EPA-450/3-74-028-C
AIR POLLUTION/LAND USE
PLANNING PROJECT
VOLUME III. AN ECONOMIC
1OMPARISON OF POINT-SOURCE
CONTROLS AND EMISSION
DENSITY ZONING FOR
AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Air and Water Programs
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
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EPA-450/3-74-028-C
AIR POLLUTION/LAND USE
PLANNING PROJECT
VOLUME III. AN ECONOMIC COMPARISON
OF POINT-SOURCE CONTROLS
AND EMISSION DENSITY ZONING
iFOR AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT
by
A. S. Kennedy, R. L. Reisenweber,
K. G. Croke and M . A. Snider
Center for Environmental Studies
Argonne National Laboratory
9700 South Cass Avenue
Argonne, Illinois 60439
Interagency Agreement No. EPA-IAG-0159(D)
EPA Project Officers:
John Robson and David Sanchez
Prepared for
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Air and Water Programs
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park, N. C. 27711
May 1973
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This report is issued by the Environmental Protection Agency to report
technical data of interest to a limited number of readers. Copies are
available free of charge to Federal employees, current contractors and
grantees, and nonprofit organizations - as supplies permit - from the
Air Pollution Technical Information Center, Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711, or from the
National Technical Information Service, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield,
Virginia 22151.
This report was furnished to the Environmental Protection Agency by the
Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois 60439, in fulfillment of
Interagency Agreement No. EPA-IAG~0159(D) . The contents of this report
are reproduced herein as received from the Argonne National Laboratory.
The opinions, findings, and conclusions expressed are those of the author
and not necessarily those of the Environmental Protection Agency. Mention
of company or product names is not to be considered as an endorsement
by the Environmental Protection Agency.
Publication No. EPA-450/3-74-028-C
11
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT
1.0 INTRODUCTION
2.0 STUDY METHODOLOGY .............. 4
2.1 SYSTEM MODEL DESCRIPTION .......... 4
2.2 SYSTEM MDDEL DATA REQUIREMENTS ....... 6
2.3 POINT-SOURCE CONTROL REGULATIONS ...... 9
2.4 PERMITTED- USE ZONING AND EMISSION-DENSITY
ZONING REGULATIONS ........... 9
2.5 EMISSION- DENSITY ZONING .......... 15
2.6 SPECIFICATION OF EMISSION- DENSITY LIMITS
BY ZONING CLASS ............ 18
3.0 APPLICATION OF METHODOLOGY TO CHICAGO REGION ..... 30
3.1 COST OF CONTROL FOR POINT-SOURCE REGULATION ... 30
3.2 EFFECTIVENESS OF POINT-SOURCE CONTROL ..... 31
3.3 DETERMINATION OF LEAST- COST EMISSION-
DENSITY LIMITS FOR THE CHICAGO REGION ...... 35
3.4 THE COST OF CONTROL FOR EMISSION-
DENSITY ZONING ............ 37
3.5 EFFECTIVENESS OF EMISSION-DENSITY ZONING .... 37
3.6 COMPARISON OF POINT- SOURCE CONTROL AND '
EMISSION-DENSITY ZONING .......... 42
3.7 SENSITIVITY OF RESULTS TO PERMITTED- USE
ZONING POLICY ............. 46
4.0 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ............ 52
REFERENCES ........ .......... 55
APPENDIX A LITERATURE REVIEW ........... .56
A.I .LEGISLATION REGARDING AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
FOR PARTICULATE MATTER ..:... ...... 57
A. 1.1 Federal Legislation ......... 57
A. 1.2 ' State Legislation ......... 58
A. 2 POINT- SOURCE PARTICULATE CONTROL DEVICES .... 62
A. 2.1 Considerations in Control Device Selection
for Manufacturing Processes I i '. 7 . 64
A. 2.2 Variation of Control Devices . .
by Indus try '. '. '. ~. ~ . ..... 72
A. 2.3 Summary of Control Literature ..... 78
A. 3 LAND USE PLANNING AND AIR POLLUTION ..... 81
111
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APPENDIX B
B.I
B.2
B.3
REFERENCES
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Contd.)
SOURCE-CONTROL COST-EFFECTIVENESS MODEL . .
COST MODEL FOR PARTIOJLATES
B.I.I Purchase Cost
B.I.2 Installation Cost
B.I.3 Capital Cost" I . . ,
B.I.4 Operational and Maintenance Costs .
APPLICATION OF SOURCE-CONTROL COST MODEL ....
COMPARISON OF THE STRATEGIES WITH
THE COST MODEL APPLIED
Page
86
99
99
102
102
104
106
115
118
IV
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List of Figures
No. Title Page
1.1 State of Illinois, Chicago economic planning
and statistical reporting region 3
2.1 Model for comparison and evaluation of emission
control approaches 5
2.2 Frequency of suspended particulate emission-density
with Illinois point-source regulations applied 12
2.3 Suspended particulate isopleths using mean emission-
density estimates for manufacturing land 13
2.4 Suspended particulate isopleths with Illinois source
regulations applied 14
2.5 Suspended particulate isopleths using mean emission-
density estimates by zoning classification 17
2.6 Chicago region suspended particulate isopleths with
Cook County Ordinance and current land use 22
2.7 Chicago region suspended particulate isopleths with
Cook County Ordinance and current zoned land 23
2.8 Chicago region suspended particulate isopleths with
current land use and optimum emission-density limits ... 26
o
2.9 Air quality (yg/m geometric mean) effectiveness
frontier for suspended particulates using emission-
density-limited zoning controls 27
2.10 Chicago region suspended particulate isopleths with
current zoned land and optimum emission-density limits . . 29
3.1 Chicago region suspended particulate isopleths with
current land use and emission-density limits 43
3.2 Comparison of reduction required by the strategies
for heavy industry 44
3.3 Comparison of reduction required by the strategies
for light industry 45
3.4 Annualized cost comparison of the strategies by SIC ... 47
3.5 Annualized cost comparison of the strategies by CLIC ... 48
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List of Figures (Contd.)
No. Title
A.I State of Illinois allowable emission rate for point-
B.I
B.2
B.3
Hypothetical optimum control device as established
Purchase and installation cost for control devices at
60,000/acfm and 8,760 hours of operation
Annualized costs for mechanical collectors, electrostatic
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List of Tables
No. Title Page
2.1 STATE OF ILLINOIS EMISSION INVENTORY FILE PARAMETERS ... 7
2.2 ACTIVITIES BY ZONING CLASS 10
2.3 SUSPENDED PARTICULATE EMISSION-DENSITY 16
2.4 COOK COUNTY EMISSION-DENSITY LIMITS (EDL) 19
BY MANUFACTURING ZONE .
3.1 ANNUAL POINT-SOURCE CONTROL AND UTILITY COSTS
BY STANDARD LAND USE CLASSIFICATION 32
3.2 ANNUAL POINT-SOURCE CONTROL AND UTILITY COSTS
BY STANDARD INDUSTRIAL CLASSIFICATION 33
3.3 POINT-SOURCE CONTROL REGULATIONS APPLIED TO
THE CHICAGO REGION 34
3.4 LEAST-COST COMBINATION OF EMISSION-DENSITY LIMITS .... 36
3.5 ANNUAL EDLZ AND UTILITY COSTS BY ZONING USE
CLASSIFICATION 38
3.6 ANNUAL CURRENT ZONED LAND EDLZ AND UTILITY COSTS
BY STANDARD INDUSTRIAL CLASSIFICATION 39
3.7 ANNUAL CURRENT ZONED LAND EDLZ AND UTILITY COSTS
BY STANDARD INDUSTRIAL CLASSIFICATION 40
3.8 EDLZ REGULATIONS APPLIED TO THE CHICAGO REGION .... 41
3.9 PERCENT OF SUSPENDED PARTICULATES EMITTED 49
3.10 LEAST-COST COMBINATION OF EMISSION-DENSITY LIMITS
FOR PERMITTED-USE ZONING 51
A. 1 ILLINOIS STANDARDS FOR EXISTING PROCESS
EMISSION SOURCES 61
A. 2 MANUFACTURERS' SHIPMENTS OF INDUSTRIAL GAS
CLEANING EQUIPMENT BY END USE IN 1967 79
A. 3 USE OF PARTICULATE COLLECTORS BY INDUSTRY 80
vii
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List of Tables (Contd.)
No. Title
B.I POLLUTION REDUCTION DEVICES OR METHODS 88
B.2 EFFICIENCIES OF APPLICABLE CONTROL DEVICES
FOR STATIONARY COMBUSTION SOURCES, PETROLEUM,
AND WOOD PROCESSING 89
B.3 EFFICIENCIES OF APPLICABLE CONTROL DEVICES
FOR SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL, EVAPORATION LOSS
SOURCES, AND THE FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRY 91
B.4 EFFICIENCIES OF APPLICABLE CONTROL DEVICES
FOR THE CHEMICAL PROCESS INDUSTRY 93
B.5 EFFICIENCIES OF APPLICABLE CONTROL DEVICES
FOR THE METALLURGICAL INDUSTRY 95
B.6 EFFICIENCIES OF APPLICABLE CONTROL DEVICES
FOR THE MINERAL PROCESS INDUSTRY 97
B.7 MANUFACTURER'S PURCHASE PRICE FOR
CONTROL EQUIPMENT . 101
B.8 INSTALLATION COST EXPRESSED AS A PERCENTAGE
OF PURCHASE COST FOR CONTROL EQUIPMENT 103
B.9 CALCULATION OF INVESTMENT AND ANNUALIZED COSTS FOR
SCRUBBERS AT 60,000/acfm AND S;760 "HOURS'"OF OPERATION ... Ill
B.10 CALCULATION OF INVESTMENT AND ANNUALIZED COSTS FOR
ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS AND FABRIC FILTERS AT
60,000/acfin AND 8,760 HOURS OF OPERATION 112
B.ll CALCULATION OF INVESTMENT AND ANNUALIZED COSTS FOR
MECHANICAL COLLECTORS AT 60,000/acfin AND 8,760
HOURS OF OPERATION 113
B.12 CALCULATION OF INVESTMENT AND ANNUALIZED COSTS FOR
AFTERBURNERS AT 60,000/acfm AND 8,760 HOURS
OF OPERATION 114
B.13 EMISSION REDUCTIONS REQUIRED AS INDUSTRY IS
ADDED IN THE REGION 116
Vlll
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ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study is to assess the value of land use zoning
policies in achieving and maintaining air quality standards in existing
large urban areas, or in smaller but rapidly developing areas. The
traditional permitted-use zoning policies, as well as the more recent
emission-density-limited zoning concept, are evaluated and compared with
current source control regulations being adopted in most state implementa-
tion plans. A systematic air pollution control policy evaluation method-
ology has been developed to carry out the evaluations. The results of a
applying this methodology to a three-county area in the Chicago Metropolitan
Control Region are presented in this report.
IX
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
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To answer these questions, this study has developed a systematic air
pollution control policy evaluation methodology and applied it to three
county areas in the greater Chicago metropolitan region. The study sub-
region consists of Cook, Will, and Dupage counties, as shown in Figure 1.1.
This area accounts for a major portion of industrial activity in the region.
The study methodology is described in Section 2 of the report, and the
results of the application are presented in Section 3. A brief summary of
conclusions drawn from the results is presented in Section 4. Appendices A
and B contain details of literature review and a description of a point-
source, cost-effectiveness model developed to carry out the evaluations.
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CHICAGO REGION
r Three County
' Study Region
i Nine County
Economic
Planning Region
Figure 1.1. State of Illinois, Chicago economic planning
and statistical reporting region.
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2.0 STUDY METHODOLOGY
Most air pollution control problems can be solved in several ways. In
order to select the preferred method of regulating pollutant emissions from
manufacturing processes, each solution should be thoroughly evaluated prior
to implementation. In this study, two approaches to regional air pollution
control regulations, point-source controls (PSC) and emission-density-limited
zoning (EDLZ), are quantitatively evaluated and compared. A systems model
was constructed to carry out these evaluations. By using this model, a
regulatory system can be selected that meets the design requirements of each
manufacturing process, achieves the necessary reduction of pollutants
required to satisfy air quality standards, and attains these goals at lowest
overall cost.
This section describes briefly the methods used in constructing the
model and applying it to the Chicago region.
2.1 SYSTEM MODEL DESCRIPTION
The system model developed for the evaluation and comparison of the
two regulatory methods is diagrammed in Figure 2.1. The entire model is
actually a linking of three submodels:
1) A control regulation model
2) .A cost model
3) An atmospheric dispersion model.
The control regulation model accepts as input either a point-source
or a land use regulation and applies it to each point source on the regional
emission inventory to compute the reductions required by the regulation.
The cost model selects the device that meets the technical require-
ments of each individual plant and achieves the required reductions. If
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LAND USE
POLICY DEFINING
ACTIVITIES IN
LAND USE CLASS
AND EMISSION
DENSITY LIMITS
(EDLHI,EDLL1)
SELECT
LEAST
COST
L.
SELECT LEAST COST
COMBINATION OF EDl'S
TO MEET AIR
QUALITY CONSTRAINTS
NO
Figure 2.1. Model for comparison and evaluation of
emission control approaches
5
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more than one device is applicable, the least costly device is chosen. The
amraortized cost of control is calculated as the sum of capital, deprecia-
tion, operating, and maintenance charges. Details of the cost model are
relegated to Appendix B. Costs are accumulated in the model by SIC code,
zoning class, and total manufacturing.
In operating the various equipment, the commodities of water, power
and fuel may be used. The quantities used and costs incurred by these items
are calculated and accumulated for the purposes of measuring the impact of
control regulations on resource utilization.
Both the strategy and cost models are constructed in a general
fashion, so that they are readily adapted to purposes other than the
specific tasks performed in the study.
The atmospheric dispersion model is used to .calculate and to display
the impact of each type of regulation on regional air quality. The Air
1 2
Quality Display MDdel (AQDM) ' calibrated to the Chicago region was used- for
this purpose.
2.2 SYSTEM MODEL DATA REQUIREMENTS
In applying the system model to compare and evaluate emission-density-
limited zoning and point-source controls, the Chicago metropolitan regional
emission inventory was utilized. The regional data file consists of source
identification, fuel combustion, process emission, and stack data. A
description of the data as recorded in the inventory can be seen in
Table 2.1.
The data for 475 sources in the Chicago study region, which consisted
of the city itself and the three surrounding counties of Cook, Will, and
DuPage, were available from the Illinois State Implementation Planning
Program. TKe^ data were collected during the summer of 1971 by a team
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Sable 2.1. STATE OF ILLINOIS EMISSION INVENTORY FILE PARAMETERS
Source Identification Fuel Combustion Process Emission Source
Stack Data
Source identification Boiler capacity
number CIO6 BTU/hr)
Source name Coal (tons/year)
Source street address Oil (103 gal/
year) .
Emission factor table code Height (ft)
Inside diameter (ft)
Temperature (°F)
Process quantity
City
Zip code
Geocode
X-Coordinate (Km)
Y-Coordinate (Km)
Standard land use
classification number
Lot size (acres)
Employees
Zoning
Oil grade
Gas (106 ft3/
year)
Heat content:
Coal (103 BTl/lb)
Oil (103 BTU/gal)
Gas (BTU/ft3);
Percent ash c oal-
Particulate
emission factor
i
Emissions (It/hr)
Process weight rate
Ub/hr) j
Process name
Emission factor
Emissions (Ib/hr)
Velocity (ft/sec)
Gas volume (acf/sec)
Number of units
-------
of students, who, under the supervision of the Argonne Center for Environ-
mental Studies, surveyed the entire state for manufacturing source informa-
tion. The Census Bureau publications, "County Business Patterns in Illinois"
and the "Directory of Manufacturers," were used to guide the information
collection operations. The Illinois State emission inventory contains plan-
ning and economic parameters such as land use, employment, energy consump-
tion by type of fuel, and process output data, in addition to emission inform-
ation.
Emission factor information was used to derive total emissions from
data surveyed. No direct emission testing was performed in collecting
these data. Information was obtained by secondary source review, telephone
contact, or site visit. It should be noted that the City of Chicago supplied
combustion information to the State directly in their own format. Therefore,
fuel combustion from manufacturing sources within the city proper was not
collected in the survey. The emission factors utilized in the conversion
equations were obtained from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
In addition to point-source information, the model requires land use
information to carry out the evaluations. For purposes of this study,
manufacturing land use was divided into two categoriesheavy industrial (HI)
and light industrial (LI). Current land use information for the Chicago
region was obtained from the regional planning body, the Northeastern
Illinois Planning Commission (NIPC). Zoning information was obtained
directly from the counties in the region. The land use and zoning inventories
were collected on a square-mile basis for the Chicago region, and computerized
as fractions of land area zoned for each land use class.
Finally, the model requires that a permitted-use zoning policy be
established. This was accomplished by a survey of county zoning . ,
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administrators. The results indicate that heavy and light industrial
activities are most commonly defined as shown in Table 2.2.
2.3 POINT-SOURCE CONTROL REGULATIONS
Point-source control regulations are usually defined as a function of
plant size or for particulate process control. The most common parameter
for this purpose is process weight rate, or the sum of all primary materials
processed through the plant. The State of Illinois has adopted a version
of a regulation commonly referred to as the "Bay Area Curve" for process
particulate pollutant control. This regulation and its rationale are reviewed
further in Appendix A. Fuel combustion particulate emissions are regulated
in relation to the total Btu input to the plant.
Given the parameters of the regulation, the process of evaluation in
the system model is fairly straightforward. The control model is executed
to determine required reductions for each plant in the file. These reduc-
tions are then fed directly into the air quality dispersion model and the
cost model.
2.4 PERMITTED-USE ZONING AND EMISSION-DENSITY ZONING REGULATIONS
Permitted-use zoning of manufacturing land is one of the earliest forms
of nuisance control. Typically, zoning classes are defined and land use
maps are prepared; these regulate the type and location of specified
activities. Since air quality concentrations are partially determined by
the spatial distribution and intensity of sources, it is reasonable to ask
if point-source control regulations, combined with permitted-use zoning, is
sufficient to ensure air quality maintenance.
To test this assumption, it is necessary to look at the distribution
of emission densities within each land use or zoning class. This has been
*Source: Cohen, A.S., Norco, J.E., et al. Evaluation of Emission Control
Strategies with Emphasis on Residential/Commercial Space Heating
for SO- and Participates in the Chicago Metropolitan Air Quality
Control Region. March 1971.
.9
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Table 2.2. ACTIVITIES BY ZONING CLASS
Heavy Industry
Light Industry
SIC
Description
SIC Description
26 | Paper and Allied Products
27 | Printing, Publishing, and
Allied Industries
28 | Chemicals and Allied Products
29 | Petroleum Refining and
Related Industries
30 | Rubber and Miscellaneous
Plastic Products
31 | Leather and Leather Products
32 | Stone, Clay 5 Glass Products
33 | Primary Metal Industries
20 Food and Kindred Products
21 Tobacco Manufactures
22 Textile Mill Products
23 Apparel § Other Finished Products
Made from Fabrics § Similar
Materials
24 Lumber § Wood Products,
Except Furniture
25 Furniture and Fixtures
34 Fabricated Metal Products, Except
Ordnance, Machinery, § Trans-
portation Equipment
35 Machinery, Except Electrical
36 Electrical Machinery, Equipment,
and Supplies
37 Transportation Equipment
38 Professional, Scientific, and
Controlling Instruments; Photo-
graphic and Optical Goods;
Watches and Clocks
39 Miscellaneous Manufacturing Industries
10
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done for the Chicago region using the activity assignment by 2-digit SIC
defined in Section 2.2 for heavy and light industry and assuming the
Illinois point-source regulations are in effect.
Figure 2.2 shows the emission-density distribution of industrial class
sources within the Chicago area. Not only is the standard deviation of this
distribution quite high in relationship to its average, but the skewness of
the distribution causes significant estimation problems if a figure of
1.17 Ibs/hr/acre is used as an emission-density factor in projecting future
air quality. The use of mean emission-density estimates for projecting air
quality from land use was tested by using the AQDM atmospheric dispersion model.
Figure 2.3 shows the calculated air quality for suspended particulates as
derived by applying a 1.17 Ib/hr/acre emission-density factor to the present
industrial land use pattern in the City of Chicago. Figure 2.4 shows the
suspended particulate air quality estimates based directly upon the applica-
tion of standard emission factors to the Chicago Emission Inventory with
Illinois source control regulations applied. The use of the average emis-
sion density factor for industrial lands did produce average air quality
estimates that approximated the average air quality over the entire region.
However, due to the bias in the estimation of the average emission-density
factor and within clusters of manufacturing land use in the area, pockets
of very high concentrations appear in the air quality estimates based upon
these factors, as opposed to those based upon the standard emission factors.
Thus, if these estimates are used in trying to identify future potential
source clusters in the Chicago area, the use of an average emission density
to generate air quality estimates would lead to the belief that air quality
standards would not be met under the present conditions of Chicago land use
patterns and air quality regulations.
11
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oon
coU
260
240
220
200
180
>-
OtCf\
lOw
z.
UJ
0 W0
UJ
£120
100
80
60
40
20
0
-
-
-
-
.
-
-
-
-
-
-
.'
280
9AO
C*tvJ
200
160
120
80
40
0
* ^ 1 r 1_,
1 1 1 11 i i j i ->
I A .6 .8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 fc
-
MEAN - 1.17 (Lbs/Hr/Acre)
_ « r\ >^ir.
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WILL COUIWY
Figure 2.3. Suspended particulate isopleths using
mean emission-density estimates for
manufacturing land 7
fmean-- 1.17 Ib/hr/ac - 9.0 t/d/mi )
(yg/m , annual geometric mean)
13
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WILL COUNTY
Figure 2.4. Suspended particulate isopleths
with Illinois source regulations
applied
(lig/m , annual geometric mean)
LAKE COUNTY
14
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The use of mean density estimates by manufacturing zoning class to
estimate air pollution concentrations was also tested using the AQDM
model. Parameters describing the emission density distributions for heavy
and light industry are shown in Table 2.3. Again, the highly skewed distri-
butions can be noted. When the mean estimates are applied to light and
heavy manufacturing land use in the Chicago area, a slightly better air
quality represantation is obtained, as shown in Figure 2.5. The peak areas
are represented more accurately than before, but the magnitude of the peaks
remains much too high. It can be inferred from this result that, because
of the extreme variance in manufacturing emission densities by zoning class,
permitted-use zoning on a heavy and light industry taxonomy is not discrim-
inatory enough to serve as an effective device for ensuring the maintenance
of air quality standards even when coupled with point-source controls. The
limited success of further explaining the above-noted variance has been
discussed in Volume II of this report. Therefore, some means of limiting
the extent of source clustering, and hence, emission densities, is required
to avoid the possibility of future degradation. Two additional methods are
available: (1) limiting the location of significant sources via an environ-
mental impact statement process or permit-to-locate system; or (2) a compre-
hensive emission-density zoning process. The remainder of this volume focuses
on the latter alternative.
2.5 EMISSION-DENSITY-LIMITED ZONING
Emission-density-limited zoning regulations are restrictions on the
amount of emissions per unit of land area by zoning. They take the form of
emission-density constraints; for example, a regulation forbidding emission
of more than 20'0 pounds of particulates per day per acre of land could be
enacted. Such a regulation would require that a large emitter either reduce
the number of tons per day emitted or have sufficient non-polluting property
to reduce the emissions per acre to acceptable levels.
15
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Table 2.3- SUSPENDED PARTICULATE EMISSION-DENSITY
(Lbs/Hr/Acre)
G\ (26-3J)
r2 /20-2S\
GA \24-39J
r1
bA (25S)
r2
°A (203)
TOTAL
ANOV
x
.
Unregulated Source Inventory
Mean
47.60
27.24
3S.57
*
*F - F
DF - De
S - Si
I
. Median
.717
1.04
.92
ratio
;rees of
Std. Uev.
472.65
164.76
569.14
Skewiess
15.48
9.63
13.476
Uedon, /|DFB - Be
jnificande level
i
1
DFW - Wi
Regulated Source Inventory
Mean
. 1.67
.54
1.17
:= 5.65
ween\
piinj
Median
.21
.04
.104
1
DF=454
. i
1
Std. Dev.
6.29
2.62
5.03
Skcwnes:
7.63
8.35
9.01
S(.05)
- -
1
16
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Figure 2.5.
Suspended particulate
isopleths* using mean
emission-density estimates
by zoning classification
Mean Heavy Industry « 13.1 T/D/Mi*
Mean Light Industry = 4.2 T/D/Mi
50
LAKE COUNTY
(*wg/m - geometric mean)
17
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Cook County, Illinois, one of the counties in the study region, is one
of the few areas in the country to have passed an emission-density-limited
zoning ordinance. The allowable emission-density limits (EDL's) for each of
three manufacturing classes are shown in Table 2.4. When the Cook County
Emission Density Limited Zoning Ordinance was applied to sources in the
Chicago Metropolitan Air Quality Control Region, the national ambient air
2
standard was not met. The standard of 75 pg/m was violated in the region
with both present land use and current zoned land. With present land use
and the Cook County Ordinance, the entire Chicago Metropolitan Air Quality
Control Region is above the standard, as seen in Figure 2.6. With current
zoned land, Figure 2.7, the standard is also exceeded throughout the region
with clusters formed in the downtown Loop area, the steel-mill area in
northwestern Indiana, and the industrial area surrounding Joliet, Illinois.
In order to compare and evaluate the two alternative control approaches under
investigation, an effective emission-density-limited zoning ordinance that
meets the national ambient air standards must be formulated. Thus, the
question is raised as to how the emission-density limits should be specified.
2.6 SPECIFICATION OF EMISSION-DENSITY LIMITS BY ZONING CLASS
In the formulation of an effective EDLZ policy, air quality must be
achieved throughout the entire region. For purposes of calculation with
the AQDM atmospheric dispersion model, the air quality is determined at
237 receptor locations in the region. Thus, maximum emission-density limits
are constrained to those values that will allow air quality to be achieved
at each of these points.
If it is assumed that the region is divided into geographic grid
squares indexed by t, thafk is an index of receptor points, and that m is
18
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Table 2.4. COOK COUNTY EMISSION-DENSITY LIMITS (EDL)
BY MANUFACTURING ZONE
ZONE 1
In unincorporated areas includes all residential and busi-
ness districts and the Ml manufacturing district, as estab-
lished and defined in the Cook County Zoning Ordinance. In
incorporated areas includes residential, business, and
restricted manufacturing districts, or the most restrictive
manufacturing district as defined in the applicable local
zoning ordinance.
Particulate The rate of emission of particulate matter from
Matter sources within the boundaries of any lot shall
not exceed a net figure of 1 Ib/acre of lot
area during any one hour, after deducting from
the gross hourly emission per acre the correc-
tion factor set forth in the following table:
Allowance for Height of Emission3
Height of Emission Correction
Above Grade (ft) (Ibs/hr/acre)
50
100
150
200
300
400
0.01
0.06
0.10
0.16
0.30
0.50
Interpolate for intermediate val-
ues not shown.
19
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Table 2.4.(Contd.)
ZONE 2
In unincorporated areas includes the M2 and M4 manufacturing
districts, as established and defined in the Cook County
Zoning Ordinance, In incorporated areas include any general
manufacturing district other than the most restrictive and
most intensive manufacturing district as defined in the
applicable local zoning ordinance,
Particulate The rate of emission of particulate matter from
Matter sources within the boundaries of any lot shall
not exceed a net figure of 5 Ib/acre of lot
area during any one hour, after deducting from
the gross hourly emission per acre the correc-
tion factor set forth in the following table:
Allowance for Height of Emission5
Height of Emission Correction
Above Grade (ft) (Ibs/hr/acre)
50
100
150
200
300
400
0
0.5
0.8
1.2
2.0
4.0
Interpolate for intermediate val-
ues not shown.
20
-------
Table 2.4.'. (Contdj)
ZONE 3
In unincorporated areas includes the M3 manufacturing dis-
trict as established and defined in the Cook County Zoning
Ordinance. In incorporated areas includes heavy manufactur-
ing districts or the most intensive manufacturing districts
as defined in the applicable local zoning ordinance-
Particulate The rate of emission of particulate matter from
Matter all sources within the boundaries of any lot
shall not exceed a net figure of 8 Ib/acre dur-
ing any one hour-, after deducting from the
gross hourly emission per acre the correction
factor set forth in the following table:
Allowance for Height of Emission8
Height of Emission Correction
Above Grade (ft) (Ibs/hr/acre)
50 0
100 0.5
150 1.5
200 2.4
300 4.0
400 8.0
ft
Interpolate for intermediate val-
ues not shown.
21
-------
WILL COUNTY
FIGURED.6. Chicago region suspended particulate
isopleths with Cook County Ordinance
and current land use
22
-------
_r^-i.5-x
rur1
H
FIGURE 2.7. Chicago region suspended particulate
isopleths with Cook County Ordinance
and current zoned land
23
-------
an index of land use or zoning class, then the pollutant concentration X, .
at receptor point k, is given by
where X, is the pollutant concentration at receptor point k,
a , is the dispersion model transfer coefficient describ-
ing the contribution of a unit emission from land
use class m in grid square £ to the concentration at
location k,
ED represents the expected emission density in tons/
day/mi^ for land use class m in grid square £,,
A is the specified percentage of land designated for
land use class m in grid square £,
3, is the background concentration at receptor
point k.
If it is further assumed that the emission density EE/? is a policy
variable to be set at some upper limit for control purposes, that this
limit can vary by land use class m but is uniform over the entire region,
A
and that X, represents the standard (not necessarily uniform) at receptor
point k, then the emission-density limits EE|? are constrained as follows:
24
-------
or
wnere
r> r>
_ I L J11 Am EEr + a r? ?i
m f Zk f f T£ L**^J
111 'C -tJV 'C A-
(2.3)
m m
The land use, A^, in each grid square t devoted to class m can be
either current land or a projected land use plan. In this study, both are
utilized to test the effect of growth on the emission-density limits
required to meet and maintain standards. Although a variable standard
A
could be used, in this study X, is assumed uniform throughout the region
* 3
and X = 75 yg/m , the national standard.
When the current Chicago region manufacturing land use pattern is
applied to Equation 2.1, many of the receptor points k are redundant. In
fact, only two points are critical, as shown in Figure 2.8. These points
correspond to the linear constraints comprising the limiting frontier shown
in Figure 2.9. The intersection of these lines are points where both receptors
are at the standard. Moving from this point along the boundary in the direc-
T T HT
tion of increasing EDL while decreasing EDL will lower the concentration
at critical receptor #2, while just maintaining the air quality standard at
HI IT
critical receptor #1; the opposite occurs if EDL is increased while EDL
is decreased.
25
-------
COOK COUNTY
Critical
Receptor #1
Critical
Receptor #2
WILL COUNTY
Figure 2.8. Chicago region suspended particulate
isopleths with current land use and
optimum emission-density limits
(EDLHI = 3.3 T/D/mi2, EDLLI = 0.85 T/D/mi2)
26
-------
CRITICAL
RECEPTOR #2
CRITICAL
RECEPTOR #2
CURRENT LAND USE
CRITICAL
RECEPTOR #1
CRITICAL
RECEPTOR #1
CURRENT ZONED LAND
EMISSION DENSITY LIMITS-LIGHT INDUSTRY fEDLLI) (TONS/DAY/Mi2)
3
figure 2.9. Air quality (yg/m geometric mean) effectiveness
frontier for suspended particulates using emission-
density- limited zoning controls
27
-------
A similar frontier is obtained when current zoned land is inserted into
Equation 2.3, except the allowable limits frontier necessary to maintain air
quality, assuming this development pattern will actually occur, is.reduced.
Figure 2.10 indicates the air quality degradation if the emission-density-
limited zoning policy adopted just maintains air quality standards as growth
occurs. Note in Figure 2.10 that the location of the critical receptors has
shifted slightly from that in Figure 2.8. The pollutant isopleths in
Figures 2.8 and 2.10 were calculated using the circled points on the frontiers
for current land use and current zoned land, respectively, shown in Figure 2.9.
The linear frontier of Figure 2.9 determines an infinite set of emis-
HI LI
sion density limits for heavy (EDL ) and light (EDL ) industrial land use
that will achieve air quality. Criteria must be applied to select a unique
pair of limits from this set. For this study, we have chosen to minimize
the annualized cost incurred by existing sources for control devices that
result from applying any pair of density limits on the frontier.
With emission-density limits enforced on the 475 selected sources for
HI and LI, the percent reduction in particulate emissions required to
achieve the limit can be calculated if land owned by the source operator is
known. The control devices that meet the required reductions are selected
for'each SIC code, and the cost is calculated for the control equipment.
The annualized cost is accumulated for each zoning class, and the optimum
emission-density limits can be selected from the least annualized cost
combination on the frontier. The results of applying this procedure to the
Chicago source file are discussed in the next section.
28
-------
CRITICAL
RECEPTOR #1
CRITICAL
RECEPTOR #2
Figure 2.10. Chicago region suspended particulate
isopleths with current zoned land and
optimum emission-density limits
J;EDLHI = 2.5 T/o/mi2, EDLLI - p.ss i/D/mi2)
29
-------
3.0 APPLICATION OF METHODOLOGY TO CHICAGO REGION
This section describes the results of applying the above methodology
to the Chicago study area. Included in this area are the City of Chicago
itself and the three surrounding counties of Cook (outside Chicago), Will
and DuPage. The two methods of achieving ambient air quality standards,
point-source controls, and emission-density zoning, are examined on a cost-
effectiveness basis. The results are summarized for two-digit SIC codes,
heavy and light manufacturing zones, and total manufacturing. The sensi-
tivity of the results to permited-use zoning policies are tested.
3.1 COST OR CONTROL FOR: poiNTf-SOURCE.:HEGULATION
The State of Illinois particulate control regulations were used for
comparison purposes in this study. Process emissions are limited by a
"Bay Area" type of regulation as a function of process weight rate. Fuel
combustion emissions are regulated as a proportion of BTU (heating value)
input. The details of these regulations are discussed in Appendix A.
/
In calculating the cost of particulate emission control for Chicago,
the device comprising the least annualized cost for each individual source
is selected, and a total annualized cost for the point-source control
strategy is calculated from the summation of individual source costs. In
operating the various types of control equipment, the commodities of water,
power,'and fuel are used; the consumption and costs of these resources are
also calculated. When the standard industrial classification codes are
30
-------
grouped into light and heavy industry, the annualized costs of point-source
control (PSC) are shown in Table 3.1. The total annualized cost for PSC
was 1.393 million dollars for the 475 sources, with heavy industry contrib-
uting approximately 75% of the cost and light industry, approximately 25%.
The resources required and costs accrued in operating these control devices
can also be seen in Table 3.1 for the zoning classification, and in Table 3.2
for the standard industrial classification. The SIC classes 28 and 32,
which contribute the greatest cost, constitute 40% of the total annualized
cost of control for the Illinois portion of the Metropolitan Chicago Interstate
Interstate Air Quality Control Region. In the operational cost of the equip-
ment, the power cost of operating the equipment contributes 34% of the total
annualized cost, fuel for operating after-burners contributes 10%, and water
utilized in operating wet scrubbers constitutes 0.1% of the total annualized
cost. The power cost is distributed evenly over the SIC classification,
while the fuel and water costs, predominate in the SIC codes classes as
heavy industry.
3.2 EFFECTIVENESS OF POINT-SOURCE CONTROL
When the Illinois point-source regulations were applied to the individual
sources in the regional data file, the reductions in particulate emissions
ranged from 78% in SIC 20 (the food and kindred industries) to 99% in SIC 27
(the printing and publishing industries). As can be seen in Table 3.3, the
particulate emissions resulting after control techniques have been applied
range from 0.01 tons/day for industries in the light industrial classifica-
tion to 0.31 tons/days in the petroleum and coal industries. The regulation
favors industry with large process weight where the average emissions after
control are 0.09 tons/day, while the industries with small process weight
emit 0.02 tons/day after control.
-------
Table 3.1. ANNUAL POINT-SOURCE CONTROL AND UTILITY COSTS
BY STANDARD LAND USE CLASSIFICATION
is*
N>
SLUG
HI
LI
AWNIIA1
COST
< $/YR)
998369
394640
PDWFR
USE
(MW/YR)
21933
7583
PHWFR
COST
($/YP )
364211
113739
FIIFI
COST
($/YP)
145744
0
WATFR
USE
(GAL/YR)
1168408
30748
WATFR
COST
($/YR)
891
22
TOTAL
1,393009
29516
477950
145744
1,199156
913
HI=26-33
LI-20-25, 34-39
-------
'Ul
Table .3.2. ANNUAL POINT-SOURCE CONTROL AND UTILITY COSTS
BY STANDARD INDUSTRIAL CLASSIFICATION
cjC
20
21
??
23
24
?5
26
27
?fl
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
ANNUAL
COST
<$/YR)
78441
0
1 145
1435
26615
?69<36
42464
78734
4f)fl74?
113256
14401
O
16679B
93065
G09OQ
110611
73043
?f.ER9
15437
25825
POWER
USE
(MW/YR)
2790
0
1?
15
315
450
479
816
97m
2733
342
o
4275
2143
1440
1584
1225
57 P
338
277
POWER
COST
($/YR)
41846
0
175
220
4721
675?
7186
12269
lS07ftl
40990
5136
n
64125
32149
21593
23758
18372
Gfififi
5072
4155
PUEL
COST
($/YR)
0
0
O
0
0
0
0
48581
971ft?
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
WATER
USE
( GAL /YR )
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
30743
737<54?
30748
30748
0
30748
2459S1
61495
0
0
0
30748
0
WATER
COST
<$/YR)
0
0
O
0
0
0
0
21
5QO
22
22
0
22
, 172
43
0
0
0
22
0
HI = SIC 26-33
LI = Remaining SIC's
-------
POINT-SOURCE CONTROL REGULATIONS
APPLIED TO THE CHICAGO REGION
20
22
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
Food and kindred
Textile mills
Lumber and wood
Furniture and fixtures
Paper and allied
Printing and publishing
Chemicals and allied
Petroleum and coal
Rubber and plastics
Stone, clay, and glass
Primary metals
Fabricated metal
Machinery, non- electrical
Machinery, electrical
Transportation equipment
Instruments and related
Misc. manufacturing
H \
V) I/)
W v '
0.14
0.48
0.13
0.08
0.48
0.40
1.03
2.23
0.22
1.20
0.47
0.37
0.52
0.25
0.34
0.12
0.19
Control
iction
Point Source
Required Redi
(percent)
78
92
95
85
91
99
87
87
88
94
91
93
92
90
93
90
97
rH
§£
u u
Point Source
Required Redi
(tons/day)
0.11
0.44
0.12
0.07
0.43
0.39
0.89
1.92
0.19
1..L2
0.-i2
0. J4
0.48
0.23
0.31
0.10
0.18
_i
Emissions
After Control
(tons/day)
0.03
0.04
0.01
0.01
0.05
0.01
0.13
0.31
0.03
0.08
0.05
0.04
0.04
0.02
0.03
0.02
0.01
HI = SIC 26-33
LI = Remaining SICs
34
-------
Figure 2.4 in Section 2, which depicts the total suspended particulate
isopleths with Illinois point-source control regulations, shows that the
o
standard of 75 yg/m is achieved with the Illinois regulation. However, the
air quality is such that a significant portion of the City of Chicago and
the northern Indiana regions are at, or near, the maximum allowable concen-
tration, while the outlying residential areas and suburbs are below the ;:
national and state standards. Industrial development in the southern and
southwestern portions of the region could again threaten standards even with
point-source controls applied unless maintenance measures are enacted.
3.3 DETERMINATION OF LEAST-COST EMISSION-DENSITY LIMITS
FOR THE CHICAGO REGION
To determine the least-cost combination of heavy industrial and light
HI LI
industrial emission-density limits (EDL and EDL , respectively) in the
Chicago region that satisfy the national ambient air quality standard of
o
75 pg/m , the procedure as outlined in Section 2 was followed. Several
combinations of limits were calculated on the boundary frontier as shown
in Figure 2.9. Table 3.4 shows the results of these calculations.
The least-cost combination for current land use occurs when heavy
2
industrial emission-density limits are set at 3.3 tons/day/mi and light
industrial emission limits are set at 0.85 tons/day/mi . For current zoned
land, the optimum combination of emission-density limits for heavy industry
2 2
is 2.5 tons/day/mi and 0.55 tons/day/mi for light industry. The density
limits should be set at the latter levels when the land is developed under
planned zoning to ensure that ambient air standards are met as growth
occurs. The least-cost emission-density limits are shown as the circled
points on the boundary of Figure 2.9.
35
-------
Table 3.4, LEAST-COST COMBINATION OF EMISSION-DENSITY LIMITS
CURRENT LAND USE
Emission Density -
Limits in Tons/Day/Mi
EDLHI
3.7
3.4
3.3«
3.2
3.1
3.0
i.U
1.0
0.
EDLLI
.001
.5
.85
' 1.0
1.3
1.4
i./
2.0
2.3
Annualized Cost in 106 Dollars
EDLHI
1.017
1.044
1.044
1.054
1.068
1.086
i.ioy
1.487
2.344
EDLLI
0.657
0.444
0.408
0.404
0.399
0.398
0.395
0.373
0.365
SOL
1.674
1.488
1.452
1.458
1.467
1.484
1.S64
1.860
2.709
CURRENT ZONED LAND
Emission Density ,
Limits in Tons/Day/Mi
EDL1*1
2.9
2.6
2.5*
2.4
2.3
2.2
2.0
1.0
0.
EDLLI
.001
.4
.55
.66
.7
.78
.8
1.14
1.5
Annualized Cost in 10 Dollars
EDLHI
1.090
1.100
1.098
1.104
1.115
1.128
1.169
1.487
2.563
EDLLI
0.490
0.451
0.438
0.431
0.429
0.421
0.415
0.405
0.397
EDL11-
1.580
1.551
1.535
1.535
1.544
1.549
1.584
1.892
2.960
Denotes least cost combination
HI - 26-33
LI = 20-25, 34-39
36
-------
3.4 THE COST OF CONTROL FOR EMISSION-DENSITY ZONING
The cost of controlling emissions to the limits set by the least-cost
emission-density regulations determined above are presented in this section.
It is assumed that the source operator will put on a control device, rather
than buy more land to satisfy the regulation.
From Table 3.5, the total annual cost for EDLZ to achieve the national
particulate ambient air standard at present land use is $1.452 million.
When the current zoned but undeveloped "land is included in the land, use
inventory, the cost rises to $1.535 million to maintain the national standard
as growth occurs. Tables 3.6 and 3.7 represent the annualized and utility
costs for current land use and current zoned land by SIC, respectively, for
the 475 selected sources. The utility costs follow the same pattern for
both the present land use and current zoned land, as for point-source control.
Power, water, and fuel costs predominate in the heavy industrial category.
3.5 EFFECTIVENESS OF EMISSION-DENSITY ZONING
Emission-density limits were applied to the 475 sources in the Chicago
region; the reductions achieved can be seen in Table 3.8. The EDLZ effi-
ciency ranged from 451 in the SIC code 38 (instrument and related) to 99%
in SIC 27 (printing and publishing). This variance is due to the amount of
land per source and the emissions emanating from the source. In SIC 38,
the emissions are small and the land size is large; therefore, the required
reductions are low. On the other hand, in SIC 27, the emissions are high,
while the land size is small, requiring maximum control.
The least-cost emission-density limits have been selected to achieve
and maintain air quality standards and are therefore effective by definition.
37
-------
oo.
Table 3.5. EDLZ ANNUAL CONTROL AND UTILITY COSTS
BY ZONING USE CLASSIFICATION
i SLUG ANNUAL
COST
($/YR)
HI 104*030
LI 409251
TOTALS 1,452281
SLUG ANNUAL
COST
($/YR)
HI "1097-31
LI 437535
POW^P
USE
I MW/YR)
27364
7016
34380
POWER
USE
(MW/YR)
664"
Current Land
POWER
COST
($/YR)
419270
105242
524512
Current Zoned
POWER
LUST
( $/YR )
4326 5
Use (EDLHI=3.3
FUEL
COST
($/YR)
145744
0
145744
HT
Land (EDL =2.
FUEL
CCST
( $/YP)
145744
0
T/D/Mi2, EDLLI=0.
WATER
USE
(GAL/YR)
1383641
0
1,383641
5 T/D/Mi2, EDLLI=0
WATER
ust
(GAL/YR)
1660369
3Q~43
85 T/D/Mi2)
WATCRJ
COST 1
( $/YR) '
986
0 ,
986
.55 T/D/Mi2)
WATER
CUST
U/YR)
22
TOTALS
1,535266
34905
532384
145744
1,691117
1202
HI = 26-33
LI = 20-25, 34-39
-------
OJ
.Table 3.6. CURRENT LAND USE EDLZ ANNUAL CONTROL AND UTILITY COSTS
BY STANDARD INDUSTRIAL CLASSIFICATION
TT-1
fEDL =3.3 T/D/Mi
EDLLI=0.85 T/D/Mi21
SIC
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
23
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
3*
37
38
3?
ANNUAL
COST
($/YR)
114133
0
3211
0
20744
21577
51165
76029
306(367
148071
12102
0
245580
120743
82472
121043
75237
219B3
8543
21730
POWER
US?
-------
Table 3.7.' CURRENT ZONED LAND EDLZ ANNUAL CONTROL AND UTILITY COSTS
BY STANDARD IM)USTRIAL "CLASSIFICATION
(EDLH1=2.5 T/D/Mi2". EDL LI=I
SIC
20
21
22
23
24
25
~ 26
27
2°.
2°
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
33
HI = 26-33
LI = 20-25,
ANNUAL
COST
116580
0
3385
0
1886^
26592
63517
77458
335509
161437
12226
0
22-5333
130932
S7319
130655
77429
23626
16510
21860
34-39
POWER
USE
(MW YR)
2013
0
85
0
365
1432
fa
7425
6C27
330
0
65<=0
2948
It 3'
1613
1165'
263
347
PCtoEP
COST
($/YR)
30192
0
1275
C
4442
5474
2147C
13173
11 1370
1023^
4^57
0
107500
44220
275F2
24201
1747^
7410
4021
5209
3.55 T/D/Mi2")
FUEL
COST
($/YR)
0
0
0
. 0
0
0
0
40531
97162
0
0
0
0
0
C
0
0
0
0
0
WATER
USE
(GAL/YP J
C
0
0
0
0
0
2455P1
30748
584204
338223
0
0
61495
33*223
61495
0
0
0
30745
0
WATER
COST
( $/YR )
C
0
0
0
0
0
172
21
406
237
0
0
61
237
43
0
0
0
22
0
-------
Table 3.8. EDLZ REGULATIONS APPLIED TO THE CHICAGO REGION
20
22:
24
25
26
27
2S.
29
3P
32
35
3*
35
3$
37
35
3*
Rood; and: kindred
Textile mills
ijumoer and wood
Furniture and fixtures
Paper and allied
Printing and publishing
Chemicals and allied
Ee.trPleuBr and coal
Rubber: and: plastics
Stone:,, clayi, and: glass
PJrimary. metals^
Eabr.ica.ted- metal.
Machinery, non-electrical
Machinery, electrical
Transportation- equipment
Instruments and related
Misc. manufacturing
s~-^
S>>
cd
O T3
H ^
CO CO
co C
rl O
0.14
0.48
0.13
0.08
0.48
0.40
1.03
2.23
0,22
1.20
0.47
0.37
0.52
0.25
0.34
0.12
0.19
cu
H
3 CX-N
cr o w
cu -ri a
ctf.ua)
0 O
N 3 M
] ^ 'O Q)
o Q) a
pjj pjj N^^
88
96
" "94
82
90
99
52
82
87
96
94
92
88
80
79
45
92
T3
0)
t-l
*ri ^^^
3 a >>
o1 o rt
Q) -H T3
0^ 4J ^^.
o co
Nl 3 C
l-l T) O
§0) 4J
P^ ^^
0.12
0.46
0.12
0.06
0.46
0.39
0.54
1.83
0.19
1.15
0.44
0.34
0.46
0.20
0.26
0.05
0.17
H
O
1-1
4J s~\
>
C o rt
O O T3
H ^
W t-l CO
co cu C
H 4-1 O
S lu 4->
W
-------
The pollution concentration isopleths ..shown in Figures 2.8 and 2.10 of
Section 2 are the results of controlling for current manufacturing land use
and zoned (but not necessarily, used) land, respectively. The results of
the previous section indicate that the incremental annual cost to industry
to achieve air quality maintenance as development occurs is approximately
$80,000 or 5.5% over current land use control costs.
3.6 COMPARISON OF POINT-SOURCE CONTROL AND
EMISSION-DENSITY-LIMITED ZONING
This section brings together the results of the previous sections for
purposes of comparing the two approaches to air quality regulation. The
relevant pollution concentration isopleth maps for point-source control are
shown in Figure 2.4, and for emission-density-limited zoning in Figures 2.8
and 2.10. The resulting average concentrations, using point-source control
and emission-density limits applied to current manufacturing land use, yield
roughly equivalent.results. If the emission^density limits derived from
current zoned land use patterns are used, current air quality would be
considerably improved, as shown in Figure 3.1. However, air quality would
continue to degrade as growth occurred with the maximum possible degradation,
as indicated in Figure 2.10, assuming the growth pattern follows the zoning
process. This may be preferable to uncontrolled growth, however, since
degradation cannot be predicted accurately on a regional basis without
setting some form of limitation on allowed densities.
Both types of regulations .were applied to the poiafsources- in^the.;
Chicago .aregion; :A comparison of the required emission reductions by 2-digit
SIC code for both types of regulations is presented in Figures 3.2 and 3.3.
The two strategies require approximately the same degree of control for all
42
-------
Figure 3.1. Chicago region suspended particulate isopleths
with current land use and optimum emission-density
limits for current zoned land
(EDLHI=2.5 T/D/Mi2,
EDLLI=0.55 T/D/Mi2)
43
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"PAPER AND
ALLIED
"PRINTING
a PUO'G
"CHEMICALS
a ALLIED
" PETROLEUM
a COAL
50RUODER B
PLASTICS
MSTO;:E,:L'.Y
a GLASS
"PRIMARY
METAL INDS.
////// //////// / / / / A
\ \ \ I I I i I I I
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% REDUCTION OF EMISSIONS
% REDUCTION - POINT SOURCE CONTROL REGULATION
% REDUCTION - EMISSION DENSITY LIMITED ZONIEJG REGULATION
Figure 3.2, Comparison of reduction required by the
strategies for heavy industry
44
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2° FOOD AMD
KINDRED
22 TEXTILE
WILLS
24 LUMBER
AND WOOD
- 2J FURNITURE
&FIXTURCS
54 FABRICATED
METAL
'** "*""'"? V/77/////'-/r/r77777//777r77y/A
' KOH-ELECTLI|
56 ELECTRICAL
UACHIKERY
57 TRAHSPO
EQUIPMENT
58INSTRU-
HENTS a REL
59 UISC. «FG.
L
o
J_
_L
j_
L
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
% REDUCTION OF EMISSONS
80
I
90 100
% REDUCTION - POINT SOURCE CONTROL REGULATION
% REDUCTION - EMISSION DENSITY LIMITED ZONING REGULATION
Figure 3.3. Comparison of reduction required by the
strategies for light industry
45
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SIC classes, except SIC 28 (chemicals and allied) and SIC 38 (instruments
and related). The EDLZ required efficiency is much less for these SIC codes
because the industries in these classes have a large amount of land over
which to distribute their emissions.
The costs associated with achieving these reductions are presented in
Figure 3.4. The PSC and EDLZ costs vary by SIC, but, for the most part,
the strategies do not differ greatly in cost. As a result, EDLZ is an
effective long-range control that is only slightly more costly (10%) than
PSC, assuming a stable zoning process. This is further substantiated by
Figure 3.5 which shows the costs by standard land use classification along
with the associated utility cost. EDLZ is slightly greater in cost, with
heavy industry having the added expense of water and fuel. From these
figures, it can be seen that EDLZ is an economic control strategy in achiev-
ing and maintaining ambient air quality.
3.7 SENSITIVITY OF RESULTS TO PERMITTED-USE ZONING POLICY
The sensitivity of the results to permitted-use zoning policy was
tested on the same emission-density boundary frontier (Figure 2.9) with the
current zoned land use inventory. The sources with activities in
/
SIC codes 29, 32 and 33 were classed as heavy industry, while the remainder
of the SIC codes from 20-39 were classed as light industry. This group was
selected for the heavy industrial classification because these three classes
account for 63 percent of the total suspended particulates and constitute
approximately one-third of the sources in the region, as seen in Table 3.9.
In order to formulate a least-cost combination of emission-density
limits for this activity grouping, several combinations of limits were
46
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HUU
350
i 300
_i
_i
o
- 250
o
fc 200
o
o
S 150
INI
_l
I too
z
-------
2,0
oo
co
cr
-------
- Jable 3.9. PERCENT OF SUSPENDED PARTICULATES EMITTED BY
THE THREE LARGEST SIC CLASSES IN THE REGION
SIC
32
29
33
TOTAL
% of
TSP
29.4
17.0
16.2
62.6
Number
of Sources
50
40
83
173
49
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calculated on the boundary frontier, as shown in Table 3.10. The least-
cost combination is seen to be at the emission-density limits of
2 2
2.2 tons/day/mi for heavy industry and 0.78 tons/day/mi for light industry.
These optimal limits for the permitted-use zoning constrain the heavy
industry activities and are less stringent on the light industry activities,
as compared to the more traditional method of classifying heavy industry as
SIC 26-33 and light industry as 20-25 and 34-39. The optimal annual cost
associated with the modified permitted-use zoning policy is 1.78 million
dollars,as compared to the 1.54 million dollar cost with the more tradi-
tional zoning policy.
50
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Table 3.10, LEAST-COST COMBINATION OF EMISSION-DENSITY LIMITS
FOR' PERMUTED -USE:. ZONING ...
Current Zoned Land
Emission-density limits
in tons/day/mi
Annualized cost
in 10° Dollars
EDLm EDLLI
2.9
2.6
2.5*
2.4
2.3
2,2* '
2.0
1.0
0.001
0.001
0.4
0.55
0.66
0.7
0.78
0.8
1.14
1.5
EDLHI
0.529
0.524
0.522
0.530
0.539
0.555
0.576
0.690
0.856
EDLLI
1.893
1.437
1.333
1.316
1.309
1.227
1.219
1.184
1.458
Total
EDL
2.422
1.961
1.855
1.846
1.848
1.782
1.795
1.874
2.314
* Traditional zoning optimum
t Permitted-use zoning optimum
HI = 29,32,33
LI = 20-28, 30-31, 34-39
51
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4.0 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
The system model that was developed for this study compared and evalu-
ated two emission control approaches, point-source control and emission-
density-limited zoning. This model was successfully tested using a data
base including 475 selected process and fuel combustion sources from a
three-county region in the Chicago metropolitan area. The two approaches
were compared for particulate control on a cost-effectiveness basis, using
annualized cost as the criterian. The model can be expanded to include
other approaches. Also, additional pollutants can be investigated by
programming applicable control devices into the model as appropriate.
The following conclusions are drawn from this study:
1) Emission-density-limited zoning and point-source control
regulations are equally effective strategies for achieving
the national particulate matter air quality standards in the
Chicago region by 1975.
2) An emission-density-limited zoning policy sets an upper limit
on the amount of deterioration in air quality in the region
if the density limits are established to include land zoned
for manufacturing development as well as current developed land.
52
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This is so virtually by the definition of the density
limitations, if they have been established to meet air
quality standards and are based on a stable zoning policy
that reflects comprehensive planning in the region.
3) An emission-density-limited zoning policy established to
account for planned regional development has the potential
advantage of achieving a better overall average air pollu-
tion concentration in the short run (1975) than do the
present point-source control regulations, at the expense
of a slightly increased annual control cost of 101, or $140,000,
for the 475 sources selected for this study.
4) Point-source control regulations are quite stringent in an
economic sense for sources with a combination of large process
weight rate and large emission factors, and are lenient for
sources with small emission factors and large process weight.
The total annualized cost for point-source control with the
475 selected industries in the Chicago metropolitan area
was 1.393 million dollars, with heavy industry contributing
approximately 75 percent of the cost and light industry
25 percent.
5) In delineation of the total annualized cost, capital and
maintenance charges constitute approximately 56 percent,
power costs of operating the equipment contribute 34 percent,
53
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fuel for operating afterburners contributes 10 percent, and
water utilized in operating wet scrubbers constitutes 0.1
percent. The power cost is distributed evenly over the SIC
classes, while the iiiel and water costs predominate in the
heavy industrial category.
6) A least-cost emission-density limited zoning policy was
formulated in order for air quality to be achieved throughout
the Chicago region. The least-cost EDLZ limits were found to
2 2
be 3.3 tons/day/mi for heavy industry and 0.85 tons/day/mi
for light industry, based on present manufacturing land use.
When the current zoned land inventory was included, the limits
2
decreased to 2.5 tons/day/mi for heavy industry and
2
0.55 tons/day/mi for light industry.
7) The total annual cost for 475 selected industries with EDLZ
based on present land use is 1.452 million dollars. When the
current zoned land is included, the cost rises to 1.535 million
dollars. The associated costs follow the same pattern as for
point-source control. The division of total control costs
between heavy and light industry is also roughly the same
(HI-75%, LI-25%).
8) The point-source control and EDLZ approaches do not differ
greatly in cost or resource utilization; as a result, ELDZ
is a potentially viable economic control for achieving and
maintaining ambient air quality.
54
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REFERENCES
1. TRW Systems Group. Air Quality Display Model ((AQEM).
Contract No. PH 22-68-60. November 1969.
2. Martin, D. and Tickvart, J. A General Atmospheric Diffusion Model
for Estimating the Effects of Air Quality of One or More Sources.
APCA paper, June 1968.
3. U.S. Enivronmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Programs.
Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors (Revised). February 1972.
55
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APPENDIX A
LITERATURE REVIEW
Air Pollution Source Control Regulation,
Particulate Emission Control Devices,
and the Air Pollution-Land Use Interface
56.
-------
APPENDIX A LITERATURE REVIEW
A review of the literature was conducted to learn to what extent cost-
effectiveness type studies have been used in analysis of alternate control
approaches for participate pollution control. In large urban areas, a
reduction in emissions must usually be accomplished in order to achieve the
federal ambient air quality standards. That legislation enacted to effect
reduction in emissions for particulate matter was studied. After studying
the federal and state regulations, we reviewed control equipment to determine
the types of control devices that meet the required reductions and the tech-
nical requirements of each Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) Code.
The cost of control equipment that meets these objectives was analyzed by
type of control device and by variation of control devices by industry.
Finally, studies that have attempted to link air pollution and land use are
reviewed.
A.1 LEGISLATION REGARDING AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
FOR PARTICULATE MATTER
The development of environmental protection and enhancement measures
in the United States has been,, for the most part, determined by state and
federal legislation.
A.1.1 Federal Legislation
Air quality legislation enacted by the federal government began in
July 1955, when Congress authorized a program of research and technical
assistance to state and local governments. The period from 1963 to 1970
57
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produced the most significant legislation regarding air quality: the Clean
Air Act of 1963, the Motor Vehicle Act of 1965, the Air Quality Act of 1967,
and the culminating Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970. The 1970 Amendments,
characterized as currently the strongest air pollution control legislation,
authorize the regulation of both mobile and stationary sources of pollu-
tion. These programs deal with establishing national air quality standards,
describing a framework for the state to meet these standards, and improving
procedures for federal enforcement. National ambient air quality standards
for particulate matter, sulfur oxides, carbon monoxide, photochemical
oxidants, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides have thus far been promulgated
by the Environmental Protection Agency. Federal guidelines published by the
EPA require that states submit implementation plans for the attainment and
maintenance of these standards.
The 1970 amendments also provide for more effective federal enforce-
ment , by allowing the EPA to issue compliance orders to any person violating
applicable implementation plans or to bring civil suit against any person
in violation of implementation plans; they also authorize citizen suits to
enforce the provisions of the Clean Air Act.
The Clean Air Amendments are an example of a recent shift in the burden
of proof in pollution control. When the EPA now specifies that an air
pollutant is a health hazard, industry must either comply with the emission
standard or prove that the health hazard does not exist.
A. 1.2 State Legislation
In implementing the federal guidelines for the State of Illinois, the
Illinois Pollution Control Board adopted a set of comprehensive air pol-
lution control regulations_ designed to limit emissions of sulfur dioxide,
58
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particulate matter, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons
from stationary sources throughout Illinois.
An additional provision that would have effectively banned coal for
residential or commercial use in the Chicago area by mid-1975 was not
included in the package due to a temporary restraining order. This order
was entered against the Board by a Cook County Circuit Court Judge, who
termed the ban unconstitutional as presently structured.
The new regulations represent a major effort by the state to control
the air contaminants, and form the heart of the Illinois program to meet
the federal standards and to combat air pollution. Except for controls oh
particulate matter, the state previously did not have emission limits on
these air pollutants.
Specifically, in regard to particulate air contaminants, the program:
1) Significantly tightens limits on the emission of particulate
matter from such operations as steel mills, oil refineries,
electric power plants, cement plants, and corn wet-milling
facilities.
2) For the first time, requires sophisticated new equipment to
control emissions from coke ovens.
3) Greatly strengthens existing standards for emissions from
incinerators.
4) Adopts a statewide nondegradation standard to prevent the
unnecessary deterioration of air that is now clean, and to
prevent new sources of pollution from being located in
inappropriate places.
59
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5) Institutes a statewide requirement of operating permits
for all pollution sources as an aid to enforcement.
6) Requires sources to monitor their emissions, to keep
detailed records, to adequately maintain their equipment,
and to make regular reports to the state.
7) Specifies participate emission standards and limitations
for new and existing emission sources, for incinerators,
and for fuel combustion emission sources.
The air pollution regulations are designed to enable the state to meet the
national ambient air quality standard by 1975.
In the case of Illinois manufacturing sources, emission standards are
divided into fuel combustion and process regulations. Fuel emission regu-
lations in the Chicago major metropolitan area require that no person shall
cause or allow the emission of particulate matter into the atmosphere from
any existing fuel combustion source to exceed 0.1 pound of particulate
matter per million Btu of actual heat input in any one-hour period.
For process emission sources, no person shall cause or allow the emis-
sion of particulate matter into the atmosphere in any one-hour period from
any existing process emission source in excess of the allowable emission
rates specified in Table A.I, either alone or in combination with the emis-
sion of particulate matter from all other similar new or existing process
emission sources at a plant or premises. Interpolated and extrapolated
values of the numbers in Table A.I.for process weight rates up to 30 tons
per hour shall be determined by using the equation.^
E = 4.10 (P)°*67 , (A.I)
60
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Table A.I. ILLINOIS STANDARDS FOR EXISTING
PROCESS EMISSION SOURCES
Process Weight Rate
Pounds Per Hour
100
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,500
2.000
4,000
6,000
8,000
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
60,000
70,000
80,000
90,000
100,000
200,000
300,000
400,000
500,000
600,000
700,000
800,000
900,000
1,000,000
Process Weight Rate
Tons Per Hour
0.05
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.75
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
30.00
35.00
40.00
45.00
50.00
100.00
150.00
200.00
250.00
300.00
350.00
400.00
450.00
500.00
Allowable
Emission Rate
Pounds Per Hour
0.55
0.87
1.40
1.83
2.22
2.58
3.38
4.10
6.52
8.56
10.40
12.00
19.20
25.20
30.50
35.40
40.00
41.30
42.50
43.60
44.60
51.20
55.40
58.60
61.00
63.10
64.90
66.20
67.70
69.00
Source: State of Illinois Air Pollution Control
Implementation Plan. II. December 1971.
61
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and interpolated and extrapolated values of the data for process weight
rates in excess of 30 tons per hour shall be determined by using the
equation:
E - (SS.O (P) °al] - 40.0 , (A.2)
where E = allowable emission rate in pounds per hour
and P = process weight rate in tons per hour.
The process weight regulation in the Illinois Implementation Plan was
modeled after the Bay Area Curve developed by the Bay Area Pollution Control
District in San Francisco. This process weight regulation was based on
well-controlled process industries found there. The Bay Area Curve rises
to an allowable emission of 40 pounds per hour with increasing size of
operation, and then allowable emissions increase at a reduced rate above
40 pounds per hour with increasing size of operation. The Bay Area Curve
as applied to the State of Illinois regulation can be seen in Figure A.I.
The Bay Area regulation is quite stringent for sources with a combination
of large process weight rate and large emission factors, such as the SIC
class 32 (stone, clay, and glass industries). It is noticeably lenient for
sources with small emission factors and large process weight, such as SIC 28
(chemicals and allied) and SIC 29 (petroleum).
A.2 POINT-SOURCE PARTICULATE CONTROL DEVICES
When control regulations are enforced on a specific manufacturing
plant, the source operator must select control equipment to meet the
required reductions. It has been assumed in this study that the source
operator will select that device which meets the design requirements of his
plant configuration at least cost. In this section, the literature on
control equipment is reviewed to determine which devices are applicable
62
-------
100.0
cr
o
cr
UJ
a.
co
Q
S
o
Q.
UJ
£
o:
10.0
o\
CO
CO
UJ
UJ
en
o
_i
_j
<
t.o
I
I
1
!03 I04 I05
PROCESS WEIGHT RATE! POUNDS PER HOUR
Figure A.I. State of Illinois allowable emission rate for point-source control
Source: Op cit
-------
to manufacturing processes, and to estimate the resulting costs. This
information is needed to construct the control equipment cost model
described in Appendix B.
A.2.1 Considerations in Control Device Selection
for Manufacturing Processes
Control equipment for particulate air pollutants may be classified
into several general types: scrubbers, gravitational collectors, cyclones,
electrostatic precipitators, afterburners, and fabric filters. Control
equipment for each process is designed on the basis of the physical behavior
of the airborne particles emitted. Such physical behavior is governed by
particle size and size distribution (ranging from hundreds of microns down
to fractions of microns), specific gravity, shape, and chemical and surface
properties.
In relation to particle characteristics and control device types, the
American Industrial Hygiene Air Pollution Manual and the National Air
Pollution Control Administration, now the U.S. Environmental Protection
9 f\
Agency, have reviewed process factors affecting equipment selection. '
They analyze each of the control devices in detail as to principles of oper-
ation, construction, efficiency, power consumption, reliability, cost, and
application.
Wet collectors or scrubbers are devices in which the prime means of
collection is a liquid introduced into the collector for contact with the
2789 10
aerosol. ' ' ' ' The overall particle size range that lends itself to wet
collection is from 0.2n to greater than 10p. Wet collectors vary in design,
but utilize methods to condition the particulate and disengage it from the
carrier gas. The mechanisms designed for achieving this are impingement,
Brownian motion, condensation of liquid on particles that serve as nuclei,
64
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and agglomeration of particles. Wet collection equipment is usually
selected because of low first cost at reasonable efficiency, or because
water may offer a more convenient method of disposal of the collected
material. It is used readily where the particulates may cause a fire or
explosion if not promptly wetted. In the selection of a wet collector,
cost comparisons must include initial unit price and installation cost,
as well as power, water, labor, and maintenance costs. Prices vary for
the type of collector, but range from $0.50/cfm to $3.00/cfm at a capacity
of 1,000 cfm.2
Inertial collectors include devices that collect particulate matter
by gravity or centrifugal force. ' ' . Gravity collectors are devices
that include settling chambers, baffled chambers, or louvered chambers, and
operate on the principle that gravity or particle inertia increases with
the square of particle diameter. Thus, the largest particles are separated
most easily. As a result, collectors of this class are of relatively low
efficiency and are frequently used as pre-cleaners preceding other types of
collectors. Centrifugal collectors or cyclones are devices in wnich a
vortex is created within the collector. This vortex propels particles to
a location from which they may be removed. They may be operated wet or dry,
and may either deposit the collected particulate matter in a hopper or
concentrate it into a stream of carrier gas that flows to another separator.
Most cyclones operate in the range from 50- to 90-percent efficiency,
depending on the size of the particulate matter handled and the cyclone body
diameter. Cyclones cost from $0.07/cfm to $0.50/cfm uninstailed, and have
o
annual operating costs of $0.08 to $0.20/cfm, with ten-year amortization.
65
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Electrical precipitators are devices in which high intensity electrical
fields cause particles to acquire an electrical charge and migrate to a
collecting surface. » » » » Pressure drop is very low, and collection
efficiency increases with length of passage through the precipitator. Main-
taining the design efficiency in daily operation is more difficult with
precipitators than with many other devices. Precipitator efficiency is
easily maintained at 75- to 90-percent, but above 98 percent sectionaliza-
tion and automatic power controls must be employed.
Filters are porous-structures:for-removal of-participate matter from
2 17 18
gas streams. ' ' The porous structure is most commonly a fabric, but
can include beds of a large variety of substances such as metal turnings,
coke, slag, wool, and sand. Filters generally improve in retention effi-
ciency as the interstices in the porous structure begin to be filled by
collected- particles. This increase in efficiency is accompanied by an
increase in pressure drop through the filter. To prevent decrease in gas
flow, the filter must be cleaned or replaced periodically. The three most
important costs associated with fabric filtration are the purchase cost, the
cost of power, and the maintenance cost. Purchase costs for fabric filters
generally run at $2.50 per square foot.
Afterburners employ the application of flame combustion to the
2 19 20 21
disposal of gaseous pollutants, aerosols, and waste liquids. ' ' '
The incineration of contaminated matter is justified on several counts:
1) Odor control.
2) Reduction in opacity of plumes.
3) Reduction in emissions of reactive hydrocarbons.
4) Reduction in explosion hazard.
66
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In selecting from the above-named devices, control equipment that
meets the technical requirements of the process and the desired emission
reduction, the cost-effectiveness of pollutant reduction must be considered.
The consulting firm of Ernst and Ernst, working under the auspices of the
National Air Pollution Control Association, has developed a rapid method for
f\ 99
estimating the cost of air pollution control equipment. ' A general method
is presented for rapidly estimating the total annual cost of four generic
types of mechanical devices commonly used in controlling sources of particu-
late pollutants. The four types of devices are inertial collectors, wet
scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators, and fabric filters. Estimates of
the purchase and installation costs associated with the various sizes and
efficiences of the four device types are also provided. In the case of
installation costs (expressed as a percentage of purchase cost), mean values
are also estimated to reflect the most typical installation experience that
could be inferred from the various data sources available for each type of
control device. These mean values permit the use of formulae to construct
gross estimates of the high and low variations around the estimated total
annual cost (capitalized purchase and installation cost, plus annual mainte-
nance and operating cost) of a specified device. The value of the general
method presented is that it provides a rapid means of constructing order-
of-magnitude cost bounds within which the total annual cost of a particulate
control device can reasonably be expected to fall, given only the major
characteristics of an emission source and the cost of power and water in
the source's locality.
67
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In a test of the model, the cost of achieving various air quality
levels in the Kansas City study area, under different abatement strategies,
is estimated.. The pollutants of interest in this study are suspended
particulates and sulfur oxides. Emissions come from combustion of fossil
fuels for space heating and power generation, from open burning and inciner-
ation of solid and liquid waste, from industrial processes, and from miscel-
laneous small sources. Stationary sources account for over 86 percent of
the particulates and over 96 percent of the sulfur oxides emitted in this
area.
The New York metropolitan area was also studied in a cost-effectiveness
O A
study of particulate and sulfur oxide emission control. The annual cost
of alternative methods for reducing particulate and sulfur oxide emission
from power plants, stationary combustion sources, and incinerators is
estimated. The alternatives include changing types of fuel and installing
various pieces of control equipment.
A similar study to formulate the cost of emission control was prepared
by the TRW Systems Group in Washington, D. C. They prepared an operator's
25
manual for the Air Quality Implementation Program. The Implementation
Planning Program is a collection of computer programs designed to assist .
68
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state governments in preparing their implementation plans for sulfur oxides
and particulates. The regional air quality implementation process was based
on the application of a set of stationary source emission controls in the
form of emission standards. The many combinations of these standards result
in a variety of possible control strategies. Through application of computer
simulation techniques, the Implementation Planning Program was used in
selecting appropriate emission standards, evaluating the resulting air
quality, and determining the costs associated with various alternative
control strategies. The individual programs, their input data requirements,
and the output information generated were described in this volume. Sources
such as fuel use, diffusion models, and various control equipment were
mentioned.
A sensitivity analysis of selected Air Quality Implementation Planning
7fi
Program input parameters was performed by the above-mentioned group. A
major problem in the analysis of regional air pollution abatement (control)
strategies is the collection and verification of an adequate data base. If
computer programs are used, the scope of the data base must be expanded to
include effective stack parameters and regional cost data. As an aid in the
definition and use of these parameters, their sensitivity, with respect to
pollutant concentration value, and/or annual device costs were determined.
The atmospheric diffusion model and the control cost model of the Air
Quality Implementation Program were utilized. Sensitivity analyses were
made for two sets of relevant parameters: (1) effective stack height param-
eters for individual sources; and (2) regional cost parameters with respect
to the annual control cost of each physical device available in the IPP
control cost model. Other parameters included stability wind rose, mixing
height, ambient temperature and pressure, plume rise, exit velocity, and
69
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wind velocity. Control devices included scrubbers, centrifugal collectors,
electrostatic precipitators, irapactors, fabric filters, and afterburners;
other control processes considered were flue gas desulfurization, catalytic
oxidation, by-product manufacturing, and limestone injection.
27
Another user's manual developed by Anderson suggests automated
procedures for estimating control costs and emission reductions for specir
fied air pollution sources. Other researchers can use and modify the com-
puter programs developed within this manual for estimating emissions of
specified industrial air pollution sources, and costs, of controlling them.
The output from each source program consists of emission estimates, both
before and after control, as well as required control costs on a plant-by-
plant basis. The manual describes the input requirements, operational
characteristics, and output characteristics for each program. A master
report-generating program was also developed. This program uses as input
the output from one, all, or any combination of source programs; it generates
summary data in the form of a single industry or multiple industries, and
sums within the range of a desired geographical area. The area may be a
single air quality control region or a state, or a combination of such.
Computer programs are presented for petroleum refining, manufacture of
phosphate fertilizer or sulfuric acid, kraft pulping, foundry operations,
primary nonferrous metallurgy, steam electric plants, and other industries.
28
A similar program was developed by W. E. Jackson at Drexel Institute
of Technology. He describes a general procedure that can be followed for
estimating the cost of reducing air pollution emissions within a given
metropolitan region. The six-step procedure examines emission inventories,
regional trends, control trends, alternate control schemes, control costs,
and optimum cost-effectiveness. The procedure is illustrated for one emis-
sion source in the Delaware Valley.
70
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The need for particulate control equipment has been well documented,
but systematic methods of selecting the equipment are far from being estab-
lished. Equipment for air pollution abatement was present at the
Economics of Environmental Pollution Abatement, Creative Manufacturing
29
Seminar. The cost and effectiveness of air pollution control installa-
tions were closely related to efficiency capabilities, capacity, and control
equipment selected. The factors that affect selection of equipment and
important characteristics of control units were examined. The inertial or
mechanical type of equipment considered were settling chambers, baffles,
cyclone collectors, impingers, and dynamic collectors. A second category
consisted of air washers, impingement scrubbers, submerged nozzles, dynamic
scrubbers, spray towers, packed towers, and venturi scrubbers. Fabric
filters and electrostatic precipitators were also described. Operational
limitations, comparative efficiencies, and costs were considered.
In selecting equipment for air pollution abatement, Charles Stone
develops systematic techniques for selecting particulate control equipment.
Utilizing adaptive identification procedures, he formulates an idealized
mathematical model of the control system. By application of appropriate
criteria functions, geometric programming, and parameter-estimation tech-
niques, the parameters of a feasible particulate control system are
synthesized in such a way that the difference between the idealized model
response and the actual system response is minimized. This selection and
automated parameter adjustment procedure yields a particulate air pollutant
control system that is optimal with respect to the physical and economic
constraints imposed upon the system. Cost-effectiveness relationships are
also included.
71
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In the selection of air pollution control equipment for participate
emissions, the types of devices fall into four general types: filters,
electrostatic precipitators, dry inertia! collectors, and wet scrubbers.
In cases of complex emissions, these devices are combined. The basic oper-
ating principles of these devices involve certain basic data requirements.
As an absolute minimum, the following data are required: gas volumetric
flow rate, temperature, pressure, and humidity; particulate form and concen-
tration; particulate size distribution and specific gravity; particulate
bulk electrical resistivity (dry); required removal efficiency; and process
constraints with regard to the use of water. From these basic data, it is
possible to perform an initial screening on the type of system required.
This screening defines technically feasible alternate solutions. Selection
of the optimum equipment requires a detailed analysis of additional techni-
cal and economic factors, including capital investment, operating costs,, and
costs of capital. These operating principles, delineated by A.B. Walker,
were seen in all the literature concerning selection of particulate control
equipment.
A.2.2 Variation of Control Devices by Industry
The nature of the particular industrial process dictates the type of
control equipment used. For example,: high gas temperature without cooling
precludes the use of fabric filters, explosive gas streams prohibit the use
of electrostatic precipitators, and submicron particles cannot generally be
efficiently collected with mechanical collectors. The variation of control
devices by industry can be seen in the following review of the literature.
Norman G. Edminsten studied the cost of air pollution and
defined and quantified the cost variation for air pollutant emissions that
72
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32
exist from one industrial segment to another. Several source studies were
conducted. The areas include: gray iron foundries, steam electric power
generation, asphalt batching, integrated iron and steel manufacturing,
pulp and paper production, cement manufacturing, aluminum ore reduction,
sulfuric acid manufacturing, and petroleum refining. Pollutant sources
and the types and quantities of pollutants emitted are defined, as well as
specific problems that must be considered in basic equipment design and
operation. Estimated costs for control equipment range from $0.045/acfm
for centrifugal collectors to $3.00/acfm for an electrostatic precipitator.
The cement industry has been studied by Robert E. Kohn, who developed
a mathematical programming model for air pollution control at Washington
University. Mathematical models are proposed in (33, 34) for computer
processing to determine the least possible cost of pollution controls in an
airshed. Advantages of the models are their simplicity, their emphasis on
economic efficiency, and their appropriateness for the type of data
normally available. One model considers a hypothetical airshed for a single
industry: cement manufacturing. Annual production is 2,500,000 barrels of
cement; two pounds of dust are emitted for every barrel produced. The least-
cost solution to the emission problem would be to install a four-field
electrostatic precipitator on kilns producing 1,000,000 barrels and a five-
field precipitator on kilns producing 1,500,000 barrels. A second model
concerns five major pollutants in the St. Louis airshed in 1970: sulfur
dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, and particulates.
Among the possible control methods included in the model are exhaust and
73
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crankcase devices for automobiles, the substitution of natural gas for coal,
catalytic oxidation of sulfur dioxide to sulfuric acid at power plants, and
the use of low-eulfur-content coal. Pollutant reduction requirements are
itemized, the computer-derived solution of this model indicates the cost
and efficiency of each reduction method. A third model indicates the
effects of air pollution on humans, vegetation, and materials. It can be
used to determine whether the relative damaging effects of pollutants are
proportional to their control costs.
The Harvard Business Review published a paper on industry action to
combat pollution. The responsibilities of individual corporations in air
pollution abatement are emphasized. Sources of pollution discussed include
the paper, steel, electric power, transportation, and petroleum industries.
Principal equipment for removal of aerosols and particulates is described.
It is concluded that although air pollution equipment increases costs in
certain industries, recovery of pollutants, such as fly ash, may help to
offset costs. Government activities in air pollution programs are also
summarized.
The American Institute of Plant Engineers conducted a survey of
industrial air pollution control equipment on operation costs and procedures.
The following industries are included: food, chemicals, rubber and plastics,
stone, clay and glass, primary metals, fabricated metals, powered machinery,
electrical machinery, professional and scientific instruments, and aero-
space manufacturing. Emphasis of the results centers on capital, installa-
tion, and operating costs for air pollution control equipment. Other
topics considered include: effectiveness, maintenance, equipment, corrosion,
74
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necessary design improvements, uncontrolled pollutants, and unsolved
problems.
37
The American Institute of Chemical Engineers presented a report on
particulate control technology in the primary non-ferrous smelting industry.
The sources and nature of particulate emissions and control technology in
the primary smelting of aluminum, copper, lead, and zinc are described.
High dust concentrations generated by bauxite drying and alumina calcining
frequently require multicyclones for preliminary collection, followed by
electrostatic precipitators. Installed costs for the combined system are
from $4.60 to $2.30/cfm at 99+percent collection efficiencies. Electro-
lytic aluminum reduction cells pose a more complicated emission problem:
moderate-energy wet scrubbers, glass filter bags, or flushed precipitator
installations are used. Representative installed costs for the three
methods are $3.00/cfm, $2.00/cfm, and $2.00/cfm, respectively. Dry electro-
static precipitators, preceded by mechanical collectors, are universally
applied in copper smelting. Installation costs for the combined equipment
are $6.00/cfm for 50,000-cfm flows, and $3.00/cfm for 2,000,000-cfm flows.
Large lead blast furnaces employ electrostatic precipitators; small units
use fabric filters. Installation costs of vertical flow pipe type precip-
itators in the 100,000-cfm range are $6.00/cfm. Continuous bag-houses for
smaller volumes cost $5.00/cfm installed. Horizontal flow plate precipi-
tators are used on new zinc sintering machines. Mild steel construction is
common, and installed costs for 50,000-cfm collectors are $3,50/cfm in the
study. Emissions from flash roasting of zinc ore are also controlled by
plate-type precipitators of mild steel construction. Installed costs are
$3.50/cfm.
75
-------
Iron and steel industry emissions have been examined with respect to
38 39
specific sources, control methods, and annual costs. » The majority of
operations report using fabric filters or wet collectors to control partic-
ulate pollution.
The pulp and paper industry employs control equipment to satisfy air
pollution control regulations, and J. D. Rushton and J. E. Robertson
each contributed literature on factors to consider in selecting air pollu-
tion control equipment. The foundry industry likewise has surveyed the
entire subject of air pollution in foundry production, and some solutions
42 43 44
to the major problems are presented. ' ' Feed and grain mills and
alfalfa dehydrating mills have been analyzed by the Public Health Service
45 46
to determine air pollution control needs in meeting air standards. '
Air pollution aspects of the brass and bronze smelting and refining industry
was another aspect of the Public Health Service analysis, as was the hot
mix asphalt paving batch plants. Both of these reports focus on pertinent
information about the raw materials used, basic equipment, plant operation,
air pollution problems, and air pollution control equipment, with cost
analysis.47'48
Methods and costs of air pollution control were reviewed, with emphasis
49
on the efforts of the chemical process industry, by I. Schwartz. The
magnitude of the task is shown by Public Health Service estimates of the
amount of pollutants poured into the atmosphere each year: particulates,
15 million tons; sulfur oxides, 30 million tons; hydrocarbons, 24 million
tons; carbon monoxide, 87 million tons; nitrous oxides, 17 million tons.
With the chemical processing industry, the percentage of capital outlay for
air pollution control equipment is expected to change. Expenditures for
particulate controls account for more than one-third of industry expenditures.
76
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Gaseous emission controls, currently less than 2 percent of sales, are
expected to juijp to 40 percent following development of federal gaseous
emission criteria. The Department of Health, Education, and Welfare guide-
lines for air quality criteria issued to date are listed in the report.
The cost of compliance with their suggestions are estimated. For the
sulfuric acid industry, this estimate is from $26 to $39 million capital
expenditure and from $1.5 to $2.8 million per year operating cost. For the
phosphate fertilizer industry, the estimates are from $3.1 to $6.7 million
and from $1.3 to $2.7 million, respectively. The four basic means of col-
lecting particulates (fabric filter, electrostatic precipitator, cyclone,
and scrubber) are described, along with their capabilities and costs. The
three basic systems for gaseous emission control (scrubbing, absorption,
and incineration) are similarly treated. By-product recovery is evaluated
as a means of reducing the effective cost of air pollution control.
A yearly expenditure, as Schwartz has computed for the chemical
process industry, can also be computed for controlling major air pollutants.
The federal government annually published the Economics of Clean Air, which
is a report of the administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency to
the Congress of the United States in compliance with the amendments to the
Clean Air Act. The March 1972 edition reports on the prospective costs
and impacts of governmental and private efforts to carry out the provisions
of Section 312 of the Clean Air Act..
Cost estimates for controlling major air pollutants from most station-
ary and mobile source types, computed for the first time on a national level,
are given in this report. For mobile sources, three pollutants are covered:
carbon'monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides. For stationary sources,
77
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five pollutants are covered: particulates, sulfur oxides, carbon monoxide,
hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides. Three general classes of stationary
sources are considered: solid waste disposal (open buring and incineration),
stationary fuel combustion (heating and power generation), and industrial
processes (seventeen types). Stationary source control costs are projected
for the five fiscal years 1973 through 1977. Mobile source control costs
are given for the 1968-1977 model to show the relative impact of increasingly
more stringent federal standards since 1967.
A.2.3 Summary of Control Literature
Gas streams contaminated with particulate matter may be cleaned before
the gas is discharged to the atmosphere. Gas cleaning devices take advan-
tage of certain physical, chemical and/or electrical properties of the
particulate matter and gas stream. Selection of a gas cleaning device
will be influenced by the efficiency required; nature of the process gas to
be cleaned; characteristics of the particulate and gas stream; cost of the
device's use; availability of space; and power and water requirements.
Other basic considerations include maintenance, dependability and waste
disposal. Table A. 2 shows a list of the types and values of control equip-
ment being sold to various industries by end use in 1967. As a further aid
in the selection of particulate matter collection equipment, the areas of
application of the various cleaning devices a|e given in Table A. 3. The
selection of applicable control devices as shown in the literature was
utilized in the cost-effectiveness model,as seen in Appendix B.
78
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Table A.2^MANUFACTURERS' SHIPMENTS OF INDUSTRIAL GAS CLEANING EQUIPMENT BY END
USE IN 1967 *
[Thousand! of dollars]
Iron and steel
Utilities
Chemicals.
Rock products _._
Pulp and paper
Mining and metallurgical
Refinery ..
All other d .. ..
Exports .
Total shipments
Electro-
static
precip-
itators
5,783
15,506
..... 1,207
2,760
()
()
()
687
(*)
36,509
Gas
Fabric Mechanical Scrubbers Scrubbers incinerators Total
filters collectors particulate gaseous and shipments
adsorbers
4,536
C)
5,344
3,602
122
1,855
C)
4,959
1,081
21,730
2,300
2,476
3,130
1,038
802
389
()
8,408
C)
22,381
7,423
C)
3,709
1,142
989
825
0
3,901
651
19,229
4,275
C)
1,479
C)
193
394
C)
114
72
6,770
(")
C)
1,001
C)
C)
C)
282
2,137
79
3,976
24, 317 b
18,481
15,870
8,966
6,753
6,160
4,098
20,206
5,744
110,595
Not published to avoid disclosure.
b Gas incinerators and adsorbers purchased by iron and steel companies are included in "all others" category to
avoid disclosure.
"Rock products" includes cement and asbestos plants.
d "All other" includes shipments to distributors where end use cannot be identified.
*Source: Control Techniques for Particulate Air Pollutants. National
Air Pollution Control Administration Publication AP-51.
January 1969.
79
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Table A. 3. USE OF PARTICULATE COLLECTORS BY INDUSTRY*
Industrial Classification
Process
EP MC FF MS Other
Utilities and Industrial Coal 0 0
power plants Oil --- 0 0
Natural gas
Lignite 0 0
Wood and bark + 0 - +
Bagasse - --- 0
Fluid coke 0 + - - +
Pulp and paper Kraft 0 - - 0
Soda 0 - - 0
Lime kiln 0
Chemical 0
Dissolver tank vents 0 - - +
Rock products Cement - 0 0 0 ' +
Phosphate 0000-
Gypsum 0 00 0
Alumina--- 0 0 0 +
Line 00 + -
Baucite 00---
Magnesium oxide + +
Steel Blast furnace 0 - - 0 +
Open hearth 0 - - + +
Basic oxygen furnace 0 - - 0 -
Electric furnace + - 0 0
Sintering 0 0
Coke ovens - --- 0 - +
Or» roasters 00- + -
Cupola + - + 0
Pyrites roaster - 00-0-
Taconite + 0
Hot scarfing 0 - - > -
Mining and metallurgical Zinc roaster 00---
Zinc smelter 0
Copper roaster 0 0
Copper reverb .-- 0
Copper converter --- 0
. ..Lead furnace 0 0
Aluminum 0 - - 0 +
Elemental phos 0
Ilnenite 0 0
Titanium dioxide + - 0
Molybdenum +
Sulfuric acid --- 0 - - 0 0
Phosphoric acid .---00
Nitric acid 0 0
Ore beneficiation + + + + +
Miscellaneous Refinery catalyst 00
Coal drying 0
Coal mill vents--- ,. * °
"Municipal incinerators + " 0 - 0 +
Carbon black + + +
Apartment incinerators * 0
Spray drying -00*-
Machining operation -00 + +
Hot coating - - - 0 0
Precious metal 0 - 0
Feed and flour milling - - 0 ' 0
Lumber mills --- 0
Mood working 0 0 - -
jg
0-Most cannon Other-Packed towers
+«Not normally used Mist pads
EP-Electrostatic Precipitator Slag filter
MOMechanical Collector Centrifugal exhausters
FF-Fabric Filter Flame incineration
WS-Wet Scrubber Settling chamber
Source: Op cit.
80
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A. 3 LAND USE PLANNING AND AIR POLLUTION
Although the meteorology and topology of a metropolitan region enhance
or inhibit pollution dispersion, it is the intensity and spatial distribu-
tion of human activity that largely determines air quality, for such activity
accounts for most air pollutant emissions. Emission densities are also
affected by the air pollution control devices that are applied to reduce the
quantity of pollutants reaching the atmosphere. Such control measures may
be the result of attempts to reduce the externalities imposed on the resi-
dents of a metropolitan region by pollution-producing activities, to retain
pollutant emissions that can be economically recovered and recycled, or to
achieve some combination of these two purposes.
There are two major studies that fall in the category of the relation-
ship of land use planning and air pollution control. The development of
methodologies for the integration of air resource management with urban and
regional planning has been in progress at Argonne National Laboratory of the
Atomic Energy Commission, under the auspices of the Environmental Protection
Agency. The purpose of the study is to apply systems analysis methods to
episode and long-range air pollution control planning. ' ' ' The program
includes:
1) Design and testing of a computerized model for the projection
of urban and regional growth trends in energy demand, indus-
trial and commercial activities, and residential development.
The model generates such projections and translates them
into a projected air pollution emission inventory that
provides input to an atmospheric dispersion model. The
result is a projection of future expected urban air quality.
81
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Such projections have been developed for the Chicago
region for the years 1975 and 1980.
2) Development and testing of a methodology for the acquisi-
tion and computer storage of a regional zoning inventory.
This system provides a data base for a land-use-oriented
atmospheric model that yields sulfur oxide and suspended
particulate air pollution control strategies; these
strategies exploit an emission density limitation on land
use as the regulatory instrument for a land-use-based air
control program. This system can be used to assess
the air pollution impact of urban development.
3) Testing of atmospheric dispersion modeling techniques'
designed to operate on data that is usually collected by
planning agencies. Adaptation of air pollution impact
analysis methods to the capabilities of planning agencies
to utilize these techniques.
4) Design and evaluation of air pollution control strategies
based on locational devices such as zoning.
5) Integration of air pollution analysis techniques into
comprehensive planning, analysis, and evaluation systems.
The researchers conclude that one of the most effective ways of inte-
grating metropolitan air pollution control and land use planning is through
the use of emission-density-limited zoning plans specifying the maximum
emission rates per areal unit of land for different land use categories.
A procedure was formulated to make this concept operational.
82
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With the establishment of emission density limitations for each cate-
gory of land use, relatively well-defined rights are added to the property
rights associated with each parcel of land.in the metropolitan area. Under
the emission density approach to controlling air pollution, several options
exist for complying with the regulations; two of these options are not
available under current approaches to air pollution control. As with exist-
ing programs that regulate emissions on a source-by-source basis, a
pollutant-producing activity may reduce the amount of pollution emitted by
fuel, raw material, or process changes, or by installing mechanical control
equipment. If none of these options is sufficient to achieve tne necessary
reduction in emissions, or if all of them are prohibitively costly, more
land may be purchased for the pollutant-producing activity or, alternatively,
the emission rights of adjacent property may be purchased.
The second study directed toward air pollution control and urban
planning is a joint effort of the Environmental Protection Agency and the
New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection. The general objectives
of the study were to develop methods for forecasting emissions and concen-
trations of five major pollutants (sulfur oxides, particulates, carbon
monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides) resulting from the implementa-
tion of alternative land use plans, and the formulation of procedures for
evaluating the relative desirabilities of alternative plans once their air
pollution potentials have been estimated. The forecasting methods and
evaluation techniques were to be applied to alternative plans prepared by
the New Jersey Department of Community Affairs for an 18,000-acre tract of
now mostly vacant meadows, marshes, and salt-water swamps in northeastern
New Jersey across the Hudson River from Manhattan Island, New York. A
#300 million Army Corps of Engineers flood control project had been
proposed to enable reclamation and development of the area.
83
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The dispersion model was relied upon as the method being used in the
New Jersey study for estimating air pollutant concentrations. A process
was devised for translating land use data into the emissions input neces-
sary for the dispersion model. Several different ways of evaluating and
ranking alternative plans were being examined, including the relative
degrees of plan compliance with air quality standards and the differing
extents to which plans would result in the exposure of populations to
undesirably high pollutant concentrations.
A. 4 SUMMARY OF THE LITERATURE REVIEW
As can be seen from the review of the literature:
1) Control equipment may be classified into several general
types.
2) Estimated costs range from $0.045/acfm for centrifugal
collectors to $3.00/acfm for electrostatic precipitators.
3) Operating principles depend upon the size, distribution,
specific gravity, shape, and chemical and surface properties
of airborne particles.
4) Cost variation for air pollutant emissions exist from one
industrial segment to another.
5) Land use planning affects the intensity and spatial distri-
bution of air pollutant dispersions.
6) A great amount of research has been accumulated on the
aspects of point source control in achieving air quality.
7) Very little work has been done in the new area of emission-
density-limited zoning.
84
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8) Virtually no work has been done on the economic implication
of the relationship associated with the two strategies in
achieving air quality.
This study attempts to determine the most economical means of achiev-
ing air quality, either by point-source control or emission-density-limited
zoning.
85
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APPENDIX B
SOURCE-CONTROL COST-EFFECTIVENESS MDDEL
86
-------
APPENDIX: B:.- SGURCE'CXJNTRDL
The purpose of the source-control cost-effectiveness model is to
select that control device for a given process that meets the technical
requirements of the process, and achieves a specified efficiency in remov-
ing pollutants from the effluent stream, at the least annualized cost to
the source owner. The set of commercially available particulate control
devices is listed in Table B.I. Each process type required examination
within its four-digit SIC group to determine which of the applicable
devices could be feasibly installed on the process. The final list of
control devices that actually could be applied to each process type, as
reviewed from the literature, and their efficiencies are listed in
Tables B.2-B.6.
The annualized cost of each control device that met the required reduc-
tion was computed from the purchase cost, installation cost, capital cost,
and operation and maintenance cost for point-source control. The device
that achieved the optimum condition of least cost was then computed from
the following equation:
87
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Table. B. 1. POLLUTION REDUCTION DEVICES OR METHODS
Code
No. Control Device
001 Wet scrubber - high efficiency
002 Wet scrubber - medium efficiency
003 Wet scrubber - low efficiency
004 Gravity collector - high efficiency
005 Gravity collector - medium efficiency
006 Gravity collector - Low efficiency
007 Centrifugal collector - high efficiency
008 Centrifugal collector - medium efficiency
009 Centrifugal collector - low efficiency
010 Electrostatic precipitator - high efficiency
Oil Electrostatic precipitator - medium efficiency
012 Electrostatic precipitator - low efficiency
013 Gas scrubber
014 Fabric filter - high temperature
015 Fabric filter - medium temperature
016 Fabric filter - low temperature
017 Catalytic afterburner
018 Catalytic afterburner with heat exchanger
019 Direct flame afterburner
020 Direct_flame afterburner with heat exchanger
021 Cyclones in series
022 Cyclone + wet scrubber
023 Cyclone + packed scrubber
024 Cyclone + gas scrubber
025 Cyclone + fabric filter
026 Scrubber + electrostatic precipitator - medium efficiency
027 Cyclone + electrostatic precipitator
028 Electrostatic precipitator + cyclone + fabric filter
029 Scrubber + afterburner
030 Fabric filter + scrubber
031 Eliminate coal combustion
032 Eliminate coal and residual fuel oil combustion
033 Change all fuel use to natural gas
Source: Air Quality Implementation Planning Program Operators Manual, I.
TRW Systems Group. Washington, B.C.
88
-------
do
Table B.2. EFFICIENCIES OF APPLICABLE CONTROL DEVICES FOR STATIONARY
COMBUSION SOURCES, PETROLEUM, AND WOOD PROCESSING
STATIONARY COMBUSTION SOURCES
Bituminous Coal
Anthracite Coal
Fuel Oil Comb. '
Natural Cas Comb.
Liq. Petro. Gas.
PETROLEUM
Petroleum Refinery
WOOD PROCESSING
Wood Pulping
Pulp Board'
fr ' S
tf sJ "1 II
|i I- || ii
*> oh w -o *j * « M
* i ££ £3 fix
99 80 60 SO
99 80 60 SO
99 80 60 S
0000
0000
0 0 4 0 0
0000
0000
Sfr
si
o *~
u1
Ul
*q
>.~
(4 *O
U flj
u £
40
40
0
0
0
0
0
0
o
a;s
>
co 2
63
30
30
0
0
0
0
0
0
o
*j
u
u
s£
CD U
3>£
w>»
>V4 UJ
g§
OX
90
98
30
0
0
90
97
0
u
o
*J
Sfr
a|
n<
SPB
^1
S^S
a*
80
'so
10
0
0
80
0
0
u
0
u
o
ft
QO U
*b UJ
i*> 3
70
70
70
0
0
0
0
0
EX
U
8
.as
rt u
s£
t- Ul
u .c
U DO
fl I
99. S
99. S
99. S
0
0
99
0
0
o.
2&
4J -<
*J 1*4
(A UJ
Si
II
99
99
99
0
0
95
0
0
o.
U It
£.. tie
u & - t. 3 u 2 u 3
.-H C h O (fl t) V «)*^
«jQ> U W IM +* £L **n
(>M O
-------
Table B.2.(Contd.)
<£>
O
STATIONARY COMBUSTION SOURCES
Bituminous Coa) '
Anthracite Coal
Fuel Oil Comb.
Natural Gas Comb.
Liq. Petro. Gas.
PETROLEUM
Petroleum Refinery '
WOOD PROCESSING
Wood Pulping
Pulp Board
Catalytic
Afterburner
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
"0
V
|'fc
l&
Catalytic Aft
w Heat Exchan
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Direct Flame
Afterburner
0
0
0
0
0
90
0
0
'L
' *4 »>
v u it
.gj n
I- 'S
-* i
u o 0
3 J &
0 90
0 90
0 90
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
L
!
i
I
0
0
0
-0
0
0
0
0
s
Cyclone « Pad
Scrubber
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
"i.
y,
§
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
u
41
Lu
^
I
4
S
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
t-+
°il
UJ -H
u
* *
|S
J
-------
Table B.3. EFFICIENCIES OF APPLICABLE CONTROL DEVICES FOR SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL,
EVAPORATION LOSS SOURCES, AND THE FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRY
SOLID KASTE DISPOSAL
Refuse Incineration
Auto Body Inc.
Conical Burners
Ojx-n Burning "'
EVAPORATION LOSS SOURCES
[>ry Cleaning
Surface Coating
Petroleum Storage
G.isoline Marketing
FOOD AM) AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRY
Alfalfa Dehydrating
Coffee Roasting-
' Cotton Ginning
IccJ (, Grain Mill*
Ii-rT«.'nt jt ion
It ih Processing'
M-jt Srokehouses'
Nitrate Fertiliier
a. I'rilling Tower
h. Cranulator Dryer'
riiosj-h.it c.Fcrt.
Mjfch Manuf.
I ', P..II I'ane I'rod.
rubber
fficiency
*l
£ =
95
95
90
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
95
0
70
0
<
rubber
Efficiency
>:|
M-5
££
87
- 87
80
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
90
0
70
0
0
*t
n
*s
I*
80
80
70
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 .
0
0
0
0
0
80
0
70
0
0
y (iol lector
Ificicncy
§1?
30
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
. 0
0
0
0
0
0
.y Collector
i Lfficiency
n -a
6i
20
0
0
0
0
0
0 -s
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Iw
o
Si
10
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
o
ifugal Collect
efficiency ;
If
. 80
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
90
70
90
90
0
90
0
0
0
70
0
90
0
h.
o
ifugal Collect
n efficiency
b 3
£3
3*
so
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
'80
65
80
80 1
0
80
0
0
0
60
0-
80
0
w
O
ifugal Collect
fficichcy
U 1U
J
J5S
30
0
0
0
0
0 .
0
0
70
60
70
70
0
70
0
0
0
SO
0
70
0
a.
rostatic Prcci
Kfficiency-
S*
... 'r
96
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
d.
rostatic Prcci
n Efficiency.1
** 9
23
S*
' 93
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
. 0
0
0
0
-------
Table B.3. (Contd.)
tsj
SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL
Refuse Incineration
Auto Body Inc.
Conical Burners
Open Burning
EVAPORATION LOSS SOURCES
Dry Cleaning
Surface Coating
Petroleum Storage
Gasoline Marketing
FOOD AND ACRJ CULTURAL INEUSTRY
Alfalfa Dehydrating
Coffee Roasting
Cotton Ginning
Feed ft Cram Mills-
rrnncntJt ion-
Fish Process ingv
Mcat Smokehouses"
, Nitrate Fertilizer
a. I'i'iMinj; Towerv
b. Craiiulatoi Hiyer
I1u>!.|>li.iti.- U-rt.
Stiiivl. M.uuif.
Siij;.ii .1111 I'roJ.
talytic 1
terbumer' 1
21
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
99
n
0
0
0
0
0
o
o
0
0
0
talytic Afterburner 1
leat Kxchanger : 1
a.,
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
99
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
p
rcct Flame. , 1
terburner ' 1
a <
0
25
' 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
99
0
0
99
0
70
0
0
0
0
0
0
reel Flame After- ' I
mer (7 lleat Exchanger 1
a l
0
0
.0
0
0
0
0
0
0
99
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
JB
y,
e
8
§
i
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
rlone » Wet Scrubber
d-
0
0 '
0
0
0 '
0
°
0
0
92
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
97
97
0
o
1
*'U
||
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
:lone » Gas Scrubber 1
*
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
'0
0 .
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
' u
u
o
1
&
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
99.9
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
rubber » E. P. 1
;d. Efficiency)' 1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
' -0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
a.
I
«*
UJ
i
&
0
0
0
.0
0
0
0
0
0
. 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
» u
V
«
O U.
So
UJ
0
0
0 .
0
0 '
0
0
n
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
rubbers * Afterburners' 1
X
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2 jj o «
U 6 "8 J»
o §~
0*4
s a 3-5 £
. s 5 ua -a
M t> v rs&
U. u * ~ «
o S 33 v"n
n <-* '«- \t f n
u. ui uj a u z
0
0
0
0
o
0
0
0
0
o
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
-------
Table-Bi-4* EFFICIENCIES OF APPLICABLE CONTROL DEVICES
FOR THE CHENHCAL PROCESS INDUSTRY
<£>
CHEMICAL PROCESS INDUSTRY
Adipic Acid
Amonia-
Carbon Black
a. Channel Proces*
b. Thermal Black Process -
c. Furnace r
Charcoal "
Chlor-Alkali;
Explosives-*
lt)-drochloric Acid';
Hydrofluoric Acid
Nitric Acid
Paint I Varnish-
Phosphoric Acid7
Phtalic Anhydride-
Plastics
Printing Ink-
Soap 6 Detergent
SoJium Carbonate
Sulfuric Acid'
Synthetic Fibers
Synthetic Rubber
Irrethalic Acid -
I
Met Scrubber 1
High lifficiency1 j
0
95
0
0
0
0
0
o .
0
95
0
0
0
0
95
0
0'
0
0
95
0
0
Ket Scrubber , 1 i
Medium Efficiency 1
0
85
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
85
0
90
0
0
90
0
n
0
0
85
0
0
Wet Scrubber
Uw tiff iciency
0
75
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
75
0
80
0
0
80
0
0
0
0
75
0
0
Gravity Collector j
llit
-------
Table B.4. (Contd.)
to
CHEMICAL PROCESS INDUSTRY
Adipic Acid
Aneonia'
Carbon Black
a. Channel Process'
b. Thermal Black Process
c. Furnace :
Charcoal
Chlor-Alkali
Explosives-
Hydrochloric Acid
Hydrofluoric Acid'
Nitric Acid '
Paint 6 Varnish' '
Phosphoric Acid
Phtalic Anhydride
Plastics-
Printing Ink
Soap S Detergent
Sodium Carbonate
Sulfuric Acid'
Synthetic Fibers-
Synthetic Rubber-
Tercthalic Acid
fl-
"a «
0
0
o
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
o
A
0
' 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
b
lytic Aftcrbu
at Exchanger' '
3,;
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
90
0
0
0
0 .
0
0
0
0
0
0
ct Flame.
rburner: .
22
0
0
0
0
0
99
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
09
0
0
0
0
99
0
0
&
. i
o u
5?
v «
Si
Ct»
« k
£i
0
0
. 0
0
0
99
0
0
0
0
0
90
0
0
99 '
0
0
0
0
99
P
0
k
u 8
c |
CO »
tfc id
0
e
0
0
e
9
0
0
0
0
0 ,
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
o
0
0 .
rf S
1~ ^
i- r
6 V U.'
a a «
|i &2
S'S f 2
-------
Table B.5. EFFICIENCIES OF APPLICABLE CONTROL DEVICES
FOR THE METALLURGICAL INDUSTRY
METALLURGICAL INDUSTRY
A. Prirary' Metals
Alininuir
Met. Coke Manuf.
Copper Smelt
Ferroalloy Prod.- '
Iron Mills
a. Blast Furnace
b. Sintering
1. Hindbox
2. Discharge "
Steel Mills
a. Open Hearth Fac.- ,
b. Basic 02 Furn.'
c. Electric Arc Fum.
Lead Snelt'
Zinc Srelr
B. Secondary Metals
Aluunun OPS
Brass 6 Bro-.ie Ingots '
Cray Iron Foundry*
Lead Smelting
Magnesium Smelting
Steel Foundries
a. Electric Arc Fxim.
b. Open Itearth-
c. Open Hearth 0} Lanced'
line Processing
b S
V
2 u
ic
S'"
-5
£'£
0
95
95
.95
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
95
0
95
95
95
0
0
0
95
j
«*"
XI
If
0
0
85
0
*
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
90
0
90
90
90
0
0
0
90
^
ii
lX 1U
5 '
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
80
0
0
80
80
0
0
0
80
ft
frS
65
0
.'0
0
0
60
-
0
o
0
0
0
0
6
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
I'i
« «
fre
Is
oS
0
0
0
0
so
0''
0
0,
o"
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
o
ft
cVs
££
*« UJ
28
0-3
0
0
0
0
40
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
i.
o
u
!!
« u
sa
s-s
&'£
0
90
0
90
60
90
**
0
o-
0
90
0
0
0
85
0
0
0
0
0
0
S
s|
Is
5s
if
0
80
0
80
SO
80
83
0
0
0
80
0
0
o!
77
0
0
0
0
0
0
o
I?
IS
»*- «*
'CuJ
ji
0
70
0
70
40
70
7J
0
0
0
70
0
*
0
0
70
0
0
0
0
0
0
o.
°u
o
no
u UJ
«| '
99
99
.99.7
0
90
99.5
99.S
98
99
97
98°
99
0
0
99
0
0
98
98.5
98
0
.£
o. c
^ u
n *~
1/t UJ
2 S
-i
IUf.
95
95
0
0
85
0
0°
88
89
92
90
95
0
0
95
0
95
95
95
0
0.
'o
£
0. -
u ff
* c
ra -^
» u
(A *
w5
l\
*
80
80
0
0
80
0
0
78
79
82
85
80
0
0
90
0
0
85
85
85
0
m
(U
I
iX
S
0
0
0
95
90
0
0
93
99
0
90
0
0
0
0
0
0
99
99
98
0
A
4* 4
M V
O f
u. x
99
99 '
0
0
. 0
0
0
99
0
99
99
99
99.6
99.6
99.6
99.6
99.6
0
.99.9
99
99.6
'K
3
v o
«-« b
u g
II
99
99
0
99
0
99. S
99.5
99
0 '
89
99
99.
99.6
99.6
99.6
99.6
99.6
0
99.9
99
99.6
W3
fit
u jf
Is
99
99
0
_99
0
0
0
99 /.
0
79
99
99 »
99.6
99.6
99.6
99.6
99.6
0
99.9
99
99.6
Source: Op cit.
-------
Table B.5- (Contd.)
o\
1
METALLURGICAL INDUSTRY
A. Primary Metals
Aluminin'
Met. Coke Manuf.
Copper Smelt-
Ferroalloy Prod.
Iron Mills
a. Blast Furnace
b. Sintering-
1. Kindbox;'
2. Discharge
Steel Mills
a. Open Hearth Fac.
b. Basic 0^ Fum.
c. Electric Arc Fum.
Lead Snelt
Zinc Smelt"
B C . ...
o. oeconouiry Metals
Aluminum OPS
Brass (, Bronte Ingots-
Cray Iron Foundry"
Lead Smelting-
Magnesium Smelting
Steel Foundries
a. Electric Arc Fum.
b. Open Hearth?
c. Open Hearth 0, Lanced)
Zinc Processing
Catalytic
Afterburner
0
0
0
0
0
0
.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
.0
0
0
0
0
0
o
k
I
Catalytic Afterbumt
w Heat Exchanger
0
0
0
0
0
0
n
0
0 .
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
o
w
Direct Flame
Afterburner
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
o
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
u
u Je
«jtJ
wuj
gn
£
S t»
** b
32
t
o
0
0
0
0
0
0
o
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
' 0
0
0
0
Cyclones in Series
0
0
0
0.
0
0
«.
0
0
V
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
u
QL'
«* O O 3 )
»* ** ~* 3
* i> «» O
u. -j > -+ 13
*f -*3 "S *^
c 1 I* &2
a 2 3s Is
u. w uiS Oz
0
0
0
0
. 0
y
lO '
0
V
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
6
0
0
-------
Table B.6. EFFICIENCIES OF APPLICABLE CONTPDL DEVICES
FOR THE MINERAL PROCESS INDUSTRY
(£>
MINERAL PROCESS INDUSTRY
Asphalt Batching
Asphalt Roofing
Bricks 5 Clay PnxJ. ;
Calciun Carbide Manuf.i: .
Cas table Refractories
a. Raw Material Dryer- .
b. Row Material Crushing- .
c. ElvC. Arc Melt
d. Molding 5 Shakout-'x
Port Cement Manuf.
Ceramic Clay Manuf.
. - Clay t, Fly Ash Sint.
Coal Clean Dryers'
Concrete Batching'
Fiberglass Manuf; '..
. Frit Manuf. -
Glass Manuf.-..
Gypsum Manuf.''.
Line Manuf."-
Mineral Wool Manuf. v. '
Perlite Manuf.
Phosphate Rock Prep.
a. Drying '.
b. Grinding ..
Stone Quarrying"".
Met Scrubber
High Efficiency
99.3
95
95
95
. 0
0 .
0
0
0
95
0
0
95
0
0
95
95
99.7
60
0
0
Wet Scrubber 1
Medium Efficiency 1
95
90
90
90
0
0
0
0
0
90
0
0
90
0
0
90
90'
85 .
50
0
0
Net Scrubber ,. 1
Lr Efficiency |
85
80
80
80
0
0
0
0
0
80
0
0
80
0
0
80
80
80
40
0
0
Gravity Collector
High Efficiency
r
0
.0
0
' 0
0
0.
o
0
0
60
0
0 .
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
,
0
Gravity Collector
Medium Efficiency
0
0
0
0
0
0 /
0
0
0*
SO
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Gravitx Collector 1
Low Efficiency 1
0.
0-
0
6
0
0
0
0
0
40
0
0
0
0
0
0-
0
0
0
80
85
Centrifugal Collector I
High Efficiency 1
90
0
90
0
0
0
0
0
80
75
0
70'
90
0
0
75
90
80
0
70 .
80
Centrifugal Collector 1
Mediua Efficiency " 1
.85
0'
85
0
0
0
0
0
70
70
0
6Q
85
0
0
70
85
75
0
60
70
Centrifugal Collector
tow Efficiency'
lectrostatic Precip.
High -Efficiency'
50
b
50
0
0
0
. 0.
0
60
65
0
50
80
0
0
65
80
70
0
0
0
. 0
95
0
0
0
0
0
0
99
' 99
0
0
0
0
0
0
99
0
0 '
0
0
Electrostatic Precip.
Medium Efficiency!
Electrostatic Precip.
Low Efficiency:
0
90
0
0
'0
0
0
0
95
95
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
60
0
0
0
" 0
o'
0
90
90
0
0
0
0
0
0
o'
95
0
0
0
Cas Scrubber- |
0
0
0
95
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
67
0
0
0
0
0
0
t 2 «
,.3 -..a -s
2Z SX. 2*
M u « IT ta
£§ s* a&
uS UB "8
*~ t\ -c1-
g| g| gj
0
99
99
99
99
0
0
99
99.5
99
99
0<
99
0
99
99
99.5
99.6
(X
96
99
0
99
99
99
99
0
0
99
99.5
99
99
0
99
0
' 99
99
99.5
99.6
0
96
.
99
0
99
99
99
99
0
0
99
99.5
99
99
0
99
0
99
99
99.5
99.6
o'
96
99
, ;
Source: Op cit.
-------
Table B.6. (Contd.)
to
00
,
MINERAL PROCESS INDUSTRY
Asphalt Batching
Asphalt Roofing
Bricks fi Clay Prod.
Calcium Carbide Manuf.
Castable Refractories *
a. Raw Material Dryer
b. Raw Material Crushing
c. Elec. Arc Melt
d. Molding 6 Shakout
Port Cement Manuf.
Ceramic Clay Manuf.
Clay 6 Fly Ash Sint.
Coal Clean Dryers
Concrete Batching-
Fiberglass Manuf . ~
Frit Manuf.
Glass Manuf.
Cypsirn Kanuf . ""
Lime Manuf.
Mineral Wool Manuf.
Perlite M-inuf.
Phosphate Rock Prep.
a. Drying
b. Grinding
Stone Quarrying
"b
«|
Catalyt
Afterbu
0
0
0 ..
0
0
b
. 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Afterburner I
changer* 1
.a ,3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
. 0
0
0
0
0
so
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
IC E
-2
££
U *J
3<
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0-
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
so
0
0
are After- 1
lleat Fjcchanger 1
uL t*
Di rect
burner 1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.
C
0
0
0
0
0
8
k.
c
rt
*>
§
I
0
0
0
0
0 .
0
0
0
-------
C* » min Ci (x)
ieF(SIC)
C*= least cost
i = control device type index
C. = cost of control device i
x = required reduction
F(SIC) = feasible set of applicable control devices for the
specified four-digit SIC code.
Figure B.I shows the relationship of the optimum cost and the required
reduction as established by the optimum cost function.
B.I COST MODEL FOR PARTICULARS
The total annual cost resulting from the assignment of a control device
to a source involves the component costs of purchase cost, installation cost,
capital cost, and operation and maintenance cost.
B.I.I Purchase Cost
The purchase cost of control devices depends upon the characteristics
and complexity of the control device and the size of the pollution source
to be controlled. These parameters determine the basic cost equation for
each control device in the form:
y = a + bx
where y = purchase cost in thousands of dollars
a and b = input coefficients
x =10 acfm
Table B.7 lists the manufacturer's price for the purchase cost equation by
control device.
99
-------
21
Figure B.I. Hypothetical optimian control device as
established by the least-cost function
100
-------
Tables B.7. MANUFACTURER'S PURCHASE PRICE FOR CONTROL EQUIPMENT
Control Measure
Purchase Cost
EquatIon
WET COLLECTORS
001 High efficiency
002 Medium efficiency y
003 Low efficiency y
MECHANICAL COLLECTORS
Gravity Collectors:
004 High efficiency
005 Medium efficiency
006 Low efficiency
y
y
y
Centrifugal Collectors:
007 High efficiency
008 Medium efficiency
009 Low efficiency . ,
ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS
010 High efficiency y
Oil Medium efficiency y
012 Low efficiency y
FABRIC FILTERS
014 High temperature type y
015 Medium temperature type 'y
016 Low temperature type y
GAS SCRUBBER
2.886+ .228x*
1.257+ . 145x
.445+ .326x
.042+ ,155x
.003+ ,056x
2.413+ .197x
1.507+ .157x
.244+ .099x
42.413 +
31.243 +
19.695 +
1.448 +
3.478 +
2.658 +
623x
441x
318x
838x
448x
325x
013 y = 3 175 + .251x
INCREASED COMBUSTION EFFICIENCY (AFTERBURNER)
017 Catalytic combustion y =
018 Catalytic with heat exchange (1) y =
019 Direct flame combustion y =
020 Direct flame with heat exch. (1) y =
7.550 + 1.515x*
7.550 + 1.515x
5.713+ 1.174x
5.713 + 1.174x
*Cost functions y = 10 dollars, x = 10' acfm.
101
-------
B.I.2 Installation Cost
The installation costs of a control device on a particular plant are
expressed as percentages of the purchase cost. These costs included the
following items: erection, insulation material, transportation of equipment,
site preparations, clarifiers and liquid treatment systems, and auxiliary
equipment such as fans, ductwork, motors, and control instrumentation.
These costs expressed as a percentage of purchase cost are shown in Table B.8
B.I.3 Capital Cost
Capital charges include overhead expenses such as taxes, insurance,
and interest incurred in the operation of a control device. Annualized
capital costs have been estimated in this study by depreciating the capital
investment (the total installed cost or purchase installation) over the
expected life of the control equipment and adding the capital charges of
taxes and insurance. The assumptions made in capital cost are the following:
1) Purchase and installation costs are depreciated over fifteen
years, a period assumed to be a feasible economic life for
control devices.
2) The straight-line method of depreciation at six and two-thirds
percent per year is used because it has the simplicity of
constant annual writeoff.
3) Other capital charges, including interest, taxes, and insurance,
are rated at twelve percent of the initial capital cost of the
control equipment installed. Therefore, depreciation plus
the annual charges amount to eighteen and two-thirds percent
of the initial capital cost of the equipment.
102
-------
Table B.8. INSTALLATION COST EXPRESSED AS A PERCENTAGE OF
PURCHASE COST FOR CONTROL EQUIPMENT
.
Control Device
Wet scrubber
Gravitational "
.
.
,
Electronic precipitator
Gas scrubber
Fabric filter
*
Afterburner
Serier. of cyclones
Cyclones + scrubbers
Cyclone + fabric filter
Scrubber + electrostatic precipitator ............
Electrostatic precipitator + cyclone + fabric filter
Scrubber + fabric filter
Code
No.
001
002
003
004
005
006
007
008
009
010
Oil
012
013
014
015
016
017
018
019
020
021
022
023
024
025
026
027
028
029
030
Instal-
lation
Cost
Percent
200
100
100
67
67 .
67
50
50
50
70
70
70
200
75
75
75
25
25
25
25
50
200
200
200
75
200
75
75
200
200
Source: Control Techniques for Particulate Air Pollutants.
National Air Pollution Control Administration
Publication AP-51. January 1969.
103
-------
The capital cost is calculated by the following relation:
Capital cost = x C1 *
where i = 18-2/3 percent
N = 15 years.
The annual capital charge is then computed to be the product of the capital
cost and the installed cost (purchase plus installation cost).
B.I.4 Operational and Maintenance Costs
The operational and maintenance costs have been computed from cost equa-
tions for the various control device types. The annual operating costs
depend on the following factors: the gas volume cleaned, the pressure drop
across the system, the operating time, the consumption and cost of electricity,
the mechanical efficiency of the fan, and the scrubbing liquor consumption
and costs.
The maintenance cost is the expenditure required to sustain the opera-
tion of a control device at its designed efficiency with a scheduled main-
tenance program and necessary replacement of any defective parts. On an
annual basis, the maintenance cost is assumed proportional to the capacity
of the device in acfm.
The cost equations used for the operation and maintenance of the
devices are as follows:
1. Wet scrubbers
OAMCOST = S 0.7457 HK (z = 35^) + WHL + M
2. Gravitational collectors, cyclones, and fabric filters
n'
IkllP-PHK + M
M
104
-------
3. Electrostatic precipitators
QAMCOST = S (JHK + M)
4. Afterburners
QAMCOST = S ?;?fg7 PHK + HF + M
where S = design capacity in acfm
0.7457 = a constant (1 horsepower = 0.7457 kilowatts)
H = annual operating time (assumed 8,760 hours)
K = power costs, dollars per kilowatt hour
P = pressure drop across fan, inches of water
E = fan efficiency, assumed to be 60 percent
Z = contact power, horsepower per acfm
Q = liquor circulation, gallons per acfin
h = physical height liquor is pumped in
circulation system, feet
F = pump efficiency, assumed to be 50 percent
W = make up liquor consumption, gallons per acfm
L = liquor cost, dollars per gallon
J = power requirements, kilowatts per acfm
F = fuel cost, dollars per acfm per hour
M = maintenance cost, dollars per acfm
The values utilized in the study constituted transportation costs and
layout, and installation of control devices for the Chicago region.
Sources: Op cit.
Construction and.Building Cost Indexes in 22 Cities. In: Engineering
New Record, March, 1972.
105
-------
B.2 APPLICATION OF SOURCE-CONTROL COST MDDEL
The cost model described in the previous section has been computerized
in subroutine form for easy linkage to other components of the system model.
The subroutine is parameterized in terms of type of process, exhaust gas
flow rate (action), arid required emission reduction efficiency. This section
provides an example of the results obtained from the application of the cost
model to a typical point source. \
Consider, a gray iron foundry in SIC \class 3312 that has the following
characteristics:
60,000 acfm
50,000 Ib/hr process weight
350 Ib/hr actual emissions (17.5 Ib/tc^i emission factor
x 20 ton/hr|process)
From the Bar Area Curve, Table A.I., we see that at 50,000 Ib/hr process
weight there is an allowable emission of 35 lb/h f or high efficiency
and $27,360 for medium efficiency; while the electrostatic precipitators
106
-------
i"iOX3 1H//A
( OI.LAiyj.VD
«01031100
AH wao
isoo
Figure B.2. Purchase and installation cost for control devices
at 60,000/acfm and 8,760 hours of operation
107
-------
are $54,550, $44,980, and $17,400 for high, medium, and low efficiency,
respectively. The fabric filter costs depend on the exhaust temperature
and range in cost from $87,590, $47,040, and $34,125 for high temperature,
medium temperature, and low temperature fabrics, respectively. The capital
costs have been calculated by depreciating the capital investment over the
expected life of the control equipment and adding the capital charges of
taxes and insurance.
Operation and maintenance charges have been calculated for the
various types of control devices. Figure B.3 depicts the capital and opera-
tion and maintenance charges for mechanical collectors, electrostatic precip-
itators, and fabric filters. Figure B.4 depicts the charges for scrubbers
*
and afterburners. As can be seen from the figures, the operation and main-
tenance charges are the primary costs with dry centrifugal collectors,
scrubbers, and afterburners. The capital charge is the primary cost in
selecting gravity collectors, electrostatic precipitators, and fabric filters.
For the gray iron foundry, Tables B.9 and B.10 show that of the devices that
apply and meet the required particulate emission reduction, the wet scrubbers
have the greatest annualized cost, the fabric filters are intermediate in
cost, and the electrostatic precipitators are the least costly. Therefore,
the model selects the low-efficiency electrostatic precipitator as the
control device to meet the 90-percent required reduction. The total
annualized cost for the gray iron foundry selected as an example is $9,726.
Of this charge, $6,560 is attributed to capital charges, and $3,166 to opera-
tion and maintenance charges. Of the operation and maintenance charge,
$1,498 constitutes electrical costs, and $1,668 constitutes maintenance
costs. The delineated costs of other control devices not applicable to the
example cited can be seen in Tables B.ll and B.12.
108
-------
o
o
ro
o
CO
o
o
o
UJ
hsl
* COST KEY
Y/////X CAPITAL
ELECTRICAL
BnmfflD MAINTENANCE
20-40 10-20
80-98 50-80
93-99 80-93 35-S3.S S5-S9.9
FAEHIC
FILTER
DRY CENTRIFUGAL
COLLECTOR
ELECTROSTATIC
PRECIP1TATCR
GRAVITY
COLLECTOR
COLLECTION EFFICACY,%
Figure B.3. Annualized costs for mechanical collectors, electrostatic precipitators, and fabric
filters at 60,000/acfm and 8,760 hours of operation
-------
ANNUALIZED COST (I03 DOLLARS)
OJ o> <0
0 0 0
""*
puuuu
W>
90-99
COST
W777X CAP
CUD ELE
r~~ 3 WAI
Eo?£a FUE
miTTTn jjjAi
.H.UU.LW
II'UH.IU.
////A///S/J
80-90 1 60-80
WET SCRUBBER
KEY
ITAL
CTRICAL
'ER
L
NTENANCE 30°
200
- 100
M*
0W
^V
V.».<.!
I'-.-ij-i; v:/..
"-';lr'-'"' . '
*:."'- '-V* /
JV-')i^J:VA:;
O.V'A.tiV...*.
^'-T'*.;. ...>»
r/i.',-.-:^::..;:
^^ij
;?U:^r-
"V.-yjfiH;;
»
1£:
f
-------
Table B.9. CALCULATION OF INVESTMENT AND ANNUALIZED COSTS FOR SCRUBBERS
AT 60,000/acfin AND 8,760 HOURS OF OPERATION
i
Purchase Cost
Installation Cost
Total Installed Cost
Annual Capital Cost
Operation Costs
Electrical
Liquor Consumption
Fuel
Maintenance Costs
Operation and Maintenance Costs
TOTAL ANNUAL COST
Collection Efficiency
HE
13680
27360
41040
8290
88380
88200
180
3300
91680
99970
90-99
WET SCRUBBER
ME
13680
13680
27360
5532
20760
20580
180
3300
24060
29592
80-90
LE
8700
8700
17400
3518
7830
7650
180
3300
11130
14648
60-80
GAS
SCRUBBER
15060
30120
45180
9135
164820
164640
180-
4980
169800
178835
85-99.9
-------
Table B.10. CALCULATION OF INVESTMENT AND ANNUALIZED COSTS FOR
ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS AND FABRIC FILTERS AT
60,000/acfin AND 8,760 HOURS OF OPERATION
Electrostatic Precipitator
Purchase Cost
Installation Cost
Total Installed Cost
Annual Capital Cost
Operation Costs
Electrical
Liquor : Consumption
Fuel
Maintenance Costs
Operation and Maintenance Costs
TOTAL ANNUAL COST
Collection Efficiency
HE
37380
16170
53550
'10828
3153
3153
1668 .
4821
15649
95-99.5
ME
26460
18520
44980
9095
2050
2050
1668
3718
12813
93-99
LE
19080
13360
32440
6560
1498
1498
1668
3166
9726
80-99
" Fabric Filter
Purchase. Cost
Installation Cost
Total Installed Cost
Anrual Capital Cost
Operation Costs
Electrical
Liquor Consumption
Fuel
Maintenance Costs
Operation and Maintenance Costs
TOTAL ANNUAL COST
Collection Efficiency
H Temp.
50280
37310
87590
17700
7706
7706
4164
11870
29570
95-99.9
M Temp.
26880
20160
47040
9511
7706
7706
4164
11870
21381
95-99.9
L Temp.
19500
14625
34125
6900
7706
7706
4164
11870
18770
95-99.9
112
-------
Table 3."11.. CALCULATION OF INVESTMENT AND ANNUALIZED COSTS
FOR MECHANICAL COLLECTORS AT 60,000/acfin
AND 8,760 HOURS OF OPERATION
Gravity Collector
:-- . -
Purchase Cost
Installation Cost
Total Installed Cost
Annual Capital Cost
Operation Costs
Electrical
Liquor Consumption
Fuel
Maintenance Costs
Operation and Maintenance Costs
TOTAL ANNUAL COST
Collection Efficiency
HE
19560
13040
32600
r 6592
780
780
...
...
1200
1980 '
8572
30-50
MB
9300
6200
15500
3134
780
780
...
...
1200
1980
5114
20-40
LE
3360
2240
5600
1132
780
780
...
1200
1980
3112
10-30
.
Dry
Centrifugal Collector
Purchase Cost
Installation Cost
Total Installed Cost
Annual Capital Cost
Operation Costs
Electrical
Liquor Consumption
Fuel
Maintenance Costs
Operation and Maintenance Costs
TOTAL ANNUAL COST
__ Collection Efficiency
HE
11820
5910
17730
3585
4680
4680
...
...
1200
5880
9460
80-98
ME
9420
4710
14130
1904
4680
4680
. -
...
1200
5880
7884
50-80
LE
5940
2970
8910
1802
4680
4680
...
1200
5880
7682
30-80
113
-------
Table B.12. CALCULATION OF INVESTMENT AND ANNUALIZED COSTS FOR AFTERBURNERS
AT 60,000/acfm AND 8,760 HOURS OF OPERATION
AFTERBURNER
#
Purchase Cost
Installation Cost
^ Total Installed Cost
Annual Capital Cost
Operation Costs
Electrical
Liquor Consumption
Fuel
Maintenance Costs
Operation and Maintenance Costs
TOTAL ANNUAL COST
Collection Efficiency
Catalytic
90900
22725
113625
22600
206541
1541
205000 '
16000
222541
245141
90-99
Catalytic w/
Heat
Exchanger
90900
22725
113625
, 22600
86205
1541
84664
16000
102205
124805
90-99
>
Direct
Flame
68440
17110
85550
17000
353541
1541
352000
16000
369541
386341
70-99
Direct
Flame w/
Heat
Exchanger
68440
17110
85550
' 17000
134133
1541
132592
16000
150133
167133
90-99
-------
B.3 COMPARISON OF THE STRATEGIES WITH
THE COST MODEL APPLIED
The cost model described in the previous section provided an example
of the results obtained from the application of the cost model to a typical
point source. This section compares the two strategies, emission-density-
zoning and point-source control, on an area basis. To compare the two
strategies on an area basis, consider as an example a one-square-mile area
and the cost of control when industry is added to the area. For the same
gray iron foundry as before, the least expensive applicable device is the
electrostatic precipitator, at $9,726. When gray iron foundries are added
to the area, each will be required to install an - electrostatic precipitator
for point-source control. As a result, the cost rises linearly. But when
the EDLZ strategies are applied, the cost is a function of the amount of
land. The gray iron foundry, which is classed as heavy industry, is allowed
2 2
to emit 3.3 tons/day/mi or 275 Ibs/hr/mi . The reductions required to
achieve the emission-density limits are formulated in Table B.13. They range
exponentially from 21.4 percent for one foundry in the square mile area to
92.1 percent when ten foundries are located in the same area. The annualized
costs associated with the reduction in particulate emissions also rises
exponentially, for the foundry with a large amount of land can put on a less
costly control device than a foundry with limited land resources. A compari-
son of the annualized cost of the two strategies is presented in Figure B.5.
EDLZ is an effective control for particulate emissions, comparable in cost
to PSC.
115
-------
Table B.13. EMISSION REDUCTIONS REQUIRED
AS INDUSTRY. IS ADDED IN. THE. REGION
Plants
(no/sq ml)
Allowable
Emissions
(Ib/hr /acre)
Actual
Emiss ion
(Ib/hr/acre)
Reduction
Required
(percent)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
275
275
275
275
275
275
275
275
275
275
350
700
1050
1400
1-750
2100
2450
2800
3150
3500
21.4
60.2
73.8
80.3
84.3
86.9
88.8
90,1
91.2
92.1
116
-------
PSC
EDLZ
2345 67 8
NUMBER OF INDUSTRIES PER SQUARE MILE
Figure B.5. Annualized costs comparison of the strategies by increasing industry
-------
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-450/3-74-028-C
2.
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION-NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Air Pollution/Land Use Planning Project Volume III.
An Economic Comparison of Point-Source Controls and
Emission Density Zoning for Air Quality Management
5. REPORT DATE
May 1973
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
A.S. Kennedy, R.L. Reisenweber, K.G. Croke, M.A. Snider
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Argonne National Laboratory
Energy and Environmental Studies Division
9700 South Cass Avenue
Argonne, Illinois 60439
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
EPA-IAG-Ol59(D)
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Transportation and Land Use Planning Branch
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study is to assess the value of land use zoning policies
in achieving and maintaining air quality standards in existing large urban areas,
or in smaller but rapidly developing areas. The traditional permitted-use zoning
policies, as well as the more recent emission-density-limited zoning concept,
are evaluated and compared with current source control regulations being adopted
in most state implementation plans. A systematic air pollution control policy
evaluation methodology has been developed to carry out the evaluations. The
results of applying this methodology to a three-county area in the Chicago
Metropolitan Control Region are presented in this report.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS C. COS AT I Field/Group
Land Use
Planning and Zoning
Local Government
Air Pollution Control Agencies
Area Emission Allocations
Costs
8. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)
21. NO. OF PAGES
Unlimited
20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
124
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