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COMMUNITY ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION
Three Models of Organization
for PSD Set II
by
Peter Burke
Project Officer: Nancy Mayer
Contract #D2834NAEX
Center for Community Education
Appalachian State University
Duncan Hall
Boone, NC 28608
Prepared for EPA
1n cooperation with
Office of A1r Quality Planning and Standards
Policy Development Section
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
June 1980
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This report has been reviewed by (originator),
EPA, and approved for publication. Approval
does not signify that the contents necessarily
reflect the views and policies of the Environ-
mental Protection Agency, nor does mention of
trade names or commercial products constitute
endorsement or recommendation for use.
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PREFACE
This report could not have been prepared without a significant amount of
assistance. First, Heath Rada, Director of the Center for Community Education,
provided both practical advice and constant support. Cerise Wynne contributed
valuable time and energy in basic literature research, helping with the basic
framework for this report. Also, the staff of the Durham, North Carolina,
Community Education Program helped greatly with community education materials
and with solid discussion on structuring community environmental education.
In addition, staff and professionals at North Carolina State University,
the Environmental Protection Agency, and the Cooperative Extension Service
gave much time to help the author of this report refine the ideas presented.
Finally, Judy Spivey lent her energy for completeness and order in the typing
of this Final Report.
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Table of Contents
Page
I. Introduction 1
II. Summary of the Findings 3
III. Conclusions 6
IV. Recommendations 8
V. Findings of the Study 9
A. Working definitions 9
B. Major Issues 9
C. Case studies 18
D. Candidate organizations and relevant actors 32
E. Major issues and organizational models: Discussion 45
F. Work plan for training 48
VI. Bibliography 50
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I. INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this study 1s to develop potential models of community
environmental education and citizen participation in decision-making about
air quality standards within the framework of the PSD Set II program in the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Prior experience with air quality
standards and their enforcement has shown that there is room for, and value
in, citizen participation in the total process of protecting the quality
I
of the air in this country.
The rationale underlying this approach is that value is seen in the
attempt to broaden the base of decisions in regard to air quality and to
bring a measure of decentralization into the process. Such decisions can
often be interpreted as unwarranted intrusions by "Big Brother" into the
economic vitality of a given area, intrusions which can be regarded as
detrimental to the livelihood of Americans. By considering realistic
models of citizen participation (supported by long-term environmental
education about PSD Set II pollutants and their effects), EPA can poten-
tially lessen that "Big Brother" image and, more importantly, bring more of
a feeling of consensus 1n this country about air quality standards and
increment levels.
The study has been conducted in a variety of ways. Research has been
done into EPA procedures, policies, and educational information, into
methods of community education through community schools, the Agricultural
Extension Service, and other programs, into methods of environmental educa-
tion, and into methods of citizen participation (SEE Section V.E., below).
Discussions have been held with practitioners in the aforementioned fields,
in EPA, the Extension Service, at North Carolina State University, in the
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League of Women Voters at the national and local levels, and 1n the National
Association of Counties. In addition, study staff have discussed the
various options within the framework of the study in detail.
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II. SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS
This study has verified the need to Investigate ways to Increase and
improve citizen participation in environmental matters (and to improve the
supporting educational system for that participation). The wisdom of the
government is^ doubted at the local level; air quality decisions are not
always understood and, therefore, are not always appreciated as valuable.
A wide range of issues has been uncovered in this study, and they have
been broken down into four main categories: technical, citizen partici-
pation, organizational, and "political." These are the issues found to be
vital in this study:
Technical
—how much of a problem is there with the pollu-
tants of concern here?
---is the necessary technical information available?
—can PSD Set II be linked with PSD Set I or any
other EPA-based program?
-—how will the findings of "acute" vs. "chronic"
health hazards affect the educational and parti-
cipatory process?
Citizen Participation
-—do people want to get involved?
— -is such citizen participation necessary?
---can Informed, effective citizen participation
be achieved?
—-is the degree and nature of citizen partici-
pation greatly determined by a perception of
seriousness and immediacy?
—what degree of community consensus is possible
on environmental matters, especially those
which conflict with economic interests?
—can alternative decision-making processes and
structures be developed in the context of
PSD Set II, in comparison with potentially
less functional existing processes and struc-
tures?
—what differences are there in short-term,
"cris1s"-participation and more long-term
effort-parti ci pati on ?
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—-what repertoire of citizen participation
techniques is there?
—how adaptable is the citizen participation/
community education process beyond PSD Set II?
Organizational
—-what are the leverage points in the existing
system?
—what organizational pattern will best bring
together expertise in community education,
environmental education, technical issues,
and decision-making methods, as well as
appropriate geographical coverage?
—how can the organizational pattern fit the
assumed complicated geographical dimensions of
air pollution problems?
---what are the optimal structure and processes
of Federal, state, and local linkages, to
bring a balance of interests and a successful
program?
—-how can this program get the most efficient and
effective use of its funds?
"Politics"
—-what compromises, if any, need to be made
between economic development and air pollu-
tion hazards?
—-how can PSD Set II pollution standards be
both fairly and flexibly applied?
—how much power can be delegated to non-
governmental and (traditionally) non-account-
able groups?
— -what is the nature and degree of citizen par-
ticipation that EPA wants?
It has been found in this study that the combination of citizen parti-
cipation and community environmental education is possible to achieve, given
that there is a sustainable environmental issue at stake and that there is
consistent and ethical management of the structures and processes necessary
to have consensus-based participation in decision-making. Three models of
citizen participation and community environmental education have been
proposed. The first would focus on the Agricultural Extension Service as
the organization of delivery; the second would focus on a combination of
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regional planning bodies and the League of Women Voters; and the third
would focus on the National Center for Community Education and the network
of community school/education programs in the public school system (with
possible aid from an environmental education organization of EPA's
choosing). Further, it is recommended that EPA consider testing one or
more of those models before launching a full-scale program.
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III. CONCLUSIONS
The main conclusion of this study is that it is indeed possible to
undertake a citizen participation and community environmental education
program within the framework of PSD Set II. Once the technical information
is available and reveals significant environmental hazards and chronic
health problems from PSD Set II pollutants, production of relevant educa-
tional materials should be no more difficult than for other EPA programs.
In addition, the organizational structures and participatory techniques
necessary for this particular approach do exist in quantities requisite
for success. On the other hand, there is no ideal structure and no ideal
set of processes. Geographical problem patterns can be confusing, commit-
ment to citizen participation may be weak, and existing resources may not
necessarily be in tune completely with EPA's philosophy and practices.
There are contingencies upon which the primary, positive conclusion
of this study is based. EPA must be willing to provide consistent,
restrained management of citizen participation structures and processes
and must aim at consensus wherever possible in the mechanisms it engineers
through the model it ultimately chooses to utilize. In regard to the
latter, among the models proposed in this study, that focusing on the
Extension Service is deemed to be the most useful. However, EPA must also
realize that a healthy amount of time and money will be required to
implement both community environment education programs and citizen
participation programs that will lead to appropriate decisions in regard
to PSD Set II increment levels. That long-term approach implies cummulative
development of both participatory bodies and community-based educational
strategies and information.
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In addition to the latter decisions, there are other benefits which
could accrue from the program suggested in this study. In the long run,
genuine efforts at citizen participation can bring a greater understanding
of EPA programs and, therefore, greater support. Also, in the process of
applying citizen participation and community-based education to PSD Set II,
EPA may find that this approach is worthwhile for other of its programs.
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IV. RECOMMENDATIONS
With the conclusion that the citizen participation and community
environmental education approach is worth considering seriously (plus the
proposal of three alternative models), the recommendations from this study
are relatively simple. The next task seems to be to test one or more of
the models as a pilot project, to test both the approach and the choice
of organlzatlon(s) and to provide a better estimate of the cost of such an
approach nationwide (since the latter 1s beyond the scope of the present
study).
The second main recommendation from this study is that further research
should be conducted along the lines of what-works-best-when. This study
only scratched the surface of the work that is being done in citizen parti-
cipation In this country (and overseas, for that matter) and of the materials
being produced 1n that area. There is a voluminous amount of material out
of which 1t can be determined to a great degree what techniques fit what
situations. However, It appears that very work has not yet been done. To
uncover the entire range of possibilities in citizen participation and to
produce a wide-ranging "how-to" would be quite productive.
The final recommendation is that serious consideration be given to
a "community-based" strategy of environmental education, by which a
community's "felt needs" about air quality (or other environmental problems)
—perhaps beyond PSD Set II--be addressed first. The long-term educa-
tional process would ultimately lead to PSD Set II concerns and issues.
That strategy could, obviously, be a focus of further research.
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V. FINDINGS OF THE STUDY
A. Working Definitions
The only element sought to be defined 1n this study was "community
environmental education" as a framework for the models of citizen partici-
pation in PSD Set II investigated herein. This definition has been refined
out of interaction with community educators, environmental educators, and
administrators of environmental and agricultural programs, and out of
the thinking and experience of the study staff.
Definition: Community environmental education is an edu-
catlonal process within which formal and informal educa-
tional programming on environmental matters 1s developed
(a) based upon community concerns; (b) determined by
community-wide participation; (c) set in existing
community organizations and structures; and (d) Ideally
impacting upon community decision-making about the
environment.
Within this definition, the "community" can be defined as the "com-
munity of interest," which can be as small as a rural locality identified
by Its residents as their community or as large as an entire state.
Decisions about which communities focus upon would come as a result of the
interaction of EPA and the states with which the Agency chooses to work,
depending upon Identification of areas of concern 1n regard to PSD Set II
pollutants. Therefore, community environmental education as defined is a
flexible process which can be applied contingent to the geographical area
of interest and to the magnitude of the air pollution level.
B. Major Issues
As with any potential program which involves a tangle of complex eco-
nomic, environmental, and community concerns and which requires a structure
going from the Federal level down to the local level, there are a wide range
of Issues here. Those issues have been subdivided 1n this study into four
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areas: technical Issues, citizen participation issues, organizational
issues, and political issues. The last set of issues is seen to be
"political" in the loose sense of overall centers and structures of decision-
making on public matters.
The primary technical issue for any participatory educational and
decision-making program revolving around PSD Set II pollutants is identi-
fication of the nature and extent of health problems attributable to those
pollutants. At the time of the writing of this report, concrete details
of scientific research about those pollutants had not been received.
However, the assumption is made here that those pollutants cause health
and environmental problems sufficient to arouse public interest to a level
that would at least make educational programs in this area viable. If
the health problems are chronic (rather than acute)--and therefore, less
likely to engender public interest—and if the environmental problems are
concomnvitantly not perceived to be equally acute, then the implication is
that the PSD Set II education/participation will have to be long-term and
low-key.
The issue subsequent to the availability of technical information is
whether it can be translated both to capture the complexity of the data and
Issues Involved and to be simple enough for public consumption and under-
standing. From exposure to a variety of different pieces of educational
materials pertaining to both air and water quality, it 1s relatively easy
for the study staff to conclude that, once the technical and scientific
information has been produced by EPA 1n relation to PSD Set II, production
of educational information in that area would not be any more difficult
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than prior efforts in other environmental areas. The key to the effective-
ness of that Information would hinge upon how clear the relationship was
between the air pollutants of concern and actual health and environmental
hazards.
The final technical issue is how much linkage there is between PSD
Set II and PSD Set I (or any other EPA-based environmental programs). From
the non-technical perspective of a Center for Community Education (which
may well mirror the general layman's point of view), it would appear that
public concerns about PSD Set I pollutants like sulfur dioxides have already
created a certain consciousness about that set of pollutants which could be
utilized as a springboard for the Set II pollutants. That linking of
Sets I and II could become easier especially if coal becomes used more
frequently as a source of power and the economic and environmental trade-
offs Involved therein become more of a public issue for decision-making.
Also, there has been much work done in the last decade on public
participation 1n water quality planning (through EPA programs). That, work
has explored similar structures to those Investigated in this study and is
utilizing all or parts of the models proposed here (SEE Section D, below).
So, 1n addition to the public consciousness about air pollution, there are
organizational frameworks which have already managed public participation
in decision-making and which have a linkage with EPA and its environmental
concerns.
The primary Issue with any consideration of citizen participation is
whether 1t is necessary. There appears to be a considerable argument in
its favor, at least theoretically, since the practical Issues are still in
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12.
the process of being worked out in a variety of public programs and settings.
The most Important argument in favor of citizen participation in public
decision-making Cand educational programming) is that it serves as a
mechanism for citizens to assume some control over their lives, and the life
of their community, in an age of complexity in which important decisions
appear to occur at ever more remote, higher, administrative levels. As
government and non-government organizations tend toward complexity of both
range and depth, the sources of decisions tend to move away from the
relatively accessible areas of elected officials and more local decision-
makers. The movement for citizen participation, growing out of democratic
tradition, provides a counterbalance to the remoteness of most decisions by
providing both a structure and a process that allows citizens to, at the
very least, voice their views on potential decisions. Also, if properly
handled (so that the decision is truly representative of community feelings),
citizen participation can lead to programs strengthened by the consensus of
opinion generated in that process. If agreement is reached via citizen
participation mechanisms, it can lead to wider acceptance and support of,
for example, air pollution regulations, and, therefore, less resistance to
such things.
The next issue is whether informed, effective citizen participation
can be achieved in the context of PSD Set II. As can be seen in the survey
of case studies in Section C (below), such can be achieved given the right
conditions:
---consistent, concerned management by the administrative units
involved, especially respect for "community" opinions and
decisions;
—development of both structures/organizations and a process
facilitative of optimally effective citizen participation;
—-the existence of an issue which is of great enough concern
that it will attract participation representative of the
total "community" that will be affected by any decision made;
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—-a citizen participation strategy that aims at consensus of the
parties Involved;
---strategies that are appropriate to the situation at hand
(e.g., geographical area of concern, amount of potential
conflict, etc.); and
-—"success" in citizen participation (I.e., decision-making
that is acceptable to the "community of interest")
Next, it is worth raising the issue of what effect "crisis mentality"
has on the nature and degree of citizen participation in environmental
education and decision-making. The case studies, and common sense, show
that the perception of a crisis has a profound effect on citizen partici-
pation. According to the perceived immediacy of an environmental crisis,
the amount of and range of participation should vary greatly, and, if the
crisis has a serious impact on a critical mass of people, the intensity
of feelings and concern will be that much greater.
Of course, the latter situation, where there is much actual or poten-
tial conflict, poses a complementary question of how much consensus is
truly possible, for example, when economic and environmental interests are
in conflict. That would seem to depend (again as seen in the case studies)
upon how much the Interested parties are willing to compromise, what
structures and processes for participation and consensus there are, and
what organizational focus there is for resolving conflict.
In regard to the situation where there is no perceived crisis and
where enhancement of existing air quality 1s the issue at stake, the
participatory process—and its "actors"--can be altered somewhat. The
absence of a crisis should mean less pressure and less conflict, and,
also, less immediate lay participation. On one hand, it lessens the
defensiveness of public (and private) officials, hopefully leading to
calmer examination of issues and gradual development of consensus; on
the other hand, it makes broad-based citizen participation harder to
achieve.
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In addltlqn to structural concerns already expressed, a concommitant
Issue 1s whether the participatory, consensus-building, group processes
exist which can be applied. Figure 1 (p. 15) shows categorized participation
techniques collected in a Department of Transportation studyJ Those
techniques can be applied situationally to the tasks involved in specific
instances where citizen participation is being facilitated. For examples,
surveys and referenda can be utilized in attempting to reach the mass :
public at different stages of the educational and decision-making process;
public hearings and neighborhood meetings can be used for more focused
public information and opinion-sharing; and simulations, fishbowl planning,
and other group techniques can be employed in small-group work sessions
oriented to decision-making tasks.
Parallel with this issue is that of the development of alternative
decision-making structures and processes that might be more effective than
the traditional public hearing and formal decision-making structure that is
utilized most of the time with public Issues Tike air or water quality. The
strategy choices in Figure 1 and the ad hoc bodies seen in some of the
case studies would seem to indicate that there are functional alternatives
which can be effective 1f managed properly.
The final citizen participation issue is how adaptable the partici-
pative process is beyond just PSD Set II considerations. The definition
of community environmental education indicates the flexibility of the
community-based approach to education. Taking its cue from the pattern
TEffective Citizen Participation in Transportation Planning Vol. 1.,
"Community Involvement Processes,1' Washington, D. C.: USDOT, Federal
Highway Administration, 1976, p. 19.
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FIGURE 1
PARTICIPATION TECHNIQUES CLASSIFIED BY FUNCTION
1. Information Dissemination
PUBLIC INFORMATION PROGRAMS
DROP-IN CENTERS
HOT LINES
MEETINGS - OPEN INFORMATION
2. Information Collection
SURVEYS
FOCUSED GROUP DISCUSSIONS
DELPHI
COMMUNITY-SPONSORED MEETINGS
PUBLIC HEARINGS
OMBUDSMAN
•
3. Initiative Planning
ADVOCACY PLANNING
CHARRETTES
COMMUNITY PLANNING CENTERS
COMPUTER-BASED TECHNIQUES
DESIGN-IN AND COLOR MAPPING
PLURAL PLANNING
TASK FORCE
WORKSHOPS
4. Reactive Planning
CITIZENS' ADVISORY COMMITTEES
CITIZEN REPRESENTATIVES ON POLICY-
MAKING BOARDS
FISHBOWL PLANNING
INTERACTIVE CABLE TV-BASED
PARTICIPATION
MEETINGS - NEIGHBORHOOD
NEIGHBORHOOD PLANNING COUNCILS
POLICY CAPTURING
VALUE ANALYSIS
5. Decis ionmaking <
ARBITRATIVE AND MEDLATIVE PLANNING
CITIZEN REFERENDUM
CITIZEN REVIEW BOARD
MEDIA-BASED ISSUE BALLOTING
6. Participation Process Support
CITIZEN EMPLOYMENT
CITIZEN HONORIA
CITIZEN TRAINING
COMMUNITY TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE
COORDINATOR OR COORDINATOR/CATALYST
GAME SIMULATION
GROUP DYNAMICS
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of community development activities, this approach presupposes that the
"content" of any formal or informal educational programming will be
determined primarily by the needs and wants of the community involved.
In the case of PSD Set II, the actual content of any educational efforts
will be developed in the interaction of (a) EPA-based information on Set II
pollutants and increment levels and (b) community perceptions of its air
quality and related problems. It should also be noticeable that the
community education process can be adapted to other environmental concerns.
If one takes community needs and interests as a basic element in setting
up educational programming, then one can tailor educational efforts to
those needs and interests, respecting them as valid and gaining an entree
into communities by that respect. The old adage about walking a mile in
someone else's shoes has great long-term validity. If the administrative
mechanisms can be set up to gain genuine, representative citizen partici-
pation that is relied upon and utilized significantly, then the credibility
of the external agency (like EPA) will also increase, and its point of
view will also be more readily understood by the community involved.
The organizational issues in marrying community environmental education
with PSD Set II technical information and decision-making will be more
fully discussed as they are concretized in Section D (below). However, they
will be briefly surveyed at this point in the report.
The primary issue is how to achieve an organizational pattern which
will bring together expertise in community and environmental education,
the technical material necessary, and decision-making methods that are then
applied to the geographical pattern most appropriate to both air pollution
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problems and the communities of identification and decision-making which
fit these problems. The most natural question to ask next is where the
leverage points are in the existing systems of environmental education and
decision-making, followed by how a balance of Federal, state, and local
interests can be achieved. The final issue here would be how to do all
those things with the most efficient and effective use of funds.
The "political" dimension to this study has two main focuses, one
being the range of compromise between environmental standards and overall
economic development, and the other being the potential redistribution
of power involved in any serious notions of citizen participation in
decision-making. The former appears resolvable through the use of existing
EPA calculations on increment levels and methods for working out air
quality trade-offs, plus an orientation to consensus-building in the
structures and processes used for citizen participation. The second is a
much trickier issue. Though there is great promise in the utilization of
ad hoc participatory bodies, there has been a significant tendency on the
part of elected officials to ignore the advice given them by such groups.
Resolution of this issue depends, first, on the commitment of EPA to such
an approach in its policies and procedures, and, secondly, on the parallel
commitment of state, sub-state, and locally elected officials to share
authority with citizen committees aiding in the decision-making process.
The fundamental issue among all those described is the first one.
In order for major, vital citizen participation to be generated, there must
be concrete, understandable evidence of hazards in this area of air
quality. Once that is generated, then the other major issues can be
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approached with more confidence. However, as the degree of perceived
hazard drops, the degree of long-range term citizen participation should
diminish correspondingly. The issue then becomes one of facilitating
effective participation in a lower key.
C. Case Studies
Public decision-making: The four case studies surveyed in this section
show a variety of geographical areas focused upon and an equal variety in
methods used. The latter varied most particularly because of the different
problems that existed in each case.
1) "Amendment #1"2: This instance of public decision-making is very
much a traditional political case. Amendment #1 is a constitutional amend-
ment passed in Missouri that levied a 1/8% sales tax for wildlife and
forestry conservation which included non-game animals. The seven-year
effort to pass the amendment grew out of a 1969 alliance of the state's
Conservation Department and the state's Conservation Federation, out of
which emerged the Design For Conservation, a blueprint for overall wildlife
management and overall outdoor recreation management. The Conservation
Federation organized a Citizens Committee for Conservation, which spearheaded
the drive to provide funding for that plan. A plan to tax soft drinks for
that purpose having been quashed by legal technicalities, the Committee
first had to fight, and win, legal battles to get a petition drive organized
for the 1/8% tax (in 1973 and 1974), and then it succeeded in getting 200,000
2Charles Davidson, "Amendment #l--a conservation victory," in Clay
Schoenfeld and John Disinger, Environmental Education in Action III: Case
Studies of Public Involvement in Environmental Policy. Columbus, Ohio.:
ERIC/SMEAC Clearinghouse, December 1978, pp. 36-42.
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signatures 1n 1975 to get the proposed amendment put on the 1976 ballot.
The ultimate victory turned out to be a narrow one, with a 50.8%-49.2X
margin.
There were multiple strategies utilized In that effort. The formation
of the Citizens Committee and the back-up provided by the Conservation
Federation meant a coordinated leadership structure, with the use of a
decision-making steering committee and some dedicated individual leadership.
In addition, much legal help was used to draw up petitions and to surmount
the legal hurdles Involved. The effort also took a good deal of financial
support from the network of conservationists accessible to the Conservation
Federation, plus massive volunteer support for the petition drive. In the
area of publicity, a wide range of public endorsements were garnered for
the whole effort, and the Citizens Committee developed a media campaign
geared to passing the amendment. The complexities of such a large-scale
effort are obvious.
2) "Environmental Education Program for Community Leaders in Lee
County, Mississippi"3; This effort was developed by the Land Use Center
of the Mississippi Cooperative Extension Service at Mississippi State
University, with financial assistance from the then U. S. Office of Education.
The overall objectives for the program were to create an awareness of the
Lee County Land Use Plan among both formal and informal county leaders and
to emphasize the Plan's importance in the county, both to its communities
and to its environment. More specifically, the program sought to assist
community leaders (a) realize that their communities had environmental
3Bob T. Chapin, "Environmental education program for community leaders
1n Lee County," 1n Schoenfeld & D1s1nger, op. cit., pp. F-20.
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problems; (b) acquire a knowledge of resources available at the local
level to improve the environment; (c) gain an understanding of the rela-
tionship" of population, economy, transportation, housing, and public
services to land use and the environment; (d) gaining a knowledge of the
problem-solving process as a part of effective community environmental
programs; and (e) participate in land use planning workshops to gain a
better understanding of their role in environmental education.
There were two categories of educational methods used in this program.
The first was the production of educational materials: informational
printed material (which was mailed out to those requesting it), television
and radio spots, a short movie called "Consider the Land," newspaper arti-
cles, and a sound-slide show on "The Use of Land in Lee County." In
addition to that amount of material, six workshops in various communities
in the county were held for conmunity leaders.
There were a variety of results to this program: a county land use
resolution was supported by an overwhelming majority of workshop partici-
pants; policy suggestions were forwarded to county and regional authorities;
499 environmental improvement projects were undertaken in the county; and
the Council of Governments for that area, boards of supervisors, and muni-
cipal officials all supported the continuation of the program.
Figure 2 shows the great number of organizations involved in different
stages of this program. It also illustrates the complexity of even a
county-level effort to deal with environmental issues. In addition, it
shows how public decision-making can be spread out so that a wide range of
citizen participation can be facilitated.
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FIGURE 2
LAND USE INFORMATION FLOW AND COOPERATING AGENCIES*
NECESSARY FOR GENERATING NATURAL RESOURCE USE INVENTORIES
Basic Resource Data
(Compiled by Research Agencies):
U.S. Geological Survey
Board of Water Cocmissioners of
the State of Mississippi
Agriculture Experiment Stations
Soil Conservation Service
University Research Foundations
Mississippi R & D Center
Resource Needs Inventories
(Compiled by Planning Agencies):
Cooperative Extension (Land Use
Center and Community Development)
Regional Planning Agencies
Office of State Planning
Council of Governments
Community Development Foundation
Interpretive Data
(Compiled by Service Agencies):
Air and Water Pollution Control
Commission
Cooperative Extension Service
(Specialists)
Land Use Center
County Agents
Soil Conservation Service
Forestry Commission
ASCS
FmHA
EPA
Priorities of Needs
(Compiled by Social and
Planning Agencies):
Cooperative Extension (Land Use
Center and Community Development)
Regional Planning Agencies
Community Officials
Lee County Board of Supervisors
Compatabilities of Needs and Resources
(Compiled by Service and Planning Agencies):
Cooperative Extension (Specialists, Land Use Center,
Pollution, and Community Development)
Air and Water Pollution Control Commission
Soil Conservation Service
State Health Department
Mississippi R & D Center
Regional Planning Agencies
-0-
Potential Natural Resource Use Inventory
Maintained by the Air and Water Pollution Control Commission
Promulgated to the Appropriate Audiences by Cooperative
Extension Service
Decision Makers
*There are many other agencies and organizations involved at various
times and locations. The agencies listed are those most consistently
involved in Mississippi.
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3) "Governor's Commission on Arizona Environment"^: This Commission
has been in operation since the White House Conference on Natural Beauty in
1965. Composed entirely of volunteers, it meets in diverse locations
throughout the state to tackle environmental problems, and all of Arizona's
environmental legislation since the inception of the Commission can be
directly or indirectly attributed to its work. In addition to its aid in
the legislative decision-making process, it has developed publfc information,
as diverse as the "Arizona Will" anti-litter cartoon advertisements,
environmental awards, a Solid Waste Management Van (in coordination with the
League of Women Voters), public forums, an environmental education teacher's
guide, and informational workshops.
The composition of the Commission is its main asset. Because it is
a non-partisan group representing all sides of environmental issues, it
has access to the Arizona governor and consequent political leverage. The
representatives are appointed by the governor after an organization requests
membership and a Commission screening committee approves that membership.
The Commission does work strongly toward having high-level representation
from constituent members, to achieve as much clout as possible. So this is
another example of the functionality of multi-faceted representation and
the utility of having influential membership when the task at hand is
statewide environmental education and decision-making.
4) "Citizen participation and consensus-building in land use planning:
a case study"5: In 1975 the Alewife Task Force, a citizens advisory group
P-. Drachman, "Governor's Commission on Arizona Environment," in
Schoenfeld & Disinger, op. cit., pp. 51-56.
5Lawrence Susskind, "Citizen participation & consensus-building in
land-use planning," mimeo, personal copy.
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23
with representation of all agencies and interest groups with a stake
involved, was commissioned to help plan an extension of the Boston subway
system northwest of the city. That representation consisted of fifty
different groups: neighborhood associations, business groups, environmental
action groups, and agencies with a multitude of overlapping jurisdictions.
After a year and a half of intensive work, the groups decided that it wanted
to be more than a sounding board and proceeded to convert itself into a
forum for negotiating a settlement of the conflicts that one would expect
from boiling down fifteen original alternatives to one which the fifty
groups could accept.
The author of the case study makes this observation on the experience
he had in that process: "...land use disputes sparked by public investments
or private actions can best be resolved through a structured bargaining or
mediating process separate from, but not completely independent of, repre-
sentative government." (p. 6). In this case, the bargaining/mediating
approach was successful in both gaining Task Force consensus and overcoming
the resistance of elected officials and local bureaucracy to hammer out a
plan that was to be Implemented.
That success was not necessarily without Its costs. There were many
issues to, first, explore and then resolve; the use of informal group
management took time for group members to understand; there were expected
"tuff" problems; the problem area did not match jurisdictional lines; and
agency consultants were reluctant to go beyond informational work. Even
with the use of many participatory techniques—both with the communities
and the Task Force itself—the ultimate compromise grew mostly out of
frustration with the differences among Task Force members. The break
came when the group decided to look on the subway extension as an
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24
opportunity to create a positive environment rather than as a problem to
deal with.
The author cites two key "lessons" emanating from this case. First,
participatory forms must move toward a strategy of consensus-building.
Second, the issue of representativeness is not just important for gathering
a wide range of participants; those participants must then feel repre-
sentative of the group that is providing advice or 1s making decisions.
Dissemination of technical information: The four case studies in
this section show a variation in the ways information can be disseminated
and in the types of organizations that can provide environmental information
and education.
1) "The Passaic River Coalition vs. The Army Corps of Engineers"^:
The history of this educational advocacy program has its roots in the
authority the Corps of Engineers was given in 1936 to control flooding
1n the Passaic River Valley of New Jersey. As a result of one of the
Corps' control plans, in 1968 the Passaic River Coalition was formed to
oppose that plan and, over the next eight years, developed and employed a
broad spectrum of educational methods to bolster its position.
The Initial educational effort was to produce the report The Passaic
River and Its Role and the slide show "The Crisis of Our Flood Plains."
The former was distributed primarily to public officials, and the latter
was a prominent feature of the 125 programs put on by the PRC in 1972
leading up to a public hearing on the flood control plan. As the dispute
escalated into the mld-1970's, the PRC started a "library" of information,
6Ella F. Fillippone & Betty A. Little, "Passaic Rover Coalition vs.
Army Corps of Engineers," in Schoenfeld & Disinger, op. cit., pp. 57-62.
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25
organized an advisory board consisting of many people with great expertise,
and conducted opinion polls in that area to gauge public feelings and
support.
When the New Jersey governor approved the Corps of Engineers latest
plan, the PRC stepped up its public information campaign by producing an
exhaustive list of objections to that plan (which it disseminated widely)
and by conducting continuous public hearings between 1974 and 1976. The
ultimate result of this effort was a massive show of support by public
officials at a Congressional hearing and a subsequent order for the Corps
to completely re-study the Passaic River Valley for alternative flood
control methods.
As with the effort to pass Amendment #1 in Missouri, the Passaic
River Coalition had to wage a complex and highly political campaign to
gain a more reasonable approach to flood control in their locality. This
effort would also seem to indicate that a perceived crisis plus years of being
left out of decisions can produce some quite vigorous environmental educa-
tion and action programs.
2) "Community involvement in air quality problems in Steubenvllle,
Ohio, and Weirton, West Virginia"7: This is a somewhat less successful
example of the dissemination of technical information 1n an area with one
of the worst air pollution problems in the country. In this situation the
atmospheric sciences program at Ohio State University (with auxiliary help
from Ohio Wesleyan University and private consulting firms) tried to link
university-based expertise and knowledge with community involvement to
7Jo Ellen Force & Thomas A. Seliga, "Community Involvement in air
quality problems 1n Steubenville, Ohio, & Weirton, West Virginia," in
Schoenfeld & Disinger, op. cit., pp. 63-69.
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26
begin to solve community environmental problems. The focal point of this
effort was a set of conferences and workshops, for which contacts were
made with the range of actors vital to such an approach: the mayors and
other local officials, EPA representatives, steel company representatives,
and health professionals.
This program was deemed to be a limited success. The problems encoun-
tered indicate the nature of the limits of this approach:
a) It was difficult to get industry representatives
to participate in an informative rather than
defensive manner;
b) There were great problems of staff continuity with
university personnel limited by time and other
constraints;
c) Funding was not available to provide a sound data
base on the actual and potential atmospheric
conditions and the consequent health problems;
d) There was not a "critical mass" of local citizens
to provide the momentum for significant progress
on local problems; and
e) It was realized that the timing of this effort could
have better coincided with periods of poorest air
quality, in autumn and late summer, when public
interest would have been at its highest.
3) "Citizen Involvement in Wisconsin's Pilot Energy Extension
Program"**: This project was based in the Wisconsin Energy Extension
Service (WEES), a cooperative mixture of the structure of the University
of Wisconsin continuing education divisions statewide and the resources
and delivery systems of the Wisconsin Cooperative Extension Service.
A wide variety of content was to be used here. They included statewide
energy audit training, energy assistance for low and moderate income
residents, demonstrations of energy conservation in public buildings,
energy conservation in recreation/tourist businesses, energy conservation
8James W. Cooch, "Citizen Involvement in Wisconsin's Pilot Energy
Extension Program," in Schoenfeld & Disinger, op. cit., pp. 79-83.
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27
in agricultural transportation and food distribution, safety and efficiency
in wood heating, an energy information center, and review of teaching and
reference materials relating to energy conservation.
The initial educational efforts were guided by the State Energy
Conservation Advisory Committee, with representatives of public interest
groups, local governments, utilities, cooperatives, industry, and the state
legislature. In addition, an Energy Education Task Force was charged with
the responsibility of developing a long-range energy education plan. The
latter group was made up of representatives from the State Vocational,
Technical, and Adult Education Board, the Department of Public Instruction,
University of Wisconsin-Extension, and the Office of State Planning and
Energy.
This case points out the existence of one kind of education system
potentially useful for PSD Set II information and the need for a cooperative
approach to statewide programming.
4) "The League of Women Voters in Green Bay"9: This case demonstrates
both the nationwide network of the League of Women Voters and its potential
as a local resource for environmental education. As a national organization,
the League has been active for many years in environmental issues. The
general pattern of operation for the group is to adopt "Study Items" at
the national, state, and local levels and then to develop educational
materials and projects geared to each Item. For example, in 1970 solid
waste management was chosen as a Study Item at the LWV national convention.
A national guide was produced at the national level (along with other
9Cora Stencil, "The League of Women Voters in Green Bay," in Schoenfeld &
Disinger, op. cit., pp. 179-182.
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285
educational materials), whriTe,T at the- loca1! level, consensus was sought,
meetings were held, and projects were developed.
The: Leagues in the Fox River Valley of Wisconsin (which includes
Green Bay) are an example of such work at the local, level. The.ir first
effort was to recommend land use/sewage treatment planning in that area
and to testify at public hearings on that issue, activity which aided the
formation of the area's water quality planning agency. Three League
members were subsequently appointed, to the agency's citizens advisory
committee.
The next step was for those Leagues to get a small environmental
education grant through the 208 Water Quality Program, which meant that
the Leagues worked with the water quality planning agency and regional
planning bodies to gather information and put together educational materials
for that area. As with other cases presented in this study, many educa-
tional methods were used: a slide show on point and non-point pollution
was developed, 10,000 brochures on the 208 Program, and thirty-three
presentations (including three state conventions,, radio/t.v. talk shows,
evening meetings in waterfront parks, a traveling display, and workshops
for high school students). The advantages of a community-based organization
can be seen in this case, as long as it has adequate financial and infor-
mational backup.
Resistance of industrial/highway development: The final three cases
do not illustrate outright success in defeating industrial or highway
development, but, rather, indicate both methods of opposition and of
reconciling diverse points of view on those matters. One emphasis in this
study is on gearing citizen participation to resolve air quality concerns,
as well as to oppose development that would cause significant deterioration
in air quality.
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29
1) "Save Our Mountains/Save Our Cumberland Mountains"1°: These two
organizations are engaged in the same kind of activity, to resist the
depredation of strip mining in Appalachia. Save Our Mountains has worked
in southern West Virginia to fight local strip miners from destroying the
land in that area. The primary method of resistance has been to develop a
handbook that deals with strip mining, covering current laws, taxes, and
ways to fight strip mining.
Save Our Cumberland Mountains operates in eastern Tennessee, with the
same purpose as the organization above. SOCM has used a variety of methods
to fight mining in its area. It has promoted participatory public hearings,
checked county tax records to see if coal companies are legally raising
rates, worked with the state legislature for more progressive laws, used a
film called "The Stripping of Appalachia," and gone to court seeking equal
county services for mountain residents.
Admittedly, the victories for these two groups have been quite limited;
however, they do illustrate the possibility of linking with existing
community-based groups to develop environmental action.
2) "Multi-model corridor study"11: This case involves the use of
citizen participation in planning transportation alternatives in a metro-
politan area. The problem at hand was how to provide improved transportation
systems between city and suburbs, with the primary alternative, at the
beginning, being the extension of an interstate highway from the city
beltline through the city.
^Mountain Life and Work, undated, from files of the Durham County
(N.C.) Community Education Program.
^Effective Citizen Participation in Transportation Planning, op. cit.,
pp. 70-86.
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30
The state's Secretary of Transportation having mandated representative
and continuous citizen participation in the planning process, a large,
advisory .steering conmvittee was formed to work on the project. Over sixty
people were on the committee, elected officials, agency representatives,
and private citizens both independent and representative of interest groups.
To facilitate committee work, the project staff conducted a transportation
survey of the affected area, conducted well advertised public hearings to
gauge community feelings, and opened a "drop-in" office in the project area.
The internal committee planning process, spread out over a year, split
into two phases. The first produced 14 alternatives (not^ including the
highway extension, which was dropped early on), out of which the Department
of Transportation picked five Phase II alternatives for consideration, all
of which leaned toward mixed mode options.
The result of this approach was the choice of a mixed mode approach
deemed satisfactory by all those involved. The main trade-off here seems
to be that the large expense for the projects (over $250,000) produced a
result that included resolution of issues that had caused great conflict
elsewhere and recommendations for an alternative that was more readily
implementable because of the consensus which had been developed
3) "Citizen Advisory Committee for In-town Sectional Planning"^2:
This case involves overall planning for development of a commercial area in
a large city, an activity in which both highways/transportation and indus-
trial growth were Issues.
As in the previous case, the problem situation grew out of a formal
planning effort (the City Planning Commission, in. this, case) in which
12Ibid., pp. 92-100.
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31
significant opposition to initial ideas (i.e., rezoning for more commercial
growth) led to the formation of participatory groups. Here there were two,
an interagency task force and a citizens advisory committee. The former
was the focal group, made up of representatives from agencies whose support
and approval were required, which was responsible for developing the growth
plan and for getting the views of the affected area via the citizens advisory
committee.
The primary process by which the two groups performed their task was
a regular bi-weekly joint meeting to review work and to work on a specific
aspect of the planning. Over the time it took to do the work, those meetings
involved an interactive exchange of alternatives between the two groups.
As part of its work, the advisory committee conducted a survey of the study
area to get factual evidence of common knowledge of that area's opinions.
The result of this effort was to develop a revised sectional plan that
called for a combination of commercial and residential development. The
success of the effort can be measured by the approval the plan got from
both the City Planning Commission and the local neighborhood coalition.
The positive result was deemed to be attributable to both the genuine
participatory structure and the aim at compromise by participants.
Summary: These cases would appear to show that citizen partici-
pation is possible and effective—given the right conditions, which can
be reasonably developed—and that there are resources available to
disseminate information on technical matters such as air quality. Factors
supportive of both elements include adequate funding for programs, a
perceived "crisis" of some sort, the use of ad hoc advisory and decision-
making groups that are representative of the geographical area involved,
active coordination of groups in any such projects, and structure and
processes faciHtatlve of consensus wherever possible.
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32
D. Candidate Organizations and Relevant Actors
The most influential factor in developing a set of alternative organi-
zational models In this study has been the organizational issue defined
earlier (p. 4) of how to achieve the optimal combination of resources
necessary to participatory approaches to education and decision-making
within the framework of PSD Set II. The choices described below reflect
consideration of that issue, as well as of the rest of the issues'defined •
previously, and consideration of the existing system for decision-making in
relation to air quality. Figure 3 (p. 33) shows that system and its
"Actors," plus what are sensed in this study to be leverage points for
facilitating desired citizen participation in decision-making and community
environmental education.
The actors for each level are listed next to that level. The formal
actors are the staff members and elected officials at each level,
and the informal actors influencing the decision-making and educational
processes by their interaction with formal actors are those who are
considered neither to be staff or elected people. These actors are
considered to operate in all the models proposed.
Numbers one (1} to four (4) in Figure 3 designate the leverage points
within the existing system. The system is assumed to be functioning
adequately, given the resources available, and the following discussion of
those leverage points will point to both resources and processes necessary
at those points to make possible effective citizen participation and
educational strategies.
At leverage point (1) the Federal EPA level, it is assumed that the
PSD Set II technical information can be developed and there are in-house
resources for managing citizen participation (from water quality work).
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• FIGURE 3
33
EXISTING STRUCTURE
EPA -- Federal
(1)
EPA --^Regional
(2)
State: Designated State Agency
Governor
Legislature
(3)
"ACTORS"
EPA Staff
Congressional Leaders
National Environmental Groups
National Industrial Groups
National Governr.ent Officials
Associations
Labor Unions
EPA Staff
Any Parallel Regional
Organizations (as above)
Governor
State Agency Staff
Legislative Leaders
Statewide Political Leaders
Statewide Environr-ntal,
Industrial, labor, etc.,
Organizations
"Interested Parties"
Universities Staffs
"General Purpose Units of Local
Government"
(4)
Regional Bodies
County/Municipal Government
Regional/County/Municipal Staffs
Elected Officials
Local Environnental, Business,
Labor, and Community Groups
Political and Community Leaders
"Interested Parties"
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34
What would need to be developed would be funding for the proposed citizen
participation 1n PSD Set II and, possibly, shared staffing with the lead
organizations proposed in the three models appearing below.
At leverage point (2), the Regional EPA level, the assumptions can be
made as at point (1) above. The need here would be for a "broker" between
the Federal and state levels, a person who would be able to focus on the
concerns of each level and who would be able to relate to both the delivery
system of EPA and that of the lead organization for whatever model is
chosen. Also, at this level some consideration can be given to tailoring
technical information to the unique needs of the region and its cadre of
states.
At leverage point (3) there are considerable needs. First, there
would need to be "consciousness-raising" and concrete training related to
participation strategies, as well as resources and skills in adult education
and public information methods. In addition, this would be a point at
which resources for the translation of technical information and for the
production of state-specific information would need to be developed. These
needs can also be said to be appropriate for leverage point (4) as well, at
the sub-state, regional and/or local levels. Also, those two levels would
need help, as well, in deciding how to integrate citizen participation
forms Into existing decision-making structures.
The assumption here is that the present focus of responsibility for
air quality maintenance is focused at the state level, and that participatory
and educational efforts would aim at enhancing that maintenance process.
In addition to the needs stated in the paragraph above, a more specific
need would be to develop models of organizational cooperation contributing
to the air quality effort. As seen in the case studies, these would most
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35
likely take the form of ad hoc advisory bodies made up of appropriate
officials and interested citizen representatives.
Development of the models discussed immediately below takes into
consideration the assets and needs of each of the levels and leverage
points described to this point. The models chosen are meant to provide
as many of those defined needs as possible.
MODEL #1: Cooperative Extension Service Focus
The Cooperative Extension Service of the U. S. Department of Agricul-
ture would seem to have the best organizational structure, staff resources,
and philosophic orientation for conducting a citizen participation program
that relates to environmental education and decision-making in rural areas
(which appears to be where the focus of PSD Set II will be). Of primary
importance, too, is the existing cooperative arrangement between EPA and
the Extension Service in relation to rural water quality, which means that
a model already exists that can serve as the basis for developing a
similar model for PSD Set II.
In relation to the major Issues of this study raised earlier, the
Extension Service has been involved in citizen participation for many years,
having a great orientation to both volunteer!sm and the extensive use of
citizen advisory committees. So, at least theoretically, the Extension
Service has been testing and refining methods of citizen participation for
a number of years and dealing with Issues of compromise and consensus in
community affairs.
As far as organizational Issues for this study are concerned, the
structure of the Extension Service in each state has fair compatibility
with the needs of PSD Set II work. Figure 4 (p. 36) illustrates this model
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FIGURE 4
Hode.T #1: Cooperative Extension Service
EPA -- Federal
(Memo of Understanding)
EPA — Regional
(ES-Based Staff Member)
State
(Contract)
Local Government
Regional
(Coordination)
County/Municipal (Coordination)
USDA--ES
State ES — Land-Grant College
District ES
County
ES
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37
with the parallel Extension Service organizational structure included. As
can be seen, except for the fact that the sub-state district-level of
Extension is not always contiguous with the EPA air quality structure and
it has no Federal regional office, the rest of it is. That incompatibility
is not necessarily a problem, since the district-levels would tend to
encompass regions covered by Councils of Government and other regional
planning bodies and an ES-based staff member could be placed in the EPA
regional office. It would seem, then, that the organizational problem of
matching communities-of-concern (in re: air quality problems) with organi-
zational structure can be handled through the flexibility of the appropriate
Extension level.
Also, since the Extension service is based in the land-grant colleges
and universities, of all the organizations evaluated in this study, it
has the best combination of expertise in community education, environmental
education (at least from a land-use point of view), the translation and
dissemination of technical information, and decision-making methods.
In terms of the "political" Issues involved in this study, the Extension
/
Service appears to be adequate to the tasks of integrating itself with
traditional decision-making structures (especially at the county level) and
of negotiating consensus between economic and environmental issues. The
latter should be a process well ingrained in Extension operations since
those kinds of choices are basic to agricultural practice.
There are some limits seen in the use of the Extension Service,
starting with statements made immediately above. When it comes to a choice
between what 1s economical in agricultural practice and what is environ-
mentally sound in the long run, it is a question here as to where the
Extension Service would stand. Though it has been involved generally in
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aa
environmental issues Tike land use, it has not necessarily been in the
vanguard: of environmental action in the last ten or fifteen years. This
may be of some-concern to EPA in states where agribusiness dominates. Also,
the traditionalism of Extension, though it does place it securely within
decision-making structures vital to what is proposed here for PSD Set II,
may also inhibit participatory structures and processes that are novel and
non-traditional. However, this model is still felt to be most appropriate
as a unified approach to citizen participation and PSD Set II.
Figure 4 shows the structure of operation for the implementation of
this model and draws much from the EPA/ES work done on rural water quality.
At the Federal level, a Memo of Understanding between the agencies can be
used as the basis of a cooperative working agreement; technical information
can be developed between the two agencies, and- staff can be exchanged to
facilitate mutual understanding of each agency's, operating philosophy and
procedures. Since there is no Extension level comparable to the EPA
regional level, that deficit could be handled by placing an Extension-
based staff member in EPA regional offices to serve as the kind of "broker"
described previously in this report (p. '34).
The most active coordination would occur on the state level. Here
the state agency responsible for air quality could contract with the state
Extension Service unit, based in the land-grant university or college, for
technical assistance on participatory strategies, the development of public
and technical information, and the services of an Extension specialist to
serve as a liaison to sub-state activities. In addition, there would
have to be great coordination of effort between the. state, agency and its
Extension counterparts in planning and implementing both citizen partici-
pation in air quality decision-making and the complementary long-term
educational effort.
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39
The coordination of the next two levels of organization would mainly
be determined by state-level coordinative work. District-level Extension
specialists could work with appropriate sub-state regional planning bodies
on the mechanics of citizen participation and planning at that level
(as well as on coordination of public information work). Coordination
of county Extension agents with local public officials in all aspects of
this program would be, more or less, "business as usual," since those
local-level ties are generally well developed already.
MODEL #2: Regional Planning Body Focus
The next best organizational structure appropriate to PSD Set II is
utilizing sub-state regional planning bodies (Councils of Government, etc.).
Figure 5 (p. 40) shows the structure of this model, which differs signi-
ficantly from the prior model. The strength of using regional planning
bodies lies in their general responsibility for regional development
planning, which would include environmental and economic issues and trade-
offs, and in their geographical placement, as containing logically related
areas of their states which would capture many communities-of-concern for
air quality problems. In addition, many of them have been involved in
water quality and other participatory projects in the last ten years, and
their familiarity with technical information and issues would be a great
help.
The weakness of those regional planning bodies is also obvious from
Figure 5. They lack significant system-wide educational capability, so the
League of Women Voters is proposed to undertake the educational component
of this model (as well as to provide technical assistance with the partici-
patory process involved).
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40
FIGURE 5
MQDEL #2: Regional Planning Bodies
EPA — Federal
EPA — Regional
State
(NARC)
(contract) '
(coordinate:n
National League of Ucc.er.
Voters
State Ll.'V
"^ i
Regional Planning Bodies (coordination) Ad hoc regional LWV Group
County/Municipal
(coordination)
Local LHV
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41
In operation this model would use most of the existing Federal-to-
State system, but 1t would augment the capabilities of the regional
planning bodies 1n Implementing such an effort. Technical Information and
administrative guidance would still flow down those same channels. However,
the multiple levels of the League of Women Voters could be utilized (with
appropriate funding) to develop educational materials and citizen parti-
cipation strategies and to coordinate the use of those strategies.
At the Federal level, EPA could contract with the LWV for the above-
mentioned services. In addition, it could do the same with a group like
the National Association of Regional Councils (NARC), on a smaller scale,
to funnel Information directly to the director and staffs of regional plan-
ning bodies (as 1s now being done 1n other areas of air quality), to
sensitize them to the Issues involved while simultaneously working through
established channels on administrative matters.
At the state level, the designated state agency could then coordinate
with the state LWV organization on participatory strategies and on the
production and dissemination of both general and state-specific Information.
Meanwhile, at the regional level, the regional planning bodies would have
responsibility for management of citizen participation activities and
technical information, while coordinating with ad hoc regional LWV groups
formed to aid in participatory activities and to disseminate public
information.
Finally, at the local level LWV units would perform the same functions
they have performed at other times, disseminating information and organizing
local projects. That would also Involve coordination with local authorities
on any local participatory activities necessary.
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42
MODEL #3: Community Education Network Focus
The third model concentrates on the network of community education
•and "ctMnonfty -"schools In the public school systems throughout the country.
Where the Immediately prior model chose to focus upon regional planning
bodies more for their technical expertise, this model focuses upon a
nationwide educational delivery system. Community education provided
through community schools means that education continues in public schools
for adults 1n the late afternoon and evening, and those schools become a
focus for programs serving community needs (e.g., afterschool care for
school-age children).
The obvious strength of this system is that it is community-based
and has access to both children and adults. Being tied i'nto the tradi-
tional community government system, most frequently via -county commissioners,
the public school system Is, by and large, .respected by most communities
and has a connection to most of the people tn its given area of responsi-
bility. If PSD Set II turns out to be a program that needs, primarily,
a local community approach, then the community education programs within
the public school system are a natural option. Also, the emphasis on
advisory groups and interagency cooperation in community schools in this
country makes this system another resource for citizen participation.
The obvious weakness of the system is its relative weakness in technical
and environmental matters. It would need funding for more skilled personnel
and/or technical support from another educational organization. Also,
going beyond the local -municipal or county level will require regional
organization formally or informally, that does not exist at present.
Figure 6 shows what this model would look like. The dotted lines at
the top indicate potential links to auxiliary educational organizations
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FIGURE 6
EPA -- Federal
EPA -- Regional
State
'Local Units'
MODEL #3: Community Education Network
(NACo)
(contract)
State Community
Education Offices
(coordination)
\
\
Regional Bodies
County/Municipal
(coordination)
(coordination)
NCEA Environrer.tal
Educational
Organization
Regional Community
'Education Centers
State Community
Education Centers
County/City Public Schools
Community Education Program
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44
that could provide educational and informational materials based on PSD
Set II data and issues, if staffing is not provided directly to the National
Community- Education Association (NCEA). The pattern here at the Federal
level would be the same as in the previous model, with EPA contracting with
NCEA to develop participation and education strategies and materials and
to disseminate such information to its network of community education
systems and centers. Some consideration might be given to utilizing the
National Association of Counties (NACO) as it is used now, to provide air
quality information directly to the county level, to county commissioners
nationwide. Also, with the large number of environmental information/
education organizations known to EPA, one of them can be chosen to provide
educational materials to NCEA.
Continuing down this model, regional community education centers are
at the next level of the community education network, and they can serve
as conduits of information to the lower levels. However, coordination
with the EPA regional level would be difficult because of the difference
in coverage patterns.
There are many more possibilities for coordination at the state level.
In all states there is either a state office for community schools/
education or a university-based community education center; in most states
there are both. So at this level there would be the same kind of coordi-
nation as in the other models. The designated state agency would have the
ultimate responsibility for citizen participation and education, and the
state-level community education center could give technical assistance on
educational and participatory strategies, disseminate information to county
and municipal levels, and coordinate participatory efforts through community
schools. Where such centers do not exist, the state community schools/
education office would take that role; where they do exist the state office
would help coordinate between the center and the designated state agency.
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E. Major Issues and Organizational Models: Discussion
The technical Issues Involved In this study of PSD Set II, though they
are still not completely resolved (In the lack of concrete data at present),
do seem manageable within each of the models presented. A great deal of
environmental Information has been produced and "translated" for lay
audiences 1n the past twenty years, so that aspect of PSD Set II should
not be a major problem. In addition, there Is some possibility that this
aspect of air quality standards can be linked with prior air quality concerns
and information produced and disseminated through many of the organizations
in this study's models. However, that information first must be produced
in its technical state and with obvious health consequences that can be
understood relatively well by the public.
In regard to the three models proposed in the section before this
one, the Extension Service has the longest history of taking research-based
data and translating it into forms suitable for public consumption.
Regional planning bodies have had some experience with the technical end
of such work, and the League of Women Voters with the educational end, but
not that combination of both technical research and educational activity.
As mentioned, the National Community Education Association and the network
of community schools would, by and large, be breaking new ground with
this kind of endeavor.
In regard to citizen participation, the ingredients all appear to be
available to be harnessed into any one (or more) of the models. Experienced
organizational structures exist at the necessary levels, and the techniques
and strategies of citizen participation are pretty well defined. Also,
the case studies show that citizen participation can work, given the
following conditions: consistent ethical management at all levels;
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organization of structures and processes for consensus at all advisory or
decision points; a sk-illed, concerned staff at all levels; a willingness
to consider compromises- at the community level; the operation of a skilled
facilitator with all working groups; and "success."
There are obstacles, though, to engineering consistent, effective
citizen participation (fueled by one-term environmental education). From
an administrative point of view, there is a heavy financial and time
investment in any citizen participation effort that is truly meant to be
effective. Group decision-making can be extremely inefficient. It takes
time and energy to get groups organized and functioning effectively, time
and energy that many administrators see as wasted. Because of that
attitude and a point of view which sees no value in sharing decision-
making authority, there can also be much administrative sabotaging of
citizen participation efforts. Also, there is an opportunity for open
conflicts to erupt when opposing points of view are brought together.
However, citizen participation is a long-run investment. It is
certainly not a one-shot effort. If properly managed, it can bring
decision-making and administrative resources into public programs which
can use such long-term assistance.
One striking virtue of the models proposed and the larger philosophy
of community-based education is their flexibility. In the process of
providing a "community" with information about its air quality, the
organization doing that work (e.g., the Extension Service) can utilize
perception of a crisis to do some immediate education and/or decision-
making if that is the case. More likely, though, it will employ a strategy
of long-term education to sensitize a "community" to its air quality
situation, building up to the higher level decision-making phase.
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All of the organizations in the models proposed have had experience
with that kind of flexible operation (as have many other organizations
nationwide). However, because of the formal, professional, day-to-day
operation of its system and the long-term emphasis of its educational
approach, the Extension Service can be seen to have an edge of the League
of Women Voters/regional planning body approach, and both would have
advantages over the community education network approach.
It is difficult to discuss fully the interaction of organizational
Issues with proposed models without information on the exact geographical
areas of concern for PSD Set II. However, the models chosen were selected
because of their flexibility and because of their varied geographical
focuses. Also, another criterion for choice is the advantages of using
existing resources, organizations, and systems.
With those criteria for choices, it is easy to see why the Extension
Service model was given the highest rating. Its structure most readily
adapts to the existing air quality control system, it has the largest
staff resources of the models proposed (unless one includes the entire
public school system with the community education network), and it has
the most experience in all the fields essential to this kind of project.
Yet it is also necessary to note that EPA has the option to use a
combination of these models. Each of them has its own weaknesses, and the
use of more than one model could alleviate the weakness of one of them.
So, depending on the nature and scope of the PSD Set II air quality
problems, the geographical areas of concern, EPA may well want to pick a
combination that most suits its chosen objectives for PSD Set II,
especially in regard to the need for multiple strategies of long-range
education.
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The "political" Issues involved In the approach detailed In this study
have no easy answers. Both the "economics vs. the environment" issue and
the issue of expanding traditional decision-making structures and processes
are quite difficult to unravel, and this study does not pretend to solve
them. However, the managerial philosophy and procedures of EPA would
seem to be quite important. If the Agency takes a consistent and
reasonable position in its implementation of such a new approach to air
quality, the chances of success are much better. What that would mean
in practice is a tolerance for decentralization and development of trade-off
mechanisms (similar to those already in use).
The relative advantage of the Extension Service in regard to the
"politics" of PSD Set II is that it is a traditional organization and well
established in the "System," while also having extensive experience with
citizen participation. Along with the regional planning bodies, it has
access to the existing decision-making structure.
F. Work Plan for Training
It 1s difficult within the framework of this study to develop a_
training work plan for multiple models from which EPA will make a choice
to go with one (or more) of those models, or will choose another strategy
altogether. So this work plan will focus on the basic orientation for
training for any of the models and on the basic content deemed fitting at
each level to implement the citizen participation cum environmental education
approach for PSD Set II.
Essentially, the content for Federal, Regional, and State training
(with each state training its own lower levels) would remain the same at
each level. However, the emphasis at each level would be on strategies
appropriate to that level of operation and on the down-to-earth coordlnative
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49
work necessary to make a program like this succeed. For example, it would
be necessary to go beyond just talking about different coordination
strategies in a training conference; participants representing the agencies
and organizations concerned would have to address and plan to remove
obstacles to coordination as well.
At Federal, regional, and state levels the "agenda" would essentially
look the same: (1) an orientation to PSD Set II and its issues and
administration + (2) strategies of citizen participation and community
education + (3) coordination strategies and planning. The training at
these levels would be both horizontal and vertical. At each level the
parallel organizations would be trained together (across that level); and
each lead organization would be responsible for training its lower levels
(e.g., the National LWV would train its state organization, and each state
organization would train its local branches).
With this basic model of training, once EPA decides on its options
for PSD Set II, a more detailed and sophisticated training plan can be
devised.
Some brief mention can be made here about the nature of staffing
required within the states affected by PSD Set II. Under the assumption
that a long-term, low-key effort is required here, with maximum utilization
of existing resources, a tentative recommendation is put forth that one
air quality technical expert and one educational expert be funded at the
state level, to consult with community officials and groups and to provide
educational materials and advice. Those two people should have the
combination of education and experience appropriate to those tasks (i.e.,
doctorates plus experience, or masters degrees plus greater experience).
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
iL £KT 'Associates, Public Participation Evaluation Handbook, Washington,
D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Water Planning
Division (WH-554), December, 1979
2. Craig B. David & Arthur Sacks, editors, Current Issues tn Environmental
Education—IV, Columbus, Ohio: ERIC/SMEAC, December, 1978
3. John F. Disinger, Alliance Affiliate Activities: Non-Governmental
Organizations in Environmental Education, Columbus, Ohio:
ERIC/SMEAC, December, 1978
4. —. & Mary lynne Bowman, Environmental Education 197.5: -A.State-by-
State Report, Columbus, Ohio: ERIC/SMEAC, December, 1975
5. Effective Citizen Participation in Transportation Planning, Volume 1
("Community Involvement Processes") & Volume 2 ("A Catalog of
Techniques"), Washington, D.C.: USDOT, Federal Highway
Administration, 1976
6. L. F. Homey, F. A. Koehler, F. J. Humenick, & L. F, B.liven, "North
Carolina 208 Case Study," paper given at 1978 Winter Meeting of
the American Society of Agricultural .Engineers, New Orleans,
LA, December, 1978
7. Involving Citizens in Metropolitan 'Region Transportation Planning,
Washington, D.C.:USDOT, Federal Highway Administration, 1977
8. Robert Marlett, editor, Current Issues in Environmental Education—1975,
Columbus, Ohio: ERIC/SMEAC, September, 1975
9. —. Current Issues in Environmental Education—II, Columbus, Ohio:
ERIC/SMEAC, September, 1976
10. Clay Schoenfeld & John Disinger, Environmental Education in Action—III:
Case Studies of Public Involvement in Environmental Policy^ERIC/
SMEAC, December, 1978
11. G. C. Morley, editor, Ask the People, Vancouver, B.C.: Agassiz Centre
for Water Studies, February, 1973
12. Water Quality and Agriculture. Raleigh, N.C,: N.C. Soil & Water
Conservation Commission, no date.
13. Katharine P. Warner, Public Participation in Water Resources Planning.
Arlington, Va.: National Water Commission, Report NWC-SBS-71-013,
July, 1971
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing/
1. REPORT NO. • 2.
EPA 450/2-80-079
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Community Environmental Education: Three Models o
Organization for PSD Set II
7. AUTHOR(S)
Peter Burke
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Center for Community Education
Appalachian State University
Duncan Hall
Boone, North Carolina 28608
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
US EPA
Office of Air Quality Planning & Standards
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
5. REPORT DATE
f .ii,np IQRD
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
02834 NAEX
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA - AQP
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
This study undertakes an examination of models of community environmental
education relevant for PSD Set II. Issues of sufficient technical information,
aspects of citizen participation, organizational theory, and politics are
examined. Community environmental education is deemed to be feasible here,
and three potential organizational models are presented: one focuses on
the Cooperative Extension Service, one on regional planning bodies, and one
on the community school network.
17. KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
a. DESCRIPTORS b.lDENTIPI
18. DISTRIBUTIONS STATEMENT 19. SECURE
Dplp-icp tn Pnhlir UnC I 3
Keieube to IUDIIL. 20. SECURI
Uncla
ERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS C. COSATI Field/Group
TY CLASS (This Report) 21. NO. OF PAGES
jsified 54
TY CLASS I This page) 22. PRICE
ssified
EPA Form 2220-1 'Rev. 4-77) PREVIOUS EDITION is OBSOLETE
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