PRINCIPLES AND
PRACTICE OF
AIR POLLUTION
CONTROL
MAY, 1974
MANUAL
450
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Principles and Practice
of Air Pollution Control
Conducted by
CONTROL PROGRAMS DEVELOPMENT DIVISION
Air Pollution Training Institute
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
May 15, 1974
VJBy
^^^^v. >»^^^
The Principles and Practice of Air Pollution Control Manual has been
prepared specifically for the trainees attending the course and should
not be included in reading lists or periodicals as generally available.
UNITED STATES
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR AND WATER PROGRAMS
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us
EPA
This is not an official policy and standards document.
The opinions, findings, and conclusions are those of the authors
and not necessarily those of the Environmental Protection Agency.
Every attempt has been made to represent the present state of the art
as well as subject areas still under evaluation.
Any mention of products or organizations does not constitute endorsement
by the United States Environmental Protection Agency.
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AIR POLLUTION TRAINING INSTITUTE
MANPOWER AND TECHNICAL INFORMATION BRANCH
^CONTROL PROGRAMS DEVELOPMENT DIVISION
OFFICE OF AIR QUALITY PLANNING AND STANDARDS
The Air Pollution Training Institute (1) conducts training for personnel working on
the development and improvement of state, and local governmental, and EPA air
pollution control programs, as well as for personnel in industry and academic insti-
tutions; (2) provides consultation and other training assistance to governmental
agencies, educational institutions, industrial organizations, and others engaged in
air pollution training activities; and (3) promotes the development and improve-
ment of air pollution training programs in educational institutions and state, regional,
and local governmental air pollution control agencies. Much of the program is now
conducted by an on-site contractor, Northrop Services, Inc.
One of the principal mechanisms utilized to meet the Institute's goals is the intensive
short term technical training course. A full-time professional staff is responsible for
the design, development, and presentation of these courses. In addition the services
of scientists, engineers, and specialists from other EPA programs, governmental
agencies, industries, and universities are used to augment and reinforce the Institute
staff in the development and presentation of technical material.
Individual course objectives and desired learning outcomes are delineated to meet
specific program needs through training. Subject matter areas covered include air
pollution source studies, atmospheric dispersion, and air quality management. These
courses are presented in the Institute's resident classrooms and laboratories and at
various field locations.
Robert G. Wilder
Program Manager
Northrop Services, Inc.
Qd^JI^^^X'^t^^
/I /Man J. Schueneman
K Chief, Manpower & Technical
Information Branch
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GOO
FOREWORD
The ability to recall a fact or a principle is frequently like trying to
catch a ghost. You may understand the information at the time it is taught,
but your facility to remember this information decreases sharply in a few
days. Recognizing that this will-o-the-wisp memory is a part of most of us,
this workbook has been designed so you may keep your notes in a systematic
Outlines for each lesson are contained in this workbook. In addition, there
are various types of support materials in the body of the workbook such as
scripts for slide sequences and notations to show what kind of visual aids
are used.
This workbook is yours to keep. In the future you will find it most helpful
when you want to check on methods and techniques used in instruction, recall
what was taught, or review a teaching principle.
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CONTENTS
Section One
AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT
Air Quality Criteria and Standards
Implementation Plans to Meet the 1970
Amendments to the Clean Air Act
Legal Authority
Fifty-Years of Air Pollution Law
Summary - The Clean Air Act
The Role of a Witness, "How to Act'as
an Expert Witness"
Air Pollution Episode Plans
Section Two
METEOROLOGY
Meteorologic Fundamentals
Meteorologic Factors Affecting
Pollutant Dispersion
Effects of Meteorologic Parameters
on Transport and Diffusion
Influence of Topography
Influence of Topography on Transport
and Diffusion
Wind and Meteorological Roses
Meteorological Roses
Meteorological Instruments
and Exposure
Meteorological Instruments
Exposure of Instruments
Atmospheric Stagnation -
Climatology and Forecasting Program
Atmospheric Dispersion and
Air Pollution Control
Section Two
METEOROLOGY (Conclusion)
Maximizing the Dilution
Capacity of the Atmosphere
Seminar on Meteorological
Assistance in Air Pollution Problems
Assistance in Meteorological Problems
Sources of Meteorological Data
Section Three
ENGINEERING
Reading and Recording
Techniques for Plume Evaluation
The Role of the Inspector
in the Agency
Role of the Engineer
Level Inspector
Handling Complaints
Gaseous Control Technology
Adsorption
Combustion Control Equipment
Control of Particulate Emissions
Stack Sampling
Control Regulations - Introduction
Control Regulations
Case Study - Development
of an Air Pollution Control Ordinance
Federal Constitutional Provisions
(Continued)
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CONTENTS
Section Four
SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS (Conclusion)
Sampling for Dustfall and Suspended Solids
and Determination of Soiling Index
Sulfur Dioxide
Reference Method for the Determination of
Sulfur Dioxide in the Atmosphere
Laboratory Procedure for the Determination
of Sulfur Dioxide
Suspended Particulates
Reference Method for the Determination of
Suspended Particulates in the Atmosphere
Carbon Monoxide
Reference Method for the Continuous
Measurement of Carbon Monoxide in the
Atmosphere
Nitrogen Dioxide
Photochemical Oxidants
Reference Method for the Measurement of
Photochemical Oxidants Corrected for
Interferences Due to Niurogen Oxides
and Sulfur Dioxide
Reference Method for Determination of
Hydrocarbons Corrected for Methane
Principles of Adsorption
Principles of Absorption
Principles of Grab Sampling
Sampling Location Guidelines
Selection and Performance of Wet Collector
Media
Principles of Freezeout Sampling
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Section One
AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT
Air Quality Criteria and Standards
Implementation Plans to Meet the
1970 Amendments to the Clean Air Act
Legal Authority
Fifty-Years of Air Pollution Law
Summary - The Clean Air Act
The Role of a Witness, "How to Act
as an Expert Witness"
Air Pollution Episode Plans
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Lesson Title: AIR QUALITY CRITERIA AND STANDARDS
Introduction
Air Quality Criteria are descriptive; they are a summary of what is known
about the effects of ambient air pollutants on health, vegetation, materials
and visibility. From these criteria come Air Quality Standards which are
prescriptive; they are prescribed pollutant levels that cannot be exceeded
during a specific time period in a specific geographic area. We would like
to examine how both air quality criteria and air quality standards are
determined.
Development
I. Air Quality Criteria
A. Describe effects
B. Give concentrations in the ambient air
C. Duration in the atmosphere
D. Describe methods of measurement
II. Types of Pollution Exposure
A. Personal
B. Occupational
C. General population
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III. Basis for Criteria Documents
A. Correlations
B. Epider,'io1oq:cal evidence
C Clinical studies
P. Lahoratory studies
IV. Prinary and Secondary Standards
A. Designed to nrotoct public health (primary)
1. Very younc
2. Over fifty
3. Pre-existing respiratory illness
B. Designed to protect public welfare (secondary)
V. Air Pollution Effects to Prevent
A. Adverse effects to susceptible population
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B. Damage to crops
C. Visibility reduction
D. Excessive corrosion to materials
E. Excessive soiling, deterioration, fading
VI. Other Considerations
A. Increased urbanization
B. Industrial growth
C. Population growth
D. Prevention of deterioration of existing air quality
VII. The Essential Specifications of Air Quality Standards
A. Method of measurement
B. Concentration and exposure time
C. Units of measure (weight/unit volume)
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VIII. Use of Air Quality Standards
A. Meet objectives of agency and public
B. Basis for regulations
C. Measurement of agency effectiveness
D. Communications link
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IMPLEMENTATION PLANS TO MEET THE 1970 AMENDMENTS
TO THE CLEAN AIR ACT
INTRODUCTI ON
President Nixon's message to Congress on February 10, 1970:
"we in this century have too casually and too long
abused our natural environment. The time has come
when we can wait no longer to repair the damage
already done, and to establish new criteria to
guide us in the future...Air is our most vital
resource, and its pollution is our most serious
environmental prob I em...there is a great deal we
can do within the. limits of existing technology -
and more we can do to spur technological advance"
REVIEW OF DEFINITIONS
A. National Primary Air Quality Standard:
define levels of air quality which the Administrator
of EPA judges are necessary, with an adequate margin
of safety, to protect the public health
B. National Secondary Air Quality Standard:
define levels of air quality which the Administrator
of EPA judges necessary to protect the public welfare
from any known or anticipated adverse effects of a
polIutant
^Institute for Air Pollution Training
Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, North Carolfna 2771
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C. Implementation Plan:
a plan which provides for attainment, maintenance and
enforcement of national ambient air quality standards
in each air quality control region, or portion thereof,
within such State
I BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR IMPLEMENTATION PLANS
A. General
On April 30, 1971 (36 F.R. 8186), pursuant to section 109
of the Clean Air Act, as amended, the Administrator promul-
gated national ambient air quality standards for sulfur
oxides, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, photochemical
oxidants, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen dioxide. Within 9
months thereafter, i.e., no later than January 30, 1972,
each State is required by section 110 of the Act to adopt
and submit to the Administrator a plan which provides for
the implementation, maintenance, and enforcement of such
national ambient air quality standards within each air
quality control region (or portion thereof) within the
State. An additional period of no longer than 18 months
may be allowed for adoption and submittal of that portion
of a plan relating to Implementation of secondary ambient
air quality standards. State plans must provide for attain-
ment of national primary ambient air quality standards
within 3 years after the date of the Administrator's approval
of such plans, except that a 2-year extension of this dead-
line may be granted by the Administrator upon application by
a Governor if the application satisfies the requirements set
forth in section MO(e) of the Act. State plans must provide
for attainment of national secondary ambient air quality
standards within a reasonable time. Within 4 months from the
date on which State plans are required to be submitted, the
Administrator must approve or disapprove such plans or
portions thereof.
B. Required State Legal Authority to Carry Out the Plan
I. Adopt emission standards and limitations and any other
measures necessary for attainment and maintenance of
national standards.
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2. Enforce applicable laws, regulations, and standards,
and seek injunctive relief.
3. Abate pollutant emissions on an emergency basis to
prevent substantial endangerment to the health of
persons.
4. Prevent construction, modification, or operation of
any stationary source at any location.where emissions
from such source will prevent the attainment or main-
tenance of a national standard.
5. Obtain information necessary to determine whether air
pollution sources are in compliance with applicable
laws, regulations, and standards, including authority
to require recordkeeping and to make inspections and
conduct tests of air pollution sources.
6. Require owners or operators of stationary sources to
install, maintain, and use emission monitoring devices
and to make periodic reports to the State on the
nature and amounts of emissions from such stationary
sources; also authority for' the State to make such
data available to the public as reported and as cor-
related with any applicable emission standards or
Ii mitations.
7. Where a plan sets forth a control strategy that provides
for application of (I) inspection and testing of motor
vehicles and/or other transportation control measures
or (2) land use measures other than those referred to
in (4) above, such plan shall set forth the State's
timetable for obtaining such legal authority as may be
necessary to carry 9ut such measures.
C. Control Strategies
I. The plan must provide for the degree of emission reduc-
tion necessary to attain and maintain national air
quality standards including emission increases due to
projected growth.
2. A detailed emission inventory of sulfur oxides, parti-
culate matter, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and nitro-
gen oxides as well as existing air quality data (there
are some exceptions to this) must be submitted with the
plan.
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3. Federal motor vehicle emission standards can be assumed
to result in reduced emissions of carbon monoxide, hydro-
carbons and nitrogen oxides. This will also reduce for-
mation of oxidant. An equation and series of charts are
provided to help the States assess this problem.
D. Compliance Schedules
Each plan must contain legally enforceable compliance schedules
setting forth the dates by which all stationary and mobile
sources will be in compliance with the applicable control
strategy.
E. Prevention of Air Pollution Emergency Episodes
I. For air quality control regions where existing air quality
concentrations are above the national primary standards
there must be a contingency plan which provides taking
control actions necessary to prevent ambient pollutant
concentrations from reaching levels that would constitute
imminent and substantial endangerment to the health of
persons.
2. Each contingency plan must provide for:
a. receipt of daily forecasts of atmospheric
stagnation conditions
b. inspection of sources to determine compli-
ance with contingency plan requirements
c. adequate communications procedures
F. Ai r Qua Iity SurveiI Iance
An air quality surveillance system meeting minimum EPA require-
ments must be completed and in operation as soon as possible
but not later than two years after the Administrator approves
the plan.
Review of New Sources and Modifications
There must be legally enforceable procedures which requirr
owners or operators of proposed new stationary sources to
submit all information necessary to determine the air poll
tion impact of the source. If the construction or modi fic-
tion can be shown to violate a control strategy or inter f.
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with attainment or maintenance of a national standard, a means
of disapproving such action must be provided.
H. Source Surveillance
Each plan must provide for monitoring the status of compliance
with the control strategy. Owners or operators of stationary
sources may be required to maintain records on emissions or
other air pollution information for State use. They must also
allow periodic testing and inspection of their sources. The
State must have a system for detecting violations and enforcing
its rules and regulations.
I. Resources
A five year plan outlining resources currently available and
those anticipated over five years to carry out the Implemen-
tation plan must be submitted, broken down in terms of State
and local agency estimates.
J. Intergovernmental Cooperation
The plan must identify the local agencies that will participate
in carrying out the plan and their responsibilities. In addi-
tion each State must promptly transmit to all other affected
States all information which' may significantly affect air
quality in any portion of the region or in any adjoining region,
K. Rules and Regulations
Copies of all rules and regulations necessary to implement the
plan must be submitted. Proposed rules and regulations will
not satisfy the requirements.
L. Summary
The State shall conduct at least one public hearing before
adopting the implementation plan and separate hearing may
be held for plans to implement primary and secondary stan-
dards. A certification of the hearing(s) must be submitted
with the adopted plan to EPA.
IV. Conclusions Aten. I
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On May 31, 1972, the Administrator of EPA, Mr. William D. Ruckelshaus,
approved implementation plans, pursuant to the 1970 Clean Air Act, sub-
mitted by the following states, together with American Samoa, Guam, and
Puerto Rico:
A Iabama
Connecticut
Florida
Mi ss i ss i pp i
New Hampshire'
North Caroli na
North Dakota
Oregon
West Vi rgi nia
Attachment I
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lesson Title: LEGAL AUTHORITY
Introduction
To understand the legal aspects of air pollution it is first necessary to
have a concept of the overall scheme of governmental powers and the basic
framework about which these powers are established. Secondly, we would
like to review the federal legislation leading up to the Air Quality Act
of 1967 _as amended and examine the 1970 Amendments to determine federal,
state and local responsibilities in controlling air pollution.
Development
I CONSTITUTIONAL BASIS FOR AIR POLLUTION LAW (OH)
A. Federal
1. General Welfare
2. Regulation of Interstate Commerce
B. State
C. City
II COMMON LAW AND STATUTORY LAW
A. Common Law
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1. Stare Decisis
2. Overruling
3. Distinguishing
B. Statutory Law
C. Precedent and Change
III LAWS, REGULATIONS AND STATUES
A. Workable
B. Reduce Emissions
C. Easy to Enforce
D. Inexpensive
E. Reasonable
IV VALIDITY OF A LAW
A. Power to Adopt
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B. Certain
C. Reasonable
D. Reasonable Classification
E. Criminal Intent
F. Nuisance
V STATUTORY APPROACHES
A. Darkness of Emissions
B. Effect
C. Quality
D. Quantity
E. Equipment
F. Prohibit Processes
G. Fuels
H. Permit System
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VI EQUITY
VII GUIDES TO ENFORCEMENT
A. Due Process and Equal Protection
B. Notice
C. Independence
D. Entrapment
E. Right to a Hearing
VIII ADMINISTRATIVE HEARINGS
A. Less Formal
B. Laymen vs. Judges
C. Rules of Evidence
1. Relevance
2. Hearsay
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IX REQUIREMENTS FOR A FAIR HEARING
A. Notice
B. Representation
C. Legal Counsel
X BURDEN OF PROOF
XI APPEALS
XII 1955 - 1967 FEDERAL ACTIVITIES (OH)
A. 1955 Air Pollution Control Act
B. 1960 Schenck Act
C. 1963 Clean Air Act
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D. 1965 Amendments (Motor Vehicles)
E. 1966 E. 0. 11282
F. 1966 Clean Air Act Amended
G. 1967 Air Quality Act
XIII 1970 AMENDMENTS TO THE CLEAN AIR ACT
A. Findings and Purpose (Sect. 101)
B. Cooperative Activities (Sect. 102)
C. Research Investigation and Training (Sect. 103)
D. Fuels Research (Sect. 104)
E. Grants (Sect. 105)
F. Interstate Agencies (Sect. 106)
G. Air Quality Control Regions (Sect. 107)
H. Air Quality Criteria and Control Techniques (Sect. 108)
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I. National Air Quality Standards (Sect. 109)
J. Implementation Plans (Sect. 110)
K. Standards of Performance for New Stationary Sources
(Sect. Ill)
L. Hazardous Pollutants (Sect. 112)
M. Federal Enforcement (Sect. 113)
N. Inspection Monitoring and Entry (Sect. 114)
0. Retention of State Authority (Sect. 115)
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Fifty-Years of Air Pollution Law'
HAROLD W. KENNEDY
Legal Counsel for the Air I'ollulion Control Dislricl
Los Angeles County. California
lii nio-t ol us. .>() \cars seems a
xerx long time. The past hull cen-
lurx has seen revolutionary develop-
ments and magnificent advancements
in most material spheres of man's
endeavors. The legal mind, however,
customarily thinks of 50 years of le-
gal development as a ripple in the tide
of the law. Many lawyers refer to
cases decided in the xear 1800. for
example, as recently decided.
The reason for this attitude is the
basic structure of the common law.
Based as it is on revered and ancient
precedent, the common laxv is char-
acterized b\ a strong adherence to
principal. Anothei characteristic of
ibe common laxv is adaptahilitx lo
nexx .situations, but the process is
usual!) a deliberate change rather
than a sudden shift.
An intelligent rexiexx of the dexel-
opmenl of air pollution control lau
during the lasl half ccnturx max not
be made without first recognizing the
importance of the pre-1007 period.
For xvith the exception of the one case
of Northwestern Laundry v. Dex
Main?*, 239 U. S. 486. 36 S. Cl. 206.
60 L.Ed. 396. 119161. ihe legal his-
torx of the pre-1007 period recorded
leading 1 nited Slates cases which
communicated the major principles
of ail pollution control law. Ihe
courts, during this earl) period, came
In grips with the basic isMics involved
anil laid ,i strong foundation upon
which -tali1- and municipalilies could
id) in their efforts lo abate air pol-
lution problems in their local area.-.
Ihe initial portion ol ibis report will
sketch the law as il appeared in 1007.
a- a backdrop lo the dc\clopmcnls of
the la-l .>() \cai-.
Common Law Nuisance
II -hould be noted at tin1 outset
that ino-l of our carl\ law and that
of the English case-, dealt wilb all
I'li'-riMi'il .il iln' .">()lli \iiiiii.il Medina ol
iln; Air I'olliiliiiii (ioiilrnl \7.
contamination as a part of the field
of tort law commonl) referred to us
Nuisance. Smoke was considered to
be a nuisance at common law, but it
was not a nuisance per se. That is.
in each individual case it had to be
proved that the smoke was in fact in-
jurious or offensive to the senses. In
the case of a public nuisance it had
to be proved that a large number of
persons were affected. Blackstone re-
ports a case in which the fumes from
a lead smelter killed a neighboring
farmer's corn and were held to be a
nuisance (cited in appeal of Pennsyl-
vania Coal Company, 96 Pa. 116.
Earlier cases are collected in 77 Eng-
lish Reprint 816.1.
It is the prevailing and sound ju-
dicial view that the emission of dense
smoke in populous communities is a
public nuisance. In the case of Glu-
cose Refining Company v. City oj Chi-
cago, 138 Fed. 200. 215 I'1005 I. the
court said:
"The bill admits the issuance of
dense smoke, and it is a matter of
common knoxvledge, of which the
court ma) take cognizance i Slate \.
Tower) (Mo. Supp.) 84 S.W. 12;
Moses v. United States. 16 App. D.C.
128: Field r. Chicago, supra), that
smoke emitted from a tall chimne) is
carried over a xvide territory, and
lhal when dense, it deposits soot to
such an extent as to injure propertx
and health wherever il spreads.1'
A good statement on the gcneiid
and prex ailing rule in regard to
smoke as a public nuisance. x\as made
by the Supreme Court of Indiana in
the case of limvers \. City nj Indi-
nnupolis, 162 hid. 105. Ill IYE. 1007
al 100!!. I.'! Ann. Cas. 1108. 1.1907).
1 be court upheld an ordinance of the
cil\ of Indianapolis proxiding:
"The emis-ion of dense, black . . .
smoke from an) smokestack used in
connection with am stationary
furnace of anx description within
ihe cit) . except a- a private resi-
dence, shall be deemed and is hereb)
declared to be a public nuisance."
"The question x\e haxe lo deal with
is not as lo the authority to regulate
the emission of dense smoke in a
sparsely inhabited locality, wherein
the act could only result in the crea-
tion of a private nuisance, but of the
right to prevent the emission of dense
black or gray smoke (for so we con-
strue the ordinance I within the cor-
porate limits of a populous cit).
wherein, if there be no regulations
upon the subject, the smoke from
scores of steam plants must, in the
nature of things, often cover the cit)
as xvith a pall, thereby impairing the
health and comfort of thousands, and
casting grime upon ever) exposed ob-
ject. If there is an)thing in tbe prin-
ciple of the greatest good lo the great-
est number, or in the declared au-
thority of government reasonably to
regulate the use of property for the
common good, it must be affrmed lhat
power exisls to deal with a condition
which renders life in a great manu-
facturing city little short of impos-
sible."
As stated bx Lord Romilly in
Crump v. Lamhert. L.R. 3. Eq. 409.
15 Week. Rep. H7 I England I.
118671.
"The real question in all cases is
the question of fact, namel). whether
the annoyance is such as to material!)
interfere with the ordinal \ comforts
of human existence1."
Need For Legislation: Nuisance
PerSe
Long before Blackstone s lime il
was recognized lhat the law of nui-
sance was not adequate to lake care
of the situation in an urban com-
munity where there xxere a number
of sources of air pollution. In Eng-
land, the first smoke abatement laxv
appears lo have been enacted in the
reign of Edward I. in the yai 1273,
In 1307 one offender of this law.
which prohibited the use of the coal.
as detrimental lo heallh, was con-
demned and executed. In 166] John
PA. A. ie. 21. 25.
1
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E\el\n wrote a book on the smoke
nuisance in London (Fumifugium:
nr. The Inconvenience oj the Aer, and
Smoake of London Dissipated. To-
gether II ith Some Remedies . .
rcj|ninterr .sc . We have no
lie-il.inc \ in holding lliat il was cn-
liich competent for ibe Legislature
In dec I,nr the emission of densr
- noke in tin- open ail in a city of
ICO.il(M) inhabitants a nuisance jie.r
declare smoke a nuisance per se, even
though not a nuisance per se or a
nuisance at common law, found
strong support in cases decided at the
beginning of the post 1907 period.
Nortlui'eslern \. Des Moines, supra.
Stale v. Chicago, M & St. P. Ry. Co.,
114 Minn. 122. 130 N.W. 545. 546.
Ann. Cas. 1712 B, 1030 (1911).
The validity of regulating statutes
or ordinances does not depend upon
whether or not the act prohibited is
a nuisance but depends instead upon
whether or not the law comes within
the constitutional limitations and, in
the case of a city or county, whether
or not it has power under its charter
or constitutional statutory provisions
to pass such a law.
It is either within the police power
of a municipal corporation or under
specific power under charter or stat-
ute to adopt reasonable regulations to
protect the public, health, safety and
welfare. Without a doubt it is within
the competence of a state legislature
to confer upon municipalities power
to enact ordinances to protect against
atmospheric contamination or pollu-
tion, such as smoke ordinances, as
constituting a proper exercise of mu-
nicipal police powei or power to safe-
guard against nuisances.
7 McQuillin on Municipal Corpora-
tions, 3rd Ed. p. 469, 470.
Probably the earliest United States
case upholding a municipal smoke
contiol ordinance is thai of City oj
New Orleans \. Lambeil, 14 La. Ann.
247 ( IH59), where the Louisiana Su-
preme Court reinstated an injunction
by a city against the operation of a
blacksmith shop because it exuded of-
fensive odors, smoke, and was a nui-
sance, all in violation of a city ordi-
nance. The court gave note to the
fact that the police power covers such
cases.
Validity As To Due Process
Subsequent to 1894, based upon
the decision handed down in Lawlon
v. Steele, 152 U. S. 133, 14 Sup. Ct.
499, 38 L.Ed. 385, it became well set-
tled that any provision of a statute or
ordinance regulating u nuisance, such
as the smoke nuisance, is valid in so
far as the due process clause is
concerned, if it is reasonably neces-
sary for the accomplishment of the
purpose and for the public welfare
generally, and if it is not unduly op-
pressive, nor arbitrarily interferes
•.vilh private business or imposes un-
u«ual or unnecessary restrictions upon
i lawful oicupalion. AS via* said b>
Mr. Justice Brown, in Lawton v.
Steele, supra,
"While the legislature has no right
arbitrarily to declare that to be a
nuisance which is clearly not so, a
good deal must be left to its discre-
tion in that regard, and if the object
to be accomplished is conducive to
the public interests it may exercise a
large liberty of choice in the means
employed."
It would seem that no certain and
satisfactory limitation upon the legis-
lative discretion, in the exercise of
the police power, can safely be de-
clared in advance for application to
very many cases that may subse-
quently arise (Moses v. United States,
supra).
Availability of Control Equipment
One of the major court decisions
rendered prior to 1907 having sig-
nificance to the use of scientific appli-
ances or controls was the case of
People v. Detroit White Lead Works,
.82 Mich. 471, 46 N.W. 735 (1890).
As a result of the decision of this case
the rule became well established for
a number of years thereafter that
whenever a business becomes a nui-
sance, it must give way to the rights
of the public and the owners thereof
must either devise some means to
avoid the nuisance or must remove
or cease the business, even though the
business is carried on in a careful
manner and nothing is done which is
not a reasonable and necessary in-
cident to the business and even
though there may be no smoke con-
suming appliance that will under all
circumstances prevent the nuisance.
It is to be noted, however, that later
cases, and especially those of recent
vintage show a tendency away from
the ruling of the Detroit White Lead
case. A treatment of these more re-
cent decisions will be made later in
this discussion.
Summary: Pre-1907 Period
It may be said, in summarizing the
accomplishments of the pre-1907 pe-
riod, that the following aspects of air
pollution control law represent the
majority, if not all, of the basic prin-
ciples which became settled and ac-
cepted.
(]) Although at common law
smoke and other air contaminants
were not considered to be a nuisance
per .ie the legislature can declare air
contaminant" to be a public nuisance
mid the courts will not invalidate
-------
such legislative acts, provided that the
legislative declaration is reasonably
clear and certain.
(2) A slalute or ordinance will In-
valid as far as due process is con-
cerned, if it is reasonably necessary
for the benefit of the public welfare,
and if it is not arbitrary or oppres-
sive.
(.'I) The state has the power to
confer upon municipalities the power
to enact ordinances for the purpose
of regulating air pollution as consti-
tuting a proper exercise of the police
power of the municipality.
(4) The courts lake judicial no-
tice that dense smoke is a nuisance or
at least harmful enough to be de-
clared a nuisance.
The Last Fifty Years
Whereas it might be interesting to
trace the progress of the law since
1907 in chronological order of the
decided cases, such an approach
would prevent proper analysis of the
issues decided. Consequently, for
convenience we shall take up each is-
sue separately and discuss the cases
bearing upon it.
Although the cases decided prior
to 1907 rather clearly established that
the state could, under its police pow-
er, prohibit or regulate the emission
of smoke or fumes it was not until
1916 that the substantive law of air
pollution control was enriched with
the clear and concise opinion rendered
in Northwestern Laundry v. Des
Mvines, supra. This case, as do a
number of cases in the stale courts.
holds that the ordinances merely pro-
hibiting the emission of dense smoke
in cities or populous .neighborhoods.
and also ordinances that prescribe a
definite scientific standard for the
density of smoke, such as the Ringel-
mann Scale, are valid so far as con-
stitutional limitations are concerned.
The smoke may be forbidden without
reference to the time or quantity or
emission or the immediate surround-
ings.
In the Des Moines case, the laun-
dry filed a bill in equity in the United
States District Court in Iowa against
the City of Des Moines, and the
smoke inspector and members of the
smoke abatement commission of thai
city, to enjoin the enforcement of a
Des Moines ordinance providing that
the emission of dense smoke in por-
tions of the city was a public nui-
sance. It w;is claimed that the ordi-
nance was void under (he due process
find equal protection clause of the
Fourteenth Amendment in that,
among other tilings, the ordinance in
providing for the use of Ringelmann
Stnoke Chart, prescribed arbitrary
lests of degrees of density. The stand-
ard of efficiency required the remod-
eling of practically all furnaces. It
forbade remodeling or new construc-
tion without a license and gave dis-
cretion to the smoke inspector and
abatement commissioners to prescribe
requirements. The court held the
ordinance valid and dismissed the bill
upon its merits, saying:
"So far as the federal constitution
is concerned we have no doubt the
state may by itself, or through au-
thorized municipalities, declare the
emission of dense smoke in cities or
populous neighborhoods a nuisance
and subject to restraint as such; and
that the harshness of such legislation,
or its effect upon business interests,
short of a merely arbitrary enact-
ment, are not valid constitutional ob-
jections. Nor is there any valid fed-
eral constitutional objection in the
fact that the regulation may require
the discontinuance of the use of prop-
erty, or subject the occupant to large
expense in complying with the terms
of the law or ordinance. Recent cases
in this court are Reinman v. Little
Rock, 237 U. S. 171, 59 L. Ed. 900, 35
S. Ct. Rep. 511; Chicago and A. R.
Co. v. Tranberger, 238 U. S. 67, 59 L.
Ed. 1204. 35 Sup. Ct. Rep. 678;
Hailacheck v. Sebastian, decided De-
cember 20, 1915, (239 U.S. 394, Ante,
34H, 36 Sup. Ct. Rep. 143)."
"That such emission of smoke is
within the regulatory power of the
state has been affirmed by state
courts. Harmon v. Chicago, 110 111.
400, 51 Am. Rep. 698."
To the same effect see also the fol-
lowing authorities:
7 McQuillin: Municipal Corpora-
tions, 3rd Ed, page 475, Section
24.495;
37 Am. Jur. 939, Note 9, Section
295;
43 Corpus Juris 431, Section 571.
39 Am. Juris 336-338, Section 54;
1918 B Ann. Cas. 173;
6 A.L.R. 1575;
58 A.L.R. 1225; 18 Cal. Jur. 838:
Section 141;
16 Cent. Law Jour., 151;
Manual of Ordinances and Require-
ments, published by Smoke Preven-
tion Assoc. of America, Inc.; p. 24
(1940).
The passage of lime has taken noth-
ing away from the authority of cases
like Northwestern Laundry v. Des
Moinex, supra. It upheld the right
of a city, after receiving statutory au-
thority, to forbid the emission of
dense smoke in cities or populous
neighborhoods. Recent cases consid-
er the problem settled. In Hoard of
Health of W'ee haw ken Township.
Hudson County v. New York Central
Railroad (1950) 4 N. J. 293, 72 A.
2d 511 at 514, the court said:
". . . There are no constitutional
restraints upon state actions against
the emission of dense smoke injuri-
ous to the common welfare; the only
requirement is that the regulation be
free from arbitrariness. Northwest-
ern Laundry Co. v. Des Moines,
supra."
Refinements of Air Pollution
Control Law
With the inclusion of the decision
of the Des Moines case in the body of
air pollution control law, legislatures,
municipalities and local control dis-
tricts saw a fulfillment and comple-
tion of the essential and legal grounds
necessary to provide them with suf-
ficient power and confidence to force-
fully attack their immediate air pol-
lution problems.
For the most part the significant
cases in the field of air pollution con-
trol, in addition to those already dis-
cussed, have greatly aided the ad-
ministration and application of exist-
ing statutes and ordinances by defin-
ing with various refinements the na-
ture of such laws. These refinements
as presented by specific problems are
the subject of the following portion
of this discussion.
Liberal Construction of Regulations
The liberal attitude of some courts
toward air pollution control regula-
tions is illustrated by the following
quotation from Penn-Dixie Cement
Corp. v. City of Kingsport, (1949)
189 Tenn. 450, 225 S.W. 2d 270, 275:
"Ordinances to preserve the pub-
lic health have been liberally con-
strued and the authorities have gone
to great length in enumerating the
implied powers of municipalities to
enact laws to protect the community
from infectious and contagious dis-
eases, from bad water, against nui-
sances injurious to health and nox-
ious odors and gases. Inasmuch as
the provision of the public health and
the safety of the inhabitants is one
of the chief purposes of local govern-
ment, all reasonable ordinances in
this direction have been sustained."
The court in People v. Consolidated
Company of New York, Inc., 116
-------
YY.S. 2d 55.) I 1952). found that the
Smoke Control Bureau of the City of
New York acted under the police
power of the City of New York in
promulgating its rules and regula-
tions, and that such rules and regula-
tions are remedial and must be lib-
erally construed.
For other cases where the court
used a liberal construction, see De-
partment of Health oj City of IV. Y. \.
I'hilip and William Eblin[> Brewing
Co., .">?! Misc. 537, 78 N.Y.S. 13
(1902). and People v. Long Is. R.
Co.. .".I N.Y.S. 2d 537 (1942).
Requisite of Reasonableness
An\ ordinance or statute undci ihe
pohce power must be reasonable, and
for lluil reason must regulate or for-
bid something which is or could be
considered detrimental to the public
pence-, health, safety, morals 01 gen-
eral welfare. If an) set of facts may
be supposed as In which a law or
ordinance is reasonable. 01 if reason-
able minds max differ on the question.
I he enactment will be sustained. Mut-
ter of Millt-r (l'JI2l 162 Cal. 687;
('.lemon* \. C.Y/y nj Los Aiiftelei
(19501 36 Cal. 2d 95. 98-99. 222 P.
2d 439: Milli-i v. Hoard oj Public
Work*. 195 Cal. 177. 488-490. 234 P.
2d 38. Where the ordinance or stat-
ute pas.ses this lest, a naked \iolation
of (lie oi'dinancc is all that need be
-liown.
I he le^islalure has a \\ide discie-
lion in determining what is a nui-
sance and whul is not. and what may
be legulaled under (he police power.
In doubtful cases, ihe dclermination
of the <|iicstion b\ the legislative
bod) is conelusive. The courts will
not inlerfeie miles- ihe law result in
needle*.* oppicssion, and will not
ipieslinn the u isdoiii of the legislii-
lion. Hut the courts arc nol limited
to the face of llic law il.self. The
coiiiN mm look Iiehind ihe law and
ilelermine from i ompelenl cxliinsii
<-\ iilence whether 01 not llic law is
tcasonablc. ,i,i. 20 App. D.C. 169: Slate v. Ton-
t'r. Mipra. C.iininnali \'. Burkhardl.
.'.(I Ohio Cir. Cl. Rep. 350. Ann Cas .
I1'I 8 B. 174. (19081.
In the case of A/o.ie.i \. I nilcil
Vf//c.N, Mip/a, the court said:
"The polic\ of adopting a icgula-
hon to meet the condition* is a mal-
lei purely and e\clusi\ely within ihe
[HuviiHe of tlic legislative depart-
ment The juiheian i an nnl\ inler-
fere \sitll llie r\c|( i^r i)T tllP power
uliei' il i- MI,in i ('•*•! (hal the le^uLi-
lion has no real or substantial rela-
tion to objects within the police pow-
er, and constitutes a palpable inva-
sion of private rights."
It can be seen that what is reason-
able depends upon the circumstances.
No hard and fast rule can be estab-
lished for all cases. It has been
urged that legislation regulating the
use of bituminous coal is unreason-
able, especially in a district where
soft coal is produced in large quan-
tities, and where such coal is uni-
versally used for fuel. It is argued
that to enforce a law of this charac-
ter would require industry to use ex-
pensive anthracite or other smokeless
fuel causing great haidship. and per-
haps, driving many plants from the
city. This contention was easily re-
futed by Ihe Supreme Court of Illi-
nois in the case of Harmon v. Clu-
raifo, 1 10 III. 400. which disposed of
the objection as follows:
"II mav be that some. and. per-
haps, very greal inconvenience would
be experienced b) a rigid enforce-
ment of the provisions of this ordi-
nance. Mow that may be this court
cannot know. What powers the eit)
council may exercise under the gen-
eral law or under its police powers is
a question of law to be determined b)
ihe courts; but when the city council
will exercise the powers will) which
it is clothed ii-sls in its legislative dis-
cretion, and the consequences that
ma) flow from the enforcement of
ordinances enacted within the powers
conferred, rests alone upon the body
enacting them, and will) which the
courts ha\e no concern."
In .S<«/<- v. Pond, 93 Mo. 6I». the
couil said:
"Will) Ihe policy ol ihe law. the
w isdom or u ant of it in its enactment.
we lm\e no concern; lhat belongs to
ihe domain of the legislature. Our
business is to declare what is law and
not to make law."
Actual damage in ., particular case
need not be shown lo sustain a con-
viclion under an ordinance. In Stale
v. Mundel Cork Co., (1952) 8 N. J.
359. 86 All. 2d 1 at 6, the court said:
"Further, actual injury to health 01
pioperty is not necessary lo the proof
of conviction of violation of the ordi-
nance, since whether persons or prop-
erly aie or may be injured by the
continued exercise of the prohibited
(onduet 01 industrial operation is
ielati\e lo the <[ui-stion of reasonable-
ness of the ordinance and not to the
question of fact as in what constitutes
\ iolatiun Iherr
-------
charier, l>ut must affect each member
of I he community alike. They should
neither favor nor discriminate against
any person or class of persons or any
particular portion of the municipal
territory. Their hurdens and their
benefits should rest equally upon all."
(People v. Lewis, 86 Mich. 273. 49
N.W. 140, (1891))
In the above case the court held as
mil unreasonable an ordinance which
provided that private residences and
steam boats be excluded from the
ordinance declaring the emission of
dense smoke that caused the deposit
of soot on any surface within the
corporate limits to be a public nui-
sance.
In the case of Stale v. Tower, supra,
the general assembly of the state
had passed an act in 1901 which made
the emission or discharge into the
open air of dense smoke within the
corporate limits of this state which
now have or may hereafter have a
population, of 100,000 inhabitants a
public nuisance. The statute ex-
empted owners of premises who ma)
be able to show to the satisfaction of
the court that there is no known prac-
tical device to prevent the emission
of dense smoke. The court upheld
the Missouri statute as valid and rea-
sonable.
In the case of Moses v. United
Stales, supra, sustained by the court
in the case of Bradley v. District of
Columbia, supra, an act of Congress
provided:
"The emission of dense or thick
black or pray smoke or cinders from
an> smoke stack or chimney used in
connection with any stationary en-
gine, steam boiler, or furnace of an)
description within the District of Co-
lumbia shall be deemed and is herel>\
declared to be a public nuisance; pro-
vided that nothing in this act shall be
construed as applying to chinme)s of
buildings used exclusively for pri-
vate residences."
The acl provided for a line of from
$10 to .1100 for each olfense and that
every day in which the provisions
were violated, constituted a separate
ollense.
The judgment of conviction by the
police conrl of the District was af-
firmed and llie ordinance upheld. The
court held that I lie power of Congress
In enact regulations affecting the pub-
lic hcallli and comfort was the same
-------
i>o\cs aie being cleaned or new fire*-
stalled, fur niiirr than 6 min. in uny
hour of day or night.
The complainant attempted lo en-
join enforcement of ihc ordinance, as-
serting llial it violated the Federal
Constitution. The court denied the
injunction on the ground that the bill
admitted the Issuance of dense smoke,
and Ihc court took judicial notice of
the fact that such smoke was a nui-
sance and spread over a large ter-
ritory.
In 1955 the United States Supreme
Court (351 U. S. 990, 100 L.Ed.
1503) dismissed an appeal from the
decision handed down by the Appel-
late Department, Superior Court, Los
Angeles, involving four separate cases
each of which involved one or more
charges and convictions of smog vio-
lation. People \. Plywood Manufac-
turers t>l C.alil.; People v. Shell Oil
('<>.; People \. I'nittn Oil Co.; People
\. Soitl/ietn ('nil/. Edison Co.; 137
C.A. 2.1 Supp. !!50; 291 I'. 2d 5f!7.
The defendants stood charged and
eimvieli'd of violating Section 24242
of ihe Health and Safety Code. Sec-
tion 2 I-2-1.2 provides:
"A person shall not discharge into
the atmosphere from any single
source of emission whatsoever any
air contaminant for a period or pe-
riods aggregating more than three
minutes in any one hour which is:
"(a'l As dark or darker in shade
as that designated as No. 2 on the
Ringelmarm Chart, as published by
the L'nited States Bureau of Mines,
or
"(M Of such opacity as to obscure
mi observer's view to a degree equal
to or greater than does smoke de-
scribed in subsection (a) of this sec-
tion. Diieclly involved was sub-
division 11) I relative to opacity of
emission. The Appellate Department.
after recalling its prior decision in
Penple v. International Steel Corp.
U051 I. 102 Cal. App. 2d Supp. 935.
'_!26 I'. 2
-------
specifically, ihe Board will have the
power to require motor vehicles to be
equipped \vith a device to eliminate
'lie emission of air contaminants as
soon as such a de\ ice is perfected.
shown to lie effective, available on the
markel nnd ihe requirement of its use
is found to be reasonable . . .
"I Imvcver, we arc informed by the
Air Pollution Control District engi-
ncrrs that I here, is no device on the
in.ukcl as yet which will reduce or
elimiiMlc Ihe emission of fumes from
motor veliicles. One device is being
tesled. another is still in the designing
stage. It is not known whether ei-
ther will woik. Neither is it known
how long it will be before some such
device, after being proved practicable,
will be available commercially.
Until such a device is perfected and
mi the market, any rule requiring the
use of the device is arbitrary, capri-
cious and void, unless the hazard to
life and property is so great that a
rule would be justified forbidding the
sale or use of motor vehicles in this
County. From the facts given to us.
the Board could conclude that there
is no sur.h emergency now in Los
Angeles County. Once a satisfactory
device is perfected, shown to be effec-
tice for the purpose and practicable
in operation, then the regulation pro-
posed could be adopted, allowing suf-
ficient time before it becomes effec-
tive' to get the device on the market in
reasonable quantities. As it is im-
possible to tell when such a device
may be invented, or if invented, when
perfected for motor vehicle use and
••dun n to be practicable, no such regu-
lation could he adopted now to be ef-
lccli\c at a future dale.
"We conclude llial the rule you sug-
gest, with certain modifications, can
be adopted when the required device
is available1- bul not until then."
Illustrative Cases Holding
Regulations Invalid; Unreasonable;
Uncertain; Insufficient Power in
Local Body
In the case of Ifeparlment of Health
ij llit: C.ily ti/ Ni'w York v. Philip and
It'ill/am Killing B reiving Company, 38
Misc. .~>.!7. 7,'! N.Y.S. l.'i. (1902), the
Couit iefii^ed to convict ihe defendant
for allowing gas to escape from its
furnace where it was not shown that
ihe gas was detrimental or annoying
to am person, although the ordinance
involved lileially prohibited the emis-
sion of all smoke or gas from fur-
naces. The ordinance (Section l.'i I
of the Sanitary ('ode of New York
( at) I pi ovidcd :
"Nor shall any . . . person . . .
allow any smoke . . . gas, steam or of-
fensive odors to escape . . . from any
. . building . . ., and every furnace
employed . . shall be so constructed
as to consume or burn the smoke aris-
ing therefrom."
The court said:
". . . It appears that the defendant
has adopted and uses a pattern of fur-
nace designed to burn and consume
smoke; that the matter carried off
from the firebed does not pass directly
into its chimney, but passes first
through a process that burns and con-
sumes all the solid matter in the es-
caping product of combustion, so that
whatever passes into the chimney is in
the form of a gas, without ash, soot.
or dust.
". The defendant's proof estab-
lishes that whether the flue of its
chimney carries off imperceptible gas
or visible smoke, in neither case is
any feature of nuisance to any resi-
dent of the city possible, nor has any-
one living in any direction from its
premises suffered any injury, annoy-
ance, inconvenience, discomfort, or
hurt. If the provision adopted by
the Board of Health, however, is to be
literally applied, these considerations
are immaterial, because the section
prohibits the escape of smoke under
any circumstances.
If it had not been proved
before me in this case, I think that
the Court would take judicial cogni-
zance of the fact that no fire can be
burned without giving off as a prod-
uct of combustion an exhalation visi-
ble as smoke or invisible as gas. To
prescribe that a furnace should be
used without allowing any smoke or
gas to be given off calls for as little
possibility of compliance as to require
that it be used without permitting
combustion, and yet that is what this
section of the Sanitary Code literally
requires. It cannot be supposed that
the legislature intended to require the
impossible or to close every furnace
in our city for the promotion of a
better atmosphere. To give this sec-
tion, therefore, a reasonable and
working application, the attempt to
construe it literally must be aban-
doned, and something further looked
lo than the phraseology in its un-
qualified significance.
". . . All the prohibitory provisions
of that Code are designed lo prevent
actions that are, calculated to work a
detriment to some person. To accom-
plish that is I he reason and excuse
for interfering with the liberty of eacli
individual to do as he pleases with his
own. When, therefore, the legislature
enacted as a part of the Sanitary Code
that no gas or smoke should be al-
lowed to escape from a furnace, I
think it must be understood with the
implied qualification, 'to the detri-
ment or annoyance of any person.' "
See also: People on complaint of
Greene v. Long Island Railroad Com-
pany, 31 N. Y. Supp. 2d 537, (]
-------
no reasonably astertainable standard
by which a citizen can discover in ad-
\anre whether his discharge of smoke
will lie held lo violate the ordinance
or not."
It is well lo note at this point, that
a number of cases that hold ordi-
nances invalid have been decided on
the ground that the local body did not
have the power, under the particular
state constitutional and statutory pro-
visions or the charter of the local
body, to declare dense smoke a nui-
sance. However, in such cases, the
courts have usually admitted that the
legislative body of the state had such
power. It is in such cases, also, that
the statement often appears that the
municipality cannot make that a pub-
lic nuisance which is not in fact such.
Other decisions state that although the
local body was given power to declare
nuisances, it could not declare the
emission of smoke a nuisance, because
the mere emission of smoke was not
in fact a nuisance or a nuisance per
se; but that the slate legislature could
so declare.
For instance, in the case of City of
St. Loins v. lleilzeberg Packing and
Provision Co., 141 Mo. 375, 42 S.W.
954 (1897) an ordinance of the City
of St. Louis provided: "The emission
into the open uir of dense smoke or
illicit f^riiy smoke within the corporate
limits oj the City of St. Louis is here-
by declared to be a nuisance." The
court held the ordinance void, stating
that smoke alone was not a nuisance
l>er se, and that the city could not de-
clare that a nuisance which was not
so in fact. The case was decided on
the ground that the City of St. Louis
did not have the power lo declare
smoke a nuisance, as its charter gave
il the power only lo declare nuisances
on private and public property and
the CHUM'S thereof, bul did not spe-
cifically empower ihe city to declare
the emission of thick smoke a nui-
sance.
In ihe case of Stale v. Tower, 185
Mo. 79. ,'!! S.W. 10. at page 12
I l')()ll ihe courl staled lhal the qucs-
linii in the St. l.om\ case was not
\\helhri the stale had ihe [lower, but
wbi'lher lire r/'/}, in the absence of a
slale law .Hid in ihe absence of such
|touri in ils dial Irr. * ould declare the
emission nf smoke u nuisance jic.i ,vc.
Iliis w.is also the basis of decisions
holding ordinances of Cleveland and
St. I'dul unreasonable. Cleveland v.
Malm. 1 Ohio Dec. 121, following
Si^lfi \. Clecelanil, I- Ohio Dec. 166:
df, ,,l Si. Paul \. Cil/illnn. :',6 Minn.
20;";. :;i YW. 19 11!:;:6).
Statutes and Ordinances Not Based
On Nuisance
The police power of ihe state, or of
ihe municipalily or other local agen-
cy when properly authorized by the
state, extends to the regulation of air
pollution, visible or invisible, without
regard to whether the condition con-
stitutes a common law or stalulory
nuisance.
In Board of Health of Weehawken
Township v. New York Central Rail-
road (1952) 10 N. J. 294. 00 A. 2d
729, 735, the court said:
"The reason for a municipality
making unlawful the emission of
smoke is readily apparent. The is-
suance of dense smoke from a single
chimney, in and of itself, may be al-
together harmless and cause no in-
convenience or damage to the public.
but if smoke of like density issued
from hundreds of chimneys, the con-
tamination of the atmosphere would
be substantial and the injury to the
public considerable, yet for lack of
the requisite elements of a public nui-
sance at common law, the municipali-
ty could obtain no relief by way of
indictmenl. Ordinances making un-
lawful [he emission of smoke are
therefore obviously necessary and
reasonable and a valid exercise of the
local police power."
See also: People v. International
Steel Co., (1951) 102 Cal. App. 2d
Supp. 935, 226 P. 2d 587.
In State v. Mundet Cork Corp.,
(1952) 8 N. J. 359, 86 A. 2d 1. at
3-4, the court said:
"The emphasis in this type of ordi-
nance for centuries has been placed
on smoke regulation. (In response
to a petition by the citizens of Lon-
don, a royal proclamation was issued
by Edward I in England in 1306 to
prohibit artificers from using sea
coal, as distinguished from charcoal.
in their furnaces, and making use of
sea coal a capital offense . .) In
more recent generations other air pol-
lutants have been subjected to con-
Irol . . . Ordinances designed to regu-
lale and control air pollution in the
inleresl of [he public health and wel-
fare have been held valid and enforce-
able in this Slate ""'
Validity Not Based on Nuisance
The validity of an ordinance or
.statute regulating ihe emission of
smoke or fumes does not depend upon
whether or not it is a nuisance. The
validity depends enlirely upon wheth-
er or not ihe law comes within the
constitutional limil:,' •>..
case of a city, whitf': r
power under its eh;--•••!
tutional or btatiin i- >,•
pass such a law. 'I !'<• •
permits ihe state !•• •-'.. i '
bid and regulate \.,ri :'•• ,
provide for the fici '""
comfort of the pt-> r V.
whether or not l'i
sances.
A leading case OP !l
California case of .'r,
Cal. App. 602, 605 (I' ' '
In this case the | . i';-o ;
discharge on a xvr'u '.i I. :'
to test the validily of .> I ..
city ordinance. Tni ;"-i
vided:
"II shall be unl^vlrl I
son, firm or corporator.', I
soot lo escape fnnti '• ,-
or from ihe chimney <-,' -.
within the City of !•: 1-1
which dislillale or MV.J
sumed as fuel."
The petitionei . :,>) -
ordinance was in1'-!"- ;!r
void on its face. •'. mi'l
nance it made no differ.-."
tie soot was enn'M.'d
stated:
"That the poli. r pi"
herent attribute of ci ••< , '
mohwealth in the 'Ju'u-,.
tion which will rrarliis '-.
It is not only a po er v!i
in the sovereignly c;l )'••• I
a power the exeivis'' t.i v
stales is indispeiisib!1 <• *=.
health, peace, roml-n-f L
generally of the >!,'n!:',:
of . .
"This power c'.'b. ;• .'- •
regulate any class of !>:,-.. •
eration of which i>nV
may. in the judpnc-ii <.i
priate local authority, i.:i
the rights of othei; loi ;
Dobbins v. City <;/ f,t< i
proposition rannol !>.- »!-i <
the exercise of ilii o". .
lo the regulation « i.!\ /•'•
ferences with til' ; nl-l • •
comfort as soinr u i. I'
common law ,
931, Ann. Cas. 1'ii,1! ',; i
Not all courl i i < !
eralive toward ;..i. i., •
rontamination
-------
l''in (example, in the ease of Glut'ose
Refining Company v. Chicago, supra.
tin1 rourt said:
. It is held in the case of //«r-
mon v. Chicago, supra, lhat a Mu-
nicipality cannot by ordinance make
that a public nuisance which was riol
in fact such. The same rule is laid
down in numerous cases and must lie
deemed a settled rule for (lie purpose
of this motion."
In tin' case of the Slate v. Chicago.
supra, the court staled:
"It is elementary that the legisla-
ture cannot prevent ti lawful use of
property by declaring a certain use
to be a nuisance which is not in fad
a nuisance, and prohibiting such use."
State Action to Abate Interstate
Nuisance
In an equity action brought lo en-
join a foreign corporation from dis-
charging noxious gases from their
works in Tennessee over large tracts
of the stale of Georgia, the United
States Supreme Court in the case of
Slate of Georgia v. Tennessee Coppei
Company, (19071 27 S. Cl. 018. 51
L.Kd. 1038, upheld the injunction.
Mr. Justice Holmes, writing for the
Court said:
"This is a suit by a slate in its ca-
pacity of quasi-sovereign. In that ca-
pacity the slate has an interest inde-
pendent of and behind ihe lilies of
its citizens, in all the earth and air
within its domain. It has the last word
as to whether its mountains shall he
stripped of their forests and its in-
habitants shall brealhe pure air . .
If the state has a case at all it is some-
what more certainly entitled to spe-
cific relief than a private parly might
be."
Justice llarlan in iil>li'- obligation to furnish a
C'lmniodily . . Nor will the adoption
of ihe itx^t approved appliances and
methods of pioduclion justify the
ronl inuance of lhat which, in spite of
iheni, remains ;i nuisance."
In the California case of Dauber-
man v. Grant. 1(>!'> Gal. 580. 48 A.L.R.
1244, 246 IV. 319 I l')26) the court
held thai 'he de^'iiclanl could be en-
joined from maintaining a nuisance
where he maintained a smoke stack at
such a low height that heavy black
smoke and soot were carried into
plaintiff's adjacent dwelling.
The court said:
"It was not necessary to the recov-
ery of damages caused by the nui-
sance of smoke and soot to prove ac-
tual damage to plaintiff's property.
She was entitled to recover for the
personal discomfort and annoyance
to which she had been subjected and
it was a question for the trial court
to determine the amount of compen-
sation which she should receive."
See also: State v. Mundet Cork
Corp., (1952) 8 N. J. 359, 86 A. 2d 1.
Thus impairment to health need
not be shown. However, in a proper
case the court will take judicial notice
of the fact that air pollution is in-
jurious to health. Penn-Dixie Ce-
ment Corp. v. City of Kingsport
(1949) 189 Tenn. 450, 225 S.W. 2d
270, 275. Board of Health of Wee-
hawken Township v. New York Cen-
tral Railroad Co., (1950) 4 N. J. 293,
72 A. 2d 511, 514-515. In the Penn-
Dixie case, the court said (at page
275) :
"But this Court can and does take
judicial cognizance of the fact that
when the air is laden with a heavy
cloud of smoke and dust that such a
condition constitutes a nuisance and
is detrimental to the health and safety
of the public. When therefore the
legislature confers upon a municipali-
ty authority to safeguard the public
health, it is wholly unnecessary that
the charter or general law should go
further and declare that smoke and
dust are detrimental to health. Every-
body knows that it is . . ."
The Weehawken Township case
(72 All. 2d at pp. 514-515) states:
"And there can be no doubt that
the regulations under review have a
substantial relation to the public
health. Dense smoke, a carrier as it
is of dust, soot and cinders, contami-
nates and pollutes the atmosphere and
deteriorates its normal healthful at-
tributes and qualities, and therefore
cannot but be harmful to Ihe public
health, especially in populous areas.
This is a matter of common experi-
ence, so much so that it is properly a
subject of judicial notice."
Comparative Injury Doctrine, or
Balancing the Equities
The doctrine of comparative in-
jury, more commonly called balanc-
ing the equities, is accepted in some
9
-------
jurisdictions and denied in others, or
accepted as to one set of facts and de-
nied as to other situations. Based on
equitable principles, it would seem
to be properly applicable in cases of
unrlue hardship. Yet the reasoning
in the case of its denial is hard to
answer; that in so far as plaintiff is
denied a decree enjoining an actual
nuisance, defendant in effect is giving
an casement over plaintiff's land. This
amounts to a taking of property for
private use in violation of the Consti-
tution. Where the defendant is re-
quired to pay plaintiff the reasonable
value of his propelty, or the interest
(herein which is damaged, the effect
is condemnation for the benefit of a
private person who does not possess
the pouei of eminent domain.
In Anderson v. Souza, (1952) .'if!
Cal. 2d H25, 213 P. 2d 497, ihe court
said lal .'?!{ Cal. 2d H42) thai the own-
ers of a private airport,
" must nevertheless conduct it
\vilh due regard for the rights of oth-
ers, arid if because of location the
operation of such a business will re-
Mjlt in depriving others of their prop-
erly rights, it cannot be permitted, for
to do so would, in practical effect,
condemn the property of others in
violation of constitutional guarantees.
(tliil/ierl v. California Portland Ce-
ment Co.. 161 Cal. 239 (lin P. 928.
:',;: I..K.A.N.S. 4:56).)"
In Mrh>i>r \. Mercer-r'raser Co.,
I 1946) 76 Cal. A pp. 2d 247, at page
251. 172 I*. 2d 75!!. the courl analy7.es
ihe problem as follows:
"Appellants, without citation of au-
thorih. advance the novel proposition
dial the trial court erred in excluding
evidence lhal after the excavation had
been made and the respondents had
pioleMed, appellants offered to pur-
chase respondent's property at its cosl
nr the market price (hereof, and thus
'make [hem whole.' Had the dial
coml pel in illed appellants lo make
Midi ,1 showing it would have al-
loucd thrin to take adxantagr of their
oun \\iong. conliaiy to settled prin-
i iples. (Civ. Code, sec. .'5517). If
appellants' theorj \\eie sound, one
ulio coveted his neighbor's properl)
could foiee a sale of the same by the
Minple expedient of injuring such
prnpeitx. of impairing (he enjoyment
(hi ienf and cau»e the owner to sell or
foic^fi all right lo damages b\ tender-
iiiL' to the ounct (he cost of said
property to him or ihe maikel value
iheieof. Tlii*. of course cannot be (lie
lau.
In rirnili III Cleiine/s v. Stale
lio'inl a/ f>n Cli-nin'i'i I I'HO) !Jo Cal.
App. 2d 45, 46, 198 P. 2d 91, the
question was raised on an application
for a writ of supersedeas, and an-
swered by the court as follows:
"The sole question then is whether
the showing made by petitioner is
such as will justify this court in exer-
cising its inherent power in his be-
half. We think that it is. This con-
clusion is not based upon a balancing
of conveniences or hardships, which
is not the proper test . . . but upon a
consideration of the respective rights
of the litigants, which contemplates
the possibility of an affirmance of the
decree as well as of a reversal."
The question was raised in a little
different form in Guttinper v. Cala-
veras Cement Co. (1951) 105 Cal.
App. 2d 382, 233 P. 2d 914, where the
court said (105 Cal. App. 2d at 390-
392) :
". . Having so determined, the
trial court was thereby of necessity
required to formulate a practical de-
cree which would restrain respondent
from maintaining a nuisance and yet
permit the operation of its plant with
as little interference as was reason-
ably practicable. This we think the
trial court clearly attempted to do and
succeeded in doing.
" . The trial court, while finding
that a nuisance was being maintained,
also found irnpliedly that the restric-
tion imposed by the decree would
eliminate the nuisance and that was
all to which the appellants were then
entitled. If further increase of ce-
ment production shall lead to a great-
er total volume of dust and gases, so
that 13 per cent (hereof would he in-
jurious, the court will be open to en-
lertain a motion to extend the restric-
tions and adapt them to the new con-
ditions. We do not understand the
court's decree to adjudge that re-
spondent has something in the nature
of an easement for the deposit upon
(he appellants' lands of 13 per cent
of the. total amounl of dust and gases
generated in the conduct of its busi-
ness, bul rather (hat the court has
taken the situation as it found it and
undertook to impose workable restric-
tions that would eliminate the injury
for the present. There is nothing in
the record that would require any
change in that decree in the present
or in the near future. The court of
course retains jurisdiction over the
cause to modify its decree from time
to time to fit changing conditions."
Anticipatory Nuisance
It is significant lo note that as early
as l!56f{ in the case of Russ v. Rtit/i-r,
19 N.J.E. 294, u request for an in-
junction to prevent the erection of a
lawful business which allegedly would
result in a public nuisance was grant-
ed even before the nuisance actually
came into existence. The court in
that case said that when the prosecu-
tion of a business in itself lawful, in
the neighborhood of a dwelling house,
renders the enjoyment of it materially
uncomfortable by the smoke or cin-
ders or noise or offensive odors pro-
duced by such business, although in
no degree injurious to health, the car-
rying on of such business there is a
nuisance.
So too in the case of Shaw v. Salt
Lake County, 119 Utah 50, 224 Pac.
2d 1037 (1950) it was established
that private persons had the right, de-
spite sovereign immunity, to enjoin a
county in its governmental capacity,
from erecting a hot asphalt plant
which plant the court found would
cause a dust nuisance when completed
and put into operation.
Coming lo the Nuisance
This concept is based on the early
common law doctrine that he who
builds his house near a known and
existing nuisance must take the con-
sequences. It was first announced in
Rex v. Cross (1826) 2C. & P. 483,
172 Eng. Rep. 219 (subsequently
overruled in England).
The rule of Rex v. Cross was
adopted by the Supreme Court of
Oregon in East St. Johns Shingle Co.
v. Portland (1952) 195 Ore. 505, 246
P. 2d 554, at least as applied to the
limited situations of that case, where
a public body is defendant and ihe
nuisance arises from the performance
of a governmental function (sewage
disposal). The case is criticized in
a note by Cassius Kirk, Jr., in 41
Calif. Law Review 148 (Spring,
1953).
A company charter authorizing the
manufacture of animal matter into a
fertilizer is not a contract guarantee-
ing in the locality originally selected.
exemptions from the exercise of the
police power of the state, however se-
rious the nuisance might become in
the future by reason of the growth of
population around it. Northwestern
Fertilizing Co. v. Pillage of Hyde
Park, 97 U. S. 659, 24 L.Ed. 1036.
See also: Mahone v. Aulry (1951)
55 N. Mex. Ill, 227 P. 2d 623.
In City of Rochester v. Charlotte
Docks Co., (1952) 114 N. Y. Supp.
2d 37, 72-73, the case against the rule
of Rex
-------
. A ciiiitinijiitiiin of the nui-
sance is regarded as a new nuisance.
It is lliis principle wtiirli gives a parly
wlin builds on his own property I"'
side a nuisance, previously erected, a
right to have the nuisance abated.
"Our decision is not influenced by
the fact that quite a number of plain-
tiffs became owners of the property
after the alleged nuisance existed for
a number of years, or that, even
knowing it was so affected, they still
persisted in buying property in the
area . . .
"The righl of habitation is superior
to the right of industry or trade . . .
'If population, where there was none
before, approaches a nuisance, it is
the duty of those liable at once to put
an end to it . . .'
"It matters not that the brick-yard
was used before plaintiffs bought
their lands or built their houses, (cit-
ing cases.) One cannot erect a nui-
sance upon his land adjoining vacant
lands owned by another and thus
measurably control the uses to which
his neighbor's land may in the future
be subjected. He may make a rea-
sonable and lawful use of his land and
thus cause his neighbor some incon-
venience, and probably some damage
which the law would regard as dam-
num absque injuria. But he cannot
place upon his land anything which
the law would pronounce a nuisance.
and thus compel his neighbor to leave
his land vacant, or to use it in such
way only as the neighboring nuisance
will allow . . ."
Recent cases dealing with air pol-
lution control ordinances have con-
sidered the subject of criminal intent
as an element of the offense.
Intent Not Necessary to Violate
Statute or Ordinance
"The criminal intent or metis rea
essential to a conviction in the case of
true ('limes need neither be alleged
or proven with respect to violations
of municipal ordinances which for-
bid the commission of certain actions
contrary to the general welfare and
makes them main in prohibition. Proof
or admissions of the doing of the for-
bidden thing, regardless of intent.
good faith, or willfulness, must bring
a conviction." People v. Consolidated
Edison Co. of N. y., Inc., 116 N.Y.S.
2d 555.
In People \. Alexander, Unreport-
ed, Appellate Department. Superior
Court, Los Angeles County, Califor-
nia, CR A 2709, (1951) the defend-
ant was charged with violating pro-
\isions of section 24242 of the Health
and Safely (lode of the Stale of Cali-
fornia, for discharging air conlami-
nanls into the atmosphere on 2 sepa-
rate occasions.
The court in lluil case held that an
instruction rendered by the trial court
was correctly given as follows:
"It is the aclu'alily and not the
guilty intent that determines guilt.
Intent is not an clement of the offense
defined in Health and Safely Code.
sec. 24242."
Damage Necessary to Sustain An
Action to Enjoin a Common Law
Nuisance
In Hofstetler v. Myers (19511 170
Kans. 564. 228 P. 2d 522. 24 A.L.R.
2d If!!!, the trial court enjoined as a
nuisance the operation of an asphalt
plant at such limes and manner that
the dust and dirt coming therefrom
will injure, molest, or interfere with
the plaintiffs in the peaceable, quiet
enjoyment of their property. The
evidence showed that ihe dusl reached
plaintiffs only when the wind was
from the southwest, was not accom-
panied by soot, smoke, odors or
fumes, was the same as the dust from
unpaved roads in the vicinity and
merely inconvenienced plaintiffs, who
had built homes in the area notwith-
standing the presence of 2 railroads
and the municipal garbage dump.
(However, these home were built be-
fore defendant's asphalt plant.) The
Kansas Supreme Court reversed the
judgment, saying (24 A.L.R. 2d at
193-194):
"While the word 'nuisance' is per-
haps incapable of precise definition.
\et in general it is held to be some-
thing which interferes with the rights
of citizens, whether in person, prop-
erly, or enjoyment of property, or
comfort, ll has also been held to
mean an annoyance, and, in its broad-
est sense, that which annoys or causes
trouble or vexation, that which is of-
fensive or noxious, or anything that
works hurt, inconvenience or damage.
(Citation). What may or may not
constitute « nuisance in a particular
case depends upon many things, such
us Ihe type of neighborhood, the na-
ture of the thing or wrong complained
of, its proximity to those alleging in-
jury of damage, ils frequency of con-
linuily, and the nature and extent of
the injury, damage or annoyance re-
sulting. Each case must of necessity
depend upon its own particular facts
and circumstances.
"As a general proposition it may be
said that dust which substantially in-
terferes with the comfortable enjoy-
ment of adjacent premises constitutes
a nuisance, provided it is sufficient to
cause perceptible injury to persons
or property. On the other hand, n
reasonable amount of dust in a manu-
facturing community or industrial dis-
Iricl does not necessarily constitute a
nuisance even though it may cause
some annoyance, and this is particu-
larly true where the dust caused by
the operation of a business is only oc-
casional and the resultant injury
slight. In other words, a given
amount of dust in one locality well
inighl be considered and held to be a
nuisance, and not so in others, all de-
pending upon the particular facts and
circumstances . . ."|2)
The case of Mclvor v. Mercer-
Fraser Co., (1946) 76 Cal. App. 2d
247, 172 Pac. 2d 758, involved an
excavation which removed lateral sup-
port of plaintiff's land, but was de-
cided on the basis of public nuisance,
citing air pollution control cases. The
court'said at pp. 253-254:
"It was not necessary for respond-
ents to show actual physical damage
to their property . . . The depriva-
tion by defendants of plaintiffs' right
to enjoy their property to the full
constituted a partial eviction . . . The
fact that it was only partial does not
deprive respondents of their right of
action. As the court stated in Judson
v. Los Angeles Gas Co., supra, at page
172: 'It is surely no justification to
a wrongdoer that he takes away only
one twenty-eighth of his neighbor's
property, comfort or life.'
". . . mere apprehension of injury
from a dangerous condition may con-
slitule a nuisance where it interferes
with the comfortable enjoyment of
property (46 C.J. sec. 50, p. 680).
and that the injured party need not
seek an abatement of the nuisance but
may sue for damages."
Alonzo v. Hills (1950) 95 Cal. App.
2d 778, 214 P. 2d 50, is not in point
on its facts, being a suit for damages
from blasting (for which a much
higher standard of care is usually re-
quired), but the court reaches its
conclusion as to damages on the basis
of air pollution cases. The court said
at pp. 787-788:
". . . The recovery for such inva-
sion of his rights in the real property
to which the owner-occupant is en-
titled includes discomfort and annoy-
ance . . .
". . . The amount of the recovery
for discomfort and annoyance is lett
11
-------
to the sound judgment and discretion
of the trier of facts without necessity
of specific evidence as to such
amount."
Injury to the public must be more
than trivial, fastidious or offensive to
esthetic senses. There must be some
material damage to the public that is
more than trivial, fastidious, or of-
fensive to the esthetic senses, to render
smoke a nuisance.
In the case of Tuebner v. Califor-
nia Railway Company, 66 Cal. 171,
4 Pac. 162, 1164 (1884), involving a
private nuisance, the court quoted
with approval from Cooley on Torts,
as follows:
"'If'the smoke or dust, or both,
that arises from one man's premises
and passes over and upon those of
another, causes perceptible injury to
the property, or so pollutes the air as
sensible to impair the enjoyment
thereof, it is a nuisance. But the in-
convenience must be something more
than mere fancy, mere delicacy, or
fastidiousness; it must be an incon-
venience materially interfering with
the ordinary comfort, physically, of
human existence, nor merely accord-
ing to elegant and dainty modes and
habits of living, but according to
plain, sober, and simple notions.' "
The Ringelmann Chart
While the Ringelmann Chart has
been commonly used in ordinances
and elsewhere as a measure of smoke
emission for half a century, few cases
referred to it and none actually ap-
proved its use. Since 1947 the courts
have been more generous in their no-
tice of it. The Appellate Department
of the Los Angeles County Superior
Court (California) approved the use
of the chart in People v. International
Steel Corp. (1951) 102 Cal. App. 2d
Supp. 935, 226 P. 2d 587, at 938-9.
stating:
"We think it is equally permissible
for a statute to refer to and adopt, for
description of a. prohibited act, an of-
ficial publication of any United States
board or bureau established by law,
such as the United States Bureau of
Mines. The publications of that bu-
reau are as readily available for ex-
amination by those seeking informa-
tion on the effect of the statute as were
the statutes and regulations, refer-
ences to which were approved in the
cases just cited. It is no more neces-
sary here than it was in those cases
that provision be made for free or
other public distribution of the matter
referred to. The courts take judicial
notice of the official acts of the Bu-
reau of Mines . . . and private citizens
who are concerned with them are also
charged with notice of them."
.The court then proceeds to discuss
the use of the Ringelmann Chart in
detail, and holds that inspectors
trained in the use of the chart are ex-
perts and may testify as such to the
Ringelmann number of a particular
smoke emission, without using a chart
(just as a police officer could testify
to the length of a skid mark without
actually measuring it with a tape
measure or ruler).
Other recent cases approving the
use of the Ringelmann Chart are:
Board of Health of Weehatvken Town-
ship v. New York Central Railroad
(1950) 4 N.J. 293, 72 A. 2d 511, 512;
Board of Health of Weehawken Town-
ship v. New York Central Railroad
(1952) 10 N. J. 294, 90 A. 2d 729,
735; Penn-Dixie Cement Corp. v. City
of Kingsport (1949) 189 Tenn. 450.
Multiple Sources of Pollution
With the growth of cities and the
multiplication of industrial plants
more and more cases arose where
there were several contributing
sources of pollution making it diffi-
cult to prove any defendant guilty of
a nuisance. In some cases no one
factory was responsible for enough
pollution to constitute a nuisance, bul
the total contribution of two or more
sources of pollution was a nuisance.
Recent cases have found those re-
sponsible for the various contribu-
tions to be joint tort feasors, or at
least not in a position to object if the
court divides the damages between
them as best it can.
In Ingram v. City of Gridley
(1950) 100 Cal. App. 2d 815, 224 P.
2d 798, the court said (at pp. 823-4):
"But it is also contended that no
award of damages could be given
against the appellants because the
damages were not apportioned, the
appellants claiming that damages in
a case such as this must be appor-
tioned among the creators of the nui-
sance and if that cannot, from the
nature of the case, be done, damages
cannot be awarded jointly against all.
We think this contention likewise can-
not be sustained. The record here
reveals that each of the appellants,
with full knowledge of the acts of the
others, and in the face of repeated re-
quests for a cessation of the acts
which created the nuisance, continued
to act and by their acts to create the
nuisance complained of and treated
1Z
-------
with each oilier concerning the matter
to such an extent that they should be
held to be joint tort fcasors, each li-
able for the full damage . . ."
In Permanente Metals Corp. v.
Pista (CCA 9, 1046), 154 Fed. 2d 568
at 570, the court reached a similar
decision, and analyzed California
Orange Co. v. Riverside Portland Ce-
ment Co., 50 Cal. App. 522, 195 Pac.
694, as follows:
". . . the court said that if it is im-
possible to distinguish between the
damage arising from injury attribu-
table to the defendant and damage
which has another origin, the trier of
the facts should be left to make from
the evidence the best possible esti-
mate. The court pointed to evidence
showing 'that plaintiff's grove, though
not subject to any greater damage
from the elements than other groves
situated outside the zone of falling
cement dust, did not produce as did
the groves similarly situated outside
the dust zone.' The showing was
thought sufficient to support the
award of damages against the de-
fendant."
For similar holdings, see Interna-
tional Agr. Corp. v. Abercrombie, 184
Ala. 244, 63 So. 549, 49 L.R.A., N.S.
415; Learned v. Castle, 78 Cal. 454,
461, 18 P. 872, 21 P. 11, 13; Hanlon
Drydock etc. Co. v. Southern Pacific
Co., 92 Cal. App. 230, 268 P. 385.
Reasonable Use of Property and
Substantial Compliance With
Ordinance Regulations
At an earlier point in this discus-
sion, mention was made of the deci-
sion in the case of People v. Detroit
White Lead Works, supra, which held
that whenever a business becomes a
nuisance it has to give way to the
rights of the public even though noth-
ing is done which is not a reasonable
and necessary incident to the busi-
ness.
In support of the rule laid down in
the Detroit White Lead case the court
in Moses v. United States, supra, said:
"That there may be no smoke-con-
suming appliances that will, under all
circumstances, prevent the nuisance
it is not a matter of relevancy. The
facts concerning them were presuma-
bly within the knowledge of Congress
also when it took action; and no pro-
vision has been made for their use.
The use of smokeless fuel instead may
have been expressly contemplated."
Several cases involving private nui-
sances notably Elliot Nursery v. Du-
quesne Litfit, 281 Pa. 166, 126 All.
345, 37 A.LR. 793; Price v. Carey
ManularliiriiiK Co., 310 Pa. 557, 165
All. 849 (1933); Downs v. Greer
lienly Clay Co., 29 Ohio C.C. 328, 58
A.L.R. 1226 (1905), held that the
business involved were not guilty of
violations because they were using the
best known modern appliances to pre-
vent smoke and fumes.
A fair test as to whether a business
constitutes a nuisance is the reason-
ableness or unreasonableness of con-
ducting the business complained of in
the particular locality and under the
circumstances of the rase; and where
the use of the properly is not unrea-
sonable, it will not as a rule, be en-
joined, nor can a person complaining
thereof recover damages. Reber v.
Illinois Central Railroad Co., 161
Miss. Rep. 885, 13ft So. 574 (1932).
Where a bill was brought by prop-
erty owners to enjoin defendants
from maintaining a nuisance by the
emission of obnoxious fumes and
odors, the court in De Blois v. Bowers,
44 Fed. 2d 621, (1930), stated:
"Mere discomfort caused by such
conditions without injury to life or
health, cannot be ruled as matter of
law to constitute a nuisance. Each
case must depend upon its own fash-
ion and no rule can be formulated
which will be applicable to all causes.
"The question whether the defend-
ants have done everything reasonably
practicable to avoid the cause of of-
fense is important. Reasonable care
must be used to prevent annoyance
and injury to other persons beyond
what the fair necessities of the busi-
ness require."
In the more recent case of People
v. Oswald, 116 N.Y. Supp. 2d 50
(19521, where the defendant was
prosecuted for violation of provision
of the Administrative Code of the City
of New York prohibiting the emis-
sion of dense smoke, the defendant
was held not to be guilty since he had
done everything possible to comply
with the regulations promulgated un-
der the code. In so holding, the court
said:
"This legislation is regulatory in
character and must be interpreted in
the light of its necessity and the pur-
pose to be accomplished. It is malum
prohibitum and regardless of the ef-
forts made by any individual to avoid
a violation of the law or regardless
of the intent if the prohibited action
occurs that in and of itself is suffi-
cient to constitute a violation. But
this rule is subject to reason and the
court must not close its eyes to ob-
vious facts. The law does not seek to
compel a man to do that which he
cannot possibly perform. Walden v.
City oj Jamestown, 178 N.Y. 213,
217, 70 N.E. 466, 467.
"A reasonable interpretation should
he made and if the adduced proof
shows that a defendant has complied
with the literal requirements of the
law as nearly as it is practicable to
do so under the prevailing circum-
stances, and that he has adopted ihe
best devices presently known to all,
then the letter and spirit of the legisla-
tion has been complied with. In in-
terpreting statutes sense must be
brought out of words used. McClus-
key v. Cromwell, 11 N. Y. 583."
Perhaps the differing views on
whether use of the best device is a de-
fense can be rationalized as each de-
pending upon the gravity of the prob-
lem in a given location. Assuming a
situation in which air pollution has
become so severe as to cause great an-
noyance and damage, or perhaps per-
sonal injury or death, there can be
little doubt that by adopting the best
control devices known a defendant
could not shield himself from liabili-
ty, civil or criminal.
Summary—The Next Fifty Years
We have seen the progress in the
development of air pollution law dur-
ing the past half century. Against
the backdrop of the state of the law
existing in 1907, the last 50 years ap-
pears to have been a period of refine-
ment rather than revolution. Out of
the decisions that fit together nicely,
fit only roughly, leave yawning gaps,
or directly conflict, the air pollution
lawyer must derive a concept of what
the law is, in order to guide himself
and his client over the troublesome
road ahead. Generally speaking, the
law of air pollution has seen these
major developments since 1907.
(1) The doctrine of nuisance has
followed in the course of urban and
industrial development.
(2) The control of air contamina-
tion by the use of strict statutory and
administrative regulations has become
quite popular.
(3) The courts have adhered fairly
rigidly to the letter of the new police
regulations. The way of the trans-
gressor has become increasingly dif-
ficult.
What of the next 50 years? It takes
neither great courage nor occult pow-
er to predict that a constant and con-
tinuing stream of decisions will be
handed down, which determinations
will more definitely sketch in the still
13
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flu,,I I. .darics of the law. Wr rj,,
pm:.'Mo-li,-ate lli.it then- will In1 tin lip-
In .IV.lU ullil ll will desllllV HI scliollS-
l\ allei llir ;.'ienl collcepls upon wliirli
(oininoii l.iu and c< >nst ll ill lonal law
.ur I,.IM-,|
The ,in.[ of HIM crvslal I'.ill which
i>- daikesl. houcvei. is llial [Million
\\lleieill lies ihr answer to the <|Ues-
ti'Hi: In irln'fli iliri'ction mill the fio-
//<•<• jxnriT mope? That question will
laij;cl\ depend on how quickly and
economically scientist? and engineers
and industry can solve the practical
problems of air pollution control.
I'oliee regulations will follow closely
on llir heels of technical development.
We can already see clearly one
factor involved in the future develop-
ment of the police power. That fac-
loi is public indignation. The free
citizen, now enjoying an otherwise
mirai ulous standard of living, can-
nol. uill not. and should ni>t lie forced
to mideigo llie e\(|uisile tortures in-
Ilicled upon him constantly by metro-
politan Imnj;. In some geographic
aic-as, air pollution or Miitig is not a
sei lous concern to him -not vet. In
other locations air contamination is
laled the cardinal concern. It will
-.uIIice to piedict here that as and if
ill'1 an contamination problem be-
comes more sei ious, new police regu-
lations will follow, and these regula-
tions, unless palpably capricious, will
be upheld b\ breathing judges.
Acknowledgements
\i kMowleilginent is given ID David I).
Mix anil C. (.eurge. Deukmejian, Deputies
(.oiniiy Coini-.fl c.f ilie Counly of I,us An-
^cle-. fur \alualile assistance rendered in
llie re-ejrrh c>f tbe legal material u^ei! in
References
I K.J|>li II <..-nn.m li.^ul.ilh.ii i,| s,n,ikc-
jinl \n INillnliuii in I'enn^) K ama. 10
I', nf I'm I..H. I'l.l. i \l,i\. I'H'M. 'I'lii-
IIM, I.' Jr-hn, -.Jlllr »\ ' ill: I,', Illllrnl
-nnii iiih-i c-l in^ III^IIIIN /<:. l.,'/!lll /S/.r, K III Sill,:!.,' < nu-
ll,:/ l,t II, nn I (,,.|.lr\. in llii- -.IIIH- i~
- I I lie l.ltt II-\M-W .11 |I.I|JI- rl(l."i. £\\f-
I,-I I I onhh. loi ,,,nln,l "I
II H li I In [..iin u( ll,,- -I- : i ('.ill-
nn: . / i < alumni* ( ,, . liTi ( ,il \|ip
J,l ::::. J u I' 2.1 ')! I. ,,i .nil ."•, -In,,,1,1
I,i- . ..ii-iilli-il in wi inn:: .1 Ihian,',- I,.
, ..nhul . r nl lu-l
! 1 ll.- \in.-n, ,,n I JU K,-|,,,.l- ,r i,.I.Ill,,11
I ,1 ,,,. I'll L!.ll ,,(21 \ I I! 2,1' lillliiw-
.„, ll,,- I,-,,.., I „( ill,, ,.,-.- ...II.Ml- ill,-
ii- .iilli, -,jl,|, . I ..I I hi ./ us \ iinnrii f.
u , I .iiii^ -nun- In- mlnf-lni;; ,|
: , ,1 i,,h, ||, Mm . HIM .III, t- I .11 |i 2(11 I .
Bibliography
Municipalities and llie Law in Action,
Kcinifily Air I'ti/liitiiiu (.iiiitni/. National
Insiitui,. ,,f Municipal |,aw OHicris, Wash-
ington, I). C., 19-17.
California Air Pollution Council Act ol
1947, (Sec-lion 241911 24323 Calilorni.i
Health and Safely Code), Drafted by Har-
old W. Kennedy. County Counsel of the
Counly of Los Angeles.
The History, Legal anil Administrative
Aspects of Air Pollution Control in tbe
County of Los Angeles, by Harold Vt. Ken-
nedy, Counly Counsel of the County of Los
Angeles (Report submitted lo the Hoard of
Supervisors of the County of Los Angeles,
May 9, 1954). Accepted by the (Graduate
School of Public Administration of the Uni-
versity of Southern California as thesis for
degree of Master of Science in Public Ad-
ministration.
Air Pollution — Proceedings of the
United States Conference on Air Pollution.
"The Legal Aspects of tbe California Air
Pollution Control Act." McGraw-Hill.
1952.
Housing Act of 1954, Ail Pollution Pre-
ventive Amendments, Statements of Harold
W. Krnnrd\\ Cfinnly (.ininscl. County ol
Los Angeles, California,. Hearings before
tbe Committee cm Kanking and Currency.
United Slates Senate, 83rd Congress. 2nd
Session, on S. 2889, S. 2938. and S. 2949.
Pan 2. April 13. 14 and 15. 1954, pp. 1205-
1224.
Water and Air Pollution Control. State-
ments nf Harold W. Kennedy, Count) Conn-
.sf/, ('ounty of Los Angeles, California.
Hearings before a Subcommittee of tbe
Committee on Public. Works United States
Senate, 84th Congress. Kirst Session on
S. 890 and S. 928, April 22. 25. and 26.
1955, pp. 257-259.
The Legal Aspects of Air Pollution Con-
trol With Particular Reference to the
Counsel, Counly of Los \ngeles. California.
nedy. County Counsel. County of Los An-
geles. California. Southern California Law
Keview, Vol. 27, p. 373. July. 1954.
Vir Pollution: Its Control anil Abate-
ment, by Harold W. Kennedy, County
Counsel. County of Los Angeles, Califor-
nia, and Andrew 0. Porter, Deputy Counly
Counly, Counly of Los Angeles. California.
Vanderbill Law Review, Vol. 8, pp B54
1955.
14
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SUMMARY
THE CLEAN AIR ACT
DECEMBER 1970
Section 101 - Findings and purposes.
(a)(l) Puts primary responsibility of air pollution control on state and
local government.
(2) Recognizes that federal financial assistance is essential for the
development of cooperative programs to control air pollution.
(b)(l) Declares purpose is to protect and enhance the quality of the nation's
air, so as to promote public health and.welfare.
(2) To initiate a. national research program; to provide technical and
financial aid to state and local governments; and to encourage development of
regional programs.
Section 102 - Cooperative activities and uniform lavs.
(a) The Administrator shall encourage cooperative activities between
state and local government.
Section 103 - Research, investigation, training and other activities.
(a) The Administrator shall establish a national research and development
program for the prevention and control of air pollution.
(b) Special emphasis is given to research on the short and long term
effects of air pollutants on public health.
Section Wk - Research relating to fuels and vehicles.
Allows for research directed toward development of techniques for control
cf combustion by-products of fuels, removal of pollutants from fuels prior to
•,-ombustionj and development of low emission alternatives to the present internal
combustion engine.
-------
Section 105 - Grants for support of air pollution planning and control programs.
(a)(l)(A) The Administrator may make grants to control agencies of up to
two-thirds of the cost of planning, developing, establishing, or improving, and
up to one-half of the cost of maintaining, programs for the prevention of air
pollution or implementation of national standards.
(B) Subject to subparagraph (c), the Administrator may make grants
in an amount up to three-fourths of the cost of planning, developing, establishing
or improving, and up to three-fifths of the cost of maintaining, any program for
the prevention of air pollution or implementation of national standards in an
area that includes two or more municipalities, whether in the same or different
States.
(C) Where there is an implementation plan in effect for an air quality
control region, grants pursuant to (B) above may be made only to those agencies
which have substantial responsibilities under such plan.
No agency will receive any federal grant money during any fiscal
year when its expenditures of non-federal funds for other than nonrecurrent
expenditures for air pollution control programs will be less than expenditures
were for such programs during the preceeding fiscal year.
Section 106 - Interstate air quality agencies or commissions.
The Administrator is authorized to pay up to one hundred per cent of the
air quality planning program costs of any agency designated by the Governors
of the affected states as the agency to develop an implementation plan within
the air quality control region. After the initial two year period, the Administrator
can pay up to three-fourths of the agency's program costs.
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Section 107 - Air quality control regions.
(a) Each state has the responsibility of submitting an implementation plan
to achieve national air quality standards within each air quality control region
in the state.
(b) Any portion of a state which is not presently part of a designated
air quality control region, shall be an air quality control region, and may be
subdivided by the state in two or more air quality control regions, with the
approval of the Administrator. (Designation shall be done within ninety (9°)
days of date of enactment after consultation with appropriate state and local
authorities.)
Section 108 - Air quality criteria and control techniques.
(a)(l) Within thirty (30) days after enactment, Administrator shall publish
a list which includes pollutants which:
(A) have adverse effect on public health and welfare;
(B) result from numerous or diverse mobile or stationary sources;
(C) have not had air quality criteria issued for them before 1970 Act.
(2) After pollutant is included in a "list", then air quality criteria
shall be published for that pollutant within twelve (12) months thereafter.
(b)(l) Simultaneously with the issuance of criteria, the Administrator
shall issue information of air pollution control techniques - (technology and
costs of control). Administrator can establish standing consulting committees
to assist in developing information on control techniques.
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Section 109 - National ambient air quality standards.
(a)(l)(A) The Administrator, within thirty (30) days after date of enactment,
shall publish proposed regulations prescribing national primary and secondary
ambient air quality standards for each air pollutant for which air quality
criteria have been issued prior to such date of enactment.
(B) Within ninety (90) days after publication of proposed standards,
the Administrator shall promulgate standards as regulations.
(2) Pollutants for which air quality criteria are published after the
date of the 19?0 Amendments - the Administrator shall publish, simultaneously
with the issuance of such criteria, proposed national primary and secondary air
quality standards for any such pollutant.
(b)(l) Primary standards necessary to protect public health.
(2) Secondary standards — necessary to protect public welfare.
Section 110 - Implementation plans.
(a)(l) Each state must, within nine months after promulgation of a national
primary ambient air quality standard, and after public hearing, adopt and submit
a plan which provides for implementation of such national standard in each air
quality control region in the state. In addition, an implementation plan to
enforce secondary standards must be submitted within nine months after promulgation
of such secondary standards. Plans to achieve primary and secondary standards
can both be considered at one hearing.
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(2) Administrator must approve or disapprove such plan within four
months after the date required, for submission of the plan. Administrator shall
grant approval if plan was adopted after notice and hearing, and contains the
following elements:
(A) Provides for the attainment of national primary standards as
t
soon as possible, but in no case later than three years from date of approval
of such plan. (Secondary air quality standards must be attained within a
reasonable time).
(B) Plan includes emission limitations, schedules, timetables, and
other measures, including land-use and transportation controls, which may be
necessary to attain such standards.
(C) Includes provision to establish monitoring systems and to make
data available to the Administrator.
(D) Procedure for review, (prior to construction or modification),
of the location of new sources to which a standard of performance will apply.
(Provision for authority to prevent construction or modification of new sources
at locations which will prevent attainment of a national standards, and require
owner to submit such necessary information to permit state to make such a
determination.
(E) Provision for intergovernmental cooperation.
(F) Provides for:
1. Necessary assurances that state will have adequate funding,
personnel, and authority to execute such implementation plan.
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2. Owners provide for equipment to monitor stack emissions.
3. Periodic reports on kind and amount of emissions.
h. State correlation of reports with standards.
5. Emergency authority.
(G) Provides for periodic inspection and testing of motor vehicles.
(H) Provides for opportunity to revise plan, if necessary.
(3) Administrator must approve all revisions.
(U) Provide adequate authority to prevent construction or modification
of any new source to which a standard of performance applies, at any location
which will prevent attainment of a national air quality standard. (See Section
(b) Administrator may extend the period for submission of an implementation
plan for secondary air quality standards up to eighteen months from the date
otherwise required for submission of such plan.
(c) Administrator shall propose regulations setting forth an implementation
plan if:
1. State fails to submit plan within time prescribed.
2. If plan is submitted, but is inadequate.
3. If state fails to revise plan, within sixty days after
notification by Administrator to revise, (or such longer period
as may be prescribed. ) Administrator shall promulgate any such
regulations within six months after the date required for submission
or revision of such plan, if state has not secured an approved plan.
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(d) Applicable implementation plan is the implementation plan, or most
recent revision thereof, which has been approved.
(e)(l) On application of Governor at the time of submission of any plan
implementing a national standard, the Administrator may extend the compliance
schedule for not more than two years for an air quality control region, if:
(A) Necessary technology is not available.
(B) Reasonably available alternative means cannot achieve primary
standards within three years.
(2) Administrator may grant extension if he determines that the state
plan provides for:
(A) Application of the requirements of the plan to all other emission
sources in such region.
(B) Interim control measures are reasonable under the circumstances.
(f)(l) Prior to date on which source must comply, if Governor applies for
postponement, the Administrator may postpone applicability of such requirement
for not more than one (1) year if:
(A) Good faith efforts have been made to comply.
(B) Necessary technology not available.
(C) Alternative control measures reduce injurious effect on public
health.
(D) Operation of source is essential to national security or to the
public health.
(2)(A) Review on the record as a whole.
(B) Any determination shall be subject to judicial review.
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(C) Proceedings under this paragraph take precedence on the docket.
(D) Supboenas section, (30?a\ is applicable to any proceeding here.
Section 111 - Standards of performance for new stationary sources.
(a)(l) Standard of performance means an emission standard reflecting best
available controls. (Taking into account the cost of achieving such reduction.)
(2) New source means any stationary source constructed or modified after
publication of regulations prescribing a standard of performance applicable to
such source.
(3) Stationary source means any building, structure, or installation
which emits or may emit any air pollution.
(U) Modification means any change which increases the amount of any
air pollutant, or which results in the emission of any air pollutant not
previously emitted.
(b)(l)(A) Within ninety days after date of enactment Administrator shall
publish list of categories of stationary sources.
(B) Within one-hundred twenty days after list is published, (allowing
for written comment), Administrator shall propose regulations establishing
Federal standards of performance for new sources within such category. Within
ninety days after publication - promulgate such standards.
(c) State may develop own control plan for new sources located in
such state. If plan is adequate, the Administrator shall delegate his authority
to implement and enforce to the state, but can still enforce any standard himself.
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(D)l. Administrator shall establish a procedure for states to submit
a plan which:
(a) Establishes emission standards for any EXISTING source for
any air pollutant for which air quality criteria have not been
issued, or which is not included on a list pursuant to section
108 (primary standards) or section 112 (hazardous substances),
but to which a standard of performance would apply if such
existing source were a new source.
(b) Provides for implementation and enforcement of such emission
standards.
(2) Administrator shall prescribe and enforce own plan when:
(A) State fails to submit satisfactory plan.
(B) State fails to enforce plan.
Section 112 - National emission standards for hazardous pollutants.
(a) Hazardous air pollutant means an air pollutant to which no air quality
standard is applicable and which may contribute to an increase in mortality or
serious illness.
(b)(l)(A) Administrator shall publish within ninety days after date of
enactment of 1970 Amendments, a list of hazardous air pollutants.
(B) Within one-hundred eighty days thereafter, Administrator shall
publish proposed emission regulations. Within one-hundred eighty days and
after public hearing, the Administrator shall prescribe emission standards for
such pollutants.
(C) Emission standards become effective on promulgation.
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(2) Administrator shall issue information on control techniques.
(c)(l) After effective date of emission standards under this section:
(A) No person may construct any new source or modify any existing
source, unless judged by the Administrator that such will not cause emissions
in violation of such standard.
(B) Compliance time for existing sources:
1. Hazardous emission standards apply ninety days after effective date.
2. Administrator may grant a waiver of up to two years.
(2) President may exempt for an'additional two years, if necessary
technology is not available, and national security is involved. Exemption may be
extended for one or more additional periods - each period not to exceed two years -
and President shall report to Congress.
(d)(l) States may develop own procedure for enforcing emission standards
for hazardous air pollutants. If Administrator finds such is adequate, he shall
delegate his authority to the state, but can still enforce any such standard
himself.
Section 113 - Federal enforcement.
(a)(l) If Administrator finds any person in violation of any requirement of
an implementation plan he shall serve such violator with a thirty-day notice to
comply. If failure to comply, then Administrator issues an administrative order
or he may bring a civil action.
(2) If violations are extremely widespread, then Administrator notifies
the state. If failure of state to enforce continues beyond thirtieth day after
notice then Administrator assumes enforcement for the state by issuing administrative
orders or bringing a civil action. Federal enforcement ends when Administrator
is satisfied that state will enforce the implementation plan.
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(3) Administrator can also take action with regard to violations of
lll(e), (new source - standards of performance), 112(c), (hazardous emissions),
and llU (inspections) also.
(k) Orders under this section, (other than a violation of 112), shall
not take effect until there has been an opportunity to confer regarding the
alleged violation.
(b) Administrator may commence a civil action for relief, including an
injunction, for failure to comply with an order or violation of requirements
of an applicable plan.
(c)
(Not more than
Penalty Provision ($25,000 per each day of violation, or
(by imprisonment for one year, or both
($50,000 per day, or by imprisonment of
If second conviction -— (not more than two years, or both.
Any knowingly false statements or tampering - fine of $10,000 per day
or imprisonment of not more than six months, or both.
Section llU - Inspections, monitoring, and entry.
(a)(l) The Administrator may require the owner or operator of an emission
source to:
(A) Maintain records.
(B) Make reports.
(C) Maintain monitoring equipment.
(D) Sample emissions.
(E) Provide other reasonable information as required.
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(2) Administrator or authorized representative has right of entry upon
any premises on which an emission source or records which are required to be
maintained are located, including the right to copy such records, inspect
equipment, sample emissions.
(b)(l) State may develop appropriate procedure, and Administrator may then
delegate authority to state.
(c) All records open to public except if secret process, then confidential.
Section 115 - Abatement by means of conference procedure in certain cases.
(a) The pollution of the air shall be subject to abatement as follows:
(b)(l) Governor or state agency of affected state can request the Administrator
to call a conference if such request refers to air pollution which results from
emissions in another state.
(2) Governor or state agency can also request a federal conference for
intrastate air pollution.
(3) Administrator can call conference on his own if he has reason to
believe that interstate pollution is endangering the health and welfare of persons
in a state other than that in which the discharges originate.
CO Can't call a conference for any pollutant for which a national primary
or secondary air quality standard is in effect, under section 109.
(c) Same general type of procedure for pollution effecting a foreign country.
If Administrator concludes that effective progress is not being made he shall
recommend remedial action, and allow six months for taking such action.
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If necessary action not taken, then public hearing is held before a hearing board,
which makes recommendations to be implemented within six months.
If necessary action not taken:
(A) If pollution is interstate in nature, then the Attorney General
brings suit on behalf of the United States in the district court.
(B) If intrastate, then at the request of the Governor, Administrator
shall provide technical assistance or take over the lawsuit.
Administrator can require reports of any person, in connection with the conference.
Section 116 - Retention of state authority.
If an emission standard is in effect under an implementation plan or under
section 111 - (standards of performance) or section 112 (hazardous emissions) -
then state may not adopt any emission standard which is less stringent. Otherwise,
state and political subdivisions retain authority to adopt any requirements or
standards desired respecting the control of air pollution.
Section 117 - President's air quality advisory board and advisory committees.
Establish an air quality advisory board in the Environmental Protection Agency
to advise and consult with the Administrator on policy matters.
Section 118 - Control of pollution from federal facilities.
All federal facilities must comply with all applicable air pollution regulations.
President may exempt any emission source if in interest of national security,
but no exemption may be granted from section 111.
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TITLE II
Motor Vehicle Bnission and Fuel Standards
Section 202 - Establishment of standards.
Administrator shall by regulation prescribe standards applicable to emissions
of air pollutants from new motor vehicles.
(a) Beginning with the 1975 model year, emission standards covering carbon
monoxide and hydrocarbons from motor vehicles will require at least a 90$
reduction from allowable emissions of these pollutants for the 1970 model year
vehicles.
(b) Beginning with the 1976 model year, emission standards covering oxides
of nitrogen require at least a 90$ reduction from the average emission level of
1971 model year vehicles.
(c) At any time after January 1, 1972, any manufacturer may file for a one
year suspension of the effective date for emission standards relative to carbon
monoxide and hydrocarbons. (At any time after January 1, 1973, manufacturers may
file for one year suspension for oxides of nitrogen.)
(d) At any time after January 1, 1973> any manufacturer may file for a one
year suspension of the effective date of any emission standard.
Section 211 - Regulation of fuels.
(a) The Administrator may require registration of fuels and fuel additives,
and prohibit the sale of any such fuel unless so registered.
(b) The Administrator may control or prohibit the introduction of any fuel
if any emission products of such fuel will endanger public health or welfare, or if
such emissions will significantly impair or prevent operation of emission control sys
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Section 303 - Emergency powers.
Notwithstanding any other provision of this Act, if the pollution source is
presenting an imminent and substantial danger to health, and appropriate state and
local officials have not acted, then the Administrator may bring suit on behalf of
the United States in district court to immediately restrain any person from
causing or contributing to such pollution.
Section 30k - Citizen Suits.
(a) Any person may commence a civil action in the district courts of the
United States on his own behalf against;
(1) Any person (including United States or states) who is alleged to
be in violation of (A) an emission standard
(B) or order of the Administrator or the state.
(2) Against the Administrator, where there is a failure of the Admin-
istrator to perform a non-discretionary duty.
(b) No action may be commenced:
(1) Against "any person":
(A) Prior to sixty days after notice of violation has been given.
(B) If court action has earlier commenced against violator by either
Administrator or state. (But any person may intervene as a matter of right.)
(2) Against the Administrator prior to sixty days after notice is given,
except that action may be brought immediately in case of violation of 112(c)(l)(B)
(hazardous air pollutants) or 113(a) (Order of the Administrator).
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(c) In the event of violation by a stationary source of an emission standarc^
the suit can be brought only in Judicial district where source located.
(Administrator can intervene as matter of right.) Nothing in this section shall
restrict any other right which any person may have under any statute or common law.
Section 3Q5 - Appearance.
Administrator shall request Attorney General to represent him. Administrator
may appoint his own attorneys if Attorney General fails to notify Administrator
within reasonable time that he will appear.
Section 306 - Federal procurement.
No Federal agency may enter into a contract with any person convicted under
113(c)(l), for goods or services, if the contract work is to be performed at the
facility at which the violation occurred, until the condition giving rise to such
violation has been corrected.
Section 30? - Administrative Proceedings and Judicial Review.
Administrator has subpoena power to require production of witnesses and
documents. Provision for review of any action of the Administrator in promulgating
any national standards or emission standards.
Section 308 - Mandatory Licensing.
Attorney General may issue an order requiring a person owning a patent to
license it on reasonable terms, if such is necessary to enable another person to
comply with specific requirements or limitations, and if unavailable, would tend
to result in lessening of competition and creation of a monopoly.
-16-
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Section 309 - Section 315 - See Act.
Section 3l6 - Appropriations.
There are authorized to be appropriated to carry out this Act, other than
sections 103(f)(3) and (d), 10U, 212, and U03, $125,000,000 for the fiscal year
ending June 30, 19?1, $225,000,000 for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1972,
and $300,000,000 for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1973.
Section 16 - Savings provisions.
Implementation plans submitted prior to enactment of the 1970 Amendments
may be approved under section 110 of the Act and shall remain in effect, unless
Administrator determines that the plan is not satisfactory. If so determined,
Administrator shall, within ninety days after promulgation of any national air
quality standards, notify the state of any necessary changes. If such changes
are not adopted by the state after public hearing and within six months of such
notification, then the Administrator shall promulgate such changes pursuant to
section 110(c) of the Act.
-17-
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THE ROLE OF A WITNESS
"HOW TO ACT AS AN EXPERT WITNESS"
By: HiIbert L. Bradley
A. DEFINITION
(I) The term witness, in its strict legal sense, means one who gives
evidence in a cause before the court, but it has also been de-
fined as one who testifies as to what he has seen, heard, or
otherwise observed.
Wiggington vs. Order of United Commercial Travelers of America,
1942, 126 F. 2d 659.
(2) To paraphrase, a witness is one who may testify as to anything
perceptible to the senses.
B. ATTENDANCE
(I) Any competent person may be summoned as a witness and his atten-
dance may be compelled by a subpoena, which is issued by a clerk
on the application of any party to the action.
Indiana Constitution, Art. I, Sec. 13
Kyle vs. Kyle, 1876, 55 Ind. 387
(2) Compensation
a.) Witnesses are entitled to such compensation as mileage,
as is allowed by statutes.
Burns Indiana Statute, Sec. 2-1710
C. COMPETENCY
(I) Subject to specified exceptions, all persons may testify in an
action.
Burns Indiana, Sec. 2-1713
Draper vs. Vanhorn, I860, 15 Ind. 155
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-2-
(2) Exceptions
a.) Insane persons,
b.) Children under ten (10) years of age, unless it appears
that they understand the nature and obligation of an
oath,
c.) Attorneys, as to confidential communications made to
them in the course of their professionaI. business, and
as to advice given in such cases,
d.) Physicians, as to matter communicated to them as such,
by patients, in the course of their professional busi-
ness, or advice given in such cases,
e.) Clergymen, as to confessions or admissions made to them
in course of discipline enjoined by their respective
churches,
f.) Husband and wife, as to communications made to each
other.
Burns Indiana Statute, 1968 Rep. Vol. 2, Part 2, Sec. 2-1714
D. KNOWLEDGE OF FACTS
(I) A witness may testify only to facts within his knowledge.
Fleming vs. Yost, 1894, 36 N.E. 705, 137 !nd. 95
a.) Character and reputation.
I. A witness is competent to testify as to character or
reputation when his situation and circumstances are
such that he is in a position to know the general
character or reputation of the person in question.
Brown vs. State, 1925, 147 N.E. 136, 196 !nd. 77
E. RESPONSIVENESS
(I) The answer of a witness must be responsive to the question asked
him.
a.) Where an answer, in addition to a responsive statement,
contains a statement not responsive to the question, the
portion not responsive may be stricken.
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-3-
Heinrich vs. Ellis, 1843, 40 N.E. 2d 96, 113 Ind. App. 478
F. TESTIMONY FROM MEMORANDA OR OTHER WRITINGS
A witness may be permitted to consult memoranda or other writing
for the purpose of refreshing his recollection, but as a general
rule a witness must have some independent knowledge and recollec-
tion of the matter with respect to which he testifies and cannot
testify entirely from a writing or memoranda.
Southern R. Company vs. State, 1905, 75 N.E. 272, 165 Ind. 613
G. CROSS-EXAMINATION
(I) A party is entitled as a matter of absolute right to the oppor-
tunity to cross-examine witnesses who have testified for an
adverse party.
Henry vs. State, 1925, 146 N.E. 822, 196 Ind. 14
H. REDIRECT EXAMINATION
(I) The scope and extent of redirect examination are within the sound
discretion of the trial court. Generally, a witness may be inter-
rogated on redirect examination as to matters concerning which he
was cross-examined.
RECROSS-EXAMINATION
(I) The scope of recross-examination may properly be limited to matters
testified to by the witness on his redirect examination.
Moellering vs. Evans, 1889, 22 N.E. 989, 121 Ind. 195
J. PRIVILEGE OF WITNESS
(I) The privilege against incrimination is guaranteed by both the Ind-
iana and Federal Constitutions and it cannot be abridged by any act
of the Legislature.
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-4-
Indiana Constitution, Art. I, Sec. 14
U.S. Constitution, 5th Amendment
K. CREDIBILITY AND IMPEACHMENT
(I) A party may impeach or discredit the witnesses of his adversary,
Willett vs. Hall, 1932, 180 N.E. 19, 97 Ind. App. 166
(2) In general, it is permissible to impeach or discredit a witness
by an attack on his character or reputation.
C. J. S., Witnesses, Sec. 491
(3) The credibility of a witness may be impeached by proof of his
conviction of a crime, but not by proof that he has been arrested
on a charge placed against him.
Petro vs. State, 1933, 184 N.E. 710, 204 Ind. 401
(4) The interest, bias, or prejudice of a witness Is a proper factor
for consideration on the issue of his credibility.
Pohlman vs. Perry, 1952, 103 N.E. 2d 911 Ind. App. 222
(5) A witness may be impeached by a proof of his prior statements
inconsistent with his testimony in the trial.
Pollard vs. State, 1950, 94 N.W. 2d 229 Ind. 62
L. OPINION EVIDENCE
(I) As a general rule and under ordinary circumstances an opinion
or conclusion of a witness may not be received in evidence.
a.) In the law of evidence, "opinion" is an inference
or conclusion drawn by a witness from fac!"-'", some of
which are known to him and others assumed, or drawn
from facts, which although lending probability to
the inferences do not evolve it by a process of
absolutely necessary reasoning. An opinion creates
no fact but is what someone thinks about something
and the thought may be accurate or inaccurate and
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-5-
it represents the honest conclusion or person expressed.
Ray vs. City of Philadelphia
2.5 A. 2d- 145. 344 Pa. 439
(2) Exceptions
a.) Expert Witnesses
I. An expert witness will be deemed qualified
if, and only if, he possesses special skill
or knowledge with respect to the matter
Involved so superior to men in general as
to make his formation of a judgment a fact
of probative value.
32 C. J. S., Sec. 457, p. 98
2. Courts could take judicial notice of the
official acts of the bureau of mines, and
further held that an inspector trained was
an expert and may testify as such to the
Ringelmann number of a particular smoke
emission, without using a chart, the same
as a policeman could testify as to the
length of a skid mark without actually
measuring it with a tape measure or ruler.
People vs. International Steel Corp., 1951,
102 Col. App. 2d Supp. 935, 226 P. 2d 587
Board of Health vs. New York
Central , 4 N.J. 294
b.) Non-expert Witnesses
I. In a proper case a competent observant may
be permitted to state his estimate or opinion
as to age of human beings, animals, or inani-
mate objects or as to a persons industry and
habits.
32 C. J. S., Sec. 546, p. I 19
2. A witness may state his impression or inference
with respect to appearance.
32 C. J. S., Sec. 546, p. 121
3. Witnesses have been permitted to state In the
form of an inference the cause or effect of a
certain occurrence or phenomenon.
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-6-
4. A witness was permitted to testify as to the
effect of polluted water on land and crops.
Watson vs. Colusa-Parrot Mining and Smelting Co., 79
P. 14, 31 Mont. 513
M. SUMMARY
(a) An expert witness should possess a special skill or knowledge,
demand a subpoena for attendance, maintain the demeanor of an
expert on and off the witness stand during the trial and testify
as to the facts or give an opinion impartially with candor.
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AIR POLLUTION EPISODE PLANS
I . I introduction
An implementation plan must show that the state has adequate legal
authority to develop and enforce Emergency Episode Procedures. The
plan must also contain criteria which define the severity of an episode
and a set of control regulations designed to alleviate any episode
situation. This session will cover the basis for emergency action, the
guidelines for episode plans and the functions of the Office of Air
Programs.
II. Legal Basis for Action by the Federal Government
A. The 1970 Amendments to the Clean Air Act Atch. I
B. Substantial Endangerment to Health
This phrase is defined as a level of an air pollutant never to
be reached in a community. The specific endangerments associated
with exposure to these levels vary from pollutant to pollutant
because effects are produced in a variety of ways, and individual
susceptibilities also vary tremendously. The levels never to be
reached are based on the following criteria: (I) the endangerment
refers to the health of populations rather than to individuals, not
because the health or death of an individual is unimportant, but
because in most instances it is impossible to relate these single
events conclusively to the polluted atmosphere, and (2) the en-
dangerment relates to a level of air pollution associated with
increased mortality, irreversible body damage or incapacitating
reversible damage.
C. Imminent Endangerment to Health
When increased pollution levels occur, and the prediction can
reasonably be made that a substantial endangerment level could
become reality even for a short period of time, i.e. it is imminent,
an emergency plan must be implemented to prevent that level from
occurri ng.
I. Requirements of Episode Plans
A. Episode Plan Requirements Figure I
I. Recommended four-stage sequence Figure 2
2. Public announcement of episode stages is required
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-2-
3. Plan should be put into effect if any criteria are met at
any one monitoring site
B. Episode Criteria
I. Appendix L, Federal Register, August 14, 1971 and November 25,
1971
2. Federal Register, October 23, 1971 Atch. 2
C. Surveillance During Episodes
I . Air Qua Iity
2. Meteorology
3. Sources
D. Emission Control Action Plans
I. Pre-planned strategies
a. point sources emitting 100 tons/year or more
b. area sources
c. motor vehicles
2. Legal authority, similar to Sec. 303, to seek injunctions
and enforce control plans.
E. Episode Plans Comments from Federal Register of May 31, 1972 Atch: 3
IV. Office of Air Programs Emergency Operations Control Center (EOCC)
A. Da iIy Operations
I. Air quality reporting network
2. "The Nation's Air"
B. Special Assistance
I. Air quality monitoring
2. Meteorological forecasts, non-routine
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-3-
3. Coordination with EPA Office of General Counsel
4. Accidental pollutant releases - fires, derailments,
explosions
V. Summary - Discussion
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THE CLEAN AIR ACT - DECEMBER 1970
Emergency Episode Plans
"Sec. 105(a)(l)(c)(3)
"Before approving any planning grant the Administrator shall
receive assurances that such agency has the capability of developing
a comprehensive air quality plan for the air quality control region,
which plan shall include (when appropriate) a recommended system of
alerts to avert and reduce the risk of situations in which there may
be imminent and serious danger to the public health or welfare from
air pollutants "
"Sec. 110(a)(2)
"The Administrator shall approve such [implementation] plan or any
portion thereof if
"(F) it provides (v) for authority comparable to that in
Section 303, and adequate contingency plans to implement such
authority:"
Emergency Powers
"Sec. 303
"Notwithstanding any other provision of this Act, the Administrator
upon receipt of evidence that a pollution source or combination of
sources (including moving sources) is presenting an imminent and
substantial endangerment to the health of persons, and that appro-
priate State or local authorities have not acted to abate such
sources, may bring suit on behalf of the United States in the
appropriate United States district court to immediately restrain
any person causing or contributing to the alleged pollution to
stop the emission of air pollutants causing or contributing to
such pollution or to take such other action as may be necessary."
Attachment I
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FEDERAL REGISTER, VOL. 36, NO. 206—SATURDAY, OCTOBER 23, 1971
Attachment 2
Title 42—PUBLIC HEALTH
Chapter IV—Environmental
Protection Agency
PART 4 2 0—REQUIREMENTS FOR
PREPARATION, ADOPTION, AND
SUBMITTAL OF IMPLEMENTATION
PLANS
Miscellaneous Amendments
On August 14, 1971 (36 F.R. 15486),
the Administrator promulgated regula-
tions establishing requirements for the
Preparation, adoption, and submitlal of
State plans for implementation of na-
tional ambient air quality standard;
Section 420.10 of the regulations Act
forth requirements for I he development
of contingency plans to prevent air pol-
lutant concentrations i'rom reaching
levels which -would constitute imminent
and substantial endangerment to the
health of persons, and stated that such
levels would be prescribed by the Ad-
mlnlstrptor.
The term "imminent and substantial
endangerment to the health of per-
sons," as used in section 30"! of the Clean
Air Act. means an immediate and seri-
ous threat of 3i£iiiflcant harm to the
health of any significant portion of the
general population. The Administrator
has determined that it is necessary to
prescribe those pollutant concentrations
which scientific data indicate constitute
"significant harm" levels. States' con-
tingency plans must be designed to pre-
vent these levels from being reached
and to protect, generally, against the
risk of dangerous pollutant buildups.
Based upon a review of the pertinent
scientific data, the Administrator has
identified the air polluti.nt concentra-
tions which constitute Ic-vels of signif-
icant harms to the health of persons.
Accordingly. M20.J8 of ihe regulations
Is revised by setting forlli those levels
for five pollutants coven-.1 by national
ambient air quality standards. Corres-
ponding revisions are made in appendix
L to the regulations; appendix L sets
forth among other tilings, pollutant con-
centrations suggested as-episode criteria.
i.e.. levels at which abatement action
would be initiated to prevent the occur-
rence of significant harm levels. The re-
visions of appendix L affect only the sul-
fur dioxide, particulato. and combined
sulfur dioxide and particulnte concen-
trations presented as suggested "warn-
ing" and "emergency" levels,
Dated: October 20, 1971.
WILLIAM D. RUCKELSHAUS,
Administrator,
Environmental Protection Agency.
(FB Doc.71-16993 Piled 10-22-71;8:51 am]
These amendments are effective upon
publication (10-23-71). The Adminis-
trator finds that because of the deadline
prescribed by the Clean Air Act for sub-
mlttal of State implementation plans,
Including contingency plans to prevent
Imminent and substantial endanger-
ment, good cause exists for dispensing
with a notice of proposed rule-making
and for making these amendments effec-
tive immediately.
1. Section 420.16.
24-nour average and partlculate eg. m.J,
24-hour average equal to 261 X 10\
CO—34 mK./m.1 (30 p.p.m.). 8-hour average.
Oxldant (O )—800 «g.'m.-' (0.4 p.p.m.), 1-
hour average.
NO..—2.260 «g /m.' (12 p.p.m.)—1-hour av-
erage; 565 pg./m.' (0.3 p.p.m.). 24-hour
average.
nnd meteorological conditions are such that
pollutant, concentrations can be expected to
remain at the above levels for twelve (12)
or mere hours 'or Increase unless control
actions are taken.
(d) "Emergency': The emergency level In-
dicates that air quality Is continuing to de-
grade toward a level of significant harm to
the health of persons and that the most
stringent control actions are necessary. An
emergency will be declared when any one of
the following levels Is reached at any moni-
toring site:
SO..—2,100 «g/m3 (0.8 p.p.m.), 34-hour
average.
Partlculate—7.0 COH's or 875 /ig./m.\ 34-
hour average.
SOj and paniculate combined—product of
SO., p.p.m., 24-hour average and COH's
equal to 1.2 or product of 8O3 /ig./m.»,
24-hour average and partlculate «g./m.\
24-hour average equal to 393XW.
CO—46 mg./m.-1 (40 p.p.m.), 8-hour average.
Oxldant (O;,)—1,200 /ig./m." (0.6 p.p.m.),
1-hour average.
NO.—3,000
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EPISODE PLAN REQUIREMENTS
' Episode criteria
Surveillance system
Emission reduction plan
Communications system
Legal authority
Figure I
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FOUR - STAGE ALERT SEQUENCE
METEOROLOGICAL
MONITORING
FORECAST
ALERT
WARNING
EMERGENCY
ATMOSPHERIC
STAGNATION
ADVISORY
CONDITION
CONTINUES
CONDITION
CONTINUES
CONDITION
CONTINUES
CONTROL
AGENCY
i
FORECAST
METEOROLOGY CONDITIONS
ONLY
•AGENCY PREPARE FOR
POTENTIAL EPISODE
•ADVISE MAJOR SOURCES
1st ALERT
SAFE, BUT PREVENTIVE
ACTION REQUIRED
PUBLIC ANNOUNCEMENT
•FUEL SWITCHING
0
•CURTAIL INCINERATION
&, BURNING
2nd ALERT
PRELIMINARY HEALTH HAZARD
•SELECTIVE CURTAILMENT
OF INDUSTRIAL ACTIVITIES
3rd ALERT
DANGEROUS HEALTH HAZARD
-MAJOR CURTAILMENT OF ALL
ACTIVITIES IN COMMUNITY
AIR
MONITORING
POLLUTANT
REACHES
1st LEVEL
POLLUTANT
INCREASES
TO 2nd LEVEL
POLLUTANT
INCREASES
TO 3rd LEVEL
I
Figure 2
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EMERGENCY EPISODES
Federal Register, Wednesday, May 31, 1972
Vol. 37, No. 105, Part III, pp. 10844-10845
State plans were required to set forth episode criteria, i.e.,
pollutant concentrations at which specified emission control actions
will be initiated in order to prevent significant harm to the health
of persons. Episode criteria were required to be adequate to protect
against occurrence of the significant harm levels prescribed by the
Administrator (40 CFR 51.16). Emission control action plans were
required to provide for abatement action dealing with area sources,
e.g., open burning, commercial and residential incinerators, and motor
vehicles, and to provide for development of individual standby abatement
plans for all stationary sources emitting 100 tons per year or more.
Where episode criteria and/or emission control action plans applicable
to area sources and motor vehicles were not submitted or were disapproved,
the Administrator is not prescribing substitute provisions, but, rather,
in carrying out his responsibilities under section 303 of the Act, will
be guided by the suggested episode criteria and emission control action
plans set forth in the Administrator's regulations (40 CFR Part 51,
Appendix L). Where episode criteria and/or emission control action plans
are approved, the Administrator will make use of them in the event that
it is necessary to initiate action under section 303. In either case, the
Administrator, in acting under section 303, may also take into considera-
tion other relevant information and advice, including medical-scientific
opinions on endangerment to the health of persons. Where a State plan
fails to provide for public announcements of episode stages or fails to
provide for development of standby abatement plans for stationary sources
emitting 100 tons per year or more, the Administrator will promulgate
regulations to correct such deficiencies.
Attachment 3
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Section Two
METEOROLOGY
Meteorologic Fundamentals
Meteorologic Factors Affecting
Pollutant Dispersion
Effects of Meteorologic Parameters
on Transport and Diffusion
Influence of Topography
Influence of Topography on Transport
and Diffusion
Wind and Meteorological Roses
Meteorological Roses
Meteorological Instruments
and Exposure
Meteorological Instruments
Exposure of Instruments
Atmospheric Stagnation -
Climatology and Forecasting Program
Atmospheric Dispersion and
Air Pollution Control
Maximizing the Dilution
Capacity of the Atmosphere
Seminar on Meteorological
Assistance in Air Pollution Problems
Assistance in Meteorological Problems
Sources of Meteorological Data
-------
METEOROLOGIC FUNDAMENTALS
D. B. Turner*
RADIATION
The energy expended in the atmospheric
processes originally was derived from the
sun. This transfer of energy from the sun
to the earth and its atmosphere is by radi-
ation of heat by electromagnetic waves.
The.radiation from the sun has its peak of
energy transmission in the visible range
(0. 4 to 0. 7 microns) of the electromagnetic
spectrum but releases considerable energy
in the ultraviolet and infrared regions as
well. The greatest part of the sun's energy
is emitted at wave lengths between 0. 1
and 30 microns. Some of this radiation is
reflected from the tops of clouds and from
the land and water surfaces of the earth.
The general reflectivity is the albedo and
for the earth and atmosphere as a whole is
36 pei1 cent, for mean conditions of cloud-
iness over the earth. This reflectivity is
greatest in the visible range of wavelengths.
When light (or radiation) passes through a
volume containing particles whose diameter
is smaller than the wavelength of the light,
scattering of a portion of this light takes
place. Shorter wavelengths scatter most
easily which is the reason the scattered
light from the sky appears blue. Sunlight,
near sunrise and sunset, when passing
through a greater path-length of the atmos-
phere appears more red due to the in-
creased scattering of shorter wave lengths.
Absorption of solar radiation by some of
t.hc gases in the atmosphere (notably water
vapor) also takes place. Water vupor, al-
though comprising only '•'> per cent of the
atmosphere, on Llie average absorbs about
.six limes a.s much solar radiation as all
other gases combined. The amount of
radiation received at the earth's surface is
considerably less than that received outside
the atmosphere.
The earth reradiates energy in proportion
to its temperature according to Planck's
law. Because of the earth's temperature,
the maximum emission is about 10 microns,
which is in the infrared region of the spectrum.
The gases of the atmosphere absorb some
wave length regions of this radiation. Water
Meteorologist, Air Resources Cincinnati
1 , ibor.ilors KSSA, NAl'CA, Cincinnati,
Ohio
I 'A. M !•!. ••!. '<,! I.'.. ..,'.
vapor absorbs strongly between 5. 5 and 7
microns and at greater than 27 microns but
is essentially transparent from 8 to 13
microns. Carbon dioxide absorbs strongly
between 13 and 17.5 microns. Because of
the absorption of much more of the terres-
trial radiation by the atmosphere than of
the solar radiation, some of the heat energy
of the earth is conserved. This is the
"greenhouse " effect.
Figure 1 shows as a function of latitude the
amount of solar radiation absorbed by the
earth and atmosphere compared to the long
wave radiation leaving the atmosphere. The
sine of the latitude is used as abscissa to
represent area. It can be seen that if there
were no transfer of heat poleward, the
equitorial regions would continue to heat
up and the polar regions continue to cool.
Since the temperatures remain nearly the
same for various areas of the earth, such
a transfer does take place. The required
transfer of heat across various latitudes is
given in Table 1.
ADIATION 300
( LANOUYS
I ~ "BAY
\
20 30 40 50 60 70 90
S I Nt OF LA Tl TUDE
A SOLAR RADIATION ABSORBED BY EARTH AND ATMOSPHERE
B LONG WAVE RADIATION LEAVING THE ATMOSPHERE
FIGURE 1
1-1
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Afeteorologic Fundamentals
Table 1. Required Flux of Heat
'1 oward the Poles Across Latitudes
(Hi1- calories per day)
From Jloughton
Latitude
U
10
20
30
40
50
6 0
7 0
8 0
90
Flux
0
4.05
7.68
10.46
11. 12
9.61
(i. 68
3.41
0.94
0
(along meridions i. e. between poles and
equator) circulation is broken into three
cells shown in Figure 2 according to
Palmen's model. nf considerable impor-
tance is the fact that the jet stream does
not remain long in one position but meanders
and is constantly changing position. This
causes changes in the location of the polar
front and perturbations along the front. The
migrating cyclones and anticyclones re-
sulting, play an important part in the heat
exchange, transferring heat northward both
as a sensible heat and also latent heat. Also
a small amount of heat is transferred pole-
ward by the ocean currents.
THE GENERAL CIRCULATION
The previous section has indicated the
necessity of transfer of heat from the
warm equatorial regions to the cold polar
rcijiuiih, in order- to maintain the heat
balance of Hie atmosphere. This thermal
driving force is the main cause of atmos-
phere motion on Hie earth. The rotation
of the earth modifies this motion but does
not cause il since the atmosphere essen-
tially rotates will) (he earth. The portion
of the earth near the equator acts as a
heat source and the polar regions as a
heat sink. The atmosphere functions as
a heat engine transforming the potential
energy of heat difference between tropics
and poles to kinetic energy of motion which
transports heat poleward from source to
sink.
If the earth did not rotate, rising air above
the equator would move poleward aloft
where in giving up «ome of its heat would
sink and return toward the equator as a
surface current. Since the earth does
rotate, the Coriolis force (to be discussed
in the section on wind) deflects winds in
the northern hemisphere to the right.
Therefore flow from the tropics toward
tlie poles become more westerly and flow
from the poles toward the equator tends to
become easterly. The result is that most
of the motion is around the earth (zonal)
with less than one-tenth of the motion be-
tween poles and equator. The meridional
POLAR TROPOPAUSE
POLAR FRONT JET
TROPICAL
TROPOPAUSE
GFNERAL CIRCULATION MODEL
(AFTtR PALMEN)
FIGURE 2
TEMPERATURE
Variation with Height
In'the lower region of the atmosphere ex-
tending from the surface to about 2 km.,
the temperature distribution varies consid-
erably depending upon the character of the
underlying surface and upon the radiation
at the surface. The temperature may de-
crease with height or it may actually in-
crease with height (inversion). This region
is the lower troposphere and is the region
of most interest in air pollution meteorology.
The remainder of the troposphere has a
decrease of temperature with height on the
-------
Meteorologic Fundamentals
order of 4 to 8°C per km. The stratosphere
is a region with isothermal or slight inver-
sion lapse rates. The layer of transition
between the troposphere and stratosphere
is called the tropopause. The tropopause
varies in height from about 8 to 20 km. and
is highest near the equator, lowest near the
poles. Figures 3 and 4 indicate typical
temperature variations with height for two
latitudes for summer and winter in the
troposphere and lower stratosphere.
WINTER " v ^\ SUMMER
-80 -60 -40 -20 0
TEMPERATURE (°C)
VARIATION OF TEMPERATURE WITH HEIGHT AT 30° NORTH LATITUDE
FIGURE 3
Ht IG MT
(KM.)
WINTER ^--
-BO -60 -40 -20 0 20
TEMPERATURE (°c)
VARIATION Of TEMPEKATU1E WITH HEIGHT AT 60" NORTH LATITUDE
FIGURE 4
Above the stratosphere, the high atmosphere
I has several layers of differing characteris-
tics. A rough indication of the variation of
temperature with height including the high
atmosphere is shown in Figure 5.
ALTITUDE
(KM.)
200 220 240 260 280 300
TEMPERATURE (°K)
FIGURE 5
Horizontal Variation
Temperature also varies horizontally
particularly with latitude, being colder near
the poles and warmer near the equator. How-
ever the influence of continents and oceans
have considerable effects on modifying
temperatures. The continents have more
extreme temperatures becoming warmer in
summer and colder in winter, whereas the
oceans maintain a more moderate temper-
ature year-round.
STABILITY AND INSTABILITY
Whether the atmosphere has a tendency to en-
hance vertical motions or to damp out ver-
tical motions is important to atmospheric
processes which produce weather as well as
to the effects upon air pollutants. The
stability of the atmosphere is highly dependent
upon the vertical distribution of temperature
with height.
1-3
-------
Meteorologic Fundamentals
Adiabatic Lapse Rate
Due to the decrease of pressure with height,
a parcel of air lifted to a higher altitude will
encounter decreased pressure and will
expand and in undergoing this expansion will
cool. If this expansion takes place without
loss or gain of heat to the parcel, the change
is adiabatic. Similarly a parcel of air forced
downward in the atmosphere will encounter
higher pressures, will contract and will be-
come warmer. This rate of cooling with
lifting or heating with descent is the dry
adiabatic process lapse rate and is 5.4°F
per 1000 feet or approximately 1° C per 100
meters. This process lapse rate is the rate
of heating or cooling of any descending or
rising parcel of air in the atmosphere and
should not be confused with the existing
temperature variation with height at any one
lime, the environmental lapse rate.
Environmental or Prevailing Lapse Rate
The manner in which temperature changes
with height at any one time is the prevailing
lapse rate. This is principally a function of
the temperature of the air and of the surface
over which it is moving and the rate of exchange
of heat between the two. For example, dur-
ing clear days in midsummer the ground
will be rapidly heated by solar radiation
resulting in rapid heating of the layers of
the atmosphere nearest the surface, but
farther aloft the atmosphere will remain
relatively unchanged. At night radiation
from the earth's surface cools the ground
and the air adjacent to it, resulting in only
slight decrease of temperature with height or
if surface cooling is great enough, temper-
ature will increase with height.
If the temperature decreases more rapidly
wit h height than the dry adiabatic lapse
rate, the air has a super-adiabatic or strong
lapse rate and the air is unstable. If a
parcel of air is forced upwards it will cool
at the adiabatic lapse rate, but will still
be warmer than the environmental air. Thus
it will continue to rise. Similarly, a parcel
which is forced downward will heat dry
adiabatically but will remain cooler than the
environment and will continue to sink.
For environmental lapse rates that decrease
with height at a rate less than the dry adia-
batic lapse rate (sub-adiabatic or weak lapse)
a lifted parcel will be cooler than the envir-
onment and will sink; a descending parcel
will be warmer than the environment and
will rise. Figure 6 shows the relative
relation between the environmental lapse
rates of super-adiabatic (strong lapse), sub-
adiabatic (weak lapse), isothermal, and
inversion with the dry adiabatic process
lapse rate as dashed lines.
\
SUPER-ADIABATIC
\
\
\
\
\
\
ISOTHERMAL
\
\
\
\
TEMPERATURE —•-
T>p<-s of Trmprrature Structure with Height
Related to the Dry Adiabatic Process Lapse Rate
FIGURE 6
Lifting motions which will cause cooling at
dry adiabatic lapse rates may be due to up-
slope motion over mountains or rising over
a colder air mass. Descending motion
(subsidence) may occur to compensate for
the lateral spreading of air in high pressure
areas.
WATER IN THE ATMOSPHERE
In the section on radiation the importance of
water vapor on the balance of incoming and
-------
Meteorologic Fundamentals
outgoing radiation was shown. The temper-
ature of the atmosphere is below the boiling
point of water, yet water is volatile enough
to evaporate (change from liquid to gas) or
sublimate (change from solid to gas) at
atmospheric temperatures and pressures.
Condensation or crystallization of water
vapor in the atmosphere as clouds and on
the ground as dew or frost is common-
place. Certainly, water in the form of
clouds, fog, and precipitation are familiar
elements of weather and the latter one
necessary for agriculture and supplies
of ground water.
One measure of the amount of moisture in
the air is the dew point which is the
temperature at which saturation is reached
if the air is cooled at a constant pressure
without addition or loss of moisture. In
the atmosphere, saturation frequently
occurs due to the adiabatic cooling of
lifted air parcels until the dew point for
the lower pressure is reached. Further
cooling will condense water vapor releas-
ing the heat of condensation and because
of this release of heat, cooling of ascending
saturated air does not occur at the dry
adiabatic lapse rate but at the pseudo-
u.diabatic lapse rate which is a smaller
temperature decrease with height.
WINDS
Wind is nothing more than air in motion and
although it is a motion in three dimensions,
usually only the horizontal component is
considered in terms of direction and speed.
In the free atmosphere (above the effects
of the earth's friction) two forces are
important, the first, the Coriolis force, is
due to the tendency for the air to move in
a straight path while the earth rotates
underneath. The Coriolis force is at right
angles to the wind velocity, to the right
in the northern hemisphere and to the left
in the southern hemisphere, is proportional
to the wind velocity, and decreases with
latitude. The other force is the pressure
gradient force, with direction from high
to low pressure. Above the friction layer,
in regions where the lines of constant
pressure (isobars) are straight and the
latitude is greater than 20°, the two forces
are in balance (See Figure 7) and the wind
blows parallel to the isobars with low
pressure to the left. For curved isobars
the forces are not in balance, their resul-
tant producing a centripetal acceleration.
In the lowest portion of the atmosphere
frictional drag (not due to molecular fric-
tion but to eddy viscosity) slows down the
wind speed and since the Coriolis force is
proportional to the wind speed reduces the
Coriolis force. The balance of forces
under Frictional flow is shown in Figure 8.
It will be noted that under frictional flow
the wind has a component across the isobars
toward lower pressure.
PRESSURE
GRADIENT FORCE
COR
FO
GEOSTROPHIC
WIND
OLIS
RCE
FIGURE 7
PRESSURE
GRADIENT FORCE
T ~_
FRICTION l^-*''"'*^
FORCE T^ CORIOLIS
FRICTION * *i FORCE
CORIOLIS FORCE
HIGH
FIGURE 8
AKTICYCLONES AND CYCLONES
Migrating areas of high pressure (anticyclones)
and low pressure (cyclones) and the fronts
associated with the latter are responsible
for the day to day changes in weather that
occur over most of the mid-latitude regions
of the earth. The low pressure systems
in the atmospheric circulation are related
to perturbations along the jet stream (the
region of strongest horizontal temperature
gradient in the upper troposphere and con-
1-5
-------
Meteorologic Fundamentals
sequently the region of strongest winds)
and form along frontal surfaces separating
masses of air having different temperature
and moisture characteristics. The forma-
tion of a low pressure system is accompan-
ied by the formation of a wave on the front
consisting of a warm front and a cold
front both moving around the low in a
counterclockwise sense. The life cycle
of a typical cyclone is shown in Figure 9.
The cold front is a transition zone between
warm and cold air where the cold air is
moving in over the area previously occupied
by warm air. Cold fronts generally have
slopes from 1/50 to 1/150. Warm fronts
separate advancing warm air from retreating
cold air and have slopes on the order of 1/100
to 1/300 due to the effects of friction on the
trailing edge of the front. Figure 10
illustrates a vertical cross section though
both a warm and a cold front.
CROSS SECTION THROUGH A COLD FRONT
AND A WARM FRONT
FIGURE 10
AIR MASSES
Air masses are frequently divided by frontal
systems and are usually classified according
to the source region of their recent history.
Air masses are classified as maritime or
continental according to origin over the
ocean or land, and arctic, polar, or tropical
depending principally on the latitude of
origin. Air masses are modified by vertical
motions and by the effects of radiation upon
the surfaces over which they move.
CONDENSATION, CLOUDS, AND PRECIPI-
TATION
Condensation of water vapor upon suitable
condensation nuclei in the atmosphere causes
clouds. Large hygroscopic nuclei will con-
dense water vapor upon them even before
saturation is reached. Table 2 indicates
the relative sizes of different particles. At
below freezing temperatures supercooled
water frequently exists for few nuclei act
as crystallization nuclei. Of course, only
a small proportion of all clouds produce rain.
It is necessary that the droplets increase in
-------
Meteorologic Fundamentals
size both so that they will have appreciable
fall velocity and also so that complete evap-
oration of the drop will not occur before it
reaches the ground. Table 3 indicates the
distance of fall for different size drops
before evaporation occurs. Growth of con-
densation drops into drops large enough to
fall is thought to originate with the large
condensation nuclei which grow larger as
they drop through the cloud. The presence
of an electric field in clouds generally helps
the growth into raindrops.
TABLE 2
Sizes of Particles
Particles Size (microns)
Small ions
Medium ions
Large ions
Aitken nuclei
Smoke, haze, dust
Large condensation nuclei 2 X lO"1 to 10
Giant condensation nuclei 1 0 to 30
Cloud or fog droplets
Drizzle drops
less than 10
10'3 to 5 X ID'2
5 X 10-2 to 2 X 10"1
5 X 10-2 to 2 X 10"1
10'1 to 2
-1
1 to 100
100 to 500
Kaindrops
500 to 4000
TABLE 3
Distance of Fall Before Evaporation (from
Kindeisen)
Radius (microns)
Distance of Fall
1
10
100
1000
2500
3.3 10-
3. 3 cm.
150 in.
42 km.
280 km.
cm.
REFERENCES
1 Blair, T.A. and Fite, R. C. Weather
Elements. Prentice-Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, N. J. 5th ed. , 1965.
2 Byers, H. R. General Meteorology, Mc-
Graw-Hill, New York, Srded.,
1959.
3 Findeisen, W., Meteorol. Z., 5_6, 453,
1939.
4 Hewson, E. W. ; and Longley, R. W.
Meteorology, Theoretical and Applied,
Wiley, New York, 1944.
5 Houghton, H. G. "On the Annual Heat
Balance of the Northern Hemisphere, "
J. Meteorol:, U, 1, 1-9. Feb. 1954.
6 Palmen, E., Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol.
Soc., 77, 337. 1951.
7 Petterssen, S. Introduction to Meteoro-
logy, McGraw-Hill, New York, 2nd
ed., 1958.
8 Shulman, M. D. Climates of the United
States. Seminar on Human Biometeo-
rology, Public Health Service Pub. No.
999-AP-25. 1967.
1-7
-------
METEOROLOGICAL FACTORS AFFECTING POLLUTANT DISPERSION
I. Introduction
The influence of meteorology on air pollutants is greatest
during the diffusion and transport phase. The meteorological elements
of primary importance are wind speed, wind direction and their fluc-
tuations from the mean over the period of interest - usually from
minutes to hours. In addition thera are cycles present, both in
meteorology and pollutant emissions, which should be recognized in
the analysis and interpretation of air pollution measurements.
II. Wind Direction
A. Determines the Course the Effluent will Take
B. Wind Direction Veers with Height Fig. 1
III. Wind Speed
A. Determines Travel Time from Source to Receptor
B. Controls the Dilution of the Effluent Fig. 2
1. Example
. . Emission Rate
2. Concentration <* • •, •;—
Wind Speed
C. Wind Speed Increase with Height Fig. 3
IV. Variability of the Wind
A. Eddies in the Wind
1. Description
2. Effect of eddy size in dispersion
-------
B. Production of Mechanical Turbulence Fig. A
C. Production of Thermal Turbulence Fig. 4
V. Relationship Between Turbulence and Atmospheric Stability
A. Wind Fluctuations and Vertical Temperature Measurements
B. Stability Categories
1. Wind fluctuations
2. Insolation, cloud cover, and wind speed
VI. Cyclic Variations Fig. 5
A. Meteorology
B, Pollutant Emissions
C. Diurnal Variations in Air Quality
D. Effect of Sampling Time
E. Peak to Mean Ratios
VII. Summary - Discussion
-------
WIND
I: lETER/SEC
5 GRAMS PER FETER
OF PLJUE LENGTH
EMISSION: 5 GRAMS/SEC
WIND
): 5 METERS/SEC
1 GRAM PER METER
OF PLUME LENGTH
EMISSION: 5 GRAMS/SEC
O
DILUTION * WIND S
OR 1
CONCEPTION « WIND
-------
DIURNAL VARIATIONS
OF
WIND SPEED WITH HEIGHT
(AVERAGE TERRAIN)
HEIGHT
WIND SPEED
-------
30—
o
0>
k.
O
•o
OJ
Thermal
Turbulence
<
in
Mechanical
Turbulence
-------
HUMAN ACTIVITY DAILY CYCLE
WEEKLY CYCLE
CAUSES OF CHANGE IN TIE AMOUNT OF ATTCM£RIC POLJUTION
VEATHER
WIND DIRECTION PRECIPITATION
IRREGULAR VARIATION
OF
WEAHtR
YEARLY CYCLE
TOMS
WIND SPEED TURBULBJCE
DAILY CYQ£
OF
WEAHtR
YEARLY CYCLE
OF
WEA1TER
-------
EFFECTS OF METEOROLOGIC PARAMETERS ON TRANSPORT AND DIFFUSION
D. B. Turner*
The air pollution cycle can be considered to
consist of three phases: the release of air
pollutants at the source, the transport and
diffusion in the atmosphere, and the recep-
tion of air pollutants in reduced concen-
trations by people, plants, animals, or
inanimate objects. The influence of
meteorology is to the greatest extent during
the diffusion and transport phase. The
motions of the atmosphere which may be
highly variable in four dimensions are
responsible for the transport and diffusion
of air pollutants.
Although the distribution with time of a.
cloud of pollutant material will depend on
the summation of all motions of all sizes
and periods acting upon the cloud, it is
convenient to first consider some mean
atmospheric motions over periods on the
order of an hour.
WIND DIRECTION
What effect will the mean wind direction
have on an air pollutant? If the wind direc-
tion is representative of the height at which
the pollutant is released, the mean direction
will be indicative of the direction of travel
of the pollutants. In meteorology it is
conventional to consider the wind direction
as the direction from which the wind blows,
therefore a north-west wind will move
pollutants to the south-east of the source.
WIND SPEED
The effect of wind speed is two-fold. The
wind-speed will determine the travel time
from a source to a given receptor, e. g.
if a receptor is located 1000 meters down-
wind from a source and the windspeed is 5
meters /second, it will take 260 seconds
for the pollutants to travel from the source
to the receptor. The other effect of wind
speed is a dilution in the downwind direction.
If a continuous source is emitting a certain
pollutant at the rate of 10 grams/second
and the wind speed is 1 meter/second then
^Meteorologist, Weather Bureau Research Station,
Laboratory of Engineering and Physical Sciences,
in a downwind length of the plume of 1 meter
will be contained 10 grams of pollutant
since 1 meter of air moves past the source
each second. Next, consider that the
conditions of emission are the same but
the wind speed is 5 meters/second. In
this case since 5 meters of air moves
past the source each second, each meter'
of plume length contains 2 grams of pollu-
tant. Therefore it can be seen that the
dilution of air pollutants released from a
source is proportional to the wind speed.
This may be restated in another form: The
concentration of air pollutants is inversely
proportional to wind speed.
VARIABILITY OF THE WIND
In the preceding paragraphs consideration
of only the mean speed and direction of
wind has been made. Of course, there are
deviations from this mean velocity. There
are velocity components in all directions so
that there are vertical motions as well as
horizontal ones. These random motions
of widely different scales and periods are
essentially responsible for the movement
and diffusion of pollutants about the mean
downwind path. These motions can be
considered atmospheric turbulence. If
the scale of a turbulent motion i.e. the
size of an eddy, is larger than the size of
the pollutant plume in its vicinity, the eddy
will move that portion of the plume. If an
eddy is smaller than the plume its effect
will be to diffuse or spread out the plume.
This diffusion caused by the eddy motion is
widely variable in the atmosphere but even
when this diffusion is least, it is on the
order of three orders of magnitude greater
than the diffusion by molecular action alone,
MECHANICAL TURBULENCE
Mechanical turbulence is the induced eddy
structure of the atmosphere due to the
roughness of the surface over which the air
is passing. Therefore the existance of trees,
shrubs, buildings, and terrain features will
SEC
PA. ME. mm. 14. 3.62
-------
Effects of Meteorologic Parameters on Transport and Diffusion
cause mechanical turbulence. The height
and spacing of the elements causing the
roughness will affect the turbulence. In
general, the higher the roughness elements
the greater the mechanical turbulence. In
addition the mechanical turbulence increases
as wind speed increases.
THERMAL TURBULENCE
Thermal turbulence is that induced by
the stability of the atmosphere. When
the earth's surface is heated by the sun's
radiation, the lower layer of the atmos-
phere becomes unstable and thermal tur-
bulence becomes greater, expecially under
c onditions of light wind. On clear nights
with light winds, heat is radiated from the
earth's surface resulting in cooling of the
ground and air adjacent to it. This results
in extreme stability of the atmosphere near
the earth's surface. Under these con-
ditions turbulence is at a minimum.
RELATION OF TURBULENCE TO WIND
RECORDS
Attempts to relate different measures of
turbulence of the wind to atmospheric
diffusion have been made for quite some
time. Lowry (1951) related the distance
of the maximum concentration to the
standard deviation of wind direction over
10 to 15 minute periods. Smith (1951) has
used a classification of wind trace types
using wind vane records as an indication
of atmospheric stability. Hay and Pasquill
(1957, 1959), Cramer (1958), and Islitzer
(1961) have all compared diffusion experi-
ment results with statistics of wind direc-
tion fluctuations in both the horizontal and
vertical. Direct methods of relating wind
statistics to estimates of dispersion
(Pasquill, 1961, 1962) show promise and
attempts at developing suitable instru-
mentation to yield the necessary wind
statistics directly have been made (Jones
and Pasquill, 1959).
RELATION OF TURBULENCE TO ATMOS-
PHERIC STABILITY
Relations of a more qualitative type have
been noted between atmospheric diffusion
and the stability of the atmosphere. Measure-
ment of atmospheric stability by temperature
difference measurements on a tower are
frequently utilized as an indirect measure
of turbulence, particularly where clima-
tological estimates of turbulence are desired.
Under strong lapse or super-adiabatic
conditions of temperature change with
height, strong vertical and horizontal
mixing takes place in the atmosphere con-
trasted to inversion conditions with slight
horizontal mixing but extremely limited
vertical mixing. (See the section on The
Influence of Vertical Temperature Structure
Upon Stack Effluents)
VARIATIONS OF WIND SPEED AND DIREC-
TION WITH HEIGHT
Wind speed is generally found to increase
with height above the ground and wind direc-
tion to veer (turn clockwise) with height (in
the northern hemisphere at extratropical
latitudes) due to the effects of friction with
the earth's surface. The amount of these
increases in speed and veering in direction
are widely variable and to a great degree
related to the roughness of the surface and
the stability of the atmosphere.
EFFECT OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS
Consider the surface wind as measured at 10
meters compared to the wind above the in-
fluence of the earth's friction, for example
about 1000 meters. Over smooth terrain
such as the great plains or over the ocean
the speed at the surface is on the order of
0. 9 the upper wind and the degree of veering
with height on the order of 10°. (See Figure 1).
Over average terrain with small changes in
elevation and with some trees and shrubs,
the surface speed is more like 4/5 of the upper
wind and the amount of veering with height
about 15° to 20°. Over rough terrain, quite
hilly or mouhtaneous or with numerous
buildings and vegetation, the surface speed
may be only half the speed of the upper wind
and the amount of veering with height as much
as 40° to 45°.
-------
ts of Meteorologic Parameters on Transport and Diffusion
SMOOTH
TERRAIN
10 METER'
WIND
1000 METER
WIND
order of 1/4 to 1/3 that of the 1000 meter
wind) and the amount of veering with
height may be on the order of 40° to 45°.
Figure 2 shows the diurnal variation of
wind speed at two different levels on a
meteorological tower (Singer and Raynor,
1957).
AVERAGE
TERRAIN
SOUGH
TERRAIN
1000 METER
WIND
10 METER'
WIND
1000 METER
WIND
10 METER
WIND
EFFECT OF ROUGHNESS ON
VARIATION OF WIND WITH HEIGHT
WIND
SPEED
(M/SEC)
410 FEET
SUNRISE MIDDAY SUNSET MIDNIGHT SUNRISE
DIURNAL VARIATION OF WIND SPEED
Data from Meteorological Tower
Brookhaven National Laboratory
April 1950-March 1952
FIGURE 2
REFERENCES
FIGURE 1
DIURNAL VARIATION
During the daytime, solar heating causes
turbulence to be at a maximum and ver-
tical motions to be strongest. This causes
the maximum amount of momentum ex-
change between various levels in the at-
mosphere. Because of this, the variation
of wind speed with height is least during
the daytime. Also the amount of veering
with height is least (on the order of 15° to
20° over average terrain). The thickness
of the friction layer will also be greatest
during the day due to the vertical exchange.
At night the vertical motions are least and
the effect of friction is not felt through as
deep as a layer as during the day. The
surface speed over average terrain is much
less than the free atmosphere wind (on the
Cramer, H. E.; Record, F. A.; and Vaughan,
H. C. "The Study of the Diffusion of
Gases or Aerosols in the Lower Atmos-
phere", Final Report, Contract No.
AF 19(604)-1058, 15 May 58, Mass.
Inst. of Tech., Dept. of Meteorol.
Hay, J. S.; and Pasquill, F. "Diffusion
from a Fixed Source at a Height of a Few
Hundred Feet in the Atmosphere ",• J. of
Fluid Mech., 2, 3, 299-310, May, 1957.
Hay, J. S.; and Pasquill, F. "Diffusion
from a Continuous Source in Relation
to the Spectrum and Scale of Turbulence ",
in Atmospheric Diffusion and Air Pollu-
tion, Frenkiel, F. N.; and Sheppard, P. A.,
editors, Academic Press, London, 1959.
Islitzer, Norman F. "Short-Range Atmos-
pheric Dispersion Measurements from
an Elevated Source", J. Meteorol., 18,
4, 443-450, August 1961.
Jones, J. I. P.; and Pasquill, F. "An
-------
Effects of Meteorologic Parameters on Transport and Diffusion
Experimental System for Directly Re-
cording Statistics of the Intensity of
Atmospheric Turbulence", Quar. J.
of the Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 85, 225-236,
1959.
Lowry, P. H. "Microclimate Factors in
Smoke Pollution From Tall Stacks",
in: On Atmospheric Pollution, Meteorol.
Mono. \j 4, 24-29, Nov. 1951.
Pasquill, F. "The Estimation of the Dis-
persion of Windborne Material, " The
Meteorol. Mag., 90, 1063, 33-49,
Feb. 1961.
Pasquill, F. Atmospheric Diffusion. Van
Nostrand, London, 1962.
Singer, I. A.; and Raynor, G. S. "Analysis
of Meteorological Tower Data, April
1950 - March 1952, Brookhaven National
Laboratory", AFCRC TR-57-220,
Brookhaven National Laboratory,
June 1957.
Smith, M. E. lkThe Forecasting, of Micro-
meteorological Variables", in: On
Atmospheric Pollution, Meteorol. Mono.,
1, 4, 50-55, Nov. 1951.
-------
INFLUENCE OF TOPOGRAPHY ON AIR FLOW/CIRCULATION
I. Introduction: Reason for Studying Topographic Influences
A. To make initial estimates of transport and dispersion
B. To select representative sites for air monitoring and
measurement
C. To aid future city development planning
D. To intelligently discuss solutions to pollution problems
II. Generally, topography influences circulation in two ways
A. Geometrically
1. Physical obstructions
2. Friction
B. Thermally
1. Radiation
2. Conduction
3. Convection
III. Analysis of Specific Topographic Features
A. Flat Plane
1. Geometric influences
a. Velocity drag on an infinite plane
b. Roughness - effect on wind
b-1. Speed vs. height
b-2. Direction vs. height
b-3. Combined - speed and direction vs. height
-------
2. Thermal influences
a. Night stable vs day instable
b. Differential surface heating
b-1. Albedo, heat capacity
b-2. "Thermal roughness"
B. Valley
1. Geometric
a. Air expander
a-1. Settling chamber
a-2. Reduced diffusion
b. Channelling effect
c. Valley orientation to mean wind - trap
2. Thermal
a. Up and down slope
b. Up and down valley
c. Convergence and divergence of combined slope and
valley winds
d. Orientation to sun and shape
d-1. Narrow valley
d-2. Broad valley
e. Stronger inversions - drainage wind
f. Fog trapped in valley
C. Mountains - Hills
1. Geometric
a. Blocking
a-1. Stable
a-2. Unstable
-------
b. Compression
c. Channeling
d. Mountain wave - lee side eddy
2. Thermal
a. Very similar to a valley - slope winds, etc.
b. Glacial drainage
D. Large bodies of H_0
1. Geometric
a. Land blocking
b. Roughness
2. Thermal
a. Land breeze
b. Sea breeze
c. Modification of lapse rate
IV. Conclusion
A. Topography analyzed
1. Geometric effects
2. Thermal effects
B. Examples, of uses
-------
Height in meters
600
400
200
GRADIENT WIND
Urban
EFFECT OF ROUGHNESS ELEMENT HEIGHT
ON VERTICAL WIND SPEED PROFILE
Rural
FIGURE 1
-------
INFLUENCE OF TERRAIN UPON VARIATION
OF WIND WITH HEIGHT
ROUGH TERRAIN
FREE ATMOSPHERE
AVERAGE TERRAIN
FREE ATMOSPHERE
SMOOTH TERRAIN
FREE ATMOSPHERE
FIGURE 2
-------
THE CHANNELING OF WIND BY A VALLEY
FIGURE 3
-------
I
DOWN-VALLEY WIND (NIGHT)
f f
UP-VALLEY WIND (DAY)
FIGURE 4
-------
WIND FLOW PATTERN IN HILLY AREA
ABOUT OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY
CALM!
10 20 30
Frequency,
Spring, 1950
FIGURE 5
-------
FIGURE 6
-------
PLAN VIEW
VERTICAL SECTION
VERTICAL SECTION
TOPOGRAPHY EFFECTS ON WIND
FIGURE 7
-------
FIGURE 8
-------
FIGURE 9
-------
FIGURE 10
-------
FIGURE 11
-------
t
H
\
\
LAKE OR SEA BREEZE
t
H
V
LAND BREEZE
FIGURE 12
-------
COOL AIR
(high pressure)
-------
AIROVER LAND COOLS AND DECENDS
\
^ferc;-^;.\-v:
WARM AIR OVER WATER RISES
-------
INFLUENCE OF TOPOGRAPHY ON TRANSPORT AND DIFFUSION
D. B. Turner*
J. L. Dicke*
In many cases the transport and diffusion of
air pollutants is complicated by terrain
features. Most large urban areas are located
either in river valleys or on the shores of
lakes or oceans. Both of these features alter
met.corologic: conditions.
VALLEY EFFECTS
Channeling
Although the more extreme effects of a
valley location occurs when the general flow
is light, valleys tend to channel the general
flow along the valley axis resulting in a bi-
directional wind frequency distribution.
Slope and Valley Winds
When the general wind flow is light and skies
are clear, the differences in rates of heating
and cooling of various portions of the valley
floor and sides cause slight density and
pressure differences resulting in small cir-
culations. During the evening hours radiation
of heat from the earth's surface and con-
sequent cooling of the ground and air adjacent
to the ground causes density changes. The
air at point A (Figure 1) is more dense than
at point B since point A is nearer the radiating
.surface. Therefore the more dense air- at
point A tends to flow in the general direction
of B and similarly at other points along the
slope. This is the slope wind.
If the slope in Figure 1 is a side of a valley
as in Figure 2, the.' cold air moving down
the' slopes will tend to drain into the valley
floor and deepen with time, intensifying the
radiation inversion that would form even
without the addition of cold air. Any pollutants
that are emitted into this air, because of the
inversion structure, will have very limited
vertical motion.
FIGURE 1
FIGURE 2
If, in addition, the valley floor has some
slope, the cold air will have a tendency to
move downhill along the valley axis. This is
usually referred to as the valley wind (See
Figure 3). Because of the necessity of some
accumulation of cold air from slope winds, the
onset of the valley wind usually lags several
hours behind the onset of the slope wind.
4.
I
I
*
1
I
FIGURE 3
The steeper the slopes of the valley, the
stronger the slope winds can become. Vegeta-
tion will tend to reduce the flow both due to
impeding the flow and also restricting the
amount of radiation that can take place.
* Meteorologists, Air Resources Field Research
Office, ESSA NCAPC, Cincinnati, Ohio
PA. MF. el. 4a. G. 67
2-9
-------
Influence of Topography on Transport and Diffusion
On a clear day with light winds, the heating
of the valley may cause upslope and up-
valley winds. However the occurance of
upslope and up valley winds is not as
frequent nor as strong as the down-slope
and down-valley winds, principally due to
the fact that down-slope and down-valley
winds, due to their density, hug the surfaces
over which they travel. Flow in complex
valley systems where several valleys merge
at angles or slopes vary, usually require
eppcial observations to determine flow under
various meteorologic conditions.
Inversions Aloft
The trapping of air pollutants beneath in-
versions aloft is also a problem encountered
in valleys. Two types of inversions: warm
frontal and subsidence inversions are of
particular concern since they are usually
slow moving. High concentrations may
occur particularly if the layer of air beneath
the inversion becomes unstable enough to
mix pollutants from elevated sources to
ground level (Hewson et al, 1961).
SHORELINE WINDS
The differences in heating and cooling of
land and water surfaces and the air above
them result in the setting up of circulations
if the general flow is light, and in the
modification of thermal characteristics and
consequently the diffusive abilities of the
lower layers of the atmosphere when a
general flow occurs.
Sea or Lake Breeze
On summer days with clear skies and light
winds the heating of the land surface adjacent
to a large lake or the ocean is much more
rapid than the heating of the body of water.
This results in a temperature difference
and consequently a density and pressure
difference between the air just above the land
surface and the air over the water. Because
of the pressure gradient forces, a local
circulation is set up with wind from the
water toward the land. There is usually
some upward motion over the land and sub-
sidence over the water accompanying the sea
breeze (Estoque, 1961). There may result
a weak transport from land to water aloft
completing a cellular structure to the sea
breeze. (See Figure 4).
r ft -
FIGURE 4
In cases where a strong lake breeze occurs,
air from quite some distance out over the
water may be brought toward the land and
due to Coriolus forces acting over the long
trajectory the resulting flow will become
nearly parallel to the shoreline (Sutton,
1953). This occurs just after the sea breeze
is the strongest and results in decreasing
the flow normal to the coastline and subse-
quent breaking down of the sea breeze.
Land Breeze
At night the rapid radiational cooling of the
land causes lower temperatures above the
land surface than over the water. Thus a
reverse flow, the land breeze, may result.
The land breeze does not usually achieve
as high a velocity as the lake breeze, and
is usually shallower than the sea or lake
breeze.
Of course, any wind flow due to the large
scale pressure pattern will alter the local
circulation and the flow will be the resul-
tant of the two effects. Usually a light
general flow is enough to overshadow the
effects of land and sea breezes.
MODIFICATION OF THERMAL STRUCTURE
BY BODIES OF WATER
At different seasons of the year and also
different times of day the temperature of
bodies of water and adjacent land surfaces
may be quite different. For example.
-------
Influence of Topography on Transport and Diffusion
during the late spring, large bodies of water
are still cold relative to adjacent land
surfaces and during mid-afternoon this
difference is greatest due to the more rapid
heating of the land surface. If the general
flow in the area is such that the wind has a
lengthly trajectory over the water and is
blowing toward the shore, an interesting
modification of the temperature structure
takes place. Because of the passage over
the cold water surface, the air will have
an inversion in the lower layer as it reaches
the shoreline. Any air pollutants released
into this inversion will essentially have
the characteristics of a fanning plume. As
the air passes over *he warm land, a strong
lapse replaces the inversion near the sur-
face. The depth of this lapse layer becomes
deeper as the air moves over more heated
land surface. At the point where the lapse
layer is deep enough to reach the fanning
effluent from an elevated source, fumigation
will occur. Fumigation of this type may
last considerably longer than the usual
diurnal breakup of nocturnal inversions as this
fumigation will occur as long as the temper-
ature difference between land and water is
maintained and flow from water to land
occurs. At greater distances from the
shoreline the inversion will be eliminated
and looping type of plume behavior will
occur. On the other hand, if the source
is high enough to be above the lake induced
inversion, lofting of the plume would occur
until enough distance and consequently
enough heating takes place to eliminate the
inversion.
Figure 5a indicates the difference in
vertical temperature structure that occurs
in the above example and Figure 5b indicates
the effect this has on the plume characteris-
tics of an elevated shoreline source.
WARM LAND'
EFFECT UPON PIUME CHARACTERISTICS
OF FLOW OVEI OIFF6RENTLY HEATED SURFACES
(LATE SPRING, AFTERNOON)
FIGURE 5b
At other times when the water is warmer
than the land surface (late fall), offshore
flow will result in fumigation over the water.
INFLUENCE OF HILLS
The influence of hills upon the transport
and diffusion depends upon a number of
factors. Whether the source is on the wind-
ward or lee side of the hill or ridge is
important. A smooth hill will alter the flow
least; one with sharp ridges will cause more
turbulent eddies to form. The stability
of the atmosphere will affect the influence
of hills. During stable conditions, the flow
will tend to flow around obstructions. Under
unstable conditions the tendency is for air
to move over obstructions.
When a source is located upwind of a hill or
ridge, the pollutants may come in contact
with the facing slope, particularly under
stable conditions. If the ridge is quite rough,
Induced turbulence may cause mixing down
to the slope even when the general flow is
over the ridge. Wind tunnel studies or
field trials with constant level balloons may
be desirable to determine the flow under
given circumstances.
For a source downwind from a hill or ridge,
lee eddies will generally cause considerable
downwash of the effluent near the source*
If turbulent flow is induced by the hillside,
diffusion will be increased but high concen-
trations very near the stack will result
periodically due to the downwash.
MODIFICATION OF VERTICAL TEMPERATURE STRUCTURE ,
DUE TO FLOW OVER DIFFERENTLY HEATED SURFACES
(LATE SPRING, AFTERNOON)
FIGURE 5a
PERSISTENCE OF FOG
The occurrence of fog, together with very
stable atmospheric conditions above the
2-11
-------
Influence of Topography on Transport and Diffusion
earth's surface, has been noted in several
air pollution episodes, particularly in Donora,
Pennsylvania, in 1948. Under clear skies
at night the ground loses much heat because
of outgoing radiation and the air in contact
with the. ground will cool. If, in such cases
the air is sufficiently humid, the cooling will
bring the air to the saturation point and a fog
will form. This is the mechanism which pro-
duces radiation fog and is quite common in
valley locations. The top of a layer of fog
will radiate essentially as a blackbody and
cool further, thus forming an inversion layer
directly above the fog. As the earth con-
tinues to radiate in the infrared, the fog drop-
lets absorb nearly all this heat since the
droplet size distribution is similar to the
waveleiigths of the radiation. Theory and
observation havo shown that when the top of
a fog layer Theory and observation have
shown that when the top of a fog layer will
become more unstable with time. Increased
vertical mixing will occur from below but
will be capped by the inversion. Since the
air is saturated, an unstable lapse rate will
exist if the temperature decrease with height
is greater than the moist or pseudo-adiabatic
rate of about 3°F. per 1000 ft., rather than
the dry adiabatic lapse rate of 5. 4°F. per
1000 ft.
SHORT WAVE
RADIATION
VALLEY FOG
DAYTIME
TEMP
TEMPERATURE-
HEIGHT CURVE
Thus pollutants that are emitted aloft into an
originally stable layer at night and would not
normally reach the ground until morning may
be' contained within a fog layer as the night
progresses and be brought to the ground in
relatively high concentrations.
After daybreak fogs will often persist for
several hours or even the entire day under
full sunlight due to the high reflectivity of the
top layer. The reflectivity or albedo of
thick fogs averages 50% and can be as high
as 85%. This delays and lessens the heating
of the ground and subsequent evaporation of
the fog droplets. An unstable lapse rate may
occur above the fog layer but due to lack of
surface heating an inversion will often occur
within the layer. If high concentrations of
particulate pollutants are present, it may be
difficult to determine just when the fog has
dissipated since particulates scatter and
absorb visible light very well and the visibility
may remain quite restricted.
Figure 6 illustrates how fog can persist in
valley situations and maintain a lid to
vertical dispersion.
-------
Influence of Topography on Transport and Diffusion
REFERENCES
Estoque, M.A. "The Sea Breeze as a Function of
the Prevailing Synoptic Situation." Meteor-
ology Division, Univ. of Hawaii, Scientific
Report No. 1, Contract No. AF 19(604)-7484,
October, 1961.
Hewson, E.W.; Bierly, E.W.; and Gill, G.C.
"Topographic Influences on the Behavior
of Stack Effluents." Proceedings of the
American Power Conference, 23, 358-370,
1961.
Button, O.G. Micrometeorology, New York, McGraw
Hill p 267, 1953.
Fleagle, R.G., Parrot, W.H., and Barad, M.L.
Theory and'Effects of Vertical Temperature
Distribution in Turbid Air. J. Meteorology
9:53-60, Feb. 1952.
Magono, C., Kikuchi, K., Nakamura, T. An ex-
periment on Fog Dispersion by the Use of
Downward Air Current by the Fall of Water
Drops. J. App. Meteorology 2: 484-493.
Aug. 1963.
Hewson, E.W., Olsson, L.E. "Lake Effects on
Air Pollutfon Dispersion." JAPCA, l]_,
11:757-761, November 1967.
Panofsky, H.A., Prasad, B. "The Effect of
Meteorological Factors on Air Pollution
in a Narrow Valley." J. App. Meteorology
6:4930499, June 1967.
Schrenk, H.H., Heimann, H., Clayton, G.D.,
Gafafer, W.M., and Wexler, H. Air Pollution
in Donora, Pa. Public Health Bulletin
No. 306, 1949, 173 pp.
Further Reading
Buettner, K.J.K.; and Thayer, N. "On Valley
and Mountain Winds," Dept. of Meteorology
and Climatology, Univ. of Wash., Contract
No. AF 19 (604) - 2289, Sept. 1959.
Davidson, B. "Valley Wind Phenomena and Air
Pollution Problems," J. of APCA, JU, 8,
364 - 368, 383, Aug. 1961.
Geiger, R. (Translated by Scripta Technica, Inc.)
The Climate Near the Ground. Rev. Ed.
Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass.
1965.
Munn, R.E. Descriptive Micrometeorology,
Academic Press, New York, 1966.
Anderson, G.E. Mesoscole Influences on Wind
Fields, J. Appl. Meterpl[10:377-386, June
1971.
2-13
-------
WIND AND METEOROLOGICAL ROSES
I. Introduction
In the first thousand or so meters above the earth's surface,
the wind speed and direction are determined primarily by three
forces: the force due to the horizontal pressure gradient, the
Coriolis force due to the earth's surface.
The temporal changes of wind speed and direction can be combined
in a polar diagram called a wind rose to determine the wind clima-
tology at a particular site. In addition concurrent air pollutant
and wind data may be tabulated and displayed in what may be termed
air pollution roses.
II, Wind
A. Forces Fig. 1
1. Pressure gradient
2. Coriolis
3. Friction Fig, 2
B. Terms and Definitions
1. Geostrophic wind Fig. 3
2. Gradient wind Fig. 4
3. Surface wind Fig. 5
4. Prevailing vs, resultant wind
-------
III. Wind Measurements
A, Instrumental Threshold
B. Speed and Direction Bias
C. Point in Space and Time Measurements
IV. Meteorological Roses
A. Compass Points vs. 10° Sectors
B. Frequency Tabulations - Constructing a Wind Rose
C, Examples of Bias Fig, 6
D. Examples of Topography
V. Air Pollution Roses
A. Construction
B. Parkersburg - Marietta Study
C. Coincident Wind Rose
D. Restricted Visibility Wind Roses Fig. 7
VI. Assignment of Homework
VII. Summary - Discussion
-------
NORTH POLE
SURFACE
ALOFT
SOUTH POLE
CORIOLIS FORCE
-------
GRADIBTT WIND
-------
p-1
p
SURFACE WIND
-------
ORIGINAL WIND ROSE
(MIAMI FU3RIM)
-------
WIND ROSE
-------
POLLUTION ROSE RESTRICTED VISIBILITY
HAZE AND OR SMOKE PER CENT OF HOURS BY
EACH DIRECTION
-------
WIND ROSE - PER CENT FREQUENCY
SEATTLE WASHINGTON BOEING FIELD
OCTOBER 1962
-------
METEOROLOGICAL ROSES
D. B. Turner-
L.E. Truppi*
A wind rose is defined in the Glossary of
Meteorology as, "Any one of a class of dia-
grams designed to show the distribution of
wind direction experienced at a given lo-
cation over a considerable period; it thus
shows the prevailing wind direction. The
most common form consists of a circle from
which eight or sixteen lines emanate, one for
each compass point. The length of each line
is proportional to the frequency of wind from
that direction; and the frequency of calm
conditions is entered in the center. Many
variations exist. Some indicate the range
of wind speeds from each direction; some
relate wind direction with other weather
occurrences. " Wind roses may be construct-
^ed for data from a given time period such as
a particular month or may be for a particular
time of day or season from a number of years
data. In constructing or interpreting wind
roses it is necessary to keep in mind the
meteorological convention that wind direction
refers to the direction from which the wind is
blowing. A line or bar extending to the north
on a wind ros<> indicates the frequency of
winds blowing from_the north, not the frequency
of winds blowing toward the north. Some of
the specialized wind roses that may be con-
structed are precipitation wind roses, stability
wiri'l roses, and pollution wind roses. The
latter two require additional data than are
gcnei-ally available at standard Weather Bureau
stations. An informative article on the his-
tory and variants of wind roses has been
published by Court.
(D
WIND ROSES DATA AND PRESENTATION
Prior to January 1964 the surface wind
direction was reported by U. S. Weather
Bureau stations as one of the 1G directional
points corresponding to the mariner's com-
pass card or compass rose-, on which each
direction is equivalent to a 22 1/2 sector of
a 3(>0° circle. Table 1 illustrates a 16-point
wind rose summary in the form of a fre-
quency table of wind direction versus wind
speed groups. It is an example of wind roses
prepared as summaries of hourly-observa-
tions published monthly until January 1964 in
the Local Clirnatological Data (LCD) Supple-
ment. Frequencies are totaled by direction
and wind speed group; a quick look at this
wind rose indicates the highest directional
frequency is from the ENE and the highest
speed frequency is the 8 to 1 2 mph column.
Average speeds have been computed for each
direction.
When wind roses are employed to summarize
climatological data involving long periods of
record, percentage frequencies are favored
over numerical totals for tabular presentation
since the number of observations in any one
cell can become too large. Moreover, wind
rose diagrams can be drafted directly from
tabular data if percentages are available.
Table 2 presents 10 years of hourly wind
data observed at New Orleans Moisant Inter-
national Airport during January for the years
1951 through 1960, as published in the
Decennial_Census of United States
Climate". ^' This 10-year summary of
meteorological data is compiled for most
U.S. Weather Bureau first order stations.
See Section VII Sources of Meteorological
Data.
On January 1, 1964 the U.S. Weather Bureau
changed the wind direction reporting proce-
dure from 16 points to 36 10° intervals.
Table 3 is the result; a 36-point wind rose.
Since 36 cannot be divided by 16, there is no
way of grouping 36 points into 16 points and
there is no easy way of combining wind data
if wind rose summaries are required that
include both 16-point and 36-point wind
direction observations.
Besides this feature of incompatibility, other
problems have developed with the 36-point
wind system; first, a 3G-point system tends
to spread tabulated frequencies and obscure
directional significance; second, a list of
*Moteorologists, Air Resources Field Research
Office, ESSA, NCAPC, Cincinnati, Ohio
PA. ME. mm. 17a. 6. 67
217
-------
Meteorological Roses
Table 1
WIND DIRECTION
AND SPEED OCCURRENCES:
JANUARY
7440 Obi.
MKTMM
N
NNE
NE
ENE
E
ESE
SE
SSC
S
SSW
sw
w
WNW
NW
NNW
CALM
HOUBIY OBSERVATIONS Of WIND SPEED
ft-i
0-1
1
3
«
i-T
1
1
3
5
1
1
1
1
1
1
rio
1-11
1
2
3
4
1
1
2
2
3
7
6
6
29
2..
1,.U
U.1.
18
30
5
5
4
3
2
11
10
9
1
1
1
26
126
KNOTS
1741
M.P.H
12
7
1
4
6
a-a
«-)!
3
1
1
5
»-»
U-M
1^
^
ovn
a
OVH
i
TOTAI
69
83
82
113
43
39
20
39
46
34
16
8
13
24
12
74
33
744
AVCKAOt
SHED
KNOII
10 e
i
i
7.7
M.P.H.
12 4
11 7
7 7
7
7
7
7
9
9
10
7
7
7
6
8
12 2
0 0
8.9
PERCENTAGE FREQUENCIES
OF WIND DIRECTION AND SPEED:
1 l
CMKTIOM
N
NNE
NE
ENE
E
ESE
SE
SSE
S
SSW
sw
wsw
w
HOOBIV 0««V»TIONi Of WIND ttlfD
WNW ;
NW ;
NNW
CALM
TOTAL
11
;
l
i
2
2
2
1
2
j
3
1
1
2
2
3
3
1
2
3
„ ,.!.. ,.
1
1
|
1
1
1
1
1
1
1 1
1 2 2 i 2
22
34
1
23 I 7
I) It
1
2
» 11
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
,
If M
+
+
+
t
it
OVH
IOTA1
—
1
100
-
13.9
12. a
11.0
9.
9.
a.
7.
9.
9.
12.
a.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.7
10,}
Table 1. New Orleans, Louisiana, Moisant
International Airport, January, 1963.
Table 2. New Orleans, Louisiana, Moisant
International Airport, 10-Year Summary
January 1951-1960. + indicates more than
0 % but less than 0. 5 %.
Table 3. 36 point Wind Rose Tabulation
New Orleans, Louisiana, Moisant International
Airport, Central Standard Time, January 1964.
WIND DIRECTION
AND SPEED OCCURRENCES:
OHfOIOH
5
'
2
1
2
1
T
i
i
i
i
L
9
1
6
1
1
1
1
117
-------
Meteorological Roses
36 directions is often too lengthy for conven-
ience; lastly, it is almost impossible to con-
struct the standard radial bar-type wind rose
with 36 bars. The bars crowd together at
the center, and variations of radial length,
proportional to directional percentage fre-
quency between given wind directions are
minimized.
The 36-point wind reporting procedure has
been in effect since 1964 and it has been found
that the disadvantages may be offset by using
a 12-point or 30° sector wind rose. Table 4
was constructed from Table 3 by grouping
frequencies into 30° intervals. Directional
discrimination is not as fine as in a 16- or
36-point breakdown, but the tabulation is
roncise and a bar diagram can be easily
constructed. Additional discussion together
with conversion and correction techniques are
presented by Lea and Helvey (11).
POLLUTION WIND ROSES
The increasing emphasis on identifying and
abating air pollution problems has resulted
in the establishment of air sampling networks
which determine concentrations of pollutants
on a time scale as short as 5 minutes. Since
transport of pollutants depends in great part
on wind flow, an appropriate wind rose dia-
gram would be very helpful in relating air
pollutant and wind data. Figures 1 and 2
illustrate a type of pollution wind rose devised
for the air pollution abatement study conducted
in the Parkersburg, West Virginia Marietta,
Ohio region. ^)
Figure 1 shows three wind recording and
SO2 gas sampling sites that were installed
at Parkersburg, Vienna, West Virginia and
Marietta, Ohio from October 1965 through
February 1966. The bar-type wind roses for
Mil.i
DIJOII SO; SOUICES
© OUPOIIT
© SHEU WHICH
© UKIOII CARBIDE
© mm CM VISCOSE - me
OHIO
) HeuorolOBicii dill stition
SUM!I An Pork
Figure 1. SO2 Pollution Roses for Concentrations >0. 10 ppm,
October 1965 through February 1066.
2-19
-------
.Meteorological Roses
Table 4
New Orleans, Louisiana
Moisant International Airport
January 1964
DIRECTION
N
35-36-01
NNE
02-03-04
ENE
05-06-07
E
08-09-10
ESE
11-12-13
SSE
14-15-16
S
17- 18- 19
SSW
20-21-22
WSW
23-24-25
W
26-27-28
WNW
29-30-31
NWW
32-33-34
CALM
Tot.
0-3
10
17
24
9
12
7
3
7
12
t
2
4
53
107
4-7
12
40
69
25
20
22
14
9
5
14
7
12
249
12 -Point Wind Rose
8-12 13-18 18-24 25-31
11 7
17 1
40 13
23 8
12 1
15 1
16 (i
10 12
9 5
9 4
15 26
32 34 1
208 1)7 2
32-38 74-40 Tot.
40
75
146
65
45
4.")
39
38
31
34
50
83
53
744
AVSPD
(mph)
7.9
6. 1
7.0
7.6
6.0
7. 0
7. 9
8.5
6. 7
7.0
11. 6
1 1. 1
7.4
2 20
-------
1 i
Milts
MAJOR PARTICULATE SOURCES
© OUPOHT
© SHELL CHEMICAL
© IOHNS-MAHVILLE
0 UNION CARBIDE
© AMERICAN VISCOSE FMC"
© MARIETTA DUMP
\
(OCTOBER 65
ULY
(OCTOBER 65 -•
FEBRUARY 66):
N
OHIO
(FEBRUARY SEPTEMBER 66)
VIENNA
WEST
VIRGINIA
(7)Meteoroiogical data station
Stewart Air Park
Figure 2. Hourly Wind Roses for 24-hour Periods for Suspended
Particulate Concentrations >200 u,g/m3 and average
Wind Speed >3 mph.
each site location represent only winds coin-
cident •with SOn concentrations greater than
0. 10 ppm. Winds observed when the SC>2
concentration was equal to or less than 0. 10
ppm were ignored in computing percentage
frequencies. Figure 1 graphically identifies
the major source of high SO., emissions as
source 3; the Union Carbide Company plant.
Figure 2 is similiar to Figure 3 except the
pollutant sampled was suspended particulate
matter on a 24-hour basis. Another Hi-vol
Sampler was in operation west of Marietta,
Ohio. Since pollutant sampling was on a,
Z4-hour basis, 24-hourly winds were tabu-
lated, but only for periods when particulate
concentrations were greater than 200//g/m
and when the average wind speed over the 24
hours was greater than 3 mph. Again the
pollutant rose points to the Union Carbide
Company plant, source 4, as the major con-
tributor.
Special wind instruments were installed for
this abatement study, and the investigators
chose to reduce the autographic wind data on
direction to ^ 16-point tabulation. Because
of this 'decision, 36-point wind data recorded
at site M, Stewart Air Park, were used only
to determine average wind conditions. It
was also decided to omit the usual wind speed
grouping in the pollution wind roses.
2-21
-------
Meteorological Roses
W
SC>2 CONCENTRATIONS-pphm
CONC.
CALM
CONC.
l-Sktl
or. s% 10% is% zo%
SCALE - MEASURED BETWEEN CIRCLE RIMS
COINCIDENT WIND ROSE-CINCINNATI, OHIO, DEC-JAN-FEB, 1964
Figure 3
2-22
-------
MeteOrological *Roses^
A more detailed pollution \vind rose is dis-
played in Figure 3. Coincident \vind data
and SO., concentration? (pphm) for the \\inter
months of 1964 are summarized; hourly \vind
data \\erc recorded by the U.S. Weather
Bureau at Greater Cincinnati Airport and
pollutant data by the U. S. Public Health
Service at a downtown Cincinnati location.
Speed groups are denoted by different sized
circles, instead of the usual bar-thickness,
and percentage frequency of each speed group
is indicated by radial distance bet\\een circle
rims. Inside each circle are listed pollutant
statistics coincident with the particular direc-
tion and speed group. These are: maximum
SO2 concentration recorded, the average
concentrati >n, and the number of concentra-
tion values observed. The value of this type
of pollution wind rose is demonstrated in
Figure 3 where the highest maximum and
average SC>2 concentrations a:~e readily
identified with S or SSW winds of 11 to 15
knots.
REMOVING BIAS IN 16-POINT WIND ROSES
Wind direction, such as for hourly airport
observations where no recorder is used, is
determined by an observer watching the wind
direction indicator dial for one minute and
recording direction to 16 points. It has been
found that one of the eight principal directions
(N, NE, E, etc.) is more frequently recorded
than are the secondary directions (NNE, ENE,
ESE, etc.). Depending upon the purpose of
constructing a wind rose, it may be desir-
able to remove this bias. Removal of the
bias may be by total frequencies of each di-
rection or by wind speed classes. In order to
determine if there is bias, the sums should
be determined separately for the principal
direction frequencies (N ) and the secondary
direction frequencies (NQ). Bias usually
occurs if one exceeds the other on the order
of 10 to 20%. Assuming that the sum of the
principal frequencies (Ne) exceeds the sum
of the secondary frequencies (NQ) the fre-
quencies have the bias removed by subtracting
from the frequency of each primary direction
where ne is the frequency for that direction
and adding
to the frequency of each secondary direction
where nQ is the frequency for the secondary
direction.
DISTRIBUTION OF CALMS
In some cases, it is also desirable to distri-
bute the calms in the lowest wind speed class
among the 16 directions. It is usually better
to use the frequencies of the lowest two speed
classes (0-7 mph) to distribute the calms in
order to have a more respresentative sample
of light winds. If Nc is the total number of
calms, Nw is the total frequency of winds in
the 0-7 mph range, and nw is the frequency
of winds in the 0-7 mph range for one di-
rection, the number of calms assigned to
this direction is:
n N
w c
2-23
-------
Meteorological Roses
Example: Removing Bias in a Wind Rose.
Below is given the wind direction and speed
frequencies for October, 1962, for St. Louis
Mo.
Table 5. WIND DIRECTION AND SPEED OCCURRENCES
Direction
N
NNE
NE
ENE
E
ESE
SE
SSE
S
SSW
SW
WSW
W
WNW
NW
NNW
CALM
Hourly
0-3
1
5
7
5
2
3
13
5
15
6
5
4
8
4
4
0
89
observations of wind speed (mph)
4-7 8-12 13-18 19-24
5
10
9
6
4
4
8
19
23
29
44
17
25
15
3
6
11
4
3
8
5
3
17
21
26
19
33
17
13
15
17
18
3
1
1
3
1
1
6
5
6
2
8
8
8
14
30 6
8
Total
20
20
20
22
12
11
44
50
70
56
90
46
54
48
60
32
89
Total 176 227 230 105 6 744
2-Z4
-------
Meteorological Roses
Problem: To remove the bias by two separate
speed classes: 0-7 mph, and > 8 mph.
First remove the bias in the.' 0-7 mph class.
Determine Ne and NQ by adding the primary
and secondary direction frequencies
separately.
Table 6. o-7 rnph FREQUENCIES
N
e
N
NE
E
SE
S
SW
W
NW
N =
e
N
o
6
16
6
21
38
49
33
7
176
2N
e
N - N
e o
2N
o
Table
n
e
N
NE
E
SE
S
SW
W
NW
n
e
6 •
16
6
21
38
49
33
7 •
176
2(
176
NNE
ENE
ESE
SSE
SSW
WSW
WNW
NNW
N
o
- 138
176)
138
15
11
7
24
35
21
19
6
138
0. 108
38 n ,00
2(138) 276 " u-iJU
7. REMOVING BIAS FOR
0-7 mph CLASS
(0. 108)
- 1 =
2 =
1
2
4
5
4
- 1
5
14
5
19
34
44
29
6
n + n
0 O
NNE 15
ENE 11
ESE 7
SSE 24
SSW 35
WSW 21
WNW 19
NNW 6
(0. 138)
+ 2 17
+ 2 13
+ 1 8
+ 3 27
+ 5 40
+ 3 24
+ 3 22
+ 1 7
Next, remove the bias for the > 8 mph class.
Table 8. > 8 mph FREQUENCIES
N
NE
E
SE
S
SW
W
NW
N
e
N - N
e o
2N
e
N N
e o
2N
o
Table 9.
>
n - n (0
e e
N 14-2
NE 4-0
E 6-1
SE 23-3
S 32-4
SW 4] 5
W 21 3
NW 53-6
14
4
6
23
32
41
21
53
194
194
2(
194
NNE
ENE
ESE
SSE
SSW
WSW
WNW
NNW
N
0 ]
- 147
194)
- 147
2(147)
5
] 1
4
20
21
25
29
26
.47
0.
0.
121
160
REMOVING BIAS FOR
8 mph
. 121)
12
4
- 5
- 20
= 28
= 36
= 18
47
TTO
CLASS
n +
o
NNE
ENE
ESE
SSE
SSW
WSW
WNW
NNW
n (0.
o
5 + 1
11+2
4 + 1
26 + 4
21+3
25+4
29+5
26 + 4
160)
6
= 13
= 5
= 30
= 24
= 29
= 34
= 30
rrr
156
158
The debiased wind frequencies are now com-
pleted for the two wind speed classes. It will
depend upon the purpose of the wind rose as to
whether it is necessary to distribute the 0-7
frequencies between the 0-3 mph and 4-7 mph
classes.
2-25
-------
Meteorological Roses
Problem: Distribute the calms (decalm)
for the above wind frequencies.
89
N
3.283
Table 10. DISTRIBUTION OF CALMS
Direction
N
NNE
NE
ENE
E
ESE
SE
SSE
S
SSW
SW
WSW
W
WNW
NW
NNW
w (debiased)
5
17
14
13
5
8
19
27
34
40
44
24
29
22
6
7
(0.283)
1
5
4
4
1
2
5
8
10
11
13
7
8
6
2
2
89
The resulting debiased and decalmed wind
frequencies in the usual classes are as
follows with distributed calms shown in
parenthesis.
Table 11.WIND DIRECTION AND SPEED OCCURRENCES,
ST. LOUIS. MO. OCTOBER, 1962
BIAS REMOVED AND CALMS DISTRIBUTED
(Distributed Calms in Parenthesis)
Direction
N
NNE
NE
ENE
E
ESE
SE
SSE
S
SSW
SW
WSW
w
WNW
NW
NNW
Total
0-3
K 1)
6 ( 5)
6 ( 4)
6 ( 4)
2 ( 1)
3 ( 2)
12 ( 5)
6 ( 8)
13 (10)
7(11)
4(13)
5( 7)
7 ( 8)
5 ( 6)
3 ( 2)
1 ( 2)
176
Wind
4-7
4
11
8
7
3
5
7
21
21
33
40
19
22
17
3
6
227
speed
8-12
9
5
3
9
4
4
15
24
23
22
29
20
11
IB
15
20
231
class (mph)
13-18 19-24
3
1
1
4
1
1
5
6
5
2
7
9
7
16
27 5
9 1
104 6
Total
18
28
22
30
11
15
44
65
72
75
93
60
55
62
55
39
744
Figure 4 is a wind rose drawn from these
frequencies.
2-26
-------
Meteorological Roses
Figure 4
Wind Rose
St. Louis October 1962
Bias Removed and Calms Distributed
Speed Classes (mph)
N
0-3
4-7 8-12 13-18 19-24
I I I r
I 1.1 I I
J
678 9 10
Scale (Percent)
2-27
-------
Meteorological Roses
REFERENCES
1. Court, A. Wind Roses. Weather, 18:
106-110. April 1963.
2. Crutcher, H.L. On the Standard Vector -
Deviation Wind Rose. J. Meteor. 14:
28-33. 1957.
3. Technical Report: Parkersburg, W. Va. -
Marietta, Ohio Air Pollution Abate-
ment Activity. NCAPC, March 1967.
87 pp.
4. Truppi, L.E. Evolution of a Coincident
Wind Rose. (ESSA manuscript) NCAPC,
1967.
5. U.S. Weather Bureau. Decennial Census
of U.S. Climate - Summary of Hourly
Observations, New Orleans, La.
1951-1960.
6. U.S. Weather Bureau. Local Clitnatologi-
cal Data Supplement. New Orleans,
La., and St. Louis, Mo. 1963.
7. Ratner, B. A Method for Eliminating
Directional Bias in Wind Roses.
Monthly Weather Review, 78, 10:185-188,
October 1950.
8. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. A
Meteorological Survey of the Oak Ridge
Area. Final Report 1948-52, pp. 68-73
and 158, November 1953.
9. Marsh, K. J., Foster, M. D. An Experi-
mental Study of the Dispersion of the
Iniis^iuns from Chimneys in Reading
i. Ihe Study of Long-Term Average
Concentrations of Sulfur Dioxide.
Al-moK. Envjr. 1, 4:527-550, September
1967.
10. Truppi, L. E. Bias Introduced by
Anemometer Starting Speeds in Clima-
Cological Wind Rose Summaries.
Monthly Weather Review, 9£, 5:325-327,
May 1968.
11. Lea, D. and Helvey, R.A. A Directional
3as in Wind Roses Due to Mixed Compass
Formats. J. Appl. Meteor. IjD, 5: 1037-
1039, October 1971.
2-28
-------
METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND EXPOSURE
LECTURE OUTLINE
I TYPES OF INSTRUMENTS PRESENTLY IN USE IN THE FIELD
II GENERAL INSTRUMENTATION REQUIREMENTS
A. Reliability
B. Accuracy
C. Precision
D. Sensitivity
E. Simplicity
F. Durability
G. Convenience
III METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS
A. Narrated Slide Sequence
B. Additional Wind Sensors
1. Hot Wi re Anemometer
2. Pressure Sphere Anemometer
3. Sonic Anemometer
4. Bi-Vanes
5. U V W Anemometer
C. Secondary Parameter Instruments
1. Temperature
2. Relative Humidity
3. Precipitation - Moisture
4. Solar Radiation
5. Turbidity
-------
IV EXPOSURE OF INSTRUMENTS
A. Temperature
B. Humidity
C. Rain Gauge
D. Wind Instruments
-------
REQUIREMENTS FOR METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS
The most important requirements for meteorological instruments which
are used in general station networks are the following. The criteria do
not necessarily apply to specialized equipment for particular applications,
but even in that case they should be considered.
A. Reliability
This is undoubtedly the most important criterion for an instrument
in continuous use. A reliable instrument is one which gives reproducible
results in sequential measurements under given conditions, and for
meteorological observations the reproducibility must be maintained over
long periods of time. For instance, the response of a pyrheliometer at
a flux of solar radiation of one langley per minute under given environ-
mental conditions should be the same tomorrow and next year as it is
today. Only with this characteristic are satisfactory measurements with
the instrument possible, regardless of how accurately it is calibrated
or how precisely it is read.
B. Accuracy
There is a great deal of confusion between the accuracy of an
instrument, the sensitivity of the instrument, and precision with which
the indication of the instrument is determined. For instance, we could,
by mechanical linkage or other methods, magnify the respose of an
aneroid barometer so that a scale reading to six significant digits
could be obtained. However, the mere fact that we can read the scale
to a precision six significant digits says nothing about the accuracy
with which the six digits represent the actual pressure at the time.
There may be unknown temperature effects on the instrument, errors in
the linkage, or hysteresis errors in the bellows, any one of which
could render the instrument reading meaningless, regardless of how
precisely it is determined.
The requirements for an instrument to be an accurate instrument
are that it should be properly calibrated under known conditions, that
instrument characteristics not change with time so as to invalidate the
calibration and that the instrument reaction to changes in measurement
conditions be constant and known to within the limits or error requires
irfHhe measurement. For example, a radiometer calibrated at an ambient
temperature of 20°C may be temperature sensitive to the extent of
indicating too much radiation at a temperature of 50 C. If the response
characteristics of the instrument as a function of temperature are
known, a correction for the temperature effect can be applied to the
reading, thereby yielding an accurate measurement of the radiation field
-------
to which the instrument is subjected.
The requirements for accuracy of an instrument are determined
mainly by the use to which the measurements are to be applied. For
instance, the requirement that a temperature in the atmosphere near the
surface be determined to within one-one hundredth of a degree in a regular
six-hourly synoptic observation would Have little meaning, since there
are minute-by-minute variations of as much as several degrees in some
cases near the surface. On the other hand, if the data were to be used
to study the turbulent transport of heat away from the surface or to
derive the Richardson number for the atmospheric flow a measurement of
temperature to one-one hundredth of a degree might be very desirable.
In general, the accuracy requirements for regular meteorological
measurements are not particularly stringent, as scientific measurements
go. This is not to say, however, that there is no requirement for
increasing the accuracy actually attained in meteorological measurements.
Improper maintenance and infrequent calibration of the equipment normally
used in routine observational work can, and often does, result in data
in which gross and systematic errors are undetected. Thus the modest
requirements for accuracy in meteorological observations should not be
taken to mean that accuracy requirements are easily met; only by the
close and continued surveillance of the observational equipment can an
adequate level of accuracy be maintained on a routine basis. The harsh
environment of the outdoor weather, the inexperience of many observers
and carelessness of a few, and the general lack of proper calibration
facilities in the weather observation station all militate against the
overall accuracy actually attained in the observational .network.
C. Sensitivity
The sensitivity of an instrument is determined by how large a change
of the indication or signal of the instrument results from a given change
of the quantity being measured. The indication for a mercurial thermo-
meter is the position of the end of the mercury column, whereas that for
a thermograph is the position of the pen on the chart. The sensitivity
may be completely independent of both the accuracy.and precision. For
instance, a mechanical linkage with excessive friction may cause an
instrument to be insensitive, but without seriously affecting either
the precision with which the position of the idnciator can be read or the
overall accuracy of the instrument if sufficient care is exercised in
making the reading.
While the sensitivity can theoretically be separated from precision
and accuracy, such is seldom the case in actual practice. A sensitive
instrument can normally be made a precision instrument more readily
that can an insensitive one. High sensitivity is often accomplished by
the use of light weight components and large magnifications of sensor
response. Those same characteristics are conducive to high precision.
-------
Accuracy of the instrument, however, is apt to suffer, and durability is
certainly the loser, from the use of large magnifications and fragile
components. Thus the best instrument for a given measurement is
characterized by the best compromise among accuracy, sensitivity, and
precision for that particular application.
D. Simplicity of design
The lack of instrumentation experience of many observers and the
dearth of maintenance and repair facilities in most weather stations
make simplicity the watchword for general meteorological instruments.
Ordinary adjustments of the instruments should be simple, and the
procedure of making the adjustments should be explained in a step- by
step fashion, preferably without reference to an instrument manual.
Every instrument, however, should be accompanied by a simple written
but detailed instruction manual for that specific instrument. Adjustments
which can be made only at a central instrument facility should require
special tools, such as a special type of wrench, in order to minimize
attempts by amateur personnel to make those adjustments.
E. Durability
As mentioned above, meteorological instruments have demanding
requirements for durability. Many of them, such as anemometers and
radiometers, are exposed directly to the dampness and sleet of January,
the gusty winds of March, and the heat and intense sunshine of July.
Such elements tax both surfaces and mechanisms. Others must withstand
the vibrations of a wall near a slamming door, the shock caused by
dropping the cover on the instrument, or the prying hands of the curious
observer. Furthermore, the instrument must operate continuously in such
an environment, and it must yield reliable and reasonably accurate data
over long periods of time with minimal maintenance. In combination,
these constitute truly gargantuan requirements for meteorological
instruments.
In some respects, durability and simplicity go hand-in-hand. A
simple mechanism is normally more durable than a complicated one.
However, simplicity by no means assures durability; who has not seen
the simplest of devices shattered by being dropped on the floor?
F. Convenience of operation
The day~in-day-out use of most meteorological instruments virtually
demands that they be convenient to use. Inconvenience of operation can
send an otherwise valuable instrument to the museum. The convenience of
an instrument often makes its use popular and widespread, enventhough
its accuracy may be marginal.
-------
L.S. 5927 Rev. 0-4.21
CRITERIA FOR THE EXPOSURE OF WEATHER INSTRUMENTS
Precipitation Gages
Precipitation gages should be located on a level plot of ground, at a distance
from any object (including the instrument shelter) of at least two, and preferably
four, times the height of the object ab.ove the top of the gage. All types of gages
must be exposed with the rim of the receiver in a horizontal plane and at a level
well above the average level of snow surfaces. Rain gages should not be installed
on a roof.
When objects, which individually or in small groups would constitute obstructions,
are numerous and are so extensive that the prevailing wind speed and, as a con-
sequence, the turbulence and eddy currents have been reduced in the vicinity of the
gage, the presence of such objects are usually beneficial in providing a more_accurate
catch. The best exposures are often found, therefore, in orchards, openings in a grove
of trees, bushes or shrubbery, or where fences and other objects acting together serve
as an effective windbreak. As a general rule in such areas where the height of the
objects and their distance from the gage is generally uniform, their height above
the gage should not exceed about twice their distance from the gage.
Instrument Shelters and Temperature Equipment
Wherever possible, shelters will be installed over earth or sod at least 100 feet
from any concrete or other hard surfaced area, and not closer to any other object than
four times the height of the object above the floor of the instrument shelter. Avoid
roof installations if possible. However, if it is necessary to locate the shelter on
a roof, it should not be closer than 30 feet to any large, vertical reflecting surface
(walls, etc.), exhaust fans, or cooling towers. The floor of the instrument shelter
should be approximately four feet above the ground or roof, except that, if the
shelter is mounted above a roof, the height may be greater than four feet in order
to minimize radiation effects from the roof. To afford the interior of the shelter
the greatest protection from direct solar radiation while the door facing north
(in the Northern Hemisphere). Keep the shelter door closed when the instruments
-•••- not being read.
X
If i>>onfV^tion is desired in the shelter use an electric lamp of not more than
25'watts. Keep the lamp as far as practicable (at least ten inches) from any
temperature-sensing element. Do not leave the lamp turned on any longer than is
necessary to read the instruments.
In general, temperature-sensing elements will be mounted as close to the center
of the shelter as practicable, and in a position where the operation of one in-
strument will i>-,t interfere with the operation of another. In any case, the
temperature-sensing units will be mounted more than four inches from the sides,
top, and bottom of the shelter.
Aneroid Barometers
\
Select a siti where the instrument will not be subject to rapid fluctuations of
temperature or to jarring and continuous vibration. Avoid exposing the instrument
to direct sunlight or radiant heaters, and to direct drafts, such as open windowss
and doors.
-------
Aneroid barometers should, under ordinary circumstances, be mounted with the dial
in a vertical position at a convenient level for reading. They will, however,
operate satisfactorily in other than a vertical position. Dial-type instruments
are frequently provided with a detachable case or flange to be used when the
instrument is wall mounted.
Wind Equipment
So far as available sites permit, wind sensing equipment should be placed 20 feet
above the ground on a freely exposed tower, and over terrain that is relatively
level and free from obstructions to wind flow. In general, obstructions include
hills or other objects whose height above the ground at the exposure site is not
more than one tenth their distance from the site. Avoid sites where topography
or other obstructions are known to create appreciable up-or-down drafts, eddy
currents or jet-flow effects. When a compromise must be made, the sensing
units should be exposed at least 12 feet above any obstruction within 100 feet, and
at least as high as any obstruction within 100 to 200 feet of the wind equipment.
Supporting towers should not be of such bulk or shape as to create an appreciable
obstruction to the wind flow.
-------
Bendix Aerovane,
5 feet, 'naif of roof height
Belfort Aerovane,
12 feet, at roof level
\ !
nd blowing
over building
turbulence
building effect
Wind direction
change to N.W
Mechanical turbulence
grassy field)
!'"' Wind direction |
from W
Wind blowing
over field
-------
METEOROLOG HAL INSTRUMENTS
Ronalc C. Hilfiker
1 INTRODUCTION
Measurement of atmospheric variables that
affect the diffusion and transport of air
pollutants is of necessity in nearly every
air pollution investigation. Suitable meas-
urements may be available from existing in-
strumentation at Weather Service city offices,
airport stations, or from universities or
industries with meteorological installations.
Frequently, however, existing instrumentation
does not give detailed enough measurements,
is not representative of the area in question,
or does not measure the variables desired
(such as turbulence) and additional instru-
ments must be operated.
Of primary importance in air pollution meteor-
ology Is the measurement of wind, both ve-
locity (direction and speed) and the turbu-
lence of the wind. The stability of the
lower layers of the atmosphere in which the
pollution diffuses is important and may be
determined from an analysis of the turbulence
characteristics of the atmosphere or the tem-
perature lapse rate.
Of secondary importance is the measurement of
humidity (which may affect atmospheric re-
actions), temperature, precipitation (of
importance in washout of pollutants), and
solar radiation (which affects photochemical
reactions In the atmosphere). Particularly
for research studies, it may be desirable to
measure meteorological elements affected by
pollutants, mainly: visibility, solar radia-
tion, and illumination (radiation in the vis-
ible region).
II WIND MEASUREMENTS
A Surface Instrumentation
1 Wind Speed
Generally, wind speed sensors are
broken down into the following cate-
gories:
a Rotational Anemometers
1) Vertical Shaft
2) Horizontal Shaft
b Pressure Anemometers
1) Flat Plate Type Anemometer
2) Tube Type Anemometer
c Bridled Cup Anemometer
d Special Types
1) Hot Wire Anemometer
2) Sonic Anemometer
3) Bivane
4) UVW Anemometer
Pressure anemometers, hot wire and
sonic anemometers have enjoyed exten-
sive use in research type operations,
but they all have disadvantages which
have prohibited their use in operation-
al type situations such as air pollution
surveys. The rotational type anemometers
are the most common type of wind speed
sensor in use today mainly because they
are the only types that satisfy all of
the following desirable operational
features:
a Essentially linear relationship be-
tween the sensor output and the wind
speed.
b Calibration is unaffected by changes
in the temperature, pressure or hu-
midity of the atmosphere.
c Able to measure a wide range of wind
speeds (<2 to " 200 mph [.9 to ~ 90
m/s]).
d Long term calibration stability.
The calibration often is unchanged
after 10 years continuous operation.
e Output of the sensor is easily adap-
ted to remote indication,
f Recording of the wind speed data is
easily adaptable to either analog
or digital form.
Ronald C. Hilfiker, Meteorologist
Air Quality Management Section, OMD
Office of Air Programs, EPA
PA.ME.mm.12b.9.71
-------
Climet Inst. Co. (a)
R.M. Young Co. (b)
Belfort Inst. Co. (c)
\
, ^^
C
J
Henry J. Green Co. (d) Electric Speed Indicator Co. (e) Science Associates Inc. (f)
V
Teledyne-Geotech (Bkmn & Whtly) (g)
Teledyne-Geotech (Bkmn & Whtly) (h)
Figure 1 - Cup Anemometers
-------
Meteorological Instruments
g Generally require extremely little
maintenance.
Types
a Rotational Anemometers
1) Vertical Shaft - a cup anemom-
eter revolving about a vertical
shaft is probably the most com-
monly used anemometer in use to-
day. The most common of the cup
anemometers are the 3-cup types
shown in Figure 1.
Traditionally, anemometers have
only had to yield average wind
speeds for use in the support
of aviation and weather forecast-
ing operations. Sensors such as
those in Figure Ic and le were
developed with durability as the
primary requirement. These cups
are about 10 cm. in diameter,
with a moment arm of about 42 cm.
These anemometers, due to their
large mass, have a relatively
high starting speed (that wind
speed at which the cups first
begin to rotate or reach the
manufacturers accuracy specifi-
cations) of about J mph (1.4 m/
sec). This factcr of high mass
combined with a long moment arm
will also produce a high moment
of inertia which tends to cause
the cups to indicate erroneous
wind speeds under gusty condi-
tions. Not only will the instan-
taneous readings be in error,
but because the cups accelerate
faster than they decelerate, the
mean speed indicated may be
slightly higher than the true
speed.
With the advent of environmental
concern, an anemometer was need-
ed that would measure light winds,
which are of great importance in
air pollution meteorology. Also,
to support turbulence and diffu-
sion studies, an anemometer was
needed that would approach giv-
ing an instantaneous response to
wind speed fluctuations. Light-
weight anemometers such as those
in Figure la, Ib, and Ig were
developed for such purposes.
2)
To provide accuracy at low speeds
and greater sensitivity, these
small 3-cup anemometers are light-
weight in construction (plastic or
very thin aluminum) and employ a
relatively short moment arm. In
addition, friction has been reduced
by utilizing miniature ball bearings
and special type transmitters. The
cups are generally 5 cm. in diameter
and have a moment arm of about 7 cm.
The result of these design consid-
erations is more accurate instan-
taneous and average windspeeds.
An attempt at further reducing the
starting speed is shown in Figure
Ih. This cup wheel design, employ-
ing six staggered cups, yields a
greater surface area exposed to the
wind. This factor decreases the
starting threshold from .75 mph
(.35 m/s) for the standard 3-cup
of Figure Ig) to .4 -.5 mph (.2 -
.25 m/s). This design also produces
a more uniform torque around the
entire shaft revolution.
Horizontal Shaft - The second most
commonly used wind speed measuring
system is one that has a propeller
on the end of a horizontal shaft
that is oriented into the wind by
a vane on the opposite end of the
shaft. A propeller anemometer is
shown in Figure 2, and several pro-
Figure 2 - Propeller Anemometer
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Meteorological Instruments
Figure 3 - Propeller-vanes
peller-vanes are shown In Figure 3.
These propellers are usually heli-
coidal in design with the rate of
rotation of the propeller being
linearly proportional to the wind
speed. As with the cup anemometers,
the propeller anemometers generally
fall into two design categories:
i. Those designed with durability
as a prime consideration
(Figure 3c,d)
ii. Those designed with sensi-
tivity as a prime considera-
tion (Figure 2, 3a,b)
The more sensitive propeller ane-
mometers utilize lightweight
aluminum or plastic as blade ma-
terial, and generally employ
either 2 or 4 blades. The 2-blad-
ed propellers (Figure 3b) have
starting speeds of about .4 - .7
mph (.2 - .35 m/s), while the 4-
bladed propellers have a threshold
of about .3 - .5 mph (.15 - .25
m/s).
The more durable propeller ane-
mometers use heavy gauge plastic
or steel in the blade construction.
L.^ause of their relatively heavy
nass, the 3-blade design of Figure
3c, d have higher starting speeds
of about 2.5 - 3 mph (1.2 - 1.5
m/s) .
The sensitivity argument develop-
ed earlier for the cup anemometers
also applies to propeller anemome-
ters. Howe-^r, because of the
helicoidal design of the blades,
the number rf blades has no effect
on the torque uniformity. The
design prod :.:es a uniform torque
independen: of the number of pro-
peller blades.
6-6
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Meteorological Instruments
b Special Types
1) Propeller Bivane - These anemome-
ters are capable of measuring the
magnitude of the wind vector and
will be discussed more fully in
the wind direction sensor portion
of this section.
2) UVW Anemometer - Another sensor
configuration that yields the wind
vector and its fluctuations is the
UVW anemometer. Figure 4 shows
one type manufactured by R. M.
Young Company. In this sensor
configuration, a propeller ane-
mometer is mounted in each prin-
cipal axis (thus the name UVW),
and each yields the component
wind vector in that axial direc-
tion. This anemometer has found
limited operational use because
of the sophisticated data reduc-
tion that is necessary to convert
from an output of 3 wind speeds
to a vector magnitude and direc-
tion.
The UVW anemometer has, how-
ever, enjoyed easy application
to those situations where the
3 component vectors are the
only desired output, or where
data reduction is accomplished
through the use of a computer.
As with all sensors of the pro-
peller type, serious error is
introduced during periods of
heavy precipitation, and with
this particular propeller con-
figuration there is some mutual
interference error with certain
wind directions.
2 Wind Speed Measuring Transducers
The most common aerodynamic sensor for
the measurement of wind speed is the
cup or propeller. The wind speed measur-
ing transducer must convert this cup or
propeller rotation to an energy form
that is easily transmittable. The
energy form is usually electric and the
transducer is commonly one of four types.
a D.C. Generator
Small, permanent field generators
are used that have an output that is
linearly proportional to the rate of
turning of the cup or propeller and
Figure 4.- UVW Anemometer
hence is linearly proportional to the
wind speed. The main disadvantage
of D.C. generators is the relatively
high starting or threshold speeds.
The brush and bearing friction com-
bine to produce a lower limit to the
threshold speed of about 1 mph (.5
m/s) on the most sensitive systems.
The brushes on these generators
usually need servicing only about
once a year under continuous use.
On some of the more sensitive sensors
the unit is sealed and it is recom-
mended that the unit be sent to the
factory for servicing or replaced
completely.
Figure 5 illustrates a typical D.C.
generator (brushes not shown) from
the sensor of Figure le. The out-
put from this transducer can be re-
corded directly on any D.C. galva-
nometer recorder.
b A.C. Generator
In an attempt to lower the threshold
speed by eliminating brush friction,
some manufacturers are using A.C.
generators instead of D.C. generators.
A.C. generators reduce the friction
considerably and eliminate brush
and commutator maintenance. A.C.
generators are available with either
two, four, six or eight-pole perma-
nent magnet rotors. The larger the
number of poles, the more pulses are
available per shaft revolution, pro-
ducing a smoother record.
6-7
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Meteorological Instruments
Field magnet
Figure 5 D.C. Tachometer Generator
The largest disadvantage of the A.C.
generator is associated with the
number of pulses per shaft revolution.
These pulses must be rectified by a
modifying transducer (rectifier) in
order to have a suitable energy form
for recording. Low wind speeds
generate a low frequency of A.C.
pulses and normal rectifiers do not
function properly with a low frequen-
cy input. Thus, spurious oscillations
may be produced at low wind speeds.
Therefore, to obtain wind speeds
below about 2 m/sec (4 mph) some
sort of electronic correction is
needed.
This disadvantage defeats the purpose
of reducing the friction and has
therefore resulted in a minimal use
of this type of transducer.
c Interrupted Light Beam
Further reduction in friction with
accompanying lower threshold speed
and quicker response can be accom-
plished with the use of an inter-
rupted light beam (light chopper)
transducer. This transducer employs
either a slotted shaft (Figure 6) or
a slotted disc (Figure 7), a light
source and a photocell or photo-diode.
The cup or propeller rotates the
Figure 6 - Slotted Shaft Light Chopper
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Meteorological Instruments
3 cup anemometer
Precision bearings
Lamp
Chopper wheel
Photodiode
Amplifier
Figure 7 - Slotted Disc Light Chopper
slotted shaft or disc and a pulse is
created each time a slot allows light
from the source on one side of the
shaft or disc to fall on the photo-
cell on the other side of the shaft
or disc. The larger the number of
slots in the shaft or disc, the
smoother will be the output, espec-
ially at low wind speeds. The out
put from the transducer is handled
in the same manner as the output
from the A.C. generator. The large
number of slots (about 100) prevent
spurious oscillations in the output
at low wind speeds. The sensors of
Figure la, g utilize this type of
transducer.
d Mechanical - contact type
All of the measuring transducers
mentioned so far produce an analog
signal. There are circumstances
where the desired output might be
total miles of wind passage instead
of a time plot of wind speed. Under
these circumstances, a mechanical-
contact transducer is used. In this
type of transducer, the anemometer
shaft is connected through one or
more gears to a cam or similar de-
vice that opens or closes a contact
after the passage of a pre-determin-
ed amount of air. This contact
closure can operate a readout device
such as an event marker pen on a
recorder. Recorders, such as the
one shown in Figure 8 can be fur-
nished with circuitry to provide a
pen actuation for each 10, 100 or
1000 contact closures in the trans-
ducer. If the average wind speed
is desired instead of length of
wind passage, the number of contact
closures are determined for a given
time increment and, knowing the
miles or meters of wind passage for
each contact closure, the average
wind speed over the given time in-
crement is easily determined.
Figure 8 - Event Marker Recorder
3 Wind Direction
a Type
1) Flat Plate Vane
Typical flat plate vanes are
shown in Figure 9a, b, c, d, g,
i, k, and 1. The term flat plate
refers to the tail shape which
is simply a flat plate. The
flat plate can take on a number
of different shapes and be made
out of a number of different
materials.
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Meteorological Instruments
Climet Inst. Co. (a) R.M. Young Co. (b)
Bel fort Inst. Co. (c)
Science Associates Inc. (g) Epic Co. (h)
Epic Co. (i)
i
Bendix Co. (m)
Belfort Inst. Co. (n)
Teledyne-Geotech (1)
6-10
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Wong Lab. (d)
Electric Speed Indicator Co. (e) Science Associates Inc. (f)
Teledyne-Geotech (j)
Teledyne-Geotech (k)
Figure 9 - Wind Vanes
Raim Inst. Co. (o)
Epic Co. (p)
6-11
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Meteorological Instruments
As with wind speed sensors, the
material used in constructing the
wind vane will generally deter-
mine the proper use of the vane.
Vanes made out of heavy gauge
metal or plastic such as iti Fig-
ure 9 should be used only for
obtaining average wind direction.
The large mass creates a high
moment of inertia which will give,
under certain conditions, a much
higher indication of wind fluc-
tuations than actually exists.
The lightweight sensitive vanes
of Figure 9a, b, d, k and 1 have
tails made out of thin gauge
aluminum or plastic or molded
expanded polystyrene. The
counterweights are also close to
the center of rotation. This
design creates a highly sensitive
vane that can be suitably used
for turbulence or other fine
analyses of the wind trace.
2) Splayed Vane
Typical splayed vanes are shown
in Figure 9e, f, h, and p. In
this type of vane, two flat
plates are joined at a small
angle (usually about 15°) at one
end of the horizontal shaft.
This design came about through
experimentation that showed that
the splayed vane followed small
changes in wind direction better
than the flat plate. However,
the increased mass incurred by
two flat plates makes this type
of vane unsuitable for anything
but the measurement of average
wind direction.
The splayed vane of Figure 9 has,
mainly because of its durability
and reliability, found wide-
spread use in its role as the
main wind direction sensor for
the National Weather Service.
Therefore, it should be noted
that wind direction data obtain-
ed from a National Weather Service
should be used only as an indi-
cation of average wind direction.
3) Aerodynamic Shaped Vane
This type of wind vane is shown
In Figure 9J, m, n, and o. The
aerodynamic shaped vane has an
airfoil cross section. This
type of vane has been shown to
produce up to 15% more torque
for certain ranges of attack
angles than a flat plate vane
of similar physical dimensions.
This type of design, as with the
splayed vane, incorporates more
mass than the flat plate vane
and therefore produces a higher
moment of inertia, yielding a
poor dynamic performance. An
aerodynamic wind vane that has
found wide-spread use in air
pollution studies is shown in
Figure 9m, n. This device is
commonly called an "aerovane".
It should be remembered that its
dynamic performance is inferior
to the sensitive vanes of Figure
9a, b, d, k, 1, and the use of
the data gathered by the "Aero-
vane" should reflect this fact.
Wind Direction Measuring Transducers
The measurement of wind direction
consists of converting the angular
position of the wind vane to an energy
form that can be transmitted easily.
The system of Figure 9h has direct
readout obtainable simply by observing
the sensor. This system is, at best,
very crude.
More advanced wind direction systems
usually employ one of 3 types of
measuring transducers.
a Potentiometer system
b Synchro-motor system
c Commutator system
Types
a Potentiometer System
The most common and inexpensive way
of converting the angular position
of the vane to an electrical signal
is through the use of a potentio-
meter system such as the one shown
in Figure 10.
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Meteorological Instruments
Figure 10 - Potentiometer Transducer System
In this system the shaft of the
vane is attached to the wiper arm
of the potentiometer. The swinging
Vane therefore produces a continu-
ously varying voltage that can be
recorded on a recording voltmeter
or dial indicator. With proper
calibration, the recorded voltage
gives a direct reading of the angular
position of the vane.
The biggest drawback to this system
is the unavoidable discontinuity in
the potentiometer. If the wind
direction is oscillating about a
direction corresponding to this gap
(usually north), the voltage output
will oscillate between the maximum
and minimum value producing what is
commonly called "chart painting".
With the recorder pen swinging from
one end of the chart to the other,
the record produced is, at best,
very confusing.
There are some types of recorder pen
movements available that circumvent
this problem. Double contact poten-
tiometers with dual pen recorders
produce a trace along each edge of
the chart when the wind direction
corresponds to the gap. Figure 11
illustrates a chart record of this
type. In newer recorders, there is
available electronic circuitry and
a 540° chart that can keep the pen
trace in the central portion of the
chart. Figure 12 illustrates a chart
record of this type.
Wire potentiometers present a problem
of excessive wear produced as the
contact moves along the wires. The
life expectancy of wire-wound po-
tentiometers is only about 6 months-
1 year under continuous operation.
Recent advances in this area have
produced a conductive plastic
potentiometer.
The life expectancy of these poten-
tiometers is about 50 x 106 oscilla-
tions, or about 3-5 years, under
continuous operation. The linearity
1 2N
Figure 11.
Duel pen recorder chart
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Meteorological Instruments
Figure 12.
540° Recorder chart
of these devices is about .5%.
The use of micro-potentiometers pro-
duces the lowest movement of Inertia
of any of the direction transducers
available today. This fact has led
to their widespread use in the sen-
sitive wind vanes that arc noted for
their good dynamic performance.
b Synchro-motor System
This transducer system consists of
two synchronous motors wired as
shown in Figure 13.
They are commonly known as "Autoayn",
"Selsyn" or "Synchrotie" systems.
Transmitter
Receiver
Figure 13 - Synchro-motor System
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Meteorological Instruments
In this mode, any movement by the
shaft of the transmitter will be
duplicated by the shaft of the re-
ceiver motor usually to an accuracy
of about 2°, provided the lead re-
sistance is kept to a maximum of 20fi.
The vane shaft is coupled to the
shaft of the transmitter motor and
the shaft of the receiver motor is
c.oupJed to a recorder pen or some
other read-out indicator. Therefore,
any vane movement is duplicated by a
movement of the dial needle, recorder
pen etc., and with proper calibration
and alignment, a direct indication of
wind direction is obtained. There is
no discontinuity in the movement as
with the potentiometer. This trans-
ducer system is usually coupled with
a 540° chart recorder system or a
dial indicator to produce an analog
trace of wind direction. The system
also lends itself readily to a dial
indicator display. The only disad-
vantage of this transducer system is
the relatively large movement of in-
ertia of the motor assembly. This
produces a poorer dynamic performance
than the micro-potentiometer system
and limits their use to the more
rugged vane types such as the aero-
vane sensors of Figure 9m, n.
c Commutator System
The wind direction transducers dis-
cussed so far produce an analog signal
that can be converted to an analog
chart trace. The commutator trans-
ducer system shown in Figure 14 pro-
duces contact closures which can be
used to activate lights, event mark-
er pens etc.
In this system, the vane shaft is
coupled to a unit that has two brush
type contacts, (A and B), spaced
22 1/2 degrees apart. These brushes
make contact with one or two of the
8 conducting sectors (C) that are
spaced 45° apart and correspond to
45° of wind direction. When both
brushes contact the same sector, the
direction indicated is one of the 8
compass points, eg,., N, NE, E. If
the brushes are contacting two of
the sectors, the indicated direction
corresponds to an intermediate dir-
ection, such as NNE, ENE, ESE, etc.
Therefore, direction indication to
16 points can be obtained with this
system.
22V-
V. o
Light indicators or event marker pens
Power supply
Figure 14 - Commutator Transducer System
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Meteorological Instruments
f
til
Figure 15 - Commutator System Visual Display
f
Figure 16 - Commutator System Chart Record
N NE E SE S SW W NW mi. 1 60 mi.
9PM
8PM
6-16
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Meteorological Instruments
Figure IS shows a-visual display
utilizing lights. .An intermediate
direction would be indicated by the
activation of two adjacent lights.
Figure v!6 illustrates a chart record
produced^ by this type of transducer
system. vA,n intermediate direction
would be indicated by the activation
of two adjacent pens.
The friction inherent in the commu-
tator transducer as well as the crude
method of display make this trans-
ducer most applicable to operations
involving only the acquisition of
average wind direction.
Special Types
a Bi-directional Vanes (Bivanes)
This type of instrument is designed
to: rotate around a vertical axis to
measure the. aximuth angle of the
wind, as does a conventional wind
vane. It also can move in the verti-
cal to measure the elevation angle
of the wind.: Because the vertical
motions of the atmosphere are fre- •
quently of a different character than
the horizontal motions (anisotropic
turbulence), measurement of both the
horizontal and vertical motions are
desirable. This is particularly true
under stable conditions when the
vertical motion is almost absent,
but horizontal changes in wind direc-
tion may be appreciate. wicro-
potentiometers are usually used to
produce an analog record of both
angles. The total wind speed can be
measured by replacing the counter-
weight with a. propeller anemometer.
Figure 17 shows two typical anemom-
eter bivanes.
B Airborne Sensors
Fixed location wind velocity sensors
measure the wind at a fixed height as it
varies, with time. Most airborne sensors
are used to average wind velocity through
a given depth of the atmosphere at a
particular -time.
1 Pilot Balloon (pibal)
This method of measuring wind velocity
uses a gas-filled free balloon (Figure
18) which is tracked visually through
a theodolite. The theodolite is an
optical system used to measure the
azimuth and elevation angle of the
balloon.
a Single Theodolite Pibals
When only one theodolite is used,
the balloon is inflated to have a
given amount of free lift. The
elevation and azimuth angles are
used with the assumed ascent rate
to compute wind directions a speeds
aloft. A theodolite is shown in
Figure 19.
b Double Theodolite Pibals
By this method, the ascent rate of
the balloon is not assumed, but cal-
culated from the elevation and azi-
muth angles of the two theodolite
observations taken simultaneously.
Figure 17 - Anemometer Bivanes
6-17
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Meteorological Instruments
Figure 18 - Meteorological Balloons
(L to R - Tetroon, Pilot Balloon, Kytoon)
Figure 19 - Theodolite
The two theodolites are set a known
distance apart (the baseline). Two
types of pilot balloons frequently
used reach 3000 ft. within 5 minutes
and 8 minutes respectively after re-
lease. If detailed structure of
winds with height is to be determined,
readings of azimuth and elevation
angle must be read every 15 or 30
seconds.
2 Rawinsonde
This method of measuring wind velocity
aloft also uses a gas-filled free bal-
loon, but it is tracked either by radio
direction finding apparatus, or by radar.
The former method is the most frequent-
ly used in the U.S. The radio trans-
mitter carried by the free balloon is
usually used to transmit pressure, temp-
erature and humidity information to the
ground (radiosonde). The radio direc-
tion finding equipment determines the
elevation angles and azimuth angles of
the transmitter. The height is deter-
mined by evaluation of the temperature-
pressure sounding. Using radar the
slant range is available for determining
height. Soundings taken with this type
of equipment are made on a routine basis
for supporting forecasting and aviation
activities. The ascension rate of these
balloons is on the order of 1000 feet/
minute, so they do not yield as detailed
information on winds in the lowest part
of the atmosphere as is desired for many
air pollution meteorological purposes.
3 Rocket Smoke Plumes
A system using a cold propellant, re-
coverable rocket to emit a vertical
smoke trail to an altitude of 1200 feet
has been developed. (Gill, Bierly, and
Kerawalla). This smoke trail is photo-
graphed simultaneously at short time
intervals by two cameras 2000 feet from
the launch site and at right angles to
each other. The difference in position
of the smoke trail from two successive
photographs is a measure of one compo-
nent (north-south for example) of the
wind and can be determined at any number
of heights from ground level to 1200 feet.
Another system has been reported by Cooke
(1962).
6-18
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Meteorological Instruments
4 Constant Level Balloons
Unlike the previous airborne sensors for
wind velocity which obtain average meas-
urements through a vertical layer, con-
stant level balloons are used to deter-
mine the trajectory or path of an air
parcel during a given time interval. In
order to maintain a constant altitude
(more accurately to fly along a constant
air density surface) the balloon must
maintain a constant volume. A tetrahedron
shaped balloon (tetroon) of mylar has
been used for this purpose (Figure 18).
These have^een tracked visually and by
radar. (Aiigell & Pack, 1960).
Ill TEMPERATURE LAPSE RATE
The vertical structure of temperature gives
an indication of the stability and turbulence
of the atmosphere.
A Temperature Difference Measurements
One method of estimating the vertical struc-
ture of temperature is by measuring the
difference in temperature between sensors
mounted at different heights. This, of
course, gives an average condition between
any two particular sensors.
1 Heights of Sensors
Because of the pronounced influence of
the earth's surface on the atmosphere's
temperature, it may be desirable to
measure temperature difference at closer
intervals near the ground than at higher
levels. For example, a 300 foot tower
might have sensors at 5 feet, 25 feet,
50 feet, 100 feet, 200 feet, and 300
feet. The height differences at the
upper levels should be about equal so
that the height of inversions may be
determined. Radio and television towers
are good supports for temperature dif-
ference sensors (as well as wind sensors)
and stations usually are willing to
allow sensors to be mounted upon their
towers. Of course, sensors must be kept
below the level of the transmitting
antenna.
2 Sensors
Resistance thermometers of copper or
nickel may be used for temperature dif-
ference systems. Thermo-couples of
copper-constantan or iron-constantan
also make reliable sensors. Resistance
thermometers and thermocouples do not
have to be frequently calibrated and
may be expected to provide good service
for 10 to 20 years if properly installed.
Thermistors are not generally recommended
because they may be quite variable from
unit to unit and they may require re-
calibration more frequently than the
other two types of sensors. Rapid re-
sponse is usually not desired in meas-
uring temperature differences. Rather,
averages on the order of 5 minutes are
desired. If the sensors are 1/2 to 5/8
inch in diameter, they will respond
slowly enough to give an average tem-
perature.
3 Shielding and Ventilating
Guidelines for the exposure of tempera-
ture sensors are covered in the follow-
ing section.
4 Recorders
Generally multiple point (10 or 20
points) recorders are used for record-
ing temperature differences. Thus, one
recorder may be used for the entire
system. The recorder is connected to
one sensor for about 30 seconds, prints
and then switches to another level. If
a 6 minute cycle is used (print for each
level every 6 minutes) there will be 10
readings every hour and an hourly aver-
age may easily be obtained by adding the
10 readings and shifting the decimal
point 1 place. The sensors are usually
wired so that the temperature differences
are obtained directly rather than de-
termining the temperature at each level.
B Balloon-borne Sensors
Temperature sensors may be lifted by either
free or captive balloons. By this method,
temperature, not temperature difference,
is measured.
1 Radiosonde
The method of radiosonde (radio-sound-
ings) observatipns is used routinely
for temperature, pressure and humidity
soundings of the upper air. A free
balloon carries the sensors and a radio
transmitter aloft. Cycling from sensor
to sensor is by means of an aneroid
barometer and consequently is a function
of pressure. Observations are normally
made twice daily at 0000 GCT and 1200
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Meteorological Instruments
GCT at approximately 70 stations in the
contiguous U.S. The ascent rate of the
balloon is about 1000 ft/minute. Gen-
erally only 4 to 6 temperature readings
are recorded within the lower 3000 feet
so the vertical temperature information
is not too detailed. It is still of
considerable use when more detailed
information is not available.
2 T-Sonde
This system consists of a temperature
sensor and radio transmitter which is
carried aloft by a free rising balloon.
The main difference between this system
and the radiosonde system is that only
temperature is measured. Ten to twelve
measurements are taken within the lower
3000 feet of the atmosphere, thus giving
more detailed structure of temperature
with height.
3 Tethered Kite Balloon
Using a captive balloon system to make
vertical temperature measurements has
the advantages of complete recovery of
all components of the system, and as
detailed a temperature sounding as is
desired may be made by control of the
level of the sensor. A balloon having
fins is much easier to control and gives
greater lift in slight winds than a
spherical balloon. See Figure 18. Most
kite balloons can be used in winds less
than 15 knots. For air pollution mete-
orology purposes, the light wind periods
are of greatest interest anyway. Be-
cause of hazards to aircraft, prior
permission from the FAA is required for
flights exceeding 500 feet above ground.
For additional precautions when using
captive balloons, the reader is referred
to the section on "F.xposure of Airborne
Instruments".
Several methods of relaying the observa-
tions to the ground have been used.
a Wiresonde
Using this system, a resistance ther-
mometer is carried aloft by a kite
balloon whose mooring cable contains
wires connecting the sensor witli a
wheatstone bridge on the ground which
Is used to measure the resistance.
b Modified Radiosonde Transmitter
Another system uses a modified radio-
sonde transmitter to measure temper-
ature and humidity. The signal is
transmitted to the ground receiver
and recording equipment by the same
method used in the radiosonde. Cycl-
ing from one sensor to another is by
a battery driven timing device. The
temperature sensor is shielded from
the sun by the styrofoam plastic and
is aspirated by a small motor driven
fan. The mooring of this system is
by nylon cable marked at intervals
to indicate the height of the sensor.
C Aircraft Borne Sensors
In some cases, light aircraft or helicopters
have been used for obtaining temperature
lapse rate measurements. Although there
are complete systems commercially available
for this method of temperature lapse rate
measurement, one can use standard temper-
ature sensors (thermisters, resistance
thermometers, etc.) and recorders as long
as the exposure guidelines presented in the
next section are followed.
IV THE MEASUREMENT OF SECONDARY METEOROLOGICAL
PARAMETERS
A Precipitation
Because large particles and water soluble
gases may be removed from the atmosphere
by falling precipitation, measurements of
this element may be needed. Chemical or
radioactive analysis of rain water may
also be desired.
1 Standard Rain Gauge
The standard rain gauge consists of a
metal funnel 8 inches in diameter, a
measuring tube having 1/10 the cross-
sectional area of the funnel, and a
large container of 8 inches diameter
(Figure 20). Normally precipitation is
funneled into the measuring tube. The
depth of water in the tube is measured
using a dip stick having a special scale
(because of the reduction in area).
Measurements with this instrument, since
they are made manually, give only accu-
mulation since the last measurement.
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Meteorological Instruments
Figure 20 - Standard Rain Gauge
2 Recording Rain Gauge
The recording (or weighing) bucket rain
gauge does give detailed time resolu-
tion of occurrence, and amount of preci-
pitation as a strip chart, with one
revolution per dav, is used. The gauge
consists of a bucket (to hold the preci-
pitation) on a scale, which weighs the
precipitation and moves the pen arm,
recording the total accumulation on the
chart, calibrated in inches. (Figure 21)
Figure 21 - Weighing Bucket Rain Gauge
3 Tipping Bucket Bain Gauge
This precipitation gauge has a bucket
with two compartments beneath the col-
lecting funnel. (Figure 22). When one
side of the bucket collects a given
amount (usually 0.01 inch) of precipita-
tion, the bucket tips and empties the
precipitation, collecting the next por-
tion in the other side. The bucket
movements are recorded on a chart. The
number of bucket movements and the time
they occur indicate the rainfall amount
and rate. This type instrument is not
suitable for measuring snow.
Figure 22 - Tipping Bucket
4 Precipitation Collector
For research purposes, it is desirable
to analyze rainfall as to its chemical
and radioactive constituents. Since it
is desirable to include only precipita-
tion samples, and not material that may
fall into the collector during dry pe-
riods, a collector which opens only dur-
ing periods of precipitation has been
developed. The sensor (Figure 23) has
two sets of adjacent wires. A raindrop
falling between the wires completes an
electrica,! circuit which removes the
cover from a polyethylene container.
A small heat source dries the sensor so
that the circuit will be broken when
precipitation ceases and also so that
dew will not form and open the collector.
This instrument is illustrated in Figure
24.
6-21
-------
Meteorological Instruments
• ^^
(.••••••"^
Figure 23 - Rain Detector for Automatic
Precipitation Collector
Figure 24 - Automatic Precipitation
Collector (Open)
Figure 25 - Hygrothermograph
B Humidity
Because of its influence upon certain
chemical reactions in the atmosphere and
its influence upon visibility, it may be
desirable to measure humidity in connection
with an air pollution investigation. Also,
some air pollutants affect receptors dif-
ferently with different humidities, so
measurement may be of importance in this
respect.
1 Hygrothermograph
This instrument measures both tempera-
ture and humidity, activating pen arms
to give a continuous record of each
element upon a strip chart. The chart
generally can be used for 7 days. The
humidity sensor generally used is human
hairs which lengthen as relative humidi-
ty increases and shorten with humidity
decreases. Temperature measurements
are usually made with a bourdon tube,
a curved metal tube containing an or-
ganic liquid. The system changes
curvature with changes in temperature,
activating the pen arm. A hygro-
thermograph is shown in Figure 25.
2 Psychrometers
Humidity measurement by a psychrometer
involves obtaining a dry bulb tempera-
ture and a wet bulb temperature from a
matched set of thermometers. One
thermometer bulb (wet bulb) is covered
with a muslin wick moistened with dis-
tilled water. There must be enough air
6-22
-------
Meteorological Instruments
motion to cause cooling of the wet bulb
due to evaporation of the water on the
wick. A motor driven fan may be used
to draw air at a steady rate past the
moistened wick while a reading is taken.
A sling psychrometer has both thermo-
meters mounted on a frame which is
whirled through the air to cause cool-
ing by evaporation. Relative humidity
is determined from the dry and wet bulb
readings through the use of tables.
Continuous measurements of humidity are
not obtained using psychrometers.
C Radiation
The influence of the sun's radiation upon
the turbulence of the atmosphere and upon
certain photochemical reactions is suffi-
cient to make measurements of radiation of
importance. In addition, radiation may be
reduced due to particulate pollution in the
atmosphere. Particularly for research pur-
poses, it may be desirable to measure this
effect by comparisons between urban and
non-urban stations similarly instrumented.
1 Total Radiation
The direct radiation from the sun plus
the diffuse radiation from the sky may
be measured by pyranometers. These
instruments are mounted so that the
sensor is horizontal and can receive the
radiation throughout the hemisphere
defined by the horizon. The instrument
illustrated in Figure 26 is of this type.
2 Direct Solar Radiation
i
Normal incidence pyrheliometer -
The direct solar radiation may be meas-
ured continuously by using the pyrheli-
ometer shown in Figure 7.1 mounted upon
an equatorial mount (Figure 28) to keep
it pointed toward the sun. By using
filters, different spectral regions of
radiation may be determined.
3 Net Radiation
The difference between the total in-
coming (solar plus sky) radiation and
the outgoing terrestial radiation may be
Figure 21 - Pyrheliometer
Figure 26 - "Black and White" Pyranometer
Figure 28 - Equatorial Mount
6-23
-------
Meteorological Instruments
Figure 29 - Net Radiometer
useful in determining the stability, and
hence, the turbulent character, of the
lowest portion of the atmosphere. A net
radiometer is shown in Figure 29.
D Visibility
Visibility, in addition to being affected
by precipitation, is affected by humidity
and air pollution. Frequently, visibility
is estimated by human observer. An instr-
ument to measure visibility, called a
transmissometer, measures the transmission
of light over a fixed baseline, usually on
the order of 500 to 750 feet. An intense
light source from the projector is focused
on a photocell in the detector. The amount
of light reaching the photocell over the
constant baseline distance is assumed to be
proportional to visibility. The transmisso-
meter is restricted to estimating visibility
in one direction only.
A transmissometer is also limited in that
the light transmission it detects is af-
fected mainly by liquid droplets in the
air. It does not detect, to any great
efficiency, the particulate matter in the
atmosphere. The projector is shown in
Figure 30 and the detector in Figure 31.
A relatively new instrument, called a neph-
elometer, has been developed that will in-
dicate visibility as it is affected by
particulate matter in the atmosphere. An
integrating nephelometer is shown in Fig-
ure 32.
Figure 30 - Transmissometer Detector
Figure 31 - Transmissometer Receiver
Figure 32 - Integrating Nephelometer
b-24
-------
Meteorological Instruments
REFERENCES
1 Hewson, E. W. "Meteorological Measurements"
in Air Pollution. Vol. II New York,
Academic Press, pp 329-387.
2 Slade, D. H., Editor "Meteorology and
Atomic Energy-1968" U.S. AEC, Division
of Technical Information, pp 257-300.
3 Middleton, W.E.K., and Spilhaus, A. F.
Meteorological Instruments, Toronto,
University of Toronto Press, pp 141-165.
1953.
4 Lockhart, T. J. "Bivanee and Direct
Turbulence Sensors." Meteorology Research
Inc. MRI 170 Pa 928. June 1970.
5 Stern, A. C., Editor "Air Pollution"
Second Edition Vol. II New York, Academic
Press. 1968. pp 334-347.
6 Doebelin, E. 0. "Measurement Systems:
Application and Design." McGraw-Hill Co.,
New York, Chapter 7.
7 Stein, P. K. "Classification Systems for
Transducers and Measuring Systems."
Symposium on Environmental Measurements,
U.S. Dept. HEW, July 1964. pp 65-68.
8 Angell, J. K. and Pack, D. H. "Analysis
of Some Preliminary Low-Level Constant
Level Balloon, (Tetroon) Flights." Mon.
Wea. Rev. £8, 7, 235-248. 1960.
9 Hewson, E. W., and Gill, G. C. In report
submitted to the Trail Smelter Arbitral
Tribunal by R. S. Dean and R. E. Swain,
U. S. Bur. Mines Bull, 453, 155-160. 1944.
10 Cooke, T. H. "A Smoke-Trail Technique for
Measuring Wind." Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol.
Soc. 88, 83-88. 1962.
-------
Exposure of Instruments
Ronald C. llilfiker
Exposure of Surface Instruments
INTRODUCTION
Exposure of instrumentation is un-
doubtedly one of the most important steps
in any air pollution study. It is absolutely
necessary to locate the instrumentation in
such a manner that the measurements are
representative of the area in which one is
interested. In some cases, such as street
level measurements in a city, it is desirable
to obtain measurements of extremely local
phenomena, but generally in air pollution
meteorology, measurements that are re-
presentative of a fairly large area are
desired. In this latter case, extreme care
must be taken to ensure that the parameter
being measured is not influenced by nearby
obstacles.
An example of the effect of a building
on regional wind flow is shown in Figure 1.
la shows two identical aerovanes
mounted on a tower approximately 20 feet south
of a 12 foot high building. The only
difference in exposure between the two
aerovanes is the 6 foot difference in height.
It can be seen from Figure Ib that when the
wind is blowing from the west, both sensors
are apparently free of building influence,
with both wind traces indicating typical
mechanical type turbulence. However, when
the wind shifts to the north-west, the
turbulence characteristics change markedly
in the wind flow being sensed by the Bendix
aerovane at the 6 foot level. At the 12
foot level, the Belfort aerovane continues
to indicate typical mechanical type turbulence.
Which trace is indicative of the regional
wind flow? It is the purpose of this chapter
to explore the concepts needed to answer this
question.
Belfort aerovane
Bendix aerovane
6ft
12ft
Grassy field
20 ft
Building C
Figure la. Location of wind equipment that produced the traces of figure Ib
pRc
| Re
Ronald 'C. Hilfker
RegionaJ Meteorologist
1 EPA Region 1
! Boston, Massachusetts 02203
PA. ME. mm. J Hi. 9. 71
-------
Bendix Aerovane,
6 feet, half of roof height
Belfort Aerovane,
12 feet, at roof level
c
cu
o
o.
Wind blowing
over building
I Large eddy
turbulence due to
building effect
-HJ-UJ
Wind direction
chanaetoMW
i Mechanical turbulence
(grassy field)
Wind direction
fromW
Wind blowing
HI
f.
•O
HI
O
3
T)
O
c
-H
3
-------
of InsLrumeiHs
mean velocity profile
Figure 2 Typical flow pattern around a cube with one face to the wind
_J
ANEMOMETERS AND WIND VANES
hi recent years, an attempt has been
made1 al standardising the. height above
ground .it which "surface wind" ne;isiirenoi»t'i
"il.1 hr taken. Thf World Meteorological
Organization (WffO) and the National Oceanic
and Atn^spheric Administration (NOAA) have
agreed nn 10 metorr; for this standard bright.
'dc->l]v the measurements would lie taken over
level, open terrain, but very rarely do
these conditions exist in an air pollution
survey area, '.'hat rules of thumb or
guidel-vr.e.s can be followed if obstructions
are present in the vicinity of the spot
where wind measurements are to be taken?
Figure 2 illustrates a typical flow
pattern around a cube that has one face
normal to the wind flow. ''row Figure 2
several things can be noted:
1) The flow is disturbed on the up-
wind and downwind sides of the
obstruction.
2) The Iln1,) is disturbed abovr c.ic
buildiup to a height of about 1
to 1 1/2 building heights above
the roof.
3) Very near the roof of the building
a reverse flow occurs .
-------
Exposure of Instruments
1 height
Figure 3 Building effect on wind
Figure 3 shows a more extensive view
of the disruption in the ambient air flow
around an obstruction. From Figure 3, one
can formulate three rules of thumb for
locating a wind system around an obstruct
tion while keeping the sensor located in
the ambient air flow:
1) The sensor must be located a
distance upwind of the building
equal to the building height.
2) If the sensor is to be located on
the roof of the building it must
be at least one building height
above the roof.
)) The sensor must be located a
distance of 5 to 10 building
heLghts in the downwind direction.
These guidelines would apply most
directly to a cubical obstruction standing
by itself on open, level terrain. As the
•;hnpe of the obstruction changes or as
more obstructions become involved, the
problem becomes much more complex. For
example, suppose that it is desired to
make measurements of the ambient air flow
in the downtown area of a large city. Most
probably the above guidelines could not be
raut because of the close proximity of the
obstructions in a downtown area. A modifica-
tion of these guidelines must be used. The
sensor should be mounted on the roof of the
tallest structure available, a distance
;ibove the roof determined by the proximity
of taller buildings (using Guidelines 1 and
3) , aiul the height of the building above
the surrounding structures (utilizing
CuideHnu 2). The exact height at which
to locate the sensor would depend on the
!>art 1 <-ular case .
In locating wind sensors in rough
terrain or in valley situations, it will be
necessary to determine if local effects such
as channeling, slope and valley winds, etc.,
are of greatest importance, or whether flow
above these influences is the parameter to
be sensed. As in the urban situation, if
the study centers upon elevated pollution
sources, it may be desirable to avoid the
local influences. However, if pollution
from ground level sources is being emphas-
i2ed, local influences may be of great
importance. Remember that topographic in-
fluences such as hills, ridges, etc., pro-
duce flow patterns similar to those shown
in Figures 2 and 3.
TEMPERATURE
As with wind sensors, thermometers are
usually placed at a standard height above
ground. This standard height has been set,
by international agreement, at 1.25 to 2
meters (4-6.5 feet) above a grassy surface.
Environmental considerations produce the
following three rules of thturib for exposure
of temperature sensors.
1) The sensor must be shielded from
direct solar radiation.
2) The sensor must be well ventilated
at a constant ventilation rate.
(not less than 4-5 m/sec.)
3) The sensor must be uninfluenced
by nearby features that might
affect temperature.
If the sensor is of the thermocouple
or thermister type, the aspirated shield
of Figure 4 will fulfill the requirements
of (1) and (2) above.
-------
Exposure of Instruments
Motor assembly
Figure A - Aspirated solar radiation shield
Shield assembly
If a standard thermometer is to be exposed,
the cotton region shelter of Figure 5 will
fulfill requirement (1) above. Ventilation
will be natural and therefore variable in
rate so the requirement of rule (2) is not
met exactly, but for standard thermometers,
the error or effect is negligible.
If the shelter of Figure 5 is to be used,
care should be taken to orient the door to-
wards the north to eliminate solar heating of
the thermometers while taking a reading. The
thermometers should also be located as close
to the center of the shelter as possible.
Requirement (3) above ensures that ambient
air temperature is being measured, and not
the temperature of a micro-environment such
as the air very near the south side of a
brick building or near an asphalt roadway or
parking lot.
RF,r,ATIVK HUMIDITY
Since relative humidity is not only a function
of the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere,
but is also dependent on temperature, exposure
criteria outlined for temperature should also
be observed for relative humidity.
Thermometer bulbs
should be at least
3 inches from the
top, bottom, and
sides of shelter
5ft.
Figure 5 - Cotton region type
instrument shelter
-------
Exposure of Instruments
PRECIPITATION
The previous section describes the design
and operation principles of rain gauges. Care
must be taken in the exposure of a rain gauge
to ensure that the collection efficiency of
the gauge is not reduced. Wind and Its associ-
ated turbulence are the two most important
far tors that would tend to change the collec-
tion efficiency of the gauge. If the wind
blows the rain into the gauge on a slant, the
collection area is changed and therefore the
efficiency would be changed producing an
error in the indicated rainfall. If consider-
able turbulence exists around the gauge, the
rainfall itself will be disturbed, again
producing errors in the indicated rainfall.
These considerations produce the following
guidelines:
] • The gauge should be free of over-
hanging obstructions.
2) The gauge should be a sufficient
distance from obstacles to avoid
local eddys.
['lie g.iui;e should be sheltered from
the possiblity of high wind speeds
at the gauge.
Ideally, all three criteria could be met if
tin- gauge was located in a clearing in a woods
or orchard where the diameter of the clearing
is about equal to the height of the surround-
ing Irees . A windshield, such as the one
shown in Figure 6, can also be installed to
reduce the distortion of the air flow around
the gauge.
Figure 6 - Shielded rain gauge
Solar radiation measurements require exposure
that will insure m obstructions between the
sun and the Denser during any part of the
year, and fn the case of total solar radia-
tion (direct and diffuse) as clear a view as
possible of the entire sky is necessary.
I'tn- [inMsurement of net radiation requires
th.H the sensor be placed far enough away
from Uie eai th's surface to receive terrest-
ial radiation over a representative area,
yet nul far enough from the surface to receive
radiation from i thick air layer above the
surfai-L-. l-'or net radiation measurements, a
lieigbt between I and 2 meters (3 to 6 feet)
is generally rerommended.
-------
Exposure of Instruments
Exposure of Instruments on Towers or Stacks
INTRODUCTION
Tn striving to meet the exposure criteria
outlined in the last section, it is often
necessary to mount meteorological sensors on
towers or masts. Unless these sensors are
mounted properly, errors will be introduced
in the measurements due to the influence of
the tower on the parameter being sensed. It
is the purpose of this section to set forth
guidelines to eliminate these tower induced
errors.
WIND SYSTEMS
If a wind system (anemometer and vane) are
to be mounted on top of a tower, little con-
cern is needed as to exposure. If, however,
wind equipment is to be installed on the side
of the Lower, precautions should be taken to
ensure that the wind measurements are not
influenced by the tower. An analysis by Gill
and Olsson (1967) has shown that the turbulence
in the wake of lattice-type towers is moderate
to severe, and that in the wake of solid
towers and stacks is extreme, often with re-
versal of flow.
Another study by Moses and Daubek (1961) re-
vealed that the air flow on the lee side of
a tower may be reduced to about one—half its
true value under light wind conditions and
about 25% for higher winds (10-14 mph). The
study also revealed that when the wind blow-
ing toward the anemometer made an angle of
20 to 40° with respect to the sides of the
tower adjacent to the anemometer, the measure^
wind speed exceeded the true wind speed by
about 30%.
These studies illustrate the necessity of
proper exposure.
\
\
Poor measurements
for this sector
Location of
wind sensors
Accurate wind measurements
for this sector
Figur<: 1 - Wind sensor exposure on a tower
-------
Kxposuro of Instruments
N
Accurate wind
measurements
for this sector
y\
\
Location of
wind sensors
v
Poor measurements
for this sector
figure 2 - Wind sensor exposure on a stack
FJ^iir..1 ! illustratis Lhe correct exposure of
a winil .-c.nsor on an open tower. The following
exposure criteria should be observed:
1) rhe boom should extend outward from
i corner of the tower into the wind
lirection of primary concern.
2) The boom should place the sensor out
from the tower a distance not less
than the length of a side of the tow-
• •r (length D in Figure 1)
'.isors should be JocaLi-J at
"I minimum tower density, and
r he 1 ow horizontal cross niera-
If tin- ,-I"MV.' guldt'i Ines are followed, the
following accuracies can be expected:
1) or a boom length of 111, measurements
"t wind speed are true within * 107
i o r a 310° sector of arc.
2) i or a boom Length of 2D the wind speed
is accurate within + 10% for a 3'JO°
- ec tor of arc .
i; -or these two arcs, wind direction is
p. (.urate1 to within approximately - 5%.
With a boom length of 1 -2D, wind speed and
direction measurements within * 5% can on]y
be obtained for a 240 - 270° sector of arc.
This is the case illustrated in Figure 1.
It has been found in practice that the maximum
practical boom length is about 20-30 feet. If
the wind sensors are to be mounted on very
large towers (TV towers or fire look-out tow-
ers), the sector of arc yielding accurate wind
measurements may drop to 180° due to the fact
that the boom length may be less than ID.
In any case, if accurate wind measurements are
required for an arc sector greater than that
produced by the above exposure criteria, it
is recommended that two sets of speed and
direction sensors be placed at 180° apart in
the manner prescribed in the above guidelines.
EXPOSURE OF WIND SENSORS ON CLOSED TOWERS OR
STACKS
Preferably, closed towers or stacks should not
be used to support meteorological sensors. If
a stack must be used, the following exposure
guidelines should be observed:
1) The boom should place the sensor out
from the stack a distance not less
than 2 stack diameters.
-------
Exposure of Instruments
2) Instruments should never be located
within 2-5 stack diameters of the top
of an active stack.
Figure 2 illustrates the correct exposure of
a wind sensor on a stack. If the above guide-
lines are used one can expect accurate wind
measurements (±5 to 10% of true value)
through an arc of only 180° as shown in Figure
2. As with towers, if accurate wind measurements
through a full 360° of Azimuth are desired,
it is recommended that two sets of wind systems
be used. These two systems should be located
180° apart, and exposed according to the
above guidelines.
TEMPERATURE SYSTEMS
Temperature sensors should also be exposed on
booms out from the tower structure to assure
that the temperature of the air sampled is
not influenced by thermal radiation from the
tower itself. Temperature sensors should never
be mounted on stacks.
Booms for temperature sensors need not be as
long as for wind sensors, but generally, both
wind and temperature sensors are located on
the same boom at about the same distance from
the tower. The temperature sensors themselves
must be shielded and ventilated as described
in the previous section.
SPACING OF WIND AND TEMPERATURE SYSTEMS
Figure 3 illustrates a typical spacing of wind
and temperature systems on a tower. Wind
sensor-; are normally spaced at logarithmic
height intervals (10,20,40,80, 160 meters)
because of the normally logarithmic change of
wind speed with height.
Temperature measurements should be made at
close intervals near the ground, and at approx-
imately equal intervals at greater heights
as shown in Figure 3. A logarithmic spacing
is not necessary since temperature profiles
become approximately linear a short distance
from the surface.
With both wind and temperature, provisions
must b'- made for swinging or telescoping the
boom in order to service the sensors. Pro-
visions also must be made for orienting the
wind vane correctly when the boom is in the
service position.
160 meters
120 meters
80 meters
W,TD 40 meters
W.TD 20 meters
W,TD 10 meters
Figure 3 - Vertical spacing on a tower
-------
Exposure of Instruments
Exposure of Airborne Instruments
INTRODI '.:TK«
The measurement of meteorological parameters
aloft may require the use of such devices as
balloons, aircraft, rockets, etc. With many of
these methods, surface-based receiving and re-
cording instrumentation is necessitated.
Therefore, a discussion of the exposure of air-
borne instruments must also include a discussion
of the exposure of the surface-based support
equipment.
EXPOSURE OF SURFACE BASED SYSTEMS
The measurement of wind aloft by balloon track-
ing may involve the use of radar or radio
direction-finding equipment. Sites for radio
and radar equipment should be on relatively
high ground with the horizon as free from obs-
tructions as possible. Of greatest importance
to free balloon launchings is that there be no
nearby obstructions to hinder the flight of the
balloon. The operation of captive balloons
(wiresondes) should be carried out only in
open areas and never near power lines. Part-
icular care should be taken to properly ground
all captive balloon equipment and operations
should be carried out only during periods of
minimal atmospheric electrical potential. It
should be noted that FAA authorization is
necessary for most captive balloon operations.
EXPOSURF, OF AIRCRAFT MOUNTED SYSTEMS
The main exposure problem associated with
measurements from an aircraft is the fact
that the sensors must be exposed to undis-
turbed air Fixed wing propeller slip-
streams and helicopter downwash must be
avoided. For temperature measurements, en-
pine and cabin heat must also be avoided,
and a correct Ion must be made for airspeed.
Vibration of receiving and recording ins-
trumentation in the aircraft may also be
a problem.
The following guidelines are suggested for
exposure of aircraft mounted sensors:
1) On fixed wing aircraft, sensors are
most effectively mounted on the wing-
tips, forward of the wing not less
than two feet.
2) On a helicopter, sensors are most
effectively mounted on the forward
tip of one of the skids, provided a
forward speed of about 15 m/sec is
maintained. This forward speed would
project the downwash behind the sensor.
3) To reduce recorder vibrations, mount-
ings of sponge rubber or plastic
should be used.
REFERENCES:
Exposure of Meteorological Instruments
1) Gill, G.C., Olsson, L.E., Sela, J.,
and Suda, M. , "Accuracy of Wind Measure-
ments on Towers or Stacks", Bulletin of
the A.M.S., Vol. 48, No. 9, Sept 1967
pp 665-674
2) Moses, H., and Daubek, H.G., "Errors in
Wind Measurements Associated with Tower-
mounted Anemometers", Bulletin of the
A.M.S., Vol. 42, No. 3, 1961 pp 190-194
-------
ATMOSPHERIC STAGNATION - CLIMATOLOGY AND FORECASTING PROGRAM
I. Introduction
The study of air pollution climatology is interwoven with the study
of urban climatology since most of the sources of air pollution are located
in cities. The capacity of the atmosphere to dilute pollutants extends
over a very large range and usually varies hourly, daily, seasonally and
yearly, besides spatially. The normal values of weather elements for
these time scales - the climatology - should be known so that it will
be possible to recognize and forecast those periods when a specific set
of meteorological conditions occurs that would lead to the widespread
occurrence of high pollutant concentrations.
II. Occurrence of Stagnating Anticyclones
A. Review of Atmospheric Stagnation Characteristics
B. Korshover's and Holzworth's Studies Fig- 1
III. Frequency of Low Nighttime Wind Speeds - Hosier
IV. Frequency of Inversions - Hosier
V. Urban Ventilation - Holzworth
A. Mixing Depths Fig 2. Fig. 3
B. Wind Speeds Fig. 4, Fig. 5
C. Seasonal Variations
VI. Episode - Days of Limited Dispersion in Five Years - Holzworth Fig. 6
VII. Forecasting Atmospheric Stagnation
A. Definition - A measure of the inability of the atmosphere to
adequately dilute and disperse pollutants into it, based on
values of specific meteorological parameters of the macroscale
-------
features. The associated stagnation conditions are usually
manifested by stable stratification, weak horizontal wind
speed components and little, if any, precipitation.
B. Stagnation Area Guidelines and APP Criteria Attch. 1
C. Local National Weather Service - Air Pollution Control Agency
Responsibilities
1. Stagnation Advisories
2. Air Quality Forecasts
3. Environmental Meteorological Support Units
vril. Air Pollution Potential Forecast Days Fig. 7
IX. Summary - Discussion
-------
'f«».' * ' ag |pu 1,-J *<«
OCTOBER
Figure 1. Number of cases of atmospheric stagnation (4 days
or more) 1936-1956 over eastern U.S. in October (41) and frequencies
of stagnating anticyclonic centers by five-degree latitude-longitude
squares 1949-1956 over western U.S. (42).
-------
Figure 2. Isopleths (mxlO ) of mean annual morning mixing heights
-------
Figure 3. Isopleths (mXlO ) of mean annual afternoon mixing heights
-------
Figure 4. Isopleths (m sec" ) of mean annual wind speed averaged through the
morning mixing layer
-------
Figure 5.
Isopleths (m sec~ ) of mean annual wind speed averaged through the
afternoon mixing layer.
-------
300
6.16 X V_
w -—^/ ^
r^^L"
•> ' \ /* s~*^ «
\ '.V/ -to ,T\ ^
cC4»9
NOTE tSCPLETnS FOR 0»TA AT SAN DIEGO. CALIFORNIA
AR£ INCOKPLETE FOR CLARITY
Figure 6. Isopleths of total number of episode-days in 5 years with mixing heights
^1500 m, wind speeds^4.0 m sec '," and no significant precipitation
for episodes lasting 2 days. Numerals on left and right give total
number of episodes and episode-days, respectively. Season with the
greatest number of episodesdays indicated as W (winter), SP(spring),
SU (summer), or A (autumn).
-------
STAGNATION AREA GUIDELINES
o Wind speed at 5000 ft above station 10 m sec""1 or less.
o Twelve-hour temperature decrease at 5000 ft above station
5°C or less.
o Absolute vorticity at 500 mb 10 x 10~5 sec"1 or less.
o Twelve-hour 500-mb vorticity change + 3 x 10"^ sec"1 or less.
o No significant precipitation.
HIGH AIR POLLUTION POTENTIAL CRITERIA
o , Stagnation area guidelines substantially satisfied.
o Morning urban mixing height 500 m or less and average wind speed
through mixing layer 4 m sec"1 or less.
o Afternoon ventilation (mixing height x average wind speed) 6000
? — 1 1
m sr>c •"- or less and wind speed A m sec" or less.
o Initial forecast high air pollution potential area at least
58000 nautical miles2.
o Above criteria expected to be satisfied for at least 36 hours
after forecast issued (1220 EST).
Stagnation area guidelines are intended to delineate areas of relati-
quiescent weather. Values of the stagnation guidelines are generated
•""*>
"in NMC's numerical forecasts based on the 6-layer primitive equation model
and Initial data for OOOOZ. The values are evaluated in the computer In
terms of an index that specifies the elements not satisfied. The
computer prints 12-hour maps of the index value at each upper air station
from 1200Z today to 1200Z day after tomorrow. These maps become available
at 1030 EST.
-------
39 Episodes West
1 October 1963 - 3 April 1970
75 Episodes East
1 August I960 - 3 April 1970
Forecast High Air Pallution Rjtential Days
Figure 7.
-------
ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSION AND AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
I. Introduction - Objectives
What are some of the areas of air pollution control to which we can
apply the principles of atmospheric dispersion?
I I. Stack Design
A. Physical Stack Height
B. Stack Types
C. Effective Stack Height
1. Rules of Thumb
a. 2 1/2 rule
b. V3 u rule
c, 2000 ft/min exit velocity
2. Plume Rise Equations
a. Davidson-Bryant
b. Holland
c. Briggs
I I . Stack Locat ion
A. Building Orientation
B. Ai rflow Patterns
IV. Pollutant Concentration and Meteorological Factors
A. Stability
B. Plume Rise
V. Selection of Pollution Control Devices
A. Wet Collectors - evaporative cooling
B. Dry Collectors - deposition of particulates
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3
Figure k
Figure 5
-------
-2-
VI . Land Usage
A. Tulsa Figure 6
B. Stalingrad Figure 7
VII. City-Regional Planning
A. Zoning
1. Emission Inventory
2. Meteorological Survey
3. Air Quality Standards
k. Source Classification
5. Land-use Plan for Maximum Economic Growth by Making Best Use Figure 8
of the Atmosphere
B. Buffer Zones
C. Green Belts
VIII. Atmospheric Dispersion Modeling Figure 9
A. Pollutant Emissions and Air Quality
In order to determine which emission control strategies will
achieve a certain air quality standard, it is necessary to establish
the relationship between pollutant emissions and air quality. The
most accurate quantitative procedure for establishing this relation-
ship in an explicit manner is to simulate the effect of such elements
as air flow and mixing on the transport and dispersion of pollutants.
Such modeling must also be based on information on the location and
emission characteristics of the source during the time of the
s imulat ion .
B. Rationale for Modeling
Modeling is an attempt to quantify rationally the costs of air
pollution control and the gains inherent in better air quality
through the systematic integration of engineering, economic, biological
and other scientific knowledge which will allow air quality goals to
be met by applying appropriate management strategies.
-------
-3-
C.. Control Strategies
D. Economic Impact
E. Model Output
IX. Summary - Discussion
REFERENCES
1. Carpenter, S.B. ej^ aj_. Principal Plume Dispersion Models - TVA Power
Plants. JAPCA 21:8 pp. ^91-^95, August 1971.
2. Slade, D.H. (ed.) Meteorology and Atomic Energy - 1968. U.S. AEC
TID-2^190, July 1968.
3. Turner, D.B. - Workbook of Atmospheric Dispersion Estimates. PHS
Pub. No. 999-AP-26, Rev. 1969.
**. Voorhees, A.M. e_t^ a_L A Guide for Reducing Air Pollution Through
Urban Planning. Prepared for OAP-EPA, APTD 0937 and PB 207-510,
December 1971.
-------
o
o
Figure 1. KARMEN VORTICES
-------
Figure 2. TYPES OF STACKS
-------
EXAMPLES OF PLUME RISE EQUATIONS
Davidson-Bryant Equation
AH = d| -^-l
Hoi land Equat ion
V d , T - T.
AH = -!_ (1.5 + 2.68 x 10"3 p ~~—~ d)
u s
0.8 AH = Very Stable
1 .2 AH = Very Unstable
Briggs Simplified Equation - Heat Emission > 20 Mw
1 6 F1/3 x 2/3
AH = '-0 _ X
u
Where:
AH = Plume Rise (m)
d = Inside Stack Diameter (m)
V = Stack Gas Exit Velocity (m/s)
u = Average Wind Speed (m/s)
T = Stack Gas Temperature (°K)
T. = Ambient Air Temperature (°K)
P = Atmospheric Pressure (mb)
x = Downwind Distance (m)
F = Buoyancy Flux - 3.7 x 10 Qu
H
Qu = Heat Emission (cal/sec)
n
Figure 3
-------
WIND DIRECTION
MINIMUM DOWNWASH
INTERMEDIATE
DOWNWASH
MAXIMUM DOWNWASH
LESS DOWNWASH
MORE DOWNWASH
Figure 4.
-------
u
oo
Figure 5.
-------
13.8
PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIAGRAM, TULSA AREA
15.1
Figure 6.
13.2
12.2
10.7
12.6
-------
10
PREVAILING WIND DIRECTION
'-<' If
, /( ,
^•f'--' PARK V '"^ ?
- •••'•' (f "-- —i
"
RESIDENTIAL ZONE
RAILROAD
Figure 7. CITY PLAN OF STALINGRAD
-------
350
!
o
UJ
H2S PLUME IN THIS VICINITY
200
1000
2000m
Figure 8. WIND STRUCTURE OVER LEWISTON, IDAHO
-------
CONTOURS OF
EXISTING
AIR QUALITY
DATA ON
SOURCES AND
EMISSIONS
OF SOURCES
DATA ON
AVAILABLE
CONTROL
TECHNIQUES
PROJECTED
GROWTH
DUE TO
URBANIZATION
FORMULATION
OF CONTROL
STRATEGIES
SIMULATION
MODEL
CONTOURS OF
AIR QUALITY
INCONFORMANCE
WITH STANDARDS
OPTIMUM
CONTROL
STRATEGY
..SELECTED,
Fi gure 9. FLOW DIAGRAM FOR USE OF MODELING IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF
IMPLEMENTATION PLANS.
-------
MAXIMIZING THE DILUTION CAPACITY OF THE ATMOSPHERE
J.L. Dicke
S.F. Sleva*
INTRODUCTION
There are three general methods which can
be used to maximize the dilution capacity of
the atmosphere. One is the area of stack
design; another is the area of control through
zoning and land usage, while the third method
is the reduction of source operation to utilize
minimum meteorological conditions for pollutant
diffusion. A knowledge of elementary ther-
modynamic and meteorologic effects on emissions
will enable plant engineers and zoning officials
to arrive at the best solution to local problems
of obtaining maximum dispersion of pollutants.
I STACK DESIGN
Generally speaking the higher the stack
lower the ground level pollutant concentrations
at any given point downwind, under the same
meteorological conditions. To be specific,
it is more appropriate to speak of the effective
stack height, H'. This is the physical height
of the stack, H, plus the height differential
due to exit velocity, hy, and buoyancy, ht»
as shown in Figure 1.
The factor hv will be positive if the exit
velocity is higher than the outside wind
speed by at least 4/3. The factor ht will
be positive if the stack gas temperature, which
determines the buoyancy of the plume, is higher
than the ambient air temperature. In this
case, the absorption of heat due to condensation
of water vapor may lead to a lowered effective
stack height. The condition when Ht is negative
is one cause of "downwash". Downwash may also
result if a negative pressure is created
Figure 1. DEFINITION OF EFFECTIVE STACK HEIGHT
* Chief, Air Quality Management Section, Institute for Air Pollution Training, NAPCA
** Chief (Acting), Institute for Air Pollution Training, NAPCA
PA.C.10.11.64
-------
Maximizing the Dilution Capacity
on the lee side of the stack, as a result
of general air movement. As an example of
downwash due to lack of buoyancy, consider
the situation wherein wet collectors are
used as control devices on the effluent
stream.
Atmospheric stability is a very important
factor in dilution. Buildings, trees, hills
and other obstructions cause the wind flow
to fluctuate and become rough at low levels.
This is called mechanical turbulence. To
overcome mechanical turbulence and downwash
of effluent caused by nearby structures, the
"2 1/2 Rule" is a generally accepted standard.
This empirical rule states that downwash can
be prevented in most instances if the physical
stack height is 2 1/2 times the height of the
tallest building in the vicinity.
Thermal turbulence is caused by solar heating.
Its effects are generally beneficial to the
dispersion of low level sources. Thermal
turbulence can bring portions of a plume from
a tall stack down to the ground within very
short distances, on a hot, sunny day with
very low wind speeds. When the atmosphere
is stable the effluent will form a fanning
type plume. Ground level concentrations under
this condition are low or negligible. If
however, topographic obstructions or buildings
exist at the height of the plume they may be
subjected to relatively high in-plume concen-
trations. In the morning transition from stable
to unstable conditions, fumigation may occur,
as follows: As solar heating increases during
the morning the air is heated and becomes
unstable through a deeper and deeper layer.
When the unstable layer is deep enough to
reach the stable, fanning plume, thermal
turbulence will bring high concentrations of
pollutant to the ground along the full length
of the plume.
Neutral stability may be defined as: 1. slight
to moderate solar radiation and wind speed 5
ra/sec or more, 2. at night any amount of
cloudiness with wind speed at least 4-5
m/sec, 3. any time day or night when the sky
is overcast. Figure 2 illustrates the effect
of increasing the effective stack height vs.
downwind distance at which the maximum pollutant'
concentration will occur. Increase in effective
slack height may be obtained by increasing the
exit velocity, raising the stack gas temperature
or building the taller stack. It is important
Co remember that dilution is a function of the
volume of air through which a pollutant is
"ilxed .
Atmospheric diffusion equations can be used to
determine the effective stack heights required
to achieve a specific ground level concentra-
tion of pollutant. This approach requires a
knowledge of the types of pollutants emitted
and their concentrations. When alternatives
are proposed for various stack heights, stack
diameters, exit velocities and temperatures
(each under a series of atmospheric stability
classes) numerous, repeated calculations are
necessary. In certain other cases rules of
thumb for good stack design can be utilized,
as summarized by Brink and Crocker. *•
A Stacks should be 2 to 2 1/2 times as high
as the surrounding buildings or countryside
so that the surroundings do not introduce
significant turbulence.
B Gas ejection velocities from the stack
should be greater than 60 ft./sec. so
that the stack gases will escape the turbulent
wake of the stack.
C Gases from stacks with diameters less than
5 ft. and heights less than 200 ft. will
hit the ground part of the time and ground
concentrations may be excessive.
D The maximum ground concentration of stack
gases subjected to atmospheric diffusion
usually occurs at a distance of about 5 to
10 stack heights downwind.
E When stack gases are subjected to atmospheric
diffusion (and building turbulence is not
a factor) ground-level concentrations on
the order of 0.001 to 1% of the stack con-
centration are possible for a properly designed
stack.
F Ground concentrations can be reduced by the.
use of higher stacks. Tfye ground concen-
tration varies inversely as the square of
the effective stack height.
II ZONING
The proper use of land is necessary for maximum
economic growth of a community; this should
include making best use of the atmosphere over
it. Some regions of the country, such as the
midwest, are well suited for good dilution of
pollutants. Others such as the mountainous
west, experience meteorological conditions
that are conducive to the buildup of atmospheric
pollutants, especially in the winter. Within both
regions there are exceptions and one purpose of
-------
Maximizing the Dilution Capacity
Km
a
o
•H
4J
t!)
M
4J
0)
CJ
•H
X
2
m
o
-------
Maximizing the Dilution Capacity
zoning should be to find and exploit these
good and poor areas with respect to given cities.
On the broad scale the natural dilution capacity
of the air over a city can be determined by a
meteorological study of mixing depths, wind
speeds, stability conditions, inversion frequency,
and occurrence of past atmospheric stagnation
periods. An atmospheric survey to determine
present levels of pollutant concentration should
be made. This will often identify areas where
high concentrations exist and persist due to
climatology, topography and present location
of sources.
When current levels of pollution are known,
the planners must decide on acceptable air
quality levels. This will depend on the type
of community, its main functions, and the
future it has planned. The future planning
should include the city's emission potential.
Where should the sources be located and how
much pollution will be emitted by industry
and commerce according to future plans? This
should be combined with a meteorological air
pollution potential study to determine whether
the atmosphere can be expected to dilute the
amount of pollution placed in it down to the
acceptable air quality levels. Control measures
will be necessary when poor dilution conditions
exist.
Another aspect of zoning is the need to classify
sources. The classification of sources according
Co quality of pollutants emitted permits selection
of those sources which, when located in a
particular zone, will not cause concentrations
in excess of the air quality standard anywhere
in Che community. In addition, it permits
sources emitting similar pollutants to be
effectively grouped to allow economical
collection of air pollutants in a central
(common) facility. Thus, small or large
induscries which have pollutants in such
small concentrations in their effluents that
application of air pollution control equipment
is impractical could, by having their pollutants
combined with several other industries producing
Che small pollutant, afford to share the cost
of a common air pollution control unit.
The classification of sources according to
pollution emission potential permits select-
ion of Induscries which, when located in a
particular zone, will be able to practicably
rnncrol their emissions to such a level that
the air quality standard will not be exceeded
an ,"-/! ie r t- in the community.
Ill CONTROL OF ACTIVITY
(Meteorological Control)
Rate of generation of pollutant may be con-
trolled by regulating the rate of handling,
processing, or burning of materials. Thus,
by controlling the activity of an air pollutant
producing operation according to the prevailing
dispersive ability of the atmosphere, the
rate of emission of pollutant may be regulated
so that air quality standards may be maintained.
In other words, during unfavorable meteor-
ological conditions operational activity may
be reduced resulting in a lesser discharge of
pollutants; under extremely unfavorable
meteorological conditions operational activity
may be stopped entirely.
Such method of control of emissions is termed
"meteorological control," and means stopping
or slowing down operations during meteorological
conditions which are estimated as unfavorable
to dispersion of pollutants. To be successful,
meteorological control demands that the operatior
be a flexible one so that immediate change in
rate of activity may be accomplished.
Flexibility cannot be achieved by some operations,
but there are those where a high degree is
possible:
A Effluent cleaning equipment may be oper-
ated only during periods of unfavorable
meteorological conditions. Perhaps part
of the pollutant collected during such
periods could be used in the manufacture
of by-products and the remainder reintroduced
to the effluent when conditions become
favorable. (Such a method would eliminate
disposal of pollutant in a stream which
may be already receiving maximum load.)
B Auxiliary operations may be scheduled
during favorable weather only, or operations
shut-down for equipment maintenance during
periods of unfavorable weather.
C Climatic data may be used for routine
scheduling of operations. If poorest at-
mospheric diffusion is usually a particular
part of the day, it may be possible to avoid
regularly any release of pollutant during
the hours likely to be unfavorable.
-------
There are many disadvantages of meteorological
control of pollutant emission:
1. Meteorological forecasts may be wrong
15 percent of the time. Hence,
meteorological control is not positive.
2. Meteorological control cannot be applied
to operations where shutdowns cause loss
in production time and resulting loss
in workers' earnings.
3. Meteorological control is not economical
usually. The cost of production rises.
4. A routine program for predicting meteoro-
logical conditions and ground level
pollutant concentrations is expensive.
5. There may be difficulty in starting,
regulating, and stopping equipment.
6. Success depends upon plant location.
For a given location, favorable meteoro-
logical conditions might not be sufficient
ly frequent.
7. Changes in physical environment, such
as development of a community, may create
unforseen problems.
Meteorological control of emission of pollu-
tants has been applied successfully to such
operations as the production of zinc and lead
by the Consolidated Mining and Smelting
Company, Trail, B.C., and the production of
power by the Tennessee Valley Authority.
However, in most instances the application
of effluent cleaning iquipment, high stacks,
and careful site selection is more satis-
factory .
TV. OTHER APPROACHES
Various other ideas for minimizing air
pollution problems have included artifical
modification of weather conditions and ad-
justing man's social habits.
Artificial weather modification to reduce
air pollution problems on a scale necessary
to benefit even the size of an ordinary
community demands such an exorbitant amount
of energy that such plans are primariJy
academic exercises.
Kauper and Hopper have proposed a partial
solution to the Los Angeles Air Pollution
problem by suggesting that the workday be
shortened to seven or even six hours, be-
ginning at 10:00 am during the summer
season. Because the traffic peak occurs
now about 7:0.0 am, the .auto emissions are
mixed -through a very small atmospheric
volume where there is a high rate of re-
action to form photochemical smog. By 10:00
am the mixing volume would generally be.
about seven times greater and the pollutant
concentrations correspondingly lower. If
the returning-home traffic peak occurs,
bef-ore 5:00 pm, the authors have cal-
culated that the oxidant concentrations
would be up to 54% lower than now ob-
served.
REFERENCES
1. Baulch, DeeWitt M. Meteorological
Analysis for Land Use Planning in Air
Resource Management. Presented at AIHA
Convention. Cincinnati, Ohio. May 1963,
13 pp.
2. Brinker, J. A., Jr., and Crocker, B. B.
Practical Applications of Stacks to
Minimize Air Pollution Problems.
J.A.P.C.A."14:11: 449-454. Nov. 1964.
3. DeMarrais, G.A. Meteorology for Land
Development in the Tulsa Metropolitan
Area. Tech. Rep. A61-5, SEC. 1961, 28pp.
4. Holland, W.D. et al. Industrial Zoning
as a Means of Controlling Area Source
Air Pollution. J.A.P.C.A. 10:2. April
1960.
5. Kailper, E. K. and Hopper, C. J. The
Utilization of Optimum Meteorological
Conditions for the Reduction of Los
Angeles Automotive Pollution. Presented
57th National Meeting APCA. Houston,
Texas. June 1964. 18 pp.
6. Leavitt, J. M. Meteorological Con-
siderations in Air Quality Planning.
J.A.P.C.A. 10: 246-250. June 1960.
7. Williams, J. D. Air Resource Management
Planning as.a Part of Comprehensive Urban
Planning Programs. USPHS Manuscript.
May 1963.
8. Wrouski, W. et al. "Air Pollution Con-
siderations in Planning and Zoning of A
Large Rapidly Growing Municipality",
J.A.P.C.A. 16: 157-158. March 1966.
-------
SEMINAR ON METEOROLOGICAL ASSISTANCE IN AIR POLLUTION PROBLEMS
I. Introduction
The purpose of this seminar is to discuss and review the meteorology
materials presented in the course, answer additional questions and explore
sources of meteorological assistance. In addition, the meteorological
activities which the Office of Air Programs believes state and local agencies
should be engaged in are presented.
II. Class Discussion
A. Meteorological Assistance Attch. 1
B. Meteorological Activities in a Control Agency Fig. 1
III. Closing
-------
METEOROLOGY IN A LOCAL
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL AGENCY
A Observations (Supervision)
Wind Systems
Temperature Difference Systems
Helicopter Soundings
Maintenance of Sensors and Systems
Sensors
Telemetry
Teletype Equipment
Facsimile Equipment
B Communication
Air Quality Personnel /
Local ESSA Office - Local Forecasts, National APR
Air Quality Measures to Local News Media
Forecasts
Air Pollution Potential
Air Quality
Dispersion Model
or
Statistical
Emergency Warning System
Special Observations - Helicopter Soundings
Validation
Meteorological Observations
Air Quality Data
Forecasts
Studies
Estimating Concentrations from Sources for Plans Evaluation
Relating Meteorological Events with Air Quality
Urban Atmosphere
Meteorologist in an EMSU
Low Level Soundings and Surface Observation Program
Forecasts
Maximum Mixing Depths, Min. Temperature
Wind and Temperature Profile
Local APR
-------
ASSISTANCE IN METEORO LOGIC PROBLEMS
J.L. Dickc*
REFERENCES
Abstracts
Air Pollution Control Association
Abstracts
Air Pollution Control Association
4400 Fifth Avenue,
Pittsburgh 13, Pennsylvania
Meteorological and Geoastrophysical
Abstracts
American Meteorological Society
45 Beacon Street
Boston 8, Mass.
Public Health Engineering Abstracts
Superintendent of Documents
U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington 25, D.C.
Periodicals
Atmospheric Environment (formerly Inter-
national Journal of Air and Water Pollution)
Pergamon Press
122 East 55th Street
New York 22, New York
Bulletin of the American Meteorological
Society
American Meteorological Society (See
above)
Journal of Applied Meteorology
American Meteorological Society
(See above)
Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences
(formerly Journal of Meteorology)
American Meteorological Society
(See above)
Journal of the Air Pollution Control
Association
Air Pollution Control Association
(See above)
Monthly Weather Review
U.S. Dept. of Commerce
Weather Bureau, Washington, D.C.
Nuclear Safety. A Quarterly Technical
Progress Renewal Prepared for Division
of Technical Information, USAEC
Superintendent of Documents
U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D. C.
Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteor-
ological Society
Royal Meteorological Society
49 Cromwell Road
London, S.W. 7
Public Health Reports
U.S. Department of Health, Education
and Welfare
Public Health Service
Washington, D. C.
Weather
Royal Meteorological Society
(See above)
Weatherwise
American Meteorological Society
(See above)
Books
American Meteorological Society, On
Atmospheric Pollution,
Meteorological Monographs, 1, 4,
Nov. 1951.
Byers, H.R. General Meteorology,
McGraw-Hill,' New York, 3rd ed. 1959.
Encyclopedia of Instrumentation for In-
dustrial Hygiene
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1956.
Frenkiel, F.N.; and Sheppard, P. A.
editors, Atmospheric Diffusion and Air
Pollution,^
* Meteorologist, Air Resources Cincinnati Laboratory Academic Press, London, 1959.
Office of Manpower Development, NAPCA
PA.ME.23b.6.67
8-1
-------
Assistance in Meteorologic Problems
Geiger, R. (Translated by Scripta
Technica Inc. ) The Climate Near the
Ground.
Rev. ed., Harvard University Press
Cambridge, Mass. 1965.
Haltiner, G. J.; and Martin, F. L.
Dynamical and Physical Meteorology.
"McGraw-Hill, New York. 1957
Hess, S.L. Introduction to Theoretical
Meteorology.
Henry~HoTt, New York, 1959.
Hewson, E.W.: and Longley, R.W.
Meteorology, Theoretical and Applied
wUeyT'Ne~w~York. 1944.
Leighton, P. A. Photochemistry of Air
Pollution.
Academic Press, New York. 1961.
Magill, P.L.; Holden, F.R.; and
Ackley, C. editors, Air Pollution Handbook.
McGraw-Hill, New York. 1956.
Malone, T.F. editor. Compendium of
Meteorology,
American Meteorological Society
Boston, 1951.
McCabe, L.C. editor. Air Pollution:
lings of the United States Technical
Conference on Air Pollution.
McGraw-Hill, New"York."" 1952.
Meade, P. J. Meteorological Aspects of
the Peaceful Uses_of Atomic Energy,
Fart J_. '
Tech. Note No. 33, World Meteorologi-
cal Organization, Geneva. 1960.
Munn, R.E. Descriptive Micrometeorology.
Academic Press, New York. f966.
Pasquill, F. Atmospheric Diffusion
Van Nostrand, London, 1962~.
Priestley, C. H. B.: McCormick, R. A. :
and Pasquill, F. Turbulent Diffusion in the
Atmosphere.
Tech. Note No. 24. World Meteorological
Organization, Geneva, 1958.
Priestly, C.H.B. Turbulent Transfe_r_in
the Lower Atmosphere.
University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1959.
Scorer, R.S. Natural Aerodynamics.
Pergamon Press. London. 1958.
Silver man, L. Editor. Industrial Hygiene
and Toxicology, Vol. 3
Interscience, New York, 1967 (In press)
Stern, A. C. editor. Air Pollution. A Com-
prehensive Treatise, 3 Vols.
Academic Press, New York. 1968.
Sutton, O.G. Micrometeorology.
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1953.
U.S. Atomic Energy Commission,
Handbook on Aerosols,
Govt. Printing Office, Washington, 1950.
U. S. Atomic Energy Commission,
Meteorology and Atomic Energy. 1968
~"flD-24190, CFSTI, NBS, U. S. Department
Commerce, Springfield, Virginia 22151, #3
World Health Organization, Air Pollution,
Columbia University Press
New York. 1961.
PROFESSIONAL METEOROLOGICAL
CONSULTANTS
Professional meteorologists advertise their
services in the Professional Directory sec-
tion of the Bulletin of the American Meteoro-
logical Society. In the November 1971 Bulletin,
52 such firms and individuals were listed.
The American Meteorological Society has in
the last several years instituted a program
Of certifying consulting meteorologists. Of
the 52 professional services listings in the
Bulletin, 25 list Certified Consulting Met-
eorologists. A total of 101 meteorologists
had been certified as of July 1971.
LOCAL U.S. NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE OFFICE
A wealth of meteorological information and
experience is available at the local city
or airport Weather Service Office pertaining
to local climatology, pecularities in local
micro-meteorological conditions including
topographic effects, and exposure and operat-
ing characteristics of meteorological in-
struments. The Air Stagnation Advisories
3-2
-------
Assistance in Meteorologic Problems
are received here by teletype from the
National Meteorological Center. Often the
public telephones the Weather Service with
air pollution complaints which the meteoro-
logists may have traced back to a specific
source by examing local wind circulations.
Through personal contact with the meteoro-
logist-in-charge (MIC) specific, localized
forecasts may be arranged to support a short-
term air pollution investigation or sampling
program.
CONTRACT WORK
Many universities do contract work for
private organizations and for government
agencies on meteorological problems and also
on air pollution surveys.
8-3
-------
SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION LITERATURE
Publications Abstracting Air Pollution Literature
1 Air Pollution Abatement Manual
Manufacturing Chemists' Association, Inc.
1625 Eye Street. N. W.
Washington 6. D. C.
2 The Air Pollution Bibliography
The .Library of Congress
Technical Information Division
Washington, D. C.
3 Air Pollution Control Association Abstracts
Air Pollution Control Association
4400 Fifth Avenue
Pittsburgh 13, Pennsylvania
4 Applied Science and Technology Index
The H. W. WTilson Company
950 L"ni\ersity Avenue
New York 52, New York
5 Battelle Technical Review
Battelle Memorial Institute
505 King Avenue
Columbus 1, Ohio
6 Chemical Abstracts
American Chemical Society
1155 Sixteenth Street, N. W.
Washington b, D. C.
7 Engineering Index
Engineering Index, Inc.
345 East 17th Street
New York 17. New York
H Environmental Effects on Materials
ami Kcjin pment
I'rcvcnt inn ol Deterioration Center
National Academy of Sciences
National Research Council
2101 < onstitution Avenue, N W.
Wash i nglon 15 . D. C.
r-) Meteorological and Geoast rophy sical
Abstracts
American Meteorological Society
45 Beacon Street
Boston 8. Massachusetts
10 Monthly Catalog of United States
Government Publications
Superintendent of Documents
U. S. Government Printing Office
Washington 25, D. C.
11 Public Health Engineering Abstracts
Superintendent of Documents
U. S. Government Printing Office
Washington 25, D. C.
12 Quarterly Cumulative Index Meclicus
American Medical Association
535 N. Dearborn Street
Chicago 10, Illinois
13 Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature
The H. W. Wilson Company
950 University Avenue
New York 52, New York
14 Clearinghouse Announcements in Science
and Technology
Category 68. Environmental Pollution
and Control.
Pub. twice monthly. $5 per year.
CFSTI U.S. Dept. Commerce
Springfield Va. 22151
-------
20 The Oil and Gas Journal
211 South Cheyenne Avenue
Tulsa 3, Oklahoma
21 Public: Health Reports
U. S. Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare
Public Health Service, Superintendent
of Documents
U. S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D. C. 20402
22 Public Works
Public Works Journal Corporation
200 South Broad Street
Ridgewood, New Jersey
23 Smokeless Ai r
National Society for Clean Air
Field House. Breams Building
London E. C. 4, England
24 Transactions of the American Society
of Mechanical Engineers
Journal of Engineering for Power (Series
A of the Transactions of the ASME)
Journal of Engineering for Industry
(Series B)
Journal of Heat Transfer (Series C)
Journal of Basic Engineering (Series D)
Journal of Applied Mechanics (Series E)
American Society of Mechanical Engineers
345 East 47th Street
Ne\\ York 17, New York
25 Transactions of Institution of Chemical
Engineers
Institution of Chemical Engineers
Ib Belgrave Square
London S. W 1, England
2b Environmental Science and Technology
American Chemical Society
1155 Sixteenth Street N. W.
Washington, D. C. 20036
Bibliographies
1 Air Pollution Publications - A Selected
Bibliography 1955 1963. Public Health
Service Publication No. 979.
2 Air Pollution Publications - A Selected
Bibliography 1963 1966. Public Health
Service Publication No. 979.
3 Environmental Health Series Reports
References and Abstracts. Public Health
Service, National Center for Air Pollution
Control, 1966.
4 Reference List of Publications. Section 1
Air Pollution, Public Health Service,
National Center for Air Pollution Control.
1964.
5 Carbon Monoxide - A Bibliography with
Abstracts. U.S. Dept. HEW, Public
Health Service. Publication No. 1503.
1966.
6 Sulfur Oxides and other Compounds A
Bibliography with Abstracts, U. S. Dept.
HEW Public Health Service, Publication
No. 1093. 1965.
7 Nitrogen Oxides: An Annotated Bibliography
NAPCA Pub, No. AP-72, August 1970.
3 Hydrocarbons and Air Pollution: An Annotat-
ed Bibliography. NAPCA Pub. No. AP-75
(Parts I, II), October 1970.
9 Photochemical Oxidants and Air Pollution:
An Annotated Bibliography. Pub. No. AP-88
(Parts 1, 2), March 1971.
10 World Meteorological Organization-List of
available publications.
WMO Publications Center
UNIPUB Inc.
P.O. Box 433
New York, N.Y. 10016
8-6
-------
SOI;K'. :F.S OF AIR POLLUTION LITERATURE
Periodicals
1 Air Engineering
Business Ne\\ s Publishing < ompany
450 W. fort Street
Detroit ?.'>, Michigan
i American C i I y
The American City Magazine Corporation
470 Fourth Avenue,
Neu York 16, New York
3 American Industrial Hygiene Association
Journal
14125 Prevost
Detroit 27, Michigan
4 American Journal of Public Health and
Nations' Health
American Public Health Association, Inc.
1790 Broadway
New York 19, New York
5 Archives of Environmental Health
American Medical Association
535 N. Dearborn Street
Chicago 10, Illinois
6 Atmospheric Environment
Pergamon Press
122 F:ast 55th Street
New York 22, New York
7 Atmospheric Pollution Bulletin
Warren Spring Laboratory
Gunnels Wood Road
Stevcnage, England
8 Chemical Engineering
McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, Inc.
330 W 42nd Street
New York 36, New York
9 Chemical Engineering Progress
American Institute of Chemical Engineers
345 47th Street
New York 17, New York
10 Chemical Reviews
American Chemical Society
20th and Northampton Streets
Easton, Pennsylvania
11 Environmental Health Series
National Center for Air Pollution Control
4676 Columbia Parkway
Cincinnati, Ohio 45226
12 Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning
Keeney Publishing Company
6 North Michigan Avenue
Chicago 2, Illinois
13 Industrial and Engineering Chemistry
American Chemical Society
1155 Sixteenth Street, N. W.
Washington 6, D. C.
14 Industrial Hygiene Foundation of America.
Transactions Bulletin
Industrial Hygiene Foundation of
American, Inc.
4400 Fifth Avenue
Pittsburgh 13, Pennsylvania
15 Industrial Medicine and Surgery
Industrial Medicine Publishing Company
P. O. Box 306
Miami, Florida 33144
16 Industrial Water and Wastes
Scranton Publishing Company,
35 E. Wacker Drive
Chicago, Illinois
Inc.
17 Journal of the Air Pollution Control
Association
Air Pollution Control Association
4400 Fifth Avenue
Pittsburgh 13, Pennsylvania
18 Journal of Colloid Science
Academic Press, Inc.
Ill Fifth Avenue l
New York 3, New York
19 Mechanical Engineering
American Society of Mechanical Engineers
345 E. 47th Street
New York 17, New York
8-5
-------
SOURCES OF METEOROLOGICAL DATA
D. B. Turner*
J. L. Dicke**
It is necessary in the consideration of most air pollution problems to obtain
meteorological information. Frequently a special observational program must
be initiated. There are also situations where current or past meteorological
records from a Weather Service station will suffice. The following outline
provides a brief insight into the types of observations taken at Weather
Service stations and some of the summaries complied from this data.
I OBSERVATIONS AND RECORDS
A Surface
1 First order stations
There are 200 Weather Bureau stations
where 24 hourly observations are taken
daily. The measurements taken are: dry
bulb temperature and wet bulb tempera-
ture (from which dew point temperature
and relative humidity are calculated) ,
pressure, wind direction and speed,
cloud cover and visibility. These ob-
servations are transmitted each hour
on weather teletype circuits and are
entered on a form with one day to each
page. The original is sent to the
National Climatic Center (NCC) in
Asheville, North Carolina, and a dupli-
cate maintained in the station files.
Each station also maintains a climato-
logical record book where certain
tabulations of monthly, daily, and
hourly observations are recorded. (See
Part Two).
2 Second order stations
These stations usually take hourly
observations similar to the first order
stations above but not throughout the
entire 24 hours of the day.
3 Military observations
Many military installations, especially
Air Force Bases, take hourly observa-
tions. These are transmitted on military
teletype circuits and therefore not
available for general use. No routine
publications of these data is done.
Records of observations are sent to
NCC where special summaries can be
made by use of punched cards.
4 Supplementary airways reporting stations
*Meteorologlst, Air Resources Field Research
Office, ESSA
**Meteorologist, Air Resources, Cincinnatic
Laboratory ESSA, Office of Manpower Development, EPA
PA.ME.lie.6.73
These stations are at smaller airports.
The observations are not at regular in-
tervals, usually being taken according
to airline schedules at the airport.
These observations are not published
and not on punched cards. Original re-
cords are sent to NCC,however.
5 Cooperative stations
There are about 10,000 of these stations
manned for the most part by volunteer
observers. The observations are taken
once each day and consist generally of
maximum and minimum temperatures and 24
hour rainfall. Observations are record-
ed on a form with one month to a page.
The original is sent to NCC, a carbon
sent to the state climatologlst, and a
carbon maintained at the station. A few
cooperative stations have additional
data on evaporation and wind. However,
the .wind, observations are taken at only
a few inches off the ground and are of
use mainly in connection with the eva-
poration measurements.
6 Fire weather service stations
There are a number of special stations
maintained during certain times of the
year in forested regions where measure-
ments of wind, relative humidity, and
cloud cover are taken. These are not
generally on punch cards or summarized.
B Upper Air
There are between 60 and 70 stations in
the contiguous United States where upper
air observations are taken twice daily
(at 0000 GCT and 1200 GCT) by radiosonde
balloon and radio direction-finding equip-
ment. The measurements made are tempera-
ture, pressure, and relative humidity with
height and wind speed and direction. Since
these data are obtained primarily for
knowledge of the large scale meteorological
pattern and have relatively little refine-
7-37
-------
Sources of Meteorological Data
merit in the lower 2 to 3 thousand feet of
the atmosphere, they are of limited use
in air pollution meteorology. These ob-
servations are transmitted by teletype
and original records sent to NCC where
these data are published. (See Part Two).
II CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA
There are a number of routine and special
publications available from the Superintendent
of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C., 20402, that are useful in
air pollution. A number of these are listed
in Price List 48, available from the Superin-
tendent of Documents.
Of principal interest in air pollution are the
elements of wind and stability in relation
to transport and diffusion, degree days in
relation to source emissions from space heat-
ing, solar radiation which affects stability
and atmospheric reactions, and precipitation
affecting removal of pollutants. Following
are listed the publications of main interest
in air pollution. For more detailed informa-
tion on these and other publications see
"Selective Guide to Published Climatic Data
Sources prepared by U.S. Weather Bureau" pub-
lished in 1969.
A Routinely Prepared Data
1 Daily Weather Maps Weekly Series
The charts in this 4-page, weekly pub-
lication are a continuation of the
principal charts of the former Weather
Bureau publication. "Daily Weather
Map." All of the charts for 1 day
are arranged on a single page of this
publication. They are copied from
operational weather maps prepared by
the National Meteorological Center,
National Weather Service. The Surface
Weather Map presents station data and
the analysis for 7:00 a.m. EST.
The 500-Millibar Height Contours chart
presents the height contours and
isotherms of the 500-millibar surface
at 7:00 a.m. EST.
The Highest and Lowest Temperatures
chart presents the maximum and mini-
mum values for the 24-hour period
ending at 1:00 a.m., EST.
The Precipitation Areas and Amounts
chart indicates by means of shading
areas that had precipitation during
the 24 hours ending at 1:00 a.m., EST.
The publication is for sale by the
Public Documents Department U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington,
D.C. 20402. Annual subscription $7.50
Domestic airmail $5.20 additional.
Single copy price is 15 cents.
2. Local Climatological Data (LCD)
These data are published individually
for each station and include 3 issues
discussed below. The subscription price
is $1.50 per year for all three issues.
a Monthly Issue LCD
This issue, illustrated in Figure 1,
gives daily information on a number
of meteorological variables and
monthly means on temperature, heating
degree days, pressure and precipita-
tion. On the reverse side are tabulated
observations at 3-Hourly Intervals;
see Figure 2. Tabulation of observa-
tions for each hour of the day was
discontinued after December 31, 1964.
This publication is usually available
between the 10th and 15th of the
following month.
b LCD Supplement (monthly)
This issue is available only for
stations having 24 hourly observations
daily until December 31, 1964 when
publication was stopped. It contains
frequency tables illustrated in Fig.
3. For air pollution investigations,
Tables B,E,F, and G would be of
greatest interest (Frederick, 1964).
The Supplement is usually available
from 20 to 40 days after the end of
the month.
c LCD with Comparative Data (annual)
This issue, published annually, has
a table of climatological data for
the current year and a table of
normals, means, and extremes for a
longer period of record. This issue
is usually available between 45 and
60 days after the end of the year.
3 Northern Hemisphere Data Tabulations
This publication, Issued daily, contains
approximately 30 pages of surface syno-
ptic observations and upper air observa-
tions. The surface data are for one hour
only (1200 GCT) . In this publication
the radiosonde information is of princi-
pal interest In air pollution meteorology.
-------
Sources of Meteorological Data
A portion of a page of radiosonde data
is illustrated in Figure 4. The data
are available only in microforms. The
subscription price is $5.00 per month,
separate daily copies 25 cents. This
publication is usually available 8 to
10 months after the date of the obser-
vations.
4 Climatological Data - National Summary
This publication of approximately 50
pages, issued monthly, contains a
narrative summary of weather conditions,
climatological data (similar to those
given in each station's LCD) in both
English and metric units, mean monthly
radiosonde data, and solar radiation
data. Also included are a number of
maps of the United States showing
spatial distribution of temperature,
precipi tation, solar radiation and
winds. The mean radiosonde and solar
radiation data are the main interests
of this publication in air pollution
meteorology. A portion of a page of
mean radiosonde data is illustrated in
Figure 5. An annual issue of this
publication is also available. Subscrip-
tion prices are 20 cents for monthly
and 40 cents for annual issues; yearly,
including monthly and annual; $2.50.
Monthly issues are available from 4 to
6 months after the month of observation.
5 Climatological Data (by State)
This summary, issued monthly and annual-
ly contains data mainly on temperature
and precipitation. This will only oc-
casionally be of use to the air pollu-
tion meteorologist. Subscription price
is 20 cents per monthly or annual copy
or $2.50 per year for both monthly and
annual issues. This publication is
usually available 2 to 4 months from
the month of observation.
6 Selected climatic maps
This publication consists of 30 U.S.
maps of various meteorological para-
meters such as: maximum and minimum
temperature, heating and cooling degree
days, precipitation, relative humidity,
solar radiation, and surface wind roses
for January and July together with the
annual wind rose. Wind data are pre-
sented for 74 locations within the
contiguous U.S. A list of the basic
Climatic Maps from which the generalized
maps of this publication are taken is
included.
B Summaries
1 Summary of Hourly Observations
This series of publications, Climato-
graphy of the United States, No. 82- ,
Decennial Census of United States Climate,
has been prepared for over 100 Weather
Bureau stations where 24 hourly obser-
vations are recorded each day. One issue
is prepared for each station. Where
records are sufficiently long the ten
year period 1951 - 1960 has been con-
sidered. For others the 5 year period
1956 - 1960 has been summarized. This
series supersedes the series, "Climato-
graphy of the. United States" No. 30- ,
a 5 year summary published in 1956. A
set of tables similar to tables A through
E in the LCD Supplement are given for
each month (See Figure 6) and for the
entire period (See Figure 7). The price
of this publication is 10 cents per copy
and is prepared separately for each
station. This series was temporarily
discontinued as of May 1, 1965.
2 Climatic Guide
This series of climatological publications
contains a wealth of climatological in-
formation useful to the air pollution
meteorologist fortunate enough to have
had one prepared for his city. Of major
interest to air pollution meteorologists,
are tables of wind frequencies, solar
radiation and degree days.
The guides that have been published and
the year of issue are:
Baltimore, Maryland
New York City
Seattle, Washington
Chicago, Illinois
Houston, Calveston, Texas
1956
1958
1961
1961
1962
The price of this publication varies
between 30 and 40 cents per copy.
3 Climatic Summary of the United States-
Supplement for 1931 1952.
This summary, issued separately by state,
contains tables of monthly and annual
precipitation, snowfall, and temperature
by stations in the state. The price of
this publication ranges from 20 cents
to 70 cents per copy.
4 Terminal Forecasting Reference Manual
This manual, published by station, des-
7-39
-------
Sources of Meteorological Data
cribes the weather conditions at the
station, contains information on local
topography, visibility effects due to
fog and smoke, ceiling, precipitation,
special weather occurrences, and mean
wind and visibility conditions. Numerous
charts are included summarizing the
above elements. Of special interest are
surface wind roses by month and a wind
rose chart related to restricted visi-
bility conditions. A topographic and
smoke source map for the station is
included. The price per copy is 10 cents.
5 Key to Meteorological Records Documen-
tation
This series of publications was estab-
lished to provide guidance information
to those making use of observed data.
A recent addition to this series No. 4.
11, "Selective Guide to Published
Climatic Data Sources prepared by U.S.
Weather Bureau" (1969) all is extremely
useful to anyone contemplating use of
climatic data. The addresses of the
state climatologists are given inside
the back cover.
The series No. 1. 1 title Substation
History and issued by state contains
information regarding history of station
locations, type and exposure of measur-
ing instruments, location of original
meteorological records, where published,
and dales of first and last observations.
The price of this publication per state
is $1.50.
III. NATIONAL CLIMATIC CENTER
The National Climatic Center was
established in Asheville, North Carolina,
in 195] as the national archives for
weather records. The files at the center
contain 100,000 cubic feet of original
records,more than thirty thousand reels
of magnetic tape, and over 230,000,000
punched cards (CruLcher, 1964). In order
to take a minimum of storage space, some
of the punched cards have been micro-
filmed using FOSDIC (Film Optical Sensing
Device for Input to Computers). This
places the images of 12,000 punched
cards on 100 ft. of 16 mm.film. An optical
reader in combination with a card punch
is used to recover the data. A reader
to transfer data directly to magnetic
tape is under development. For prepara-
tion of summaries, the Climatic Center
has a hCA Spectra 70/45. Original manu-
script'-; ran be copied by microfilm,
priotoc'ipy, xerox, rii croprints or micro-
cards and furnished to users at the cost
of reproduction. Special summaries are
also prepared at cost for individuals or
companies. A cost estimate for a specific
job will be prepared on request. Inquiries
may be addressed to Director, National
Climatic Center, NOAA, Federal Building,
Asheville, N.C., 28801.
Magnetic tape and punched cards can also
be furnished to users with their own data
processing equipment. Examples of three
types of punched cards, the Hourly Surface
Observation, Type 1; the Summary of the
Day Card, Type 3; and the Winds Aloft
Observations, Type 4 are shown in Figure
8. However, coding procedures for cards
change, such as reporting winds to the
nearest 10° (36 points) on January 1,
1964 and thereafter. Previously, winds
were reported to 16 points of the compass.
If a period of study spans one of these
changes considerable difficulty may be
encountered. A publication indicating
some of the work of the NCC is: Climatology
at Work (1960).
The NCC prepares special tabulations
and summaries including the STAR Program
(STability ARray) which presents wind
distribution by Pasquill stability class.
As of June 1, 1973 the STAR program had
been compiled for 200 U.S. locations. The
data are presented in terms of monthly
seasonal or annual frequencies. Typical
costs are given below:
STAR PROGRAM
One Year
8 obs/day 24 obs/day
Monthly and Annual $75 $100
Seasonal and Annual 50 75
Annual 45 70
Five Years
8 obs/day 24 obs/day
Monthly and Annual $125 $175
Seasonal and Annua 100 150
Annual 90 125
Reproduction costs for Tables already run:
Monthly and Annual $45
Seasonal and Annual 22
Annual 7
STAR tabulations can be furnished on
tapes at a cost of $60 per reel. The
information can then be used In such EPA
dispersion models as ADQM/IPP or COM.
-------
Sources of Meteorological_Data_
Inquiries should also be directed to
NCC regarding inversion studies and
morning and afternoon mixing height - trans-
port wind speed tabulations which have
already been prepared for specific locations.
To initiate such a study based on a five
year period of record would cost $500 to
$600 per station.
The NCC archives the low level sounding
data, surface to 700 mb.,from all Environ-
mental Meteorological Support Units (EMSU).
Copies of the Adiabatic Charts (WBAN-31D)
and Wind Computation Sheets (WBAN-20) are
available on microfilm. Mandatory, Standard
and Significant Level data are also avail-
able on magnetic tape, as are half-minute
wind observations.
The current net-work consists
of the following stations.
St. Louis, Mo.
Chicago, 111.
Washington, D. C.
New York, N. Y.
Philadelphia, Pa.
Cleveland, Ohio
Louisville, Ky.
Denver, Colo.
El Monte, Cal.
Los Angeles, Cal.
San Jose, Cal.
Boston, Mass.
Houston, Tex.
Seattle, Wash.
Pittsburgh, Pa.
Site Code
L0010
L0020
LOO 30
L0040
L0050
LOO 60
LOO 70
LOO 80
1,0090
L0100
L0110
L0120
L0130
L0140
L0150
IV
Office of the State Climatologist
REFERENCES
1 Barger, G.L., Editor, Climatology at Work.
Superintendent of Documents, Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C.,
20402. 1960. 65 cents.
2 Crutcher, H.L. The National Weather Records
Center. Seminar on Human Biometeorology,
Public Health Service Publication No.
999-AP-25. 1967.
3 Frederick, R.H. Weather Data for Air Pollu-
tion-Available, Analyzed and Inexpensive.
J. of Air Pollution Control Assoc. 14:2,
60-65. 1964.
4 Selective Guide to Climatic Data Sources.
Key to Meteorological Records Docu-
mentation No. 4. 11. Prepared by
Staff, NCC, Asheville, N.C. Super-
intendent of Documents, Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C.,
20402. 1969 $1.00
5 Superintendent of Documents, Selected
Climatic Maps of the United States.
U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C. 20402. 25 cents
6 U.S. Superintendent of Documents. Weather,
Astronomy, and Meteorology. Price List
48. Government Printing Office. Washing-
ton, D.C., 20402.
7 U.S. Navy, NAVAER 50-1C-534. Guide to
Standard Weather Summaries. January
1959 with Change No. 1, 15 July 1960.
8 U.S. Dept of Commerce, Weather Bureau.
Inventory of unpublished tabulations.
Washington, D.C. 1954. 80 cents.
In the past the state climatologist provided
assistance on all matters relating to climatology
and weather records for interested parties in
his jurisdiction. In June 1973, NOAA phased out
the last of these positions. Persons requiring
climatological records or similar assistance
should contact either the nearest National
Weather Service Office or Regional Headquarters
or contact NCC directly.
LOCAL CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA
7-41
-------
Sources of Meteorological Data
LOCAL CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE — JOKX T. COHHOR, aocrotirr
Uniude 39' Q4',
SCICTC1 SERVICES AMilKISTRjlTIOR —
Longitude tt- 40' „ Elevation (ground)
EHVIROmUHTAL DATA 3IRVICI
-------
Sources of Meteorological Data
OBSERVATIONS AT 3-HOUR INTERVALS
SKY COVER
ll 10
< 10
1 6
( 10
: 1C
< 10
( 10
1 10
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i i
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C
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1C
1C
1
1C
1C
1C
1C
1C
CEILING
IHm& of fl I
100
00
UNL
120
00
75
10
60
UNL
UNL
UNL
140
CIR
CIO
n
12
2G
20
9
13
17
18
25
1
3
7
2
A
11
4
13
CIR
UNL
UNL
UNL
UNL
CIR
CIR
UNL
UNL
UNL:
UNL
UNL
UNL
90
60
60
110
fct
UNL
UNI
23
16
33
UNI
UNL
UNL
UNL
UNI
UNL
UNL
UNL
UNL
UNL
35
t
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12
17
UNL
1JC
90
40
16
3
1
VISI-
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1
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1C
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1
;
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7
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!
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5
4
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7
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C
0
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Z
0
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D
D
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D
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0
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D
D
0
It
WEATHER
AY 01
S
S
AY 04
AY 07
RH
R
RF
AY 10
RF
RF
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LF
SF
SF
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SKH
KH
KH
K
K
AY U
AY 19
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GFK
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AY 22
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GFK
GFK
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AY 28
ZR
ZRF
ZRF
RF
RF
*Y 31
F
f
It
30
32
31
11
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19
19
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31
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97
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61
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41
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39
33
32
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32
26
27
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39
31
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33
32
31
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42
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10
11
22
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33
2!
20
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31
32
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31
47
44
34
23
24
26
30
30
30
36
11
WET_-BULB
29
31
30
31
20
2«
2C
14
14
16
23
28
28
99
94
99
56
97
58
38
43
41
37
34
32
31
26
26
30
25
26
31
32
34
41
42
30
31
33
37
38
34
30
28
16
17
16
20
27
27
22
16
29
30
31
33
37
43
41
30
32
34
39
REL. HUM.
(II
89
69
89
83
7Z
89
92
74
74
77
61
66
69
93
96
93
93
93
84
84
96
96
96
92
92
92
61
70
73
88
88
71
70
69
54
48
72
83
89
89
73
71
82
92
64
77
77
64
74
49
44
58
60
3
9
2
2
9
6
0
7
79
61
01
72
59
67
09
96
1"
27
20
20
20
24
10
08
08
11
16
21
22
94
94
54
55
56
56
42
40
36
33
31
30
22
22
23
23
24
26!
26
27
32
31
23
26
26
30
32
33
31
29
21
11
12
13
13
15
13
12
11
26
28
30
32
39
43
36
24
16
19
21
22
23
28
33
WIND £3
pi
rt
5
2!
28
31
31
33
10
11
13
14
19
13
21
21
21
20
20
21
04
33
01
01
32
33
06
09
33
28
29
22
22
22
23
24
22
05
10
11
17
03
01
02
29
29
23
29
27
27
31
24
14
12
13
16
10
22
27
27
15
13
09
1«
20
19
20
21
1| 5s
6 10
9 10
12 10
6 10
7 10
14 9
9 10!
10 10
10 10
7 10
B 10
B 10
13 10
14 10
14 10
15 8
IB 9
12 10
11 10
9 10
12 10
11 10
9 10
7 10
9 10
9 10
5 10
4 7
7 10
7 3
9 0
6 0
8 0
10 7
10 7
10 10
7 5
9 3
9 2
5 10
6 10
8 10
8 10
9 10
6 10
7 10
B 10
11 10
10 10
11 10
6 0
9 2
9 2
11
14
14
5 0
10 10
10 10
10 10
13 9
12 9
13 9
19 0
20 0
9 :
6 :
4
5
9 :
B :
6
10
CEILING
(Hnds. of ft)
11
79
CIR
CIR
130
UNL
29
13
7
6
6
1
2
20
23
24
21
60
23
28
9
30
18
23
16
20
16
3
7
100
100
UNL
UNL
UNL
UNL
90
CIR
CIR
UNL
UNL
UNL
44
17
14
17
90
70
00
80
90
90
130
UNL
UNL
UNL
UNL
UNL
UNL
UNL
UNL
23
14
17
17
17
26
UNL
UNL
600
VISI-
BILITY
t
10
13
12
12
19
19
19
B1
5
4
7
7
0
1
12
15
13
12
12
12
12
6
10
10
10
10
10
12
2
2
7
7
7
10
10
6
7
8
8
10
10
6
10
B
1O
10
10
10
10
10
10
6
8
8
15
15
19
6
10
12
19
19
12
7
10
2
2
15
13
15
3
DA
DA
12
>A
>A
D
>A
>A
DA
DA
DA
WEATHER
Y 02
S
Y 05
R
RF
LF
LF
V 08
RH
Y 11
SH
Y 14
F
F
H
Y 17
Y 20
H
L
Y 23
Y 26
Y 29
SW
SH
SH
SH
DRY BULB
I'F}
17
16
19
19
17
IS
It
17
39
30
37
36
39
39
39
39
60
62
62
62
69
69
63
62
32
32
32
32
12
31
23
24
11
31
34
33
40
90
49
49
44
40
41
38
39
3B
17
35
26
25
24
24
26
26
25
23
14
12
13
29
27
28
26
24
23
26
28
26
|
S
17
14
14
13
19
16
16
13
32
3!
36
36
39
39
39
39
38
60
59
60
61
61
60
60
31
31
31
10
29
24
29
29
31
31
36
42
42
40
39
39
38
33
35
33
11
32
24
21
20
20
22
22
22
20
14
12
12
29
23
23
21
22
24
23
24
REL HUM.
<*}
aa
71
74
70
68
66
66
68
70
76
89
100
96
96
100
100
90
87
04
67
78
78
84
67
89
89
89
8?
76
96
76
76
76
79
69
90
94
3
3
0
3
7
3
73
95
93
39
91
93
38
60
66
80
84
53
55
3
6
1
2
6
69
£c
a
14
00
08
07
06
09
09
06
26
31
34
36
38
36
39
39
37
56
97
58
58
98
58
98
29
29
2B
27
25
23
25
29
27
27
29
32
33
33
30
30
30
?7
27
19
11
09
10
10
11
12
11
09
09
14
13
19
14
10
10
10
17
WIND £.5
pi
31
32
30
33
27
30
30
01
18
20
29
23
22
23
19
17
19
21
21
21
22
19
19
19
33
36
36
01
09
23
25
21
21
21
22
24
22
29
30
29
31
10
30
03
09
04
06
05
02
04
24
00
00
28
31
27
25
25
26
26
25
II 5e
11 0
13 0
7 0
11 0
13 6
11 0
7 0
7 0
7 10
11 10
10 10
14 9
13 10
11 10
6 10
5 10
10 10
16 10
17 10
17 10
22 10
16 10
8 10
9 10
12 10
6 10
8 10
9 10
9 10
6 10
6 0
9 0
7 0
5 4
8 0
6 2
6 0
9 0
19 0
9 2
13 10
10 10
13 10
12 10
12 10
6 10
3 10
10 10
12 10
14 10
13 10
14 9
14 10
11 1
4 0
0
3
7 10
6 10
9 10
20 0
16 0
19 3
13 1
17 0
8 1
U 3
66
CEILING
(Hndi of fl.)
UNL
UNL
UNL
UNL
20
UNL
UNL
UNL
3
13
11
19
60
21
18
14
120
6
90
4
3
3
2
6
16
12
11
14
13
13
12
UNL
UNL
UNL
UNL
UNL
UNL
UNL
UNL
UNL
UNL
30
80
69
69
50
55
50
CIR
33
40
40
20
26
UNL
UNL
UNL
UNL
Cl
8
10
3
UNL
UNL
UNL
UNL
UNL
UNL
UNL
UNL
2
Oh
i
D
IS
19
10
3
5
8
B
6
0
2
3
6
7
8
6
B
10
D
6
7
B
1
1
1
0
4
D
6
7
5
3
3
5
5
D
5
3
8
8
D
8
8
8
4
6
12
6
6
D
10
10
6
8
10
8
7
0
6
6
6
6
7
8
10
D
19
12
7
7
7
8
8
D
19
19
12
a
10
10
10
10
i
3
RY
RY
AY
12
AY
AY
AY
AY
AY
AY
AY
WEATHER
03
KH
KH
06
RF
RF
RF
09
RH
RH
RH
RF
RF
F
LF
RF
12
SH
SH
SHKH
KH
KH
K
K
19
H
H
16
GFH
21
24
SH
SH
SH
SH
SH
27
SE
30
a
r
19
11
10
13
21
21
19
17
39
43
43
30
97
97
96
60
98
54
47
46
49
42
31
28
26
27
28
29
27
25
31
42
46
37
37
41
37
37
43
91
37
34
33
32
33
40
42
41
38
21
21
22
24
29
26
23
20
17
13
15
32
30
31
20
19
18
25
12
33
30
27
WET BULB
CT>
13
10
09
12
19
19
17
19
39
43
43
4B
94
34
94
98
5
5
4
4
4
42
29
27
25
26
26
27
26
25
29
37
36
33
33
38
39
16
49
35
32
32
31
33
36
37
36
35
19
19
20
22
29
23
21
10
16
13
14
27
26
26
19
18
17
24
26
30
27
29
REL. HUM.
CM
67
77
60
80
69
69
66
69
100
96
100
66
60
83
90
90
93
100
100
100
100
100
76
82
86
89
78
76
89
92
96
92
82
61
6
6
73
86
9
61
82
82
85
65
79
68
63
69
76
69
71
36
66
71
74
77
66
84
52
58
56
84
84
84
61
64
57
66
72
DEW PT.
06
09
09
08
11
11
10
07
19
42
43
46
91
92
93
37
96
94
47
46
45
42
25
23
23
23
22
23
23
23
23
22
26
in
26
26
33
33
19
36
32
29
29
28
29
30
30
30
31
11
14
16
16
15
13
11
10
11
16
17
17
16
13
14
20
21
21
20
19
WIND
t
36
04
06
05
10
07
09
08
17
16
19
20
19
19
19
21
19
36
01
03
02
02
03
05
07
07
07
07
09
21
20
18
19
IB
IB
19
23
23
21
27
27
02
04
00
06
16
14
14
13
06
08
02
34
30
31
26
28
16
00
11
12
10
11
23
22
21
23
22
22
20
20
II
9
5 REFERENCE NOT
7
9
9 CEILING COLUMN—
UNL indicates an unit
7 ceiling.
L CIR indicates u cirrifb
.„ cloud ceiling of unkno
|§ height.
J* WEATHER COLUMN-
}• • Tornado
l* T Thunderstorm
12 Q Squall
R Rain
RW Rain showers
9 ZR Freezing rain
* L Drizzle
• ZL Freezing dnzzle
* S Snow
10 SP Snow pellets
U 1C Ice crystals
12 SW Snow showers
10 SG Snow grains
E Sleel
A Hail
10 AP Small hail
10 F Fog
10 IF Ice fog
7 GF Ground fog
a BD Blowing dust
B BN Blowing sand
1 BS Blowing snow
g BY Blowing spray
K Smoke
H Haze
B D Dust
6
4
10 WIND COLUMNS—
*" Directions are those fn
* which the wind blows,
* cated in tens of degree
from true Nonh; i. e.,
for East, 1 8 for South.
B for West. Entry of 00 i
* the direction column i
8 Speed Is expressed in 1
7 multiply by 1,15 to co
9 to miles per hour
4
6
9
* ADDITIONAL DATA
* Other observational data con-
B tained in records on file can
be furnished at cost via micro-
film or microfiche copies of
1* the original records. Inquiries
10 costs should be addressed to:
12 Director
9 National Weather Records C
5 Federal Building
7 Asheville, N. C. 28801
3
3
4
T
11
7
9
5
6
9
9
6
7
FIGURE 2
7-43
-------
Sources of Meteorological Data
U S DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE. WIATHEH BUREAU
LOCAL CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA (SUPPLEMENT)
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FIGURE 3
7-44
-------
Sources of Meteorological Data
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FIGURE 4
7-45
-------
Sources of Meteorological Data
RAWINSONDE DATA
Av«r*q« monthly vtJuct
L
1000
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900
100
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Ton
610
600
590
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35.557
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996 MB
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FIGURE 5
7-46
-------
CTKimATI, OHIO
Creiter Cicclaiutl AP Boooe Co., Ky.
TEMPERATURE AND WIND SPEED-RELATIVE HUMIDITY OCCURRENCES:
PERCENTAGE FREQUENCIES
OF WIND DIRECTION AND SPEED:
*M
w
~
99/ 99
»4/ «
69/ 89
•4/ 1C
79 / 73
64 / 6<
39/ 95
49 / 49
44 / 4€
39X 39
TOTAL
1
I*
3j
13
3
6
10
12
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22)
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40 32
48J 62
13) 66
71 37
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12
73
93
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1
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39
40
44
94
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2.47
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49
117
179
192
9^
90
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4
34
109
206
239
131
37
7
1*12
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'
132
111
33
24
f
3
26
139
134
122
33
7
711
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7
71
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8
22
14
2
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25 M.P.H AND
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<
8
1
1
^
5
24
126
319
513
1313
1464
1147
712
219
61
2
7200
OCCURRENCES OF PRECnTTATTON AMOUNTS:
iMTCwrm
MKZ
«...
TO •» •
1 1O 1M •
TOTAL
FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE FOR EACH HOUR OF THE DAT
10
2
1
1
1
21
13
3
4
26
13
3
3
"
1»
2
SO!
LM H
19
I
1
29
XR
10,
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21
33
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27
1
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23
1
34
18
1
27
11
22
12
23
13
1
31
11
2
24
11
1
23
i
14
3
1
21
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14
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MR
9
2
1
1
19
1C
2
1
18
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13
1
19
13
1
1
33
13
2
29
i;
i
21
rsr £3
a 34
1 6
13
7
21L01
PERCENTAGE FREQUENCIES OF
CEILING—VTSnMLITT:
VHHUTY
(MUG
0 TO 1J»
]/W FO 3/1
I/a TO 3/4
1 TO 21/2
3 TO *
7 TO 15
» TO 30
15 CMHOR
TOTM
Q
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4
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4
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4
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4
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1.2
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4
4
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2.4
tm
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2.4
4
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3*6
4
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l.fl
6.9
1
2
2
1 1
• 1
2
3
2 3
12 2
100
PERCENTAGE FREQUENCIES OF
SKY COVER, WIND, AND
RELATIVE HUMIDITY:
HOW
or
DAT
00
01
02
03
04
06
0
0
1
1
13
14
16
17
IB
19
20
21
22
23
AVO
CUWM
tCAU 000
0-
J
64
3
4
2
7
2
7
0
0
7
3
1
44
36
61
64
66
31
4-
7
B
10
6
8
11
12
1?
13
20
19
22
IB
13
13
11
11
10
I
14
I-
10
2
2
2
3
3
4
4
3
4
4
3
3
3
3
2
26
27
33
W»«SKEO ^
0-
1
20
19
20
20
19
24
7
3
8
7
13
15
20
18
16
20
14
4-
13
72
73
73
75
75
67
67
M
63
74
73
7B
72
73
73
70
69
11-
34
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t
me
.
i
7
2
3
2
1
1
1
16
+
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IV
SO- i5O-
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79 1 W ' 100
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27! 30
21 Z8
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»
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3
18
22
16
8
2
1
1
4.
3
27
40
30
49
2
7
7
0
2
17 1
23 1
30 1
361 2
ll' 16 31' 4
13! 17 34i 3
48
43
36
18
19
19
28
39
46
33
• i 49
6141
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7
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9
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19
19
21
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-------
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AJnKlAL
B7.K73 Oba.
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c
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en
TEMPERATURE AND WIND SPEED-RELATIVE HUMIDITY OCCURRENCES:
PERCENTAGE FREQUENCIES
OF WIND DIRECTION AND SPEED:
™0
~
04 10
1
0
0
01 -0
06 -1
-If,
1
1
1
!
C
127 3L * *
V i 109 BT, 74j 23
L 2Q 13j 6,
1 li l2 llj 4,
i 3 2
. + 11
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1. ! M i !
1 2
1 .9 2,
3. 23 37 » 1
41 36J 26| 16J 4
11 »! 4J 1,
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: " 5 ''
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M n $
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1 1
114-1
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3
1
1
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67
72
9
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1
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N
ME
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C
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SE
SSE
S
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5.
USD
W
WNW
NW
CALM
TOTAL
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6. 6135. 6-
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a
ID Tables A and C, occurrences are for the average year (10-year total divided by 10).
Values are rounded to the nearest *faole aumber, but not adjusted to uke their BUMS
C OCCURRENCES OF PRECIPITATION AMOUNTS:
PERCENTAGE FREQUENCIES OF
SKY COVER, WIND. AND
E RELATIVE HUMIDITY:
| FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE FOR EACH HOUR OF THE OAT
INTEKSITVS i
1 1
AM HCM»
» ! » ' >
••«• 56 SB, 58, 36! 42
c- - 7. 8' * 1« 7
M TO » . 13' 11 12! Ill 1*
w ^ „ . 4'4,4J44-
D 'C » . *t lj 1 ij t
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TOT*. i 60J 62J M
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4C
14
3
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6,
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I 1 * ' 1
|4li 44' 36
Ol <• 10
12; 12 15
31 4, 3
1 1 1
10
1 f H. HOUB ENDtftG AT
11 koo.
41; 411 38
101 Tj «
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i +! i
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66> 441 69l 66
a :
69! 63
1 1 '
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13 12
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6
12
3
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61
40
6
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3
60
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36
7
12
4
60
32
7
13
4
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27
7
14
2
+
61
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7
12
4
60
10
36
6
12
4
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62
3H
a
12
3
62
M
3i
I
14
3
*
62
^
64
a
i
7
1
7
1
L93
PERCENTAGE FREQUENCIES OF
t V.I I JMfi—VrgTBHJHT:
WMiTV
0 TO 1 1
1 1 TO 1 «
1TO *
7 TO IS
» ID JO
15 Ot MCtK
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MV
00
01
02
03
04
09
06
07
06
09
in
12
13
1»
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17
11
If
20
21
22
23
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tout o-io
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49
49
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43
42
31
39
33
32
33
31
27
26
26
26
24
28
31
34
42
44
43
35
4-
7'
S
8
9
6
10
10
9
11
11
13
17
17
17
17
17
14
12
12
10
»
9
12
t-
10
47
47
4*
90
31
93
98
97
56
96
97
37
97
99
58
36
54
46
47
46
99
WMD m>
«-' n)
O.
1
14
19
16
19
17
17
14
11
7
9
9
6
5
6
6
9
12
15
14
14
11
4-
19
(6
67
67
65
64
65
62
60
54
52
90
50
92
56
62
67
69
67
67
67
62
II-
14
17
16
17
7
8
0
6
2
9
1
44
42
41
37
31
24
19
18
16
16
26
35-
«
om
1
1
*
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
*
1
1
1
•8UHVI HUMBMTT (%)
0-
•
+
+
*
«
4
+
+
4
3
3
7
9
11
11
9
3
3
1
•
4
3
„.
6
9
4
3
2
2
2
3
9
26
M
36
39
39
36
37
33
27
16
to
6
17
se-
30
27
24
22
19
16
16
19
26
37
40
38
31
90
26
29
30
34
36
39
37
13
30
70-
24
25
24
23
21
21
22
24
26
24
13
11
10
6
9
9
10
12
13
20
21
23
16
•0-
22
23
26
26
29
29
30
1
3
7
0
9
6
7
7
7
7
6
10
15
16
20
17
fO.
OB
17
19
22
24
27
30
30
29
16
13
10
12
14
15
19
-------
Sources of Meteorological Data
PREC'P *
Wf£_ 'ciYAfes
op^«"o a u
o o iilo'
^||Jji3i5lr"'"jlil,wU'Mti
:ij-;pl2|iiISi "" I ; Is! "' I
its 3 O'tTii 0,"] CjO OJO "d'O'iO 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 P
jl^ivfFi TIM* W!-V i
MtJN |iii> fcT>
rtMP r«iw •
ni-Flj-inOF ;^t,i
J Hsilsii
301000
tt'ja 41/1 4? tij-H 4M7374J:>3j;,777<7y03l,3M.IJJ|b 4,31 36 Js|(U .11 |, .3 441 :i i.'H 46 U. jO Sl| 57 b3 W'M 56;57 51 5S 60 il 167 S3 64^ «]ll II aim nil .3 74J71 7IJ7I 71 TS SO '
11| i;i i|i i.iiili'i i i|i iii i 1,1 H i i M i i H i,i i 1,1 i i i 1,1 n i i!i i i i i;i i.i i n i|i i i'i l'l i i|i iii i i;i ii ill i1
I AftO Nf I S.lriFfiC t . ',,„"' ,",',;'';r,'""7,, "lu'"','ul -H^M ...^ -,^j ^ u . K /, ,,^, u , „. 1 ,,.'- ^. .. s . . rx^J M! ,* I • ,vl^«. u «i ' f OJ ,., <1 ^ I .
;2 2 2J2 2|2 2;; 2i7 2 2 2i2 2'2 2 2;2 2;2 2 2'2 2 2 2 2;'? 2,2 2 I'.l 2 2 2 2|2 2 2 2 212 l'l 2 2J2 2,2 2" 21? 2:2 7 212 2 2 2" 2i2 2,2 2 2^ 2.2 2,2 21
00000
I 7 3 4 S
Mill
22222;!
I
|3 3 3 3 3|3 3[ 33 3| 3M|3i3J3 3 3:3 3 3 3 J'.l 3> 3 3l3 3 3 3 3|3 3,3 3 3 3 3;3 J 3J3 3,3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3,3 3,3 3 3.3 3J3 3 3]3 )'j I 3;3J:3J Jjj's 3^3 3
Oil H ^ >0,000 M^ |
E 66 B 6
77777
lllll
999!
6 S 6
99 9 9 9
4; 4;4|4'i 4
-------
PART TWO
Climatography of the United States
Series No. 82
This series, Decennial Census of United
States Climate - Summary of Hourly Obser-
vations, is incomplete, although work on it
has been temporarily discontinued. It is
generally based on ten years of data. Similar
summaries, based on five years of record are
contained in Climatography of the United
States, Series No. 30.
It has been issued for the stations listed. The
second part of the series number indicates
the State in which the station presented is
located; for example, all stations in New York
State carry the number 82-30.
The list of numbers and stations is:
82-1 Alabama
Birmingham
Mobile
Montgomery
82-2 Arizona
Phoenix
*Tucson
82-3 Arkansas
Little Rock
82-8 Florida
Jacksonville
Miami
*Orlando
*Tallahassee
Tampa
*West Palm Beach
82-9 Georgia
Atlanta
Augusta
* Ma con
Savannah
82-10 Idaho
Boise
82-11 Illinois
#Chicago (O'Hare)
Chicago (Midway)
Moline
Springfield
82-12 Indiana
Evansville
Fort Wayne
Indianapolis
*South Bend
82-17 Maine
Portland
82-18 Maryland
Baltimore
82-19 Massachusetts
Boston
82-20 Michigan
Detroit (City AP)
*Flint
Grand Rapids
82-21 Minnesota
Duluth
Minneapolis
82-22 Mississippi
Jackson
82-23 Missouri
Kansas City
St. Louis
Springfield
82-24 Montana
Great Falls
82-4 California
*Bakersfield
Burbank
Fresno
Los Angeles
82-5 Colorado
Oakland
Sacramento
San Diego
San Franrisco
^Colorado Springs
Denver
82-(i Connecticut
*Hartford
82-7 Delaware
Wilmington
82-13 Iowa
Des Moines
Sioux City
82-14 Kansas
Topeka
Wichita
82-15 Kentucky
''Lexington
Louisville
82-16 Louisiana
Baton Rouge
Lake Charles
New Orleans
Shreveport
82-25 Nebraska
Omaha
82-26 Nevada
*Las Vegas
*Reno
82-28 New Jersey
Newark
82-29 New Mexico
Albuquerque
*5 Year Summary Only
7-50
-------
Sources of Meteorological Data
82-30 New York
82-41 Texas
Albany
*Binghamton
Buffalo
New York
New York
Rochester
Syracuse
(Int'l)
(La Guardia)
82-31 North Carolina
Charlotte
Greensboro
Raleigh
*Wins ton-Salem
82-32 North Dakota
Bismarck Fargo
82-33 Ohio
Akron-Canton Columbus
Cincinnati Dayton
Cleveland Youngstown
_8_2-34 Oklahoma
Oklahoma City
Tulsa
_82_- 35 Oregon
Medford Portland
-Pendleton *Salem
-Not Prepare <1
!i2 - i(i Pennsylvania
H.irrisburg '''Pittsburgh
Philadelphia *Scranton
_8 2 - Ji7__Hh_od (• Island
Providenc-e
_82_- 38 South C'arolina
C:hnrleston
Columbia
82-39 South Dakota
Huron -Rapid City
!!2-4() Tennessee
a Memphis
Knoxville Nashville
Amarillo Galveston
Austin Houston
Brownsville Laredo
Corpus Christi*Lubbock
Dallas -^Midland
El Paso San Antonio
*Fort Worth *Waco
*Witchita Falls
82-42 Utah
Salt Lake City
82-43 Vermont
^Burlington
82-44 Virginia
Norfolk *Roanoke
Richmond
82-45 Washington
Seattle-Tacoma AP
Spokane
82-46 West Virginia
'''Charleston
82-47 Wisconsin
*Green Bay Milwaukee
Madison
82- 48__Wv o ming
*Casper
82-49 Alaska
*Anchorage
*Cold Bay
^Fairbanks
*King Salmon
82-50
Washington7~D. C.
82-51 Hawaii
*Hilcf
Honolulu
*Wake Island (Pacific)
£2^52_Puerto Ric-p
San ,fuan
*5 Year Summary Only
7-51
-------
Sources of Meteorological Data
KSSA State Climatologist
Weather Bureau Airport St; tion
Ada ins l-'ji'l'1
1.ITT1.F IUVK, AB£. 72202
ESSA State Climatologist
Weather Bureau Airport Station
Dannelh Field
R. I . D. 2
MONTGOMERY, AI.A. .jlilOK
FSSA State Climatologist
Weather Bureau Airport Station
Berry Field
NASHVILLE, TENN. 37217
ESP A Wither Bureau State ClimatoloRist
704 Lfonhardt Building
Oklahoma Citv, Oklahoma 73102
ESSA Commonwealth Climatologist
P.O. Box 5417
Puerta de Tierra Station
San Juan, P. R. 00906
Regional Chmatologist
Weather Bureau Central Region
Room 17.15E
HO] E. 12th Street
KANSAS Cm. MO. 64ii:fi
ESSA V. lather Bureau Stat>- Climatologist
i ulturai Engineering Hlcig.
South Dakota State College
HROOKINGS, S. DAK. 57007
KSSA State Chmatologist
Station A, Box 2810
CHAMPAIGN, ILL. 61820
FSSA State rlimatologist
Weatlvr Bureau Airport Station
i,ox 22:!«
CHEYENNE. WYOMING 82002
FSSA State Climatologist
P.O. Box 041
COLUMBIA, MO. (J5201
ESSA State Climatologist
Box 1079
DENVER, COLO. H'I20 1
ESSA State Clirnalolofiist
Room 4DO. U.S. Court House
DFS MO1NFS, IOWA 50.'i2 1
ESSA State Climatnloyist
1405 S. Harrison Road
Manl> Building
EAST LANSING, MICH. 4882!i
ESSA State Climatologist
Agronomy Dept.
Purdue University
LAFA^TTTE, IND. 47907
ESSA St.ite Climatologist
Agronomy Dept.
L'niver ,ity of Kentm kj
Room Jil"), Agricultural p.'xp. Station
I.FXINGTON, KENTUCKY 4050li
ESSA State Climatolugist
901 North 17th Street
LINCOLN, NEBR. R8f)08
ESSA State Climatologist
443 Science Hall
University of Wisconsin
MADISON, WIS. 5H70R
ESSA State Climatologist
403 Physical Science Building
Kansas State University
.MANHATTAN, KANSAS 6G504
ESSA State Climatologist
301 G. Gieen Hall
University of Minnesota
ST. PAT! , MINN. 55101
Regional (.limatologist
Weather Hureau Western Region
Box 11! HH Federal Bldg.
SALT I ~. !T CITY, UTAH 841)1
ESSA Wrnther Bureau Statij Olim.uologist
Federal Office Building. Room 481
550 West I- ort Street
Bnise, Idaho 83702
7-47
-------
Section Three
ENGINEERING
Reading and Recording
Techniques for Plume Evaluation
The Role of the Inspector
in the Agency
Role of the Engineer
Level Inspector
Handling Complaints
Gaseous Control Technology
Adsorption
Combustion Control Equipment
Control of Particulate Emissions
Stack Sampling
Control Regulations - Introduction
Control Regulations
Case Study - Development
of an Air Pollution Control Ordinance
Federal Constitutional Provisions
Elements of an Air Pollution Control Law
A Compilation of Selected Air Pollution
Emission Control Regulations and
Ordinances
Automotive Emissions
Odor Measurement and Control
-------
Lesson Title: READING AND RECORDING TECHNIQUES FOR PLUME EVALUATION
Introduction
In this lecture we are going to talk about some of the different methods
for determining measurement of visual emissions. Before doing this we
want to give you some idea of exactly what a Ringelmann number is and
what we mean when we speak of the equivalent opacity concept. The latter
part of the lecture will be spent on the Visual Evaluation School or the
Art of Sight Reading. This latter being the most widely used method in
the country.
1) Might want to subject need for controlling visible emission
2) Historical background of Ringelmann and Opacity
Development
I. The need for controlling visible emission:
A. Reduce the soiling power of a community's air
B. Improve visibility - capability of seeing through the
atmosphere
C. Prevent the introduction of aerosols into the atmosphere
which could directly or indirectly contribute to adverse
human health effects.
II. Definitions
Ringelmann Chart:
Was developed by Professor Maximilan Ringelmann of Paris around
1890, was first introduced in this country in 1897 and incor-
porated in the law in Boston in 1910.
-------
-2-
The Ringelmann chart as published in the U.S. Bureau of Mines
Circular 8333, consists of four cross hatched section, each
measuring 5 3/4" by 8 1/2". The width of the black lines on the
charts correspond to a certain percentage of black thus Ringel-
mann #1 is equivalent to 20%, #2 is equivalent to 40%. The lines
on the chart appear to merge into various shades of gray and the
smoke emission is matched with one of the cross hatched areas
on the chart.
Equivalent Opacity:
Is an extension of the Ringelmann chart by limiting such visible
emission not only to a shade of gray, but to such opacities as to
obscure an observer's view to a degree equal to or greater than
does smoke of Ringelmann #2 shade
No 2 = 40% opacity
The first appearance of this concept may have been in the air
pollution control ordinance of the county of Los Angeles in 1945.
III. Some of the Advantages of the use of visible emission control
regulations are:
A. The validity of using the Ringelmann chart has been established
in the field of air pollution control legislation - realizing
the problem is not solved by regulating only black smoke they
established the equivalent opacity concept to take in plumes
-------
-3-
other than shades of gray-
B. Observers can be trained in relatively short time and it is
not necessary that observers have an extensive technical
background.
C. No expensive equipment is required.
D. One man can make many observations in one day.
E. Violators can be cited without resorting to time consuming
source testing.
F. Questionable emission can be located and the actual emission
then determined by source test.
IV. The most common objections to these concepts are:
A. Opacity observed is a subjective measurement varying with the
position of the observer in relation to the sun, sky, size of
particles in the plume, atmospheric lighting, and background of
the plume.
B. Opacity has not as yet been successfully correlated in detail
with other methods of measurement.
C. Gaseous emission cannot be determined.
D. Difficult to use accurately in the hours of darkness.
-------
-4-
V. Devices
A. Smoke Tintometer
B. Umbrascope
C. Smokescope (OH)
D. Photo Electric Cells (OH)
E. Smoke Comparison Chart (OH)
F. Sight Readings (OH)
-------
Lesson Title:, THE ROLE OF THE INSPECTOR IN THE AGENCY
Introduction
The role of the inspector varies with the size of the agency. In general,
though, the inspector will be one of two types: professional or engineer-
ing inspector, or subprofessional or general inspector.
I. The General Inspectors Role in Enforcement
A. Conducts Random Inspections
1. Of an assigned area
2. At randomly selected times
B. Scheduled Inspection
1. Of a specific source or area
2. At a designated time interval
I- Specific Tasks May Include:
A. Visible Emissions Evaluation & Enforcement - (Must be certified
for proficiency in the evaluation of visible emissions)
B. Open Burning Regulations Enforcement
C. Collection of Fue] Samples for Evaluation
I). Registration of Existing Installations
-------
E. During HAPP Episodes, Aids in the Enforcement of Emergency
Standards
F. Progress Checks on Permit System Applicants
G. Handling of Complaints
III. Additional Interagency Tasks
A. Can Aid to Varying Degrees in Source Testing
B. Can Assist in Preparation of Emissions Inventory
C. Can Help in Area Survey Work
D. May Carry Out Some Monitoring Activities
IV. General Qualifications
A. Completed Some Undergraduate College Level Education
r,. Physically Able to Perform Work Associated with the Position
C. Resourceful, Observant, Honest, Reliable
D. Able to Make Decisions
-------
V. Specific Knowledge Required
A. Must Know and Understand Applicable Laws and Regulations
B. Must Underscand Enforcement Policies and Channels
C. Must be Certified for Proficiency in the Evaluation of
Visible Emissions, etc.
VI. The Agency Should Insure That The Inspector Is:
A. Familiar with Systems and Procedures Used in That Agency
B. Familiar with Forms Used by the Agency
C. Familiar with Report Format That Can be Used Legally if
Necessary
D. Trained in Specific Aspects of His Position
1. Smoke Schools, etc.
2. Legal Schools
3. Equipment Use (Grab Samplers, etc.)
E. Supervised in On-The-Job Training by Qualified Personnel
-------
ROLE OF THE ENGINEER LEVEL INSPECTOR
1. Enforcement
A. Plant Inspections
1. Directs plant .staff in assessing air pollution sources
2. May exercise engineering knowledge in describing available
control techniques to interested parties
3. Starts action towards compliance, with appropriate follow-
ups
II. Specific Tasks
A. Engineering Evaluation of Air Pollution Sources
B. Permit Plan Review
C. Set Up Cut-Back Schemes in Emergency Episode Plans
D. Reviews Registration Data
E. Miscellaneous (Visible Emissions Evaluation, Handling
Complaints, etc.)
III. Interagency Activity
A. Take Part in Source Testing
B. Conduct Emissions Inventory
C. Conduct Area Surveys
-------
D. Take Part in Monitoring Activities
E. Train General Inspectors in Specific Field Activities
IV. Qualifications
A. Engineering Type Degree
B. Ability to Apply Engineering Skills to Control of Air Pollution
C. Supervisory Potential
V. Should Have Specific Knowledge of
A. Air Pollution Laws
B. Enforcement Policies
C. Engineering As Applied to Air Pollution Control
VI. Required Training:
As necessary
-------
Lesson Title: HANDLING COMPLAINTS
Introduction
Compliance with the law can be obtained through various complementary
steps. Any air pollution control agency, no matter what its size, can
make use of the following methods:
1. Educating the public
2. Cooperating with other regulatory agencies
3. Answering and investigating complaints
4. Inspecting to discover illegal conditions
5. Abating illegal conditions by conferences and persuasion
6. Prosecuting violators
In this discussion we will cover investigating procedures that stem from
the citizen complaint.
-------
I. Citizen Complaints
A. Against the Overall Air Quality
B. Against Specific Violators
II. Complaints About a Given Area or the Overall Air Quality
A. Answer By Being Factual
1. State the present air quality
2. Describe abatement procedures and relate to improved air
quality
B. Check Monitoring Capacity
III. Complaints Against Specific Violators
A. Document Complaint
B. Determine
1. Source of the problem
2. Source location
3. Duration of problem
C. Validate Complaint
-------
D. Investigate As Soon As Possible
1. Talk to plant personnel
2. Ascertain reason for any violation
3. Issue notice of violation if applicable
E. Report on Action Taken
1. To proper authority
2. To citizen
F. Conduct Follow-Up Investigation as Needed
IV. Complaints Dealing with Nuisances
A. Determine Degree of Problem
1. Area involved
2- Population affected
B. Document Evidence
C. Always Remain Impartial
D. Explain Steps to be Taken to Collect Problem
1. To owner of problem source
2. To citizens
-------
E. Evaluate Situation and Take Necessary Action
V. Conducting the Inquiry
A. Question Complainant (Insure Factual Documentation of Complaint)
B. Determine Reason for Complaint
C. Determine the Natuie and Source of the Air Pollution Problem
Involved
D. Through Proper Evaluation, Seek Out the Source
E. Discuss Any Violations with Source Owner
F. Insure that Corrective Action is Taken
G. Document Results with Copies to:
1. Agency files and supervisor
2. Company owner
3. Citizen
4. Any other interested parties (i.e. Congressmen, etc.)
VI. Most Common Complaint Sources
A. Visible Emissions c. Open Burning
B. Odors D. Fugitive Dust
-------
GASEOUS CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
Of the over 200 x 10 tons of air pollution being emitted in the United
States each year, approximately 7/8's is in the gaseous form. There are
many methods of controlling these emissions including changing the process,
changing the materials used in the process, as well as providing good
equipment maintenance operations and good housekeeping, The purpose of
this discussion however, is to familiarize you with the devices that are
most frequently used to control gaseous emissions. The techniques used
are:
1. Absorption
2. Condensation
3. Combustion
4. Adsorption
-------
ABSORPTION
A. Introduction
1. Terminology
a. Gas Absorption is defined as the mechanism whereby
one or more constituents are removed from a gas stream
by dissolving them in a selective liquid solvent.
b. Absorbate - pollutant
c. Absorbent - solvent
d. Equi1i bri urn
2. Physical Parameters Affecting Solubility
a. Pressure
b. Temperature
c. Concentration
3. Mechanism is explained by the Lewis and Whitman two film theory.
4. Solvent Selection
-------
B. Absorption Equipment
1. Packed Columns
a. Counter-current —most common and most efficient type
of equipment.
b. Concurrent
c. Cross-flow
d. Packing
1) Ceramic
2) Plastic
2. Spray Air Cleaners — simple in design but should be used only
with very soluble gases.
3. Venturi Scrubbers —should be used only with very soluble gases
and have very high utility (pumping) requirements.
. Plate Columns — least frequently used in air pollution absorption
applications; provide for gas-liquid contact on separate trays
or plates.
-------
5. Comparison of scrubber operating costs
Liquid
rate
Scrubber type (g.p.m.)
Cross flow
Tellerette packing
Berl saddle packing
Rascnig ring packing
Counter-current
Tellerette packing
Berl saddle packing
Raschig ring packing
Wet cyclone
Spray tower
Jet
Venturi
50
60
60
120
140
140
80
100
600
80
Liquid
pressure
5
5
5
5
5
5
60
80
60
20
Pump h.p.
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.7
0.8
0.8
5.6
9.6
42.0
1.9
Scrubber
pressure
drop
(in. water)
0.5
1.2
3.8
0.75
2.2
6.7
3.5
2.0
15.0
Total
pressure)
drop
(in. water)
1.5
2.2
4.8
1.75
3.2
7.7
4.5
3.0
1.0
16.0
fan h.p.
4.3
6.3
13.8
5.0
9.1
22.0
12.8
8.6
none
46.0
Tol*l h.p.
4.6
6.7
14.2
5.7
10.0
22.8
18.4
18.2
42.0
47.9
Annual
powct
cott
$370
540
1140
460
810
1840
1490
1470
3380
3860
Oasis of Connorison:
Ai r Flow - 10,000 cfm
Highly Soluble Contaminant
Contaminant Concentration - < I %
Contaminant Removal Efficiency - 95%
Pump Efficiency - 50%
Fan Efficiency - 55%
Annual Operating Days - 300
Power Cost per KWHR - 1.5*
References for Comparison:
E. B. Hdnf, "A Guide to Scrubber Selection," Environmental Science and Technology,
4_ (2): MO - I 15, (1970).
Air Pollution Control Equipment, Technical Bulletin 12-1, The Ceil cote Co.,
Inc., Berea, Ohio, 1968.
-------
CONDENSATION
A. Introduction
8. Theory — there are two techniques for effecting condensation:
1. Increasing the pressure
2. Extracting Heat
C. Equipment
I. Surface Condenser
2. Contact Condenser
D. Applications
-------
COMBUSTION
A. Introduction
1. Combustion-defined as the combination of a material with
oxygen usually accompanied by heat and light.
2. The desired products of combustion of any organic material
are C0» and water.
i
3. The four parameters controlling the effectiveness of combustion:
a. T i me
b. Temperature
c. Turbulence
d. Oxygen
. Flammabi1ity Range
B. Equipment
I. Flare
a. Usually operated within flammable range.
-------
b. Often requires steam Injection to improve turbulence
and prevent sooty emissions.
c. Application
2. Thermal Incinerators
a. Usually operated outside the flammable range
<< 1/4 the lower explosive limit).,
b. Operated between IOOO°F and I700°F with residence
times of between O.I and 1.5 seconds.
c. Application
3. Catalytic Incinerators
a. Catalysts
b. Mechanism
c. Usually operated outside the flammable range with
flameless oxidation at between 600°F and IOOO°F.
d. Application
4. Comparison
-------
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF AIR POLLUTION CONTROL - COURSE #452
LESSON OUTLINE
ADSORPTION
I, Definitions
II. Description of Adsorption Process:
Physical adsorption
Chemisorption
Factors affecting adsorption capacity
III, Adsorption Systems;
Factors considered in selection of system
Thin bed
Thick bed
IV, Applications (see attachment)
-------
ADSORPTION
A. Introduction
I. Terminology
a. Adsorption —fluid-solid process for the removal
of one or more constituents from a gas (fluid)
stream (using either physical or chemical means)
b. Adsorbent —solid
c. Adsorbate—pollutant
d. Activation
2. How does Adsorption Occur?
a. Mechanism
b. Process —can be either physical or chemical
3. Adsorbent Materials
a. Nonpolar — carbon Is the most common adsorbent
b. • Polar
c. Impregnations
-------
4. Factors Affecting Adsorption
a. Pollutant Concentration
b. Surface Area
c, Temperature
d. Molecular Weight of Pollutant
B. Adsorption Systems and Equipment
1. Nonregenerative
a. Usually a Thin Bed
b. Low Efficiency
c. Used for Low Concentration Application (.< 2 ppm)
2. Destruct
a. Impregnated Adsorbent
•
b. Used for Intermediate Concentration Application (2 - 1000 ppm)
-------
3. Regenerative —Most Common Method of Regeneration Uses Steam
a. Usually a Thick Bed
b. High Efficiency
c. Used for High Concentration Application (> 1000 ppm)
-------
E. Applications of Adsorption
TABLE 1—AIR PURIFICATION APPLICATIONS for inexpensive, nonre-
gene.-ciHve, thin bed adsorbers.
Acid gases*
Air conditioning systems
Allergy patients (air publication)
Ammonia*
Amina odors*
Archives
Art galleries
Atomic power plants
Atomic submarines
Auditoriums
Automobile exhaust fumes (organic)
Bacteria removal
Brine solution odors
Burn patients (air purification)
Carbon dioxide0
Cancer patients (air purification)
CBR filters
Chemical plants
Chlorarnine (odor)
Chlorine (odor)*
Chromate baths
Churches
Ciearftte odor
Clean rooms
Community defense shelters
Computer rooms
Conference rooms
Corrosive gases*
Crane cabs
Diethanolamine (DEA)
Display cases (tarnishing)
Dry cleaning shops
Ek.'itiui controls
Embalming rooms
Ethylene (orchid growing)
Exposition halls
Fabrics (permanent press)*
Fertilizer plants
Flower shops
Food processing and storage
Formaldehyde*
Funeral homes
Ga:h2^e storage
Gas masks*
Gasoline fumes
Greenhouses
Gymnasiums
Halogens*
High rise apartments
Homes
Hospitals
Hotel rooms
Hydrogen cyanide and sulfide*
Incinerators
Infi naries
Instil. rients (air purification)
Jet 3ircralt terminals
Jrt airplane cab'f"
Jet airport field buses
Jewelry stores (tarnishing)
Kitchc;, range hoods
Laboratories
Laboratory fume hoods
Laundries
Lead tetraethyl
locker rooms
Mc.captans
Mercury vapors*
Metal pickling*
Mildew and mold odors
Monoethanolamine (MEA)
Morgues
Moving vans
Museums
Nitrogen oxides*
Nursing homes
Nurseries
Office buildings
Ozone
Pacivation tanks*
Pharmaceutical odors
Photographic dark rooms
Pickle manufacturing (brine odors)
Pizza ovens
Plastic manufacturing
Pulp and paper mills (electronic controls)
Radioactive gases (hot cells)
Refrigerators (domestic and commercial)
Refrigerator cars
Rendering odors
Resin cooling (hot melt)
Respiratory patients (air purification)
Respirators
Restrooms
Restaurants
Rubber manufacturing
Schools
Scuba diving (compressed air)
Septic tank trucks (vents)
Sewage treatment plants
Sewer vents
Sick rooms
Smog irritants (gases)
Solvents (low concentrations)
Space capsules
Stadiums (enclosed)
Steel plants*
Submarines
Sulfur dioxide*
Theaters
Toxic gases
Underground parking areas
Underground experimental statioos
Universities
Veterinary clinics
Virus removal
Warehouses
Waste gases
Whisky warehouses
TABLE 2—APPLICATIONS for re-
generative systems.
Acetone
Adhesive solvents
Amyl acetate
Benzene
Benzol
Brom-chlor methane (BCM)
Butyl acetate
Butyl alcohol
Carbon bisulfide
Carbon dioxide (controlled atmosphere)
Carbon tetrachloride
Coating operations
Degreasing solvents
Diethyl ether
Distilleries
Dry cleaning solvents
Drying ovens
Ethyl acetate
Ethyl alcohol
Ethylene dichloride
Fabric coalers
Film cleaning
Fluorohydrocarbons
Fuel oil
Gasoline
Halocarbons (some)
Heptane
Hexane
Hydrocarbons (aliphatic)
Hydrocarbons (aromatic)
Isopropyl alcohol
Ketones
Methyl alcohol
Methyl chlornforn
Methyleihylketone (MEK)
Methylene chloride
Mineral spirits
Mixed solvents
Monochlorobenzene
Naphthas
Paint manufacturing
Paint storage (vents)
Pectin extraction
Perchlorethylene
Pharmaceutical encapsulation
Plastic manufacturing
Rayon fiber manufacturing
Refrigerants (halocarbon)
Rotogravure printing
Smokeless po*der extraction
Soya bean oil extraction
Stoddard solvent
Tetrahydrofuran (THF)
Toluene
Toluol
Tricnlorethane
Trichloroethylene
Varnish storage (vents)
Xylene
Xylol
•May require impregnated charcoals.
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PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF AIR POLLUTION CONTROL - COURSE M52
LESSON OUTLINE
COMBUSTION CONTROL EQUIPMENT
I. Types oT Equipment
Flares
Direct Flame Afterburners
Fume Incinerators
Catalytic Incinerators
II. Flares
\pplicable where energy content of gas is above 52 BTU/CF,
preferably above 100 BTU/CF
III, Direct Flame Incineration
2500°F or higher
IV. Fume Incineration
1/4 to 1/2 LEL
800 - 1500°F
0.3 - 1.0 seconds
V. Catalytic Fume Incineration
600°F to 900°F
1/4 to 1/2 LEL
Catalyst life normally about 2 years or more for Platinum type
catalyst
Catalyst type varies - initial cost and catalyst life varies with
type
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CONTROL OF PARTICULATE EMISSIONS
I. Definition of a Particulate
A. For enforcement purposes, anything that is liquid or solid at
70°F and one atmosphere pressure, except for uncombined water.
B. For control purposes, anything that is liquid or solid at stack
conditions, except for uncombined water.
C. Emissions included in (A) but not in (B) are generally considered
gases for control purposes.
II. Definition of Efficiency of a Control Device
A. Efficiency is the weight collected divided by the weight enter-
ing the control device.
B. Weight collected is the weight entering the device minus the
weight leaving the device.
C. Remember efficiencies are given on a weight basis for particulate
control.
III. Particle Size Distribution and Size Efficiency Curves
A. Particle size distribution curves
1. Gives the percentage of a given distribution that is smaller
(or larger) than a certain particle size.
B. Size efficiency curves
1. Gives the efficiency of a particular collection device for
a given particle size.
-------
C. The two curves togetliir can give the overall efficiency of a
collection device.
IV. Particulate Control Equipment
A. Settling chambers - gravitational force
1. Low efficiency (60p)
2. Medium space requirement
3. Low cost
B. Cyclones - centrifugal force
1. Low to medium efficiency (20)j)
2. Medium pressure drop
3. Low to medium cost
C. Wet collectors (scrubbers) - impaction or impingement
1. Medium efficiency (lu)
2. Medium to high pressure drop
3, Problems and cost associated with water
4. Medium cost
D. Electrostatic precipitators - electrostatic force
1. Medium efficiency (lu)
2, Low pressure drop
3. Large space requirement
A. High initial cost, low operating cost
E. Fabric filtration (bag houses) - filtration
1. High efficiency (.
?. Medium pressure drop
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3. Large space requirement
4. High initial cost, high operating cost
5. Temperature limitation
F. Mechanical collectors (A & B) are often used to reduce the
load on subsequent, more efficient collectors.
V. Disposal of Collected Wastes
A. Must be considered in choice of control devices and in design.
B. Can be very costly.
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0.2
0.4 0.6
1
20
2 4 6 10
Particle Size (Microns)
Size-Efficiency Curves for Participate Control Equipment
40 60
100
300
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Lesson Title: Stack Sampling
Introduction
In air pollution control work it is occasionally necessary to determine
the amount of a pollutant that is being emitted from a stack. This is
done by extracting a sample of the effluent.
Development
I. Purposes
A. Emission Factors
B. Compliance with Regulation
C. Efficience of Control Devices
II. Basics
A. Isokenetic sampling (particulates)
B. Proportional sampling (cases)
III. Methods
A. Velocity determination
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B. Flow measurement
C. Sampling trains
D. Analysis of sample
E. Calculation of emission rates
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Lesson Title: Control Regulations
Introduction
The purpose of this session is to familiarize the student with type
of control regulations currently in use and the questions concerning
their use.
A. Introduction
1. The approach presented in the Air Quality Management Concept
of the 1967 Act the 12 step plan to achieve Air Quality.
2. The "Maximum Feasible Control" method of the 1970 Act.
B. Case Study; Development of an Air Pollution Control Ordinance
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Lesson Title: CONTROL REGULATIONS
Introduction
The purpose of this discussion is to familiarize you with the diffr'-
types of control regulations you may encounter in your air pollution
control efforts.
Development
I. Define a Regulation (OH)
II, Regulations Based on Sensory Effects
A. Visible emissions regulations
B. Odor regulations
III. Regulations Based on Pollution Concentration (OH)
IV. Regulations Based on Process Weight Rate (OH)
V. Potential Emission Rate Regulation (OH)
VI. Regulations Based on Atmospheric Dilution
VII. Regulations for the Control of Gaseous Emissions
A. S02
B. Others
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CASE STUDY
DEVELOPMENT OF AN AIR POLLUTION CONTROL ORDINANCE
Each team will develop and present an ait pollution control ordinance for Apex County.
It will have the following parts:
1. Preamble - this is the purpose for developing the legislation and the scope of
the act.
2. Definitions - the critical terms found in the act.
3. The Administrative Regulations - this section contains a set of limitations
upon those who enforce the regulations, i.e., how the director is appointed, how
regulations will be enforced, etc.
4. Control Regulations - these are the emission limitations or controls along with
the methods for determining if a violations exists.
5. Severability - how you wish to handle this act if part of the act is found to be
uncons t it ut ional.
6. Penalties - what the penalty for violation of the act will be
The purpose of this exercise is to (1) have you look at several different control strategies
and ordinances, not to just copy one from some state or other jurisdiction; (2) to have you
present and defend your ideas before your peers. You do not have to have the ordinance 1n
a final draft form but it must be readable and comprehensible.
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FEDERAL CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS
D. A. Nelson
Any discussion of air pollution legal
issues necessitates an investigation of
the Federal Constitutional provisions. In
this inquiry, it must be made clear from
the outset that ours is a Federal Government
of limited powers and, as such, Congress
may legislate in a particular area only
if the Constitution grants to it the authority
to do so. With regard to air pollution
legislation, the following Constitutional
enabling provisions are relevant:
1. "The Congress shall have Power to
. provide for . . . the
general Welfare of the United States
. . ." (Article I, Section 8,
clause I)
2. "The Congress shall have Power To
regulate Commerce . . . among
the several States . . . ."
(Article I, Section 8, clause 3)
Although it is conceivable that federal air
pollution legislation could be upheld under
the "general Welfare" clause, the Supreme
Court has not chosen to do so, and as a
result the "commerce clause" has seen wide
application.
Dipping back into history for a moment
to trace the development of the commerce
clause provision, it is evident that expanded
notions of a once narrowly-construed doctrine
are widespread today. The early case of
Gibbons
held navigation between
New York and New Jersey to be under the aegis
of federal legislation. Justice Marshall,
speaking for the Court, stated:
"The words relating to commerce are:
Congress shall have power to regulate
commerce with foreign nations, and among
the several states, and with the Indian
Tribes.'
22 U.S. (9 Wheat.) 1 (1824).
"The subject to be regulated is commerce;
and our constitution being, as was aptly said
at the bar, one of enumeration, and not a
definition, to ascertain the extent of the
power it becomes necessary to settle the
meaning of the word. The counsel for the
appellee would limit it to traffic, to buying
and selling, or the interchange of commodities,
and do not admit that it comprehends navigation.
This would restrict a general term, applicable
to many objects, to one of its significations.
Commerce, undoubtedly, is traffic, but it is
something more; it is intercourse. It describes
the commercial intercourse between nations,
and parts of nations, in all its branches,
and is regulated by prescribing rules for
carrying on that intercourse. The mind can
scarcely conceive a system for regulating
commerce between nations, which shall exclude
all laws concerning navigation, which shall
be silent on the admission of the vessels of
the one nation into the ports of the other,
and be confirmed to prescribing rules for
the conduct of individuals, in the actual
employment of buying, selling, or of barter.
"If commerce does not include navigation,
the government of the Union has no direct power
over that subject, and can make no law prescribing
what shall constitute American vessels, or
requiring that they shall be navigated by
American seamen. Yet this power has been
exercised with the consent of all, and has
been understood by all to be a commercial
regulation. All America understands, and has
uniformly understood, the word 'commerce' to
comprehend navigation. It was so understood,
and must have been so understood, when the
constitution was framed. The power over
commerce, including navigation, was one of the
primary objects for which the people of America
adopted their government, and must have been
contemplated in forming it. The convention
must have used the word in that sense; because
all have used it in that sense, and the attempt
to restrict it comes too late.
* * * * *
D.A. Nelson, Attorney, Institute for Air Pollution Training, NAPCA
The author is deeply indebted to Professor John D. Johnston, Jr., School of Law, New York University,
for his advice in the preparation of this paper. Full responsibility for any inaccuracies remains,
of course, with the author.
PA.A.le.25.8.69
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Federal Constitutional Provisions
"It is the power to regulate; that is,
to prescribe the rule by which commerce is to
be governed. This power, like all others
vested in Congress, is complete in itself,
may be exercised to its utmost extent, and
acknowledges no limitations, other than are
prescribed in the constitution. These are
expressed in plain terms, and do not affect
the questions which arise in this case, or
which have been discussed at the bar. If,
as has always been understood, the sovreignty
of Congress, though limited to specific
objects, is plenary as to those objects,
the power over commerce with foreign nations,
and among the several States, is vested in
Congress as absolutely as it would be in a
single government, having in its constitution
the same restrictions on the exercise of the
power as are found in the constitution of
the United States. The wisdom and the
discretion of Congress, their identity with
the people, and the influence which their
constitutents possess at election, are, in
this, as in many other instances, as that,
for example, of declaring war, the sole
restraints on which they have relied, to
secure them from its abuse. They are the
restraints on which the people must often
rely solely, in all respresentative govern-
ments. "
More recently expanded notions of
interstate commerce have obtained, and now
it is sufficient that federal legislation
deals with subject matter affecting interstate
commerce, as the Court stated in Katzenbach
v. McClung: 3
"The mere fact that Congress has said
when particular activity shall be deemed
to affect commerce does not preclude further
examination by this Court. But where we
find that the legislators, in light of the
facts and testimony before them, have a
rational basis for finding a chosen regu-
latory scheme necessary to the protection
of commerce, our investigation is at an end.
The only remaining question — one answered
in the affirmative by the court below —
is whether the particular restaurant either
serves or offers to serve interstate travelers
or serves food a substantial portion of
which has moved in interstate commerce."
All of the foregoing received application
in the field of air pollution in United States
v. Bishop Processing Company in which Bishop
challenged the authority of Congress to provide
for federal government action in air pollution
proceedings. Because of its importance,
the case is set forth, in part:
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA v. BISHOP PROCESSING CO.
287 F.S. 624 (1968)
United States District Court
District 3f Maryland
THOMSEN, C.J.: This action has been brought
by the United States under the Clean Air
Act (the Act), 42 U.S.C. 1857, et seq., par-
ticularly section 108 (g) (1) of the Act,
as amended November 21, 1967, 81 STAT. 496,
507, now codified as 28 U.S.C. 1857d (g)(1)
The government seeks to enjoin Bishop
Processing Company (the defendant), the operator
of a rendering and animal reduction plant
near Bishop, Worcester County, Maryland,
from discharging malodorous air pollutants,
which it is alleged, move across state lines
and pollute the air in and around Selbyville,
Delaware.
The first ground stated in defendant's
motion to dismiss is that the Clean Air Act
is an unconstitutional attempt by Congress
to control purely local intrastate activities
over which Congress has no power to legislate.
Defendant argues (a) that the movement of
pollutants across state lines is not inter-
state commerce itself, and (b) has no sub-
stantial effect on interstate commerce.
(a) The movement of pollutants across
a state line is a proper jurisdictlonal basis
for the provisions of the Act relating to
the abatement of interstate air pollution.
ibid.. n.l, at 189-90, 196-97.
Katzenbach v. McClung. 379 U.S. 294,
85 S.Ct. 377, 13 L.Ed.2d 290 (1964).
-------
Federal Constitutional Provisons
Such movement of pollutants across state
lines constitutes interstate commerce subject
to the power granted to Congress by the
Constitution to regulate such commerce.
Whether the originator of the pollution
directs it across state borders intentionally
is immaterial. In Thornton v. United States,
271 U.S. 414 (1926), the owner of cattle
which ranged on land near the Florida-Georgia
border claimed that they were not within
interstate commerce*and, consequently, that
he could not be required to comply with a
federal requirement for the inspection and
preventive treatment of cattle in an area
under quarantine. The Supreme Court upheld
the constitutionality of the applicable
statute, stating:
". . . [I]t is said that these cattle
do not appear to have been intended to be
transported by mail or boat from one state to
another and this only is interstate commerce
in cattle under the Constitution. They were
on the line between the two States. To drive
them across the line would be interstate commerce,
and the Act of 1905 expressly prohibits driving
them on foot when carrying catagion. It is
argued, however, that when the cattle only
range across the line between the States and
are not transported or driven, their passage
is not interstate commerce. It is intercourse
between states, made possible by the failure
of owners to restrict their ranging and is
due, therefore, to the will of their owners."
271 U.S. at 425, 46 S.Ct. at 588.
In United States v. Darby, 312 U.S. 100,
114 (1941), the Court quoted from Gibbons v.
Odgen, 22 U.S. (9 Wheat.) 1, 196 (1824) as
follows:
"The power of Congress over interstate
commerce is complete in itself, may be exercised
to its utmost extent, and acknowledges no
limitations other than are prescribed in the
Constitution. . . . It is no objection
to the assertion of the power to regulate
interstate commerce that its exercise is
attended by the same incidents which attend
the exercise of the police power of the states."
The commerce power may be exercised to
achieve socially desirable objectives, even
in the absence of economic considerations.
Brooks v. United States, 267 U.S. 432, 436
(1959). [Note: The Supreme Court has upheld
the application of the commerce power to the
interstate transportation of lottery tickets,
Champion v. Ames, 188 U.S. 321 (1903), . .
. kidnapped persons, Gooch v. United States,
297 U.S. 124 (1936), to prostitution, Caminetti
v. United States, 242 U.S. 470 (1917), . .
. and to racial discrimination, Heart of
Atlanta Motel v. United States, 379 U.S. 241
(1964).]
(b) Defendant contends that pollution
has no substantial and harmful effect on commerce,
arguing that the congressional finding that
air pollution has resulted in hazards to air
and ground transportation is clearly erroneous,
and that if pollution has any effect on air and
ground transportation, such effect has been
isolated and insubstantial.
Since the provisions of the act relating
to the abatement of interstate air pollution
may properly be based on the interstate move-
ment of the pollutants themselves, it is
not necessary that such pollutants inter-
fere with interstate commerce in order to
sustain this exercise of the commerce power.
Congress, however, concluded that
"the growth in the amount and complexity
of air pollution brought about by urbanization,
industrialization, and the increasing use
of motor vehicles, has resulted in mounting
dangers to the public health and welfare,
including injury to agricultural crops and
livestock, damage to and the deterioration
of property, and hazards to air and ground
transportation." Section 1857d (a)(2).
The finding in Section 1857d (a)(2), quoted
above, is adequately supported by the
legislative history. [Note: This conclusion
was supported by the legislative history.
"Strong evidence that air pollution is
associated with a number of respiratory
ailments" was noted in one report (Staff
Report to the Senate Committee on Public
Works, A Study of Pollution - Air, printed
as Appendix I to Hearings on Bill Pertaining
to the Prevention and Abatement of Air
Pollution, Before a Special Subcommittee
on Air and Water Pollution of the Senate
Committee on Public Works, 88th Cong., 1st
Sess., at 417 (1963))l Evidence that air
pollution damages agriculture and property
to the extent of 11 billion dollars annually
was also presented (Statement of V.G. Mac-
Kenzie, Chief, Division of Air Pollution,
Public Health Service (Hearings, Id., at
pp. 67, 83)).]
A court's review of such a congressional
finding is limited. The only questions
are whether Congress had a rational basis
for finding that air pollution affects
-------
Federal Constitutional Provisions
commerce, and it had such a basis, whether
the means selected to eliminate the evil
are reasonable and appropriate. Heart oj[
Atlanta Motel v. United States, 379 U.S.
241, 248, 259 (1964); Katzenbach v. McClung,
379 U.S. 294, 303, 304 (1964); Maryland v.
Wirtz, 392 U.S. 183 (1968).
Defendant argues that the congressional
finding that air pollution has an effect
on air and ground transportation is clearly
erroneous, since the legislative history
provides only "isolated and insubstantial"
interferences with transportation. The powp-
of Congress to regulate activities affecting
interstate commerce is to be determined not
only by the quantitative effect of individual
operations, but also by the total effect of
many individual interferences with commerce,
United States v. Darby, supra, at 37, and
their recurring nature, Chicago Bd. of Trade
v. Olsen, 262 U.S. 1, 40 (1923).
Defendant next argues that non-visible
pollution has no effect upon commerce and
consequently Congress has not authority over
"odorous pollution."
The complaint recites the following
findings of fact made by the Hearing Board:
"3. The malodorous pollution consists
of sickening, nausating and highly offensive
odors which are pervasive in effect to the
interstate Selbyville, Delaware - Bishop,
Maryland, area. Such noxious, malodorous
air pollution endangers the health and welfare
of persons in the town of Selbyville, Delaware
and adjacent and contiguous areas. It causes
nausea, sleeplessness, and revulsion, thereby
imposing a physiological and psychological
burden on persons subjected thereto; and it
adversely affects business conditions and
property values and impedes industrial develop-
ment." (Complaint, paragraph II, p. 6).
Paragraph VII of the complaint alleges, inter
alia, that "said air pollution is now continuing
unabated."
Whether or not the finds of fact made
by the Hearing Board will be treated as evidence
of the facts so found when this case comes
on for trial, the complaint alleges them as
facis, and they must be considered to have
been admitted by defendant for the purposes of
its motion to dismiss.
Malodorous pollution which "adversely
affects business conditions and property values
and impedes industrial development" would clearly
interfere with interstate commerce.
Defendant's argument that there is no
economic relationship between the activity
regulated and the commerce protected must
also fail. As we have seen, Congress undertook
to regulate the movement of pollutants across
state borders, and it is alleged that those
pollutants do interfere with interstate commerce.
Hence, the "local activity" (the operation
of the rendering plant) is subject to the
power of Congress to regulate interstate
commerce. In Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc.
v. United States, 379 U.S. 241, 258 (1964),
the Court said:
"It is said that the operation of
the motel here is of a purely local character.
But, assuming this to be true, [i]f it is
interstate commerce that feels the pinch,
it does not matter how local the operation
which applies the squeeze. United States
v. Women's Sportswear Mfg. Association, 336
U.S. 460, 464 (1949)"
The Court added:
"The power of Congress over interstate
commerce is not confined to the regulation
of commerce among the states. It extends
to those activities intrastate which so
affect interstate commerce or the exercise
of the power of Congress over it as to make
regulation of them appropriate means to the
attainment of a legitimate end, the exercise
of the granted power of Congress to regulate
interstate commerce. See McCulloch v.
Maryland, 4 Wheat. 316, 421, at 118.
"Thus the power of Congress to promote
interstate commerce also includes the power
to regulate the local incidents thereof,
including local activities in both the
state of origin and destination, which might
have a substantial and harmful effect upon
that commerce." 379 U.S. at 258
Congress had a rational basis for
finding that air pollution affects commerce,
and the means selected by Congress to eliminate
the harmful effects of the interstate move-
ment of air pollutants are reasonable and
appropriate.
II.
Defendant argues that "offensive
odors" do not constitute "air pollution"
under the Act. It admits that "odor" is
defined as "the property of a substance
which affects the sense of smell." We
are dealing in this case with the movement
from Maryland to Delaware of physical
-------
molecules of matter whose presence is rec-
ognized in Selbyville by their odor.
The meaning of the word "pollute11 ±g
"to make foul, or unclean" (Random House
Dictionary of the English Language, 1966
ed.). No definition of "air pollution"
is contained in the Clean Air Act of 1963
or in the 1967 amendments. Congress must
have intended the term to be taken in its
dictionary meaning.
Defendant's citations to legislative
history are examples of pollutants which
do not pretend to be exhaustive or limiting.
Moreover, many of the specific pollutants
cited have an obnoxious odor, and a principal
objection to such pollutants is their objectionable
odor.
Defendant's motion to dismiss must be
and hereby is denied.
Notwithstanding the view expressed in
Bishop, and consistent with the notion that
ours is a Government of enumerated powers,
there are limitations imposed by the Constitution
on the freedom of Congress to act. These
limitations, contained in the Amendments to
the Constitution, provide important protection
for individuals against arbitrary or capricious
action by government.
The first of these protecting individual
rights, and providing a limitation upon
arbitrary air pollution legislation, is the
Fourth Amendment, stating:
"The right of the people to be secure
in their person, houses, papers, and effects,
against unreasonable searches and seizures,
shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall
issue, but upon probable cause, supported by
Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing
Federal Constitutional Provisions
the place to be searched, and the person or
things to be seized."
Recently considerable attention has been
focused on this Amendment, and especially since
two recent decisions 5 by the United States
Supreme Court. Both cases involved inspections
by local health inspectors, and aside from
the fact that Camara involved a private dwelling
while See involved a commercial warehouse, the
two are not generally distinguishable. Just
as administrative searches to determine whether
there has been a violation of a regulation
was held to be a significant intrusion on the
privacy and security of individuals in their
private dwellings, so was it held that the
businessman has a "constitutional right to go
about his business free from unreasonable official
entries on his commercial premises."
So that the rules of Camara-See have meaning,
and are not casually circumvented, none
of the evidence or "fruits" 7 thereof are
allowable as evidence in any subsequent
proceeding. This doctrine also applies so
as to preclude a subsequent prosecution of
any kind, state or federal, regardless of
whether the illegal search (investigation)
was conducted by state (and/or local) or
federal officials.
To the general rule espoused in Camara
-See there are exceptions, the most important
of wnich allows evidence otherwise forbidden
if there has been a consent to or warrant
for the search, which consent may be as
follows:
"I, John Doe, know of my constitutional
rights to refuse to allow a police search
of any part of my house at 711 Royalty Road,
Alexandria, Virginia. However, I have decided
to allow Tom Smith and Bill Jones, members
of the Metropolitan Police, to search every
part of my house. They have my permission
to take any letters, papers, materials, or
While the court at the time of this opinion
appears willing to grant the injunctive
relief sought, its feeling is significantly
different when it later decides the in-
junction issue. The apparent distinction is
that while the early opinion is directed
to the question of whether the court has
jurisdiction, the later opinion is directed
to the question of appropriate remedy. The
two issues are significantly different,
and that the court has troubles with one
only does not indicate in and of itself
inconsistency or a wavering attitude.
Camara v. City of San Francisco, 387 U.S.
523 (1967), See v. City of Seattle, 387
U.S. 541 (1967).
387 U.S. 541, at 543.
This doctrine precludes the use of such
illegally obtained evidence, or any evidence
subsequently obtained through the use of
the illegally obtained evidence, such
evidence being commonly referred to as
"fruit of the poisoned tree."
-------
Federal Constitutional Provisions
other property they want. I have decided
to make this consent carefully, of my own
free will, and without being subject to
threats or promises. I know that anything
discovered may be used against me in a
criminal proceeding.
Is/ John Doe
January 22, 1967
o
Witness: Bob Janitor.
So far as the consent to search is concerned,
it must be freely given in awareness of the
possible resultant consequences, and is not
valid if it is one given in submission to
authority resulting from fear of failure
to grant entry. Whether the full-blown
Miranda warnings need be given in seeking
consent is not presently clear. The recent •
doubt in this area may have been clarified
somewhat by the Supreme Court's recent denial
of review in Muse v. United States where
the ruling of the Eighth Circuit states
that the failure of an Internal Revenue
Service special agent to advise a taxpayer
of the purpose of his administrative inves-
tigation or warn him of any rights other
than his right to remain silent did not
bar use in a subsequent tax evasion trial
of information the taxpayer furnished the
agent during the interview. As health (and
air pollution) investigations come under
the broad label of administrative inves-
tigations, and are similar in this respect
to tax investigations, this area may not pose
a threat to the local control agency, but it
is certainly a problem to which attention must
be directed.
So far as the warrant is concerned, this
is generally provided only after the inspectDr
has received a refusal of entry. Where any
element of surprise is important, however,
it is expected that deviation from standard
procedures should obtain:
"We do not decide whether warrants to
inspect business premises may be issued only
after access is refused; since surprise may
often be a crucial aspect of routine inspections
of business establishments; the reasonableness
of warrants issued in advance of inspection
will necessarily vary with the nature of the
regulation involved and may differ from standards
applicable to private homes."
The apparant rationale behind this distinction
is that while private homeowners are unable
to make changes in their home heating equipment,
it is possible for commercial enterprises often
to make changes in the types of fuels used
within a relatively short time period, and
therefore the element of surprise becomes
essential to enforcement.
The warrant allows a search conducted
on the "premises." The reference here clearly
is to those areas which are not generally open
to the public. "Premises" then can be construed
to include a private dwelling, and to exclude
the public dining room but not the non-public
kitchen. Further questions may not be so clear,
as the hypothetical of a helicopter flight over
"Handbook on the Law of Search and Seizure,"
Department of Justice, 1967, at 52.
". . . When an individual is taken into
custody or otherwise deprived of his
freedom by the authorities and is subjected
to questioning, the privilege against self-
incrimination is jeopardized. Procedural
safeguards must be employed to protect the
privilege, and unless other fully effective
means are adopted to notify the person of
his right of silence and to assure that
the exercise of the right will be scrupulously
honored, the following measures are required.
He must be warned prior to any questioning
that he has the right to remain silent, that
anything he says can be used against him
in a court of law, that he has the right
to the presence of an attorney, and that
if he cannot afford an attorney one will
10
11
be appointed for him prior to any ques-
tioning if he so desires. Opportunity to
exercise these rights must be afforded him
throughout the interrogation. After such
warnings have been given, and such opportunity
afforded him, the individual may knowingly
and intelligently waive these rights and
agree to answer questions to make a statement.
But unless and until such warnings and '
waiver are demonstrated by the prosecution
at trial, no evidence obtained as a result
of interrogation can be used against him."
Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436, at
478-79 (1966).
405 F.2d 40 (1968), Cert, denied, March
3, 1969.
See v. City of Seattle, 387 U.S. 541
at 545 (n. 6).
-------
Federal Constitutional Provisions
private property suggests. Other problems
are posed by area searches. 12
Additional personal safeguards to air
pollution legislative powers are found in
the Fifth Amendment which states:
"No person shall ... be deprived of
life, liberty, or property without due process
of law; nor shall private property be taken for
public use, without just compensation."
Directing our attention first to a discussion
of the second part of the Fifth Amendment, that
part dealing with the problem of "eminent domain,
we are concerned most with the effective "taking"
of property without just compensation therefor.
A possible answer to the dilemma presented is
to consider that the person whose property is
subject to regulation has created for himself
the awkward situation in which he finds
himself, and as a result of which he is
unreasonably using his property, thereby
precluding any claim he might have had with
regard to what otherwise would have been a
taking for public use of his property.
The eminent domain problem remains serious
only if one takes the position that a property
owner has a right to pollute the air. Note
that this problem arises only when the
property is effectively taken in entirety,
and is not applicable when use is merely
limited.
A second aspect of the Fifth Amendment
concerns the requirement of procedural due
process. This provision applies only to the
Federal Government and courts, with essentially
the same requirements applicable to the states
under the Fourteenth Amendment. Most important
of the requirements hereunder, and certainly
attracting considerable attention today,
are those requirements for criminal due process.
Many of the requirements hereunder will be
discussed in those sections dealing with
trial practice, but the protection against
self-incrimination is especially significant
and worthy of mention. As espoused in
Miranda, -^ the warnings regarding self-
incrimination may even be applicable to
administrative investigations, although
doubt is cast in this area with the recent
Muse decision.
12
So far as area-wide searches are concerned,
the Court stated in Camara at 537:
"... we think that a number of per-
suasive factors combine to support the
reasonableness of area code-enforcement
inspections. First, such programs have
a long history of judicial and public
acceptance. . . . Second, the public
interest demands that all dangerous con-
itions be prevented or abated, yet it is
doubtful that any other canvassing tech-
nique would achieve acceptable results.
Many such conditions — faulty wiring is
an obvious example — are not observable
from outside the building and indeed may
not be apparent to the inexpert occupant
himself. Finally, because the inspections
are neither personal in nature nor aimed
at the discovery of evidence of crime,
they involve a relatively limited invasion
of the urban citizen's privacy . . . ."
As if the issue has not been sufficiently
confused at this point, the Court continues
at 539-40: "On the other hand, in the
case of most routine area inspections,
there is no compelling urgency to inspect
at a particular time. Moreover, most
citizens allow inspections of their property
without a warrant. Thus, as a practical
matter and in light of the Fourteenth
Amendment's requirement that a warrant
specify the property to be searched, it
seems only likely that warrants should
normally be sought only after entry is
refused unless there has been a citizen
complaint or there is other satisfactory
reason for securing immediate entry. . .
This problem is illustrated by Section
108(k) of the Air Quality Act of 1967,
stating: "... the Secretary [of HEW],
upon receipt of evidence that a particular
source or combination of sources (including
moving sources) is presenting an imminent
and substantial endangerment to the
health of persons . . . may request the
Attorney General to bring suit on behalf
of the United States in the appropriate
United States district court to immed-
iately enjoin any contributor to the
alleged pollution to stop the emission
of contaminants causing such pol-
lution. . . -" (P.L. 90-148, 81 STAT. 485,
497).
Cf. discussion of Muse v. United States,
supra p. 11.
-------
Federal Constitutional Provisions
The last of the Amendments having a
bearing on the problems of air pollution
control is the Tenth Amendment, providing:
"The powers not delegated to the United
States by the Constitution, nor prohibited
by it to the States, are reserved to the
States respectively, or to the people."
Thus, the states have such power as is
inherent in a sovreign power, and are
thereby allowed to exercise what is commonly
referrred to as the "police power." Such
power allows a state to legislate for the
public health, welfare, and morals, and
includes incorporation of the common law
public nuisance doctrine in addition to
going beyond that limited area to include
broad social legislation. To understand
fully the broad powers of the Tenth Amendment
it is necessary to tie in the requirements
of the Fourteenth Amendment which states,
relevant to our discussion:
". . . nor shall any State deprive
any person of life, liberty, or property without
due process of law, nor deny to any person within
its jurisdiction the equal protection of the
laws."
That is to say, any legislation enacted under
the guise of the police power must be reasonable,
certain, and obtain a reasonable classification
therefor. Such has been the interpretation
given the "due process" provision of the Four-
teenth Amendment, as stated by the Supreme
Court in Northwestern Laundry v. Des Moines:
16
"The protection of the due process and
equal protection clauses of the Fourteenth
Amendment is invoked. It is insisted that
the ordinance is void because its standard of
efficiency requires the remodeling of practically
all furnaces which were in existence at the time
of its adoption; it forbids remodeling or
substituted equipment without a prescribed
license; it forbids new construction without
such license; it fails to specify approved
equipment, and instead delegates, first to
the inspector, and second, to the smoke abatement
commission, the unregulated discretion to
arbitrarily prescribe the requirements in
each case, without reference to any other as
to the required character of smoke prevention
device, thus making the right of complainants
and their class to own and operate such furnaces
subject to the pleasure of the inspector and
commission. It is averred that the ordinance
exceeds the authority delegated to the city by
the legislature; that it attempts to substitute
its own definition of the crime and nuisance
committed by the emission of dense smoke for
that enacted by the legislature in the act
under the pretended authority of which the or-
dinance is adopted; that it is unreasonable and
tyrannical and exceeds the authority delegated
for want of uniformity as to the whole city
and because the exceptions specified are not
natural and just. It is alleged that the
ordinance prescribes arbitrary tests of degrees
of density (Ringelmann), and enables the inspector
to present irrebuttable proof of violation;
that it provides for unlimited prosecutions
and successive fines, constituting excessive
punishment in the aggregate, without adequate
remedy or relief and undertakes to deprive
the courts of power to determine whether the
nuisances have in fact been committed or main-
tained.
"So far as the Federal Constitution is
concerned, we have no doubt the State may
by itself or through authorized municipalities
declare the emission of dense smoke in cities
or populous neighborhoods a nuisance and
subject to restraint as such; and that the
harshness of such legislation, or its effect
upon business interests, short of merely
arbitrary enactment, are not valid consti-
tutional objections. Nor is there any valid
Federal constitutional objection in the
fact that the regulation may require the
discontinuance of the use of property or
subject the occupant to large expense in
complying with the terms of the law or
ordinance." (at 490-492)
The area of police power is further
defined in Herman v. Parker, stating:
"We deal, in other words, with what
traditionally has been known as the police
power. An attempt to define its reach or
trace its outer limits is fruitless, for
each case must turn on its own facts. The
definition is essentially the product of
legislative determinations addressed to
the purposes of government, purposes neither
abstractly nor historically capable of complete
definition. Subject to specific constitutional
limitations, when the legislature has spoken,
the public interest has been declared in
terms well-nigh conclusive. In such cases
16
239 U.S. 486 (1916).
17
348 U.S. 26 (1954).
-------
Federal Constitutional Provisions
i In.1 legisl.itiii-n, not the .-judiciary, is the
iii.-iin guardian of the pubJic needs to be
served by social legislation, whether it be
Congress legislating concerning the District
of Columbia, ... or the States legislating
I'onci1 ruing local affairs. . . . This
principle admits of no exception merely
because the power of eminent domain is
involved. Thr role of the judiciary in
determining whether the power is being exercised
for a public purpose is an extremely narrow
one.
"Public safety, public health, morality,
peace and quiet, law and order — these are
some of the more conspicuous examples of the
traditional application of the police power
to municipal affairs. Yet they merely
illustrate the scope of the power and do
not delimit it."
The Fourteenth Amendment also guarantees
"equal protection" under the law, thereby
requiring fair and reasonable classification
in the app.l iration of the laws.
in Dei? Moines at 495:
As stated
"As to the attack upon the ordinance
because of arbitrary classification.
[t]he ordinance applies equally to all coming
within its terms, and the fact that other
businesses might have been included, does not
make such arbitrary classification illegal be-
c mse certain cities are included and other?
omitted in the statute."
The foregoing explains the most important
Federal Constitutional provisions relevant
to the field of air pollution control. In
addition to these provisions, in the litigation
of specific cases, consideration must be given
to the particular court and, where applicable,
the jury, before which the case will be tri^d.
The attitude of both may be significant factors
in the interpretation of the above-described
sections of the Federal Constitution which
cannot be isolated and considered apart from
all other facets of the law.
-------
SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS Section Four
Sampling for Dustfsll and Suspended
Solids and Determination of Soiling
Index
Sulfur Dioxide
Reference Method for the Determination of
Sulfur Dioxide in the Atmosphere
Laboratory Procedure for the Determination
of Sulfur Dioxide
Suspended Particulates
Reference Method for the Determination of
Suspended Particulates in the Atmosphere
Carbon Monoxide
Reference Method for the Continuous
Measurement of Carbon Monoxide in the
Atmosphere
Nitrogen Dioxide
Photochemical Oxidants
Reference Method for the Measurement of
Photochemical Oxidants Corrected for
Interferences Due to Nitrogen Oxides
and Sulfur Dioxide
Reference Method for Determination of
Hydrocarbons Corrected for Methane
Principles of Adsorption
Principles of Absorption
Principles of Grab Sampling
Sampling Location Guidelines
Selection and Performance of Wet
Collector Media
Principles of Freezeout Sampling
-------
SAMPLING FOR DUSTFALL AND SUSPENDED SOLIDS AND
DETERMINATION OF SOILING INDEX
C. H. Moline*
I INTRODUCTION
Sampling the ambient atmosphere for particu-
late pollutants can be accomplished by a
variety of techniques. Selection of the tech-
nique will depend upon the needs of the inves-
tigator, the particulate to be sampled, and
the type of analyses to be performed. Par-
liculates take a variety of forms. These
include pollen grains, fungus spores, metallic
oxides, mineral dusts, fly ash, smoke and
many others.
Routine investigations of atmospheric particu-
lales occurring in I he atmosphere usually are
done with the aid of the Dustfall Bucket; the
High Volume Sampler; and the Tape Sampler.
II THE DUSTFALL BUCKET
A Equipment Description
Basically the dustfall bucket may refer to
a variety of open top cylindrical containers.
Essentially this type device is one that
presents an area upon which the larger
and more dense fraction of atmospheric
pollutants may settle.
There are a number of different designs
as shown in the illustrations below. The
materials from which the collectors are
made are glass, polyethylene, stainless
steel, and other nonreactive materials.
The more durable containers are pre-
ferred as a means of reducing breakage
in the field as well as laboratory. It is
essential that the dustfall buckets through
out the sampling network be of uniform
design. This will enable more reliable
comparisons of data obtained in respect
to the several stations included in the
sampling system.
Figure 1. DUSTFALL BUCKET
EFFECTIVE COLLECTING AREA
Figure 2. DUSTFALL COLLECTOR -
A polyethylene cylindrical jar
Dimensions are 8.5 in. high and 4 in.
diameter at the top with a slight tapper
to bottom.
^Public Health Advisor, Air Pollution Training,
Training Program, SEC
EAQM VII 8.6(i
7-1
-------
Sampling for Particulate Pollutants
Figure 3. DETROIT GAUGE
An integral copper reciptical and funnel with
a wind baffle which acts as a bird ring.
Effective mouth of the funnel is 11 3/16"
reducing to 3 1/4.
Figure 4. DUSTFALL COLLECTOR
Toronto type
Essentially an 18 in. porcelain funnel drain-
ing into an aluminum container.
IRD SHIELD
GLASS
COLLECTING BOWL
RUBBER TUBING
BOUND WITH
ADHESIVE TAP£
Figure 5. STANDARD DEPOSIT-GAUGE
ASSEMBLY
Diameter of the collecting bowl is 12 1/2 in. +1/2 in.
and verticle sides are 4 1/8 in.
-------
Sampling for Particulate Pollutants
Figure 6. DIRECTIONAL FALLOUT DEVICE
Figure 7. DIRECTIONAL FALLOUT DEVICE
(Internal Arrangement)
B Trays and Coated Materials
A number of tray or plate type deposition
sampling devices have been used. In some
cases these have only been an open tray as
shown in Figure 8. The tray or plate has
also been utilized with coated materials
which are intended to improve retention.
Much of the Atomic Energy Commission's
original sampling work was done with these
type of devices. This type of sample would
be most useful if an auto-radiographic
analysis was intended. The volume of
material collected would have to be limited
to a single layer so that the retention
characteristics would not be changed.
Coated materials of various sorts have
been used. These include gummed paper,
adhesive covered cellulose acetate film,
and petroleum jelly coated aluminum plate.
These materials have been placed in the
verticle as well as horizontal plane. The
former mounting has been done to assay
the direction from which deposits originated.
Some examples of these type devices are
shown in Figures 9 and 10.
1 The Gummed Paper Stand (Figure 9)
supports the sampling media in a
horizontal plane at the sampling site.
2 Jar type holders (Figure 10) can be
used to detect the direction from which
the pollutant is coming. The greater
portion of dust is in the direction of
origination. Another tray type deposi-
tion collector is composed of 1/8 inch
polyethylene granule spheres retained
in a pan. The spheres are intended to
hold the particulate material more
readily. The particulate material can
be separated from the granules by wet
sieving when preparing for analysis.
C Collection Factors
1 Gravity is the basic collecting factor
in dustfall sampling.
2 There are, however, others that may
influence the mass of pollutant collected.
These are:
a Wind and air currents which may
tend to add to the mass of pollutant
by bringing them to the collector.
These forces may also re-entrain
finer and lower density particles
and disperse them into the surround-
ing atmosphere.
b Precipitation may account for the
presence of a variety of materials.
This occurs through the mechanisms
of:
1) Washout which is scrubbing of
the atmosphere by collision of
7-3
-------
Sampling for Particulate Pollutants
Figure 8. FALL-OUT TRAY
Figure 9. GUMMED PAPER STAND
raindrops with suspended particu-
lates thence deposition on a
surface.
2) Rainout whereby submicron
particles act as condensation
nuclei upon which water vapor
progressively accumulates until
the resulting raindrop falls to
the receiving surface.
D Sampling Periods ar.d Operating Procedures
1 The standard period for exposure of the
dustfall bucket is generally 30 days.
2 Under unusual circumstances such as
in heavy annual rainfall areas, it may
be advisable to reduce exposure time.
3 To facilitate retention of particulates
deposited therein, some agencies add
500 ml of water to the collector when
set out. Periodic additions may be
necessary in arrid areas.
4 When water is used as a collecting ;
medium, it is necessary to add algicide
during the warmer months and antifreeze
for cold area operation. In the former
instance, a quaternary ammonium is
often used. In the latter case, isopropyl
alcohol may be used. These additives
must be considered when organic
analyses are made.
E Analyses of Dustfall Samples
The analyses of dustfall samples usually
includes a determination of total water
soluble and insoluble weights. Initially,
the sample is removed from the collector
by thoroughly rinsing the contents of the
container with distilled water into a
casserole or beaker for subsequent evap-
oration to dryness.
1 Mass Determinations
a After drying, a mass determination
is made in respect to the total
material collected. In addition, it
may be advisable to find the levels
of water soluble and insoluble matter.
Other determinations may include
tars, carbon, insoluble ash, sulfates,
chlorides, phosphates, nitrates,
ammonia and a number of metals.
b Mass of dustfall is reported in re-
lation to unit area per unit time.
The sampling period is usually 30
days. The results may appear as
milligrams per square centimeter
per 30 days or mg/cm /30 days
and as tons per square mile per
30 days.
T/mi2/30 days
7-4
-------
Sampling for Particulale Pollutants
JAR-
Table 1. REPRESENTATIVE DUSTKALL
LEVELS WITHIN THE UNITED STATES
STICKY
1 TAPE
BOARD
10. STICKY TAPE WITH JAR
F Standards for Dustl'all Sampling
There are numerous aspects to be con-
sidered in operating dustfall bucket
sampling networks. Current published
standards include the "Recommended
Standard Methods for Continuing Dustfall
Surveys (APM 1, Revision 1) 1966", Air
Pollution Control Association; the "Method
for Collection and Analysis of Dustfall,
A.S.T.M. Standard D-1739-62", American
Society for Testing Materials; and the
"British Standard Specification 1747, 1951",
British Standards Institute.
1 As an example of Coverage included by
such standard methods the section
headings of the A.P.C.A. Recommended
Standard are:
Collector Design
Classification of Areas Served by Each
Collector
Site Selection
Maintenance of the Site
Number and Spacing of Stations
Control Station
Length of Sampling Period
T/mi2/mo
New York City, New York
Detroit, Michigan
Los Angeles, Calif.
Pittsburgh, Pa.
St. Paul, Minnesota
1953
1946
1948
1951
1959
67.
72.
33.
45.
22.
5
1
3
7
0
Collection and Analysis of the Sample
Determination of Water Soluble and
Total Solids
Reporting Data
Interpretation and Statistical
Computations
G Significance of Dustfall Sampling
A number of significant facts can be
learned from dustfall sampling.
1 High levels of specific particulates
will indicate the primary sources con-
tributing to the sample.
2 Identification of areas of the community
contributing greater or lesser levels
of pollution.
3 Long term sampling programs yield
evidence of change in pollutant levels
as demonstrated in Figure 12 below
relative to St. Paul, Minnesota.
4 Changes such as in processes or raw
materials used may also be indicated.
Again referring to Figure 12 above,
the decline in dustfall parallels the
conversion from wide spread use of
coal to that of natural gas for heating.
H Advantages of Dustfall Sampling
There are three primary reasons for
selecting dustfall sampling as a method
for measuring levels of air contaminants.
7-5
-------
Sampling for Participate Pollutants
1947 1950 1953 1956
Figure 11. MEAN MONTHLY DUSTFALL
IN LOUISVILLE; 1956 (Tons/Sq. Mile/30
Days Total Water Soluble and Insoluble)
Figure 12. AVERAGE DUSTFALL
IN ST. PAUL
1 Minimum equipment costs
This enables wide use within a sampling
area.
2 Simplicity of collection method
No electrical supply or other elaborate
provision is needed.
3 Basic weight determinations are simple.
I Disadvantages
There are several disadvantages in the
use of ihe dustfall sampling method.
1 A sampler of very small area is con-
sidered lo be representative of a large
segment of (.he community.
2 The 'id-day sampling period does not
lend the sample to be useful in detection
of intermediate peak deposition periods.
Ill HIGH VOLUME SAMPLER
This somewhat more complex sampling device
is used to sample suspended atmospheric
paniculate pollutants. The principle of col-
leeiion is filtration. Suspended particulates
are those v.hich tend to remain in the atmos-
phere for extended periods of time. Specific
particle size fractions sampled cannot be
defined. By employing Stoke's law and
using average gas velocity, it can be found
that this type unit, housed in a shelter will
sample under quiescent conditions particles
to 100 IJL in diameter having a specific gravity
of 2.65. Wind, however, will upset this
relationship and allow collection of larger
and heavier solids.
Originally, the device was developed to
monitor large volumes of the atmosphere
for radioactivity. Subsequently, it has been
used to advantage to sample the ambient
atmosphere for inorganic and organic
pollutants.
A Equipment Description and Operation
A typical high volume sampler ("hi vol"
as it is commonly called) site is noted
in Figure 13 below.
The shelter serves to protect the sampler
and filter from the elements.
1 Equipment description
An exploded view of the Hi Vol is noted
in Figure 14 where principal com-
ponents are identified.
The current filter adaptor permits the
use of the 8X 10 inch size filter which re-
places the original 4 inch diameter types.
-------
Sampling for Particulate Pollutants
Figure 13. A TYPICAL HI-VOL
SAMPLING SITE
Figure 14. AN EXPLODED VIEW OF
A HI-VOL SAMPLER
The glass fiber filter is now in general
use. The major advantage of this type
filter over that of original cellulosic
material is that it offers high filtering
efficiency for submicron particles with
minimum pressure drop throughout
the sampling period.
Only those fiber glass filters which have
been processed to remove organic
binders used in manufacture are suit-
able for organic analyses.
Prior to use, each filter is weighed
under standard temperature and pressure
conditions. This serves as a base in
determining, at time of analyses, the
total mass of pollutant collected.
2 Operation
The manner in which sampling is accom-
plished may be observed in Figure 15.
The path of air movement is thus:
1 Air enters shelter under eaves of
shelter roof;
2 Then is drawn through filter;
3 And thence exhausted through motor
access plate.
B Sampling Period and Total Flow
The Hi Vol sampler is customarily operated
for 24 hours. During this period, the
average sampling rate is 1.4 cubic meters
per minute or 2016 cubic meters per 24
hours. This is equal to 72,000 cubic feet
which is comparable to a layer of air 2. 4
feet high over a football field.
C Hi Vol Calibration
The measurement of the mass of suspended
particulates collected on the Hi Vol filter
is related to the volume of air which has
passed through the sampler. To find the
volume, it is basic that the companion
Hi Vol field-type rotameter be calibrated.
This is done with the aid of a conventional
orifice previously calibrated against a
positive displacement meter.
D Hi Vol Sample Analyses
The basic analytical method applied to thu
Hi Vol sample is one of gravimetric
analysis. This usually include.-s the loi.. i
weight of the suspended participates as
well as solvent soluble; fractions. This
makes it possible for the sample 10 L»,
analyzed for both organic anrl innrgri
contaminates. Radioactivity ma./ .>.!
be found.
-------
Sampling for Particulaio Pollutants
15. TYPICAL AIR FLOW THROUGH
A HI-VOL SAMPLER
Calculation of the concentration of sus-
pended pollutants may be made in
accordance with method listed below.
lr Calculation of Mass Determination
Weight of filter:
before 3. 182 gm
after 3. 550 gm
Flow rate:
start 1. 81 m3
finish 1.58 m3
Time.
start 3 PM 2-26-63
finish 3 PM 2-27-63
Ax <_• rage sampling rate — —'- 1.695m
Sample \rolume
1. 695 m'
m m.
*< 1440 min.
X 0.0283 —^ 2441 mj
ft3
AI.>.-a 01 collected material 3.550 3.182
= 0.368 gm
Com <-;i;r;:-.ion = ' ' J J—^A' 150. 7 X 10~6 em/m3
2441 m
2 After extraction of participates with
benzene or other suitable solvent,
specific organic analyses can be done.
These may include strong and weak
organic acids, amines, aliphatics,
aromatics, oxygenated compounds and
polynuclear hydrocarbons. The results
are usually expressed in the units
micrograms per cubic meter.
3 'Appropriate methods enable the re-
covery of many inortanic compounds.
These include chlorides, nitrates,
sulfates, beryllium, iron, zinc and
others. Analytical methods such as
spectrographic, polarographic, spectro-
photometric and turbidometric methods
are frequently used.
4 Determination of radioactivity
Radioactivity is determined in terms
of gross activity. This is usually done
prior to other analyses on the intact
sample filter with the aid of an end
window gas flow counting system.
Radioactivity is reported in terms of
picocuries per cubic meter of air.
Table 2. REPRESENTATIVE HI-VOL
SAMPLING RESULTS
Pittsburgh, Pa.
Birmingham, Ala.
St. Louis, Mo.
New Orleans, Louisiana
Chicago, 111.
New York, N. Y.
E Significance of Hi Vol Samples
The 24-hour samples can be used to re-
port of day to day peak pollutant levels.
Seasonal variations may also be noted as
for example the comparison of heating
season with non-heating season data.
The urban-rural differences are readily
distinguished.
-------
Sampling for Particulate Pollutants
When considered carefully, this sampling
method is much value in assaying effective-
ness of control programs os as a means
of demonstrating the need for control
F Advantage of the Hi Vol.
file primary advantage of use of the Hi
Vol t&'that it will sample a large volume
of ai^..in a relatively short period of time.
Thus, sufficient pollutant may be collected
for a yafiety of analyses.
G Disadvantages bf the Hi Vol
The iaajor disadvantage of use of the Hi
Vol are listed below:
1 Substantial original costs for sampler
and shelter.
2 Filter costs are high.
3 Electrical service must be obtained
4 Maintenance and replacement costs
are substantial.
IV TAPE SAMPLER
The tape sampler is an automatic device
developed to evaluate the soiling potential of
the ambient and visibility qualities of the
ambient atmosphere.
A Equipment Description and Operation
1 Description
The principle components of the tape
sampler are vacuum pump, sampling
nozzle, automatic time and sampling
tape.
2 Operation
The vacuum pump draws the ambient
air containing suspended particulates
through a cellulosic tape filter held in
the sampling nozzle. The particulates
are deposited upon the tape. At pre-
determined intervals the tape is
Figure 16. A TYPICAL TAPE SAMPLER
advanced automatically to a clean area
where another sampling period is begun.
As many as 600 sample spots may be
collected on the 100 foot rolls of filter
tape.
The sampling period may be selected
by setting the desired interval on the
automatic timer. The time sampled
per spot may be for as long as 3 1/2
hours. This may occur in 10 min.
segments. The sampling period per
spot is limited to a maximum of 2
hours in most cases to prevent an
excessive buildup of particulate
material beyond optical densities of
0. 30. In so doing, the data can be
retained in a straightline relationship.
The rate of flow of sample air through
the instrument may be approximately
7 liters or 0. 25 cubic feet per minute.
The diameter of the sample spot may
vary between 1/2 to 1 inch in diameter.
B Tape Sampler Calibration
In addition to the area of the spot and the
pollutant concentration, the density of the
spot is related to the volume of air passing
through the device. It is basic that the
unit be calibrated prior to being placed
into service and at appropriate intervals
to assure reliable data. This is usually
done in conjunction with a wet test meter
as the standard metering device.
7-9
-------
Sampling Tor Parta ul;ite Pollutants
PUMP
COLLECTIONS
C Tape Sample Analysis
The spots deposited upon the sampling tape
are usually evaluated upon the amount of
light transmitted by them. This is done
with the aid of a transrnissomcter through
which the tape is passed consecutively
from spot to spot throughout the length of
the tape.
The readout may be in terms of percent
of light transmitted and/or optical density.
This evaluation may be done using auto-
matic as well as manual equipment.
The analytical results for the tape sampler
are reported in terms of COH's per 1000
linear feet. The COH designation stands
for eoefficienl of hase. This is defined
as "the quantity of light-scattering solids
producing an optical density of 0.01 when
measured by light trnnsmittance. "
optii/ul density = log
100
I is the intensity reading with inter-
fering particles present (always
less than
Sample Calculation
average sampling rate =0.3 cfm
sampling time = 100 min.
1 = 50
meas
Diameter of tap spot = 1.0 in.
.ft
Volume sampled = 100 min. X 0. 3^-r- = 30ft
mm
O.D. = log
cohs =
100
meas
0.301
= log - = log 2 = 0. 301
0.01
= 30.1 cohs
where:
I
is the intensity reading without
mieri'rrmg particles present
(usually selected as 100)
The entire volume of air sampled could
be visualized as being contained in a
cylinder whose cross-sectional area was
was that of the spot on the tape and some
height.
7-10
-------
Sampling for Particulate Pollutants
Figure 19. TAPE SAMPLER ADJUSTABLE
TIMER AND THE AIR FLOW INDICATOR
Figure 20. TRANSMISSOMETER
H
feet
1.0 in. H =
30 ft"
in.
1 ft
\144 in.,
H = 5500 ft = 5.5 (1000 ft)
^Vol. = 30ft cohs/1000 lineal feet = -^-r
cohs/1000 lineal feet = 5.48
Table 3. REPRESENTATIVE TAPE SAMPLER MEASUREMENTS
City
Providence, R.I.
Indianapolis, Ind.
Berlin, N.H.
Birmingham, Ala.
Date
July 31 - Aug. 8
Oct. 31 - Nov. 17, 1961
June - July, 1963
Aug. 3 - Oct. 4, 1960
Nov. 29 - Dec. 19, 1961
cohs/ 1000
linear ft.
0.7
1.0
0.5
1.5
7-11
-------
Sampling for Particulate Pollutanls
Several soiling index rating systems aro
in existance. One such system is as
follows: S
coh/
1000 linear ft.
0 0.!)
1.0 1.!)
2.0 2.!)
.'i. 0 3. 9
Light
Moderate
Heavy
Very heavy
D Standards for Tape Sampling
The one notable standard relating to sam-
pling with I he tape sampler is that published
by the American Soeiety for Testing Mate-
rials. This is "ASTM Standard D1704-61,
Standard Melhod of Test for Particulate
Matter in I ho Atmosphere, Optical Density
of Filtered Deposits".
K Advantages of Tape Sampling
There arc a number of advantages in the
use of the lape sampler.
1 A wide variation of sampling periods
may be selected.
2 Large numbers of readings can be made
per day thereby detecting short-time
changes in pollutant levels.
.'i It is an automatic sampler, therefore
minimum attention is needed.
4 An estimate of the capabilities of par-
ticulates in the atmosphere to cause
soiling of walls, furniture, drapes,
buildings, etc.
Excessive data may accumulate beyond
practical data evaluation capabilities.
V OTHER PARTICULATE SAMPLING
DEVICES
A Inertial Collectors
Inertial devices function upon the basis
that when a rapidly flowing gas is forced
to change directions upon rheeting an
obstacle, particles in the gas stream
tend to continue in the initial direction
of flow. In so doing, the particles collide
with and cling to the obstructing surface.
Devices representative of inertial collect-
ing devices are the Greenberg-Smith
impinger, the midget impinge r, and the
cascade impactor.
B Precipitators
Precipitation is an effective method by
which particles are collected. The pri-
mary devices within this category are
thermal and electrostatic precipitators.
The phenomena upon which the thermal
precipitators operate is that particles
from the sample atmosphere are driven
by convection and molecular bombardment
from a heated wire to a cold collecting
surface.
The electrostatic precipitator collects
the pollutants from the gas being, sampled
through the principle of migration of
K Disadvantages
The primaiy disadvantages parallel those
of ihc Hi Vol Sampler.
costs of insl i-umcnl and
CroM-S«otioD of Air
OBa-D*oiiOD ox **r ^^«—
!••&• Cl«ftn«d of ^^^
rticl.. _/&Z
shelh
\c •• c;..".a r\ i li •(•! r'l ea I Sc rv i c< •.
' M.I i iii cn.i MI i • i < ihl s a re snb.sl ant lai.
figure 21. IMPINGEMENT ON A
CYLINDRICAL OBSTACLE
7-12
-------
Sampling for Particulate Pollutants
Figure 22. GREENBURG-SMITH IMPINGER
Figure 23. ALL-GLASS MIDGET
IMPINGER INLET
AIR PATH
JET I
IET I /
7 mm -f
Figure 24. CASCADE IMPACTOR
Figure 25. CASCADE IMPACTOR
7-13
-------
Sampling for Particulate Pollutants
charged particles in an electrical field.
A potential of about 10,000 volts is applied
across the field between a central wire
electrode to a surrounding tube-shaped
collecting electrode. A negative charge
induced upon the particles, causes them
to migrate toward and collect upon the
positively charged collecting electrode.
The Casella Thermal and Mine Safety
Appliances Electrostatic Precipitators
are representative of precipitating type
samplers.
C Filtration
Collection of atmospheric pollutants by
filtration is accomplished through a variety
of mechanisms. These are mechanical
screening, diffusion, particle inertia and
electrostatic forces.
The filter is selected in relation to the
purpose for which the sample is collected.
These may be in conjunction with gravi-
metric, chemical and radiological analysis
as well as determination of size distribu-
tions. Other governing factors include
nature of pollutant, structure and chemical
properties of filter, sensitivity of analyses,
filter efficiency, sampling rate, tempera-
ture and suitability for determination of
multiple pollutants.
Types of filter media are cellulosic,
inorganic fibrous mats, felts and papers,
and cellulose ester discs (membrane
filters).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1 Ives, James E., Britten, Rollo H.,
Armstrong, David W., W.A.G. II,
Goldman, Frederick, H. Atmospheric
Pollution of American Cities for the
Years 1931-1933. Washington, B.C.,
Public Health Service, U. S. Treasury
Department: United States Government
Printing Office, 1936.
2 Mee.tham, A.R. Atmospheric Pollution,
Its Origins and Prevention. Permagon
Press Limited, London, 1952, 268 pp.
3 Staff of Participating Agencies. The
Special Air Pollution Study of Louisville
and Jefferson County, Kentucky, 1956-
1957. Division of Air Pollution, PHS,
U. S. DHEW, Robert A. Taft Sanitary
Engineering Center, Cincinnati, 1961.
4 Cowen, D. W. and Paulus, H.J. Relation-
ship of Air Pollution to Allergic Diseases.
University Health Service and School of
Public Health, University of Minnesota,
Minneapolis, December 1964. (U.S.
PHS Research Grant APO0090-06)
Figure 26. ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR
Figure 27. THERMAL PRECIPITATOR
7-14
-------
Sampling for Particulate Pollutants
Figure 28. EQUIPMENT USING THE MEMBRANE FILTER
5 Stern, A.C. Air Pollution, Volumes I and
II. New York and London: Academic
Press, 1962.
6 Committee on Air Pollution Measurements
of Air Pollution Control Association.
"Recommended Standard Methods for
Continuing Dustfall Survey APM 1-a, "
Journal of the Air Pollution Control
Association, November 1955, Vol. 5,
176-181.
7 American Society for Testing and Materials.
Method for Collection and Analysis of
Dustfall. A.S.T.M. Standard D-1739-62.
Index to American Society for Testing
and Materials Standards, July 1, 1964,
Philadelphia, 1964.
8 Thring, M.W. Air Pollution. Butter-
worth's Scientific Publications, 1957,
248 pp.
9 Dobson, G. M. B., Chairman. Atmospheric
Pollution Research Committee, Depart-
ment of Scientific and Industrial Research.
Atmospheric Pollution in Leicester, A
Scientific Survey. Her Majesty's
Stationery Office, 1945. Reprint 1956,
London, 161 pp.
10 Faith, W.L. Air Pollution Control. New
York, John Wiley and Sons, Incorporated,
1959.
11 Minnesota Department of Health. An
Appraisal of Air Pollution Control in
7-15
-------
Sampling for' Part inilaie Pollutants
Minncsolu. Minneapolis, Minnesota
Department of Health, 11)61.
12 Hull, Frank A., Jr. Meaningful Air
Quality Measurements on a Limited
Budgel . Journal of I he Air Pollution
Control Association, March 1!J63, Vol.
13 U.S. DHEW, PHS. Air Pollution Measure-
ments of Hie National Air Sampling Net-
work. Washington, D.C., U.S. GPO,
1962.
14 Jacobs, Morris P>. The Chemical Analysis
of Air Pollutants. Interscience Pub-
lishers, Inc. , New York, London, 1960,
430 pp.
15 American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygiemsts. Air Sampling
Instruments for Evaluation of Atmos-
pheric Contaminates. Cincinnati,
American Conference, of Governmental
Indusl rial Hygiemsts, 1962.
16 Von Brand, T. K. Application of a Portable
Continuous Smoke Recorder. Mechani-
cal Engineering, Vol. 72, June 1950,
470".
17 Tebbons Bernard D. Five; Years of
Continuous Air Monitoring. American
Industrial Hygiene Association" Journal,
Vol. 21, February 1960. ' ~
18 Alleghany County Health Department U.S.
DHEW, PHS. Air Pollution Measure-
ments in PiMsburgh. Robert A. Taft
Samlary Engineering Center, Cincinnati,
21 llochheiser, Seymour and Welzel, Raymond
K. Air Pollution Measurements in
Indianapolis, June-July 1963. Division
of Air Pollution, PUS, U.S. DHEW,
Robert A. Tafl Sanitary Engineering
Center, Cincinnati, 1964.
22 Kemline, Paul A. In Quest of Clean Air
for Berlin, New Hampshire. Division
of Air Pollution, PHS, U.S. DHEW,
Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering
Center, Cincinnati, 1962.
23 Hochheiser, Seymour, Horstman, Sanford
W. and Tate, Guy M. , Jr. A Pilot
Study of Air Pollution in Birmingham,
Alabama. SEC Technical Report A62-
22, PHS, U.S. DHEW, Robert A. Taft
Sanitary Engineering Center, Cincinnati,
1962.
24 Monroe, W.A. Statewide Air Pollution
Survey Smoke Index. Public Health
News, New Jersey Department of Health ,
Vol. 39, August" 1952, 227.
25 NASN Hi Vol Procedures for Analyses
expand.
26 U.S. DHEW, PHS, Division of Air Pollution,
Laboratory of Engineering and Physical
Sciences, Air Quality Section. Pro-
cedures for the Analysis of Suspended
Particulate Matter Collected on Glass
Fiber Filters. Cincinnati, Robert A.
Taft Sanitary Engineering Center, 1963.
27 Eisenbud, Merrill. Environmental Radio-
activity. McGraw-Hill, New York,
London, Toronto.
1!) Ilocliliei.ser-, Seymour, Nolan, Melvin,
Dun.sniore. Herbcrl ,1 . Air Pollution
Me;iHii r emriil s m Duquosne, Pennsylvania.
U.S. miKW, I'llS, Koberl A. Tafl
Sanitary Engineering Center, C'inrmnal i,
PIC4.
28 List, R.J. On the Transport of Atomic
Debris in the Atmosphere. Journal of
Air Pollution Control Association, Vol.
5, No. 3. November 1955.
29 Air Pollution Control Association,
Abstract No. 2512.
^li, Marvin D. , Robert W. Slater,
C'osianijiif), CenaroC. A I'llol Study
of Air Pollution in Providem e, Rhode
Island, PUS, DI1KW, Robert A. Tal't
Samlary Kn^ineering Cenler, Cincinnati,
SKf Tei him ,il Reporl Afi2-l,r), 19C2.
30 Romney, K.M., et al. A Granular Collecto.
Tor Sampling Fallout Debris from Nueleai
DelonaiiotiK. American Industrial Hygion
Association .Journal, Vol. 2, August 1959.
-------
SULFUR DIOXIDE
I. Ambient Air Quality Standards
A. National Primary
1. 80 micrograms/cubic meter (0,03 ppm) - annual arithmetic
mean.
2. 356 micrograms/cubic meter (0.14 ppm) - maximum 24 hour
concentration not to be exceeded more than once per year.
B. National Secondary
1. 60 micrograms/cubic meter (0.02 ppm) - annual arithmetic
mean.
2. 260 micrograms/cubic meter (0.1 ppm) - maximum 24 hour concen-
tration not to be exceeded more than once per year, as a
guide to be used in assessing implementation plans to
achieve the annual standard.
3. 1,300 micrograms for cubic meter (0.5 ppm) - maximum 3 hour
concentration not to be exceeded more than once per year.
C., Episode Criteria
1. Air Pollution Forecast: An internal watch by the Department
of Air Pollution Control shall be actuated by a National
Weather Service Advisory that atmospheric stagnation ad-
visory is in effect or the equivalent local forecast of
PA.LA.61.2.73
-------
stagnant atmospheric conditions.
Prevention of Air Pollution Emergency Episodes: Prevent
ambient pollutant concentrations from any location in such
a region from reaching levels which could cause significant
hanh to the health of persons. The levels are:
1. Sulfur dioxide: 2,620 micrograms/m3 - 24 hr. average
(1.0 part per million)
2. Sulfur dioxide and particulate
Product of: SC>2 micrograms/m3 - 24 hr, average x
particulate matter micrograms/m3 - 24 hr average =
to 490 x 103
or
Product of: S02 micrograms/m3 - 24 hr. average x
COH's = 24 hr. average 1.5
2. Alert: An alert will be declared when the level reaches
800 micrograms per cubic meter (0.3 ppm) 24 hour average
S0_ and particulate combined product of S0_ ppm, 24 hour
average and COH's equal to 0.2.
3. Warning: The warning level indicates that air quality is
continuing to degrade and that additional control actions
are necessary. A warning will be declared when the
following level is reached at any monitoring site:
1. S02 - 1,600 micrograms/m3 - 24 hr. average
(0.6 ppm)
-------
2. SC>2 and particulate
Product oft S02 ppm - 24 hr, average x COH's =0,8
or t SC>2 microgram/nH - 24 hr. average x
particulate microgram/m^ = 261 x 10^
4, Emergency: The emergency level indicates that air quality
is continuing to degrade toward a level of significant harm
to health of persons and that most stringent control actions
are necessary. An emergency will be declared when the
following level is reached at any monitoring site:
1. S02 - 2,100 micrograms/m-^ - 24 hr. average (0.8 ppm)
2. SC>2 and particulate:
Product of: S02 ppm, 24 hr. average x COH's 24 hr.
average = 1.2
or: SC>2 microgram/m^ - 24 hr. average x
particulate microgram/m^ - 24 hr.
average = 393 x 10^
5. Termination: Once declared, any status reached by applica-
tion of these criteria will remain in effect until the
criteria for that level are no longer met. At such time
the next lower status will be assumed.
II. Classification of Regions
The classification will be based on measured ambient air quality,
where known, or where not known estimated air quality in the area
-------
of maximum pollutant concentration. Each region will be classified
separately with respect to each of the following pollutants: sulfur
oxides, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and
photo-chemical oxidants.
Ambient concentration limits which define the classification system
for sulfur oxides expressed as micrograms per cubic meter are:
Region Classification _! 11^ III
Greater From-To Less Than
Than
Annual arithmetic mean 100 60-100 60
24 hour - maximum 455 260-450 260
-------
III. Air Quality Surveillance Requirements
A. Region I Classification
Minimum Frequency
of Sampling
Region Population
One 24-hour sample less than 100,000
every 6 days (gas 100,000 - 1,000,000
bubbler)3 1,000,001 - 5,000,000
above 5,000,000
Continuous
less than 100,000
100,000 - 5,000,000
above 5,000,000
B, Region II Classification
Region Population
Minimum Frequency
of Sampling
One 24-hour sample
every 6 days (gas
bubbler)3
Continuous
C. Region III Classification
Region Population
Minimum Frequency
of Sampling
One 24-hour sample
every 6 days (gas
bubbler)3
Minimum Number of Air Quality
Monitoring Sites
3
2.5 + 0.5 per 100,000 pop.b
6 + 0.15 per 100,000 pop.b
11 + 0,05 per 100,000 pop.b
1 + 0.15 per 100,000 pop.b
6 + 0.05 per 100.,000 pop.b
Minimum Number of Air Quality
Monitoring Sites
Minimum Number of Air Quality
Monitoring Sites
3Equivalent to 61 random samples per year.
bTotal population of a region. When required number of samples
includes a fraction, round-off to the nearest whole number.
-------
IV. Measurement Method
A. Other methods for the determination of sulfur dioxide in the
atmosphere will be considered equivalent if they meet the
following performance specifications:
Specification
Range
Minimum detectable
sensitivity
Rise time, 90%
Fall time, 90%
Zero drift
Span drift
Precision
Operation
Noise
Interference
equivalent
Operating tempera-
ture fluctuation
Linearity
0-2620 /m3 (0-1 ppm)
26 /m3 (0.01 ppm)
5 min.
5 min.
± 1% per day and ± 2% per 3 days
± 1% per day and ± 2% per 3 days
± 2%
3 days
±0.5% (full scale)
26 /m3 (0.01 ppm)
± 5°C
2% (full scale)
The various specifications are defined as follows:
Range: The minimum and maximum measurement limits
Minimum detectable sensitivity: The smallest amount of input
concentration which can be detected as concentration approaches
7ero.
-------
Rise time 90%: The interval between initial response time and
time to 90% response after a step increase in inlet concentration.
Fall time 90%: The interval between initial response time and
time to 90% response after a step decrease in the inlet con-
centration.
Zero drift: The change in instrument output over a stated time
period of unadjusted continuous operation, when the input con-
centration is zero.
Span drift: The change in instrument output over a stated
period of unadjusted continuous operation, when the input con-
centration is a stated upscale value.
Precision: The degree of agreement between repeated measure-
ments of the same concentration (which shall be the midpoint
of the stated range) expressed as the average deviation of the
single results from the mean.
Operation period: The period of time over which the instrument
can be expected to operate unattended within specifications.
Noise: Spontaneous deviations from a mean output not caused by
input concentration changes.
Interference equivalent: The portion of indicated concentration
due to the total of the interferences commonly found in ambient
air.
Operating temperature fluctuation: The ambient temperature
fluctuation over which stated specifications will be met.
Linearity: The maximum deviation between an actual instrument
reading and the reading predicted by a straight line drawn
between upper and lower calibration points.
B. Pararosaniline Method (for the Determination of Sulfur Dioxide
in the Atmosphere).
-------
APPENDIX A -REFERENCE METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF SULFUR DIOXIDE IN
THE ATMOSPHERE (PARAROSANILINE METHOD)
1. PRINCIPLE AND APPLICABILITY
1.1 Sulfur dioxide is absorbed from air in a solution of potassium
tetrachloromercurate (TCM). A dichlorosulfitomercurate cgmplex, which re-
sists oxidation by the oxygen in the air, is formed.!»2 Once formed, this
complex is stable to strong oxidants (e.g., ozone, oxides of nitrogen). The
complex is reacted with pararosaniline and formaldehyde to form intensely
colored pararosaniline methyl sulfonic acid.3 The absorbance of the solu-
tion is measured spectrophotometrically.
1.2 The method is applicable to the measurement of sulfur dioxide in
ambient air using sampling periods up to 24 hours.
2. RANGE AND SENSITIVITY
2.1 Concentrations of sulfur dioxide in the range of 25 to 1050 yg/m
(0.01 to 0.40 ppm) can be measured under the conditions given. One can
measure concentrations below 25 yg/m^ by sampling larger volumes of air,
but only if the absorption efficiency of the particular system is first
determined. Higher concentrations can be analyzed by using smaller gas
samples, a larger collection volume, or a suitable aliquot of the collect-
ed sample. Beer's Law is followed through the working range from 0.03 to
1.0 absorbance units (0.8 to 27 yg of sulfite ion in 25 ml final solution
computed as S0_).
2.2 The lower limit of detection of sulfur dioxide in 10 ml TCM is 0.75
yg (based on twice the standard deviation) representing a concentration of
25 yg/m3 S02 (0.01 ppm) in an air sample of 30 liters.
3. INTERFERENCES
3.1 The effects of the principal known interferences have been minimized
or eliminated. Interferences by oxides of nitrogen are eliminated by sulf~
amic acid, ^>5 ozone by time-delay,6 and heavy metals by EDTA (ethylene-
diaminetetraacetic acid, disodium salt) and phosphoric acid.^»" At least
60 yg Fe(III), 10 yg Mn(II), and 10 yg Cr(III) in 10 ml absorbing reagent
can be tolerated in the procedure. No significant interference was found
with 10 yg Cu(II) and 22 yg V(V).
4. PRECISION. ACCURACY. AND STABILITY
4.1 Relative standard deviation at the 95% confidence level is 4.6%
for the analytical procedure using standard samples.5
PA.LA.55.2.73 Published in the Federal Register, Vol. 36S No. 84;
Friday, April 30, 1971 1
-------
APPENDIX A - REFERENCE METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF SULFUR DIOXIDE IN
THE ATMOSPHERE (PARAROSANILINE METHOD)
4.2 After sample collection the solutions are relatively stable. At
22°C losses of sulfur dioxide occur at the rate of 1% per day. When samples
are stored at 5°C for 30 days, no detectable losses of sulfur dioxide oc-
cur. The presence of EDTA enhances the stability of S02 in solution, and
the rate of decay is independent of the concentration of S0».7
5. APPARATUS
5.1 Sampling
5.1.1 Absorber - Absorbers normally used in air pollution sampling are
acceptable for concentrations above 25 yg/m-* (0.01 ppm). An all-glass mid-
get impinger, as shown in Figure Al, is recommended for 30-min. and 1 hour
samples.
For 24-hour sampling, assemble an absorber from the following parts:
Polypropylene 2-port tube closures, special manufacture (avail-
able from Bel-Art Products, Pequannock, New Jersey).
Glass impingers, 6 mm tubing, 6 inches long, one end drawn to
small diameter such that No. 79 jewelers drill will pass through,
but No. 78 jewelers drill will not. (Other end fire polished).
Polypropylene tubes, 164 by 32 ram (Nalgene or equal)
5.1.2 Pump - Capable of maintaining an air pressure differential greater
than 0.7 atmosphere at the desired flow rate.
5.1.3 Air Flowmeter or Critical Orifice - A calibrated rotameter or
critical orifice capable of measuring air flow within - 2%. For 30 minutes
sampling, a 22-gauge hypodermic needle 1 inch long may be used as a critical
orifice to give a flow of about 1 liter/minute. For 1 hour sampling, a 23
gauge hypodermic needle 5/8 inch long may be used as a critical orifice
to give a flow of about 0.5 liter/minute. For 24 hour sampling, 27 gauge
hypodermic needle 3/8 inch long may be used to give a flow of about 0.2
liter/minute. Use a membrane filter to protect the needle (Figure Ala).
5.2 Analysis
5.2.1 Spectrophotometer - Suitable for measurement of absorbance at
548 nm with an effective spectral band width of less than 15 nm. Reagent
blank problems may occur with spectrophotometers have greater spectral
band width. The wavelength calibration of the instrument should be
verified. If transtnittance is measured, this can be converted to
abaorbance:
A - Iog10 (1/T)
-------
APPENDIX A - REFERENCE METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF SULFUR DIOXIDE IN
THE ATMOSPHERE (PARAROSANILINE METHOD)
6. REAGENTS
6.1 Sampling
6.1.1 Distilled water - Must be free from oxidants.
6.1.2 Absorbing Reagent [0.04 M Potassium Tetrachloromercurate (TCM) ] -
Dissolve 10.86 g mercuric chloride, 0.066 g EDTA (Ethylenediamlnetetraacetic
acid, disodium salt), and 6.0 g potassium chloride in water and bring to
mark in a 1000-ml volumetric flask. (Caution; highly poisonous. If spilled
on skin, flush off with water immediately). The pH of this reagent should
be approximately 4.0, but it has been shown that there is no appreciable
difference in collection efficiency over the range of pH 5 to pH 3.7 The
absorbing reagent is normally stable for 6 months. If a precipitate forms,
discard the reagent.
6.2 Analysis
6.2.1 Sulfamic Acid (0.6%) - Dissolve 0.6 g sulfamic acid in 100 ml
distilled water. Prepare fresh daily.
6.2.2 Formaldehyde (0.2%) - Dilute 5 ml formaldehyde solution (36-38%)
to 1000 ml with distilled water. Prepare daily.
6.2.3 Stock Iodine Solution (0.1 N) - Place 12.7 g iodine in a 250-ml
beaker; add 40 g potassium iodide and 25 ml water. Stir until all is dis-
solved, then dilute to 1000 ml with distilled water.
6.2.4 Iodine Solution (0.01 N) - Prepare approximately 0.01 N iodine
solution by diluting 50 ml of stock solution to 500 ml with distilled water.
6.2.5 Starch Indicator Solution - Triturate 0.4 g soluble starch and
0.002 g mercuric iodide (preservative) with a little water, and add the
paste slowly to 200 ml boiling water. Continue boiling until the solution
is clear; cool, and transfer to a glass-stoppered bottle.
6.2.6 Stock Sodium Thiosulfate Solution (0.1 N) - Prepare a stock sol-
ution by dissolving 25 g sodium thiosulfate (Na2S203.5H20) in 1000 ml '
freshly boiled, cooled, distilled water and add 0.1 g sodium carbonate to
the solution. Allow the solution to stand 1 day before standardizing. To
standardize, accurately weigh to the nearest 0.1 rag, 1.5 g primary standard
potassium iodate dried at 180°C and dilute to volume in a 500-ml volumetric
flask. To a 500-ml iodine flask,pipet 50 ml of iodate solution. Add 2 g
potassium iodide and 10 ml of 1 N hydrochloric acid. Stopper the flask.
After 5 minutes, titrate with stock thiosulfate solution to a pale yellow.
Add 5 ml starch indicator solution and continue the titration until the
blue color disappears. Calculate the normality of the stock solution:
-------
APPENDIX A - REFERENCE METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF SULFUR DIOXIDE IN
THE ATMOSPHERE (PARAROSANILINE METHOD)
N = x 2.80
M
N = normality of stock thiosulfate solution
M = volume of thiosulfate required, ml
W = weight of potassium iodate, grams
3
2 on 10 (conversion of g to mg x 0.1 (fraction iodate used)
35.67 (equivalent weight of potassium iodate)
6.2.7 Sodium Thiosulfate Titrant (0.01 N) - Dilute 100 ml of the stock
thiosulfate solution to 1000 ml with freshly boiled distilled water.
Normality = Normality of Stock Solution x 0.100.
6.2.8 Standardized Sulfite Solution for Preparation of Working Sulfite-
TCM Solution - Dissolve 0.30 g sodium metabisulfite (Na2S205) or 0.40 g
sodium sulfite (Na2S03) in 500 ml of recently boiled, cooled, distilled
water. (Sulfite solution is unstable; it is therefore important to use
water of the highest purity to minimize this instability). This solution
contains the equivalent of 320 to 400 yg/ml of S02- The actual concentra-
tion of the solution is determined by adding excess iodine and back-tit-
rating with standard sodium thiosulfate solution.To back-titrate, pipet
50 ml of the 0.01 N iodine into each of two 500-ml iodine flasks (A and B).
To flask A (blank) add 25 ml distilled water, and to flask B (sample) pipet
25 ml sulfite solution. Stopper the flasks and allow to react for 5 min.
Prepare the working sulfite-TCM Solution (6.2.9) at the same ,time iodine solution
is added to the flasks. By means of a buret containing standardized 0.01 N
thiosulfate, titrate each flask in turn to a pale yellow. Then add 5 ml
starch solution and continue the titration until the blue color disappears.
6.2.9 Working Sulfite-TCM Solution - Pipet accurately 2 ml of the
standard solution into a 100 ml volumetric flask and bring to mark with
0.04 M TCM. Calculate the concentration of sulfur dioxide in the working
solution:
Mg S02/ml . (A - B) (N) (32,000) x ^
A = volume thiosulfate for blank, ml
B = volume thiosulfate for sample, ml
N = normality of thiosulfate titrant
32,000 = milliequivalent wt. of S02, Mg
25 = volume standard sulfite solution, ml
0.02 = dilution factor
-------
APPENDIX A - REFERENCE METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF SULFUR DIOXIDE IN
THE ATMOSPHERE (PARAROSANILINE METHOD)
This solution is stable for 30 days if kept at 5°C (refrigerator). If
not kept at 5°C., prepare daily.
6.2.10 Purified Pararosaniline Stock Solution (0.2% nominal)
6.2.10.1 Dye Specifications - The pararosaniline dye must meet the
following performance specifications: (1) the dye must have a wavelength
of maximum absorbance at 540 nm when assayed in a buffered solution of
0.1 M sodium acetate-acutic acid; (2) the absorbance of the reagent
blank, which is temperature-sensitive (0.015 absorbance unit/°C),
should not exceed 0.170 absorbance unit at 22°C with a 1-cm optical path
length, when the blank is prepared according to the prescribed analytical
procedure and to the specified concentration of the dye; (3) the
calibration curve (Section 8.2.1) should have a slope of 0.0304- 0.002
absorbance units/ug S02 at this path length when the dye is pure and the
sulfite solution is properly standardized.
6.2.10.2 Preparation of Stock Solution - A specially purified (99-100%
pure) solution of pararosaniline, which meets the above specifications,
is commercially available in the required 0.20% concentration (Harleco*).
Alternatively, the dye may be purified, a stock solution prepared and then
assayed according to the procedure of Scaringelli, et. al.4
6.2.11 Pararosaniline Reagent - To a 250-ml volumetric flask, add 20
ml stock pararosaniline solution. Add an additional 0.2 ml stock solution
for each per cent the stock assays below 100%. Then add 25 ml 3 M phosphoric
acid and dilute to volume with distilled water. This reagent is stable for
at least 9 months.
7. PROCEDURE
7.1 Sampling - Procedures are described for short term (30 min. and 1
hour) and for long term (24 hours) sampling. One can select different com-
binations of sampling rate and time to meet special needs. Sample volumes
should be adjusted, so that linearity is maintained between absorbance and
concentration over the dynamic range.
7.1.1 30-Minute and 1 Hour Samplings - Insert a midget impinger
into the sampling system, Figure Al. Add 10 ml TCM solution to the
impinger. Collect sample at 1 liter/min. for 30 minutes, or at 0,5
liter/min for 1 hour, using either rotameter, as shown in Figure Al,
or a critical orifice, as shown in Figure Ala to control flow. Shield
the absorbing reagent from direct sunlight during and after sampling
by covering the impinger with aluminum foil, to prevent deterioration.
Determine the volume of air sampled by multiplying the flow rate by the
*Hartmen-Leddon, 60th & Woodland Ave., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19143
-------
APPENDIX A - REFERENCE METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF SULFUR DIOXIDE IN
THE AriOSPHERE (PARAROSANILINE METHOD)
time in minutes and record the atmospheric pressure and temperature.
Remove and stopper the impinger. If the sample must be stored for more
than a day before ana-lysis, keep it at 5°C in a refrigerator (See 4.2).
7.1.2 24-Hour Sampling - Place 50 ml TCM solution in a large
absorber and collect the sample at 0.2 liter/min. for 24 hours from
midnight to midnight. Make sure no entrainment of solution results
with the impinger. During collection and storage protect from direct
sunlight. Determine the total air volume by multiplying the air flow
rate by the time in minutes. The correction of 24 hour measurements for
temperature and pressure is extremely difficult and is not ordinarily
done. However, the accuracy of the measurement will be improved if
meaningful corrections can be applied. If storage is necessary, re-
frigerate at 5°C (see 4.2).
7.2 Analysis
7.2.1 Sample Preparation - After collection, if a precipitate is ob-
served in the sample, remove it by centrifugation.
7.2.1.1 30-Minute and 1 Hour Samples - Transfer the sample quantitatively
to a 25-ml volumetric flask; use about 5 ml distilled water for rinsing.
Delay analyses for 20 min. to allow any ozone to decompose.
7.2.1.2 24-Hour Sample - Dilute the entire sample to 50 ml with
absorbing solution. Pipet 5 ml of the sample into a 25-ml volumetric
flask for chemical analyses. Bring volume to 10 ml with absorbing
reagent. Delay analyses for 20 min. to allow any ozone to decompose.
7.2.2 Determination - For each set of determinations prepare a reagent
blank by adding 10 ml unexposed TCM solution to a 25-ml volumetric flask.
Prepare a control solution by adding 2 ml of working sulfite-TCM solution
and 8 ml TCM solution to a 25-ml volumetric flask. To each flask contain-
ing either sample, control solution, or reagent blank, add 1 ml 0.6% sul-
famic acid and allow to react 10 min. to destroy the nitrite from oxides of
nitrogen. Accurately pipet in 2 ml 0.2% formaldehyde solution, then 5 ml
pararosaniline solution. Start a laboratory timer that has been set for 30
minutes. Bring all flasks to volume with freshly boiled and cooled distilled
water and mix thoroughly. After 30 min. and before 60 min., determine the
absorbances of the sample (denote as A), reagent blank (denote as A ) and
the control solution at 548 nm using 1-cm optical path length cells. Use
distilled water, not the reagent blank, as the reference. (NOTE! This is
important because of the color sensitivity of the reagent blank to temper-
ature changes which can be induced in the cell compartment of a spectro-
photometer). Do not allow the colored solution to stand in the absorbance
cells, because a film of dye may be deposited. Clean cells with alcohol
after use. If the temperature of the determinations does not differ by
more than 2°C from the calibration temperature (8.2), the reagent blank
-------
APPENDIX A - REFERENCE METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF SULFUR DIOXIDE IN
THE ATMOSPHERE (PARAROSANILINE METHOD)
should be within 0.03 absorbance unit of the y-intercept of the calibra-
tion curve (8.2). If the reagent blank differs by more than 0.03 absorbance
unit from that found in the calibration curve, prepare a new curve.
7.2.3 Absorbance Range - If the absorbance of the sample solution
ranges between 1.0 and 2.0, the sample can be diluted 1:1 with a portion
of the reagent blank and read within a few minutes. Solutions with higher
absorbance can be diluted up to six-fold with the reagent blank in order
to obtain on-scale readings within 10% of the true absorbance value.
8. CALIBRATION AND EFFICIENCIES
8.1 Flowmeters and Hypodermic Needle - Calibrate flowmeters and hypp-
dermic needle against a calibrated wet test meter.
8.2 Calibration Curves
8.2.1 Procedure with Sulfite Solution - Accurately pipet graduated
amounts of the working sulfite-TCM solution (6.2.9) (such as 0, 0.5, 1, 2,
3, and 4 ml) into a series of 25 ml volumetric flasks. Add sufficient TCM
solution to each flask to bring the volume to approximately 10-ml. Then
add the remaining reagents as described in 7.2.2. For maximum precision
use a constant-temperature bath. The temperature of calibration must be
maintained within - 1°C and in the range of 20 to 30°C. The temperature
of calibration and the temperature of analysis must be within 2 degrees.
Plot the absorbance against the total concentration in yg S02 for the
corresponding solution. The total yg S02 in solution equals the concentra-
tion of the standard (Section 6.2.9) in yg SOo/ml times the ml sulfite
solution added (yg S02 = yg/ml S02 x ml added). A linear relationship
should be obtained, and the y-intercept should be within 0.03 absorbance
unit of the zero standard absorbance. For maximum precision determine the
line of best fit using regression analysis by the method of least squares.
Determine the slope of the line of best fit, calculate its reciprocal and
denote as BS. Bg is the calibration factor. (See Section 6.2.10.1 for
specifications on the slope of the calibration curve). This calibration
factor can be used for calculating results provided there are no radical
changes in temperature or pH. At least one control sample containing a
known concentration of S02 for each series of determinations, is recommen-
ded to insure the reliability of this factor.
8.2.2 Procedure with SO., Permeation Tubes <•
8.2.2.1 General Considerations. Atmospheres containing accurately known
amounts of sulfur dioxide at levels of interest can be prepared using
permeation tubes. In the systems for generating these atmospheres, the
permeation tube emits S02 gas at a known, low, constant rate, provided
the temperature of the tube is held constant (- 0.1°C) and provided the
-------
APPENDIX A - REFERENCE METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF SULFUR DIOXIDE IN
THE ATMOSPHERE (PARAROSANILINE METHOD)
tube has been accurately calibrated at the temperature of use. The S02
gas permeating from the tube is carried by a low flow of inert gas to a
mixing chamber where it is accurately diluted with S02~free air to the
level of interest and the sample taken. These systems are shown schematically
in Figures A2 and A3 and have been described in detail by O'Keeffe and
Ortman9, Scaringelli. Frey, and Saltzman^0, and Scaringelli, O'Keeffe,
Rosenberg, and
8.2.2.2 Preparation of Standard Atmospheres. Permeation tubes may be
prepared or purchased. Scaringelli, O'Keeffe, Rosenberg, and Belial give
detailed, explicit directions for permeation tube calibration. Tubes with
a certified permeation rate are available from the National Bureau of
Standards. Tube permeation rates from 0.2 to 0.4 yg/min, inert gas flows
of about 50 ml/min, and dilution air flow rates from 1.1 to 15 1/min conven-
iently give standard atmospheres containing desired levels of S02 (25 to
390 yg/m3; 0.01 to 0.15 ppm S02). The concentration of S02 in any standard
atmosphere can be calculated as follows:
C-!-M£
3
Where: C = concentration of SO?, yg/m at reference conditions
P = tube permeation rate, yg/min
R = flow rate of dilution air, 1/min at reference conditions
R. = flow rate of inert gas, 1/min at reference conditions
8.2.2.3 Sampling and Preparation of Calibration Curve. Prepare a series
(usually six) of standard atmospheres containing S02 levels from 25 to 390
yg S02/m3. Sample each atmosphere using similar apparatus and taking exactly
the same air volume as will be done in atmospheric sampling. Determine
absorbances as directed in 7.2. Plot the concentration of S02 in yg/m3
(x-axis) against A - Ao values (y-axis), draw the straight line of best
fit and determine the slope. Alternatively, regression analysis by the
method of least squares may be used to calculate the slope. Calculate the
reciprocal of the slope and denote as B .
g
8.3 Sampling Efficiency - Colection efficiency is above 98%; efficiency
may fall off, however, at concentrations below 25 yg/m3-12,13
9. CALCULATIONS
9.1 Conversion of Volume - Convert the volume of air sampled to the
volume at reference conditions of 25°C and 760 mm Hg. (On 24 hour samples,
this may not be possible).
-------
APPENDIX A - REFERENCE METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF SULFUR DIOXIDE IN
THE ATMOSPHERE (PARAROSANILINE METHOD)
=vx P 298
VR v A 760 ~ t + 273
V0 = volume of air at 25°C and 760 mm Hg, liters
R
V » volume of air sampled, liters
P = barometric pressure, mm Hg
t = temperature of air sample, °C
9.2 Sulfur Dioxide Concentration
9.2.1 When sulfite solutions are used to prepare calibration curves,
compute the concentration of sulfur dioxide in the sample:
yg so /m3 = (A-AO) do ) (BS) x D
VR
A = Sample absorbance,
A = reagent blank absorbance
3
10 = conversion of liters to cubic meters
V = the sample corrected to 25°C and 760 mm Hg,
liters
B = calibration factor, yg/absorbance unit
s
D = Dilution factor.
For 30 minute and 1 hour samples, D-l
For 24 hour samples, D=10
9.2.2 When 802 £as standard atmospheres are used to prepare calibration
curves, compute the sulfur dioxide in the sample by the following formula:
S02, yg/m3 = (A - AQ) x B
A = sample absorbance
A « reagent blank absorbance
B° = (See 8.2.2.3)
g
3
9.2.3 Conversion of yg/m to ppm - If desired, the concentration of
sulfur dioxide may be calculated as ppm S02 at reference conditions as
follows:
O /
ppm S02 = yg S02/m x 3.82 x 10
-------
10. REFERENCES
1. West, P.W., and Gaeke, G.C., "Fixation of Sulfur Dioxide as Sulfit-
omercurate III and Subsequent Colorimetric Determination", Anal.
Chem. 28, 1816 (1956).
2. Ephrairas, F., "Inorganic Chemistry," p. 562, Edited by P.C.L. Thorne
and E.R. Roberts, 5th Edition, Interscience. (1948).
3. Lyl«>s, G.R., Dowling, F.B., and Blanchard, V.J., "Quantitative
Determination of Formaldehyde in Parts Per Hundred Million Concen-
tration Level", J_. Air. Poll. Cont. Assoc. 15, 106 (1965).
4. Scaringelli, F.P., Saltzraan, B..E. , and Frey, S.A., "Spectrophoto-
metric Determination of Atmospheric Sulfur Dioxide", Anal. Chem.
J39_, 1709 (1967).
r>. Pate, J.B., Ammons, B.E., Swanson, G.A., Lodge, J.P., Jr., "Nitrite
Interference In Spectrophotometrir Determination of Atmospheric
Sulfui Dioxide", Anal. Chem. _37.» 942 (1965).
f>. Zur.lo, N. and Griffini, A.M., "Measurement of the S02 Content of
Air in the Presence of Oxides of Nitrogen and Heavy Metals", Med.
Lavoru. 5_3, 330 (1962).
7. Scaringelli, F.P., Elfrers, L., Norris, D., and Hochheiser, S.,
"Enhanced Stability of Sulfur Dioxide in Solution", Anal. Chem. 42,
1818 (1970).
8. Lodge, J.P. Jr., Pate, J.B., Ammons, B.E. and Swanson, G.A., "Use
of Hypodermic Needles as Critical Orifices in Air Sampling," J_.
Air Poll. Cont. Assoc. 16_, 197 (1966).
9. O'Keeffe, A.E., and Ortman, G.C., "Primary Standards for Trace
Gas Analysis", Anal. Chem. 38, 760 (1966).
10. Scaringelli, F.P., Frey. S.A., and Saltzman, B.E., "Evaluation of
Teflon Permeation Tubes for Use with Sulfur Dioxide", Amer. Ind.
Hygiene Assoc. J_. 28_, 260 (1967).
11. Scaringelli, P.P., O'Keeffe, A.E., Rosenberg, E., and Bell, J.P.,
"Preparation of Known Concentrations of Gases and Vapors with
Permeation Devices Calibrated Gravimetrically", Anal. Chem. 42,
871 (1970).
12. Urone, P., Evans, J.B., and Noyes, C.M., "Tracer Techniques in
Sulfur Dioxide Colorimetric and Conductitnetrir Methods", Anal.
Chem. 27, 110A (1965).
13. Bostrom, C.E., "The Absorption of Sulfur Dioxide at Low Concen-
trations (ppm) Studied by an Isotopic Tracer Method", Intern. J_.
Air Water Poll. 9, 33 (1965).
10
-------
APPENDIX A - REFERENCE METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF SULFUR DIOXIDE IN
THE ATMOSPHERE (PARAROSANILINE METHOD)
To
Impinger
Hypodermic
Needle
Membrane
Filter
Rubber
Septum
To Air
Pump
Figure Ala. Critical orifice flow control.
Figure Al. Sampling train
11
-------
APPENDIX A - REFERENCE METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF SULFUR DIOXIDE IN
THE ATMOSPHERE (PARAROSANILINE METHOD)
To Hood
Flow Meter
or Critical
Orifice
Cylinder
Air or
Nitrogen
Stirrer
Water Bath
Permeation Tube Bubbler
Figure A2. Apparatus for gravimetric
calibration and field use.
12
-------
>
hd
o
Clean Dry Air
Needle Valve
Flow Meter
or
Dry Test
Meter
Permeation Tube Thermometer
•S3
T
Mixing
Bulb
Sampling
System
A:
Purified
Air
or
Cylinder
Nitrogen
Drier
Flow Meter
or
Critical Orifice
Air Blank
Waste
o
OT
I
M
•rJ M
^2 M
n
O M
Ss
2 £3
O
t)
w
o rs
o w
o
w
H
2:
55
H
i
s
Figure A3. Permeation tube schematic for laboratory use.
-------
LABORATORY PROCEDURE FOR DETERMINATION OF SULFUR DIOXIDE
In this laboratory the student will:
A. Prepare and standardize sulfite solution for preparation of
Working Sulfite-TCM solution.
B. Prepare a calibration curve using the Sulfite Solution Procedure.
C. Collect a 30 minute sample and determine the concentration of
sulfur dioxide.
As described in the "Reference Method for the Determination of Sulfur
Dioxide in the Atmosphere" (pararosaniline method).
A. Standardized Sulfite Solution for Preparation of Working Sulfite-
TCM Solution (6.2.8)
1. Dissolve 0.30 g sodium metabisulfite (Na£ 803) in 500 ml
recently boiled, cooled, distilled water. This solution
contains the equivalent of 320 to 400 ug/ml of S02. The
actual concentration of the solution is determined by adding
excess iodine and back - titrating with standard sodium
thiosulfate solution.
2. Pipet 50 ml of 0.01 N iodine into:
(a) 500 ml iodine flask labeled A (Blank)
(b) 500 ml iodine flask labeled B (Sample)
3. Pipet 25 ml distilled water to flask A (Blank)
4. Pipet 25 ml sulfite solution to flask B (Sample)
5. Stopper flask A and B and allow to react for 5 minutes
-------
6. Prepare Working Sulfite - TCM Solution (To be used in B, C)
(a) Pipet 2 ml sulfite solution into 100 ml volumetric
flask
(b) Bring to volume with 0.04 M. TCM.
7. By means of a buret containing standardized 0.01 N thiosul-
fate titrate flask A to a pale yellow color
8. Add 5 ml starch solution to flask A
9. Continue titration of flask A until the blue color disappears.
Total volume of 0.01 N thiosulfate used. ml
10. By means of a buret containing standardized 0.01 N thiosul-
fate titrate flask B to a pale yellow color
11. Add 5 ml starch solution to flask B
12. Continue titration of flask B until the blue color disappears.
Total volume of 0.01 N thiosulfate used. ml
13. Calculate ug S09/ml working sulfite - TCM solution
yg So /nl = (A - B) (N) (32,000) x ^ = ( ) ( ) (32,000) x 0<02
/ zi 2 2.0
A = volume thiosulfate for blank, ml
B = volume thiosulfate for sample, ml
N = normality of thiosulfate titrant
32,000 = milliequivalent wt. of S02, ug
25 = volume standard sulfite solution, ml
0.02 = dilution factor
-------
B. Calibration Curves - Procedure with Sulfite Solution (8.2.1)
1. Into a series of 25 ml volumetric flasks, pipet working
sulfite - TCM solution as follows:
flask no. 1 Blank 0.0 ml working sulfite TCM solution
M "2 05" " " "
" l? 3 1.0 " " " "
ii "4 20" " " ''
ii "5 30" " " ''
2. Add sufficient TCM solution to each flask to bring the
volume to approximately 10 ml.
3. To each flask add 1 ml 0.6% sulfamic acid and allow to react
10 minutes .
4. To each flask add 2 ml 0.2% formaldehyde solution.
5. To each flask add 5 ml pararosaniline solution.
6. Start a laboratory timer set for 30 minutes.
7. Bring all flasks to volume with freshly boiled distilled
water. Mix thoroughly,
8. Use distilled water as reference to standardize spectropho-
tometer .
9. After 30 minutes and before 60 minutes determine the ab-
sorbance of each flask at 548 nm using 1 cm optical path
length cells.
-------
Calibration Data:
Flask Sulfur Dioxide Total Absorbance
Number Micrograms Units
X Y X2 XY
EX = ZY = ZX2 = ZXY =
N = (number of points)
Slope = absorbance units
ygm
C. 30 Collected Samples, Determination (7.2.2)
1. Reagent blank - add 10 ml unexposed TCM solution to a 25 ml
volumetric flask.
2. Control solution - add 2 ml of working sulfite - TCM
solution and 8 ml TCM solution to a 25 ml volumetric flask.
-------
3. Transfer 30 minute sample (10 ml TCM exposed to Standard
Atmosphere) quantitatively to 25 ml volumetric flask. Use
about 5 ml distilled water for rinsing.
4. To the blank, control solution, and sample add:
(a) 1 ml 0.6% sulfamic acid - allow to react 10 minutes.
(Why?)
(b) Accurately 2 ml pipeted quantities of 0.2 % formaldehyde.
(c) 5.0 ml pararosaniline solution.
5. Start timing for 30 minutes.
6. Bring all flasks to 25 ml volume with freshly boiled cooled
distilled water.
7. Standardize spectrophotometer with distilled water.
8. After 30 minutes and before 60 minutes determine absorbance
at 548 nm 1 cm optical path length cells.
9. Calculations:
, (A - Ao) (103) (B ) . 3. t .
yg SO-/mJ = — —S. x D yg so_/mJ = ( ) <10 ) ( ) x D
VR L
3
A = sample absorbance yg S0_/m
Ao = reagent blank absorbance
3 3
10 = conversion of liters to cubic yg 50,.,/m
meters
Q
VR = the sample corrected to 25°C yg S0~/m
and 760 mm Hg, liters
B = calibration factor, yg/absorb-
ance unit
-------
Calculations, continued:
D = dilution factor
For 30 minute, D = 1
For 1 hour samples, D = 1
For 24 hour samples, D = 10
Volume Air Reference Conditions
P 298 298
n~" T£rt*-iOTO *«"""" i /" /*v **
R 760 t + 273 R * 760 + 273
V = volume of air at 25°C and VR
760 mm Hg. liters
V = volume of air sampled, liters
P = barometric pressure, mm Hg
t = temperature of air sample, °C
-------
SUSPENDED PARTICULATES
I. National Ambient Air Quality Standards
A. National Primary Standard
1. 75 micrograms per cubic meter - annual geometric mean
2. 260 micrograms per cubic meter - maximum 24 hour concentra-
tion not to be exceeded more than once per year.
B. National Secondary Standard
1. 60 micrograms per cubic meter - annual geometric mean, as a
guide to be used in assessing implementation plans to achieve
the 24 hour standard.
2. 150 micrograms per cubic meter - maximum 24 hour concentra-
tion not to exceed more than once per year,
C. Episode Criteria
1. Air Pollution Forecast: An internal watch by the Department
of Air Pollution Control shall be actuated by a National
Weather Service Advisory that atmospheric stagnation advisory
is in effect or the equivalent local forecast of stagnant
atmospheric conditions.
Prevention of Air Pollution Emergency Episodes: Prevent
ambient pollutant concentrations from any location in such
a region from reaching levels which could cause significant
harm to the health of persons. The levels are:
PA.LA.62.2.73 ,
-------
SUSPENDED PARTICULATES
o
1. Particulate: 1,000 micrograms/m - 24 hr average
or
8 COH's - 24 hr. average
2. Particulate and sulfur dioxide
Product of: Particulate matter micrograms/m - 24
hr. average x S02 micrograms/m3 - 24 hr. average =
490 x 103
or:
COH's - 24 hr. average x S02 micrograms/m3 - 24 hr,
average = 1.5
2. Alert: An alert will be declared when the level reaches 3.0
COH's, 24 hour average.
S02 and particulate combined - product of S02 ppm 24 hour
average and COH's equal to 0.2
3. Warning: The warning level indicates that air quality is
continuing to degrade and that additional control actions
are necessary. A warning will be declared when the follow-
ing level is reached at any monitoring site:
1. Particulate: 625 micrograms/m3 - 24 hr. average
or
5.0 COH's - 24 hr. average
2. Particulate and S02
Product of: particulate micrograms/m3 - 24 hr.
average x S02 micrograms/m3 - 24 hr. average = 261
x 103
-------
SUSPENDED PARTICULATES
COH's x S02 ppm - 24 hr. average =0.8
4. Emergency: The emergency level indicates that air quality
is continuing to degrade toward a level of significant harm
to health of persons and that most stringent control actions
are necessary. An emergency will be declared when the
following level is reached at any monitoring site:
1.- Particulate: 875 micrograms/m3 - 24 hr. average
or
7.0 COH's
2. Particulate and S02
Product of: COH's x S02 ppm - 24 hr-. average = 1.2
or
particulate micrograms/m^ - 24 hr. average x S02
micrograms/m3 - 24 hr. average = 393 x 103
5. Termination: Once declared, any status reached by application
of these criteria will remain in effect until the criteria
for that level are no longer met. At such time the next
lower status will be assumed.
II. Classification of Regions
The classification will be based on measured ambient air quality,
where known, or where not known estimated air quality in the area of
maximum pollutant concentration. Each region will be classified
separately with respect to each of the following pollutants:
-------
SUSPENDED PARTICULATES
sulfur oxides, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide
and photo-chemical oxidants.
Ambient concentration limits which define the classification system
for particulate matter expressed as micrograms per cubic meter are:
Region Classification I II III
Greater From-To Less Than
Than
Annual arithmetic mean 95 60-95 60
24 hour - maximum 325 150-325 150
-------
SUSPENDED PARTICULATES
III. Air Quality Surveillance
A. Region I Classification
Minimum Frequency
of Sampling
Region Population
Minimum Number of Air Quality
Monitoring Sites
One 24-hour sample
every 6 daysa, High
Vol. Sampler
One sample every
2 hours
Tape Sampler
Less than 100,000
100,000 - 1,000,000
1,000,001 - 5,000,000
above 5,000,000
4 + 0.6 per 100,000 population13
7.5 + 0.25 per 100,000 population13
12 + 0.16 per 100,000 populationb
One per 250,000 populationb up
to 8 sites
B. Rrgion II Classification
Region Population
Minimum Frequency
of Sampling
Minimum Number of Air Quality
Monitoring Sites
One 24-hour sample
every 6 daysa High
Vol. Sampler
One Sample every 2
hrs.
Tape Sampler
C. Region III Classification
Minimum Frequency
of Sampling
Region Population
Minimum Number of Air Quality
Monitoring Sites
One 24-hr, sample
every 6 days3 High
Vol. Sampler
Equivalent to 61 random samples per year.
blotal population of a region. When required number of samples
includes a fraction, round-off to the nearest whole number.
-------
SUSPENDED PARTICULATES
IV. Measurement Methods
A. High Volume Method (for the determination of suspended" particu-
lates in the atmosphere)
B. Tape Sampler Method (for the determination of suspended particu-
lates in the atmosphere)
-------
APPENDIX B - REFERENCE METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF
SUSPENDED PARTICIPATES IN THE ATMOSPHERE (HIGH VOLUME METHOD)
1. Principle and Applicability
1.1 Air is drawn into a covered housing and through a filter by
means of a high-flow-rate blower at a flow rate (1.13 to 1.70 nr/min.;
40 to 60 ft^/min.) that allows suspended particles having diameters of
less than 100 ym (Stokes equivalent diameter) to pass to the filter
surface. Particles within the size range of 100 to 0.1 ym diameter are
ordinarily collected on glass fiber filters. The mass concentration
of suspended particulates in the ambient air (yg/nH) is computed by
measuring the mass of collected particulates and the volume of air
sampled.
1.2 This method is applicable to measurement of the mass con-
centration of suspended particulates in.ambient air. The size of the
sample .collected is usually adequate for other analyses.
2. Range and Sensitivity
2.1 When the sampler is operated at an average flow rate of 1.70 m^
min. (60 ft-Vmin.) for 24 hours, an adequate sample will be obtained
even in an atmosphere having concentrations of suspended particulates as
low as 1 yg/m^. If particulate levels are unusually high, a satisfactory
sample may be obtained in 6 to 8 hours or less. For determination of
average concentrations of suspended particulates in ambient air, a
standard sampling period of 24 hours is recommended.
2.2 Weights are determined to the nearest milligram, air flow
rates are determined to the nearest 0.03 nr/min. (1.0 ft^/min.); times
are determined to the nearest 2 min., and mass concentrations are
reported to the nearest microgram per cubic meter.
3. Interferences
3.1 Particulate matter that is oily, such as photochemical smog
or wood smoke, may block the filter and cause a rapid drop in air flow
at a non-uniform rate. Dense fog or high humidity can cause the filter
to become too wet and severely reduce the air flow through the filter.
3.2 Glass-fiber filters are comparatively insensitive to changes
in relative humidity, but collected particulates can be hygroscopic.2
PA.LA.56.2.73 Published in the Federal Register, Vol. 36, No. 84;
Friday, April 30, 1971
-------
APPENDIX B - REFERENCE METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF
SUSPENDED PARTICULATES IN THE ATMOSPHERE (HIGH VOLUME METHOD)
4. Precision, Accuracy, and Stability
4.1 Based upon collaborative testing, the relative standard
deviation (coefficient of variation) for single analyst variation
(repeatability of the method) is 3.0%. The corresponding value for
multilaboratory variation (reproducibility of the method) is 3.7%.3
4.2 The accuracy with which the sampler measures the true average
concentration depends upon the constancy of the air flow rate through
the sampler. The air flow rate is affected by the concentration and
the nature of the dust in the atmosphere. Under these conditions the
error in the measured average concentration may be in excess of + 50%
of the true average concentration, depending on the amount of reduction
of air flow rate and on the variation of the mass concentration of dust
with time during the 24-hour sampling period.^
5. Apparatus
5.1 Sampling
5.1.1 Sampler - The sampler consists of three units: (1) the face
plate and gasket, (2) the filter adapter assembly, and (3) the motor
unit. Figure Bl shows an exploded view of these parts, their relation-
ship to each other, and how they are assembled. The sampler must be
capable of passing environmental air through a 406.5 cm2 (63 in.2)
portion of a clean 20^3 by 25.4 cm (8- by 10-in.) glass-fiber filter
at a rate of at least 1.70 m3/min. (60 ft3/min.). The motor must be
capable of continuous operation for 24-hour periods with input voltages
ranging from 110 to 120 volts, 50-60 cycles alternating current and
must have third-wire safety ground. The housing for the motor unit may
be of any convenient construction so long as the unit remains air-tight
and leak-free. The life of the sampler motor can be extended by
lowering the voltage by about 10% with a small "buck or boost" trans-
former between the sampler and power outlet.
5.1.2 Sampler Shelter - It is important that the sampler be
properly installed in a suitable shelter. The shelter is subjected to
extremes of temperature, humidity, and all types of air pollutants.
For these reasons the materials of the shelter must be chosen carefully.
Properly painted exterior plywood or heavy gauge aluminum serve well.
The sampler must be mounted vertically in the shelter so that the
glass-fiber filter is parallel with the ground. The shelter must be
provided with a roof so that the filter is protected from precipitation
and debris. The internal arrangement and configuration of a suitable
shelter with a gable roof are shown in Figure B2. The clearance area
between the main housing and the roof at its closest point should be
580.5 + 193.5 cm2 (90 + 30 in.2). The main housing should be
-------
APPENDIX B - REFERENCE METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF
SUSPENDED PARTICULATES IN THE ATMOSPHERE (HIGH VOLUME METHOD)
rectangular, with dimensions of about 29 by 36 cm (11-1/2 by 14 in.).
5.1.3 Rotameter - Marked in arbitrary units, frequently 0 to 70,
and capable of being calibrated. Other devices of at least omparable
accuracy may be used.
5.1.4 Orifice Calibration Unit - Consisting of a metal tube 7.6 cm
(3 in.) ID and 15.9 cm (6-1/4 in.) long with a static pressure tap 5.1
cm (2 in.) from one end. See Figure B3. The tube end nearest the
pressure tap is flanged to about 10.8 cm (4- 1/4 in.) OD with a male
thread of the same size as the inlet end of the high-volume air sampler.
A single metal plate 9.2 cm (3-5/8 in.) in diameter and 0.24 cm (3/32 in.)
thick with a central orifice 2.9 cm (1-1/8 in.) in diameter is held in
place at the air inlet end with a female threaded ring. The other end
of the tube is flanged to hold a loose female threaded coupling, which
screws onto the inlet of the sampler. An 18-hole metal plate, an in-
tegral part of the unit, is positioned between the orifice and sampler
to simulate the resistance of a clean glass-fiber filter. An orifice
calibration unit is shown in Figure B3.
5.1.5 Differential Manometer - Capable of measuring to at least
40 cm (16 in.) of water.
5.1.6 Positive Displacement Meter - Calibrated in cubic meters
or cubic feet, to be used as a primary standard.
5.1.7 Barometer - Capable of measuring atmospheric pressure to
the nearest mm.
5.2 Analysis
5.2.1 Filter Conditioning Environment - Balance room or desiccator
maintained at 15 to 35°C and less than 50% relative humidity.
5.2.2 Analytical Balance - Equipped with a weighing chamber de-
signed to handle unfolded 20.3 by 25.4 cm (8- by 10-in.) filters and
having a sensitivity of 0.1 mg.
5.2.3 Light Source - Frequently a table of the type used to view
X-ray films.
5.2.4 Numbering Device - Capable of printing identification
numbers on the filters.
-------
APPENDIX B - REFERENCE METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF
SUSPENDED PARTICULATES IN THE ATMOSPHERE (HIGH VOLUME METHOD)
6. Reagents
6.1 Filter Media - Glass-fiber filters having a collection
efficiency of at least 99% for particles of 0.3 ym diameter, as measured
by the DOP test, are suitable for the quantitative measurement of
concentrations of suspended particulates, although some other medium,
such as paper, may be desirable for some analyses. If a more detailed
analysis is contemplated, care must be exercised to use filters that
contain low background concentrations of the pollutant being investigated.
Careful quality control is required to. determine background values of
these pollutants.
7. Procedure
7.1 Sampling
7.1.1 Filter Preparation - Expose each filter to the light source and
inspect for pinholes, particles, or other imperfections. Filters with
visible imperfections should not be used. A small brush is useful for
removing particles. Equilibrate the filters in the filter conditioning
environment for 24 hours. Weigh the filters to the nearest milligram;
record tare weight and filter identification number. Do not bend or fold
the filter before collection of the sample.
7.1.2 Sample Collection - Open the shelter, loosen the wing nuts,
and remove the face plate from the filter holder. Install a numbered,
pre-weighed, glass fiber filter in position (rough side up), replace the
face plate without disturbing the filter, and fasten securely. Under-
tightening will allow air leakage, overtightening will damage the
sponge-rubber face-plate gasket. A very light application of talcum
powder may be used on the sponge-rubber face-plate gasket to prevent
the filter from sticking. During inclement weather the sampler may be
removed to a protected area for filter change. Close the roof of the
shelter, run the sampler for about 5 min., connect the rotameter to the
nipple on the back of the sampler, and read the rotameter ball with
rotameter in a vertical position. Estimate to the nearest whole number.
If the ball is fluctuating rapidly, tip the rotameter and slowly
straighten it until the ball gives a constant reading. Disconnect the
rotameter from the nipple; record the initial rotameter reading and the
starting time and date on the filter folder. (The rotameter should never
be connected to the sampler except when the flow is being measured.)
Sample for 24 hours from midnight to midnight and take a final rotameter
reading. Record the final rotameter reading and ending time and date
on the filter folder. Remove the face-plate as described above and
carefully remove the filter from the holder, touching only the outer
edges. Fold the filter lengthwise so that only surfaces with collected
particulates are in contact, and place in a manila folder. Record on
-------
APPENDIX B - REFERENCE METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF
SUSPENDED PARTICULATES IN THE ATMOSPHERE (HIGH VOLUME METHOD)
the folder the filter number, location, and any other factors, such as
meteorological conditions or razing of nearby buildings, that might affect
the results. If the sample is defective, void it at this time. In
order to obtain a valid sample, the high-volume sampler must be operated
with the same rotameter and tubing that were used during its calibration.
7.2 Analysis - Equilibrate the exposed filters for 24 hours in the
filter conditioning environment, then re-weigh. After they are weighed,
the filters may be saved for detailed chemical analysis.
7.3 Maintenance
7.3.1 Sampler Motor - Replace brushes before they are worn to the
point where motor damage can occur.
7.3.2 Face-Plate Gasket - Replace when the margins of samples are
no longer sharp. The gasket may be sealed to the face-plate with rubber
cement or double-sided adhesive tape.
7.3.3 Rotameter - Clean as required, using alcohol.
8. Calibration
8.1 Purpose - Since only a small portion of the total air sampled
passes through the rotameter during measurement, the rotameter must be
calibrated against actual air flow with the orifice calibration unit.
Before the orifice calibration unit can be used to calibrate the rotameter,
the orifice calibration unit itself must be calibrated against the
positive displacement primary standard.
8.1.1 Orifice Calibration Unit - Attach the orifice calibration
unit to the intake end of the positive displacement primary standard
and attach a high-volume motor blower unit to the exhaust end of the
primary standard. Connect one end of a differential manometer to the
differential pressure tap of the orifice calibration unit and leave the
other end open to the atmosphere. Operate the high-volume motor blower
unit so that a series of different, but constant, air flows (usually
six) are obtained for definite time periods. Record the reading on the
differential manometer at each air flow. The different constant air
flows are obtained by placing a series of load plates, one at a time,
between the calibration unit and the primary standard. Placing the
orifice before the inlet reduces the pressure at the inlet of the
primary standard below atmospheric; therefore, a correction must be
made for the increase in volume caused by this decreased inlet pressure.
Attach one end of a second differential manometer to an inlet pressure
tap of the primary standard and leave the other open to the atmosphere.
During each of the constant air flow measurements made above, measure
-------
APPENDIX B - REFERENCE METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF
SUSPENDED PARTICULATES IN THE ATMOSPHERE (HIGH VOLUME METHOD)
the true inlet pressure of the primary standard with this second
differential manometer. Measure atmospheric pressure and temperature.
Correct the measured air volume to true air volume as directed in 9.1.1,
then obtain true air flow rate, Q, as directed in 9.1.3. Plot the
differential manometer readings of the orifice unit versus Q.
8.1.2 High-Volume Sampler - Assemble a high-volume sampler with
a clean filter in place and run ^or at least 5 min. Attach a rotameter,
read the ball, adjust so that the ball reads 65, and seal the adjusting
mechanism so that it cannot be changed easily. Shut off motor, remove,
the filter, and attach the orifice calibration unit in its place. Operate
the high-volume sampler at a series of different, but constant, air flows
(usually six). Record the reading of the differential manometer on the
orifice calibration unit, and record the readings of the rotameter at each
flow. Measure atmospheric pressure and temperature. Convert the
differential manometer reading to m3/min., Q, then plot rotameter reading
versus Q.
8.1.3 Correction for Differences in Pressure or Temperature - See
Addendum B.
9. Calculations
9.1 Calibration of Orifice
9.1.1 True Air Volume - Calculate the air volume measured by the
positive displacement primary standard.
3
V = True air volume at atmospheric pressure, m
3
P = barometric pressure, mm Hg
3
P = pressure drop at inlet of primary standard, mm Hg
V = volume measured by primary standard, m
9.1.2 Conversion Factors
inches Hg x 25.4 = mm Hg
_3
inches water x 73.48 x 10 = inches Hg
-------
APPENDIX B - REFERENCE METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF
SUSPENDED PARTICULATES IN THE ATMOSPHERE (HIGH VOLUME METHOD)
cubic feet air x 0.0284 = cubic meters air
9.1.3 True Air Flow Rate
Va
Q - ~^~
3
Q = flow rate, m /min.
T = time of flow, min.
9.2 Sample Volume
9.2.1 Volume Conversion - Convert the initial and final rotameter
readings to true air flow rate, Q, using calibration curve of 8.1.2.
9.2.2 Calculate volume of air sampled
v = Qi + Qf * T
2
3
V = air volume sampled, m
3
Q, = initial air flow rate, m /min.
3
Q, = final air flow rate, m /min.
T = sampling time, min.
9.3 Calculate mass concentration of suspended particulates
c P - (Wf - Wj) x 106
S.P. _ y-
3
S.P- = mass concentration of suspended particulates, Ug/m
W = initial weight of filter, g
W = final weight of filter, g
3
V = air volume sampled, m
10 = conversion of g to yg
-------
APPENDIX B - REFERENCE METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF
SUSPENDED PARTICULATES IN THE ATMOSPHERE (HIGH VOLUME METHOD)
10. References
1. Robson, C. D., and Foster, K. E., "Evaluation of Air Particulate
Sampling Equipment", Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 24, 404 (1962).
2. Tierney, G. P., and Conner, W. D., "Hygroscopic Effects on
Weight Determinations of Particulates Collected on Glass-Fiber
Filters", Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 28, 363 (1967).
3. Unpublished data based on a collaborative test involving 12
participants, conducted under the direction of the Methods
Standardization Services Section of the National Air Pollution
Control Administration, October, 1970.
4. Harrison, W. K., Nader, J.S., and Fugman, F. S., "Constant Flow
Regulators for High-Volume Mr Sampler", Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J.
21, 114-120 (1960).
5. Pate, J. B., and Tabor, E. C.,'"Analytical Aspects of the Use
of Glass-Fiber Filters for the Collection and Analysis of
Atmospheric Particulate Matter", Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. JL_ 23,
144-150 (1962).
-------
APPENDIX B - REFERENCE METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF
SUSPENDED PARTICULATES IN THE ATMOSPHERE (HIGH VOLUME METHOD)
A. Alternative Equipment
A modification of the high-volume sampler incorporating a method
for recording the actual air flow over the entire sampling period has
been described, and is acceptable for measuring the concentration of
suspended particulates (Henderson, J. S., Eighth Conference on Methods
in Air Pollution and Industrial Hygiene Studies, 1967, Oakland,
California). This modification consists of an exhaust orifice meter
assembly connected through a transducer to a system for continuously
recording air flow on a circular chart. The volume of air sampled is
calculated by the following equation:
V = Q x T
3
Q = average sampling rate, m /min.
T = samping time, min.
The average sampling rate, Q, is determined from the recorder chart
by estimation if the flow rate does not vary more than 0.11 m^/min.
(4 ft3/min.) during the sampling period. If the flow rate does vary
more than 0.11 nH (4 ft^/min.) during the sampling period, read the
flow rate from the chart at 2-hour intervals and take the average.
B. Pressure and Temperature Corrections.
If the pressure or temperature during high-volume sampler
calibration is substantially different from the pressure or temperature
during orifice calibration, a correction of the flow rate, Q, may be
required. If the pressures differ by no more than 15% and the tempera-
tures differ by no more than 100% (°C), the error in the uncorrected
flow rate will be no more than 15%. If necessary, obtain the corrected
flow rate as directed below. This correction applies only to orifice
meters having a constant orifice coefficient. The coefficient for the
calibrating orifice described in 5.1.4 has been shown experimentally to
be constant over the normal operating range of the high-volume sampler
(0.6 to 2.2 m^/min.; 20 to 78 ft3/min.). Calculate corrected flow rate:
Q = Q f T2 Pi H
Q2 MT1P2 J
3
Q- = corrected flow rate, m /min.
Q1 = flow rate during high-volume sampler calibration
(Section 8.1.2), m3/min.
TI = absolute temperature during orifice unit calibration
(Section 8.1.1), °K or °R
-------
APPENDIX B - REFERENCE METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF
SUSPENDED PARTICIPATES IN THE ATMOSPHERE (HIGH VOLUME METHOD)
P- = barometric pressure during orifice unit calibration
(Section 8.1.1). mm Hg
T_ = absolute temperature during high-volume sampler
calibration (Section 8.1.2), °K or°R.
P_ = barometric pressure during high-volume sampler
calibration (Section 8.1.2), mm Hg
10
-------
Face Plate
Filter
Position
Three-
Wire Cord
Back Plate
Adapter
Mounting
Plate
Motor
Adapter
Retaining
Ring
Gasket
Condenser
/ and Clip
IRotameter
hi Backing Plate
&
Figure Bl. Exploded view of typical high-volume air sampler parts.
-------
Figure B2.
Assembled sampler and shelter.
ORIFICE
RESISTANCE PLATES
Figure B3. Orifice Calibration unit.
12
-------
CARBON MONOXIDE
I. National Ambient Air Quality Standards
A. National Primary and Secondary Standards
1. 10 milligrams per cubic meter (9 ppm) - maximum 8 hour
concentration not to be exceeded for more than once per
year.
2. 40 milligrams per cubic meter (35 ppm) - maximum 1 hour
concentration not to be exceeded more than once per year.
B. Episode Criteria
1. Air Pollution Forecast: An internal watch by the Department
of Air Pollution Control shall be actuated by a National
/
Weather Service Advisory that atmospheric stagnation advisory
is in effect or the equivalent local forecast of stagnant
atmospheric conditions.
Prevention of Air Pollution Emergency Episodes:
Prevent ambient pollutant concentrations from any location
in such a region from reaching levels which could cause
significant harm to the health" of persons. The levels are:
1. 57.5 milligram/m3 (50 ppm) 8 hr. average
2. 8.63 milligram/m3 (75 ppm) 4 hr. average
3. 144 milligram/m3 (125 ppm) 1 hr. average
2. Alert: An alert will be declared when the level reaches
15 ppm, 8 hour averages.
PA.LA.63.2.73 '
-------
CARBON MONOXIDE
3. Warning: The warning level indicates that air quality is
continuing to degrade and that additional control actions
are necessary. A warning will be declared when the follow-
ing level is reached at any monitoring site:
1. 34 milligrams/m^ (30 ppm) 8 hr. average
4. Emergency: The emergency level indicates that air quality is
continuing to degrade toward a level of significant harm to
health of persons and that most stringent control actions are
necessary. An emergency will be declared when the following
level is reached at any monitoring site:
1. 46 milligrams/m3 (40 ppm) 8 hr. average
5. Termination: Once declared, any status reached by applic-
tion of these criteria will remain in effect until the cri-
teria for that level are no longer met. At such time the
next lower status will be assumed
II. Classification of Regions
The classification will be based on measured ambient air quality,
where known, or where not known estimated air quality in the area
of maximum pollutant concentration. Each region will be classified
separately, with respect to each of the following pollutants: sulfur
oxides, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and
photochemical oxidants.
Ambient concentration limits which define the classification system
for the sulfur oxides expressed as micrograms per cubic meter are:
-------
CARBON MONOXIDE
Region Classification
One-hour maximum
Eight-hour maximum
Equal to or Above
21
14
II
Less Than
21
III. Air Quality Surveillance Requirements
A. Region I Classification
Region Population
Minimum Frequency
of Sampling
Continuous
less than 100,000 .
100,000 - 5,000,000
above 5,000.000
Minimum Number of Air Quality
Monitoring Sites
1 + 0.15 per 100,000 populationb
6 + 0.05 per 100,000 population15
B. Region IT and III
Sampling not required
IV. Measurement Methods
A. Other methods for the determination of carbon monoxide in the
atmosphere will be considered equivalent if they meet the
following specifications:
3Total population of a region. When required number of samples includes
a fraction, round-off to nearest whole number.
-------
CARBON MONOXIDE
Specification
Range 0-58 mg/m3 (0-50 ppm)
Minimum detectable sensitivity 0.6 mg/m3 (0.5 ppm)
Rise time, 90% 5 min.
Fall time, 90% 5 min.
Zero drift ± 1% per day and ± 2% per 3 days
Span drift ± 1% per day and ± 2% per 3 days
Precision ± 4%
Operation period 3 days
Noise ± 0.5% (full scale)
Interference equivalent 1.1 mg/m3 (1 ppm)
Operating temperature fluctuation ± 5°C
Linearity 2% (full scale)
The various specifications are defined as follows:
Pange: The minimum and maximum measurement limits.
Minimum detectable sensitivity: The smallest amount of input concentra-
tion which can be detected as concentration approaches zero.
Rise time 90,%: The interval between initial response time and time to
90% response after a step increase in inlet concentration.
Fall time 90%: The interval between initial response time and time to
90,"' response after a step decrease in the inlet concentration.
Zero drift: The change in instrument output over a stated time period
of unadjusted continuous operation, when the input concentration is
zero .
Span drift: The change in instrument output over a stated period of
un . 1 iuste>] contin-ious ODeration. when the input concentration is a
stated upscale value.
4
-------
CARBON MONOXIDE
Precision: The degree of agreement, between repeated measurements of
the same concentration (which shall be the midpoint of the stated
range) expressed as the average deviation of the single results from
the mean.
Operation period: The period of time over which the instrument can be
expected to operate unattended within specifications.
Noise: Spontaneous deviations from a mean output not caused by input
concentration changes.
Interference equivalent; The portion of indicated concentration due to
the total of the interferences commonly found in ambient air.
Operating temperature fluctuation; The ambient temperature fluctuation
over which stated specifications will be met.
Linearity: The maximum deviation between an actual instrument reading
and the reading predicted by a straight line dram between upper and
lower- calibration points.
B. Non-dispersive infrared spectrometry method (for continuous
measurement of carbon monoxide in the atmosphere)
-------
APPENDIX C - REFERENCE METHOD FOR THE CONTINUOUS MEASUREMENT OF CARBON
MONOXIDE IN THE ATMOSPHERE (NQN-DISPERSIVE INFRARED SPECTROMETRY)
1. Principle and Applicability
1.1 This method is based on the absorption of infrared radiation by
carbon monoxide. Energy from a source emitting radiation in the infrared
region is split into parallel beams and directed through reference and
sample cells. Both beams pass into matched cells, each containing a select-
ive detector and CO. The CO in the cells absorb infrared radiation only
at its characteristic frequencies and the detector is sensitive to those
frequencies. With a non-absorbing gas in the reference cell, and with no
CO in the sample cell, the signals from both detectors are balanced elec-
tronically. Any CO introduced into the sample cell will absorb radiation,
which reduces the temperature and pressure in the detector cell and dis-
places a diaphram. This displacement is detected electronically and amplified
to provide an output signal.
1.2 This method is applicable to the determination of carbon monoxide
in ambient air, and to the analysis of gases under pressure.
2. Range and Sensitivity
2.1 Instruments are available that measure in the range of 0 to 58
mg/m3 (0-50 ppm), which is the range most commonly used for urban atmos-
pheric sampling. Most instruments measure in additional ranges.
3
2.2 Sensitivity is 1% of full-scale response per 0.6 mg CO/m (0.5
ppm) .
3. Interferences
3.1 Interferences vary between individual instruments. The effect of
carbon dioxide interference at normal concentrations is minimal. The pri-
mary interference is water vapor, and with no correction may give an inter-
ference equivalent to as high as 12 mg CO/m^. Water vapor interference can
be minimized by (a) passing the air sample through silica gel or similar
drying agents, (b) maintaining constant humidity in the sample and calibra-
tion gases by refrigeration, (c) saturating the air sample and calibration
gases to maintain constant humidity or (d) using narrow-band optical filters
in combination with some of these measures.
3.2 Hydrocarbons at ambient levels do not ordinarily interfere.
4. Precision, Accuracy, and Stability
PA.LA.57.2.73 Published in the Federal Register, Vol. 36, No. 84;
Friday, April 30, 1971 i
-------
APPENDIX C - REFERENCE METHOD FOR THE CONTINUOUS MEASUREMENT OF CARBON
MONOXIDE IN THE ATMOSPHERE (NON-DISPERSIVE INFRARED SPECTROMETRY)
4.1 Precision determined with calibration gases is - 0.5% full scale
in the 0-58 mg/m^ range.
4.2 Accuracy depends on instrument linearity and the absolute concen-
trations of the calibration gases. An accuracy + 1% of full scale in the
0.58 mg/m-^ range can be obtained.
4.3 Variations in ambient room temperature can cause changes equivalent
to as much as 0.5 mg C0/m3 per °C. This effect can be minimized by operat-
ing the analyzer in a temperature-controlled room. Pressure changes between
span checks will cause changes in instrument response. Zero drift is usually
less than - 1% of full scale per 24 hours, if cell temperature and pressure
are maintained constant.
5. Apparatus
5.1 Carbon Monoxide Analyzer - Commercially available instruments
should be installed on location and demonstrated, preferably by the manu-
facturer, to meet or exceed manufacturers specifications and those describ-
ed in this method.
5.2 Sample Introduction System - Pump, flow control valve, and flow-
meter.
5.3 Filter (In-line) - A filter with a porosity of 2 to 10 microns
should be used to keep large particles from the sample cell.
5.4 Moisture Control - Refrigeration units are available with some
commercial instruments for maintaining constant humidity. Drying tubes
(with sufficient capacity to operate for 72 hours) containing indicating
silica gel can be used. Other techniques that prevent the interference of
moisture are satisfactory.
6. Reagents
3
6.1 Zero Gas - Nitrogen or helium containing less than 0.1 mg CO/m .
6.2 Calibration Gases - Calibration gases corresponding to 10, 20, 40,
and 80% of full scale are used. Gases must be provided with certification
or guaranteed analysis of carbon monoxide content.
6.3 Span Gas - The calibration gas corresponsing to 80% of full scale
is used to span the instrument.
7. Procedure
7.1 Calibrate the instrument as described in 8.1. All gases (sample,
zero, calibration, and span) must be introduced into the entire analyzer
-------
APPENDIX C - REFERENCE METHOD FOR THE CONTINUOUS MEASUREMENT OF CARBON
MONOXIDE IN THE ATMOSPHERE (NON-DISPERSIVE INFRARED SPECTROMETRY)
system. Figure Cl shows a typical flow diagram. For specific operating
instructions, refer to the manufacturer's manual.
8. Calibration
8.1 Calibration Curve - Determine the linearity of the detector res-
ponse at the operating flow rate and temperature. Prepare a calibration
curve and check the curve furnished with the instrument. Introduce zero
gas and set the zero control to indicate a recorder reading of zero. In-
troduce span gas and adjust the span control to indicate the proper value
on the recorder scale (e.g. on 0-58 rng/m^ scale, set the 46 mg/nH standard
at 80% of the recorder chart). Recheck zero and span until adjustments are
no longer necessary. Introduce intermediate calibration gases and plot the
values obtained. If a smooth curve is not obtained, calibration gases may
need replacement.
9. Calculations
9.1 Determine the concentrations directly from the calibration curve.
No calculations are necessary.
3
9.2 Carbon monoxide concentrations in mg/m are converted to ppm as
follows:
3
ppm CO = mg CO/m x 0.873
10. Bibliography
1. The Intech NDIR-CO Analyzer by Frank McElroy. Presented at the
llth Methods Conference in Air Pollution, University of California,
Berkely, California, April 1, 1970.
2. Jacobs, M.B. et. Al., J.A.P.C.A. £, No. 2. 110-114. Aug., 1959.
3, MSA LIRA Infrared Gas and Liquid Analyzer Instruction Book, Mine
Safety Appliances Co., Pittsburgh, Pa.
4. Beckman Instruction 1635B, Models 215A, 315A and 415A Infrared
Analyzers, Beckman Instrument Company, Fullerton, California.
5. Continuous CO Monitoring System, Model A 5611, Intertech Corpora-
tion, Princeton, N.J.
6. Bendix - UNOR Infrared Gas Analyzers, Ronceverte, W. Va.
-------
APPENDIX C - REFERENCE METHOD FOR THE CONTINUOUS MEASUREMENT OF CARBON
MONOXIDE IN THE ATMOSPHERE (NON-DISPERSIVE INFRARED SPECTROMETRY)
ADDENDA
A. Suggested Performance Specifications for NDIR Carbon Monoxide Analyzers
3
Range (minimum) ............................ 0-58 mg/m (0-50 ppm)
Output (minimum) ........................... 0-10, 100,1000, 5000
mv full scale
Minimum Detectable Sensitivity ............. 0.6 mg/m^ (0.5 ppm)
Lag Time (maximum) ......................... 15 seconds
Time to 90% Response (maximum) ............. 30 seconds
Rise Time , 90% (maximum) ................... 15 seconds
Fall Time , 90% (maximum) ................... 15 seconds
Zero Drift (maximum) ....................... 3%/week, not to exceed
l%/24 hours
Span Drift (maximum) ....................... 3%/week, not to exceed
1Z/24 hours
Precision (minimum) ........................ + 0.5%
Operational Period (minimum) ............... 3 days
Noise (maximum) ............................ - 0.5%
Interference Equivalent (maximum) .......... 1% of full scale
Operating Temperature Range (minimum) ...... 5-40°C
Operating Humidity Range (minimum) ......... 10-100%
Linearity (maximum deviation) .............. 1% of full scale
-------
APPENDIX C - REFERENCE METHOD FOR THE CONTINUOUS MEASUREMENT OF CARBON
MONOXIDE IN THE ATMOSPHERE (NON-DISPERSIVE INFRARED SPECTROMETRY)
B. Suggested Definitions of Performance Specifications
RANGE - The minimum and maximum measurement limits.
OUTPUT - Electrical signal which is proportional to the measurement;
intended for connection to readout or data processing devices. Usually
expressed as millivolts or milliamps full scale at a given impedence.
FULL SCALE - The maximum measuring, limit for a given range.
MINIMUM DETECTABLE SENSITIVITY - The smallest amount of input concen-
tration that can be detected as the concentration approaches zero.
ACCURACY - The degree of agreement between a measured value and the
true value; usually expressed as+ % of full scale.
LAG TIME - The time interval from a step change in input concentration
at the instrument inlet to the first corresponding change in the ins-
trument output.
TIME TO 90% RESPONSE - The time interval from a step change in the
input concentration at the instrument inlet to a reading of 90% of the
ultimate recorded concentration.
RISE TIME (90%) - The interval between initial response time and time
to 90% response after a step increase in the inlet concentration.
FALL TIME (90%) - The interval between initial response time and time
to 90% response after a step decrease in the inlet concentration.
ZERO DRIFT - The change in instrument output over a stated time period,
usually 24 hours, of unadjusted continuous operation, when the input
concentration is zero; usually expressed % full scale.
SPAN DRIFT - The change in instrument output over a stated time period,
usually 24 hours, of unadjusted continuous operation, when the input
concentration is a stated upscale value; usually expressed as % full
scale.
PRECISION - The degree of agreement between repeated measurements of
the same concentration, expressed as the average deviation of the
single results from the mean.
OPERATIONAL PERIOD - The period of time over which the instrument can
be expected to operate unattended within specifications.
NOISE - Spontaneous deviations from a mean output not caused by input
concentration changes. Continued
5
-------
APPENDIX C - REFERENCE METHOD FOR THE CONTINUOUS MEASUREMENT OF CARBON
MONOXIDE IN THE ATMOSPHERE (NON-DISPERSIVE INFRARED SPECTROMETRY)
INTERFERENCE - An undesired positive or negative output caused by a
substance other than the one being measured.
INTERFERENCE EQUIVALENT - The portion of indicated input concentration
due to the presence of an interferent.
OPERATING TEMPERATURE RANGE - The range of ambient temperatures over
which the instrument will meet all performance specifications.
OPERATING HUMIDITY RANGE - The range of ambient relative humidity over
which the instrument will meet all performance specifications;
LINEARITY - The maximum deviation between an actual instrument reading
and the reading predicted by a straight line drawn between upper and
lower calibration points.
-------
APPENDIX C - REFERENCE METHOD FOR THE CONTINUOUS MEASUREMENT OF CARBON
MONOXIDE IN THE ATMOSPHERE (NON-DISPERSIVE INFRARED SPECTROMETRY)
Sample Introduction
Analyzer System
Sample In
Pressure Relief
and Filter
Span
and
Calibration
Gas
Zero
Gas .
I. R. Analyzer
Vent
Flowmeter
Partic-
ulate
Filter
Valve
Figure Cl. Carbon monoxide analyzer flow, diagram.
-------
NITROGEN DIOXIDE
I. National Ambient Air Quality Standards
A. National Primary and Secondary Standard
1. 100 micrograms per cubic meter (0.05 ppm) - annual arithmetic
mean
B. Episode Criteria
1. Air Pollution Forecast: An internal watch by the Department
of Air Pollution Control shall be actuated by a National
Weather Service Advisory that atmospheric stagnation advisory
is in effect or the equivalent local forecast of stagnant
-'atmospheric conditions.
Prevention of Air Pollution Emergency Episodes: Prevent
ambient pollutant concentrations from any location in such
a region from reaching levels which could cause significant
harm to the health of persons. The levels are:
1. 3,750 micrograms/m^ (2.0 ppm) 1 hr. average
2. 938 micrograms/m-^ (0.5 ppm) 24 hr. average
2. Alert: An alert will be declared when the level reaches
1. 0.6 ppm, 1 hour average
2. 0.15 ppm, 24 hour average
3. Warning: The warning level indicates that air quality is
continuing to degrade and that additional control actions
are necessary. A warning will be declared when the follow-
PA.LA.65.2.73 1
-------
ing level is reached at any monitoring site:
1. 2,260 micrograms/m3 (1.2 ppm) 1 hr. average
2. 565 yg/m^ (0.3 ppm) 24 hr. average
4. Emergency: The emergency level indicates that air quality
is continuing to degrade toward a level of significant harm
to health of persons and that most stringent control actions
are necessary. An emergency will be declared when the
following level is reached at any monitoring site:
1. 3,000 micrograms/m^ (1.6 ppm) 1 hr. average
2. 750 micrograms/nr' (0.4 ppm) 24 hr. average
5. Termination: Once declared, any status reached by applica-
tion of these criteria will remain in effect until the cri-
teria for that level are no longer met. At such time the
next lower status will be assumed.
II. Classification of Regions
The classification will be based on measured ambient air quality,
where known, or where not known estimated air quality in the area
of maximum pollutant concentration. Each region will be classified
separately, with respect to eaeh of the following pollutants:
sulfur oxides, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide
and photochemical oxidants.
-------
Ambient concentration limits which define the classification system
for nitrogen dioxide expressed as micrograms per cubic meter are:
Region Classification
Annual arithmetic mean
Greater Than
100
III. Air Quality Surveillance Requirements
A. Region I Classification
II
Less Than
100
Minimum Frequency
of Sampling
Region Population
Minimum Number of Air Quality
Monitoring Sites
One 24-hour sample
every 14. days (gas
bubbler)3
less than 100,000
100,000 - 1,000,000
above 1,000,000
B. Region II and III Classification
Sampling not required
4-1-0.6 per 100,000 population13
10
IV. Measurement Methods
A. 24-hour sampling method (for the determination of nitrogen
dioxide in the atmosphere)
Equivalent to 61 random samples per year.
bTotal population of a region. When required number of samples
includes a fraction, round-off to the nearest whole number.
-------
IHOTOCHUTCAL OX ID ANTS
I. National Ambient Air Quality Standards
A. Na' ~: '1 Primary ant' Secondary Standard
1. 160 microf^vms 'e> cubic meter (0.08 ppm) -- mum 1 hour
concentration not to be exceeded more than c per y*_<-
B. Episode Criteria
1. Air Pollution Forecast: An internal watch by tKi Department
of Air-Pollution Control shall be actuated by a National
Weather Service Advisory that atmospheric stagnation
Advisory is in effect or the equivalent local forecast of
stagnant atmospheric conditions.
Prevention of Air Pollution Emergency Episodes:
Prevent ambient pollutant concentrations from any location
in such a region from reaching levels which could cause
significant harm to the health of persons. The levels are:
1. 800 micrograms/m^ (0.4 ppm) 4 hr. average
o
2. 1,400 micrograms/nr (0.7 ppm) 1 hr. average
2. Alert: An alert will be declared when the level reaches 0.1
ppm, 1 hour average,
3. Warning: The wan > ig level indicates that air quality is
continuing to degrade and that additional control actions
are necessary. A warning will be declared when the follow
ing level is reached at any monitoring site:
1. 800 micrograms/m^ (0.4 ppm) 1 hr. average
PA.LA.64.2.73 }
-------
PHOTOCHEMICAL OXIDANTS
4. Emergency: The emergency level indicates that air quality
is continuing to degrade toward a level of significant
harm to health of persons and that most stringent control
actions are necessary. An emergency will be declared when
the following level is reached at any monitoring site:
1. 1,200 micrograms/m3 (0.6 ppm) 1 hr. average
5. Termination: Once declared, any status reached by applica-
tion of these criteria will remain in effect until the
criteria for that level are no longer met. At such time the
next lower status will be assumed.
II. Classification of Regions
The classification will be based on measured ambient air quality,
where known, or where not known, estimated air quality in the area
of maximum pollutant concentration. Each region will be classified
separately with respect to each of the.following pollutants: sulfur
oxides, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and
photochemical oxidants.
Ambient concentration limits which define the classification system
for photochemical oxidants expressed as micrograms per cubic meter
are:
Region Classification I II
Equal to or Above Less Than
One/hour - maximum 170 170
-------
PHOTOCHEMICAL OXID 'IIP
III. Air Quality Surveillance Requirements
A n ion I C"'as f.'. fixation
Minimun Frequency Minimum Number of A f>uali
of Sampling P ^ion Population Monitoring
One 24-hour sample
Continuous
less than 100,000
less than 100,000
100,000 - 5,000,000
above 5,000,000
1
1 + 0.15 per 100,000 pop.b
6 + 0.05 per 100,000 pop.b
B. Region II and III Classification
Sampling not required
IV. Measurement Methods
A. Other methods for the determination oxidants in the atmosphere
will be considered equivalent if they meet the following per-
formance specifications:
Specification
Range 0-880 ug/m3 (0-0.5 ppm)
Minimum Detectable Sensif ity 20 ;ig/m3 (0.01 ppm)
Rise time, 90% 5 minutes
Fall time, 90% 5 minutes
bTo'tal population vs. region. When required number of samples
includes a fraction, round-off to nearest whole number.
-------
PHOTOCHEMICAL OXIDANTS
Specification (continued)
Zero drift - 1% per day and - 2% per 3 days
Span drift - 1% per day and - 2% per 3 days
Precision - 4%
Operation period 3 days
Noise - 0.5% (full scale)
Interference equivalent 20 yg/m (0.01 ppm)
Operating temperature fluctuation - 5°C
Linearity 2% (full scale)
The various specifications are defined as follows:
Range: The minimum and maximum measurement limits.
Minimum detectable sensitivity: The smallest amount of input concen-
tration which can be detected as concentration approaches zero.
Rise time 90%: The interval between initial response time and time to
90% response after a step increase in inlet concentration.
Fall time 90%: The interval between initial response time and time to
90% response after a step decrease in the inlet concentration.
Zero drift: The change in instrument output over a stated time period
of unadjusted continuous operation, when the input concentration is
zero.
Span drift: The change in instrument ouput over a stated period of un-
adjusted continuous operation, when the input concentration is a stated
upscale value.
Precision: The degree of agreement between repeated measurements of
the same concentration (which shall be the midpoint of the stated range)
expressed as the average deviation of the single results from the mean.
Operation period: The period of time over which the instrument can be
expected to operate unattended within specifications.
Noise: Spontaneous deviations from a mean output not caused by input
concentration changes.
-------
PHOTOCHEMICAL OXIDANTS
Interference equivalent; The portion of Indicated concentration dut
to the total of the interferences commonly found '' ambient air.
Operating temperature fluctuation: The ambient t<- -TfMire flucti .j>
over which stated specifications will be met.
Linearity; The maximum deviation between an actual 1 ^rument reading
and the reading predicted by a straight line drawn between upper and
lower calibration points.
B. Gas Phase Ethylene Chemiluminescence
-------
Al PENDIX D - REFERENCE METHOD FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF PHOTOCHE1 L.JAL OXITXANTS
CORRECTED FOR INTERFERENCES DUE TO NITROGEN OXIDES AND SULFUR DIO rDE
Principle and Applii 'ility
1.3 A.mv'! <=-nt air ... 1 --thyJer.e are delivered simul* ously to u m;
7 w.ie,;^ 0; ne i^, ._.„<-• eacts with tlie eth/lt to r-tni '• t
which is detected by a \ .< Her tube. The rec.u .^to.i -:eut i.
implifj.ev ;•-" is eithe- re, <. _-e jt_ly or displayed on a ,rdur.
1.2 The method is applicable to he continuous ceastu aent of • -ne in
ambient air.
2. Range and Sensitivity
2.1 The range is 9.8 pg 0_/m3 to greater than I960 yg ( ^/ji3 (O.OO1^
ppm 0_ to greater than 1 ppm 0 ).
3
2.2 The sensitivity is 9.8 ug 0 /m (0.005 ppm 0_).
3. Interferences
3.1 Other oxidizing and reducing species normally found in ambie,. '.:
do not interfere.
4. Precision and Accuracy
4.1 The average deviation from the mean of repeated single measurements
does not exceed 5% of the mean of the measurements.
4.2 The method is accurate within - 7%.
5. Apparatus
5.1 Detector Cell - Figure Dl is a drawing of a typical detector <~- n
showing flow paths of gases, the mixing zone, and placement of the ^ho
multiplier tube. Other flow paths in which the air and ethyleue st
meet at a point near the photomultiplier tube are also allowable.
5.2 Air Flowmeter - A dev i •" Capable of controlling air flows beiv^er
0-1.5 1/min.
5.3 Ethylene Flowmeter - A device capable of controlling ethylene t'ow.
between 0-50 ml/min. At any flow in this range, the device should be cap
able of maintaining constant '-'low rate within 3 ml/min.
PA.LA.58.2.73 Published in the Federal Register, Vol. 36, No. 84;
Friday, April 30, 1971
-------
APPENDIX D - REFERENCE METHOD FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF PHOTOCHEMICAL OXIDANTS
CORRECTED FOR INTERFERENCES DUE TO NITROGEN OXIDES AND SULFUR DIOXIDE
5.4 Air Inlet Filter - A Teflon filter capable of removing all part-
icles greater than 5 microns in diameter.
5.5 Photomultiplier Tube - A high gain low dark current (not more than
1 x 10~9 ampere) photomultiplier tube having its maximum gain at about
430 mm. The following tubes are satisfactory: RCA 4507, RCA 8575, EMI 9750,
EMI 9524 and EMI 9536.
5.6 High Voltage Power Supply - capable of delivering up to 2000 volts.
5.7 Direct Current Amplifier - Capable of full scale amplification of
currents from 10~1(J to 10~' ampere; an electrometer is commonly used.
5.8 Recorder - Capable of full scale display of voltages from the DC
amplifier. These voltages commonly are in the 1 millivolt to 1 volt range.
5.9 Ozone Source and Dilution System - The ozone source consists of a
quartz tube into which ozone-free air is introduced and then irradiated
with a very stable low pressure mercury lamp. The level of irradiation is
controlled by an adjustable aluminum sleeve which fits around the lamp.
Ozone concentrations are varied by adjustment of this sleeve. At a fixed
level of irradiation, ozone is produced at a constant rate. By carefully
controlling the flow of air through the quartz tube, atmospheres are gen-
erated which contain constant concentrations of ozone. The levels of ozone
in the test atmospheres are determined by the neutral buffered potassium
iodide method (see section 8). This ozone source and dilution system is
shown schematically in Figures D2 and D3, and has been described by Hodge-
son, Stevens, and Martin.
5.10 Apparatus for Calibration
5.10.1 Absorber - All-glass impingers as shown in Figure D4 are re-
commended. The impingers may be purchased from most major glassware suppliers.
Two absorbers in series are needed to insure complete collection of the
sample.
5.10.2 Air Pump - Capable of drawing 1 liter/min. through the absorbers.
The pump should be equipped with a needle valve on the inlet side to reg-
ulate flow.
5.10.3 Thermometer - With an accuracy of - 2°C.
5.10.4 Barometer - Accurate to the nearest mm Hg.
5.10.5 Flowmeter - Calibrated metering device for measuring flow up
to 1 liter/min. within - 2%. (For measuring flow through impingers.)
-------
APPENDIX D - REFERENCE METHOD FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF PHOTOCHEMICAL OXIDANTS
CORRECTED FOR INTERFERENCES DUE TO NITROGEN OXIDES AND SULFUR DIOXIDE
5.10.6 Flowmeter - For measuring air flow past the jHmpj must be Ci
able of measuring flows from 2 to 15 liters/min. within . /»,
5.10.7 ^Trap_ - Containing glass wool to protect nee> .«.. valve.
5.10.8 Volumetric Flasks - ?,5, 100, 500, 1000 ml.
5.10.9 Buret - 50 ml.
5.10.10 Pipets - 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 10, 25, and 50 ml volumetric.
5.10.11 Erlenmeyer Flasks - 300 ml.
5.10.12 Spectrophotometer - Capable of measuring absorbance at 352 nm.
Matched 1-cm cells should be used.
6. Reagents
6.1 Ethylene - C.P. grade (minimum).
6.2 Cylinder Air - Dry grade.
6.3 Activated Charcoal Trap - For filtering cylinder air.
6.4 Purified Water - Used for all reagents. To distilled or deionized
water in an all-glass distillation apparatus, add a crystal of potassium
permanganate and a crystal of barium hydroxide, and redistill.
6.5 Absorbing Reagent - Dissolve 13.6 g potassium dihydrogen phosphate
(KH2P04), 14.2 g anhydrous disodium hydrogen phosphate (NA2HPC^) or 35.8 g
dodecahydrate salt (NA2HP0412H20), and 10.0 g potassium iodide (KI) in
purified water and dilute to 1000 ml. The pH should be 6.8 - 0.2. The solu-
tion is stable for several weeks, if stored in a glaas-stoppered amber
bottle in a cool, dark place.
6.6.Standard Arsenous Oxide Solution (0.05 N) - Use primary standard
grade arsenous oxide (AS203). Dry 1 hour at 105°C immediately before using.
Accurately weigh 2.4 g arsenous o ide from a small glass-stoppered weigh-
ing bottle. Dissolve in 25 ml 1 N ^odium hydroxide in a flask or beaker on
a steam bath. Add 25 ml 1 N sulfuric acid. Cool, transfer quantitatively
to a 1000ml volumetric flask, and dilute to volume. NOTE: Solution must be
neutral to litmus, not alkaline.
Normality As^ = Wt As2°3 (g)
49.46
-------
APPENDIX D - REFERENCE METHOD FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF PHOTOCHEMICAL OXIDANTS
CORRECTED FOR INTERFERENCES DUE TO NITROGEN OXIDES AND SULFUR DIOXIDE
6.7 Starch Indicator Solution (0.2%j - Triturate 0.4 g soluble starch
and approximately 2 mg mercuric Iodide (preservative) with a little water.
Add the paste slowly to 200 ml of boiling water. Continue boiling until
the solution is clear, allow to cool, and transfer to a glass-stoppered
bottle.
6.8 Standard Iodine Solution (0.05 N)
6.8.1 Preparation - Dissolve 5.0 g potassium iodide (KI) and 3.2 g
resublimed iodine (!£> in 10 ml purified water. When the iodine dissolves,
transfer the solution to a 500-ml glass-stoppered volumetric flask. Dilute
to mark with purified water and mix thoroughly. Keep solution in a dark
brown glass-stoppered bottle away from light, and re-standardize as neces-
sary.
6.8.2 Standardization - Pipet accurately 20 ml standard arsenous oxide
solution into a 300-ml erlenraeyer flask. Acidify slightly with 1:10 sulfurlc
acid, neutralize with solid sodium bicarbonate, and add about 2 g excess.
Titrate with the standard iodine solution using 5 ml starch solution as
indicator. Saturate the solution with carbon dioxide near the end point by
adding 1 ml of 1:10 sulfuric acid. Continue the titration to the first
appearance of a blue color which persists for 30 seconds.
., , .. , ml As_00 x Normality As_0_
Normality !„ = 2 3 ' 23
ml I2
6.9 Diluted Standard Iodine - Immediately before use, pipet 1 ml stand-
ard iodine solution into a 100-ml volumetric flask and dilute to volume
with absorbing reagent.
7- Procedure
7.1 Instruments can be constructed from the components given here or
may be purchased. If commercial instruments are used, follow the specific
instructions given in the manufacturer's manual. Calibrate the instrument
as directed in section 8. Introduce samples into the system under the same
conditions of pressure and flow rate as are used in calibration. By proper
adjustments of zero and span controls, direct reading of ozone concentra-
tion is possible.
8. Calibration
8.1 KI Calibration Curve - Prepare a curve of absorbance of various
iodine solutions against calculated ozone equivalents as follows:
-------
APPENDIX D - S.EFERLNCE METHOD FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF PHOTOCHEMICAL OX1DANTS
CORRECTED FOR INTERI ERENCLS DUE TO NITROGEN OXIp^S_Ajro_SULFURJ)JOXI1 E.
8.1.1 Into a series ot >.") mi vt .uro" ric flasks, ply 1,2,., a
4 ml jf diluted standard iodine solut^jn (6.9). Pilui.e < i.ln in* rk /
absorbing reagent Mi/- thonu^nly, and 'w.nediaf.^lv re"d ' x< >rl>, .ace u
* g Qi^ei-^: •*' ^ference.
8.1,2 Calculate the c, .:> '- ^ /u o s>,._ .» _jn : yg 'S, as
follows :
Total yg 03 = (N) '96) (V., )
N = normality I? (see 6.8.2), meq/ml
V. = volume of diluted standard I_ added, nil (0.5, 1,2,3,4)
Plot absorbance versus total yg 0_.
8.2 Instrument Calibration
8.2.1 Generation of Test Atmospheres - Assemble the apparatus as shown
in Figure D3. The ozone concentration produced by the generator can be
varied by changing the positon of the adjustable sleeve. For calibration
of ambient air analyzers, the ozone source should be capable of producing
ozone concentrations in the range 100 to 1000 yg/m-^ (0.05 to 0.5 ppm) at
a flow rate of at least 5 liters per minute. At all times the air flow
through the generator must be greater than the total flow required by the
sampling systems.
8.2.2 Sampling and Analyses of Test Atmospheres - Assemble the KT
sampling train as shown in Figure D4. Use ground-glass connections upstream
from the impinger. Butt-to-butt connections with Tygon tubing may be used.
The manifold distributing the tes*~ atmospheres must be sampled simultane-
ously by the KI sampling train and the instrument to be calibrated. Check
assembled systems for leaks. Record the instrument response in nrnoarapert
at each concentration (usually six) . Establish these concentrations by
analysis, using the neutral bufi-.red potassium iodide method as foilo1 = :
8.2.2.1 Blank - With ozone lamp off, flush the system for several miu
utes to remove residual ozone. PI- f TO ml absorbing reagent into each
absorber. Draw air from the c -01 ^ arating system through the sampling
train at 0.2 to 1 liter/rain, for 1 minutes. Immediately transfer the ex-
posed solution to a clean 1-cm cell. Determine the absorbance at 352 an
against unexposed absorbing reagent as the reference. If the system blan..
gives an absorbance, continue f lur hing the ozone generation system until no
absorbance is obtained.
-------
\PPENDIX D - REFERENCE METHOD FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF PHOTOCHEMICAL OXIDANTS
CORRECTED FOR INTERFERENCES DUE TO NITROGEN OXIDES AND SULFUR DIOXIDE.
8.2.2.2 Test Atmospheres - With the ozone lamp operating, equilibrate
the system for about 10 minutes. Pipet 10 ml of absorbing reagent into
each absorber and collect samples for 10 minutes in the concentration
range desired for calibration. Immediately transfer the solutions from the
two absorbers to clean 1-cm cells. Determine the absorbance of each at 352
nm against unexposed absorbing reagent as the reference. Add the absorbances
of the two solutions to obtain total absorbance. Read total yg 0^ from the
calibration curve (see 8.1). Calculate total volume of air sampled correct-
ed to reference conditions of 25°C and 760 mm Hg as follows:
„ „ P 298 in-3
VR = V X 760 Xt + 273 X 10
V = volume of air at reference conditions, m
K
V = volume of air at sampling conditions, liters
P = barometric pressure at sampling conditions, mm Hg
t = temperature at sampling conditions, °C
-3 3
10 = conversion of liters to m
Calculate ozone concentration in ppm as follows:
ppm
0. = Mg °3 x 5.10 x 10 4
VR
8.2.3 Instrument Calibration Curve - Instrument response from the photo-
multiplier tube is ordinarily in current or voltage. Plot the current, or
voltage if appropriate, (y-axis) for the test atmospheres against ozone
concentration as determined by the neutral buffered potassium iodide method,
in ppm (x-axis).
9. Calculations
9.1 If a recorder is used which has been properly zeroed and spanned,
ozone concentrations can be read directly.
9.2 If the DC amplifier is read directly, the reading must be convert-
ed to ozone concentrations using the instrument calibration curve (8.2.3).
2
9.3 Conversion between ppm and yg/m values for ozone can be made as
follows:
PPm °3 =
-------
APPENDIX D - REFERENCE METHOD FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF PHOTOCHEMI^ L OXIDANTS
CORRECTED FOR INTERFERENCES DUE TO NITROGEN OXIDES AND SULFUR DIOXIDE
10. Bibliography
1. Hodge son, J.A., Martin, B.E., and Baumgardner, I '•;., "Comparison
of Chemiluminescent Methods for Measurement of i\t~ ^spheric Ozone"
Progress in Analytical Chemistry, Vol. V, Plenuir ^ress, 1971.
2. Hodgeson, J.A., Stevens, R.K., and Martin, B.E., r *. ble Ozone
Source Applicable as a Secondary Standard for Calibr ion of Atmos-
pheric Monitors", Analysis Instrumentation Symposia nstrument
Society of America, Houston, Texas, April 1971.
3. Nederbragt, G.W., Van der Horst, A., and Van Duijn, j Nature 206,
87 (1965).
4. Warren, G.J., and Babcock, G., Rev. Sci. Instr. 41, 280 (1970).
-------
APPENDIX D - REFERENCE METHOD FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF PHOTOCHEMICAL OXIDANTS
CORRECTED FOR INTERFERENCES DUE TO NITROGEN OXIDES AND SULFUR DIOXIDE
SAMPLE AIR IN
EXHAUST -
ETHYLENE IN
>^ 6mw
10 nw
PHOTOMULTIPLIER TUBE
PYREX CONSTRUCTION
1 *fr m 0.0.
EPOXY SEALED OPTICALLY FLAT
PYREX WINDOW ON END
Figure Dl. Detector cell
-------
6-in. PEN-RAY
LAMP
AIR
14 in.-
SLEEVE
J
"IT* 3/8;in-
QUARTZ TUBE. 15-mm O.D.
ALUMINUM
BOX ENCLOSURE
4-in.
I
mv\\M \\\vV\VJ \\\\Aw?v\vv \ ^^\\•\\v\\\\\\V^\^^\\^^^^^A'^^T'•v^^y>v^•^•^•
COLLAR
A
o >
o '-a
PJ
o
pa
o
a s
83
w
M PJ
H
BM
t>
pO
O H
H W
rt H
CO
Figure D2. Ozone source.
H
co
-------
APPENDIX D - REFERENCE METHOD FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF PHOTOCHEMICAL OXIDANTS
CORRECTED FOR INTERFERENCES DUE TO NITROGEN OXIDES AND SULFUR DIOXIDE
FLOW METER
(0-10 liters/min)
5 liters/min
OZONE
SOURCE
NEEDLE
VALVE
FLOW
CONTROLLER
MICRON
FILTER
CYLINDER
AIR
VENT
SAMPLE
llLJlLJll
MANIFOLD
Figure D3. Ozone calibration air supply,
source, and manifold system.
10
-------
APPENDIX D - REFERENCE METHOD FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF PHOTOCHEMICAL OXIDANTS
CORRECTED FOR INTERFERENCES DUE TO NITROGEN OXIDES AND SULFUR DIOXIDE
Mf^'TJVJr*?
FLOWMETER
ABSORBERS
GLASS
WOOL
TO AIR
PUMP
TRAP
Figure D4. Kl sampling train
11
-------
APPENDIX E - REFERENCE METHOD FOR DETERMINATION OF HYDROCARBONS
CORRECTED FOR METHANE
1. PRINCIPLE AND APPLICABILITY
1.1 Measured volumes of air are delivered seini-continuously (4 to
12 times per hour) to a hydrogen flame ionization detector to measure
its total hydrocarbon (THC) content. An aliquot of the same air sample
is introduced into a stripper column which removes water, carbon dioxide,
hydrocarbons other than methane, and carbon monoxide. Methane and carbon
monoxide are passed quantitatively to a-gas chromatographic column where
they are separated. The methane is eluted first, and is passed unchanged
through a catalytic reduction tube into the flame ionization detector.
The carbon monoxide is eluted into the catalytic reduction tube where
it is reduced to methane before passing through the flame ionization
detector. Between analyses the stripper column is backflushed to pre-
pare it for subsequent analysis. Hydrocarbon concentrations corrected
for methane are determined by substracting the methane value from the
total hydrocarbon value.
Two modes of operation are possible: (1) A complete chromatographic
analysis showing the continuous output from the detector for each sample
injection; (2) The system is programmed for automatic zero and span to
display selected band widths of the chromatogram. The peak height is
then used as the measure of the concentration. The former operation is
referred to as the chromatographic or spectro mode and the latter as the
barographic or "normal" mode depending on the make of the analyzer.
1.2 The method is applicable to the semi-continuous measurement of
hydrocarbons corrected for methane in ambient air. The carbon monoxide
measurement, which is simultaneously obtained in this method, is not
required in making measurements of hydrocarbons corrected for methane
and will not be dealt with here.
2. RANGE AND SENSITIVITY
2.1 Instruments are available with various range combinations. For
atmospheric analysis the THC range is 0-13.1 mg/m^ (0-20 ppm) carbon
(as CH4) and the methane range is 0-6.55 mg/m^ (0-10 ppm). For special
applications, lower ranges are available and in these applications the
range for THC is 0-1.31 mg/m^ (0-2 ppm) carbon (as CH^) and for methane
the range is 0-1.31 mg/m^ (0-2 ppm).
2.2 For the higher, atmospheric analysis ranges the sensitivity for
THC is 0.065 mg/m^ (0.1 ppm) carbon (as CH^) and for methane the sensi-
tivity is 0.033 mg/rn^ (0.05 ppm). For the lower, special analysis ranges
the sensitivity is 0.016 mg/nH (0.025 ppm) for each gas.
3. INTERFERENCES
3.1 No interference in the methane measurement has been observed.
PA.LA.59.2.73 Published in the Federal Register, Vol. 36, No. 84; ,
Friday, April 30, 1971
-------
APPENDIX E - REFERENCE METHOD FOR DETERMINATION OF HYDROCARBONS
CORRECTED FOR METHANE
The THC measurement typically includes all or a portion of what is
generally classified as the air peak interference. This effect is
minimized by proper plumbing arrangements or is negated electronically.
4. PRECISION, ACCURACY, AND STABILITY
4.1 Precision determined with calibration gases is + 0.5% of full-
scale in the higher, atmospheric analysis ranges. ~
4.2 Accuracy is dependent on instrument linearity and absolute
concentration of the calibration gases. An accuracy of 1% of full-
scale in the higher, atmospheric analysis ranges and 2% of full-scale
in the lower, special analysis ranges can be obtained.
4.3 Variations in ambient room temperature can cause changes in
performance characteristics. This is due to shifts in oven temperature,
flow rates, and pressure with ambient temperature change. The instrument
should meet performance specifications with room temperature changes of
+ 3°C. Baseline drift is automatically.corrected in the barographic
mode.
5. APPARATUS
5.1 Commercially Available THC, CH< , and CO Analyzer - Instruments
should be installed on location and demonstrated, preferably by the
manufacturer, or his representative, to meet or exceed manufacturer's
specifications and those described in this method.
5.2 Sample Introduction System - Pump, flow control valves, auto-
matic switching valves and flowmeter.
5.3 Filter (In-line) - A binder-free, glass-fiber filter with a
porosity of 3 to 5 microns should be immediately downstream from the
sample pump.
5.4 Stripper or Pre-Column - Located outside of the oven at ambient
temperature. The column should be repacked or replaced after the
equivalent of two months of continuous operation.
5.5 Oven - For containing the analytical column and catalytic
convertor. The oven should be capable of maintaining an elevated
temperature constant within + 0.5°C. The specific temperature varies
with instrument manufacturerT
6. REAGENTS
6.1 Combustion Gas - Air containing less than 1.3 mg/m^ (2 ppm)
hydrocarbon as methane.
-------
APPENDIX E - REFERENCE METHOD FOR DETERMINATION OF HYDROCARBONS
CORRECTED FOR METHANE
6.2 Fuel - Hydrogen or a mixture of hydrogen and inert gas containing
less than 0.065 mg/m3 (0.1 ppm) hydrocarbons as methane.
6.3 Carrier Gas - Helium, nitrogen, air or hydrogen containing less
than 0.065 mg/m3 (0.1 ppm) hydrocarbons as methane.
6.4 Zero Gas - Air containing less than 0.065 mg/m3 (0.1 ppm) total
hydrocarbons as methane.
6.5 Calibration Gases - Gases needed for linearity checks (peak
heights) are determined by the ranges used. Calibration gases corre-
sponding to 10, 20, 40, and 80% of full-scale are needed. Gases must
be provided with certification or guaranteed analysis. Methane is used
for both the total hydrocarbon measurement and methane measurement.
6.6 Span Gas - The calibration gas corresponding to 80% of full-
scale is used to span the instrument*
7. PROCEDURE
7.1 Calibrate the instrument as described in 8.1. Introduce sample
into the system under the same conditions of pressure and flow rates
as are used in calibration. (The pump is bypassed only when pressurized
cylinder gases are used.) Figure E 1 shows a typical flow diagram; for
specific operating instructions refer to manufacturer's manual.
8. CALIBRATION
8.1 Calibration Curve - Determine the linearity of the system for
THC and methane in the barographic mode by introducing zero gas and
adjusting the respective zeroing controls to indicate a recorder
reading of zero. Introduce the span gas and adjust the span control
to indicate the proper value on the recorder scale. Recheck zero and
span until adjustments are no longer necessary. Introduce intermediate
calibration gases and plot the values obtained. If a smooth curve is
not obtained, calibration gases may need replacement.
9. CALCULATION
9.1 Determine concentrations of total hydrocarbons (as CH^) and CH4,
directly from the calibration curves. No calculations are necessary.
9.2 Determine concentration of hydrocarbons corrected for methane
by substracting the methane concentration from the total hydrocarbon
concentration.
Continued, next page
-------
APPENDIX E - REFERENCE METHOD FOR DETERMINATION OF HYDROCARBONS
CORRECTED FOR METHANE
9.3 Conversion between ppm and mg/m^ values for total hydrocarbons
(as 014) methane and hydrocarbons corrected for methane are made as
follows:
ppm carbon (as CH^) = [mg carbon (as CH^)/m^] x 1.53
10. BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Fee, G., "Multi-Parameter Air Quality Analyzer", ISA Proceedings
AID/CHEMPID Symposium, Houston, Texas, April 19-21, 1971.
2. Villalobos, R., and Chapman, R.L., "A Gas Chromatographic Method
for Automatic Monitoring of Pollutants in Ambient Air", ibid.
3. Stevens, R.K., "The Automated Gas Chromatograph as an Air
Pollutant Monitor", 1970 Conference on Environmental Toxicology,
U.S. Air Force, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio.
4. Stevens, R.K. , and O'Keeffe, A.E., Anal. Chem. 42_, 143A (1970).
5. Schuck, E.A., Altshuller, A.P., Earth, D.S. and Morgan, G.B.,
"Relationship of Hydrocarbons to Oxidants in Ambient Atmos-
pheres", J_. Air Poll. Cont. Assoc. 2£, 297-302 (1970).
6. Stevens, R.K., O'Keeffe, A.E., and Ortman, G.C., "A Gas
Chromatographic Approach to the Semi-Continuous Monitoring of
Atmospheric Carbon Monoxide and Methane", Proceedings of llth
Conference on Methods in Air Pollution on Industrial Hygiene
Studies, Berkeley, California, March 30-April 1, 1970.
7. Swinnerton, J.W., Linnenbom, V.J., and Check, C.H., Environ. Sci.
Technol. 3^, 836 (1969).
8. Williams, I.G., Advances in Chromatography, Giddings, J.C., and
Keller, R.A., editors, Marcell Dekker, N.Y. (1968), pp. 178-182.
9. Altshuller, A.P., Kopeznski, S.L., Lonneman, W.A., Becker, T.L.,
and Slater, R. , Environ. Sci. Technol. 1_, 899 (1967).
10. Altshuller, A.P., Cohen, I.R., and Purcell, T.C. , Can. J_. Chem. ,
44, 2973 (1966).
11. DuBois, L. , Zdrojewski, A., and Monkman, J.L., J_. Air Poll. Cont.
Assoc. 16_, 135 (1966).
12. Ortman, G.C., Anal. Chem. _38, 644-646 (1966).
13. Porter, K. , and Volman, D.H., Anal. 'Chem. 34_, 748-749 (1962).
4
-------
APPENDIX E - REFERENCE METHOD FOR DETERMINATION OF HYDROCARBONS
CORRECTED FOR METHANE
14. Crum, W.M., Proceedings, National Analysis Instrumentation
Symposium ISA, 1962.
15. Schwink, A., Hochenberg, H., and Forderreuther, M., Brennstoff-
Chemie 72, No. 9, 295 (1961).
16. instruction Manual for Air Quality Chromatograph Model 6800,
Beckman Instrument Co., Fullertor, California.
17. Instruction Manual, Bendix Corporation, Ronceverte, West Virginia.
18. Instruction Manual, Byron Instrument Co., Raleigh, North Carolina.
19. MSA Instruction Manual for GC Process Analyzer for Total Hydro-
carbon, Methane and Carbon Monoxide, Pittsburgh, Pa.
20. Monsanto Enviro-Chem System for Total Hydrocarbons, Methane and
Carbon Monoxide Instruction Manual, Dayton, Ohio.
21. Union Carbide Instruction Manual for Model 3020 Gas Chromatograph
for CO-CH4-T/1, White Plains, N.Y.
22. Instruction Manual for 350 F Analyzer, Tracer, Inc., Austin,
Texas.
-------
APPENDIX E - REFERENCE METHOD FOR DETERMINATION OF HYDROCARBONS
CORRECTED FOR METHANE
ADDENDA
A. Suggested Performance Specifications for Atmospheric Analyzers
Hydrocarbons Corrected for Methane
Range (minimum) 0-5 ppm THC
0-5 ppm CH^
Output (minimum) 0-10 mv full scale
Minimum Detectable Sensitivity 0.1 ppm THC
0.1 ppm CH4
Zero Drift (maximum) Not to exceed
l%/24 hours
Span Drift (maximum) Not to exceed
l%/24 hours
Precision (minimum) + 0.5%
Operational Period (minimum) 3 days
Operating Temperature Range (minimum) 5-40 °C
Operating Humidity Range (minimum) 10-100%
Linearity (maximum) 1% of full scale
-------
APPENDIX E - REFERENCE METHOD FOR DETERMINATION OF HYDROCARBONS
CORRECTED FOR METHANE
B. Suggested Definitions of Performance Specifications
RANGE - The minimum and maximum measurement limits.
OUTPUT - Electrical signal which is proportional to the measure-
ment; intended for connection to readout or data processing
devices. Usually expressed as millivolts or milliamps full
scale at a given impedence.
FULL SCALE - The maximum measuring limit for a given range.
MINIMUM DETECTABLE SENSITIVITY - The smallest amount of input
concentration that can be detected as the concentration approaches
zero.
ACCURACY - The degree of agreement between a measured value and
the true value; usually expressed at + % of full scale.
LAG TIME - The time interval from ^a step change in input concen-
t-ration at the instrument inlet to the first corresponding change
in the instrument output.
TIME TO 90% RESPONSE - The time interval from a step change in the
input concentration at the instrument inlet to a reading of 90%
of the ultimate recorded concentration.
RISE TIME (90%) - The interval between initial response time and
time to 90% response after a step decrease in the inlet concen-
tration.
ZERO DRIFT - The change in instrument output over a stated time
period, usually 24 hours, of unadjusted continuous operation,
when the input concentration is zero; usually expressed as %
full scale.
SPAN DRIFT - The change in instrument output over a stated time
period, usually 24 hours, of unadjusted continuous operation,
when the input concentration is a stated upscale value; usually
expressed as % full scale.
PRECISION - The degree of agreement between repeated measurements
of the same concentration. It is expressed as the average devi-
ation of the single results from the mean.
OPERATIONAL PERIOD - The period of time over which the instrument
can be expected to operate unattended within specifications.
-------
APPENDIX E - REFERENCE METHOD FOR DETERMINATION OF HYDROCARBONS
CORRECTED FOR METHANE
NOISE - Spontaneous deviations from a mean output not caused by
input concentration changes.
INTERFERENCE - An undesired positive or negative output caused
by a substance other than the one being measured.
INTERFERENCE EQUIVALENT - The portion of indicated input concen-
tration due to the presence of an interferent.
OPERATING TEMPERATURE RANGE - The range of ambient temperatures
over which the instrument will meet all performance specifications.
OPERATING HUMIDITY RANGE - The range of ambient relative humidity
over which the instrument will meet all performance specifications.
LINEARITY - The maximum deviation between an actual instrument
reading and the reading predicted by a straight line drawn between
upper and lower calibration points.
7
AIR
SUPPLY
SAMPLE OUT
SAMPLE IN
STRIPI'FR COLUMN
>SL!- HYDROGEN
GENERATOR
BACKFLUSH VALVE
VENT
He PURGE
PEAK
'^ MEMORIES
ELECTROMETER
-------
PRINCIPLES OF ADSORPTION
J. J. Bolen*
I INTRODUCTION
The adsorption process can be applied to the
collection and measurement of gaseous radio-
nuclides. At present, adsorption techniques
for radioactivity measurements are used
primarily for monitoring inplant operations
(e.g., monitoring gaseous releases from
reactor and fuel reprocessing operations).
However, adsorption coupled with filtration
methods can be used for measuring environ-
mental levels of such radionuclides as iodine
and radon.
This outline presents a detailed discussion of
the adsorption process along with its appli-
cation to the sampling and measurement of
gaseous radionuclides.
II BASIC PRINCIPLES
Adsorption is the phenomenon by which gases,
liquids.and solutes within liquids are attracted,
concentrated and retained at a boundary sur-
face. The boundary surface may be the inter-
face between a gas and liquid, liquid and liquid,
gas and solid, liquid and solid, or solid and
solid. Of the various boundary surfaces, the
adsorption mechanism between liquid and
solid and gas and solid have received the most
attention. The former with respect to removal
of substances from solution with a solid absor-
bent (e.g., purification), and the latter with
respect to removing gaseous pollutants on
solid absorbents of high surface area. (I'
A solid adsorbent is composed of a type of
crystal lattice structure. The atoms at the
surface of the lattice are arranged in a
regular sequence which is dependent on the
particular solid's crystalline structure. The
valence or other attractive forces at the sur-
face of a solid are unsatisfied or unsaturated
due to their lack of being united with other
atoms. As a result of this unbalanced con-
dition, the solid surfaces will tend to satisfy
their residual forces by attracting and re-
taining gases or other substances with which
they come in contact. This surface concentra-
tion of substance is the adsorption process.
*Sanitarian, Environmental Radiological Health
Training Section, Training Branch,
Division of Radiological Health
The attracted substance is known as the ad-
sorbate, while the substance supplying the
surface is called the adsorbent.
With reference to air, adsorption techniques
are commonly used for collecting a specific
gas or combination of gases. A typical pro-
cess consists of passing a gas stream through
a container filled with an adsorbent such as
activated charcoal, alumina, or silica gel.
The gas is bound to the adsorbent by molecular
forces and if condensation does not occur, the
gas remains physically and chemically un-
changed. Following collection, the gas may
be removed from the absorbent for analysis
or ultimate deposition by application of heat,
passing inert carrier gases through the
system, or chemical treatment.
Adsorption can be distinguished from absorp-
tion. In absorption the material is not only
retained on the surface, but it passes through
the surface and is distributed throughout the
absorbing medium. The term absorption in
many cases implies a chemical reaction
between the absorbing medium (absorbent)
and the collected substance (absorbate). For
example, water is absorbed by a sponge and
anhydrous calcium chloride. However,
acetic acid in solution and various gases are
adsorbed by activated carbon. Often when the
true process is not known the term sorption is
applied. (2. 3)
III TYPES OF ADSORPTION
Investigation of the adsorption of gases on
various solid surfaces has revealed that the
operating forces are not the same in all
cases. Two types of adsorption have been
recognized, namely; 1) physical or van der
Waals adsorption, and 2) chemical or
activated adsorption.
A Physical Adsorption
In physical adsorption the attractive forces
consist of van der Waals energy, dipole-
dipole interaction, and/or electrostatic
11. 2. AA. (5. 65) 1
-------
Principles of Adsorption
energy. These forces are similar to those
causing the condensation of a gas to a liquid.
The process is further characterized by low
heats of adsorption, on the order of 2-15
kilocalories per mole of adsorbate, and by
the fact that adsorption equilibrium is re-
versible and rapidly established.
Physical adsorption is a generally occurring
process. For example, this is the type of
adsorption occurring when various gases are
adsorbed on charcoal. If the temperature is
low enough, any gas will be physically ad-
sorbed to a limited extent. The quantity of
various gases adsorbed under the same condi-
tions is roughly a function of the ease of con-
densation of the gases. The higher the boiling
point or critical temperature* of the gas, the
greater is the amount adsorbed. This concept
will be discussed in more detail subsequently.
B Chemical Adsorption
In contrast to physical adsorption, chemical,
or activated adsorption is characterized by
high heats of adsorption, on the order of
20-100 kilocalories per mole of absorbate,
and it leads to a much stronger binding of
the gas molecules to the surface. Heats
of adsorption are on the same order of
magnitudes as chemical reactions and it
is evident that the process involves a
combination of gas molecules with the ad-
sorbent to form a surface compound. This
type of adsorption resembles chemical
bonding and is thus called chemical adsorp-
tion, activated adsorption, or chemisorp-
tion. For example, in the adsorption of
oxygen on tungsten it has been observed
that tungsten trioxide distills from the
tungsten surface at about 1200°K. How-
ever, even at temperatures above 1200°K,
^Critical temperature may be defined as that
temperature above which it is impossible to
liquify a gas no matter how high an external
pressure is applied.
oxygen remains on the surface apparently
as tungsten oxide. Additional examples
of chemical adsorption are the adsorption
of carbon dioxide on tungsten; oxygen on
silver, gold on platinum; and carbon and
hydrogen on nickel.
A comparison of physical and chemical
adsorption can be made by considering
the adsorption of oxygen on charcoal. If
oxygen is allowed to reach equilibrium
with the charcoal at 0°C, most of the oxygen
may later be removed from the charcoal
by evacuating the system at 0°C with a
vacuum pump. However, a small portion
of the oxygen cannot be removed from the
charcoal no matter how much the pressure
is decreased. If the temperature is now
increased, oxygen plus carbon monoxide
and carbon dioxide are released from the
charcoal. Thus most of the oxygen is
physically adsorbed and can be easily re-
moved, but a small quantity undergoes a
chemical reaction with the adsorbent and
is not readily removed. In some cases,
chemical adsorption may be preceded by
by physical adsorption, the chemical ad-
sorption occurring after the adsorbent has
received the necessary activation energy.
In general, with respect to the adsorbent-
adsorbate pairs, chemical adsorption is
more specific in nature than physical
adsorption. It is usually a much slower
process, requiring the displacement or
selection of the molecules where the re-
action is to occur. The chemisorption
process is enchanced at higher tempera-
tures where existing energy barriers
between the adsorbent and adsorbate are
overcome. At low temperatures, chemical
adsorption in some systems may be too
slow to reach a measurable amount. In
many cases the adsorption occurring is a
combination of both types. At low tem-
peratures physical adsorption may pre-
dominate, whereas at higher temperatures
chemisorption may be more prominent.
This situation is true for the adsorption of
hydrogen on nickel. However, due to the
non-specificity of van der Waals forces,
physical adsorption may be occurring but
be hidden by chemisorption. Finally,
-------
Principles of Adsorption
chemical adsorption is usually limited to
the formation of a single layer of molecules
on the adsorbent's surface, whereas in
physical adsorption the adsorbed layer may
be several molecules thick.
In most of the adsorption equipment in
air pollution control work, physical ad-
sorption plays the most prominent part.
Physical adsorption is also used to a great
extent in the collection of radioactive
gases.
3, 4)
IV VARIABLES AFFECTING GAS
ADSORPTION
The quantity of a particular gas that can be
adsorbed by a given amount of adsorbent will
depend on the following factors: 1) concen-
tration of the gas in the immediate vicinity
of the adsorbent, 2) the total surface area
of the adsorbent, 3) the temperature of the
system, 4) the presence of other molecules
which may compete for a site on the adsor-
bent, 5) the characteristics of the adsorbate
such as weight, electrical polarity, chemical
reactivity, and size and shape of the molecules,
6) the size and shape of the pores of the adsor-
bing media and 7) the characteristics of the ad-
sorbent surface such as electrical polarity and
chemical reactivity. Ideal physical adsorp-
tion of a gas would be favored by a high con-
centration of material to be adsorbed, a
large adsorbing surface, freedom from com-
peting molecules, low temperature, and by
aggregation of the adsorbate into a form
which conforms with the pore size of the
attracting adsorbent.'5, 6)
Several of the above listed variables will now
be discussed in greater detail.
A Adsorption Isotherms
Adsorption processes where physical adsorp-
tion rather than chemisorption represents the
final state can be explained in terms of equili-
brium measurements. For a given amount
of adsorbent with a given surface area the
amount of gas adsorbed is dependent
on the pressure (or concentration) of the
gas surroundingthe adso'bent. The higher
the pressure or concentration of the gas at a
given temperature, the greater the
amount of gas adsorbed. When an adsor-
bent and gas are mixed, the amount ad-
sorbed will gradually increase while the
concentration of the adsorbate in the
system decreases until the rate of ad-
sorption becomes equal to the rate of
desorption. Thus an equilibrium between
th-; two phases is established. If additional
gas is added to the system the amount ad-
sorbed will increase until equilibrium is
again established. Likewise, if the gas
concentration is decreased the adsorbent
will lose gas to its surroundings until
equilibrium is again reached.
The relationship between the quantity of
gas adsorbed at various concentrations
or pressures at constant temperature is
called an adsorption isotherm. An adsorp-
tion isotherm consists of a plot of the data
obtained from measuring the amount of
gas adsorbed (e.g., grams adsorbed per
gram of adsorbent) at various gas concen-
tration or pressure (e. g., moles per liter
or atmospheres), as the case may require,
at equilibrium and constant temperature
conditions. Adsorption isotherms are
useful in that they provide a means of
evaluating: 1) the quantity of gas adsorbed
at various gas concentrations, 2) different
adsorbent's adsorptive capacities at
various gas concentrations, 3) the adsorbent's
adsorptive capacity as a function of concen-
tration and type of gas, and 4) the surface
area of a given amount of adsorbent. ' '
( 1 3)
1 Types of adsorption isotherms '
The graphic plots of adsorption isotherms
yield a wide variety of shapes. Six
general types of isotherms have been
observed in the adsorption of gases on
solids. These are illustrated in Figure 1.
In physical adsorption all six isotherms
are encountered, while in chemisorption
only type 1 occurs.
-------
Principles of Adsorption
QJ
•s
O
cc
•P
C
(2)
Pressure or Concentration
FIGURE i<1»3>
Gas Adsorption Isotherms
TYPE 1 This type represents the adsorption
of a single layer of gas molecules
on the adsorbent. There is no
interaction between the adsorbed
molecules.
TYPE 2 This isotherm begins like type 1
but is modified at high pressure by
multilayer adsorption. There is
definite interaction between the
layers of adsorbed gas molecules.
TYPE 3 This type of isotherm is rare. It
occurs only when initial adsorption
favors a very few strong sites. The
interaction between adsorbed
molecules is so strong that vacant
sites next to occupied sites are
stronger than any other vacant
sites. In this type of adsorption
the number of effective sites in-
crer.ses with coverage of the
adsorbent.
J_YPE_4 These two are similar to types 2
& 5 and 3 respectively, except that they
continue to exhibit adsorption at
high adsorbent coverage.
TYPE_6 This type resembles type 3 with
monolaynr adsorption first and
then continued deposition of a
multilayer film.
Mathematical treatment of adsorption
process
Many equations have been suggested as
mathematical expressions for the ad-
sorption process. To date no single
derived expression describes all ob-
served adsorptive phenomena. It
appears that the type of mathematical
treatment used is primarily a function
of whether the particular adsorptive
process is monolayer or multilayer in
nature.
a F'reundlirh equation
In typo i isotherms the quantity of
gas adsorbed per unit amount of
adsorbent increases rapidly with in-
creasing pressure and then proceeds
more slowly as the absorbents sur-
face becomes covered with gas
molecules. A useful relationship
for determining the quantity of gas
adsorbed per unit area or weight of
adsorbent as a function of pressure
has been purposed rin follows by
Freundlich.
-------
Principles of Adsorption_
where:
X =
k, n =
X = kc (1)
quantity of gas adsorbed per
unit of adsorbent
empirical constants dependent on
the nature of the adsorbent, gas,
and temperature
c = gas concentration
The equation may be evaluated by
taking the logarithm of both sides
which yields:
log1()X =
nlog1{)C
(2)
where:
X
a, b
~ quantity of gas adsorbed pet-
unit of adsorbent
~ empirical constants dependent
on the nature of the adsorbent,
gas, and temperature
= gas pressure
At any temperature the Langmuir
equation may be verified by dividing
both sides of equation (3) by p and then
taking reciprocals. The result is
_£_
X
— + (b/a)p
(4)
When logj0X is plotted against log1QC
a straight line of slope n and y in-
tercept of logjok should result. The
Freundlich equation is of empirical
origin and is only valid for monolayer
adsorption where there is no inter-
action between adsorbed molecules.
The requirements of the equation are
generally well met at lower pressures.
However, at higher pressures the
straight line tends to curve, indicating
that this treatment does not have appli-
cability at higher pressures/ *• 2> 3» '
b Langmuir equation
Langmuir has developed a much
better equation of the type 1 isotherm
from theoretical considerations. For
cases where all adsorbent sites are
identical and there is no interaction
between adsorbed molecules (mono-
layer adsorption), the isotherm is
expressed in the form
X =
_
1 + bp
(3)
A graph of p/X versus p should yield
a straight line with a slope equal to
b/a and y intercept of I/a. Such a plot
for the adsorption of nitrogen on mica
at 90°K is shown in Figure 2.
1000
600
P/X
200
12
18
P
FIGURE
Adsorption of N
24
30 36
2 on Mica
90 °K
From the graph the values of a and b
are 0.00714 and 0. 157 respectively.
Hence the adsorption of nitrogen on
mica at 90 K can be represented by
the equation
-------
Principles of Adsorption
X -
0.00714p
1 + 0. 157p
(5)
The excellent straight line obtained
from this and other systems supports
Langmuir's theory of the adsorption
process and his assumptions that the
mechanism is monolayer in nature.
The Langmuir equation is limited in
application to monomolecular adsorp-
tion. It applies equally well to
chemical and physical adsorption
where saturation of the adsorbent is
approached. Like the Freundlich
system, the Langmuir derivation is
less valid at higher pressures be-
cause more than a single layer of
molecules is formed on the
adsorbent. * *• ^» ^'
c Multilayer adsorption
Multilayer adsorption introduces new
problems and many types of expres-
sions have been developed to explain
the process. A theory proposed by
Brunauer, Emmett, and Teller ex-
tends the Langmuir derivation to
obtain an equation for multilayer
adsorption. The equation is based
on the assumption that the same
forces causing monolayer adsorption
are responsible for the multilayer
process. Types 2 and 3 isotherms
are explained on the basis of the
formation of many molecular layers
on the surface rather than a single
one. Types 4 and 5 are characterized
by multilayer adsorption plus con-
densation of the gas in the pores and
capillaries of the adsorbent.
On the theory that more than one
layer of molecules is formed on the
absorbent, Brunauer, Emmett and
Teller have derived the equation
V(p°-p)
V C
m
C-l
V C
m
whe re:
V
V
m
ET
volume of gas adsorbed per
unit of adsorbent at pressure
p and temperature t reduced
to standard conditions
saturated vapor pressure of
the adsorbate at temperature t
volume of gas reduced to
standard conditions when the
surface is covered with a
monolayer of gas
constant at any given temperature
and is approximately equal to
(EI - EL)/RT
heat of adsorption of the first
layer
heat of liquefraction of the gas
The equation can be evaluated by
plotting p/V(p°-p) versus p/p . A
straight line should result of slope
C-l/VmC and y intercept of l/VmC.
From these, the values of Vm and
C can be found.
'm
(6)
Type 2 and 3 isotherms result when
EI > EL and EI < EL respectively.
The isotherms of type 4 arise when
EI > EL and those of type 5 when
Ej < EL- Although the theories of
multilayer adsorption have been
quite successful in explaining
several of the more complex iso-
therms, they are still insufficient
to account for all the quantitative
phenomena observed.' • ' ' '
B Temperature
In adsorption an equilibrium is established
between the gas near the adsorbent and the
adsorbed gas. Under any given conditions
of temperature and pressure, the extent of
-------
Principles of Adsorption
adsorption is definite and reproducible.
As would be expected, the absorbent-
absorbate equilibrium is strongly affected
by temperature changes. An increase in
temperature results in a decrease of the
quantity of gas adsorbed and vice versa.
This concept is illustrated in Figure 3.
The magnitude of the temperature effect
can be illustrated by examining the ad-
sorption of nitrogen on charcoal at dif-
ferent temperatures. At 600 mm pressure,
one gram of charcoal adsorbs 10 cc of Ng
gas at 0°C, 20 cc at -29°C, and 45 cc at
-78°C3.
/ Vi
Table 1. ' ADSORPTION OF GASES ON
ONE GRAM OF CHARCOAL AT 15°C*
Concentration of Gas
FIGURE 3
Affect of Temperature on Gas Adsorption
Gas
Volume Critical temperature
adsorbed (cc) (°K)
H2
N2
CO
CH.
4
C°2
HC1
H2S
NH3
C12
S°2
4.7
8.0
9.3
16.2
48.0
72.0
99.0
181.0
235.0
380.0
33
126
134
190
304
324
373
406
417
430
*Volumes of gases have been reduced to
standard conditions (0°C and 1 atmosphere
pressure).
Table 1 indicates that the extent of ad-
sorption parallels the increase in
critical temperature. This correlation
suggests that gases which liquify easily
(high critical temperatures) are more
readily adsorbed. However, it does
not imply that the adsorbates exist
as liquids on the adsorbent's surface.
A similar relationship is obtained with
boiling points. (3'
C Adsorbate Characteristics
The major adsorbate characteristics af-
fecting the amount of gas adsorbed are the
ease of liquefaction of the gas, adsorbate
size, concentration of the gas, and the
presence of other gases.
1 Gas liquefaction
The specificity by which certain gases
are adsorbed on solid adsorbents is
illustrated in Table 1, where the volumes
of different gases adsorbed by one gram
of charcoal at 15°C are tabulated.
2 Adsorbate size
The size of the gas molecule to be re-
moved by adsorption is characterized
by a lower and upper range. The lower
size limit is imposed on physical
adsorption by the requirement that the
pollutant must be higher in molecular
weight than the normal components of
air. In general, gases with molecular
weights greater than 45 are readily
removed by physical adsorption. This
size includes most odorous and toxic
gases of air pollution interest. Gases
of interest of lower molecular weight,
such as formaldehyde and ammonia.
-------
Principles of Adsorption
may be removed by chemical adsorption
methods using appropriately impregnated
adsorbents.
For the upper limit the individual
particles must be sufficiently small
so that Browman motion or kinetic
velocities will ensure effective contact
by collision between them and the
granular adsorbent. Although moderate
efficiencies may be obtained for very
fine mists, the upper limit is generally
in the range of molecular size.
3 Gas concentration
As seen from the examination of ad-
sorption isotherms, the quantity of gas
adsorbed is a function of the gas con-
centration or pressure. An increase in
concentration or pressure in the
vicinity of the adsorbent results in an
increase of the total amount of gas
adsorbed.
4 Presence of other gases
Since the presence of additional gas
molecules in a particular adsorbent-
adsorbate system causes competition
for the limited number of adsorption
sites present, the observed effect is
a reduction in the amount of adsorbate
removed.
D Adsorbent Characteristics
Most of the common adsorbents in use
are more or less granular in form and are
supported in a column through which the
gas to be sampled is drawn. Common
adsorbents have the capacity to adsorb
8-40 percent of their weight. An ideal
adsorbent should be granular and of such
size and form that it offers little or no
resistance against flow. It should have a
high adsorptive capacity, be inert and
specific, resistant to breakage, deterior-
ation and corrosion, be easily activated,
and provide an easy release of adsorbate.
Unfortunately, no one adsorbent possesses
all these characteristics, so that it be-
comes a matter of choosing the best
adsorbent for the particular job. (5, ?» 8)
1 Surface area
All solids are capable of adsorbing
gases to some extent. However, since
adsorption is a surface phenomenon,
it is not very pronounced unless the ad-
sorbent possesses a large surface area
for a given mass. For this reason, ma-
terials like silica gel and charcoals
obtained from wood, bone, coconut
shells, and lignite are very effective
adsorbing agents. Since large surface
areas are desirable for extensive ad-
sorption, this factor is of primary im-
portance in determining the amount of
absorbate which can be held by a unit
of adsorbent. Solid adsorbents may
vary in surface area from less than 1
to over 2, 000 square meters per
gram. Typical approximate surface
areas of several adsorbents are pre-
sented in Table 2. The latter two sub-
stances owe their high surface area to
their porosity. They are thus capable
of taking up large volumes of various
gases.
Table 2.
(D
TYPICAL SURFACE AREAS OF
ADSORBENTS
Adsorbent
Clay
Asbestos
Chalk
Carbon black
Silica or Alumina Gel
Activated carbon
Area (m
5 -
10 -
20 -
50 -
200 -
500 -
/gm)
15
20
30
100
800
2000
The extent of adsorption can be further
increased by activating the adsorbents
by various methods. For example,
wood charcoal is activated by heating
between 350-1000°C in a vacuum, in
-------
Principles of Adsorption_
air, in steam, and/or in the presence
of other gases to a point where the ad-
sorption of carbon tetrachloride at
24°C can be increased from 0.011 gram
per gram of charcoal to 1. 48 gram.
The activation process involves dis-
tilling out various impurities from the
adsorbent, thus leading to the formation
of a larger free surface area for adsorp-
tion. Occasionally, large surface areas
are produced by the original cellular
structure of the plant, as in the case of
coconut shell charcoal. However, the
activation process will increase the
porosity of the material and may,
under some circumstances, cause it to
be less stable as an adsorbent. For
example, if the temperature is raised,
the porous structure of the adsorbent
may aggregate into larger units which
tend to become smooth and inactive. In
many cases the past history of the ad-
sorbent with respect to preparation and
method of activation is just as important
as the chemical characteristics in deter-
mining the adsorption capacity. ^ 1» 3» ^
2 Pore size
Often the adsorbent will exhibit an in-
herent preference for the adsorption of
certain gases. This preference is pri-
marily due to such factors as the method
of preparation and activation, and the
chemical nature of the adsorbent's sur-
face. Preparation and activation methods
not only may increase total adsorptive
capacity, but they may also affect the
adsorption process with respect to
adsorbate's size. The pore size in the
more porous adsorbents may vary in
diameter from a few to several
hundred angstrom units. This may
become a critical factor in selecting
an adsorbent to remove a particular
adsorbate. For example, iodine may be
adsorbed on an adsorbent with pores of
10 A° in diameter, while methylene
blue is excluded by pores having a
diameter less than about 15 A°.»"
3 Chemical nature
The chemical nature of the adsorbent's
surface is an additional factor of con-
siderable importance. It is of particular
interest in chemical adsorption where
a rapid rate and a large degree of
chemical reaction is desirable. In
physical adsorption the nature of the
surface is one of the primary factors
influencing the strength of the adsorbent-
absorbate attraction. For example, a
pure graphite surface physically adsorbs
hydrophobic compounds (i. e., water
hating) to a large extent, while oxygenated
surfaces are generally required to ad-
sorb hydrophobic compounds (i.e., water
loving) appreciably at room temperature)
V TYPICAL ADSORBENTS
The various adsorbents used in physical ad-
sorption may be classified according to their
degree of polarity. For example, activated
carbon, which is commonly known as a non-
polar adsorbent, is largely composed of
neutral atoms of a single species which exhibit
little polarity. The non-polar adsorbents are
most effective for gross decontamination of
moist air streams containing materials of
little polarity (e.g., organic molecules).
The majority of the commercially important
adsorbents other than carbon derivatives
are simple or complex oxides. Their surfaces
consist of heterogeneous distributions of
charge on a molecular scale. They are
strongly polar in nature. These adsorbents
show a greater selectivity than do the carbon
derivatives and exhibit a much stronger
preference for polar than for non-polar
molecules. In separation of various gases,
the polar solvents are more useful than
carbon derivatives. However, they are
much less useful for overall decontamination
of moist air streams since the strongly
polar water molecules are preferentially
adsorbed. <6)
(1)
-------
Principles of Adsorption
A Carbon
Various forms of carbon serve as efficient
adsorbents. It has been shown that the
material from which the carbon is prepared
has a demonstrable effect upon the ability
of the carbon to adsorb various gases.
Carbon prepared from logwood, for instance,
has approximately twice the capacity for
adsorption as carbon from rosewood.
Similarly, coconut shell is about twice as
efficient as logwood. Strangely enough the
carbon prepared from harder, denser
materials such as peach and other fruit
pits, and coconut shells have the highest
adsorptive capacities. Primary carbon is
not nearly as efficient as activated carbon.
The adsorbents "activated carbon, "
"activated charcoal, " "active charcoal, "
"active carbon, " "adsorbent carbon" and
"adsorbent charcoal" may be activated in
a slightly different manner, but the terms
are generally considered synonymous.
Activated carbon has a high adsorptive
capacity, a high degree of hardness,
high reliability and other preminum
qualities. Almost all volatile materials,
whether they are chemicals or mixtures of
odor-causing substances, are retained
within the microscopic porous structure
to some extent. The only gaseous materials
which it will not adsorb very well are low
molecular weight gases such as oxygen,
nitrogen and carbon monoxide. Activated
carbon finds its major application in
solvent recovery and odor removal. It is
also employed to a limited extent in the
removal and monitoring of hydrogen sulfide,
sulfur dioxide and other toxic gases.
Activated carbon is perhaps the most
widely used of the adsorbent in air pollution
control. The following substances are
some of those which have been shown to
be appreciably adsorbed upon activated
carbon:
acetic
benzene
ethyl alcohol
carbon tetra-
chloride
chloroform
acetone
iodine
carbon disulfide
diethyl ether
methyl alcohol ammonia
hydrochloric
acid
nitrous oxide
carbon dioxide
acetaldehyde
noble gases
B Silica Gel
Silica gel is a representative of the
siliceous adsorbents. Others in this group
include Fuller's diatomaceous earth, other
siliceous earths, and the synthetic zeolites.
Silica gel is prepared by hydrochloric acid
precipitation of silicic acid from a solution
of sodium silicate. The gelatinous pre-
cipitate is freed of electrolytes by washing.
Subsequent removal of the waters of hydra-
tion from the precipitate leaves a very
porous structure. In actuality it is not
a true gel but a hard glassy form of
silicon dioxide of extremely high porosity.
The adsorptive capacity of silica gel is
dependent on the temperature and solution
concentration at the time of precipitation
as well as the subsequent treatment of the
precipitate. The maximum capacity is on
the same order of magnitude as activated
carbon. It has been estimated that the
effective surface area within a granule
one-sixteenth inch in diameter is more
than twenty-one square feet. Silica gel,
as well as other members of this group
of adsorbents, exhibit a greater preference
for polar molecules than does activated
carbon. It has been employed for dehydra-
tion of air and gas streams, dehumidific-
ation and air conditioning. Vapors suchas
hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide and water
are strongly adsorbed.^, 6)
C Activated Alumina
Activated alumina (aluminum oxide) is a
representative of the metallic oxide adsor-
bents. Some adsorbents in this group are
more electrophilic in nature than the
strongest siliceous materials. Activated
alumina is prepared by precipitating an
aluminum salt from a basic solution.
The precipitate is gelatinous and highly
hydrated, and subsequent drying and
heating converts the hydroxide to the very
porous and active oxide. The finished
product is a granular adsorbent consisting
of highly porous aluminum oxide in the
tri-hydrated form.
10
-------
Principles of Adsorption
Again the adsorpture capacity and physical
characteristics of the adsorbent are
strongly dependent on the conditions of
precipitation and subsequent treatment.
Activated alumina is primarily used as
a desiccant, catalyst carrier, and catalyst.
Additional applications are similar to those
of silica gel. (4« 6)
D Molecular Sieve
Molecular sieve adsorbents* are synthetic
sodium or calcium alumino-silicate zeolites
of very high porosity. They are another
representative of the siliceous adsorbents.
The structural formula of a typical
molecular sieve is
Me
x/n
(A10 ) (SiO ) • m H.O
" x * y 2
where Me represents exchange cations of
charge n. The zeolite is precipitated as
a white powder, bonded with clay, and
formed into roughly spherical beads of
four to twelve inch mesh size. The ad-
sorbe'nt is activated with heat to drive off
waters of hydration. The resulting pro-
duct is a crystalline solid of very porous
structure. Again the adsorptive char-
acteristics are dependent on the method of
preparation.
Molecular sieves can be made very specific
with respect to pore size. This character-
istic gives them the outstanding property of
being specific on the basis of the adsor-
bate's size and shape. Molecular sieves
show a strong preference for the more
polar molecules. For example, these
adsorbents will not adsorb organic
molecules that match their pore size from
a moist stream of air. The accompanying
water molecules being adsorbed in pre-
ference. Molecular sieves are truly
selective adsorbents in that they can
separate mixtures on the basis of differences
in molecular size, degree of polarity, and
*Often referred to as molecular sieve absorbents.
VI
extent of carbon bond saturation. In
addition to their selecv've properties,
molecular sieves possess a high adsorptive
capacity over wide ranges of concentration
and temperature. They also are capable
of removing impurities to extremely low
concentrations. These adsorbents have
been tested successfully on carbon dioxide,
hydrogen sulfide, acetylene, ammonia and
sulfur dioxide. They show promise for
adsorption of compounds of low molecular
v;eight. (9)
APPLICATION OF ADSORPTION TO
RADIOACTIVITY MEASUREMENTS
Current use of adsorption techniques is pri-
marily orientated toward monitoring such
processes as gaseous releases from reactors
and fuel reprocessing operations in and
around nuclear installations. For example,
radioiodine may be monitored from reactor
and fuel reprocessing operations by physical
adsorption on activated charcoal.' 12) Some
of the quantitative aspects of such a process
have been investigated.' *•*) Activated char-
coal has also been used by the Public Health
Service's Radiation Surveillance Network
for monitoring environmental levels of
iodine-131. Noble gases such as argon,
krypton and xenon can also be physically
adsorbed on activated charcoal. Since each
of the noble gases exhibits a specific affinity
for the adsorbent, a separation of the individual
gases can be made by chromatographic
methods.'14'
At present, the practical use of adsorbents
for collecting and measuring environmental
levels of radioactivity is not widespread.
Limited work has been done on radon adsorp-
tion on activated charcoal with respect to
the uranium mining industry and in combina-
tion with filtration methods for environmental
levels. (10, 11)
VII SUMMARY
The adsorption process is characterized by
either physical or chemical forces. In
some cases both types may be involved.
Where physical forces predominate the
11
-------
Principles of Adsorption
process is termed physical adsorption, where-
as chemical adsorption describes chemical
action.
Adsorption phenomena may be quantized by
considering such adsorbate-adsorbent
characteristics as gas composition, concentra-
tion and temperature, as well as absorbent
type, surface area and pore size. At present,
the primary use of the adsorption process in
radioactivity measurements is the monitoring
of releases of radioactive gases in and around
nuclear installations.
REFERENCES
1 Graham, D. Adsorption Equilibrium,
Adsorption, Dialysis, and Ion Exchange.
Chemical Engineering Progress
Symposium Series. American Institute
of Chemical Engineers. 55:24. New
York. 1959. pp 17-23.
2 Daniels, F. and Alberty, R.A. Physical
Chemistry. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York. 1955. Chapter 17, pp 522-
526.
3 Maron, S. H. and Prutton, D. F. Principles
of Physical Chemistry. The MacMillan
Company. New York. 1958. Chapter
7, pp 214-225.
4 Brey, W. S., Jr. Principles of Physical
Chemistry. Apple ton-Century-Crafts,
Inc. New York. 1958. Chapter 7,
pp 244-253.
5 Stern, A. C. Air Pollution. Academic
Press. Vol.1, Chapter 11. New York.
1962. pp 418-420.
6 Stern, A. C. Air Pollution. Academic
Press. Vol.11, Chapter 33. New York.
195G. pp 307-372.
7 Magell, P. L.. Holden, F. R., and
Ackley, C. Air Pollution Handbook.
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,
New York. 1956. Ch. 13. p 83.
8 Air Sampling Instruments. American
Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygienists. Chapter A-l and B-6.
Cincinnati.
9 Gresmer, G. J., Jones, R. A., Lautensach, H.
Molecular Sieves, Adsorption, Dialysis,
and Ion Exchange. Chemical Engineering
Progress Symposium Series. American
Insitute of Chemical Engineers, 55:24.
New York. 1959. pp 45-50.
10 Codudal, M. Determination of Radon in
Uranium Mines by Sampling on Activated
Charcoal. J. Phys. Radium, Vol. 16.
1955. p 479.
11 Shleien, B. The Simultaneous Determi-
nation of Atmospheric Radon by Filter
Paper and Charcoal Adsorptive
Techniques. J. Amer. Industrial
Hygiene Association. Vol. 24. March-
April 1963. pp 180-187.
12 Sell, C. W., and Flygare, J. K., Jr.
Iodine Monitoring at the National
Reactor Testing Station. Health Physics.
Vol. 2. 1960. pp 261-268.
13 McConnon, D. Radioiodine Sampling with
Activated Charcoal Cartridges. AEC
Research and Development Report,
HW-77126. April 1963.
14 Browning, W. E. Removal of Volatile
Fission Products from Gases. Nuclear
Reactor Chemistry. First Conference,
Gatlinburg, Tennessee. October 1960.
TID-7610.
-------
PRINCIPLES OF ABSORPTION
J. J. Bolen*
I INTRODUCTION
'In collecting gaseous pollutants for analysis
of possible health hazards, the analyst often
has a choice of sampling methods. Several
methods that have been used are absorption
in a liquid, adsorption on various adsorbents,
condensing or freezing the pollutants, or
reaction with a reagent on a solid carrier
such as a filter paper. Of the various
methods, absorption of gaseous pollutants in
a liquid solution has probably been used most
widely for environmental sampling. The
popularity of absorption sampling is primarily
due to the great variety of analytical methods
which are available for analyzing the result-
ing solution (e. g. photometric, conductrimet-
ric, titratimetric and radiometric), the re-
producible results that can be obtained with
reasonable care, and the comparative ease of
obtaining data. (1)
This discussion presents a qualitative de-
scription of gas-liquid absorption sampling
with respect to the process itself and the
factors which affect collection efficiency.
Several devices commonly used for gas-
liquid absorption from the atmosphere, and
the application of absorption sampling to the
collection of radioactive gaseous are
described.
II TYPES OF ABSORPTION
Gas-liquid absorption sampling is the process
by which a gaseous contaminant in air is re-
moved by dissolving the contaminant in a
liquid or reacting the contaminant with a
liquid. The collecting liquid (i.e. , the ab-
sorbent) may change either chemically or
physically, or both during the absorption
process. A typical chemical absorption
process would involve drawing a volume of
air through a solution which reacts with the
gaseous contaminant to form a non-gasoous
compound. For example, an acid mist is
drawn .hrough a volume of sodium hydroxide.
The acid reacts with the hydroxide to form a
salt. Titration of the unreacted base with
standard acid indicates the quantity of pollut-
ant reacted.
In gas-liquid absorption sampling, two types
of absorption have been recognized; namely,
1) physical absorption and 2) chemical
absorption.
A ™_ , .,_ (2,3)
A Physical Absorption
Physical or dissolution absorption in-
volves the physical solution of the pollutant
in a liquid. The process is usually revers-
ible in that the pollutant exhibits an
appreciable vapor pressure. The solubility
of the pollutant in a given absorbent is
dependent on the partial pressure of the
pollutant in the atmosphere, the temperature
and the purity of the absorbent. An ideal
solvent would be relatively nonvolatile,
inexpensive, noncorrosive, stable, non-
\ isrous, nonconforming and nonflammable.
In many cases distilled water fulfills many
of these characteristics and is used as the
solvent for collecting some gases (e. g. ,
sulfur dioxide and formaldehyde). The
suitability of distilled water for several
selected gases is presented in Table I.
*Chemist, Environmental Radiological Health
Training Section, Training Branch,
Division of Radiological Health
11.2.II.(5.65)
-------
Principles of Absorption
SOLUBILITY OF SELECTED GASES
IN DISTILLED WATER AT 2fl°C
GAS
VOLUME ABSORBED
PER VOLUME OF WATER*
NITROGEN
OXYGEN
NITRIC OXIDE
CARBON DIOXIDE
HYDROGEN SULFIDE
0.015
0.031
0.047
0.878
2.582
SULFUR DIOXIDE 39.374
* GAS VOLUMES REDUCED TO 0<>C AND 760 mm Hg
Table 1
From Table 1 it is seen that water is
quite satisfactory for collecting sulfur
dioxide but is not recommended for the
others.
The physical absorption process involves
collecting the pollutant by solution in the
absorbent and then adding a reagent which
converts the pollutant to a non-gaseous or
non-vapor form. The solution is then
analyzed for pollutant concentration by a
convenient analytical method. In general,
low efficiency will be obtained for physical
absorption unless the pollutant is very
soluble and the ratio of dissolved gas to
liquid volume is small.
(2 3)
B Chemical Absorption '
In contrast to physical absorption,
chemical absorption involves a liquid ab-
sorbent which reacts with the pollutant to
yield a nonvolatile product. The solvent
selected is one that reacts with the
pollutant in an irreversible fashion; for
example, the reactions of ammonia and
carbon dioxide gases with acidic and basic
solvents respectively. Primary factors
affecting the choice of an absorbent in
chemical absorption are the solubility of
the pollutant, reactive properties of
pollutant and absorbent, and the subse-
quent analytical method to be used. Care
should be taken to avoid an absorbent
which will interfere with subsequent
chemical analysis.
Example procedures using chemical ab-
sorption are the determination of hydrogen
sulfide with an alkaline zinc acetate solu-
tion in which the sulfide is precipitated as
the zinc salt, and the determination of
sulfur dioxide by absorbing the pollutant
in hydrogen peroxide and titrating the
resulting sulfuric acid with standard
sodium hydroxide. Since a higher efficiency
is obtained when a strong chemical re-
action is used, chemical absorption is
-------
Principles of Absorption
preferred over physical absorption in
many analysis situations.
Ill COLLECTION EFFICIENCY*2'4)
Each absorption sampling device must be
assembled from units found to be most
suitable for the specific pollutant involved.
It is not necessary to have 100 percent
collection efficiency; however, the efficiency
should be known and reproducible. In
some circumstances a sampling system
having a relatively low collection efficiency
(e. g. , 60-70 percent) could be used pro-
vided that the desired sensitivity, repro-
ducibility and accuracy are obtainable.
There is much information available in the
literature concerning optimum flow rates
I'or specific pollutants and collection
efficiencies with respect to the pollutant and
absorbent for many sampling devices How-
ever, much more information is needed on
the variation of collection efficiency with the
rate of sampling, concentrations of a variety
of compounds and the nature of the collecting
medium. For available information on these
topics along with additional information on
gas-liquid absorption theory, and the mathe-
matical treatment of the variables affecting
collection efficiency, 'he reader is referred
to the literature. ^ -10) In the present dis-
cussion only a qualitative description of the
factors affecting collection efficiency has
been attempted.
A Factors Affecting Collection Efficiency
The variables affecting the collection
efficiency of methods that use absorbers
for the collection of gaseous or vaporous
contaminants may be conveniently con-
sidered as 1) those associated with
the absorber such as an acceptable flow
rate, bubble size, and height of the
liquid column; 2) the chemical character-
istics of the sampling situation such as
the chemical nature and concentration of
the pollutant in the air and the absorbing
medium, the chemical nature and concen-
tration of the absorbing solution, and
the reaction rate and 3) the physical
characteristics of the sampling situation
such as temperature, pressure and
pollutant solubility.
1 Absorber characteristics. The gas
flow rate through the absorber is one
of the major factors which determine
the collection efficiency of an absorber.
Absorption collection efficiency varies
inversely with the flow rate. An in-
crease in the flow rate through the
solution will decrease the probability
of adequate gas-liquid Contact. In
addition, rapid rates increase the
possibility of liquid entrainment in the
effluent gas. If varying flow rates are
used in sampling, a collection efficiency
versus flow rate curve should be de-
termined for each absorber and absorber
type. All other variables (e.g., temp-
erature, pollutant and absorbent type,
etc.) should be held at the desired values.
The collection efficiency of the absorp-
tion process for a gas or vapor by
chemical absorption or physical absorp-
tion depends on the probability of
successful collisions of reagent or solr
vent molecules with pas or vapor
molecules. For a given concentration
of reagent this probability of collisions
will depend on the surface area of the
gas bubbles, on the length of the column
of liquid through which the bubbles must
pass and the rate at which they rise
through the liquid. As the volume of
individual bubbles decreases the surface
area presented to the liquid increases.
Hence smaller bubbles have a greater
possibility of gas transfer into the
absorbent phase. For this reason many
absorption devices use fritted discs as
opposed to injection type of dispersion
tubes to achieve a smaller bubble size.
The length of the column of liquid in
the absorber is another prime factor
affecting the collection efficiency. The
longer the gas bubble is in contact with
the liquid, the more pollutant transferred.
However, in many cases this variable
cannot be used to its maximum advantage
since the sampled pollutant has a low
concentration in the atmosphere, and
hence it must be collected in a small
-------
Principles of Absorption
absorbent volume so that it is in the
sensitivity range of the subsequent
analytical method to be used. Bubble
rise time is a function of bubble size
and absorbent height. A compromise
is generally reached on this point by
having the smallest feasible bubble
size combined with the highest absorb-
ent column possible for the particular
analysis.
2 Chemical Chararl eristics. The best
situation with respeci to collection
efficiency is to choose an absorbent
which has a very largo capacity for
absorbing 'he pollutant without building
up an appreciable vapor pressure.
This tan be accomplished by choosing
a chemical reageni which reacts with
i he pollutant in an irreversible fashion.
For example, the irreversible reaction
thai occurs \shen carbon dioxide is
absorbed in a sodium hydroxide solution
to form the carbonate ion.
The concentrai ion of the absorbing
medium to be used is a function of the
expected conceal ration of the contam-
inant encountered, and the rate of the
particular chemical reaction being
used. An excess of the reactant in the
absorbing solution is preferable in
order to ensure that all the pollutant is
collected and that the reaction rate is
at a maximum. Ideally the reaction
should be instantaneous since the
period of contact between the pollutant
and the absorbent is a short one.
Since the rate of reaction is propor-
tional to concentrations of the reacting
substances, other variables being
equal, the rate of the process falls
off as the reaction proceeds. This
phenomenon must be compensated for
by increasing the concentration of the
absorbing liquid; thereby, forcing the
reaction to approach completion rapidly.
3 Physical Characteristics. The
primary physical characlerisl ics
affecting collection efficiency are
pressure, temperature and pollutant
solubility in the absorbing medium. In
many sampling situations, these
variables are fixed by ambient conditions.
The pollutant's solubility in the absorb-
ing medium is related to its partial
pressure by Henry's Law, and the
partial pressure of the pollutant in turn
is related to its concentration. The
net effect considering ideal gas behavior
is that an increase in the pollutant's
concentration in the air will result in
an increase in pollutant solubility in
the liquid. Increased pollutant solu-
bility, other variables being equal,
results in a higher collection efficiency.
An increase in temperature enhances
chemical reactions but decreases
pollutant solubility in the absorbent. In
most cases .he net effect is a decrease
in collection efficiency with increasing
temperature.
(2 4)
B Determination of Collection Efficiency '
The method of determining collection
efficiency will depend on how ihc results
are to be used. If the most accurate.
values are needed the best available method
for determining collection efficiency should
be used. On the oiher hand, if only approx-
imate values are needed, a less stringent
method for determining collection efficiency
may be satisfactory. In all cases collection
efficiency should be defined as to the
method of determination.
The most accurate method of determining
the collection efficiency of a particular
absorber is by trial on a synthetic atmo-
sphere which duplicates in every respect
the actual sampling conditions. The
techniques available for calibration consist
of dynamic dilution and static dilution. In
dynamic dilution a continuous supply of a
known pollutant (concentration) is available
which can be sampled, while the static
system consists of a container which holds
a known volume of pollutant of a known
concentration. In both of these calibration
procedures the investigator must be assured
that the atmosphere being sampled actually
contains the pollutant concentration it is
believed to contain.
-------
Principles of Absorption
A second method of determining collection
efficiency consists of placing several
absorbers in series and taking the ratio
of the pollutant, trapped in the first ab-
sorber to the pollutant trapped in all
absorbers. This is not an absolute
collection efficiency determination, but
rather a relative collection efficiency
determination since most pollutant-absor-
bent combinations exhibit a threshold
concentration below which no reaction
occurs. This technique has application to
situations where only rough estimates of
pollutant concentrations are desired.
A final method ihat may be used for
collection efficiency calibration is to
compare the technique of interest to a
previously calibrated method. In this
technique the conditions of the calibrated
method are imposed on the method of
interest. All variables in both methods
should'be identical, especially with
respect to the same interferences.
IV ABSORPTION DEVICES*2' U)
A variety of devices have been used for
sampling pollutants from the atmosphere.
One of the simpliesi and most common
devices that has boon used is an ordinary
gas washing bottle which contains the absor-
bent, plus a gas dispersion tube for intro-
ducing the pollutant into the solution. A
typical device of this type is illustrated in
Figure 1.
Gas flows from the unrestricted opening
into the absorbent solution. A variety of
absorbers of this type arc available. They
are usually glass and may be conical or
cylindrical in shape. Typical flow rates
through the various devices range from 1 to
5 liters per minute.
The majority of other absorption devices
used in atmospheric sampling fall into two
calagories; namely, 1) fritted-glass absorbers
and 2) impingcrs.
Figure 1. ABSORPTION DEVICE ADOPTED
FROM ERLENMEYER FLASK
A Fritted-Glass Absorbers
A great variety of shapes and sizes of
these absorbers are being used. A few
are illustrated in Figure 2,
These units usually provide the most
efficient collection of gaseous pollutants.
In addition to tlxe commercially available
types, homemade devices may be made by
using normal gas dispersion tubes. The
fritted part of the dispersion tube is readily
available in the form of a disc or cylinder
of various pore size. The coarse and
extra coarse frits provide good pollutant
dispersion with a minimum head loss.
The collection efficiency of any particular
device will depend on the factors previously
mentioned. However, under optimum con-
ditions of flow rate, absorbing medium and
pollutant type, many of the fritted-glass
absorbers have a collection efficiency in
excess of 90 percent. Several of their
more important characteristics are pre-
sented in Table 2.
-------
Principles of Absorption
IMPINGER
+
FRIT
IMPINGER
+
TIT
MIDGET
IMPINGER
+
FRIT
SMOG
BUBBLER
lYPICAlFRIHEHlASS ABSORBERS
Figure 2
Absorbers which use frits of approximately
50 microns or less pore size gradually
become clogged with use. They may be
cleaned by surging the appropriate clean-
ing solution back and forth through the
frit and then rinsing with distilled water
in the same fashion. Various substances
may be removed from the frits by cleaning
with the appropriate solvent (e.g., hot
hydrochloric acid for dirt, hot concen-
trated sulfuric acid containing sodium
nitrite for organic matter, etc).
B Impinge rs
Impingers are often used in sampling for
gaseous and vaporous pollutants from the
atmosphere. Two types of impingers are
shown in Figure 3.
XI
TIO JWS fflMPHKEK
Figure 3
-------
Principles of Absorption
Table 2.
(11)
ABSORPTION SAMPLING DEVICES
Principle of Operation
Simple Gas -Washing
Bottles. Gas flows
from unrestricted
opening into solution.
Glass, conical or
cylindrical shape
Modified Gas-Washing
Bottles
Large Bubbler
Traverses path
extended by
spiral glass
insert.
Impingers -
Designed prin-
cipally for col-
lection of aerosols.
Used for collection
of gases. Restrict-
ed opening. Fritted
tubes available
which allow use as
bubbler.
Smog Bubbler
Devices
Standard
Drechsel
Fleming
Fritted
Bubbler
Glass bead
bubbler
Fisher
Milligan
Bottle
Greiner-
Friedrichs
Greenburg
Smith
Midget
Fritted
Bubbler
Capacity
(ml)
125-500
125-500
100
100-500
100-500
275
100-200
500
100
10-20
Sampling
Rate
1/min
1 - 5
1 5
1 - 5
1 - 15
1 5
1-5
1 - 5
1 - 5
. 1 - .5
1 - 4
I
Efficiency
%
90 - 100
90 - 100
90 - 100
95 - 100
90 - 100
90 - 100
90 - 100
90 - 100
90 - 100
95 - 100
Comment
Bubblers are
large. Reduc-
tion of sampl-
ing rate incre-
ases efficiency
Several units ir
scries raises
efficiency.
Similar to
above
Difficult to
clean.
Fritted tubes
available for
simple gas
washing, items
above. Smallei
bubblers pro-
vide increased
gas -liquid con-
tact.
Provides for
longer gas-
liquid contact
smaller
bubbles.
Similar to
Fisher
Milligan
Cylindrical
shape
Cost
$6.0(
9.0(
4.0(
6.0(
3. G!
7.25
12.00
13.00
28.00
7.50
18.00
Source
Pyrex
Fisher
A. H.
Thomas
A. H.
Thomas
Self con-
structed
Fisher
Sci.
Glass
Sci.
Glass
Sci.
Glass
Ace
Glass
-Under optimum conditions of flow rate, absorbing medium etc. for a particular pollutant.
-------
Principles of Absorption
A limited amount of investigation has
indicated that the impinger is somewhat
less efficient than the fritted absorber
for collecting gaseous pollutants. When
several types of absorbers were operated
under optimum conditions, the midget
impingers were found to be less efficient
than the fritted-glass absorber. In
addition, the threshold concentration for
collection with the midget impinger was
found to be somewhat higher than than
for several types of fritted-glass
absorbers.
V ABSORPTION SAMPLING FOR RADIO-
ACTIVE GASES
Two radioactive gases of importance that
are often sampled by absorption techniques
are carbon-14 in the form of carbon dioxide
and iodine-131 in the form of molecular
iodine.
A Carbon-14
The carbon-14 in the atmosphere from
both natural and man-made sources will
be eventually in the form of carbort
dioxide. Surveillance of carbon-14 in-
volves the quantitative sampling of
carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide may be absorbed into an
alkaline solution where the carbon dioxide
is converted to the soluble carbonate ion,
or the gas may be precipitated directly
by absorption into a basic alkaline earth
solution such as barium hydroxide. In
both cases the collection efficiency for
carbon dioxide is 90 percent or belter
under optimum conditions, The absorption
of carbon dioxide into an alkaline solution
involves the chemical conversion illus-
trated in equation 1, while the direct
precipitation method involves the chemical
conversions of both equation 1 and 2.
Ha
2OH
+ CO.,
BaCO,
(1)
(2)
The technique of direct precipitation from
Ba(OH>2 solution has been used for environ-
mental samples in the following manner.
Four bottles containing 2 liters each of a
saturated Ba(OH>2 solution are connected in
series to a suction pump.<12) Most of the
BaCOs precipitates in the first bottle, with
only minute quantities in the fourth bottle.
The barium carbonate may then be concen-
trated into a smaller volume and counted by
liquid scintillation techniques. Since fritted
absorbers rapidly become cogged in the
direct precipitation method, a gas dispersion
tube of the unrestricted type is required.
A second technique is to absorb the carbon
dioxide into an alkali metal hydroxide solu-
tion such as KOH or NaOH. The carbon
dioxide may be regenerated by the addition
of acid. The CO2 is then absorbed in an
alkaline earth hydroxide solution or collected
for subsequent gas counting.
B Iodine-131
Absorption techniques arc widely used at
and around various nuclear facilities for
monitoring and determining quantitative
gaseous iodine-131 releases from reactor
and fuel reprocessing operations. Since
there is considerable uncertainty as to the
physical state of iodine (i.e., the quantities
of paniculate versus gaseous iodine), ab-
sorption sampling of iodine-131 is usually
carried out in combination with filtration
techniques.
Gaseous iodine-131 is usually absorbed in
an alkaline solution with a subsequent
chemical reaction. The reaction achieves a
change of state (gaseous iodine to particu-
late iodine) and is followed by separation,
purification and counting of the radioiodine
activity.
One technique that has been used consists of
absorbing the prefiltered gas in an alkaline
thiosulfate solution.'* ' The gaseous iodine
reacts with the thiosulfate as indicated in
equation 3.
'
2S2°3
S4°6
(3)
-------
Principles of Absorption
The iodide ion is then oxidized to free
iodine with nitrous acid. Free iodine is
extracted into chloroform, stripped into
alkaline sulfite and gamma counted. The
iodine collection efficiency is greater than
90 percent under optimum conditions.
A second system that has been used con-
sists of absorbing iodine-131 gas in
sodium hydroxide solution. (14, 15) The
reaction as shown in equation 4 occurs.
I
2OH
+ 10
(4)
Iodine carrier is added and interchanged
with the iodine-131 activity by a series of
oxidation-reduction reactions. Silver
nitrate is used to precipitate silver iodide.
The purified silver iodide precipitate is
then beta counted for iodine-131 activity.
VI SUMMARY
Gas liquid absorption is the process by which
a gaseous pollutant is either »• ,cted or dis-
solved in a liquid medium. If a chemical
reaction occurs between the pollutant and
absorbent the process is termed chemical
absorption; whereas, physical solution of the
pollutant in the absorbent is termed physical
absorption.
The collection efficiency of any particular
absorption process is a function of ihe
characteristics of'the absorption device, and
iho chemical and physical properties of the
absorbate-absorbent pair. A collection
efficiency should be determined for each
analysis situation by a method which gives the
accuracy desired.'-1
Mjsorpiion sampling may be applied to measur-
ing radioactive gases in the environment.
Almospheric levels of carbon-14 and iodine-
IIU levels in and around nuclear facilities
havo been determined by the method.
REFERENCES
1 Roberts, Louise R. and McKoe, Herbert C.
Evaluation of Absorption Sampling
Devices. J. Air Poll. Control Assoc.
9:51. 1959.
2 Stern, Arthur C. Air Pollution. Academic
Press, Vol. I, Ch. 11, pages 392-424.
New York. 1962.
3 Calvert, Seymour and Workman. Walter.
The Efficiency of Small Gas Absorbers.
J. Ind. Hygiene, 22:318. 1961.
4 Hochheiser, Seymour. Methods of Measur-
ing and Monitoring Atmospheric Sulfur-
Dioxide, Environmental Health Series
Air Pollution, No. 999-AP-6. 1964.
5 Gage, J. C. The Efficiency of Absorbers
in Industrial Hygiene Air Analysis.
Analyst, 85:196. 1960.
6 Calvert and Workman. Estimation of
Efficiency for Bubble Type Gas
Absorbers. Talanta. 4:89. 1960.
7 Holland, F. A. Brush-Up Your Absorption
Theory. British Chemical Engineering.
9:294. 1964.
8 Becker, H. G. Mechanism of Absorption
of Moderately Soluble Gases in Water
Industrial and Engineering Chemistry.
16:1220. 1924.
9 Halsom, R. T., Hershey, R. L. and
Keen, R. H. Effect of Velocity and
Temperature on Roles of Absorption.
Industrial and Engineering Chemistry.
16:1224. 1924.
10 Dankwerts, P. V. Gas Absorption
Accompanied by Chemical Reaction.
A.I. Ch. E.J. 1:456. 1955.
11 Air Sampling Instruments. American
Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygienists. Chapter B-6. Cincinnati,
Ohio.
12 Rafter, T. A. Carbon-14 Variations in
Nature and the Effect on Radiocarbon
Dating. New Zealand Journal of Science
and Technology. 37B:20.
-------
Principles of Absorption
13 Sill, C. W. and Flygare, J. K.. Jr. 15 Soldal. J. K. Monitoring for Airborne
Iodine Monitoring at the National Radioactive Materials at Hartford
Reactor Testing Station. Health Atomic Products Operation. J. Air
Physics. 2:261. 1960. Pollution Control Association. 10:
265. 1960.
14 McCannon, D. Radioiodine Sampling
with Activated Charcoal Cartridges.
AEC Research and Development Report.
HW-77126. April. 1963.
10
-------
PRINCIPLES OF GRAB SAMPLING
R. A. Simon*
I INTRODUCTION
The tewm "grab sample" suggests two con-
cepts: »a) a sample taken at a particular time
and" place within an interval of a few seconds
to a minute or two* ' and b) a small representa-
tive portion removed from the gross sample
with no alteration.
Grab samples are usually collected in one of
the following manners:
A Use of an evacuated container
B Purging (displacement of air)
C Displacement of a liquid
D Inflation of a plastic bag
E Use of a syringe.
II EVACUATED CONTAINERS
Evacuated containers used for gas sampling
are of several types. One common type is
a strong glass bulb of 250-300 ml capacity
(although bulbs as large as 1 - 2 liters in
volumes are sometimes used). See Figure 1.
SCRATCH
250 to 1000
ML
VACUUM TUBE
Figure 1
An evacuated flask fitted with a stopcock or vacu-
um cap can also be used in this type of sampling.
See Figure 2. The flask is evacuated and then
The bulb is evacuated until almost all the air
has been removed. In the last stages of
evacuation, the neck is sealed.
At the sampling site, the neck is scratched
and broken. Sampling is instantaneous, and
will continue until the internal pressure is
equivalent to the external pressure. The
broken end is then sealed with wax and sent
to the lab for analysis.
There are several advantages in the use of
this collector: it is simple to u*se and no
pump or manometer need be taken to the
sampling site. However, the tube must be
redrawn, re-evacuated and sealed if it is to
be used again. There is also the danger of
breakage.
*Chemist, Air Pollution Training, Training Program, SEC
PA.FA. gc. 29.11.64
VACUUM
FLASK
Figure 2
-------
Principles of Grab Sampling
scaled by turning the cap a half turn. When
sampling is to occur, the cap is turned to the
"open" position and the air will be drawn into
the flask. The cap is closed and the flask is
returned to the laboratory.
During the transport of the evacuated container
to the sampling site there is a possibility of
slow leakage through poorly-fitted stopcocks.
This would, of course, completely vitiate the
results. This apparatus has the advantage of
being easy to reuse. Such collectors should
be placed in a protective container or wrapped
with adhesive tape to reduce hazards of
implosion.
If for some reason the containers are not
completely evacuated it may be necessary to
subtract a residual volume from the volume
of the flask to determine the volume of air
sampled. Let Vf be the volume of the vessel;
after evacuation let the temperature and
residual pressure in the flask be Tj, and Pj,
respectively. The flask is transported to
the sampling site and opened; the flask tem-
perature and pressure now become Tg and Pg,
respectively. The volume of air sampled,
V , is given by:
V
V, - V
where Vx is the volume occupied by the
residual gas. Assuming gas ideality for the
residual gas:
P2Vx
PlVf
T,
Hence:
If the ratio
is small (almost complete
evacuation) then the correction can be
neglected and
V = V,
8 f
The presence of the pollutant in the residual
gas would further complicate the matter.
Ill AIR DISPLACEMENT OR PURGING
Cylindrical tubes with stopcocks at each end
are used as collectors. See Figure 3. The
stopcocks are opened and the tube is thorough-
ly purged. After sampling, the tube should
be held in place until the stopcocks have been
closed and the aspirating device has been
removed.
Metal containers of the same general design
have been employed, but they have been
found to react with many samples. Their
real advantage lies in the fact that they are
virtually unbreakage.
The environmental air is drawn through
the container using any of a variety of pumps.
Enough air must be drawn through to com-
pletely flush out old unrepresentative air
which may be present.
The necessary volume of air required will
vary but in all cases it will be at least several
times greater than the volume of the container.
Theoretical all of the old air can never be
eliminated by pumping. Since this pumping
process may take a relatively long time it is
not strictly an instantaneous type sample.
If the concentration of pollutant in the air
changes radically during purging the results
will not necessarily be anywhere close to the
average over the time interval involved.
Assuming that the contaminant concentration,
C , remains constant and that good mixing
rapidly occurs inside the vessel, a law of
purging can be derived. Let the volume of
the vessel be V . The concentration of
250 to 300 ML
GAS-DISPLACEMENT
COLLECTOR
Figure 3
-24
-------
Principles of Grab Sampling
contaminant in the flask will be a function,
C(v), of the volume of air flushed through it.
For a volume of air, dV, flushed through the
flask we have
depends on how the concentration, f(v), varies
during sampling. Let us assume that the
air concentration is given by:
C dV - C. .dV = V dC, .
o (v) o (v)
V + C
Integrating over a total purging volume V ,
the: re is obtained
Thus, in order for the contaminant concentra-
tion within the flask to be 99% of that in the
air being sampled
C(v)
.99 = 1 - e
V
V
V_
That is, the concentration varies linearly
during sampling and is CQ and zero at the
start and finish, respectively. The average
concentration is therefore
Let us now
calculate the concentration in the flask after
4. 6 air changes.
Substituting for f. . we have:
V /V
°(v ) = V
P o
which on integrating and setting
we obtain:
- V+C IdV
4.6
and
V
_J
V
4.6
That is, 4.6 air changes are required. Since
perfect mixing may not prevail this is a lower
limit.
Now assume that the contaminant concentra-
tion varies during sampling. Instead of a
constant Co we have a variable C = f(v). Inte-
gration of the above equation now gives
V
V
0 f, dV
(v)
This equation shows that the concentration in
the flask after drawing through a volume Vp.
C. . = 0.205 C
(vp)
This is quite different from the true average
0.500 C .
o
IV LIQUID DISPLACEMENT
Another technique which may be used in gas
sampling is liquid displacement. In this
method a liquid is allowed to drain from the
bottom of a container, while an opening at
the top allows the gas to enter and fill the
space left by the liquid. Any suitable liquid
which will not dissolve the sample nor react
with it can be used. The choice of liquid will
depend upon the material being sampled;
some which are commonly used are water,
brine, mercury, or water saturated with
the gas to be sampled.
7-25
-------
Principles of Grab Sampling
Containers which are used are of two basic
types: 1) a glass tube with two stopcocks as
used in air displacement, see Figure 4 and
2) an aspirator bottle, see Figure 5.
250 to 300
ML ^
Figure 4. LIQUID DISPLACEMENT
COLLECTOR
In both cases, the liquid is allowed to drain
through the lower opening (the rate can be
controlled by adjusting the stopcock) and the
gas is drawn in through the upper stopcock
or tube. This method requires a minimum
of equipment and no special training. The
container may be calibrated to indicate the
volume of gas sampled.
V INFLATION
A fourth gas sampling method is the collection
of a sample by inflation of a plastic bag.'^'
Plastics of various types have been used. The
choice of material will depend upon the gas
which is being sampled, and upon the storage
period. "Mylar" bags have been found satis-
factory for aliphatic hydrocarbons, acrolein.
ASPIRATOR BOTTLE
Figure 5
formaldehyde, ozone, SC>2 and NC>2. "Scotch-
pak" can be used for aliphatic hydrocarbons
and acrolein, but not for the others mentioned
above. "Saran" and various aluminized
plastics have also been used. (3)
The deflated plastic bag is placed in a closed
box, with only a tube extending outside the
box. An opening in the box itself is connected
to a vacuum source, and the air is pumped
out of the box. As the air is removed from
the outer container, the bag will inflate,
drawing in the sample. The air may be
mete red as it is pumped out of the box, thus
indicating the volume of gas sample drawn
into the bag. See Figure 6.
VI USE OF SYRINGE
Syringes may be used in the collection of
small gas samples. This technique has been
widely applied in the field of odor measurement.
VII DISCUSSION OF GRAB SAMPLING
Grab sampling techniques are preferable to
continuous sampling in certain situations.
Some constituents have absorption rates too
slow for efficient collection by absorption.
Field conditions (lack of electricity and lab
7-26
-------
Principles of Grab Sampling
BLOWER
BLOWEI^Sfc
OPENING TT
CONTAINING BOX
y/BAGVALVE
PLASTIC BAG
Figure 6
facilities) often necessitate this type of
sampling..
Grab sampling is useful when concentrations
vary considerably over a period of time, and
it is necessary to obtain a sample at a specific
time. Most grab sampling techniques utilize
a minimum of equipment and require little or
no special training or experience on the part
of the operator.^
Grab sampling has a se.'ious limitation -- the
sample obtained is generally not large enough
to detect very small quantities of materials
except by the most sensitive techniques.
REFERENCES
1 Jacobs, M. B. The Analytical Chemistry
of Industrial Poisons, Hazards and
Solvents. Interscience Publishers, Inc.,
New York. 1949.
2 Connor, William D., and Nader, J. S.
Air Sampling with Plastic Bags. " Amer.
Indus. Hyg. Assoc. J. 25:291-297.
May - June, 1964.
3 Atshuller, A. P., Wartburg, A. F.,
Cohen, I. R., and Sleva, S. F. Storage
of Gases and Vapors in Plastic Bags.
Int. J. Air Wat. Poll. 6: 75-81. 1962.
4 Silverman, Leslie. Industrial Air
Sampling and Analysis. Industrial
Hygiene Foundation. Philadelphia.
1947.
5 Devorken, H., Chass, R. L., Fudurich,
A. P., and Kanter, C.V. Source Test-
ing Manual. Air Pollution Control
District. Los Angeles. 1963.
7-27
-------
SAMPLING LOCATION GUIDELINES
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH CENTER
DIVISION OF ATMOSPHERIC SURVEILLANCE
RESEARCH TRIANGLE PARK, NORTH CAROLINA
NOVEMBER 1971
-------
SAMPLING LOCATION GUIDELINES
1. This report has reference to "Requirements for Preparation, Adoption
and Submittal of Implementation Plans," EPA, Federal Register, August 14,
1971, and is concerned with guidelines for installation of air monitoring
instruments at particular sampling sites especially those located in the
area of estimated maximum pollutant concentration and established for the
purpose of determining compliance with national primary ambient air
quality standards established for the purpose of protecting the public
health.
2. Minimum number of air quality monitoring sites and frequency of
sampling are specified in Section 420.17 of the aforementioned Federal
rules and regulations. General considerations governing distribution
of air quality monitoring sites within an air quality control region are
described in "Guidelines: Air Quality Surveillance Networks," EPA, May
1971,Office of Air Programs Publication No. AP-98.
3. Specific guidelines for locating air monitoring instruments in areas
of estimated maximum pollutant concentration are given in the table
attached. Sampling station guidelines are different for defining
one-hour average and eight-hour average CO concentration because people
would not ordinarily be exposed to CO concentrations that occur in a high
traffic density downtown area for a period of eight hours. When only a
single sampling site is established to satisfy the minimum air quality
surveillance requirement of the implementation plan, choose a site meeting
the guidelines for 8-hour averaging time. Distance from the street is
specified in the sampling location guidelines for CO because of the strong
dependence on nearness to the street and CO concentration. For the same
reason, height from the ground of the air inlet is more restrictive
than for the other pollutants. It is desirable, however, to sample as
close as possible to the breathing zone within practical considerations
and sampling height limitations are specified accordingly for these
pollutants. There are no well established meteorological dispersion
models presently available for selecting areas of expected maximum concen-
tration for the secondary pollutants. Selection of high concentration
areas described in the table for these pollutants is based on available
information on the reaction kinetics of atmospheric photochemical re-
actions involving hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, and oxidants, atmospheric
data on diurnal variation in pollutant concentration, distribution of
primary mobile sources of pollution and on meteorological factors. A
minimum distance away from major traffic arteries and parking areas
is specified for the oxidant monitoring site because NO emissions from
motor vehicles consume atmospheric ozone. N02 is considered both as a
primary stationary source pollutant and as a secondary pollutant and
air monitoring stations for this pollutant should be located consistent
with the respective station location guidelines. Differences
in horizonatal and vertical clearance distances are based on increased
probability of reaction between reactive gases and vertical surfaces.
-------
4. Sampling locations selected in areas of estimated maximum pollutant
concentration should be evaluated in light of actual aerometric and
meteorological data, urban and industrial growth and development and
other pertinent information. Wherever feasible it is desirable to conduct
a preliminary aerometric survey as a means of selecting sampling locations
for maximum pollutant concentration.
5. General guidelines applicable to sampling station location in
addition to the specific guidelines listed in the table include the
following:
a. Except for the sampling station for determining one-hour carbon
monoxide concentrations avoid locations where there are restrictions
to air flow in the vicinity of the air inlet; such as adjacent to
buildings, parapets, trees.
b. Avoid sampling locations that are unduly influenced by downwash
from a minor local source or by reentrainment of ground dust; such
as a stack located on the roof of a building where the air inlet is
located or close to ground level near an unpaved road. In the latter
case either elevate the sampler intake above the level of maximum
ground turbulence effect or place the sampler intake away from the
source of ground dust.
c. Avoid locations that are inaccessible with due regard toi adverse
weather conditions, prone to vandalism or are otherwise insecure.
6. It is recognized that for practical considerations it may not be
feasible to select sampling sites that meet all of the specific and
general guidelines. In this event it is especially important that the
sampling stations selected be defined in such a manner that would enable
comparison of results obtained with that obtained at other sampling
stations meeting these guidelines. This may be accomplished by de-
lineating the critical parameters including elevation, vertical clearance,
horizontal clearance, distance from curb, distance from downtown, distance
from major traffic arteries or parking areas, restrictions to air flow
in the vicinity of sampler, nearby local sources, and meteorological
parameters.
-------
SELECTION AND PERFORMANCE OF WET COLLECTOR MEDIA
P. William Leach*
I INTRODUCTION
In the design of sampling traps, the most
important component of the entire system
is the component in which the collection of
the pollutant takes place. The process of
removal is generally accomplished by ab-
sorption, adsorption, etc. The component
of the train utilizing this process may take
the form of bubblers, impingers, etc. The
method to be discussed is that which uses
wet collectors for the collection and/or
analysis of gases, vapors, and particulate
matter. Some of the factors which are im-
portant to consider are:
1 Gas flow rate
2 Bubble size
3 Height of liquid column
4 Reaction rate
5 Solubility of pollutant
Anyone of these factors is capable of negating
all of the results which are obtained.
II ABSORBER DESIGN
A General Considerations
1 Solubility of pollutant
The solubility of a pollutant in a solvent
must be considered in determining the
type of absorber which will be chosen.
It will also determine the conditions
under which the sample will be taken.
The absorption coefficient is one method
employed to express the results of solu-
bility measurements with gases. The
absorption coefficient (ot) is given by:
V
o
Vp
(1)
where:
Vo -
V -
P -
the volume of gas dissolved (ml)
the volume of solvent (ml)
the partial pressure of the
gas (atm.)
Some typical absorption coefficients
are given in Table 1.
Table 1. ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT OF GASES AT 20 C
Compound
solvent
Water
Carbon djsulfide
Chloroform
Ethyl alcohol
Acetone
Ethyl ether
Benzene
H2
.017
.031
.080
.065
.12
.066
He
.009
-
-
.028
.030
-
.018
N2
.015
.049
.120
. 130
.129
.24
.104
°2
.028
-
.205
.143
.207
.415
.163
CO
.025
.076
.177
.177
.198
.38
.153
C°2
.88
.83
3.45
3.0
6.5
5.0
-
NO
.047
-
-
-
-
H2S
2.68
-
-
-
-
-
-
NH3
710
-
-
-
-
-
-
Glasstone, S., Textbook of Physical Chemistry, P. 695, D. Van Nostrand,
New York, 1946
^Director, Pollution Control Division, Dade County
Department of Public Health, Miami, Florida
PA. SS. st. 5. 5. 66
-------
Selection and Performance of Wet Collector Media
a Influence of temperature
When gases dissolve in a liquid,
there is generally a liberation of
heat; it follows, therefore, that an
increase of temperature will result
in a decrease of solubility. It is
for this reason that gases may be
readily expelled from solution by
boiling. By thermodynamic methods,
it is possible to deduce the equation
for constant pressure, assuming the
gas to be ideal:
d Inc
Tf~
AH
RT2
(2)
where:
c
AH
T
concentration of the gas
dissolved
differential heat of solution
temperature
From this equation it can be seen
that an increase in temperature will
decrease the solubility of a gas.
This effect can be seen in Table 2.
b Influence of pressure
The most important factor influencing
the solubility of a gas is pressure;
increasing the pressure of the gas
will tend to increase its solubility.
The pressure is expressedby Henry's
law which states that the mass of a
gas dissolved by a given volume of
solvent, at constant temperature is
proportional to the pressure of the
gas with which it is in equilibrium.
kp
(3)
where:
m = mass of gas dissolved by unit
volume of solvent (gms)
p 3 equilibrium pressure (atm.)
k - constant
Some examples of pressure versus
solubility effects are given in Table 3.
2 Rate of reaction
All chemical reactions take place at a
definite rate, depending on process
conditions. The most important factors
are, concentration of reactants, tem-
perature, and presence of a catalyst
or inhibitor. Some reactions are so
rapid that they appear to be instanta-
neous, wh'ereas others are so slow at
ordinary temperature that no detectable
change would be observed in the course
of years. Between these two extremes
are many processes taking place with
measurable velocities at temperatures
easily accessible in the laboratory.
Since the rate of a reaction is proporr
tional to the concentrations of the re-
acting substances it is evident that the
rate of the process must fall off as the
reaction proceeds. This phenomena
can, however, be used to advantage by
Table 2. INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE ON
SOLUBILITIES OF GASES IN WATER
Gas/Temp
OC
30 C
Helium
.0094
.0081
Nitrogen
.0235
.0134
Oxygen
.0489
.0261
Carbon dioxide
1.713
.665
Glasstone, S., Textbook of Physical Chemistry, P. 696
-------
Selection arid Performance of Wet Collector Media
increasing the concentration of the ab-
sorbing liquid, thereby forcing the re-
action to approach completion rapidly.
There are three major factors inherent in
the design of a bubbler which affects the
efficiency of the absorber.
a Flowrate
b Bubble size
c Height of liquid column
Absorption of efficiency 'aries inversely
with flow rate and bubble size and varies
directly with the height of the liquid column.
B Flowrate
The gas flow rate through an absorber is
one of the factors which determines the
efficiency of an absorber. Figure 1 shows
Table 3. INFLUENCE OF PRESSURE ON SOLUBILITY OF
CO2 IN VARIOUS SOLVENTS AT - 59°C
Solvent/ Pressure
100 mm
200 mm
400 mm
700 mm
Methyl alcohol
42.5
42.7
43. 1
43.3
Acetone
67. 2
68.0
69. 2
72.8
Methyl acetate
75.8
77.1
77.6
79.0
Glasstone, S., Textbook of Physical Chemistry p. 697
100
9O
z
™ 80
h-
z
UJ
o
If
ui
CL
70
REEMBURG- SMITH IMPINGER
250 ml GAS WASHING BOTTLE
C,0
50
AMMONIA, Ippm
PRESSURE: 26.5"Hg I
TEMPERATURE; 80°F(APPROX)
(at MAXIMUM OBTAINABLE; NOT
ADVISABLE DUE TO EHTRAINMEHT
01 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
AIR FLOW RATE, CUBIC FEET/MINUTE
(1)
07
0.8
Figure 1. PERFORMANCE CURVES
COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE ABSORBERS
0.9
-------
Selection and Performance of Wet Collector Media
clearly that as flow rate increases, for
the absorbers studied, the efficiency
varies appreciably. This efficiency versus
flow rate curve should be determined for
each absorber and absorber type which is
used in any analysis.
C Bubble Size
The efficiency of absorption of a gas or
vapor by chemical reaction or physical
absorption depends on the probability of
successful collisions with molecules of
reagent or solvent at the gas-liquid inter-
face. For a given concentration of reagent
this will depend on the surface area of the
gas bubbles, on the length of the column
of liquid through which the bubbles must
pass and the rate at which they rise through
the liquid.
The surface area at the gas-liquid interface
is inversely related to the average volume
of the gas bubble. As the volume of indi-
vidual bubbles decreases the surface area
at the gas-liquid interface increases.
D Height of Liquid Column
The length of the column of liquid in an
absorber is important in determining
efficiency. The velocity of rise of bubbles
is approximately constant at 24 cm/sec ,„,
for bubble diameters greater than 0. 2cm.
Since the bubbles rise at approximately
24 cm/sec they will be in contact with a
liquid column 24 cm long for 1 second,
48 cm long for 2 seconds, etc. The longer
the gas bubble is in contact with the liquid,
the more pollutant is transferred from the
gas phase to the liquid phase until gas-
liquid equilibrium is approached.
Ill RETENTION OF GASES AND VAPORS
BY SOLUTION
Thf equation defining Raoults Law is:
,. o
P Np
(4)
p = partial pressure of gas to be
dissolved (atm.)
N = mole fraction of gas
p° = vapor pressure of gas (atm.)
From this relationship one can calculate the
solubility of a gas below its critical tem-
perature, on the assumption that the solution
behaves in an ideal manner. For example,
the critical temperature of ethane is 34 C.
At 25°C the pure liquid has a vapor pressure
of 42 atmospheres. According to Raoults
Law, therefore, the solubility of ethane at
25°C and a pressure of 1 atm. in any solvent
is given, in mole fraction, by the relationship
N
42
- 0. 024 mole fraction,
since p is 1 atm. , and p° is 42 atm. The
actual solubility in n-hexane at 25 C and
1 atm. pressure is 0.017 mole fraction.
This variation is due to n-hexane being a
non-ideal solvent.
In order to extend the method for calculating
gaseous solubilities to temperatures above
the critical temperature, it is necessary to
estimate the hypothetical vapor pressure of
the liquid by a suitable extrapolation; this
is best done by using the integrated form
of the Clapeyron-Clausius equation, which
is,
log;
4.576
(5)
where L is the Latent Heat of vaporation.
If the vapor pressure at any two temperatures
is known the value at any other temperature
may be evaluated on the assumption that the
molar heat of vaporization remains constant.
The critical temperature of methane is
95. 5°C, and the hypothetical vapor pressure
of the liquid at 20°C is 310 atm., giving an
ideal solubility at this temperature and a
pressure of 1 atm. of 1/310 = 0.0032 mole
fraction; this is very close to the solubilities
-------
Selection and Performance of Wet Collector Media
actually found in n-hexane and m-xylene.
Since the solubility in mole fractions of a
gas at 1 atm. pressure is equal to 1/p, where
p is the vapor pressure of the liquified gas,
it is evident that, for ideal solutions, the
lower the vapor pressure at the given tem-
perature the greater will be the solubility
of the gas. Gases which are liquified only
with difficulty, that is to say, those having
very low boiling points, may be regarded as
having high vapor pressures; such gases
will, therefore, have low solubilities. It_
follows that in general easily liquifiable gases
will be the most soluble; this is in agreement
with observation in most cases.
Although the solubility of a gas, in mole
fractions, should theoretically be independent
of the nature of the solvent, this is not true
in practice because of departure from ideal
behavior. Some data for solutions of gases,
showing deviations, are listed in Table 4.
The solubilities in water are exceptionally
low, since water is both polar and associated,
and also has a very high internal pressure,
solutions of gases of the type mentioned in
the table would hardly be expected to behave
ideally. Even chlorine and carbon dioxide,
which interact with water and are generally
regarded as relatively soluble gases, have
solubilities considerably below the calculated
values, because of their low polarity and
internal pressure. A quite different type of
behavior is shown by ammonia, which is a
highly polar substance with a high internal
pressure. In hydrocarbon solvents, therefore,
its solubility is considerably below the ideal
value, whereas in alcohol and water the
observed solubility is somewhat greater than
that calculated. If allowance could be made
for interaction between ammonia and the
solvent, good agreement would be. found.
A corollary to the forego ng conclusions in
that for a number of gases, of similar polarity
and internal pressure (e.g. hydrogen,
nitrogen, carbon monoxide, oxygen) which
do not react with the solvent, the ratio of
the solubilities in various solvents should
be approximately independent of the nature
of the gas. This generalization is roughly
true in practice, and only gases such as
carbon dioxide and ammonia, which are not
in the same category, are exceptions.
IV RETENTION OF GASES AND VAPORS
BY CHEMICAL REACTION
The usual objective in the selection of an
absorbent for scrubbing a gas is to find a
liquid, possibly a solution, which has a very
large capacity for absorbing the solute with-
out building up an appreciable equilibrium
back pressure. This can be accomplished
readily by choosing a chemical with which
the solute reacts irreversibly, as when an
aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide is used
to absorb carbon dioxide. There are indeed
very few absorptions of a gas in a liquid that
are not accompanied by a chemical reaction
to some degree. Thus, when ammonia
dissolves in water, an ionization occurs
that may be looked upon as a chemical change.
A similar phenomena, though potentially
weaker, occurs when carbon dioxide dis-
solves in water. A much stronger and more
definite chemical change takes place when
ammonia is dissolved in an acid, or carbon
dioxide in a base.
Table 4. IDEAL AND OBSERVED SOLUBILITIES AT 20°C
Gas
Nitrogen
Carbon dioxide
Oxygen
Argon
Ideal
10
11
16
21
Nitrobenzene
2. 6
3.9
Ethyl alcohol
3. 3
4.5
6.5
Aniline
1. 1
1.9
Water
0. 13
0.19
0. 17
0.41
-------
Selection and Performance of Wet Collector Media
There is no sharp lino dividing pure physical
absorption from absorption controlled by the
r-ali- of :i chemical reaction. Most cases
r.-jll in tlii' intermediate range; the rate of
,-jbsorption being limited both by resistance
to diffusion and by the finite rate of reaction.
Simultaneous occurrence of a chemical
reaction renders the mechanism of absorption
more complicated. The theory of purely
physical absorption rest on the assumption
of the two-film concept. This theory may
be carried over to the case where a simul-
taneous reaction occurs, however, modifi-
cation in film resistance will become apparent.
Thus when carbon dioxide is dissolved in
water, the rate controlling factor is not the
migration of the dissolved carbon dioxide
from the liquid surface into the liquid interior,
simply because the rate of solution of the gas
in water is small from the very start. On
the other hand if absorption of carbon dioxide
in a solution of caustic is considered, the
rate of absorption is very rapid and then the
rale of migration of the carbonate into the
main body of the liquid becomes rate con-
trolling. These phenomena are complex and
although considerable advances have been
made, the situation is still very obscure.
Whenever there is a pronounced chemical
reaction occurring simultaneously with an
absorption, there are essentially two effects
that must be considered.
These pertain to:
1 Modification of capacity (rate) data
2 Modification of the driving force.
Capacity coefficients will generally, but not
always, increase when a chemical reaction
occurs simultaneously with absorption. At
present there is no data available to permit
a correlation that will allow for estimation
of capacity data.
'\ s far as driving force is concerned an in-
crease is usually observed as a consequence
ol a chomienl reaction. In many cases the
dissolved gas, once having reacted with a
i onstii ueiil in the liquid, offers virtually no
resistance to further absorption. This is
the case when carbon dioxide or sulfur dioxide
are dissolved in basic solutions.
V RETENTION OF PARTICULATE MATTER
The design of the absorber plays a most im-
portant part in the retention of particulate
matter by a liquid. A liquid absorber is
highly efficient for retaining particles only
when the velocity of the air at the jet ap-
proaches that of sound and the particles
impinge with high velocity on a surface in
the liquid. The sudden change in kinetic
energy results in the virtually complete
trapping of all particles having a diameter
greater than 1 micron.
REFERENCES
1 Roberts, L.R. and McKee, H.C. Evalu-
ation of Absorption Sampling Devices.
Journal Air Pollution Control Assoc.
Vol. 9, pp. 51-53, May 1959.
2 Droege, H.F. and Ping, A.Y. Relative
Efficiencies of Various Collection
Devices Used for Source Testing.
Presented at the Sixth Conference on
Methods in Air Pollution Studies,
Berkeley, California, Jan. 6-7, 1964.
3 Elkins, H.B., Hobby, A.K, and Fuller,
J. E. The Determination of Atmos-
pheric Contaminants I. Organic
Halogen Compounds. Journal of
Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology,
Vol. 19, No. 9, pp. 474-485.
4 Saltzman, B. E. Preparation and Analysis
of Calibrated Low Concentrations of
Sixteen Toxic Gases. Analytical
Chemistry, Vol. 33, No. 8, pp. 1100-
1112, July 1961.
5 Perry, R.H. and Pigford, R. L. Kinetics
of Gas-Liquid Reactions. Industrial
and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 45,
No. 6, pp. 1247-1253, June 1953.
-------
Selection and Performance of Wet Collector Media
6 Calvert, S. and Workman, W. The
Efficiency of Small Gas Absorbers.
Industrial Hygiene Journal, pp. 318-
324, August 1961.
7 Calvert, S. and Workman, W. Estimation
of Efficiency for Bubbler-Type Gas
Absorbers. Talanta, Vol. 4, pp. 89-
100, 1960.
8 Gage, J. C. The Efficiency of Absorber
in Industrial Hygiene Air Analysis.
Industrial Hygiene Journal, Vol. 85,
pp. 196-203, March 1960.
9 Leva, M. Tower Packings and Packed
Tower Designs, United States
Stoneware Co., Akron, 1951.
10 Sherwood, T.K. and Pigford, R. L.
Absorption and Extraction. McGraw-
Hill, New York, 1952.
-------
RINCIPLES OF FREEZEOUT SAMPLING
R. E. Landreth*
I INTRODUCTION
Air pollutants existing as gases can be
trapped or removed by the freeze-out or
condensation method. Trapping in this dis-
cussion implies the mechanism whereby a
sample is collected, and removed implies
an air-cleaning mechanism to remove un-
wanted gas contaminants from the gas stream.
The method has a very high efficiency at
relatively low flow rates. Certain problems
are encountered when using the freeze-out
method, thus necessitating an appraisal of
the method for particular applications.
II CONCEPT
The method consists essentially of drawing
air through collection chambers with pro-
gressively lower temperatures. If the
temperatures of the chambers are approxi-
mately equal to or less than the boiling
point (the temperature at which a liquid is
converted to a gas) of the gaseous components
of the air passing through it, these compon-
ents will exhibit a phase change from the
gaseous phase to the liquid phase. The
condensate (liquid phase) is collected in the
chamber where the phase change occurs.
The gaseous contaminants to be collected
will determine the temperatures required
in the collection chambers. The tempera-
tures of the chambers can be controlled by
using different immersion bath liquids.
Contaminants with boiling points as low as
-195°C can be collected by this method.
Ill EQUIPMENT
The type of freeze-out i-quipment required
depends lo a large exiem on the application.
The required amount of equipment of a given
type depends on whether the sampling appa-
ratus is a single or multi -si age unit. The
type of unit will be discussed subsequently.
The size of the collo'clion chamber varies
according to the immersion bath for which
it was designed. The collection chambers
themselves arc placed in Dewar flanks
which contain the cooling solutions, :s«e
Figure 1.
VACUUM
COLLECTION
CHAMBER
BATH
SOLUTION
DEWAR
FLASK
Figure 1. FREEZE-OUT UNIT
Table I indicates various bath solutions and
some sizes of the Dewar flasks that have
been used for each. The volume of the bath
solutions and thus the size of the collecting
chamber itself are partially due to factors
such as:
1 Temperature gradients across the
collecting chambers as related to
the criticality of the boiling point or
the contaminant being collected;
2 The surface area as related to the
evaporation rate of the bath solution;
and
3 The condensation of water vapor in the
primary collection chambers, thus
necessitating a larger volume.
^Sanitary Engineer, Fnvironrnental Radiological
Health Training Section, Training Branch,
Division of Radiological Health
11. 2.HH.(5. 65)
-------
Principles of Freezeout Sampling
Bath Solution Temperature
Ice + Salt
Dry ice & Ace-
tone or Methyl-
cellosolve
Liquid oxygen
Liquid nitrogen
-16°C
-80°C
-183°C
-195°C
Volume of
Solution
~ 2 liter
750 ml
100 ml
100 ml
The level of the solutions in the baths should
be kept at 2" to 4" within the top of the
collection chambers in an attempt to maintain
a constant temperature throughout the
chamber.
Among collection chambers utilized, U-
shaped and spiral-shaped tubes are prominent.
Large radius bends should be designed into
the tubes to facilitate smooth airflow and to
prevent accumulation of ice at the bends.
FREEZE-OUT EQUIPMENT /or
ATMOSPHERIC SAMPLES
DE WAP Fl ASK . WiQt MOUTH
Figure 2. HORIZONTAL, SAMPLING
TRAIN
IV UNIT CLASSIFICATION
Freeze-out devices can be classified into two
catagories, single and multi-stage units.
A Single-Stage Units
A single-stage unit, see Figure 1, con-
sists' of one collection chamber (glass or
metal) which is immersed in a bath
solution. As has already been mentioned
the temperature of the bath and conse-
quently the liquid of the bath will depend
on the particular gas to be sampled.
B Multi-Stage Units
Multi-stage units consist of a series of
collection chambers. These chambers
can be arranged in cither horizontal or
vertical trains, sec Figures 2 and 3.
In these trains the temperatures of the
baths are progressively lower. This
allows for condensation of different gases
in different chambers.
CGNIJtNSINC, 1KAPS
MADl (KOM I Illl H
1)1 WAk hi ANKi
INSUIAIIIK,
BOX1S
Figure 3. VERTICAL SAMPLING
TRAIN
-------
of Freezeout Sampling
V EFFICIENCY
The collection efficiencies of the previously
described systems are not very good. In
order to efficiently condense gases it is
necessary for the gas to come in contact
with the cold surface of the collection
chambers. Therefore, the efficiency of
collection by freeze-out can be improved by:
1) filling the collection chamber with some
type of material which will increase the cold
surface area and 2) reducing the flow rate.
A Packing Materials
To increase the cold surface area within
the collection chambers, various materials
such as glass beads metal packing, ^'
and activated carbon* ' have been used,
see Figure 4. In one application, for
collecting benzene and formaldehyde the
glass beads and metal packing increased
the efficiency from 50% to 65% and 80%,
respectively.^1' The lower collection
efficiency of the unpacked train was due
partly to the formation of a fine mist that
was not retained by the walls of the tra;)S.
In another application using activated
carbon, a collection efficiency of 100%
was reported for xenon and krypton.' '
The activated carbon gave a much larger
surface area for the gas to pass over.
The use of activated carbon will give the
added advantage of adsorbing gases from
the air stream.
B Flow Hate
The flow rate through the train should be
such that a sufficient "detention time"
(time allowed for the gas to come into
equilibrium with its surrounding temp-
erature) be available to allow the desired
collection efficiency. For an unpacked
train the detention time must be relatively
large due.' to the' small cold surface area.
By packing the train with a surface-area-
increasing material the cold surface the
detention time can become smaller. With
a smaller required detention lime the rate
of flow through the train can be greater.
Flow rates on the order of 0. 1 to 0. 2 cfm
have been reported for unpacked trains,
while 1 to 2 cfm' ' have been reported for
trains packed with activated carbon.
Another factor affecting flow rate is the
formation of ice crystals in the bends of
the collection chambei s. This will be
discussed in another section of this outline.
DRYING
TOWER
VACUUM-
COLLECTION
CHAMBER
BATH
SOLUTION
DEWAR
FLASK
Figure 4. FREEZE-OUT UNIT SHOWING
PACKING MATERIAL AND DRYING TOWER
C Errors
One possible source of error is that gases
soluble in water will be removed to some
extent prior to their removal in a collection
chamber. Other errors may be introduced
when electrostatic precipitators, drying
towers, etc. are placed prior to the freeze-
out train. Electrostatic precipitators will
aid in the removal of particulates, but
they may also alter the gas chemically.
Adsorption of vapors by a desiccant placed
prior to the collection chamber has aliso
been reported. This adsorption might
introduce errors in the final results.
(1)
VI SENSITIVITY
The sensitivity of the freezeout method de-
pends primarily on the gas collected, volume
of air sampled, and how the collected gas is
3
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Principles of Freezeout Sampling
analyzed. Hydrocarbon samples which were
analyzed on a mass spectrometer, were
analyzed to detect pollutant concentrations of
10 ppm from a 1 liter sample. With larger
sample volumes, concentrations on the order
fi 11}
of 10 ppm have been reported. \ '
Radioactive gases, such as krypton and
xenon, have been collected by the freeze-out
method. Because geometry and the energy
of radiation emitted effects the detection
efficiency, the efficiency should also be
reported with the above parameters, (volume,
gas, instrument). Using sample volumes on
the order of 75 cubic feet (at standard
conditions) and a GM tube which is enclosed
in a gas envelope, ' sensitivities on the order
of 50 pc/M for gross beta activity and
70 pel M^ for krypton and xenon have been
reported. The efficiency of the above de-
tection system (GM tube) was on the order of
3 to 4 percent.
VII APPLICATIONS
The freeze-out method has proved to be
useful in sampling gases. The freeze-out
device can be used as a collecting train
itself, or it can be used in conjunction with
other sample collection devices.
A Freeze-out Train
Trains composed of several collection
chambers have the ability of collecting
several gases at the same time. This
may aid in the gross analysis of the
sample because the sample will be broken
into fractional parts according to the
various boiling points of the gases.
Probably the main disadvantage of a
freeze-out train is the plugging of the
collection chambers by ice crystals.
Drying towers placed on the inlet side of
tram will help alleviate this problem as
well as filtering some particulars. When
drying towers are used the flow rate is
dependent upon the speed at which the
desiecunt will effectively remove the
v.'citer moisture from the air. Flow rates
of 1 to i cfm has been reported when
/ o\
using a (Irving tower.
Liquid oxygen creates another problem
when it is used as a bath solution or when
collected in a collection chamber. When
used as a bath solution extreme care must
be employed because of the ability of liquid
oxygen to support combustion. Therefore,
a restricted personnel area around the
sampler must be maintained when using
liquid oxygen as a bath solution. Liquid
oxygen (B.P. = -183°C) will condense when
liquid nitrogen (B.P. = -195°C) is used as
a bath solution. This is undesirable since
it will dilute the collected contaminants. If
the solution is allowed to warm-up after
sampling, a portion of the contaminants
may be carried off by the escaping
oxygen. (1) Since some radioactive samples
can be analyzed by a gamma spectrometer,
this problem is not very serious for these
gamma emitting nuclides.
B Multi-Collection Train
The freeze-out train may be part of a
larger train where particulate filters,
electrostatic precipitators, activated
charcoal cartridges, etc. make up the
rest of the train. The major advantage of
such a train would be the removal of
particulates and gases that were not of
interest. Probably the main disadvantage
of the larger train is in the possibility of
altering the chemical composition of the
gas of interest.
VIII SUMMARY
Freeze-out trains have proved to be an
efficient collection device. Collection
efficiencies of 100% for flow rates up to 2
cfm have been reported for certain contam-
inants. Problems such as water vapor
condensation and its subsequent plugging of
collecting chambers can be alleviated by
using a desiccant on the inlet side of the train.
Collection efficiency improvements such as
increasing the cold surface area can be
accomplished by using a packing material.
The use of freeze-out devices for "field"
operations has its limitations because of
bulkiness and the problem of keeping the
bath solutions at a constant level.
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Principles of Freezeout Sampling
REFERENCES
1 Cradle, R. D., Rolston, Myra and MaGill,
P. L. Cold-Surface Collection of
Volatile Atmospheric Contaminants.
Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 23, No. 3,
pp 475-477. March, 1951.
2 Flygare. J. K., Jr., Wehmann, George,
Harbertson, A. R. and Sill, C. W.
A Method for the Collection and
Identification of Radioactive Xenon
and Krypton. Sixth AEC Air Cleaning
Conference, TID-7593, Uly 7-9,
pp 18-25. 1959.
3 Shepherd. M., Rock, S. M., Howard, R.,
Stormes, S. Isolation Identification
and Estimation of Gaseous Pollutants
of Air. Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 23,
No. 10, pp 1431-1440. October, 1951.
4 Johns, Fred B., Chief, Projects,
Southwestern Radiological Health
Laboratory, Telephonic Communication.
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