SEPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Air Pollution Training Institute
MD20
Environmental Research Center
Research Triangle Park NC 27711
September 1978
EPA-450/3-78-105
Air
APTI
Course 439
Visible
Emissions
Evaluation
Instructor
Manua
Final
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United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Air Pollution Training Institute
MD20
Environmental Research Center
Research Triangle Park NC 27711
September 1978
EPA-450/3-78-105
/Mr
APTI
Course 439
Visible
Emissions
Evaluation
Final
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Air, Noise, and Radiation
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
-------
US/EPA
THIS IS NOT AN OFFICIAL POLICY AND STANDARDS
DOCUMENT. THE OPINIONS, FINDINGS, AND CON-
CLUSIONS ARE THOSE OF THE AUTHORS AND NOT
NECESSARILY THOSE OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION AGENCY.
EVERY ATTEMPT HAS BEEN MADE TO REPRESENT
THE PRESENT STATE OF THE ART AS WELL AS SUB-
JECT AREAS STILL UNDER EVALUATION.
ANY MENTION OF PRODUCTS OR ORGANIZATIONS
DOES NOT CONSTITUTE ENDORSEMENT BY THE
UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
AGENCY.
11
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£EPA
AIR POLLUTION TRAINING INSTITUTE
MANPOWER AND TECHNICAL INFORMATION BRANCH
CONTROL PROGRAMS DEVELOPMENT DIVISION
OFFICE OF AIR QUALITY PLANNING AND STANDARDS
The Air Pollution Training Institute (1) conducts training for personnel working on
the development and improvement of state, and local governmental, and EPA air
pollution control programs, as well as for personnel in industry and academic insti-
tutions; (2) provides consultation and other training assistance to governmental
agencies, educational institutions, industrial organizations, and others engaged in
air pollution training activities; and (3) promotes the development and improve-
ment of air pollution training programs in educational institutions and state, regional,
and local governmental air pollution control agencies. Much of the program is now
conducted by an on-site contractor, Northrop Services, Inc.
One of the principal mechanisms utilized to meet the Institute's goals is the intensive
short term technical training course. A full-time professional staff is responsible for
the design, development, and presentation of these courses. In addition the services
of scientists, engineers, and specialists from other EPA programs, governmental
agencies, industries, and universities are used to augment and reinforce the Institute
staff in the development and presentation of technical material.
Individual course objectives and desired learning outcomes are delineated to meet
specific program needs through training. Subject matter areas covered include air
pollution source studies, atmospheric dispersion, and air quality management. These
courses are presented in the Institute's resident classrooms and laboratories and at
various field locations.
Robert G. Wilder
Program Manager
Northrop Services, Inc. •
0&4i>iW&&£*^Tj^'*^^
/I /fKan J- Schueneman
If Chief, Manpower & Technical
Information Branch
iii
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FOREWORD
The Federal government has discontinued the use of
Ringlemann Number in Federal new source performance
standards and based the determination of the optical
density, or opacity o'f visible emissions from stationary •
sources, solely on opacity. -Many State regulations have
not made this change and continue to operate under a
dual system in' which the Ringlemann Number is used in
-the evaluation of black or gray emissions and.Equivalent
Opacity is used in the evaluation of all other visible
emissions.
This manual is designed to serve as wide an audience as •
possible and so continues to refer to both the Ringlemann"
Number and the Equivalent Opacity methods of evaluation.
If Opacity is now the only type of visible emission i
regulation in your State, please make the proper adjust-
ments in the manual curriculum to reflect this" regula-
tion. If Ringlemann and Equivalent Opacity are current--
ly viable in your State, your trainees should at least
be aware of the Federal regulation. A copy of the
current Method 9 as published in the Federal Register
is included in the last pages of the Studervt Manual for
this course.
Battelle-Columbus Laboratories is credited for most of .
the material in this manual. Under contract with EPA,
they prepared a training package. Because much:time
has elapsed since completion of their contract and due •••
to many changes in regulations and techniques, EPA !'
. .,has found it appropriate to modify the training package
prepared by Battelle.
Course directors should conduct their training activities
in accordance with the appropriate parts of "Guidelines ...
for Development of a Quality Assurance Program:
Volume IX - Visual Determination of Opacity Emissions
from atationary.Sources,'^EPA-650./4-74-a05.i, USEPA,
Washington, D. C., November 1975.
iv
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CONTENTS
FOREWORD
PART I - INSTRUCTOR MANUAL
Introduction and Purpose 1
Course Objectives , 3
Required Facilities and Equipment 5
Classroom Equipment 6
Instructional Faculty Requirements 7
Precourse Planning 8
Course Lengths 8
Conduct of a Three-Day Course 9
Classroom Lecture 9
Instructor Lesson Plans 9.
Final Preparations 10
Course Opening 10
Official Welcome and Course Objectives 11
Time Schedule ' 11
Films 12
Handout Material 13
Quizzes and Examination ' 14
Outdoor Smoke Reading Qualification Portion 15
Precourse Preparation 15
Training and Testing Procedures 16
Operation in Inclement Weather 20
Student Course Evaluation 20
Lecture Preparation and Rehearsal 20
Preparation 20
Rehearsal 21
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Page
PART II - OPERATOR MANUAL
Introduction 23
The Smoke Generator Parts 24
Operating Principles of'the Smoke Generator 25
Set Up and Operating Procedures 29
Transmissometer Calibration 32
Auxiliary Equipment 32
Tecumseh Four-Cycle Horizontal Crankshaft Engine 32
Dayton Power Generator 33
Hydraulic System 33
Experience with the Operation and
Maintenance of the Smoke Generator 33
Loose Parts 34
Other Problems Arising from Moving and Hauling 35
Fuel Problems 36
Painting and Prevention of Damage from the
Elements 37
Pilferage, Vandalism, and Larceny 37
Pulsating Plumes 38
Hauling Procedures . 39
Electrical Connections 39
Attaching the Trailer to the Hauling Vehcile 40
Location of the Smoke Generator for Conducting
Training Sessions . 41
Viewing Directions and Background 41
Buildings 42
Accessory Equipment and Supplies 42
Suggested Replacement Parts to be Kept on Hand 43
Desirable Tools and Equipment to be Kept in
Toolbox 43
VI
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APPENDIX
Page
Sources of Course Materials 46
Sample Agenda 48
Instructor Lesson Plans 51
1. Registration and Opening Remarks 51
2. Visible Emissions, Their Cause and Regulation 54
3. Principles of Combustion — Introduction to the
Movie 59
4. Combustion of Fuel Oil — Correct Practices 62
5. Combustion of Coal — Correct Practices 71
6. Other Combustion Emissions: Incinerators,
Agricultural, Burning, Natural Gas, and
Mobile Sources 81
7. Non-combustion Emissions and Water Vapor Plumes 87
8. Classification and Identification of Sources 102
9. Ringelmann Chart and Equivalent Opacity 111
10. Qualification Procedures and Exercise in
Recording for Qualification 117
11. Basic Meteorology 122
12. Meteorological Factors in Smoke Reading 126
13. Legal Aspects of Visible Emissions 134
14. Observation Reports for Violations 139
15. Emission Generator 143
Visible Emission Training Form 149
Quizzes (for lesson blocks) 150
Visible Emissions Examination 153
Examination Answers 159
Specifications for a Smoke Generator 161
Student Course Critique Form 162
Ringelmann Chart 166
vii
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PART 1 INSTRUCTOR MANUAL
INTRODUCTION AND PURPOSE
This Instructor Manual has been prepared to aid in-
structors charged with conducting a visible emissions
training and testing program for the new smoke reader
and for the smoke reader that needs to be recertified.
The aim of this program is to train air pollution
inspectors in the skill of measuring the shade of visible
emissions by eye. For the new smoke reader, this
program will require an initial course of three days'
duration. These three days include one and one-half
days of classroom instruction followed by field sessions
devoted to letting the student practice the determination
of correct shades of black and white smoke produced
by a smoke-generating device. The criterion against
which the student is graded is a measurement made by an
optical system in the generator's smoke stack. The out-
door sessions are conducted in a fashion so that the
student is repeatedly tested on his ability to correctly
measure the shade of the smoke. When he has achieved
a skill which meets the specified requirements, he is
qualified as a smoke reader. It is expected that with
each repeated trial the student will be perfecting his
skill until he can pass the test. The number of
repetitions allowed the student in his effort at passing
is up to the.instructor. It has been found in past
courses that two-thirds of the students can usually meet
the standard after eight series of 25 black and 25
white shades. After additional trials a higher percentage
of the students can be expected to qualify.
For the previously certified smoke reader that needs to
be recertified, the program is set up so he can enter the
course on the second day, at noon. According to EPA
Method 9, the inspector will requalify every 6 months or
more frequently if a particular agency so desires. During
the morning of the second day, the requalification class-
room sessions can be devoted to review of one of the
topics introduced in the inspector's initial training.
It is not imperative that the inspector attend all of
these morning sessions on the second day in order to
be recertified but he should at least try to attend the
sessions on the emission generator just prior to the
session on reading visible emissions. Following this,
1
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the inspector will have at least a day and a half
outside to requalify. There should also be a period
during which the inspectors can discuss with the
instructors, the agency heads, and each other the problems
that have come up in their enforcement duties or to be
briefed about any special topics such as regulation
changes or agency policies.
The Instructor Manual, the Instructor Lesson Plans, and
the visual aids in the Student Manual constitute a train-
ing package that an agency can use to give the Evaluation
of Visible Emissions Course. The only other requirements
are a smoke generator, a classroom, and visual aid equip-
ment. However, one or more of the members of the in-
structional staff should have taken a course similar to
this one and be qualified as smoke inspectors.
With repeated sessions the instructor will become more
familiar with the material presented here and should
take upon himself the task of adapting and improving the
course content and the course preparation with the aim
of better training his own staff in the duties that are
unique to the locality where they work. He will
emphasize the sources and types of emissions found in
his state or locality and disregard the other types
that are not found there. He will gather information
and visual aids that are applicable to these local
sources. He will go into detail about the regulations
of his city, county, or State. He will obtain as guest
instructors local experts in the topics covered in the
course.
It has been found in presentation of the 3-day course
that more lecture, outlines are provided in this manual
than can be covered in a day and a half of lectures. The
extra lecture outlines therefore allow the course director
the option of cutting out portions of lectures or entire
lectures to better tailor the course to the needs of
his agency. For instance, if no coal is burned in your
area, the Coal Combustion lecture can be dropped. How-
ever, if the sample agenda shown in the appendix is
followed, all except one of the lecture outlines will be
utilized. The quizzes and course examination (see
Appendix) are based on the assumption that all lectures
are presented. If all lectures are not presented in a
given course, examination questions relating to the
omitted material should not be counted in grading the
exams.
Quizzes or less important lectures can be eliminated
from the agenda during the presentation of the course if
it is found that some topics have run longer than antic-
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pated. The extra material can be held in reserve by
the instructor for presentation in case bad weather
prevents the outdoors portion of the class from proceed-
ing as scheduled.
COURSE OBJECTIVES
This manual is intended for use by instructors to teach
students that have not been certified as a qualified
observer. The contents of this manual will help the
instructor to provide the qualified observer with
adequate background knowledge needed to help substantiate
any violation that he may record.
At the conclusion of this course the student should be
able to:
1. Visually measure (i.e., without the use of devices)
the shade or opacity of visible air pollution
emissions for a set of 25 shades of white smoke and
25 shades of black smoke:
a) With an average error not to exceed 7.5
percent opacity in each category;
b) With an error not to exceed 15 percent opacity
(or 3/4 of Ringelmann Number) on any one
reading in each category.
2. Define Ringelmann Number and Equivalent Opacity in
the following manner:
a) The Ringelmann Number gives shades of gray by
which the density of columns of smoke rising
from some source may be compared. It is a
system whereby graduated shades of gray,
varying by five equal steps between white and
black, may be accurately reproduced by means
of a rectangular grill or by black lines of
definite width and spacing on a white back-
ground .
b) Equivalent Opacity is an extension of the
Ringelmann Chart method of quantifying visible
emissions. The opacity or degree to which
a non-black or gray plume obscures an
observer's view is related to the extent to
which a black or gray plume of a particular
Ringelmann Number obscures an observer's
view. For example a Ringelmann Number 2
plume is equivalent to a plume having 40
percent opacity. The U. S. EPA Federal
regulations for visible emissions standards
consider only the use of opacity and does
not link opacity standards with Ringelmann.
3. List the following essential conditions for
correctly evaluating the plume:
a) Keep the sun in the 140 sector at your back.
b) Try to have a contrasting background.
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c) Readings should be taken at approximately
right angles to the plume direction and at
any distance to obtain a clear view of the
emissions.
d) Readings should be made through the most dense
part of the plume and in that portion of the
plume where condensed water vapor is not
present.
e) When observing emissions from rectangular
outlets, readings should be at approximately
a right angle to the longer axis of the outlet.
f) The observer shall not look continuously at
the plume, but instead shall observe the
plume momentarily at 15-second intervals.
List the following essential items to be recorded
on the training form:
a) Name d) Wind speed
b) Date e) Wind direction
c) Time f) Sky condition
and properly fill out these items for his field
recording form.
List at least four of the following techniques
(even though not generally in use) for measuring
visible emission without the aid of references:
a) Smoke Guide d) Smokescope
b) Umbrascope e) Smoke tintometer
c) Photo-electric
cell
Differentiate between the plumes emitted from
combustion processes and industrial processes.
Identify condensed water vapor plumes and break-
point.
Make application of his knowledge of meteorology in
the following manner:
a) Estimate wind speeds from 0 - 18 tnph using
the Beaufort Scale;
b). Define wind direction and estimate wind
direction;
c) Estimate sky condition (percentage of cloud
cover);
d) List the distinguishing characteristics of
high and low pressure areas;
e) Identify on a weather map the symbols for the
following: high pressure area, low pressure
area, cold front, warm front, occuluded
front, stationary front;
f) List at least two points of information ob-
tained from a weather map which the smoke
inspector could find useful in planning his
activities.
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9. Testify in court as an effective expert witness
concerning visible emission observations. To demon-
strate his capability he should be able to:
a) Identify 8 of the 10 criteria for being an
expert witness;
b) List 5 of the 8 rules for behavior on the
witness stand;
c) Cite the legal precedents set in the California
appeal cases concerning visible emission reg-
ulations .
10. State the essential elements of his local or state
visible emission code.
11. List the primary components of the emission gen-
erator:
a) Combustion chamber for generating black smoke;
b) Generator's exhaust manifold for white smoke;
c) Transmissometer;
d) Auxiliary blower;
e) Recorder or indicator.
REQUIRED FACILITIES
AND EQUIPMENT
The chief requirement for the presentation of this
training course is a device for the production and
measurement of shades of black and white smoke. An
instrument for this purpose can be constructed by
the air pollution control agency staff or its contractors
or, as is generally done, it can be purchased. As of
November 1977, Environmental Industries, P. 0. Box 441,
Gary, N. C. 27511 (Tel 919-467-1500) is the only known
manufacturer of smoke generators.
Suggestions for locating the smoke generator are given in
Part II section of this manual. Its site should not be
too far from the classroom where the indoor portion of
the course will be presented unless arrangements for
transportation are provided. A building near the gen-
erator site should be available in case a change in
weather drives the students and instructor inside.
The size of the required classroom will be determined by
the size of the expected class. The classroom should
be capable of being darkened for the showing of movies
and slides. It should have electric outlets which are
convenient for attaching the cords from the various
projectors or extension cords that will reach from an
outlet to the projector.
Equipment for the room should include a screen on which
to project the movies and slides, auxiliary tables for
supporting the projectors, a blackboard including chalk
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and eraser, and a lectern or table on which the instructor
can place his notes and demonstration materials. There
should be another table at the rear of the room or in an
adjacent room for the instructors to use in storing
materials, grading examinations, etc.
The visual aids suggested for this course include motion
pictures and 35 mm (2" x 2") transparent slides. The
longest movie ("The Role of the Witness") that is
suggested for possible presentation requires a 1600 foot
take-up reel, which may take a special effort to obtain.
Other movies suggested as alternatives or supplements to
lectures can be run on the reel normally furnished with
projectors. A list of suppliers for materials is
provided in the Appendix.
In place of the prescribed fuel oil lectures, the agency
can request a prepared film strip entitled "Combustion
Testing." (See lesson plan #4 and the list of sources
of course materials in the Appendix.) For presentation
this requires a tape recorder which will play at 3-3/4
inches per second and a film strip projector.
CLASSROOM EQUIPMENT
a> Desks or chairs and tables for the students
as Lectern or table for the speaker
» Table for the instructors at rear of the classroom
« One or two tables (preferably on wheels) for holding
the projection equipment
9 Blackboard, chalk, and eraser
a Extension cord
» Screen for showing slides and movies
9 16 mm movie projector with tape-up reel to hold
1600 feet of film and normal size
« 35 mm (2" x 2") slide projector (e.g., carousel
projector), preferably with a cord for remote
operation.
• Overhead (vu-graph) projector for showing large
transparent figures (optional)
• Pointer
• Tape Recorder—3-3/4 inches per second—and film
strip projector (optional, depending upon Combustion
of Fuel Oil lecture)
• Ringelmann Chart (Available from the U. S. Bureau
of Mines)
e Recommended, but not essential: USPHS Smoke Guide
Umbrascope, Smokescope, Smoke tintometer,
Microringelmann Charts
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INSTRUCTIONAL FACULTY
REQUIREMENTS
To present the full course it is recommended that at
least three speakers be used. For a requalification
course one instructor may be capable of handling the
classroom portion. If the two courses are presented
concurrently, all three instructors would lecture to the
new students on the first day; then on the morning of the
second day, two would stay with the new students. The
third instructor would conduct the classroom portion of
the review training for the inspectors who were going to
take their requalifying test. In the afternoon both
groups would go outside for familiarization and testing
runs with the smoke generator.
Thus, a group of three instructors who can each give
several lectures is the desirable staff for the continuing
training and requalifying of inspectors as smoke readers,
although two people could possibly get by with some
detriment to course quality. To make the course more
interesting and give it variety, the person in charge
could arrange to have guest lecturers speak on selected
topics in the course. He can give these guests the
material in the Student Manual and in the Instructor
Lesson Plans as guides to what they should cover, but
tell them to expand on any topic which is likely to be
of particular interest to the students.
Potential candidates for guest lecturers are attorneys
who are with the Prosecutor's Office or who have a
special interest in air pollution, representatives of
fuel oil or coal distributors, engineers or managers
from local industrial firms, and staff members of the
local National Weather Service Station. The represen-
tatives from industry or fuel distributors will probably
not be in complete agreement with the aims and policies
of the air pollution agency with respect to the visible
emissions regulations. However, it has been found in
past courses that controversial speakers are often more
interesting. At any rate, all of these speakers—lawyers,
fuel distributors, industry representatives, and meteor-
ologists—have information and experience which is bene-
ficial to the student-inspector. Encourage questions
from the class for all speakers. The exchange helps
both the student and the lecturer.
Always thank the guest lecturer and give him a round of
applause. At the completion of the course send him a
thank you note. Traveling expenses or an honorarium are
topics that should be discussed with the guest when you
first approach him. Some industrial and governmental
representatives will decline and charge off expenses to
public relations.
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PRECOURSE PLANNING
The agency instructional staff should have several
talents. Someone should be able to operate (and repair
if necessary) the projection equipment, especially the
movie projector. Someone must know how to operate and
maintain the smoke generator. It has been found in the
past that a man familiar with electrical equipment and
the checking of electrical circuits is invaluable.
You should make your plans for presentation of the
course at least a month before the date of the course.
The local preparations will include:
• Scheduling classroom facilities
• Arranging for visual aid equipment
• Obtaining guest lecturers
• Giving staff and guest lecturers copies of the
instructional guides and visual aids they will need
in preparing their lectures
• Sending out announcements to the prospective
students
• Checking over the smoke generator for proper
operation.
It is assumed that prior to this final month of prep-
aration you have on hand or have made arrangements for:
a) A smoke generator
b). Instructional materials, manuals, visual aids, etc.,
for use bv students and instructors.
COURSE LENGTHS
The new inspector or the inspector qualifying as a
smoke reader for the first time should be given the full
lecture and field course lasting at least three days—
one and a half days of classroom lectures and one and
a half days of familiarization and qualification runs.
The lecture portion of the course should be reduced to
one-half day for inspectors who are requalifying.
One and a half days of familiarization and qualifying
runs is a minimum figure. To ensure that a high
percentage of the students become trained well enough
to meet the smoke reader requirements, another one-half
to one day may be added to the field portion of the
course. After a full day of trying to qualify, the
student becomes fatigued and tense. He will probably
do better after a night's rest. This additional time
also allows for bad weather or for smoke generator
malfunction.
A full schedule of one and one-half days of classroom
lectures has been given for the suggested course, agenda
in this manual. This full schedule gives an over supply
8
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of material. Thus, some may be eliminated or the extra
material may be presented when inclement weather keeps
the class inside during the time they are scheduled for
outside work.
For the inspectors who are requalifying at three-month
to one-year intervals (usually six months, in accordance
with EPA Method 9), the course director can plan for
their requalification to coincide with the second and
third days of a course for new inspectors. On their
first morning the requalifiers should be given a refresher
course on one topic from the first course. There should
also be an open discussion among the inspectors and
instructor for 30 minutes to an hour dealing with the
inspector's experiences, problems, or complaints.
The refresher or review topics can be rotated among the
following portions of the full course:
a) Combustion of coal and oil;
b) Other combustion and non-combustion sources of
visible plumes;
c) Legal aspects of air pollution and local regulations;
d) Meteorology.
In presenting these review topics the instructor should
try to cover more of the subject than he did in his
lecture for the initial course.
CONDUCT OF A
THREE-DAY COURSE
CLASSROOM LECTURE
Instructor Lesson
Plans
The principal guide to presenting each lecture is the
Instructor Lesson Plan (ILP). The ILP's are included
in the Appendix of this Manual. With the exception of
the first ILP, "Registration and Opening Remarks," all
of these guides are based on sections of Part I in the
Student's Manual. After studying the Student's Manual,
the instructor should be able to use the ILP as a guide
for lectures. The 35 mm slides to be used in a lecture
are listed in the right-hand column of the ILP in the
position where these are to be used. Comments are
included for selected slides. If the instructor wants
to obtain more information than is given in Part I of
the Student's Manual, he can refer to the reading list
at the end of each Key Point section in Part I.
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Final Preparations
Course Opening
The instructor should not feel that he must follow the
Introduction, Outline, and Conclusions as given in the
ILP. However, whether he does or not, he should keep
in mind the lecture objectives and the examination
questions when he decides what topics to cover.
The course director should make last-day checks of the
classroom to see that all the manuals, handouts, and
other course materials are ready. He may put them on
the students' desks the day before the course or
distribute them the first thing in the morning.
The director should check to see that he has adequate
seating facilities for his expected class and that the
room can be darkened for showing movies or slides. He
should be familiar with the operation of all light
switches that he may need.
All the equipment for showing movies, 35 mm slides, and
vu-graph transparencies should be in the classroom and
preferably mounted on tables or rolling carts so time
will not be taken setting up this equipment during the
course. Plug in this equipment ahead of time to
discover if the cords will reach to the nearest socket
or whether extension cords will be needed.
If microphones are going to be used, they should be
checked out before the course. In a classroom situation
there is sometimes a tendency for the teacher, if he has
a portable microphone, to get in front of the loud
speaker causing feedback. The loud speaker should be
placed in a position to avoid this.
For some of the lectures a blackboard is necessary. A
single portable blackboard, 4 to 5 feet long, should be
adequate. Provide chalk and an eraser. Lecture pads
can be substituted in small classes.
A copy of the Smoke School Training Form is provided in
the Appendix of this manual. This can be removed for
duplication if the instructor desires to make overhead
transparencies (vu-graph) or have multiple copies
printed for use in the course.
Always open the course by welcoming the students, telling
them your own name and the name of the course. You can
introduce the other instructors at this time, or when
they lecture, or both.
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For your own records you should have a list of the
students attending the course, their affiliations, and
their addresses. You should type up a student name and
address list in alphabetical order and distribute it
before the end of the course. You can use this list for
mailing out certificates, maintaining a record of which
of your inspectors are due for requalification, etc.
You should arrange to have a short 15 or 20 minute break
every morning and afternoon and have coffee available.
A short "stretch in place" at hourly intervals is also
desirable.
In your opening remarks or at the end of the morning
session, suggest to the students a few convenient places
for eating lunch. Some agencies try to arrange for the
students and instructors to eat lunch (and sometimes
supper) together. This is commendable for it adds to
the informality of the course and gives the students more
time to acquire new information from instructors or other
students.
Official Welcome and
Course Objectives
Time Schedule
If the head of your agency wants to give a few remarks
and welcome the students, you can allot several minutes
of your course opening to him.
At some point in your course opening, before you launch
into the lectures, you should go over with the class the
course objectives listed earlier in this Manual.
Try to keep the course going on its proper time schedule.
Some discussion is encouraged, but the students who are
not directly involved may be quite bored if the questions
and comments continue too long after the lecture. Their
favorite topic may be the next one on the agenda.
The instructor may also find himself engaged in conversa-
tion at the end of a "break" period when he is due to
give the next lecture. Here it is helpful to have two
instructors so that the other one can interrupt the
conversation to get the course going again.
Guest lecturers (and also staff lecturers) sometimes talk
longer than their assigned time. The speaker should be
notified prior to lecturing that he should adhere to the
assigned lecture time. Without embarrassing him, a
gesture should be made that he has gone beyond his
assigned time.
11
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The staff instructor should make an effort to rehearse
his lecture and check the time. He can identify portions
that can be left out if he is running too long.
The material for both the Combustion of Coal and the
Noncombustion Emissions lectures is more than sufficient
to use up the allotted time. The lecturers in these
two topics should cover only the portions that they
believe are most pertinent. Some subtopics, such as
water vapor and wet plumes, are covered in more than
one lecture. The course director can eliminate this
duplication if he wants to cut down on the course time.
The Basic Meteorology and the Meteorological Factors in
Smoke Reading lectures can be combined into a 40-45
minute lecture.
Films
Two 16 mm movies are scheduled as part of this agenda:
"The 3 T's of Combustion," which lasts about 30 minutes
and "The Role of a Witness," which lasts about 45
minutes. * These are both sound movies and can be shown
by normal 16 mm movie projectors. "The Role of a
Witness" requires a 1600 foot take-up reel, which is
larger than usual, so you should check to see that you
have this size reel before the course begins.
Both of these movies are very good and appropriate to the
course. The only reason for not showing them might be
if all the students have seen them several times.
"The Role of a Witness" has two breaks in the action
where the screen goes dark for a few seconds. Some
lawyers who have lectured in this course use these
places to stop the film and make a few remarks about the
proceedings.
Two additional audiovisual packages have been used
occasionally in the Visible Emissions course. One is
a film covering basic meteorology, approximately 20
minutes long, that can be substituted for a part of
the basic meteorology lecture (Lesson Plan 11). Instead
of conducting the Combustion of Fuel Oil lecture as
outlined in Instructor Lesson Plan 4, you may prefer to
use the film strip entitled Combustion Testing. This
narrated film strip lasts 45 minutes. You must have a
* ("3 T's of Combustion" - Lesson Plan 3; "Role of the
Witness", Lesson Plan 13.)
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tape recorder or playback unit that will play at a
speed compatible with the film projector and an
amplifier sufficient for your class size. The film
strip itself requires a special projector and an operator
to advance the film at an audible signal on the tape
recording. If you have not operated a film strip
projector previously, you should make a trial run before
the course.
Film, slide, and filmstrip suppliers are listed in the
Appendix (Sources of Course Materials). While precourse
planning cannot be overemphasized, it is extremely
important in audiovisual presentations where a number
of components or variables must function properly.
Handout Material
It is suggested that you plan to give each student
taking the course for the first time a copy of the
Ringelmann Chart and, at your option, a copy of either a
Plibrico Smoke Chart or Power's Microringelmann Chart.
The official Ringelmann Chart is published by the
Bureau of Mines of the United States Department of the
Interior as part of its Information Circular 8333.
Copies of the chart may be obtained free from the
Publications Distribution Branch, Bureau of Mines, 4800
Forbes Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213.
The two small hand-held Ringelmann aids are mentioned
in lesson number 9 on the Ringelmann Chart and Equivalent
Opacity. These charts are available from:
Tom Berry
1800 Kingsbury Street
Chicago, Illinois 60614
Tel. (312) 549-7014
Cost: * No Charge
Power Magazine
McGraw-Hill Publishing Co., Inc.
Power Reprint Dept.
1221 Avenue of the Americas
New York, New York 10036
Tel (212) 997-6794
Cost: $0.75 per copy
Although the use of this is optional, it may not be
needed since EPA and several state regulations are
stated in opacity only and omit any reference to the
Ringelmann Chart.
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Quizzes and Examination
The suggested course agenda calls for three quizzes and
an examination. A passing grade on these tests is not
required for qualification as a smoke reader.
The written tests are to be used to help the student learn
the material presented in the lectures and give the in-
structor clues as to how learning is progressing. To
best accomplish these objectives, the instructor should
go over the answers to the quizzes and examination in
class and discuss those answers which the students do
not understand or with which they disagree.
Copies of Quiz I, Quiz III, the final examination, and
the answers to these tests are given in the Appendix.
The quizzes should take only 5 to 7 minutes to complete
and 5 to 7 minutes to discuss. It is suggested that the
final examination be given to the student on the second
afternoon of the course to use as a "take-home" exam.
It can be discussed the first thing in the morning on the
third day. If you want to check on how the students are
doing, you can collect the examinations, grade them and
hand them back on the third day before discussing them.
Students attending for recertification are not required
to take the examinations.
Quiz I covers combustion principles and the combustion
of coal and oil. Quiz II is an identification of source
types. The quiz included in the Appendix is an example.
The instructor should pick out ten 35 mm slides of
different sources of major interest in the home area of
the students. These are to be projected on a screen with
the students asked to write down the correct answers.
Quiz III covers meteorology. The final examination has
been made up from the material in Part I of the Student
Manual and covers items from the entire course.
As part of the Qualification Procedures lecture, instructor
lesson plan 10 provides an Exercise in Recording for Qual-
ification. This consists of ten 35 mm slides, five show-
ing shades of black smoke and five showing white plumes
(The same slides used in Quiz II). The student is sup-
posed to put down on a modified training form as shown in
slide no. 1 his evaluation of the plume, check it against
the instructor's estimate of shade and then determine
the deviations and average deviation. This manual should
contain one of these forms, or just use the regular
smoke school training form.
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OUTDOOR SMOKE READING
QUALIFICATION PORTION
The primary objective of this course is to qualify or
requalify the students as expert smoke readers. Not
only should the student meet a standard set of require-
ments for qualification, but he should also believe
that these requirements are sufficiently difficult and
that the smoke generator calibration and measurement
system against which he is tested gives accurate and
objective readings.
It is the duty of the instructor to train the student in
proper smoke reading techniques, to give the student
sufficient practice time to refine his reading abilities,
to require a high standard of performance from the
student, and to maintain the smoke generator and
transmissometer so that the smoke shades produced are
accurate.
Precourse Preparation
It is important that the smoke generator be operated and
checked out far enough in advance of the course to allow
time for major repairs (perhaps 2 weeks) and again one
or two days before the course begins. The preferred
agenda calls for the operation of the generator during
the last hour of the first day of the course. A previous
checkout would assure good operation and increase the
student's faith in the smoke generator.
Especially with mobile smoke generators, there are
numerous difficulties that can arise owing to the
vibration of the parts of the generator during transit.
It is always embarrassing for the instructor and frus-
trating for the student when major adjustments or repairs
must be made on the generator at the time when the outdoor
readings are supposed to commence. With experience the
instructional staff will learn the problems that may
arise with the generator and how to correct them. However,
it is best to set aside some time before the course
begins for checking the operation of the generator.
Some of the points that should be checked include the
following:
a) Sufficient fuel in the fuel tanks or in reserve:
Toluene - 5 gallons (Formerly benzene was used but
this material has been placed on the toxic substances
lis-t)., #2 fuel oil - 5 gallons, Gasoline - 2 gallons.
b). Different shades of black and white smoke can be
produced by the combustion systems.
c) Exhaust fans in transmissometer pipe are running.
d) Induced draft fan is operating.
e). Horn is operating
f) Light source in transmissometer is operating.
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g) The transmissometer readout system should be
calibrated before each course using neutral density
filters having a nominal opacity of 20, 50, and 75
percent. The zero and 100 percent opacity condi-
tions are also calibrated. Check that these cali-
bration points will remain stationary by running
through several shades returning to the zero and
100% points during the procedure (refer to EPA
Method 9 for full explanation of calibration
procedures).
h)_ The smoke shade readings of the transmissometer
seem reasonable when compared with the actual
shades as judged by an expert smoke reader (the
instructor).
i) No electrical connections are loose or broken. A
vacuum tube voltmeter would be a good device to
have for this check.
j) The smoke plume will be relatively unaffected by
downwash from buildings, trees, etc.
k) Contrasting backgrounds for the smoke are available
in several viewing directions from the smoke
generator or with a minimum of moving of the
generator.
In addition to the generator checks, the instructor
should verify that he has a sufficient supply of training
forms (copy in the Appendix) for the students to make
their readings during the tests. The students should be
requested to bring their own clip boards, but the course
director may have some extra available for those that
don't have them.
The instructor should also determine from a map where
the direction of north is from his generator site. This
will be necessary for the student when he makes his wind
direction observations.
Training and Testing
Procedures
Explanation of Emission Generator Operation. After the
students have moved to the smoke generator site the in-
structor should review the operation of the generator
and point out the different parts.
Two peculiarities of the smoke-generating system should
be understood by the instructor so that he can be
forewarned in planning his testing procedures. First,
the gasoline engine for producing white smoke makes
considerable noise. It is desirable to shut off the
engine when you are talking to the class. It can easily
be restarted. Second, the fire in the combustion
chamber that produced black smoke, takes several minutes
16
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to burn out after the fuel supply is turned off. It is
standard practice to run the white and then the black
test series. The fuel supply to the combustion chamber
can be cut off so that the fire will burn out during
the time when the correct readings are being announced.
After explaining the generator operation have the
students station themselves at any distance necessary to
obtain a clear view of the generator and start the
familiarization runs.
Familiarization Runs. In familiarizing the student with
the smoke shades you should take one color at a time.
Run up and down the shade scale announcing the correct
reading to the class. You may prefer to sound the horn
to train them that the reading is to be made at this
time.
There are generally some student questions as to whether
the sounding of the horn has some effect on the plume
shade. There are times when they see, or believe they
see, a change in a shade just after the horn sounds.
There is no reason why the horn should affect the plume
shade. At most its drain on the electrical power might
affect the transmissometer reading. You should be able
to see any change of this type on the indicator dial or
recorder.
Another recurring question concerns the time for the
smoke to travel from the transmissometer, where it is
measured, to the top of the stack, where the student
sees it. This time is less than 0.5 second. If the
student looks up at the top of the stack when the horn
sounds, he should be observing the smoke that passed the
transmissometer when the instructor pushed the horn
button. Of course, the instructor should strive to blow
the horn only when the transmissometer reading is steady.
He should also hold the horn button down for a second.
After two or three runs up and down the scale, give the
students several practice tests of 5 or -10 shades each
during which they mark their readings on a portion of
the training form and then check them against the correct
reading as announced by the instructor at the conclusion
of the practice test.
At the completion of these short practice tests, switch
to the other smoke color and repeat the same procedure.
Next, run through a complete practice run of 25 white
shades and 25 black shades. Give the correct readings
to the class at the completion of the entire set of
50 shades.
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Suggestions to the Generator Operator. In a series of
smoke shades for either the familiarization or qualifying
runs you should try to cover the entire scale with most
emphasis on the shades just above or just below the
legal limit.
During the course of the training and testing readings,
one of the instructors who is a qualified smoke reader
should join the students in making observations. In
this way, he can notice, and later describe to the
students any prevailing conditions which might have
influenced their recorded observations.
Qualification Runs. After completing the practice runs,
most of the remainder of the course is devoted to con-
ducting series of runs for qualification of the students.
Each run consists of 25 different white and 25 different
black plumes. Each qualification run of 25 should have
a number such as 1-W or 1-B. A complete qualification
series would consist of the combination of run 1-W and
run 1-B. The training forms are designed so that the
student's readings, the transmissometer readings, the
deviations, the calculations, and the supplementary
identification information are all included on a single
sheet of paper.
A student will complete a qualification series success-
fully when he has made the 50. readings and has:
a) An average error not to exceed 7.5% opacity in each
category. All readings, even if the Ringelmann
standard is still in force, should be given in
percent.
h) No error to exceed 15% opacity (or 3/4 of a
Ringelmann number) on any one reading in each
category. (That is, on any run a single reading
that is incorrect by one whole Ringelmann number or
more or 20% opacity or more disqualifies the student
from that series.)
The student cannot use a successful white smoke run from
one series (e.g., 1-W) with a successful black smoke
run from another series (e.g., 3-B). They must be in
succession.
Once the student has a run in which he has fulfilled the
maximum deviation requirement (part b above), he should
calculate his average deviation. If this is also within
the limit, he should fill out the remainder of his train-
ing form and give it to the instructor for the files.
These training forms are kept by the air pollution control
agency as a record of the number of expert smoke readers
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on their staff and the time when the inspector must
requalify. They can also be presented in court as veri-
fication of the expert smoke reader's qualifications.
After the observer has read 25 white and 25 black plumes,
the instructor reads the correct values to the students
so that they may compare the correct readings with their
own observations. The students should make two copies
of their readings by using a carbon paper. They should
hand in the original sheet before the correct readings
are given out. They check the carbon copy and then hand
it to the instructor if they have qualified.
Training Forms. The forms for recording the readings
may be of several designs. One convenient design is
presented in the Appendix.
Practice in Continuous Evaluation of Plumes. When the
expert smoke reader is operating in the field he will
be observing emissions continuously and making readings
at 15-second intervals in order to .determine how many
minutes out of an hour the emissions are in excess of a
specified shade. To give the student practice in this
observing procedure two parts of the field portion of the
course have been designated for continuous evaluation —
one for white smoke and one for black. These exercises
are optional with the instructor and can be excluded if
time is short.
If the continuous evaluation sessions are used, the
instructor should run the generator on one color of
smoke for either 15 or 30 minutes, varying the shade at
intervals during the session. At 15-second intervals
the horn should be blown and the reading recorded. At
the end of the interval each student must decide whether
the smoke generator was in violation of the local
regulation and compare his readings with those of the
transmissometer. The student can be provided with a
visible emission observation form as shown in the
Appendix or the agency conducting the course can use
their own form.
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Operation in Inclement Weather
It has been found that operation of the smoke generator
during rain subjects the operators to shocks from the
electrical system. It is recommended that outside
training and testing sessions not be conducted in the
rain.
STUDENT COURSE
EVALUATION
LECTURE PREPARATION
AND REHEARSAL
Preparation
Extremely strong winds cause rapid dilution of the plume
and down-draft conditions in the lee of the stack.
Students find it almost impossible to qualify under these
conditions. If the wind is cold, there is the additional
problem of discomfort. If the winds are not too strong,
it may be possible to move the generator to a location
in the lee of a building where plume, students, and
instructor are all protected from the elements.
Otherwise it is better to discontinue outside operations.
If inclement weather forces the cancellation of part of
the outdoor portion of the course, the class can be taken
inside. At this time some of the extra materials or
movies can be presented.
In case the weather forecast appears unpromising for the
afternoon of the second day, but not for the morning,
the indoor and outdoor portions of the class may be
switched.
It is helpful to the instructional staff to obtain some
feedback from the students regarding the course and its
presentation. You should always be trying to improve
the course; many good suggestions can come from the
students. One means of doing this is to give the
students a course evaluation form on which they can
answer pertinent questions about the course content and
instructor's presentation. Do not take their criticisms
as a personal affront but accept them as helpful
suggestions.
You are free to devise any evaluation form that will
give you the comments that will help you. A copy of a
sample course evaluation form is included in the
Appendix.
The Instructor Lesson Plans are designed to closely
follow the material presented in Part I of the Student
Manual. Use Part I as your principal reference and
consult Part II and the other suggested readings for
additional information.
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Try to keep your lecture material up-to-date by review-
ing new sources of information for their coverage of
topics that are part of this course. Maintain a
complete library of appropriate publications and
guidelines published by the Federal air pollution agency.
Review the articles in the Journal of the Air Pollution
Control Association. Keep informed about the current
visible emissions regulations.
Rehearsal
In preparing for giving a lecture the first time, the
instructor should go over the Instructor Lesson Plan
and the visual aids that can be used with the lecture.
He should plan to rehearse his lecture aloud at least
once, checking the time and content. If you need to cut
the lecture shorter or expand it or change the content,
you should revise the Instructor Lesson Plan and go
through another rehearsal. Some pointers on rehearsing
and delivering your lecture follow.
Your rehearsal will serve two purposes: (1) to check
your terminology to be sure it fits the audience's
vocabulary and (2) to time yourself.
To check content: You'll want to consider how much the
audience knows about the topic and, while you rehearse,
jot down any words you use that you think the audience
might not know. You should define these words for them
in your lecture.
To time yourself, present each part of the lecture
(introduction, body, conclusion) and watch the clock.
Write down the number of minutes for each part — write
the time on the outline itself so you'll have it later.
Since you must imitate the actual lecture situation as
closely as possible, get yourself a clock, a pencil, and
a lectern if you'll be using one at the lecture hall.
Set up all your presentation aids. And you'll need to
TALK OUT LOUD and use gestures—don't let your aids stand
idle, either.
Rule 1. READ the introduction. (You will not
want to read it during presentation
unless your mind goes blank.)
Rule 2. TALK the body of the lecture.
Rule 3. PRESENT all aids.
Rule 4. READ the conclusion. (You will not
want to read it during the presentation
unless your mind goes blank.)
Rule 5. WRITE DOWN the time.
Now clear your throat, conquer the butterflies, STAND
UP, and rehearse ALOUD.
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PART 2 OPERATOR MANUAL
INTRODUCTION
The training and testing of smoke observers requires
the use of a device for generating black and non-black
smoke and for controlling the opacity of this smoke.
The U. S. Environmental Protection Agency has published
specifications for smoke generators as part of
"Method 9 - Visual Determination of the Opacity of
Emissions from Stationary Sources" (40 CFR Part 60,
Appendix A). (A copy of this Federal regulation is
included in the student manual.). The production of
shades of black smoke can be accomplished by various
means of creating incomplete combustion. The non-black
emissions can be produced by heating a distillate-type
oil so 'that it vaporizes into a gas and then cooling it
so that the vapor condenses into an aerosol cloud. This
cloud is white and its opacity varies with the amount of
oil that is vaporized. The control of the visual
densities of the smoke plumes is accomplished by
measuring the densities before the plume is emitted and
altering the flow of combustible material (black) or
vaporizing liquid (white), until the desired density is
achieved. There are no liquid flow control settings
which are calibrated to give specified Ringelmann or
equivalent opacity readings. One obtains a particular
density by tuning the fluid control valve until the
photoelectric cell system measuring the density indicates
on a dial or recorder that smoke of the desired density
is going up the stack.
It is possible for an air pollution control agency to
build its own smoke emission equipment for training its
smoke inspectors. Several agencies including Los Angeles
County, Bay Area, and the State of Colorado have done
this and prepared stationary units.
As of this time portable emission generators are.
produced commercially only by one company — Environmental
Industries, Gary, N. C. 27511. These are mounted on
trailers and can be hauled from city to city behind an
automobile or truck.
This guide will describe the components, principles, and
procedures which are directly applicable to a typical
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generator. Agencies which own another type of unit
can probably apply many of the instructions and comments
to their own unit without much alteration. Agencies
which have built or will build their own unit should also
find this Manual useful as a guide to principles and
correct operational practices.
Portions of this Operator Guide have been reproduced
or adapted from the Instruction Manual for the Mark II
Smoke Observer's Training Unit, prepared by Dr. Robert
Sholtes of the Environmental Specialties Company.
Although, this unit is no longer manufactured, it is
typical of those portable units still being produced.
THE SMOKE GENERATOR
PARTS
Photographs of the Mark II smoke generator appear on the
next three pages and the various components are numbered
and listed below:
(1) Trailer hitch
(2) Wires for connecting trailer tail lights to
electrical system of-vehicle used to haul the
trailer
(3) Auxiliary box for carrying recorder and extra
parts during transit
(4) Stack support with .tie-down bolt
(5) Toluene container
(6) Toluene fuel pump
(7) Power generator
(8) Furnace
(9) Furnace wind shield
(10) #2 Fuel oil container
(11) Recorder; control panel on top contains:
(a) light source switch
(b) light intensity control
(c) main blower switch
(d) fans switch
(e) oil fuel pump switch
(f) benzene fuel pump switch
(g) horn switch
(h) fuses
(12) Lower portion of stack
(13) Hinge
(14) Upper portion of stack
(15) Light source
(16) Junction box
(17) Transmissometer cross pipe
(18) Photocell
(19) Fans for exhausting air from transtnissometer arms
(20) Hydraulic pump
(21) Vent for hydraulic system
(22) Bleed valve (hidden) for hydraulic system .
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(231 Housing connector on fuel tank
(24) Spare tire
(25) Main blower
(.26) Main blover inlet
(27) Toluene metering valve
(28) Fuel oil metering valve
(29.) Panel board
(_301 Amphenol connectors
(31) Damper control
(32). Damper In main blower inlet
(33). Example of Fiberfrax
(34) Example of fire brick
(.35) Stop switch for gasoline engine
(36) Exhaust manifold of generator
(37). Hypodermic needle in place, for injecting #2
fuel oil into manifold
(381 Oil filler plug
(39) Plastic tubing attached to hypodermic needle
(40) Choke
(411 Gasoline container for power generator
(A list of component specifications is given in
the Appendix.1
OPERATING PRINCIPLES OF
THE SMOKE GENERATOR
Two different operating principles are used in the
production of white and black smokes. In the case
of white smoke, it is sought to vaporize //2 fuel oil
in the absence of oxygen and subsequently condense
this vapor into an aerosol cloud, which is the
"white smoke." In the Mark II smoke generator, the
white smoke is obtained by injecting the oil into
the hot exhaust manifold of the generating set.
Black smoke is produced by the combustion of toluene
with, a deficiency of air. When any carbonaceous fuel
is burned with insufficient air, a smoky flue gas
is produced, consisting of carbon-containing
particulates suspended in the gas. In the Mark II
smoke generator, a special furnace is provided in
which the combustion air is limited to a fixed
amount. Using a fine metering valve, fuel is fed
into the combustion chamber where it is poorly
mixed and burned in the limited air. By decreasing
the fuel flow one can produce a lesser or greater
density of smoke.
In the production of both_ white, and bMa,ck. smokes,
the smoke produced is diluted wi.th. anibient air. The.
degree of dilution is controlled by means of dampers
installed in the main blower inlet.
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33
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The transmissometer is a simple light source and
photocell combination, which measures the light
transmission permitted by the particular smoke
being produced. The light to photocell path is
approximately 4 feet long, but only 1 foot of length
is exposed to the smoke. The remaining 3 feet are
continually flushed with ambient air to prevent
fouling by smoke of transmissometer components. The
apparatus can be calibrated over the entire density
scale by using several grades of neutral density
filters.
SETUP AND OPERATING
PROCEDURES
If desired, the unit can be operated while attached
to the towing vehicle. If the smoke generator is to
be operated separately, the trailer frame should be
leveled and the wheels chocked to prevent movement.
1. Check levels of all fuels and lubricants.
a. Toluene (CAUTION - do not use benzone
since it has been classified as a
toxic substance);
b. #2 fuel oil;
c. Gasoline for the engine;
d. Oil in engine crankcase.
2. Elevate stack.
a. Remove tie-down bolt and nut at
upper end (forward end of trailer) of
lowered stack.
b. Close bleed valve and open vent on
hydraulic pump and commence pumping.
Note. As the stack is being elevated,
it is possible to pump at a rate that
results in resonant vibration of the
stack assembly. This condition should
be avoided by changing pumping rate.
c. When the stack reaches the approximate
upper limit of its travel, the geometry
of the design will cause it to quickly
move to the completely erect position.
After this has occurred, pump a few
more strokes to apply a holding force.
(CAUTION - do not exceed a reasonable
holding force as this cylinder can
cause permanent distortion to stack
if pumping is continued.) Close vent.
No further attention should be necessary,
although a C clamp can be placed over
the lips of the top and bottom portions
of the stack as an additional guard
against the stack toppling over in
strong winds.
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A gasket may be inserted between the
upper and lower portions of the stack
or masking tape may be used to cover
the crevice between the top and bottom.
Covering this opening reduces the
tendency for pulsations in the plume
by preventing the ambient air from
entering the stack.
Make electrical connections between the
panel mounted on the stack and the meter
or recorder using the amphenol connectors.
Supply electrical power.
a. The electrical power for the Mark II
can be supplied by the gasoline-
powered generating set provided. The
generator's gasoline engine is started
in a manner similar to starting a power
lawn mover. If the engine has a short-
ing mechanism, fuel valve, and choke,
these should be in the proper position
before the rewind starter is pulled.
b. Alternatively, electrical power can be
obtained by plugging the three-prong
plug into an available 115 volt 60
cycle current using an extension cord.
By using this electrical power one is
assured of a steadier current than
that supplied by the generator.
After allowing a minimum of 30 minutes
warmup, set Transmissometer for total
opacity and then for total transparency.
(This calibration shall be done prior to
conducting each smoke reading test.)
a. Check zero reading of meter, adjusting
with facescrew if necessary (use zero
adjust if recorder model).
b. Move light intensity control to the
counterclockwise limit of travel.
c. Switch light source on and adjust
intensity control in clockwise
direction until readout meter indicates
0 Ringelmann (100% transmission).
d. If unit has been out of service for an
extended period, it would be well to
recheck this calibration after 10
minutes.
Generate White Smoke
a. Start gasoline engine (unless it is
already being used to generate power)..
b. Start main blower, fans, and oil fuel
pump in that order using switches on
control panel.
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c. Open oil valve (the right-hand valve)
mounted on the panel to supply the
appropriate quantity of fuel.
CAUTION. The metering valves provided
are of the precision needle type and
should never be forcefully closed.
Only a light pressure is required for
tight closure.
d. Turn off the fuel oil metering valve,
the oil fuel pump, and short out the
engine when switching to black smoke.
Generate Black Smoke
a. Start main blower, fans, and toluene
fuel pump in that order using switches
on control panel.
b. Open toluene valve (left-hand valve)
mounted on panel board to supply the
appropriate quantity of fuel.
CAUTION. The metering valves provided
are of the precision needle type and
should never be forcefully closed.
Only a light pressure is required for
tight closure.
c. Quickly ignite toluene with a match or
piece of waste paper thrown in through
furnace opening.
d. Place the wind shield over furnace
opening.
e. Turn off toluene valve and let fire in
furnace die out when switching to
white smoke.
Shutdown Procedure
a. Close fuel valves to both white and
black smoke generators.
b. Cut off power to fuel pumps.
c. Allow a 5-minute cooldown period and
then cut off power from main blower.
d. Turn off light source.
e. Stop gasoline engine and disconnect
outside electrical power, if used.
f. Disconnect electrical connections
between panel and meter or recorder.
Lowering the Stack
a. Open vent and slightly open bleed valve.
b. Push stack over to start its descent.
c. After stack has been lowered into the
support and tied down, close the bleed
valve and the vent.
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TRANSMISSOMETER
CALIBRATION
AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT
The transmissometer-recorder or transmissometer-meter
system should be recalibrated prior to each training
course and after any repair or replacement involving
the photocell, light source, or associated electronic
circuitry. Procedures for this calibration are given
in EPA Method 9. A set of neutral density filters
having nominal opacity of 20, 50, and 75% is needed.
These filters, when placed one at a time in the horizon-
tal pipe between the light source and the photocell,
will give the true values of transmission for three
points. Two more points on the curve can be obtained
when no filter is in the pipe and the light source is
turned on (0% opacity), and when the light source is
turned off (100% opacity).
These readings establish five points on the meter or
or recorder. From these the additional 1/4 Ringelmann
or 5% opacity readings can be determined by subdividing
the spaces between the five points established with the
neutral density filters and the 0% and 100% opacity.
A smoke generator may have several major components that
are purchased as a unit and installed in the smoke
generator system. The Mark II generator includes a
four-cycle engine, a 2000-watt electrical power plant
run by the engine, and a recorder. Each of these units
is supplied with an instruction manual giving directions
for operation and care of the unit. The smoke generator
operator should be familiar with the contents of these
manuals and should plan to do the preventative maintenance
prescribed in the manuals. A few of the items mentioned
in the manuals are listed here for further emphasis.
TECUMSEH FOUR-CYCLE
HORIZONTAL CRANKSHAFT
ENGINE
1. Keep the engine clean and see that no dirt or
water enters the engine while filling it with
gasoline or oil.
2. Use MS classification oil. Do not use oils
marked only MM, ML, or unmarked.
3. Above 32°F use SAE 30. Below 32°F use SAE lOw.
4. Do not mix oil with gasoline.
5. Keep the oil reservoir filled to the top of the
filler plug opening.
6. Oil should be changed after every 25 hours of
operation.
7. Clean the air cleaner occasionally.
32
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DAYTON POWER GENERATOR
HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
Use a good grade of regular gasoline. Keep the
small vent hole in the gasoline tank cap clear
so that the air pressure can push the gasoline
into the carburetor.
Filling the gasoline tank up to only the 3/4
level will prevent gasoline from being thrown
out the cap hole when the engine vibrates.
1. Under ordinary circumstances commutator brushes
should be inspected after every 50 hours of
operation.
2. If brushes are worn to a length of 3/8 inch or
less, replace the entire set.
3. Keep the commutator free from carbon dust or
other dirt by cleaning it with a lint-free cloth.
4. Keep the surface of the collector rings in a
high state of polish by shining them occasionally
with a crocus cloth.
1. The shaft supporting the. stack may need to be
lubricated periodically,
2. Additional fluid should be added to the system
as needed.
EXPERIENCE WITH THE
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
OF THE SMOKE GENERATOR
During the past several years, there has been a rapid
increase in the number of smoke generators made and used
for the training of air pollution inspectors. These
generators have been operated under many different
weather conditions and have been hauled many miles for
the presentation of smoke reader training.
It is the purpose of this section to relate some of the
problems that have arisen in the use of smoke generators
and how these problems were handled. Many of the.
difficulties will occur again. By citing some of these
past experiences, we hope to pass on to future generator
operators the knowledge that previous operators have
acquired. Most of the information related here was
obtained by the EPA operators with their portable smoke
generators.
It is hoped that each user .of this manual will take time
to write down in his manual any troubleshooting experiences
he has had with his generator. In this manner he can
pass on to his associates and successors the maintenance
and service recommendations that may be pertinent to the
generator that his agency owns and operates. You might
33
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compile a listing of agencies in your region that own
a smoke generator. By exchanging information with other
operators or contacting them when you have a problem,
you should be able to improve the performance of your
own smoke generator.
NOTE: It is recommended that whenever a portable smoke
generator has been moved, the operator should make a
trial run with it at the earliest possible time. This
will allow him to discover any problems that may have
occurred in transit and will give him time to solve them.
After moving the generator to a course site this trial
run should be made before or during the first day if
possible.
LOOSE PARTS
The portable smoke generator is very prone to having
problems caused by loose wires, nuts, etc. Even when
the trailer is hauled over good roads, there is sufficient
vibration to cause small parts to come loose. Poor roads
and minor collisions increase the probability. The
generator operator should always carry a roll of fiber
tape (and a knive or scissors) with him to tape securely
pieces such as the furnace windshield, the #2 fuel pipe,
and the door of the control box. The plastic fuel oil
pipe, the hypodermic needle and all other loose tools,
parts and electrical connections should be detached and
carried separately in the hauling vehicle or in a large
box welded to the trailer frame.
The electrical connections to the photocell, the light
source, and those into the junction box on the stack may
come loose. If necessary, these connections can be
soldered for added security.
Shaking has resulted in:
(a) The tie-down nut holding the stack in
place coming off and requiring a replacement
nut for good tightness during transit.
(b), A wire in the variac (in the recorder box)
coming loose and shorting out the rectifier.
The result was no response of the recorder
(or indicating dial) to change in smoke
density and the blowing of fuses. The problem
was finally discovered by using a vacuum tube
voltmeter and the wiring diagram for the smoke
generator to check out all the connections
for breaks in the line.
(c) The printed circuit in the recorder developing
a hairline crack that resulted in fluctuations
in the recorder reading. As a consequence the
recorder would at times indicate increases and
decreases in smoke density when there were none.
34
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This was a particular problem when the smoke
density was low (the high end of the recorder).
The hairline crack was eventually discovered
and mended; however, it has been suggested that
a duplicate printed circuit board might be an
item that should be carried with the gener-
ator.
(d) Bulb in the transmissometer being loosened or
moved out of line. This appears as no response
of the transmissometer to variations in smoke
density. The solution is to remove the cap
from the bulb end of the transmissometer pipe
and check the bulb for tightness or alignment.
In the case of alignment it might be a good
idea for the generator operator to become
familiar with the proper placement of the
elements of the transmissometer when the gener-
ator is running satisfactorily so that he can
identify any irregularities if difficulties
arise later.
OTHER PROBLEMS ARILING
FROM MOVING AND HANDLING
(a) The power generation unit can be shaken during
moving. The manufacturer has put on better
bracing with rubber cushions and coil springs
to help reduce the effects of vibration.
(b) Handling and vibration have caused the stack
to be thrown out of line so that it does not
exactly fit into the brace that holds it in
its lowered position. This has prevented the
stack from being held tight and the constant
vibration during traveling has worn-a dent in
the area where the stack bumps against the
brace.
(c) The refractory firebricks fall out of their
places in the combustion chamber and break.
This necessitates extra bricks being carried
along for relining after the trip is finished.
One solution was to rebuild the combustion
chamber of double-walled steel and doing away
with firebrick. However, the steel floor does
not retain fuel like the brick and the fire
sometimes goes out when the fuel flow is slow.
"Fiberfrax" or refractory brick can be used on
the floor to retain the fuel.
(d). The trailer has been involved in automobile
accidents. This can require major repairs
and rebuilding. Thus, the operator should
have a good idea of all the components of
the generator and how they fit together so
that he can have them put back together. Keep
35
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all the descriptive material, diagrams, and
photographs supplied with a portable smoke
generator. Then take additional photos from
different angles to be used for reference.
(e) In moving and handling, several parts have
been knocked off or lost. The exhaust fans
on the transmissometer assembly are quite
susceptible to being knocked off. Fenders
have also been lost. The operator should
inspect these parts to see how they are
attached so that he can have them replaced.
He should also know how to obtain replacements
for these parts.
(f) A spare tire is supplied for replacement of
flat tires. A combination of an automobile
jack and some support such as a concrete
block can hold the trailer off the ground while
the tire is being changed. You should check
to see that you have the proper wrench for
loosening the lug nuts.
FUEL PROBLEMS
(a) Toluene is the fuel of preference for black
smoke replacing benzene, which is considered
toxic. Toluene will not freeze in cold weather.
The freezing point of toluene is -95 C.
(b) Fuel pumps have failed. It is a good idea to
carry an extra one along in the tool box and
know how to install it.
(c) Suspicions of improper fuel flow can be checked
visually by seeing if the toluene or fuel oil
is flowing out of the fuel pipe. There may
be some obstruction in the pipe that needs
cleaning out.
(d) Fuel flow may deteriorate the "0" ring in the
housing on top of the fuel tank causing an
unsteady fuel flow. A replacement housing can
be purchased at a marine supply store.
(e) To produce the black smoke, the toluene flows
out over the floor of the combustion chamber
where it is lighted and burned. This is not
an entirely satisfactory procedure. One
operator has constructed a bowl on the chamber
floor into which the fuel flows.
As mentioned in the discussion of "Other
Problems Arising from Moving and Handling" the
refractory brick floor does retain some of the
fuel within its surface and prevents the fuel
from evaporating too rapidly. If a steel floor
is installed, the operator may turn his fuel
flow down to obtain a low Ringelmann number
36
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PAINTING AND PREVENTION
OF DAMAGE FROM THE
ELEMENTS
(a)
(b)
PILFERAGE, VANDALISM,
AND LARCENY
(a)
(b)
and discover that his fire has gone out. This
is the result of the evaporation and burning of
the fuel exceeding the rate of incoming fuel.
CAUTION. Be careful when relighting the fire
in a hot combustion chamber whether it is
steel-lined or fire-brick lined. The heat
vaporizes the incoming fuel and may provide
an explosive atmosphere. Keep your head and
body away from the opening when you hold or
throw the match in. Explosions have never yet
damaged the combustion chamber but they have
singed some arms. Do not be in too much of a
hurry; let the chamber cool down a little.
One solution to these problems of fuel flowing
out over the combustion floor is to install
some material with good absorptive character-
istics. One operator suggests a piece of 3/4"
"Fiberfrax". This is used as insulation in
furnaces and can be purchased at a furnace
supply store.
Note: When moving around with a portable
generator, the operator should always check
his supplies of regular gasoline, toluene,
and #2 fuel oil prior to operating the gen-
erator. If any of these are low, he should
make immediate arrangements to obtain additional
quantities.
For overall good maintenance the smoke generator
should be kept painted. However, there are
portions of the breeching system between the
combustion chamber and the stack that will not
retain paint because of the high temperatures
of the exhaust gases.
If water accumulates in the housing for the
blower fan, you should drill a small drain hole
in the bottom of the housing.
To discourage the stealing of any of the loose
items used with the smoke generator, you should
disconnect all electrical wires and recorders
when the generator is not in use (including
overnight during a course) and place these items
in the storage box or the trunk of an automobile.
It is hoped that the public association of
pollution fighters with "good guys" will
37
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prevent any vandalism. To identify the smoke
generator, in this respect one operator has
placed on his generator a sticker supporting
smog eradication. Another aid may be to explain
the instrument and its purpose to any .curious
bystanders.
(c) The power generation unit and the fuel tanks
are portions of the smoke generator that have
other uses and can be removed from the
generator if the thief brings the proper tools.
If community conditions warrant, the smoke
generator should be kept inside or under guard.
PULSATING PLUMES
One of the recurring criticisms by students of the
smoke generator's performance is that sometimes the
shade of the smoke produced is not constant during the
few seconds over which a reading takes place. During
normal operation the horn should be blown at a time when
the recorder or indicating dial shows that operation is
stable. If it suddenly changes by more than 5% opacity
or 1/4 Ringelmann after you have blown the horn the
student may have legitimate cause for complaint. You
can mark those readings in case complaints come up when
the correct readings are given to the students.
In some cases there are complaints that the transmis-
someter readings are in error by significant amounts.
To ensure that this is not a valid complaint, the
operator should reduce the smoke output to zero once or
twice during every run and check his recorder or indica-
tor for a zero reading. If an adjustment is required,
he should make it.
An additional precaution may be taken if recorder or
indicator fluctuations are suspected. The operator or
his assistant can take visual observations of the
readings along with the students and check their expert
ability against the transmissometer value after each
reading.
One generator developed a problem of an unsteady and non-
reproducible zero* opacity or Ringelmann reading on its
recorder. Several components were checked for malfunction
(recorder, photocell, and loose wires) and found to be
performing acceptably. The deduction was that the
*The zero opacity is in reality the highest reading for
the recorder since the scale is reversed during calibration.
The problem was eventually found to be a broken connection
in the printed circuit board. However, the suggestion con-
cerning the use of the variac might still be followed.
38
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light source was varying. One suggestion was not to
use the variac to adjust the light, but to calibrate
for zero opacity by varying the input signal from the
light to the recordor.
HAULING PROCEDURES
The Mark II Smoke Observer Training Unit can be pulled
behind an automobile or truck equipped with the proper
trailer hitch. Some agencies hire commercial trailer
hauling firms to transport their smoke generators.
Others own station wagons or light trucks with per-
manently installed trailer hitches. For occasional
moving, trailer hitches for attachment to rear bumpers
can be rented from some (but not all) trailer rental
agencies. If renting, you must tell the rental agency
what kind of vehicle will do the pulling and specify
the ball size you need.
The ball size for the Mark II smoke generator is 1-7/8".
This is one of the standard sizes for boat trailers.
Some owners have switched their hitches to the 2" size.
ELECTRICAL CONNECTIONS
When pulling a trailer on the highway, the tail lights
and turning signals of the trailer must be electrically
connected to the hauling vehicle. A commercial hauler
or someone who hauls a boat trailer regularly will have
these connectors permanently attached to the vehicle's
tail light system. The trailer lead wires consist of
three wires that are color coded and should be attached
to similar colors leading to the tail lights of the
hauling vehicle.
The black and red wires are for the running lights. The
third wire on the trailer and the automobf.le may be
white, green, or yellow and it is for the turn signals.
If the hauling vehicle is not permanently equipped for
pulling trailers it will be necessary to obtain three
pieces of insulated wire (bell wire will do) which are
3 to 4 feet long for connection between the trailer lead
wires and the automobile tail lights. Clamps are avail-
able from trailer rental agencies for attaching the wires
joining the trailer and hauler. These clamps simplify
the operation and relieve you from having to peel off
insulation and then tape over the peeled portion. If you
do cut through the insulation make certain that any ex-
posed wires are wrapped with friction tape. In addition
to friction tape the generator operator should have pliers
and a knife when he is working on the electrical hookups.
The trunk lid of an automobile can be closed on the con-
necting wires without breaking through the insulation.
39
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ATTACHING THE TRAILER
TO THE HAULING VEHICLE
It will probably take two people to lift up the trailer
tongue and lower it onto the ball. Some operators and
experienced commercial haulers can do it alone. Some
agencies have installed a dolly wheel on their trailer by
which the front end can be raised or lowered with the
attached jack. This also aids in the leveling of the
smoke generator before it is used in a training course.
When lowering the trailer tongue over the ball be sure
that the lips of the hitch are in the proper position to
accept the ball. After the hitch is fitted over the ball,
turn the mechanism to the lock position and place a nail
or metal wire through the mechanism to hold it in place.
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LOCATION OF THE SMOKE
GENERATOR FOR CONDUCTING
TRAINING SESSIONS
VIEWING DIRECTIONS
AND BACKGROUND
Several factors must be considered in choosing a place
to park a mobile smoke generator or a place to construct
a stationary generator.
In order for the student to follow the correct procedures
for plume watching, the generator should be placed in a
position so that:
(a) The student can view the plume in both morning
and afternoon without facing into the sun.
(b). The student has room to shift his viewing
position so that he may, at times, get a
contrasting background for either white or
black smoke. (See discussion on contrasting
background in EPA Method 9.)
(c) The student can view the plume from a direction
perpendicular to the wind and has room to shift
his- position in case the wind direction changes.
(In some cases of wind direction shifts it may
be better to delay the testing sequence for a
few minutes until the wind returns to its
original direction. In extreme cases the
operator may have to consider moving the smoke
generator.)
(d) The student can stand at least 50 feet away
from the stack in any direction from which
he may need to view the plume.
A good setup for a smoke generator would be in a
position where the students are located south of the
stack with room to move eastward and westward. By this
arrangement the sun would be behind the student for
east or west winds. The student could adjust his
position for north or south winds.
Additional ideal conditions would be to have trees south
of the students as a shade and protection and trees
several hundred feet north of the generator to serve as
a background for the white smoke. The sky above these
trees would be the background for the black smoke.
Trees or buildings several hundred feet east and west of
the generator could shield the area from strong winds.
Some athletic fields have been found to fit the ideal
conditions.
-------
BUILDINGS
Under moderate wind and temperature conditions the only
needs for nearby buildings are as possible places to
connect electrical power and as places to which to
retire if additional classroom discussion is required.
Generally, the operator has only one 100-foot extension
cord and can borrow only one or two more at the training
site. Thus, the availability of electrical power is
important in determining the outdoor training site unless
the smoke generator power generation unit is used.
Under less ideal conditions the presence of nearby
buildings can aid as a shield against strong winds, which
play havoc with the smoke plume and chill the students and
instructor in cold weather. One must remember that there
is a downwash effect of buildings which can result in
high plume concentrations coming to the ground. However,
it has been the experience of past visible emissions
course instructors that the shielding effect of a nearby
building far outweighs the downdraft problems it may
cause. The generator can be moved to a spot where the
eddy effects pass above the plume and the students are
instructed to make their readings just above the stack —
a point where the turbulent dispersion of the smoke is
just beginning.
The smoke produced by the generator is generally not
obnoxious to anyone living or working in the neighbor-
hood where the training is taking place. Any objectional
effects have disappeared within 50 feet of the generator
site and generally the whole operation is just an object
of curiosity for passersby during the days of outdoor
training. (This "effects limit" of 50 feet does not
exclude the generator operators unfortunately. They will
have to endure the nuisance of black soot fallout during
high Ringelmann readings and fuel oil odors during white
smoke.)
ACCESSORY EQUIPMENT
AND SUPPLIES
The generator operator should always have with him a
copy of the operating and maintenance instructions for
the generator and its components as well as a set of
tools and selected replacement parts for the generator.
A tool box should be obtained for carrying tools, re-
placement parts, the hypodermic needle, and the plastic
tubing.
42
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SUGGESTED REPLACEMENT
PARTS TO BE KEPT ON
HAND
DESIRABLE TOOLS AND
EQUIPMENT TO BE KEPT
IN TOOLBOX
Light bulbs for transmissometer
Fuel pump
Fuses
Plastic tubing
Pliers
Screwdriver
Pocket knife
Pipe wrench for loosening the transmissometer cap
(The handle may be sawed off to make the wrench
fit in the tool box.)
Glass fiber tape
Friction tape
Roll of paper towels
Matches
Vacuum tube voltmeter (This is necessary for
checking for breaks in the wiring, but may be
difficult to transport safely.)
Wiring diagram for generator, control box, and
recorder (if recorder is used)
Crescent wrench
Hand cleaning fluid
100' extension cord
Cutters for trimming wire
C clamps
43
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APPENDIX
Sources of Course Materials 46
Sample Agenda 48
Instructor Lesson Plans " 51
1. Registration and Opening Remarks 51
2. Visible Emissions, Their Cause and Regulation 54
3. Principles of Combustion — Introduction to the
Movie ' 59
4. Combustion of Fuel Oil — Correct Practices 62
5. Combustion of Coal — Correct Practices 71
6. Other Combustion Emissions: Incinerators,
Agricultural, Burning, Natural Gas, and
Mobile Sources " 81
7. Non-combustion Emissions and Water Vapor Plumes 87
8. Classification and Identification of Sources 102
9. Ringelmann Chart and Equivalent Opacity 111
10. Qualification Procedures and Exercise in
Recording for Qualification 117
11. Basic Meteorology 122
12. Meteorological Factors in Smoke Reading 126
13. Legal Aspects of Visible Emissions 134
14. Observation Reports for Violations 139
15. Emission Generator 143
Visible Emission Training Form 149
Quizzes (for lesson blocks) 150
Visible Emissions Examination 153
• •*!'•
Examination Answers 159
Specifications for a Smoke Generator 161
Student Course Critique Form 162
Ringelmann Chart 166
45
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Sources of Course Materials
COMBUSTION TESTING
Filmstrip with tape
Source: National Oil Fuel Institute
60 E. 42nd Street
New York, New York 10017
ORIGINS OF THE WEATHER
16 mm Film, Color
Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica Educational Films, Inc.
425 North Michigan Avenue
Chicago, Illinois 60611
ROLE OF THE WITNESS
16 mm Film, Color
Source: National Audio Visual Center, GSA.
Sales Branch
Washington, D.C. 20409
THREE T's OF COMBUSTION
16 mm Film, Color
Source: Rodel Productions
1028 33rd Street, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20007
RINGELMANN SMOKE CHART
Information Circular 8333
Source: Publications Center
Bureau of Mines
4800 Forbes Avenue
Pittsburgh, Pa. 15213
Tel.(412) 721-8342
Cost: FREE
46
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GUIDELINES FOR EVALUATION OF VISIBLE EMISSIONS
EPA-340/1-75-007
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, B.C.
April, 1975
and
GUIDELINES FOR DEVELOPMENT OF A QUALITY
ASSURANCE PROGRAM:
VOLUME IX - VISUAL DETERMINATION OF OPACITY
EMISSIONS FROM STATIONARY SOURCES
EPA - 650/4-74-005-i
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C.
November, 1975
Source: Library (MD-35) '. •
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, N.C. 27711
or
National Technical Information Service
5285 Port Royal Road
Springfield, Virginia 22161
47
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SampleAgenda
VISIBLE EMISSIONS EVALUATION
May 17-19, 19_
.COURSE LOCATION:
USEPA Environmental Research Center
Research Triangle Park,
North Carolina 27709
MODERATOR: J. Doe
Day and Time
Subject
Speaker
First Day
(For New Smoke Readers Only)
Registration and Opening Remarks J. Doe
Visible Emissions, Their Cause and J. Doe
Regulation
Principles of Combustion - Introduc- R. Jones
tion to Movie: "3 T!s of Combustion"
Break
Combustion of Fuel Oil - Correct R. Jones
Practices
Combustion of Coal - Correct Practices R. Jones
Quiz
Lunch
Other Combustion Emissions: Open R- Jones
Burning, Incinerators, Internal
Combustion Engines, and Jet Aircraft
Noncombustion Emissions and Water .&• Jones
Vapor Plumes
Break
Ringelmann Chart & Equivalent Opacity J. Doe
Qualification Procedures and Exercise J. Doe
in Recording for Qualification
Demonstration of Emission Values with .J. Doe
Emission Generation (outside)
Adjourn
Tuesday. May 17
8:30
9:00
9:30
10:00
10:20
11:00
11:45
12:00
1:00
1:30
2:10
2:20
3:00
3:30
4:30
48
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Day and Time
Wednesday, May 18
8:15
8:30
9:00
9:30
9:45
10:00
10:45
11:30
11:45
12:00
1:00
1:30
1:50
2:10
2:30
2:50
3:10
3:30
3:50
4:10
Subject
Second Day
(For New Smoke Readers and Those Needing
Review and Discussion
Basic Meteorology
Meteorological Factors in Smoke
Reading
Quiz
Break
Legal Aspects of Visible Emissions and
Local Regulations
Film - Role of a Witness
Citation Forms for Violations
Emission Generator
Lunch
Emission Generator (outside)
Black Smoke (Read and Record)
White Smoke (Read and Record)
Black Smoke (Read and Record)
White Smoke (Read and Record)
White Smoke (Read and Record)
Black Smoke (Read and Record)
Black Smoke (Read and Record)
White Smoke (Read and Record)
Black Smoke - Continuous Evaluation
for Violation Citation
Speaker
Recertif ication)
J. Doe
J. Doe
J. Doe
E. Law
E. Law
E. Law
J. Doe
J. Doe
R. Jones
J. Doe
R. Jones
4:30 Adjourn
49
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Day and Time Subject Speaker
Thursday, May 19 (For new smoke readers and those needing recertification)
8:15 Exam J. Doe
9:00 Black Smoke (Read and Record) J. Doe
and R. Jones
9:20 White Smoke (Read and Record)
9:40 White Smoke (Read and Record)
10: 00 Black Smoke (Read and Record)
10:20 Break
10:40 Black Smoke (Read and Record)
11:00 White Smoke (Read and Record)
11:20 White Smoke (Read and Record)
11:40 Black Smoke (Read and Record)
12:00 Lunch
1:00 Exam Review
1:30 White Smoke - Continuous Evaluation , °e _
for Violation Citation and R" Jones
2:00 White Smoke (Read and Record)
2:20 Black Smoke (Read and Record)
2:40 Black Smoke (Read and Record)
3:00 White Smoke (Read and Record)
3:20 Black Smoke (Read and Record)
3:40 White Smoke (Read and Record)
4:00 Course Evaluation and Closing J. Doe
50
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INSTRUCTOR
LESSON PLAN
1
Subject: REGISTRATION AND OPENING REMARKS
Objective: Student should be able to identify the purpose of this course
and to find and have read the Course Objectives listed in the beginning
of the Student Manual,
Suggested Time: 15 minutes
Required Equipment: None
LESSON OUTLINE
Aids & Cues
I. Make a final check of pre-class preparations
A. Lighting and lighting controls
B. Student manuals, handouts, and registration materials
C. Projection equipment
1. 35 mm projector
2. movie projector and take-up reels (1 for 1600 ft. film
3. projection screen
4. blackboard, chalk, eraser
5. overhead projector (optional)
6. wax pencil (if needed)
I. Preliminary remarks
A. Welcome class
B. Introduce self and the name of the course
C. Hand out any registration materials and any other student
materials not previously distributed
D. Give students any necessary instructions about filling out
registration cards
E. Mention the names and affiliations of other speakers who
will be appearing during the course
F. Point out the location of the restrooms
G. Explain any arrangements for coffee during break periods
51
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LESSON OUTLINE 1
Aids & Cues
H. Suggest locations of restaurants or cafeterias where
the students can eat lunch
I. Collect the registration cards when they are
completed.
III. State the purpose for and the method of conducting this
short course in Evaluation of Visible Emissions
A. Purpose
1. To train the student so that he can qualify as an
expert smoke reader who can determine the opaci-
ties of both grey-black and non-black plumes
within 1.57, of the correct reading on the average
and with no reading incorrect by as much as 20%.
2. To instruct the student in the causes of visible
plumes, the effects of weather on these plumes,
the legal basis for visible emissions regulations,
and the proper procedures in enforcing these
regulations.
B. Method
1. A day and a half will be devoted to lectures
on the various topics associated with visible
emissions and their evaluation.
2. During the last 1 1/2 days the course will be
conducted outside. First, you will be given
training in correctly identifying (use whichever
is appropriate for the agency involved) the
shade of black plumes according to the Ringelmann
scale and white plumes according to the equiv-
alent opacity scale or .the opacity of black
or grey and white plumes according to USEPA
Method 9 . Then, there will be a series of
qualification runs testing whether you can
identify the correct opacities or densities of
52
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LESSON OUTLINE 1
Aids & Cues
IV.
25 shades of black smoke and 25 shades of white
smoke. To qualify, you must read one of these
sets of 50 shades within the prescribed accur-
*
acy.
3. There will also be several short quizzes and one
examination during the course to test what you
have learned from the lecture portion.
C. Qualification
If you successfully pass the qualification test for
evaluation of visible emissions, you will be given
a certificate by the agency conducting the course
stating your qualification and the date of this course.
(A diploma may also be given for attending at least
95% of the sessions without the requirement of qualifi
cation.)
An official of the sponsoring air pollution control office
may be invited to give a short welcome talk at this point.
*Plume - readings will be based on current state regulations.
53
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INSTRUCTOR
LESSON PLAN
2
Subject:
VISIBLE EMISSIONS, THEIR CAUSE AND REGULATION
Objective: The Student should be able to define micron, list the types
of visible air pollutants, and give an example of each, describe the
effects of particulate air pollutants, including the scattering of light by
0-lp, particles, and list the types of air pollution regulations.
Suggested Time: 30 minutes
Required Equipment: 35 mm slide projector
LESSON OUTLINE
Aids & Cues
Introduction:
To begin this course, I would like to explain why we see
some plumes while others are invisible. Although many pollutants
are visible and can hurt us, the ones we cannot see can also have
damaging effects to health, vegetation, and materials.
We are here to learn how to make visual measurements of the
shade of visible plumes so that we can enforce one type of law on
regulation against air pollution— the visible emissions regulation
are (depending on regulations of the agency involved):
(1) Ringelmann Numbers for regulating gray and black
emissions;
(2) Equivalent Opacity .for regulating non-black emissions•
or (3) Opacity regulations for all visible emissions.
There are other types of regulations for restricting air
pollutants and we will say a few words about them. In the course
of this talk there will be several terms introduced. These will
be used frequently throughout these lectures to make sure you
understand them.
I. Discuss the importance of particle size to plume visibility
and introduce the micron as a measurement of particle size.
A. Composition of visible plumes
, 54
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LESSON OUTLINE 2
Aids & Cues
lo particles
a. solid
b. liquid
2. gases
B. Particle size
1. micron
2, behavior
a. large - fall out of the air
b. 5-lOOu. - suspended particulates
c. 0.1 - l.Qp, cause haze
3. effect on light rays
a. 0.4 - 0.7p, scatter light .
b., larger particles reflect
c. smaller - invisible
II. List and define the names of the various types of
visible air contaminants
A. smoke
B. soot
C. flyash
D. fumes
E. dust
F. mist
G. condensed water vapor
H. gas - visible
1. N02
2. chlorine
3. water vapor
III. Describe the effects of particulate air pollutants
A. materials
B. visibility
C. incoming sunlight
2-1
2-2
2-3
2-4
2-5
2-6
2-7
2-3
2-9
2-10
2-11
2-12
These are slide-numbers. The first number indicates the
lesson number and the second number indicates the series
of numbers in the lesson.
55
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LESSON OUTLINE 2
Aids & Cues
D. health
E. vegetation
IV. Identify and give examples of the types of regulations
that can be used to control pollutants
A. weight per unit weight of stack gas (lbs/1000 Ibs)
B. grain loading (0.04 grains/scf or 90mg/scm)
process weight (40 Ibs per hour per 60,000 Ibs per
hour of process weight)
C. limitation on basis of thermal input (lbs/10 Btu of
heat input)
3
D. boundary line measurements of air quality (200yg/m
at or beyond property line)
E. Ringelmann Number and Equivalent Opacity
1. advantages 2. disadvantages
V. Summary
Thus, although we may commonly call the emissions from a
stack "smoke, " they may not strictly be smoke for that term
is reserved for products of incomplete combustion. To be sure
of what name to call emissions we should know how they were
created.
Generally, the particles that make a plume visible are
extremely small. They can be seen only with a microscope, if
we look at them individually. The larger particles that we
can see individually with the naked eye do not remain in the
plume, but fall to the ground relatively soon after they
leave the stack.
The alternatives to regulating emissions by visual
observations are measurements of the weight of material coming
from the stack. These measurements take time and expensive
equipment and can be done on only a single stack at a time.
Regulation through the use of a visible emission
regulation can offer a means to cleaner air with the expendi-
ture of smaller amounts of uanpower, time, and money by the
enforcement agency.
56
2-13, 2-14,
2-15, 2-16
-------
35 mm Slide List for
Visible Emissions, Their Cause and Regulation
Slide
Number
2-1
2-2
2-3
2-4
2-5
2-6
2-7
2-8
2-9
'-2-10
2-11
2-12
2-13
2-14
Sizes of atmospheric particulate matter
(from Criteria Document for Particulates)
Types of effluent plumes (from L.A.
Field Operations Manual)
Wood products manufacturing plant
Columbus, Ohio (wood waste burning)
Air p Dilution t raining smoke generator
(smoke from burning toluene)
Steam-electric power plant
Lawrenceburg, Indiana (coal-fired)
Open-hearth furnaces
Lorain, Ohio - 1970
(metallurgical fume)
Grain elevators, Columbus, Ohio
(grain dust)
Contact process sulfuric acid plant
Columbus, Ohio (sulfuric acid mist)
Nitric acid plant
(NO. plume)
Cleaning of City Hall
Cincinnati, Ohio
Skyline (Cincinnati, Ohio)
Measurements of amount of sunlight
(0.5|j,) reaching different heights in
urban and rural areas (from Criteria
Document for Particulates)
Human respiratory system (from Criteria
Document for Particulates)
Fraction of particles deposited in
the three parts of the respiratory
tract system as a function of
particle diameter
57
Comment
I
Note classifications
of particulates 2
between O.ly, and 10 (j,
All of these include
some visible pollutants
Smoke
S oot
Fly ash
I.ron oxide fumes
Dust
S ulfuric acid mist from
tall stack; water vapor
from lower cooling tower
N itrogen dioxide gas
(brownish plume)
Effect of particulates
on materials
Effect on visibility
Effect on incoming sunlight
Divides system into
nasopharyngeal, tracheo-
bronchial, and pulmonary
parts
Larger particles stop in
naso- portion; Most of
smaller ones get to the
pulmonary portion (compare
with slide No. 2-1)
-------
Slide
Number Topic Comment
2-15 Frequency of Individual Symptoms Note the percentages of
Experienced by Residents of Donora respiratory symptoms.
Area during October, 1948 smog Lower respiratory symptoms
due to smaller size
particles as shown in
slide No. 2-14
2-16 Effect of Particulate on Fly ash damage to
Vegetation Hydrangea
58
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INSTRUCTOR Q
LESSON PLAN O
Subject: PRINCIPLES OF qOMBUSTION - INTRODUCTION TO THE MOVIE
Objective: The student should be able to list the four items necessary
for efficient combustion, list the chemical elements which combine with
oxygen when fuels burn, and identify the causes of poor combustion shown
in the movie, "3-T's of Combustion."
Suggested Time: Movie and remarks - 45 minutes (Movie alone - 30 minutes)
Required Equipment: 35 mm Slide Projector; 16 mm sound movie projector with a
take-up reel of 12" diameter.
LESSON OUTLINE
Aids & Cues
Introduction: - • " .
We are next going to watch a movie that describes how to ; ,
obtain efficient burning without producing black smoke. It is
called "The Three T's of Combustion" and what it says about the
necessity for time, temperature, and turbulence plus oxygen or air
is true for any type of combustion, whether it be the burning, of
coal in a furnace, gasoline in an automobile engine, trash in an .
incinerator, or jet fuel in an airplane.
Before we see the movie, I want to mention some of the main
points you should watch for in the film.
.1. Point out that most fuels contain carbon and hydrogen plus
small amounts of unwanted sulfur and nitrogen, all of
which combine with oxygen in burning.
A. Hydrogen plus oxygen gives water vapor and heat
B. Carbon plus oxygen gives carbon dioxide and heat
C. Sulfur plus oxygen gives sulfur dioxide and a small
amount of heat
D. Nitrogen plus oxygen gives nitrogen oxides
E. Except for some forms of carbon in coal and free
nitrogen in some gaseous fuels, none of these elements
occur in pure form in most fuels. Thus, to get the
59
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LESSON
OUTLINE
3
Aids I
rj Cues
full output of the combustion, we need to control the
conditions of burning - the 3 T's and air (or oxygen).
II. Describe the parts of a kerosene lamp and how alterations
in the burning conditions within the lamp will produce
incomplete combustion.
A. Parts of the lamp
1. glass container for holding the fuel
2. wick
3. grate
4. diffuser or tuyere (pronounced "tweer")
5. lamp chimney
B. Conditions producing incomplete combustion or
inefficient burning in the lamp .
1. no tuyere - lack of mixing (turbulence)
2. 'no chimney - too much cool air (time & temp.)
3. cold chimney - lack of heat in the combustion
area (temperature)
4. too- much air - wasted heat
5. too little air - unburned fuel
C. Methods of increasing air and eliminating smoke
1. • taller chimney - increased draft
2. raise bottom of lamp - overf ire air
III. Show Movie "The Three T's of Combustion."
IV. Summary and application of the 3 T's to furnaces
A. For all the carbon and hydrogen to combine with
oxygen. The needs are:
1. sufficient time
2. adequately high temperature
3. sufficient turbulence
4. ; these conditions prevent formation of CO and smoke.
60
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LESSON OUTLINE 3
Aids & Cues
B. Methods for increasing the 3 T's in furnaces
1. temperature
a. preheat air
b. insulate combustion chamber
c. design chamber to reflect heat inward
2. turbulence
a. baffles
b. air jets
3'. time
a. baffle design
b. adequately sized combustion chamber
C. Principles to check if there is a smoky flame
1. too much air
2. too little air
3. insufficient mixing
4. cold furnace
D. All fuels or combustible materials burn as a gas.
Solids or liquids must be transformed into gaseous
state by sufficient heat.
61
3-1
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INSTEUCTOE A
LESSON PLAN 4
Subject:
COMBUSTION OF FUEL OIL - CORRECT PRACTICES
Objective: The student should be able to differentiate between the
characteristics of distillate and residual oil, define fractionation and
cracking, identify the types of boilers, list the types of draft systems,
explain the necessity for soot blowing and the recommended frequency,
identify the causes of poor burner operation, and identify the composition
of the different colors of emissions that may accompany fuel oil combustion
and the combustion conditions associated with each.
Suggested Time: 40 minutes
Required Equipment: 35 mm Slide Projector
LESSON OUTLINE
Aids & Cues
Introduction:
The incomplete combustion of carbon-containing fuels is the
cause of black smoke. The three principal hydrocarbon fuels today
are coal, oil, and natural gas. Generally the burning of natural
gas does not produce a black plume. Complete combustion of coal
and oil will not produce a black plume either. However, complete
combustion of these two fuels is not always achieved.
We will now discuss in two lectures the burning of fuel oil
and coal. You, as an air pollution control officer should know
something about the composition of these fuels and the mechanics
of burning them. If black smoke is emitted something is wrong in
the combustion operation. You will have to go into the boiler
room for an inspection. While these next two lectures will not
make you a combustion engineer, they will discuss some of the
basics and relate them to the three T's of combustion.
The first lecture will cover the burning of fuel oil.
I. Explain the refining of oil and the classification of fuel
oils produced by the fractionation
A. Refining of crude oil-distillation and cracking
1. composition of crude oil
2. distillation or fractionation
62
4-1
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LESSON OUTLINE 4
a. boiling to separate the fractions
b. products
1) distillates
2) residuals
3. cracking
a. change in hydrocarbon structure
b. heat, pressure, and most often catalysts, are
required
c. redistillation
B. Grades of fuel oil
1. classification by number
a. distillates: 1 and 2
b. residual: 4,5, and 6 (Bunker C)
c. Number 3 no longer used
2. Each grade must meet standard specifications
a, list the specifications
3. Characteristics affecting air pollution
a. viscosity
1) define and discuss
2) variation between residual and distillate
b. sulfur content
1) range
2) limited for distillates (Bureau of
Standards)
3.) desulfurization
c. ash content
1) maximum of 0.3%
d. types of hydrocarbon compounds in crude oil
and their characteristics
1) paraffins - burn easily
2) aromatics - cracking
3) olefins - hard to burn
63
Aids & Cues
4-2
-------
LESSON OUTLINE 4
Aids & Cues
II. Discuss the equipment used in burning fuel oil and trans-
forming its energy into useful heat
A. Requirements for complete combustion - 3 T's
1. all fuel burns as a vapor (gas)
a. vaporization of fuel - time and turbulence
b. atomization of fuel
2. flame in combustion chamber must be hot - temperature
a. combustion chamber size - time
1) too large - cooling
-------
LESSON OUTLINE 4
Aids & Cues
D.
a. proper operation only between narrow viscosity
limits
1) air to fuel ratio must be correct
b. preheaters
1) most residual oil must be warm to allow
pumping
2) location
4, Hydrocarbon combustion
ae .hydroxylation
1) blue flame
2) molecules combine with oxygen
be decomposition (cracking)
• 1) yellow flame
2) hydrocarbons decompose into lighter
compounds
c. mixture of hydroxylation and decomposition is
ideal for good combustion
Combustion Chamber
1. heat release is important factor
a. too high - excessive furnace temperature
b. too low - excessive cooling and smoking
2. size determines heat release
3. shape prevents flame from hitting chamber sides
Boilers .
1. used to heat or vaporize water
2. fire-tube
a. heated gases inside tubes
b. water outside tubes
c. used for small and medium-size industrial
boilers
3« water-tube
a. heated gases outside tubes
b. water inside tubes
65
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LESSON OUTLINE 4
Aids & Cues
c. used for all large steam-electric power plants
and many industrial boilers
4. sectional
a, sections may be joined together
b. neither water-tube or fire-tube
E. Draft systems
1. natural
a. difference in pressure between stack and
. outside air
b. back pressure
1) too small stack
2) too large stack
2. induced
a. fan pulls combustion products from the com-
bustion chamber and through other passages
3. forced
a. fan pushes combustion products through
the combustion chamber
F. Soot blowing
1. carbon and inorganic ash solids adhere to heat
exchange surfaces in boiler
.a, deposits must be removed for good heat
transfer
b0 soot blower - jets of steam or air
c. particles are picked up by gases and cause
excessive opacity
2. frequency
a. recommended every 2 or 4 hours
1) little increase in opacity
2) dust collector (if any) not as badly
overloaded
b. 8 to 24 hours - not recommended
1) increase in plume density; dust collector
(if any) overloaded
66
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LESSON OUTLINE 4
Aids & Cues
III. List the different emissions arising from fuel oil com-
bustion and explain which ones can be controlled by
proper burning practices
A. air pollutants from fuel oil burning
1. attributable to fuel grade
a. sulfur oxides
b. ash
2. affected by burner design and operation
a0 carbon
b. carbon monoxide
c. aldehydes
d. organic acids
e. hydrocarbons
f. nitrogan oxides
3. poor burner design or operation
a. signs
1) appreciable odor
2) smoke
3) eye irritation
bo causes
1) burner and fuel not compatible
2) burner not properly adjusted
3) poor draft
4) improper fuel-to-air ratio
5) poor mixing
6) insufficient turbulence
7) low furnace temperature
8) insufficient time for burning in the
combustion chamber
9) flame hitting side of combustion chamber
10) improper fuel temperature
11) improper fuel or steam pressure
12) dirty,.worn, or damaged burner tips or
rotary cup.
•
-------
LESSON OUTLINE 4
Aids & Cues
B. black smoke and white smoke
1. black
a. carbon particles
b. unburned hydrocarbons
2. brown or white
a. finely divided particulates - usually liquid
1) result from vaporization and condensation
of the oil without combustion
2) caused by excessive combustion air
(cooling) or loss of flame
3. visible plumes, accompanying complete combustion
a. large oil-fired steam generators
b. causes
1) inorganic ash particulates
2) sulfuric acid mist
c. particulates
1) dependent upon type of fuel
a) distillate - low ash
b) residual - higher ash content
2) size
a) ash - 85% are less than 1 micron
(except during soot blowing)
b) unburned carbon or hydrocarbons -
larger particles
3) cenospheres
a) carbon particles resulting from
incomplete combustion of residual oil
b) hollow, black, spherical, low density
c) size range - 0.1 to 1.0 micron
4) distribution by type
a) ash - 10 to 30%
b) sulfates - 17 to 25%
c) cenospheres - 25 to 50%
68
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LESSON OUTLINE 4
Aids & Cues
d.
5) Ash and sulfates are controlled by fuel
content while cenospheres are controlled
by efficient combustion. Modern steam
generators burning fuel oil produces very
little combustible material. Visible
emissions from these plants are essentially
attributed to finely divided inorganic
materials - notably sulfur trioxide and
inorganic materials.
sulfur oxides
1) distribution in exhaust gases
2)
a)
SO - 95% - colorless
b) SO - 5% - can combine with water vapor
and condense to form visible sulfuric
acid mist
sulfur trioxide
a) concentrations are negligible in small
equipment and increase as equipment
sizes, firebox temperature, and sulfui
content of fuel increase
b) acidifies particulate matter - acid
spotting
c) causes of increase in S0_ emissions-
high combustion temperature, too
much excess air, fuel sulfur content,
dirt on heat exchanger tubes and
small quantities of metallic metals
contained in the fuel acting as an
oxidation catalyst (V, Mn, Fe, and
Ni)
d) shade of plume - varies with
weather and particul.ate composition
69
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LESSON OUTLINE 4
Aids & Cues
e) detached plume - caused by SO reach-
ing its dew-point at some small
distance downstream from the lip
of the stack.
C. Control equipment for residual oil-fired combustion
1. centrifugal or cyclone collectors
a. not efficient in removing particles less than
5 microns
b. used primarily for control during soot blowing
2. electrostatic precipitators
a. can cut particulate loading by 90%
b. S0_ emissions cut by 50%
3. fabric filters - potentially important in the
future
IV. Summary
Fuel oils used in combustion are of two types—'distillate
and residual. The distillate oils are low in ash and sulfur
content and thus produce visible plumes only when there is in-
complete combustion. Residual oils are higher in sulfur and
ash so that even under good combustion conditions visible
plumes consisting of inorganic ash or sulfuric acid mist may be
emitted. These visible emissions can be controlled by electro-
static precipitators and fabric filters may come into increas-
ing use.
With careful attention to such things as burner mainten-
ance and adjustment, proper fuel usage, preheating of fuel,
and correct soot blowing schedules, there should be no illegal
black plumes from the combustion of residual fuel oil.
Note: At his option the course director may replace this
lecture with the film strip entitled "Combustion
Testing." This film strip is included in the Sources of
Course Materials listing.
70
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INSTRUCTOR
LESSON PLAN
5
Subject: COMBUSTION OF COAL—CORRECT PRACTICES
Objective: Student should be able to list the types of coal, differentiate
between proximate and ultimate analyses, differentiate between the causes of
the various colors of coal combustion emissions, list the different types
of particulate collection equipment, and identify the effects of the following
on the creation of smoke from coal combustion; coal factors; combustion
equipment; combustion factors (time, temperature, and turbulence).
Suggested Time: 40 minutes
Required Equipment: 35 mm Slide Projector
LESSON OUTLINE
Aids & Cues
Introduction:
Through the years most of the black plumes emerging from
chimneys have been caused by the burning of coal. As gas and oil
replaced coal as the fuel heating many homes and other
establishments, the amount of black smoke on the horizon
decreased. The installations that burn coal have increased
their use of more efficient collection devices in order to reduce
the emission of ash and unburned carbon. In recent years, much
emphasis on air pollution control of coal combustion has been
given to the reduction of sulfur oxides.
However, the burning of coal is still a principal source of
energy for the production of electric power, and coal is used in
numerous larger plants. Vast reserves of coal remain to be mined
and burned. You should understand the methods that have been de-
veloped for burning coal and what effect they have on the visible
emissions. The composition o? the coal varies. For example, mines
in Wyoming produce coal that, has characteristics different from
West Virginia coal. These differences require changes in the com-
bustion equipment.
Finally, if coal combustion is producing a plume of an
illegal opacity, you must also suspect that somewhere in the
burning, operation one of the 3 T's of combustion is not being
71
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LESSON OUTLINES
Aids & Cues
fulfilled sufficiently, or there is trouble with the dust collector.
This lecture will cover the classification of coals, coal
burning methods and equipment, and some of the causes of
visible plumes and the preventive practices to avoid black
smoke.
I. List the various methods for classification of coal and
point out the importance of a coal's volatile matter,
ash, sulfur, and heating value to air pollution emissions
A. Types of coal
1. anthracite
2. bituminous
3. lignite
4. preparation of coal
B. Composition of coal
1. proximate analysis
a. volatile matter
b. fixed carbon
c. ash
d. moisture content
e. other
1) sulfur content
2) heat content
2. ultimate analysis
a. hydrogen
b. carbon
c. oxygen
d. nitrogen
e. sulfur
f. ash
g. moisture
3. size
a. screen analysis
C. Coal composition and air pollution
72
5-1
5-2
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LESSON OUTLINES
Aids & Cues
II.
1. volatile matter—incomplete combustion results in
partially burned particles: soot and black smoke
2. ash
a. particulate emission
b. high ash coals— power plants
c. low ash coals—retail usage
d. some can be removed in preparation plants
3. moisture.
a. reduces coking in stokers
b. reduces dust
4. sulfur
a. pyritic sulfur
1) some can be removed
2) most of the sulfur is in this form
b. organic sulfur—'Cannot be removed economically
c. combined sulfur
1) in sulfate form
2) cannot be removed economically
d. high sulfur coal—high in all three forms of
sulfur
Introduce several terms that are commonly used in
discussing coal combustion
A. Furnace system characteristics
1. fuel bed
a. grate
2. fuel feeding method
a. underfeed stoker
b. overfeed stoker
c. spreader stoker
d. pulverized
3. air
a. underfire air
b. overfire air
4. arch
a. refractory material
73
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LESSON OUTLINE 5
Aids & Cues
5« heat exchange equipment
a, radiant heat absorbers
b, boilers
1) fire tube
2) "fire box"
3) water tube
c. superheaters
d. economizers
e. air preheaters
6. breeching
a. originally, the connecting link between the
furnace and the chimney
bo now, may contain several pieces of equipment
7. draft
a. forced
b. induced
c. natural
d. furnace
e. draft losses
8. coke
9. carbon in the ash
10. slagging
III. Discuss the basic principles of coal combustion and
describe the principal types of mechanical coal firing
equipment
A. Burning of coal
1. combustion process
a. vaporize solid by addition of heat
b. burn the gas
L
5-3
5-4
74
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LESSON OUTLINES
Aids & Cues
2. burning on grates
a. overfeed
1) coal from top
2) air from below
3) burning from bottom to top in layers
a) layer of ash
b) oxidation zone
c) reduction zone
d) top layer — hydrocarbons and tars
driven off
4) top layer produces smoke
a) "secondary" or "combustion" air can
oxidize the volatile matter and reduce
smoke
b. underfeed beds
1) coal from below
2) air from below
3) volatile matter is driven off at bottom
of bed and burned in ample air
4) comparatively little smoke produced
75
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LESSON OUTLINE 5
Aids & Cues
B. Mechanical coal- firing equipment
1. overfeed stokers
2. underfeed stokers
a. single retort— used with smaller boiler
b. multiple retort
3. traveling grate stoker
4. vibrating grate stoker
a. increase in fly ash because of agitation
5. spreader stoker
a. coal thrown into furnace
b. partially burned in suspension
c. overfire jets required to reduce smoke from
the overfeed type of burning
d. particulate collector required
6. pulverized-coal firing unit
a. types
1) wet bottom
2) dry bottom
b. median size of particles—5 microns
c. used in steam-electric power and other large
plants
1) 50-80% .of the ash in- the coal leaves
boiler as fine fly ash
2) requires high efficiency dust collectors
7. cyclone furnace
a. used in large steam-electric power plants
b. fires crushed coal
c. coal and air circle around a cylindrical
chamber
d. 85% of the ash is retained as slag
e. ash escaping is very fine
76
5-5
5-6
5-7
5-8
5-9
5-10
5-11
-------
LESSON OUTLINE 5
Aids & Cues
80 fly ash reinjection
a« used with some types of coal-firing equipment
b. cinders are returned to grate for reburning
c. increases total flyash
IV. Itemize the causes of particulate emissions and visible
plumes arising from the combustion of coal and give some
methods for reducing the visible emissions
A. Plume composition and plume colors
1. condensed water vapor—'white
2. sulfur trioxide and sulfuric acid mist—-detached
bluish-white plume that does not readily dissipate
3. organic liquids or solids—white, yellow, or
brown
4. particulates(including fly ash)—'light grey,
brown, or black
a. black smoke
1) small unburned or partially burned solid
carbon or liquid hydrocarbon particles
2) caused by incomplete combustion of
volatile part of the fuel followed by
cooling of these unburned gases until
particles are formed—-soot
b. light grey or brown
caused by the ash of.the coal; very
little free carbon
B. Causes of emissions of smoke and particulates
1. coal factors
a. coal size-^smaller sizes are more easily
swept up the chimney
b. volatile content
1) high volatile coal
a) greater portion of hydrocarbons
which, when not completely burned,
produce soot and smoke
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LESSON OUTLINE 5
Aids & Cues
b) long flame that may strike cool
surfaces of furnace and produce soot
2) low volatile coal
a) burns with short transparent flame
c. ash content— greater the ash content of the
coal, the higher the emission of fly ash
2. combustion equipment and methods
a. type of firing
1) least generation-underfeed stokers
2) greatest generation-pulverized fuel unit
b. firing rate
1) higher rate results in increased gas
velocity, which causes more and larger
particles to be carried.out of furnace
c. furnace design
1) smaller quantity of emission from larger
furnaces
d. secondary air jets
1) tend to reduce emissions
e. fly ash reinjection
1) accumulation of ash resulting in increased
emission's
3. improper combustion — 3 T's of combustion
a. possible reasons for insufficient turbulence
1) insufficient bverfire air
2) plugged overfire air nozzles
3) improperly aimed nozzles
4)' incorrect burner adjustment
b. possible" reasons for.insufficient temperature
1) too much air (usually overfire air),
which chills flame
. ' 2) cold firebox - often caused by excessive
furnace draft; start up or rapid load
t ....
•
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LESSON OUTLINES
Aids & Cues
increase
3) furnace too large (low firing rate-low load)
c. possible reasons for improper distribution of
fuel and air
1) uneven depth of fuel bed
2) plugged air holes in grate
3) clinker that i shuts off air flow
4) leaky seals around edges of grate
5) incorrect burner adjustment
d. proper fuel-to-air ratio and the furnace flame
1) good burner adjustment
a) yellowish orange color
b) no black tips
c) soft
2) too much air
a) whiter color
b) harder
3) too little air
a) black color
b) lazy
c) soot may form
C. Control Equipment for collecting particulates from
coal combustion
1. settling chamber
a. used for natural-draft stoker units
b. efficiency- 20 to50 %•
2. large-diameter cyclones
a. stoker-fired units— 70-85% efficiency
b. cyclone furnaces— 20-30% efficiency
3. small-diameter cyclones
a. used as precleaners for electrostatic
precipitators or final cleaners
b. stoker-fired units—85-95% efficiency
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LESSON OUTLINE 5
Aids & Cues
c. cyclone furnaces — 30-40% efficiency
4. wet scrubbers
a. used only 'to control emissions during soot blowing
5. electrostatic precipitators
a. most commonly used device for large stationary
combustion sources
b. best adapted to pulverized-coal units
V. Summary
You HOW know that time, temperature, turbulence, and
sufficient oxygen, when properly regulated, can reduce or
eliminate the black smoke from the burning of coal. However,
you also realize that these keys to good combustion are not
the* entire answer to the elimination of visible plumes. The
composition of the coal—its volatile content, ash content,
and size—is important. Some types of coal-firing equipment
ate more susceptible to visible emissions than other types.
Also, there are several kinds of devices for collecting
particulate matter, but these devices have different efficien-
cies and some can do a better job on particular types of
firing equipment. You need to be alert to all these possi-
bilities when making your investigations of emissions from
coal combustion.
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INSTRUCTOR /?
. LESSON PLAN 0
Subject: OTHER COMBUSTION EMISSIONS: INCINERATORS, AGRICULTURAL BURNING,
NATURAL GAS, AND MOBILE SOURCES
Objective: The student should be able to identify the types of incinerators
and the kinds of agricultural burning, state the basic points of a visible
emission regulation for mobile sources, and identify the causes of visible
plumes originating from the following: incinerators, natural gas combustion,
gasoline engines, diesel engines, and jet engines.
Suggested Time: 30 minutes
Required Equipment: 35 mm slide projector
LESSON OUTLINE
Aids & Cues
Introduction:
The preceding two lectures discussed emissions from the
burning of coal and of fuel oil. The Ringelmann chart for
judging the shade of black plumes was originally devised and used
for smoke from coal and fuel oil fires.
There are other kinds of burning that takes place involving
materials other than coal and oil. Some of this combustion is
done to dispose of solid waste and the energy produced is not
used, although efforts are being made to utilize the heat from
the incineration of solid waste materials. Other combustion
from which the energy is not used included the intentional
burning of weeds and cuttings in agricultural fields and the
accidental burning of buildings and forests.
A considerable portion of the combustion of fuels today
involves gasoline, diesel oil, and jet fuel used in trans-
portation.
All of these other combustion processes will produce
visible plumes sometimes continuously and sometimes inter-
mittently depending upon the type of fuel, the condition
of the engine or combustion device, and the atmospheric
conditions. In many cases, the plume will not be a shade
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Aids & Cues
of black or grey but white or bluish of various densities.
Often all or part of the white will be caused by water vapor.
Sometimes, as in the case of structural building fires or
forest fires, there is no offender that can be charged with a
violation under the visible emission regulations.
Thus, the combustion of materials other than coal and
oil are going to generate visible plumes that will present
problems for the air pollution inspector besides the ques-
tion of whether their density does or does not exceed a pre-
scribed Ringelmann Number or equivalent opacity. You will
also have to judge their composition, whether the local
regulations apply to them, and whether any change can be
made in their sources which will reduce the visibility.
You may have to defend your judgments before a judge, a
legislative group, the public, or the operator of a
source.
I. Describe the use of burning to dispose of waste material
and the types of visible emissions that are related to
inc inerat ion.
A. Types of incinerators and their characteristics
1. chambers
a. single
b. multiple
2. incinerators, classified as to size and use
a. backyard
. . b. apartment house
c. commercial or industrial
d. tepee burner
e. municipal
f. pathological
B. Plume colors and their relation to fuel type
1. dark and light colored plumes
2. moisture in the waste and lighter colored plumes
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Aids & Cues
3. large fly ash particles and submicron particles
4. results of a study of smoke density in relation
to material burned in a teepee incinerator
C. Particle Collectors used on Incinerators
D. Application of higher standards to Municipal Incin-
erators
E. Incineration for Agricultural purposes
1. Burning that can be scheduled for best dispersion
conditions
a. meteorological factors, forecasts, and permits
b. removal of logging slash
c. pre-harvest clearing
d, weed and brush removal
2. Unscheduled burning
a. burning for frost prevention
b. disposal of diseased animals or vegetation
3. Relation of plume density to burning conditions
a. combustion temperature.
b.. residence time
c. moisture content of the fuel
F. Operation methods to reduce smoke
II. Discuss emissions from combustion of natural gae
A. Composition of natural gas
1. very low in sulfur
2. very low in ash
3. promote good combustion since it has a
hydrogen-carbon ration > 0.26
B. Burners
1. atmospheric
2. mechanical draft
C. Visible Plumes
1. white
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6-4
6-5
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LESSON OUTLINE 6
Aids & Cues
a. water vapor caused by high amount of hydrogen
b. occurs more frequently when relative humidity
is high—more moisture in air, lower atmos-
pheric temperature
2. black
a. caused by improper operation of burner
b. insufficient combustion air
1. other indications
2. causes
III. Identify the types of engines used in surface vehicles and
aircraft, explain their operating principles, and tell why
they sometimes produce visible smoke.
A. Types of mobile engines
1. internal combustion
a. gasoline and diesel engines
1. cars, trucks, airplanes
2. large trucks, busses, locomotives, ships,
earth-moving equipment
b. four-stroke and two-stroke cycles
1. intake
2. compression
3. expansion
4. exhaust
c. ignition
1. spark - gasoline
2. compression - diesel
2. aircraft - gas turbine or jet
a. compressor, combustor, turbine, and tailpipe
b. principles of different types of jet engines
1. turbojet
2. turboprop
3. turbofan
6-6, 6-7
6-8
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LESSON OUTLINE 6
Aids & Cues
D.
B. Visible emissions from mobile sources
1. gasoline engines
a. particulate emissions
1. source
2. composition
3. size
b. colors of smoke and their causes
1. white - water vapor
2. blue - burning oil
3. black - incomplete combustion of gasoline
2. diesel engines
a. composition of smoke and size of particles
b. engine power related to fuel injected
1. open throttle
2. rich fuel-to-air ratio
c. observance of manufacturer's specifications
and maintenance of fuel system
d. improper setting - more power and more smoke
C. Jet engines
1. fuel-to-air ratios
a. low during flight
b. high during takeoff and landing
2. composition of emissions
3. amount of emissions related to power settings
4. only Federal standards for aircraft; enforced only
by Federal government
Visible emission ordinances and mobile sources
1. applied to automobiles, trucks, locomotives, and
ships
a. limitations on interstate commerce
b. smoke that "draws attention" to vehicle
2. not applied to aircraft— Federal enforcement on
emissions preempts state regulations
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Aids & Cues
a. Inspectors not required to make visible emission
evaluations
b. smoke emissions measured by Federal Government
using reflectance test of withdrawn filtered
sample
IV. Summary
The shade of smoke from incineration is often related to
the type of material that is being burned. Some materials
should not be burned, and much less smoke will be created if
those that are burned are disposed of in multiple-chamber
incinerators.
Agricultural burning should be controlled as much as
possible by restricting it to days when atmospheric condi-
tions will aid dispersion but will not increase the risk
j of accidental fires.
Under high humidity and low atmospheric temperature
conditions, the burning of natural gas will produce dense
white plumes composed of water droplets.
Most of the emissions from gasoline engines are
invisible. However, during warmup on cold days there will
be a water vapor plume. Black or blue smoke indicates that
the engine is in need of repair. Continuous emissions from
a diesel engine also mean an engine adjustment is required.
However, sometimes the diesel engine has been adjusted de-
liberately to give more power at the expense of increased
fuel usage and waste.
Jet aircraft engines are not evaluated for visible
emissions. Instead, smoke emissions are evaluated while
the jet engine is being certified on a test stand by the
Federal Government. An exhaust filter sample is collected
and the filter is measured by a reflectance test to meet
a specified smoke number.
. 86
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INSTRUCTOR H
LESSON PLAN I
Subject:
NON-COMBUSTION EMISSIONS AND WATER VAPOR PLUMES
Objective: The student should be able to list several industrial opera-
tions in his region that emit visible plumes, describe the points in
these processes at which the emissions occur, and describe the exterior
appearance of the source of the plume. He should also be able to define
relative humidity, identify a wet plume, list several sources of wet
plumes, and explain the effects of temperature and relative humidity on
wet plumes.
Suggested Time: 40 minutes
Required Equipment: 35 mm Slide Projector
LESSON OUTLINE
Aids & Cues
Introduction:
If air pollutant emissions are categorized, many of the
sources fall in the classifications of fuel combustion, trans-
portation, and solid waste disposal. All of these can be filed
under combustion. The one major class of sources that does not
fall in combustion is called "industrial process losses. " The
process pollutants are emitted in several forms: fumes, dusts,
mists, gases, and vapors. They cannot truly be called smoke
since smoke should be used to describe only the visible effluent
resulting from incomplete combustion and consisting mostly of
soot and fly ash.
These non-combustion pollutants may be emitted from many
operations including grinding, melting, cooking, and handling.
Whether they are visible or not will depend on their nature,
their size, and whether they emerge in solid,liquid, or gaseous
form.
Most industries make some provision for limiting the amount
of these process losses reaching the atmosphere. Thus
cyclones, wet scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators, and fabric
filters are standard equipment in many plants. The removal of
particulates, vapors, gases, and heat from the exhaust stream by
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LESSON OUTLINE?
Aids & Cues
washing with water is used in many industries. In this
process, large quantities of water vapor are emitted to the
air and result in very Visible white plumes. While these wet
plumes are primarily made up of .condensed water vapor, they
will also generally contain some of the pollutants since no
collector is 100% efficient.
Of the many industrial sources of visible non-combustion
plumes, I will discuss a few that are located in and around
this area with additional comments concerning some of the
industries that are considered as major, nationwide, air
pollution problems.
The emissions from many of these industries are regulated
primarily by ordinances other than Ringelmann or
opacityjsuch as, process weight rules. However, the visible
emissions regulations are generally written to be all
encompassing so that they cover fumes, dusts, vapors, etc.
The smoke inspector may thus be required to make density
evaluations on plumes from sources where the problem is not
Incomplete combustion.
I would like to speak first about some equipment and
terminology that is used in several industries and then go
into the description of several industries.(The Instructor
Lesson Plan outlined here contains more material than can be
covered in the allotted time.)
The instructor should tailor this lecture to the
industries of his area, discussing the ones that the smoke
inspector will see. Information is given on several typical
industries and associated equipment. If there are industries
in the area that emit visible plumes but are not
described in the text, the instructor should plan to take
pictures of these sources and learn about their operational
processes. He should use whatever information is available
from the company itself, engineering books and other
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Aids & Cues
reference books.
I. List and briefly describe some metallurgical terms,
several types of furnaces, and several types of driers.
A. Metallurgical terminology
1. metals industry
a. primary
b. secondary
2. smelting
3. electrolytic reduction
4. roasting or calcining
5. sweating
6. sintering
7. quenching
8. refractory material '
B. Furnaces
1. reverberatory - open hearth
2. cupola - used for iron castings
3. electric furnaces
a. direct arc
b«, indirect arc
c. resistance
d. induction
4. crucible
5. pot
C. Types of driers
1. rotary
a. direct
b. indirect
2. flash
3. spray
4. tray or compartment
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II. Describe several of the following industries
pointing out the sources of atmospheric emissions, the
composition of the pollutants (for example, dust, iron
oxide, fume, etc.) the size of the aerosols, any identi-
fying color, and the emissions that are combined with
water vapor.
continuous operation
A. Iron and Steel Hills
1. blast furnace
a. the smelting process
b. operation
c. emissions
1. particulates — dust catcher, "slips"
2. carbon monoxide— used as fuel for
the stoves
2. sintering plant
a. the process
b. emissions
3. open hearth furnace
a. the process (see description of rever-
beratory furnaces)
b. emissions
1. composition
2. size
4. basic oxygen furnace
a. the process - faster than open hearth
b. emissions
1. comparison with open hearth
2, newer and more economical process, thus
additional and better pollution control
is used
5. electric arc furnace
a. special uses
b. emissions
1. composition
90
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LESSON OUTLINE 7
Aids & Cues
2. control
6. By-product coke ovens
a. process
1. charging
2. coking
3. discharging
4. quenching
b. emissions
1. composition
2. emission controls
c. by-product gas processing
d. visible emission regulations
B« Grey Iron Foundries
10 gray iron and white iron - definitions
2. melting and casting of iron
3. emissions
a. dust, smoke, oil .vapor, fumes
b. size
e. control
4. coke oven emissions
C. Non-Ferrous Metallurgical Industry
1. aluminum
a. primary
1. electrolytic reduction process
2. emissions
3. control methods
b. secondary recovery
1. process
2. emissions
3. control methods
2. lead and zinc —often done at same factory
a. primary
9.1
7-9
7-10
7-11
7-12
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LESSON OUTLINE 7
Aids & Cues
1. roasting, sintering, smelting, and
electrolytic reduction
2. emissions
3. control methods
b. secondary
1. raw materials
2. emissions
3. control methods
3. copper
a. primary
1. recovery from copper sulfide ore
2. emissions
b. alloys — boiling temperatures and pouring
temperatures
1. bronze ~ limited emissions
2. brass — considerable emissions
D. Petroleum Refining
1. processes
a. separation — fractionation
b. conversion — catalytic cracking
c. treating
d. blending
2. catalyst regeneration
a. fluid catalytic cracking
b. thermofor catalytic cracking
c. emissions
d. FCC - new source performance standard of EPA
3. airblowing of asphalt
a. process
b. emissions
4. sludge burning
5. flares
a. need
92
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7-16
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LESSON OUTLINE 7
Aids & Cues
b. emissions and control
E. Cement and Lime manufacture
1. cement manufacture
a. wet mixing
b. dry mixing
c. production of clinkers in kiln
d. grinding
2, process emissions
a. dusts
b. control
3. lime manufacture
a. process
b. dust emissions and their size
F. Manufacture, of paper pulp in kraft mills
1. process — separation of cellulose from lignin
a. cooking in digester
b. blow tank
c. cellulose to finished paper or pulp
d. recovery of chemicals from lignin
2. emissions •
a. odors
1. gases
a) hydrogen sulfide
b) .methyl mercaptan
c) dimethyl s'ulfide
7-18, 7-19,
7-20, 7-21
7-22
7-23
2.
sources
a) digester blow systems
b) evaporators
c) recovery furnaces
d) lime kilns
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Aids & Cues
b. particulates
1. types
a) sodium sulfate
b) sodium carbonate
c) carbon particles
d) lime dust
water vapor
e)
2. sources
a) recovery furnace — chimney
br) lime kiln
c) smelt .tank, causticizer, blow tank,
and digester—mists
d) bark burning — chimney
G. Sulfuric acid manufacture
1. basic process
a. generation of SO.
1. burning of S
2. oil refinery H S
3. primary smelters
4. power plants — experimental
oxidation to SO^
hydration to H SO
b.
c.
2. methods
a. chamber process — little used
b. contact process
1. sulfur burning
2. four-stage converter — vanadium
pentoxide catalyst
3. economizer— cooling
4. absorption tower
3. contact process emissions
a. sulfuric acid mist
b. tall stack from absorption tower
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LESSON OUTLINE 7
Aids & Cues
c. particle size
Ho Nitric acid manufacture
1. process
2. emissions
a. sources
b0 colors
1. NO ~~ colorless
2. N02 — red-orange-brown
c. control
I. Phosphoric acid manufacture
1. thermal or phosphorous burning process
a. operations
1. oxidizing
2. hydrating
3. absorption
b. emissions— mist
1. source
2. composition
2. wet process
a. operations
1. decomposition of phosphate-rock by
sulfuric acid
2. filtering of gypsum from phosphoric acid
3. concentration
b. emissions
1. composition— phosphate rock contains
fluorine
a) dust
b) fluoride
c) fluoride particulates
d) acid mist
2. sources
7-25
7-26
7-27
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LESSON OUTLINE 7
J. Phosphate fertilizer manufacture
1. process and fertilizers — % phosphorous
pentoxide
a. normal superphosphate
1. mixing of phosphate rock and sulfuric
acid
2. "denning"
3. drying
b. triple superphosphate
1. mixing of phosphate rock and phosphoric
acid— continuous process
2. alternate treatments
c. diammonium phosphate
d. granulation of the fertilizer
2. emissions
a. gases
1. silicon tetrafluoride
2. hydrogen fluoride
b. particulate dusts — visible
1. sources
a) drying
b) handling
c) drying and storing
d) granulation and blending
2. control methods
K. Paint and varnish manufacture
1. process— cooking of ingredients at high
temperatures
2. emissions
a. type
b. causes
c. size
96
Aids & Cues
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LESSON OUTLINE 7
Aids & Cues
M.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
Hot-mix asphalt hatching .
1. operations
a. conveying aggregate
drying aggregate
heating asphalt
measuring out aggregate
mixing
delivering to trucks
2. emissions — dust
a. sources
b. sizes
c. control
1. cyclones
2. scrubber — wet plume
Soap and detergent manufacture
1. soap making process
a. hydrolysis
b. boiling
c. drying
2. detergent manufacture process
a. sulfonation
b. neutralization
c. drying
3. emissions
a. sources of particulate matter
1. spray drying
2. handling of dry materials
b. control
1. cyclone
2. wet scrubber
3. wet type precipitator
c. dense white plume
1. primarily water vapor
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LESSON OUTLINE 7
Aids & Cues
N. Water vapor plumes
1. water In the air
a. vapor (gaseous state) — invisible
b. liquid or solid — visible
2. relative humidity
a. definition
b. how it can be increased
1. add moisture
2. cool the air
c. saturation
1. 100% humidity
2. more water vapor or cooler tempera-
ture results in condensation to
liquid
3.
wet plumes
a. white
b. occurrence and duration are dependent
upon relative humidity
c. identification
1. wispiness
2. detached plume in hot weather will
not appear detached in cold weather
3. effect of atmospheric humidity
4. plumes containing water and dust
a. particulate trail remains after evapora-
tion of water
b. regulatory problems
1. where to read the plume
2. uncombined water
3. difficulties in judging a violation
(may call for a source test)
5. objections to wet plumes
a. ground fog and decreased visibility
b. icing in cold weather
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7-33
7-34
7-35
7-36
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LESSON OUTLINE 7
Aids & Cues
6.
c. combination to form harmful pollutant
d. aesthetics
sources of water vapor plumes
a. drying operations
combustion
air pollution control devices using water
b.
c.
d.
cooling to remove combustion or chemical
reaction heat
7.
elimination of visible wet plumes
a. methods
1. dilution
2. superheating
3. condensing the water
b. expensive
III. Summary
We have discussed a cross section of industries that
have visible process emissions. In some areas these may be
major sources; in other areas the size of the manufacturing
, output may be small and the emissions may be minor. Some of
these processes, like asphalt batching, can be found in
almost every city; others, like primary smelting, may be in
only a few states.
Some processes, like drying in rotary kilns, and equip-
ment, such as cupola furnaces, as well as controls, such as
wet scrubbers, are found in several industries. By learning
that all of these put out visible plumes of particulates or
water vapor, you can transfer your understanding of causes of
visible emissions from one process to another and know what
to expect at different types of factories.
When viewing an industrial plant for the first time, you
may see one or more stacks. These may or may not be visible
plumes coming from these stacks. There may be visible
emissions that are not coming from stacks. The emissions may
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LESSON OUTLINE 7
Aids & Cues
be. continuous or intermittent. They may be put out 24 hours
a day or only 8 hours a day. They may or may not be accom-
panied by odors.
I now expect you to be able to look at a plant and be
able to make mental comments like:
"That stack is puttong out smoke from a combustion
process used to produce heat or power."
"That white plume is coming from a wet scrubber being
used to remove the particles from the exhaust gases."
"Although there is no visible plume from that tall thin
stack, air pollutants are being emitted. They may be
sulfur dioxide or sulfur trioxide."
"That rotary drum must be putting out dust emissions.
If I cannot see them, then they are being collected by
some device."
These are starters. Keep learning about industrial
processes, their emissions, and points of emission. Observe
factories in operation and compare them with process flow
charts that you can find in engineering books and journals.
Ask questions. Little by little your knowledge will
increase.
100
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Slide
Number
35 mm Slides Describing Water Plumes
Description
7-32 Short water plumes from natural gas power plant stacks and
long particulates plume from plant manufacturing refractory
materials. Moss Landing, California (Photo by John Maloney,
Salinas, Calif.)
y_33 Detached plume, natural gas industrial boiler. Columbus,
Ohio
High humidity on cold autumn morning, brewery. Columbus,
7~34 Ohio
y_35 Low humidity on warm autumn afternoon, brewery. Columbus,
Ohio
., ., Particulate trail after water has evaporated
/-JO
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INSTRUCTOR O
LESSON PLAN O
Subject: CLASSIFICATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF SOURCES
Objective: Tne student should be able to list the items he should record
in the field when describing a plume, define fugitive emissions, and
state the clues that can aid him in identifying the sources of visible
plumes.
Suggested Time: 40 minutes
Required Equipment: 35 mm slide projector
LESSON OUTLINE
Aids & Cues
Introduction:
There are many sources of air pollutant emissions.
For ease in record keeping and in talking about these sources,
it is convenient to categorize them. A description or a control
device that applies to one member of the category may be applied
to all members. A coal-fired industrial boiler in one city is
going to have many of the same characteristics as coal-fired
industrial boilers in other cities or in other parts of the same
city. Emission measurements on a few similar sources are stan-
dardized as "emission factors" and used for all sources of this
type.
The inspector should learn to classify the various
sources of visible emission into standard categories and to
identify these sources by their outward appearance. Much of this
ability for identification can come only by experience. In this
lecture we can only suggest some methods for identifying types of
industrial and commercial sources.
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LESSON OUTLINES
Aids & Cues
I. List some categories into which pollution sources could be
divided and show an all-inclusive classification system
A. Source categories
1. mobile and stationary
2. point and area
3. combustion and non-combustion
4. industrial, commercial, and residential
5. subclassification
a. coal, oil, and natural gas combustion
b. jet- and piston-powered aircraft.
B. An all-source classification
1. Fuel combustion — stationary sources
2. Fuel combustion — mobile sources
3. Industrial process losses
4. Solid waste disposal
5. Miscellaneous.
II. Discuss ways in which the inspector can learn how to
identify the cause of a visible plume after the plume has
been observed.
A. Information sources
1. associates
2. engineering books
3. EPA publications
4. photographs of similar sources.
B. Clues for identification of specific sources
1. company name
2. Directory of manufacturers
3. air pollution files
4. telephone directory
5. factory surroundings and visible equipment
6. shape of the building
8-1
show example
8-2, 8-3
8-4, 8-5
1Q3
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LESSON OUTLINES
Aids & Cues
7. stack or fugitive dust emissions
8. plume color
9. odor
10. effects of pollutant
11. equipment and collection devices
12. variations in plume during the day.
C. Emission description that inspector should make
1. nature of particulate— dust, fume, etc?
2. wet plume?
3. character of emission
a. plume
b. cloud
c. haze
d. fugitive emissions
4. plume categories
a. coning, fanning, etc.
b. detached
c. point of dissipation
d. plume rise
e. point where it hits the ground.
D. Identification of causes
1. If source type is known and inspector understands
the process, he may be able to determine the exact
cause.
2. For combustion emission, the color of the smoke may
be a help.
III. Use selected slides to illustrate different sources,
process equipment and collection equipment that may help
inspector in identifying sources and causes of visible
emissions.
A. Industrial sources
B. Manufacturing process equipment
C. Air pollution collection devices. ______
8-6
8-7
8-8, 8-9
8-10, 8-11
8-12, 8-13
select slides
from list at
end of this
lesson
104
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LESSON OUTLINE 8
Aids & Cues
IV. Summary
The new inspector should use all his detective powers of
careful observation and research to gain experience in the
types of air pollution problems under his jurisdiction. His
knowledge of the sources and causes can aid him in dealing
with his associates, with the polluters, and with the public.
He should be able to identify and classify in several types of
categories all the sources of visible emissions which he will
encounter.
1. Type of source— industry, commercial, residential;
mobile or stationary
2. Type of emissions
3. Type of plume
4. Part of the combustion or processing system that is
causing the problem.
105
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35 mm Slides for
Classification and Identification of Sources
Slide
Number Topic
8-1 Example of Comprehensive Source
Classification System
8-2 Lead and zinc smelter
East Helena, Montana
8-3 Portland cement plant
Fairborn, Ohio
8-4 Steam electric plant near
Columbus, Ohio (coal-fired)
8-5 Building housing a basic oxygen
furnace, Middletown, Ohio
8-6 Plant for removing fluorides from
phosphate rock Garrison, Montana
8-7 Steam-electric power plant
Lawrenceburg, Indiana (coal-fired)
8-8 Brewery
Worthington, Ohio
8-9 Rendering plant
Columbus, Ohio
8-10 Oil refinery near Houston, Texas
8-11 Contact process sulfuric acid
plant Columbus, Ohio
8-12 Asphalt plant, Newtown, Ohio
8-13 Asphalt plant, Newtown, Ohio
8-14 Coke oven battery Toledo, Ohio
8-15
Coke oven battery Toledo, Ohio
Comment
Based on System in
APTD-1135
Large stack, large
slag pile
Note cement hauler
in front
Note high tension wires
and shape of building
Note shape of building
and red oxide plume
Note emissions from stack
and fugitive dust; corroded
parts from plant are in
field to left
Note cream color of plume;
tall stacks
Odor is distinctive; water
vapor plume
Odor is distinctive; note
stack type and equipment
in the yard
Note plumes from flare
and from furnace stack
Note the design of the
identifying equipment--
the four-stage converter
with the circular pieces
on its side
Uncontrolled
Controlled with scrubber
Shoving of coke from oven
to car has just begun
All of coke has been pushed
from oven to quench car
106
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Slide
Number Topic
8-16 Plant for removing fluoride from
phosphate to be used as animal food
supplement
8-17 Hyperbolic cooling tower and tall stack
Steam-electric plant Beverly, Ohio
8-18 Warehouse Fire Columbus, Ohio
8-19 Burning of weeds to clean out water
ditches Billings, Montana
8-20 Plume from jet airplane
Columbus, Ohio
8-21 Diesel-powered bulldozer
Columbus, Ohio
8-22 Fertilizer manufacture
Cincinnati, Ohio
8-23 Zinc oxide manufacture
Columbus, Ohio
8-24 Truck dumping waste material
Columbus, Ohio .
8-25 Open burning at foundry
Columbus, Ohio
8-26 Plumes from foundry cupola and from
open burning at foundry
Columbus, Ohio
8-27 Conical burner used for incineration
Evendale, Ohio (wood wastes)
8-28 Power plant Wood River, Illinois
(coal-fired)
8-29 Plant for generating steam to heat
downtown Toledo, Ohio (oil-fired)
8-30 Conical ("tepee") burner at lumber
mill Bozeman, Montana (burning
wood waste)
107
Comment
Note rotary driers
Water vapor plume
Note black and brown
smoke
Note white smoke caused
by burning material
containing water
Taken while plane
was landing
Taken while bulldozer
operator was feeding fuel
to get added power
Water vapor plume matches.
the clouds
Note color of fugitive
dust
Dust of fairly large size
settles back to earth
rapidly
Note color of smoke and the
material being burned
Note colors of plumes and
the small particles that
stay aloft
Note that visible emissions
are present even with
conveyor feed
-------
Slide
Number Topic
8-31 Cement plant near New Orleans, Louisiana
8-32 Fluid catalytic cracking unit at
petroleum refinery Los Angeles, Calif.
8-33 Petroleum refinery
Toledo, Ohio
8-34 Fertilizer manufacture
Columbus, Ohio
8-35 Kraft process pulp mill
Albany, New York
8-36 Asphalt batching plant
Worthington, Ohio (Scrubber for control)
8-37 Asphalt batching plant
Worthington, Ohio (Scrubber for control)
8-38 Asphalt batching plant
Worthington, Ohio (Scrubber for control)
8-39 Detergent manufacturing plant
St. Bernard, Ohio (near Cincinnati)
8-40 Copper smelter
near Salt Lake City, Utah
8-41 Lead smelter
East Helena, Montana
8-42 Aluminum reduction plant
Chalmette, Louisiana
8-43 Coke plant Middletown, Ohio
8-44 Gray iron foundry Columbus, Ohio
8-45 Blast furnace and four stoves
Toledo, Ohio
108
Comment
Note rotary kiln and four
stacks used to emit particles
and water vapor from different
parts of the kiln
Five narrow towers are
fractionating (distillation)
units; large diameter unit
is a catalytic cracking unit
Water vapor and dust
Tall stack is chimney
from black liquor recovery
unit
Afternoon, good dispersion;
water vapor mainly
Early morning, poor
dispersion, inversion
Morning, closeup
Spray tower exhaust gives
plume containing considerable
water vapor
White plume still containing
considerable dust by time
it reaches the ground
White plume blends in with
the clouds on this day
Quenching the hot coke
with water
Morning with light wind
-------
Slide
Number
8-46
8-47
Topics
Steel mill Middletown, Ohio
Steel mill plumes over Gary, Indiana
8-48 Thermal-process phosphoric acid plant
Addyston, Ohio ("near Cincinnati)
8-49 Furnace process carbon black plant
Toledo. Ohio
8-50 Diesel truck
8-51 Jet emissions
8-52 Automobile smoke
8-53 Ferry boat
8-54 Power plant
8-55 Open hearth shop
8-56 Blast furnace and stoves
8-57 Blast furnace during "slip"
8-58 Black smoke from oil refinery flare
8-59 Oil refinery
8-60 Mist and vapor from paint manufacture
8-61 Nitric acid plant
8-62 Phosphate plant, Florida
8-63 Phosphate plant, Florida
8-64 Fertilizer manufacture
8-65 Kraft pulp mill
8-66 Lumber mill
Comment
Blast furnace and BOF
Wind blowing in from
Lake Michigan in the
afternoon
Plume from tall narrow
stack contains some
phosphoric acid and much
water vapor —emissions
from hydrator-absorber
after passing through
abatement equipment
No black plume
109
-------
Slide
Number Topic
8-67 Cement plant
8-68 Cement plant
8-69 Asphalt batching plant
8-70 Tepee burner
8-71 Open burning
8-72 Open burning
110
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INSTRUCTOR Q
LESSON PLAN \J
Subject: RiNGELMANN CHART AND EQUIVALENT OPACITY
Objective: The student should be able to define Ringelmann Number and
Equivalent Opacity, identify the five cards of the Ringelmann chart,
describe how an observer is trained to make plume observations in the
field without a chart or other aids, identify the advantages of visible
emission regulations, and list the aids and alternative methods for
evaluating plume shades.
Suggested Time: 45 minutes
Required Equipment: 35 ^ slide Projector
Ringelmann Chart
LESSON OUTLINE
Aids & Cues
Introduction:
Visible emission laws are written so that plumes of a speci-
fied shade or opacity are illegal, but plumes of a slightly
lighter shade or opacity are legal. To enforce these laws
inspectors must be trained to distinguish between small variation!
in the optical density of plumes.
First a scale must be set up so visible emissions can be
graded from no smoke to totally black or totally opaque. Here,
air pollution regulation makers have incorporated for gray-black
smoke a scale devised in France in the 19th century by an
engineering professor, Maximilian Ringelmann.
To regulate the optical densities of emissions that were
white or other colors besides gray and black, the County of
Los Angeles in the 1940's developed the concept of equivalent
opacity,which specified that these non-black plumes should be
judged by the amount of light that they failed to transmit. Thus
a white plume through which an observer could see an object with
65% clarity was considered to be acceptable but one through which
the observer could see an object with only 557o clarity was
unacceptable. The 65% transmission was termed 35% opacity and
the 55% transmission was called 45% opacity. When these regula-
111
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LESSON OUTLINE 9
Aids & Cues
tions for non-black plumes were devised, the opacities were
related to the already established limits set by the Ringel-
mann scale. Thus the opacities of non-black emissions were
equivalent to Ringelmann numbers and the term "equivalent
opacity" was derived.
As time passes, the restrictions on acceptable visible
emissions are being lowered so that 20% equivalent opacity is
the dividing point for emissions in most jurisdictions or for
most sources. In some areas and for some sources, even lower
opacities are required. However, until all visible emissions
are outlawed there must be inspectors who can distinguish
between shades of gray smoke or_opacities of white plumes.
I. Describe the Ringelmann Chart and the extension to
equivalent opacity
A. History of Ringelmann Chart
1. developed by Ringelmann about 1890
2. incorporated into Boston law in 1910
3. originally applied to emissions from coal-fired
boilers
4. excessive emissions for short peripds in an hour
may be allowed for starting up or soot blowing
B. Equivalent Opacity
1. California extended visual standards
2. Prohibited plume of any color having an opacity
that will obscure an observer's view to a degree
equal to or greater than smoke of Ringelmann
number 2 shade
3. Observer generally judges amount of light trans-
mitted- through both black and non-black plumes
a. relates transmittance to reflectance from
Ringelmann Chart for black plumes
b. relates transmittance to opacity for non-
black plumes.
C. Smoke density and equivalent opacity
112
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LESSON OUTLINE 9
Aids & Cues
1. definition of density for use in visible
emissions — quantity per unit volume or area
a. Ringelmann Chart — ratio of area occupied by
black grid lines to total area
b. black plume — shade of gray related to the
Ringelmann Chart density
2. opacity — degree to which transmitted light is
obscured
Dp Construction of the Ringelmann Chart
1. Four cards with black lines of different thickness
2. Blend into gray areas when viewed from a distance
3. Official chart referenced in air pollution law is
published by the Bureau of Mines.
4. If used in field, chart should .be 50 feet from
observer.
5. Readings are made to nearest 1/4 Ringelmann.
E. Opacity expanded to all visible emissions
1. First appeared in Federal Register in 1971
2. Concepts behind one measurement system
II. Discuss the regulating of emissions by setting limits on
the opacity of the emissions and the advantages
of this method.
A. Relation of visual observations to actual weight of
emissions
1. For a .specific source operating under specified
conditions, a correlation has been found between
grain loading and opacity but correlation is not
transferable to other sources.
2. Ensor and Pilat have developed a general theoret-
ical relationship between plume opacity and
particulate mass concentration for several
substances
3. Visible emission standards can show that more efficient
show Ringelmann
Chart
(see page 166)
4-
113
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LESSON OUTLINE 9
Aids & Cues
combustion may be required
4. If distribution of particle sizes in plume is
uniform, then reducing concentration of visible
submicron particles will substantially reduce
the total weight of emissions
B. Cost and comparison with source testing
1. Observer-inspector can be trained in 2 to 3 day.s.
2. Does not require extensive technical background.
3. One man can make observations of many sources in. 1
day whereas it may require as many, as 2-4 men to cond ct
a source test lasting several days including
laboratory analysis, calculations, and reports.
4. No expensive equipment is required.
5. Questionable emissions can be located by visual
observation and then source tests run if needed.
6. Method for controlling emissions that are diffi-
cult to source sample, e.g. fugitive emissions.
7. Can be used for observations of mobile sources
a. read at point of maximum density
b. use stop watch
c. read plume at an angle
d. take photo.
C. Accuracy
1. With proper training and recertification at least
every 6 months, an inspector can maintain his accuracy.
D. Criticisms of visible emission regulations.
1. Criticisms
a.. Opacity or density varies with position of
observer and position of the sun.
b. Opacity measurements cannot in general be
correlated with instruments measuring pol-
lutant mass rate of emission.
c. Colorless gaseous emissions cannot be regulated
114
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LESSON OUTLINE 9
Aids & Cues
by visible emission regulations.
d. Without proper lighting as a background, visible
emissions are difficult to apply at night .
e. Water vapor plumes may be erroneously judged as
violation of air pollution regulations.
f. VisiMe er.iscion regulations can be circumvented by
diluting with air prior to discharge into the atmos-
phere or by building a stack of smaller diameter.
2. Many criticisms may be surmounted if the inspector
will always follow standard procedures for observing
plumes
a. keep the sun in the 140° sector to your back.
b. read plume at a short distance above the stack
before it has begun to spread out.
c. identify whether the plume contains water vapor
by its appearance and then read the plume at the
point where the water evaporates or if a detached
plume,prior to the condensation of the water vapor.
If there is a choice between the two, read the one
with maximum opacity.
d. Wait until meteorological conditions improve.
III. Describe the various (seldom used, except #5 below)
smoke reading aids and alternatives to visual evaluation
and discuss their advantages and disadvantages.
A. Aids
1. smoke tintometer
2. umbrascope
a. cannot measure density less than 60%
3e smokescope
4. PHS film strip
a. film may change from body heat when carried
in shirt pocket
b. $15 cost
5. smoke comparison charts
a. hold at arm's leng-th
9-1
115
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LESSON OUTLINE 9
Aids & Cues
6. general disadvantages
a. applicable only to gray-black smoke
b. give only a limited number of Ringelmann
numbers
c. not significantly more accurate than sight
reading
B. Alternatives
1. photoelectric cell
a. mounted in stack
b. problems
1) periodic zeroing
2) emission buildup
2. lidar
a. new
b. expensive - approximately $50,000
IV. Sight readings advantages over devices
y_ Summary
Most people with normal eyesight can be trained to deter-
mine the correct shade of white or black emissions within an
average accuracy of 7.5% as compared with transmissometer.
With a regular schedule of retesting, air pollution control
inspectors who have qualified as visible emission readers can
form a strong enforcement arm. By using their visible
emission reading capabilities they can maintain particulate
emissions below a prescribed standard, can identify sources
for which stack tests should be run, and can do these jobs at
a smaller cost to their agency and to the taxpayer than any
ecuiivalent mechanic?.! methods of regulating visible emissions.
9-2
116
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INSTRUCTOR 1 A
LESSON PLAN JLU
Subject:
QUALIFICATION PROCEDURES AND EXERCISE IN RECORDING FOR QUALIFICATION
Objective: The student should be able to list the requirements for
qualifying as a visible emissions inspection, list the proper procedures
for observing visible emissions in the field, and properly fill out
the visible emissions training form.
Suggested Time: 30 minutes
Required Equipment: 35 mm Slide Projector
LESSON OUTLINE
Aids & Cues
Introduction:
One and a half days of this course are devoted to observing
series of black and white plumes to become a qualified ob-
server. I shall now explain the standards you must meet to
qualify and how the testing runs will be conducted. You will
record your readings during the test on a training form. If you
meet the required standards, you must fill out this form com-
pletely and hand it in to be examined and kept on record in the
files. During this lecture, I shall also show you how to fill
out this form.
I. Discuss the requirements for passing the visible emissions
reading proficiency test.
A. Observe 25 white and 25 black shades
B. White recorded in percent equivalent opacity;
black in Ringelmann numbers, or both in opacity.*
C. Deviations allowed
1. black - none of one Ringelmann or more (20% opacity)
2. white - none of 20% opacity or more
*depending on your regulations
117
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LESSON OUTLINE 10
Aids & Cues
D. Average deviation for 25 readings is less than
7.5% opacity in black and white categories
E. Everything accomplished on one series of runs
F. Training Form to be filled out and turned in.
II. Describe the conduct of the outdoor proficiency tests
A. Familiarization runs —correct readings announced
B. Practice run
1. 25 black and 25 white
2. Student to record
3. Correct readings announced at completion
A. student to figure out his score
C. Qualification Runs
1. Repeated for remainder of the course
2. Student fills out form and records observations
on original and one copy. Copy handed in; student
grades his readings and calculates average
deviation .
3. If student qualifies, he should complete entire
form and hand it in.
4. No need for qualifying again during this course.
D. Practice runs for violation citation — one black,
one white
1. Read at 15-second intervals and determine total
minutes that plumes were above Number 1 Ringel-
mann or 20% equivalent opacity•
2. Decide whether smoke generator operator was in
violation.
E. Read at sound of horn
F. Use of aids
G. Read under conditions that will exist in the field _
dark glasses?
118
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LESSON OUTLINE 10
Aids & Cues
IIII. Review proper procedures for observing smoke
A. Aim is to improve accuracy and maintain a uniform
procedure
B. ' Instructions
1. sun in the 140° sector to observer's back
2. night— light source behind the plume
3. observer at right angle to the plume
4. read a foot or two above the stack
5. contrasting background (.see discussion
Method 9, Federal Register)
6. don't stare at plume— in test, look at plume
when horn sounds
7. concentrate on reading; don't be distracted
IV. Explain how visible emission training form
should be filled out
A. Name, affiliation, date-
B. Time
C. Location
D. Wind speed
E. "Wind direction
1. orientation
2. 16 points of compass
F. Sky condition - all levels
1. clear
2. scattered
3. broken
4. overcast
5. estimation by quadrants
G. Observer's position
1. direction observer is facing
2. relation to sun
H. Run Number
119
10-1
-------
LESSON OUTLINE 10
Aids & Cues
I. Observer's Reading
1. black — 0 to 100 in 5% increments
2. white — 0 to 100 in 5% increments
J. Transmissometer Reading
K. Deviation columns
1. explain minus and plus readings
2. fill out in percent
L. Sum and Number
M. Qualification boxes
1. run number
2. number correct
3. excessive deviations
4. average deviation
a. explain computation
b. white and black figured separately
N. Examiner
V. Use slides to go through a sample visible emission reading
exercise of 5 black and 5 white shades. Have students fill
' out form and make computations in class or at. home in the
evening.
VI. Summary ~ •-• - --
In the visible emission reading proficiency test you will
observe a series of 25 shades of black plumes and 25 shades
of white plumes and record these in opacity readings. To
qualify on this test you are required to complete one
series of 50 readings during which you must:
A. Read each shade with no deviations of 20% or
greater (one Ringelmann or more for black
plumes)
B. Have an average deviation on both the black
and white plumes of no more than 7.5% on the
same run. There will be at least eight series
of field runs during which you can.try to qualify.
10-2, 10-3,10-4
10-5, 10-6
10-7, 10-8, 10-
f
10-10 , 10-11
120
-------
35 mm Slide for
Exercise in Recording for Qualification
Slide
Number Topic
10-1 Smoke school training form
10-2 Steam electric plant
St. Louis, Missouri (coal-fired)
10-3 Steam electric power plant
Columbus, Ohio (coal-fired)
10-4 Pathological incinerator
New Orleans, Louisiana
10-5 Feed plant, Sharonville, Ohio
10-6 Industrial boiler at a
cigarette manufacturer
Durham, North Carolina (coal-fired)
10-7 Fertilizer manufacture
Columbus, Ohio
10-8 Portland cement plant
Fairborn, Ohio
10-9 Aluminum reduction plant
Chalmette, Louisiana
10-10 Sulfuric acid manufacture
Columbus, Ohio
10-11 University power plant
Columbus, Ohio (coal-fired)
Comment
35%
85%
90%
75%
45%
Read at end of water
portion of plume 25%
Read at top of stack
50%
Read at point where
water evaporated 80%
Read at top of tall stack
.10%
Equivalent opacity of
wet plume read at top of
nearer stack 100%;
read at point where water
evaporates 0%.
121
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INSTRUCTOR 1 1
LESSON PLAN 11
Subject:
BASIC METEOROLOGY
Objective: The student should be able to define temperature lapse rate
and temperature inversion, identify the types of lapse rates and inversions,
list the types of fronts and pressure areas, and draw the symbols .used on
weather maps to designate fronts and pressure areas. He should also be
able to define turbulence and identify its causes, and describe its effects
on plumeso
Suggested Tine: 30 minutes
Required Equipment: Chalkboard, 35 mm Slide Projector
LESSON OUTLINE
Aids & Cues
Introduction:
The problem of air pollution has several aspects. Four
important ones are source of pollutants, transport of pollutants,
reception of pollutants, and control of pollutants. Meteorologi-
cal factors enter principally into the transport of pollutants for
these factors control the direction the pollutants take away from
the source, how fast they travel, and how much they spread hori-
zontally and vertically.
Since the control of pollution must consider transport
and diffusion, meteorology must also be taken into account in
planning control strategies. The dispersive character-
istics of the atmosphere will determine the relationship between
source emissions and ambient air quality.
During periods of high air pollution potential, it is the
measurements of prevailing weather conditions and the forecasts of
future conditions that determine what level of emergency controls
should be activated.
Meteorology can also control certain phases of the
emission and reception of pollutants. More fuel is burned in
cold weather and more dust is picked up when winds are strong.
The formation of photochemical pollutants requires the energy
122
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LESSON OUTLINE 11
Aids & Cues
from solar radiation.
Scavenging of pollutants from the air by precipi-
tation cleanses the air but it can cause contamination problems
at the ground. The corrosiveness of air pollutants to metal
surfaces is related to atmospheric humidity. Sunlight,
temperature,and humidity must be considered in determining
the rate at which pollutants affect vegetation.
I. Discuss radiation, lapse rate, and inversions.
A. Radiation
1. solar radiation
a. wavelengths
b. maximum - 0.4 to 0.7 microns
c. reflected, absorbed, transmitted, scattered
d. clear and cloudy skies
2. Earth
a. radiates in longer wavelengths
b. absorption by water vapor
c. "greenhouse effect"
d. surface as source of heat
B. Lapse Rate
1. definition
2. stability, and dispersion
a. neutral stability and dry adiabatic lapse rate
b. stable - temperature inversion
c. unstable
C. Inversions
1. radiation type
a. light wind
b. clear sky
c. depth
d. morning break up
123
11-1
11-2
11-3
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LESSON OUTLINE 11
Aids & Cues
2. subsidence type
II. Discuss fronts and pressure areas
A. Fronts
1. cold
2. warm
3. stationary
4. occluded
5. movement
6. relation to pressure areas
B. Pressure areas
1. highs— characteristics
2. lows —characteristics
III. Discuss particles in the air and their effect on
visibility
A. Removal of particles and particle sizes
1. settling — >20y
2. impaction — <20y
3. rainout — 0.1 to l.Op, at cloud level
4. washout — >l|j,
5. growth of small particles in moist atmospheres
B. Scattering
1. particles similar in size to visible wavelengths
2. decrease in visual range
3. dry haze
4. damp haze
5. mist
6. haze layer
7. forward scattering > backward scattering •
11-4
11-5
124
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LESSON OUTLINE 11
Aids & Cues
IV. Discuss water in the air.
A. Water vapor
1. invisible
2. relative humidity
a. relationship to air temperature
B. Liquid water
1. condensation
a. temperature
b. humidity
2. clouds and fog
a. particle size
b. radiational cooling
c. cooling by lifting or convection
3. precipitation
V. Discuss turbulence and eddies
A. Thermal turbulence
B. Mechanical turbulence
C. Downwash
D. Eddies _ relationship between stability and
their growth
VI- Summary
The dispersion of pollutants in the atmosphere is con-
trolled by the wind and the stability of the atmosphere.
Atmospheric stability is related to the lapse rate of
temperature. The greater the instability, the .faster a plume
will spread out.
Under inversion conditions plumes are prevented from
i
dispersing rapidly. Areas of high pressure are accompanied by
inversions, poor dispersion, and hazy conditions. Small
particles the size of visible light wavelengths scatter the
light and reduce the visibility at these times.
125
11-6
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INSTRUCTOR 1 O
LESSON PLAN IL
Subject:
METEOROLOGICAL FACTORS IN SMOKE READING
Objective: The student should be able to list the effects that weather
elements can have on readings of plume shade, list the procedures the
smoke observer should use to compensate for the effects, and to identify the
information on a weather map that is important to a smoke inspector. He
should also be able to define wind direction, identify the Beaufort
specifications for wind speed classes, and make observations of cloud
cover, wind direction,and wind speed for entering on the report form.
Suggested Time: 30 minutes
Required Equipment: Chalkboard and 35 mm Slide Projector
LESSON OUTLINE
Aids & Cues
Introduction:
The readings that you will make as smoke inspectors may
be used as evidence in court. Your testimony should be as ob-
jective (just the facts) as possible so that it can stand up under
the questioning of a defense lawyer. Anyone who has looked at
plumes has observed that they can vary in shape, shade, and
brightness even though the rate of emission from the stack does
not change. These variations of the plume are due to variations
of atmospheric elements such as wind, sunlight, cloudiness, and
humidity. You should understand the effects of these elements
and, where possible, adjust your observation procedures to
compensate for these effects. Whether or not you can compensate
for the effects, you should make note of the weather conditions
on your observation report so that you will have a record of them
for future reference.
126
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LESSON OUTLINE 12
Aids & Cues
I. Describe the effects of weather elements on the readings
of plume shade and point out procedures for compensating
for these effects.
A.
Effects
1. dilution of plume by strong winds
2. dispersion and downwind configuration of plume
related to atmospheric stability
3.
4.
changing wind direction and the observer's line
of sight through the plume
wind speed, wind direction, and the turbulent
eddies caused by buildings and other obstructions
a. relation of stack height to obstruction height
b. similarity to looping plume
5. light scattering, sun angle, and the effect on
plume contrast
6. contrast and effects of weather elements
a. contrast between plume and background
b. illumination of plume and background
c. effect of hazy atmosphere on contrast
d. effect of different sky shades on contrast
e. seasons, tree leaves, and background
B. Procedures for compensating for weather effects
1. Observe plume at right angles to the wind
2. Observe portion of plume just above the stack
3. Observe plume with sun within 140° sector to
your back
4. Pick out background that contrasts with color
of plume, if possible.
C, Make notes on weather conditions
II. Explain atmospheric humidity, how to estimate the humid-
ity, how it affects wet plumes, and point out that its
.variations can help the inspector to identify wet plumes.
127
12-1
12-2
12-3,12-4,12-5
12-6
12-7
12-8, 12-9
12-10
12-11
-------
LESSON OUTLINE 12
Aids & Cues
Relative humidity
1. percentage of saturation
water vapor, liquid water
saturation and condensation
2.
3.
4.
effect of air temperature on amount of water
vapor atmosphere can hold
5. Estimates of humidity
a. clouds and fog
b. moisture on ground
c. static electricity
B. Relative humidity and wet plumes
1. higher humidity, smaller rate of evaporation
2. higher humidity, greater persistence of wet plume
3. colder temperature, faster condensation
4. detached plumes and their relationship to air
temperature
5. methods of identifying plumes containing moisture
a. rate of evaporation and wispiness
b. persistence of non-water particles after
evaporation
c. longer plumes on cold moist days
d. detached plume on hot days, but not on cold
days
III. Discuss the elements that appear on weather maps and
weather forecasts and point out the portions of these
that can be useful to the inspector.
A.
Importance of weather report items to smoke inspector
1. fronts, precipitation
a. comfort of smoke reader
shower or steady precipitation
b.
c.
cleansing of particles by precipitation and
improvement of visibility
precipitation, relative humidity, and wet
plumes .
12-12
128
-------
LESSON OUTLINE 12
2.
temperature
a. comfort
Aids & Cues
b. relative need for heating and fuel combustion
c. detached wet plumes
3. wind direction
a. observer position
b. complaints
c. downwash
4. wind speed
a. dilution
b. plume rise
5. relative humidity
a. wet plumes
6. lows and highs
a. lows — precipitation
b. highs
(1) low wind speeds
(2) clear skies
(3) decreased visibility, more haze
(4) less clouds
7. cloudiness
a. background for plume
b.. clear skies
(1) night — inversions and fanning plumes
(2) day — instability and looping plumes
IV. Point out the weather observations that the inspector
must enter on his observation form and explain how these
observations should be made and the units in which they
should be entered on the report.
129
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LESSON OUTLINE 12
Aids & Cues
V.
A. Cloud cover
1. definition
2. measured in tenths
3. terminology
a. clear
b. scattered
c. broken
d. overcast
4. estimation by division of sky into quadrants
B. Wind direction
1. direction from which wind blows
2. 8 or 16 points of the compass
3. inspector must know his orientation to north
4. direction from blowing flags, paper, or grass
C. Wind speed
1. anemometers and their standard exposure
2. units — usually miles per hour
3. Beaufort scale
a. history
b. application to land sites
D. Wind variations
1. variations with height — effect of ground friction
2. variation during plume.observation period
E. Atmospheric stability observations
1. not required on form
2. can be estimated from time of day .and plume shape
3. can help in distinguishing between mechanical
and thermal turbulence effects on plume
Summary
A. Meteorological elements affecting plume observations
chalkboard,
12-13
12-14
12-15, 12-16
12-17, 12-18
12-19, 12-20
130
-------
LESSON OUTLINE 12
Aids & Cues
1. Wind speed — dilution
2. Wind variability — dispersion
3. Direction of sun — forward scattering greater
than backward scattering
4. Cloudiness — illumination of the plume and the
background
B. Plume reading procedures to overcome meteorological
effects
1. Plume should be viewed with sun within 140°
sector to observer's back;
2. Observer should look at the plume from a direction
approximately perpendicular to the wind direction
3. Observer should view the portion of the visible
plume nearest to the stack;.
4. Pick out a background that contrasts with the
color of the plume.
C. Importance of Contrasting Background as stated in EPA
Method 9:
"Variables which may not be controllable in the field
are luminescence and color contrast between the plume
and the background against which the plume is viewed.
These variables exert an influence upon the appearance
of a plume as viewed by an observer, and can effect the
ability of the observer to accurately assign opacity
values to the observed plume. Studies of the theory
of plume opacity and field studies have demonstrated
that a plume is most visible and presents the greatest
apparent opacity when viewed against a contrasting
background. It follows from this, and is confirmed
by field trials, that the opacity of a plume, viewed
under conditions where a contrasting background is
present can be assigned with the greatest degree of
131
-------
LESSON OUTLINE 12
Aids & Cues
accuracy. However, the potential for a positive error
is also the greatest when a plume is viewed under such
contrasting conditions. Under conditions presenting
a less contrasting background, the apparent opacity of
a plume is less and approaches zero as the color and
luminescence contrast decrease toward zero. As a re-
sult, significant negative bias and negative errors
can be made when a plume is viewed under less contrast-
ing conditions. A negative bias decreases rather than
increases the possibility that a plant operator will
be cited for a violation of opacity standards due to
observer error.
Studies have been undertaken to determine the magnitude
of positive errors which can be made by qualified observers
while reading plumes under contrasting conditions and using
the procedures set forth in this method. The results of
these studies (field trials) which involve a total of 769
sets of 25 readings each are as follows:
1) For black plumes (133 sets at a smoke generator),
100 percent of the sets were read with a positive
error of less than 7.5 percent opacity; 99 percent
were read with a positive error of less than 5
percent opacity.
2) For white plumes (170 sets at a smoke generator,
168 sets at a coal-fired power plant, 298 sets at
a sulfuric acid plant), 99 percent of the sets were
read with a positive error of less than 5 percent
opacity.
For a set, positive error = average opacity deter-
mined by observers' 25 observations - average opacity
determined from transmissometer's 25 recordings.
132
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LESSON OUTLINE 12
Aids & Cues
The positive observational error associated with an average
of twenty-five readings is therefore established. The
accuracy of the method must be taken into account when
determining possible violations of applicable opacity stand-
ards."
Slide
Number^
12-3
12-6
12-4
12-5
35 mm Slides Describing Plume Types
Description
Looping
Coning (Cement plant)
Fanning
Fumigation (Pulp mill plume, 7 a.m., July, Lewiston, Idaho)
12-11 Downwash caused by building
133
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INSTRUCTOR 1 Q
LESSON PLAN 10
Subject:
LEGAL ASPECTS OF VISIBLE EMISSIONS
Objective: The student should be able to differentiate between common
law and statute law, cite the decisions in the appeal cases of the
Los Angeles, California visible emissions statute, identify the require-
ments for a good air pollution law, state the visible emission regulation
in effect in his own region, identify the criteria for being an expert
witness, and list the rules of courtroom behavior for an expert witness.
Suggested Time: 40 minutes
Required Equipment: Chalkboard and 35 mm slide projector, 16 mm sound movie
projector with 14" takeup reel.
LESSON OUTLINE
Aids & Cues
Introduction:
The purpose of a visible emissions regulation is to control
the amount of air pollutants put out by a stack or tailpipe. The
law sets a standard—a specified Ringelmann Number or equivalent
opacity percentage— that determines what smoke is illegal. The
role of the air pollution control officer or inspector is to
enforce this law. He observes the smoke emissions and may issue
a citation when he sees a violation of the law.
In this procedure he is similar to a traffic policeman who
gives out a ticket to a driver who exceeds a specified speed,
this speed having been determined as being unsafe for the pre-
vailing conditions such as congestion, population, street width,
etc. Like the traffic policeman, you the air pollution officer
as part of your job, will sometimes be required to testify in
court concerning your observations.
In this lecture we will discuss the body of air pollution
law that has grown up and which has been tested in appeals cases.
To prepare you for your time on the witness stand, we shall
discuss several pointers on how to be an expert witness.
("Role of the Witness," a motion picture may serve as the
foundation for this portion of your presentation.)
134
-------
LESSON OUTLINE 13
Aids & Cues
Discuss the development of visible emissions law
A, Common law and statute law
!„ common _p"rove injury in each case
20 statute— black smoke is always a nuisance;
injury does not have to be proven in each case
Bo Air pollution regulation power belongs to the States
10 This power is given to the States by the 10th
amendment
2, The state can grant this power to the city or
county.
3<> Only limitations on States' power is in
14th amendment
C. Ringelmann Standard and Equivalent Opacity Standard
lo Massachuse :ts — 1910
20 Los Angeles — Section 24242
a, subsections for Ringelmann and Equivalent Opacity
3. Method 9, Federal Register; Opacity
Do Constitutionality tests
1. subsection (a)
2o subsection .(b)
3, outcome of California appeal cases
a, code is constitutional
b. statute may adopt USBM publication for
description, of prohibited act
Co smoke inspector can be considered as experts
do layman's uncertainty of the density is no
excuse
60 arbitrary setting of a Ringelmann Number as
a standard is matter of discretion
f, observation of a plume density violation
from one direction is sufficient for a court
citation.
135
13-1
13-2
13-3
-------
LESSON OUTLINE 13
Aids & Cues
II. Describe the requirements for a good air pollution law
and list some of the standard and variable terms in
visual emissions laws.
A. Requirements for a good air pollution law
1. must have power
2. enforceable
3. reasonable
4. clear and precise
5. no criminal intent is required
6. there can be different emission standards for
different sources.
B. Variations in visible emission regulations
1. different shades may be required
2. different types of sources may be included under
these regulations
3. different types of sources may require different
visible emissions restrictions
4. exceptions to regulations may be allowed during
certain periods or for certain sources
a. new fire
b. frost prevention
c. training firemen.
III. Discuss the visible emission regulation that is in effect
in the city or state where this course is being given .
A. Limitations
1. density
2. equivalent opacity
3. length of time per hour
B. Exceptions
1. source type
2. new fire
3. other
13-4
13-5,
136
-------
LESSON OUTLINE 13
Aids & Cues
IV. Discuss the role of the expert witness in a court.
A, What is special about an expert witness?
1« has special knowledge or talent
2, can testify to his opinions or conclusions.
B. Preparation for giving testimony
10 review observations
2C requirement for making out report completely at
time of violation since case may not come to
court for some time
30 go over your testimony with your attorney prior
to your appearance in court
4. photographs
a0 know plant process that was photographed
b. know weather
GO know camera and film data
5o telephone conversations should be preceded by a
visit with the plant operator
60 Do not become overconfident about court appear-
ances after having made them several times.
Co Pointers for the expert witness
1« dress
20 be responsive
30 do not volunteer
4, keep calm
5. be silent if "objection" is called out
6. several examinations may occur
a. direct
b, cross
c. redirect
d. recross
e. later recall .
Show movie
"Role of the
Witness"
13-8
137
-------
LESSON OUTLINE 13
Aids & Cues
V. Summary
The visible emission regulations—Ringelmann Number and
Equivalent Opacity—and their enforcement by a trained observer
have been established for a number of years in various States
and their constitutionality has been supported by appeals
cases. Therefore, the only additional requirements to make
them effective are that the trained air pollution control
officer make an observation of a violation, record his obser-
vation and the circumstances surrounding it, and when called
upon, testify before a judge regarding his observations.
In the final analysis, the entire success of the case
against a polluter may rest upon the quality of your testimony
in court and how convincing you are to the judge in your role
as an expert observer. By following the suggestions on prepa-
ration and courtroom behavior that I have mentioned, you and
your attorney should be able to present a convincing case.
138
-------
INSTRUCTOR
LESSON PLAN
14
Subject:
OBSERVATION REPORTS FOR VIOLATIONS
Objective: The student should be able to fill out a visible emission
observation report form, preferably the one in use in his own locality
or state.
Suggested Time: 15 minutes
Required Equipment: 35 mm slide projector
LESSON OUTLINE
Aids & Cues
Introduction
The purpose of making a visual observation of the degree of
blackness or whiteness of a plume is to collect evidence of the
violation of a law or regulation. To provide a sufficient basis
for court prosecution, the inspector must gather evidence essential
for a prima facie case — that is, a case that, unless contradicted,
adds up to a violation of the law.
The inspector should conduct his observation with this end in
mind. The report he fills out should be designed so that all the
essential information will be recorded. Appropriate observation
forms are those used by the U.S. Federal Government as recommended
in Method 9, and used to evaluate visible emission standards for
NSPS.
Discuss the visible emissions regulation(s) that exists in
your State, county, or city.
A. Statement of specifics, each of which must be proven in
court
1. violator
2. action
3. source
4. shade
Describe
forms at end
of this |
lesson plan.
14-1
(Also used in
Legal Aspects
LP-13
14-2
5. period of violation
139
-------
LESSON OUTLINE 14
Aids & Cues
B. Record and citation form
1. assure that proper data have been collected
2. report is not evidence by itself
a. observer's expert opinion
b. his testimony
3. facts to be reported on violation
a. nature and extent
b. date, time,, and location
c. person(s) responsible
d. equipment involved
e. cause
f. weather conditions
g. observation point
h. stack involved
C. Exceptions and special designations
1. specified, sources such as incinerators may be
required to meet a lover Ringelmann standard
2. higher emissions may be allowed
a. for special periods
. 1) new fire
2) cleaning fire box
3) blowing tubes
4) equipment breakdown
b. for special sources
1) railroad locomotives
2.) steamships
3) transfer of molten metals
4) coke ovens
5) gray iron foundries
3. specific sources may be. named rather than having
designation of "any source"
a. fuel-burning equipment
b. apartment houses
c. process equipment
d. diesel motor vehicles
e. open fires
f. etc.
140
-------
LESSON OUTLINE 14
II. Explain your report forms or a typical report form used
in your State, county, or city.
A.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Basic observational information
1. time intervals for each density or opacity
20 any color changes with time of beginning and
ending
3. total violation time for any standard period
(hour, half hour^ etc,)
B. • Supplementary information
1. observer location
wind direction and speed
cloud cover and weather conditions
date .and time of observation
name and address of violator
6. type of air pollutant
7. description of source
8. inspector's signature
Photographs.
1. good idea for presentation in court
2. do not take them at same time as the visual
observation
a. the shade on the photo may not match the
observation
b. processing may change the photo
3. have complete record of who handled and processed
the film
a. can be done by commercial firm
Aids & Cues
Make overhead
transparency ii
practical
14-1
14-2
141
-------
LESSON OUTLINE
Aids & Cues
III. Summary
The air pollution inspector should know the regulations
he is enforcing and be able to relate the items on his report
forms to their specific uses in making a record of his obser-
vations that will stand in court whether he gave the testimony
or someone else gives it using his report. Sometimes a case
may not come up until after the inspector has changed jobs.
However, his report and his qualifications as an inspector can
still be used by someone else in presenting the case.
142
-------
INSTRUCTOR 1 C
LESSON PLAN ID
Subject:
EMISSION GENERATOR
Objective: The student should be able to list the important components
of the emission generator and describe how black and white smoke are
produced and measured by the emission generator„
Suggested Time: 30 minutes
Required Equipment: 35mm Slide Projector
LESSON OUTLINE
Aids & Cues
Introduction: ' •
To qualify you as an expert visible emission reader we use a
device that produces different shades of black or white emission.
Before you are exposed to this smoke generator I want to explain
how it operates and tell you how the field testing portion of this
course will be conducted.
Visible emission generating equipment, for use in courses like
this one, can be built by air pollution control agencies or can be
purchased commercially. At present, the most widely used smoke
generators are made by Environmental Industries, P. 0. Box 441,
Gary, N. C. 27511. It is mounted on a boat trailer for 'easy
portability. The unit is custom made to the pruchaser's speci-
fications, but the principal features of it are present on all units.
It costs from $8,500 to $10,500. In this lecture I will discuss
the
operation of the Mark II model of this visible emission generator.
The Mark II model is no longer manufactured but is typical of the
currently manufactured models.
To begin with, it looks like a smokestack on wheels and basically
that is correct. Black or white plumes can be produced and their
opacity measured. But you will be primarily interested in what comes
out the stack.
143
-------
LESSON OUTLINE 15
Aids & Cues
Describe the equipment and method for producing black
and white emissions and for measuring the opacity of
the emissions
A. Black plume production
1. Black plume is produced by burning a fuel with
insufficient air •
2. Generating black plume
a. fuel: Toluene
1) flow regulated by valve
2) fuel burned on the floor of combustion
chamber
b. furnace: steel combustion chamber lined with
refractory brick or a double-walled steel
chamber
c. density of black plume controlled by
varying the fuel flow rate .
B* White plume production
1. Number two fuel oil is heated in absence of
oxygen until it vaporizes. It cools and con-
denses into a white cloud of liquid aerosol
droplets
2. Vaporization
a. heat for vaporization produced by exhaust
gases from gasoline engine
b« fuel oil injected into manifold carrying the
exhaust from the engine
c0 vapor is cooled in the end of the manifold
leading to the breeching and the stack .
C. Exhaust to the stack
1. Generated plumes, whether black or white, are
pulled into stack by an induce.d-dr.ift fan.
2. Smoke is diluted by ambient air as it enters the
stack .
144
15-1
15-2
-------
LESSON OUTLINE 15
Aids & Cues
iir.
D0 Transmissometer
!„ Components
a0 light source
b. photocell
2. Housing
a. four-foot length of pipe perpendicular to
stack
b, six feet below top of stack
3o Flushing to prevent smoke buildup
a. one foot of beam length is through the stack
b. other three feet
1) prevent smoke entrance by using smoke
stops
2) flush air with fans at each end of the
horizontal pipe
4o indication or recording of transmission.
a. percent transmission of the light between
source and photocell is relayed to micro-
ammeter
b. system calibrated to read 0-5 Ringelmann or
0-100% opacity. Calibrated in 5% opacity
steps,
c. adjustments
1) zero reading photocell reading with
both the white and black plumes
generating systems turned off
2) No. 5 Ringelmann or 100% opacity— photo-!
cell reading with bulb in trans-mis someter
system turned off.
Other smoke generating equipment
A. Los Angelas (1962)
1, Black smoke
145
15-3
-------
LESSON OUTLINE 15
Aids & Cues
a. atomizing-type fuel oil burner
b. larger combustion chamber
c. cooling chamber ~~ prevents secondary com-
bustion
do forced draft fan ~ helps to prevent distor-
tion of plume by wind as the smoke exits from
the stack
2. White plumes
a. vaporization of distillate oil is caused by
. heat from an adjacent combustion chamber
3. Opacity and density detection system
a. similar to Mark II
B. Any available information on other smoke generators
III. Explain how the training and testing of the student
inspectors will be conducted during the field portion of
this course.
A. Training plumes are produced by a smoke generator and
officially measured by a transmissometer in the stack
B. Runs of 25 shades of black ana 25 shades of white
plumes are used .
C. Training begins with familiarization runs of black
shades and of white shades. •
D,, Readings are made at sound of the horn
1. Smoke passing photocell when horn sounds will
reach top of stack at same time as student shifts
his view to top of stack in response to the horn
2. Generator operator will attempt to keep smoke
output steady for a few seconds after sounding
the horn
a. wind gusts may cause variation in smoke
density at top of stack •
Eo Student records his observations .
146
-------
LESSON OUTLINE 15
Aids & Cues
F. For testing, runs of 25 black and 25 white shades are
used .
1. Student must get a satisfactory score on a single
run of 50 shades to qualify .
2. Requirements
a. average deviation on black and white smoke
of not more than 7.5% in each category;
b. no reading of the 50 may vary from the
actual value of one Ringelmann or more or
by 20% opacity or more •— this is generally
more .stringent of the. two requirements.
Go Runs are repeated during the remainder of the field
testing portion.
H0- Training and testing may be conducted under various
conditions
1. Different times of day
a, testing at night may be included if inspector
will be required to make night observations
•2. Different atmospheric conditions
a. varying cloud cover
b." varying wind speeds
Co varying sun angles
I. Simulated field readings may be used during the
testing period •
IV. Summary
You will be observing shades of black smoke and shades of
white aerosol droplets from number two fuel oil both produced
by our generating equipment. In the test portion you will
read and record your observation of 25 shades of white plumes
in percent opacity to the nearest 5% and 25 shades of black
plumes (in Ringelmann number to the nearest 1/4) or (in opacity
to the nearest 5%)« (Use the one appropriate for your agency..)
147
-------
LESSON OUTLINE
Aids & Cues
There will be a long familiarization session before the
testing begins and short familiarization sessions in between
testing runs. By training your eye on these familiarization
runs and by profiting from your mistakes during the early
test runs you should be able to become proficient at glancing
at the plume for a second and silently noting its opacity
within the required limit of accuracy.
148
-------
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
VISIBLE EMISSION TRAINING FORM
1. Name of Observer
2. Affiliation
3. Date
Time
4. Wind Speed
5. Observers Position
6. Corrected By
Direction
Sky Condition
Record Black and/or White Smoke in Percent Opacity (for example: 5 percent smallest division)
RUN NO.
o
•z.
oe
c
•5
CO
?£
i'iZ
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
1 2
*1
S&
Transmissometer
Reading
c
_o
•4«»
CO
':»
o>
o
•f
•= Deviation
7. Run Number
o
Z
00
c
•5
C3
£>
K
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
I.E
%~%
ja o>
ooz
Transmissometer
Reading
-f Deviation
— Deviation
RUN NO.
«3
tXO
•5
CO
0>
cc
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
ggf
S'l
§«s
Transmissometer
Reading
•f Deviation
—Deviation
•
o
euj
•5
CO
CO
CC
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
|gp
«"§
5S
S«
Transmissometer 1
Reading j
H- Deviation |
—Deviation
8. Number Correct
9. Number of Plus Deviations
10. Number of Minus Deviations
11. Average Plus Deviations = Sum of Plus Deviations
No. of Plus Deviations
12. Average Minus Deviations - Sum of Minus Deviations
No. of Minus Deviations
13. Average Deviation z (Sum of Plus Deviations) + (Sum of Minus Deviations)
Total No. of Readings
14. Number of Readings 20% Deviation and Over (or 1 Ringeimann and more)
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
149
-------
1. Which analysis would you need to find out how much ash is in
a coal, proximate or ultimate?
2. Are kerosine, and fuel oil for home furnaces classified
as distillate or residual?
3. What are the "3 T's" of combustion?
4. What other element is needed besides the "3 T's"?
5. In five words or less for each "T" give an example of the practical
application of each "T" in the burning of fuel la either a furnace,
kerosine lamp, or other combustion device.
150
-------
QUIZ II
Exercise in Recording for Qualification*
Slide
Number Topic
10-1 Smoke School Training Form
10-2 Steam electric plant
St. Louis, Missouri (coal-fired)
10-3 Steam electric power plant
Columbus, Ohio (coal-fired)
10-4 Pathological incinerator
New Orleans, Louisiana
10-5 Feed plant, Sharonville, Ohio
10-6 Industrial boiler at a
C igarette manufacturer
Durham, North Carolina (coat- fired)
10-7 Fertilizer manufacture
Columbus, Ohio
10-8 Portland cement plant
Fairborn, Ohio
10-9 Aluminum reduction plant
Chalmette, Louisiana
10-10 Sulfuric acid manufacture
Columbus, Ohio
10-11 University power plant
Columbus, Ohio (coal fired)
Comment
35%
85%
50%
75%
45%
Read at end of water
portion of plume 25%
Read at top of stack
50%
Read at point where
water evaporated 80%
Read at top of tall stack
10%
Equivalent opacity of
wet plume read at top of
nearer stack 100%
read at point where water
evaporates 0%
* Student should be able to identify each source type. Other slides
may be substituted at the discretion of the instructor.
Note: These are the same slides as those used in Lesson Plan 10
151
-------
QUIZ III
1. Why will a temperature inversion frequently form on cloudless nights?
2. Will cool or warm air hold more water vapor?
3. Draw a weather system with the following parts in approximately
proper orientation to each other:
a) low pressure area
b) cold front
c) warm front
d) high pressure area
4. Show the correct meteorological symbols for A through D in question 3.
5. Use arrows to show the correct wind flow direction around the low
and high pressure areas.
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Instructor: Questions should be selected to reflect only that material covered by your course
presentation. Whenever necessary, the questions should be revised to coincide with local or
state regulations.
Visible Emissions Examination
Fill in the following for the time you are taking this test or for the
last time you were outside:
Name ; : Time_
Date
Wind Speed
Wind Direccion_
Sky Condition_
True or False
Place a T or F to the left of the question number.
1. Smoke is a visible effluent resulting from incomplete combustion.
2. All air pollutants are visible.
3. Solid or liquid particulates in the air can affect safe operation of
aircraft and automobiles.
4. Dust settles faster than smoke.
5. A white plume of 60 percent opacity is equivalent to Ringelmann No. 2.
6. Fluoride dust is a product of poor combustion.
7. Black smoke can -Indicate that fuel is being wasted.
8. Distillate fuel oils are limited to less than 1 percent sulfur and
1 percent ash content.
9. The particulates coming from efficient combustion are chiefly ash.
10. Sulfuric acid mist is invisible.
11. A forced draft is created by pulling air out of the system with a fan.
12. Secondary air jets in a furnace tend to reduce emission of particulates.
13. Most tepe'e burners-can be classified as multiple-chamber incinerators.
14. There is a higher percentage of hydrogen in natural gas than in oil.
15. Blue smoke indicates that an automobile engine needs repair.
16. Jet engines usually emit excessive visible smoke only on takeoff and landing.
17. Large power plants usually burn coal with low ash content.
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18. The smoke reading proficiency test requires the inspector to observe
50 shades of black smoke and read each shade with no deviations greater
than 25 percent.
19. Readings should be made at approximately right angles to the wind direction.
20. White plumes should be read against a contrasting background such as
tree, leaves, when practicable.
21. An inspector should wear dark glasses to avoid glare whenever he makes
readings.while looking toward the sun.
22. To make a legally valid observation, an observer must have a Ringelmann
Chart to compare with the smoke shade.
23. The lapse rate refers to the difference of temperature with height.
24. The effective stack height is the distance from the ground to the top
of the plume after the plume becomes horizontal.
25. When both are saturated, cool air can contain more water vapor than warm air.
26. Pure water plumes tend to be denser on hot days.
27. A pure water plume is wispy and disappears rapidly.
28. The Ringelmann and the equivalent opacity regulations are examples of
common law, not statute law.
29. In court, volunteer any information related to the topic or question.
30. Always meet a plant operator before having telephone conversations
with him.
31. The white plume from the emission generator is primarily water vapor.
32. Wind direction is defined as the direction toward which the wind is
blowing.
Choose the correct item or items from the following statements and place the
letter or letters to the left of the question number.
33. The principal cause of the blackness of a smoke plume is (a) fly ash,
(b) water vapor, (c) soot, or (d) gases.
34. Fumes consist of (a) carbon, (b) condensed metal vapors, (c) soot, or
(d) liquid particles.
35. A visible pollutant gas is (a) nitrogen dioxide, (b) carbon monoxide,
(c) sulfur dioxide, or (d) nitric oxide.
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36. The component of fuel that does not burn is (a) carbon, (b) sulfur,
(c) hydrogen, or (d) ash.
37. Incinerator smoking may be reduced by (a) keeping the charging opening
practically blocked by waste, (b) mixing slow burning material with flash
burning material, (c) dumping wet garbage into the combustion
chamber.
38. Blue smoke from an automobile is caused by (a) excessive fuel pump
pressure, (b) oil entering combustion chamber, (c) clo'gged air
cleaner, (d) faulty spark plugs .
39. Clues to the origin of emissions come from (a) color and odor of plume,
(b) files of permits for construction and operation,
(c) shape of building, (d) surroundings of source.
40. To determine if white plumes have participates as well as water, the
inspector should (a) read the plume at its densest point, (b) observe
the plume where water vapor has evaporated, (c) read the area between
the top of the stack and the plume when the plume is a "detached plume."
41. The dispersion of a plume is influenced by (a) wind speed, (b) tempera-
ture lapse rate, (c). dew point, (d) depth of snow on the ground,
(e) visibility.
Answer each of the following questions as directed by placing the answer
to the left of the number.
42. Designate (by C for combustion and P for process) which of the following
plumes you would expect to have originated from combustion of material
containing carbon and which from the exhaust from an industrial
process:
(a) Black plume from a tall stack
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(b) Brown plume from the end of a long rotating cylinder
(c) White plume from a tall stack at a fertilizer plant
(d) Plume from a piece of equipment that looks like an Indian
wigwam with a cap on it
(e) White plume from a very thin, tall stack
(f) Black plume from the top of a tall tower near an oil refinery
(g) Reddish plumes from several tall stacks on a long building
(h) White plume from a tall stack, accompanied by a strong odor
(i) White plume from a tall, tapered stack on a large, box-like
building; plume generally seen only in cold weather.
43. If the emission generator had only the following equipment operating:
(a) Combustion chamber
(b) Auxiliary blower
(c) Transmissometer
(d) Recorder
—would it produce and measure white or black smoke?
44. Are the following conditions typical of a high- or low-pressure area?
Write H or L.
(a) Winds blowing in a clockwise direction around the center
(b) Low relative humidity
(c) Few clouds, sunny skies
(d) Low wind speeds
(e) Inversion development likely.
45. If in December you saw a weather map with the following symbols located
around your city,
Your
City El
how would you answer the following questions about your smoke-plume
observing activities for the day of the map? (Answer each question to
the left of the question number.)
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(a) Are the clouds going to decrease?
(b) Is the wind going to be more from the south or from the north?
(c) Are the chances of rain going to increase or decrease?
(d) If the cloud cover disappears, will there probably be an inversion
that night?
(e) Had one better wear a coat or jacket?
(f) If rain occurred when the front passed, do you expect better
visibility today than before the rain?
46. List the letters of the following devices or techniques that can
be used for making eye measurements of emissions:
(a) Umbrascope
(b) Smoke tintometer
(c) Lidar
(d) Sight reading
(e) Stack sampling
(f) Smokescope
47. State which of the four requirements for good combustion—time, temperature,
turbulence, sufficient oxygen—is improved by the following:
(a) Heating the chimney of a kerosene lamp
(b) Building a higher chimney by putting a tin can on the top of
the kerosene lamp chimney
(c) Raising the kerosene lamp chimney above its base
(d) Using the tuyere (pronounced tweer) on the kerosene lamp
(e) Placing the chimney over the kerosene lamp flame
(f) Putting baffles in the combustion chamber
(g) Using refractory brick in a combustion chamber
(h) Building a larger combustion chamber
(i) Introducing jets of steam into the flame at the top of a flare tower
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(j) Heating the air before it enters the furnace
(k) Injecting overfire air above a fuel bed
(1) Reducing the amount of fuel injected into a diesel engine cylinder
48. Some requirements for a good air pollution law are
(a) It must have the authority to reduce contamination
(b) It must be enforceable
(c) It must be reasonable
(d) It must be clear and precise
(e) It must require proof that the owner of a stack had criminal
intent in violating the ordinance.
49. A proximate analysis of coal gives the percentage by weight of
-------
Answers to Visible Emissions Examination
Name, Date, Wind Speed, Wind Direction, Sky Condition, and Time
are to be filled out by student using the proper terminology or symbols.
Entries do not have to be checked.
True or False
1. T
2. F
3. T
4. T Dust particles are larger and heavier than smoke particles.
5. F -
6. F
7. T
8. T
9. T
10. F
11. F
12. T
13. F
14. T
15. T So does black smoke
16. T
17. F Typical coals used in large plants range from 8 to 20% ash.
18. F 25 shades of white, 25 shades of black; no deviation greater than 15%
19. T
20. T
21. F Inspector should not make readings while looking in the direction of the
sun. He should not wear dark glasses while making field observations
unless he wore them during his certification test.
22. F
23. T
24. F It is the distance to the center of the plume.
25. F
26. F Water vapor will evaporate more quickly on hot days.
27. T
28. F
29. F
30. T An inspector should have met a person and be able to identify his
voice before talking to him on the telephone. This identification
would be necessary if the inspector should have to testify concerning
a telephone conversation.
31. F It is condensed vapor from #2 fuel oil
32. F Wind direction is the direction from which the wind blows
Complete the Statement
33. c
34. b
35. a
36. d
37. a and b
38. b The other answers would cause black smoke
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39. a, b, c, d
40. b and c
41. a and b
Other Questions
42. (a) C example, coal-burning heating plant
(b) P dust from a rotary drier
(c) P plume from drying operations
(d) C tepee burner used for incineration
(e) P example, sulfuric or phosphoric acid plant
(f) P or C flare tower
(g) P open hearth steel furnaces
(h) P kraft pulp mill, rendering plant, or brewery
(i) C natural-gas-fired boiler used for heating
43. black
44. high pressure area
45. (a) yes
(b) north
(c) decrease
(d) yes, if the skies clear
(e) yes
(f) yes, the rain cleanses the air and the stronger winds behind the
cold front give better dilution
46. a,.b, d, f
47. (a) temperature
(b) oxygen
(c) oxygen; however it may cool the fire
(d) turbulence
(e) time, turbulence, and temperature
(f) time and turbulence
(g) temperature
(h) time; however it may cool the fire if chamber is too large
(i) turbulence and oxygen
(j) temperature
(k) oxygen
(1) oxygen; the fuel to air ratio is reduced
48. a, b, c, d
49. b, c, e, f
50. To be filled out in accordance with local regulations.
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SPf.HTFTr.ATTnNS FOR A SMOKE GENERATOR
Generator -
Furnace -
Blower -
Hydraulic Cylinder -
Smokestack -
Trailer -
Hitch -
Fuel Tanks -
Fuel Pumps -
Fuels -
Trailer Running Lights -
Fuel Control Valve -
Flue Effluent Velocity -
Flue Diameter -
Weight -
Height -
Transmissometer Readout -
Photocell -
Bulb -
Exhaust Fans -
Dayton Electric Co. 2000 watt
14 ga. steel lined with
GR-2000 insulating brick
Dayton Electric Co.
#7C 554
1" piston, 36" reach
14 ga.; 12" diameter
Neptune Trailer - 1000 Ib
capacity
requires 1-7/8" ball
6 gal.; Outboard Marine
AC Type EP-1 12 volt DC
#2 Fuel Oil (White smoke)
Industrial Grade
Toluene
12 volts
Whitey #OR F2-A
1200 ft/rain
12 inches
900 Ib.
Travel Configuration: 7 ft.
Erect Configuration: 15-1/2 ft.
0-200 microamp DC Triplett Model
320-M or, 0-10 millivolt Recorder;
Yeiser Model 28
International Rectifier 15 N
PR-16
Dayton Electric Co. 2C 782
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STUDENT COURSE CRITIQUE
1. For each statement circle the one response that is the closest to your opinion.
1. The course objectives were:
1. clearly stated or written
2. stated or written; but not all of them were clear to me
3. stated or written; but most of them were not clear to me
4. neither stated or written
2. The course content was geared to a level that was generally:
1. appropriate for my background
2. too elementary
3. too difficult
4. inappropriate for my background
3. I think the organization of the course material was:
1. completely clear and useful; excellent
2. for the most part, clear and useful; good
3. some topics were organized in a clear and useful manner, while others were not; fair
4. there was little apparent organization in this course; poor
4. After reading the course manual, I think it is:
1. both a well written and useful document
2. a fairly well written document, but nevertheless useful
3. a poorly written document that is of limited utility
4. neither a well written nor useful document
5. there is no course manual
5. The time required to complete the homework assignments was:
1. reasonable
2. unreasonable
3. wasted; these assignments were "busy work"
4. other
NAME COURSE DATE
162
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6. The amount of time allotted for this course was:
1. sufficient
2. too long
3. too short
4. this course should last number of days
7. Overall. I think this course was:
1. excellent
2. good
3. fair
4. poor
8. Given the objectives of the course and the skills required for a'meaningful understanding of the material,
I would:
1. recommend this course to a friend without reservation
2. recommend this course with some possible changes
3. not recommend this course unless there were definite improvements
4. not recommend this course under any circumstances
9. For future courses, there should be:
1. no substantive changes
2. more practical application of the course material
3. more theory presented as a basis for the material taught
4. more of a "balance"provided between theory and practical application
10. How did you hear about this course?
1. employer
2. friend
3. schedule
4. conference
5. other
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<*| uj ^j ai
fn .„ ^n ,„ 21
II. Please circle the one number that represents the extent of your agreement o w w < O S z
with each of the following statements. READ EACH ITEM CAREFULLY. Eo C3 52 £ES2 OQL
co< < Q on Q ZO
11. The course content was useful for my professional growth,
12. The course content was what I had expected
13. The course content was too complex.
14. The course content was too simple.
15. The course content was up to date.
16. During the course 1 felt challenged to learn.
17. Generally, the course materials were presented in an interesting manner.
18. The course content was well coordinated among the instructors.
19. The instructors were well prepared for most class sessions.
20. The instructors were quite knowledgeable about their subject areas.
21. Generally, 1 understood what 1 was expected to learn in this course.
22. Throughout the course 1 received sufficient information on anything
1 did not understand.
23. The questions raised during the lectures were usually answered to mv
satisfaction.
24. My background was adequate for success in this course.
25. The teaching methods used in this course were effective for my learning.
26^ This course contained a sufficient amount of practice exercises.
27. The course assignments were useful for my learning.
28. The production quality of the audio-visual materials was technically
adequate.
29. The audio-visual materials aided my understanding of the topics
presented.
30. The final exam accurately represented the material covered in this course.
31. Overall, I was pleased with this course.
32. I think my technical skills and/or knowledge have been strengthened as
, -'aTesult of this course.
*"* 33. I think I will be able to use what I have learned from this course in
my current position.
5.
5.
5.
5.
5.
5.
5.
5.
5.
5.
5.
5.
5.
5.
5.
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5,
5.
5.
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4.
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3.-
3.
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3.
3.
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3.
3.
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3.
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3.
3.
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2.
2.
2.
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2.
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1.
I consider the most needed improvement in this course to be:
The "best" part of this course was:
164
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III. Please circle the one number that represents the extent of your agreement
with each of the following statements. READ EACH ITEM CAREFULLY.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
LABORATORY CRITIQUE
The lab procedures were clearly explained.
Assistance was available to me during the laboratory sessions.
The lab sessions were well organized.
The content of the lab was an essential part of this course.
The lab assignments were of a reasonable length.
The time allotted for the laboratory sessions was sufficient.
The laboratory instructors were helpful.
The laboratory had an adequate amount of equipment.
I consider the most needed improvement of the laboratory sessions to be:
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5.
5.
5.
5.
5.
5.
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The "best of the laboratory sessions was:
IV. ADDITIONAL COMMENTS
165
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1. Equivalent to 20 percent black.
2. Equivalent to 40 percent black.
to
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-450/3-78-105
2.
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION-NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
VISIBLE EMISSIONS EVALUATION
TRAINING COURSE 439 -
Instructor Manual
- AIR POLLUTION
5. REPORT DATE
September 1978
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Northrop Services, Inc.
Air Pollution Training Institute
c/o U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (MD-20)
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
68-02-2374
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Control Programs Development Division
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
FINAL
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
There is an accompanying students manual to be used in conducting visible emissions
training courses. See EPA publication EPA-450/3-78-106.
16. ABSTRACT
This manual is to be us.ed -by instructors or teachers who are conducting classes on
how to evaluate ("read") visible emissions to the atmosphere from air pollution
sources. It includes everything the instructor needs when used with the student's
manual Csee block 15 on this form). Topics covered include course and lesson
objectives; lesson plans; quizzes; instructions on operation of the "smoke" generator
for black and white smoke; instructions on how to conduct the training course; and
methods for evaluation of student performance. Sources of other needed items
(.films; slides; Ringelmann charts, etc.) are given.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
COSATI Field/Group
EPA Method 9.
Smoke
Air Pollution
Inspection
Effluents
Detection
training materials
smoke inspection
visible emissions
13 b
68 A
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT Unlimited.
Available from National Technical
Information Service, 5285 Port Royal
19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)
unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
176
Knar!. Sm-inpf i'p1 H . Va
79161
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
167
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