. Subject: Combustion of Hazardous Wastes
Objective: The student will be able to:
a. cite special requirements associated with the combustion of
hazardous liquid and solid wastes;
b. recite the special requirements for treating the combustion
products to control pollutant emissions from incineration
operations;
c. list examples of substances and/or elements which cannot be
controlled by incineration;
d. describe the fuel requirements necessary to dispose hazard-
ous waste materials; and
e. list a number of hazardous waste materials (including poly-
chlorinated biphenyls — PCB's— pesticides, and some other
halogenated organics) which may be disposed of successfully
through proper liquid incineration devices; give the required
temperatures and residence times to achieve adequate destruc-
tion.
14. Subject: NOx Control
Objective: The student will be able to:
a. identify three of the major stationary sources of NOX emis-
sions;
b. locate and use emission factors to estimate the amount of
NOX emitted by a potential combustion source;
c. describe the difference between mechanisms for forming
"Thermal NOX" and "Fuel NOX";
d. describe various techniques for NOX control: flue-gas
recirculation, two-stage combustion, excess air control,
catalytic dissociation, wet-scrubbing, water injection, and
reduced fuel burning rate; and
e. state the amount of NOx control available from particular
examples of combustion modification.
15. Subject: Improved Combustion through Design Modification
Objective: The student will be able to:
a. state the benefits of proper maintenance and adjustment of
residential oil-combustion units;
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b. list three important fr.itures to check during the main-
tenance of commercial oil-fired burners;
c. discuss the difference between "minimum 02" and "lowest
practical 02" and why these are important in industrial
boilers;
d. list two reasons why a burner may have a higher "minimum
02" level than the typical value; describe what remedies
may be available;
e. indicate the effect of the combustion modification techniques
on thermal efficiency: lowering excess air, staged-air com-
bustion; reduced combustion-air preheat, and flue-gas recir-
culation; and
f. discuss why NOX control from coal-fired utility boilers is
more difficult to achieve than from similar oil or gas units.
16. Subject: Waste Gas Flares (Optional)
Objective: The student will be able to:
a. calculate the carbon-to-hydrogen ratio of a waste-gas stream
and determine when and how much steam will be required for
smokeless-flare operation;
b. understand the difference between elevated and ground-level
flares and the design considerations which underlie the
choice of one or the other; and
c. describe provisions for leveling waste-gas flow rates from
intermittent sources.
17. Subject: Municipal Sewage Sludge Incineration (Optional)
Objective: The student will be able to:
a. list and discuss the air pollutants emitted in incineration
of sewage sludge;
b. describe special design features required to burn wet sew-
age sludge fuel;
c. describe the combustion-related activity occurring in each
of the four zones of the multiple-hearth sewage sludge
incinerators;
d. discuss the options of combustion air preheating, flue gas
reheating, and energy recovery; and
e. list two important operational problems which can adversely
influence air pollution emissions.
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D. COURSE BACKGROUND AND DESCRIPTION
In 1966 the Air Pollution Training Program of the Robert A. Taft Sanitary
Engineering Center in Cincinnati, Ohio established the course "Combustion
Evaluation, Sources and Control Devices," No. 427. This course was ori*-
ginally taught by personnel of the Air Pollution Training Institute with
the aid of various guest lecturers.
Between June 1972 and September 1978, Associated Environmental Consultants
of Charlottesville, Virginia taught "Combustion Evaluation" twenty-seven
times under contract with the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency.
In 1978 Associated Environmental Consultants contracted to develop new
objectives and instructional resource materials so that the course could
be taught by technically capable persons at various regional air pollu-
tion control training centers throughout the United States.
New course goals, instructional objectives, agenda, and intended student
populations were selected following discussion meetings with selected
advisers. These meetings were held in EPA facilities at Research Tri-
angle Park, NC (April 7, 1978 and June 1, 1978), Chicago, IL (May 16,
1978), and San Francisco, CA (May 17, 1978). Attending the meetings
were the EPA project officer, James O. Dealy; a representative from
Associated Environmental Consultants; and at the Chicago and San Fran-
cisco meetings, representatives selected from appropriate federal, state,
and local air pollution control agencies. The June 1, 1978 meeting was
attended by representatives of the Air Pollution Training Institute,
Northrop Services, Inc., the EPA Industrial Environmental Research Lab-
oratory, as well as other EPA research and regulatory divisions.
The instructional resource materials which were developed include this
Course Moderator'S Manual; the student manual, entitled: Combustion
Evaluation in Air Pollution Control; and the Workbook for Combustion
Evaluation in Air Pollution Control.
The course moderator will note that the course agenda (see Section 5)
is arranged in a sequential format, which may be taught as indicated in
the agenda, or may be rearranged to meet the needs of various geographi-
cal regions, as well as the available time which a particular group of
students has to participate in training activities.
Lessons 1 through 8 provide a module of instructional material on the
chemistry of combustion, containing specific information about fuels
and combustion calculations. Many of the participants will have been
previously introduced to this fundamental information in college chem-
istry and physics courses. It is included in the course as a review,
11
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because of its importance in combustion and pollution emission calcu-
lations. In addition, the fundamental combustion concepts must be
understood in order to evaluate other combustion-related air pollution
problems. Depending on the particular student population, additional
time may be used on these topics. These areas may be omitted from the
course for students who require only the advanced information; however,
they should read Chapter 1, 2, and 3 prior to their attendance.
Lessons 9 through 14 provide a module of instructional material on com-
bustion design and pollution emission computations. This module will
be difficult for any student who does not have an engineering or equi-
valent background. However, field enforcement personnel and technicians
will profit from this if they possess engineering computational abili-
ties.
Lessons 15 through 25 provide a module for instruction on the design
and operating features of typical combustion equipment which are im-
portant for good combustion and air pollutant control.
Lessons 26 through 30 provide an instructional module containing
material which is of specific technical interest. Two optional topics
(flares and sewage sludge incineration) are provided for the particu-
lar interests of some regions or student populations. These topics may
be substituted in the place of other topics (e.g., controlled-air inci-
neration and combustion of hazardous waste), or they may be added to
extend the course. The course moderator will use his or her judgment
and knowledge of the student population in this matter.
Additionally the course moderator may use discretion to revise the
course agenda, provide more time for some lessons and less time for
others, or make the course longer or shorter. The students' background
and their training needs will be the determining factors in the modera-
tor's decision of the lesson topics. It is recommended that the sequence
given in the first twenty-four lessons be followed, to accommodate the
prerequisites of each lesson. Sequence rearrangement and substitution
of optional lessons after Lesson 24 will not cause disruption, except
that Lesson 28 should follow Lesson 27.
A pre-test and post-test have been included to measure how effectively
the instructional objectives have been achieved.
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E. AGENDA FOR COMBUSTION EVALUATION IN AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
DAY § TIME
Monday
8:30 -
9:30 -
10:00 -
11:10 -
1:00 -
1:30 -
2:40 -
3:20 -
4:30
Tuesday
8:30 -
9:00 -
10:15 -
11:15 -
1:00 -
1:45 -
3:30 -
4:30
9:30
10:00
10:50
12:00
1:30
2:20
3:20
4:30
9:00
10:00
11:15
12:00
1:45
3:15
4:30
SUBJECT
•"-'•' li '
1
Registration and Pre-Test
Introduction to Combustion Evaluation
Fundamentals of Combustion I — Basic Chemistry
Fundamentals of Combustion II — Thermochemical
Relationships
Film - "Three T's of Combustion"
Reaction Kinetics
Fuel Properties
Problem Session I
Homework Assignment: Problem 1.5
Review Homework and Pre-Test Results
Combustion System Design
Problem Session II
Pollution Emission Calculations I
Problem Session III
Pollution Emission Calculations II
Problem Session IV
Homework Assignment: Problem II. 2, IV. 3, IV. 5
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DAY $ TIME
SUBJECT
Wednesday
8:30 - 8:45
8:45 _ 9:15
9:15 _ 10:00
10:15 - 11:00
11:00 - 12:00
1:00 - 2:00
2:00 - 2:30
2:45 - 3:45
3:45 - 4:30
4:30
Thursday
8:30 - 8:45
8:45 - 10:30
10:45 - 12:00
1:00 - 2:00
2:15 - 3:15
3:30 - 4:30
4:30
Friday
8:30
8:45
10:00
11:00
12:00
8:45
9:45
11:00
12:00
Homework Review
Introduction to Combustion Control
Film - "Boilers and Their Control"
Combustion Installation Instrumentation
Gaseous Fuel Burning
Fuel Oil Burning
Film - "Combustion for Control of Gaseous
Pollutants"
Direct Flame and Catalytic Incineration
Problem Session V
Homework Assignment: Problem V.2
Homework Review
Coal Burning
Solid Waste and Wood Burning
Problem Session VI
Controlled Air Incineration (or optional
topic)
Combustion of Hazardous Waste (or optional
topic)
Homework Assignment: Problem VI.2
Homework Review
NOX Control Theory
Combustion Modifications
Post-Test
Course Concludes
Optional Topic 1: Flares
Optional Topic 2: Sewage Sludge Incineration
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F. COURSE PREREQUISITE SKILLS
Prerequisites for Course 427 include completion of Course 452, or
equivalent experience, and one of the following: college-level
training in physical science, engineering, or mathematics.
G. INTENDED STUDENT POPULATION
Because this course is designed around student participation, it is
important that students selected for the course have the proper back-
ground so that they may both benefit from, and contribute to, the
course presented.
Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollution Control is prepared for engi~
neers, technical staff, regulatory officials, and others who work in
combustion-related areas of air pollution control. The course will
be useful for the above personnel who work in federal, state, and
local control agencies as well as for industry.
The ideal class size is 20 to 35 students. There should be enough
students to facilitate good discussions and not so many that some
will not be able to ask questions or clearly see projected materials
or the chalkboard.
H. DISCUSSION ABOUT COURSE PRESENTATION
Instructors - The three most important criteria in the faculty selection
for this course are: (a) knowledge of combustion fundamentals and
15
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practice related to air pollution control; (b) practical experience with
evaluation of air pollution emissions from combustion sources; and
(c) experience (and ability) to use lecture and problem session tech-
niques to instruct adults. In addition, the Course Moderator should
select instructors known to have positive attitudes toward air pollution
control regulations.
It would be particularly helpful if instructors were able to sit in on
earlier offerings of the course in order to gain an appreciation of the
background and needs of typical students.
The Course Moderator should schedule a briefing session before any in-
structor is permitted to go before a class. This session should cover
a brief review of the overall course and the lesson objectives. Dis-
cussion should ensure that the instructor is well-prepared and comfort-
able with the material and techniques to be used.
Lesson plans should be distributed in advance to the faculty to give
adequate lead time for preparation. Preparation must include the study
of the appropriate sections of the moderator's manual, visual aids,
student manual, student workbook, and key references noted in the lesson
content outline.
Each lesson plan outlined is designed for a limited time. Instructors
should be cautioned to observe time schedules. There is no reason why
instructors cannot vary the format or content of any given lesson, as
long as lesson objectives are met. However, all variations should be
to encourage greater student participation.
Physical Setting — In selecting the physical setting for this course,
the course moderator must anticipate several special requirements.
Students will perform calculations in problem session, so tables with
comfortable chairs will be needed. Students should not be crowded to-
gether, as it would interfere with their use of the course manual and
workbook to solve class problems and take notes.
Projection slides will be used to illustrate lectures, so proper pro-
jection equipment, screen, and room darkening will be required. The
students will be referring to particular materials in their manuals
during the lectures, so at least some partial lighting may be required,
even while the slides are being shown. A chalkboard large enough to
present computational problem solutions also will be needed.
Checklist of Activities for Presenting the Course — The following check-
list will serve as a guide to assure consideration of special items:
1. Pre-Course Responsibilities:
a. Reserve and confirm classroom, including size, "set-up,"
location, and costs (if any).
16
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b. Select, contact, and confirm all faculty (speakers) for the
course. Forward materials to them.
c. Reserve hotel accommodations for faculty (if needed).
d. Arrange for food services (i.e., coffee breaks, water, etc.)
e. Review and modify program curricula to recognize regional
interest, based on assessment of need.
f. Prepare and reproduce final ("revised" if appropriate) copy
of the agenda.
g. Reproduce final registration roster.
h. Prepare name badges and name "tents" for students and faculty.
i. Identify, order, and confirm all A-V equipment needed.
j. Obtain sufficient copies of EPA Student Manuals, Workbooks,
Pre-Test, and Post-Test.
k. Pack and ship supplies and materials to the course location
prior to beginning of course (if appropriate).
2. On-Site Course Responsibilities: ^
a. Determine and check on final room arrangements (i.e., tables,
chairs, lectern, water, cups, etc.).
b. Set up A-V equipment required each day and brief operator (if
supplied).
c. Alert receptionist, watchmen, etc., of name, location, and
schedule of the program.
d. Set up and handle final registration check-in procedures.
e. Conduct a new speaker(s) briefing session on a daily basis.
f. Verify and make final coffee arrangements (where appropri-
ate).
g. Make a final check on arrival of guest speakers (instructors)
for the day.
h. Collect student evaluation critiques at the end of the course.
i. Award certificates on last day of course.
17
-------
3. Post-Course Responsibilities
a. Request expense statements from faculty; order and process
checks.
b. Write thank-you letters and send checks to paid faculty.
c. Write thank-you letters to non-paid guest speakers.
d. Prepare evaluation on each course (including instructors,
content, facilities, etc.)
e. Make sure A-V equipment is returned.
f. Return unused materials to the appropriate office.
I. LIST OF TEXTS AND OTHER HANDOUT MATERIALS
The following lesson materials should be available for each student tak-
ing the course:
1. Course Manual: Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollution Control by
J. T. Beard, F. A. lachetta, and L. U. Lilleleht.
2. Workbook for Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollution Control by
J. T. Beard, F. A. lachetta, and L. U. Lilleleht.
3. Pre-Test
4. Post-Test
5. Final Registration Roster
6. Student Critique Sheets
7. Course Certificates
J. PRE-TEST AND POST-TEST
The Pre-Test and the Post-Test are found as part of Lesson Plan 31.
Answers to each are provided.
18
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K. CLASS PROBLEMS AND HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENTS
The class problems for Problem Sessions I through VI are found in the
Workbook in Chapters I through VI, respectively. Answers to the prob-
lems are found as part of Lesson Plans 7, 10, 12, 14, 21, and 24.
L. MASTER LIST OF SLIDES (Pages 20 through 38)
M. LESSON PLANS FOR EACH AGENDA ITEM
The detailed lesson plans for each agenda item follow the master list
of slides.
19
-------
SLIDE NUMBER
TITLE OF SLIDE
427-1-1
427-1-2
427-1-3
427-1-4
427-1-5
427-1-6
427-2-1
427-2-2
427-2-3
427-2-4
427-2-5
427-2-6
427-2-7
427-2-8
427-2-9
427-2-10
427-2-11
427-2-12
427-2-13
427-2-14
427-2-15
LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO COMBUSTION EVALUATION IN AIR
POLLUTION CONTROL
GOALS
COURSE WILL EMPHASIZE
FUEL BURNING SOURCES
COMBUSTION OF WASTE MATERIALS
AIR POLLUTION EMISSIONS CONTROLLED BY COMBUSTION
AT THE CONCLUSION OF THE COURSE
LESSON 2; FUNDAMENTALS OF COMBUSTION II - BASIC CHEMISTRY
FUNDAMENTALS OF COMBUSTION
GENERAL COMBUSTION REACTION
THREE T'S OF COMBUSTION
COMPLETE COMBUSTION
THEORETICAL AIR FOR COMPLETE COMBUSTION
FLAMMABILITY LIMITS OF COMBUSTIBLE VAPORS IN AIR
STANDARD CONDITIONS
IDEAL (PERFECT) GAS LAW
CHARLES' AND BOYLE'S LAWS
SELECTED REACTIONS IN COMBUSTION SEQUENCE
CARBONIC THEORY
HYDROXYLATION THEORY
YELLOW FLAME
BLUE FLAME
STEAM INJECTION TO YELLOW FLAME
20
-------
SLIDE NUMBER
TITLE OF SLIDE
427-3-1
427-3-2
427-3-3
427-3-4
427-3-5
427-3-6
427-3-7
427-3-8
427-3-9
427-5-1
427-5-2
427-5-3
427-5-4
427-5-5
427-5-6
427-5-7
427-5-8
427-5-9
LESSON 3; FUNDAMENTALS OF COMBUSTION II - THERMOCHEMICAL
RELATIONSHIPS
GROSS HEATING VALUE
/
\
NET HEATING VALUE
ADIABATIC STEADY STATE HEAT BALANCE
HEAT BALANCE ACROSS SYSTEM BOUNDARY WITHOUT HEAT LOSS
GENERALIZED COMPARISON OF PURE HYDROCARBON FUELS IN
COMPLETE COMBUSTION
AVAILABLE HEATS FRO SOME TYPICAL FUELS
AVAILABLE HEATS WITH EXCESS AIR
FURNACE LOSSES
SUMMARY OF HEAT BALANCE TERMS
LESSON 4; FILM; 3 T's OF COMBUSTION (NO SLIDES REQUIRED)
LESSON 5; REACTION KINETICS
CHEMICAL REACTION RATES
EQUILIBRIUM CONDITIONS
TRANSITION STATE CONCEPT
TEMPERATURE EFFECT ON REACTION RATE
TYPICAL CATALYSTS AND THEIR SUPPORTS
STEPS IN CATALYTIC REACTION SEQUENCE
SCHEMATIC OF THE CATALYTIC REACTION SEQUENCE
ARRHENIUS PLOT WITH AND WITHOUT CATALYST
DETERIORATION OF PLATINUM CATALYTIC ACTIVITY
21
-------
SLIDE NUMBER
427-6-1
427-6-2
427-6-3
427-6-4
427-6-5
427-6-6
427-6-7
427-6-8
427-6-9
427-9-1
427-9-2
427-9-3
427-9-4
TITLE OF SUDE
LESSON 6: FUEL PROPERTIES
GASEOUS FUELS HAVE RATE OF COMBUSTION
HIGHER HEATING VALUE
LOWER HEATING VALUE
API GRAVITY
APPROXIMATE VISCOSITY OF FUEL OIL
PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF SELECTED COAL
ULTIMATE ANALYSIS OF SELECTED COAL (AS RECEIVED)
ULTIMATE ANALYSIS OF SELECTED COAL (DRY BASIS)
SELECTED SIZE DISTRIBUTION AND MOISTURE OF HOGGED FUELS
LESSON 7: PROBLEM SESSION I (No slides required)
LESSON 8: REVIEW OF HOMEWORK (No slides required)
LESSON 9: COMBUSTION SYSTEMS DESIGN
FURNACE DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
SYSTEM ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
STEAM GENERATOR ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
LESSON 10: PROBLEM SESSION II (No slides required)
22
-------
SLIDE NUMBER
TITLE OF SLIDE
427-11-1
427-11-2
427-11-3
427-11-4
427-11-5
427-11-6
427-11-7
427-11-8
427-11-9
427-11-10
427-11-11
427-11-12
427-11-13
LESSON 11: POLLUTION EMISSIONS - CALCULATIONS I
NOMENCLATURE OF STANDARDS
C , MASS STANDARD
ms
POLLUTANT MASS RATE STANDARD
PROCESS STANDARD
EMISSION FACTORS FOR FUEL OIL COMBUSTION
EMISSION FACTORS FOR NATURAL GAS COMBUSTION
S02 EMISSION ESTIMATE, GIVEN:
EMISSION ESTIMATE FROM BASIC CHEMISTRY
EMISSION CALCULATION
RECOMPUTATION WITH EMISSION FACTOR
PROCESS EMISSION
UNCONTROLLED PARTICULATE EMISSION ESTIMATE
FRACTIONAL COLLECTIONAL EFFICIENCIES OF PARTICULATE
CONTROL EQUIPMENT
LESSON 12; PROBLEM SESSION III (No slides required)
23
-------
SLIDE NUMBER
TITLE OF SLIDE
427-13-1
427-13-2
427-13-3
427-13-4
427-13-5
427-13-6
427-13-7
427-13-8
427-13-9
427-13-10
427-13-11
427-13-12
427-13-13
427-13-14
427-13-15
427-13-16
427-13-17
427-13-18
427-13-19
427-13-20
427-13-21
427-13-22
427-13-23
LESSON 13: POLLUTION EMISSION CALCULATIONS II
GAS VOLUME CORRECTIONS
GAS CORRECTIONS FOR CONCENTRATION
GAS CORRECTIONS FOR DENSITY
EXCESS AIR CORRECTIONS
CORRECTIONS TO 50% EXCESS AIR
CORRECTIONS TO 12% C02
CORRECTIONS TO 6% 02
EXCESS AIR PERCENT
EXAMPLE WITHOUT EXCESS AIR
EXAMPLE WITH EXCESS AIR
EXCESS AIR FROM ORSAT ANALYSIS
SAMPLE OF ORSAT DATA APPLICATION
CALCULATE % EXCESS AIR
EXAMPLE PROCESS EMISSION STANDARD
DEFINITION OF AN "E" STANDARD PROBLEM
SOLUTION OF SAMPLE "E" PROBLEM
ALLOWABLE EMISSION
ACTUAL PARTICULATE RATE
F-FACTOR CONCEPT
EMISSION IN TERMS OF F-FACTOR
EQUATIONS FOR F FACTOR
c
EQUATION FOR F FACTOR
TABLE OF F-FACTORS
24
-------
SLIDE NUMBER
TITLE OF SLIDE
427-15-1
427-15-2
427-15-3
427-15-4
427-15-5
427-15-6
427-15-7
427-15-8
427-15-9
427-16-1
427-16-2
427-16-3
427-16-4
427-16-5
427-16-6
427-16-7
427-16-8
427-16-9
LESSON 14; PROBLEM SESSION IV (No slides required)
LESSON 15; INTRODUCTION TO COMBUSTION CONTROL
SCHEMATIC OF STEAM-FLOW ORIFICE STATION
ACTUAL STEAM-FLOW ORIFICE STATION
STEAM-FLOW DIFFERENTIAL SENSING AND TRANSFER UNIT
AUTOMATIC FORCED-DRAFT FAN INLET LOUVER CONTROL
AUTOMATIC GAS-FLOW CONTROL VALVE
DIAGRAM OF A COMBUSTION CONTROL FOR A SPREADER-STOKER
FIRED BOILER
DIAGRAM OF A COMBUSTION CONTROL FOR A GAS- AND OIL-FIRED
BOILER
DIAGRAM OF A COMBUSTION CONTROL FOR A PULVERIZED-COAL
FIRED BOILER
DIAGRAM OF A COMBUSTION CONTROL FOR A CYCLONE-FIRED BOILER
LESSON 16; COMBUSTION INSTALLATION INSTRUMENTATION
STEAM-FLOW AIR-FLOW METER AND CHART
DRAFT GUAGES ON SPREADER STOKER-FIRED BOILER INSTRUMENT
PANEL
GAS AND WATER TEMPERATURES OF ECONOMIZER
INSTRUMENT PANEL WITH REMOTE STACK SMOKE INDICATOR
SKETCH OF REMOTE STACK SMOKE INDICATOR
RANEREX CONTINUOUS C02 METER
TYPICAL 02 READINGS
TYPICAL C02 READINGS
EFFECT OF EXCESS AIR (FLUE GAS C02) ON COMBUSTION EFFICIENCJ
427-16-10
IMPROVED EFFICIENCY CASCADE
25
-------
SLIDE NUMBER
TITLE OF SLIDE
427-17-1
427-17-2
427-17-3
427-17-4
427-17-5
427-17-6
427-17-7
427-17-8
427-17-9
427-17-10
LESSON 17; GASEOUS FUEL BURNING
BLUE FLAME
YELLOW FLAME
ATMOSPHERIC BURNERS - FLAME STABILITY
ATMOSPHERIC PREMIX TYPE GAS BURNER
MULTI-FUEL OIL GASIFYING BURNER
FURNACE HEAT RELEASE RATE
COMPARITIVE FURNACE SIZES
TYPICAL BREECHING AND STACK CONDITIONS
VELOCITY IN CONVECTIVE SECTION
FLUE GAS ANALYSIS
26
-------
SLIDE NUMBER
TITLE OF SLIDE
427-18-1
427-18-2
427-18-3
427-18-4
427-18-5
427-18-6
427-18-7
427-18-8
427-18-9
427-18-10
427-18-11
427-18-12
427-18-13
427-18-14
427-18-15
427-18-16
427-18-17
427-18-18
427-18-19
427-18-20
427-18-21
427-18-22
427-18-23
LESSON 18; FUEL OIL BURNING
PURPOSE OF FUEL OIL BURNING
REQUIREMENTS FOR COMPLETE COMBUSTION
MODE OF COMBUSTION OF FUEL OIL DROPLETS
APPROXIMATE VISCOSITY OF FUEL OILS
TYPICAL EXCESS AIR LEVELS
VOLUMETRIC HEAT RELEASE RATES AND RESIDENCE TIMES
SCOTCH-MARINE BOILER
INTEGRAL FURNACE BOILER
WATER WALL TUBES
WATER WALL TUBES
INTEGRAL FURNACE BOILER, TYPE D
VERTICALLY-FIRED OIL BURNING FURNACE
TEMPERATURES IN BOILER OF PREVIOUS SLIDE
BOILER, TANGENTIALLY FIRED
WATER-WALL FURNACE CROSS SECTION (TANGENTIALLY FIRED)
ATOMIZING CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT BURNERS
ROTARY CUP BURNER
HIGH-PRESSURE ATOMIZER (DOMESTIC)
LOW-PRESSURE AIR ATOMIZER
LOW-PRESSURE AIN ATOMIZER SKETCH
LOW-PRESSURE AIR ATOMIZER MOUNTED IN COMMERCIAL FURNACE
TANGENTIAL SWIRL NOZZLES
SWIRL DEVICE FOR SECONDARY AIR
27
-------
SLIDE NUMBER
TITLE OF SLIDE
427-18-24
427-18-25
427-18-26
427-18-27
427-18-28
427-18-29
427-18-30
427-18-31
427-18-32
427-18-33
427-18-34
LESSON 18; FUEL OIL BURNING, continued
HIGH-PRESSURE ATOMIZER
MECHANICAL ATOMIZATION (WITH RETURN FLOW, SPILL BACK)
EXAMPLES OF RETURN FLOW HIGH AND LOW FIRE
STEAM ATOMIZING (INTERNAL MIX)
STEAM ATOMIZING (INTERNAL MIX)
INTERNAL MIX STEAM ATOMIZING NOZZLE
INTERNAL MIX STEAM ATOMIZING NOZZLE
INTERNAL MIX STEAM ATOMIZING NOZZLE
STEAM OR AIR ATOMIZING BURNER (EXTERNAL MIX)
INFLUENCE OF DRAFT - CASE HISTORY
SMOKE - C02 CHARACTERISTICS
28
-------
SLIDE NUMBER
TITLE OF SLIDE
427-20-1
427-20-2
427-20-3
427-20-4
427-20-5
427-20-6
427-20-7
427-20-8
427-20-9
427-20-10
427-20-11
427-20-12
427-20-13
427-20-14
LESSON 19: FILM - "COMBUSTION FOR CONTROL OF GASEOUS
EMISSIONS" (No slides required)
LESSON 20; DIRECT FLAME AND CATALYTIC INCINERATION
CONTROL OF OBJECTIONABLE GASES AND VAPORS
COMBUSTION EQUIPMENT
DIRECT FLAME OXIDATION
COUPLED EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE AND TIME ON HYDROCARBON
OXIDATION RATE
TYPICAL THERMAL AFTERBURNER EFFECTIVENESS FOR HYDROCARBON
AND CARBON MONOXIDE MIXTURES
INDUCED DRAFT FUME INCINERATOR
DIRECT-FLAME AFTERBURNER
CATALYTIC AFTERBURNER SCHEMATIC
OXIDATION TEMPERATURE
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF CATALYTIC COMBUSTION
TYPICAL CATALYSTS AND THEIR SUPPORTS
LOSS OF CATALYST ACTIVITY
CATALYTIC INCINERATOR WITH RECYCLE AND HEAT ECONOMIZER
CERAMIC BED REGENERATIVE-TYPE INCINERATOR AND HEAT
RECOVERY SYSTEM
29
-------
SLIDE NUMBER
TITLE OF SLIDE
427-22-1
427-22-2
427-22-3
427-22-4
427-22-5
427-22-6
427-22-7
427-22-8
427-22-9
427-22-10
427-22-11
427-22-12
427-22-13
427-22-14
427-22-15
427-22-16
427-22-17
427-22-18
427-22-19
427-22-20
427-22-21
LESSON 21; PROBLEM SESSION V; (No slides required)
LESSON 22; COAL BURNING
COAL RESERVES - BILLIONS OF TONS
COAL SOURCE DISTRIBUTION
COAL ANALYSIS
INFLUENCE OF FIXED CARBON AND VOLATILE MATTER ON FIRING
EQUIPMENT
CHAIN GRATE STOKER
VIBRATING GRATE STOKER
UNDERFEED SINGLE RETORT STOKER
SECTION THRU UNDERFEED STOKER
UNDULATING GRATE STOKER
PULVERIZED COAL BURNER
MULTIFUEL BURNER
SPREADER STOKER SCHEMATIC
SPREADER STOKER
CYCLONE FURNACE
PULVERIZED COAL-FIRED BOILER
CYCLONE FURNACE
BOILER WITH CYCLONE FURNACE
COMBUSTION AIR - THEORETICAL
COMBUSTION AIR - GIVEN ULTIMATE ANALYSIS
EFFECT OF COAL FIRING RATE AND SIZE CONSIST
EFFECT OF EXCESS AIR (FLUE GAS C02> ON COMBUSTION
EFFICIENCY
30
-------
SLIDE NUMBER
TITLE OF SLIDE
427-23-1
427-23-2
427-23-3
427-23-4
427-23-5
427-23-6
427-23-7
427-23-8
427-23-9
427-23-10
427-23-11
427-23-12
427-23-13
427-23-14
427-23-15
427-23-16
427-23-17
427-23-18
427-23-19
427-23-20
427-23-21
427-23-22
LESSON 23; SOLID WASTE AND WOOD BURNING
AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF MUNICIPAL WASTE
AVERAGE ULTIMATE ANALYSIS
WASTE IN AN INCINERATOR STORAGE
HOG FUEL STORAGE PILE
CLARIFIER SLUDGE
ULTIMATE ANALYSIS OF DRY HOGGED FUEL
SIZE AND MOISTURE CONTENT OF HOGGED FUEL COMPONENTS
HEATING VALUES OF BARK AND WOOD
HIGHER HEAT VALUE OF MUNICIPAL WASTE COMPONENTS
FLOW CHART - REFRACTORY WALL INCINERATOR
CHAIN GRATE
RECIPROCATING GRATES
REVERSE RECIPROCATING GRATE
WASTE-FIRED BOILER WITH BARREL GRATE
DIAGRAM OF AIR-SWEPT SPREADER STOKER NOZZLE
AIR-SWEPT SPREADER ON WOOD-FIRED BOILER
ENERGY RELEASE RATES - SOLID WASTE AND WOOD WASTES
HARRISBURG INCINERATOR
SOLID WASTE BOILER WITH RECIPROCATING GRATES
DUTCH OVEN FIRED BOILER
FUEL CELL FIRED WOOD WASTE BOILER
INCLINED GRATE WOOD WASTE BOILER
LESSON 24; PROBLEM SESSION VI (No slides required)
31
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SLIDE NUMBER
TITLE OF SLIDE
LESSON 25: CONTROLLED AIR INCINERATOR
427-25-1
427-25-2
427-25-3
427-25-4
427-25-5
427-25-6
427-25-7
427-25-8
427-25-9
427-25-10
427-25-11
427-25-12
427-25-13
427-25-14
427-25-15
427-25-16
427-25-17
427-25-18
427-25-19
427-25-20
427-25-21
427-25-22
427-25-23
427-25-24
AVERAGE EMISSION FACTORS FOR REFUSE COMBUSTION
FLUE FED SINGLE CHAMBER INCINERATOR
APARTMENT HOUSE INCINERATOR WITH SEPARATE STORAGE BIN
MULTIPLE-CHAMBER RETORT INCINERATOR
MULTIPLE-CHAMBER IN-LINE INCINERATOR
MULTIPLE-CHAMBER IN-LINE INCINERATOR
CONTROLLED AIR INCINERATOR
CONTROLLED PROPORTIONATE AIR DISTRIBUTION
AIR DELIVERY BLOWER
PRIMARY CHAMBER PRODUCES VOLATILE GASES
SECONDARY CHAMBER
TEMPERATURE CONTROLLER
RELATIVE SIZE OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CHAMBERS
FACTORY MANUFACTURED
MODULAR UNIT AT MUNICIPAL FACILITY
CHARGING OF AUTOMATIC FEED HOPPER
ASH REMOVAL DOORS
AUXILIARY FUEL BURNER
MULTIPLE AUXILIARY BURNERS FOR PRIMARY CHAMBER OF PATHOLO-
GICAL WASTE INCINERATOR
COMPACT WASTE CHARGE
CHARGING WITH OPEN DOOR
MODIFY CONTROLLER TEMPERATURE SETTING
DAMAGED REFRACTORY AND UNDERFIRE AIR PIPE
UNDERFIRE ATR STTPPT.Y OPTTTrPg .
32
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SLIDE NUMBER
427-25-25
427-25-26
427-26-1
427-26-2
427-26-3
427-26-4
427-26-5
427-26-6
TITLE OF SLIDE
INCINERATOR WITH STEAM GENERATION
INCINERATOR WITH CONTINUOUS FEED AND ASH REMOVAL
LESSON 26: COMBUSTION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE
COMPARISON OF THERMAL DESTRUCTION OF PESTICIDES AND
PCB's
THERMAL DESTRUCTION ZONES FOR VARIOUS PESTICIDES
SUBMERGED-COMBUSTION INCINERATOR
KEPONE INCINERATION TEST SYSTEM
ROTARY KILN INCINERATOR
FLUIDIZED-BED INCINERATOR SCHEMATIC
33
-------
SLIDE NUMBER
TITLE OF SLIDE
427-27-1
427-27-2
427-27-3
427-27-4
427-27-5
427-27-6
427-27-7
427-27-8
427-27-9
427-27-10
427-27-11
427-27-12
427-27-13
427-27-14
427-27-15
427-27-16
427-27-17
427-27-18
427-27-19
427-27-20
LESSON 27: NOV CONTROL THEORY
X
SUMMARY OF 1974 STATIONARY SOURCE NOV EMISSIONS
A
ANNUAL NATIONWIDE NOV EMISSION PROJECTIONS TO 2000
X
EXAMPLE OF TRANSIENT SMOG CONDITIONS IN LOS ANGELES, CA
EXAMPLE OF EXPERIMENTAL SMOG CHAMBER DATA
GENERALIZED PHOTOCHEMICAL REACTIONS
GENERALIZED PHOTOCHEMICAL REACTIONS (CONTINUED)
THERMAL NOV FORMATION: CLASSICAL CHEMICAL MODEL
X
THERMAL NOV FORMATION: SIMPLIFIED MODEL
A
THEORETICAL CURVES FOR NO CONCENTRATIONS VS. TEMPERATURE
EFFECT OF LOW EXCESS AIR, OIL FUEL
TWO-STAGE COMBUSTION
TWO-STAGE COMBUSTION, OIL FUEL
EFFECT OF BURNER STOICHIOMETRY ON NOV, COAL COMBUSTION
X
NOX REDUCTION BY FLUE GAS RECIRCULATION
EFFECT OF FGR ON NO EMISSIONS
EFFECTS OF NOV CONTROL METHODS
X
RANGE OF UNCONTROLLED UTILITY BOILER NOV EMISSIONS
X
EFFECT OF FIRING METHOD, OIL FUEL
NOX EMISSIONS WITH WATER INJECTION FOR NATURAL GAS-FIRED
GAS TURBINE
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON NO REDUCTION WITH AMMONIA
INJECTION
34
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SLIDE NUMBER
TITLE OF SLIDE
427-28-1
427-28-2
427-28-3
427-28-4
427-28-5
427-28-6
427-28-7
427-28-8
427-28-9
427-28-10
427-28-11
427-28-12
427-28-13
427-28-14
427-28-15
427-28-16
427-28-17
427-28-18
427-28-19
427-28-20
427-28-21
LESSON 28; IMPROVED PERFORMANCE BY COMBUSTION
MODIFICATION
SMOKE-C02 PLOT FOR RESIDENTIAL OIL BURNERS
"LOWEST PRACTICAL CO^", RESIDENTIAL BURNERS
EFFECT OF STACK TEMPERATURE AND C0_ ON THERMAL EFFICIENCY
USUAL RANGE OF VISCOSITY FOR OIL FIRING
SMOKE-C02 CURVE FOR COMMERCIAL RESIDUAL OIL FIRED BURNER
MAXIMUM DESIRABLE BACHARACH SMOKE NUMBER
PERCENT C02 IN FLUE GAS AS FUNCTION OF EXCESS AIR
BOILER EFFICIENCY LOSS CHANGE WITH EXCESS 02
SMOKE-02 CURVE FOR COAL OR OIL-FIRED INDUSTRIAL BOILER
C0-02 CURVE FOR GAS-FIRED INDUSTRIAL BOILER
EFFECT OF EXCESS 0_ ON NOV EMISSIONS
^ A
TYPICAL RANGE OF MINIMUM EXCESS 02 AT HIGH FIRING RATES
EFFECT OF REDUCING THE EXCESS AIR ON BOILER EFFICIENCY
STAGED AIR EXPERIMENTAL WATER TUBE BOILER, TOP VIEW
STAGED AIR EXPERIMENTAL WATER TUBE BOILER, SIDE VIEW
REDUCTION OF TOTAL NOX BY STAGED AIR WITH NATURAL GAS FUEL
REDUCTION OF TOTAL NOV BY STAGED AIR WITH NO. 6 FUEL OIL
A
EFFECT OF NOV PORTS ON BOILER EFFICIENCY
A
EFFECT OF COMBUSTION AIR TEMPERATURE ON NOV WITH OIL
X
AND GAS
INFLUENCE OF AIR PREHEAT ON NOX
EFFECT OF COMBUSTION AIR PREHEAT ON BOILER EFFICIENCY
35
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SLIDE NUMBER
TITLE OF SLIDE
427-28-22
427-28-23
427-28-24
427-28-25
427-28-26
427-28-27
LESSON 28: IMPROVED PERFORMANCE BY COMBUSTION
MODIFICATION, continued
REDUCTION IN NOV BY FLUE GAS RECIRCULATION
X
NO FROM GAS, TANGENTIALLY-FIRED UTILITY BOILERS
A.
EFFECTS OF NOV CONTROL METHODS ON A GAS, WALL-FIRED
X
UTILITY BOILER
EFFECT OF NO CONTROL METHODS ON AN OIL, WALL-FIRED
X
UTILITY BOILER
NOX FROM RESIDUAL OIL, TANGENTIALLY-FIRED UTILITY BOILERS
EFFECT OF BURNER STOICHIOMETRY ON NOV IN TANGENTIAL,
X
COAL-FIRED BOILERS
36
-------
SLIDE NUMBER
TITLE OF SLIDE
427-29-1
427-29-2
427-29-3
427-29-4
427-29-5
427-29-6
427-29-7
427-29-8
427-29-9
427-29-10
427-29-11
427-29-12
427-29-13
427-29-14
427-29-15
427-29-16
427-29-17
427-29-18
LESSON 29; WASTE GAS FLARES
GAS PROPERTIES RE-FLARES
GAS PROPERTIES RE-FLARING
SMOKE TENDENCIES, ACETYLENE
SMOKE TENDENCIES, PROPANE
SMOKE TENDENCIES, ETHANE
SMOKE TENDENCIES, H/C >_ 0.28
WATER-GAS REACTIONS
STEAM REQUIREMENTS FOR SMOKELESS FLARE
JOHN ZINK SMOKELESS FLARE TIP
CROSS SECTION OF A SMOKELESS FLARE BURNER
FLARE TIP WITH INTERNAL STEAM INJECTION
SINCLAIR FLARE BURNER
ESSO TYPE BURNER
MULTISTREAM-JET BURNER
MULTIJET-GROUND FLARE
VENTURI-TYPE FLARE
WATER SPRAY TYPE GROUND FLARE
NUMBER OF PILOTS REQUIRED
37
-------
SLIDE NUMBER
TITLE OF SLIDE
427-30-1
427-30-2
427-30-3
427-30-4
LESSON 30; MUNICIPAL SEWAGE SLUDGE INCINERATION
TYPICAL SECTION OF A MULTIPLE-HEARTH SLUDGE INCINERATOR
MULTIPLE-HEARTH FURNACE FOR INCINERATING MUNICIPAL
SEWAGE SLUDGE
SINGLE HEARTH SLUDGE FURNACE
FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUIDIZED INCINERATION
38
-------
LESSON PLAN
TOPIC: Introduction to Combustion
Evaluation in Air Pollution
Control
COURSE: 427, Combustion Evaluation
LESSON TIME: 30 min.
PREPARED BY: DATE:
J. T. Beard
Aug. 1978
Lesson Number: 1
Lesson Goal: The goal of this lesson is to familiarize the student with the goals
and emphases of "Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollution Control."
Lesson Objectives: At the end of this lesson the student will be able to:
identify three major goals of Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollution Control;
list four of the subject areas which will be emphasized in the course
(fundamentals of combustion, fuel properties, combustion system design,
emission calculations, various combustion equipment topics, NOX control);
present two reasons for applying the fundamental concepts of combustion
when solving combustion evaluation problems in air pollution control;
list four of the materials burned as a fuel which are to be considered in the
course;
list three waste materials which may be disposed of through combustion; and
list three of the important air pollutant emissions which may be limited
by combustion control.
Student Prerequisite Skills: Air Pollution Training Institute Course 452 or
equivalent experience, and one of the following: college level training
in physical science, engineering, or mathematics.
Level of Instruction: Undergraduate engineering or equivalent.
Intended Student Professional Backgrounds: Engineers, technical staff, regula-
tory officials, and others who work in combustion-related areas of air
pollution control.
Support Materials and Equipment:
1. Slide projector
2. Slide set for Lesson 1.
Special Instructions: None
1-1
-------
References:
1. Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollution Control, Chapter 1.
1-2
-------
SLIDE NUMBER
TITLE OF SLIDE
427-1-1
427-1-2
427-1-3
427-1-4
427-1-5
427-1-6
LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO COMBUSTION EVALUATION IN AIR
POLLUTION CONTROL
GOALS
COURSE WILL EMPHASIZE
FUEL BURNING SOURCES
COMBUSTION OF WASTE MATERIALS
AIR POLLUTION EMISSIONS CONTROLLED BY COMBUSTION
AT THE CONCLUSION OF THE COURSE
1-3
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
/ j T'*I~. Introduction to Combustion
Lecture Title. Evaluation
Page-J'—of
NOTES
I. Introduction
A. Introduce course moderator and lecturers
B. Discuss the jobs in control agencies and in industry
where knowledge from this course would be useful
C. Present the procedures to be used in the course
1. Refer students to the course agenda, student manual,
and workbook
2. Advise students on their mode of participation in
the course
3. Invite students to express their interest in certain
subjects of the course
4. Describe the method of taking the pre-test and post-
test
5. Emphasize the importance of completing the daily
homework assignments
6. Mention the criteria for awarding the course cer-
tificate and CEU's
D. Provide information about lunch and coffee breaks,
transportation, restrooms, etc.
II. Course Goals
A. Goals are to provide participants with knowledge of:
1. Fundamental aspects of combustion
2. Applied aspects of combustion
3. Overview of the state-of-the art
B. Basic concepts of combustion
1. Definition and purpose of combustion
2. Factors affecting completeness of combustion
a. Sufficient oxygen
b. Three T's of combustion
3. Consequences of poor combustion
a. Smoke and other particulates
b. Carbon monoxide and other partially oxidized
hydrocarbons
c. Odor
C. Give examples relating fundamental concepts
to applied air pollution problems
1. Fuel oil viscosity (which varies with temperature)
influences droplet atomization size which could
be too large for complete combustion in a given
situation
2. NOx formation may be reduced by limiting the amount
of excess air
D. State that emphasis will be placed on:
1. Fundamental combustion calculations
2. Evaluation of pollution emissions
3. Factors to consider for reduced emissions
a. Good equipment design
b. Proper installation
c. Good operating practices and maintenance program
4. Corrective action for malfunctioning equipment
1-4
Slide 427-1-1
Slide 427-1-2
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title:
Introduction to Combustion
Evaluation
Page.
of—L
NOTES
in.
IV.
Distinguish between the content of this course and
courses in gaseous and particulate emissions
A. Course will emphasize commonly encountered
1. Fuel combustion sources
a. Major stationary sources burning natural gas
b. Commercial, industrial, and utility sources
burning fuel oil
c. Industrial and utility sources burning coal
d. Industrial sources burning wood (hog fuel)
e. Special sources burning municipal solid waste
2. Combustion devices for controlling waste gases
a. Catalytic incineration
b. Direct flame incineration
c. Flares (as an optional topic)
3. Combustible waste materials
a. Various chemical and hazardous wastes
b. Garbage (municipal solid wastes)
c. Industrial waste gas streams containing com-
bustible hydrocarbon and other gases
d. Municipal sewage sludge (optional topic)
B. Course will not emphasize flue gas control of:
1. Particulates (covered in Course No. 412)
2. Sulfur oxides (covered in Course No. 415)
C. Air pollutants which can be reduced by properly con-
trolled combustion are:
1. Carbon monoxide
2. Hydrocarbon gases
3. Nitric oxides
4. Combustible particulates resulting from incomplete
oxidation
5. Incombustible particulates resulting from entrain-
ment by high-velocity gases
Course Objectives
A. Refer to list of objectives for each topic of the
course (found in Chapter 1)
B. Summarize the objectives for the participants
1. Familiarity with combustion principles
2. Ability to perform calculations to determine quantities
of emissions and the requirements for complete com-
bustion
3. Ability to state important mechanisms in the formation
of certain air pollution emissions
4. Ability to understand and apply the important combus-
tion design and operational parameters in order to make
recommendations for improved air pollution control
Slide 427-1-3
Slide 427-1-4
Slide 427-1-5
Slide 427-1-6
1-5
-------
LESSON PLAN
TOPIC: Fundamentals of Combustion I-
Basic Chemistry
COURSE: 427, Combustion Evaluation
LESSON TIME: 50 min.
PREPARED BY: DATE:
L. U. Lilleleht Aug. 1978
Lesson Number: 2
Lesson Goal: The goal of this lesson is to provide a review of the fundamental
theory of chemical reactions as is related to combustion evaluation in air
pollution control.
Lesson Objectives: At the end of this lesson the student will be able to:
use the basic chemical equations for combustion reactions, with or without
excess air, to calculate air requirements and amounts of combustion
products;
apply the ideal gas law to determine volumetric relationships for typical
combustion situations;
distinguish between different types of combustion as characterized by car-
bonic theory (yellow flame) and hydroxylation theory (blue flame).
Student Prerequisite Skills: First-level college chemistry, algebra, physics
(heat).
Level of Instruction: Undergraduate engineering or equivalent
Intended Student Professional Backgrounds: Engineers, technical staff, regula-
tory officials, and others who work in combustion-related areas of air
pollution control.
Support Materials and Equipment:
1. Slide projector
2. Slide set for Lesson 2.
Special Instructions: None
References:
1. Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollution Control, Chapter 2.
2. Steam, Its Generation and Use, 38th Edition, published by Babcock
and Wilcox Co., New York (1972).
2-1
-------
SLIDE NUMBER TITLE OF SLIDE
LESSON 2; FUNDAMENTALS OF COMBUSTION II - BASIC CHEMISTRY
427-2-1 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMBUSTION
427-2-2 GENERAL COMBUSTION REACTION
427-2-3 THREE T'S OF COMBUSTION
427-2-4 COMPLETE COMBUSTION
427-2-5 THEORETICAL AIR FOR COMPLETE COMBUSTION
427-2-6 FLAMMABILITY LIMITS OF COMBUSTIBLE VAPORS IN AIR
427-2-7 STANDARD CONDITIONS
427-2-8 IDEAL (PERFECT) GAS LAW
427-2-9 CHARLES' AND BOYLE'S LAWS
427-2-10 SELECTED REACTIONS IN COMBUSTION SEQUENCE
427-2-11 CARBONIC THEORY
427-2-12 HYDROXYLATION THEORY
427-2-13 YELLOW FLAME
427-2-14 BLUE FLAME
427-2-15 STEAM INJECTION TO YELLOW FLAME
2-2
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Title ' Fundamentals of Combustion I
Basic
Page
NOTES
II.
III.
Introduction
A. State the objectives of this lesson
B. Establish definitions and common terminology
1. Combustion: rapid chemical reaction
2. Balancing general oxidation reaction
a. Concept of mol
b. Conversion from molar to mass or other bases
3. Requirements for complete combustion
a . Oxygen
b. Temperature, turbulence, time
Determine the oxygen (air) requirements for combustion
A. Theoretical (stoichiometric) air requirements and
combustion products for
1. Single component combustibles
2. Mixtures of combustibles
B. Effects of insufficient air
1. Carbon (smoke, soot)
2. Carbon monoxide
3. Partially oxidized hydrocarbons and odor
C. Reasons for some excess air
1. Complete combustion
2. Temperature control in combustion zone
D. Flammability characteristics of gases and vapors
1. Combustion over range of concentration
a. Lower and upper flammability or explosive limits,
homogeneous mixtures
b. Effects of temperature and pressure on flam-
mability limits
2. Heterogeneous mixtures
a. Multiphase (solid, liquid, gas) system
b. Layered systems
E. Volumetric relationships for gases and volumes
1. Avogadro's law
a. Equal volumes - equal number of molecules
2. Standard conditions (T and p)
a. Universal scientific
b. Gas industry
c . Other
3. Gas laws
a. Ideal (perfect) gas law
Universal gas constant
Consistent units
b. Charles' law
c. Boyle's law
d. Dal ton's law
The Three T's of Combustion
A. Temperature
1. Ignition temperature
a. For gases and vapors
b. For coal
2. Temperature accelerates reaction rate
2-3
Slide 427-2-1
Slide 427-2-2
Slide 427-2-3
Refer to Student
Manual, p.2-23
Slide 427-2-4
427-2-5
Slide 427-2-6
Slide 427-2-7
Slide 427-2-8
Slide 427-2-9
Slide 427-2-3
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course.
Lecture Title:
427, Combustion Evaluation
Fundamentals of Combustion I
Basic Chemistry
Page ±-of—i.
NOTES
B. Turbulence
1. Facilitates mixing of oxygen and fuel
2. Break-up of boundary layers accelerates
a. Vaporization of liquid fuel
b. Removal of combustion products from surface
of solid fuel particle
c. Availability of oxygen to burning surface
of solid particle
3. Affects heat transfer in combustion chamber
C. Time
1. Residence time for complete combustion
2. Temperature effect
a. Lower residence time at higher temperature
b. Smaller size
3. Residence time distribution
a. Shape of furnace
b. Flow pattern
IV. Combustion Mechanisms
A. Sequence of reactions affected by
1. Availability of oxygen
2. Temperature, turbulence, and time
B. Carbonic theory
1. Yellow flame
C. Hydroxylation theory
1. Blue Flame
D. Water-gas reaction to
1. Mediate cracking reaction
2. Control smoking tendency of flares
Summary
Knowledge of the fuel composition will permit the deter-
mination of the theoretical air requirements and the quantities
and compositions of the flue products through the use of
material balances.
Combustion is usually carried out at or near atmospheric
pressures so that the use of the ideal gas law is justified
for the relationship between the volume and the number of mols
or mass of gases involved.
Temperature, time, and turbulence in a combustion device
are important factors to be considered to assure complete com-
bustion with a minimum of pollutant emissions.
Different theories have been proposed for the combustion
mechanism. Which of these mechanisms is predominant depends
on tye type of fuel and how it is mixed with air. The appear-
ance of the flame can be used as an indication of the type of
combustion and its quality.
Combustion calculations involving heat effects will be
the subject of the next lecture.
2-4
Slide 427-2-10
Slide 427-2-H
Slide 427-2-12
Slide 427-2-13
Slide 427-2-14
Slide 427-2-15
-------
LESSON PLAN
TOPIC: Fundamentals of Combustion
II - Thermochemical
Relationships .>
COURSE: 427, Combustion Evaluation
LESSON TIME: 50 min.
PREPARED BY: DATE:
L. U. Lilleleht Aug. 1978
Lesson Number: 3
Lesson Goal: The goal of this lesson is to provide a review of the fundamental
theory of chemical reactions as is related to combustion evaluation in air
pollution control.
Lesson Objectives: At the end of this lesson the student will be able to:
define heat of combustion, gross and net heating values, available heat,
hypothetical available heat, sensible heat, latent heat, and heat content;
determine the available heat obtained from burning fuels at different flue
gas exit temperatures and with various amounts of excess air, using gener-
alized correlations;
perform heat content calculations for various flow streams in a combustion
installation;
calculate furnace efficiency and describe the effects of varying air-to-
fuel ratio on flue gas composition and furnace losses.
Student Prerequisite Skills: First-level college chemistry, algebra, physics
(heat); Course 427, Lesson Number 2.
Level of Instruction: Undergraduate engineering or equivalent.
Intended Student Professional Backgrounds: Engineers, technical staff, regu-
latory officials, and others who work in combustion-related areas of air
pollution control.
Support Materials and Equipment:
1. Slide projector
2. Slide set for Lesson 3.
Special Instructions: None
3-1
-------
References:
1. Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollution Control, Chapter 2.
2. Combustion Handbook, 1st Edition, North American Manufacturing Com-
pany, Cleveland, OH (1952).
3. Air Pollution Engineering Manual, AP-40, 2nd Edition, pp. 176 and 935,
USEPA (1973).
3-2
-------
SLIDE NUMBER TITLE OF SLIDE
LESSON 3: FUNDAMENTALS OF COMBUSTION II - THERMOCHEMICAL
RELATIONSHIPS
427-3-1 GROSS HEATING VALUE
427-3-2 NET HEATING VALUE
427-3-3 ADIABATIC STEADY STATE HEAT BALANCE
427-3-4 HEAT BALANCE ACROSS SYSTEM BOUNDARY WITHOUT HEAT LOSS
427-3-5 GENERALIZED COMPARISON OF PURE HYDROCARBON FUELS IN
COMPLETE COMBUSTION
427-3-6 AVAILABLE HEATS FOR SOME TYPICAL FUELS
427-3-7 AVAILABLE HEATS WITH EXCESS AIR
427-3-8 FURNACE LOSSES
427-3-9 SUMMARY OF HEAT BALANCE TERMS
3-3
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427,
Combustion Evaluation
Fundamentals of Combustion II-
Thentiochemical Relations
Page.
of.
NOTES
I. Introduction and Definitions
A. State the lesson objectives
B. Sensible and latent heats
C. Heat content or enthalpy
D. Heat of reaction
1. Standard heat of combustion
2. Gross or higher heating value (HHV)
3. Net or lower heating value (LHV)
E. Available heat
F. Hypothetical available heat
II. Heat Balance Calculations
A. Concept of a heat balance
1. Terms included and their interrelations
2. Determination of heat contents of various streams
a. By calculations using heat capacities, etc.
b. • From tables
3. System efficiency
B. Determination of the available (useful) heat
1. By calculation from heating values and heat contents
of all streams
a. Heating value of various fuels, e.g. Dulong
formula
b. Heat content of multicomponent gas streams
2. Approximations of available heat
a. For typical hydrocarbon fuels
b. For some specific fuels
c. Estimates for other fuels
3. Available heat with excess air
a. As percent of gross heating value
b. Excess air decreases maximum flue gas tempera-
ture
4. Hypothetical available heat
C. Furnace losses
1. Incomplete combustion losses
2. Flue gas losses
3. Radiation and wall losses
4. Total losses are at a minimum
a. With good mixing at stoichiometric air/fuel
ratio
b. With poor mixing at some excess air
D. Adiabatic flame temperature
1. Definition
2. Calculations and typical values
a. With air as source of oxygen
b. With pure oxygen
3. Consequences of heat removal failure
Summary
Thermochemical calculations are essential to determine the
efficiency of a combustion process and the amount of fuel necessary
to meet a specified load. They will also permit calculations of
3-4
Refer to Manual,
Chapter 2
Slide 427-3-1
Slide 427-3-2
Slide 427-3-3
Slide 427-3-4
Slide 427-3-5
Slide 427-3-6
Slide 427-3-7
Slide 427-3-8
Slide 427-3-9
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427» Combustion Evaluation
Title ' Fundamentals of Combustion II-
Thermochemical Relations
flage.
NOTES
the auxiliary fuel requirements in installations where combustion
is used for pollution abatement, as in afterburners.
The effect of the air-to-fuel ratio on the various heat losses was
discussed. Minimizing flue losses due to incomplete combustion,
excessive amounts of combustion air, and excessively high flue
gas temperatures will not only conserve fuel, but will also help
to alleviate the air pollution problem by reducing the stack
emissions.
3-5
-------
LESSON PLAN
TOPIC: Film— "Three T's of
Combustion"
COURSE: 427, Combustion Evaluation
LESSON TIME: 30 min.
PREPARED BY: DATE:
L. U. Lilleleht Sept. 1978
Lesson Number: 4
Lesson Goal: To reinforce the student's understanding of the fundamental com-
bustion concepts, particularly as these relate to the design variables of
combustion time, temperature, and turbulence.
Lesson Objectives: At the end of this film, the student will be able to:
list the chemical elements which combined with oxygen when fuels burn;
list the four items necessary for efficient combustion; and
describe qualitatively the interrelationships between time, temperature,
turbulence, and oxygen required for proper combustion of a given fuel.
Student Prerequisite Skills: First-level college chemistry.
Level of Instruction: Undergraduate engineering or equivalent.
Intended Student Professional Backgrounds: Engineers, technical staff, regula-
tory officials, and others who work in combustion-related areas of air
pollution control.
Support Materials and Equipment:
1. Film: "Three T's of Combustion"
2. 16 mm sound movie projector with a. 12-inch-diameter take-up reel
Special Instructions: None
References:
1. Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollution Control, Chapter 2.
4-1
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title: Film— "Three T's of Combustion
Page—I.— of—
NOTES
I. Introduction
A. State the objective of the film.
B. This movie shows how to obtain efficient burning without
black smoke. Professor Miller starts out to define and
discuss combustion, the Btu, and heats of combustion
of various fuels. He then uses a modified kerosene lamp
to illustrate the importance of sufficient oxygen, tem-
perature, turbulence, and time for obtaining efficient
combustion.
C. Parts of a kerosene lamp are used in the demonstration:
glass container for fuel, wick, grate, diffuser or
tuyere, and lamp chimney.
D. Conditions producing inefficient burning:
1. No tuyere— lack of mixing (turbulence)
2. No chimney— too much cool air (time and temperature)
3. Cold chimney — low temperature in combustion zone
4. Too much air — wasted heat
5. Too little air— unburned fuel, smoke
E. Methods to increase air and eliminate smoke:
1. Taller chimney— increased draft
2. Raise bottom of chimney— overfire air
II. "Three T's of Combustion"
III. Discussion of comments and questions raised by viewers
IV. Summary of application of the 3T's to furnaces
A. To complete combustion of any fuel, one needs:
1. Sufficient oxygen
2. Adequately high temperature
3. Sufficient turbulence for mixing
4. Sufficient time
The effects of these factors are interrelated. For exam-
ple, higher temperature and better mixing would permit
completion of the combustion process in shorter time.
B. To increase temperature:
1. Preheat combustion air
2. Insulate combustion chamber
3. Design chamber to reflect heat inward
C. To provide turbulence use:
1. Air jets
2. Baffles
D. To provide adequate time:
1. Properly designed combustion chamber
2. Baffle design
3. Reduced firing rate
E. Items to check if there is a smokey flame:
1. Too little air
2. Too much air
3. Inadequate mixing
4. Cold furnace
Film: "Three T's of
Combustion"
4-2
-------
LESSON PLAN
TOPIC: Reaction Kinetics
COURSED 427, Combustion Evaluation
LESSON TIME: 50 min.
PREPARED BY: DATE:
L. U. Lilleleht Oct. 1978
Lesson Number: 5
Lesson Goal: To provide the student with an understanding of the influence of
temperature and reactant gas concentrations on the equilibrium state and on
the rates approaching that of equilibrium in combustion reactions.
Lesson Objectives: At the end of this lesson the student will be able to:
recite the conditions for equilibrium;
describe how an excess quantity of one reactant will affect other concen-
trations at equilibrium;
cite the expression for the rate of reaction;
identify the Arrhenius equation as a model for the influence of temperature
on combustion rate;
define the activation energy;
describe the mechanism of catalytic activity; and
list the reasons for the deterioration of catalytic activity.
Student Prerequisite Skills: College chemistry and algebra, Course No. 427,
Lesson Number 3.
Level of Instruction: Undergraduate engineering or equivalent
Intended Student Professional Backgrounds: Engineers, technical staff, regu-
latory officials, and others who work in combustion-related areas of air
pollution control.
Support Materials and Equipment:
1. Slide projector
2. Slide set for Lesson 5.
5-1
-------
Special Instructions: None
References:
1. Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollution Control, Chapter 2.
2. Edwards, J. B., Combustion; The Formation and Emissions of Trace Spe-
cies, Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor, Michigan (1974).
5-2
-------
SLIDE NUMBER
427-5-1
427-5-2
427-5-3
427-5-4
427-5-5
427-5-6
427-5-7
427-5-8
427-5-9
TITLE OF SLIDE
LESSON 5: REACTION KINETICS
CHEMICAL REACTION RATES
EQUILIBRIUM CONDITIONS
TRANSITION STATE CONCEPT
TEMPERATURE EFFECT ON REACTION RATE
TYPICAL CATALYSTS AND THEIR SUPPORTS
STEPS IN CATALYTIC REACTION SEQUENCE
SCHEMATIC OF THE CATALYTIC REACTION SEQUENCE
ARRHENIUS PLOT WITH AND WITHOUT CATALYST
DETERIORATION OF PLATINUM CATALYTIC ACTIVITY
5-3
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title: Reaction Kinetics
Page 4 of_s_
NOTES
I. Introduction
A. State the lesson goal and objectives
B. Discuss general concepts of chemical reactions:
1. Not as simple as equation implies
a. Often a sequence of steps
b. Intermediate steps not always shown
2. Not always complete
a. Usually there is also a reverse reaction
3. Law of mass action gives the rate of reaction as
proportional to:
a. Concentrations of reactants
b. Coefficient of proportionality in the reaction
velocity constant, k
II. Chemical Equilibrium
A. Present the conditions of equilibrium
1. No change in concentrations with time
2. Forward and reverse reaction rates equal
B. Introduce the equilibrium constant, K
1. Interrelation of concentrations
a. Excess of one reactant reduces concentration of
the other
b. Rationale for excess air in combustion
III. Reaction Mechanism— Transition State Theory
A. Describe how a reaction proceeds through an activated
complex (Transition State)
B. Mention that reactants and products each have a distri-
bution of energy states about some mean level
1. For exothermic reactions, products are at lower mean
level than reactants
2. Difference in mean-energy states is the heat of
reaction (combustion)
3. Spontaneous reactions do not occur for all exo-
thermic cases at any temperature. Why not?
C. Discuss the transition state (activated complex) between
reactants and products:
1. At higher energy than either reactants or products
2. Activation energy is the difference between energy
of the transition state and the mean of the reactants
3. Formed on collision of reactant having sufficiently
high energies (equal to or exceeding that of the
transition state)
a. Only a small fraction of molecules have such
energies
b. This fraction increases with increasing tem-
perature
4. Activated complex is unstable, therefore, there are
two options:
a. It breaks up to form products
b. It breaks up to give original reactants
D. Present reaction rate expressions
1. Temperature effect through the velocity constant, k
2. Arrhenius equation for k f
a. Plot of log k vs. 1/T (Arrhenius plot)
b. Slope proportional to activation energy
Slide 427-5-1
Slide 427-5-2
Slide 427-5-3
Slide 427-5-4
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title: Reaction Kinetics
-------
LESSON PLAN
TOPIC: Fuel Properties
COURSE; 427, Combustion Evaluation
LESSON TIME: 40 min.
PREPARED BY: DATE:
J. T. Beard Aug. 1978
Lesson Number: 6
Lesson Goal: The goal of this lesson is to provide the student with an under-
standing of the various physical and chemical properties of fuels which in-
fluence pollutant emissions and are important for combustion system design
and operation.
Lesson Objectives: At the end of this lesson the student will be able to:
state the important chemical properties which influence air pollutant emissions;
use the tables in the student manual to find representative-values for given
fuel properties;
describe the difference in physical features which limit the rate of com-
bustion for gaseous, liquid, and solid fuels;
explain the importance of fuel properties such as flash point and upper and
lower flammability limits which relate to safe operation of combustion
installations;
use either specific or API gravity to determine the total heat of combustion
of a fuel oil;
describe the influence of variations in fuel oil viscosity on droplet forma-
tion and on completeness of combustion and emissions;
list the important components in the proximate and ultimate analyses;
define "as fired," "as received," "moisture free," and "dry basis" as applied
to chemical analyses of solid fuels; and
explain the significance of ash fusion temperature and caking index in the
burning of coal.
Student Prerequisite Skills: First-level college chemistry, physics (heat).
Level of Instruction: Undergraduate engineering or equivalent
6-1
-------
Intended Student Professional Backgrounds: Engineers, technical staff, regu-
latory officials, and others who work in combustion-related areas of air
pollution control.
Support Materials and Equipment:
1. Slide projector
2. Slide set for Lesson 6
Special Instructions: None
References:
1. Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollution Control, Chapter 3.
2. Fryling, G. R., Combustion Engineering, revised edition, published by
Combustion Engineering, Inc., 277 Park Avenue, New York 10017
(1966).
3. Steam, Its Generation and Use, 38th Edition, published by Babcock and
Wilcox, 161 East 42nd Street, New York 10017 (1972).
6-2
-------
SLIDE NUMBER TITLE OF SLIDE
LESSON 6; FUEL PROPERTIES
427-6-1 GASEOUS FUELS HAVE RATE OF COMBUSTION
427-6-2 HIGHER HEATING VALUE
427-6-3 LOWER HEATING VALUE
427-6-4 API GRAVITY
427-6-5 APPROXIMATE VISCOSITY OF FUEL OIL
427-6-6 PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF SELECTED COAL
427-6-7 ULTIMATE ANALYSIS OF SELECTED COAL (AS RECEIVED)
427-6-8 ULTIMATE ANALYSIS OF SELECTED COAL (DRY BASIS)
427-6-9 SELECTED SIZE DISTRIBUTION AND MOISTURE OF HOGGED FUELS
6-3
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427» Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title: Fuel Properties
NOTES
I. Introduction
A. State the lesson objectives
B. Describe the following fuel properties and introduce their
influence on pollutant emissions
1. Sulfur
a. Present in organic/ sulfide, or sulfate forms
b. Give examples to show how sulfur content varies
with fuel, source, and amount of cleaning or
refinery processing
c. Introduce acidic emissions which cuase corrosion
in economizers, air heaters, and air ducts.
2. Fixed nitrogen
a. Give ranges of content in coal and oil
b. Introduce fuel NOX
c. Explain why high nitrogen in natural gas does
not form fuel NOjj
3. Other impurities
a. State examples: vanadium, sodium, and mercury
4. Volatile matter, fixed carbon, ash
5. Moisture
C. Give examples of the most common solid, liquid, and
gaseous fuels
1. Gaseous fuels (natural gas, propane, butane)
2. Liquid fuels (No. 2 fuel oil, No. 6 fuel oil)
3. Solid fuels (coal, hogged fuel, municipal solid waste)
D. Explain the limits on the rate of combustion
1. Gaseous fuels limited by turbulence (mixing of fuel
and air)
2. Liquid fuels limited by evaporation which is depen-
dent on liquid surface area
3. Solid fuels limited by distillation of volatiles
and diffusion of O2 to surface of fixed carbon
E. Define, give example values for gas, oil, and coal, and
explain the method used to determine
1. Higher heating value, gross heat of combustion,
gross calorific value, total heat of combustion
2. Lower heating value, net heat of combustion
3. Constant volume versus constant pressure values
F. Review the upper and lower falmmability limits and dis-
cuss their application to avoid explosions
II. Gaseous Fuels
A. Describe the characteristics of natural gas
1. Mixtures of gaseous components, mainly
methane
2. Higher heating value around 1,000 Btu/scf
3. May contain sulfur when delivered from gas well,
typically removed before transmission
4. Usually contains trace mercaptan additive for odor
detection of leaks
B. Give example compositions and heating values for various
synthetic gaseous fuels
6-4
Slide 427-6-1
Slide 427-6-2
Slide 427-6-3
Refer to Student
Manual, p. 3-11
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title' Fuel Properties
Page.
NOTES
1. Liquified Petroleum Gas, LPG
a.
b.
d.
III.
B
Blend of paraffinic (saturated) hydrocarbons
(propane, isobutane, and normal butane)
Derived from natural gas and from petroleum
refinery operations
Gaseous under normal atmospheric conditions,
but may be liquefied under moderate pressure
(80-200 psig)
Heating value (2,500 to 4,000 Btu/scf)
2. Gases derived from coal (metals or chemical indus-
try) generally burned on site as heating fuel
a. Coke-over gas
b. Blast furnace gas
c. Producer gas
3. Synthetic gases from petroleum refineries
a. Various blends of byproduct gases; heating
value which depends on composition
Liquid Fuels
A. Discuss crude oil
1. Combustible hydrocarbon mixture as delivered from
oil well
2. Potential explosive problems when used as fuel, due
to low flash point volatiles
3. Used as refinery feed-stock to produce fuels, sol-
vents, chemicals, plastics, synthetic rubber, etc.
Describe the distinguishing characteristics of fuel oils
of different grades
No. 1 fuel oil, a distillate oil intended for
vaporization pot-type burners and other burners
requiring a light distillate fuel
No. 2 fuel oil, a heavier distillate oil typically
used for domestic heating
No. 4 fuel oil, a light residual fuel for inter-
mediate burners not equipped with preheating facili-
ties
No. 5 fuel oil, a residual fuel oil which, depend-
ing on the blend and climate, may require heating
prior to burning
No. 6 fuel oil (Bunker C), a heavy residual fuel
which requires heating for both pumping and burn-
ing (atomization)
Describe similarities of diesel and stationary
gas turbine engine fuels
1. Define, give examples, and state the air pollutant
influence of
a. Cetane number
b. Distillation temperatures for different fractions
Define, give example values, and describe the importance
of the following fuel oil properties
1. Specific gravity and API gravity
2. Heating value
a. Describe relationship to gravity
6-5
Refer to Student
Manual, p. 3-12
Refer to Student
Manual, p. 3-13
Slide 427-6-4
Refer to Student
Manual, p. 3-14
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title: Fuel Properties
f
Page-*
NOTES
b. Use examples of a No. 6 fuel oil with specific
gravity of .9861, containing 18,640 Btu/lb,
and a No. 2 fuel oil with specific gravity of
.8654, containing 19,490 Btu/lb
3. Flash point
a. Contrast with fire point (ignition temperature)
b. Illustrate the concern about the explosion poten-
tial of a No. 2 fuel placed in the typical heated
thank for No. 6 fuel oil
4. Viscosity
a. Explain the variation with temperature
b. State that No. 5 and No. 6 fuel oils require
heating for atomization and/or pumping
c. Note that high viscosity at the burner causes
large droplets to be formed. Incomplete
combustion may occur (inadequate time for com-
bustion, evaporation limited due to unfavorable
area to volume)
5. Pour point
6. Fuel oil additives to be discussed in Lesson 18
IV. Solid Fuels
A. Coal is most abundant energy resource
1. Describe coal classification
a. Anthracite and bituminous coals classified
according to fixed carbon
b. Subbituminous and lignite coals classified
according to heating value (generally)
2. Define and give example of ultimate analysis
a. Used in computing air requirements and pollutant
emissions
3. Define and give example of proximate analysis
4. Contrast the definitions and uses of analyses which
are on an "as received" (in the laboratory) basis
with a "moisture free" or "dry" basis (without
influence of moisture,which varies with handling
and exposure conditions)
5. Define and describe the tests for surface moisture
and for total moisture
6. Give example values for moisture, volatile matter,
fixed carbon, sulfur, and ash contents
a. Eastern bituminous coal
b. Western subbituminous coal
c. Lignite
7. Describe and give examples of sulfur composition in
coal
a. Organic form, 30 to 70% of the sulfur
b. Metal sulfide form (pyrite and marcasite), 40
to 80%
c. Metal sulfate form (gypsum and barite), very
small percentage
8. Describe the influence of coal cleaning on sulfur
removal
6-6
Refer to Student
Manual, p. 3-15
Slide 427-6-5
Refer to Student
Manual, p. 3-18,
3-19.
Slide 427-6-6
Slide 427-6-7
Refer to Student
Manual, p. 3-21
Refer to Student
Manual, p. 3-20
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title: Fuel Properties
Page 7 ofJL
NOTES
9. State the distinguishing features of the following
characteristics
a. Ash softening temperature
Initial deformation temperature
Ash fusion temperature (fluid temperature)
b. Free swelling index
c. Caking coals (agglomerating index)
d. Free burning coals
e. Grindability index
B. State how coke is formed and provide examples of
chemical analysis and heating value
C. Provide examples of the chemical and physical composi-
tion of wood and hogged fuel
D. Describe the source and the fuel properties of
bagasse
1. 40 to 60% moisture
E. Present the chemical and physical descriptions of the
constituents of municipal solid waste
1. Combustibles are mainly paper
2. Moisture content around 20%, depending on weather
exposure
3. Noncombustibles and moisture may be removed to
improve the heating value of the material
Refer to Student
Manual p. 3-22
Slide 427-6-8
Slide 427-6-9
Refer to Student
Manual, p. 3-23
Refer to Student
Manual, p. 3-24,
p. 3-25
6-7
-------
LESSON PLAN
TOPIC: Problem Session I:
Combustion Calculations
COURSE: 427, Combustion Evaluation
LESSON TIME: 70 min.
PREPARED BY: DATE:
L. U. Lilleleht Oct. 1978
Lesson Number: 7
Lesson Goal: To assure the student's ability to perform computations which
make use of combustion fundamentals as applied to the determination of
air requirements, flue gas characteristics, and heat available from burn-
ing a given fuel.
Lesson Objectives: At the end of this lesson the student will be able to:
determine the amount of air required for complete combustion of various
fuels;
determine the heating values of various fuels and mixtures of combustibles;
determine the quantity and the composition (by weight and by volume) of
flue gases;
calculate the enthalpy of gas streams at various temperatures;
perform heat balance calculations on combustion processes;
establish the quantity of heat available for some useful purpose as a
function of flue gas exit temperature;
determine the thermal efficiency of a combustion process; and
estimate the effect of combustion air preheating on the thermal effi-
ciency of the process.
Student Prerequisite Skills: First-level college chemistry, algebra, physics
(heat); lessons 2, 3, 6.
Level of Instruction: Undergraduate engineering or equivalent
Intended Student Professional Backgrounds: Engineers, technical staff, regu-
latory officials, and others who work in combustion-related areas of
air pollution control.
7-1
-------
Support Materials and Equipment:
1. Workbook for Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollution Control, Chap-
ter I.
2. Blackboard and chalk or an overhead projector with transparency
material and pens.
3. Hand-held calculator or slide rule.
Special Instructions: Assign problem 1.5 for homework.
Reference: Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollution Control, Chapter 2.
7-2
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title: Pr3Elem SeB8J[on *
Combustion Calculations
Page.
NOTES
X. Introduction
A. State the goals and objectives of this lesson
B. Goals are to be achieved by:
1. Instructor working through and discussing Problem I.I
and Problem 1.3.
2. Students working problems independently
a. In class: Problem 1.2 and 1.4
b. Homework assignment: Problem 1.5
3. Discussion of solutions of problems
II. Problem I.I: Combustion of Mo. 6 Fuel Oil
A. Present the problem statement:
Assume perfect combustion of No. 6 fuel oil with
stoichiometric air.
Predict;
1. the gravimetric analysis (weight percent) of the
flue gases
2. Total volume of flue gases (at 500°F and 1 atmos-
phere) per pound of oil burned
3. Volume percent of CO^ in dry flue gases
B. Present, as given: the gravimetric analysis of this fuel
oil:
88.52% carbon
10.87% hydrogen
0.40% sulfur
0.10% nitrogen
0.06% oxygen
0.05% ash
C. Decide on basis for calculations — unit mass
D. Determine the mass of gaseous combustion products from
the ultimate analysis
E. Calculate the volume of:
1. Individual combustion products
2. Total volume
a. At standard conditions
b. At actual conditions
3. Dry flue gas volume at standard conditions
F. Determine the ultimate percent CO2
6. Discuss the significance of these results
H. Outline how similar calculations could be performed
for gaseous and solid fuels
III. Problem I.2i Combustion of Gases
A. Present the problem statement:
Consider a gaseous fuel composed of 60% H2 and 40% CH4
by volume
Determine;
1. The volume of air required for complete combustion
of 1,000 scfm of the above gases with 100% theoretical
air.
2. The pounds of air required for burning 1.00 pounds
of fuel.
3. The volumetric analysis of flue gases (products),
including water vapor (assume no water is condensed).
7-3
Refer to Student
Manual, p. 2-23,
Attachment 2-1.
Refer to perfect
gas law in Student
Manual, p. 2-24.
Compare with value
obtained using
Student Manual,
p. 2-30.
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course:
Lecture Title:
427, Combustion Evaluation
Problem Session I:
Combustion Calculations
Page
NOTES
4. The gravimetric analysis of the reactants (fuel gas
and air mixture).
5. The partial pressure of the water vapor in the flue
for a total pressure of 14.7 psia.
B. Solution is to be computed by students during class
C. Present and discuss solution
IV. Problem 1.3: Available Heat
A. Present the problem statement:
Consider a boiler which burns 10,000 standard cubic feet
per hour of a waste gas with higher heating value of
258 Btu/scf.
Determine;
1. The gross heating value per hour for complete com-
bustion .
2. The available heat if the flue gases leave the boiler
heat exchanger at 500°F and complete combustion is
achieved with theoretical combustion air.
3. The available heat from the same boiler if 20%
excess air had been used and flue gas exit tempera-
ture was still 500°F.
B. Choose a basis for calculations— unit time.
C. Determine the gross heating value.
D. Illustrate the use of Attachment 2-9
E. Discuss effect of excess air
F. Outline how more accurate estimate of available heat
could be obtained from heat balance calculations based
on enthalpies of all streams and heating value of the
fuel
V. Problem 1.4: Liquid Waste Combustion in Natural Gas-Fired
Boiler
A. Present the problem statement:
Combustible liquid waste from a manufacturing process is
to be burned in a boiler which is fired with 1,059 Btu/scf
higher heating value natural gas at a rate of 5,000 scfh.
The liquid waste is equivalent to 10 Ib/h of benzene.
Determine;
1. The total gross heating value to the boiler per hour.
2. The amount of combustion air required to burn the
waste liquid. Assume a 20% excess of theoretical
air and express your results in scfm.
3. The amount of available heat from the boiler if the
flue gases leave the heat exchanger at 600°F and
complete combustion is achieved with 20% excess air.
B. Present the flow diagram
C. Solution by Students
D. Discuss solution
1. Gross heating value: sum of HHV for gas and waste.
2. Air requirement
a. Theoretical for gas and waste
b. Add 20% for excess air
3. Available heat
7-4
Refer to Student
Manual, p. 2-31,
p. 2-32,
p. 2-28.
Refer to Student
Manual, p. 2-23.
Refer to Student
Manual, p. 2-32.
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title: Problem Session I:
ID S7V
ion Calculation8
VI. Problem 1.5: Combustion Calculations with Heat Recovery
A. Assign this problem for homework
B. Discuss flow diagram.
C. Review problem statement:
A chemical plant has installed an industrial boiler to
produce process steam. The boiler is fired with natural
gas of the following composition by volume: 90% methane,
5% ethane, and 5% nitrogen. The boiler is designed to
burn 80,000 cubic feet per hour (delivered at 60°F) of
natural gas at 10% excess combustion air.
Determine;
1. The gross heat input to the boiler, BTU per hour.
(Assumptions; (a) Natural gas and combustion air
enter the boiler at 60°F; (b) heat losses from the
boiler due to radiation and convection are negligi-
ble.)
2. The combustion air requirement, cubic feet per hour
(at 60°F, 30 inches mercury pressure). Assume
average atmospheric conditions are 60°F and 30 inches
mercury pressure.
3. The available heat for process steam if the flue
gases leave the boiler heat exchanger at 400°F.
The personnel of the chemical plant are now considering
the addition of an air preheater to the boiler to preheat
combustion air. Calculations show that the flue gases
leaving the heat exchanger section would enter the air
preheater at the following conditions: 1,500,000 cubic
feet per hour at 400°F. The air preheater will be
designed to reduce the flue gas temperature to 350°F.
At conditions of complete combustion, calculations show
the flue gases entering the air preheater to be of the
following composition by volume: 8.8% CO,, 1.7% 03,
72.3%N2, and 17.2% H2O. (Note; Calculations show the
water vapor flow rate in the flue gases equals 7,400 Ibs.
per hour.)
Determine;
4. The heat recovered (H.R.) from the flue gases by the
air preheater based on the flue gas analysis and
flue gas flow rate. (Note; Use Equation 1 shown
below.)
5. The increase in combustion air temperature resulting
from the use of an air preheater. (Note; Use
Equation 2 shown below.)
6. The combustion air temperature after passing through
the air preheater.
H.R.
(flow rate of each component) x (difference
in heat content of each)
(1)
H.R.
Air
0.24 Bt" x temperature increase x air flow rate (2)
lb°F
7-5
Poge-1—of.
NOTES
-------
CHAPTER I
COMBUSTION CALCULATIONS
PROBLEM I.I: Combustion of No. 6 Fuel Oil
Assume perfect combustion of No. 6 fuel oil with stoichiometric air.
The gravimetric analysis of a sample of this fuel oil is:
88.52% carbon
10.87% hydrogen
0.40% sulfur
0.10% nitrogen
0.06% oxygen
0.05% ash
Compute;
1. The gravimetric analysis (weight percent) of the flue gases
2. Total volume of flue gases (at 500°F and 1 atmosphere) per
pound of oil burned
3. Volume percent of CO2 in dry flue gases
Solution to Problem I.I;
Select as a basis for calculation: 100 Ibs. of fuel oil burned. This is
chosen for convenience as the gravimetric analysis will give the amounts
of various elements directly. Answers can easily be scaled to the 1 Ib.
of oil as required in Part 2.
A tabular form of solution is presented on the next page, as this will
(i) help to organize thinking, (ii) permit presentation of results in
a compact format, and (iii) avoid confusion
(1-1)
7-6
-------
TABLE I.I
FUEL
Element
(a)
C
H2
S
°2
N2
Ash
M.W.
(b)
12
2
32
32
28
—
Quantity
Ib. Ib-mole
(c)
88.52
10.87
0.40
0.06
0.10
0.05
(d)
7.38
5.44
0.012
0.002
0.0036
-
COMB. AIR
°2
Ib-mole
Je)
7.38
2.72
0.012
-0.002
-
REQ'D
N2
Ib-mole
(f)
27.8
10.2
0.045
-0.007
-
FLUE PRODUCTS
Cmpd.
(g)
co2
H2O
so2
°2
N2
M.W.
(h)
44
18
64
32
28
Ib-mole Ib.
(i) (j)
7.38 325
5.44 97.9
0.012 0.77
-
38.0 1064
wgt %
(k)
21.8
6.6
0.05
-
71.5
-J
I
H
to
Total
100.00
38.04
48.15
Notes for Column Headings;
(c) From gravimetric analysis of fuel
(d) = (b) x (c)
(e) From basic chemistry, i.e. :
C + O2 -»• CO2
H2 + 1sO2 ->• H2O
S + O2 ->• SO2
Oxygen in fuel reduces air requirements.
Excess air, if any, is usually specified
as % of theoretical and added to the total.
50.8 1,488 99.95
(f) - (0.79/0.21) x (e)
(g) Products corresponding to complete combustion"
of various oxidizable elements in the fuel
(i)
Pound-moles of products from the amount of
combustibles in (d). Note that oxygen present
only if excess air added, and nitrogen is the
total of (f), including any from excess air.
(j)
(h)
(i)
(k) = (j) x 100/Z(j)
-------
Part 1.
Gravimetric analysis of flue gases given by Column (k) of the table.
Part 2.
Ideal gas law used to calculate the volume of flue gases (Equation 2.6,
p.. 2-8 of the Student Manual).
V = n RT / p
, 50.8 Ib-moles flue gases n cr.0 ,, . /,.
where n = —_ = 0.508 Ib-moles/lb
100 Ib oil
from Table I.1
R = 0.7302 atm-ft3/(lb-mole °R)
from Attachment 2-2, p. 2-24 of the Student Manual
T = 500°F + 460 = 960°R
p = 1.0 atm.
*
V = (0.508) (0.7302) (906)/(1.0) = 356 ft3
Part 3.
Dry flue gases (from Table I.I)
Compound Ib-moles
CO2 7.38
S02 0.012
°2
38.0
Total 45.4 Ib-moles
Vol. % C02 = 7.38 x 100 / 45.4 = 16.3 %
(1-3)
7-8
-------
PROBLEM 1.2: Combustion of Gases
Consider a gaseous fuel composed of 60% H2 and 40% CH* by volume.
Determine;
1. The volume of air required for complete combustion of 1,000 scfm
of the above gases with 100% theoretical air
2. The pounds of air required for burning 1.00 pounds of fuel
3. The volumetric analysis of flue gases (products), including
water vapor (assume no water is condensed)
4. The gravimetric analysis of the reactants (fuel gas and air
mixture)
5. The partial pressure of the water vapor in the flue for a total
pressure of 14.7 psia
Solution to Problem 1.2;
Complete and balance the combustion equation using 1 Ib-mole of gas
as the basis.
0.60 H + 0.40 CH4 + a O2 + b N2 + c CO2 + d H2O + b N2
(A)
To balance the equation
c —
0.40
d = 0.60 + 2 (0.40) =
a = c + d/2 = 1-10
(0.79/0.21) a =
1.40
4.14
Thus:
0.60 H2 + 0.40 CH4 + 1-10 02
4-14
°-40 C02 + l'40 H2O
(B)
Rel.
Volumes:
0.60 + 0.40 + 1.10 + 4.14 -»• 0.40 + 1.40 + 4.14
Y
1.00
T
5.25
(C)
(1-4)
7-9
-------
Rel.
Mass:
1.20 + 6.40 + 35.2 + 115.9 ->• 17.6 + 25.2 + 115.9
J
J
7.60
151.1
Part 1.
From Equation (C) note that 5.24 volumes of air required for complete
combustion of 1.00 volumes of this fuel gas.
Therefore:
Vol. of air = (5.24 scfm air/scfm gas) ( 1>000 scfm gas) = 5,240 scfm
Another approach makes use of Equation 2.4, p. 2-7 of the Student Manual,
which for gases containing only H2 and CH^ reduces to:
v»
= 2.38 (H2) + 9.53 (CH4)
(E)
where
(H2) = 0.40
(CH4) = 0.60
V;
^ t = 2.38 ( 0-40 ) + 9.53 ( 0-60 ) = 5.24 scf air/ scf gas
which is the same as obtained in the Preliminary Calculation (Equation C
above).
Part 2.
From Equation D above, 7.60 Ib. of fuel gas requires 151.1 lb^ air.
Air required per pound of gas burned = ( 151.1 Ib. air)/7.60 Ib. gas
19'9 Ib. air/lb. gas
(1-5)
7-10
-------
Part 3.
From Equation (C) above, total volume of flue products is:
0.40 + 1.40 + 4.14 = 5.94
CO2 H2O N2
Volume % of flue products:
% C02 = °'40 x 100 / (Result of Equation F above) = 6-7
% H20 = 1-40 x 100 / ( 5.94 ) = 23.6 \
% N2 = 4.14 x 100 /( 5.94 ) = 69.7 %
Part 4.
Tabulate the left-hand side of Equation (B) above:
Reactant Relative Mass Wgt. %
H2 1.20 0.76
CH4 6.40 4-03
35.2 22.18
N2 115.9 73-03
_. . 158.7 100.0
Total
; Wgt. % of Reactant i = (Mass of i) x 100 / Total Mass
Part 5.
Partial pressure of a gaseous component is given by Equation 2.9, p. 2-10
of the Student Manual.
= (nH20)x (p)/ntotal
(G)
(1-6)
7-11
-------
where n = Ib-moles or volume from Equation (C)
p = total pressure of flue products
Thus:
= (1-40 lb-moles H2O) (14.7 psia) / ( 5.94 Ib-moles of flue gases)
PH20 = Jlfl
(1-7)
7-12
-------
PROBLEM 1.3:
Available Heat
Consider a boiler which burns 10,000 standard cubic feet per hour of a
waste gas with higher heating value of 258 Btu/scf.
Determine;
1. The gross heating value per hour for complete combustion
2. The available heat if the flue gases leave the boiler heat
exchanger at 500°F and complete combustion is achieved with
theoretical combustion air
3. The available heat from the same boiler if 20% excess air had
been used and flue gas exit temperature was still 500°F
Solution to Problem 1.3:
Part 1.
Gross heating value per hour
= (QH, Btu/scf) (Fuel rate, scf/hr)
= (258 Btu/scf) (10,000 scf/hr)
= 2,580,000 Btu/hr
(A)
Part 2.
Use Attachment 2-9, p. 2-31 of the Student Manual to estimate the avail-
able heat, QA , from the above fuel with flue gases at 500°F.
Interpolate between curves in Attachment 2-9 at identical flue gas tem-
peratures using the following ratio:
QH
Desired fuel
(B)
Reference fuel
Choosing Producer Gas as the reference fuel:
(QA/QH>
Ref. fuel, 500°F
(130/163) = 0.80
(1-8)
7-13
-------
With waste gas: QH = 258 Btu/scf, from Equation (B) above:
QB = (258 Btu/scf) (0.80) = 206 Btu/scf
~/\
Total heat available from waste gases = (10,000 scfh) (206 Btu/scf)
= 2,060,000 Btu/hr
Part 3.
Attachment 2-10, p. 2-32 of the Student Manual, gives available heat as
the percent gross heating value with various amounts of excess air.
With flue gases at 500°F and 20% excess air, read
(QA/QH) x 100 = 79%
Thus, heat available per hour with 20% excess air is:
QA = (79/100) (2,580,000 Btu/hr) = 2,038,000 Btu/hr
(1-9)
7-14
-------
PROBLEM 1.4: Liquid Waste Combustion in Natural Gas-Fired Boiler
Combustible liquid waste from a manufacturing.process is to be burned
in a boiler which is fired with 1,059 Btu/scf higher heating value
natural gas at a rate of 5,000 scfh. The liquid waste is equivalent to
10 Ib/h of benzene.
Determine;
1. The total gross heating value to the boiler per hour.
2. The amount of combustion air required to burn the waste liquid.
Assume a 20% excess of theoretical air and express your results
in scfm.
3. The amount of available heat from the boiler if the flue gases
leave the heat exchanger at 600°F and complete combustion is
achieved with 20% excess air.
Flow Diagram
'STACK GASES
S 600°F
NATURAL GAS
5000 ft3/hr
(W\
WASTL
BENZENE
10 Ib/hr
HEAT AVAILABLE
(1-10)
7-15
-------
Solution to Problem 1.4:
Choose as a basis:
1 hour of operation.
Part 1.
Gross heating value of natural gas; QT, = 1,059 Btu/scf.
"
Gross heating value of benzene is obtained from Attachment 2-1, p. 2-23
of the Student Manual:
OH, benzene = 18'184 Btu/lb
Total gross heat input to the boiler is:
Natural gas (5,000 scfh) (1,059 Btu/scf) = 5,295,000 Btu/hr
Benzene (10 Ib/hr) ( 18,184 Btu/lb) = 181,840 Btu/hr
•total = 5,477,000 Btu/hr
Part 2.
Attachment 2-1, p. 2-23 of the Student Manual, gives the combustion air
requirement for benzene (Substance No. 21) as 13. 30 Ib air/lb benzene
or 35. 73 scf air/scf benzene.
Density of benzene ', p is 0.2060 Ib/scf.
benzene -
Theoretical air required to burn benzene type waste completely
VA, t = (\enzene/pbenzene) (Theoretical scf air/scf benzene)
10 Ib/hr 35 73
( 0.2060 Ib/scf benzene)
i/730 scf air/hr
(1-11)
7-16
scf air/scf benzene)
-------
Air requirements with 20% excess air:
V ._ = (1.20) ( 1>730 scf air/hr)
air
2,080 scf air/hr
Part 3.
Refer to Attachment 2-10, p. 2-32 of the Student Manual. Read avail-
able heat as percent of gross heating value with flue gases at 600°F
and 20% excess air as 77 %
100-r-
<
UJ
lU
-J
fQ
1
600 °F
Heat available from the boiler
( 5,477,000 Btu/hr) ( 77 %/100) = 4'220'000 Btu/hr
[from Part l]
[from Attachment 2-10]
(1-12)
7-17
-------
PROBLEM 1.5: Combustion Calculations with Heat Recovery
Part A
A chemical plant has installed an industrial boiler to produce process
steam. The boiler is fired with mitural gas of the following composi-
tion by volume: 90% methane, 5% ethane, and 5% nitrogen. The boiler
is designed to burn 80,000 cubic feet per hour (delivered at 60°F) of
natural gas at 10% excess combustion air.
Determine:
1. The gross heat input to the boiler, Btu per hour.
Assumptions: (a) natural gas and combustion air enter the
boiler at 60°F; (b) heat losses from the boiler due to
radiation and convection are negligible.
2. The combustion air requirement, cubic feet per hour (at 60°F,
30 inches mercury pressure). Assume average atmospheric con-
ditions are 60°F and 30 inches mercury pressure.
3. The available heat for process steam if the flue gases leave
the boiler heat exchanger at 400°F.
Part B
The personnel of the chemical plant are now considering the addition of
an air preheater to the boiler to preheat combustion air. Calculations
show that the flue gases leaving the heat exchanger section would enter
the air preheater at the following conditions: 1,500,000 cubic feet per
hour at 400°F. The air preheater will be designed to reduce the flue
gas temperature to 350°F. At conditions of complete combustion, calcu-
lations show the flue gases entering the air preheater to be of the
following composition by volume: 8.8% CC>2, 1.7% 02, 72.3% N2, and
17.2% H20. (Note: Calculations show the water vapor flow rate in the
flue gases equals 7,400 Ibs. per hour.)
Determine:
4. The heat recovered (H.R.) from the flue gases by the air pre-
heater based on the flue gas analysis and flue gas flow rate.
(Note: Use Equation 1 shown below.)
5. The increase in combustion air temperature resulting from the
use of an air preheater. (Note; Use Equation 2 shown below.)
6. The combustion air temperature after passing through the air
preheater.
(1-13)
7-18
-------
H.R. = £ (flow rate of each component) x (difference in
heat content of each)
(1)
Btu
H-R'Air ~ 0.24 Y^' op x temperature increase x air flow rate (2)
FLOW DIAGRAM I-OR BOILER:
COMBUSTION AIR
COMBUSTION
ZONE
NATURAL GAS
STEAM
HEAT
EXCHAN'GER
WATER
400°F
1/500,000
ft3 /hr
8.8%
HEAT
. AMBIENT AIR
C60 °F)
350°F
FLUE GASES
AIR
PREIiEATER
72.3% N2
17.2% H20 =?> 7400 Ib/hr
d-14)
7-19
-------
Solution to Problem 1.5:
Basis: 1 hour of operation
Part 1.
Substance
Volumetric
Flow Rate
scfh
(a)
Gross Htg.
Value, Btu/scf
(b)
Heat Input
Btu/hr
Methane— CH4 (0.90) (80,000)
72,000 ;
Ethane —
(0.05) (80,000) = 4,000 ;
1,012
1,773
Nitrogen — N2 (0.05) (80,000) •=- 4,000 ;
Totals:
80,000 scfh
72,860,000
7,090,000
79,950,000 Btu/hr
Note: (a) From Attachment 2-1, p. 2-23 of the Student Manual.
(b) Obtained by multiplying volumetric flow rate by the
corresponding gross heating value.
Part 2.
Combustion air requirements:
Combustible
Substance
CH,
Volume,
scfh
72,000
4,000
Theor. Air*
scf air/scf gas
9.53
16.68
Actual Air (10% excess)
scf air/scf scf air/hr
10.48
18.35
755,000
73,000
Total Air =
*From Attachment 2-1, p. 2-23 of the Student Manual.
828,000 scfh
(1-15)
7-20
-------
Part 3.
For available heat as percent of gross heating value, use Attachment 2-10,
p. 2-23 of the Student Manual.
Read for 400°F flue gases and 10% excess air 83 %.
Available heat from the boiler = ( 79,950,000 gross Btu/hr)( 83 % gross/100)
66,400,000 Btu/hr.
Part 4.
Need to calculate flow rate of combustion products in Ib/hr. First correct
flue gas flow rate from 400°F to standard temperature of 60°F, using
Charles' law (Equation 2.7, p. 2-9 of the Student Manual).
Vflue, 600F = (1,500,000 ft3/hr) (460 + 60
(460 + 400 OF)
907,000 ft3/hr
Mass flow rate of component = (volume fraction) (total volume flow) (density)
Component
CO2
°2
N2
H20
Total
Fraction
0.088
0.017
0.723
—
1.00
Density
lb/ft3
0.1170
0.0846
0.0744
-
Mass Flow
Ib/hr
9,340
1,300
48,790
7,400
66,830
at 4
Btu/lb
75.3
76.2
85.0
1,212
H400 =
Enthalpy
00°F
Btu/hr
0.703 x 106
0.099 x 106
4.147 x 105
8.97 x 106
13.92 x 106
, Btu/lb
at
Btu/lb
63.7
64.8
72.4
1,188
"350 =
350°F
Btu/hr
0.594 x 106
0.084 x 106
3.53 x 10b
8.79 x 106
13.00 x 106
Note: Densities available from Attachment 2-1, p. 2-23 of the Student Manual.
Enthalpies from Attachment 2-7, p. 2-29 of the Student Manual.
(1-16)
7-21
-------
Heat recovered from cooling flue gases = (H40Q ~ H350^ Btu/hr-
HR = AH = 13.92 x 106 - 13.00 x 106 = 920,000 Btu/hr
"•n-Air Flue Gases
Part 5.
Refer to Equation (2) of the Problem Statement, which on rearrangement
gives:
AT . = (H.R.,. ) / (0.24 Btu lb°F x Air Flow Rate, Ib/hr)
Air Air
Obtain density of air from Attachment 2-1, p. 2-23 of the Student Manual,
to compute:
Air Flow Rate, Ib/hr = (Volumetric Air Flow, scfh) (density, Ib/scf)
828,000 scfh) ( 0.0766 Ib/scf)
Ib/hr.
Substituting into expression for AT . :
( 920,000 Btu/hr)
Air (0.24 Btu/lb-°F) ( 63,400 Ib/hr)
60.4
Part 6.
Air temperature after preheater = 60°F + AT .
= 60 +60 = 120
(1-17)
7-22
-------
LESSON PLAN
TOPIC: Review of Homework
COURSE: 427, Combustion Evaluation
LESSON TIME: 30 min. (Tues.) and
15 min. (Wed., Thurs.,
Fri.)
PREPARED BY: DATE:
J. T. Beard Oct. 1978
Lesson Number:
8
Lesson Goal: The goal of this lesson is to review the solution to the home-
work done the previous night by the students.
Lesson Objectives: At the end of this lesson the student will be able to:
know if they worked the previous evening's homework problems using
the correct logic and procedure; and
know if they obtained the correct answers to each problem assigned.
.Student Prerequisite Skills: Air Pollution Training Institute Course 452 or
equivalent experience, and one of the following: college level training
in physical science, engineering, or mathematics.
Level of Instruction: Undergraduate engineering or equivalent.
Intended Student Professional Backgrounds: Engineers, technical staff, regu-
latory officials, and others who work in combustion-related areas of air
pollution control.
Support Materials and Equipment:
Workbook for Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollution Control
Chalkboard
Special Instructions:
The instructor should solicit questions from the students to determine if
they understand the proper logic used in problem-solving and to answer
any questions they may have about alternative solution techniques or
assumptions.
The problem statements and the solutions are found at the end of the
lesson plans for each problem session and in the workbook.
References:
1. Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollution Control
8-1
-------
LESSON PLAN
TOPIC: Combustion Systems Design
COURSE: 427, Combustion Evaluation
LESSON TIME: 60 min.
PREPARED BY: DATE:
F. A. lachetta
Oct. 1978
m
\
UJ
(D
Lesson Number: 9
Lesson Goal: The goal of this lesson is to provide the student with a general
understanding of how energy utilization, together with choice of fuel and
fuel-firing equipment, influences system design.
Lesson Objectives: At the end of this lesson, the student will be able to:
describe the relationship between energy utilization, furnace heat transfer,
and excess air as means of furnace temperature control;
understand the limits which may be imposed by thermodynamic laws and how
these limits dictate choice of energy-recovery devices following the furnace;
calculate the energy required from fuel to meet an output energy requirement.
Student Prerequisite Skills: Course 427, Lessons 1 through 8.
Level of Instruction: Undergraduate engineering or equivalent.
Intended Student Professional Backgrounds: Engineers, technical staff, regu-
latory officials, and others who work in combustion-related areas of air
pollution control.
Support Materials and Equipment:
1. Slide projector
2. Slide set for Lesson 9
Special Instructions: None
References:
1. Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollution Control, Chapter 4.
9-1
-------
SLIDE NUMBER
TITLE OF SLIDE
427-9-1
427-9-2
427-9-3
427-9-4
LESSON 9: COMBUSTION SYSTEMS DESIGN
FURNACE DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
SYSTEM ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
STEAM GENERATOR ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
9-2
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title: Combustion System Design
Page 3 Of.
NOTES
I. Introduction
A. State the lesson objectives
B. Discuss combustion systems as a means of providing energy
for a wide variety of end-uses.
C. Describe the influence which economics has in equipment
choice.
II. Describe what a "design flow sheet" would include.
A. Discuss the fact that requirements begin with energy
output as established by a "load"
1. Describe several loads such as electric power output,
building heating system gas-fired dryers, etc.
B. Describe the influence of fuel selection, including
use of multifuels where availability may be factor
C. Introduce the importance of overall efficiency in deter-
mining fuel-flow rates.
D. Note that forced-draft fan or fans can be sized only
after a total air-fuel relationship has been set.
E. Describe the design of the induced draft fan and stack
1. Point out that the choice of furnace pressure and emis-
sion control hardware influence the design of fan and
III. Discuss design methodology. stacl
A. Describe need to choose a fuel and furnace temperature
1. Outline variables involved
2. Point out relationships between heat transfer, excess
air, etc.
3. Note the trade-offs inherent in point 2 above; use
example 4.1 as illustration
4. Introduce energy balance for system
B. Describe the energy utilization considerations which
follow furnace design.
1. Use steam boiler example 4.2, pg. 4-9 in Student
Manual
2. Point out the manner in which practical heat transfer
values limit temperatures.
C. Discuss further relationships which would enter design
as emission control hardware is added
1. Point out energy considerations which might be needed
for different methods.
2. Particularly note induced draft and temperature
problems with scrubbers.
Slide 427-9-1
Refer to Student
Manual, 4.1, p.
4-4 through 4-8
Slide 427-9-2
Slide 427-9-3
Slide 427-9-4
9-3
-------
LESSON PLAN
jit
TOPIC: Problem Session II:
Combustion Systems Design
COURSE: 427, Combustion Evaluation
LESSON TIME: 60 min.
PREPARED BY: DATE:
F. A. lachetta
Oct. 1978
Lesson Number: 10
Lesson Goal: The goal of this lesson is to provide the student an instructor-
guided opportunity to perform calculations important in combustion system
design.
Lesson Objectives: At the end of this lesson the student will be able to:
calculate the energy required from fuel to meet an energy output;
calculate the furnace exit gas temperature for a given fuel-firing
arrangement; and
calculate the furnace volume required to burn a given fuel.
Student Prerequisite Skills: Course 427, Lesson 9
Level of Instruction: Undergraduate engineering or equivalent
Support Materials and Equipment:
1. Workbook for Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollution Control, Chapter II.
2. Chalkboard.
3. Hand-held calculator or slide rule.
Special Instructions: Assign Problem II.2 for homework.
References:
1. Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollution Control, Chapters, 2, 4, and 6.
10-1
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title: Problem Session II
'1
Page.
of.
NOTES
I. Purpose j
A. State the lesson objectives j
B. Note that this is an instructor-guided problem-solving I
session intended to give students practice with material j
presented in earlier lessons, particularly Lesson 9.
1. The problem statements and computational sheet are
found in Chapter II of the Workbook.
2. The completed computational sheets for the instructor
are found at the end of this lesson plan.
II. Methodology
A. During the class period, guide the students through the
logic and calculations required for the solution of
Problem II.1: Calculation of Furnace Volume.
B. Assign for homework Problem II.2: Furnace Volume Plan
Review.
C. During the class period, guide the students through the
logic and calculations required for the solution of
Problem II.3: Calculation of Furnace Gas Exit Tempera-
ture.
D. Answers to Problem II.2 are to be confirmed during the
Homework Review period.
10-2
-------
CHAPTER II
COMBUSTION SYSTEM DESIGN PROBLEMS
PROBLEM II.1: Calculation of Furnace Volume
Consider the design of a pulverized coal-fired furnace which operates with
an average energy release rate of 25,000 Btu/hr per cubic foot of furnace
volume. The furnace produces steam with an energy output of 55 x 10^ Btu/
hr and a thermal efficiency of 80%.
Calculate;
1. The furnace volume for the steam generator.
Solution for Problem II.I;
1. Determine the fuel energy input required in order to realize the
given energy output
Qs 55 x 106 Btu/hr
H ~n~ • 0.80
= 68.75 x 106 Btu/hr
2. Refer to Table 9.6 in the Student Manual, p. 9-10, to obtain
the average design value for the heat release rate of 25,000
Btu/hr ft for pulverized coal firing.
QH (68.75 x 106 )
Furnace Volume =
25,000 « 25,000 Btu
*
hr ft3 hr ft
^
3
2,750 ft3
(II-D
10-3
-------
PROBLEM II.2: Furnace Volume Plan Review
An industrial organization proposes to build a 100,000 pounds-per-hour
steam generator. The furnace is to be fired by a chain-grate stoker
with continuous ash removal, similar to that shown in Attachment 9-4 of
the Student Manual, p. 9-18. The furnace is 12 ft. wide (across the
front), 14 ft. deep, and 28 ft. high. The volume corresponding to
these dimensions includes the superheater volume, which is small enough
to be neglected in the calculation. The fuel for the proposed unit is
to be the high-volatile bituminous coal described in Attachment 3-11
of the Student Manual, p. 3-20. The steam generator will require
6 tons per hour of this coal to achieve its full steam capacity.
Determine;
1. If the furnace volume is adequate.
Solution for Problem II.2;
1. Calculate the furnace volume using the dimensions given:
Furnace volume = (length) x (width) x (height) - (superheater volume)
= ( 14 ) x ( 12 ) x ( 28 ) - ( 0.0)
4,704 ft3
2. Calculate the energy release rate per cubic foot for the speci-
fied fuel and design capacity.
(coal firing rate) x (higher heating value)
Energy release rate =
(Furnace volume)
(6 x 2,000 lb/hr ) x ( 13,325 Btu/lb )
( 4,704 ft3 )
34,000 Btu/hr ft3
3. Compare the value obtained above to that given in Table 9.6 on
p. 9-10 of the Student Manual.
(II-2)
10-4
-------
PROBLEM II.3: Calculation of Furnace Gas Exit Temperature
A reheat steam generator design has energy utilization based on the
total energy input (higher heat value) as follows:
1. Energy absorbed in radiant boiler 49.5%
2. Energy absorbed in convection superheater 20.8%
3. Energy absorbed in economizer 6.6%
4. Energy absorbed in steam reheater 8.0%
5. Energy absorbed in air preheater 5.0%
6. Furnace heat losses 3.0%
7. Flue gas and other losses 7.1%
100.0%
The unit is fired with pulverized coal, using the coal described as the
"as received" coal listed in Attachment 3-12 on p. 3-21 of the Student
Manual. The unit operates with 15% excess air; and the combustion air
is preheated to 300°F.
Calculate:
1. The temperature of the gas leaving the furnace.
Solution for Problem II.3;
1. Determine the theoretical air required to burn the coal speci-
fied, using Equation 4.1 on p. 4.4 of the Student Manual.
The coal is 75% carbon, 5% hydrogen, 2.3% sulfur, 1.5% nitrogen,
6.7% oxygen, 2.5% moisture, and 7.0% ash.
°2
Theoretical Air = Afc = 11.53 (C) + 34.34 (H2 --§-)+ 4.29 (S)
= 11.53 (.75) + 34.34 (.05 - '~) + 4. 29 (.023)
10.18 Ibs per Ib of coal
(II-3)
10-5
-------
2. Calculate total air.
Total Air = Aa = (1.0 +
15
(1.0 + -- ) x (10.-18)
100
11.71 ibs per Ib of coal.
3. Estimate the amount of flue gas produced using Equation 4.2 on
p. 4-5 of the Student Manual:
Theoretical flue gas = G
- noncombustibles) + nif A
Choose a basis of one pound of fuel, so that mf = 1:
% Ash
G = (1.0 - — ) + (1.0) x At
7
= (1.0 - — — — ) + 1.0 x (10.18 )
= _ 11.11 _ ib gas per Ib of coal
Actual flue gas = Gf = (G + A~) = G + % EA x A
r *• 100 t
= ( 11.11) + ( —• ) x ( 10.18 )
= 12-64 Ibs gas per Ib of coal
4. Calculate the useful energy, Qu/ absorbed in the furnace region
(radiant boiler in this case).
Qu = (fraction of energy absorbed in radiant boiler) x (HHV)
= 0.495 x (13,000)
= 6,435 Btu/lb of coal
(II-4)
10-6
-------
5. Note that Qu is also related to the energy input as follows:
Qu = (lower heating value) - (losses) - (energy in the gases
leaving furnace)
which is given by Equation 4.8 on p. 4-7 of the Student Manual.
H - QL - Gf CP
a. The energy, H, is obtained from
H = HHV - energy of the water in flue gas
= HHV - Qv ,
where :
water in flue gas = 9.0 x (H_ in fuel) + (as-fired
moisture)
= 9.0 x ( .05 ) + ( .025 )
= 0.475 _ Ibs H20/lb coal
and the energy in this water is
Qv = (Ibs of water per Ib fuel) x (latent heat of
vaporization)
Ibs HoO
= (0.475 ) - f - x (1,000
Ibs fuel
= 475 _ Btu per Ib coal
now
H = HHV - Qv
= (13,000 ) - { 475 )
= 12,525 _ Btu per Ib of coal
(H-5)
10-7
-------
b. The losses, QL , are:
Q = fraction of energy lost from furnace x (HHV)
= ( .03 ) x (13,000 )
= 390 atu per Ib of coal
c. The furnace gas temperature is calculated by substituting
values obtained from Qu , H , QL , Gf together with a
value for Cp = 0.26 Btu/lb °F and ta = 300°F:
= H * 2L - Gf Cp (tf - ta)
(6,435 ) = (12,525 ) - ( 390 )
- ( 12.64 ) (0.26 l^-p,) (tf - 300)
therefore:
tf = 2,034 °F
(II-6)
10-8
-------
LESSON PLAN
TOPIC: Pollution Emissions
Calculations I
COURSE; 427, Combustion Evaluation
LESSON TIME: 45 Klin.
PREPARED BY: DATE:
F. A. lachetta
Aug. 1978
Lesson Number:
11
Lesson Goal: The goal of this lesson is to provide the student with basic
definitions relating to emission standards and to provide them with an
ability to make emission calculations employing emission factors.
Lesson Objectives: At the end of this lesson the student will be able to:
describe the nature and origin of most of the published emission factors
and state what is necessary for more precise estimates of emissions from
a specific installation with specified design features;
apply the proper method for using emission factors to determine esti-
mates of emissions from typical combustion sources;
define and distinguish between concentration standards (Cvs and
pollutant mass rate standards (PMRg) , and process emission standards (E ) .
Student Prerequisite Skills: First-level college chemistry, algebra, physics
(heat), and Course 427, Lessons 2 and 3.
Level of Instruction: Undergraduate engineering or equivalent
Intended Student Professional Backgrounds: Engineers, technical staff,
regulatory officials, and others who work in combustion-related areas of
air pollution control.
Support Materials and Equipment:
1. Slide projector
2. Slide set for Lesson 11
Special Instructions: None
References :
1. Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollution Control , Chapter 5.
11-1
-------
SLIDE NUMBER TITLE OF SLIDE
LESSON 11: POLLUTION EMISSIONS - CALCULATIONS I
427-11-1 NOMENCLATURE OF STANDARDS
427-11-2 C , MASS STANDARD
ms
427-11-3 POLLUTANT MASS RATE STANDARD
427-11-4 PROCESS STANDARD
427-11-5 EMISSION FACTORS FOR FUEL OIL COMBUSTION
427-11-6 EMISSION FACTORS FOR NATURAL GAS COMBUSTION
427-11-7 S02 EMISSION ESTIMATE, GIVEN:
427-11-8 EMISSION ESTIMATE FROM BASIC CHEMISTRY
427-11-9 EMISSION CALCULATION
427-11-10 RECOMPUTATION WITH EMISSION FACTOR
427-11-11 PROCESS EMISSION
427-11-12 UNCONTROLLED PARTICULATE EMISSION ESTIMATE
427-11-13 FRACTIONAL COLLECTIONAL EFFICIENCIES OF PARTICULATE
CONTROL EQUIPMENT
11-2
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427,
Lecture Title:
Combustion Evaluation
Pollution Emission
Calculations I
I. Introduction
A. State the lesson objective
II. Definition of various standards
A. Discuss the concentration standards
1. Volume standards
a. The symbol used is C^B
b. Quantity of pollutant per volume quantity
at a specified temperature and pressure
c. Examples to present:
80 yg/m3 for ambient SO2;
75 yg/m3 for suspended particulate
d. Other volume standard units can be grains/scf;
Ib/scf
2. Mass standards
a. The symbol used is C^
b. Quantity of pollutant per mass quantity of
carrier gas
c. Units could be lbs/1,000 Ibs. gas, g/kg gas, etc.
B. Define the pollutant mass rate standards
1. The symbol used is PMRS
2. Standards which fix the time rate of emission
3. Units could be Ib/hr, kg/hr, etc.
C. Describe process emission standards
1. The symbol used is E
2. Standards which fix the maximum emission permitted
for various kinds of processes
3. Such standards can be based on either input energy
or input raw material to a process
4 Examples to present:
a. Combustion source standards with allowable mass
of emission per energy input (expressed in
millions of Btu/hr or million of kJ/hr)
b. New source performance standards for a power
plant
III. Emission Factors — Stationary Combustion Sources
A. Define the emission factor with particular attention to
the need for careful qualification
1. Tabulated information appears in AP-42
2. These factors are for systems without pollution con-
trols
3. The meaning of the ratings A, B, C, etc., as set
forth in AP-42 need careful explanation
4. SOX is essentially fixed by fuel sulfur content, while
other emissions can be influenced by the design or
operation of a system
B. Outline methods used to estimate uncontrolled emissions
1. Basic chemistry indicates that 40 S is the maximum
SO2 which can be expected from a given fuel such as
bituminous coal
2. The S02 emission factor is 38 S
a. This is a lower value because of:
sulfur in bottom ash and S03 produced
3. Coal ash percentage can be used to calculate an
uncontrolled particulate emission for a spreader
stoker
11-3
Slide 427-11-1
Slide 427-11-2
Slide 427-11-3
Slide 427-11-4
Standard Ps, Ts
29.92 in Hg, 60°F
or 760 mmHg, 25°C
Refer to Student
Manual, Attach-
ment 5-1, pp.5-20
Refer to Student
Manual, p. 5-30
Slide 427-11-5
Slide 427-11-6
Slide 427-11-7
Slide 427-11-8
Slide 427-11-9
Slide 427-11-10
Refer to Student
Manual, p. 5-30
Slide 427-11-11
Slide 427-11-12
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Title' Pollution Emission
Calculations I
Page
of
NOTES
a. Describe the influence of ash reinjection
Carefully point out the influence of particulate size
distribution on collection efficiency
1. Size distribution of an input solid fuel has a direct
influence on particulate size distribution in the
stack gas
2. Particulate collection devices have different
efficiencies for different density. Emphasize that
collection efficiency varies with density
3. Particle size vs collection efficiency
Slide 427-11-13
Data based on
pp = 2.7 g/cm3
11-4
-------
LESSON PLAN
TOPIC: Problem Session III:
Emission Calculations I
COURSE: 427, Combustion Evaluation
LESSON TIME: 45 „,!„.
PREPARED BY: DATE:
F. A. lachetta
Aug. 1978
•esson Number: 12
Lesson Goal: The goal of this lesson is to provide the computational
methodology used in estimating the amount of air pollutants and the degree
of control required.
Lesson Objectives: At the end of this lesson the student will be able to:
use average emission factors to estimate the emissions from typical combus-
tion installations;
calculate the degree of control required for a given source to be brought
into compliance with a given emission standard; and
perform calculations using the relationships between anticipated SO2
emissions and the sulfur content of liquid and solid fuels.
Student Prerequisite Skills: College albegra; Course 427, Lesson 11
Level of Instruction: Undergraduate engineering or equivalent
Intended Student Professional Backgrounds: Engineers, technical staff, regu-
latory officials, and others who work in combustion-related areas of air
pollution control.
Support Materials and Equipment:
1. Workbook for Combustion Evaluation iri Air Pollution Control, Chapter ill.
Special Instructions: This is an instructor-guided problem session.
References:
1. Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollution Control, Chapter 5.
12-1
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title: Problem Session III
m*
Page—L—of
NOTES
I. Purpose
A. State the lesson objectives.
E. Note that this session serves as an instructor-guided
work session, which provides the student an opportunity
to apply definitions set forth in Lesson 11.
1. The problem statements and computational sheets are
found in Chapter III of the Workbook.
2. The computational sheets with correct answers for
the instructor are found at the end of this lesson
plan.
II. Methodology
A. During the class period, guide the students through the
logic and calculations required for the solution to each
part of Problem III.l: Pollutant Emissions from Coal-
Fired Power Plant.
B. During the class period, guide the students through the
logic and calculations required for the solution to
Problem III.2: Fuel Sulfur Limit Calculation.
1. Discuss the assumptions which were made and how
actual variations from these assumptions would
influence the conclusions.
12-2
-------
CHAPTER III
EMISSION CALCULATIONS I
PROBLEM III.I: Pollutant Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plant
Plans call for a 500 MWg power plant to have a dry-bottom design and to
burn pulverized coal. The overall thermal efficiency is designed to
be 34%. The coal specified in the plans contains 1.3% sulfur, 22% ash,
and has a 12,500 Btu/lb HHV.
Compute;
1. The input energy required when the unit is operated at the rated
capacity.
2. The coal firing rate at the rated capacity.
3. The pollutant mass rate for emissions of:
a. SO2
b. Particulates
C. NOX
d. HC
e. CO
4. The process emissions per million Btu of energy input for
a. SO2
b. Particulates
5. The degree of control required to meet a 1.2 Ib SO2/10 Btu per-
formance standard for S02-
6. The degree of control required to meet a 0.1 Ib particulate/10^
Btu performance standard for particulates.
(III-D
12-3
-------
Solution to Problem III.l;
1. Plant electric output rating and thermal efficiency can be used
to find energy input from Equation 4.9, on p. 4-8 of the Student
Manual.
QH = energy in = energy out = QS
" thermal eff n.
< 5°° > ™* x 3413 x 103
( .34 ) MWe hr
5,019 x 106 Btu
hr
2. With the value of QH and the coal HHV , the coal-firing rate
is given by:
f. \
Ton OH (5,019 x 10* ) -JJJT
= coal fired,
hr HHV per ton ( 12,5oo ) Btu x 2,000 JL
lb ton
201
Ton
"hr"
3a. The pollutant mass rate for SO2 can be obtained using the coal-firing
rate and the emission factor for SO2 (refer to Student Manual, p. 5-30
for emission factors)
(PMR)SOO = 38 x S lbS°2 x mf tO" C°al
"• ^ ton coal hr
lb S02
= 38 x ( 1-3 ) _ x ( 201 ) ton coal
ton coal hr
9,929 ib S02/hr
(III-2)
12-4
-------
b. (PMR1 . = 17 x A *b part; x mf ton coal
part. ton coal r hr
17 x ( 22 ) lb Part' x ( 201 ) t0" C0al
ton coal hr
= 75,174 ib part./hr
c. Similarly, the PMR for NOX would be
(PMR> = 18 lb N°X x mf ton coal
NOX ton coal f ^KT
= 18 lbNOx x ( 201 ) ton coal
ton coal hr
= 3,618 lb N0x/hr
Similarly the PMR's for CO and HC are:
d. (PMR)HC - ( 0.3 ) lb HC x m£ ton coal
MU ton coal nr
= ( 0.3 ) x ( 201 ) lb HC/hr
60.3 ib HC/hr
lb CO ton coal
e. (PMR)rn = 1.0 ) x mf
CO ton coal hr
= ( 1.0 ) x ( 201 ) lb CO/hr
201 lb CO/hr
(IH-3)
12-5
-------
4a. The S02 process emissions per million Btu energy input will be com-
puted from the SO2 pollutant mass rate and the input energy rate:
^302
(PMR)SC>2
( 9,929 )
Ib S02
hr
(5,019 x 10)
.
nr
1.98
Ib S02
106 Btu
b. The particulate emissions per million Btu energy input will be
computed similarly:
(PMR)
"'part
part
(75,174) Ib particulates/hr
(5,019 x 106) Btu/hr
Ibs
14.98
part
10G Btu
The computations presented above can be used to compute the degree
of control required to meet a given emission standard. For this
problem the performance standards are listed on p. 5-20 in the Student
Manual. For a solid-fuel-fired power plant which is 250 x 106 Btu/hr
or larger, the SO2 standard is 1.2 Ib SO2/106 Btu.
From above the calculated E
S02
1.98 Ib SO2/106 Btu
Therefore,
(III-4)
12-6
-------
ES02 ~ Standard
Degree of control needed = x 100%
ES00
( 1.98 ) - 1.2
x 100%
( 1.98 )
39.4 % reduction of the
uncontrolled value
6. Similarly the particulates standard is 0.1 lb/10^ Btu and the
estimated uncontrolled particulates was
E = t 14 98 ) ^ Particulates
part -
Epart ~ Standard
Degree of control needed = - x 100%
Epart
- x 100%
( 14.98 )
99. 3 % reduction of the
uncontrolled value
(III-5)
12-7
-------
PROBLEM III.2: Fuel Sulfur Limit Calculation
A 22-degree API fuel oil is to be burned subject to a maximum SO2
emission standard of 0.8 Ib S02/106 Btu input.
Determine;
1. The maximum sulfur composition of the 22-dgree API fuel oil
which meets the standard without flue gas desulfurization.
Solution to Problem 111.2;
From Student Manual, Attachment 3-5, p. 3-15, find:
total heat of combustion at constant volume = 19,110 Btu/lbm
One should note that SO2 is 1/2 oxygen and 1/2 sulfur by weight.
Therefore,
.5 lb_S (0.8 lbm S02) ( 19,110 ) Btu
Ib so2 x iTj
0.0076
°-76 % S in the oil
(III-6)
12-8
-------
LESSON PLAN
TOPIC: Pollution Emission
Calculations II
COURSE: 427, Combustion Evaluation
LESSON TIME: 90 min.
PREPARED BY: DATE:
F. A. lachetta
Aug. 1978
I
m
UJ
CJ
Lesson Number 13
Lesson Goal: The goal of this lesson is to provide the student with the compu-
tational methods typically used in determining excess air and in correct-
ing measured concentrations to a standard basis.
Lesson Objectives: At the end of this lesson the student will be able to:
identify the proper equation for computing excess air from an Orsat
analysis of the flue gas of a combustion installation;
state the reasons for expressing concentrations at standard conditions
of temperature pressure, moisture content and excess air;
identify and use the proper factors for correcting field measurements
to a standard basis, such as 50% excess air, 12% CO2, and 6% 02;
use F-factors to estimate emissions from a combustion source.
Student Prerequisite Skills: Course 427, Lessons 11 and 12.
Level of instruction: Undergraduate engineering or equivalent
Intended Student Professional Backgrounds: Engineers, technical staff, regu-
latory officials, and others who work in combustion-related areas of air
pollution control.
Support Materials and Equipment:
1. Slide projector
2. Slide set for Lesson 13.
Special Instructions: None.
13-1
-------
References:
1. Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollution Control, Chapter 5.
2. "Requirements for Submittal of Implementation Plans and Standards
for New Stationary Sources," Federal Register 40:194, Part V (October 6, 1975)
13-2
-------
SLIDE NUMBER TITLE OF SLIDE
LESSON 13; POLLUTION EMISSION CALCULATIONS II
427-13-1 GAS VOLUME CORRECTIONS
427-13-2 GAS CORRECTIONS FOR CONCENTRATION
427-13-3 GAS CORRECTIONS FOR DENSITY
427-13-4 EXCESS AIR CORRECTIONS
427-13-5 CORRECTIONS TO 50% EXCESS AIR
427-13-6 CORRECTIONS TO 12% CO
427-13-7 CORRECTIONS TO 6% QZ
427-13-8 EXCESS AIR PERCENT
427-13-9 EXAMPLE WITHOUT EXCESS AIR
427-13-10 EXAMPLE WITH EXCESS AIR
427-13-11 EXCESS AIR FROM ORSAT ANALYSIS
427-13-12 SAMPLE OF ORSAT DATA APPLICATION
427-13-13 CALCULATE % EXCESS AIR
427-13-14 EXAMPLE PROCESS EMISSION STANDARD
427-13-15 DEFINITION OF AN "E" STANDARD PROBLEM
427-13-16 SOLUTION OF SAMPLE "E" PROBLEM
427-13-17 ALLOWABLE EMISSION
427-13-18 ACTUAL PARTICULATE RATE
427-13-19 F-FACTOR CONCEPT
427-13-20 EMISSION IN TERMS OF F-FACTOR
427-13-21 EQUATIONS FOR F FACTOR
427-13-22 EQUATION FOR F FACTOR
427-13-23 TABLE OF F-FACTORS
13-3
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Title' p°llut*on Emission
calculations II
Page 4 of—L
NOTES
I. Introduction
A.
B.
State the lesson objectives
Outline the method for correcting volume field measure-
ments (at actual temperature and pressure) to standard
pressure temperature.
1. Concentration standards are based on pressure and
temperature standards.
2. The equation for correction of volume (measured at
field pressure P and temperature
TQ)
to equivalent
The
A.
B.
volume at PS, Tg.
3. Necessary nomenclature and equations for corrections
of concentration, Cv, and of density, p.
Discuss the basis for corrections of concentration
which are developed in terms of 50% excess air,
12% CO, 6% O2, etc.
1. Parameter selection was originally based on a
"reasonable" value for a wide variety of combustion
equipment
2. Effective standards eliminate dilution as a solu-
tion to pollution
Chemistry of Excess Air
Elaborate on the basic chemistry of combustion with
excess air
1. Basic stoichiometric relationship for the combustion
of carbon
a. Air is assumed to be 20.9 02 and 70.1% N2.
b. The above noted volume proportion is simply
another way of stating that 02 is 0.264 times N2.
Use information on Slide 427-13-4 to illustrate '.
equivalence concept.
2. Introduction of excess air into the combustion pro-
cess.
a. Excess air simply passes through the process
and re-appears in stack gas. Note that CO2 and
N2 in the theoretical case do not change with
excess air added
b. The effect of nitrogen in the fuel influence on
the stack gas nitrogen
Discuss the Orsat analysis
1. The chemical equation should be recast to include
a term for the oxygen and the nitrogen in excess air.
2. The effect of CO means increased O2 and reduced C02
for a given fuel. Show that excess air is based on
complete combustion; i.e., all carbon oxidized to
CO2 and all hydrogen to water.
3. The use of Orsat analysis to compute excess air
should be illustrated.
a. SO2 must be measured separately and deducted
from observed C02 measurement. C02 reagent
also absorbs S02.
b. The degree of resolution for an Orsat analysis
is ±0.1%.
13-4
Refer to Student
Manual, Chap. 5
Slide 427-13-1
Equation 1
Slides 427-13-2,3
Equations 2 s 3
Slide 427-13-2
Equations 4, 5,
6, 7, & 8
Slides 427-13-4,5,
6, & 7
Equations 11, 12,
13, & 14
Slide 427-13-8
Slide 427-13-9
Slide 427-13-10
Slide 427-13-11
Slide 427-13-12
Slide 427-13-13
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title: Pollution Emission
Calculations II
Page.
NOTES
III. Discussion of Computations
A. Process rate standards
1. Introduce a particulate emission standard based on
the energy input to a combustion system as one
example of a process rate standard
a. Data is needed to define a situation where
the standard presented would be applied.
b. Computations should be outlined
B. Corrections for excess air, CC-2, and 02
1. Present and discuss typical data for a boiler
plant stack effluent.
a. Field measurement would be made at an actual
temperature and pressure.
b. Apparent molecular weight of stack gas can be
determined from flue gas analysis.
c. Mass rate of pollutant flow would be found
from an appropriate measurement and would be
field data.
2. Illustrate calculations required to correct con-
centration based on field measurement to equiva-
lent values.
a. Corrections are made to a standard temperature,
pressure, and dry gas basis
b. Use of an excess air correction factor is needed
for 50% excess air.
c. Computations of correction to 12% CO2 and 6% 02-
C. Use of F-Factors
1. Discuss the nature of the F-factor in comparison
with previously developed excess air corrections:
E = Cvs Qs
OH
where Cvs is the concentration, Qs is the
stack gas volume flow rate, and QJJ is the heat
input rate.
b. Show that
20.9
20.9 - %02p
where F is simply QS/QH and tne bracketed
term is an excess air correction.
c. F-factor method is directed to calculation of
particulate emission levels from new sources and
requires only 02 or CO2 content of stack be moni-
tored in addition to pollutant concentration (1).
Introduce table of F-factors and summary of equa-
tions for Fd, FC.
Describe errors which can result from use of F-
factors:
a. Variation of F-factor due to variations of fuel
ultimate analysis
13-5
Slide 427-13-14
Slide 427-13-15
Slide 427-13-16,
17, & 18
Refer to Student
Manual, p. 5-9
Refer to Student
Manual, p. 5-10,
5-11
Slide 427-13-19
Slide 427-13-20
Slides 427-13-21
427-13-22
427-13-23
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427' Combustion Evaluation
/ t>rtiirt> Tit/e- Pollution Emission
Lecwre /me. calculations u
t° SB,,
Page—§_2 content of stack gas when wet
scrubbers are used.
13-6
-------
LESSON PLAN
TOPIC: Problem Session iv :
Emission Calculations II
COURSE: 427, Combustion Evaluation
LESSON TIME: 60 min.
PREPARED BY: DATE:
F. A. lachetta Oct. 1978
Lesson Number: 14
Lesson Goal: The goal of this lesson is to provide the computational methodology
required to reduce field-measured data to a basis that permits comparative
evaluation with standards.
Lesson Objectives: At the end of this lesson, the student will be able to:
calculate excess air, given Orsat analysis data;
calculate corrected emissions based on standards specifying 50% excess air,
12% CO2f and 6% O2; and
employ F-factor to estimate emissions from a combustion source.
Student Prerequisite Skills: Course 427, Lessons 11, 12, 13
Level of Instruction: Undergraduate engineering or equivalent
Intended Student Professional Backgrounds: Engineers, technical staff, regu-
latory officials, and others who work in combustion-related areas of air
pollution control.
Support Materials and Equipment:
1. Workbook for Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollution Control, Chapter IV.
2. Chalkboard.
3. Hand-held calculator or slide rule.
Special Instructions: Assign Problems VI.3 and VI.5 for homework.
References:
1. Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollution Control, Chapter 5.
14-1
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title: Problem Session IV
Page.
of.
NOTES
I. Purpose
A. State the lesson objective
B. Note that this is an instructor-guided problem-solving
session, intended to give students practice with the
material presented in Lesson 13.
1. The problem statements and computational sheets are
found in Chapter IV of the Workbook.
2. The computational sheets with correct answers for
the instructor are found at the end of this lesson
plan.
II. Methodology
A. During the class period, guide the students through the
logic and calculations required for solution to Prob-
lem IV.1: Excess Air Calculations Based on Orsat Analysis.
B. During the class period, guide the students through the
logic and calculations required for the solution of
Problem IV.2: Use of F-Factors to Compute Emission
Concentrations.
C. Assign as homework Problem IV.3: Calculation of F-Factor
D. Assign Problem IV.4 to be done by the students during
the class period.
E. Assign as homework Problem IV.5: Correction of NO..
Emissions Concentration to 3% C^.
F. Answers to Problems IV.3 and IV.5 are to be confirmed
in the Homework Review period.
14-2
-------
CHAPTER IV
EMISSION CALCULATIONS II
PROBLEM IV.1: Excess Air Calculation Based on Orsat Analysis
The effluent of a combustion unit is characterized by:
Orsat Analysis: 11% C02, 9% O2, 2% CO
SO2: 120 ppm
Gas Flow: 200,000 acfm @ 27.5 in.Hg pressure,
340°F temperature, 8% moisture by volume
Particulates: 400 grain per acfm
Calculate;
1. The percentage of excess air in the flue gas using Equation 1
from Attachment 5-4, p. 5-23 of the student manual.
2. The SO2 emissions in micrograms per cubic meter (yg/m3).
3. The volume of the dry flue gas at the observed conditions.
4. The volume of the dry flue gas at standard conditions which
are a pressure of 30.00 inches of mercury and a temperature
of 60°F.
5. The particulate concentration based on standard pressure and
temperature.
6. The particulate emission concentrations corrected for
a. 50% excess air
b. 12% C02
c. 6% O,,
(IV-1)
14-3
-------
Solution for Problem IV.1;
1. Refer to Student Manual, p. 5-23, to obtain the equation for
computing the excess air from an Orsat analysis.
(O, - 0.5 CC> )
EA = £P P x 100%
0.264 N2p - (02p - 0.5 C0p)
The nitrogen in the product gas, N2 , may be calculated as
follows:
2 = 100 - %C02 - %O2 - %CO
= 100 - ( 11 ) - ( 9 ) - ( 2 )
78
Substitute the above value into equation for EA:
( 9 ) - 0.5 ( 2 )
EA =
0.264 (78 ) - ( 9 - 0.5 ( 2 ))
63-5 % excess air
2. Convert 120 SO2 ppm to Mg/m3 using Equation 5.8 on p. 5-5 of
the Student Manual:
1 ppm = 40.8 x (MW) ^2-
n\3
1 ppm S02 = 40.8 x ( 64 ) ^JJL = 2.611
120 ppm S02 = 120 x ( 2,611 )~
(IV-2)
14-4
-------
Reduce the — units to
by noting that
1,000 x
S3.
m3
Therefore
120 ppm S02 = ( 313,344)
3. Calculate the volume of the gas as follows:
dry
JQ (1.0 - moisture)
" wet
= (200,000 ) (1.0 - 0.08 )
184,000 cfm
4. Refer to the Student Manual, Equation (1) on p. 5-22 and
reduce Vo . to Vs dry , using Ps = 30.00 Hg and Ts = 520 R
Vs = V0
= (184,000) x
( 27.5 )
(30.0 )
( 520 )
( 800 )
109,633 scfm
5. Likewise reduce the particulate loading concentration to that
at the standard conditions
cvs ~ Cvc
l_ o -J
s _
(IV-3)
14-5
-------
( 400 ) x < 3°-°> x < 8°° >
( 27.5)
( 520 )
671
grairi/scfm
6a. Refer to the Student Manual, p. 5-23 and use Equations (2) and (3)
to calculate the particulate concentrations on a 50% excess-air
basis
F = 1 -
50V
1.50 O. - 0.133 N_ - 0.75 CO
2p 2p
0.21
1 _„
1-50 ( 0.09 ) - 0.133 ( 0.78 ) - 0.75 (0.02 )
___
= 0.923
671
-50V
F50V (0.923 )
727 grain/scfm
b. Correct to 12% CO2, using Equations (6) and (7) on p. 5-23 of the
Student Manual
CO
2p
12V
'12V
( 0.11 )
( 0.12 )
( 671 )
"l2V (0.917 )
0.12
-vs
0.917
732
grain/scfm
c. Correct to 6% O^ using Equations (10) and (11); however, note that
Equation (10) should be modified for the net ©2 (after the CO is
oxidized):
0.21 -<02p - 0.5 (C0p)
___
(IV-4)
14-6
-------
0.21 - ( 0.09 - 0.5 ( 0.02 ))
0.15
0.867
C,v = 5± = ( 6?1 I = 774 grain/scfm
F6V ( 0.867 )
(IV-5)
14-7
-------
PROBLEM IV.2: Use of F-factors to Compute Emission Concentrations
The effluent from a bituminous coal-fired source is found to have a
particulate concentration, Cvs , equal to 671 grains/scfm (dry basis)
The flue gas oxygen is 9% and the carbon monoxide is 2%, as measured
on a dry basis.
Calculate:
1. The particulate emissions in the units of (grains/million Btu)
using the F-factor technique
Solution to Problem IV.2:
From Attachment 5-4, p. 5-25, of the Student Manual, find:
Fd = 9,820
dscf
106 Btu
with the given Cvs value and the computed F, , use Equation (5.32),
p. 5-16, to calculate E, the particulate emissions, grains/106 Btu
E = Cvs Fd
20.9
20.9 - (02p - 0.5 CO )
671 ) x (9,820x10 6)
20.9
20.9 - ( 0.09 - 0.5 ( 0.02))
10.67
grains/10 Btu
(IV-6)
14-8
-------
PROBLEM IV.3: Calculation of F-factor
F-factors are useful in the calculation of emissions from combustion
sources. Consider a bituminous coal having the "as-fired" ultimate
analysis of 75% carbon, 5% hydrogen, 6.7% oxygen, 1.5% nitrogen, 2.3%
sulfur, 7.0% ash, and 2.5% free moisture. The heating value of this
coal is 13,000 Btu/lb.
Calculate;
1. The F-factor, Fd , using the Equation 5.28 on p. 5-15 of the
Student Manual and compare this value with that given in
Attachment 5-5, p. 5-25, of the Student Manual.
Solution to Problem IV.3;
The equation for the F-factor, F^ , is
(3.64 H2 + 1.53 C + 0.57 S + 0.14 N - 0.46 O2) 6 dscf
10
HHV 106 Btu
[3.64 ( 5 ) + 1.53 ( 75 ) + 0.57 (2.3) + 0.14 (1.5) - 0.46 (6.7)3
( 13,000)
10,581 dscf
106 Btu
(IV-7)
14-9
-------
PROBLEM IV.4: Calculation of Pollutant Concentration
Bituminous coal is burned completely at a rate of 5 ton/hr with excess
air. An evaluation of the effluent yields the following data:
Orsat Analysis:
CO.
9.1%
10.6%
0.0%
Volume Flow: 26,000 scfm
Pollutant Mass Rate: 130,000 grains/min.
°2
CO
Compute:
1. The particulate concentration corrected to 50% excess air.
2. The particulate concentration corrected to 12% CO2-
3. The particulate concentration corrected to 6% 02-
Solution to Problem IV.4:
1. Find the particulate concentration, Cvs , using the flow and the
pollutant mass rate from Equation 5.21, p. 5-14 of the Student
Manual:
cvs
PMR
(130,000) grains/min.
( 26,000) scfm
grains/scf
Correct the concentration to 50% excess air using Equations (2) and
(3) on p. 5-23 of the Student Manual
50v
-i
1.5 02p - 0.133 N2p - 0.75 COp
__
1.5 (0.106) - 0.133 (0.803) - 0.75 ( Q.Q
0.21
(IV-8)
14-10
-------
= 1 - ( 0.249 )
0.751
C5Q = °VS = ( 5 )
V F50VS (0.751 )
= 6.65 grains/scf at 50% EA
2. Correct the concentration to 12% CO2 using Equations (6) and (7)
on p. 5-23 of the Student Manual
F12v
C02p _ (.091)
0.12 .12
0.758
C,
C
vs
12v
= ( 5 )
:12 (0.758 )
4
6.59 grains/scf at 12% CO-
3. Correct the concentration to 6% C>2 using Equations (10) and (11)
on p. 5-24 of the Student Manual
F = °'21 " °2P = 0.21 - (0.106)
6V ~ 0.15 .0.15
0.693
C . Cvs = ( 5 )
6v P6v (0.693)
7.21 grains/scf at 6% 02
(IV-9)
14-11
-------
PROBLEM IV.5: Correction of NOX Emission Concentration to 3% C>2
Limiting the excess air during combustion is an important technique for
controlling the NOX emissions. In order to provide a more meaningful
basis for comparison, the resulting emissions will be corrected to a
standard basis of 3% C>2 (or 3% excess C^) . Consider the NOX emissions
of 200 and 300 ppm from an oil-fired power plant under the stack gas con-
ditions A and B, respectively (which have different conditions of excess
air) .
Condition
Dry Volume Basis
co %
A 13.3
B 9.7
°2' %
2.2
7.3
N2, %
84.5
83.0
NO^ , ppm
200
300
Determine:
1. The excess air corresponding to conditions A and B.
2. The correction factor to be used in correcting NO^ emissions
from their actual condition to the basis of 3% O7.
3. The corresponding values of NOX at the standard basis of 3%
oxygen.
Solution to Problem IV.5:
1. Find the excess air for conditions A and B using Equation (1)
on p. 5-23 of the Student Manual.
%EA =
°
2p
0.264 N2 - (02p - 0.5 C0p)
x 100*
For condition A:
%EA =
( .022 ) - 0.5 (0.0 )
0.264 (.845) - (.022 - 0.5 ( 0.0))
x 100%
10.95
for condition A.
(IV-10)
14-12
-------
For condition B:
%EA
( .073 ) - 0.5 (0.0 )
0.264 ( .83) - (.073 - 0.5 ( 0.0))
x 100%
50.0
for condition B.
2. The volume correction factor for flue gas O, is derived from
°2V
0.21 - O
2 std
0.21 - O
3v
2p
0.21 - 0.03
0.21 - 0
2p
( .18 )
3. Use the correction factor developed above, to correct the measured
NOy emissions at conditions A and B to the 3% ©2 standard basis:
For 200 ppm NOY at 10-9 % excess air
'3v
200 ppm
F3v .21 - (.022)
.18
191
ppm corrected to 3%
For 300 ppm NOX at 50 % excess air
300
"3v
.21 - ( .073 )
JL8
394 ppm corrected to 3% CU
(IV-11)
14-13
-------
LESSON PLAN
TOPIC: Introduction to Combustion
Control
COURSE: 427, Combustion Evaluation
LESSON TIME: 75 min.
PREPARED BY: DATE:
F. A. lachetta
Oct. 1978
Lesson Number: 15
Lesson Goal: The goal of this lesson is to provide an overview of the logic
for control of combustion systems and special features of control systems.
Lesson Objectives: At the end of this lesson, the student will be able to:
list the important variables (steam pressure, steam flow rate, gas tempera-
ture) which may serve as the controlled variables used to actuate fuel/air
controls for combustion systems;
describe the primary purpose of a control system which is to maintain com-
bustion efficiency and thermal states;
understand the interrelationships between varying load (energy output)
requirements and both fuel/air flow and excess air;
Student Prerequisite Skills: Course 427, Lessons 2, 3, 6, and 9
Level of Instruction: Undergraduate engineering or equivalent
Intended Student Professional Backgrounds: Engineers, technical staff, regu-
latory officials, and others who work in combustion-related areas of air
pollution control.
Support Materials and Equipment:
1. Slide projector and 16 mm sound movie projector.
2. Slide set for Lesson 15.
3. Film — "Boilers and Their Control."
Special Instructions: Show the film after the first 30 minutes of the lesson
period.
15-1
-------
References:
1. Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollution Control, Chapter 6.
2. North American Combustion Handbook, Second Edition, North American
Manufacturing Company, Cleveland, Ohio (1973).
3. Steam, Its Generation and Use, Chapter 35, 39th Edition, Babcock and
Wilcox Company, 1978.
15-2
-------
SLIDE NUMBER TITLE OF SLIDE
LESSON 15; INTRODUCTION TO COMBUSTION CONTROL
427-15-1 SCHEMATIC OF STEAM-FLOW ORIFICE STATION
427-15-2 ACTUAL STEAM-FLOW ORIFICE STATION
427-15-3 STEAM-FLOW DIFFERENTIAL SENSING AND TRANSFER UNIT
427-15-4 AUTOMATIC FORCED-DRAFT FAN INLET LOUVER CONTROL
427-15-5 AUTOMATIC GAS-FLOW CONTROL VALVE
427-15-6 DIAGRAM OF A COMBUSTION CONTROL FOR A SPREADER-STOKER
FIRED BOILER
427-15-7 DIAGRAM OF A COMBUSTION CONTROL FOR A GAS- AND OIL-FIRED
BOILER
427-15-8 DIAGRAM OF A COMBUSTION CONTROL FOR A PULVERIZED-COAL
FIRED BOILER
427-15-9 DIAGRAM OF A COMBUSTION CONTROL FOR A CYCLONE-FIRED BOILER
15-3
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Title • Introduction to
line. combustion Control
Page-L—
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
427, Combustion Evaluation
THI* • Introduction to
IITie. Combustion Control
Page.
NOTES
a. Fire-tube boilers
b. Water-tube boilers
2. Three primary boiler circuits are:
a. Steam and water circuit
b. Flue gas and air circuit
c. Fuel circuit
3. Steam and water circuit composed of:
a. Steam drum
b. Mud drum
c. Downcomers
d. Risers
4. Feedwater level maintenance is:
a. Vital to combustion control
b. Vital to efficient operation
c. Influenced by swell (occurs during increased
steam production) and shrink (occurs during
decreased steam production).
5. Steam flow is controlled by demand for steam
a. Steam pressure is the control impulse for fuel
input
6. Flue gas and air circuit
a. Provides combustion air
b. Circulates product gases within the furnace
c. Removes flue gases
7. Furnace draft (negative pressure)
a. Will be specified in furnace design (some
furnaces are pressurized)
b. Requires proper control of forced draft and
induced draft fans.
8. Control of fans for combustion air
a. Is accomplished by variable dampers or variable
speed motors
b. Must lead fuel-flow increases when load is
increased
c. Must lag fuel-flow when load is decreased
9. Efficiency is increased by use of air preheaters
a. Tubular type
b. Regenerative type
10. Control of excess air is required for complete com-
bustion
a. Too much excess air results in
i. Less time for heat transfer to the tubes
so that the flue gas temperature increases
ii. More flue gas being emitted at higher tem-
peratures
b. Greater excess air is required with low load
conditions
11. Minimum air flow rate should be limited to 25% of
the full load air flow rate
12. Fuel flow controls
a. Should limit the flow of fuel to the amount of
available air
b. Should provide automatic shut-off valves
15-5
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course" 427, Combustion Evaluation
. . -..,., Introduction to
Lecture Title: Combustion Control
p
Page.
ofL
NOTES
13. Only with optimum instrumentation and control can
efficiency be maintained under all load conditions.
15-6
-------
LESSON PLAN
TOPIC: Combustion Installation
Instrumentation
COURSE: 427, Combustion Evaluation
LESSON TIME: 45 min.
PREPARED BY: DATE:
F. A. lachetta
Oct. 1978
Lesson Number: 16
Lesson Goal: The goal of this lesson is to provide the student with information
about instruments used for combustion systems monitoring with particular
emphasis on good operation.
Lesson Objectives: At the end of this lesson the student will be able to:
identify instruments which would indicate improper combustion or energy
transfer; and
describe the influence of excess air (indicated by CO2 or O2 in stack
gases) on the boiler efficiency, fuel rate, and economics of a particular
combustion installation.
Student Prerequisite Skills: Course 427, Lesson 15.
Level of Instruction: Undergraduate engineering or equivalent
Intended Student Professional Backgrounds: Engineers, technical staff, regu-
latory officials, and others who work in combustion-related areas of air
pollution control.
Support Materials and Equipment:
1. Slide projector
2. Slide set for Lesson 16
Special Instructions: None
References:
1. Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollution Control, Chapter 6.
16-1
-------
SLIDE NUMBER TITLE OF SLIDE
LESSON 16: COMBUSTION INSTALLATION INSTRUMENTATION
427-16-1 STEAM-FLOW AIR-FLOW METER AND CHART
427-16-2 DRAFT GAUGES ON SPREADER STOKER-FIRED BOILER INSTRUMENT
PANEL
427-16-3 GAS AND WATER TEMPERATURES OF ECONOMIZER
427-16-4 INSTRUMENT PANEL WITH REMOTE STACK SMOKE INDICATOR
427-16-5 SKETCH OF REMOTE STACK SMOKE INDICATOR
427-16-6 RANEREX CONTINUOUS CO METER
427-16-7 TYPICAL 02 READINGS
427-16-8 TYPICAL C02 READINGS
427-16-9 EFFECT OF EXCESS AIR (FLUE GAS COj ON COMBUSTION EFFICIENCY
427-16-10 IMPROVED EFFICIENCY CASCADE
16-2
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title ' Combustion Installation
Instrumentation
Page.
of.
NOTES
ii.
Introduction
A. State the lesson objectives
B. Outline the use of instruments as operator guides
1. Steam-flow air-flow meter on a boiler instrument
panel
a. Note the usual practice of nearly coincident
pen traces
b. Note inherent influence on operator designed
into the unit (pens together)
2. Fuel-flow meter
a. Used both to guide operator and for record-
keeping
3. Note draft gauges employed to monitor gas loop
components, such as furnace, fans, air preheater,
etc.
4. Temperature measurements
a. Furnace and flue gases at various points
b. Gas temperatures at significant locations
c. Fuel oil where needed
5. Smoke indicators
a. Note use of signal lights and opacity indicator
scales
6. CC<2 and 02 monitoring
a. Portable and fixed instruments should be
described here
b. Give ranges of CO2 for several fuels
c. Give range of 02 for several fuels
Importance of proper instrumentation relative to efficiency
A. Describe recordkeeping normally possible
1. Integrators used 'on steam-flow, fuel-flow meters,
etc.
a. Note the use of micro-processors to give
continuous efficiency estimate
B. Discuss flue gas monitoring as related to both effi-
ciency and pollutant emissions
1. Point out efficiency versus CO2 relationship
2. Note the effect of flue gas exit temperature on
efficiency
3. Discuss cascade effect of improved efficiency
Slide 427-16-1
Slide 427-16-2
Slide 427-16-3
Slide 427-16-4
Slide 427-16-5
Slide 427-16-6
Slide 427-16-7
Slide 427-16-8
Slide 427-16-9
Slide 427-16-10
4.
as an argument for flue CO2 or 02 gas monitoring
instruments
Relate 02 radiation with efficiency improvement
a. Note a 1% reduction of O2 corresponds to
III.
1/2 to 1% improvement of efficiency
Use of Instrumentation in Preventive Maintenance
A. Outline the preventive maintenance-instrumentation
interaction
1. Note the need for establishing norms as
reference values
2. Describe how instrument reading changes are
indicators of problems
16-3
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title: Combustion Installation
Page.
of _ i.
NOTES
a. Use of CQ>2 through unit as measure of air
infiltration
b. Temperature variation at preheaters, etc.
16-4
-------
LESSON PLAN
TOPIC: Gaseous Fuel Burning
COURSE; 427, Combustion Evaluation
'LESSON TIME; 60 min.
PREPARED BY: DATE:
L. U. Lilleleht Oct. 1978
Lesson Number: 17
Lesson Goal: To provide the student with an accurate understanding of the
design and operational parameters which influence the emissions of air
pollutants from gas-burning devices.
Lesson Objectives: At the end of this lesson the student will be able to:
describe the functions of the gas burner;
define pre-mix and its influence on the type of flame;
list burner design features and how these affect the limits of stable flame
operating region;
name four different types of gas burners and their special design features;
cite typical gas furnace, breeching, and stack operating temperatures,
pressures, and gas-flow velocities;
describe the relationship between flue gas analyses and the air-to-fuel
ratio;
list the causes and describe the signs of malfunctioning gas-burning
devices; and
describe techniques used to correct a malfunctioning gas-burning device.
Student Prerequisite Skills: Course 427, Lessons 2, 3, 5, 6, 9, 15,16.
Level of Instruction: Undergraduate engineering or equivalent
Intended Student Professional Backgrounds: Engineers, technical staff, regu-
latory officials, and others who work in combustion-related areas of air
pollution control.
Support Materials and Equipment:
1. Slide projector
2. Slide set for Lesson 17
17-1
-------
Special Instructions: None
References:
1. Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollution Control, Chapters 2, 3, and 7.
2. Combustion Handbook, published by the North American Manufacturing
Company, Cleveland, Ohio (1952).
3. Danielson, J. A., editor, Air Pollution Engineering Manual, AP-40,
2nd edition, USEPA (May 1973).
17-2
-------
SLIDE NUMBER TITLE OF SLIDE
LESSON 17; GASEOUS FUEL BURNING
427-17-1 BLUE FLAME
427-17-2 YELLOW FLAME
427-17-3 ATMOSPHERIC BURNERS - FLAME STABILITY
427-17-4 ATMOSPHERIC PREMIX TYPE GAS BURNER
427-17-5 MULTI-FUEL OIL GASIFYING BURNER
427-17-6 FURNACE HEAT RELEASE RATE
427-17-7 COMPARITIVE FURNACE SIZES
427-17-8 TYPICAL BREECHING AND STACK CONDITIONS
427-17-9 VELOCITY IN CONVECTIVE SECTION
427-17-10 FLUE GAS ANALYSIS
17-3
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title: Gaseous Fuel Burning
USfc)
O/.
NOTES
I. Introduction
A. State the goals and objectives of this lesson.
B. Review combustion concepts
1. Requirements for complete combustion
2. Theoretical and excess air
3. Adequate temperature, turbulence, and time
C. Typical gaseous fuels
1. Heating values of natural gas and other common
gaseous guels
2. Lowest heating value for direct combustion
II. Flame combustion mechanisms
A. Hydroxylation theory
1. Air mixes with fuel prior to combustion
2. Oxidation is gradual
3. Blue flame is produced
4. Incomplete combustion products include:
a. Aldehydes and acrid odor
b. Other partially-oxidized hydrocarbons
B. Carbonic combustion mechanism
1. Fuel is not premixed with air
2. Cracking reaction produces solid carbon
3. Yellow flame from incandescent carbon
4. Incomplete conbustion products include soot, smoke,
carbon monoxide, etc.
III. Gas-burning characteristics
A. Functions of a gas burner
1. To deliver gas and air at the desired rate and
proportion
2. To provide mixing and ignition.
B. Most burners employ the Bunsen principle
1. Some (primary) air is premixed
2. Remainder is secondary air
3. Flame propagation velocity
4. Shape and appearance of flames affected by
a. Degree of pre-mix
b. Degree of turbulence and mixing
C. Stable flame region
1. Bounded by
a. Flash-back
b. Lifting and blow-off
c. Yellow tip
d. CO formation
2. Turn-down ratio
IV. Classification of gas burners
A. Pre-mix type
1. Atmospheric burners
2. Multiple port burners
3. Power burners
B. Nozzle-mixing type
C. Long flame burners
D. Specialty gas burners:
17-4
Refer to Student
Manual, Chap. 2
Refer to Student
Manual, Chap. 3,
and Lesson No. 6
Slide 427-17-1
Slide 427-17-2
Refer to Student
Manual, p. 7-19.
Refer to Student
Manual, p. 7-18.
Slide 427-17-3
Refer to Student
Manual, p. 7-20.
Slide 427-17-4
Refer ro Student
Manual, p. 7-17
and 7-21.
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title: Gaseous Fuel Burning
Page.
NOTES
1. High excess air burners to provide hot gases at
uniform temperature
2. Lean fuel burners for very low heating value fuels
3. Multi-fuel burners
4. Other
V. System design considerations
A. Combustion furnace volume
1. Flame to fill volume
2. Shape determined by type and number of burners
B. Typical energy release rates
1. In primary zone and overall
2. Comparison with other fuels
C. Furnace operating conditions
1. Pressure slightly lower than ambient
2. Velocities in convective section
D. Breeching and stack
1. Draft control
a. Natural
b. Forced and/or induced
2. Stack conditions
a. Typical flow rate (velocity)
b. Temperature
(i) Effect on heat losses
(ii) Minimum required to prevent condensation
VI. Operation and Control
A. Control of air-to-fuel ratio
1. Flue gas analysis
2. Flame appearance and temperature
3. Burner nozzle adjustment
B. Evidence of insufficient air
C. Evidence of too much excess air
D. Safety considerations:
1. Start-up and shut-down procedures
2. Fuel changes should not be attempted without prior
thorough analysis by experts.
VII. Air pollution considerations
A. Most gaseous fuels are clean burning in properly designed,
operated, and maintained equipment
B. Pollutant emissions from:
1. Operating outside stable flame region
2. Insufficient air
3. Improper operation of burner:
a. Damaged by flash-back
b. Throat clogged by soot
4. Inadequate mixing
5. Excessive firing rate for given design
C. Uncontrolled emissions factors from gas-burning devices
1. Natural gas
2. Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG).
Slide 427-17-5
Refer to Student
Manual, p. 7-24.
Slide 427-17-6
Slide 427-17-7
Slide 427-17-8
Slide 427-17-9
Slide 427-17-10
Refer to Student
Manual, pp. 7-25
and 7-26.
Refer to Student
Manual, Attach-
ments 7-11, 7-12.
17-5
-------
LESSON PLAN
TOPIC: puei oil Burning
COURSE: 427, Combustion Evaluation
LESSON TIME: 60 min.
PREPARED BY: DATE:
J. T. Beard Aug. 1978
Lesson Number: 18
Lesson Goal: The goal of this lesson is to provide the student with an
accurate understanding of the design and operational parameters which
influence air pollution emissions from fuel oil burning equipment.
Lesson Objectives: At the end of this lesson the student will be able to:
describe the important design and emission characteristics of oil burners
using air, steam, mechanical (pressure) and rotary cup atomization;
describe the influence of temperature on oil viscosity and atomization;
describe how vanadium and sulfur content in fuel oil influence furnace
corrosion and air pollution emissions;
describe burner nozzle maintenance and its influence on air pollutant
emissions from oil combustion installations; and
locate and use tabulated values of oil fuel properties and pollutant
factors to compute uncontrolled emissions from oil-burning sources.
Student Prerequisite Skills: Course No. 427, Lessons Number 6, 9, 15, 16
Level of Instruction: Undergraduate engineering or equivalent
Intended Student Professional Backgrounds: Engineers, technical staff, regu-
latory officials, and others who work in combustion-related areas of air
pollution control.
Support Materials and Equipment:
1. Slide projector
2. Slide set for Lesson 18.
Special Instructions: None
18-1
-------
References:
1. Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollution Control, Chapter 8.
2. "Guidelines for Residential Oil Burner Adjustment," EPA-600/2-75-069a
(Oct. 1975).
3. "Guidelines for Burner Adjustments of Commercial Oil-Fired Boilers,"
EPA-600/2-76/008, published by Industrial Env. Res. Lab., USEPA
(March 1976).
4. "Guidelines for Industrial Boiler Performance Improvement," EPA-600/
8-77-003a, published by Industrial Env. Res. Lab., USEPA
(Jan. 1977).
5. Burkhardt, C. H., Domestic and Commercial Oil Burners, Third Edition,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York (1969).
6. Fryling, G. R., Combustion Engineering, Revised Edition, published
by Combustion Engineering, Inc. New York (1966).
7. Steam: Its Generation and Use, 38th Edition, published by Babcock
and Wilcox, New York (1972).
18-2
-------
SLIDE NUMBER TITLE OF SLIDE
LESSON 18; FUEL OIL BURNING
427-18-1 PURPOSE OF FUEL OIL BURNING
427-18-2 REQUIREMENTS FOR COMPLETE COMBUSTION
427-18-3 MODE OF COMBUSTION OF FUEL OIL DROPLETS
427-18-4 APPROXIMATE VISCOSITY OF FUEL OILS
427-18-5 TYPICAL EXCESS AIR LEVELS
427-18-6 VOLUMETRIC HEAT RELEASE RATES AND RESIDENCE TIMES
427-18-7 SCOTCH-MARINE BOILER
427-18-8 INTEGRAL FURNACE BOILER
427-18-9 WATER WALL TUBES
427-18-10 WATER WALL TUBES
427-18-11 INTEGRAL FURNACE BOILER, TYPE D
427-18-12 VERTICALLY-FIRED OIL BURNING FURNACE
427-18-13 TEMPERATURES IN BOILER OF PREVIOUS SLIDE
427-18-14 BOILER, TANGENTIALLY FIRED
427-18-15 WATER-WALL FURNACE CROSS SECTION (TANGENTIALLY FIRED)
427-18-16 ATOMIZING CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT BURNERS
427-18-17 ROTARY CUP BURNER
427-18-18 HIGH-PRESSURE ATOMIZER (DOMESTIC)
427-18-19 LOW-PRESSURE AIR ATOMIZER
427-18-20 LOW-PRESSURE AIR ATOMIZER SKETCH
427-18-21 LOW-PRESSURE AIR ATOMIZER MOUNTED IN COMMERCIAL FURNACE
427-18-22 TANGENTIAL SWIRL NOZZLES
427-18-23 SWIRL DEVICE FOR SECONDARY AIR
427-18-24 HIGH-PRESSURE ATOMIZER
18-3
-------
SLIDE NUMBER TITLE OF SLIDE
427-18-25 MECHANICAL ATOMIZATION (WITH RETURN FLOW, SPILL BACK)
427-18-26 EXAMPLES OF RETURN FLOW HIGH AND LOW FIRE
427-18-27 STEAM ATOMIZING (INTERNAL MIX)
427-18-28 STEAM ATOMIZING (INTERNAL MIX)
427-18-29 INTERNAL MIX STEAM ATOMIZING NOZZLE
42/-18-30 INTERNAL MIX STEAM ATOMIZING NOZZLE
427-18-31 INTERNAL MIX STEAM ATOMIZING NOZZLE
427-18-32 STEAM OR AIR ATOMIZING BURNER (EXTERNAL MIX)
427-18-33 INFLUENCE OF DRAFT - CASE HISTORY
427-18-34 SMOKE - C02 CHARACTERISTICS
18-4
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title: Fuel Oil Burning
I.
II.
Introduction
A. State the lesson objectives
B. Introduce fuel burning concepts
1. State the purpose (production of hot gases)
2. Discuss desirable features
a. Burning the fuel completely
b. Using a minimum quantity of air
c. Discarding the flue gas at a reasonably low
temperature
3. State requirements for proper combustion
a. Fine atomization (vaporization)
b. Good mixing with air (turbulence)
c. Continuous source of ignition (temperature)
d. Time to complete combustion
e. No quenching of gases until combustion is complete
C. Review and give examples of important fuel properties
1. Vaporization limits combustion rate
a. Kerosene
b. No. 6 fuel oil
2. Contrast chemical and physical behavior of dis-
tillate and residual oil droplet
a. Distillation, thermal, and catalytic cracking
b. Physical size changes with time
c. Possible residue
3. Define viscosity, cite variations, and give related
design examples
a. No preheating for No.
b.
c.
d.
izing No. 6
4. Cite examples of nozzle problems caused by foreign
matter in oil
a. Strainers required in the oil suction and dis-
charge lines
b. Small size burners may have fine mesh screen
or porous plug type filters
c. Some systems mechanically reduce particle sizes
to allow flow through the pump, filter, and
nozzle
Describe furnace sizes, applications, and distinguishing
features, such as heat release rate and residence time
A. Domestic or Residential
1. No. 1 or No. 2 fuel oil, h to 3 gph
2. Around 40% excess air
3. Simple on/off combustion control
4. Annual nozzle maintenance
B. Commercial
1. Present, as examples, Scotch marine, HRT (horizontal
return fire tube), and integral furnace water-wall
boilers
18-5
Preheating to 135° for atomizing No. 4
Preheating to 185° for atomizing No. 5
Preheating to around 210° for pumping and atom-
Page—5_ of.
NOTES
Slide 427-18-1
Slide 427-18-2
Slide 427-18-3
Slide 427-18-4
Slide 427-18-5
Slide 427-18-6
Slide 427-18-7
Slide 427-18-8
Slide 427-18-9
Slide 427-18-10
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title: Fuel Oil Burning
Page.
NOTES
2. No. 2, 4, 5, 6 fuel oil, 3 to 100 gph
3. Around 30% excess air
4. Standard designed package heaters and boilers
5. Typically use electric heating of oil
C. Industrial
1. Present, as an example, an integral furnace
boiler (D-type)
2. Large special-purpose heaters and boilers
3. No. 4, 5, 6 fuel oil, 70 to 3,500 gph
4. Around 15% excess air
D. Utility
1. Describe features of radiant boilers with vertical,
horizontal, and tangential firing.
2. Sophisticated combustion controls and monitors
3. Steam production at high efficiency
4. No. 6 fuel oil, 3,500 to 60,000 gph
5. Around 3% excess air
III. Describe the design and operational features of example
burners as related to
A. Atomization size distribution
1. Rotary cup burner produces large droplets, not
recommended because of poor combustion features
B. Fuel and furnace application
1. High-pressure atomizers for domestic or residential
applications
a. Pressure of 100 psi
b. No. 2 fuel oil, % to 30 gph
c. Swirl vanes to provide mixing by secondary air
d. Electrodes provide continuous source of ignition
2. Low-pressure air atomizers for domestic applications
a. Oil and air pressure around 3 psi
b. No. 2 fuel oil, >j to 6 gph
c. Tangential air passages for swirl of primary
air prior to impacting film of oil
3. Low-pressure air atomizers for commercial applica-
tions
a. Air and oil pressure from 12 to 50 psi
b. No. 2, 4, or 5 fuel oil, 5 to 150 gph
c. Describe tangential swirl nozzles
d. Describe swirl for secondary air
4. High-pressure atomizers for commercial, industrial
applications
a. Oil pressure at up to 300 psi
b. No. 4 or 5 fuel oil, up to 200 gph
5. Mechanical atomizer for industrial or utility
applications
a. Oil pressure 450 to 1,000 psi
b. No. 6 fuel oil rated up to 1,250 gph
c. Spill-back pressure adjustment for modulated
firing
18-6
Slide 427-18-11
Slides 427-18-12, 13
Slide 427-18-14
Slide 427-18-15
Slide 427-18-16
Slide 427-18-17
Slide 427-18-18
Slide 427-18-19
Slide 427-18-20
Slide 427-18-21
Slide 427-18-22
Slide 427-18-23
Slide 427-18-25
Slide 427-18-26
Slide 427-18-27
Slide 427-18-28
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title: Fuel Oil Burning
Page z_ of.
NOTES
6. Steam (or air) atomizers for industrial or utility
applications
a. Oil pressure up to 100 psi and steam pressure
20 to 40 psi greater than oil
b. No. 6 fuel oil, rated up to 1,100 gph
c. Internal mix, desirable flame
d. External mix, not recommended due to hot, short
flame
e. Steam trap required to assure dry steam and
limit erosion of nozzle
IV. Factors Influencing Air Pollutants
A. Present emission factors for fuel oil combustion
1. Describe variations in particulate emission factors
a. Vary with fuel type because more ash in heavier
oils
b. For No. 6, asphaltine content may burn poorly
and varies with sulfur content
2. Describe why emission factor coefficient for SO2
is larger for residual oil than for distillate
a. Factor based on oil volume rather than weight
therefore higher density gives higher co-
efficient
3. Explain variations in NOX emission factors
a. Fuel nitrogen
b. Equipment design influences to be presented
in later lesson
4. Provide sample calculation of use of emission
factor
a. Point out that S in emission factor for 0.7%
sulfur fuel is 0.7, not 0.007.
B. Describe influence of vanadium content in fuel oil
(also coal)
1. Deposited in ash on metallic surfaces
a. Acts as catalyst for conversion of SO2 to SO3
b. Dew point problems (acid smuts, corrosion)
c. Low excess air also limits conversion to 803
and acid smut emissions
d. Some 803 desirable for electrostatic pre-
cipitator operation
2. Switching to low vanadium fuel may be possible
3. Vanadium and sodium form
a. Sticky, low melting temp ash deposits
b. Increase fouling of metal surfaces
c. Corrosive
C. Describe soot blowing
1. Less of soot with oil than with coal
2. Frequency
a. Avoid buildup to maintain heat transfer
b. Keep ash from becoming molten (hard to remove)
c. More frequent with vanadium and sodium in oil
D. Describe influence of fuel oil additives
1. Alumina, dolomite, magnesia
a. Reduce superheater fouling, ash corrosion
18-7
Slide 427-18-29
Slide 427-18-30
Slide 427-18-31
Slide 427-18-32
Refer to Student
Manual, p. 8-16
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title: Fuel Oil Burning
NOTES
b. May produce high melting point ash deposits
c. May form refractory sulfates in ash, removed
in soot blowing
2. Organometallic compounds of
a. Transition metals (manganese, iron, nickel,
and cobalt)
b. Alkaline-earth metals (barium and calcium)
3. Catalytic influences to reduce smoke and particulates
a. Oxidation of soot
b. Promotion of free radicals which react with soot
Describe nozzle maintenance
1. Remove, check for deposits, cracks, wear, plugging
2. Clean deposits or replace
3. Frequency depends on installation
a. Once a shift for industrial and utility boilers
b. Once a year for residential burners
4. Poor atomization
a. Changed atomization pattern
b. Larger droplet sizes
c. Longer flames with increased soot or slag
Describe continuous ignition requirements
1. Continuous spark from electrodes in domestic units
a. 7,000 to 10,000 volt transformer
b. Proper positioning required in maintenance
2. Utility and industrial units typical programmed
starting sequence
a. Pilot for start-up on gas or distillate oil
b. Auxiliary fuel during cold start to prevent
smoke
c. Modulated burner controls
d. Safety interlocks
e. Optical, pressure, or temp, sensing equipment
Define draft and describe its importance for good
combustion
1. Negative pressure difference between furnace or
stack and ambient
2. Control required to assure
a. Velocities (residence time)
b. Air/fuel mixing
c. Settling for blown soot
3. Give example of too much furnace draft
a. Inadequate residence time
4. Give example of too low stack draft
a. Inadequate pressure drop to pull gases across
convective section
5. Give example of negative draft
a. Furnace pressure greater than atmospheric
b. Gases leak out (rather than in) may cause
quenching (smoke) and structural damage due
to overheating
c. Casing of operating personnel
6. Introduce the EPA recommended CO2/smoke adjustment
procedure to be presented in later lesson
18-8
Slide 427-18-33
Slide 427-18-34
-------
LESSON PLAN
TOPIC: Film— "Combustion for
Control of Gaseous
Pollutants
COURSE: 427, Combustion Evaluation
LESSON TIME: 30 min.
PREPARED BY: DATE:
L. U. Lilleleht Oct. 1978
Lesson Number: 19
Lesson Goal: To review and reinforce the student's understanding of the funda-
mental combustion concepts in controlling gaseous pollutants through direct-
flame or catalytic incineration and by flares.
Lesson Objectives: At the end of this film the student will be able to:
list the four items necessary for effective disposal of gaseous pollutants
by combustion;
give the limit(s) on pollutant concentrations for direct-flame and catalytic
incinerators and cite reasons for such limit(s);
compare the major advantages and disadvantages of catalytic incinerators
over direct-flame incinerators;
outline the operating principles of a flare; and
list the conditions under which a flare can be used for disposal of com-
bustible gases.
Student Prerequisite Skills: First-level college chemistry.
Level of Instruction: Undergraduate engineering or equivalent
Intended Student Professional Backgrounds: Engineers, technical staff, regu-
latory officials, and others who work in combustion-related areas of air
pollution control.
Support Materials and Equipment:
1. Film— "Combustion for Control of Gaseous Pollutants"
2. 16-mm sound movie projector with a 12-inch diameter take-up reel.
Special Instructions: None
19-1
-------
References:
1. Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollution Control, Chapter 13.
2. APTI Course #415: Control of Gaseous Emissions.
19-2
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title' F^^m ~ "Combustion for Control
of Gaseous Pollutants"
NOTES
I. Introduction
A. This film will serve as an introduction to the control
of gaseous pollutants by combustion. It will also be
a brief refresher for those students who have already
had Course #415, Control of Gaseous Emissions.
B. The film presents the fundamental concepts of direct-
flame incineration, catalytic incineration, and flares.
C. Operating principles are explained schematically,
followed by illustrations of actual hardware.
D. The student is also introduced to the concept of energy
conservation through the use of heat recovery.
II. "Combustion for Control of Gaseous Pollutants"
III. Discussion of comments and questions raised by viewers.
Film: "Combustion
for Control of
Gaseous Pollutants
19-3
-------
LESSON PLAN
TOPIC:
Direct-Flame and Catalytic
Incineration
COURSE: 427, Combustion Evaluation
LESSON TIME: 60 min.
PREPARED BY: DATE:
L. U. Lilleleht
Oct. 1978
Lesson Number: 20
Lesson Goals: To provide the student with an understanding of the combustion
techniques available for controlling gaseous and volatile organic pollutants
and with design bases for thermal or catalytic afterburners.
Lesson Objectives: At the end of this lesson the student will be able to:
cite examples of air pollution sources where direct-flame and catalytic
afterburners are used to control gaseous emissions;
describe the influence of temperature on the residence time required for
proper operation of afterburners;
apply fundamental combustion calculations to determine the auxiliary fuel
required for direct-flame and catalytic incineration with and without
energy recovery;
list three reasons for loss of catalytic activity and ways of preventing
such loss; and
cite methods available for reducing afterburner operating costs.
Student Prerequisite Skills: Course 427, Lessons 2, 3, 5, 6, 17
Level of Instruction: Undergraduate engineering or equivalent
Intended Student Professional Backgrounds: Engineers, technical staff, regu-
latory officials, and others who work in combustion-related areas of air
pollution control.
Support Materials and Equipment:
1. Slide projector
2. Slide set for Lesson 20
20-1
-------
Special Instructions: None
References:
1. Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollution Control, Chapters 2, 7, 13.
2. Edwards, J. B., Combustion — The Formation and Emission of Trace
Species, Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor, Michigan (1974).
3. "Control of Volatile Organic Emissions from Existing Stationary Sources,'
Vol. I, USEPA Report No. EPA-450/2-76-028 (Nov. 1976).
20-2
-------
SLIDE NUMBER
TITLE OF SLIDE'
427-20-1
427-20-2
427-20-3
427-20-4
427-20-5
427-20-6
427-20-7
427-20-8
427-20-9
427-20-10
427-20-11
427-20-12
427-20-13
427-20-14
LESSON 20; DIRECT FLAME AND CATALYTIC INCINERATION
CONTROL OF OBJECTIONABLE GASES AND VAPORS
COMBUSTION EQUIPMENT
DIRECT FLAME OXIDATION
COUPLED EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE AND TIME ON HYDROCARBON
OXIDATION RATE
TYPICAL THERMAL AFTERBURNER EFFECTIVENESS FOR HYDROCARBON
AND CARBON MONOXIDE MIXTURES
INDUCED DRAFT FUME INCINERATOR
DIRECT-FLAME AFTERBURNER
CATALYTIC AFTERBURNER SCHEMATIC
OXIDATION TEMPERATURE
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF CATALYTIC COMBUSTION
TYPICAL CATALYSTS AND THEIR SUPPORTS
LOSS OF CATALYST ACTIVITY
CATALYTIC INCINERATOR WITH RECYCLE AND HEAT ECONOMIZER
CERAMIC BED REGENERATIVE-TYPE INCINERATOR AND HEAT
RECOVERY SYSTEM
20-3
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
i ~~*. ,~ Titi*. Direct-Flame and
Lecture Title. catalytic Incineration
Page
NOTES
I. Introduction
A. State the goals and objectives of this lesson
B. Outline the need for controlling gaseous and aerosol
wastes
1. Precursors for atmospheric oxidants
2. Economics
C. Mention sources of emissions of volatile organic com-
pounds (VOC)
D. Discuss VOC control strategy:
1. Substitution of solvents
2. Process and material changes
3. Add-on control devices
E. Enumerate VOC control methods:
1. Absorption
2. Adsorption
3. Incineration
a. Thermal
b. Catalytic
4. Chemical conversion
F. Describe gaseous and aerosol waste incineration equip-
ment
II. Direct-Flame and Furnace Incineration
A. Consider the oxidation reaction
1. Gases at less than 25% LEL
2. Time-temperature relation
a. For hydrocarbons
b. For hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide mixtures
B. Discuss the use of existing process heaters
1. Requirements for use
C. Describe thermal incineration — afterburners
1. Typical design bases:
a. Temperature — 1,200-1,500°F
b. Time — 0.3 to 0.6 sec.
c. Mixing (turbulence)
2. Auxiliary fuel burner
a. Source of combustion air
(i) Waste gas
(ii) Fresh outside air
b. Fuel requirement
(i) Hypothetical available heat calculations
c. Mixing of combustion products with the waste gases
(i) Arrangement of burners
(ii) Baffles
(iii) Velocity for good mixing
3. Furnace chamber design parameters
a. Velocity of gases
b. Shape — L/D greater than 2
c. Material of construction
(i) Choice dictated by temperature
III. Catalytic Incineration
A. Present principles of operation
20-4
Slide 427-20-1
Slide 427-20-2
Slide 427-20-3
Slide 427-20-4 or
refer to Student
Manual, p. 13-17.
Slide 427-20-5 or
refer to Student
Manual, p. 13-18.
Slide 427-20-6
Slide 427-20-7 or
refer to Student
Manual, p. 13-8.
Slide 427-20-8 or
refer to Student
Manual, p. 13-28.
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427,
Lecture Title:
Combustion Evaluation
Direct-Flame and
Catalytic Incineration
Page—5_ of.
NOTES
1. Mechanisms of catalytic activity
a. Reaction at lower temperature
(i) Compare with furnace incinerators
(ii) Less auxiliary fuel
(iii) Less expensive materials of construction
B. Describe typical oxidation catalysts
1. Materials
2. Loss of catalytic activity from:
a. Poisons
b. Suppressants
c. Fouling
C. Discuss operational requirements
1. Typical equipment arrangement
2. Combustibles at less than 25% LEL
3. No particulates
4. Hot start-up to avoid carbon deposits
IV. Methods for Reducing Afterburner Operating Costs
A. Consider eliminating or reducing separate combustion
air intake
1. With waste containing 16% or more oxygen
2. Hypothetical available heat calculations
B. Mention the use of heat-recovery devices
1. Regenerative systems
2. Recuperative systems
3. Reported range of heat recovery
4. Actual energy savings
C. Discuss the burning of combustible waste liquids
D. Propose using incinerator exhaust as a source of heated
inert gas for dryers, etc.
Refer to Student
Manual, Chapter 2,
and Lesson No. 5.
Slides 427-20-9,
427-20-10.
Slide 427-20-11
Slide 427-20-12
Slide 427-20-13 or
refer to Student
Manual, p. 13-9.
Slide 427-20-14 or
refer to Student
Manual, p. 13-10.
Refer to Student
Manual, Attach-
ment 13-4, p. 13-11.
Refer to Student
Manual, p. 13-12.
20-5
-------
LESSON PLAN
TOPIC: Problem Session V:
Afterburner Design
COURSE: 427, Combustion Evaluation
LESSON TIME: 45 rain.
PREPARED BY: DATE:
L. U. Lilleleht Oct. 1978
Lesson Number: 21
Lesson Goal: To provide the students with experience in calculating the
auxiliary fuel requirements for an afterburner installation and to develop
an appreciation for the design bases and parameters.
Lesson Objectives: At the end of this lesson the student will be able to:
determine auxiliary fuel requirements with separate fresh combustion air
intake;
estimate the volumetric flow rate of gases through the afterburner at the
specified incineration temperature;
determine the dimensions of the afterburner to achieve the necessary level
of mixing and effluent residence time; and
perform the above calculations without fresh combustion air intake but
using instead the oxygen in the contaminated stream for combustion.
Student Prerequisite Skills: Course No. 427, Lessons 2, 3, 17, 19, 20
Level of Instruction: Undergraduate engineering or equivalent
Intended Student Professional Backgrounds: Engineers, technical staff, regu-
latory officials, and others who work in combustion-related areas of air
pollution control.
Support Materials and Equipment:
1. Blackboard and chalk or an overhead projector with transparency
material and pens.
2. Workbook for Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollution Control, Chapter V.
3. Hand-held calculator or slide rule.
Special Instructions: Assign Problem V.2 for homework.
21-1
-------
References:
1. Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollution Control, Chapters 2 and 13.
21-2
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title- Problem Session V:
Lecrure line. Afterburner Design
PRCrt*
Page—L_ of-J
NOTES
I. Introduction
A. State the goals and objectives of this lesson.
II. Problem V.I: Afterburner Design for Meat Smokehouse Effluent
A. Present the problem statement and solution (by instructor):
Consider a meat smokehouse discharging 1,000 scfm effluent
at 150°P, which needs to be treated to control a very
low concentration of pollutants at the parts-per-million
level. This could be accomplished by thermal incinera-
tion at 1,200°F for at least 0.3 seconds.
Determine;
1. The natural gas required for preheating the con-
taminated effluent to 1,200°F using all fresh
combustion air intake.
2. The afterburner throat diameter to give 20 ft/sec
throat velocity for good mixing.
3. The diameter and the length of the afterburner for
a minimum L/D ratio of 2 and afterburner chamber
velocity of 12 ft/sec.
B. Present the reasonable assumptions:
1. The amount of combustibles in effluent gases is
very low; there is no contribution to the heating
value due to their oxidation.
2. Effluent gases have the same thermal properties
as air.
3. Intake combustion air is available at 60°F.
C. Choose a basis for calculation.
D. Determine the mass flow rate of effluent
E. Estimate the heat required to raise effluent temperature
to 1,200°F.
F. Determine the amount of natural gas required.
G. Compute combustion products and effluent volume at
1,200°F.
H. Determine afterburner throat diameter.
I. Determine incinerator chamber diameter and length.
J. Check the residence time.
K. Discuss other design options:
1. Reduced auxiliary fuel by using oxygen from effluent
stream.
2. Heat recovery from clean afterburner effluent.
III. Outline procedure for calculating hypothetical available
heat.
IV. Problem V.2: Afterburner Design with Combustion Oxygen
from the Contaminated Effluent
A. Assign this problem for homework.
B. Present the problem statement:
Assume that the meat smokehouse effluent in Problem V.I
has also the same composition as air (21% by volume
oxygen) except for the minute concentration of con-
taminants. Repeat the calculations of Problem V.I,
but use the oxygen from the smokehouse effluent for
combustion of the auxiliary fuel as much as possible.
21-3
Refer to Student
Manual, Refer-
ence 7-1.
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course:
Lecture Title:
427, Combustion Evaluation
Problem Session V:
Afterburner Design
Page
NOTES
Determine;
1. The hypothetical available heat for this afterburner
application.
2. The natural gas requirements and the fraction of
combustion oxygen available from the effluent.
3. The afterburner dimensions as in Problem V.l-3.
State other assumptions: A mixing-plate type burner
(see Attachment 7-6 ) will be used in this application.
A ring baffle, which was used in Problem V.I, will
therefore not be necessary to obtain good mixing
between the auxiliary fuel combustion products and the
effluent to be incinerated.
Outline problem solution
1. Discuss choice of burner and type of afterburner
hardware
2. Describe how to determine auxiliary fuel require-
ments , including the calculation procedures to be
used for "hypothetical available heat."
3. Answers to Problem V.2 are to be confirmed during
the Homework Review period.
Refer to Student
Manual, Attach-
ment 7-6, p.7-22.
Refer to Student
Manual, Reference
7-1, and Student
Workbook, Chapter
V, Problem V.2.
21-4
-------
CHAPTER V
AFTERBURNER DESIGN PROBLEMS
PROBLEM V.I: Afterburner Design for Meat Smokehouse Effluent
Consider a meat smokehouse discharging 1,000 scfm effluent at 150°F,
which needs to be treated to control a very low concentration of pollu-
tants at the parts-per-million level. This could be accomplished by
thermal incineration at 1,200°F for at least 0.3 seconds. The follow-
ing are reasonable assumptions:
1. The amount of combustibles in effluent gases is very low;
there is no contribution to the heating value due to their
oxidation.
2. Effluent gases have the same thermal properties as air.
3- Intake combustion air is available at 60°F.
Determine:
1. The natural gas required for preheating the contaminated
effluent to 1,200°F using all fresh combustion air intake.
2. The afterburner throat diameter to give 20 ft/sec throat
velocity for good mixing.
3. The diameter and the length of the afterburner for a minimum
L/D ratio of 2 and afterburner chamber velocity of 12 ft/sec.
sfhema*ticT clean Flue Gases at 1»200°F
Waste Effluent
1,000 scfm
at 150°F
Natural Gas, Ggas
Combustion Air, G
at 60°F
(V-l)
21-5
-------
Solution to Problem V.I;
Choose as a basis for calculation:
1 hour operation
Part 1.
•
a. Calculate waste effluent flow rate, m (Ib/hr)
•
m = (volume flow rate) (density)
Since assumed effluent to have properties of air, density from Attach-
ment 2-1, p. 2-23 of the Student Manual.
m = (1,000 scfm) (0.0766 Ib/scf) (60 min/hr) = 4,600 Ib/hr
b. Calculate the heat required to increase the effluent waste stream
temperature from 150°F to 1,200°F, allowing for 10% loss (i.e., multiply
by 1.10):
Q = 1.10 m AH
Enthalpy difference, AH , obtained by using Attachment 2-7, 'p. 2-29
of the Student Manual:
Enthalpy of air at 1,200°F is: 288.5 Etu/lb
Enthalpy of air at 150°F is: 21.6 Btu/lb
Therefore, AH = 266.9 Btu/lb
Therefore,
Q = (1.10) (4,600 Ib/hr) (266.9 Btu/lb) = 1.35 x 106 Btu/hr.
(V-2)
21-6
-------
c. Available heat from natural qas, r>A (Btu/scf)
Assume: Gross heatinq value of natural gas * 1,0139 Btu/scf
Theoretical combustion air <= 10.0 scf air/scf gas
Combustion products = 11.1 scf/scf gas.
From Attachment 2-9, p. 2-31 of the Student Manual, obtain for 1,200°F
flue gas temperature:
QA = 690 Btu/scf
(This is the amount of heat remaining after the combustion products
from 1 scf of gas are raised to the afterburner temperature. This
heat is then available for heating the waste effluent to the same
afterburner temperature.)
d. Natural gas needed, GQas
= (1.35 x 106 BtuAr)/(690 Btu/scf gas) = 1,960 scf gas/hr.
Part 2.
a. Volume of combustion products at 1,200°F, Gp (ft3/sec):
Gp = (1,960 scf gas/hr)(11.0 scf prod/scf gas)(460 + 1,200,°R)/(460 + 60,°R)
= 68,800 ft3/hr = 19.1 ft3/sec.
b. Volume of waste effluent at 1,200°F, G£ (ft3/sec)
GE = (1,000 scfm)(460 + 1,200,°R)/(460 + 60,°R)
3,190 ft3/min = 53.2 ft3/sec.
c. Total volumetric flow of gases to the afterburner chamber through the
throat:
G = G + Gw = 19.1 + 53.2 = 72.3 ft3/sec.
tot P E
(V-3)
21-7
-------
2
d. Afterburner throat area Athroat = ^
Throat diameter d = (4Athroat/71^
Now the velocity through the throat is:
Vthroat = Gtot/Athroat
Combining Equations (A) and (B) above to eliminate the throat area
and solving for throat diameter, d :
4 Gtot
V vthroat
For required throat velocity of 20 ft/sec:
d = (4/ir) (72.3 ft3/sec) / (20 ft/sec) I
= 2.15 ft
Part 3.
Afterburner chamber velocity specified at 12 ft/sec. Thus chamber dia-
meter, D , obtained from Equation (C) above with V^hroat rePlaced bY
vchamber = I2 ft/sec
D = (4/7T) (72.3 ft3/sec) / (12 ft/sec)l = 2.77 ft
Length of afterburner chamber (L/D _>_ 2)
Minimum L = 2D = (2) (2.77) = 5.54 ft
Check residence time, t
t = L/Vchamber = (5.54 ft) / (12 ft/sec) = 0.46 sec
Since t = 0.46 sec is greater than the minimum required residence
time of 0.30 sec, the above design is satisfactory.
(V-4)
21-8
-------
Note: Natural gas requirements can be reduced by:
(i) heat recovery from clean gases to preheat incoming
waste effluent, and
(ii) using oxygen from the waste effluent stream for
combustion, thereby reducing primary air require-
ments for the auxiliary fuel.
This latter option is illustrated in Problem V.2.
(V-5)
21-9
-------
PROBLEM V.2: Afterburner Design with Combustion Oxygen from the
Contaminated Effluent
Assume that the meat smokehouse effluent in Problem V.I has also the
same composition as air (21% by volume oxygen) except for the minute
concentration of contaminants. Repeat the calculations of Problem V.I,
but use the oxygen from the smokehouse effluent for combustion of the
auxiliary fuel as much as possible.
Reasonable assumptions are: a mixing-plate type burner (see Attach-
ment 7-6) will be used in this application. A ring baffle, which was
used in Problem V.I, will therefore not be necessary to obtain good
irixing between the auxiliary fuel combustion products and the effluent
to be incinerated.
Determine;
1. The hypothetical available heat for this afterburner application.
2. The natural gas requirements and the fraction of combustion oxy-
gen available from the effluent.
3. The afterburner dimensions as in Problem V.l-3.
Solution to Problem V.2;
Preliminary Notes on Hypothetical Available Heat Calculations:
Let x = fraction of theoretical air for burning auxiliary fuel entering
through the burner (primary or fresh intake air)
1 - X = fraction of theoretical air from waste effluent
HE = heat content (enthalpy) of effluent at final temperature
Hj, = Cp AT = (0.24 Btu/lb-°F) (T-60, °F)
W = weight of combustion air from effluent
(i-x) pMr
(V-6)
21-10
-------
Heat content, Q , of that combustion air at final afterburner temperature
(1 - X) p H_
Since this amount of heat, Q, is no longer needed to heat up fresh intake
(primary) air, it will be available to heat the rest of the contaminated
effluent. Thus we have a "hypothetical" available heat, Ql :
A
QJ! = Q, + A»«_ (1 - X) p H_,
A A Th &
where QA obtained from sources such as Attachment 2-9, p. 2-31 of
the Student Manual
p = 0.0766 Ib air/scf
A_. = 10.0 scf air/scf natural gas burned (typically)
H_ = calculated from Equation (A)
For a natural gas with 1,059 Btu/scf gross heating value and the above
burning characteristics, the hypothetical available heat as a function
of the afterburner temperature is:
Afterburner Temperature Hypothetical Available Heat
°F Qa , Btu/scf gas
600 830 + 100 (1 - X)
800 785 + 136 (1 - X)
1,000 740 + 173 (1 - X)
1,200 690 + 210 (1 - X)
1,400 645 + 246 (1 - X)
1,600 600 + 283 (1 - X)
1,800 550 + 320 (1 - X)
(V-7)
21-11
-------
Part 1.
Assume first that no primary air is needed, i.e. X = 0, and all combustion
air comes from the waste effluent. This needs to be checked; if assump-
tion is not justified, adjust value of X and go through the calculations
again.
Hypothetical available heat for T = 1,200°F:
Q1 = 690 + 210 (1-0) = 900 Btu/scf gas
A
Part 2.
Auxiliary natural gas fuel needed
G = (Heat to raise effluent to 1,200°F)/Q^
= (1.35 x 106 Btu/hr)/( 900 Btu/scf gas)
= 1,500 scf gas/hr
Theoretical air needed to burn auxiliary gas :
Gair
.1>500 scf gas/hr) (10.0 scf air/scf gas)/ (60 min/hr)
250 scfm air.
Compare the above Ga^r with volumetric flow rate of waste effluent (which
is equivalent to air).
If Gair < Geffluent ' then assumed value of X justified and proceed
to next part.
If Gair > Geffluent ' then adjust X accordingly and repeat above
calculations.
(V-8)
21-12
-------
Part 3.
Auxiliary fuel combustion products at 1,200°F , G"
Gp = 8° ft) / (12 ft/sec> = °'4Q sec
> 0. 3; hence O.K.
(V-9)
21-13
-------
LESSON PLAN
TOPIC: coal Burning
COURSE: 427, Combustion Evaluation
LESSON TIME: 105 min.
PREPARED BY: DATE:
F. A. lachetta Aug. 1978
Lesson Number:
22
Lesson Goal: The goal of this lesson is to provide the student with state-of-
the-art information about coal combustion design and practice.
Lesson Objectives: At the end of this lesson the student will be able to:
describe the design characteristics and operating practice of coal-
burning equipment, including overfeed, underfeed, and spreader
stokers, as well as pulverized and cyclone furnaces;
discuss the parameters that influence the design of overfire and
underfire air (in systems which burn coal on grates) and for primary
and secondary air (in systems which burn coal in suspension);
describe the influence on the amount of volatile matter and fixed
carbon in the coal on its proper firing in a given furnace design;
and
describe how changing the ash content and the heating value of coal
can influence the combustion as well as the capacity of a specified
steam generator.
Student Prerequisite Skills: Course 427, Lessons 6, 9, 15, and 16.
Level of Instruction: Undergraduate engineering or equivalent.
Intended Student Professional Backgrounds: Engineers, technical staff, regu-
latory officials, and others who work in combustion-related areas of air
pollution control.
Support Materials and Equipment:
1. Slide projector
2. Slide set for Lesson 22.
22-1
-------
Special Instructions: None
References:
1. Combustion Evaluation in_Air Pollution Control, Chapter 9.
2. Steam, Its Generation and Use, 39th Edition, The Babcock and Wilcox
Company, 1978.
3. Field Surveillance and Enforcement Guide; Combustion and Incinera-
tion Sources, Environmental Protection Agency APTD-1449, June 1973.
4. "Overfire Air Technology for Tangentially Fired Utility Boilers
Burning Western U. S. Coal," EPA-600/7-77-117, IERL, Environmental Protec-
tion Agency (October 1977).
22-2
-------
SLIDE NUMBER TITLE OF SLIDE
LESSON 22; COAL BURNING
427-22-1 COAL RESERVES - BILLIONS OF TONS
427-22-2 COAL SOURCE DISTRIBUTION
427-22-3 COAL ANALYSIS
427-22-4 INFLUENCE OF FIXED CARBON AND VOLATILE MATTER ON FIRING
EQUIPMENT
427-22-5 CHAIN GRATE STOKER
427-22-6 VIBRATING GRATE STOKER
427-22-7 UNDERFEED SINGLE RETORT STOKER
427-22-8 SECTION THRU UNDERFEED STOKER
427-22-9 UNDULATING GRATE STOKER
427-22-10 PULVERIZED COAL BURNER
427-22-11 MULTIFUEL BURNER
427-22-12 SPREADER STOKER SCHEMATIC
427-22-13 SPREADER STOKER
427-22-14 CYCLONE FURNACE
427-22-15 PULVERIZED COAL-FIRED BOILER
427-22-16 CYCLONE FURNACE
427-22-17 BOILER WITH CYCLONE FURNACE
427-22-18 COMBUSTION AIR - THEORETICAL
427-22-19 COMBUSTION AIR - GIVEN ULTIMATE ANALYSIS
427-22-20 EFFECT OF COAL FIRING RATE AND SIZE CONSIST
427-22-21 EFFECT OF EXCESS AIR (FLUE GAS C02) ON COMBUSTION
EFFICIENCY
22-3
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title: coal Burning
£
Page-A—of—!
NOTES
I. Introduction
A. State the lesson objectives
B. Introduce Coal Rank
1. Note classification based on ASTM D-388
2. Point out that moisture is tabulated as natural coal-
seam moisture, not the moisture which may be absorbed
during handling
C. Mention the importance of coal resources and sulfur
content
1. Point out reserves are estimates which consider the
present technology and economics
2. Note coal reserves represent ten times the estimated
energy reserves o£ oil, gas, oil-shale, and nuclear
fuel.
D. Discuss the availability of bituminous coals in terms
of sulfur content and source.
1. Note that a modern coal-burning generating station
requires 3.5 to 5.0 million tons of coal per year
per 1,000 MWe, depending on whether Eastern or
Western coal is burned.
2. Point out a 1,000 MWe output requires between 93
and 1 40 coal car loads per day using modern 100- ton
cars.
3. Illustrate the air-land pollution interaction repre-
sented by ash.
II. Coal Properties and Their Influence on Furnace Design
A. Ultimate and proximate analysis
1. Remind students that ultimate analysis
is a mass basis chemical analysis
a. Point out ash contains all noncombustibles and
is usually composed of 50% or more of silica
b. Emphasize use of ultimate analysis to compute
air required.
2. Note the significance of proximate analysis in terms
of burning characteristics
a. Point out residence-time dependency on fixed
carbon
b. Explain the influence of volatile matter in the
design for air distribution because of volati-
lization
c. Discuss the fixed carbon/volatile matter influ-
ence on stoker overfire and underfire air
d. Outline the problems of a furnace which burns
coal having less heating value and higher mois-
ture content than assumed in the design.
e. Discuss the influence of moisture and volatile
matter on pulverizer operations.
B. Sulfur content
1. Note that SOx emission is directly attributable to
presence of sulfur in coal
2. Account for sulfur in bottom ash, noting about 95%
of sulfur usually appears in the stack gases as 502
3. Emphasize influence of sulfur on ash-fusion tempera-
ture
22-4
Refer to Student
Manual, p. 3-19.
Slide 427-22-1
Slide 427-22-2
Slide 427-22-3
Slide 427-22-4
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title: coal Burning
PageJ*. of.
NOTES
c.
4. Discuss coal's spontaneous ignition behavior and
the influence sulfur has on it.
Ash content and fusion temperature
1. Discuss the effect of ash content on the design of
underfire air supply to stoker-grate units
a. Point out bed-depth air-flow resistance
b. Note that continuous-discharge grate drives
require ash content to stay in a given range
2. Use emission factor information to illustrate par-
ticulate emissions as a function of ash
a. Note the effect of fly ash re-injection
b. Point out that the computation is based on the
% ash, e.g., 10% ash gives uncontrolled emission
from stokers
Refer to Student
Manual, p. 5-30.
13 x 10 = 130 Ibs/ton
3.
III.
Fusion temperature
a. Discuss range needed to avoid "clinkers" or slag.
b. Note the need to have a temperature high enough
to permit particle "freeze" while gas is entrained.
c. Outline the temperature-viscosity range required
for cyclone and wet-bottom furnaces.
Coal Firing Arrangements
A. Explain methods of stoking
1. Point out that the overfeed principle is essentially
the mechanization of a man shovelling coal over a
hearth onto a grate-supported fuel bed.
a. Note the variety of stokers using the overfeed
principle
(i) Chain or travelling grates
(ii) Vibrating grate
b. Discuss the use of sectionalized wind boxes under
the grates.
c. Point out need to vary underfire air pressure
from compartment to compartment
d. Describe the location of overfire air jets rela-
tive to "green" coal.
2. Discuss the underfeed-stoker operating principle
a. Note that the method requires little or no over-
fire air since volatiles must pass through the
burning bed
b. Illustrate the mechanical design provisions
to help deal with a high caking-index problem
3. Outline suspension burning principle: the combustion
of a highly fluidized solid
a. Note that high fixed carbon requires either longer
residence time or a finer grind of coal.
b. Explain air distribution noting the use of pri-
mary air to transport coal.
c. Point out there is an option to introduce secon-
dary air either at the burner or elsewhere.
22-5
Slide 427-22-5
Slide 427-22-6
Slide 427-22-7
Slide 427-22-8
Slide 427-22-9
Slide 427-22-10
Slide 427-22-11
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title: Coal Burning
Page.
of L
NOTES
d. Discuss the effects of ash content and wet
versus dry bottom on particulate emissions.
4. Describe spreader stoker as a way to combine the
suspension and overfeed principles
a. Note the influence of feed coal size consist
on dust loading
b. Point out the usual size: 1 to Ih inches
nut and slack, less than 20% fines with an ash
content of less than 10%
c. Give boiler steaming-capacity range up to
400,000 Ibs/hr
d. Note the use of either dump or continuous ash
discharge grates and problems with dump type
5. Discuss the cyclone furnace. Note it is a hori-
zontal, cylindrical, water-cooled furnace.
a. Note that coal is crushed so that 95% of it
passes through a No. 4 screen
b. Explain the conversion of coal to slag and pay
particular attention to the importance of ash
fusion temperatures
c. Point out lower particulate loading and higher
NOX relative to other coal burning units
Burner Location
1. Explain all grate-burning systems
2. Discuss various pulverizer arrangements, including:
a. Front-fired units
b. Front- and back-fired units
c. Corner-fired units
3. Compare cyclone furnace location with other burner
systems
4. Discuss load variations which can be tolerated by
different burning arrangements
a. Point out single pulverizer turn-down ratio may
be 3 or less
b. Note that spreader stokers tend to smoke when
operated at 25% of design or less.
Define volumetric energy release rate and discuss coal
feed rates for each type of feeder
1. Emphasize single underfeed stoker applications
usually are limited in size and produce 25,000 to
30,000 Ibs/hr steam generation
a. Note the need for ash fusion temperature above
2,400°F and minimal fines in the coal
b. Note the grate criteria of 400,000 Btu/ft2hr
with waterwall or 300,000 Btu/ft2hr if refractory
walls
2. Chain-grate stoker firing rate ranges from 300,000
to 500,000 Btu/ft2hr
a. Point out that the higher value applies to coal
having low ash (5 to 12%) and low moisture (less
than 10% moisture) and that the lower value
corresponds to 20% moisture, with 3 to 20% ash
22-6
Refer to Student
Manual, pg. 5-30.
Slide 427-22-12
Slide 427-22-13
Slide 427-22-14
Slide 427-22-15
illustrates a
front-fired unit
Slide 427-22-16
Slide 427-22-17
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title: Coal Burning
Page.
of.
NOTES
IV.
3. Discuss the influences of travelling or dump grates
on the firing rate for spreader stokers
a. 400,000 Btu/ft2hr maximum for dump grates and
up to 750,000 Btu/ft2hr for travelling grates
b. Note the value in either case assumes an ash
content of less than 10% and at least medium
volatile coal
c. Explain that a response-time advantage can be
gained by using a thin fuel bed (2-4 inches)
4. Point out the water-cooled grate feature of vibrat-
ing grates
a. Note the maximum release rate of 400,000 Btu/ft2hr
5. Discuss the differing criteria which give rise to a
fuel rate based on 450,000 to 800,000 Btu/hr ft3
in a cyclone furnace.
a. Remind students that a dry-basis ash content
between 6 and 25% is desirable
b. Indicate the need for low-sulfur coal
6. Discuss pulverized coal burner energy rates up to
165 x 10° Btu/hr
a. Point out the need for high volatility coal
b. Note dependence of fineness on ASTM fixed
carbon rank (70 to 80% passing 200 mesh screen
with fixed carbon 69 to 86% respectively)
Air Requirements and Distribution
A. Total combustion air
1. Show computation of stoichiometric air using equa-
tion 9.1, p. 9-6, Student Manual:
11.53C + 34.34
- I± ) + 4.29S
Slid* 427-22-18
This slide in-
cludes a sample
computation with
EA.
Slide 427-22-19
B.
a. Note that C, &%, O2, S are precent-by-weight of
these elements as given in the ultimate analysis.
b. Point out that the analysis used should be con-
verted to an "as fired" condition
c. Explain the (H2 - £l ) term is "free" hydrogen
8
and point out that this term assumes that all
the O2 in coal is combined with H2 to form water.
2. Note that the excess air is a percentage of the
stoichiometric air
Air distribution
1. Explain how air distribution depends on the burning
equipment and the coal rank
2. Describe overfire air versus undergrate air for
stoker units
a. Note the overfire air is usually provided by a
separate forced draft in the range of 20 to 30
inches of water column.
22-7
Refer to Student
Manual, p. 9-17
and 9-19 for
diagram of equip-
ment.
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluatio
Lecture Title: Coal Burning
PageJ* of.
NOTES
b. Point out that the usual place of introduction
coincides with where the "green" coal enters
the furnace.
c. Note that overfire air ranges from 5-15% with
the larger figure used with higher volatility
coals.
3. Describe the cyclone furnace air distribution indi-
cating the three distinct divisions:
a. Primary air is introduced into the radial burner
with coal, 20%.
b. Secondary air is introduced tangentially at
periphery of main barrel with a 300 fps velocity
c. Up to 5% can be admitted at the center of the
radial burner
d. Note that the total air includes from 10 to 15%
excess air.
4. Describe the air flow for pulverized-fired coal
nozzles.
a. Note that primary air, which also transports the
coal, is used at a rate of about 2 Ib air per
Ib of coal.
b. Note that the air velocity ranges from 4,000 to
5,000 fpm with a 3,000 fpm minimum.
c. Indicate that secondary air may be introduced
at the burner and can be as high as 600°F in
temperature.
d. Describe the need to operate the igniters con-
tinuously because of reduced furnace temperature,
wet coal, or when volatile matter is less than
25%.
V. Instrumentation and Operator Practices
A. Plant instrumentation
1. Note that the degree of sophistication depends at
least in part on plant size and function.
2. Point out that the basic instrumentation is designed
to assure safe, economic operation.
3. Describe instrumentation needed to provide measure-
ments of the following factors:
a. Air flow at various points
b. Fuel flow
c. Steam flow, where applicable
d. Gas flows, where applicable
e. Flue gas CO2 or O2 content
f. Smoke opacity meter
g. Forced air,induced air, and furnace draft
h. Overfire air pressure
B. Operator practices
1. Describe the use of flue gas CO2 or O2 meters as an
operator aid.
a. Note that the O2 meter is very useful if the
system burns multiple fuels
22-8
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title: Coal Burning
Page 9
NOTES
2. Point out the importance of ash content as a pre-
cursor of particulate emission.
3. Show that the size consist of coal supplied to
stokers can sharply influence dust loading.
4. Note the importance of not overloading a unit.
5. Show the efficiency benefit which results from
operating with minimum excess air.
6. Describe the importance of good maintenance in
limiting air infiltration.
Slide 427-22-20
Slide 427-22-21
22-9
-------
LESSON PLAN
TOPIC: Solid Waste and Wood Burning
COURSE: 427, Combustion Evaluation
LESSON TIME: 75 -i-
PREPARED BY: 75 mn- DATE:
F. A. lachetta
Aug. 1978
Lesson Number: 23
Lesson Goal: The goal of this lesson is to inform the student about the state-
of-the-art of solid waste and wood waste combustion and air pollution con-
trol.
Lesson Objectives: At the end of this lesson the student will be able to:
list the important similarities and differences in physical and chemical
properties of solid waste, wood waste, and coal;
describe the mechanical configurations required for complete combustion
of solid waste and wood waste and compare with those for burning
coal; and
describe the unique combustion characteristics and emissions from burn-
ing unprepared solid waste and refuse-derived fuel.
Student Prerequisite Skills: 427 Course, Lessons 6, 9, 15, 16, and 22.
Level of Instruction: Undergraduate engineering or equivalent
Intended Student Professional Backgrounds: Engineers, technical staff, regu-
latory officials, and others who work in combustion-related areas of air
pollution control.
Support Materials and Equipment:
1. Slide projector
2. Slide set for Lesson 23.
Special Instructions: None
References:
1. Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollution Control, Chapter 10.
23-1
-------
2. Adams, T. N., "Mechanisms of Particle Entrainment and Combustion and
How They Affect Emissions from Wood-Waste Fired Boilers," Proceedings of 1976
National Waste Processing Conference, ASME, pp. 175-184 (May 1976).
3. Shannon, L. J., Fiscus, D. E., and Gorman, P. G., "St. Louis Refuse
Processing Plant," Publication No. EPA-650/2-75-044.
4. Shannon, L. J., Shrag, M. P., Honea, F. I., and Bendersky, D., "St.
Louis/Union Electric Refuse Firing Demonstration Air Pollution Test Report,"
Publication No. EPA-650/2-74-073.
23-2
-------
SLIDE NUMBER TITLE OF SLIDE
LESSON 23; SOLID WASTE AND WOOD BURNING
427-23-1 AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF MUNICIPAL WASTE
427-23-2 AVERAGE ULTIMATE ANALYSIS
427-23-3 WASTE IN AN INCINERATOR STORAGE
427-23-4 HOG FUEL STORAGE PILE.
427-23-5 CLARIFIER SLUDGE
427-23-6 ULTIMATE ANALYSIS OF DRY HOGGED FUEL
427-23-7 SIZE AND MOISTURE CONTENT OF HOGGED FUEL COMPONENTS
427-23-8 HEATING VALUES OF BARK AND WOOD
427-23-9 HIGHER HEAT VALUE OF MUNICIPAL WASTE COMPONENTS
*
427-23-10 FLOW CHART - REFRACTORY WALL INCINERATOR
427-23-11 CHAIN GRATE
427-23-12 RECIPROCATING GRATES
427-23-13 REVERSE RECIPROCATING GRATE
427-23-14 WASTE-FIRED BOILER WITH BARREL GRATE
427-23-15 DIAGRAM OF AIR-SWEPT SPREADER STOKER NOZZLE
427-23-16 AIR-SWEPT SPREADER ON WOOD-FIRED BOILER
427-23-17 ENERGY RELEASE RATES - SOLID WASTE AND WOOD WASTES
427-23-18 HARRISBURG INCINERATOR
427-23-19 SOLID WASTE BOILER WITH RECIPROCATING GRATES
427-23-20 DUTCH OVEN FIRED BOILER
427-23-21 FUEL CELL FIRED WOOD WASTE BOILER
427-23-22 INCLINED GRATE WOOD WASTE BOILER
23-3
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title: Solid Waste and Wood Burning
Page 4 of—
NOTES
I. Introduction
A. State the lesson objectives
B. Announce that this lesson is primarily concerned with
the combustion of municipal solid waste and wood wastes.
Municipal incinerators (50 T/day or larger) and wood
fired boilers will be discussed.
1. Discuss the composition of municipal waste to
illustrate the variety of components.
a. Ultimate analysis of waste including required
air computations
b. Combustion characteristics of wood and municipal
solid wastes are similar because municipal waste
contains a high percentage of paper and wood
(approximately 45 - 50% as received).
c. After metals and glass are removed from municipal
waste, the analysis on a moisture-free basis is
very similar to wood waste
d. Non-flow characteristic of municipal waste
usually requires mechanically induced
tumbling.
e. Hogged fuel exhibits same non-flow characteris-
tic (note sheer face evident in Slide 427-23-4).
f. Pulp and paper plants include waste-water clari-
fier sludge in hogged fuel.
2. Discuss the similarities of the combustibility char-
acteristics of wood hogged fuel and solid waste.
a. Proximate analysis (moisture-free) emphasizes
the low ash, highly volatile characteristics of
wood.
b. Ultimate analysis indicates total carbon content
contrasts with low fixed carbon. The implication
is that the carbon is largely tied up in volatile
matter hydrocarbon.
c. Low ash content of wood and hogged fuels means
grates must be cooled by air or water when not
covered by a deep fuel bed. (Dutch oven designs
provide an example using a deep fuel bed.)
d. Fuel particle size distribution is important
because particles with diameters of 1 mm can be
entrained by furnace gases. Wood density is
usually 0.1 to 0.5 gm/cc.
e. Residence time in wood and waste boilers are in
the range of 2 to 4.5 seconds (compared to 1 to
2 seconds in coal-fired units). This residence
time is inadequate to assure burnout of larger
particles which are entrained (1).
f. Wood and wood waste heating values are similar
to those of municipal solid waste components.
II. Municipal Incinerators
A. Note that municipal incinerators have been designed pri-
marily to burn wastes as a means of disposal rather than
as energy recovery devices. This practice is changing
to take advantage of the favorable economics of energy
utilization.
Slide 427-23-1
Slide 427-23-2
Slide 427-23-3
Slide 427-23-4
Slide 427-23-5
Refer to Student
Manual, p. 3-23
Slide 427-23-6
Slide 427-23-7
Slide 427-23-8
Slide 427-23-9
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title: Solid Waste and Wood Burning
flags
Of_
NOTES
in.
B. Discuss why general design considerations do not now
result in a reasonably fixed "state of the art."
1. Present design features of refractory walled inci-
nerators with no energy recovery provisions:
a. Customarily with a primary and secondary combus-
tion chamber.
b. Sloping front and rear arches to provide radiant
energy transfer to the surface of the fuel on
the grates.
c. High excess air (300 to 400%) to hold tempera-
tures within a range tolerable for refractory
materials.
2. Describe batch-fired units which have a time variable
furnace temperature which can fluctuate between 1,000
and 2,OOOOF.
3. State that modern incinerators are designed to
recover energy.
a. Water-walled furnaces allow firing with 50%
excess air.
b. Continuous feed of combustibles is desirable
rather than batch feed.
4. Describe a variety of firing arrangements, each with
a particular means of agitating and tumbling wastes:
a. Chain-grate units adapted from coal burning
technology but not arranged in sections which
cause wastes to tumble.
b. Reciprocating grates which permit alternate rows
of grate segments to move. (Note use of air-
cooled walls.)
c. Reverse reciprocating grates are used to tumble
waste back up a gentle slope. Allows a width-
to-length ratio of 1:2, compared to a 2:1 value
for most other systems.
d. Barrel grates slowly tumble waste to move material
through the furnace.
e. Air-swept nozzles serve as spreader stokers to
distribute fuel over a travelling or dump-type
grate. Similar nozzles are employed in wood-
waste and hogged-fuel-fired boilers.
General Design Parameters for Solid Waste and Wood Waste-
Fired Boilers
A. Consider energy release rates.
1. Give grate-firing energy rates applicable to mass
burners.
a. 400,000 Btu/hr/ft2 for batch feeding
b. 300,000 Btu/hr/ft2 for continuous (moving) feed
grates
2. Present volumetric energy release rates (about
20,000 Btu/ft ) and residence time of 2 to 4 seconds
depending on feed mechamism.
B. Describe combustion air design parameters.
1. Refractory-walled furnaces require 200 to 400% excess
air.
23-5
Slide 427-23-10
Slide 427-23-11
Slide 427-23-12
Slide 427-23-13
Slide 427-23-14
Slide 427-23-15
Slide 427-23-16
Slide 427-23-17
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title: Solid Waste and Wood Burning
Page 6 of—
NOTES
IV.
a. Temperatures required are limited by refractory
wall material (usually calcium silicate brick).
b. Cast iron air-cooled wall sections reduce excess
air requirements to about 150%.
2. Note that the high volatile matter of wood or solid
waste requires a high percentage of over-fire air.
3. Describe the use of an arch close to the grate,
near the end, to ensure better burn-out; notice that
the drying zone requires the greatest under-fire air
pressure.
a. Note: Drying zone with low furnace arch arrange-
ment is evident in the Navy Yard boiler shown
in Slide 427-23-19. Low arch at the burn-out
end of grate is evident in the Harrisburg inci-
nerator, Slide 427-23-18. Harrisburg also uses
the reverse reciprocating grate shown earlier
in Slide 427-23-13.
4. Note that dutch oven furnace designs usually require
primary air supplies both under and over fire, with
additional secondary air added close to furnace
aperture.
5. Point out that fuel cell concept employed for wood
burning is essentially a modification of the primary-
secondary zone concept used in solid waste incinera-
tors
6. Note the use of inclined water-cooled grates to pro-
vide several improvements for fuel feed and vola-
tization:
a. Steepness of input region ensures flow; it assures
a relatively thin drying zone on an uncooled re-
fractory section.
b. Lesser slope near discharge provides for ash
accumulation, but also gives somewhat higher
temperature bed (thickness of ash insulates)
for better burn-out of larger material.
7. Notice air-swept spreader-stoker units closely re-
semble coal-fired boilers.
Consider co-firing prepared solid waste with other fuels
A. Describe the processing necessary to remove metal, glass,
and other non-combustibles.
1. Discuss the shredding operation.
2. Note the separation of a "light" and heavy fraction.
3. Describe various methods for storage including
prepared pellets or briquettes.
B. Discuss methods of firing
1. Describe suspension burning with coal or oil. (Note
energy input range of 10 to 20% of total)
2. Describe use of briquette-form waste fired with coal
in underfeed stokers.
3. Note the problems associated with firing pelletized
waste with coal on chain- or travelling-grate stokers.
4. Discuss co-firing systems where air-swept spreaders
fire waste as the main fuel; gas or oil may be used
as a secondary fuel.
23=6 __
Slide 427-23-18
Slide 427-23-19
Slide 427-23-20
Slide 427-23-21
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title: Solid Waste and Wood Burning
Page.
of
NOTES
C. Outline the problems which arise from co-firing waste
with coal in units originally designed only for coal.
1. Note the decreased precipitator efficiency.
2. Discuss the increase in total stack gas flow; this
is a probable cause for reduced ESP performance.
3. Note the detrimental corrosive effect of high
moisture stack gases, caused by high-moisture con-
tent of waste.
4. Note that alterations of stack gas (in response to
higher moisture) can be an adverse influence on ESP
performance.
5. Point out that the reduced marketability of fly-ash
is caused by large pieces of charred or unburned
trash remaining in it.
23-7
-------
LESSON PLAN
TOPIC: Problem Session VI:
Combustion System
Calculations
COURSE: 427, Combustion Evaluation
LESSON TIME: 60 min.
PREPARED BY: DATE:
J. T. Beard
Nov. 1978
Lesson Number:
24
Lesson Goal: The goal of this lesson is to provide the computational metho-
dology used in evaluating selected combustion system problems.
Lesson Objectives: At tne end of this lesson the student will be able to:
compute the rate of energy delivered to a boiler, superheater, or econo-
mizer;
compute the fuel requirements for a given combustion system;
compute the savings resulting from reduced flue gas losses which occur
when a combustion unit is modified to provide a reduction in the amount
of excess air.
Student Prerequisite Skills: Course 427, Lessons 6 through 23.
Level of Instruction: Undergraduate engineering or equivalent.
Intended Student Professional Backgrounds: Engineers, technical staff, regu-
latory officials, and others who work in combustion-related areas of air
pollution control.
Support Materials and Equipment:
1. Workbook for Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollution Control, Chapter VI.
2. Chalkboard
3. Hand-held calculator or slide rule
Special Instructions: Assist the students who have difficulty in working
Problem VI.1 on their own. Assign Problem VI.2 for homework.
References: Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollution Control
24-1
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title: Problem Session VI
Page.
of.
NOTES
I. Introduction
A. State the goals and objectives of this lesson
B. Goals are to be achieved by:
1. Students working problems independently
a. In class
b. Homework assignment
2. Discussion of solutions of problems
II. Methodology
A. Assign Problem VI.1: Fuel Requirements for Combustion
Installation, to be done by the individual students
during the class period.
B. Assign Problem VI.2: Combustion Improvement, to be
started during the class period and to be completed as
a homework assignment.
C. Assist individuals by answering questions regarding
solution techniques.
D. Answers to Problem VI.1 may be confirmed during the
class period; and answers to Problem VI. 2 are to be
confirmed in the Homework Review period.
24-2
-------
CHAPTER VI
COMBUSTION SYSTEM CALCULATIONS
PROBLEM VI.1: Fuel Requirements for Combustion Installation
A steam generator is rated at 400,000 Ibs of steam per hour. Steam (99%
dry) leaves the boiler at 1,500 psia pressure and enters a superheater.
Steam leaves the superheater at 1,400 psia pressure and a temperature
of 1,000°F. The feedwater for this unit enters the economizer at 300°F
and leaves at 400°F. The overall thermal efficiency of the steam genera-
tor is 74%. The energy and water losses associated with blowdown may be
neglected.
Compute;
1. The rate of energy delivered to the:
(a) economizer,
(b) boiler,
(c) superheater, and
(d) the total delivered
2. The fuel energy required, million Btu/hr
3. The fraction of the fuel energy which is absorbed in the
(a) economizer,
(b) boiler, and
(d) superheater.
(VI-1)
24-3
-------
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM FOR PROBLEM VI. 1
m = 400,000
s Ibs/hr
tx= 300 F
hx= 269.7 B/lb
<
H
2 (
Economizer
E
/
3,
t2= 400 F
h0= 375.1
^ B/lb
Boiler
B
p = 1,500
psia
t3=596.4F
X3= .99
(
Super -
Heater
S
/
3«
p = 1,400
psia
t4= 1,000 F
h.= 1,493.5
* B/lb
h3= 611.5 + 0.99(557.2)
= 1,163.1 B/lb
-------
Solution to Problem VI.1;
From the steam tables one may determine the enthalpy values of the feed-
water and steam:
Economizer inlet:
Economizer exit:
Boiler exit:
C2
P3
*3
300°F,
400°F,
269.7 Btu/lb
h2 = 375.1 Btu/lb
1,500 psia h3 = 611.5 + X (557.2)
596.39°F = 611.5 + .99 (557.2)
= 1163.1 Btu/lb
X - -99
Superheater exit: p4 = 1,400 psia h4 = 1493.5 Btu/lb
td - 1,000°F
1. Compute the energy delivered to each section using Equation 4.13
on p. 4-10 of the Student Manual.
a. Economizer:
QsE a ms
400,000 lb gteam ( 375.1 - 269.7 ) ^
nr ID
42 x 106 Btu/hr
b. Boiler:
QSB = ms (h3 "
400,000 "> steam (1,163.1 - 375.1 ) Sg.
. 315 x 10*
Btu/hr
c. Superheater:
ms (h4 - h3)
400,000 lb gteam (1,493.5- 1,163.1)
nr
132 x 106 Btu/hr
24-5
-------
d. Total:
= ( 42 x 106 ) + ( 315 x 106 ) + ( 132 x 10,6) Btu/hr
489 x 106 Btu/hr
2. The fuel energy input required may be determined using Equation
4.9 on p. 4-8 of the Student Manual.
Qs ( 489 x 106) Btu/hr
Q = ss
H n ( .74 )
= 661 x 106 Btu/hr
3. The fraction of the fuel energy which is absorbed:
a. Economizer:
2sE ( 42 x 106 )
—_ =i = . UbJ 3 6.3
QH (661 x io6 )
b. Boiler:
^B = ( 315 x 1Q6 ) m .477 = 47. 7 %
QH (661 x IO6 )
c . Superheater :
QH (661 x 106 )
(VI-4)
24-6
-------
PROBLEM VI.2: Combustion Improvement
Combustion modification of a boiler resulted in changing the excess air
as may be determined from the following Orsat analyses of the flue gas:
Gas Before Modification After Modification
C02 10.1% 15.0%
02 8.3 3.1
CO 0.1 0.0
The fuel fired was lignite coal which has the following analysis:
0.22% S, 6.39% 82, 37.37% C, 0.61% N2, and 44.99% O2. The heating value
is 6,010 Btu/lb and the proximate analysis is: 36.93% moisture, 24.92%
volatile matter, 27.72% fixed carbon, and 10.43% ash.
The unit operates 7.700 hr per year with an average load of 5.3 tons of
coal per hour with a fuel cost of 75$ per 106 Btu. Assume that before
and after the modification, flue gas temperature was 355°Fj the refuse
was 0.1062 Ib per Ib of coal; and the average combustion air was at
75°F.
Compute;
1. The excess air
(a) before the modification,
(b) after the modification.
2. The theoretical air required to burn a pound of the specified
coal.
3. The theoretical flue gas produced from firing a pound of coal.
4. The actual flue gas produced per pound of coal
(a) before the modification,
(b) after the modification.
5. The change in flue gas energy loss per pound of coal.
6. The value of the annual savings from reduced flue gas losses,
which occur because of the modification
(VI-5)
24-7
-------
Solution to Problem VI.2:
1. Compute excess air knowing that:
N2 = 100% - CO2% - 02% - CO%
a. Before modification:
N2 = 100% - ( 10.1 ) - ( 8.3 ) - ( 0.1 ) = 81.5 %
Determine %EA from Equation (1), p. 5-23 of the Student Manual;
( 02 ) - 0.5 (COp)
EA = =£ 2 x 100%
0.264 N2 - (O2p - 0.5 CO )
( 8.3 ) - 0.5 ( 0.1 )
0.264 ( 81.5 ) - ( 8.3 - 0.5 ( 0.1 ))
62.2 %
x 100%
b. After modification:
N2 - 100% - ( 15.0 ) - ( 3.1 ) - ( 0.0 )
81.9
(3.1 ) - 0.5 ( 0 )
EA - - : - 1 _ x 100%
0.264 ( 81.9 ) - ( 3.1 - 0.5 ( 0 ))
=16.7 4
2. The theoretical air required is found from Equation 4.1 on p. 4-4
of the Student Manual .
°2
A. = 11.53 C + 34.34 (H2 - —— ) + 4.29 S
t 8
= 11.53 (.3737) + 34.34 (.0639 - ( "4499 } ) + 4.29 ( .0022 )
8
= 4.58 Ib air/lb coal
———^—^————
24-8
-------
3. The theoretical flue gas per pound of coal fired may be obtained
from Equation 4.2 on p. 4-5 of the Student Manual, with mf » 1:
G = (mf - noncombustible) + mf Afc
» 1 - ( .1043) + 1 ( 4.58 )
" 5.48 ib gas/ Ib coal
4a. Before the modification the actual flue gas per pound of coal
was
EA (A) + G
= ( .622 ) x ( 4.58 ) + ( 5.48 )
3 8-33 ib gas/ Ib coal fired
4b. After the modification the actual flue gas was:
Gf - ( .167 ) x ( 4.58 ) + ( 5.48 )
- 6.24 Ib gas/ Ib coal fired
5. As it was stated that the average ambient and flue gas tempera-
tures did not change after the modification, the difference
in flue gas energy loss may be determined using Equation 4.12
on p. 4-8 of the Student Manual
Wf before ' Gf after* °P (tfg '
Btu
( 8.33 - 6.24 ) x (0.25 — --i-) x (355 - 75 )
146 _ Btu/lb coal fired
(VI-7)
24-9
-------
6. The value of the annual savings resulting from reduced flue
gas losses will be:
Annual = cost x Ag Btu x lb coal x time _hr_
savings Btu y lb coal r hr year
( 7,700)
$ 894 Q per year
(VI-8)
24-10
-------
LESSON PLAN
TOPIC: Controlled-Air Incinerators
COURSE: 427, Combustion Evaluation
LESSON TIME: 60 rain.
PREPARED BY: DATE:
J. T. Beard Aug. 1978
Lesson Number: 25
Lesson Goal: The goal of this lesson is to provide the student with informa-
tion about controlled-air incineration equipment and the influence of
operating parameters on air pollution emissions.
Lesson Objectives: At the end of this lesson the student will be able to:
describe the combustion principles and pollution emission characteristics
of controlled-air incinerators contrasted with those of single and
multiple-chamber designs;
identify operating features which may cause smoke emissions from
controlled-air incinerators; and
relate the temperature of gases leaving the afterburner to the amount
of auxiliary fuel needed by the afterburner.
Student Prerequisite Skills: Course 427, Lesson Number 23
Level of Instruction: Undergraduate engineering or equivalent
Intended Student Professional Backgrounds: Engineers, technical staff, regu-
latory officials, and others who work in combustion-related areas of air
pollution control.
Support Materials and Equipment:
1. Slide projector
2. Slide set for Lesson 25
Special Instructions: None
References:
1. Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollution Control, Chapter 11.
25-1
-------
2. Hoffman, Ross, "Evaluation of Small Modular Incinerators in Munici-
pal Plants, " Final Report of Contract No. 68-01-3171, Office
of Solid Waste Management, USEPA (1976).
3. "Interim Guide of Good Practice for Incineration at Federal Facilities,"
AP-46, National Air Pollution Control Administration, Public
Health Service, Raleigh, N.C. (November 1969) .
25-2
-------
SLIDE NUMBER
TITLE OF SLIDE
427-25-1
427-25-2
427-25-3
427-25-4
427-25-5
427-25-6
427-25-7
427-25-8
427-25-9
427-25-10
427-25-11
427-25-12
427-25-13
427-25-14
427-25-15
427-25-16
427-25-17
427-25-18
427-25-19
427-25-20
427-25-21
427-25-22
427-25-23
427-25-24
LESSON 25; CONTROLLED AIR INCINERATOR
AVERAGE EMISSION FACTORS FOR REFUSE COMBUSTION
FLUE FED SINGLE CHAMBER INCINERATOR
APARTMENT HOUSE INCINERATOR WITH SEPARATE STORAGE BIN
MULTIPLE-CHAMBER RETORT INCINERATOR
MULTIPLE-CHAMBER IN-LINE INCINERATOR
MULTIPLE-CHAMBER IN-LINE INCINERATOR
CONTROLLED AIR INCINERATOR
CONTROLLED PROPORTIONATE AIR DISTRIBUTION
AIR DELIVERY BLOWER
PRIMARY CHAMBER PRODUCES VOLATILE GASES
SECONDARY CHAMBER
TEMPERATURE CONTROLLER
RELATIVE SIZE OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CHAMBERS
FACTORY MANUFACTURED
MODULAR UNIT AT MUNICIPAL FACILITY
CHARGING OF AUTOMATIC FEED HOPPER
ASH REMOVAL DOORS
AUXILIARY FUEL BURNER
MULTIPLE AUXILIARY BURNERS FOR PRIMARY CHAMBER OF PATHOLO-
GICAL WASTE INCINERATOR
COMPACT WASTE CHARGE
CHARGING WITH OPEN DOOR
MODIFY CONTROLLER TEMPERATURE SETTING
DAMAGED REFRACTORY AND UNDERFIRE AIR PIPE
UNDERFIRE ATB fiTTPPT.V nPTTTCPg ,
25-3
-------
SLIDE NUMBER
TITLE OF SLIDE
427-25-25
427-25-26
INCINERATOR WITH STEAM GENERATION
INCINERATOR WITH CONTINUOUS FEED AND ASH REMOVAL
25-4
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title: Controlled-Air Incinerators
I. Introduction
A. State the lesson objectives
B. Describe briefly single-chamber incinerator design
features and emissions
1. Smoke, CO, HC, particulates
2. Single-chamber incinerators, banned 1957 in Los
Angeles
3. Flue-fed incinerator design modifications required
because of
a. Poor ability to control residence time (gas
velocities varied with burning rate and
natural draft)
b. Poor turbulence
c. Low combustion temperatures due to high excess
air
d. Flue-fed features causing poor control of
burning
e. Overloading incinerators by unskilled personnel
C. Describe design improvements and emissions of multiple-
chamber incinerators
1. Give examples of the emissions of multiple-chamber
incinerators
2. Design features
a. Gas speed and directional changes to aid tur-
bulence (consider both in-line and retort
designs)
b. Secondary air and auxiliary fuel burners to
improve combustion in the second chamber
(however, many units had secondary air tempera-
ture from only 650 to 900°F
c. Larger sizes and damper controls to provide
longer residence time (however air control was
still too erratic)
D. Summarize Los Angeles design standards of 1960
1. Control on geometry, loading rate, auxiliary fuel
2. Calculation procedure
a. Required temperature
b. Maximum velocities
E. Provide background information about federal incinerator
performance standards (1969)
1. Contrast performance standards with design standards
2. State the allowable emissions
3. Describe scrubber requirements
F. Discuss the greater control of incinerators required
with some State Implementation Plans
II. Controlled air incinerator characteristics
A. Discuss distinguishing features and give example values
1. Forced draft
2. Less than stoichiometric air in primary chamber
3. Volatilization with partial oxidation in primary
chamber
25-5
Slide 427-25-1
Slide 427-25-2
Slide 427-25-3
Slide 427-25-4
Slide 427-25-5
Slide 427-25-6
Slide 427-25-7
Slide 427-25-8
Slide 427-25-9
Slide 427-25-10
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 421, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title: Controlled-Air Incinerators
flage.
NOTES
Slide 427-25-13
a. Auxiliary burners assure minimum temperature
b. Low primary air rates, water sprays, con-
tinuous charging limit maximum temperature
c. Air distributed below the charge on the hearth
rather than through the grate
d. Fuel-bed agitation only during charging,
rather than continuous as with modern municipal
incinerators
4. Oxidation completed in secondary chamber, afterburner
a. Secondary air Slide 427-25-11
b. Temperature controlled by auxiliary burner Slide 427-25-12
c. Residence time
B. Give examples of various designs
1. Geometry and relative size
2. Starved air or controlled-air vs. multiple chamber features
C. Explain why particulate loading is lower than for
multiple-chamber units
1. Lower velocities in primary chamber (less entrain-
ment)
2. Better control of combustion
a. More uniform volatilization rate
b. More uniform velocities
c. Control of residence time
d. Higher combustion temperatures
III. Other design features
A. Cite examples of advantages for factory production
1. Design standardized for given model number
2. Modular features
a. Size below that of new source performance
standards (400 to 3,000 Ib/hr)
b. Multiple units for larger load requirements
c. Reliability of performance
B. Describe batch operation cycle and give example times
1. Full burning rate operation, 7 to 9 hrs.
a. Intermittent charging, 8 to 10 min.
2. Burn down requiring afterburners, 3 hrs.
3. Overnight cooling
4. Ash removal
a. Give examples of typical waste weight and
volume reduction
5. Preheating of refractory
6. Operation at full burning rate
C. Describe auxiliary fuel consumption Slide 427-25-18
1. Increases with moisture content of refuse
2. Pathological waste burning requirements Slide 427-25-19
a. Multiple auxiliary burners in primary zone
b. Continuous afterburner operation
IV. Particulate or smoke control
A. Give examples of emission performance
1. 0.03 to 0.08 grains/scf at 12% CO2
2. Varies with operation and design
25-6
Slide 427-25-14
Slide 427-25-15
Slide 427-25-16
Slide 427-25-17
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title: Controlled-Air Incinerators
NOTES
v.
B. State the causes of high emissions
1. Overloading unit (high air velocity in primary
chamber),
2. Reducing auxiliary fuel at afterburner (to cut
fuel costs)
3. Batch charging through open door which disturbs
air velocity control
4. Batch charging disturbs fuel bed
5. Charge consisting of compressed or packaged
materials, rather than loose materials
6. Variable moisture in charge
C. Describe the methods for reducing emissions
1. Modify charging technique
2. Install ram charging device and double-door inter-
lock features to avoid extra air inflow during
charging
3. Do not overcharge
4. Modify automatic controller temperature setting
for additional auxiliary fuel
5. Proper maintenance of burners, refractory walls,
and underfire air supply
6. May be abused if operated as excess air incinerator
with extra primary air blowers provided to increase
energy release:
a. Will cut afterburner fuel costs,but
b. Will increase smoke and particulates, and
c. Will increase maintenance costs somewhat
Other important features
A. Describe possible system economic advantages by providing
a waste heat boiler
1. Will substantially improve economics if
a. Waste stream is guaranteed
b. Purchaser available for total steam produced
B. Large units may provide continuous feed and continuous
ash removal features
1. Reduces thermal shock to refractory
2. Increases daily loading by providing 24-hour burn
period rather than 8- to 10-hour charge period
3. May require scrubber or other flue gas control
to meet new source performance standards for muni-
cipal incinerators (.08 grains/scf at 12% CO2)
Slide 427-25-20
Slide 427-25-21
Slide 427-25-22
Slide 427-25-23
Slide 427-25-24
Slide 427-25-25
Slide 427-25-26
25-7
-------
LESSON PLAN
TOPIC: Combustion of Hazardous
Wastes
COURSE: 427, Combustion Evaluation
LESSON TIME: 6o min.
PREPARED BY: DATE:
L. U. Lilleleht
Oct. 1978
Lesson Number: 26
Lesson Goals: To provide the student with an understanding of the special
requirements for the destruction of hazardous waste by combustion.
Lesson Objectives: At the end of this lesson, the student will be able to:
cite special requirements associated with the combustion of hazardous
liquid and solid wastes;
recite the special requirements for treating the combustion products to
control pollutant emissions from incineration operations;
list examples of substances and/or elements which cannot be controlled
by incineration;
describe the fuel requirements necessary to dispose hazardous waste
materials; and
list a number of hazardous waste materials (including polychlorinated
biphenyls — PCB's— pesticides, and some other halogenated organics)
which may be disposed of successfully through proper liquid incineration
devices; give the required temperatures and residence time to achieve
adequate destruction
Student Prerequisite Skills: Course 427, Lessons 5, 17, 20, 23, 24.
Level of Instruction: Undergraduate engineering or equivalent
Intended Student Professional Backgrounds: Engineers, technical staff, regu-
latory officials, and others who work in combustion-related areas of air
pollution control.
Support Materials and Equipment:
1. Slide projector
2. Slide set for Lesson 26.
26-1
-------
Special Instructions: None
References:
1. Combustion Evaluation in_ Air Pollution Control, Chapters 10, 11, 13, 15.
2. Scurlock, A. C., et al., "Incineration in Hazardous Waste Management,"
SW-141, USEPA (1975).
3. "Summation of Conditions and Investigations for the Complete Combus-
tion of Organic Pesticides," Report No. EPA-600/2-75-044 (October 1975).
26-2
-------
SLIDE NUMBER
427-26-1
427-26-2
427-26-3
427-26-4
427-26-5
427-26-6
TITLE OF SLIDE
LESSON 26: COMBUSTION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE
COMPARISON OF THERMAL DESTRUCTION OF PESTICIDES AND
PCB's
THERMAL DESTRUCTION ZONES FOR VARIOUS PESTICIDES
SUBMERGED-COMBUSTION INCINERATOR
KEPONE INCINERATION TEST SYSTEM
ROTARY KILN INCINERATOR
FLUIDIZED-BED INCINERATOR SCHEMATIC
26-3
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title: Combustion of Hazardous Waste
\
Page.
NOTES
I. Introduction
A. State the goals and objectives of this lesson.
B. Show the need for disposal of hazardous wastes.
C. Examine the advantages of disposal by incineration:
1. Combustion technology developed
2. Applicability to most organics
3. Heating value may be recoverable
4. Ability to handle large volumes
5. Large land area not required
D. Consider possible disadvantages
1. Costly and complicated equipment
2. Auxiliary energy often needed
3. Combustion products may be polluting
4. Solid residues may be toxic
II. General Incineration Criteria
A. Stress similarities to other incineration methods, but
that it must be more stringently controlled
1. There are no generally applicable rules at present
2. Limited knowledge of design details
B. Point out that for toxic materials:
1. Higher destruction efficiency required
a. 99.99% typically for pesticides
2. Much higher temperature and residence times required
a. Destruction starts at similar temperatures as
that for hydrocarbons
b. High degree of combustion completion requires
stringent operating conditions
C. Show the need to scrub (or treat) combustion product
gases.
D. Explain that organic products with dangerous heavy metals
should not be incinerated.
III. Equipment types being used
A. Present examples of equipment
1. Rotary kilns
2. Multiple-hearth incinerators
3. Liquid-injection incinerators
4. Fluidized beds
5. Molten-salt devices
6. Wet oxidation
7. Multiple-chamber incinerators
8. Gas combustors
9. Pyrolysis units
IV. Halogenated and Sulfonated Materials
A. Note that these materials should not be flared
B. Discuss hydrogen chloride (and other halide) emissions
1. When H to Cl ratio is greater than 5 to 1
2. Scrub with caustic
C. Consider the products of chlorinated hydrocarbon
1. With H to Cl ratio less than 5 to 1
2. Hard to remove
3. Add natural gas or steam to produce HC1 instead
D. Examine plastic waste-handling practices
26-4
Slide 427-26-2 or
refer to Student
Manual, p. 15-12.
Slide 427-26-1 or
refer to Student
Manual, p. 15-12.
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title: Combustion of Hazardous Wastes
NOTES
E. Evaluate control of pollutant emissions in the effluent
gas
1. Scrubbing of effluent
2. Submerged combustion incinerator
V. Pesticides and Toxic Wastes
A. Discuss detoxification by incineration
1. If toxicity is due to molecular structure rather than
elemental composition
2. More stringent temperature and residence-time require-
ments
B. Be on the lookout for toxic product gases
1. Cyanide from organonitrogen pesticides
2. Others
C. Consider more complex equipment
1. Careful siting considerations because there will
inevitably be emissions of small quantities of pes-
ticides or toxic products
VI. Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB's)
A. Remind students PCB' s are extremely stable and persistent
B. Note PCB incineration requires more drastic conditions
than most pesticides
VII. Propellants. Explosives, and Pyrotechnics (PEP)
A. State that incineration is the most acceptable disposal
method
B. Recommend dilution with inerts before feeding them to
the incinerator
C. Evaluate equipment used:
1. Rotary kilns and furnaces
2. Fluidized beds
D. Emphasize the need to control emissions
1. Very little is known about the type and quantities
of emissions
2. Little has been done to control emissions in the
past
Slide 427-26-3 or
refer to Student
Manual, p. 15-11.
Slide 427-26-2
Slide 427-26-4 or
refer to Student
Manual, p. 15-13.
Slide 427-26-5 or
refer to Student
Manual, p. 15-14.
Slide 427-26-6 or
refer to Student
Manual, p. 15-14.
26-5
-------
LESSON PLAN
TOPIC: NOX Control Theory
COURSE: 427, Combustion Evaluation
LESSON TIME: 60 min.
PREPARED BY: DATE:
J. T. Beard
Aug. 1978
Lesson Number: 27
Lesson Goal: The goal of this lesson is to provide the student with information
about the various mechanisms of formation and control of NOX and to provide
examples of the amounts of NO^ control available.
Lesson Objectives: At the end of this lesson the student will be able to:
identify three of the major stationary sources of NO emissions;
A
locate and use emission factors to estimate the amount of NOX emitted
from a potential combustion source;
describe the difference between mechanisms for forming "Thermal NOX"
and "Fuel NOX";
describe the various techniques for NOX control: flue-gas recirculation,
two-stage combustion, excess air control, catalytic dissociation, wet-
scrubbing, water injection, and reduced fuel burning rate; and
recall the amount of NOX control available from particular combustion
modification examples.
Student Prerequisite Skills: Course 427, Lessons 5, 6, 17, 18, and 22
Level of Instruction: Undergraduate engineering or equivalent
Intended Student Professional Backgrounds: Engineers, technical staff, regu-
latory officials, and others who work in combustion-related areas of air
pollution control.
Support Materials and Equipment:
1. Slide projector
2. Slide set for Lesson 27
Special Instructions: None
27-1
-------
References:
1. Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollution Control, Chapter 16.
2. Strauss, Werner, Air Pollution Control, Part I, Wiley Interscience,
New York (1971).
3. Wark, K., and Werner, C. F., Air Pollution, Its Origin and Control,
Harper and Row, Publishers, New York (1976).
4. "Control Techniques for Nitrogen Oxide Emissions from Stationary
Sources," Second Edition, EPA-450/1-78-001, U. S. Environmental Protection
Agency (Jan. 1978)- i
5. "Reference Guideline for Industrial Boiler Manufacturers to Control
Pollution with Combustion Modification," EPA-600/8-77-003b, Industrial Environ-
mental Research Laboratory, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (Jan. 1977).
27-2
-------
SLIDE NUMBER TITLE OF SLIDE
LESSON 27: NOX CONTROL THEORY
427-27-1 SUMMARY OF 1974 STATIONARY SOURCE NOV EMISSIONS
X
427-27-2 ANNUAL NATIONWIDE NOV EMISSION PROJECTIONS TO 2000
X
427-27-3 EXAMPLE OF TRANSIENT SMOG CONDITIONS IN LOS ANGELES, CA
427-27-4 EXAMPLE OF EXPERIMENTAL SMOG CHAMBER DATA
427-27-5 GENERALIZED PHOTOCHEMICAL REACTIONS
427-27-6 GENERALIZED PHOTOCHEMICAL REACTIONS (CONTINUED)
427-27-7 THERMAL NOV FORMATION: CLASSICAL CHEMICAL MODEL
X
427-27-8 THERMAL NOV FORMATION: SIMPLIFIED MODEL
A
427-27-9 THEORETICAL CURVES FOR NO CONCENTRATION VS. TEMPERATURE
427-27-10 EFFECT OF LOW EXCESS AIR, OIL FUEL
427-27-11 TWO-STAGE COMBUSTION
427-27-12 TWO-STAGE COMBUSTION, OIL FUEL
427-27-13 EFFECT OF BURNER STOICHIOMETRY ON NOV, COAL COMBUSTION
X
427-27-14 NOY REDUCTION BY FLUE GAS RECIRCULATION
X
427-27-15 EFFECT OF FGR ON NO EMISSIONS
427-27-16 EFFECTS OF NOV CONTROL METHODS
X
427-27-17 RANGE OF UNCONTROLLED UTILITY BOILER NOX EMISSIONS
427-27-18 EFFECT OF FIRING METHOD, OIL FUEL
427-27-19 NOX EMISSIONS WITH WATER INJECTION FOR NATURAL GAS-FIRED
GAS TURBINE
427-27-20 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON NO REDUCTION WITH AMMONIA INJECTION
27-3
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title: NOX Control Theory
Page.
of.
NOTES
I. Introduction to NOX
A. State the lesson objectives
B. Present the sources of NOX
1. Natural (volcanoes, forest fires)
2 . Vehicular
3 . Stationary
a. Utility boilers for electric power generation
(42%)
b. Internal combustion engines, diesel and spark
ignition engines, gas turbines, for petroleum,
electric power, agricultural, and general
industrial applications (22%)
c. Industrial boilers for heating and electrical
generation (18%)
d. Commercial and residential space heating (9%)
C. Describe NOX emission factors
1. Average values dependent upon
a. Fuel
b. Equipment design
D. Discuss concerns about NOX emissions
1. Potential growth
2 . Regulations
a. New Source Performance Standards
b. State and local standards
3. Relationship in smog formation
XI. Introduction to the Formation of NO
A. Explain the formation of nitrogen oxides
1. Primarily formed as NO
a. Define "Thermal N0»"
b. Define "Fuel NOx"
2. Oxidation of NO to NO2 in air
3. Other oxides of nitrogen (NoO, nitrous oxide i
N2O3, nitrogen trioxide; ana N2Q5» nitrogen pent-
oxide)
B. Explain "Thermal NOX" formation
1. Classical chemical model for NO formation
a. High temperature dissociation of O
20
b. Nitrogen reactions
Slide 427-27-1
See Student Manual,
Chapter 16,
Attachment 16-6
Slide 427-27-2
Slide 427-27-3
Slide 427-27-4
Slide 427-27-5
Slide 427-27-6
Slide 427-27-7
0 + N-,
•NO 4- N
N + 02 afrNO + 0
o. Simplified model
Slide 427-27-8
N
2ND
27-4
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title: NOX Control Theory
Page—5_0/_7_
NOTES
2. Model for rate of production of NO
= % (N2) (02) - KR (NO)2
a. Define symbols
b. Present temperature influences
c. Describe transient features of combustion
d. Describe and give example of equilibrium NO
concentrations
e. Explain how real combustion varies from equi-
librium
f. Explain the concepts of dissociation and cool
down "freezing" of NO
C. Explain "Fuel NOx" formation
1. Describe and give examples of chemically combined
nitrogen in fuel
a. Coal (e.g., 0.5 to 2.0%)
b. Fuel oil (e.g., 0.1 to 0.5% for No. 6 and around
0.01% for No. 2)
c. Natural gas contains nitrogen in uncombined form
2. Present factors influencing "Fuel NOX"
a. 10 to 60% fuel nitrogen becomes NO
b. Depends on oxygen available
c. Fuel-rich combustion, nitrogen becomes N2
d. Lean combustion, fuel nitrogen becomes NO
e. More NO with high-fuel volatility
f. More NO with intensive fuel/air mixing
III. NOX Control Theory
A. Present examples of control by fuel change
1. Change from high nitrogen No. 6 fuel oil to No. 2
2. Specify low-nitrogen-content No. 6 fuel oil
a. Nitrogen content influenced by refining processes,
blending, and crude stock.
3. Change from coal to oil or from oil to gas
a. Limited by furnace adaptability, fuel availability,
and costs.
b. More coal rather than less as boiler fuel
expected in the future
B. Introduce excess air reduction for NOX control
1. Effective for "Thermal NOX"
a. Less oxygen available limits oxidation of mole-
cular nitrogen
2. Effective for "Fuel NOX"
a. Less oxygen available causes tendency for fuel
nitrogen to form N2
3. Oil-fired unit example
a. Now larger units operate with 2 to 5% excess
air (.4 to 1% excess O2)
b. Previous values were 10 to 20% excess air (2 to
4% excess O2).
c. Reduced excess air limits conversion of SO2 to
SO3 (and the related dew point/corrosion problems)
27-5
Slide 427-27-9
Slide 427-27-10
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title: NOX Control Theory
'*)
Page _ §_0/_2_
NOTES
d. Low excess air operation, more difficult than in
coal combustion
Give example of two-stage combustion for NOX control
1. Initial combustion, fuel-rich
2. Energy extraction by heat exchange surfaces
3. Secondary air provides for full oxidation with over-
all excess air
4. May be accomplished by
a. Overfire air ports
b. Burner-out-of-service
c. Burner redesign to reduce swirl (turbulence/hot
spots)
Give examples of reduced combustion temperature for
NOX control
1. Limits the value of Kp, fowward reaction coefficient
(which essentially doubles for every 70°F increase
after 3,000°F)
2. Flue-gas recirculation
a. Rate of reaction reduced by introducing inert
flue gases (CC^, N2, ^O) into combustion zone
b. Reduced fuel rate implies reduced load
c. Inert gases act as heat sink, lower temperature
d. Thermal efficiency reduced unless adequate heat
exchange available
Give examples of influence of equipment design on NOX
emissions
1. Design influences
a. Fuel/air mixing
b. Proximity of flames to heat exchange surface
c. Operation of burner influenced by adjacent
burners
2. Give examples
a. Cyclone furnaces, largest uncontrolled NOX
emissions
b. Front wall (horizontal) and opposed wall furnaces,
somewhat less than from cyclone
c. Tangential-fired furnaces considerably less
emissions
Give example of influence of soot blowing frequency on
NOX emissions
1. Cleaner heat exchange surfaces
a. Higher heat transfer rate (less insulation by
deposits)
b. Lower combustion temperatures (due to more rapid
energy extraction)
Describe water injection into gas turbine for NOX control
1. Acts as heat sink
2. Reduces "Thermal NOX"
3. Effective with water-to-fuel-mass ratios up to 1.2
Describe flue gas treatment for NOX control
27-6
Slide 427-27-11
Slide 427-27-12
Slide 427-27-13
Slide 427-27-14
Slide 427-27-15
Slide 427-27-16
Slide 427-27-17
Slide 427-27-18
Slide 427-27-19
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title: NOX Control Theory
Page 7 of J-
NOTES
Dry flue-gas method widely used in Japan
a. Effective for oil and gas combustion
Ammonia injection creates reducing atmosphere
b.
c.
d.
e.
Flue-gas temperatures 100 to 700 F
3.
Catalyst required
Research is underway to apply this technique to
particulate and S02 laden gas streams
Dry method for higher temperature gases
a. Ammonia injected as combustion gases reach con-
vection zone of utility boiler
b. Gas temperatures around 1,300°F
c. Up to 60% NOjj reduction demonstrated
Wet flue-gas treatment used in Japan
Strong oxidant required (ozone or chlorine dioxide)
Converts NO to NO2 or N2O
Scrubbers absorb NO2 or N2O
Slide 427-27-20
Scrubbers operate at 100 to 120 F
Expensive technique (ozone, chlorine dioxide
production, disposal of discharges)
f. May be useful for combined NOX, SOX, particulate
control
Give examples of fluidized bed combustion units which
produce low NO^
1. Solid waste and sewage sludge incineration
2. Hog fuel combustion
3. Coal-fired utility boiler, 30 MW electricity
(Monongahela Power Co., Rivesville, West Virginia)
4. Coal-fired industrial boiler, 100,000 Ib steam/hr
(Georgetown University, Alexandria, Virginia)
27-7
-------
LESSON PLAN
TOPIC: improved Performance by
Combustion Modifications
COURSE: 427, Combustion Evaluation
LESSON TIME: 60 min.
PREPARED BY: DATE:
J. T. Beard
Aug. 1978
Lesson Number:
28
Lesson Goal: The goal of this lesson is to provide the student with an introduc-
tion of the state of the art combustion modification techniques which are
useful in reducing air pollutant emissions.
Lesson Objectives: At the end of this lesson the student will be able to:
state the benefits of proper maintenance and adjustment of residential
oil combustion units;
list three important features to check during the maintenance of
commercial oil-fired burners;
discuss the difference between "minimum 02" and "lowest practical 02"
and why these are important in industrial boilers;
list two reasons why a burner may have a higher "minimum 02" level than
the typical value and describe what remedies may be available;
indicate the effect on thermal efficiency of the combustion modifica-
tion techniques: lowering excess air, staged air combustion, reduced
combustion air preheat, and flue gas recirculation; and
discuss why NOy control from coal-fired utility boilers is more difficult
than from similar oil or gas units.
Student Prerequisite Skills: 427 Course, Lessons No. 17, 18, 22, and 27
Level of Instruction: Undergraduate engineering or equivalent
Intended Student Professional Backgrounds: Engineers, technical staff, regu-
latory officials, and others who work in combustion-related areas of air
pollution control.
Support Materials and Equipment:
1. Slide Projector
2. Slide set for Lesson 28
28-1
-------
Special Instructions: None
References:
1. Combustion Evaluation ir^ Air Pollution Control, Chapter 17.
2. "Guidelines for Residential Oil-Burner Adjustments," Report No. EPA-600/
2-75-069-a, Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory, USEPA (Oct. 1975).
3. "Guidelines for Burner Adjustments for Commercial Oil-Fired Boilers,"
Report No. EPA-600/2-76-008, Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory,
USEPA (March 1976).
4. "Guidelines for Industrial Boiler Performance Improvement," Report No.
EPA-600/8/77-003a, Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory, USEPA (Jan.
1977).
5. "Reference Guideline for Industrial Boiler Manufacturers to Control
Pollution with Combustion Modification," Report No. EPA-600/8-77-003b, Indus-
trial Environmental Research Laboratory. USEPA (Nov. 1977).
6. "Control Techniques for Nitrogen Oxides Emissions from Stationary
Sources," Second Edition, Report No. EPA-450/1-78-001, Office of Air Quality
Planning and Standards, USEPA (Jan. 1978).
28-2
-------
SLIDE NUMBER TITLE OF SLIDE
LESSON 28; IMPROVED PERFORMANCE BY COMBUSTION MODIFICATION
427-28-1 SMOKE-C02 PLOT FOR RESIDENTIAL OIL BURNERS
427-28-2 "LOWEST PRACTICAL C02", RESIDENTIAL BURNERS
427-28-3 EFFECT OF STACK TEMPERATURE AND C02 ON THERMAL EFFICIENCY
427-28-4 USUAL RANGE OF VISCOSITY FOR OIL FIRING
427-28-5 SMOKE-C02 CURVE FOR COMMERCIAL RESIDUAL OIL FIRED BURNER
427-28-6 MAXIMUM DESIRABLE BACHARACH SMOKE NUMBER
427-28-7 PERCENT C02 IN FLUE GAS AS FUNCTION OF EXCESS AIR
427-28-8 BOILER EFFICIENCY LOSS CHANGE WITH EXCESS 02
427-28-9 SMOKE-02 CURVE FOR COAL OR OIL-FIRED INDUSTRIAL BOILER
427-28-10 C0-02 CURVE FOR GAS-FIRED INDUSTRIAL BOILER
427-28-11 EFFECT OF EXCESS 00 ON NOY EMISSIONS
£m A
427-28-12 TYPICAL RANGE OF MINIMUM EXCESS 02 AT HIGH FIRING RATES
427-28-13 EFFECT OF REDUCING THE EXCESS AIR ON BOILER EFFICIENCY
427-28-14 STAGED AIR EXPERIMENTAL WATER TUBE BOILER, TOP VIEW..
427-28-15 STAGED AIR EXPERIMENTAL WATER TUBE BOILER, SIDE VIEW
427-28-16 REDUCTION OF TOTAL NOV BY STAGED AIR WITH NATURAL GAS FUEL
A
427-28-17 REDUCTION OF TOTAL NO BY STAGED AIR WITH NO. 6 FUEL OIL
X
427-28-18 EFFECT OF NOV PORTS ON BOILER EFFICIENCY
A
427-28-19 EFFECT OF COMBUSTION AIR TEMPERATURE ON NOX WITH OIL AND GAS
427-28-20 INFLUENCE OF AIR PREHEAT ON NOV
A
427-28-21 EFFECT OF COMBUSTION AIR PREHEAT ON BOILER EFFICIENCY
28-3
-------
SLIDE NUMBER TITLE OF SLIDE
427-28-22 REDUCTION IN NOV BY FLUE GAS RECIRCULATION
X.
427-28-23 NOV FROM GAS, TANGENTIALLY-FIRED UTILITY BOILERS
A.
427-28-24 EFFECTS OF NOV CONTROL METHODS ON A GAS, WALL-FIRED UTILITY
A.
BOILER
427-28-25 EFFECT OF NOV CONTROL METHODS ON AN OIL, WALL-FIRED UTILITY
A.
BOILER
427-28-26 NOV FROM RESIDUAL OIL, TANGENTIALLY-FIRED UTILITY BOILERS
X
427-28-27 EFFECT OF BURNER STOICHIOMETRY ON NOV IN TANGENTIAL, COAL-
X
FIRED BOILERS
28-4
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title: In»Pr°yed Performance by
Combustion Modification
I. Introduction
A. State the lesson objectives
B. Review the changing emphasis of preventive
maintenance for combustion equipment
1. Prior to mid-1960's
2. Influence of air pollution regulation changes in
early 1970's
3. Changes due to the "energy crisis of 1973"
II. Residential oil-burner
A. Introduce the need for maintenance and adjustments
1. Improve overall thermal efficiency and
2. Minimize smoke, particulate, CO, and hydrocarbon
emissions
B. Discuss annual maintenance by a skilled technician
1. Recommend annual replacement of nozzle
a. Slight wear of soft brass nozzle causes change
of spray pattern
b. Deposits of foreign materials cause drop size
and spray pattern changes
c. Oversizing causes short cycling, lower thermal
efficiency, higher pollutant emissions
2. Clean dirt and lint from burner blast tube, from
housing, and blower wheel
3. Seal any combustion chamber air leaks
4. Adjust electrodes for proper ignition
5. Check pump pressure and reset to manufacturer's
specification if necessary
C. Describe features of EPA recommended air adjustments
1. Use proper instruments
a. Bacharach smoke tester
b. Orsat or Fyrite apparatus for CC-2 measurements
c. Draft guage to set barometric draft regulator
2. Establish and examine a smoke-C02 plot for a
given unit
a. Readings at various air gate settings
b. Locate the "knee" of the curve
c. Adjust air setting for a C02 level 1/2 to 1%
lower than the CO2 level of the "knee"
3. Compare results with the standards
a. The smoke level not greater than No. 2
b. CC-2 level not less than the table value
c. Deviation can be caused by air leakage or poor
air/fuel mixing
4. Measure stack temperature
a. Compute the net stack temperature
(1) Thermometer reading minus room air tempera-
ture
b. Compare with recommendations
(1) Should not exceed 400 to 600°F for matched-
package units or 600 to 700°F for conversion
burners
(2) Excessive firing generates too much energy
for heat exchanger, poor efficiency
28-5
Page.
of.
NOTES
Slide 427-28-1
Slide 427-28-2
Slide 427-28-3
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427,
Lecture Title:
Combustion Evaluation
Improved Performance by
Combustion Modification
Page—& of.
NOTES
III. Commercial oil-fired boiler
A. Recommend maintenance by skilled technician:
1. Clean heat transfer surfaces, flue passages, and
burner. Seal any air leaks.
2. Confirm that the nozzle is recommended by manufac-
turer .
3. Confirm that the oil fired is suitable.
4. Check manufacturer's recommended oil temperature
or viscosity range
B. Discuss EPA air adjustment technique
1. Similarity to recommendations for residential units
2. Establish smoke-CC>2 plot at maximum firing rate
3. Adjust air setting for CO2 about '5% lower than
knee value
4. Compare results with standards
a. Smoke level below "maximum desirable"
b. CO2 level at 12% or higher
c. Differences caused by poor atomization or fuel-air
mixing
5. Special adjustments for modulating burners
a. Apply above at low-firing and intermediate firing
b. Optimum air setting at low-firing has lower CO2
than at high-firing
6. For gas firing
a. CC>2 level will be lower
b. Check CO reading
c. Set to be below 400 ppm
7. Check stack temperature
IV. Industrial boiler adjustments
A. Describe how proper maintenance and adjustment for lowest
practical excess oxygen can achieve
1. Reduced NOx emissions and
2. Improved overall thermal efficiency
a. As excess oxygen reduced in coal and oil-fired
industrial units, "smoke limit" or "minimum O2
level" is reached
b. As excess oxygen reduced on a natural gas-fired
unit, a "CO limit" or "minimum O2 level" is
reached (400 ppm CO)
B. Describe that lowest practical excess oxygen is greater
than the minimum excess oxygen to accommodate:
1. Rapid burner modulation
2. "Play" in automatic controls
3. Variation in ambient conditions (mainly atmospheric
pressure, if boiler room provides constant tempera-
ture and shielding from ambient wind), and
4. Variation in fuel properties
C. Review NOX control through reducing excess air
1. NOX from coal combustion is very sensitive to excess
oxygen
2. NOx from fuel oil combustion is sensitive to excess
oxygen, and
28-6
Slide 427-28-4
Slide 427-28-5
Slide 427-28-6
Slide 427-28-7
Slide 427-28-8
Slide 427-28-9
Slide 427-28-10
Slide 427-28-11
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Tit la • Improved Performance by
Title.
combustion Modification
Page-I of.
NOTES
3. NOjj from natural gas combustion is lower than from oil
or coal and is less sensitive to excess oxygen
4. Fuel NOy is very sensitive to excess air (example:
coal and fuel oil units)
5. Thermal NOX is not always reduced with less excess
air (example: NOX from natural gas units may increase
with decreased excess air)
D. Describe features of the EPA step-by-step boiler adjust-
ment procedure
1. Differences between this procedure and those
for residential and commercial units
a. Sophistication of combustion control and safety
on industrial units
b. Instrumentation (continuous monitors for excess
02 or CO2, CO, NOx, opacity, and stack tempera-
ture) ,
c. Importance of sampling site for representative
measurement and
d. Boiler load characteristics requiring
siderable burner modulation
2. Compare "minimum 02" level With
typical values
a. Too high a minimum value results from burner
malfunctions or other fuel or equipment-related
problems and
b. Many burners exhibit higher "minimum 02" at lower
firing rates
3. Thermal efficiency is increased
a. Care should be exercised to avoid CO, hydrocarbon,
and smoke
V. Industrial boiler design changes
A. Manufacturer may adopt design modifications for NC^ con-
trol which will provide
1. Lowering of excess air and improved boiler efficiency
2. Staged combustion with lower boiler efficiency
3. Reduced combustion air preheat temperature with
reduced boiler efficiency
4. Flue gas recirculation with a small degradation in
efficiency
B. Give an example of the influence of staged combustion
(from 40,000 Ib/hr water-tube boiler)l
1. Special secondary overfire air ports (NOx ports)
2. Burners operated with less than stoichiometric
air (e.g., 95%)
3. Location and air velocity of NOx ports important
for maximum NOx control
4. Thermal efficiency reduced usually
C. Give examples of reduced combustion air preheat temperature
(three boilers using natural gas or No. 6 fuel oil) which is
1. Effective NOX control for gas and oil
2. Not effective for NOX control in coal-firing (unless
high excess air is required)
28-7
Slide 427-28-12
Slide 427-28-13
Slide 427-28-14,
Slide 427-28-16
Slide 427-28-17
Slide 427-28-18
Slide 427-28-19
Slide 427-28-20
15
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427,
Lecture Title:
Combustion Evaluation
Improved Performance by
Combustion Modification
Page-*—of.
NOTES
3. Typically lower thermal efficiency since flue gas
temperatures increase when air preheaters not used
D. Give an example of flue gas recirculation (FGR)
1- An effective technique for NOX control, particularly
for natural gas fuel
2. Effect depends on the percent of flue gas recir-
culated
3. Delivered with the primary air, the secondary air,
or the total air, appear
combustion equipment
4. May not be the cost-effect method of NOX
control
VI. Utility boilers
A. Emphasize that NOx control effectiveness varies with
1. Furnace characteristics (size, shape, and operational
flexibility)
2. Fuel/air handling systems and automatic controls
3. Operational problems resulting from combustion modi-
fication
a. Emission of other pollutants (CO, smoke, carbon
in flyash)
b. Onset of slagging and fouling
c. Incipience of flame stability
B. Describe combustion modification examples for gas-fired
utility boilers
1. Produce only thermal NOx, the easiest to control by
combustion modification
2. Low excess air, routinely used in gas-fired utility
boilers for NOX control whose
a. Reduction depends on furnace design and firing
method
b. Flame stability is not a serious problem
c. Slight increase in thermal efficiency is generally
noted
3. Flue gas recirculation (up to 20%) produces sub-
stantial NOX control (20 to 60%)
4. Overfire air, biased firing, burners-out-of-service are
effective techniques for achieving NOX control by
off-stoichiometric combustion
5. Larger units produce more NOX because of higher com-
bustion temperature
C. Describe combustion modification examples for oil-fired
utility boilers using
1. Fuel NOX, important part of the total NOX
2. Low excess air, routine in oil-fired burners
for NOX control
3. Overfire air ports, an accepted technique for providing
two-stage combustion in wall-fired units
4. Burners-out-of-service in the upper part of the
firing pattern, used for NOX control in wall and
tangentially fired oil units ,
28-8
Slide 427-28-21
Slide 427-28-22
Slide 427-28-23
Slide 427-28-24
Slide 427-28-25
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
/ f>rtnrt> Title • Improved Performance by
Lecture line. Combustion Modification
_9_ Of.
NOTES
5. Two-stage combustion with flue-gas recirculation
a. Gives NOX reductions of 40 to 60%, but
b. May require de-rating to be successful
6. Larger units do not appear to produce more NOx
(fuel NOX rather than thermal NOX in oil-fired
units)
7. Flame stability problems occur with flue-gas recir-
culation (higher burner velocities)
8. Boiler cleanliness problems (deposits in the radiant
section) can increase NOX by 50 ppm
Describe combustion modification examples for coal-fired
utility boilers whose
1. Fuel-bound nitrogen accounts for up to 80% of the
NOx from burning coal '
2. Wall-fired burners obtain reduced NOX through modi-
fications such as
Low excess air
Staged firing
Load reduction
Flue-gas recirculation, which is much less effec-
tive with coal-firing than with oil or gas
Tangentially-fired boilers emit less NOx tnan wall~
fired boilers with
a. Off-stoichiometric firing, effective for NOx con~
trol
b. Fuel-rich burner conditions which can produce ex-
cessive smoke and CO and flame instability
Flue-gas treatment may be a potential NOx control
technique for coal combustion in the future
NOTE: These techniques were discussed in Lesson 27.
Slide 427-28-26
a.
b.
c.
d.
Slide 427-28-27
28-9
-------
LESSON PLAN
TOPIC: waste Gas Flares
COURSE: 427, Combustion Evaluation
lr!_S_S°N__TIME: 60 mln.
PREPARED BY
F. A. lachetta
DATE:
Aug. 1978
PRO!
Lesson Number:
29
Lesson Goal: The goal of this lesson is to provide the student with engineer-
ing information on the application of flares to control hydrocarbon and
toxic gaseous emissions.
Lesson Objectives: At the end of this lesson the student will be able to:
calculate the carbon-to-hydrogen ratio of a waste gas stream and deter-
mine when and how much steam will be required for smokeless flare operation;
understand the difference between elevated and ground-level flares and
the design considerations which underlie the choice of one or the other;
and
describe provisions for leveling waste gas flow rates from intermittent
sources.
Student Prerequisite Skills: Course 427, Lessons 3, 5, and 7.
Level of Instruction: Undergraduate engineering or equivalent
Intended Student Professional Backgrounds: Engineers, technical staff, regu-
latory officials, and others who work in combustion-related areas of air
pollution control.
Support Materials and Equipment:
1. Slide projector
2. Slide set for Lesson 29.
Special Instructions: Optional Topic 1
References:
1. Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollution Control, Chapter 14.
29-1
-------
SLIDE NUMBER TITLE OF SLIDE
LESSON 29; WASTE GAS FLARES
427-29-1 GAS PROPERTIES RE-FLARING
427-29-2 GAS PROPERTIES RE-FLARING
427-29-3 SMOKE TENDENCIES, ACETYLENE
427-29-4 SMOKE TENDENCIES, PROPANE
427-29-5 SMOKE TENDENCIES, ETHANE
427-29-6 SMOKE TENDENCIES, H/C >_ 0.28
427-29-7 WATER-GAS REACTIONS
427-29-8 STEAM REQUIREMENTS FOR SMOKELESS FLARE
427-29-9 JOHN ZINK SMOKELESS FLARE TIP
427-29-10 CROSS SECTION OF A SMOKELESS FLARE BURNER
427-29-11 FLARE TIP WITH INTERNAL STEAM INJECTION
427-29-12 SINCLAIR FLARE BURNER
427-29-13 ESSO TYPE BURNER
427-29-14 MULTISTREAM-JET BURNER
427-29-15 MULTIJET-GROUND FLARE
427-29-16 VENTURI-TYPE FLARE
427-29-17 WATER SPRAY TYPE GROUND FLARE
427-29-18 NUMBER OF PILOTS REQUIRED
29-2
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title: Waste Gas Flares
I. Introduction
A. State lesson objectives
B. Discuss the general background of flare combustion as
an air quality control method
1. Flares are used to dispose of waste gases
2. Gases which may be flared:
a. Need concentrations greater than the L.F.L.
b. Particulates can be dangerous; discuss why and
how
II. Various Flare Designs
A. Describe the types of flares
1. Pit type, usually not desirable
2. Ground-level flares
a. These are usually limited to lower molecular
weight gases
b. There is a need for thermal radiation shielding,-
describe it
c. Operational features, such as relatively easier
maintenance and less visibility can be had with
some flare designs
3. Elevated flares are used with heavier molecular
weight gases
a. The elevated flare also is used when combustion
products are relatively undesirable
b. Flare elevation reduces or eliminates the need
for thermal radiation shielding— an economic
advantage
4. The use of water-surge tanks to dampen flow fluc-
tuations
B. Describe flare combustion characteristics
1. The importance of the H/C ratio for smokeless opera-
tion should be emphasized
a. H/C > 0.28 requires no steam
b. H/C < 0.28 requires steam for smokeless opera-
tion
2. Water gas or shift reactions
H20
2H2O
CO
C0
H
There are limitations on the use of liquid water
sprays instead of steam
The conditions governing the use of steam should be
evaluated
a. The importance of H/C ratio should be restated
b. The degree to which hydrocarbons may be
saturated or unsaturated should be mentioned
29-3
Page.
NOTES
Slide 427-29-1, 2
refer to Student
Manual, p. 14-31.
Slide 427-29-3
Slide 427-29-4
Slide 427-29-5
Slide 427-29-6
Slide 427-29-7
Slide 427-29-8 or
refer to Student
Manual, Attach-
ment 14-14, p. 14-
26.
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Lecture Title: Waste Gas Flares
Page.
NOTES
c. Examples are:
ethene, C-Hg, all single bonds for carbon,
saturated with hydrogen
H H
I I
H C C H
I I
H H
and ethylene, C-2^4'
a double bond
H H
I I
C = C
H H
unsaturated as indicated by
C2H4
d. Conditions for minimum steam must be noted.
5. The details of various flares, noting that steam
can be introduced in many different
ways
a. Slides 427-29-6 through 427-29-10 illustrate
various arrangements
b. Light gases (H/C > .28 or CO rich) can be
flared in either a venturi or a multijet flare
arrangement
c. Water sprays can be used with heavy gases in
ground flares
d. A range of flare diameters should be given
e. The number of pilots required is a function of
flare diameter
f. The allowable radiation of 1,000 Btu/ft2hr can
be used as a design criterion
(i) Usually solar input of 300 Btu/ft2hr has to
be taken into account
Noise problems arise both from combustion and the
use of steam.
Slide 427-29-9
Slide 427-29-10
Slide 427-29-11
Slide 427-29-12
Slide 427-29-13
Slide 427-29-14
Slide 427-29-15
Slide 427-29-16
Slide 427-29-17 or
refer to Student
Manual, p. 14-24.
Slide 427-29-18
29-4
-------
LESSON PLAN
TOPIC: Municipal Sewage Sludge
Incineration
COURSE; 427, Combustion Evaluation
LESSON TIME: 50 min.
PREPARED BY: DATE-
J. T. Beard Aug. 1978
\
\
UJ
CD
w
Lesson Number: 30
Lesson Goal: The goal of this lesson is to provide the student with information
about the design, operation, and air pollution emissions from sewage sludge
incinerators.
Lesson Objectives: At the end of this lesson the student will be able to:
list and discuss the air pollutants emitted in the incineration of
sewage sludge;
describe the special design features required for burning wet
sewage sludge fuel;
describe the combustion-related activity occurring in each of the four
zones of the multiple-hearth sewage sludge incinerators;
discuss the options of combustion air preheating, flue gas reheating,
and energy recovery; and
list two important operational problems which can adversely influence
air pollution emissions.
Student Prerequisite Skills: Course 427, Lessons Number 23 and 26
Level of Instruction: Undergraduate engineering or equivalent
Intended Student Professional Backgrounds: Engineers, technical staff, regu-
latory officials, and others who work in combustion-related areas of air
pollution control.
Support Materials and Equipment:
1. Slide projector
2. Slide set for Lesson 30
Special Instructions: None
30-1
-------
References:
1. Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollution Control, Chapter 12.
2. "Air Pollution Aspects of Sludge Incineration," EPA Technology Transfer
Seminar Publication, EPA-625/4-75-009 (June 1975).
3. Petura, R. C., "Operating Characteristics and Emission Performance of
Multiple Hearth Furnaces with Sewer Sludge," Proceeding of 1976
National Waste Processing Conference, ASME, pp. 313-327 (May 1976)
4. Rubel, F. N., Incineration of Solid Wastes, Noyes Data Corp. Park
Ridge, N.J. (1974).
30-2
-------
SLIDE NUMBER
TITLE OF SLIDE
LESSON 30: MUNICIPAL SEWAGE SLUDGE INCINERATION
427-30-1
427-30-2
427-30-3
427-30-4
TYPICAL SECTION OF A MULTIPLE-HEARTH SLUDGE INCINERATOR
MULTIPLE-HEARTH FURNACE FOR INCINERATING MUNICIPAL SEWAGE
SLUDGE
SINGLE HEARTH SLUDGE FURNACE
FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUIDIZED INCINERATION
30-3
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course: 427, Combustion Evaluation
Municipal Sewage Sludge
Lecture Title:
Incineration
ftage.
NOTES
I. Introduction
A. State the lesson objectives
B. Incineration is an acceptable method for sludge
reduction to produce
1. Sterile landfill material
2. Odorless emissions
Particulates may be controlled to the New Source
Performance Standards (1.3 Ib/ton dry sludge input)
by using either
1. Venturi scrubbers with approximately 18 inches of
water pressure drop
2. Impingement scrubbers and automatic control
(sensing 02) of auxiliary fuel burners or
3. Electrostatic precipitators
II. Municipal Sewage Sludge
A. Describe composition and give examples of
1. Moisture content
a. Varies with ratio of primary to secondary treat-
ment
b. Varies with drying equipment
2. Combustible materials
3. Dry heat content
B. May contain metals, potentially hazardous air pollutants
1. Give examples which are converted to oxides and
removed with ash or particulates (cadmium, lead,
magnesium, and nickel)
2. Describe special problems of mercury
a. Provide an example concentration (5 ppm)
b. Decomposes to mercuric oxide or metallic mercury
in high-temperature regions of incinerators
c. Give an example of removal by scrubbers
d. State the hazardous pollutant standard limiting
mercury from incineration and sludge drying
facilities (3,200 g/day)
C. Discuss toxic pesticide content, as well as other organic
compounds, such as PCB's
1. Give an example concentration (1.2 to 2.5 ppm)
2. State influence of combustion temperature on
decomposition
a. Up to 95% at 700°F
b. Total decomposition at 1,100°F
III. Multiple-Hearth Furnaces
A. Describe history of use
1. Current design, an adaptation of the Herreshoff
design of 1889
2. Previously used for roasting ores
3. Adapted for sewage sludge in 1930's
a. Oil-fired auxiliary fuel
b. Manual operation controls
4. Wet scrubbers added in 1960's
5. Automatic controllers, improved in the 1970's
B. Describe typical design features
1. Cylindrical refractory lined shell
30-4
See Attachment
12-1, Chapter 12
page 12-10
Slide 427-30-1
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
fl60 87^
^ ^^ ^>
Course:
Lecture Title:
427, Combustion Evaluation
Municipal Sewage Sludge
Incineration
NOTES
G.
2. Multiple (5 to 11) horizontal refractory hearths
3. Mechanical stoking produced by motor-driven revolving
central shaft:
a. typically, 2 or 4 "ramble" arms for each hearth
b. Central shaft and "ramble" arms, air cooled
c. "Ramble" teeth (similar to ploughs) agitate the
sludge material and move it across hearth to
openings for passage to the next lower hearth
d. Plowing breaks up lumps and exposes fresh area
to heat and oxygen
4. Excess air, between 50 and 125%
Discuss temperatures and purposes of each combustion zone
1. Drying zone
a. Moisture reduced to 45 or 50%
b. Sludge temperatures raised from ambient to 160°F
c. Gases cooled to around 850°F
d. Typically no odor problem because of low sludge
temperature
2. Volatilization zone
a. Distillation of volatiles
b. Combustion of gases, yellow flame
c. Temperatures 1,300 to 1,700°F
3. Fixed carbon burning zone
a. Short blue flame
4. Cooling zone
a. Cooling ash heats combustion air
Discuss influence of moisture on combustion and fuel
requirements
1. Give an example of the influence of moisture con-
tent on combustion temperature
2. Give examples of influence of moisture and feed
rate on combustion zone location
a. Feed rate or moisture reduced, combustion region
may move to higher hearth
b. Feed rate or moisture increased, combustion
region may move to lower hearth, because longer
drying time is required
c. If combustion zone drops too low, auxiliary
fuel must provide energy to control combus-
tion zone
State that instrumentation and combustion control systems
may include
1. Temperature-indicating controllers
2. Proportionate fuel burners (with electric ignition)
3. Ultraviolet scanners
4. Motorized valves in air headers
5. Automatic draft control
6. Flue-gas oxygen analyzer driven controller
State that cooling air (at 400°F) from central shaft
and "ramble" arms may be used as
1. Preheated combustion air
2. Reheat energy to aid in dissipating the plume
associated with the wet scrubbers
Describe waste heat recovery designs
30-5
Slide 427-30-2
-------
CONTENT OUTLINE
Course:
Lecture Title:
427. Combustion Evaluation
Municipal Sewage Sludge
Incineration
Page.
-------
LESSON PLAN
TOPIC: Pre-Test and Post-Test
COURSE: 427, Combustion Evaluation
LESSON TIME: 60 min.
PREPARED BY: DATE:
J. T. Beard
Oct. 1978
Lesson Number: 31
Lesson Goal: The goal of the Pre-Test and Post-Test is to measure the effec-
tiveness of the training program in teaching the participants the instruc-
tional objectives.
Lesson Objectives: At the end of the time periods for the Pre-Test or the
Post-Test, the student will have:
determined to the best of his or her ability the correct answers to the
50 questions on the test;
worked the test independently without assistance from other persons,
from personal notes, or from other course or text materials;
marked his or her answers on the answer sheet, signed the answer sheet; and
handed the answer sheet to the course moderator.
Student Prerequisite Skills: Air Pollution Training Institute Course 452 or
equivalent experience, and one of the following: college level training
in physical science, engineering, or mathematics.
Level of Instruction: Undergraduate engineering or equivalent.
Intended Student Professional Backgrounds: Engineers, technical staff, regu-
latory officials, and others who work in combustion-related areas of air
pollution control.
Support Materials and Equipment:
Multiple copies of Pre-Test and Post-Test, including the attached tables
of property values and answer sheets, for distribution to the students
at the beginning of the testing period.
Special Instructions:
Advise the students that the tests are timed, closed-book tests, and that
only the completed answer sheet is to be handed in at the end of the test
time period.
31-1
-------
The Pre-Test measures the students' entrance level of knowledge about
Combustion Evaluation in Air Pollution Control; and the Post-Test measures
the students' knowledge at the end of the course. A comparison of the
students' grades on the two tests will indicate the learning that has
been achieved during the training period.
A completed answer sheet is included in the lesson plan to aid the course
moderator in grading the tests. At the end of the tests the moderator
may post the answer sheet for the benefit of the students.
Reference: None
31-2
-------
ANSWER SHEET for Pre-Test
#427 — Combustion Evaluation
SCORE FOR PRE-TEST
Name:
Part I True-False
Part II Multiple Choice
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
a fbl c d
a b ^S d
bed
a b (cl d
a b
a b c
bed
a b c
^ b c d
a b c
a b c
a b c fdj
a b Q d
a b c
•^
a b fc^ d
a b fcl d
Part. 1 .1 (continued)
17. a b c
18. a ^3 c d
19. a ^ c d
20. a b O d
21. a ^ c d
22. a b c
23. a ^ c d
24. a b c
25. a /ft c d
Part III Fill in the Blank
1. 100°F _
^ 1,000 Btu/ft3
2-
84% ± 5%
4.a utility or industrial potoer plants
b diesel engines; gas turbines
5.a nozzle — (is it appropriate?)
b oil — (is it appropriate? what T?)
6.a sulfur; nitrogen;
b ash; vanadium
7_ steam injection
Part IV Problems
1. 2.38
2. 25,000
3. 674
4. 5,801
ftj
gal/hr
Btu/lb
5. 22
31-3
-------
#427 — COMBUSTION EVALUATION IN AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
PRE-TEST
Note: The entire test is closed book. Each answer is worth 2 points.
Enter all answers on the ANSWER SHEET provided.
Part I True-False
Note: For each of the following statements, circle on_ the answer sheet
the letter T if the statement is True or the letter F if False.
1. T F Good combustion with minimum oxygen and no CO in the flue gas implies
maximum thermal efficiency.
2. T F A gas flame is likely to develop a yellow tip with increased percent
premix.
3. T F Excess air can be used to control furnace temperature.
4. T F The use of water walls in a furnace permits reduction of excess air
relative to a refractory-wall furnace.
5. T F Most gas burners can easily handle a wide spectrum of gaseous fuels.
6. T F The difference between the higher (gross) and the lower (net) heating
value of any fuel is the amount of heat lost to the surroundings of
the combustion installation.
7. T F At chemical equilibrium the forward and reverse reactions are equal
with the net effect of no change in the amounts of reactants present.
8. T F The region of stable flame operation is unaffected by the fuel gas
flow rate through a burner.
9. T F Furnace volume required for burning gaseous fuels is generally
higher than for the more dense fuels, such as oil or coal.
10. T F Blue flame is characteristic of burning gaseous fuels with a high
degree of premix of the fuel and the air.
Part II Multiple Choice
Note: There is only one "best answer." Circle the proper letter on the
answer sheet.
1. The major limit on the rate of combustion of a fuel oil is
a the rate of mixing of the air and fuel vapor.
b the rate of vaporization of the oil.
c the rate of diffusion of O2 to the surface of the droplet.
Pre-Test 1
31-4
-------
2. Combustion rate is influenced by the temperature as expressed by
a Charles' Law.
b Dalton's Law.
c the Arrhenius Equation.
3. The heat content or enthalpy of a material is
a the sum of sensible and latent heats above some reference
condition.
b the sum of gross heating value and the sensible and latent heats
above a reference value.
c the sum of the available heat and the sensible and latent heat
above the reference value.
4. As the temperature of a fuel oil increases
a the fuel oil number increases.
b viscosity increases.
c viscosity decreases.
d more pumping energy is required.
5. The oil vapor temperature at which a spark will cause ignition (explosion)
is called
a lower flammability limit.
b higher flammability limit.
c flash point.
d fire point.
6. Smoke may be reduced from a controlled-air incinerator by
a opening the charging door.
b adding moisture to the charge.
c increasing the fan speed.
d reducing the charging rate and air velocity.
7. Sulfur from fuel oil combustion
a is shifted more to S03 with higher excess air
b is emitted mainly as SO3 mist.
c does not contribute to the heating value of the fuel.
d is desirable because it kills germs.
8. Catalytic dissociation
a is recommended for controlling NOX from coal furnaces.
b requires an oxidizing atmosphere.
c requires a carefully controlled high gas temperature.
d requires a reducing atmosphere.
Pre-Test 2
31-5
-------
9. The theoretical minimum flue gas temperature which can be achieved from a
boiler producing 500°F steam, which has a preheater and an economizer, is
a ambient temperature.
b 500°F.
c 1,000°F x efficiency.
d 500°F x efficiency.
10. Improper operation of a natural gas fuel boiler is indicated by an instrument
reading of
a 10% O2 in the flue gas .
b 2% CO in the flue gas.
c opacity of 30%.
d all of the above.
11. Which of the following formulas would you use to calculate (at constant
pressure) a volume change in flue gases due to changes in flue gas temperature?
a Q = Sp. heat x Ibs (T2 - T-^ .
HA
t = centigrade temperature
T = absolute temperature
g
c !l = !i
d — = —
Tl T2
12. Flue gas oxygen content
a may be used as a combustion control variable.
b is particularly useful when a system simultaneously burns
multiple fuels.
c can be used in the place of CC^ to monitor combustion.
d all of the above.
13. A certain mass of methane occupies 100 ft3 at 60°F and 1 atm. pressure.
The temperature and pressure of this gas is raised to 580°F and 2.5 atm.
The volume of methane at the final conditions is
a greater than 100 ft3.
b equal to 100 ft3.
c less than 100 ft3.
Pre-Test 3
31-6
-------
14. The volatile matter in. solid fuel has the greatest influence on which of
the following?
a total air required.
b fuel bed thickness.
c combustion temperature.
d overfire air.
15. Water injection is an effective NOX control measure for gas turbines because
a gas turbines operate at higher temperatures than furnaces.
b water is cheap and weighs about the same as oil.
c water acts as a heat sink.
d water helps to wash away the soot.
16. Flue gas recirculation generally
a improves the thermal efficiency.
b increases the combustion temperature.
c reduces the combustion temperature.
d is more effective for fuel NOjj than for thermal NOX.
17. The effect of a substantial increase in the fuel moisture content
a reduces flame temperature.
b reduces energy utilization in the radiant boiler section.
c reduces rated unit capacity.
d all of the above.
18. Multiple-chamber incinerators operate with excess air, compared to
controlled-air incinerators.
a less
b more
c higher temperature
d lower velocity
19. Combustion in controlled-air incinerators occurs
a with lower temperatures than in multiple-chamber units.
b with low velocities.
c with three stages of combustion.
d with more particulate emissions than a municipal incinerator
equipped with a water-spray device.
20. Most toxic and hazardous chemicals
a cannot be disposed of by incineration.
b have general-purpose incinerators available for their destruction.
c require specially designed incinerators.
Pre-Test 4
31-7
-------
21. Afterburners are operated at less than 25 percent of LEL concentration of
combustibles
a to avoid excessive temperatures.
b for safety reasons.
c due to availability of low-cost fuels.
22. A flue-fed single-chamber incinerator with an afterburner on the roof, in
comparison to a controlled-air incinerator
a has less fuel required by the afterburner.
b needs a larger fan.
c has lower average air velocities.
d uses more overall excess air.
23. Steam-atomizing nozzles may be converted to air-atomizing nozzles
a because air is so economical.
b if the fuel temperature and viscosity are appropriate.
c if the nozzles get dirty.
d only in commercial-sized oil-fired units.
24. F-factors
a are useful in calculating concentrations from new stationary
sources.
b do not require actual air-flow and fuel-flow values.
c do require correction for excess air.
d all of the above.
25. The emission factors, such as those given in AP-42, are
a exact for each type of source indicated.
b the average emissions from a collection of similar sources.
c valid only for new equipment.
d all of the above.
Part III Fill in the Blanks
1. State the typical flash point for a No. 2 fuel oil: °F.
2. Give a representative value of the heat of combustion for a natural gas:
Btu/scf.
3. State a typical percentage by weight of methane in natural gas: s
4. List two of the three major stationary sources of NOjj emissions:
a
b
Pre-Test 5
31-8
-------
5. List two important features that should be checked during maintenance of
commercial oil-fired boilers:
a
b
6. List two chemical constituents in a fuel which influence the air pollutants
formed:
a
b
7. The water-gas reaction in flare combustion is achieved by .
Part IV Problems
1. If one ft3 of hydrogen at standard conditions requires the oxygen from
2.38 ft3 of air for complete combustion, the air required to burn one ft3 of
CO will be: ft3.
2. For hogged fuel having 5,000 Btu/lb as-fired heating value, calculate the
furnace volume required to fire 50 ton/hr if a reasonable design is 20,000
Btu/hr ft3: ft3.
3. If the energy output needed is 75 x 106 Btu/hr, calculate the required oil-
burning rate if API 10-degree oil is burned with an overall thermal effi-
ciency of 72%: gal/hr.
4. If Douglas Fir has a dry heating value of 9,050 Btu/lb, calculate the as-
fired heating value if the moisture as-fired is 35.9%: Btu/lb.
5. Determine the excess air percentage for a fuel combustion process whose
Orsat analysis of the flue gas is 9% CO2, 5% O2, and 2% CO:
% excess air.
(()„ - 0,5 CO ) x 100%
%EA = —?2 2
0.264 N0 - (0. - 0.5 CO .
2p 2p p)
Pre-Test 6
31-9
-------
Attachment 3-1, Analyses of Samples of Natural Gas
Sample No.
Source of Gas
Analyses
Constituents, % by vol
H2 Hydrogen
CH4 Methane
C2H4 I'.thyleue
C2HG Ethane
CO Carbon monoxide
CO.> Carbon dioxide
N.I Nitrogen
OL> Oxygen
ILjS Hydrogen sulfide
Vltimatc, r/< by \vt
S Sulfur
11., Ihiliog'-ti
C Carbon
N'.> Nitrogen
()., Ox\y,<-n
Specific giavity (rel to air)
Higher heat \'alue
lltu -en ft (.1* M)K & 30 in. Hg
Btn/lb of fuel
1
Pa.
—
83.40
—
15.80
—
—
0.80
—
—
—
23.53
75.25
1.22
—
0.636
1,12!)
23,170
2
So. Cal.
—
84.00
—
14.80
- —
0.70
0,50
—
—
— .
23,30
74.72
0.76
1.22
0.636
1,116
22,904
3
Ohio
1.82
93,33
0.25
—
0.45
0.22
3.40
0,35
0.18
0,34
23.20
69.12
5.76
1.58
0.567
964
22,077
4
La.
—
90.00
—
5.00
—
—
5.00
—
—
—
22.68
69.26
8.06
—
0.000
1 ,002
21,824
5
Okla.
—
84.10
—
6.70
—
0.80
8.40
—
—
20.85
64.84
12.90
1.41
0.630
974
20,160
Reprinted with permission of
Babcock & Wilcox
Pre-Test 7
31-10
-------
Attachment 3-3, Detailed Requirements for Fuel Oils1
W
tJ
H
(D
9
at
rt
CO
1
Fle.h Pour
Wej*H Carbon j
and *e«id»e
A.h,
| M<«llatl<
• Tontporattt
f
•« :
rai. Savfcak Vltcaettr, •«
•XlMwsafic Vstcoewy.
j
»*•** •*f.P"
*». strip
«ro4o e» Fu
! bv
valsiisia
•anonit.
per cant
weight
10 per
cent ' *« per ce
Point 1 Point
nl Universal at Furol at ! At 100 F
(OOF 122f i
•eg Cene-
»t 1 22 t '• *** wkmej
i A distillate oil intended far »a por-. ' 100 or
I > (Sing pot-type burners and other i ( legal
I bjvmers requiring this grade of j
I
j A diiliUafe oil for general purpoie : 100 or
Mo. 2 donwttk Keoting for u«e M burners ; legol
• nor requiring No. 1 fuel oil ' |
I
; An oil for burner inttoHolioni not • . 130 or
Ho. 4 equipped with preheating foci*- . i legal
itiet i
I A residual-type oil for burner in-' '. \ 30 or '
No. 5 s*allotien> equipped wirh preheat- legal
ing focrlitiei
: An oil for me in burners equipped
No. 6' with preheatert permitting a high-
I vncoiity fuel
150
20*
20
0.10
CJO
1.00
i J.OO' •'
Ma« Man '
Mo« \ Min Max
Mai Min Min
0.15
0.15
...
0.10
0.10
...
420
4
550
640*
540'
37.93
125
324
45
150
40
300
45
U
atr
(26.4)
1.4
os>r
(5.1)
(32.1)
...
Ill)
(438)
(92)
35
JO*
H».i
" ftecogniiing the necemry for low tulfvr fuel ails used in cormecf*on with heat treatment, nonferrout metal, Qloss. and ce'rornic furnaces and other special uses, a sulfur requirement may be •pan-
ned in accordance with the following fable.
Grade of Fuel Oil
No. I
No. 2
No. 4
No. 5 . -
No. 6
Sulfur. ma«. per cent
OJ
1.0
no limit
no limit
no limit
Other sulfur limits may be specified only by mutual agreement between the purchaser and the seller.
* II is the intent of these clatiificoiions that foilu/e to meet any requirement of a given grade does not automatically place an oil in the neit lower grade unless in fact il meets of) requi
of the lower grade.
c Lawer or higher pour points may be specified whenever required by conditions of storage or use. However, these specifications sholt not require a pour point lower than 0 F under any cenwitiasts.
'file 10 per cent distillation temperature point may be specified ar 440 F maximum for use in other than atomizing burners.
' When pour pO'nt less than 0 F il specified, the minimum viscosity shall be I.B Cs (32.0 >ec. Soyoolt Universal) and the minimum 90 per cent point shall be waived.
-' The amount of water by distillation plus the sediment by extraction shall not exceed 2.00 per cant. The amount of seHimenl by extraction shot) not exceed 0.50 per cant. A deduction in quantity
•hall be made far all water and sediment in excess of 1.0 per COM.
' h. the states of Alaska, Ariiona, California, Hawaii. I4aho. Nevada, Oregon, Utah and Washington, a Minimum gravity of 21 deg API it permissible
Reprinted with permission
of Combustion Engineering
-------
Attachment 3-4, Typical Analyses and Properties of Fuel Oils1
Grade
— - -— - - — - —
Type
Color
API gravity, 60 f
Specific grovify, 60 60 F
Ib per U S gallon, 60 F
Viscos , Saybott Univ., 100 F
Vi«o*., Saybotl Furol, 122 F
Pour point, F
Temp (or pumpir-g, f
Temp, for atomizing, F
Carbon residue, per cent
Si'lfur, per cent
O«vn*" nmt mtiofjen, per r*»ot
Hydrogen, per cent
Carbon, per cent
Sediment and wotet, per cent
Aih, per cent
Bin per gallon
No 1
Fuel Off
— - - -
Distillate
(Kerosene)
light
40
0.8251
6870
1 A
1 -O
31
—
Below jero
Almot pheric
Atmospheric
Trace
0 1
0 2
13.2
845
Trace
Trace
137.000
No 7
Fuel Oil
-- —
Distillate
Amber
32
0.8654
7206
") Afl
*.OO
35
—
Bplow 7*10
Atmospheric
Atmospheric
Trace
0407
02
12 7
86.4
Trace
Trace
141,000
No 4
Fuel Oil
Very Light
Residual
Black
21
09279
7727
1 « ft
1 J U
77
10
15 min
25 min.
25
0415
048
11 9
86 10
0 5 max.
002
146,000
No. 5
Fuel Oil
Light
Residual
Black
17
09529
7935
50 0
232
—
30
35 mm.
130
50
2 0 ma«
070
11.7
85.55
1 0 max
0.05
1 48,000
No A
Fuel Oil
- - _ _
Residual
Black
12
09861
8.212
IAH n
JOv.U
170
65
100
200
120
28 max
092
10.5
85.70
2 0 max.
008
150,000
1 Technical information from Humble Oil & Refining Company.
Reprinted with permission
of Combustion Engineering
Pre-Test 9
31-12
-------
Attachment 3-5, Gravities, Densities, and Heats of Combustion of Fuel Oil8^
VALUI i TOR 10 TO 4V HIT, API. INCI U'.IVl , REPRIN1 1 0 1 ROM HURTAU OF STANDARDS
MISCELLANCOUS PUBLICATION NO. 97. "TIILRMAL PROI'l K'TICS OF f'E TKOLF.UM PRODUCTS."
GRAVITY AT
60/60 F
ore
API
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
lo
17
i
18
AW
19
L T
20
01
*» J
22
£f*t
23
it*J
24
*'»
25
& *f
•>«,
*i>
27
2tl
oq
A .'
30
31
32
33
34
35
3<,
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
40
47
48
49
SPECIFIC
GRAVITY
1.0366
1.0291
1.0217
1.0143
1.0071
1.0000
0.9930
0.9861
0.9792
0.9725
0.9659
0.9593
0.9529
0.94o5
0.9402
0.9340
0.9279
0.9218
0.9159
0.9100
0.9042
0 R9H4
\t , O7CI T
0.8927
0.8871
0.8810
0.8762
0.8708
0. 8654
0.8602
0.855C
0.8498
0.8448
0.8398
0.83.18
0.8299
0.8251
0.8203
0.8155
0.8109
0.8063
0.8017
0™{r7O
. I .' ( L
0.7927
0.7883
0.7839
DENSITY
AT 60 F
LB PER
GAL
8.643
8.580
8.518
8.457
8.397
8.337
8.279
8.221
S.164
8.108
8.053
7 . 998
7 . 944
7.891
7.839
7.787
7.736
7.686
7.636
7.587
7 . 538
7.490
7.443
7 . 3%
7.350
7.305
7.260
7.215
7.171
7.128
7.005
7 . 043
7 . 001
6.%0
0.920
0.879
6.H39
6.7°9
0.760
0.722
6.684
Of )•! ft
* II t\>
0.609
6.572
6.536
TOTAL HFAT Of COMBUSTION
(At Constant Volume)
BTU
PER LD
18,250
18, 330
18.390
18,440
18,400
18,540
18,590
18,640
18,690
18,740
18,790
18,840
18,890
18, 930
18.980
19,020
19,060
19.110
19,150
19,190
19,230
19,270
19,310
19,350
19,380
19,420
19, 450
19,490
19,520
19,560
19,590
19,620
19,650
19,680
19.720
19,750
19,780
19.810
19,830
19,«oO
19,890
19,920
19/MO
19,970
20, 000
B1U PER
GAL
AT 60 F
157,700
157,300
156,600
155.900
155.300
154,600
153,900
153,300
152,600
152,000
151.300
150,700
150,000
149,400
148,800
148,100
147,500
146,800
146,200
145,000
145,000
144,300
143,700
143.100
142,500
141,800
141,200
140.000
140,000
139,400
130,800
138,200
137,000
137,000
136,400
135,800
135,200
134,700
134,100
133,500
132, WO
132,400
131,'»00
131,200
130,700
CAL PTK G
10, 140
10,100
10,210
10,240
10,270
10,300
10,330
10,3oO
10,390
10,410
10,440
10,470
10,490
10,520
10,510
10,570
10, 590
10,620
10,640
10,600
10,600
NET HEAT OF COMBUSTION
(At Constant Pr*«sure)
I1TU PER LB
17,290
17,340
17,390
17,440
17,490
17,540
17,580
17,620
17,670
17,710
17,750
17,790
17,820
17,860
17,900
17.930
17,9oO
18,000
18,030
10,070
18, 100
10,710 j 10,130
10,730 ; 10,100
10,75(1 ' 10,190
10,770 1 10,220
10,790
10,010
10,030
10,850
10,060
10,080
10,'HIO
10,920
10,940
10. ''50
10,970
10, 990
1 1 . 000
11,020
11,030
11,050
11,070
11,000
11.100
11 110
18,250
10,200
10,310
18,330
10,360
18,390
10,410
10,430
10,4oO
JH.-HJO
18,510
18,530
115,560
1(1,580
18,600
18,620
18,640
10,060
18,080
18.700
BTU PER
GAL
AT 60 F
149,400
148,800
148,100
147,500
146,900
146,200
145,600
144,900
114,200
143,600
CAL PER C
9,010
9,050
9 670
9,700
9,720
9,740
9,770
9,790
9,810
9.840
142,900 i 9,8oO
142,300 | 9,880
141,600 ! 9,900
140,900 ! 9,920
140,300 ; 9,940
139,600 . V«.iG
139.000 ! 9,9»0
138,300 1 10,000
137,700
137,100
10,020
10,040
130,400 10,01,0
• 135,800 ! 10,070
135,200 : 10,0"0
134,000 10,110
133,%G ' 10,120
133.300
132,700
132.100
131,500
130,100
13-0,300
129,700
129,100
128,500
127,%0
127,300
120,700
126,200
125,600
125,000
121,100
123,900
123,300
122, BOO
122,200
10,140
10,150
10.170
10,180
10,200
10,210
10,230
10,240
10,2oO
10,270
10,200
10,300
10,310
10,320
10,330
10,340
10,3(.0
10,370
10, .100
10,390
Pre-Test 10
31-13
-------
Attachment 3-11, Selected Coal Analysis2
01
ft
Coal
Anthracite
Location
Lackawanna Co., PA
Low-Vol. Bituminous McDowell Co., WV
Subbituminous A
Subbituminous C
Lignite A
Campbell Co., WY
Mercer Co. , ND
Moisture
2.5
1.0
High-Vol. Bituminous Westmoreland Co., PA 1.5
Musselshell Co., MT 14.1
31.0
37.0
Volatile
Matter
6.2
16.2
30.7
32.2
31.4
37.0
Fixed
Carbon Ash
79.4 11.9
77.3 5.1
56.6 11.2
46.7 7.0
32.8 4.8
32.2 4.2
Sulfur
0.60
0.74
1.82
0.43
0.55
0.40
High
Heating
Value
12,925
14,715
13,325
11,140
8,320
7,255
Reprinted with permission
of Babcock and Wilcox
-------
ANSWER SHEET for
#427 — Combustion Evaluation
Part I True-False
1. T F
2. T F
3. T F
4. T F
5. T F
6. T F
7. T F
8. T F
9. T F
10. T F
Part II Multiple Choice
Name:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
abed
abed
abed
abed
abed
abed
abed
abed
abed
abed
abed
abed
abed
abed
abed
abed
Part II (continued)
17. abed
18. abed
19. a b c d
20. abed
21. abed
22. abed
23. a b c d
24. abed
25. abed
Part III Fill in the Blank
1.
2.
3.
4.a
b
5.a
b
6.a
b
7.
Part IV Problems
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
ft-
gal/hr
Btu/lb
Pre-Test 12
31-15
-------
SCORE FOR POST-TEST
ANSWER SHEET for Post-Test
#427 — Combustion Evaluation
Part I True-False
1. T
3. T
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
T IF
^ F
T
[7J F
T
•N
F
[TJ F
Part IT Multiple Choice
1. a b c
'1. a l3 c d
c d
b c d
c d
b
7
8
9
LO
11
12
13
14
15
36
a b
0
a b ^ d
a {bj c d
a b fcj d
a b ^^ d
a b (\ d
Part IJ_ (continued)
17. a b (c^ d
18. a b c ^
19. a b c O
20. ^ b c d
21. a ^ c d
22. a b Q> d
23. a ^ c d
24. a b ^ d
25. [aj bed
Part III Fill in the Blank
1 •
2.
3.
11.140 Btu/lb
141,000 Btu/gal
2.5%
fixed carbon/ ash
b
a
volatile matter; moisture
more fuel
use more excess air
limit 803, NOX
improve efficiency
7_ particulate emissions; also
efficiency
620
Part IV Problems
1. 80
2.
3.
4. 3,620
5.
784
ft-1
gal/hr
Btu/lb
98
31-16
-------
#427 — COMBUSTION EVALUATION IN AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
POST-TEST
Note: The entire test is closed book. Each answer is worth 2 points.
Enter all answers on the ANSWER SHEET provided.
Part I True-False
Note: For each of the following statements, circle on_ the answer sheet
the letter T if the statement is True or the letter F if False.
1. T F The use of excess air to control furnace temperature always increases
thermal efficiency.
2. T F The difference between the gross and net heating values of a fuel is
related to the exhaust gas temperature.
3. T F At equilibrium the temperature is always the adiabatic flame tem-
perature .
4. T F For best overall furnace performance, a gas flame should touch the
heat transfer surface (tube/water wall).
5. T F All chemical reactions are reversible to some extent.
6. T F Direct-fired afterburners are no longer viable for controlling
gaseous emissions, due to the shortage and cost of natural gas.
7. T F The region of stable gas flame operation is affected by the per-
centage of premixing.
8. T F If cracking of fuel oil droplets occurs, the flame will change from
its normally yellow appearance to blue.
9. T F Lifting of flame zone can result when gas velocity exceeds the
flame propagation velocity.
10. T F Catalytic incineration operates at considerably lower temperatures
than direct-flame afterburners.
Part II Multiple Choice
Note: There is only one "best answer." Circle the proper letter on the
answer sheet.
1. The emission factor for S02 is 38 S rather than 40 S because
a some sulfur is not burned
b some sulfur converts to 803
c some sulfur may be collected with particulates by a precipitator
d all of the above
Post-Test 1
31-17
-------
2. The molecular weight of ethylene, C2H4, is 28, and the molecular weight of
ethyl alcohol, C2H5OH, is 46. The amount of air required for complete com-
bustion of 28 pounds of ethylene would be
a less than the air required to burn 46 pounds of ethyl alcohol.
b the same as the air required to burn 46 pounds of ethyl
alcohol. .
c more than the air required to burn 46 pounds of ethyl alcohol.
3. The available heat from a combustion system is the
a net heating value of the fuel less the flue gas losses.
b gross heating value of the fuel less the heat content of com-
bustion products at the adiabatic flame temperature.
c gross heating value of the fuel plus the heat content of input
fuel and air,less the flue gas losses.
4. The higher heating value is not equivalent to the
a gross heat of combustion.
b net heat of combustion.
c gross calorific value.
d total heat of combustion.
5. CO2 is an important parameter in combustion control because CO2 is an
indication of
a high combustion temperature.
b excess air.
c fuel burned.
d dissociation.
6. Two-stage combustion may be accomplished by
a turning up the primary air.
b providing overfire air ports.
c lean combustion followed by rich combustion.
d increasing the underfire air.
7. Concentration standards may be expressed in
a yg/m3.
b ton/hr.
c million Btu/hr.
d kg/hr.
8. An air preheater has the following effect on a combustion system
a decreases efficiency.
b increases efficiency.
c requires more fuel.
d produces less NO^.
Post-Test 2
31-18
-------
9. The Arrhenius equation permits the calculation of
a the efficiency of a catalyst as a function of its surface.
b the effect of temperature on the reaction rate.
c utilization of stoichiometric air.
10. Temperature and residence time requirements for toxic chemicals (such as
pesticides) in comparison to those for hydrocarbons of similar structure
are
a approximately the same.
b considerably higher due to the presence of chlorine and
nitrogen atoms.
c considerably higher due to the need for higher destruction
efficiencies for safety reasons.
11. Thermal incineration of combustible gaseous pollutants in low concentra-
tions requires a combination of temperatures and residence times which,
typically for hydrocarbon solvents, are
a 500 to 1,000°F for 0.2 to 0.4 sec.
b 1,600°F for 1 to 2 sec.
c 1,200 to 1,400°F for 0.3 to 0.5 sec.
12. The proper equation to be used in correcting emissions to a 50% excess air
basis is
a F50 - 1- I'* 02P - 0.75 COp
50 .21
1.5 O2P - 0.133 N2p - 0.75 COD
J'crt = ± - — — «-
50 0.21
c F50
1 -
(02p - 0.5 COp) x 100%
0.264 N2p - (02p - 0.5 COp)
13. The proper equation for determining the excess air from a flue gas Orsat
analysis is
0.21 - 02D
a %EA = ZP
0.15
(O2p - 0.5 COp) x 100%
b %EA
0.264 N2p - (02p - 0.5 COp)
C02p
c %EA = —-£-
0.12
Post-Test 3
31-19
-------
14. A continuous source of ignition for oil firing is
a more critical than for gas-fired units.
b generally an electrode for a utility boiler.
c generally an electrode for domestic units.
d generally a pilot light for residential units.
15. Vanadium in fuel oil influences corrosion
a of nozzles by forming a fuel acid.
b by acting as a catalyst to shift NC>2 to NC>3.
c by acting as a catalyst to shift SC>2 to 803.
d changing the dew point.
16. More auxiliary fuel in the afterburner of a controlled-air incinerator is
usually needed if the gas temperatures are
a below 2,100°F.
b below 1,700°F.
c below 1,500°F.
d above 1,700°F.
17. The ash fusion temperature of coal
a is important when considering burning in a pulverized form.
b should be low enough to form a good cake.
c indicates the potential of forming clinkers or slag.
d is lower than the ash-softening temperature.
18. An increase in a solid fuel's volatile matter
a requires an increase of overfire air in stoker-fired systems.
b increases the tendency to smoke.
c implies a decrease in the solid fuel's residence time require-
ments .
d all of the above.
19. A pulverized-coal furnace burning eastern coal would typically have a CO2
level around
a 5 to 10%.
b 3 to 5%.
c 20 to 25%.
d 13 to 15%.
20. Thermal efficiency is generally improved with
a less excess air than at the smoke limit.
b flue gas recirculation.
c reduced combustion air preheat.
d more excess air than at the smoke limit.
Post-Test 4
31-20
-------
21. "Lowest practical 02"
a is lower than the "minimum 0, . "
b provides for an operating margin below the smoke limit.
c results in less smoke than at "minimum O2 . "
d results in more NOX emissions than at "minimum C>2."
22. "Thermal NOX" and "Fuel NOx" have similarities because
a the formation of each is directly related to temperature.
b the formation of each is inversely related to temperature.
c excess air is an effective control technique for each.
d flue gas recirculation is an effective control technique
for each.
23. A rotary-cup burner unit generally has greater particulate emissions than
a mechanical atomizer unit because the
a viscosity is too high.
b drop sizes are too large.
c residence time is too long.
d the cup's edge is chipped.
24. Atomization size and pattern shape are
a influenced only by oil pressure.
b maintained by daily replacement of old nozzles with new nozzles
on oil-fired utility units.
c maintained by cleaning nozzles each shift on oil-fired utility
units.
d are about the same for all nozzles sold for residential units
in the USA.
25. What is the maximum sulfur content for a 12* API fuel oil which must meet
a 0.80 Ib SO2/106 Btu standard?
a .75%.
b 1.50%.
c 1.00%.
d 6.15%.
Part III Fill in the Blanks
1. Give a representative higher heating value for a western subbituminous
coal: Btu/lb.
2. Give a representative value for the total heat of combustion for a No. 2
fuel oil: Btu/gal.
3. Give a representative moisture value for a typical eastern anthracite
coal: %.
Post-Test 5
31-21
-------
4. List two components in the proximate analysis: a
b
5. List two reasons why NOX control from coal-fired boilers is more difficult
than from similar oil or gas units:
a
b
6. Most larger furnaces burning fuel oil limit the excess air to around
2 to 5%, rather than 10 to 20% because of:
a
b
7. Reinjection of fly ash from stoker-fired units increases the
Part IV Problems
1. A certain mass of hydrogen occupies 100 ft3 at 60°F and 1 atm. pressure.
The temperature and pressure of the gas are increased to 580°F and 2.5 atm.
What is the volume of hydrogen at the new condition? ft3.
2. For typical municipal solid waste having an as-fired heating value of
6,203 Btu/lb, calculate the furnace volume required per ton of waste per
hour if a reasonable design is 20,000 Btu/hr ft3: ft3.
3. If the energy output needed is 100 x 10^ Btu/hr, calculate the oil-firing
rate if the thermal efficiency is 85%, the heating value is 150,000 Btu/gal:
gal/hr.
4. If western hemlock has a dry heating value of 8,600 Btu/lb, calculate the
as-fired heating value if the moisture as-fired is 57.9%: Btu/lb.
5. A spreader stoker-fired furnace burns coal at a rate of 100 ton/hr. The
coal has a gross heating value of 26,000,000 Btu/ton and a 10% ash content.
Calculate the fly ash collector efficiency required to meet the Federal
particulate emission standard of 0.1 pounds per million Btu. Note the
uncontrolled emission factor for a spreader stoker is 13A (Ibs/ton),
where A is the percent of ash in the coal.
% efficiency.
Post-Test 6
31-22
-------
Attachment 3-1, Analyses of Samples of Natural Gas2
Sample No.
Source of Gas
Analyses
Constituents, % by vol
Ho 1 lydrogcn
CH4 Methane
CjH4 iithylene
C2H6 Ethane
CO Carl K>n monoxide
CO-> ('iirlioii dioxide
Nj Nitrogen
O% Oxygen
R.S Hydrogen sulfide
I'ltimate, '"<• liy \vt
S Sulfur
Il.» Hydrogen
C Carl Mtn
N2 Nitrogen
O;j Oxygen
Specific gravity (rel to air)
Higher heat value
Btn/cu ft fit 60F & 30 in. Hg
Btu/lh of fuel
1
Pa.
—
83.40
—
15.80
—
—
0.80
—
—
—
23.53
75.25
1.22
—
0.636
1,129
23,170
2
So. Cal.
—
84.00
—
14.80
—
0.70
0.50
—
—
_
23,30
74.72
0.76
1.22
0.636
1,116
22,904
3
Ohio
1.82
93.33
0.25
—
0.45
0.22
3.40
0,35
0.18
0.34
23.20
69.12
5.76
1.58
0.567
964
22,077
4
La.
90.00
5.00
—
5.00
raj
—
.
2:1.68
60.20
8.06
—
0.600
1,002
21, 824
5
Okia.
___.
84.10
.„
6.70
. _,
0.80
8.40
,,_ ,_
. _ T
20.85
61.84
12.90
1.41
0.630
974
20,160
Reprinted with permission of
Babcock & Wilcox
Post-Test 7
31-23
-------
Attachment 3-3, Detailed Requirements for Fuel OilsJ
i
NJ
o
en
rt
en
rt
CO
Gtoo. of furl Oil''
F'<7lt. Pou
Point, IV,n
F F
, W, Seybolt ViicaiHy, I
f
per c«nt P*r ««nj by - . : | d»g Cofro •
by Bcflomi weight ten, VO p-r cent Univerto: at furo" ot ! At I 00 F ! *• 1 12 F *M ««o«
volumo percent pc,n. Poir' 1 00 F 12?F j '.
No. ! .'
• A duMlo'* oil intended for vopor-i lOOor 0 troce 0.15
rrg po'-type burneri ond other I legal !
rneri requu.ng thii grade of i : i
120 550
35 No, 3
I \ • ' ' • ' t
; AdM-lla'eoil lorgcnerot purpoie i 100 or 20r 0.10 , 0-35 I ... j d 640' 540' 3793 32.6 .. ; ... f (3-6)' (2.0}*' ... \ .. 30*
ng fo
i r*ot reoo.'.n'g No. 1 fuel oil ' ! i
! j
i An o' meets all ^equirem*ot»
of ^e lo^er grade.
' Lower or high*r pour poinM moy be specked whenever required by condition* of storage or u»e. However, the« iDecificolionj shall not require o pour point lower fhon 0 F under ory cond:tioni.
The 10 p*r cent disMlation lemperolure point moy be ipecified ol 4O F maximum for u»e in other than ofomiiing burners.
* When pour pcmt leu than 0 f n ipeci^ec, ihe minimum vncovity *r-oll b* 1.8 cj (32.0 *ec, Saybo't Universal) and the minimum 90 per cent point ihall be waived.
• The amount of water by diiMlotion plu* ihe sediment by «Klroctio« iKoll not eic**d 2.00 per cent. The amount of iedim«nt by extraction »holl not exc*ed 0.50 par c«nt. A deduction m owQnti»Y
(holt be made for all water ond tediment in excfit of 1 0 per cent.
8 In tn< itot«i of Alasko, Arizofto, CoUfomto, Hawaii, Idoho, Nevada, Oregon, Uroh ond Wa>K*oflton, o minimum gravity of 28 deg API IB p«rminibl«
Reprinted with permission
of Combustion Engineering
-------
Attachment 3-4, Typical Analyses and Properties of Fuel Oils]
Grade
Type
Color
API grovily. 60 f
Specific g.rovily. 60 60 f
Ib per U S. gallon, 60 F
Vlicoi . Centiitokes. 100 F
Viicos.. Soyboll Univ.. 100 F
Viscos . Saybolt Furol. 12? f
Pour point, f
Temp, for atomizing. F
Cctrbon residue pfr cent
Sl'lfur, per cent
Oiygen and nitrogen, ptr cent
Hydrogen. p«r cent
Carbon, per cent
Sediment and water, per cent
Aih. per ce-it
Blu per gallon
N. 1
Fvel Oil
Di.llllol.
(Keroiene)
light
40
082JI
4870
1.6
31
—
Below tero
Alrnosptieric
Atmospheric
Trcire
01
0.2
13.2
84 5
Trace
Trace
137,000
No 2
Fuel OH
Diitillote
Amber
32
08614
7206
2.68
13
—
Below icro
Atmospheric
Troce
0407
02
127
854
Trace
Trace
141,000
No «
Fuel Oil
Very light
Residual
Block
21
0.9279
7.727
13.0
77
—
10
13 min.
23 min.
23
0.4 1 i
0.48
11 9
86 10
0.3 man.
002
144.000
No 5
Fuel Oil
light
Residual
Black
17
09520
7.935
30.0
232
30
35 min.
130
30
2.0 mo..
0.70
11.7
8553
1 0 max.
003
148,000
Na. 6
Fuel Oil
Residual
Block
12
09861
8212
360.0
—
170
63
100
200
120
2 8 moK.
092
10.3
8570
2 0 moH.
0.08
130,000
* Technical information from Humble Oil & Refining Company.
Reprinted with permission
oc Combustion Engineering
Post-Test 9
31-25
-------
Altacrhment 3-5, Gravities, Densities, and Heats of Combustion of Fuel
1 j
r~ — •
VALUI i i OR in 10
O.U29"
0.8251
0.8203
0.8155
0.8109
0.8063
0.8U17
0.7072
0.7927
0.7883
0.7839
DENSITY
AT 60 F
LB PER
CAL
8.043
8.580
8.518
8.457
8.397
8.337
8.279
8.221
P..104
8.108
8.053
7 . 998
7 . 944
7.891
7.839
7.787
7.736
7.086
7.636
7 . 5H7
7.538
7 . 490
7 . 443
7 . 3%
7.350
7.305
7.2oO
7.215
7.171
7.120
7.085
7.043
7 . 001
0.9'iO
(..''JO
0.879
6.839
0.7"9
o. 7oO
0.722
6.684
0.046
0 . 609
0.572
6.53o
TOTAL HHAT Of COMBUSTION
(At Consfunt Volume)
BTU
PER LB
18.250
18,330
18.390
18,440
18,410
18,540
18,590
18,040
18,090
18,740
18,790
18,840
18,890
18,930
18.980
19,020
19,060
19,110
11.150
19,190
19,230
19,270
19,310
19,350
19,380
19, -120
19, 450
19,490
19,520
19.500
19,590
19,o20
19,650
19.(>80
19,720
19,750
19,780
19.810
19.830
19,860
19,890
19,120
19,040
19,970
20, 000
B1U PEK
GAL
AT to r-
157,700
157,300
156,600
155,000
155,300
154,000
153,900
153,300
152,000
152,000
151,300
150,700
150,000
149,400
145,800
148,100
1-17,500
1 to ,800
1 to ,2 00
145,000
145,000
14-1,300
143,700
143,100
142,500
141,800
141,200
140,600
140,000
130,400
13(1,800
138,200
137,000
137,000
130, 400
135, MO
135,200
134,700
134,100
133,500
132,000
132,400
131, ')00
131,200
130,700
CAL PEN G
10,140
10.180
10,210
10,240
10,270
10,300
10,330
10,3(,()
10,390
10,410
10,410
10,470
10,401)
10,520
10, 5 K)
10,570
NET HEAT OF COMBUSTION
(At Constont Pressure)
liTU PER LB
17,290
17 , 340
17,390
17,440
17,490
17,540
17,580
17,620
17,670
17,710
17,750
17,790
17,820
17,860
17,900
17,930
10,590 j 17,9oO
10,620 i 18,000
10,o4d ! 18,030-
10,000 18,070
10,680 ! 18,100
10,710 1 18,130
10,730 , 18,100
BTU PER
GAL
AT 60 F
149,400
148,800
148,100
147,500
1-10,900
146,200
145,600
144,900
1 14,200
CAL PER G
9,610
9, 050
9,670
9,700
9,720
9,710
9,770
9,790
9.810
143,600 9,840
142,900 | V',i,0
142,300 ' 9(8HO
141,600 ; 9,900
140,900 9,920
140,300 9,940
139,000 . V'i,G
139,000 : 9,9(10
138,300 10,000
137,700 , 10.020
137,100 1 10,010
130,400 10,050
• 135,800 10,070
135,200 ' 10,0%
10,75d 18,100 i 134,000 10', 110
10,770 i 18,220 133,000 10,120
10 7
-------
Attachment 3-11, Selected Coal Analysis2
(0
tj ft
V H3
to (D
-j ca
rt-
Coal
Anthracite
Location
Lackawanna Co., PA
Low-Vol. Bituminous McDowell Co., WV
Subbituminous A
Subbituminous C
Lignite A
Moisture
2.5
1.0
High-Vol. Bituminous Westmoreland Co., PA 1.5
Musselshell Co., MT 14.1
Campbell Co., W5T 31.0
Mercer Co., ND 37.0
Volatile
Matter
6.2
16.2
30.7
32.2
31.4
37.0
High
Fixed Heating
Carbon Ash Sulfur Value
79.4 11.9 0.60 12,925
77.3 5.1 0.74 14,715
56.6 11.2 1.82 13,325
46.7 7.0 0.43 11,140
32.8 4.8 0.55 8,320
32.2 4.2 0.40 7,255
Reprinted with permission
of Babcock and Wilcox
-------
ANSWER SHEET for
#427 — Combustion Evaluation
Part I True-False
Name:
1. T F
2. T F
3. T F
4. T F
5. T F
6. T F
7. T F
8. T F
9. T F
10 T F
Part II Multiple Choice
1. =1 b c d
2. abed
4. abed
4. abed
5. abed
6. abed
7. abed
8. abed
9. abed
10. abed
11. abed
12. abed
13. a b c d
14. abed
15. abed
16. a b c d
Part II (continued)
17. abed
18. a b c d
19. a b c d
20. abed
21. abed
22. abed
23. abed
24. a b c d
25. a b C d
Part III Fill in the Blank
1.
2.
3.
4.a
b
5.a
b
6.a
b
7.
Part IV Problems
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
ft3
ft3
gal/hr
Btu/lb
Post-Test 12
31-28
-------
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-450/2-80-065
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION-NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
APTI COURSE 427
COMBUSTION EVALUATION
Instructor's Guide
5. REPORT DATE
February 1980
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
J. Taylor Beard, F. Antonio lachetta, Lembit U. Lillele
B. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
ht
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Associated Environmental Consultants
P. 0. Box 3863
Charlottesville, Virginia 22903
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
B18A2C
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
68-02-2893
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Manpower and Technical Information Branch
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Instructor's Guide
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
EPA Project Officer for this Instructor's Guide is James 0, Dealy
EPA RTP, NC 2771]
(MD-17)
16. ABSTRACT
This Instructor's Guide is used in conjunction with Course #427, "Combustion Evaluatic i"
as applied to air pollution control situations. The .teaching guide was prepared by
the EPA Air Pollution Training Institute (APTI) to assist instructors in presenting
course #427.
The guide contains sections on the following topics:
Combustion fundamentals
Fuel properties
Combustion system design
Pollutant emission calculations
Combustion control
Gas, oil, & coal burning
Solid waste & wood burning
Incineration of wastes
Sewage sludge incineration
Flame and catalytic incineration
Waste gas flares
Hazardous waste combustion
NO control
Improved combustion systems
Note: There is also a Student Workbook to be used for homework and in-class
problem solving (EPA-450/2-80-064) and a Student Manual for reference and
additional subject material (EPA-450/2-80-063)
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
COSATI Field/Group
Combustion
Air Pollution Control Equipment
Personnel Development-Training
Incinerators
Nitrogen Oxides
Exhaust Gases
Emissions
Training Programs
Fuels
13B
51
68A
is. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT Unlimited. Available
from: National Tech. Information Service
5285 Port Royal Road
Springfield. Virginia 22161
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
Unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
273
20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
Unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
31-29
------- |