EPA-450/3-74-028-C
     AIR  POLLUTION/LAND USE
            PLANNING PROJECT
    VOLUME III.  AN ECONOMIC
1OMPARISON OF  POINT-SOURCE
      CONTROLS  AND EMISSION
          DENSITY ZONING FOR
    AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT
     U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
         Office of Air and Water Programs
     Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
     Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711

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                                 EPA-450/3-74-028-C
         AIR  POLLUTION/LAND USE

              PLANNING PROJECT
VOLUME III.  AN  ECONOMIC COMPARISON
        OF POINT-SOURCE CONTROLS
      AND EMISSION DENSITY ZONING
     iFOR  AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT

                        by
              A. S. Kennedy, R. L. Reisenweber,
                K. G. Croke and M . A. Snider

               Center for Environmental Studies
                 Argonne National Laboratory
                  9700 South Cass Avenue
                  Argonne, Illinois 60439
            Interagency Agreement No. EPA-IAG-0159(D)


                  EPA Project Officers:

                John Robson and David Sanchez


                     Prepared for

             ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
                Office of Air and Water Programs
            Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
              Research Triangle Park, N. C. 27711

                      May 1973

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This report is issued by the Environmental Protection Agency to report
technical data of interest to a limited number of readers.  Copies are
available free of charge to Federal employees,  current contractors and
grantees, and nonprofit organizations - as supplies permit - from the
Air Pollution Technical Information Center, Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711, or from the
National Technical Information Service, 5285 Port Royal Road,  Springfield,
Virginia 22151.
This report was furnished to the Environmental Protection Agency by the
Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois 60439, in fulfillment of
Interagency Agreement No. EPA-IAG~0159(D) .  The contents of this report
are reproduced herein as received from the Argonne National Laboratory.
The opinions, findings, and conclusions expressed are those of the author
and not necessarily those of the Environmental Protection Agency. Mention
of company or product names is not to be considered as an endorsement
by the Environmental Protection Agency.
                  Publication No. EPA-450/3-74-028-C
                                  11

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                           TABLE OF CONTENTS
                                                                     Page
ABSTRACT

1.0     INTRODUCTION
2.0    STUDY METHODOLOGY   ..............      4

       2.1    SYSTEM MODEL DESCRIPTION    ..........     4
       2.2    SYSTEM MDDEL DATA REQUIREMENTS    .......      6
       2.3    POINT-SOURCE CONTROL REGULATIONS     ......      9
       2.4    PERMITTED- USE ZONING AND EMISSION-DENSITY
              ZONING REGULATIONS   ...........      9
       2.5    EMISSION- DENSITY ZONING ..........     15
       2.6    SPECIFICATION OF EMISSION- DENSITY LIMITS
              BY ZONING CLASS   ............     18

3.0    APPLICATION OF METHODOLOGY TO CHICAGO REGION   .....     30

       3.1    COST OF CONTROL FOR POINT-SOURCE  REGULATION   ...     30
       3.2    EFFECTIVENESS OF POINT-SOURCE CONTROL   .....     31
       3.3    DETERMINATION OF LEAST- COST EMISSION-
              DENSITY LIMITS FOR THE CHICAGO REGION   ......     35
       3.4    THE COST OF CONTROL FOR EMISSION-
              DENSITY ZONING    ............     37
       3.5    EFFECTIVENESS OF EMISSION-DENSITY ZONING   ....     37
       3.6    COMPARISON OF POINT- SOURCE  CONTROL AND                    '
              EMISSION-DENSITY ZONING ..........     42
       3.7    SENSITIVITY OF RESULTS TO PERMITTED- USE
              ZONING POLICY  .............     46

4.0    SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS  ............     52

REFERENCES    ........  ..........     55

APPENDIX A    LITERATURE REVIEW    ...........    .56

       A.I    .LEGISLATION REGARDING AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
              FOR PARTICULATE MATTER  ..:...   ......     57

              A. 1.1  Federal Legislation  .........     57
              A. 1.2 ' State Legislation    .........     58

       A. 2    POINT- SOURCE PARTICULATE CONTROL DEVICES   ....     62

              A. 2.1  Considerations in Control Device Selection
                     for Manufacturing Processes      I   i   '.  7   .     64
              A. 2.2  Variation of Control Devices .  .
                     by Indus try   '.  '.    '.  ~.   ~  .   .....     72
              A. 2.3  Summary of Control Literature    .....     78

       A. 3    LAND USE PLANNING AND AIR POLLUTION     .....     81
                                   111

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APPENDIX B

       B.I
       B.2

       B.3


REFERENCES
              TABLE OF CONTENTS (Contd.)



SOURCE-CONTROL COST-EFFECTIVENESS MODEL   .   .

COST MODEL FOR PARTIOJLATES   	

B.I.I  Purchase Cost	
B.I.2  Installation Cost   	
B.I.3  Capital Cost"  I   .  .   ,	
B.I.4  Operational and Maintenance Costs  .

APPLICATION OF SOURCE-CONTROL COST MODEL  ....

COMPARISON OF THE STRATEGIES WITH
THE COST MODEL APPLIED  	
Page

  86

  99

  99
 102
 102
 104

 106


 115

 118
                                   IV

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                              List of Figures


No.                                 Title                             Page

1.1     State of Illinois, Chicago economic planning
        and statistical reporting region 	     3

2.1     Model for comparison and evaluation of emission
        control approaches   	     5

2.2     Frequency of suspended particulate emission-density
        with Illinois point-source regulations applied  	    12

2.3     Suspended particulate isopleths using mean emission-
        density estimates for manufacturing land	13

2.4     Suspended particulate isopleths with Illinois source
        regulations applied  	    14

2.5     Suspended particulate isopleths using mean emission-
        density estimates by zoning classification   	    17

2.6     Chicago region suspended particulate isopleths with
        Cook County Ordinance and current land use	22

2.7     Chicago region suspended particulate isopleths with
        Cook County Ordinance and current zoned land    	23

2.8     Chicago region suspended particulate isopleths with
        current land use and optimum emission-density limits  ...    26
                         o
2.9     Air quality (yg/m  geometric mean) effectiveness
        frontier for suspended particulates using emission-
        density-limited zoning controls     	27

2.10    Chicago region suspended particulate isopleths with
        current zoned land and optimum emission-density limits   .   .    29

3.1     Chicago region suspended particulate isopleths with
        current land use and emission-density limits    	    43

3.2     Comparison of reduction required by the strategies
        for heavy industry      	    44

3.3     Comparison of reduction required by the strategies
        for light industry	45

3.4     Annualized cost comparison of the strategies by SIC   ...    47

3.5     Annualized cost comparison of the strategies by CLIC  ...    48

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                             List of Figures (Contd.)


No.                                Title

A.I     State of Illinois allowable emission rate for point-
B.I
B.2
B.3
Hypothetical optimum control device as established
Purchase and installation cost for control devices at
60,000/acfm and 8,760 hours of operation 	
Annualized costs for mechanical collectors, electrostatic

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                             List of Tables


No.                                Title                             Page

2.1      STATE OF  ILLINOIS EMISSION INVENTORY FILE PARAMETERS  ...     7

2.2      ACTIVITIES BY  ZONING CLASS	10

2.3      SUSPENDED PARTICULATE EMISSION-DENSITY	16

2.4      COOK COUNTY EMISSION-DENSITY LIMITS  (EDL)                       19
         BY MANUFACTURING ZONE   .	

3.1      ANNUAL POINT-SOURCE CONTROL AND UTILITY COSTS
         BY STANDARD LAND USE CLASSIFICATION   	    32

3.2      ANNUAL POINT-SOURCE CONTROL AND UTILITY COSTS
         BY STANDARD INDUSTRIAL  CLASSIFICATION    	    33

3.3      POINT-SOURCE CONTROL REGULATIONS APPLIED TO
         THE  CHICAGO REGION	34

3.4      LEAST-COST COMBINATION  OF EMISSION-DENSITY LIMITS  ....    36

3.5      ANNUAL EDLZ AND UTILITY COSTS BY ZONING USE
         CLASSIFICATION	38

3.6      ANNUAL CURRENT ZONED LAND EDLZ AND UTILITY COSTS
         BY STANDARD INDUSTRIAL  CLASSIFICATION    	39

3.7      ANNUAL CURRENT ZONED LAND EDLZ AND UTILITY COSTS
         BY STANDARD INDUSTRIAL  CLASSIFICATION	40

3.8      EDLZ REGULATIONS APPLIED TO THE CHICAGO REGION     ....    41

3.9      PERCENT OF SUSPENDED PARTICULATES EMITTED	49

3.10     LEAST-COST COMBINATION OF EMISSION-DENSITY LIMITS
         FOR PERMITTED-USE ZONING	    51


A. 1      ILLINOIS STANDARDS FOR EXISTING PROCESS
         EMISSION SOURCES    	    61

A. 2     MANUFACTURERS'  SHIPMENTS OF INDUSTRIAL GAS
         CLEANING EQUIPMENT BY END USE IN 1967	    79

A. 3     USE OF PARTICULATE COLLECTORS BY INDUSTRY	    80
                                     vii

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                             List of Tables (Contd.)


No.                                Title

B.I    POLLUTION REDUCTION DEVICES OR METHODS	88

B.2    EFFICIENCIES OF APPLICABLE CONTROL DEVICES
       FOR STATIONARY COMBUSTION SOURCES, PETROLEUM,
       AND WOOD PROCESSING	89

B.3    EFFICIENCIES OF APPLICABLE CONTROL DEVICES
       FOR SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL, EVAPORATION LOSS
       SOURCES, AND THE FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRY	91

B.4    EFFICIENCIES OF APPLICABLE CONTROL DEVICES
       FOR THE CHEMICAL PROCESS INDUSTRY    	93

B.5    EFFICIENCIES OF APPLICABLE CONTROL DEVICES
       FOR THE METALLURGICAL INDUSTRY    	95

B.6    EFFICIENCIES OF APPLICABLE CONTROL DEVICES
       FOR THE MINERAL PROCESS INDUSTRY  	   97

B.7    MANUFACTURER'S PURCHASE PRICE FOR
       CONTROL EQUIPMENT  .	  101

B.8    INSTALLATION COST EXPRESSED AS A PERCENTAGE
       OF PURCHASE COST FOR CONTROL EQUIPMENT     	103

B.9    CALCULATION OF INVESTMENT AND ANNUALIZED COSTS FOR
       SCRUBBERS AT 60,000/acfm AND S;760 "HOURS'"OF OPERATION  ...  Ill

B.10   CALCULATION OF INVESTMENT AND ANNUALIZED COSTS FOR
       ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS AND FABRIC FILTERS AT
       60,000/acfin AND 8,760 HOURS OF OPERATION	112

B.ll   CALCULATION OF INVESTMENT AND ANNUALIZED COSTS FOR
       MECHANICAL COLLECTORS AT 60,000/acfin AND 8,760
       HOURS OF OPERATION    	113

B.12   CALCULATION OF INVESTMENT AND ANNUALIZED COSTS FOR
       AFTERBURNERS AT 60,000/acfm AND 8,760 HOURS
       OF OPERATION    	114

B.13   EMISSION REDUCTIONS REQUIRED AS INDUSTRY IS
       ADDED IN THE REGION	116
                                   Vlll

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                                ABSTRACT
     The purpose of this study is to assess the value of land use zoning
policies in achieving and maintaining air quality standards in existing
large urban areas, or in smaller but rapidly developing areas.  The
traditional permitted-use zoning policies, as well as the more recent
emission-density-limited zoning concept, are evaluated and compared with
current source control regulations being adopted in most state implementa-
tion plans.  A systematic air pollution control policy evaluation method-
ology has been developed to carry out the evaluations.  The results of a
applying this methodology to a three-county area in the Chicago Metropolitan
Control Region are presented in this report.
                                    IX

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                            1.0  INTRODUCTION
                                                  
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     To answer these questions, this study has developed a systematic air
pollution control policy evaluation methodology and applied it to three
county areas in the greater Chicago metropolitan region.  The study sub-
region consists of Cook, Will, and Dupage counties, as shown in Figure 1.1.
This area accounts for a major portion of industrial activity in the region.
The study methodology is described in Section 2 of the report, and the
results of the application are presented in Section 3.  A brief summary of
conclusions drawn from the results is presented in Section 4.  Appendices A
and B contain details of literature review and a description of a point-
source, cost-effectiveness model developed to carry out the evaluations.

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          CHICAGO  REGION
                                             r   Three County
                                             '   Study Region

                                             i   Nine County
                                                Economic
                                              Planning Region
Figure 1.1.  State of Illinois, Chicago economic planning
            and statistical reporting region.

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2.0  STUDY METHODOLOGY



     Most air pollution control problems can be solved in several ways.  In



order to select the preferred method of regulating pollutant emissions from



manufacturing processes, each solution should be thoroughly evaluated prior



to implementation.  In this study, two approaches to regional air pollution



control regulations, point-source controls (PSC) and emission-density-limited



zoning (EDLZ), are quantitatively evaluated and compared.  A systems model



was constructed to carry out these evaluations.  By using this model, a



regulatory system can be selected that meets the design requirements of each



manufacturing process, achieves the necessary reduction of pollutants



required to satisfy air quality standards, and attains these goals at lowest



overall cost.




     This section describes briefly the methods used in constructing the



model and applying it to the Chicago region.




2.1  SYSTEM MODEL DESCRIPTION



     The system model developed for the evaluation and comparison of the



two regulatory methods is diagrammed in Figure 2.1.  The entire model is



actually a linking of three submodels:



     1)  A control regulation model



     2) .A cost model



     3)  An atmospheric dispersion model.



     The control regulation model accepts as input either a point-source



or a land use regulation and applies it to each point source on the regional



emission inventory to compute the reductions required by the regulation.



     The cost model selects the device that meets the technical require-



ments of each individual plant and achieves the required reductions.  If

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                                                                              LAND USE
                                                                           POLICY DEFINING
                                                                            ACTIVITIES IN
                                                                            LAND USE CLASS
                                                                            AND EMISSION
                                                                            DENSITY LIMITS
                                                                            (EDLHI,EDLL1)
                   SELECT
                   LEAST
                    COST
               L.
SELECT LEAST COST
COMBINATION OF EDl'S
   TO MEET AIR
QUALITY CONSTRAINTS
                                                                                          NO
Figure  2.1.   Model  for comparison  and evaluation of
                  emission  control  approaches
                                         5

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more than one device is applicable, the least costly device is chosen.  The
amraortized cost of control is calculated as the sum of capital, deprecia-
tion, operating, and maintenance charges.  Details of the cost model are
relegated to Appendix B.  Costs are accumulated in the model by SIC code,
zoning class, and total manufacturing.
     In operating the various equipment, the commodities of water, power
and fuel may be used.  The quantities used and costs incurred by these items
are calculated and accumulated for the purposes of measuring the impact of
control regulations on resource utilization.
     Both the strategy and cost models are constructed in a general
fashion, so that they are readily adapted to purposes other than the
specific tasks performed in the study.
     The atmospheric dispersion model is used to .calculate and to display
the impact of each type of regulation on regional air quality.  The Air
                            1 2
Quality Display MDdel (AQDM) '  calibrated to the Chicago region was used- for
this purpose.
2.2  SYSTEM MODEL DATA REQUIREMENTS
     In applying the system model to compare and evaluate emission-density-
limited zoning and point-source controls, the Chicago metropolitan regional
emission inventory was utilized.  The regional data file consists of source
identification, fuel combustion, process emission, and stack data.  A
description of the data as recorded in the inventory can be seen in
Table 2.1.
     The data for 475 sources in the Chicago study region, which consisted
of the city itself and the three surrounding counties of Cook, Will, and
DuPage, were available from the Illinois State Implementation Planning
Program.  TKe^ data were collected during the summer of 1971 by a team

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  •Sable  2.1.   STATE OF  ILLINOIS EMISSION INVENTORY FILE PARAMETERS
Source Identification   Fuel Combustion    Process Emission  Source
                                                    Stack Data
Source identification  Boiler capacity
number                 CIO6 BTU/hr)
Source name            Coal (tons/year)

Source street address  Oil (103 gal/
                       year)  .
                   Emission factor table code  Height  (ft)

                                               Inside  diameter (ft)

                                               Temperature  (°F)
Process quantity
City
Zip code

Geocode
X-Coordinate (Km)

Y-Coordinate (Km)
Standard land use
classification number
Lot size (acres)
Employees
Zoning
Oil grade
Gas (106 ft3/
year)
Heat content:
Coal (103 BTl/lb)
Oil (103 BTU/gal)
Gas (BTU/ft3);
Percent ash c oal-

Particulate
emission factor
             i
Emissions (It/hr)
                                          Process weight rate
                                          Ub/hr)  j
Process name

Emission factor
Emissions (Ib/hr)
Velocity (ft/sec)
Gas volume (acf/sec)

Number of units

-------
 of students, who, under the supervision of the Argonne Center for Environ-
 mental Studies, surveyed the entire state for manufacturing source informa-
 tion.  The Census Bureau publications, "County Business Patterns in Illinois"
 and the "Directory of Manufacturers," were used to guide the information
 collection operations.  The Illinois State emission inventory contains plan-
 ning and economic parameters such as land use, employment, energy consump-
 tion by type of fuel, and process output data, in addition to emission inform-
 ation.
     Emission factor information was used to derive total emissions from
 data surveyed.  No direct emission testing was performed in collecting
 these data.  Information was obtained by secondary source review, telephone
 contact, or site visit.  It should be noted that the City of Chicago supplied
 combustion information to the State directly in their own format.  Therefore,
 fuel combustion from manufacturing sources within the city proper was not
 collected in the survey.  The emission factors utilized in the conversion
 equations were obtained from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
     In addition to point-source information, the model requires land use
 information to carry out the evaluations.  For purposes of this study,
manufacturing land use was divided into two categories—heavy industrial (HI)
 and light industrial (LI).  Current land use information for the Chicago
 region was obtained from the regional planning body, the Northeastern
 Illinois Planning Commission (NIPC).  Zoning information was obtained
directly from the counties in the region.  The land use and zoning inventories
were collected on a square-mile basis for the Chicago region, and computerized
 as fractions of land area zoned for each land use class.
     Finally, the model requires that a permitted-use zoning policy be
 established.   This was accomplished by a survey of county zoning .  ,

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 administrators.  The results indicate that heavy and light industrial
 activities are most commonly defined as shown in Table 2.2.
 2.3  POINT-SOURCE CONTROL REGULATIONS
      Point-source control regulations are usually defined as a function of
 plant size or for particulate process control.  The most common parameter
 for this purpose is process weight rate, or the sum of all primary materials
 processed through the plant.  The State of Illinois has adopted a version
 of a regulation commonly referred to as the "Bay Area Curve" for process
 particulate pollutant control.  This regulation and its rationale are reviewed
 further in Appendix A.  Fuel combustion particulate emissions are regulated
 in relation to the total Btu input to the plant.
      Given the parameters of the regulation, the process of evaluation in
 the system model is fairly straightforward.  The control model is executed
 to determine required reductions for each plant in the file.  These reduc-
 tions are then fed directly into the air quality dispersion model and the
 cost model.
 2.4  PERMITTED-USE ZONING AND EMISSION-DENSITY ZONING REGULATIONS
      Permitted-use zoning of manufacturing land is one of the earliest forms
 of nuisance control.   Typically, zoning classes are defined and land use
 maps are prepared;  these regulate the type and location of specified
 activities.   Since air quality concentrations are partially determined by
 the spatial distribution and intensity of sources, it is reasonable to ask
 if point-source control regulations, combined with permitted-use zoning, is
 sufficient to ensure air quality maintenance.
      To test this  assumption,  it is necessary to look at the distribution
 of emission densities within each land use or zoning class.   This has been
*Source:  Cohen, A.S., Norco, J.E., et al.   Evaluation of Emission Control
          Strategies with Emphasis  on Residential/Commercial Space Heating
          for SO- and Participates  in the Chicago Metropolitan Air Quality
          Control Region.   March 1971.
                                    .9

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             Table 2.2.  ACTIVITIES BY ZONING CLASS
           Heavy Industry
                                     Light Industry
SIC
Description
SIC         Description
26    | Paper and Allied Products
27    | Printing, Publishing, and
          Allied Industries
28    |  Chemicals and Allied Products
29    | Petroleum Refining and
          Related Industries
30    |  Rubber and Miscellaneous
          Plastic Products
31    |  Leather and Leather Products
 32    | Stone, Clay 5 Glass Products
 33    |  Primary Metal Industries
                          20    Food and Kindred Products
                          21    Tobacco Manufactures
                          22    Textile Mill Products
                          23    Apparel § Other  Finished Products
                                  Made from Fabrics  §  Similar
                                  Materials

                          24    Lumber § Wood Products,
                                  Except Furniture
                          25    Furniture and Fixtures
                          34    Fabricated Metal  Products,  Except
                                  Ordnance, Machinery,  § Trans-
                                  portation Equipment

                          35    Machinery, Except Electrical
                                         36   Electrical Machinery,  Equipment,
                                                and Supplies
                                         37    Transportation Equipment
                                         38   Professional,  Scientific, and
                                                Controlling  Instruments;  Photo-
                                                graphic and  Optical Goods;
                                                Watches and  Clocks
                                         39   Miscellaneous  Manufacturing Industries
                                      10

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 done  for the Chicago  region using  the  activity assignment by  2-digit  SIC
 defined in Section 2.2  for  heavy and light  industry  and assuming the
 Illinois point-source regulations  are  in  effect.
      Figure 2.2  shows the emission-density  distribution of  industrial class
 sources within the Chicago  area.   Not  only  is  the  standard  deviation  of this
 distribution quite high in  relationship to  its average, but the skewness of
 the distribution causes significant estimation problems if  a  figure of
 1.17  Ibs/hr/acre is used as an emission-density factor in projecting  future
 air quality.   The use of mean emission-density estimates for  projecting air
 quality from land use was tested by using the  AQDM atmospheric dispersion model.
 Figure  2.3 shows the  calculated air quality for suspended particulates as
 derived by applying a 1.17  Ib/hr/acre  emission-density factor to the  present
 industrial land  use pattern in the City of  Chicago.  Figure 2.4 shows the
 suspended particulate air quality  estimates based  directly  upon the applica-
 tion of standard emission factors to the Chicago Emission Inventory with
 Illinois source  control regulations applied.  The use of the average emis-
 sion density factor for industrial lands did produce average air quality
 estimates  that approximated the average air quality over the entire region.
However, due to  the bias in the estimation of the average emission-density
 factor  and within clusters  of manufacturing land use in the area, pockets
of very high concentrations appear in the air quality estimates based upon
 these factors, as opposed to those based upon the standard emission factors.
Thus, if these estimates are used in trying to identify future potential
source clusters  in the Chicago area, the use of an average emission density
 to generate air quality estimates would lead to the belief that air quality
standards would not be met under the present conditions of Chicago land use
patterns and air quality regulations.
                                    11

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oon
coU
260
240
220
200
180
>-
OtCf\
lOw
•z.
UJ
0 W0
UJ
£120
100
80
60
40
20

0



-
-
-
-

.
-
-
-
-
-
-

.'
280
9AO
C*tvJ
200
160
120
80
40

0





*— ^— 1— r— 1_,
1 1 1 11 i i j i ->
I A .6 .8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 fc
-
MEAN - 1.17 (Lbs/Hr/Acre)
_ « r\ >^ir.
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WILL  COUIWY
      Figure 2.3.  Suspended particulate isopleths using
                  mean emission-density estimates for
                  manufacturing land                7
                  fmean-- 1.17 Ib/hr/ac - 9.0 t/d/mi )
                  (yg/m , annual geometric mean)
                               13

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                  WILL  COUNTY

Figure 2.4. Suspended  particulate isopleths
            with  Illinois source regulations
            applied
            (lig/m ,  annual geometric mean)
LAKE  COUNTY
                                  14

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     The use of mean density estimates by manufacturing zoning class to
 estimate air pollution concentrations was also  tested using the AQDM
 model.  Parameters  describing  the  emission density distributions for heavy
 and light industry  are shown in Table 2.3.  Again, the highly skewed distri-
 butions can be noted.   When the mean estimates  are applied to light and
 heavy manufacturing land use in the Chicago area, a slightly better air
 quality represantation is obtained, as shown in Figure 2.5.  The peak areas
 are represented more accurately than before, but the magnitude of the peaks
 remains much too high.  It can be  inferred from this result that, because
 of the extreme variance in manufacturing emission densities by zoning class,
 permitted-use zoning on a heavy and light industry taxonomy is not discrim-
 inatory enough to serve as an  effective device  for ensuring the maintenance
 of air quality standards even when coupled with point-source controls.  The
 limited success of  further explaining the above-noted variance has been
 discussed in Volume II  of this report.  Therefore, some means of limiting
 the extent of source clustering, and hence, emission densities, is required
 to avoid the possibility of future degradation.  Two additional methods are
 available:  (1) limiting the location of significant sources via an environ-
mental impact statement process or permit-to-locate system; or (2) a compre-
hensive emission-density zoning process.  The remainder of this volume focuses
 on the latter alternative.
 2.5  EMISSION-DENSITY-LIMITED  ZONING
     Emission-density-limited  zoning regulations are restrictions on the
amount of emissions per unit of land area by zoning.   They take the form of
emission-density constraints;  for example, a regulation forbidding emission
of more than 20'0 pounds of particulates per day per acre of land could be
enacted.   Such a regulation would require that a large emitter either reduce
the number of tons per day emitted or have sufficient non-polluting property
to reduce the emissions per acre to acceptable levels.
                                      15

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Table 2.3-  SUSPENDED PARTICULATE EMISSION-DENSITY
                        (Lbs/Hr/Acre)
G\ (26-3J)
r2 /20-2S\
GA \24-39J

r1
bA (25S)
r2
°A (203)

TOTAL
ANOV








x


•


.
Unregulated Source Inventory
Mean

47.60
27.24

3S.57




*





*F - F
DF - De
S - Si


I
. Median

.717
1.04

.92










ratio
;rees of
Std. Uev.

472.65
164.76

569.14











Skewiess

15.48
9.63

13.476











Uedon, /|DFB - Be
jnificande level
i
1


DFW - Wi


•
Regulated Source Inventory
Mean

. 1.67
.54

1.17
	
:= 5.65










ween\
piinj
Median

.21
.04

.104
1
DF=454












. i


1
Std. Dev.

6.29
2.62

5.03







•






•
•
Skcwnes:

7.63
8.35

9.01
S(.05)
- -

1










                           16

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 Figure 2.5.
 Suspended particulate
 isopleths* using  mean
 emission-density  estimates
 by zoning classification

        Mean Heavy Industry « 13.1 T/D/Mi*
        Mean Light Industry =  4.2 T/D/Mi
50
                    LAKE  COUNTY
(*wg/m  -  geometric mean)
                                   17

-------
     Cook County, Illinois, one of the counties in the study region, is one
of the few areas in the country to have passed an emission-density-limited
zoning ordinance.  The allowable emission-density limits (EDL's) for each of
three manufacturing classes are shown in Table 2.4.  When the Cook County
Emission Density Limited Zoning Ordinance was applied to sources in the
Chicago Metropolitan Air Quality Control Region, the national ambient air
                                              2
standard was not met.  The standard of 75 pg/m  was violated in the region
with both present land use and current zoned land.  With present land use
and the Cook County Ordinance, the entire Chicago Metropolitan Air Quality
Control Region is above the standard, as seen in Figure 2.6.  With current
zoned land, Figure 2.7, the standard is also exceeded throughout the region
with clusters formed in the downtown Loop area, the steel-mill area in
northwestern Indiana, and the industrial area surrounding Joliet, Illinois.
In order to compare and evaluate the two alternative control approaches under
investigation, an effective emission-density-limited zoning ordinance that
meets the national ambient air standards must be formulated.  Thus, the
question is raised as to how the emission-density limits should be specified.
2.6  SPECIFICATION OF EMISSION-DENSITY LIMITS  BY  ZONING CLASS
     In the  formulation of an effective EDLZ policy,  air quality must be
achieved throughout  the entire region.  For purposes  of calculation with
the AQDM atmospheric dispersion model,  the air quality is  determined at
237 receptor locations in  the region.  Thus, maximum  emission-density limits
are constrained  to those values that will allow air quality to be  achieved
at each of these points.
     If it is assumed that the region is divided  into geographic grid
squares indexed  by t, thafk  is an index of receptor  points, and that m is
                                     18

-------
  Table 2.4.  COOK COUNTY EMISSION-DENSITY LIMITS (EDL)
                    BY MANUFACTURING ZONE


	ZONE  1	

In unincorporated areas  includes all  residential and busi-
ness districts and the Ml manufacturing  district,  as estab-
lished and defined in  the Cook County Zoning  Ordinance.   In
incorporated areas includes  residential,  business,  and
restricted manufacturing districts, or the  most restrictive
manufacturing district as defined  in  the  applicable local
zoning ordinance.

Particulate  The rate  of emission  of  particulate matter from
Matter       sources within  the  boundaries  of any lot shall
             not exceed  a net figure  of  1 Ib/acre of lot
             area during any one hour, after  deducting from
             the gross hourly emission per  acre the correc-
             tion factor set forth in the following table:

             Allowance for Height  of  Emission3
             Height  of  Emission  Correction
              Above Grade  (ft)   (Ibs/hr/acre)
50
100
150
200
300
400
0.01
0.06
0.10
0.16
0.30
0.50
             Interpolate for  intermediate  val-
              ues not shown.
                            19

-------
                       Table 2.4.(Contd.)
                           ZONE 2
In unincorporated areas includes the M2 and M4 manufacturing
districts, as established and defined in the Cook County
Zoning Ordinance,  In incorporated areas include any general
manufacturing district other than the most restrictive and
most intensive manufacturing district as defined in the
applicable local zoning ordinance,

Particulate  The rate of emission of particulate matter from
Matter       sources within the boundaries of any lot shall
             not exceed a net figure of 5 Ib/acre of lot
             area during any one hour, after deducting from
             the gross hourly emission per acre the correc-
             tion factor set forth in the following table:

             Allowance for  Height of Emission5
             Height  of  Emission   Correction
              Above Grade  (ft)   (Ibs/hr/acre)
50
100
150
200
300
400
0
0.5
0.8
1.2
2.0
4.0
             Interpolate for intermediate val-
              ues not shown.
                             20

-------
                        Table 2.4.'. (Contdj)
                           ZONE 3
In unincorporated areas includes the M3 manufacturing dis-
trict as established and defined in the Cook County Zoning
Ordinance.  In incorporated areas includes heavy manufactur-
ing districts or the most  intensive manufacturing districts
as defined in the applicable local zoning ordinance-

Particulate  The rate of emission of particulate matter from
Matter       all sources within the boundaries of any lot
             shall not exceed a net figure of 8 Ib/acre dur-
             ing any one hour-,  after deducting from the
             gross hourly  emission per acre the correction
             factor set forth in the following table:

             Allowance  for Height of Emission8
             Height  of  Emission   Correction
              Above Grade  (ft)   (Ibs/hr/acre)

                     50                   0
                    100                 0.5
                    150                 1.5
                    200                 2.4
                    300                 4.0
                    400                 8.0
             ft
              Interpolate for intermediate val-
              ues not shown.
                             21

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    WILL COUNTY
FIGURED.6. Chicago region suspended particulate
           isopleths with Cook County Ordinance
           and current land use
                         22

-------
               _r^-i.5-x
                     rur1

                         H
FIGURE 2.7.  Chicago  region suspended particulate
           isopleths with Cook County Ordinance
           and current zoned land
                           23

-------
 an index  of land use  or  zoning  class,  then the pollutant  concentration X, .

 at receptor point k,  is  given by

where      X,     is the pollutant concentration at receptor point k,


           a ,     is the dispersion model transfer coefficient describ-
                  ing the contribution of a unit emission from land
                  use class m in grid square £ to the concentration at
                  location k,

           ED     represents the expected emission density in tons/
                  day/mi^  for land use class m in grid square £,,

           A      is the specified percentage of land designated for
                  land use class m in grid square £,

           3,     is the background concentration at receptor
                  point k.
      If it  is  further assumed that  the  emission density EE/? is  a policy

variable to be set  at some upper limit  for control purposes,  that  this

limit can vary by land use class m  but  is  uniform over the  entire  region,
          A
and  that X, represents the standard (not necessarily uniform) at receptor

point k,  then  the emission-density  limits  EE|? are constrained as follows:
                                    24

-------
or

wnere
                             r> r>
                           _ I L J11  Am EEr +  a        r?  ?i
                             m f  Zk  f   f    T£        L**^J
                             111 'C  -tJV  'C   A-
                                                        (2.3)
                                  m   m
     The land use, A^, in each grid square t devoted to class m can be
either current land or a projected land use plan.  In this study, both are
utilized to test the effect of growth on the emission-density limits
required to meet and maintain standards.  Although a variable standard
                             A
could be used, in this study X,  is assumed uniform throughout the region
     *          3
and X = 75 yg/m , the national standard.

     When the current Chicago region manufacturing land use pattern is
applied to Equation 2.1, many of the receptor points k are redundant.  In
fact, only two points are critical, as shown in Figure 2.8.  These points
correspond to the linear constraints comprising the limiting frontier shown
in Figure 2.9.   The intersection of these lines are points where both receptors
are at the standard.   Moving from this point along the boundary in the direc-
                      T T                     HT
tion of increasing EDL   while decreasing EDL   will lower the concentration
at critical receptor #2, while just maintaining the air quality standard at
                                                HI                       IT
critical receptor #1; the opposite occurs if EDL   is increased while EDL
is decreased.
                                     25

-------
  COOK COUNTY
                                    Critical
                                    Receptor #1
                                            Critical
                                            Receptor #2
    WILL COUNTY
Figure 2.8. Chicago region suspended particulate
            isopleths with current land use and
            optimum emission-density limits

            (EDLHI = 3.3 T/D/mi2, EDLLI = 0.85 T/D/mi2)
                               26

-------
                 CRITICAL
                 RECEPTOR #2
                   CRITICAL
                   RECEPTOR #2
                                             CURRENT LAND USE
                                                  CRITICAL
                                                  RECEPTOR #1
                                    CRITICAL
                                    RECEPTOR  #1
               CURRENT ZONED LAND
         EMISSION DENSITY LIMITS-LIGHT INDUSTRY fEDLLI) (TONS/DAY/Mi2)
                              3
figure 2.9.   Air quality (yg/m  geometric mean)  effectiveness
             frontier for suspended particulates using  emission-
             density- limited zoning controls
                                       27

-------
     A similar frontier is obtained when current zoned land is inserted into
Equation  2.3, except the allowable limits frontier necessary to maintain air
quality,  assuming this development pattern will actually occur, is.reduced.
Figure 2.10  indicates the air quality degradation if the emission-density-
limited zoning policy adopted just maintains air quality standards as growth
occurs.   Note in Figure 2.10 that the location of the critical receptors has
shifted slightly from that in Figure 2.8.  The pollutant isopleths in
Figures 2.8  and 2.10 were calculated using the circled points on the frontiers
for current  land use and current zoned land, respectively, shown in Figure 2.9.
     The  linear frontier of Figure 2.9 determines an infinite set of emis-
                                  HI                LI
sion density limits for heavy (EDL  ) and light (EDL  ) industrial land use
that will achieve air quality.  Criteria must be applied to select a unique
pair of limits from this set.  For this study, we have chosen to minimize
the annualized cost incurred by existing sources for control devices that
result from  applying any pair of density limits on the frontier.
     With emission-density limits enforced on the 475 selected sources for
HI and LI, the percent reduction in particulate emissions required to
achieve the  limit can be calculated if land owned by the source operator is
known.   The  control devices that meet the required reductions are selected
for'each SIC code, and the cost is calculated for the control equipment.
The annualized cost is accumulated for each zoning class, and the optimum
emission-density limits can be selected from the least annualized cost
combination on the frontier.   The results of applying this procedure to the
Chicago source file are discussed in the next section.
                                    28

-------
                                          CRITICAL
                                          RECEPTOR #1
                                           CRITICAL
                                           RECEPTOR #2
Figure 2.10.   Chicago region suspended particulate
              isopleths with current zoned land and
              optimum emission-density limits
              J;EDLHI = 2.5 T/o/mi2, EDLLI - p.ss i/D/mi2)
                              29

-------
            3.0  APPLICATION OF METHODOLOGY TO CHICAGO REGION


     This section describes the results of applying the above methodology

to the Chicago study area.  Included in this area are the City of Chicago

itself and the three surrounding counties of Cook (outside Chicago), Will

and DuPage.  The two methods of achieving ambient air quality standards,

point-source controls, and emission-density zoning, are examined on a cost-

effectiveness basis.  The results are summarized for two-digit SIC codes,

heavy and light manufacturing zones, and total manufacturing.  The sensi-

tivity of the results to permited-use zoning policies are tested.


3.1  COST OR CONTROL FOR: poiNTf-SOURCE.:HEGULATION

     The State of Illinois particulate control regulations were used for

comparison purposes in this study.  Process emissions are limited by a

"Bay Area" type of regulation as a function of process weight rate.  Fuel

combustion emissions are regulated as a proportion of BTU (heating value)

input.  The details of these regulations are discussed in Appendix A.
   /
     In calculating the cost of particulate emission control for Chicago,

the device comprising the least annualized cost for each individual source

is selected, and a total annualized cost for the point-source control

strategy is calculated from the summation of individual source costs.  In

operating the various types of control equipment, the commodities of water,

power,'and fuel are used;  the consumption and costs of these resources are

also calculated.  When the standard industrial classification codes are
                                    30

-------
 grouped into light and heavy industry, the annualized costs of point-source
 control (PSC) are shown in Table 3.1.  The total annualized cost for PSC
 was 1.393 million dollars for the 475 sources, with heavy industry contrib-
 uting approximately 75% of the cost and light industry, approximately 25%.
 The resources required and costs accrued in operating these control devices
 can also be seen in Table 3.1 for the zoning classification, and in Table 3.2
 for the standard industrial classification.  The SIC classes 28 and 32,
 which contribute the greatest cost, constitute 40% of the total annualized
 cost of control for the Illinois portion of the Metropolitan Chicago Interstate
 Interstate Air Quality Control  Region.   In the operational  cost of the  equip-
 ment, the  power cost of operating the equipment contributes 34% of the  total
 annualized cost, fuel for operating after-burners  contributes 10%, and  water
 utilized in operating wet scrubbers constitutes 0.1% of the total  annualized
 cost.  The power cost is distributed evenly over the SIC classification,
 while the  fuel and water costs,  predominate in the SIC codes classes as
 heavy industry.
3.2  EFFECTIVENESS OF POINT-SOURCE CONTROL
     When the Illinois point-source regulations were applied to the individual
sources in the regional data file, the reductions in particulate emissions
ranged from 78% in SIC 20  (the food and kindred industries)  to 99% in SIC 27
(the printing and publishing industries).  As can be seen in Table 3.3, the
particulate emissions resulting after control techniques have been applied
range from 0.01 tons/day for industries in the light industrial classifica-
tion to 0.31 tons/days in the petroleum and coal industries.  The regulation
favors industry with large process weight where the average emissions after
control are 0.09 tons/day, while the industries with small process weight
emit 0.02 tons/day after control.

-------
                       Table  3.1.  ANNUAL POINT-SOURCE CONTROL AND UTILITY COSTS

                                        BY STANDARD LAND USE CLASSIFICATION
is*
N>
SLUG


HI
LI
AWNIIA1
COST
< $/YR)
998369
394640
PDWFR
USE
(MW/YR)
21933
7583
PHWFR
COST
($/YP )
364211
113739
FIIFI
COST
($/YP)
145744
0
WATFR
USE
(GAL/YR)
1168408
30748
WATFR
COST
($/YR)
891
22
               TOTAL
1,393009
29516
477950
                                                                        145744
                                         1,199156
                                                                              913
             HI=26-33
             LI-20-25, 34-39

-------
'Ul
                          Table .3.2.  ANNUAL POINT-SOURCE CONTROL AND UTILITY COSTS

                                          BY STANDARD INDUSTRIAL CLASSIFICATION
cjC

20
21
??
23
24
?5
26
27
?fl
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
ANNUAL
COST
<$/YR)
78441
0
1 145
1435
26615
?69<36
42464
78734
4f)fl74?
113256
14401
O
16679B
93065
G09OQ
110611
73043
?f.ER9
15437
25825
POWER
USE
(MW/YR)
2790
0
1?
15
315
450
479
816
97m
2733
• 342
o
4275
2143
1440
1584
1225
•57 P
338
277
POWER
COST
($/YR)
41846
0
175
220
4721
675?
7186
12269
lS07ftl
40990
5136
n
64125
32149
21593
23758
18372
Gfififi
5072
4155
PUEL
COST
($/YR)
0
0
O
0
0
0
0
48581
971ft?
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
WATER
USE
( GAL /YR )
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
30743
737<54?
30748
30748
0
30748
2459S1
61495
0
0
0
30748
0
WATER
COST
<$/YR)
0
0
O
0
0
0
0
21
5QO
22
22
0
22
, 172
43
0
0
0
22
0
             HI = SIC 26-33
             LI = Remaining SIC's

-------
                    POINT-SOURCE CONTROL REGULATIONS

                     APPLIED TO THE CHICAGO REGION


20
22
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39


Food and kindred
Textile mills
Lumber and wood
Furniture and fixtures
Paper and allied
Printing and publishing
Chemicals and allied
Petroleum and coal
Rubber and plastics
Stone, clay, and glass
Primary metals
Fabricated metal
Machinery, non- electrical
Machinery, electrical
Transportation equipment
Instruments and related
Misc. manufacturing

•H \
V) I/)
W v — '
0.14
0.48
0.13
0.08
0.48
0.40
1.03
2.23
0.22
1.20
•0.47
0.37
0.52
0.25
0.34
0.12
0.19
Control
iction
Point Source
Required Redi
(percent)
78
92
95
85
91
99
87
87
88
94
91
93
92
90
93
90
97
rH
§£
u u
Point Source
Required Redi
(tons/day)
0.11
0.44
0.12
0.07
0.43
0.39
0.89
1.92
0.19
1..L2
0.-i2
0. J4
0.48
0.23
0.31
0.10
0.18
_i
Emissions
After Control
(tons/day)
0.03
0.04
0.01
0.01
0.05
0.01
0.13
0.31
0.03
0.08
0.05
0.04
0.04
0.02
0.03
0.02
0.01
HI = SIC 26-33
LI = Remaining SICs
                                  34

-------
     Figure 2.4 in Section 2, which depicts the total suspended particulate

isopleths with Illinois point-source control regulations, shows that the
                   o
standard of 75 yg/m  is achieved with the Illinois regulation.  However, the

air quality is such that a significant portion of the City of Chicago and

the northern Indiana regions are at, or near, the maximum allowable concen-

tration, while the outlying residential areas and suburbs are below the ;:

national and state standards.  Industrial development in the southern and

southwestern portions of the region could again threaten standards even with

point-source controls applied unless maintenance measures are enacted.

3.3  DETERMINATION OF LEAST-COST EMISSION-DENSITY LIMITS

     FOR THE CHICAGO REGION

     To determine the least-cost combination of heavy industrial and light
                                       HI        LI
industrial emission-density limits (EDL   and EDL  , respectively) in the

Chicago region that satisfy the national ambient air quality standard of
       o
75 pg/m , the procedure as outlined in Section 2   was followed.  Several

combinations of limits were calculated on the boundary frontier as shown

in  Figure 2.9.  Table 3.4 shows the results of these calculations.

     The least-cost combination for current land use occurs when heavy
                                                             2
industrial emission-density limits are set at 3.3 tons/day/mi  and light

industrial emission limits are set at 0.85 tons/day/mi .  For current zoned

land, the optimum combination of emission-density limits for heavy industry
                  2                     2
is 2.5 tons/day/mi  and 0.55 tons/day/mi  for light industry.  The density

limits should be set at the latter levels when the land is developed under

planned zoning to ensure that ambient air standards are met as growth

occurs.  The least-cost emission-density limits are shown as the circled

points on the boundary of Figure 2.9.
                                     35

-------
Table  3.4,  LEAST-COST COMBINATION OF EMISSION-DENSITY LIMITS
CURRENT LAND USE
Emission Density -
Limits in Tons/Day/Mi
EDLHI
3.7
3.4
3.3«
3.2
3.1
3.0
i.U
1.0
0.
EDLLI
.001
.5
.85
' 1.0
1.3
1.4
i./
2.0
2.3
Annualized Cost in 106 Dollars
EDLHI
1.017
1.044
1.044
1.054
1.068
1.086
i.ioy
1.487
2.344
EDLLI
0.657
0.444
0.408
0.404
0.399
0.398
0.395
0.373
0.365
SOL™™
1.674
1.488
1.452
1.458
1.467
1.484
1.S64
1.860
2.709
CURRENT ZONED LAND
Emission Density ,
Limits in Tons/Day/Mi
EDL1*1
2.9
2.6
2.5*
2.4
2.3
2.2
2.0
1.0
0.
EDLLI
.001
.4
.55
.66
.7
.78
.8
1.14
1.5
Annualized Cost in 10 Dollars
EDLHI
1.090
1.100
1.098
1.104
1.115
1.128
1.169
1.487
2.563
EDLLI
0.490
0.451
0.438
0.431
0.429
0.421
0.415
0.405
0.397
EDL1™1-
1.580
1.551
1.535
1.535
1.544
1.549
1.584
1.892
2.960
            •Denotes  least cost combination
          HI - 26-33
          LI = 20-25, 34-39
                                     36

-------
 3.4  THE COST OF CONTROL FOR EMISSION-DENSITY ZONING



      The cost of controlling emissions to the limits set by the least-cost



 emission-density regulations determined above are presented in this section.



 It is assumed that the source operator will put on a control device, rather



 than buy more land to satisfy the regulation.



      From Table 3.5, the total annual cost for EDLZ to achieve the national



 particulate ambient air standard at present land use is $1.452 million.



 When the current zoned but undeveloped "land is included in the land, use



 inventory, the cost rises to $1.535 million to maintain the national standard



 as growth occurs.  Tables 3.6 and 3.7 represent the annualized and utility



 costs for current land use and current zoned land by SIC, respectively, for



 the 475 selected sources.  The utility costs follow the same pattern for



 both the present land use and current zoned land, as for point-source control.



 Power, water, and fuel costs predominate in the heavy industrial category.






3.5  EFFECTIVENESS OF EMISSION-DENSITY  ZONING



     Emission-density limits were applied to  the  475 sources in the  Chicago



region; the reductions achieved can be  seen in Table 3.8.  The EDLZ  effi-



ciency ranged from 451 in the SIC code  38 (instrument and related) to 99%



in SIC 27  (printing and publishing).  This variance is due to the amount of



land per source and the emissions emanating from  the source.  In SIC 38,



the emissions are small and the land size is  large; therefore, the required



reductions are low.  On the other hand, in SIC 27, the emissions are high,



while the land size is small, requiring maximum control.




     The least-cost emission-density limits  have been selected to achieve



and maintain air quality standards and are therefore effective by definition.
                                     37

-------
oo.
                             Table  3.5.   EDLZ ANNUAL CONTROL AND UTILITY COSTS
                                             BY ZONING USE CLASSIFICATION
i SLUG ANNUAL
COST
($/YR)
HI 104*030
LI 409251
TOTALS 1,452281
SLUG ANNUAL
COST
($/YR)
HI "1097-31
LI 437535
POW^P
USE
I MW/YR)
27364
7016
34380
POWER
USE
(MW/YR)
664"
Current Land
POWER
COST
($/YR)
419270
105242
524512
Current Zoned
POWER
LUST
( $/YR )
4326 5
Use (EDLHI=3.3
FUEL
COST
($/YR)
145744
0
145744
HT
Land (EDL =2.
FUEL
CCST
( $/YP)
145744
0
T/D/Mi2, EDLLI=0.
WATER
USE
(GAL/YR)
1383641
0
1,383641
5 T/D/Mi2, EDLLI=0
WATER
ust
(GAL/YR)
1660369
3Q~43
85 T/D/Mi2)
WATCRJ
COST 1
( $/YR) '
986
0 ,
986
.55 T/D/Mi2)
WATER
CUST
U/YR)
22
               TOTALS
1,535266
34905
532384
145744
1,691117
1202
             HI = 26-33
             LI = 20-25, 34-39

-------
OJ
                   .Table 3.6. CURRENT LAND USE EDLZ ANNUAL CONTROL AND UTILITY COSTS

                                        BY STANDARD INDUSTRIAL CLASSIFICATION
                                          —TT-1
                                       fEDL  =3.3 T/D/Mi
EDLLI=0.85 T/D/Mi21
SIC

• 20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
23
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
3*
37
38
3?
ANNUAL
COST
($/YR)
114133
0
3211
0
20744
21577
51165
76029
306(367
148071
12102
0
245580
120743
82472
121043
75237
219B3
8543
21730
POWER
US?

-------
Table 3.7.'  CURRENT ZONED LAND EDLZ ANNUAL CONTROL AND UTILITY COSTS
                       BY STANDARD IM)USTRIAL "CLASSIFICATION
(EDLH1=2.5 T/D/Mi2". EDL LI=I
SIC

20
21
22
23
24
25
~ 26
27
2°.
2°
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
33
HI = 26-33
LI = 20-25,
ANNUAL
COST
116580
0
3385
0
1886^
26592
63517
77458
335509
161437
12226
0
22-5333
130932
S7319
130655
77429
23626
16510
21860
34-39
POWER
USE
(MW YR)
2013
0
85
0
365
1432
fa
7425
6C27
330
0
65<=0
2948
It 3'
1613
1165'
263
347

PCtoEP
COST
($/YR)
30192
0
1275
C
4442
5474
2147C
13173
11 1370
1023^
4^57
0
107500
44220
275F2
24201
1747^
7410
4021
5209

3.55 T/D/Mi2")
FUEL
COST
($/YR)
0
0
0
. 0
0
0
0
40531
97162
0
0
0
0
0
C
0
0
0
0
0


WATER
USE
(GAL/YP J
C
0
0
0
0
0
2455P1
30748
584204
338223
0
0
61495
33*223
61495
0
0
0
30745
0


WATER
COST
( $/YR )
C
0
0
0
0
0
172
21
406
237
0
0
61
237
43
0
0
0
22
0


-------
Table 3.8.  EDLZ REGULATIONS APPLIED TO  THE CHICAGO REGION










20
22:
24
25
26
27
2S.
29
3P
32
35
3*
35
3$
37
35
3*










Rood; and: kindred
Textile mills
ijumoer and wood
Furniture and fixtures
Paper and allied
Printing and publishing
Chemicals and allied
Ee.trPleuBr and coal
Rubber: and: plastics
Stone:,, clayi, and: glass
PJrimary. metals^
Eabr.ica.ted- metal.
Machinery, non-electrical
Machinery, electrical
Transportation- equipment
Instruments and related
Misc. manufacturing

s~-^
S>>
cd
O T3
•H ^
CO CO
co C
•rl O

0.14
0.48
0.13
0.08
0.48
0.40
1.03
2.23
0,22
1.20
0.47
0.37
0.52
0.25
0.34
0.12
0.19
cu
•H
3 CX-N
cr o w
cu -ri a
ctf.ua)
0 O
N 3 M
] ^ 'O Q)
o Q) a
pjj pjj N^^
88
96
" "94
82
90
99
52
82
87
96
94
92
88
80
79
45
92
T3
0)
t-l
*ri ^^^
3 a >>
o1 o rt
Q) -H T3
0^ 4J ^^.
o co
Nl 3 C
l-l T) O
§0) 4J
P^ ^^
0.12
0.46
0.12
0.06
0.46
0.39
0.54
1.83
0.19
1.15
0.44
0.34
0.46
0.20
0.26
0.05
0.17
H
O
1-1
4J s~\
>
C o rt
O O T3
•H ^
W t-l CO
co cu C
•H 4-1 O
S lu 4->
W 
-------
The pollution  concentration isopleths ..shown in Figures  2.8 and  2.10  of
Section  2 are  the results of controlling  for current manufacturing land use
and zoned (but not necessarily, used) land, respectively.  The  results of
the previous section indicate that the incremental annual cost  to industry
to achieve air quality maintenance as development occurs is approximately
$80,000 or 5.5% over current land use control costs.

3.6  COMPARISON OF POINT-SOURCE CONTROL AND
     EMISSION-DENSITY-LIMITED ZONING
     This section brings together the results of the previous sections for
purposes of comparing the two approaches  to air quality regulation.  The
relevant pollution concentration isopleth maps for point-source control are
shown in Figure 2.4, and for emission-density-limited zoning in Figures 2.8
and 2.10.  The resulting average concentrations, using point-source control
and emission-density limits applied to current manufacturing land use, yield
roughly equivalent.results.  If the emission^density limits derived from
current zoned  land use patterns are used, current air quality would be
considerably improved, as shown in Figure 3.1.  However, air quality would
continue to degrade as growth occurred with the maximum possible degradation,
as indicated in Figure 2.10, assuming the growth pattern follows the zoning
process.  This may be preferable to uncontrolled growth, however, since
degradation cannot be predicted accurately on a regional basis without
setting some form of limitation on allowed densities.
     Both types of regulations .were applied to the poiafsources- in^the.;
Chicago .aregion; :A comparison of the required emission reductions by 2-digit
SIC code for both types of regulations is presented in Figures 3.2 and 3.3.
The two strategies require approximately the same degree of control for all
                                     42

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Figure 3.1.   Chicago region suspended particulate isopleths
              with current land use and optimum emission-density
              limits for current zoned land
              (EDLHI=2.5 T/D/Mi2,
EDLLI=0.55 T/D/Mi2)
                                   43

-------
"PAPER AND
  ALLIED


"PRINTING
  a PUO'G


"CHEMICALS
  a ALLIED


" PETROLEUM
  a COAL

50RUODER  B
  PLASTICS


MSTO;:E,:L'.Y
  a GLASS


"PRIMARY
 METAL INDS.
                             ////// //////// / / / / A
                 \      \     \     I      I      I      i      I      I     I

                 10    20    30   40    50    60    70    80     90    100

                            % REDUCTION OF EMISSIONS
                     % REDUCTION -  POINT SOURCE CONTROL  REGULATION


                     % REDUCTION -  EMISSION DENSITY LIMITED ZONIEJG REGULATION
Figure 3.2,    Comparison of reduction required by the
                strategies for heavy  industry
                                  44

-------
   2° FOOD AMD
      KINDRED


   22 TEXTILE
       WILLS


   24 LUMBER
      AND WOOD


   - 2J FURNITURE
     &FIXTURCS
   54 FABRICATED
       METAL
   '** "*""'"? V/77/////'-/r/r77777//777r77y/A
  ' KOH-ELECTLI|
   56 ELECTRICAL
     UACHIKERY


   57 TRAHSPO
     EQUIPMENT

   58INSTRU-
    HENTS a REL


   59 UISC. «FG.
L
o
                       J_
_L
j_
L
                  10    20    30   40    50    60   70
                             % REDUCTION OF EMISSONS
                     80
I
           90    100
                 % REDUCTION - POINT SOURCE CONTROL REGULATION
                 % REDUCTION - EMISSION DENSITY LIMITED ZONING REGULATION
Figure 3.3.    Comparison of reduction required by the
               strategies for light industry
                                 45

-------
SIC classes, except SIC 28  (chemicals and allied) and SIC 38  (instruments
and related).  The EDLZ required efficiency is much less for  these SIC codes
because the industries in these classes have a large amount of land over
which to distribute their emissions.
     The costs associated with achieving these reductions are presented in
Figure 3.4.  The PSC and EDLZ costs vary by SIC, but, for the most part,
the strategies do not differ greatly in cost.  As a result, EDLZ is an
effective long-range control that is only slightly more costly (10%) than
PSC, assuming a stable zoning process.  This is further substantiated by
Figure 3.5 which shows the  costs by standard land use classification along
with the associated utility cost.  EDLZ is slightly greater in cost, with
heavy industry having the added expense of water and fuel.  From these
figures, it can be seen that EDLZ is an economic control strategy in achiev-
ing and maintaining ambient air quality.
3.7  SENSITIVITY OF RESULTS TO PERMITTED-USE ZONING POLICY

     The sensitivity of the results to permitted-use zoning policy was
tested on the same emission-density boundary frontier (Figure 2.9)  with the
current zoned land use inventory.   The sources with activities in
   /
SIC codes 29, 32 and 33 were classed as heavy industry, while the remainder
of the SIC codes from 20-39 were classed as light industry.   This group was
selected for the heavy industrial classification because these three classes
account for 63 percent of the total suspended particulates and constitute
approximately one-third of the sources in the region, as seen in Table 3.9.
     In order to formulate a least-cost combination of emission-density
limits for this activity grouping, several combinations of limits were
                                     46

-------
HUU
350
i 300
_i
_i
o
- 250
o
fc 200
o
o
S 150
INI
_l
I too
z

-------
                2,0
oo
             co
             cr
             
-------
- Jable 3.9.   PERCENT OF SUSPENDED PARTICULATES EMITTED BY
               THE THREE LARGEST SIC CLASSES IN THE REGION
SIC
32
29
33
TOTAL
% of
TSP
29.4
17.0
16.2
62.6
Number
of Sources
50
40
83
173
                                  49

-------
calculated on the boundary frontier, as shown in Table 3.10.  The least-
cost combination is seen to be at the emission-density limits of
               2                                        2
2.2 tons/day/mi  for heavy industry and 0.78 tons/day/mi  for light industry.
These optimal limits for the permitted-use zoning constrain the heavy
industry activities and are less stringent on the light industry activities,
as compared to the more traditional method of classifying heavy industry as
SIC 26-33 and light industry as 20-25 and 34-39.  The optimal annual cost
associated with the modified permitted-use zoning policy is 1.78 million
dollars,as compared to the 1.54 million dollar cost with the more tradi-
tional zoning policy.
                                    50

-------
Table 3.10, LEAST-COST COMBINATION OF EMISSION-DENSITY LIMITS
                       FOR' PERMUTED -USE:. ZONING  ...

                          Current Zoned Land
           Emission-density limits
               in tons/day/mi
Annualized cost
in 10° Dollars
EDLm EDLLI
2.9
2.6
2.5*
2.4
2.3
2,2* '
2.0
1.0
0.001
0.001
0.4
0.55
0.66
0.7
0.78
0.8
1.14
1.5
EDLHI
0.529
0.524
0.522
0.530
0.539
0.555
0.576
0.690
0.856
EDLLI
1.893
1.437
1.333
1.316
1.309
1.227
1.219
1.184
1.458
Total
EDL
2.422
1.961
1.855
1.846
1.848
1.782
1.795
1.874
2.314
           * Traditional zoning optimum
           t Permitted-use zoning optimum

           HI = 29,32,33
           LI = 20-28, 30-31, 34-39
                                      51

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                      4.0  SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
     The system model that was developed for this study compared and evalu-
ated two emission control approaches, point-source control and emission-
density-limited zoning.  This model was successfully tested using a data
base including 475 selected process and fuel combustion sources from a
three-county region in the Chicago metropolitan area.  The two approaches
were compared for particulate control on a cost-effectiveness basis, using
annualized cost as the criterian.  The model can be expanded to include
other approaches.  Also, additional pollutants can be investigated by
programming applicable control devices into the model as appropriate.
     The following conclusions are drawn from this study:
     1)  Emission-density-limited zoning and point-source control
         regulations are equally effective strategies for achieving
         the national particulate matter air quality standards in the
         Chicago region by 1975.
     2)  An emission-density-limited zoning policy sets an upper limit
         on the amount of deterioration in air quality in the region
         if the density limits are established to include land zoned
         for manufacturing development as well as current developed land.
                                    52

-------
    This is so virtually by the definition of the density
    limitations, if they have been established to meet air
    quality standards and are based on a stable zoning policy
    that reflects comprehensive planning in the region.
3)  An emission-density-limited zoning policy established to
    account for planned regional development has the potential
    advantage of achieving a better overall average air pollu-
    tion concentration in the short run (1975) than do the
    present point-source control regulations, at the expense
    of a slightly increased annual control cost of 101, or $140,000,
    for the 475 sources selected for this study.
4)  Point-source control regulations are quite stringent in an
    economic sense for sources with a combination of large process
    weight rate and large emission factors, and are lenient for
    sources with small emission factors and large process weight.
    The total annualized cost for point-source control with the
    475 selected industries in the Chicago metropolitan area
    was 1.393 million dollars, with heavy industry contributing
    approximately 75 percent of the cost and light industry
    25 percent.
5)  In delineation of the total annualized cost, capital and
    maintenance charges constitute approximately 56 percent,
    power costs of operating the equipment contribute 34 percent,
                                 53

-------
     fuel  for operating  afterburners  contributes  10 percent,  and
     water utilized in operating wet  scrubbers  constitutes  0.1
     percent.   The  power cost  is distributed  evenly over  the  SIC
     classes,  while the  iiiel and water  costs  predominate  in the
     heavy industrial  category.
 6)   A least-cost emission-density limited  zoning policy  was
     formulated in  order for air quality to be  achieved throughout
     the Chicago region.  The  least-cost EDLZ limits were found  to
                      2                                        2
     be 3.3  tons/day/mi   for heavy industry and 0.85 tons/day/mi
     for light industry,  based on present manufacturing land  use.
     When  the  current  zoned land inventory  was  included,  the  limits
                                2
     decreased to 2.5  tons/day/mi  for  heavy  industry and
                    2
     0.55  tons/day/mi  for light industry.
 7)   The total annual  cost for 475 selected industries with EDLZ
     based on  present  land use is 1.452 million dollars.  When the
     current zoned  land  is included,  the cost rises to 1.535  million
     dollars.   The  associated  costs follow  the  same pattern as for
     point-source control.  The division of total control costs
     between heavy  and light industry is also roughly the same
     (HI-75%,  LI-25%).
8)  The point-source control and EDLZ approaches  do not differ
    greatly in cost or resource utilization;  as a result, ELDZ
    is a potentially viable  economic control  for achieving and
    maintaining ambient air  quality.
                               54

-------
                                 REFERENCES

1.  TRW Systems Group.  Air Quality Display Model ((AQEM).
    Contract No. PH 22-68-60. November 1969.

2.  Martin, D. and Tickvart, J.  A General Atmospheric Diffusion Model
    for Estimating the Effects of Air Quality of One or More Sources.
    APCA paper, June 1968.

3.  U.S. Enivronmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Programs.
    Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors (Revised).  February 1972.
                                       55

-------
              APPENDIX A

           LITERATURE REVIEW
Air Pollution Source Control Regulation,
 Particulate Emission Control Devices,
and the Air Pollution-Land Use Interface
                  56.

-------
                      APPENDIX A  LITERATURE REVIEW




     A review of the literature was conducted to learn to what extent cost-



effectiveness type studies have been used in analysis of alternate control



approaches for participate pollution control.  In large urban areas, a



reduction in emissions must usually be accomplished in order to achieve the



federal ambient air quality standards.  That legislation enacted to effect



reduction in emissions for particulate matter was studied.  After studying



the federal and state regulations, we reviewed control equipment to determine



the types of control devices that meet the required reductions and the tech-



nical requirements of each Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) Code.



The cost of control equipment that meets these objectives was analyzed by



type of control device and by variation of control devices by industry.



Finally, studies that have attempted to link air pollution and land use are



reviewed.




A.1  LEGISLATION REGARDING AIR POLLUTION CONTROL



     FOR PARTICULATE MATTER



     The development of environmental protection and enhancement measures



in the United States has been,, for the most part, determined by state and



federal legislation.




A.1.1  Federal Legislation



     Air quality legislation enacted by the federal government began in



July 1955, when Congress authorized a program of research and technical



assistance to state and local governments.  The period from 1963 to 1970



                                     57

-------
produced the most significant legislation regarding air quality: the Clean
Air Act of 1963, the Motor Vehicle Act of 1965, the Air Quality Act of 1967,
and the culminating Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970.   The 1970 Amendments,
characterized as currently the strongest air pollution control legislation,
authorize  the regulation of both mobile and stationary sources of pollu-
tion.  These programs deal with establishing national air quality standards,
describing a framework for the state to meet these standards, and improving
procedures for federal enforcement.  National ambient air quality standards
for particulate matter, sulfur oxides, carbon monoxide, photochemical
oxidants, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides have thus far been promulgated
by the Environmental Protection Agency.  Federal guidelines published by the
EPA require that states submit implementation plans for the attainment and
maintenance of these standards.
     The 1970 amendments also provide for more effective federal enforce-
ment , by allowing the EPA to issue compliance orders to any person violating
applicable implementation plans or to bring civil suit against any person
in violation of implementation plans;  they also authorize citizen suits to
enforce the provisions of the Clean Air Act.
     The Clean Air Amendments are an example of a recent shift in the burden
of proof in pollution control.  When the EPA now specifies that an air
pollutant is a health hazard, industry must either comply with the emission
standard or prove that the health hazard does not exist.
A. 1.2  State Legislation
     In implementing the federal guidelines for the State of Illinois, the
Illinois Pollution Control Board adopted a set of comprehensive air pol-
lution control regulations•_ designed to limit emissions of sulfur dioxide,
                                    58

-------
particulate matter, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons
from stationary sources throughout Illinois.
     An additional provision that would have effectively banned coal for
residential or commercial use in the Chicago area by mid-1975 was not
included in the package due to a temporary restraining order.  This order
was entered against the Board by a Cook County Circuit Court Judge, who
termed the ban unconstitutional as presently structured.
     The new regulations represent a major effort by the state to control
the air contaminants, and form the heart of the Illinois program to meet
the federal standards and to combat air pollution.  Except for controls oh
particulate matter, the state previously did not have emission limits on
these air pollutants.
     Specifically, in regard to particulate air contaminants, the program:
     1)  Significantly tightens limits on the emission of particulate
         matter from such operations as steel mills, oil refineries,
         electric power plants, cement plants, and corn wet-milling
         facilities.
     2)  For the first time, requires sophisticated new equipment to
         control emissions from coke ovens.
     3)  Greatly strengthens existing standards for emissions from
         incinerators.
     4)  Adopts a statewide nondegradation standard to prevent the
         unnecessary deterioration of air that is now clean, and to
         prevent new sources of pollution from being located in
         inappropriate places.
                                     59

-------
     5)  Institutes a statewide requirement of operating permits
         for all pollution sources as an aid to enforcement.
     6)  Requires sources to monitor their emissions, to keep
         detailed records, to adequately maintain their equipment,
         and to make regular reports to the state.
     7)  Specifies participate emission standards and limitations
         for new and existing emission sources, for incinerators,
         and for fuel combustion emission sources.
The air pollution regulations are designed to enable the state to meet the
national ambient air quality standard by 1975.
     In the case of Illinois manufacturing sources, emission standards are
divided into fuel combustion and process regulations.  Fuel emission regu-
lations in the Chicago major metropolitan area require that no person shall
cause or allow the emission of particulate matter into the atmosphere from
any existing fuel combustion source to exceed 0.1 pound of particulate
matter per million Btu of actual heat input in any one-hour period.
     For process emission sources, no person shall cause or allow the emis-
sion of particulate matter into the atmosphere in any one-hour period from
any existing process emission source in excess of the allowable emission
rates specified in Table A.I, either alone or in combination with the emis-
sion of particulate matter from all other similar new or existing process
emission sources at a plant or premises.  Interpolated and extrapolated
values of the numbers in Table A.I.for process weight rates up to 30 tons
per hour shall be determined by using the equation.^
                            E = 4.10 (P)°*67  ,                   (A.I)
                                    60

-------
  Table A.I.  ILLINOIS STANDARDS FOR EXISTING

                PROCESS EMISSION SOURCES
Process Weight Rate
Pounds Per Hour

100
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,500
2.000
4,000
6,000
8,000
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
60,000
70,000
80,000
90,000
100,000
200,000
300,000
400,000
500,000
600,000
700,000
800,000
900,000
1,000,000
Process Weight Rate
Tons Per Hour

0.05
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.75
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
30.00
35.00
40.00
45.00
50.00
100.00
150.00
200.00
250.00
300.00
350.00
400.00
450.00
500.00
Allowable
Emission Rate
Pounds Per Hour
0.55
0.87
1.40
1.83
2.22
2.58
3.38
4.10
6.52
8.56
10.40
12.00
19.20
25.20
30.50
35.40
40.00
41.30
42.50
43.60
44.60
51.20
55.40
58.60
61.00
63.10
64.90
66.20
67.70
69.00
•
Source:  State of Illinois Air Pollution Control
         Implementation Plan.  II.  December 1971.
                         61

-------
and interpolated and extrapolated values of the data for process weight
rates in excess of 30 tons per hour shall be determined by using the
equation:
                            E -  (SS.O  (P) °al] - 40.0   ,       (A.2)
where    E = allowable emission rate in pounds per hour
and      P = process weight rate in tons per hour.
     The process weight regulation in the Illinois Implementation Plan was
modeled after the Bay Area Curve developed by the Bay Area Pollution Control
District in San Francisco.  This process weight regulation was based on
well-controlled process industries found there.  The Bay Area Curve rises
to an allowable emission of 40 pounds per hour with increasing size of
operation, and then allowable emissions increase at a reduced rate above
40 pounds per hour with increasing size of operation.  The Bay Area Curve
as applied to the State of Illinois regulation can be seen in Figure A.I.
The Bay Area regulation is quite stringent for sources with a combination
of large process weight rate and large emission factors, such as the SIC
class 32 (stone, clay, and glass industries).  It is noticeably lenient for
sources with small emission factors and large process weight, such as SIC 28
(chemicals and allied) and SIC 29 (petroleum).
A.2  POINT-SOURCE PARTICULATE CONTROL DEVICES
     When control regulations are enforced on a specific manufacturing
plant, the source operator must select control equipment to meet the
required reductions.  It has been assumed in this study that the source
operator will select that device which meets the design requirements of his
plant configuration at least cost.   In this section, the literature on
control equipment is reviewed to determine which devices are applicable

                                    62

-------
                    100.0
                  cr

                  o


                  cr
                  UJ
                  a.

                  co
                  Q

                  S
                  o
                  Q.

                  UJ

                  £
                  o:
    10.0
o\
CO

CO
                  UJ

                  UJ

                  en


                  o
                  _i
                  _j
                  <
                       t.o
                                           I
                                           I
1
                                           !03               I04               I05

                                          PROCESS WEIGHT RATE! POUNDS PER HOUR
               Figure A.I.  State of Illinois allowable emission rate for point-source  control
                  Source:   Op cit

-------
 to manufacturing processes, and to estimate the resulting costs.   This



 information is needed to construct the control equipment cost model


 described in Appendix B.



 A.2.1  Considerations in Control Device Selection



        for Manufacturing Processes



      Control equipment for particulate air pollutants may be classified


 into several general types: scrubbers, gravitational collectors,  cyclones,


 electrostatic precipitators, afterburners, and fabric filters.  Control



 equipment for each process is designed on the  basis of  the physical behavior


 of the  airborne particles emitted.   Such physical behavior is  governed by


 particle size and size distribution (ranging from hundreds of  microns  down



 to fractions of microns), specific gravity,  shape, and  chemical and surface


 properties.



      In relation to particle characteristics and control device types,  the



 American Industrial Hygiene Air Pollution Manual and the National Air



 Pollution Control Administration, now  the U.S.  Environmental Protection

                                                                     9 f\
 Agency,  have reviewed process factors  affecting equipment selection. '


 They analyze each of the  control devices in detail as to principles of oper-


 ation, construction,  efficiency, power consumption, reliability, cost, and


 application.



     Wet  collectors  or scrubbers are devices in which the prime means of


 collection is a liquid introduced into the collector for contact with the

        2789 10
 aerosol.  ' '  ' '    The overall particle size range that lends itself to wet


 collection is from 0.2n to greater than 10p.  Wet collectors vary in design,


but utilize methods to condition the particulate and disengage it from the



 carrier gas.  The mechanisms designed for achieving this are impingement,


Brownian motion, condensation of liquid on particles that serve as nuclei,
                                      64

-------
and agglomeration of particles.  Wet collection equipment is usually
selected because of low first cost at reasonable efficiency, or because
water may offer a more convenient method of disposal of the collected
material.  It is used readily where the particulates may cause a fire or
explosion if not promptly wetted.  In the selection of a wet collector,
cost comparisons must include initial unit price and installation cost,
as well as power, water, labor, and maintenance costs.  Prices vary for
the type of collector, but range from $0.50/cfm to $3.00/cfm at a capacity
of 1,000 cfm.2
     Inertial collectors include devices that collect particulate matter
by gravity or centrifugal force. '  ' .   Gravity collectors are devices
that include settling chambers, baffled chambers, or louvered chambers, and
operate on the principle that gravity or particle inertia increases with
the square of particle diameter.  Thus, the largest particles are separated
most easily.  As a result, collectors of this class are of relatively low
efficiency and are frequently used as pre-cleaners preceding other types of
collectors.  Centrifugal collectors or cyclones are devices in wnich a
vortex is created within the collector.   This vortex propels particles to
a location from which they may be removed.  They may be operated wet or dry,
and may either deposit the collected particulate matter in a hopper or
concentrate it into a stream of carrier gas that flows to another separator.
Most cyclones operate in the range from 50- to 90-percent efficiency,
depending on the size of the particulate matter handled and the cyclone body
diameter.  Cyclones cost from $0.07/cfm to $0.50/cfm uninstailed, and have
                                                                         o
annual operating costs of $0.08 to $0.20/cfm, with ten-year amortization.
                                    65

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     Electrical precipitators are devices in which high intensity electrical
fields cause particles to acquire an electrical charge and migrate to a
collecting surface.  »  »  »  »    Pressure drop is very low, and collection
efficiency increases with length of passage through the precipitator.  Main-
taining the design efficiency in daily operation is more difficult with
precipitators than with many other devices.  Precipitator efficiency is
easily maintained at 75- to 90-percent, but above 98 percent sectionaliza-
tion and automatic power controls must be employed.
     Filters are porous-structures:for-removal of-participate matter from
            2 17 18
gas streams. '  '    The porous structure is most commonly a fabric, but
can include beds of a large variety of substances such as metal turnings,
coke, slag, wool, and sand.   Filters generally improve in retention effi-
ciency as the interstices in the porous structure begin to be filled by
collected- particles.  This increase in efficiency is accompanied by an
increase in pressure drop through the filter.  To prevent decrease in gas
flow, the filter must be cleaned or replaced periodically.  The three most
important costs associated with fabric filtration are the purchase cost, the
cost of power, and the maintenance cost.  Purchase costs for fabric filters
generally run at $2.50 per square foot.
     Afterburners employ the application of flame combustion to the
                                                            2 19 20 21
disposal of gaseous pollutants, aerosols, and waste liquids. '  '  '
The incineration of contaminated matter is justified on several counts:
     1)  Odor control.
     2)  Reduction in opacity of plumes.
     3)  Reduction in emissions of reactive hydrocarbons.
     4)  Reduction in explosion hazard.
                                     66

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     In selecting from the above-named devices, control equipment that


meets the technical requirements of the process and the desired emission


reduction, the cost-effectiveness of pollutant reduction must be considered.


The consulting firm of Ernst and Ernst, working under the auspices of the


National Air Pollution Control Association, has developed a rapid method for

                                                       f\ 99
estimating the cost of air pollution control equipment. '    A general method


is presented for rapidly estimating the total annual cost of four generic


types of mechanical devices commonly used in controlling sources of particu-


late pollutants.  The four types of devices are inertial collectors, wet


scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators, and fabric filters.  Estimates of


the purchase and installation costs associated with the various sizes and


efficiences of the four device types are also provided.  In the case of


installation costs (expressed as a percentage of purchase cost), mean values


are also estimated to reflect the most typical installation experience that


could be inferred from the various data sources available for each type of


control device.  These mean values permit the use of formulae to construct


gross estimates of the high and low variations around the estimated total


annual cost (capitalized purchase and installation cost, plus annual mainte-


nance and operating cost) of a specified device.  The value of the general


method presented is that it provides a rapid means of constructing order-


of-magnitude cost bounds within which the total annual cost of a particulate


control device can reasonably be expected to fall, given only the major


characteristics of an emission source and the cost of power and water in


the source's locality.
                                     67

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     In a test of the model, the cost of achieving various air quality
levels in the Kansas City study area, under different abatement strategies,
is estimated..    The pollutants of interest in this study are suspended
particulates and sulfur oxides.  Emissions come from combustion of fossil
fuels for space heating and power generation, from open burning and inciner-
ation of solid and liquid waste, from industrial processes, and from miscel-
laneous small sources.  Stationary sources account for over 86 percent of
the particulates and over 96 percent of the sulfur oxides emitted in this
area.
     The New York metropolitan area was also studied in a cost-effectiveness
                                                       O A
study of particulate and sulfur oxide emission control.    The annual cost
of alternative methods for reducing particulate and sulfur oxide emission
from power plants, stationary combustion sources, and incinerators is
estimated.  The alternatives include changing types of fuel and installing
various pieces of control equipment.
     A similar study to formulate the cost of emission control was prepared
by the TRW Systems Group in Washington, D. C.  They prepared an operator's
                                                  25
manual for the Air Quality Implementation Program.    The Implementation
Planning Program is a collection of computer programs designed to assist  .
                                      68

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state governments in preparing their implementation plans for sulfur oxides
and particulates.  The regional air quality implementation process was based
on the application of a set of stationary source emission controls in the
form of emission standards.  The many combinations of these standards result
in a variety of possible control strategies.  Through application of computer
simulation techniques, the Implementation Planning Program was used in
selecting appropriate emission standards, evaluating the resulting air
quality, and determining the costs associated with various alternative
control strategies.  The individual programs, their input data requirements,
and the output information generated were described in this volume.  Sources
such as fuel use, diffusion models, and various control equipment were
mentioned.
     A sensitivity analysis of selected Air Quality Implementation Planning
                                                                    7fi
Program input parameters was performed by the above-mentioned group.    A
major problem in the analysis of regional air pollution abatement (control)
strategies is the collection and verification of an adequate data base.  If
computer programs are used, the scope of the data base must be expanded to
include effective stack parameters and regional cost data.  As an aid in the
definition and use of these parameters, their sensitivity, with respect to
pollutant concentration value, and/or annual device costs were determined.
The atmospheric diffusion model and the control cost model of the Air
Quality Implementation Program were utilized.  Sensitivity analyses were
made for two sets of relevant parameters: (1) effective stack height param-
eters for individual sources; and (2) regional cost parameters with respect
to the annual control cost of each physical device available in the IPP
control cost model.  Other parameters included stability wind rose, mixing
height, ambient temperature and pressure, plume rise, exit velocity, and
                                      69

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wind velocity.  Control devices included scrubbers, centrifugal collectors,
electrostatic precipitators, irapactors, fabric filters, and afterburners;
other control processes considered were flue gas desulfurization, catalytic
oxidation, by-product manufacturing, and limestone injection.
                                                27
     Another user's manual developed by Anderson   suggests automated
procedures for estimating control costs and emission reductions for specir
fied air pollution sources.  Other researchers can use and modify the com-
puter programs developed within this manual for estimating emissions of
specified industrial air pollution sources, and costs, of controlling them.
The output from each source program consists of emission estimates, both
before and after control, as well as required control costs on a plant-by-
plant basis.  The manual describes the input requirements, operational
characteristics, and output characteristics for each program.  A master
report-generating program was also developed.  This program uses as input
the output from one, all, or any combination of source programs; it generates
summary data in the form of a single industry or multiple industries, and
sums within the range of a desired geographical area.  The area may be a
single air quality control region or a state, or a combination of such.
Computer programs are presented for petroleum refining, manufacture of
phosphate fertilizer or sulfuric acid, kraft pulping, foundry operations,
primary nonferrous metallurgy, steam electric plants, and other industries.
                                                     28
     A similar program was developed by W. E. Jackson   at Drexel Institute
of Technology.  He describes a general procedure that can be followed for
estimating the cost of reducing air pollution emissions within a given
metropolitan region.  The six-step procedure examines emission inventories,
regional trends, control trends, alternate control schemes, control costs,
and optimum cost-effectiveness.  The procedure is illustrated for one emis-
sion source in the Delaware Valley.
                                     70

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     The need for particulate control equipment has been well documented,
but systematic methods of selecting the equipment are far from being estab-
lished.  Equipment for air pollution abatement was present at the
Economics of Environmental Pollution Abatement, Creative Manufacturing
        29
Seminar.    The cost and effectiveness of air pollution control installa-
tions were closely related to efficiency capabilities, capacity, and control
equipment selected.  The factors that affect selection of equipment and
important characteristics of control units were examined.  The inertial or
mechanical type of equipment considered were settling chambers, baffles,
cyclone collectors, impingers, and dynamic collectors.  A second category
consisted of air washers, impingement scrubbers, submerged nozzles, dynamic
scrubbers, spray towers, packed towers, and venturi scrubbers.  Fabric
filters and electrostatic precipitators were also described.  Operational
limitations, comparative efficiencies, and costs were considered.
     In selecting equipment for air pollution abatement, Charles Stone
develops systematic techniques for selecting particulate control equipment.
Utilizing adaptive identification procedures, he formulates an idealized
mathematical model of the control system.  By application of appropriate
criteria functions, geometric programming, and parameter-estimation tech-
niques, the parameters of a feasible particulate control system are
synthesized in such a way that the difference between the idealized model
response and the actual system response is minimized.  This selection and
automated parameter adjustment procedure yields a particulate air pollutant
control system that is optimal with respect to the physical and economic
constraints imposed upon the system.  Cost-effectiveness relationships are
also included.
                                    71

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     In the selection of air pollution control equipment for participate
emissions, the types of devices fall into four general types: filters,
electrostatic precipitators, dry inertia! collectors, and wet scrubbers.
In cases of complex emissions, these devices are combined.  The basic oper-
ating principles of these devices involve certain basic data requirements.
As an absolute minimum, the following data are required: gas volumetric
flow rate, temperature, pressure, and humidity; particulate form and concen-
tration; particulate size distribution and specific gravity; particulate
bulk electrical resistivity (dry); required removal efficiency; and process
constraints with regard to the use of water.  From these basic data, it is
possible to perform an initial screening on the type of system required.
This screening defines technically feasible alternate solutions.  Selection
of the optimum equipment requires a detailed analysis of additional techni-
cal and economic factors, including capital investment, operating costs,, and
costs of capital.  These operating principles, delineated by A.B. Walker,
were seen in all the literature concerning selection of particulate control
equipment.
A.2.2  Variation of Control Devices by Industry
     The nature of the particular industrial process dictates the type of
control equipment used.  For example,: high gas temperature without cooling
precludes the use of fabric filters, explosive gas streams prohibit the use
of electrostatic precipitators, and submicron particles cannot generally be
efficiently collected with mechanical collectors.  The variation of control
devices by industry can be seen in the following review of the literature.
     Norman G. Edminsten studied the cost of air pollution and
defined and quantified the cost variation for air pollutant emissions that
                                     72

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                                            32
exist from one industrial segment to another.  Several source studies were
conducted.  The areas include: gray iron foundries, steam electric power
generation, asphalt batching, integrated iron and steel manufacturing,
pulp and paper production, cement manufacturing, aluminum ore reduction,
sulfuric acid manufacturing, and petroleum refining.  Pollutant sources
and the types and quantities of pollutants emitted are defined, as well as
specific problems that must be considered in basic equipment design and
operation.  Estimated costs for control equipment range from $0.045/acfm
for centrifugal collectors to $3.00/acfm for an electrostatic precipitator.
     The cement industry has been studied by Robert E. Kohn, who developed
a mathematical programming model for air pollution control at Washington
University.  Mathematical models are proposed in (33, 34) for computer
processing to determine the least possible cost of pollution controls in an
airshed.  Advantages of the models are their simplicity, their emphasis on
economic efficiency, and their appropriateness for the type of data
normally available.  One model considers a hypothetical airshed for a single
industry: cement manufacturing.  Annual production is 2,500,000 barrels of
cement; two pounds of dust are emitted for every barrel produced.  The least-
cost solution to the emission problem would be to install a four-field
electrostatic precipitator on kilns producing 1,000,000 barrels and a five-
field precipitator on kilns producing 1,500,000 barrels.  A second model
concerns five major pollutants in the St. Louis airshed in 1970: sulfur
dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, and particulates.
Among the possible control methods included in the model are exhaust and
                                     73

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crankcase devices for automobiles, the substitution of natural gas for coal,
catalytic oxidation of sulfur dioxide to sulfuric acid at power plants, and
the use of low-eulfur-content coal.  Pollutant reduction requirements are
itemized, the computer-derived solution of this model indicates the cost
and efficiency of each reduction method.  A third model indicates the
effects of air pollution on humans, vegetation, and materials.  It can be
used to determine whether the relative damaging effects of pollutants are
proportional to their control costs.
     The Harvard Business Review published a paper   on industry action to
combat pollution.  The responsibilities of individual corporations in air
pollution abatement are emphasized.  Sources of pollution discussed include
the paper, steel, electric power, transportation, and petroleum industries.
Principal equipment for removal of aerosols and particulates is described.
It is concluded that although air pollution equipment increases costs in
certain industries, recovery of pollutants, such as fly ash, may help to
offset costs.  Government activities in air pollution programs are also
summarized.
     The American Institute of Plant Engineers conducted a survey of
industrial air pollution control equipment on operation costs and procedures.
The following industries are included: food, chemicals, rubber and plastics,
stone, clay and glass, primary metals, fabricated metals, powered machinery,
electrical machinery, professional and scientific instruments, and aero-
space manufacturing.   Emphasis of the results centers on capital, installa-
tion, and operating costs for air pollution control equipment.  Other
topics considered include: effectiveness, maintenance, equipment, corrosion,
                                     74

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necessary design improvements, uncontrolled pollutants, and unsolved
problems.
                                                                    37
     The American Institute of Chemical Engineers presented a report   on
particulate control technology in the primary non-ferrous smelting industry.
The sources and nature of particulate emissions and control technology in
the primary smelting of aluminum, copper, lead, and zinc are described.
High dust concentrations generated by bauxite drying and alumina calcining
frequently require multicyclones for preliminary collection, followed by
electrostatic precipitators.  Installed costs for the combined system are
from $4.60 to $2.30/cfm at 99+percent collection efficiencies.  Electro-
lytic aluminum reduction cells pose a more complicated emission problem:
moderate-energy wet scrubbers, glass filter bags, or flushed precipitator
installations are used.  Representative installed costs for the three
methods are $3.00/cfm, $2.00/cfm, and $2.00/cfm, respectively.  Dry electro-
static precipitators, preceded by mechanical collectors, are universally
applied in copper smelting.  Installation costs for the combined equipment
are $6.00/cfm for 50,000-cfm flows, and $3.00/cfm for 2,000,000-cfm flows.
Large lead blast furnaces employ electrostatic precipitators; small units
use fabric filters.  Installation costs of vertical flow pipe type precip-
itators in the 100,000-cfm range are $6.00/cfm.  Continuous bag-houses for
smaller volumes cost $5.00/cfm installed.  Horizontal flow plate precipi-
tators are used on new zinc sintering machines.  Mild steel construction is
common, and installed costs for 50,000-cfm collectors are $3,50/cfm in the
study.  Emissions from flash roasting of zinc ore are also controlled by
plate-type precipitators of mild steel construction.  Installed costs are
$3.50/cfm.
                                      75

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     Iron and steel industry emissions have been examined with respect to
                                                    38 39
specific sources, control methods, and annual costs.  »    The majority of
operations report using fabric filters or wet collectors to control partic-
ulate pollution.
     The pulp and paper industry employs control equipment to satisfy air
pollution control regulations, and J. D. Rushton   and J. E. Robertson
each contributed literature on factors to consider in selecting air pollu-
tion control equipment.  The foundry industry likewise has surveyed the
entire subject of air pollution in foundry production, and some solutions
                                    42 43 44
to the major problems are presented.  '  '    Feed and grain mills and
alfalfa dehydrating mills have been analyzed by the Public Health Service
                                                                  45 46
to determine air pollution control needs in meeting air standards.  '
Air pollution aspects of the brass and bronze smelting and refining industry
was another aspect of the Public Health Service analysis, as was the hot
mix asphalt paving batch plants.  Both of these reports focus on pertinent
information about the raw materials used, basic equipment, plant operation,
air pollution problems, and air pollution control equipment, with cost
analysis.47'48
     Methods and costs of air pollution control were reviewed, with emphasis
                                                                49
on the efforts of the chemical process industry, by I. Schwartz.    The
magnitude of the task is shown by Public Health Service estimates of the
amount of pollutants poured into the atmosphere each year: particulates,
15 million tons; sulfur oxides, 30 million tons; hydrocarbons, 24 million
tons; carbon monoxide, 87 million tons; nitrous oxides, 17 million tons.
With the chemical processing industry, the percentage of capital outlay for
air pollution control equipment is expected to change.  Expenditures for
particulate controls account for more than one-third of industry expenditures.
                                     76

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Gaseous emission controls, currently less than 2 percent of sales, are
expected to juijp to 40 percent following development of federal gaseous
emission criteria.  The Department of Health, Education, and Welfare guide-
lines for air quality criteria issued to date are listed in the report.
The cost of compliance with their suggestions are estimated.  For the
sulfuric acid industry, this estimate is from $26 to $39 million capital
expenditure and from $1.5 to $2.8 million per year operating cost.  For the
phosphate fertilizer industry, the estimates are from $3.1 to $6.7 million
and from $1.3 to $2.7 million, respectively.  The four basic means of col-
lecting particulates (fabric filter, electrostatic precipitator, cyclone,
and scrubber) are described, along with their capabilities and costs.  The
three basic systems for gaseous emission control (scrubbing, absorption,
and incineration) are similarly treated.  By-product recovery is evaluated
as a means of reducing the effective cost of air pollution control.
     A yearly expenditure, as Schwartz has computed for the chemical
process industry, can also be computed for controlling major air pollutants.
The federal government annually published the Economics of Clean Air, which
is a report of the administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency to
the Congress of the United States in compliance with the amendments to the
Clean Air Act.    The March 1972 edition reports on the prospective costs
and impacts of governmental and private efforts to carry out the provisions
of Section 312 of the Clean Air Act..
     Cost estimates for controlling major air pollutants from most station-
ary and mobile source types, computed for the first time on a national level,
are given in this report.  For mobile sources, three pollutants are covered:
carbon'monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides.  For stationary sources,
                                     77

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five pollutants are covered: particulates, sulfur oxides, carbon monoxide,
hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides.  Three general classes of stationary
sources are considered: solid waste disposal (open buring and incineration),
stationary fuel combustion (heating and power generation), and industrial
processes (seventeen types).  Stationary source control costs are projected
for the five fiscal years 1973 through 1977.  Mobile source control costs
are given for the 1968-1977 model to show the relative impact of increasingly
more stringent federal standards since 1967.
A.2.3  Summary of Control Literature
     Gas streams contaminated with particulate matter may be cleaned before
the gas is discharged to the atmosphere.  Gas cleaning devices take advan-
tage of certain physical, chemical and/or electrical properties of the
particulate matter and gas stream.  Selection of a gas cleaning device
will be influenced by the efficiency required; nature of the process gas to
be cleaned; characteristics of the particulate and gas stream; cost of the
device's use; availability of space; and power and water requirements.
Other basic considerations include maintenance, dependability and waste
disposal.  Table A. 2 shows a list of the types and values of control equip-
ment being sold to various industries by end use in 1967.  As a further aid
in the selection of particulate matter collection equipment, the areas of
application of the various cleaning devices a|e given in Table A. 3.  The
selection of applicable control devices as shown in the literature was
utilized in the cost-effectiveness model,as seen in Appendix B.
                                     78

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Table A.2^MANUFACTURERS' SHIPMENTS OF INDUSTRIAL GAS CLEANING EQUIPMENT BY END
                                         USE IN 1967 *
                                       [Thousand! of dollars]

Iron and steel 	
Utilities 	 	
Chemicals. 	 	
Rock products •_.•_• 	
Pulp and paper 	 	
Mining and metallurgical
Refinery 	 .. 	
All other d .. ..
Exports .
Total shipments

Electro-
static
precip-
itators
	 5,783
	 15,506
..... 1,207
	 2,760
	 (•)
(•)
	 (•)
	 687
(*)
36,509

Gas
Fabric Mechanical Scrubbers Scrubbers incinerators Total
filters collectors particulate gaseous and shipments
„ adsorbers
4,536
C)
5,344
3,602
122
1,855
C)
4,959
1,081
21,730
2,300
2,476
3,130
1,038
802
389
(•)
8,408
C)
22,381
7,423
C)
3,709
1,142
989
825
0
3,901
651
19,229
4,275
C)
1,479
C)
193
394
C)
114
72
6,770
(")
C)
1,001
C)
C)
C)
282
2,137
79
3,976
24, 317 b
18,481
15,870
8,966
6,753
6,160
4,098
20,206
5,744
110,595
     • Not published to avoid disclosure.
     b Gas incinerators and adsorbers purchased by iron and steel companies are included in "all others" category to
  avoid disclosure.
     • "Rock products" includes cement and asbestos plants.
     d "All other" includes shipments to distributors where end use cannot be identified.
*Source:  Control Techniques  for Particulate Air Pollutants.   National
           Air Pollution Control Administration Publication AP-51.
           January 1969.
                                               79

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                  Table A. 3. USE OF PARTICULATE COLLECTORS BY  INDUSTRY*
Industrial Classification
                                      Process
                                                            EP   MC   FF   MS   Other
Utilities and Industrial    Coal	      0    0
  power plants              Oil	---      0    0
                            Natural gas	
                            Lignite	      0    0
                            Wood and bark	      +    0    -    +
                            Bagasse	-	---           0
                            Fluid coke			      0    +    -    -    +
Pulp and paper              Kraft	      0    -    -    0
                            Soda	      0    -    -    0
                            Lime kiln	         0
                            Chemical		                     0
                            Dissolver tank vents	           0    -    -    +
Rock products               Cement	—	-	      0    0    0  '  +
                            Phosphate			      0000-
                            Gypsum			      0    00    0
                            Alumina---	      0    0    0    +
                            Line	      00    +    -
                            Baucite	      00---
                            Magnesium oxide		      +    +
Steel                       Blast furnace	      0    -    -    0    +
                            Open hearth	      0    -    -    +    +
                            Basic oxygen furnace	      0    -    -    0    -
                            Electric furnace	      +    -    0    0
                            Sintering			      0    0
                            Coke ovens	-	---      0    -              +
                            Or» roasters	      00-    +    -
                            Cupola		      +    -    +    0
                            Pyrites roaster—	-	      00-0-
                            Taconite	      +    0
                            Hot scarfing			      0    -    -    >    -
Mining and metallurgical    Zinc roaster—		      00---
                            Zinc smelter	      0
                            Copper roaster		      0    0
                            Copper reverb	.--      0
                            Copper converter		---      0
                         . ..Lead furnace	—		                0    0
                            Aluminum	      0    -    -    0    +
                            Elemental phos	      0
                            Ilnenite		      0    0
                            Titanium dioxide	      +    -    0
                            Molybdenum	      +
                            Sulfuric acid	---      0    -    -    0    0
                            Phosphoric acid		  .---00
                            Nitric acid	                     0    0
                            Ore beneficiation	      +    +    +    +    +
Miscellaneous               Refinery catalyst	      00
                            Coal drying		           0
                            Coal mill vents---		      • ,.  *    °
                           "Municipal incinerators	      + "  0    -    0    +
                            Carbon black		      +    +    +
                            Apartment incinerators	                *    0
                            Spray drying	      -00*-
                            Machining operation	      -00    +    +
                            Hot coating	      -    -    -    0    0
                            Precious metal	      0    -    0
                            Feed and flour milling	-      -    0  •'  0
                            Lumber mills	---           0
	Mood working		     0    0    -    -
jg—

      0-Most cannon                             Other-Packed towers
      +«Not normally used                             Mist pads
     EP-Electrostatic Precipitator                    Slag filter
     MOMechanical Collector                          Centrifugal exhausters
     FF-Fabric Filter                                 Flame incineration
     WS-Wet Scrubber                                  Settling chamber
   Source:   Op  cit.
                                             80

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A. 3  LAND USE PLANNING AND AIR POLLUTION



     Although the meteorology and topology of a metropolitan region enhance



or inhibit pollution dispersion, it is the intensity and spatial distribu-



tion of human activity that largely determines air quality, for such activity



accounts for most air pollutant emissions.  Emission densities are also



affected by the air pollution control devices that are applied to reduce the



quantity of pollutants reaching the atmosphere.  Such control measures may



be the result of attempts to reduce the externalities imposed on the resi-



dents of a metropolitan region by pollution-producing activities, to retain



pollutant emissions that can be economically recovered and recycled, or to



achieve some combination of these two purposes.



     There are two major studies that fall in the category of the relation-



ship of land use planning and air pollution control.  The development of



methodologies for the integration of air resource management with urban and



regional planning has been in progress at Argonne National Laboratory of the



Atomic Energy Commission, under the auspices of the Environmental Protection



Agency.  The purpose of the study is to apply systems analysis methods to



episode and long-range air pollution control planning. ' '  '    The program



includes:



     1)  Design and testing of a computerized model for the projection



         of urban and regional growth trends in energy demand, indus-



         trial and commercial activities, and residential development.



         The model generates such projections and translates them



         into a projected air pollution emission inventory that



         provides input to an atmospheric dispersion model.  The



         result is a projection of future expected urban air quality.
                                     81

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         Such projections have been developed for the Chicago
         region for the years 1975 and 1980.
     2)  Development and testing of a methodology for the acquisi-
         tion and computer storage of a regional zoning inventory.
         This system provides a data base for a land-use-oriented
         atmospheric model that yields sulfur oxide and suspended
         particulate air pollution control strategies; these
         strategies exploit an emission density limitation on land
         use as the regulatory instrument for a land-use-based air
         control program.  This system can be used to assess
         the air pollution impact of urban development.
     3)  Testing of atmospheric dispersion modeling techniques'
         designed to operate on data that is usually collected by
         planning agencies.  Adaptation of air pollution impact
         analysis methods to the capabilities of planning agencies
         to utilize these techniques.
     4)  Design and evaluation of air pollution control strategies
         based on locational devices such as zoning.
     5)  Integration of air pollution analysis techniques into
         comprehensive planning, analysis, and evaluation systems.
     The researchers conclude that one of the most effective ways of inte-
grating metropolitan air pollution control and land use planning is through
the use of emission-density-limited zoning plans specifying the maximum
emission rates per areal unit of land for different land use categories.
A procedure was formulated to make this concept operational.
                                      82

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     With the establishment of emission density limitations for each cate-
gory of land use, relatively well-defined rights are added to the property
rights associated with each parcel of land.in the metropolitan area.  Under
the emission density approach to controlling air pollution, several options
exist for complying with the regulations; two of these options are not
available under current approaches to air pollution control.  As with exist-
ing programs that regulate emissions on a source-by-source basis, a
pollutant-producing activity may reduce the amount of pollution emitted by
fuel, raw material, or process changes, or by installing mechanical control
equipment.  If none of these options is sufficient to achieve tne necessary
reduction in emissions, or if all of them are prohibitively costly, more
land may be purchased for the pollutant-producing activity or, alternatively,
the emission rights of adjacent property may be purchased.
     The second study   directed toward air pollution control and urban
planning is a joint effort of the Environmental Protection Agency and the
New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection.  The general objectives
of the study were to develop methods for forecasting emissions and concen-
trations of five major pollutants (sulfur oxides, particulates, carbon
monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides) resulting from the implementa-
tion of alternative land use plans, and the formulation of procedures for
evaluating the relative desirabilities of alternative plans once their air
pollution potentials have been estimated.  The forecasting methods and
evaluation techniques were to be applied to alternative plans prepared by
the New Jersey Department of Community Affairs for an 18,000-acre tract of
now mostly vacant meadows, marshes, and salt-water swamps in northeastern
New Jersey across the Hudson River from Manhattan Island, New York.  A
#300 million Army Corps of Engineers flood control project had been
proposed to enable reclamation and development of the area.
                                     83

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     The dispersion model was relied upon as the method being used in the
New Jersey study for estimating air pollutant concentrations.  A process
was devised for translating land use data into the emissions input neces-
sary for the dispersion model.  Several different ways of evaluating and
ranking alternative plans were being examined, including the relative
degrees of plan compliance with air quality standards and the differing
extents to which plans would result in the exposure of populations to
undesirably high pollutant concentrations.
A. 4  SUMMARY OF THE LITERATURE REVIEW
     As can be seen from the review of the literature:
     1)  Control equipment may be classified into several general
         types.
     2)  Estimated costs range from $0.045/acfm for centrifugal
         collectors to $3.00/acfm for electrostatic precipitators.
     3)  Operating principles depend upon the size, distribution,
         specific gravity, shape, and chemical and surface properties
         of airborne particles.
     4)  Cost variation for air pollutant emissions exist from one
         industrial segment to another.
     5)  Land use planning affects the intensity and spatial distri-
         bution of air pollutant dispersions.
     6)  A great amount of research has been accumulated on the
         aspects of point source control in achieving air quality.
     7)  Very little work has been done in the new area of emission-
         density-limited zoning.

                                     84

-------
     8)  Virtually no work has been done on the economic implication
         of the relationship associated with the two strategies in
         achieving air quality.
     This study attempts to determine the most economical means of achiev-
ing air quality, either by point-source control or emission-density-limited
zoning.
                                   85

-------
              APPENDIX B





SOURCE-CONTROL COST-EFFECTIVENESS MDDEL
                     86

-------
            APPENDIX: B•:.- SGURCE'CXJNTRDL




     The purpose of the source-control cost-effectiveness model is to



select that control device for a given process that meets the technical



requirements of the process, and achieves a specified efficiency in remov-



ing pollutants from the effluent stream, at the least annualized cost to



the source owner.  The set of commercially available particulate control



devices is listed in Table B.I.  Each process type required examination



within its four-digit SIC group to determine which of the applicable



devices could be feasibly installed on the process.  The final list of



control devices that actually could be applied to each process type, as



reviewed from the literature, and their efficiencies are listed in



Tables B.2-B.6.



     The annualized cost of each control device that met the required reduc-



tion was computed from the purchase cost, installation cost, capital cost,



and operation and maintenance cost for point-source control.  The device



that achieved the optimum condition of least cost was then computed from



the following equation:
                                    87

-------
         Table.  B. 1.  POLLUTION REDUCTION DEVICES OR METHODS


Code
 No.                        Control  Device

 001   Wet scrubber - high efficiency
 002   Wet scrubber - medium efficiency
 003   Wet scrubber - low efficiency                     	

 004   Gravity collector - high efficiency
 005   Gravity collector - medium efficiency
 006   Gravity collector - Low efficiency

•007   Centrifugal collector - high efficiency
 008   Centrifugal collector - medium efficiency
 009   Centrifugal collector - low efficiency

 010   Electrostatic precipitator - high efficiency
 Oil   Electrostatic precipitator - medium efficiency
 012   Electrostatic precipitator - low efficiency

 013   Gas scrubber

 014   Fabric filter - high temperature
 015   Fabric filter - medium temperature
 016   Fabric filter - low temperature

 017   Catalytic afterburner
 018   Catalytic afterburner with heat exchanger

 019   Direct flame afterburner
 020   Direct_flame afterburner with heat exchanger

 021   Cyclones in series
 022   Cyclone + wet scrubber
 023   Cyclone + packed scrubber
 024   Cyclone + gas scrubber
 025   Cyclone + fabric filter

 026   Scrubber + electrostatic precipitator - medium efficiency

 027   Cyclone + electrostatic precipitator

 028   Electrostatic precipitator + cyclone + fabric filter

 029   Scrubber + afterburner

 030   Fabric filter + scrubber

 031   Eliminate coal combustion
 032   Eliminate coal and residual fuel oil combustion

 033   Change all fuel use to natural gas
Source: Air Quality Implementation Planning Program Operators Manual, I.
       TRW Systems Group. Washington, B.C.
                                88

-------
do
                      Table B.2. EFFICIENCIES OF APPLICABLE CONTROL DEVICES FOR STATIONARY

                                     COMBUSION SOURCES, PETROLEUM, AND WOOD PROCESSING





STATIONARY COMBUSTION SOURCES
Bituminous Coal
Anthracite Coal
Fuel Oil Comb. '
Natural Cas Comb.
Liq. Petro. Gas.
PETROLEUM
Petroleum Refinery
WOOD PROCESSING
Wood Pulping
Pulp Board'

fr ' S
tf sJ "1 II
|i I- || ii
*> oh w -o *j * « M
* i ££ £3 fix

99 80 60 SO
99 80 60 SO
99 80 60 S
0000
0000
•
0 0 4 0 0

0000
0000

Sfr
si
o *~
u1—
Ul
*q
>.~
(4 *O
U flj
u £

40
40
0
0
0

0

0
0

o

a;s
>
co 2
63

30
30
0
0
0

0

0
0
o
*j
u
u
s£
CD U
3>£
w>»
>V4 UJ
g§
OX

90
98
30
0
0

90

97
0
u
o
*J
Sfr
a|
n<—
SPB
^1
S^S
a*

80
'so
10
0
0

80

0
0
u
0
u
o
ft
QO U
*b UJ
i*> 3

70
70
70
0
0

0

0
0
EX
U
8
.as
rt u
s£
t- Ul
u .c
U DO
fl I

99. S
99. S
99. S
0
0

99

0
0
o.
2&
4J ••-<
*J 1*4
(A UJ
Si
II

99
99
99
0
0

95

0
0
o.
U It
£.. tie
u & -• t. 3 u 2 u 3
.-H C h O (fl t) V «)*^
«jQ> U W IM +* £L **n
(•>M O 
-------
                                                     Table B.2.(Contd.)
<£>
O



STATIONARY COMBUSTION SOURCES
Bituminous Coa) '•
Anthracite Coal
Fuel Oil Comb.
Natural Gas Comb.
Liq. Petro. Gas.
PETROLEUM
Petroleum Refinery '
WOOD PROCESSING
Wood Pulping
Pulp Board


Catalytic
Afterburner

0
0
0
0
0

0

0
"0
V
|'fc
l&
Catalytic Aft
w Heat Exchan

0
0
0
0
0

0

0
0


Direct Flame
Afterburner

0
0
0
0
0

90

0
0
'L
' *4 »>
v u it
.gj n
I- 'S
-* i
u o 0
3 J &

0 90
0 90
0 90
0 0
0 0

0 0

0 0
0 0
L
!
i
I

0
0
0
-0
0

0

0
0

s
Cyclone « Pad
Scrubber

0
0
0
0
0

0

0
0
"i.
y,
§

0
0
0
0
0

0

0
0
u
41
Lu
^
I
4
S

0
0
0
0
0

0

0
0

t-+
°il
UJ -H
u
* ••*
|S
J
-------
     Table B.3.   EFFICIENCIES OF APPLICABLE CONTROL DEVICES FOR SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL,
                  EVAPORATION LOSS SOURCES, AND THE FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRY


•
SOLID KASTE DISPOSAL
Refuse Incineration
Auto Body Inc.
Conical Burners
Ojx-n Burning "'
EVAPORATION LOSS SOURCES
[>ry Cleaning
Surface Coating
Petroleum Storage
G.isoline Marketing
FOOD AM) AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRY
Alfalfa Dehydrating
Coffee Roasting-
' Cotton Ginning
IccJ (, Grain Mill*
Ii-rT«.'nt jt ion
It ih Processing'
M-jt Srokehouses'
Nitrate Fertiliier
a. I'rilling Tower
h. Cranulator Dryer'
riiosj-h.it c.Fcrt.
Mjfch Manuf.
•I ', P..II I'ane I'rod.

rubber
fficiency
*l
£ =

95
95
90
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
95
0
70
0
<

rubber
Efficiency
•>:|
M-5
££ •

87
- 87
80
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
90
0
70
0
0

*t
n
*s
I*

80
80
70
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0 .
0
0
0
0
0
80
0
70
0
0

y (iol lector
Ificicncy
§1?

30
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
. 0
0
0
0
0
0

.y Collector
i Lfficiency
n -a
6i

20
0
0
0

0
0
0 -s
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

Iw
o
Si

10
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
o
ifugal Collect
efficiency ;
If

. 80
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

90
70
90
90
0
90
0
0
0
70
0
90
0
h.
o
ifugal Collect
n efficiency
b 3
£3
•3*

so
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

'80
65
80
80 1
0
80
0
0
0
60
0-
80
0
w
O
ifugal Collect
fficichcy
U 1U
•J
J5S

30
0
0
0

0
0 .
0
0

70
60
70
70
0
70
0
0
0
SO
0
70
0
a.
rostatic Prcci
Kfficiency-
S*
... 'r

96
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
d.
rostatic Prcci
n Efficiency.1
** 9
23
•S*

' 93
0
0
0
•
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
. 0
0
0
0

-------
                                                    Table B.3.  (Contd.)
tsj


SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL
Refuse Incineration
Auto Body Inc.
Conical Burners
Open Burning
EVAPORATION LOSS SOURCES
Dry Cleaning
Surface Coating
Petroleum Storage
Gasoline Marketing
FOOD AND ACRJ CULTURAL INEUSTRY
Alfalfa Dehydrating
Coffee Roasting
Cotton Ginning
Feed ft Cram Mills-
rrnncntJt ion-
Fish Process ingv
Mcat Smokehouses"
, Nitrate Fertilizer
a. I'i'iMinj; Towerv

b. Craiiulatoi Hiyer
•
I1u>!.|>li.iti.- U-rt.
Stiiivl. M.uuif.

Siij;.ii .1111 I'roJ.
talytic 1
terbumer' 1
21

0
0
0
0

0
• 0
0
0

0
99
n
0
0
0
0
0
o

o

0
0

0

talytic Afterburner 1
leat Kxchanger : 1
a.,

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
99
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0

0
0

p

rcct Flame. , 1
terburner ' 1
a <

0
25
' 0
0

0
0
0
0

0
99
0
0
99
0
70
0
0

0

0
0

0

reel Flame After- ' I
mer (7 lleat Exchanger 1
•a l

0
0
.0
0

0
0
0
0

0
99
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0

0
0

0

JB
y,
e
8
§
i

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0

0
0

0

rlone » Wet Scrubber
d-

0
0 '
0
0

0 '
0
• °
0

0
92
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

97

97
0

•o

1
*'U
||


0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0

0
0

0

:lone » Gas Scrubber 1
*

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
'0

0 .
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0

0
0

0

' u
• u
o
1
&

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

99.9
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0

0
0

0

rubber » E. P. 1
;d. Efficiency)' 1


0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
' -0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0

0
0

0

a.
I
«*
UJ
i
&

0
0
0
.0

0
0
0
0

0
. 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0

0
0

0

» u
V
••« •••
O U.
So
UJ •

0
0
0 .
0

0 '
0
0
n •

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0

0
0

0

rubbers * Afterburners' 1
X

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0

0
0

0

2 jj o «
U 6 "8 J»
o §~
• 0*4
s a 3-5 £
. s 5 ua -a
•M t> v rs&
U. u *• ~ «
o S 33 v"n
n <-* '«-• \t f n
u. ui uj a u z

0
0
0
0

• o
0
0
0

0
• o
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0

0
0

0


-------
                      Table-Bi-4*  EFFICIENCIES OF APPLICABLE  CONTROL DEVICES
                                      FOR THE CHENHCAL PROCESS INDUSTRY
<£>
•
CHEMICAL PROCESS INDUSTRY
Adipic Acid
Amonia-
Carbon Black
a. Channel Proces*
b. Thermal Black Process -
c. Furnace r
Charcoal "
Chlor-Alkali;
Explosives-*
lt)-drochloric Acid';
Hydrofluoric Acid
Nitric Acid •
Paint I Varnish- •
Phosphoric Acid7
Phtalic Anhydride-
Plastics
Printing Ink-
Soap 6 Detergent
SoJium Carbonate
Sulfuric Acid'
Synthetic Fibers
Synthetic Rubber
Irrethalic Acid -

I
Met Scrubber 1
High lifficiency1 j

0
95

0
0
0
0
0
o .
0
95
0
0
0
0
95
0
0'
0
0
95
0
0

Ket Scrubber , 1 i
Medium Efficiency 1

0
85

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
85
0
90
0
0
90
0
n
0
0
85
0
0

Wet Scrubber
Uw tiff iciency

0
75

0
0
0
0
0
• 0
0
75
0
80
0
0
80
0
0
0
0
75
0
0

Gravity Collector j
llit
-------
                                               Table B.4.  (Contd.)
to




CHEMICAL PROCESS INDUSTRY
Adipic Acid
Aneonia'
Carbon Black
a. Channel Process'
b. Thermal Black Process
c. Furnace :
Charcoal
Chlor-Alkali
Explosives-
Hydrochloric Acid
Hydrofluoric Acid'
Nitric Acid '
Paint 6 Varnish' '
Phosphoric Acid
Phtalic Anhydride
Plastics-
Printing Ink
Soap S Detergent
Sodium Carbonate
Sulfuric Acid'
Synthetic Fibers-
Synthetic Rubber-
Tercthalic Acid


fl-
"a «

0
0

o •
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
o
A
0
' 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
b

lytic Aftcrbu
at Exchanger' '
3,;

0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
90
0
0
0
0 .
0
0
0
0
0
0


ct Flame.
rburner: .
22

0
0
•
0
0
0
99
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
09
0
0
0
0
99
0
0
&
•. i
o u
5?
v «
Si
Ct»
«• k
£i

0
0

. 0
0
0
99
0
0
0 •
0
0
90
0
0
99 '
0
0
0
0
99
P
0


k

u 8
•c |
CO »••
tfc id

0
e

0
• 0
e
9
0
0
0
0
0 ,
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
o
0
0 .
rf S
1~ ^
i- r
6 V U.'
a a •«•
|i &2
S'S f 2


























-------
                  Table B.5. EFFICIENCIES OF APPLICABLE CONTROL DEVICES
                                  FOR THE METALLURGICAL INDUSTRY





METALLURGICAL INDUSTRY
A. Prirary' Metals
Alininuir
Met. Coke Manuf.
Copper Smelt
Ferroalloy Prod.- '
Iron Mills
a. Blast Furnace
b. Sintering
1. Hindbox
2. Discharge "
Steel Mills
a. Open Hearth Fac.- ,
b. Basic 02 Furn.'
c. Electric Arc Fum. •
Lead Snelt'
Zinc Srelr
B. Secondary Metals
Aluunun OPS
Brass 6 Bro-.ie Ingots '
Cray Iron Foundry*
Lead Smelting
Magnesium Smelting
Steel Foundries
a. Electric Arc Fxim.
b. Open Itearth-
c. Open Hearth 0} Lanced'
line Processing

b S
V •••
2 u
ic
S'"
-•5
£'£


0
95
95
.95

0

0
0

0
0
0
0
0

95
0
95
95
95
0
0
0
95

j
«*•"
•XI
If


0
0
85
0
*
0

0
0

0
0
0
0
0

90
0
90
90
90
0
0
0
90

^
ii
lX 1U •
•5 '


0
0
0
0

0

0
0

0
0
0
0
0

80
0
0
80
80
0
0
0
80

ft

frS
65


0
.'0
0
0

60 •
-
0
• o

0
0
0
0
6

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

I'i
— « ••«
fre
Is
oS


0
0
0
0

so

0''
0

0,
o"
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

o
ft
cVs
£•£
•*« UJ
28
0-3


0
0
0
• 0

40

0
0

0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
i.
o
u
!!
« u
sa
s-s
&'£


0
90
0
90

60

90
**

0
o-
0
90
0

0
0
85
0
0
0
0
0
0
S
s|
Is
•5s
if
•

0
80
0
80

SO

80
83

0
0
0
80
0

0
o!
77
0
0
0
0
• 0
0
o
I?
IS
»*- «*•
'CuJ
ji


0
70
0
70

40

70
7J

0
0
0
70 •
0
*
0
0
70
0
0
0
0
0
0
o.
°u
o
no
u UJ
«| '


99
99
.99.7
0

90

99.5
99.S

98
99
97
98°
99

0
0
99
0
0
98
98.5
98
0
.£•
o. c
•^ u
n *~
1/t UJ
2 S
-i
IUf.


95
95
0
0

•85

0
0°

88
89
92
90
•95

0
0
95
0

95
95
95
0
0.
'o
£
0. -
u ff
••* c
ra -^
»• u
(A ••*
w5
l\
*

80
80
0
0

80

0
0

78
79
82
85
80

0
0
90
0
0
85
85
85
0
m
•(U
I
iX
S


0
0
0
95

90

0
0

93
99
• 0
90
0

0
0
0
0
0
99
99
98
0

•A
4* 4
M V
O f™
u. x


99
99 '
0
0

. 0

0
0

99
0
99
99
99

99.6
99.6
99.6
99.6
99.6
0
.99.9
99
99.6

'K
•3
v o
«-« b
u g
II


99
99
0
99

0

99. S
99.5

99
0 '
89
99
99.

99.6
99.6
99.6
99.6
99.6
0
99.9
99
99.6

W3
fit
u jf
Is


99
99
0
_99

0

0
0

99 /.
0
79
99
99 »

99.6
99.6
99.6
99.6
99.6
0
99.9
• 99
99.6
•
Source:  Op cit.

-------
                                                Table B.5- (Contd.)
o\

1
METALLURGICAL INDUSTRY
A. Primary Metals
Aluminin'
Met. Coke Manuf.
Copper Smelt-
Ferroalloy Prod.
Iron Mills
a. Blast Furnace
b. Sintering-
1. Kindbox;'
2. Discharge
Steel Mills
a. Open Hearth Fac.
b. Basic 0^ Fum.
c. Electric Arc Fum.
Lead Snelt
Zinc Smelt"
B C . ...
o. oeconouiry Metals
Aluminum OPS
Brass (, Bronte Ingots-
Cray Iron Foundry"
Lead Smelting-
Magnesium Smelting
Steel Foundries
a. Electric Arc Fum.
b. Open Hearth?
c. Open Hearth 0, Lanced)
Zinc Processing


Catalytic
Afterburner


0
0
0
0

0

0

.

0
0
0
0
0

0
0
.0
0
0

0
0
0
o

k
•I
Catalytic Afterbumt
w Heat Exchanger


0
0
0
0

0

0
• n
0

0 .
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
o
w

Direct Flame
Afterburner


0
0
0
0

0

0



0
o
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0

•u
u Je
«jtJ
wuj
gn
£
S t»
** b
32

t
• o
0
0
0

0

0



0
o
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
' 0

0
0
0


Cyclones in Series


0
0
0
0.

0

0

«.

0
0
V
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0

u
 QL'
•«* O O 3 •)
»* **• ~* 3
••* i> «» — O
u. -j •> -+ 13
*f -*3 "S *^
•c 1 I* &2
•a 2 3s Is
u. w uiS Oz


0
0
0 •
0

. 0
y
lO '
0
V

0
0
0
0


0
0 •
0
0
0

0
6
0
0

-------
                       Table B.6. EFFICIENCIES OF APPLICABLE CONTPDL DEVICES
                                      FOR THE MINERAL PROCESS INDUSTRY
(£>

MINERAL PROCESS INDUSTRY
Asphalt Batching
Asphalt Roofing
Bricks 5 Clay PnxJ. ;
Calciun Carbide Manuf.i: .
Cas table Refractories
a. Raw Material Dryer- . •
b. Row Material Crushing- .
c. ElvC. Arc Melt
d. Molding 5 Shakout-'x
Port Cement Manuf.
Ceramic Clay Manuf.
. - Clay t, Fly Ash Sint.
Coal Clean Dryers'
Concrete Batching'
Fiberglass Manuf; '..
. Frit Manuf. -
Glass Manuf.-..
Gypsum Manuf.''.
Line Manuf."-
Mineral Wool Manuf. v. '
Perlite Manuf.
Phosphate Rock Prep.
a. Drying '.
b. Grinding ..
Stone Quarrying"".
Met Scrubber
High Efficiency

99.3
95
95
95

. 0
0 .
0
0
0
95
0
0
• • 95
0
0
95
95
99.7
60
0



0
Wet Scrubber 1
Medium Efficiency 1

95
90
90
90

0
0
0
0
0
90
0
0
90
0
0
90
90'
85 .
50
0



0
Net Scrubber ,. 1
Lr Efficiency |

85
80
80
80

0
0
0
0
0
80
0
0
80
0
0
80
80
80
40
0



0
Gravity Collector
High Efficiency
r

0
.0
0
' 0

0
0.
o •
0
0
60
0
0 .
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

,

0
Gravity Collector
Medium Efficiency

0
0
0
0

0
0 /
0
0
0*
SO
0
0
0
0
0 •
0
0
0
0
0



0
Gravitx Collector 1
Low Efficiency • 1

0.
0-
0
6

0
0
0
0
0
40
0
0
0
0
0
0-
0
0
0
80



85
Centrifugal Collector I
High Efficiency 1

90
0
90
0

0
0
0
0
80
75
0
70'
90
0
0
75
90
80
0
70 .



80
Centrifugal Collector 1
Mediua Efficiency " 1

.85
0'
85
0

0
0
0
0
70
70
0
6Q
85
0
0
70
85
75
0
60



70
Centrifugal Collector
tow Efficiency'
•lectrostatic Precip.
High -Efficiency'

50
b
50
0

0
0
. 0.
0
60
65
0
50
80
0
0
65
80
70
0
0



0

. 0 •
95
0
0

0
0
0
0
99
' 99
0
0
0
0
0
0
99
0
0 '
0



0
Electrostatic Precip.
Medium Efficiency! •
Electrostatic Precip.
Low Efficiency:

0
90
0
0

'0
0
0
0
95
95
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0



0

0
60
0
0

0
" 0
o'
0
90
90
0
0
0
0
0
0
o'
95
0
0



0
Cas Scrubber- |

0
0
0
95

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
67
0
0
0
0
0



0
t 2 «
,.3 -..a -s
2Z SX. 2*
M u •« IT •• ta
£§• s* a&
uS UB "8
*~ t\ -c1-
g| g| gj

0
99
99
99

99
0
0
99
99.5
99
99
0<
99
0
99
99
99.5
99.6
(X
96



99

0
99
99
99

99
0
0
99
99.5
99
99
0
99
0
' 99
99
99.5
99.6
0
96
•

.
99

0
99
99
99

99
0
0
99
99.5
99
99
0
99
0
99
99
99.5
99.6
o'
96



99
, • ;
       Source:  Op cit.

-------
                                                     Table B.6.  (Contd.)
to
00


,
MINERAL PROCESS INDUSTRY
Asphalt Batching
Asphalt Roofing
Bricks fi Clay Prod.
Calcium Carbide Manuf.
Castable Refractories *
a. Raw Material Dryer
b. Raw Material Crushing
c. Elec. Arc Melt
d. Molding 6 Shakout
Port Cement Manuf.
Ceramic Clay Manuf.
Clay 6 Fly Ash Sint.
Coal Clean Dryers
Concrete Batching-
Fiberglass Manuf . ~
Frit Manuf.
Glass Manuf.
Cypsirn Kanuf . ""
Lime Manuf.
Mineral Wool Manuf. •
Perlite M-inuf.
Phosphate Rock Prep.
a. Drying
b. Grinding
Stone Quarrying
"b
«|

Catalyt
Afterbu

0
0
0 ..
0

0
b
. 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0



0
Afterburner I
changer* 1
.a ,3


0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
. 0
0
0
0
0
so
0
0
0
0
0
0



0

IC E
-2
££
U *J
3<

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0-
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
so
0



0
are After- 1
lleat Fjcchanger 1
uL t*
Di rect
burner 1

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.
C
0
0
0
0



0
8
k.
c
rt
*>
§
I

0
0
0
0

0 .
0
0
0

-------
                             C* » min Ci (x)
                             ieF(SIC)
       C*= least cost
       i = control device type index
      C. = cost of control device i
       x = required reduction
  F(SIC) = feasible set of applicable control devices for the
           specified four-digit SIC code.
Figure B.I shows the relationship of the optimum cost and the required
reduction as established by the optimum cost function.
B.I  COST MODEL FOR PARTICULARS
     The total annual cost resulting from the assignment of a control device
to a source involves the component costs of purchase cost, installation cost,
capital cost, and operation and maintenance cost.
B.I.I  Purchase Cost
     The purchase cost of control devices depends upon the characteristics
and complexity of the control device and the size of the pollution source
to be controlled.  These parameters determine the basic cost equation for
each control device in the form:
                            y = a + bx
where y       = purchase cost in thousands of dollars
      a and b = input coefficients
      x       =10  acfm
Table B.7 lists the manufacturer's price for the purchase cost equation by
control device.
                                   99

-------
  21 —
Figure B.I.  Hypothetical optimian control device as
             established by the least-cost function
                                   100

-------
  Tables B.7.  MANUFACTURER'S PURCHASE PRICE FOR CONTROL EQUIPMENT
             Control Measure
                                             Purchase Cost
                                               EquatIon
                       WET COLLECTORS

   001  High efficiency
   002  Medium efficiency                 y
   003  Low efficiency                    y
                    MECHANICAL COLLECTORS
Gravity Collectors:
   004  High efficiency
   005  Medium efficiency
   006  Low efficiency
                                          y
                                          y
                                          y
Centrifugal Collectors:
   007  High efficiency
   008  Medium efficiency
   009  Low efficiency                  .  ,
                 ELECTROSTATIC  PRECIPITATORS

   010  High efficiency                   y
   Oil  Medium efficiency                 y
   012  Low efficiency                    y

                       FABRIC FILTERS

   014  High temperature type             y
   015  Medium temperature type           'y
   016  Low temperature type              y
                        GAS SCRUBBER
                                               2.886+  .228x*

                                               1.257+  . 145x
 .445+  .326x
 .042+  ,155x
 .003+  ,056x


2.413+  .197x
1.507+  .157x
 .244+  .099x
                                              42.413 +
                                              31.243 +
                                              19.695 +
                                               1.448 +
                                               3.478 +
                                               2.658 +
         623x
         441x
         318x
         838x
         448x
         325x
   013                                    y =  3 175 +  .251x

       INCREASED COMBUSTION  EFFICIENCY (AFTERBURNER)
   017  Catalytic combustion              y =
   018  Catalytic with heat exchange (1)  y =
   019  Direct flame combustion           y =
   020  Direct flame with heat exch. (1)  y =
                                               7.550 + 1.515x*
                                               7.550 + 1.515x
                                               5.713+ 1.174x
                                               5.713 + 1.174x
*Cost functions y = 10  dollars, x = 10' acfm.
                              101

-------
B.I.2  Installation Cost
     The installation costs of a control device on a particular plant are
expressed as percentages of the purchase cost.  These costs included the
following items: erection, insulation material, transportation of equipment,
site preparations, clarifiers and liquid treatment systems, and auxiliary
equipment such as fans, ductwork, motors, and control instrumentation.
These costs expressed as a percentage of purchase cost are shown in Table B.8
B.I.3  Capital Cost
     Capital charges include overhead expenses such as taxes, insurance,
and interest incurred in the operation of a control device.  Annualized
capital costs have been estimated in this study by depreciating the capital
investment (the total installed cost or purchase installation) over the
expected life of the control equipment and adding the capital charges of
taxes and insurance.  The assumptions made in capital cost are the following:
     1)  Purchase and installation costs are depreciated over fifteen
         years, a period assumed to be a feasible economic life for
         control devices.
     2)  The straight-line method of depreciation at six and two-thirds
         percent per year is used because it has the simplicity of
         constant annual writeoff.
     3)  Other capital charges, including interest, taxes, and insurance,
         are rated at twelve percent of the initial capital cost of the
         control equipment installed.    Therefore, depreciation plus
         the annual charges amount to eighteen and two-thirds percent
         of the initial capital cost of the equipment.
                                    102

-------
   Table B.8. INSTALLATION COST EXPRESSED AS A PERCENTAGE OF

                    PURCHASE COST FOR CONTROL EQUIPMENT

.

Control Device
Wet scrubber 	 	

• •
Gravitational 	 " 	 	

.

.
,
Electronic precipitator 	 	 	


Gas scrubber 	 	 	 	 	 	 	
Fabric filter 	 	 	
•
*
Afterburner 	 	 	 	 	
•


Serier. of cyclones 	 	 	
Cyclones + scrubbers 	 	


Cyclone + fabric filter 	 	 	
Scrubber + electrostatic precipitator ............

Electrostatic precipitator + cyclone + fabric filter

Scrubber + fabric filter 	 	 	 	 	


Code
No.
001
002
003
004
005
006
007
008
009
010
Oil
012
013
014
015
016
017
018
019
020
021
022
023
024
025
026
027
028
029
030
Instal-
lation
Cost
Percent
200
100
100
67
67 .
67
50
50
50
70
70
70
200
75
75
75
25
25
25
25
50
200
200
200
75
200
75
75
200
200
Source: Control Techniques for Particulate Air Pollutants.
        National Air Pollution Control Administration
        Publication AP-51.  January 1969.
                                      103

-------
      The capital cost is  calculated by the  following relation:
                       Capital  cost  =   x  C1 *
where          i  =  18-2/3 percent
               N  =  15 years.
The  annual  capital charge  is then  computed to be the product of the capital
cost and  the installed cost  (purchase plus installation cost).
B.I.4  Operational and Maintenance Costs
     The  operational and maintenance costs have been computed from cost equa-
tions for the  various control device types.  The annual operating costs
depend on the  following factors:   the gas volume cleaned, the pressure drop
across the  system,  the operating time, the consumption and cost of electricity,
the  mechanical efficiency  of the fan, and the scrubbing liquor consumption
and  costs.
     The maintenance cost is the expenditure required to sustain the opera-
tion of a control device at its designed efficiency with a scheduled main-
tenance program and necessary replacement of any defective parts.   On an
annual basis, the maintenance cost is assumed proportional to the capacity
of the device in acfm.
     The cost equations used for the operation  and maintenance of the
devices are as follows:
     1.    Wet scrubbers
          OAMCOST = S   0.7457  HK  (z = 35^) + WHL + M

     2.    Gravitational collectors, cyclones, and fabric filters
                      n'
                       IkllP-PHK  + M
M
                                   104

-------
     3.   Electrostatic precipitators
          QAMCOST = S  (JHK + M)
     4.   Afterburners
          QAMCOST = S   ?;?fg7  PHK + HF + M
where       S       =  design capacity in acfm
            0.7457  =  a constant (1 horsepower = 0.7457 kilowatts)
            H       =  annual operating time (assumed 8,760 hours)
            K       =  power costs, dollars per kilowatt hour
            P       =  pressure drop across fan, inches of water
            E       =  fan efficiency, assumed to be 60 percent
            Z       =  contact power, horsepower per acfm
            Q       =  liquor circulation, gallons per acfin
            h       =  physical height liquor is pumped in
                       circulation system, feet
            F       =  pump efficiency, assumed to be 50 percent
            W       =  make up liquor consumption, gallons per acfm
            L       =  liquor cost, dollars per gallon
            J       =  power requirements, kilowatts per acfm
            F       =  fuel cost, dollars per acfm per hour
            M       =  maintenance cost, dollars per acfm
      The values  utilized in the study constituted transportation  costs and
 layout,  and installation of control devices for the Chicago region.
 Sources:  Op cit.
          Construction and.Building Cost  Indexes  in 22  Cities.   In: Engineering
          New Record,  March,  1972.
                                    105

-------
B.2  APPLICATION OF SOURCE-CONTROL COST MDDEL
     The cost model described in the previous section has been  computerized
in subroutine form for easy linkage to other components of  the  system model.
The subroutine is parameterized in terms of type of process, exhaust  gas
flow rate  (action), arid required emission reduction efficiency.  This section
provides an example of the results obtained from the application of the cost
model to a typical point source.         \
     Consider, a gray iron foundry in SIC \class 3312 that has the  following
characteristics:
     60,000 acfm
     50,000 Ib/hr process weight
        350 Ib/hr actual emissions (17.5 Ib/tc^i emission factor
                                   x 20 ton/hr|process)
From the Bar Area Curve, Table A.I., we see that at 50,000  Ib/hr process
weight there is an allowable emission of 35 lb/h f or high efficiency
and $27,360 for medium efficiency; while the electrostatic precipitators
                                     106

-------
                                                   i"iOX3  1H//A
                                                   ( OI.LAiyj.VD
                                                                «01031100
                                                                 AH wao
                                isoo
Figure B.2.  Purchase and installation cost for control devices
            at 60,000/acfm and 8,760 hours of operation
                                     107

-------
are $54,550, $44,980, and $17,400 for high, medium, and low efficiency,
respectively.  The fabric filter costs depend on the exhaust temperature
and range in cost from $87,590, $47,040, and $34,125 for high temperature,
medium temperature, and low temperature fabrics, respectively.  The capital
costs have been calculated by depreciating the capital investment over the
expected life of the control equipment and adding the capital charges of
taxes and insurance.
       Operation and maintenance charges have been calculated for the
various types of control devices.  Figure B.3 depicts the capital and opera-
tion and maintenance charges for mechanical collectors, electrostatic precip-
itators, and fabric filters.  Figure B.4 depicts the charges for scrubbers
                                                     *
and afterburners.  As can be seen from the figures, the operation and main-
tenance charges are the primary costs with dry centrifugal collectors,
scrubbers, and afterburners.  The capital charge is the primary cost in
selecting gravity collectors, electrostatic precipitators, and fabric filters.
For the gray iron foundry, Tables B.9 and B.10 show that of the devices that
apply and meet the required particulate emission reduction, the wet scrubbers
have the greatest annualized cost, the fabric filters are intermediate in
cost, and the electrostatic precipitators are the least costly.  Therefore,
the model selects the low-efficiency electrostatic precipitator as the
control device to meet the 90-percent required reduction.  The total
annualized cost for the gray iron foundry selected as an example is $9,726.
Of this charge, $6,560 is attributed to capital charges, and $3,166 to opera-
tion and maintenance charges.  Of the operation and maintenance charge,
$1,498 constitutes electrical costs, and $1,668 constitutes maintenance
costs.  The delineated costs of other control devices not applicable to the
example cited can be seen in Tables B.ll and B.12.

                                     108

-------
    o
    o
   ro
    o
    CO
    o
    o
    o
    UJ
    hsl
                              * COST KEY

                         Y/////X CAPITAL
                                 ELECTRICAL
                         BnmfflD  MAINTENANCE
                      20-40  10-20
80-98 50-80
   93-99 80-93 35-S3.S S5-S9.9
FAEHIC
FILTER
 DRY CENTRIFUGAL
    COLLECTOR
ELECTROSTATIC
 PRECIP1TATCR
                     GRAVITY
                    COLLECTOR
                                       COLLECTION EFFICACY,%

Figure B.3. Annualized costs for mechanical collectors, electrostatic precipitators, and fabric
           filters at 60,000/acfm and 8,760 hours of operation

-------
ANNUALIZED COST (I03 DOLLARS)
OJ o> <0
0 0 0
•""*
—
—


puuuu

W>
90-99
COST
W777X CAP
CUD ELE
r~~ 3 WAI
Eo?£a FUE
miTTTn jjjAi
.H.UU.LW

II'UH.IU.

////A///S/J
80-90 1 60-80
WET SCRUBBER
KEY
ITAL
CTRICAL
'ER
L
NTENANCE 30°
200
- 100
•••M*
••0W
^••V
	
	




V.».<.!
I'-.-ij-i; v:/..
••"-';lr'-'"' . '
*:."•'- '•-•V* ••/
JV-')i^J:VA:;
O.V'A.tiV...*.
^'-T'*.;. ...>»•
r/i.',-.-:^::..;:
^^ij
;?U:^r-
"V.-yjfiH;;
»
1£:
f
-------
Table B.9.  CALCULATION OF INVESTMENT AND ANNUALIZED COSTS FOR SCRUBBERS
                   AT 60,000/acfin AND 8,760 HOURS OF OPERATION
i

Purchase Cost
Installation Cost
Total Installed Cost
Annual Capital Cost
Operation Costs
Electrical
Liquor Consumption
Fuel
Maintenance Costs
Operation and Maintenance Costs
TOTAL ANNUAL COST
Collection Efficiency

HE
13680
27360
41040
8290
88380
88200
180
—
3300
91680
99970
90-99
WET SCRUBBER
ME
13680
13680
27360
5532
20760
20580
180
—
3300
24060
29592
80-90

LE
8700
8700
17400
3518
7830
7650
180
—
3300
11130
14648
60-80
GAS
SCRUBBER

15060
30120
45180
9135
164820
164640
180-

4980
169800
178835
85-99.9

-------
Table B.10.   CALCULATION OF INVESTMENT AND ANNUALIZED COSTS FOR
              ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS AND FABRIC FILTERS AT
                   60,000/acfin AND 8,760 HOURS OF OPERATION
Electrostatic Precipitator

Purchase Cost
Installation Cost
Total Installed Cost
Annual Capital Cost
Operation Costs
Electrical
Liquor : Consumption
Fuel
Maintenance Costs
Operation and Maintenance Costs
TOTAL ANNUAL COST
Collection Efficiency
HE
37380
16170
53550
'10828
3153
3153
1668 .
4821
15649
95-99.5
ME
26460
18520
44980
9095
2050
2050
1668
3718
12813
93-99
LE
19080
13360
32440
6560
1498
1498
1668
3166
9726
80-99

" Fabric Filter

Purchase. Cost
Installation Cost
Total Installed Cost
Anrual Capital Cost
Operation Costs
Electrical
Liquor Consumption
Fuel
Maintenance Costs
Operation and Maintenance Costs
TOTAL ANNUAL COST
Collection Efficiency
H Temp.
50280
37310
87590
17700
7706
7706
4164
11870
29570
95-99.9
M Temp.
26880
20160
47040
9511
7706
7706
4164
11870
21381
95-99.9
L Temp.
19500
14625
34125
6900
7706
7706
4164
11870
18770
95-99.9
                                    112

-------
Table 3."11..  CALCULATION OF INVESTMENT AND ANNUALIZED COSTS
                FOR MECHANICAL COLLECTORS AT 60,000/acfin
                      AND 8,760 HOURS OF OPERATION
Gravity Collector
:--• . -
Purchase Cost
Installation Cost
Total Installed Cost
Annual Capital Cost
Operation Costs
Electrical
Liquor Consumption
Fuel
Maintenance Costs
Operation and Maintenance Costs
TOTAL ANNUAL COST
Collection Efficiency
HE
19560
13040
32600
r 6592
780
780
...
...
1200
1980 '
8572
30-50
MB
9300
6200
15500
3134
780
780
...
...
1200
1980
5114
20-40
LE
3360
2240
5600
1132
780
780

...
1200
1980
3112
10-30

.•

Dry

Centrifugal Collector

Purchase Cost
Installation Cost
Total Installed Cost
Annual Capital Cost
Operation Costs
Electrical
Liquor Consumption
Fuel
Maintenance Costs
Operation and Maintenance Costs
TOTAL ANNUAL COST
__ Collection Efficiency
HE
11820
5910
17730
3585
4680
4680
...
...
1200
5880
9460
80-98
ME
9420
4710
14130
1904
4680
4680
. - —
...
1200
5880
7884
50-80
LE
5940
2970
8910
1802
4680
4680

...
1200
5880
7682
30-80
                                  113

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Table B.12.  CALCULATION OF INVESTMENT AND ANNUALIZED COSTS FOR AFTERBURNERS
                       AT 60,000/acfm AND 8,760 HOURS OF OPERATION
AFTERBURNER

#


Purchase Cost
Installation Cost
^— 	 Total Installed Cost
Annual Capital Cost
Operation Costs
Electrical
Liquor Consumption
Fuel
Maintenance Costs
Operation and Maintenance Costs
TOTAL ANNUAL COST
Collection Efficiency



Catalytic
90900
22725
113625
22600
206541
1541
	
205000 '
16000
222541
245141
90-99

Catalytic w/
Heat
Exchanger
90900
22725
113625
, 22600
86205
1541
—
84664
16000
102205
124805
90-99
>

Direct
Flame
68440
17110
85550
17000
353541
1541
	
352000
• 16000
369541
386341
70-99
Direct
Flame w/
Heat
Exchanger
68440
17110
85550
' 17000
134133
1541
	
132592
16000
150133
167133
90-99

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B.3  COMPARISON OF THE STRATEGIES WITH
     THE COST MODEL APPLIED
     The cost model described in the previous section provided an example
of the results obtained from the application of the cost model to a typical
point source.  This section compares the two strategies, emission-density-
zoning and point-source control, on an area basis.  To compare the two
strategies on an area basis, consider as an example a one-square-mile area
and the cost of control when industry is added to the area.  For the same
gray iron foundry as before, the least expensive applicable device is the
electrostatic precipitator, at $9,726.  When gray iron foundries are added
to the area, each will be required to install an - electrostatic precipitator
for point-source control.  As a result, the cost rises linearly.  But when
the EDLZ strategies are applied, the cost is a function of the amount of
land.  The gray iron foundry, which is classed as heavy industry, is allowed
                       2                 2
to emit 3.3 tons/day/mi  or 275 Ibs/hr/mi .  The reductions required to
achieve the emission-density limits are formulated in Table B.13.  They range
exponentially from 21.4 percent for one foundry in the square mile area to
92.1 percent when ten foundries are located in the same area.  The annualized
costs associated with the reduction in particulate emissions also rises
exponentially, for the foundry with a large amount of land can put on a less
costly control device than a foundry with limited land resources.  A compari-
son of the annualized cost of the two strategies is presented in Figure B.5.
EDLZ is an effective control for particulate emissions, comparable in cost
to PSC.
                                    115

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     Table B.13.  EMISSION REDUCTIONS REQUIRED
              AS INDUSTRY. IS ADDED IN. THE. REGION
  Plants
(no/sq ml)
  Allowable
  Emissions
(Ib/hr /acre)
   Actual
  Emiss ion
(Ib/hr/acre)
Reduction
 Required
(percent)
     1
     2
     3
     4
     5
     6
     7
     8
     9
    10
     275
     275
     275
     275
     275
     275
     275
     275
     275
     275
     350
    •700
    1050
    1400
    1-750
    2100
    2450
    2800
    3150
    3500
   21.4
   60.2
   73.8
   80.3
   84.3
   86.9
   88.8
   90,1
   91.2
   92.1
                          116

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                                                      PSC
                                                 	EDLZ
          2345       67      8
             NUMBER OF INDUSTRIES PER SQUARE MILE
Figure B.5.  Annualized costs comparison of the strategies by increasing industry

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                                   TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
                            (Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
 1. REPORT NO.
  EPA-450/3-74-028-C
                              2.
                                                           3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION-NO.
 4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
   Air Pollution/Land Use  Planning Project Volume  III.
   An  Economic Comparison  of Point-Source Controls  and
   Emission Density Zoning for Air Quality Management
             5. REPORT DATE

              May  1973
             6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
 7. AUTHOR(S)
 A.S.  Kennedy, R.L. Reisenweber, K.G. Croke, M.A.  Snider
                                                           8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
 Argonne National Laboratory
 Energy and Environmental  Studies Division
 9700 South Cass Avenue
 Argonne, Illinois 60439
                                                            10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
              11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
               EPA-IAG-Ol59(D)
 12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
 Transportation and Land  Use Planning Branch
 Office of Air Quality  Planning and Standards
 Environmental Protection Agency
 Research Triangle Park,  North Carolina 27711
              13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED

               Final	
              14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
 15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
 16. ABSTRACT
         The purpose of  this  study is to assess  the  value of land use zoning policies
    in  achieving and maintaining air quality standards  in existing large  urban areas,
    or  in smaller but rapidly developing areas.   The traditional permitted-use zoning
    policies, as well as  the  more recent emission-density-limited zoning  concept,
    are evaluated and compared with current source control regulations  being adopted
    in  most state implementation plans.  A systematic air pollution control  policy
    evaluation methodology  has been developed to carry  out the evaluations.   The
    results of applying  this  methodology to a three-county area in the  Chicago
    Metropolitan Control  Region are presented in this report.
                                KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
                  DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS  C. COS AT I Field/Group
 Land  Use
 Planning and Zoning
 Local  Government
 Air Pollution Control Agencies
 Area  Emission Allocations
 Costs
 8. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
                                              19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)
                                                                         21. NO. OF PAGES
  Unlimited
20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
                                                                         22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
                                            124

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