-------
Table C-6. AUTOMOTIVE HYDROCARBON EMISSION - 1985 HDV
Speed
12.45
13.45
14.45
16.45
18.45
19.45
20.45
21.45
22.45
23.45
24.45
25.45
27.45
28.45
29.45
30.45
31.45
32.45
33.45
34.45
35.45
36.45
38.45
40.45
41.45
43.45
44.45
45.45
TOTAL VMT
EVAPORATIVE
GRAND TOTAL
_ Exhaust
VMT x 10 factor
8.68 13.183
12.69
26.92
24.04
15.97
12.76
45.26
7.36
48.84
1.28
35.70
50.61
27.59
55.69
3.42
28.31
28.17
96.29
62.69
60.77
46.22
26.06
17.11
6.59
4.29
27.21
6.82
7.16
794.50 TOTAL
FACTOR: 3.000 g/mile TOTAL
,
Speed
factor
1.29
1.25
1.21
1.13
1.06
1.02
0.99
0.96
0.93
0.90
0.87
0.84
0.81
0.79
0.78
0.76
0.75
0.73
0.72
0.71
0.69
0.68
0.66
0.63
0.62
0.60
0.59
0.58
Exhaust
emission
147.61
209.12
429.41
358.12
223.16
171.58
590.70
93.15
598.79
15.19
409.45
560.44
294.61
579.99
35.71
283.64
278.52
926.66
595.04
568.80
420.43
233.61
148.87
54.73
35.06
215.23
53.05
54.75
EXHAUST EMISSIONS 8584 . 88
EVAPORATIVE
MEAN EXHAUST EMISSION FACTOR (g/mile)
MEAN TOTAL
EMISSION FACTOR (g/mile)
EMISSIONS 2383.50
10968. 38(g x 10~3)
12.09(tons)
10.805
13.805
C-7
-------
APPENDIX D
POWER GENERATING DATA
Table D-l presents a summary of data filed by Baltimore Gas and Electric
Company (BGE) with the Federal Power Commission. Only boiler generating
facilities are listed. Table D-2 is a more complete and recent estimate of
NO emissions provided by the company. The locations of these generating
.X.
facilities are shown in Figure D-l, along with that facility operated by
Bethlehem Steel. Figure D-2 shows the estimated growth in electrical gener-
ating capacity by BGE within the AQMA. The drop in capacity within the AQMA
between 1973 and 1978 results from the large, nuclear base load plant at
Calvert Cliff, in St. Mary County, Maryland, coming on line during that
period.
D-l
-------
Table D-l.
EMISSION INVENTORY FOR POWER PLANTS
IN BALTIMORE AQMA
(1,000 tons/year)
1973
Plant
Wagner
Gould
Westport
Riverside
Crane
Brandon Shores
Design (MWe)
991
165
259
340
400
600
TSP
2.13
0.15
0.22
0.45
0.46
—
so2
28.95
3.78
3.78
6.58
7.68
—
1978
TSP
1.35
0.02
0.01
0.03
0.28
0.11
so2
13.76
0.10
0.03
0.21
3.78
0.89
1983
TSP
0.96
0.02
0.03
0.05
0.33
0.90
so2
11.28
0.20
0.18
0.44
4.37
7.39
Total
3.41 50.77 1.80 18.77 2.29 23.86
D-2
-------
Table D-2. ESTIMATED NITROGEN OXIDES EMISSIONS
FROM ELECTRIC GENERATING FACILITIES IN BALTIMORE ACMA
1973 THROUGH 1985(a)
(tons/year)
Units
C.P. Crane 1 and 2
C.P. Crane Gas Turbine
Gould Street 1, 2, and 3
Notch Cliff Gas Turbines
Ferryman Gas Turbines
Philadelphia Road Gas Turbines
Riverside 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5
Riverside Gas Turbines
H. A. Wagner 1, 2, and 4
H. A. Wagner 3
H. A. Wagner Gas Turbine
Westport 1, 3, and 4
Westport Gas Turbine
Brandon Shores 1 and 2
Future 400 MW GT
Future 500 MW GT
1973
9,152
103
2,688
2,085
1,268
466
5,530
757
11,252
6,966
106
2,613
242
—
—
—
1975
3,150
45
591
97
2,260
237
1,596
320
8,820
6,903
40
525
113
—
—
—
1980
6,525
18
203
45
131
35
377
103
4,265
5,112
13
183
78
3,909
—
—
1985
6,525
18
269
0
131
35
1,017
30
3,698
5,607
' 13
432
78
4,250
262
328
Total
43,228
24,697
20,997
22,693
(a)
Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, 2nd Edition, U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, N.C., April, 1973,
amended through September 1973, pp. 1.1-3, 1.3-2, 3.3.1-1, 3.3.1-2.
D-3
-------
HARFORD
COUNTY
CARROLL
COUNTY
BALTIMORE
COUNTY
FREDERICK
COUNTY
BALTIMORE CITY-/
Lf
HOWARD
COUNTY
ANNE
ARUNDEL
COUNTY
MONTGOMERY
COUNTY
LEGEND
1. FERRYMAN
2. NOTCHCLIFF
3. CRANE
4. PHILADELPHIA
ROAD
5. WESTPORT
6. GOULD
7 RIVERSIDE
8. BETHLEHEM
STEEL
9. WAGNER
10. BRANDON
SHORES
1972
P
P
B
P
B
B
B
1
B
-
1978
P
P
B
P
P
P
P
1
B
B
1983
B
P
B
P
P
P
P
1
B
B
P PEAK LOAD
B BASE LOAD
I INDUSTRIAL
Figure D-1 Power generating plants BMAQMA
D-4
-------
12
11
10
I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I i I I I I I I I I
1973 1975
1978 1980
YEAR
1983 1985
Figure D-2. Electric power generating capacity
within Baltimore AQMA
D-5
-------
APPENDIX E
INTRODUCTION
The 1970 demographic data listed in Table E-l of this appendix repre-
sent the basic information used in the transportation analyses conducted in
the Baltimore metropolitan area. The data was collected and analyzed by
the Baltimore Regional Planning Council and reported in "Unified Transpor-
tation Planning Process Technical Memorandum No. 5" (October 1973). The
data included in this table can be divided into two general categories—
residential and non-residential.
Residential data include:
Population;
Residential acreage;
Household size; and
Dwelling units.
Non-residential data include:
Total employment;
Retail employment;
Service employment;
Office employment;
Government employment;
Intensive employment (manufacturing);
Extensive employment (all other);
Total acreage
The data are listed by Regional Planning District (RPD).
Much of this information was obtained from 1970 Bureau of Census
tabulations. Those items obtained directly from the housing and population
E-l
-------
tables of the 1970 Census include Population and Household Size. Employ-
ment data were obtained from a 1970 RFC Small Area Employment File obtained
from the Maryland Department of Employment and Security.
Forecasts of demographic data for 1973, 1977, 1980, and 1985 are sum-
marized by Regional Planning District (RPD) in Tables E-2 through E-5,
respectively. These forecasts were made by the Regional Planning Council
Unified Transportation Planning Process and were reported in their Techni-
cal Ilemorandum No. 10. Residential and non-residential forecast data are
presented for the same categories as for the 1970 data (Table E-l).
Development of socio-economic forecasts on a zonal basis for each
dlternative was accomplished by the Regional Planning Council as a two-
stage process. Population and employment totals were initially allocated
to Regional Planning Districts (RPD's) using an urban development alloca-
tit'll process based on relationships found in the 1970 base year. The sec-
o.ij stage involved the disaggregation to the zonal level and the generation
[ forecasts of other socio-economic variables required for travel simula-
tion purposes. The disaggregated data is not reported here.
The urban development allocation process used to forecast population
ind employment to RPD's is known as the Urban Systems Model (USM). This
ter of computer programs predicts the location of activities at one point
in time, in contrast to allocating growth increments, as a function of a
-et of independent variables for that point in time. Initially, for each
forecast year, the location of employment in firms of over 250 employees
;s established in accordance with the development patterns by means of a
aual allocation process. Given the location of large employment, the USM
computer model first allocated population to RPD's on the basis of:
Observed journey-to-work relationships found in 1970.
The specific transportation network and accessibility patterns
being considered.
The attractiveness of each RPD as defined by 1970 calibration
factors and planned development densities.
^ .t. employment in small firms was allocated by the USM to RPD's by relat-
t these employment locations to residential and large employment locations.
-------
The process of allocating population and small employment was an iterative
procedure whereby diminishing amounts of population and small employment
were allocated until the control totals for population and small employ-
ment for the region were reached.
E-3
-------
Table E-l. 1970 DEMOGRAPHIC DATA BY REGIONAL PLANNING DISTRICT FOR THE BALTIMORE REGION
RPD
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
201
202
203
204
205
206
2.07
208
209
Population
19914
8382
23272
28410
38298
51994
59489
44053
19689
17635
53826
2229<.
38658
16403
29453
49198
103407
16449
87165
56704
24248
19645
10175
21702
246 59
19484
28244
2955
44204
11299
17890
29208
25016
9562
16702
Res.
area
^acres)
1352
681
2102
911
1268
2682
2318
862
356
375
649
556
1571
752
487
733
1300
48
856
646
464
560
95
195
560
499
2279
290
2833
819
1259
3219
3802
406
0
HH
size(a>
3.06
3.06
3.06
3.06
3.06
3.06
3.06
3.06
3.06
3.06
3.06
3.06
3.06
3.06
3.06
3.06
3.06
3.06
3.06
3.06
3.06
3.06
3.06
3.06
3.06
3.06
3.45
3.45
3.45
3.45
3.45
3.45
3.45
3.45
3.45
ou(b)
6508
2739
7605
9284
12516
16992
19441
14396
6434
5763
17590
7286
12633
5360
9625
16078
33793
5392
28485
18531
7924
6420
3325
7092
8137
6367
8187
857
12813
3275
5186
8466
7251
2772
4841
Total
employment
(persons)
3282
3536
7720
4286
7386
8013
9887
9297
8702
11302
33548
4766
5986
1344
4201
10187
22891
118350
35113
16592
52454
10261
17902
16884
8586
13677
11719
13009
16786
4339
3113
5158
2388
2300
23137
Retail
employees
820
232
1241
1306
1590
2044
3548
2370
2403
1135
5437
1318
2470
870
668
1476
3039
16772
4214
3805
1809
1772
3966
1497
711
1268
1679
76
7045
856
532
1074
584
223
24
Service
employees
524
1023
956
387
1018
1712
1180
1091
427
935
5528
265
808
105
658
1044
3127
15951
3551
1754
1476
413
510
1514
892
420
784
588
1894
129
369
846
530
202
113
Office
employees
427
311
528
348
129
494
292
207
139
1159
2189
144
363
34
82
65
460
19997
623
433
382
87
138
104
34
76
209
49
597
'40
6
168
79
0
43
Cov't
employ-
ees
1110
1358
2876
1164
3509
1496
2215
4046
2974
1450
10679
676
672
159
1232
2799
10979
31563
13419
1987
8266
2278
1041
1451
2333
1122
6752
328
3454
1450
884
1911
619
1575
22847
Intensive
0
174
1208
27
70
384
619
637
1467
4872
4335
1417
73
5
1075
2279
2206
12310
5746 .
5385
28955
2687
8468
6985
3134
8016
544
9744
1322
1425
627
113
33
0
0
Extensive
401
438
911
1154
1070
1883
2033
946
1292
1311
5430
946
1600
171
486
2524
4080
21756
7560
3228
11566
3074
3779
5333
1422
2775
1751
2223
2474
439
695
1046
540
300
110
Total
area
(acres)
1570
1630
2800
1430
1950
3640
4230
1240
1430
970
1660
1300
2790
1340
1430
1370
1890
910
1820
1290
4300
1810
970
1250
1620
3790
8080
7310
7110
7370
14811
10930
18990
5324
14040
-------
Table E-l Ccontinued) . 1970 DEMOGRAPHIC DATA BY REGIONAL PLANNING DISTRICT FOR BALTIMORE REGION
R?D
10
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
03
04
05
06
07
Population
10286
3234
22'43
5647
26433
3174
21979
16047
5379
4463
19310
24466
6062
70815
31118
16914
4198
48917
16892
2715
10577
28164
32097
39880
12958
15332
45773
51022
34731
11340
17445
4519
13460
9243
9086
Res.
area
^acresj^
2022
355
126
1063
1932
1142
2172
1802
1415
587
1616
3073
1730
4545
3120
126
689
4120
1242
578
2356
2212
2359
2216
1119
975
3492
1972
1366
1179
3068
680
2199
710
824
HH
slze(a
3.45
3.28
3.28
3.28
3.28
3.28
3.28
3.28
3.28
3.28
3.28
3.28
3.28
3.28
3.28
3.28
3.28
3.28
3.28
3.28
3.28
3.28
3.28
3.28
3.28
3.28
3.28
3.28
3.28
3.28
3.59
3.59
3.59
3.59
3.59
DUO>)
2982
986
664
1722
8059
968
6701
4892
1640
1361
5887
7459
1848
21590
9487
5157
1280
14914
5150
828
3225
8587
9786
12158
3951
4735
13955
15556
10589
3457
4859
i259
3749
2575
2531
••Total
employment
(persons)
4427
1005
1095
1036
6339
944
7345
14993
1698
1111
3101
12699
3374
42120
6256
3617
927
7338
1857
2151
1874
27016
9946
12473
5435
6530
6861
10655
8690
34366
7645
4396
7850
3291
3420
Retail
employees
976
183
100
114
1183
22
1465
1508
35
19
864
2329
141
9300
2559
1039
147
1654
535
91
270
5514
2079
1253
948
833
2087
2839
3125
605
1244
64
554
337
373
Service
employees
258
151
138
203.
632
244
1034
2189
203
198
458
2493
230
5555
926
292
70
1134
322
142
244
1352
1357
875
286
314
686
825
797
168
2943
67
754
382
209
Office
employees
46
0
31
0
85
6
215
730
18
0
103
495
11
'4850
389
68
10
137
78
0
47
661
221
270
87
96
264
348
304
93
231
9
1147
63
0
Gov't
crop 1 oy-
ees
495
157
59
138
2348
290
681
1523
67
312
1025
1847
2462
9182
1195
662
134
2086
427
1290
134
16512
4005
1149
331
1185
1846
2100
1155
950
1090
3980
1626
219
671
Intensive
1778
8
273
4
722
1
1287
5560
890
46
82
3350
198
5888
72
252
285
454
27
228
357
918
287
4668
1514
3107
420
2328
1903
30779
864
0
2736
798
506
Extensive
874
506
494
577
1369
381
2663
3483
485
456
569
2185
332
7345
1115
1304
281
1873
468
400
772
1859
1997
4258
2269
995
1558
2215
1412
1771
1273
276
763
1492
1659
Total
aren
(acres)
12810
21620
18270
31760
13010
16940
6740
10590
17770
16230
5970
14250
2820
10260
5080
14370
11810
8470
2240
4170
12560
7270
7710
6730
3300
4680
8360
4480
5140
6170
18330
9960
18800
12410
13820
(a)
(b)
Household size
Dwelling unit
-------
Table E-2. 1973 DEMOGRAPHIC DATA BY REGIONAL PLANNING DISTRICT FOR THE BALTIMORE REGION
R?D
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
201
202
203
204
205'
206
207
208
209
Population
20421
9474
23130
27972
38021
52166
60944
44202
20546
18594
52269
22179
38425
16810
29880
49300
99326
18910
81960
52919
23332
19711
9924
21950
25474
19524
30214
3180
45845
14689
20872
32451
27983
11358
16862
Res.
area
Cacres)
1375
736
2102
991
1268
2692
2391
870
363
412
649
556
1586
772
508
739
1300
49
856
646
464
564
95
200
589
501
2477
312
2980
1060
1557
3543
4099
586
16
HH , .
\ 3j
8 1 ZG
2.81
2.81
2.81
2.81
2.81
2.81
2.81
2.81
2.81
2.81
2.81
2.81
2.81
2.81
2.81
2.81
2.81
2.81
2.81
2.81
2.81
2.81
2.81
2.81
2.81
2.81
3.17
3.17
3.17
3.17
3.17
3.17
3.17
3.17
3.17
DUOO
7267
3372
8231
9954
13531
18564
21688
15730
7312
6617
18601
7893
13674
5982
10633
17544
35347
6730
29167
18832
8303
7015
3532
7811
9065
6948
9531
1003
14462
4634
6584
10237
8827
3583
5319
Total
employment
(persons)
3227
3504
7758
4323
7319
7799
9790
9196
8731
11133
33754
4660
5909
1556
4047
10153
29862
120933
34363
16221
53116'
11021
18241
18938
8522
13624
10410
14919
17179
5313
3998
5417
2517
2341
23536
Retail
employees
804
220
1202
1279
1557
1950
3474
2321
2312
1153
5322
1286
2434
948
635
1450
3641
16313 '
3998
3648
1758
1904
4176
1882
731
1278
1270
229
7241
1153
531
1147
617
225
40
Service
employees
510
1016
1077
367
993
1667
1142
1059
452
958
5394
243
789
122
633
1024
3767
16176
3292
1620
1846
492
770
2247
855
442
562
619
1905
191
364
873
541
202
121
Office
employees
425
310
523
346
128
486
281
214
147
1613
2148
139
359
38
76
13
627
20609
588
414
370
103
170
136
30
78
149
62
602
56
6
178
83
3
45
Cov't
employ-
"ees
1088
1344
2845
1139
3493
1439
2218
4036
3022
1467
11221
650
644
213
1169
2797
15120
33960
13315
1918
7446
2287
1030
1553
2306
1126
6423
2356
3483
1526
888
1988
654
1602
23204
Intensive
0
172
1197
24
66
366
630
628
1475
4608
4254
1402
67
16
1063
2269
2497
12072
5972
5432
29945
2853
8250
7288
3170
7919
163
9620
1330
1883
627
130
40
.3
3.6
Extensive
i
401
442
914
1166
1085
1891
2044
951
1324
1333
5416
940
1616
219
470
2550
4210
21802
7650
3188
11751
3382
3845
5832
1417
2811
1625
2033
2619
504
722
1102
582
311
123
Total
.iren
(acres)
1570
1630
2800
1430
1950
3640
4230
1240
1430
970
1660
1300
2740
1340
1430
1370
1890
910
1820
1290
4300
1810
970
1250
1620
3790
8080
7310
7110
7370
4811
0930
8990
5324
14040
ra
i
-------
Table E-2 Ccontinued) . 1973 DEMOGRAPHIC DATA BY REGIONAL PLANNING DISTRICT FOR THE BALTIMORE REGION
R?D
210
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
!318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
603
604
605
606
607
Population
11678
3699
2492
5829
30881
3667
24339
17928
5512
4910
21295
28925
6271
71212
31699
20821
i4266
50457
17402
3889
12894
30984
35215
40095
12505
17120
45667
49861
34133
11357
20684
5154
36206
10682,
11298
Res.
area
acres)
2162
386
143
1076
2229
1174
2329
1928
1424
617
1748
3460
1744
4572
3143
386
694
4208
1257
656
2511
2409
2563
2287
1119
1081
3541
1972
1366
1180
3313
744
4466
854
1045
HH , .
size(a>
3.17
3.02
3.02
3.02
3.02
3.02
3.02
3.02
3.02
3.02
3.02
3.02
3.02
3.02
3.02
3.02
3.02
3.02
3.02
3.02
3.02
3.02
3.02
3.02
3.02
3.02
3.02
3.02
3.02 .
3.02
3.31
3.31
3.31
3.31
3.31
DUO)
3684
1225
825
1930
10225
1214
8059
5936
1825
1626
7051
9578
2076
23580
10496
6894
1412
16707
5762
1288
4269
10280
11661
13276
4141
5669
15121
16510
11302
3761
6249
1557
10938
3227
3413
••Total
employment
(persons)
4320
1014
1116
1037
6660
960
7430
15891
1703
1149
3145
12739
3432
43133
6245
4080
913
7594
1857
2491
1904
32432
10744
12845
5336
7036
6841
10318
8426
3391
8727
4505
16233
3837
3363
Retail
employees
956
182
94
112
1149
22
1489
1554
31
23
870
2236
145
8945
2546
1100
145
1642
532
120
284
6639
2168
1287
917
877
2066
2775
3026
536
1405
82
1651
420
341
Service
smployees
233
147
136
213
636
242
1039
2352
190
197
458
2400
230
5558
915
3J8
62
1121
316
155
252
1815
1445
879
260
311
667
765
739
137
3099
75
2190
429
187
Office
employees
42
0
29
0
90
6
217
757
16
0
103
475
12
4663
387
75
10
136
78
,4
49
918
280
274
77
101
263
333
291
85
289
12
1229
70
0
Gov't
employ-
ees
461
154
57
128
2695
291
696
1516
59
400
1037
1805
2497
10197
1184
710
132
2087
422
1356
152
20202
4485
1166
311
1231
1832
1993
1059
913
1275
4046
. 3017
274
734
Intensive
1760
8
293
4
705
1
1288
5985
926
47
83
3631
199
6497
70
509
281
450
26
414
362
1100
318
4922
1505
3099
417
2288
10277
30490
880
4
6754
980
472
Extensive
865
570
506
596
1385
398
2700
3727
480
482
593
2195
348
7272
1144
1367
283
2158
483
442
804
1956
2049
4346
2266
1398
1591
2195
1492
1743
1780
286
1202
1670
1627
Total
area
>cres)
12510
21620
15270
31760
13010
16940
6740
10590
17770
16230
5970
14250
2820
10260
5080
14370
11810
8470
2240
4170
12560
7270
7710
6730
3300
4680
8360
4480
5140
6170
18830
9960
18800
12410
13820
(a) Household size
(b) Dwelling unit
-------
Table E-3. 1973 DEMOGRAPHIC DATA BY REGIONAL PLANNING DISTRICT FOR THE BALTIMORE REGION
R?D
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
Population
21097
10929
22941
27389
37653
52397
62883
44400
22359
21270
50193
22026
38116
17352
30451
49436
93886
22124
75021
47873
22110
19799
9590
22281
26242
19576
32840
3480
45845
13706
24847
36775
31940
13753
17076
Res.
area
acres)
1407
809
2102
991
1268
2705
2489
880
372
517
649
556
1644
800
535
746
1300
50
856
646
464
568
95
206
627
857
2739
343
2980
1060
1954
3975
4495
825
37
<
HH , .
size(a>
2.69
2.69
2.69
2.69
2.69
2.69
2.69
2.69
2.69
2.69
2.69
2.69
2.69
2.69
2.69
2.69
2.69
2.69
2.69
2.69
2.69
2.69
2.69
2.69
2.69
2.69
3.04
3.04
3.04
3.04
3.04
3.04
3.04
3.04
3.04
DUO>)
7843
4062
8528
10182
13997
19478
23376
16506
8312
8439
18659
8188
14170
6451
11320
18378
34902
8225
27889
17797
8219
7360
3565
8283
9755
7277
10803
1145
15081
4509
8173
12097
10507
4524
5617
• • Total -
employment
(persons)
3153
3460
3153
4240
7230
7513
9662
9060
8770
10908
33948
4519
5805
1840
3421
10109
37822
124378
33362
15725
54000
12033
18694
21678
8436
13553
8665
17467
17179
5313
3181
5763
2693
2395
24069
Retail
smployees
782
203
194
1244
1520
1825
3377
2255
2190
1178
5168
1244
2385
1053
590
1414
4444
15702
3710
3440
1689
2080
4455
2395
679
1291
726
434
7241
668
530
1245
661
228
59
Service
employees
490
1006
1238
345
959
1606
1093
1017
485
988
5214
214
764
146
601
998
4620
16476
2946
1443
2340
597
1117
3224
807
470
267
661
1905
191
358
909
557
202
131
Office
employees
422
308
515
342
114
474
265
191
159
1633
2092
131
354
45
69
60
850
21425
6152
389
354
124
214
178
24
80
68
79
602
56
6
190
87
1
49
Gov't
employ-
ees
1059
1325
2803
1106
3471
1364
2222
4022
3085
1490
11943
616
607
285
1085
2794
20640
37157
13175
1826
6352
2365
1015
1689
2269
1131
5985
5058
3483
1526
894
2089
700
1637
23681
Intensive
0
166
1183
21
60
345
646
617
1485
4257
4146
1382
66
30
1048
2257
2885
11754
5218
5495
31266
3073
7961
7692
3217
7791
163
9456
1330
1883
627
152
50
1
8
Extensive
400
448
919
1182
1157
1901
2060
957
1366
1362
5399
932
1636
282
449
2586
4383
21865
7771
3134
11999
3794
3932
6499
1409
2859
1456
1780
2619
592
759
1178
638
326
140
Total
area
(acres)
1570
1630
2800
1430
1950
3640
4230
1240
1430
970
1660
1300
2740
1340
1430
1370
1890
910
1820
1290
4300
1810
970
1250
1620
3790
8080
7310
7110
7370
14811
10930
18990
5324
14090
00
-------
Table E-3 (continued). 1977 DEMOGRAPHIC DATA BY REGIONAL PLANNING DISTRICT FOR THE BALTIMORE REGION
RPD
210
303
304
305
306
307
303
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
603
604
605
606
607
Population
13533
4320
2824'
6072
36811
4311
27303
20435
5689
5506
23941
34870
6550
71742
32473
26030
4356
52509
18082
5454
15983
34744
39394
42379
11900
19237
47624
48314
33336
11380
25009
5999
66743
12599
14246
Res.
area
[acres)
2348
427
164
1092
2624
1218
2539
2096
1435
656
1924
3768
1762
4607
3174
734
699
4325
1278
761
2717
2661
2836
2383
1119
1222
3607
1972
1366
1181
3461
828
7363
1045
1340
HH , .
siZe(a'
3.04
2.09
2.09
2.09
2.09
2.09
2.09
2.09
2.09
2.09
2.09
2.09
2.09
2.09
2.09
2.09
2.09
2.09
2.09
2.09
2.09
2.09
2.09
2.09
2.09
2.09
2.09
2.09
2.09
2.09
3.16
3.16
3.16
3.16
3.16
DUO>)
4452
1495
977
2101
12737
1492
9447
7071
1969
1905
8284
12066
2266
24824
11236
9007
1507
18169
6257
1887
5530
12022
13631
14664
4118
6656
16479
16718
11535
3938
7914
1898
21121
3987
4508
Total
employment
(persons)
4177
1027
1143
1038
7087'
981
7544
17089
1709
1199
3203
12793
3509
44483
6229
4697
895
7935
1857
2943
2010
39652
11809
13340
5204
7710
6815
9942
8066
33295
10171
4649
27409
4566
3286
Retail
employees
932
182
86
110
1103
23
1522
1615
25
28
879
2113
151
8472
2528
1180
143
1626
528
159
302
8140
2288
1332
877
936
2037
2689
2894
445
1620
106
3113
520
297
Service
employees
201
141
134
190
640
238
1047
2570
174
197
458
2276
231
5562
900
353
51
1103
307
171
264
1966
1563
883
225
349
641
685
663
102
3308
84
4106
491
159
Office
employees
38
0
27
0
97
6
"221
798
14
1
104
446
13
4413 :
384
85
9
134
77
8
51
995
388
278
63
108
260
313
275
75
365
17
1338
79
0
Gov't
employ-
ees
417
149
55
114
3158
293
717
1507
48
411
1053
1749
2545
11551
1169
773
130
2089
415
1445
177
25123
5125
1188
285
1293
1814
1850
930
864
1521
4134
4872
346
819
Intensive
1737
8
321
3
682
1
1289
6551
975
47
84
4000
201
7309
66
853
777
446
26
663
370
1343
358
5260
1493
3089
413
2236
1889
30104
900
8
12112
1222
427
Extensive
854
547
522
621
1406
420
2749
4052
474
516
625
2207
370
7174
1182
1452
285
2537
504
497
848
2086
2117
4399
2261
1935
1649
2169
1415
1705
2456
300
1788
1907
1585
Total
area
(acres)
12510
21620
15270
31760
13010
16940
6740
10590
17770
16230
5970
14250
2820
10260
5080
14370
11810
8470
2240
4170
12560
7270
7710
6730
3300
4680
8360
4480
5140
6170
18830
9960
18800
12410
13820
>£>
(a) Household size
(b) Dwelling unit
-------
Table E-4. 1980 DEMOGRAPHIC DATA BY REGIONAL PLANNING DISTRICT FOR THE BALTIMORE REGION
RPD
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
113
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
Population
21604
12021
22799
26951
37376
52509
b4338
44549
22545
20831
48636
21911
37883
17759
30878
49538
89805
24534
69816
4 40 38
21194
19865
9339
22529
26817
19616
34810
3705
•49673
19321
27829
40018
34907
15549
17236
Res.
area
(acres)
1430
864
2102
991
1268
2715
2562
887
379
500
649
556
1621
820
556
752
1300
51
856
646
464
572
95
210
656
505
2936
365
3323
1622
2252
4299
4792
1005
53
HH , .
slze(a)
2.60
2.60
2.60
2.60
2.60
2.60
2.60
2.60
2.60
2.60
2.60
2.60
2.60
2.60
2.60
2.60
2.60
2.60
2.60
2.60
2.60
2.60
2.60
2.60
2.60
2.60
2.93
2.93
2.93
2.93
2.93
2.93
2.93
2.93
2.93
DUO>)
8309
4624
8769
10366
14375
20219
24745
17134
8671
8012
18706
8427
14570
6830
11876
19053
34540
9436
26852
16957
8152
7640
3592
8665
10314
7545
11880
1265
16953
6594
9498
13658
11637
5307
5883
Total
employment
(persons)
3098
3428
7847
4177
7163
7299
9565
8959
8799
10739
34119
4413
5728
2052
3687
10075
43793
126961
32612
15354
54662
12793
19033
23732
8372
13500
7336
19377
18097
7586
3201
6022
2825
2435
24468
Retail
employees
765
191
1112
1217
1490
1731
3303
2206
2098
1196
5053
.1212
2349
1131
557
1388
5046
15243
3495
3283
3638
2212
4665
2780
639
1302
317
587
7698
1846
529
1318
694
230
76
Service
smployees
476
999
1339
327
934
1561
1055
:985
510
1011
5080
192
745
163
576
978
5260
16701
2687
1309
2710
676
1377
3957
770
492
45
692
1932
377
353
936
568
202
138
Office
employees
420
307
510
340
108
466
254
184
167
1648
2051
126
330
49
63
58
1017
22037
507
370
342
146
246
211
19
82
8
92
614
94
6
200
91
1
51
Gov't
employ-
ees
1037
1311
2772
1081
3455
1307
2225
4012
3133
1507
12485
590
579
339
1022
2792
24781
39554
13071
1757
5532
2424
1004
1791
2242
1135
5656
7084
3549
1702
898
2165
735
1664
24038
Intensive
0
168
1172
18
55
325
657
608
1493
3993
4065
1367
53
40
1036
2247
3176
11515
4991
5542
32256
3239
7743
7995
3253
7694
0
9332
1347
2950
627
169
57
1
12
Extensive
400
452
922
1194
1121
1909
2071
964
•1398
1384
5385
926
1652
330
433
2612
4513
21911
7861
3093
12184
4102
3998
6998
1404
2895
1330
1590
2957
657
786
1234
680
337
153
Total
area
(acres)
IS 70
•i J f\J
1610
.LU J\J
2800
£. \J\J\J
1410
J-*T J\J
i Q in
JL3 J\J
lAAn
JDHU
A? If)
H£ j\J
1 240
iiH \J
1410
JLH -J\J
970
7 / \J
^ &f*r\
J.OOU
i inn
J. JUV
7 7An
£ / *TU
1 140
JL JH U
i A in
J.*4 j\J
1 170
JL J / U
i con
J. QJ \J
QI n
y L\J
1820
J.OZ. \J
1 9Qn
ii. 7U
A inn
*4 JUU
i sin
JLO J_w
970
s 1 \J
1 7 sn
JLZ. J\J
1 620
JL\J £, \J
17QD
J / j U
flnan
ouou
7nn
/ JX«J
71 1 (1
/ J.J.U
717O
/ J / U
t / Q 1 1
L4olJ_
L0930
i QO (lf\
.8990
5324
14090
tn
i
-------
Table E-4 (continued). 1980 DEMOGRAPHIC DATA BY REGIONAL PLANNING DISTRICT FOR THE BALTIMORE REGION
RPD
210
303
304
305
306
307
303
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
.JJ*s
•po
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321
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J-D
•*?7
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070
Ji O
o?Q
J-L 7
-i-JA
J J\J
AH**
OU J
AHA
QU-4
AfK
OU.P
AHA
OvJD
607
Population
14925.
4785
3073
6254
41259
4799
29845
22316
5822
5954
25928
39329
6759
72140
33054
29937
4424
54049
18593
6628
18300
37564
42522
43450
11447
20825
48418
47154
32738
11397
28251
6634
89279
14038
16458
Res.
area
[acres)
2487
458
181
1105
2921
1250
2696
2222
1444
686
2056
4066
1776
4634
3197
994
704
4413
1293
839
2872
2849
3040
2454
1119
1328
3656
1972
1366
1182
3886
892
9577
1189
1561
HH ; .
(a
slzev \
2.93
2.79
2.79
2.79
2.79
2.79
2.79
2.79 .
2.79
2.79
, 2.79
2.79
2.79
2.79
2.79
2.79
2.79
2.79
2.79
2.79
2.79
2.79
2.79
2.79
2.79
2.79
2.79
2.79
2.79
2.79
3.05
3.05
3.05
3.05
3.05
DuCb)
5094
1715
1101
2242
14788
1720
10697
7999
2087
2134
9292
14096
2422
25857
11847
10730
1586
19372 .
6664
2376
6559
13464
17033
15573
4103
7464
17354
16901
11605
4085
9263
2175
29272
4603
5396
Total
employment
(persons)
4070
1036
1164
1039
7408.
997
7629
17987
1714
1237
3247
12833
O C £. "J
3567
45495
6218
5160
881
8191
1857
3283
2091
45068
12607
13712
5105
8215
6795
9636
7796
32836
11253
4758
38792
5112
3229
Retail
employees
913
181
' 80
107
1069
23
1546
1661
21
32
885
2020
155
8117
2514
1241
141
1614
525
188
316
9265
7377
1366
846
980
2016
2625
2795
376
1781
124
4210
598
265
Service
employees
176
137
132
185
644
236
1052
2733
161
196
458
2183
231
5566
889
379
43
1090
301
184
272
2229
1651
887
199
304
622
625
605
. 74
3464
92
5542
538
136
Office
employees
34
0
24
0
1102
6
-223
821
12.
1
104
428
13
i 4227
382
92
9
133
77
12
53
'1052
416
282
53
113
259
298
262
67
423
20
1420
80
0
Gov't
employ-
ees
383
146
53
104
3505
294
732
1500
40
419
1065
1707
2880
12566
1158
823.1
128
2090
410
1511
195
28813
5605
1204
265
1339
1800
1743
834
827
1706
4200
6263
401
882
Intensive
1719
8
341
3
665
1
1290
6976
1011
48
86
4278
202
7918
64
1110
273
442
25
849
375
• 1826
389
5513
•1484
3081
410
2196
1883
29815
916
12
16130
1404
393
Extensive
845
564
534
640
1423
437
2786
4296
469
•541
649
2217
386
7101
1211
1515
287
2822
519
539
880
2183
2169
4460
2258
2338
1688
2149
1417
1677
2963
310
2227
2085
1557
Total
area
(acres)
L2510
21620
15270
31760
13010
16940
6740
10590
17770
16230
5970
14250
2820
10260
5080
14370
11810
8470
2240
4170
12500
7250
7710
6730
3300
4680
8360
4480
5140
6170
18830
9960
18800
12410
13820
(a) Household size
(b) Dwelling unit
-------
Table E-5. 1985 DEMOGRAPHIC DATA BY REGIONAL PLANNING DISTRICT FOR THE BALTIMORE REGION
RPD
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
103
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
116
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
203
209
Population
22117
12057
23144
27654
38092
53013
65599
45197
23084
20768
50348
23589
38439
18269
30823
49445
88471
26112
70337
44186
20622
19567
9280
21698
27191
19519
36350
3898
52399
22705
36660
50403
39310
17846
18488
Res.
area
acres)
1426
866
2105
1002
1288
2735
2618
886
379
500
649
588
1663
845
554
746
1300
52
856
641
464
568
95
205
675
503
3089
385
3519
1960
3136
5340
5252
1235
178
HH
size'3'
2.54
2.54
2.54
2.54
2.54
2.54
2.54
2.54
2.54
2.54
2.54
2.54
2.54
2.54
2.54
2.54
2.54
2.54
2.54
2.54
2.54
2.54
2.54
2.54
2.54
2.54
2.86.
2.86
2.86
2.86
2.86
2.86
2.86
2.86
2.86
DuCb)
8707
4747
9112
10887
14997
20872
25826
17794
9088
8176
19822
9287
15133
7193
12135
19467
34831
10280
27692
17396
8119
7703
3654
8543
10705
7685
12710
1363
18321
7939
12818
17633
13815
6240
6464
Total
employment
(persons)
3239
3584
8033
4273
7251
7527
11846
9154
9034
10725
35945
4530
5957
2184
3829
10436
51203
138581
33981
15495
57582
15414
18664
24355
8654
14493
7890
21221
20705
8228
3840
8446
3108
3298
26838
Retail
employees
798
234
1158
1239
1508
1788
3817
2270
2185
1217
5340
1234
2411
1169
579
1503
6027
15255
3730
3309
1644
2725
4742
2912
689
1440
385
893
8565
1981
724
1914
775
414
91
Service
employees
492
1013
1384
335
944
1573
1222
1016
540
1024
5869
202
759
175
589
1030
6642
17235
2939
1346
3326
1131
1338
4176
829
752
114
1022
2511
446
427
1517
594
284
145
Office
employees
424
312
516
341
112
470
335
194
182
1644
2513
130
357
57
67
71
1930
29112
545
376
344
202
252
222
28
101
10
145
801
11*
30
299
100
26
53
Gov't
employ-
ees
1085
1351
2810
1102
3456
1343
3462
4032
3382
1510
12721
610
625
372
1071
2842
28307
43485
13642
1700
5481
2503
1025
1808
2264
1174
5814
7848
4096
1733
1067
3003
803
2096
26365
Intensive
3
176
1185
20
58
326
769
620
1301
3910
4018
1379
64
47
1046
2284
3627
kk563
5142
5504
34375
4141
7292
8143
3310
7886
50
9562
1721
3017
669
308
74
43
15
Extensive
435
499
980
1237
1174
2017
2241
1022
.1444
1345
5484
974
1741
366
477
2704
4669
21930
7984
3191
12410
4717
4015
7095
1473
3206
1517
1752
3011
916
924
1404
763
436
168
Total
area
(acres)
1570
1630
2800
1430
1950
3640
4230
1240
1430
970
1660
1300
2740
1340
1430
1370
1890
910
1820
1290
4300
1810
970
1250
1620
3790
8080
7310
7110
7370
14811
10930
18990
5324
14040
m
h-1
to
-------
Table E-5 (continued;) . 1985 DEMOGRAPHIC DATA BY REGIONAL PLANNING DISTRICT FOR THE BALTIMORE REGION
R?D
210
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
313
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
JJ(>
327
328
329
330
331
603
604
605
606
607
Population
17481
5857
4077
6321
50165 '
6924
31048
23459
7233
10407
32700
42121
6963
73929
32757
34060
4489
57568
19571
7081
20828
40270
44543
45197
lLOt.9
22J07
54830
47492
33274
11569
34840
12780
95520
25198
25350
Res.
area
[acres)
2752
530
248
1109
3514
1391
2776
2298
1538
983
2508
4228
1790
4753
3191
1269
708
4606
1340
869
3041
3020
3158
2570
1119
1427
4074
1972
1366
1219
4406
1506
10094
2305
2450
HH , .
size(a}
2.86
2.72
2.72
2.72
2.72
2.72
2.72
2.72
2.72
2.72
2.72
2.72
2.72
2.72
2.72
2.72
2.72
2.72
2.72
2.72
2.72
2.72
2.72
2.72
2.72
2.72
2.72
2.72
2.72
2.72
2.98
2.98.
2.98
2.98
2.98
DUO>)
6112
2153
1449
2324
18443
2546
11415
8625
2659
3826
12022
15486
2560
27180
12043
12522
1650
21165
7195
2603
7657
14807
16376
16616
4286
8201
20158
17460
12233
4253
11691
4288
32054
8456
8507
Total
employment
(persons)
5365
1131
1396
1071.
10225
1364
8015
19408
1749
1637
3922
14629
3632
47931
6543
5915
882
9498
1937
4644
3258
46544
13392
15323
5612
8866
7173
9876
8032
33007
12849
5739
38240
7801
5055
Retail
employees
1148
192
103
106
2054
72
1677
2155
22
132
1190
2389
175
8696
2604
1392
140
2071
536
491
477
9601
2526
187ft
926
1365
2127
2678
2848
362
2205
1213
4223
1336
691
Service
imployees
372
137
137
177
953
254
1089
2849
156
234
519
2471
236
6084
914
440
35
1215
302
238
393
2300
1844
1021
243
427
657
635
621
62
3501
228
5750
976
382
Office
employees
64
1
29
0
221
12
237
858
12
12
123
146
646
15
4434
393
109
9
173
78
35
95
1093
617
485
69
132
273
299
258
69
310
82
1541
141
53
Gov't
employ-
ees
540
173
93
101
4269
500
806
1903
41
536
1195
2278
2574
13209
1226
916
128
2508
425
2233
365
29621
5683
1401
317
1450
1874
1787
902
822
2510
4478
6241
628
1106
Intensive
1984
10
347
3
'1122
10
1323
7225
1017
69
123
4408
206
8209
83
1153
276
564
27
1014
668
1607
438
6034
1508
3420
431
2218
1891
30049
958
85
18245
2047
918
Extensive
Total
area
Kacres)
1
1258
618
687
685
1606
516
2884
4417
•501
655
773
2451
426
7242
1315
1904
301
2924
569
634
1?60
2292
2264
46SO
2550
2251
1811
2258
1512
1644
3166
386
2249
2671
1905
12510
21620
15270
31760
13010
16940
6740
10590
17770
16230
5970
14250
2820
10260
5080
14370
11810
8470
2240
4170
12360
7270
7710
67 JO
3300
4680
8360
4460
5140
6170
18830
9960
18800
12410
13820
(a)
(b)
Household size
Dwelling unit
-------
APPENDIX F
CONTROL MEASURES
POTENTIAL MEASURES FOR MAINTAINING AMBIENT AIR QUALITY
STANDARDS FOR SUSPENDED PARTICULATES
Domestic and Commercial Heating
Improve Domestic and Commercial Building Insulation - Improving the build-
ing code specifications for insulation of domestic and commercial structures
would bring about a substantial saving in B.T.U.'s.
Control Room Temperature for Air Conditioning and Heating - Central Air
Conditioning represents over 25 percent of the annual residential elec-
trical power consumption.
Realizable savings from reduction of the thermostat set-point is about
one to two percent for each degree of reduction. Hittman cites a Honeywell
study showing that setting the thermostat back from 75° to 68° for eight
hours each night would result in an 11 percent savings in heat requirements
in the Baltimore region.
Concentrate New Development at Densities Which Allow for Measures to Reduce
Emissions Per Capita or Per Unit of Production - Increasing multi-family
housing (as opposed to detached units), operating fewer larger industrial
and power generation facilities (instead of many small ones), and carefully
locating new sources may result in reduced emissions per capita through
economies of scale providing increased feasibility for new control equipment,
as well as increased operating efficiencies.
Reduce Window Area - Infiltration of air around windows and doors and through
gaps in walls, floors, and ceilings insulation constitutes 55 percent of the
total "load factor" that can be counteracted by the heating system and 42
percent of the -load factor for the cooling system.
Increase Fuel Costs - Higher cost of fuel would force consumers to conserve
but the regressive nature of such costs to individuals with low incomes
should be considered.
Pjlurnal Room Temperature - A substantial savings in fuel demand could be
gained by introduction of diurnal room temperature.
F-l
-------
Reduce Ash Content of Fuel - Processing of fuel to reduce the amount of ash
content would reduce the amount emitted during ignition.
Improve Furnace Design - Increasing the efficiency of furnace combustion by
improving design specification could have an overall effectiveness of from
5 to 10 percent.
Improve Maintenance of Heating System - Building codes if amended to include
more frequent inspections of heating systems to enforce a higher degree of
efficiency could realize a 5 to 10 percent effectiveness.
Modify Pilot Light - Pilot lights in gas appliances annually use eight percent
total gas consumed. Substituting electrical igniters for pilot lights, to-
gether with better oven insulation, could save 20 to 30 percent of the energy
consumption of a gas kitchen range.
Design Home Heating and Air Conditioning System as a Unit - A greater per-
centage of efficiency is obtained by use of a bi-modal climate control unit
as a means of home temperature control. A 2 percent range of effectiveness
is possible with such systems.
Orientation of Buildings and Windows - A modification of the designed build-
ing and window orientation can effectively reduce heating and air condi-
tioning demand from 2 to 5 percent.
Install Control Devices on Small Combustion Units - The effectiveness of
implementing this program ranges from 50 to 100 percent depending on the
degree to which it is enforced. Changing the design specifications to modify
units with control equipment would be the most effective method of imple-
mentation. An alternate approach is the addition of a "black box" such as a
high efficiency cyclone or main baghouse.
POTENTIAL CONTROL MEASURES FOR MAINTAINING AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS
FOR SUSPENDED PARTICULATES
Industrial Process and Heating
Reduce Demand for Industrial Products - By far, the most significant sources
of particulates in the Baltimore AQMA are the industrial process emissions.
Furthermore, additional industrial sources are not easy to identify., quanti-
ate, or control. As discussed, the background levels of particulates ranged
around 40 ug/m3; therefore, only about 20 yg/m of air quality are available
to disperse and dilute particulate emissions in the Baltimore metropolitan area.
F-2
-------
Assuming that the emission inventory missed some of the sources, or assuming
that the pollution sources discharged more than is credited, the control mea-
sures may or may not achieve the goal of maintaining the NAAQS.
Industrial sources accounted for 55 percent of the total particulate
emissions in the Baltimore AQMA in 1973. In the study reported on herein, it
was projected that in 1985 industrial sources would still account for 50 per-
cent of the total. To further reduce these process emissions will require
application of more stringent emission standards. The Environmental Protection
Agency is developing New Source Performance Standards for various classes of
industry which will require application of the best available control tech-
nology.
To carry out a more thorough analysis of the potential control for in-
dustrial process emissions would require an analysis specific by industry
class. In this AQMA, it also would be possible to look carefully at the major
industrial sources when the final AQMP is prepared.
Exclude High Pollutant Sources from AQMA - See Particulates, Stationary Sources.
Modify Production Hours - A decrease in the production hours per week through
local ordinances would force an industry to shorten work shifts to match out-
put. The loss of income for the workers would probably outweigh the bene-
fits derived through possible 2 percent effectiveness range.
Modify Raw Material Inputs - Improving raw material specifications in in-
dustrial processing would have a potential range of effectiveness of from 2
to 5 percent. Selection of raw materials of high grade which will produce
less residuals during process should be used.
Recycle Residuals Back Into Production Process - Residuals which are a by-
product of the industrial process in many cases with the aid of control
equipment can be recycled back into the industrial process for reuse. In
some instances this represents a savings to the industry to raw materials
that without recycling are lost in the process.
An emission charge is one form of incentive for industry to recycle
residuals.
Improve Product Efficiencies - See particulates, Power Plants
Modify Production Output - See modify Production hours
F-3
-------
Improve Collection Efficiency - See Particulates, Power Plants
Predict Alerts - The capability to predict alerts would in effect allow
emergency measures to be put into action before the level of pollution
reached a dangerous level.
POTENTIAL CONTROL MEASURES FOR MAINTAINING AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS
FOR SUSPENDED PARTICULATES
Power Plants
Utilize Daylight Savings Time - Congress passed legislation this past winter
which made daylight savings time mandatory year round until 1975. The per-
cent range of effectiveness ranges from 1 to 2 percent.
Congress recently passed legislation that will reinstate standard time
on a limited basis. This action was taken due to the hazards to school
children traveling in early morning darkness.
Increase Electric Rates for Large Users - Restructuring the rate scale for
large users could have an effectiveness rate of from 2 to 5 percent.
Improve Domestic and Commercial Building Insulation - See Particulates,
Domestic and Commercial Heating
Improve Efficiency of Electrical Appliances - Appliances are becoming more
energy consumptive. For example, "Frostless" refrigerators consume 30 per-
cent more energy than do manual models. Surely the energy crisis has shown
the need for energy efficient appliances.
Control Room Temperature for Heating and Air Conditioning - See Particulates,
Domestic and Commercial Heating.
Ration Electricity - Growth plans for Baltimore Gas & Electric Company
(BG&E) , as filed with the FPC, show a substantial decline between 1973 and
1975 in electricity to be generated in the AQCR. After 1975, however, energy
consumption for satisfying generation requirements is projected to increase
from about 3 to over 10 x 103 BTU by the 1985 date.
As a last recourse, rationing of electricity could be employed on a
scheduled diurnal basis or in periods of usage such as during the summer air
conditioning season.
Move Power Plants Outside of Region - The resulting decline of emissions from
such a drastic course of action in cases other than those involving marginal
operations makes this measure cost prohibitive.
F-4
-------
Surround Power Plants With Land Use Buffers - Providing land use buffer zones
around power plants would prevent sensitive receptors such as hospitals,
schools, convalescent homes, etc. from locating too close.
Utilize Storage or Peak Shaving With Clean Fuel - Having the potential to use a
clean fuel during demand peaks would significantly alter emission rates. Using
hydro electric power from pump storage facilities is one method that could be
utilized.
Limit Use in Areas or Time to Even Out Demand - See Ration Electricity.
Reduce Ash Content of Fuel - See Particulate Control, Domestic and Commercial
Heating.
Convert to Clean Fuel - The simplistic approach is to convert all generation
from coal and heavy oil to natural gas. However, because of the energy crises,
there is not enough gas or oil to meet today's energy requirements and utili-
ties are requesting a change back to coal.
Generate More Power In Larger Facilities - Concentrating particulate emissions
would result from operating fewer but larger generating facilities.
Use Total Energy Systems - Utilization of individual electric power producing
units for facilities such as shopping centers and utilize by-products such as
waste heat for space heating.
Reduce Transmission Losses - By improving transmission insulation and using
higher voltage levels a greater percentage of generated electrical power
would not be lost through transmission. This -in turn would cause less demand
on power generation.
Improve Control Equipment - The EPA has promulgated "New Source Performance
Standards for Power Plants" above a certain size. In establishing the emission
limits, EPA utilizes the best available control technology which can be
demonstrated to the industry. Because any new plant of BG&E will have to
comply with the NSPS, it would not appear that this control measure offers
much hope of reducing emissions from power plant stacks below the limits now
specified by EPA. The technology might be promoted to increase collector
efficiencies even further; however, its application in the 1975-1985 time
frame is doubtful.
Improve Collection - See Improve Control Equipment.
Increase Actual Stack Height - Use of tall stacks tends to decrease ground
level concentrations of suspended particulates. The effective height of the
effluent plume from a power plant depends on physical stack height as well as
F-5
-------
the temperature and velocity of the exhaust gases. Generally not much im-
provement will be made to an existing plant to change stacks or stack condi-
tions; however, design specifications on new plants can be useful in achiev-
ing the desired end result.
Increase Effective Stack Height - See Increase Actual Stack Height
Utilize Intermittent Control with Weather Conditions - Depending upon weather
conditions further controls will be used when probable alerts are predicted
or increasing concentrations are monitored.
POTENTIAL CONTROL MEASURES FOR MAINTAINING AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS FOR
SUSPENDED PARTICULATES
Transportation
Light Duty Vehicles, Heavy Duty Vehicles - Refer to measures to reduce
emissions from light duty vehicles and heavy duty vehicles.
POTENTIAL CONTROL MEASURES FOR MAINTAINING AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS FOR
SUSPENDED PARTICULATES
Fugitive Dust
Reduce Demand for Transportation, Construction, Agriculture and Other
Activities - The fugitive dust problem in the Baltimore AQMA is complex.
Several outlying counties have a quarry dust, agricultural and unpaved road
generation whereas Baltimore Center City has construction and transportation
generation sources.
Limit Agricultural Activities During Dry Weather - Control of agricultural
Activities by local ordinances during dry weather would eliminate a signifi-
cant amount of fugitive dust during dry warm weather months. The reduction
in crop output during extended period of dry weather must be considered.
Limit Activity on Unvegetated Lots - Telling the local sand lot team they can-
not use the ball field would be unrealistic and unpopular, but restriction of
lots to off road vehicles should be considered if a 2 to 5 percent effective-
ness is to be gained.
Modify Tire and Brake Design Wear - This measure requires the implementation
of basic and applied research and development programs and should probably be
sponsored by the Federal Government.
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Eliminate Unpaved Parking Lots - Tax incentives would be the more effective
program to eliminate unpaved parking lots as fugitive dust generation sites.
Control Unpaved Streets - Limiting access as well as speed would be an effec-
tive means of controlling unpaved streets which represent a major source of
fugitive dust. By implementing a street control program a 25 to 50 percent
rate of effectiveness could be obtained. Studies show that dust emissions
increase at a rate approximately proportional to increase in vehicle speed
and directly proportional to the number of vehicles.
Plant Cover on Vacant Lots - See limit activity on unvegetated lots.
Control Construction Sites - Several methods have been employed to reduce the
emission of dust from construction sites including watering, chemical stabili-
zation of cuts and fills, treatment of temporary access roads to main thorough-
fares, and minimizing the period during which cleared and regraded lands are
exposed. Watering of construction sites has produced a wide variation in
apparent control efficiencies of 30 to 60 percent reductions due mainly to the
highly variable nature of the emission sources.
Limit Speed on Unpaved Roads - See Control Unpaved Streets
Control Open Body Vehicles - Large open body vehicles (e.g., dump trucks) carry-
ing full loads of dirt from pick up site to unloading, generate considerable
amounts of fugitive dust while in transit. A simple method of curtailing
this emission source is to cover the load with a heavy cloth material such as
canvas. Many states already require this by law. This simple inexpensive
procedure can have an effectiveness range of 10 to 25 percent.
Control Deposition on Roads - Material collected on construction vehicles from
project sites usually cause deposits to build up on streets as the traffic
moves in and out. Automotive vehicles in turn cause a further dispersion of
the material and the cycle continues until the deposited material washed away
by rain or the construction is complete. If ordinances were passed that would
require these vehicles to be washed down upon leaving the sites a 10 to 25
percent range of effectiveness could be realized.
POTENTIAL CONTROL MEASURES FOR MONITORING AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS
FOR SUSPENDED PARTICULATES
^articulate Land Use Measures
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Exclude New Sources from Selected Hot Spots - Areas which have been designated
as high areas of pollution should be excluded from any consideration of new
development that might further degrade the ambient air quality of the region.
Concentrate new development at densities which allow for measures to Reduce
Emissions per Capita or per Unit - See Particulates, Domestic and Commercial
Heating.
Control Existing Uses - Control of particulate emissions from individual sources
can still leave "hot spots" resulting from accumulated emissions from current
activities. Zoning and land use controls afford only limited opportunity for
removing such residuals.
Regulate Timing of New Development - A group of controls can be utilized to
regulate this timing of new development. This becomes significant in its
relationship to the scheduling of transportation and other public improvements
and of the predicted time of effectiveness of other air quality maintenance
measures.
POTENTIAL CONTROL MEASURES FOR MAINTAINING AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS FOR
HYDROCARBONS
Non-Automotive Sources
Reduce Demand for Reactive Hydrocarbon Solvents - Through taxes and fees, a
reduction in reactive hydrocarbon solvents could be initiated to reduce
emissions from these sources from 25 to 50 percent.
Improve Methods of Bulk Storage - It should be noted that the measures dis-
cussed elsewhere which might be used to reduce automobile hydrocarbon emission
through reduced travel and more efficient engines would directly affect
the emissions from bulk storage. If less gasoline is used, less bulk storage
requirements and a reduction in gasoline handling would result; therefore,
fewer emissions would result. It will be assumed that the reduction in
emissions attributable to bulk storage will decrease in proportion to the
decrease in utilization of gasoline which results from other measures.
One additional measure available to further reduce emissions from
bulk storage sources comprises the reduction of gaseous leakage. New regu-
lations for bulk storage coupled with frequent inspections could reduce the
emissions. A floating roof or a vapor recovery system could be required on
bulk storage facilities to accomplish this goal. All new bulk storage units
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of 65,000 gallons or greater capacity, in accordance with new source per-
formance standards, are required to have such systems.
Improve Service Station Storage - As in the reduction of hydrocarbon emissions
from bulk storage, the emissions from service station pumps and terminal load-
ing would be reduced proportionately to the reduction in usage.
Measures to reduce the number of fuel-handling operations can also be
taken to further reduce emissions attributable to this source. The provision
of larger gasoline tanks, tank trucks, and service station storage tanks
would reduce the number of operations at the pumps and terminals. Coupled
with this would be a requirement to produce a method of pressure feed or
vacuum feed for the transfer of gasoline. This method would serve two pur-
poses in that it would reduce the time of operation and would require a closed
system which would reduce evaporation and spillages.
As with other gasoline storage and handling operations, the reduction
in gasoline consumption will reduce the emissions from service station storage
by way of the reduced number of storage facilities. Also, the introduction of
vapor recovery devices and floating roof would reduce emissions from storage
tanks. This could be accomplished through new state and local regulations
coupled with frequent inspections.
Control Power Plant Emissions - See Particulates, Power Plants
Industrial Process Heating - Three other sources of hydrocarbon emissions will,
in 1985, produce 5.6 percent of the total hydrocarbon emissions inventory,
i.e., industrial process heating (3.4 percent), miscellaneous gasoline engines
(1.8 percent) and refuse incineration (0.4 percent). The first of these is
most difficult to control; significant reduction would entail process changes
for individual industrial operations, which could entail a long and difficult
procedure with questionable effectiveness.
Miscellaneous Gasoline Engines - Several measures can be applied to reduce
the hydrocarbon emissions from miscellaneous gasoline engines. These include
the banning of gasoline powered mowers through implementation of a sub-
stantial fee, or the application of emissions control regulations to all
gasoline engines. The periodic banning of gasoline-powered engines to attain
episodic control is a feasible procedure.
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Refuse Incineration - In the development of the 1985 projections, it was
assumed that no new sources of incineration would be permitted in the region.
The reduction in emissions resulting from incineration of solid waste can be
achieved by more complete incineration, however, this will produce only
marginal improvements in what is already a minor source.
POTENTIAL CONTROL MEASURES FOR MAINTAINING AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS FOR
NON-AUTOMOTIVE SOURCES
Mobile Sources
Controls on Diesel and Shipping - See Heavy Duty Vehicles
Reduce Demand on Diesel and Shipping - The growth of the trucking and shipping
industries and the lack of controls on diesel engines accounts for the in-
creased share of hydrocarbons emissions attributable to these sources (1.9
percent in 1972 to 5.5 percent in 1985) even though the increase in tons per
three hour a.m. peak increases at a lesser rate (1.01 in 1972 to 1.35 tons in
1985). Any policy which would reduce the requirement for the transportation
of goods to the region or within the region would in turn reduce the demand
for the operation of diesel-powered engines and thereby reduce the hydrocarbon
emissions.
One means of furthering this objective is through land use controls
which keep transportation terminals and industrial/commercial users of diesel
transportation in proximity to each other. There are, of course, basic
economic factors acting to bring this about—the concentration of industry
and warehousing in the harbor area is an example—but proper provision in the
land use plan can ensure that the market has no problems in finding optimum
locations which will reduce diesel vehicle miles travelled. This measure
can be expected to reduce hydrocarbon emissions by a small amount.
Reduce Emissions from Diesel Engines - During the past decade, diesel engines
have not been subject to emission control devices in the same way as gasoline
powered engines because of their rather small share of the total emissions.
As seen in Table 22, that share will become significant by 1985, as emissions
from other sources are reduced. It is estimated that the introduction of new
emission standards on all new diesel-powered trucks, and on other diesel
engines in the Baltimore region (or any urban area), could reduce hydrocarbon
emissions from those sources by up to 50 percent.
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Relocate Truck Traffic from Region - Diesel truck and bus movements through
the region, while producing only a small part of the diesel and shipping
emissions, could be reduced by the construction of a circumferential highway
around the region. This factor is addressed under the transportation policies
described for "automotive11 sources. It is estimated that this measure, which
could have significant side effects in terms of inducing more travel in areas
adjacent to the region and which obviously presents some critical planning and
cost questions, would have small impact on diesel VMT and it would not be
justified on the basis of this scale of impact. This approach was, therefore,
not considered in assessing the degree to which this category of emissions can
be reduced.
Episodic Controls - While not considered viable as a strategy to reduce total
emissions, episodic ban on non-essential truck travel has the potential to
reduce the hydrocarbon emissions from diesel trucks by an estimated 80 percent
during critical periods. A ban of this kind would exclude emergency and
"essential" vehicles and would allow for travel through the region.
Control Aircraft Emissions - Measures for the reduction of hydrocarbon emissions
from aircraft beyond the emission reductions proposed by EPA for 1979 and 1981
are limited. The most significant measures involve:
(1) Reduction of flights,
(2) Use of larger, cleaner aircraft,
(3) Reduction of ground maneuvers, and
(4) Control of non-aircraft ground sources.
Reduce Low Speed Running of Engines - Changes in procedures to limit emissions
resulting from ground maneuvers are currently being introduced in airports
around the country. These changes involve such measures as taxiing on two
or less engines, towing of aircraft by ground vehicles, reduction in engine
"run-ups," elimination of non-essential taxiing operations and introduction
of mobile lounges. It is estimated that these measures could result in a
reduction of 10 percent in hydrocarbons emitted by aircraft on the ground,
which is approximately 15 percent of the total emitted by aircraft at BWI.
Reduction in Emissions Due to Ground Equipment - The ground equipment and
airport-generated vehicular traffic together generate approximately 30 percent
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of all pollutants at the airport; this can be reduced by the following
methods:
(1) Installation of control devices on fuel-handling equipment at
the airport to prevent spills and evaporation,
(2) Limitation on movements of ground support vehicles, and
(3) Limitation on access to the airport by automobiles.
Of these methods, the last could be substantially improved when the proposed
rail transit connection to the airport comes on line. The effectiveness of
these measures .is estimated at 20 percent for this category.
MEASURES TO REDUCE EMISSIONS FROM AUTOMOTIVE SOURCES OF HYDROCARBONS
Light Duty Vehicles (LDV)
The probable emission reduction for each measure is determined by
multiplying the midpoint of the range of effectiveness, shown in the matrices
in the body of the report, by the percentage of emissions attributable to
that source. In the case of LDV, 17 percent of the hydrocarbon emissions
are projected from that source in 1985.
Measures to Reduce Automobile Ownership - Second and third car ownership is a
variable in the determination of modal split and travel demand. If second and
third car ownership can be curtailed, total VMT can also be reduced. Auto owner-
ship could be made more expensive by applying additional tax on new vehicles,
either in the form of an excise tax on purchases, a tax on registration through
registration fees, or a tax directly on the ownership through personal property
tax increases. Each of these methods, if on the order of $500 to $1000 per
vehicle per year would discourage second car ownership and marginal car owner-
ship. Assuming that this expense would induce a response similar to that fore-
cast in the 1-66 study in suburban Washington, D.C. through a $2.00 per day park-
ing tax (a comparable additional annual levy on the automobile owner), a five to
ten percent reduction in VMT could be expected.
Measures to Reduce Total AutomobilesTravel - A prime means of reducing hydro-
carbon emissions is to reduce the total amount of automobile travel occurring
daily in the region. There is a range of measures and policy instruments
available to contribute to such a reduction, some of which, it will be noted,
result in a decrease in all vehicle travel, including heavy duty and diesel
vehicle travel. Such measures include:
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Divert Auto Passengers to Public Transportation -
(a) Major improvements in level of transit service - Improvements to
the level of transit service have been shown to be effective in
increasing ridership. By improving the reliability of the service,
by increasing the frequency of operation, and by improving comfort
and safety, increases in transit ridership may be attained. New
lines (bus and rail), more vehicles and drivers, more comfortable
vehicles, scheduling more responsive to the needs of the riding
public, innovative scheduling techniques (such as Dial-a-Bus), new
technologies, and other additions to the service provided can make
the transit system more attractive than the automobile for certain
types of travel. Busways and exclusive bus lanes can also help to
make bus transit as fast as automobile travel.
Many cities have improved transit facilities by expanding service
or by providing better facilities for that service. Washington's
Shirley Highway busway has resulted in substantially more fre-
quent, more rapid service which has resulted in increased rider-
ship and reduced traffic in the Shirley Highway corridor. Bus-
ways in use in other cities have similarly helped to speed transit
routes and increase ridership. The recent 1-66 study, previously
referred to, suggested a five to six percent increase in modal
split in favor of transit. Baltimore has already programmed a
large public investment in improved transit. The Phase I, 28-
mile Metro system will begin operation some time during the
period under study. A Phase II expansion tripling the size of
the initial system is also under consideration. Plans are under
study to orient the bus system around the rail lines to act as
feeder collector-distributor lines. These improvements should
increase regional transit usage. Other improvements are possible,
including additional rapid rail lines and particularly, an exten-
sive additional system of bus routes. New technologies may also
be explored. Local distribution systems could be integrated with
the rail rapid system in existing centers and in the new centers
of activity which are proposed for the transit corridors.
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Experiences in other cities indicate that improvements to bus
systems of the type discussed above may result in increases in
ridership of 10 to 25 percent. This reflects possible reductions
in automobile VMT of five to ten percent. In order to determine
more accurately the results of any massive changes in the Balti-
more region transit system, existing BREIS-related transportation
models should be used. By establishing a specific improved trans-
it system in combination with other policies discussed in this re-
port, an application of the BREIS models could determine the re-
sulting increase in transit usage. Several alternative levels of
improvement might be tested to determine the most effective pro-
gram of improvements. For the present study, the five to ten per-
cent reduction in VMT will be used as a measure of effectiveness.
(b) Reduce public transportation fares - Another method of attracting
additional ridership to mass transit and hence away from the
automobile is the reduction in the cost of the transit trip. By
reducing the fare to some lower level, perhaps to zero, persons
planning trips may be induced to made them by public transporta-
tion rather than by automobile.
The relationship between lower transit fares and ridership has not
been well tested. In the past, information on fare increases was
generally the only type of data available; thus studies of fare
level drops were generally not possible. Few cities have reduced
fares. Atlanta dropped fare levels from 35 to 15 cents and ex-
perienced a 19% increase in ridership. (A 30% increase in rider-
ship was forecast for reduction to free fares). Seattle has a-
chieved large increases in ridership within the area served by
its free downtown bus service. A further verification of these
studies can be noted in the "1-66 Corridor Transportation Alter-
nates Study" which suggested a six to ten percent increase in the
forecast transit modal split with a fifty percent reduction in
transit fares. It should be noted that new riders attracted by
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fare reductions will not all be former automobile riders, but may
to some degree include youths, senior citizens, and others who
did not previously travel by automobile.
In Baltimore, transit ridership in the peak hour is forecast in
the BREIS report at 20% of total travel. Thus, potential increases
are conceivable in transit ridership. However, because of this low
level, the reliance upon the automobile is fairly strong and large
inducements would be necessary to change these conditions.
This measure would have its maximum effect in reducing VMT if
transit fares were reduced to zero and if all new ridership rep-
resented individuals who formerly drove an automobile. Under
these extreme conditions, if the 30% ridership increase forecast
for Atlanta with free transit could be achieved in Baltimore, the
percentage using transit during the peak hour would increase from
20% to approximately 26%. This would represent a six percent re-
duction in VMT if all new riders were former auto drivers. If
fares were not eliminated totally, or if some of the new rider-
ship were not auto drivers, the reduction in VMT would be smaller.
While this represents a reasonable estimate of the maximum poten-
tial effect of reducing transit fares to zero, this measure would
be better tested through the application of more sophisticated
transportation models. By applying the mode choice models devel-
oped for use in the BREIS study, the effect of this measure could
be measured using data based on travel behavior in the Baltimore
area. Further, other fare reduction policies could be tested and
the specific effect of these policies could be better determined.
For the purpose of this study, a two to five percent effectiveness
will be used.
(c) Increase downtown parking costs - Any increase in the cost of down-
town parking will increase the out-of-pocket cost of automobile
operation. This cost must be made sufficiently high if it is to
have a large measure of effectiveness. Parking charges in down-
town Baltimore today may reach $500 per year and, while this may
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deter many, there continues to be a large residual demand from
those who consider this tolerable. It is estimated that taxes
which increase the cost to around $1,000 per year would be re-
quired to bring about an appreciable reduction in VMT.
In the 1-66 study forecast modal split increase of six to ten per-
cent in favor of transit with the theoretical imposition of park-
ing costs by $2.00 per day. Raising the cost above $1,200-$!,500
per year would be expected to eliminate all but the truly auto-
captive person.
Measures to .Reduce the Number of Eligible Drivers - Reducing the number of
eligible drivers by one or a combination of the methods described in the
following paragraphs offers an additional opportunity to reduce auto travel.
A policy of instituting more stringent and periodic driving tests would work
in a number of ways. Periodic testing would have a nuisance factor which
would discourage casual and occasional drivers from renewing their licenses.
More stringent tests would reduce the number of persons able to drive.
These methods have secondary safety implications, though it must be stated
that the effectiveness of the measure in reducing automobile travel will be
small, certainly in the zero to two percent category in the evaluation
matrix.
A more liberal use of license revocation for multiple violations or
selected types of violations, would reduce the number of licensed drivers
on the road. This would result in an additional minor reduction in auto-
mobiles on the road, though it is more likely to be justified on the basis
of safety than of air quality.
The current allowable age for drivers license is 16 years of'age in
Maryland. If the age limit were raised to 18, as in many states, the num-
ber of licensed drivers would be reduced in proportion to the number of
16 to 18 year old drivers, thus reducing the total VMT by a proportional
amount. Estimates of the proportion of drivers in this age group is 6.2%
assuming the drivers in the 16 to 18 to 62 age groups are equal to the
total population on those age groups.
Measures to Make Highway Travel More Expensive - Introduction of new fees
and taxes on travel and fuel can make highway travel more expensive. Any
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increase in costs associated with auto travel will tend to decrease the
amount of auto travel. These charges can take the form of tolls and of taxes
on fuel. The impact will be limited to a 2 to 5 percent increase in transit
modal split resulting from a fifty percent increase in out of pocket ex-
penses.
Measures to Reduce Peak Period Automobile Travel - The a.m. peak period is
the most critical to the production of photo-chemical smog because hydro-
carbons produced during those hours are subject to maximum exposure to sun-
light. Furthermore, meteorological changes occurring at night tend to bring
about air mixing and the introduction of clean air. Measures which result
in the reduction of hydrocarbon emissions during this part of the day are
critical to the maintenance of standards. These include:
(a) Keep a Proportion of Vehicles off the Road Each Day - Institution
of a 40-hour/four-day work week will result in a reduction in total
VMT by reducing the total number of work trips per employee per
week. Instead of the ten trips per week required under conventional
scheduling, only eight per week would be necessary. If the program
were implemented fully on a regionwide basis with full staggering
of employee working days (the work week for each group being Monday -
Thursday, Tuesday - Friday, Wednesday - Saturday, etc.) a reduction
of 20% in work trips would occur each day. Because 40% of total
peak hour VMT is accounted for by work trips, full implementation
would result in a maximum VMT reduction of eight percent. However,
it is unrealistic to expect that this maximum can be achieved.
Some employers would be unwilling or unable to adopt such a sched-
ule. Further, for those who did, there would be an increase in
leisure and other non-work trips by employees such that the net
reduction in VMT would be significantly less than 8%. For Balti-
more, the government activities in Towson and the Social Security
Center are potential candidates for a four day work week.
(b) Sjaread the Peak Period Travel by Staggering Work Hours - While the
staggering of work hours itself will not result in a reduction in
total daily VMT, changing of starting times such that employees
would be making their working trip outside of the peak period
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could result in a substantial reduction in VMT during the 6:00-
9:00 am.m period. Presently, approximately equal amounts of
traffic occur in each hour of the existing three hour period.
Thus, about 30% of the work trip traffic could be shifted out of
that period without resulting in a mere shifting of the peak per-
iod to a different period (7:00-10:00 a.m., for example). Be-
cause many of the trips will still occur in the 6:00-9:00 a.m.
period, the reduction in work trip VMT would be at best about
25% during the peak period for the largest possible staggering.
Because work trip VMT is approximately 40% of total peak period
travel, a reduction of approximately 10% in peak period VMT could
occur, assuming full implementation.
This strategy has not to date been implemented for the express
purpose of improving air quality, although, on a limited basis,
it has been tried by large employers, most notably government
agencies, to achieve some relief in peak hour traffic congestion.
As in the case of the four day/40 hour work week, major govern-
ment employers in Baltimore, accounting for about 10% of the re-
gional labor force, would be the most likely leaders in under-
taking staggered working hours. If this proportion of the labor
force were involved, the maximum reduction in VMT would be approx-
imately 1%, providing that no new non-work trips were undertaken
in the peak period, and providing that any resultant relief in
peak hour traffic congestion did not induce new automobile work
trips to tak place.
(c) Initiate Centralized Carpooling Information System - During the
winter of 1973-74, energy crisis centralized carpooling systems
were instituted in most major cities. These systems matched po-
tential drivers and riders via computer. Although this in and of
itself is of small incentive to increase auto occupancy, when
couupled with other incentives (parking and fast-leave incentives)
and with disincentives, this facilitates carpooling and increases
the probability that carpooling will occur. The estimates of
effectiveness assume that these instruments are jointly applied.
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Measures to Restrict Travel in Summer Months -
(a) Coordinated Vacations - It is a recorded fact that a.m. peak VMT
drops slightly during the summer months as a result of the con-
centration of vacation time into this period of the year. If va-
cations could be restricted so that even more occurred in the 16
week summer period of maximum risk of air quality deterioration,
an appreciable improvement can be achieved. Assuming a 40% work,
60% non-work split during peak period; two-week vacation; and 1/4
of the vacationers leave town then a 6% reduction in a.m. peak
VMT could be achieved (12.5% x 40% = 5%; 25% x 12.5% = 1,875%;
5% + 1.875% = 6.875%).
(b) Seasonal Rationing Programs Could be Instituted to Reduce Hydro-
carbon Emissions during the summer months when the photo-chemical
reaction is most likely to occur. All three types of rationing
discussed above with the listed could be qualifications as to
feasibility and effectiveness, applied as part of the program.
Transit service should be improved in the summer if a rationing
program were instituted. Currently, during the summer months,
public transportation service is cut back because schools are
closed, passengers are on vacation and because it is the transit
employee vacation period. However, this is the period of the year
when it is most critical that automobile utilization be reduced
to a minimum. A method to encourage maximum use of public trans-
portation would be to maintain and, if possible, enhance levels
of service at this time of year.
Measures to Restrict Travel Year Round - Year-round fuel rationing may take
different forms. Limitation of the amount purchased in a specific period by
individual automobile owners is of questionable feasibility on a regional
basis because it raises matters of equity with regard to other regions.
Other forms of rationing may be more effective. The rationing of fuel to
the retailer or wholesaler, similar to the 1973-74 winter allocation program,
can do much to reduce travel. The third form of rationing, economic ration-
ing could also reduce travel. This method is, of course, highly regressive
because it would be in the form of major gasoline tax increases. Each of
these rationing forms would require improvements in alternative modes of
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transportation if economic disruptions are to avoided. Rationing will be
relatively ineffective unless the rationed area is sufficiently large to
discourage driving out of the region to obtain gasoline.
Measures to Relocate Travel Outside of the Region - Some of the travel in the
region is due to traffic originating from and destined for places outside of
the region; a decrease in regional hydrocarbon emissions could be achieved
by diverting this traffic around the region. Much of this traffic uses 1-95.
Significant diversion of this through traffic could be accomplished only by
the construction of a major interstate roadway to allow total bypass of the
AQM region. Although intercepting long trips and therefore, having a rel-
atively large impact on VMT reduction per trip, the percent of through travel
is so small during the a.m. peak that this measure would be expected to have
minimal impact on total VMT reduction. In fact, it must be stated that the
additional accessibility provided to parts of the outlying areas of the re-
gion could well result in additional development and additional travel above
and beyond that which would otherwise occur. The extent of changes, both in
reducing through traffic and in inducing additional travel must remain spec-
ulative without systematic testing.
Measures to Make Highway Travel Less Convenient and Less Comfortable - By
restricting highway construction and improvement, travel would become less
convenient and less comfortable. The demand for travel generally would be
lower by restricting the supply of highways within the region, and the amount
of travel would be reduced. The traffic projections on which the calcula-
tions of air quality were based reflect large increases in the highway net-
work. By reducing the amount of new highway from this level, less travel
would result. While there are no data on the effect on travel of closing
existing highways, other studies have indicated that the construction of
new facilities leads to an increase in traffic over that which would occur
without those facilities.
Plans in the Baltimore region call for the construction of an extensive
network of new freeways and major arterials. The "3A System" of Interstate
Highways within Baltimore City and the General Development Plan system pro-
posed by the Regional Planning Council represent a major increase in the
supply of highways in the region. The effect on travel of nonconstructing
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either the 3A or GDP systems within the Baltimore Region has been measured
as part of the travel simulations performed for the BREIS study. In 1995,
4% less traffic is forecast to occur in the peak hour if the 3A system is
not constructed. Alternative 8—the 3A system but not the GDP system—has
12% less peak hour travel that the full network while Alternative 9, neither
the 3A nor GDP systems, has 17.8% less travel in the peak period than the
full network. Similar percentage decreases in travel would occur in 1985
for each Alternative if the systems are not constructed.
In order to better measure the effect of a given highway system on re-
gional travel in 1985 for the purposes of this study, the various models run
as part of the BREIS study for 1980 and 1995 would have to be run for 1985
given the conditions in effect at that time. The level of transit service
available, land use and population considerations, and other policies ex-
pected to be in effect at that time would have be included. The scope and
scheduling of the trial maintenance plan do not permit use of this preferred
methodology; for the purposes of the current study, it has been assumed that
similar percentage decreases in VMT will be attained in 1985 as in 1995.
The shortcomings of this assumption are recognized; it may be a liberal es-
timate of the effectiveness of the measure.
Measures to Reduce Gasoline Consumption - The amount of fuel burned and the
efficiency with which it is burned are both factors in hydrocarbon production.
Measures to reduce gasoline consumption and increased efficiency will result
in reduced emissions.
(a) Decrease non-essential accessories - The institution of a heavy tax
on accessories would reduce the number of auto accessories and in-
crease the mileage of auto engines. Of prime importance is air
conditioning. However, power brakes, power steering, and other
secondary users of energy contribute to less effective gasoline
use. Many of these luxuries have become regarded as essentials
and, again, heavy taxes, perhaps of the order of $500 to $1000
per vehicle would be required to bring about any significant re-
duction in demand.
(b) Modify engine type - When electric engined automobiles become a
production reality less energy will be used than gasoline powered
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automobiles by a factor of approximately 50%. Furthermore, only
a portion of the electric power used will be generated by fossil
fuel plants and this could well occur outside of the region.
Therefore, less hydrocarbon esissions would be involved in power-
ing electric automobiles and much less than this amount would occur
in the Baltimore AWMA. One further advantage is that emissions
generated per unit of energy at the stationary power plant are
easier to control and easier to monitor than are emissions at the
automobile exhaust pipe.
Measures to Promote Optimum Traffic Flow - Through highway and signalization
improvements, by increasing the average speed, and by reducing the amount of
stop and go travel and other inefficiencies in the highway network, the rate
of emissions per VMT may be reduced. Program of this type include various
improvements to signalization, intersection design, parking restrictions and
roadway improvements and are especially applicable to arterial routes. Also
available are various techniques for improving the flow of traffic on free-
ways such as driver information systems, ramp metering to allow only as many
cars on a section of road as can be handled and various projects to improve
the configuration of the highway. System-wide changes are also possible
such that traffic is assigned to its optimum route by application of these
techniques. In this way, a network may be modified to operate as efficiently
as possible.
Programs of this type have been proposed as parts of State Implementation
Plans for various cities in the United States. Most cities are also under-
taking traffic flow improvements under the TOPICS (Traffic Operations Pro-
gram to Improve Capacity and Safety) Program. Small scale intersection or
roadway improvements generally fall under this program. Cities with exten-
sive freeway systems such as Chicago or Los Angeles have also applied free-
way surveillance, driver information systems, and ramp metering in order to
increase the efficiences of these systems.
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In Baltimore, a large commitment to traffic flow improvements is al-
ready underway. The EPA-promulgated Transportation Control Plan calls for
a decrease of emissions of hydrocarbons of 4.3% of the base year as a result
of the application of TOPICS and other flow improvement measures. Consider-
ing the existing TCP, it would appear that no further improvements of this
type are possible in Baltimore. Thus, the effectiveness of this strategy
would be felt throughout the period under a study although as traffic in-
creased, its effectiveness might be reduced.
Any improvement during the period under study could best be tested by
a study of any possible areas within the region for improvements. Because
of the spot nature of projects of this type, a survey of the region's high-
way system would be required to determine possible locations for these im-
provements and a detailed study of each site would be required to determine
the amount of improvement that each project could individually accomplish.
Measures to Increase Auto Occupancy -
(a) Parking incentives for car pools - In large employment centers
with relatively large parking facilities, parking incentives can
increase carpooling and auto occupancy. Parking incentives can
take the form of reduced rates, reserved spaces or lots, late
arrival or early departures, or a combination of all three.
(b) Use of express lanes for carpools - Express lanes, normally re-
served exclusively for buses, can be opened to carpools. This
incentive will greatly decrease the travel time for the carpool,
thus encouraging higher auto occupancy rates.
(c) Tax and insurance incentives for carpools - Monetary incentives,
such as tax redctions and insurance premium reductions act to in-
crease auto occupancy.
Each of these measures can be expected to only have only minimal effect
on auto occupancy. Each taken separately would likely have an effectiveness
of 0-2% reduction in VMT; collectively, they might reach as high as 2% re-
duction in LDV VMT. When combined with other measures to reduce VMT, a 1%
effectiveness could be expected.
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Measures to Reduce Emissions Per Mile - Episodic control on automobile travel,
Enforcement of periodic bans on auto travel would reduce automobile travel
during episodes of high pollution. This measure would be very effective al-
though there are obvious economic problems and enforcement questions. Like
other episodic measures, this is regarded as an available supplementary tool
to be applied in the event that tother measures are not adequate to solve
the problem.
A system of auto stickers which indicate the essential nature of travel
based on occupation, family size, and other factors would assist in the en-
forcement of partial bans on driving. A truly arbitrary odd-even ban on
driving could also be instituted during air pollution episodes.
Emergency holidays for public employees. The use of emergency holidays
for public employees would reduce the a.m. peak travel in direct proportion
to the government employment. In areas of major public employment, such as
Baltimore, this would be extremely effective. (There were an estimated
156,000 public employees in the region of a total employment of 869,800, or
about 18% in 1970).
As with the public employees, provision of emergency holidays for pri-
vate employees would directly decrease emissions during episodes.
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Heavy Duty Vehicles (HDV) - The emission reduction for each measure is deter-
mined by multiplying the midpoint of the range of effectiveness times the per-
centage emissions from that source. In the case of HDV, 42% of the hydro-
carbon emissions will come from heavy duty vehicles in 1985.
Measuresto Reduce Total Truck Travel - As with light duty vehicles, engine
running time (therefore, total truck travel), is the prime determinant of
hydrocarbon emissions.
Measures to Reduce Truck Ownership - Private and corporate truck ownership can
be restricted through the following measures:
(a) Make truck ownership more expensive by applying additional tax on
new vehicles. This may take the form of an excise tax on purchases,
a tax on registration through registration fees, or a tax directly
on the ownership through personal property tax increases. The level
of taxation in mind is $500-$1000 per vehicle. Such charges could
result in a small decrease in truck ownership as vehicles are used
more efficiently by keeping them on the road for longer hours. The
impact on VMT would be even less since most trips involve distribution
of goods which must be moved anyway. The savings would be in elimina-
tion of less-than-essential trips, but would be marginal since the
additional costs, as business expenses would be passed on to the
consumer.
(b) Reduce the number of eligible trucks by instituting a strict vehicle
inspection system. This policy instrument would reduce the number
of trucks which would be allowed to operate and it would also tend
to eliminate older heavy duty vehicles from the inventory.
Measures to Reduce Gasoline Truck Ownership - The application of fees and taxes
to HDV would, as with light duty vehicles, increase the cost of owning and
operating such vehicles. The impact of this measure would be limited, but it
would certainly result in the elimination of some non-essential trips. Al-
though the tendency would be to use trucks more intensively, there would not
necessarily be eL resulting reduction in VMT. The effect of this policy instru-
ment could be minimal.
If the taxes and fees imposed were applied to gasoline vehicles only,
other'types of engines (diesel and electric) would become more attractive. The
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amount of reduction in hydrocarbon emissions would depend on the type of
replacement vehicle used.
Reduce total HDV VMT - Although relatively localized, the prohibition of
truck movements in certain areas of the region will produce "truck-free" zones
and result in small decreases in VMT and emissions.
Public transit vehicles for the carriage and movement of goods could also
be utilized in off-peak hours. Because buses and rapid transit carriers are
not as fully occupied in the off-hours of the day, they could serve to trans-
fer intracity or intracounty parcels, such as mail moving from one substation
to another. This, could reduce the number of truck trips made during the day in
the region. This idea has been suggested in other cities; however, there is no
record of its use as a technique to improve air quality. For Baltimore this
measure could be applied to the intraregional movement of mail, government
correspondence, and bulk newspaper delivery. Mail movement would, of course,
require the use of a secure container or compartment on MTA vehicles.
This measure is limited in its potential effectiveness in reducing a.m.
peak hour VMT for several reasons. Firstly, it deals with trips in the off-
peak hours. Secondly, it deals only with a small part of all truck movements
within the region. These measures can be expected to have only minimal effect
on total HDV VMT.
Optimize routes and schedules - Care in the selection of truck routes and
schedules for deliveries could eliminate wasted mileage and avoid congested,
stop-and-go traffic. The responsibility for implementation of this measure
lies chiefly on private business, but they could be assisted by better defini-
tion of truck routes on the part of local and regional agencies.
Measures to Reduce Peak Period Truck Travel - Hydrocarbons produced by truck
movement in the 6:00-9:00 a.m. peak hour are the prime concern, because this
is the period in which hydrocarbons emitted have the longest exposure to sun-
light and hence the greatest propensity for production of photo-chemical oxi-
dants. Means of controlling these emissions include the prohibition of use of
selected streets to truck traffic at selected time's of the day. This type of
prohibition would not only discourage a.m. peak truck travel, by creating
inconvenience to the truckers, but if truck traffic were prohibited from con-
gested thoroughfares in general and to delivery activities in particular, total
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truck VMT would be reduced during the a.m. peak and auto traffic would flow
more easily, thus reducing hydrocarbon emissions. Baltimore currently has
restricted loading zones. An attempt to further restrict truck movements
results in considerable public reaction and caused special problems for the
U. S. Postal Service. Any additional restriction can be expected to be
politically controversial.
Modify engine type and size - Replacement of gasoline engines by electric
engines, especially feasible in the case of light duty vehicles, could sub-
stantially reduce energy consumption and the emission of hydrocarbons. As
noted above, however, technology has not advanced to the point of mass produc-
tion of this type engine. Smaller engine size for many trucks could be im-
plemented more readily and, given the over-powered nature of most heavy duty
vehicles, this could be done without sacrificing the capability and utility
of trucks. Smaller engined trucks would be encouraged through the use of a
tax by engine displacement, thus replacing HDVs with IDVs.
Measures to Reduce Emissions Per Mile - Installation of pollution control de-
vices will reduce emissions per mile. Heavy duty vehicles have not been subject
to the same pollution control standards as light duty vehicles, and control of
emissions has, as a result, been minimal. This is regarded as potentially the
most productive new measure available for reduction of hydrocarbon because
HDV's are a heavy source of pollution. In 1973, HDV's produced 12.61 tons
(21.9% of the regional total) in the peak 6:00-9:00 a.m. period; by 1985, it is
estimated that this will have decreased to 10.11 tons; however, by that year,
this will represent 41.5%, of the regional total. Any significant percentage
reduction will be very important in reduction of regional totals. It is esti-
mated that at least 507o of HDV hydrocarbons could be eliminated by this means,
but only if state implementation of a retrofit program is instituted.
Federal standards could be made more strict or Federal law could be
changed to allow stricter state standards. This approach must be coupled with
with the installation of pollution control devices through the provision of
legal requirement that such devices be installed.
Measures to Reduce Truck Travel During High Pollution Periods - A ban on non-
essential truck travel similar to that suggested for automobiles during high
pollution episodes would result in an effective reduction in truck movements
and hence, of hydrocarbon emissions. In the evaluation of the matrix, this
measure has been rated at around 50% effective. This is, however, clearly an
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assumption as to the proportion of gasoline trucks which may reasonably be
expected to be kept off the road for the few days in each year when pollution
episodes are likely to occur. Also, a sticker system, as discussed previously,
would produce proportional results during high pollution episodes.
Emergency holidays could also be designated for private and public em-
ployees. Such emergency holidays would not only reduce truck travel by giving
drivers holidays but would reduce deliveries and other HDV activities.
It must also be noted that many of the measures will be effective only
when parcelled with others. Perhaps the prime example of this is the combina-
tion of transportation and land use measures. The following paragraphs present
an example of how the effectiveness of this coupling of measures may be esti-
mated, a coupling which produces a land use pattern which is conducive to
reduction of automotive travel and a transportation system to properly serve
it.
Land use measures assumed to be available for the purpose include:
(1) Zoning,
(2) Agricultural/conservation zoning,
(3) Planning unit development and cluster zoning,
(4) Special use permits,
(5) Holding zones,
(6) Open space land requisition and landbanking,
(7) Floating zones, and
(8) Discretionary taxation policies.
Land use and development controls have not been used to date for the exclusive
purpose of achieving better air quality. However, many of these controls
have been applied to achieve desired land use patterns which subsequently led
to less traffic congestion and lower emission levels.
Each of the jurisdictions within the Baltimore region is concerned about
growth. For example, Baltimore City would like to retain its population and
attract new residents while outside Baltimore City the suburban jurisdictions
are looking for tools to control and channel growth. Consequently, application
of these development controls to achieve improved air quality in the Baltimore
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region could be received as being generally in accord with existing growth
control proposals.
Concentration of development in mass transit corridors would tend to
reduce VMT in several ways, as follows:
(1) Work trip VMT is reduced because of the availability of mass
transit.
(2) Average work trip length is reduced for auto drivers from what
it might be given spread development.
(3) Intensity of development within corridors affords opportunities
for multi-purpose centers and PUD building concepts, which can
further reduce the total number of trips, length of trips, and
the need for auto use.
The most important of these factors is the reduction in work trip VMT
which is absolutely critical to reducing auto-generated emissions. In order
to demonstrate the relationship of VMT and the change in the pattern of
development resulting from application of the strategies discussed above,
population and employment were reallocated among RPD's in the Baltimore
region for the period 1973 to 1985. This allocation was based on a defini-
tion of mass transit corridors. The procedure assumes an increased density
of population within the residential acres added between 1973 and 1985 as a
result of these strategies for RPD's served by rapid transit.
Additional population for these "growth" districts was shifted from areas
not served by rapid transit. Employment increases projected in "non-growth"
districts were also reallocated to the "growth" RPD's. It must be emphasized
that this analysis is not intended to suggest a goal for regional growth,
rather it is intended only to demonstrate the general method in which a pro-
gram of centralized development could act to reduce VMT.
For the purpose of this analysis, six corridors were defined. These were:
RPD
(1) Anne Arundel County 201,202,203,204
(2) Social Security 323
(3) Ownings Mills 313
(4) Towson 308,309,315
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(5) NE Industrial Corridor 316,317,320
(6) Sparrows Point 328,329,330,331
In addition, four RPD's within Baltimore City were assumed to grow more
intensely than RPC modeling procedures had forecast because of the strategies
availability through rapid rail transit. These districts are 101, 103, 113,
and 114.
Reallocation of population from "non-growth" districts to those identi-
fied above was based on several assumptions. These assumptions included:
(1) New residential acres expected between 1973 and 1985 would be
developed at higher densities than previously forecast for
districts served by transit. For these incremental acres a
density of 35 persons per acre was assumed. This increased
density, although three times the residential density typically
forecast by RPC, is considered a moderate density, which could
be attained by garden apartment or townhouse development.
(2) The growth rate in Baltimore County is generally less than the
growth rates forecast in the Baltimore-Washington Corridor and
the Annapolis (Route 2) Corridor. Consequently, proportionately
less forecast new population was diverted from the 200 and 600
series RPD's than from the 300 series RPD's (Baltimore County)
based on the assumption that these strong growth trends would be
more difficult to control.
(3) Only new population and employment growth forecast between 1973
and 1985 was considered for reallocation.
Reallocation of employment from "non-growth" districts to those in the
transit corridors was based on one primary assumption, i.e., total new employ-
ment forecast in "non-growth" districts was assumed to be distributed among
"growth" districts in proportion to the additional growth in population re-
sulting from the population reallocation described above.
The results of this analysis indicated the change in population in each
RPD as of 1985 as a result of the reallocation of population as a result of
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the strategies of land use and development control. A total of 133,314 per-
sons were assumed to have been reallocated from districts not served by transit
to those within the transit corridors for 1985. As a result of the realloca-
tion, 34,450 jobs were reallocated to transit-oriented zones.
In order to measure the change in regional peak hour VMT which would re-
sult from the implementation of the land use and development control strate-
gies, the following relationship was developed:
Change in VMT = PwWAKTp - EWAMT + PwWA'M'Tp + EWA'M'Tp.
where:
P = number of persons reallocated to transit related zones;
w = number of employees per person;
W = number of work trips per employee;
A, A1 = number of auto trips per work trip;
M, M1 = length of auto trip;
T = ratio of total travel to work travel;
E = number of employees reallocated to transit related zones;
p = proportion of work trips in the peak hour.
Of these values, the following remain constant with the land use change:
w = 0.40 employees per person;
W = 1.56 work trips per employee;
T = 2.5 total travel/work travel;
p = 0.30 work trips in peak hour/total day work.
Because the population reallocation to transit related zones will have
a greater propensity to use transit given its greater convenience and proximity
in these zones, the variables relating the number of automobile trips per work
trip will be valued at:
A = 0.61 auto trips per work trip (1985 regionwide forecast value-
BREIS report);
A1 = 0.40 auto trips per work trip.
Because the zones into which population and employment were reallocated
are much more centrally located than the zones from which they were allocated,
shorter trip lengths will result, as follows:
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M = 4.2 miles (reflecting one-half of the average trip length
because it is applied to trips generated by population and
attracted by employment);
M1 = 3.0 miles.
Substituting these values, as well as the amount of population reallo-
cated (P = 133,314) and employment reallocated (E = 38,450), a change in
total regional travel during the peak hour (change in VMT = 146,248) was
the result.
Based on 1985 total peak hour auto travel of 5,017,330 VMT, this
represents a VMT reduction of 2.9 percent in the peak hour by 1985.
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APPENDIX G
DESCRIPTION OF IMPACTS FROM LAND USE AND
TRANSPORTATION MAINTENANCE MEASURES
LEGAL IMPACTS
The police power as delegated from the state is the constitutional basis
for many land use controls at the local level, including that of zoning. It
is similarly the basis for special use permits, planned unit development, and
other techniques involving public control through ownership such as open space
acquisition, all of which can be used to further a development pattern con-
sistent with the objectives of air quality management. Use of the controls
for air quality management per se has not been attempted in the Baltimore re-
gion nor in the State of Maryland; rather, the jurisdictions have been con-
cerned with the issue of growth as related to the location, intensity and
timing of development, the efficiency of public services, and the preserva-
tion of prime agricultural land. Land use policy should not, of course, be
based on one criterion. Yet, as air quality management enters the planning
and regulatory processes, denial of special use permits on the grounds of
potential high emission sources or rezonings to attain higher densities in
transit corridors may lead to court challenges on this issue. The use of
land use controls for air quality management will require regional coordina-
tion, local regulation, and may also require state enabling legislation as
deemed appropriate by the State's Attorney General. At the state level, in-
tervention in areas of critical state concern and the nature of state inter-
vention as required in recent state land use legislation.
Legal issues raised by the alternative hydrocarbon strategies are:
(1) Is state enabling legislation required for localities to implement
land use controls for the purpose of air quality maintenance?
(2) How will the air quality maintenance plan be enforced if and when
local land use controls are challenged or where localities them-
selves wish to deviate from commitments to the plan? It is assumed
that agreement will be reached among the jurisdictions in the
Baltimore region prior to the implementation of the plan, that the
G-l
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legal authority to implement the plan will be adequately delegated
•»
to the localities and that monitoring and enforcement will be vested
in the appropriate state agency.
(3) When revisions to a local comprehensive plan or general zoning plan
are necessitated by the air quality maintenance plan, will a state
EIS be required to demonstrate conformance?
(4) What state and federal tax revisions are required to provide equity
to landowners when future development has been precluded in agri-
culture/conservation zoning?
(5) Can state highway funds (saved in the withholding of construction
funds) be diverted to mass transit programs? Is legislative action
required?
(6) Does air quality maintenance provide too much discretion for local
jurisdictions in the exercise of zoning? Will rigorous criteria be
required in zoning cases to avoid the appearance, if not the reality,
of classifications being arbitrary and capricous? Will the use of
large lot zoning in agricultural districts be challenged as ex-
clusionary?
(7) If enforcement of air quality maintenance plan means serious adverse
effects on other elements of the environment how would resolution of
the conflict take place—administrative or judicial relief?
The legality of the proposed measures, the administrative procedures used
to enforce them and actions which must be taken by state and federal govern-
ment to permit them to be implemented are raised as questions; resolution of
these issues is certainly complex and, in several instances, more general in
scope than the Baltimore region. It is believed that they cannot be properly
addressed in the current study but should be given urgent attention by EPA
for the reason that the timing and effectiveness of maintenance actions na-
tionally depends upon their resolution.
ECONOMIC IMPACTS
Major economic impacts are tied to plan proposals for changes in the
regional transportation system from highways to public transit. A proposed
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halt in construction of the Interstate system would affect some $1 billion of
capital expenditures, federal, state and local. Not all of this amount will
be "savings" since additional improvements are proposed for the transit system;
these have not been precisely defined nor costed out, but could be of the
order of $200 million over a 10 year period, substantially less than the cap-
ital expenditure savings from the halt in expressway construction.
The diversion of travel demand from automobile to public transportation,
would result in less automobile use and less automobile ownership, with re-
sulting decreases in public revenues from automobile taxes, gasoline taxes
and registration fees.
Acting to increase public revenues would be taxes instituted on auto-
mobile use and on automobile accessories. Neither of these have been pre-
cisely quantified, but using the same assumptions as were used in developing
probable levels of effectiveness in reducing hydrocarbon emissions, it is
estimated that there would be a net decrease in tax revenues of the order
*
of $6 million per year.
The diversion of travel demand to transit is predicated on fare subsidies,
among other measures. This will be a major public expense, of the order of
$50 million annually by 1985. In fact, transit would not be "free"; the net
effect would be one of spreading the costs of the system across the whole
of the regional community rather than requiring users to meet operating costs.
The "redistributional" effect is discussed as a social impact.
The land use policies which are an integral part of the "diversion of
travel demand" component of the trial plan will themselves produce certain
economic impacts. These will primarily stem from changes in development po-
tential resulting from accessibility changes and land use controls. Inevitably,
land values in areas subject to development constraints under the proposed
policies will decline in value, while lands at and adjacent to the "centers
* Reduction of $20 million annually in gasoline taxes and of $2 million
annually in automobile sales taxes, and an increase of $16 million
annually on accessory taxes.
G-3
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and corridors" will have enhanced value resulting from new development oppor-
tunities, greater densities, and improved transportation facilities. These
changes are dependent on market factors and quantification is beyond the scope
of the present study.
SOCIAL IMPACTS
The transportation elements with more significant social consequences
are addressed below:
(1) Restrict highway construction and improvement by withholding
highway construction funds. The shift from highway construction to
transit improvements will have important economic impacts but its
secondary consequences will include some which properly may be
termed social. The highway program is construction oriented and
the bulk of the expenditures will through the 6 year construction
period, create local jobs in the construction industry* and
associated activities; the "multiplier effect" of local wages and
salaries of these circulate in the community will generate addition-
al service employment. The transit improvement program, on the
other hand, is much more oriented to the acquisition of vehicles
which are produced outside of the region; these expenditures will
produce few construction jobs, though operation of an extended sys-
tem will generate continuing employment for drivers, maintenance
personnel and administrative staff of the order of 2,000 additional
permanent employees. If highway funds are withheld, and subse-
quently transferred to the rapid rail construction program many of
the spin offs of local jobs and wages will not be lost from the
curtailed highway programs. Indeed, the increased funds for rapid
rail could speed the construction progress on the committed transit
system and provide opportunities for use ahead of the present sched-
ule.
* Estimated to be of the order of 20,000 man-years of effort on the
$1 billion program.
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(2) Diversion of Auto Passengers to Rail and Bus
(a) Improve transit service, subsidize fares and institute user
taxes. The importance of these elements is that the auto user,
in effect, subsidizes the transit user's costs. For the
"captured" auto user, this policy will undoubtedly seem in-
equitable. The thrust, however, is to attract the user-of-the-
automobile-by-choice to the transit alternative. The improve-
ment in service and the lowered fares will have substantial
benefits for the traditional captive transit user; the poor,
the elderly, the young. For low and moderate income groups,
the extension of transit service opens new opportunities for
job locations and, at the reduced fares, their expanded mobil-
ity will not be costly. The reduced fares, in fact, increase
the proportion of their disposable income available for other
basic goods and services. Increased mobility for the elderly
and the young potentially means greater use of public facilities
such as clinics, libraries, and other communitity resources.
(b) Control of land use to concentrate development in transportation
corridors. The use of selective land use controls to channel
development into higher density transportation corridors will
have a variety of social implications. First, an alternative
to sprawl development will be found in suburban locations. A
higher density and transit oriented way of life can be generated
by the mixed use development characteristic of planned unit de-
velopment near transit stations. The provision of mixed uses
near residences affords another change in suburban life style—
the opportunity to walk to convenience shopping or combine
several purposes in a single auto trip. Higher densities also
increases the utility of public facilities and offers the
potential of daytime and nighttime use for multiple purposes.
Open space will be generated by the agricultural/conservation zoning,
holding zones and land banking. Nonetheless, the availability of usable and
scenic open space can have important social benefits in providing recreation,
G-5
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psychological relief and enjoyment. To the extent that agricultural zoning
helps shape community limits, the perception of the community can be enhanced.
OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
The measures in the hydrocarbon alternative plans will, as a secondary
effect, reduce other pollutants from transportation sources. The reduction
3
in participates will reach nearly 2.0 ug/m . Decreases in LDV VMT and the
HDV retrofit program will each bring about appreciable reductions in S0» and
NOx.
Two positive effects and one negative effect of the proposed plan on
waste water (sanitary sewers and storm water) collection should be noted.
The concentration of urban activities into centers will increase the poten-
tial efficiency of waste water collection systems; the areas to be served
will be at higher densities and concentrated into more efficiently served
corridors, as compared with the highly dispersed, lower density patterns
typical of incremental growth in recent years. The decrease in VMT will de-
crease the automobile and truck generated pollution introduced to the storm
water runoff in proportion to the estimated reduction in VMT. The negative
impact is that the increased concentrations of urban uses may well increase
slightly the total area of impervious surfaces in the region with the result
that storm water runoff is increased.
The side effects of the plan with regard to urban noise will also have
both positive and negative points. A reduction in VMT will have a direct
positive effect on automobile-generated component of urban noise. The con-
centration of urban activities into more: diverse centers will, by contrast,
increase the ambient noise levels of the corridors. The measure which would
limit growth in the number of aircraft operations at Baltimore-Washington
International Airport would result in less noise for two separate reasons.
Firstly, the actual number of operations may be expected to be less than if
operational levels were unconstrained so that the duration of exposure to
aircraft noise would be less, and secondly, the .airlines can be expected to
utilize larger aircraft in order to meet increasing travel demands within a
static number of operations. These large jet aircraft (the D.C.//10 and
L. 1011) are quieter than the smaller jet aircraft (B. 727, D.C. #9) which,
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through the 10-year planning period, would otherwise likely constitute the
bulk of the traffic.
The transporation measures will have both good and bad impact on fuel
conservation. The direct savings in gasoline resulting from a 30% reduction
in VMT will be partially offset by decreased mileage on HDV's as a result of
the emission control devices proposed in the plan. This latter effect cannot
be quantified but the balance is clearly on a reduction of overall gasoline
consumption on a regional basis.
The transportation/land use measures will have a beneficial effect on
fuel conservation. A proportional savings in gasoline will result from a
30% reduction in VMT.
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-450/3-74-050
2.
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSIOWNO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Development of a Trial Air Quality
Maintenance Plan using the Baltimore
Air Quality Control Region
5. REPORT DATE
September 1974
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Engineering-Science, Inc.
7903 West Park Drive
McLean, Virginia 22101
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
68-02-1380
Task No. 2
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Air and Waste Management
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park. N.C. 27713
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
This report is a Trial Air Quality Maintenance Plan for the Baltimore Air
Quality Maintenance Study Area, which is coterminous with the Metropolitan
Baltimore Air Quality Control Region. The report contains: A trial analysis
of whether the National Ambient Air Quality Standards for particulate matter,
sulfur dioxide, photochemical oxidants, and nitrogen dioxide will be main-
tained for the ten year period 1975-1985; a trial plan to maintain the standards
which are not expected to be maintained over that period; and a description
of the method used to develop the trial plan. The plan was prepared using
draft EPA guidelines concerning air quality maintenance area analysis and plan
development and can be used as an example which states can use in developing
their analyses and plans pursuant to EPA's requirements contained in 40 CFR
Part 51.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COS AT I Field/Group
Air Pollution
Atmosphere Contamination Control
Urban Planning
Regional Planning
Air Quality Maintenance
Area
Air Quality Maintenance
Plan
Baltimore
National Ambient Air
Quality Standards
13-B
13. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release Unlimited
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report}
Unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
279.
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
22. PRICE
Tin r* 1 a c
s^ f-f or!
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
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EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73) (Reverse)
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