INTRODUCTION TO GRQUNDWATER  INVESTIGATIONS            QSHEBL 9285..9-15B
                                                                     540/R-95-091
                                                                     PB95-963217
                                     FOREWORD
This manual is for reference use of students enrolled in scheduled training courses of the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).  While it will be useful to anyone who needs information
on the subjects covered, it will have its greatest value as  an adjunct to classroom presentations
involving discussions among the students and the instructional staff.

This manual has been developed with a goal of providing the best available current information;
however, individual instructors may provide additional material to cover special aspects of their
presentations.

Because of the limited availability of the manual, it should  not be cited in bibliographies or other
publications.

References to products and manufacturers are for illustration only; they do not imply endorsement
by EPA.

Constructive suggestions for improvement of the content and format of the manual are welcome.

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         INTRODUCTION TO GROUNDWATER INVESTIGATIONS

                                       (165.7)

                                       3 Days


This  introductory  course  is  designed  to  provide participants  with information  concerning
hydrogeological processes and the necessary elements of a sound groundwater site investigation. It
is intended  for personnel who  are involved in groundwater contamination investigations but have
little  prior hydrogeological  experience.    This  course  is  not designed  for  geologists  or
hydrogeologists.

Topics that are discussed include hydrogeological  definitions  and concepts; basic geology  and
geochemistry; drilling, construction,  and placement  of monitoring wells;  groundwater sampling
considerations; groundwater flow rates; and groundwater modeling.

Instructional methods include lectures, group discussions, case studies, and  class problem-solving
exercises.

After  completing the course, participants  will be able to:

       •     Identify the components of a groundwater system.

       •     List the primary hydrogeological factors to be  considered in a site investigation.

       •     Construct a flow net and calculate the hydraulic gradient of a simple system.

       •     Discuss the primary advantages and disadvantages of the most common geophysical
             survey methods.

       •     Identify the different types of pumping tests and the information that can be obtained
             from each.

       •     Describe monitoring well drilling and sampling techniques.
                        U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
                    Office of Emergency and Remedial  Response
                            Environmental Response Team

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                                 CONTENTS
Acronyms and Abbreviations

Glossary
SECTION 1


SECTION 2

SECTION 3


SECTION 4

SECTION 5

SECTION 6

SECTION 7
SECTION 8

SECTION 9
SECTION 10
GEOLOGY
   Article:    Geometry of Sandstone Reservoir Bodies

HYDROGEOLOGY

THE HYDROGEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION
   Checklist for a Hydrogeological Investigation

GEOPHYSICAL METHODS

MONITORING THE VADOSE ZONE

WELL CONSTRUCTION

HYDROGEOCHEMISTRY
   Article:    Migration of Chlorophenolic Compounds at the Chemical Waste
             Disposal Site at Alkali Lake, Oregon—1.  Site Description and
             Ground-Water Flow

   Article:    Migration of Chlorophenolic Compounds at the Chemical Waste
             Disposal  Site  at Alkali  Lake,  Oregon—2.   Contaminant
             Distributions, Transport, and Retardation

   Article:    Using the Properties of Organic Compounds to  Help Design a
             Treatment System

GROUNDWATER FLOW RATES AND MODELING

PROBLEM EXERCISES
   Problem 1—Flow Net Construction
   Problem 2—Geologic Cross-Section Construction
   Problem 3—Aquifer Tests
   Problem 4—Groundwater Investigation
   Problem 5—Nomograph

APPENDICES
   Appendix  A—Sampling Protocols
   Appendix  B—References
   Appendix  C—Sources of Information
9/93
                                                         Contents

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                     ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
ACS        American Chemical Society

AGI        American Geological Institute

ARAR      applicable or relevant and
            appropriate requirement

ASTM      American Society for Testing
            and Materials

ATSDR     Agency for Toxic Substances
            and Disease Registry

atm         atmosphere

BDAT      best demonstrated available
            technology

BM         Bureau of Mines

BNA        base/neutral/acid extractables

BOD        biochemical oxygen demand

BTEX      benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene,
            and xylenes

CAA        Clean Air Act

CDC        Centers for Disease Control

CE         current electrode

CERCLA   Comprehensive Environmental
            Response, Compensation and
            Liability Act of 1980

CERCLIS   CERCLA Information System

CERI       Center for Environmental
            Research Information

CFR        Code of Federal Regulations

CLP        Contract Laboratory Program

9/93
CFA       continuous flight auger

COC       chain of custody

COD       chemical oxygen demand

COE       U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

CWA      Clean Water Act

DO        dissolved oxygen

DOJ       U.S. Department of Justice

DOT       U.S. Department of
           Transportation

DQO       data quality objectives

DRI       direct-reading instruments

DNAPL    dense, nonaqueous phase liquid

Eh         oxygen-reduction potential

EM        electromagnetic

EMSL-LV  Environmental Monitoring
           Systems Laboratory - Las
           Vegas

EP,OX       toxicity-extraction procedure
           toxicity

EPA       U.S. Environmental Protection
           Agency

EPIC      Environmental Photographic
           Interpretation Center

ER        electrical resistivity

ERP       Emergency Response Plan



               Acronyms and Abbreviations

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ERT        EPA Emergency Response
            Team

ERTS       Earth Resources Technology
            Satellite

EROS       Earth Resources Observation
            Systems

ESB        EPA Environmental Services
            Branch

ESD        Environmental Services
            Division

eV         electron volt

FIFRA      Federal Insecticide, Fungicide,
            and Rodenticide Act

FIT        field investigation team

FRP        fiberglass reinforced plastic

FS         feasibility study

FSP        field sampling plan

GAC       granular activated carbon

GC        gas chromatograph

GC/MS     gas chromatography/mass
            spectrometry

gpm        gallons per minute

GPR       ground-penetrating radar

GWA       Ground Water Act of 1987

HASP      health and safety plan (see also
            site safety plan)

HAZMAT  hazardous materials team
HRS
hazard ranking system
                                 HSL       hazardous substance list
                                             (previous term for target
                                             compound list)

                                 HSA       hollow-stem auger

                                 HSO       health and safety officer (see
                                             also SSC, SSHO, and SSO)

                                 HSWA     Hazardous and Solid Waste
                                             Amendments (to RCRA, 1984)

                                 HWS       hazardous waste site

                                 ICS        incident command system

                                 IDL        instrument detection limit

                                 IDLH      immediately dangerous to life
                                             and health

                                 IP         ionization potential

                                 IR         infrared (spectroscopy)

                                 K          hydraulic conductivity

                                 LEL       lower explosive limit

                                 LNAPL    light, nonaqueous phase liquid

                                 LUST      leaking underground storage
                                             tank

                                 MCL       maximum contaminant level

                                 MCLG     maximum contaminant level
                                             goal

                                 MDL       method detection limit

                                 MSL       mean sea level

                                 m/sec      meters per second

                                 MHz       megahertz
Acronyms and Abbreviations
                                                                      9/93

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MS/MS     mass spectrometry/mass
            spectrometry

NEAR      nonbinding preliminary
            allocation of responsibility

NCIC       National Cartographic
            Information Center

NCP        National Oil and Hazardous
            Substances Pollution
            Contingency Plan

NEIC       National Enforcement
            Investigation Center

NIOSH     National Institute of
            Occupational Safety and Health

NIPDWR   National Interim Primary
            Drinking Water Regulations

NOAA      National Oceanic and
            Atmospheric Administration

n.o.s.       not otherwise  specified (used
            in shipping hazardous material)

NPDES     National Pollutant Discharge
            Elimination System

NPL        National Priorities List

NRC        Nuclear Regulatory
            Commission

NSF        National Sanitation Foundation

NTIS       National Technical Information
            Service

NWS       National Weather Service

OERR      EPA Office of Emergency and
            Remedial Response
OHMTADS Oil and Hazardous Materials
            Technical Assistance Data
            System

OSHA      Occupational Safety and Health
            Administration

OSWER    EPA Office of Solid Waste and
            Emergency Response

OVA       organic vapor analyzer (onsite
            organic vapor monitoring
            device)

OWPE      EPA Office of Waste Programs
            Enforcement

PAC        powdered activated carbon

PAH        polycyclic aromatic
            hydrocarbons

PCB        polychlorinated biphenyls

PCDD      polychlorinated dibenzo-/>-
            dioxin

PCDF      polychlorinated dibenzofuran

PCP        pentachlorophenol

PE         potential electrode

PEL        permissible exposure limit

PID        photoionization detector

PO         project officer (EPA)

POHC      principle organic hazardous
            constituent

POM       polycyclic organic matter

POTWs     publicly owned treatment
            works

ppb        parts per billion
9/93
               Acronyms and Abbreviations

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PPE        personal protective equipment

ppm        parts per million

PRP        potentially responsible party

psig        pounds per square inch gauge

PVC        polyvinyl chloride

QA         quality assurance

QA/QC     quality assurance  and quality
            control

QAMS      quality assurance  management
            staff

QC         quality control

RA         remedial action

RAS        routine analytical  services

RCRA      Resource Conservation and
            Recovery Act of  1978

RD         remedial design

REM       remedial planning

REM/FIT   remedial planning/field
            investigation team

RI/FS      remedial investigation and
            feasibility  study

ROD       record of decision

RPM       EPA remedial project manager

RQ         reportable quantity

RSPO      remedial site project officer

RSCC      Regional Sample  Control
            Center
SARA      Superfund Amendments and
            Reauthorization Act of 1986

SAS        special analytical services

SCBA      self-contained breathing
            apparatus

SCS        Soil Conservation Service

SDL        sample detection limit

SDWA      Safe Drinking Water Act

SI          site inspection

SITE       Superfund Innovative
            Technology Evaluation

SM         site manager

SOP        standard operating procedure

SP         spontaneous potential

SQG       small  quantity generator

SSC        site safety coordinator

SVOC      semivolatile organic
            compound

SWDA      Solid  Waste Disposal Act

TAT       technical assistance team

TCLP      toxicity characteristic leaching
            procedure

TEGD      Technical Enforcement
            Guidance Document

TDS        total dissolved solids

TLV       threshold limit value

TOC       total organic carbon
Acronyms and Abbreviations
                                     9/93

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TOH       total organic halogen

TOX       total organic halides

TSCA      Toxic Substances Control Act

TSDF      treatment, storage, and disposal
            facility

TUHC      total unburned hydrocarbons

UEL        upper explosive limit

UMTRCA   Uranium Mill Tailing Radiation
            Control Act

USCG      United States Coast Guard

USCS      Unified Soil Classification
            System

USDI       U.S. Department of the Interior

USGS      U.S. Geological Survey

UST        underground storage tank

UV         ultraviolet

VOA       volatile organic analysis

VOC       volatile organic compound
9/93                                       5                  Acronyms and Abbreviations

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                                       GLOSSARY
acre-foot


adsorption


advection


alluvium
anisotropic

aquifer
aquifer test
aquitard


artesian


artificial recharge


artesian aquifer

bedload
enough water to cover 1 acre to a depth of 1 foot; equal to 43,560
cubic feet or 325,851 gallons

the attraction and adhesion of a layer of ions from an aqueous solution
to the solid mineral surfaces with which it is in contact

the process by which solutes are transported by the bulk motion of the
flowing groundwater

a general term  for clay, silt, sand, gravel, or similar unconsolidated
material  deposited during comparatively recent geologic time by a
stream or other body of running  water  as  a  sorted or semisorted
sediment in the bed of the stream or on its floodplain or delta, or as
a cone or fan at the base of a mountain slope

hydraulic conductivity ("K"), differing with direction

a geologic formation, group of formations, or a part of a formation
that  contains   sufficient permeable  material  to  yield  significant
quantities of groundwater  to  wells and springs.   Use  of the term
should be restricted to classifying water bodies in accordance with
stratigraphy or rock types. In describing hydraulic characteristics such
as transmissivity and storage coefficient,  be careful to refer those
parameters to the saturated part of the aquifer only.

a test involving the withdrawal of measured quantities of water from,
or the addition  of water to, a well (or wells) and the measurement of
resulting changes in head (water level) in the aquifer both during  and
after the  period of discharge or addition

a  saturated, but poorly permeable  bed,  formation, or  group of
formations that does not yield water freely  to a well or spring

confined; under pressure sufficient to  raise the water level  in a well
above the top of the aquifer

recharge at a rate greater than natural, resulting  from  deliberate or
incidental actions of man

see confined aquifer

the part of the total stream load that is  moved on or immediately above
the stream  bed, such as the  larger  or heavier particles (boulders,
pebbles,  gravel) transported by traction or saltation along the bottom;
the part of the load that is not continuously in suspension or solution
9/93
                  1
Glossary

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capillary zone
capture



coefficient of storage


cone of depression


confined
confined aquifer



confining bed


diffusion


discharge area



discharge velocity



dispersion



drawdown


effective porosity
negative pressure zone just above the water table where water is drawn
up from saturated zone  into  soil pores due  to  cohesion of water
molecules and adhesion of these molecules to soil particles.  Zone
thickness may be several inches to several feet depending on porosity
and pore size.

the decrease in  water discharge naturally from a  ground-water
reservoir  plus  any increase  in  water  recharged  to  the reservoir
resulting from pumping

the volume of water an aquifer releases from or takes into storage per
unit surface area of the aquifer per unit change in head

depression of heads surrounding a well caused by withdrawal of water
(larger cone for confined aquifer than for unconfmed)

under pressure significantly greater than atmospheric throughout and
its upper limit is the  bottom of a bed of distinctly lower hydraulic
conductivity than that  of  the  material  in which the confined water
occurs

geological  formation  capable  of storing  and transmitting  water  in
usable quantities  overlain by  a less  permeable  or .impermeable
formation (confining layer) placing the aquifer under pressure

a body of "impermeable" material stratigraphically adjacent to one  or
more aquifers

the process whereby particles  of liquids,  gases, or solids intermingle
as a result of their spontaneous movement caused by thermal agitation

an area in which subsurface water, including both groundwater and
water in the unsaturated zone, is discharged to the land  surface,  to
surface water, or to the atmosphere

an apparent velocity,  calculated  from Darcy's law, which represents
the flow rate at which water would move through the aquifer if it were
an open conduit (also  called specific discharge)

the spreading and mixing of chemical  constituents in groundwater
caused by diffusion and by mixing due to microscopic variations in
velocities within and between pores

the vertical distance through which the water level in a well is lowered
by pumping from the  well or a nearby well

the amount of  interconnected pore space  through  which fluids can
pass, expressed as a percent of bulk volume. Part of the total porosity
 Glossary
                                                            9/93

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evapotranspiration


flow line


fluid potential



gaining stream


groundwater

groundwater divide


groundwater model


groundwater reservoir

groundwater system


head
heterogeneous/geological
formation

homogeneous
will be occupied by static fluid being held to the mineral surface by
surface tension, so effective porosity will be less than total porosity.

the combined loss of water from direct evaporation and through the
use of water by vegetation (transpiration)

the path  that a particle of water follows in its movement through
saturated, permeable rocks (synonym: streamline)

the mechanical  energy per unit mass of water or other fluid at any
given point in space and time, with respect to an arbitrary  state of
datum

a stream  or reach of a  stream whose flow is being increased by inflow
of groundwater (also called an effluent stream)

water in  the zone of saturation

a ridge in the water table or other potentiometric surface from which
groundwater moves away in both directions normal to the ridge line

simulated representation of a groundwater system to aid definition of
behavior and decision-making

all rocks in the zone of saturation (see also aquifer)

a groundwater reservoir and its contained water;  includes hydraulic
and geochemical features

combination of elevation above datum and pressure energy imparted
to a column  of water (velocity energy  is ignored because of low
velocities of groundwater).  Measured in lengtii units  (i.e., feet  or
meters).

characteristics varying aerially or vertically in a given system
geology of the aquifer is consistent; not changing with direction or
depth
hydraulic conductivity "K" volume flow through a unit cross-section area per unit decline in head
                           (measured in velocity units and dependent on formation characteristics
                           and fluid characteristics)
9/93
                                                        Glossary

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hydraulic gradient
change of head values over a distance
hydrograph


impermeable


infiltration


interface

intrinsic permeability
isotropic

laminar flow

losing stream


mining
 nonsteady state-nonsteady
 shape
where:

H = head
L = distance between head measurement points

graph that shows some property of groundwater or surface water as a
function of time

having a  texture that does not permit water to  move through  it
perceptibly under the head difference that commonly occurs in nature

the flow or movement of water through  the  land surface  into the
ground

in hydrology, the contact zone between two different fluids

pertaining to the relative ease with  which a porous medium  can
transmit a liquid under  a hydrostatic  or potential  gradient.  It is a
property of the porous medium and is independent of the nature of the
liquid or the potential field.

hydraulic  conductivity ("K") is the same regardless of direction

low velocity flow with no mixing (i.e., no turbulence)

a stream or  reach of a stream that is  losing water to  the subsurface
(also called an influent stream)

in  reference to  groundwater, withdrawals  in excess  of  natural
replenishment and capture.   Commonly applied to heavily pumped
areas in  semiarid  and arid regions, where opportunity  for natural
replenishment and capture is small.   The term is hydrologic  and
excludes any connotation of unsatisfactory water-management practice
(see, however, overdraft).

(also called unsteady state-nonsteady shape) the condition when the
rate of flow through the aquifer is changing and water levels are
declining.  It exists  during the early  stage of withdrawal when the
water level  throughout the cone of depression is  declining and the
shape of the cone is changing at a relatively rapid rate.
 Glossary
                                                            9/93

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nonsteady state-steady
shape
optimum yield



overdraft



pellicular water



perched


permeability


permeameter


piezometer
porosity


potentiometric surface



recharge

recharge area


safe yield


saturated zone
is the condition that exists during the intermediate stage of withdrawals
when the water level is still declining but the shape of the central part
of the cone is essentially constant

the best use of groundwater that can be made under the circumstances;
a use dependent  not only  on hydrologic factors but also on legal,
social, and economic factors

withdrawals of groundwater at rates perceived to be excessive and,
therefore, an unsatisfactory  water-management practice  (see  also
mining)

water adhering as films to the surfaces of openings and occurring as
wedge-shaped bodies at junctures of interstices in the zone of aeration
above the capillary fringe

unconfined  groundwater  separated  from  an  underlying body of
groundwater by an unsaturated zone

the property of the aquifer allowing for transmission of fluid through
pores (i.e., connection of pores)

a laboratory device used to measure the intrinsic  permeability and
hydraulic  conductivity of a soil or rock sample

a nonpumping well,  generally of  small diameter, that  is used to
measure the elevation of the water table or potentiometric surface. A
piezometer generally has a short well screen through which water can
enter.

the ratio of the volume of the  interstices  or voids in a rock or soil to
the total volume

imaginary saturated  surface (potential head of  confined  aquifer); a
surface that represents the static head; the levels to which water will
rise in tightly cased wells

the processes of addition of water to the zone of saturation

an area in which water that is absorbed eventually reaches the zone of
saturation

magnitude of yield that can be relied upon over a long period of time
(similar to sustained yield)

zone in which all voids are filled with water  (the water table is the
upper limit)
9/93
                                                        Glossary

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slug-test
specific capacity



specific yield


steady-state



storage



storage coefficient "S"



storativity



sustained yield


transmissivity


vadose zone
an aquifer test made by either pouring a small instantaneous charge of
water into a well or by withdrawing a  slug  of water from the well
(when a slug of water is removed from the  well, it is  also called a
bail-down test)

the rate of discharge from a well divided by the drawdown in it.  The
rate varies slowly with the  duration of pumping, which should  be
stated when known.

ratio of volume of water released under gravity to  total volume of
saturated rock

the condition when the rate  of flow  is steady and water levels have
ceased to  decline.  It exists  in the final stage of withdrawals when
neither the water level nor the shape  of the cone is changing.

in groundwater hydrology, refers to  1) water naturally  detained in a
groundwater  reservoir,  2)  artificial   impoundment  of  water  in
groundwater reservoirs, and 3) the water so impounded

volume of water taken into or released from aquifer storage per unit
surface area per  unit change in head (dimensionless) (for confined,
S  = 0.0001 to 0.001; for unconfmed, S = 0.2 to 0.3)

the volume of water an aquifer releases from  or takes into storage per
unit surface area of the aquifer per unit change in head (also called
coefficient of storage)

continuous long-term groundwater  production  without progressive
storage depletion (see also safe yield)

the rate at which water is  transmitted through a unit width of an
aquifer under a unit hydraulic gradient

the  zone  containing  water  under pressure  less than  that  of the
atmosphere,  including soil  water, intermediate  vadose water,  and
capillary water.  Some references include the capillary water in the
saturated zone.  This zone is limited above  by the land surface and
below by the surface of the  zone of saturation (i.e., the water table).
Also called the unsaturated  zone or  zone of aeration.   According to
Freeze and Cherry (1979):

1. It occurs above the water table and above the capillary fringe.
2. The soil pores are only  partially filled with water; the moisture
   content 6 is less than the  porosity  n.
3. The fluid pressure p is less than atmospheric; the pressure  head ^
   is less than zero.
4. The hydraulic head h must be measured with a tensiometer.
 Glossary
                                                             9/93

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                            5. The hydraulic conductivity K and the moisture content 6 are both
                              functions of the pressure head ^.

water table                 surface of saturated zone area at atmospheric pressure; that surface in
                            an unconfined water  body  at which the pressure is atmospheric.
                            Defined by the levels at which water stands in wells that penetrate the
                            water body just far enough to hold standing water.
9/93                                          7                                     Glossary

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                 GEOLOGY
PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES


At the end of this lesson, participants will be able to:

•    Define the Doctrine of Uniformitarianism

•    Describe the three basic rock types and evaluate each as
     aquifers

•    Describe the rock forming processes found on the Rock
     Cycle diagram

•    Identify the medium responsible for the erosion and transport
     of sediments

•    Describe the following depositional environments:

         Alluvial fans
         Braided streams
         Meandering streams
         Coastal (deltaic, interdeltaic, barrier island complexes)
         Wind-blown  deposits
         Carbonates.

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       GEOLOGY
                                   NOTES
      MW1
     720ft
                    MW3
                    718.25ft
9/93
Geology

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    NOTES
                              Doctrine
                                  of
                         Uniformitarianism
                         "The Present is the
                           Key to the Past"
                           James Mutton, 1785
                            THE ROCK CYCLE
                            Deposition •
                         Transport
LJthification
   \
 Sedimentary rocks
      >|
     Metamorphism
     X
 Metamorphic rocks
                                 Melting
Geology
           9/93

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                                           NOTES
       SEDIMENTATION
   • Erosion processes (weathering)
   • Transport agents
   • Deposition
   • Lithification

    EROSION PROCESSES
           • Wind
           • Ice
           • Water
           • Biology
           • Gravity

     TRANSPORT AGENTS
           • Wind
           • Ice
           • Water
           • Biology
           • Gravity
9/93
Geology

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     NOTES
                                   DEPOSITION
                                      • Wind
                                      • Ice
                                      • Water
                                      • Gravity
                                   LITHIFICATION
                                      Cementation
                                      Diagenesis
                                TYPES OF CEMENT
                                  • Silica
                                  • Iron oxides
                                  • Kaolinite
                                  • Montmorillonite
                                  • Illite
                                  • Calcite (aragonite)
Geology
9/93

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    SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

  Composed of particles of any rock type
  - "Pores" form during deposition
  Most aquifers are sedimentary rocks
    SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
                                             NOTES
     Limestone
     Shale
     Sandstone
     Coal
Dolomite
Siltstone
Conglomerate
Evaporite
       METAMORPHISM


         • Recrystallization
         • "Earth's sweat"
9/93
                                       Geology

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    NOTES
                        METAMORPHIC ROCKS
                                     PRESSURE
                        METAMORPHIC ROCKS
                            Marble   Slate
                            Quartzite  Phyllite
                            Gneiss   Schist
                       "EARTH"S  SWEAT"
Geology
9/93

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    MELTING/MAGMA
                                      NOTES
      IGNEOUS ROCKS
    Intrusive
    e.g., granite
  • Extrusive
    e.g., basalt
      IGNEOUS ROCKS
      Gabbro   Basalt
      Granite   Rhyolite
9/93
Geology

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      NOTES
                                       INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS
                                          ROCK BODIES
                                Adapted from General Biology by Robert Foster. 1969. p 63.
                                     SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
                                  Composed of particles of any rock type
                                  -  "Pores" form during deposition
                                  Most aquifers are sedimentary rocks
                                   ROCK TYPE    ENVIRONMENT
                                   Conglomerate

                                   Sandstone


                                   Clay/shale


                                   Limestone
Landslide, alluvial fan

Rivers, streams, beaches,
deltas, dunes, sand bars

Lagoon, lake, flood plain,
deeper ocean

Coral reef, atoll,
deeper ocean
Geology
                    9/93

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  CRITERIA TO DEFINE
     "DEPOSITIONS.
     ENVIRONMENTS
                                      NOTES
   LONGITUDINAL PROFILE
       A Alluvial and landslide
       B Braided stream
       M Meandering stream
       C Coastal
    • Stream headwaters
    <•	L (length)-
 t
I (height)
 4.
                     Mouth of
0/0?
                            Geology

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     NOTES
                                  CRITERIA
                              Longitudinal channel profile
                              Median channel-grain size
                              Sphericity/sorting
                                  CRITERIA
                               • Penetration of stream
                               • Width-to-depth ratio
                               • Degree of sinuosity
                              LONGITUDINAL
                            CHANNEL PROFILE
Geology
10
9/93

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                                  NOTES
LONGITUDINAL PROFILE
A Alluvial and landslide
B Braided stream
M Meandering stream
C Coastal
rx j/ Stream headwaters


: : : A : i^:S^9^tf/na/ H





	

t
(height)
1 Mouth of
"T^Ocean



    STREAM GRADIENTS
    High'
-* Low
        MEDIAN
  CHANNEL-GRAIN SIZE
9/93
     11
Geology

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      NOTES
MEDIAN CHANNEL-GRAIN SIZE
1 r^rnp < **
* *
PV )

:::: A "^%.
'•'•'•'•'•'•'•'•'•'•'•'•'•'• ' W'^SSM-:^
	 D • • ^^^^




Small
'•fste*.
V.V» -
	 \
:::::: pi^sOc630


RELATIONSHIP OF STREAM VELOCITY

/ • 	
-3- ///// : Eros
Q) 100 - '///••:•.•.•.:
\ /Xx//x
^
^ 10 Transportation
'o
o /
J"- J
01 , 1 /VJ^il



°n;;p/^
/7^M,
^\\\\y-.\\\\\\\
:; Deposition ;;


: :i :::::: 1 :::::::
Size 0.001 0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100
(mm) Clay Silt Sand Gravel

SPHERICITY/SORTING
Geology
12
9/93

-------
       SPHERICITY
                Rounded
        SORTING
    Poor
Well
    PENETRATION OF
        STREAM
                                  NOTES
9/93
      13
Geology

-------
    NOTES
                            STREAM CHANNEL
                               Penetration
                         Shallow «-
                  Deep
                       WIDTH-TO-DEPTH RATIO
                            STREAM CHANNEL
                            Width-to-Depth Ratio
                          High^
                 -> Low
Geology
14

-------
                                NOTES
 DEGREE OF SINUOSITY
     STREAM CHANNEL
        Sinuosity
    Low
     DEPOSITIONAL
    ENVIRONMENTS
9/93
15
Geology

-------
     NOTES
                               DEPOSITIONAL
                              ENVIRONMENTS
                              • Alluvial fan
                              • Braided stream
                              • Meandering stream
                              • Coastal deposits
                              • Wind-blown deposits
                              ALLUVIAL FAN
Geology
16
9/93

-------
                                 NOTES
    BRAIDED STREAM
9/93
17
Geology

-------
   NOTES
                  MEANDERING STREAM
                   COASTAL DEPOSITS
Geology
18
9/93

-------
WIND-BLOWN DEPOSITS
                               NOTES
9/93
19
Geology

-------
    NOTES
                              CARBONATES
                               • Limestones
                               • Dolomites
                              EVAPORITES
                               • Carbonates
                               • Sulfates
                               • Chlorides
                             GLACIATION
Geology
20
9/93

-------
                                             NOTES
   GLACERS/FREEZE-THAW

    • Weathering and transport
    • Large scale changes
    • Poor to excellent sorting
     (e.g., glacial till and outwash)
 PROCESSES OF GLACIATION

          • Erosion
          • Transportation
          • Deposition
9/93
21
Geology

-------
                   Geometry of  Sandstone  Reservoir Bodies1
                   Abstract   Natural  underground  re»ervoiri  capable  of
                   containing  water,  petroleum,  ond  goiei  include  sond-
                   stonei, limeitonei,  dolomilei. ond fractured rock) ol vari-
                   ou> typei.  Comprehensive  reieorch  ond exploration el-
                   lorti by the petroleum industry hove revealed much about
                   the character  ond  diitribution ol corbonole  rocks (lime-
                   itonei  ond dolomitei) ond  tondilonei. Poroiity and per-
                   meability  cf the depoiili  ore criteria for  determining
                   Iheir efficiency 01  reservoirs for fluid). Trend) of certain
                   sandstones ore predictable. Furthermore,  londilone rei-
                   ervoiri hove been  leu oflecled Ihon corbonole reservoirs
                   by  postdeposilionol  cementation  ond  compaction,  Froc-
                   lure porosity has received lets concentrated itudy; hence,
                   we know leu about Ihii type of reservoir. The discuisioni
                   in this paper  ore confined to sandstone reservoirs.
                     The  principal sondstone-generoting  environment! ore
                   (1)  fluvial  environments  luch os olluviol  tons,  braided
                   streams, ond meandering streams; (2) distributary-channel
                   ond delta-front environment) of various type) of delta);
                   (3) cooilol  barrier  islands, tidal channels, ond  chenier
                   plains;  (X)  desert and  cooslol eolion plains;  end  (5)
                   deeper marine environment), where the  sands  are dis-
                   tributed by both normal ond density  current).
                      The  alluvial-fan  environment is  characterized  by flash
                   floods  ond  mudfiowi or debris  flows  which deposit the
                   coarsest and most  irregular sand bodies. Braided streams
                   hove  numerous shcllow channels  separated by  brood
                   sondbors; lateral channel migration results  in the deposi-
                   tion of thin, lenticular sond bodies. Meandering streams
                   migrate within  belts 20  lime)  the channel width and
                   deposit two very  common types  of  sand  bodies. The
                   processes  of bank-coving  ond point-bar accretion  result
                   in lateral  channel  migration ond the  formation of sand
                   bodies (point bars)  within each  meander loop.  Natural
                   cut-ofis ond channel diversions result  in  the  abandon-
                   ment  of  individual  meanders  ond  long  channel seg-
                   ments,  respectively.   Rapidly  abandoned  channel) ore
                   filled with some sond but predominantly with fine-groined
                   sediment)  (cloy plugs),  whereos  gradually abandoned
                   channels ore  filled mainly with sands ond silts.
                      The  most common  sandstone  reservoirs  are of deltaic
                   origin. They ore laterally equivalent to fluviol sands ond
                   prodelto ond marine cloys, ond they consist of two types:
                   delta-front or fringe sond) ond abandoned  dislribulory-
                   chonnel sends. Fringe sands ore sheetlike, and their hind-
                   word margins  ore abrupt  (against organic cloys of Ihe
                   delloic  plain). Seaward,  these  sands grade   into fhe
                   finer prodelto ond marine  sediment). Distributary-channel
                   sandstone  bodies  ore narrow, Ihey hove  abrupt  bosol
                   contacts, ond  Ihey decrease  in groin  size upward. They
                   cut into,  or completely  through, Ihe  fringe sends, ond
                   also connect with  Ihe  upstream fluvial sond) or braided
                   or meandering streams.
                      Some of Ihe more  porous ond  permeable  sandstone
                   reservoirs ore deposited in the cooslol interdeltoic  reolm
                   ol  sedimentation.  They consist of  well-sorted beach and
                   shorefoce sands associated with barrier islands ond tidal
                   channels  which occur  between  barriers.  Barrier  sond
                   bodies ore long and  narrow,  are  aligned parallel with
                                   RUFUS  J. L.BLANC1
                                 Houston,  Texas  77001

the coastline,  ond are  characterized by on upward  in-
crease  in  groin size.  They ore flanked  on  the landward
side by  logoonol cloy) ond  on  the  opposite  side  by
marine  cloyi.  Tidal-channel  sond  bodie)   hove  abrupt
bosol contacts and range  in  grain  size from coarse at
the base  to fine  ot  the lop.  Laterally,  they merge with
barrier  sond)  and grade into the  finer  sediment)  of
(idol delta) ond mud flat).
  The  most poroui and permeable  sandstone reservoirs
are product) of wind activity  in coa>lol and deserl  re-
gions.  Wind-laid  (eolion) sands ore typically very well
sorted  and  highly crossbedded, ond they  occur o  ex-
teniive sheets.
  Marine  sandstone!  are those associated  with normal-
marine  processes  of the  continental shell, slope,  ond
deep ond those due to density-current origin (turbidile)).
An important  type  of  normal-marine  sond  i>  formed
during marine transgression). Although these sends  are
extremely thin, Ihey  ore very  distinctive and widespread,
hove sharp updip limits, ond  grade seaward into marine
shales. Delta-fringe and borrier-shorefoce sands are  two
other types of (hollow-marine sands.
   Turbidile) have  been  interpreted  to  be  associated
with submarine  canyons.  These  sond)  ore transported
from  nearshore environments  seaward through canyons
ond ore  deposited on submarine  fans  in  deep marine
basins. Other lurbidiles form as o result  of slumping of
deltaic focies  ot  shelf edges. Turbidile  sands ore usually
associated with thick  marine ihole>.

   ' Manuscript received, March  17, 1972.
   'Shell  Oil  Company. This paper  is based  on  the
writer's  30 years of  experience  in studies of modem
and ancient clastic sedimenls—from 1941 to 194S. with
the Mississippi River Commission, under  the guidance
of  H. N.  Fisk,  and, since August  1948, with  Shell
Development Company and  Shell  Oil Company.
   The writer is grateful to Shell  Oil Company for per-
mission to publish this paper, and he is deeply indebted
to  Alan Thomson for his critical review of the manu-
script; he is  also grateful to Nick W.  Kusakis, John
Bush,  Dave C. Fogt.  Gil C. Flanagan, and George F.
Korenek  for  assistance  in  Ihe preparation of illustra-
tions and reference material; to Aphrodite Mamoulides
and Bernice Melde for their library assistance;  to Dar-
leen Vanderford for typing the manuscript, and to Judy
Breeding for  her editorial assistance.
   Numerous  stimulating discussions of models  of das-
tic sedimentation and the relationship of sedimentary
sequences  to  depositions!  processes were  held  with
Hugh  A. Bernard and Robert H. Nanz, Jr., during the
late 1940s  and 1950s, when we were closely associated
with  Shell's  early  -exploration   research  efiort.   The
writer is particularly  indebted to these two  men  for
their numerous  contributions, many  of which are in-
cluded in this paper.
   The writer also wishes to thank W. B.  Bull, Univer-
sity of Arizona,  for his'valuable  suggestions concerning
the alluvial-fan model of clastic sedimentation.
                                                                         133
Reproduced by  Permission

-------
134
Rufus  J.  LeBlanc
INTRODUCTION

  Important natural resources such as water,
oil, gas, and brines are found  in underground
reservoirs which  are  composed principally of
the following types of rocks:  (1) porous sands,
sandstones,  and gravels; (2)  porous limestones
and dolomites; and (3) fractured rocks of vari-
ous types. According to the 1971 American Pe-
troleum Institute report on reserves of crude oil
and natural gas,  sandstones  are the reservoirs
for about 75 percent of the recoverable  oil and
65 percent of the recoverable gas in the  United
States. It is also  estimated that approximately
90  percent  of our  underground water  supply
comes from sand  and gravel  (Walton, 1970).
  Sandstone and  carbonate (limestone and do-
lomite) reservoirs have been  intensively  studied
during the  past 2 decades;  consequently, the
general characteristics  and  subsurface distribu-
tion of these two important types of reservoirs
are relatively well known in numerous sedimen-
tary basins. The factors which control the ori-
gin and  occurrence  of fracture porosity  have
received less  attention;  thus,  our  knowledge
and understanding of this type of reservoir are
more limited.
  The detection  of subsurface porosity trends
within sedimentary basins was recognized by the
petroleum  industry as one of its most signifi-
cant problems, and for the past 2 decades it has
addressed itself to a solution through extensive
research.  Largely as a result of this  research,
which is summarized below, our ability to de-
termine trends of porous sedimentary rocks has
progressed  noticeably,  especially   during the
past 10 years.
  The  amount  of porosity  and permeability
present within  sedimentary  rocks  and  the ge-
ometry of  porous rock  bodies are controlled
mainly by two important factors:  (1) the  envi-
ronmental conditions  under which the  sedi-
ments were deposited and  (2) the  postdeposi-
tional changes within the rocks as  a result of
burial,  compaction,  and cementation.  Postde-
positional diagenetic processes have less effect
on  the porosity and permeability of sands and
sandstones than they have on carbonate  sedi-
ments; consequently, porosity trends are signifi-
cantly more predictable for sandstones than for
limestones and dolomites.
   Organization of  paper—The following  two
parts of this paper give a brief historical  sum-
mary of the early research on clastic sediments
and present a classification of environments of
deposition and models of clastic sedimentation.
          A resum£ of significant studies of modern clas-
          tic sediments—mainly by the petroleum indus-
          try, government agencies,  and  universities—
          follows.  The main  part of the paper  concerns
          the sedimentary processes, sequences,  and ge-
          ometry of sand bodies which characterize each
          of the following models  of  clastic  sedimenta-
          tion: alluvial fan, braided stream,  meandering
          stream,  deltaic  (birdfoot-lobate and   cuspate-
          arcuate), coastal  interdeltaic (barrier  island
          and chenier plain),  and marine (transgressive,
          submarine canyon, and fan).

          HISTORICAL SUMMARY or EARLY RESEARCH ON
          MODERN CLASTIC SEDIMENTS
            Geologists are now  capable of  interpreting
          the depositional environments of ancient sedi-
          mentary facies and  of predicting clastic poros-
          ity trends with a reasonable degree of accuracy
          (Peterson  and  Osmond, 1961;  Potter,  1967;
          Rigby and  Hamblin,  1972; Shelton,  1972).
          This capability  stems from the extensive re-
          search  conducted on Holocene sediments by
          several groups  of geologists during the past  3
          decades. Conditions which led to this  research,
          and the  most significant studies of clastic sedi-
          mentation which provided the models, criteria,
          and concepts necessary to make environmental
          interpretations, are summarized below.
            During the late 1930s and early 1940s, pe-
          troleum geologists became aware that improved
          methods of  stratigraphic interpretations  were
          badly needed, and that knowledge and geologic
          tools  necessary  to   explore  for  stratigraphic
          traps were inadequate. A detailed  study made
          by the Research Committee of The American
          Association of Petroleum Geologists on the re-
          search needs of the industry ultimately  led to
          the establishment of geologic  research depart-
          ments by major  oil companies. By 1948,  explo-
          ration research  by  the oil industry was io—its
          early stages, and expansion  proceeded /rapidly
          thereafter.
            Meanwhile, some very significant  develop-
          ments were occurring at Louisiana State Uni-
          versity. H. V. Howe and R. J. Russell, together
          with  their graduate  students, had already pub-
          lished several Louisiana Geological Survey bul-
          letins  summarizing  their pioneer  work on the
          late Quaternary  geology of southern Louisiana
          (Howe and Moresi, 1931, 1933; Howe  et al.,
          1935; Russell, 1936). Their  early work on the
          Mississippi deltaic plain and the chenier plain
          of southwestern Louisiana is considered to be
          the beginning of the modern  environmental ap-
          proach to stratigraphy. Fisk  became fascinated

-------
                         Geometry  of  Sandstone  Reservoir  Bodies
                                           135
 with the Howe and Russell approach, and he
 applied results of their research to his study of
 Tertiary sediments. The work of Fisk (1940)
 in central Louisiana, which included a study of
 the lower  Red  River  Valley and part of the
 Mississippi  Valley, attracted the attention of
 General Max Tyler, president of the Mississippi
 River Commission in Vicksburg.  General Tyler
 engaged Fisk as a  consultant and provided him
 with a staff of geologists to conduct a geologic
 investigation of the lower Mississippi River al-
 luvial valley.
   The Fisk (1944)  report on the Mississippi
 Valley,  which now has become  a classic geo-
 logic  document, established the relations be-
 tween  alluvial  environments,  processes,  and
 character of sediments. The AAPG,  recogniz-
 ing the significance of  this  contribution, re-
 tained Fisk  as Distinguished Lecturer, and the
 results  and  significance  of  his work became
 •widely known. One of his most significant con-
 tributions came  when,  as the petroleum indus-
 try was  getting geologic research under way, he
 was selected by a  major  oil company to direct
 its geologic research effort in Houston.
   By  1950, a few major oil companies were
 deeply involved  in studies of recent sediments.
 However,  the small companies did  not have
 staff and facilities  to conduct this type of re-
 search, and American Petroleum Institute Proj-
 ect 51 was  established for the purpose of con-
 ducting  research on recent  sediments  of  the
 Gulf Coast. Scripps Institution of Oceanogra-
 phy was in  charge  of the project, which contin-
 ued for  8 years. Results  of this research were
 available to  all companies  (Sbepard  el  al,
 1960).
   While the petroleum industry  was  conduct-
 ing "in-house" research and supporting the API
 project,  some significant  research  was  being
 done by the U.S. Waterways Experiment Sta-
 tion in  Vicksburg,  Mississippi, and by the new
 Coastal Studies Institute at Louisiana State Uni-
 versity  under  the  direction of R. J.  Russell.
These two groups conducted detailed studies of
 recent sediments for many years, and results
were made available to  the  petroleum  industry.
   By 1955, a fairly good understanding of pro-
cesses of sedimentation and character of related
sediments in several depositional environments
had been acquired. Although the applicau'on of
this  wealth  of knowledge to  operational prob-
lems was very difficult, some  useful applica-
tions nevertheless had been made by the middle .
 1950s, and it was generally agreed that the ini-
tial research  effort was successful.
   Since  1955,  geologists all  over the  world
 have become involved in studying recent sedi-
 ments  and applying the  results to research on
 older rocks.  Geologists with the U.S. Geologi-
 cal  Survey  and several universities have con-
 ducted studies of alluvial fans, braided streams,
 and eolian deposits; and  the oceanographic in-
 stitutions, such  as Scripps,  Woods Hole,  and
 Lam on I, have  investigated  deep-marine • sedi-
 ments on a worldwide basis. Publication of pa-
 pers on clastic sedimentation has been increas-
 ing  rapidly. The first  textbook on the geology
 of recent sediments cites more than 700 refer-
 ences, 75 percent of which have appeared since
 1955  (Kukal, 1971).  Many of these  contribu-
 tions, considered to be most significant to the
 current understanding of clastic sediments, are
 cited in this paper.

 MODELS  AND ENVIRONMENTS OF
 CLASTIC  SEDIMENTATION
   The realm of  clastic sedimentation can be di-
 vided into several  conceptual  models, each of
 which is characterized by certain depositional
 environments,   sedimentary   processes,   se-
 quences,  and patterns. What are considered to
 be some  of the most common and basic models
 and  environments'  of clastic sedimentation, ar-
 ranged in order  from the periphery to the cen-
 ter of a depositional basin, are  listed below and
 are shown on Figures 1—4.
  Continental
    Alluvial (fluvial) models
      Alluvial Ian
      Braided stream
      Meandering  stream  (includes flood basins be-
        tween meander belts)
    Eolian (can occur al various positions within con-
        tinental and transitional models)
  Transitional
    Deltaic models
      Birdfoot-lobate (fluvial dominated)
      Cuspate-ajcuale (wave and current dominated)
      Estuarine  (with  strong  tidal influence)
    Coasial-inierdcllaic models
      Barrier-island model  (includes barrier islands,
        lagoons behind barriers, tidal channels, and
        tidal deltas)
      Cbenier-plain model  (includes mud  fiats and
        cbeniers)
  Marine
    (Note: Sediments  deposited in shallow-marine en-
   vironments, such as deltas and barrier islands, are

  •The classification of depositional environments pre-
sented herein was initially  developed by the writer and
his colleague, Hugh A. Bernard, during the early 1950s
(LeBlanc and Bernard, 1954) and was recently modi-
fied (Bernard and  LeBlanc. 1965).  For other classifi-
cations, refer to Laporte (1968), Sclley (1970), Crosby
(1972). and KuluU  (1971).

-------
136
Rufus  J.  LeBlonc
            Fio. 1—Some common models of clastic sedimentation. See Figures 2—4 for details.
    included under the transitional group of environ-
    ments.)
    Transgressive-marine model
    Submarine-canyon and submarine-fan model

RESUME  OF SIGNIFICANT  STUDIES OF
MODERN CLASTIC  SEDIMENTATION
               Alluvial Fans
  Although much work has been done on allu-
vial fans, only a few papers discuss the relation
of sedimentary sequences  to  depositional pro-
cesses. Some of the more important contribu-
tions  are by Rickmers (1913),  Pack (1923),
Blackwelder  (1928), Eckis  (1928), Blissen-
bach  (1954),  McKee  (1957), Beaty (1963),
Bull (1962, 1963,  1964,  1968,  1969,  1971),
Hoppe and Ekman  (1964),  Wind;r (1965),
Anstey  (1965), Denny (1965,  1967), Legget
ei al.  (1966), and Hooke (1967).

              Braided Streams
  Early papers on  braided streams concerned
channel patterns, origin of braiding, and physi-
cal  characteristics  of braided  streams.  Signifi-
cant studies of this type  were  conducted  by
Lane  (1957), Leopold and Wolraan  (1957),
Cbein (1961),  Krigstrom  (1962), Fahnestock
(1963), andBrice (1964).
            The relatively few papers on the relation of
          braided-stream  deposits  to depositional pro-
          cesses did not appear until the 1960s. Doeglas
          (1962)  discussed braided-stream sequences of
          the  Rhone River of France,  and Ore (1963,
          1965) presented some criteria for  recognition
          of braided-stream deposits, based on  the study
          of several braided streams in  Wyoming, Colo-
          rado, and  Nebraska. Fahnestock (1963)  de-
          scribed  braided streams associated  with  a  gla-
          cial  outwash plain in Washington. More re-
          cently, Williams and Rust  (1969) discussed the
          sedimentology of a degrading braided river in
          the Yukon Territory, Canada.  Coleman (1969)
          presented results  of a study  of  the  processes
          and  sedimentary characteristics of  one of the
          largest  braided  rivers, the   Brahmaputra  of
          Bangla  Desh  (formerly  East Pakistan). N.
          Sroitb (1970) studied the Platte River from
          Denver,  Colorado,  to  Omaha, Nebraska,  and
          used the Platte  model  to interpret  Silurian
          braided-stream deposits of the Appalachian re-
          giOD. Waechter (1970) has recently studied the
          braided Red River in the Texas Panhandle,  and
          Kessler  (1970, 1971)  has-investigated the  Ca-
          nadian River in Texas.  Boothroyd (1970) stud-
          ied braided streams associated  with  glacial out-
          wash plains in Alaska.

-------
                        ENVIRONMENTS
                                                             DEPOSITIONAl  MODELS
        AUUVIAl

        (FLUVIAL)
z
UJ
Z
»—
Z
o
u
                       AUUVIAl

                         f ANS

                     (APEX. MIDDLE
                    & BASE OF FAN)
                        BRAIDED

                        STREAMS
MEANDERING
  STREAMS

 | AUUVIAl

  VAUEY)
                                        STREAM

                                        FIOWS
                                       VISCOUS

                                        FIOWS
MEANDER
  BEITS
                                     FIOODBASINS
                                                      CHANNELS
                                SHEETFIOODS
                              "SIEVE DEPOSITS-
                                DEBRIS FIOWS
                                                      MUDFIOWS
                                                      CHANNELS
                                                    (VARYING SIZES)
                                 LONGITUDINAl


                                  TRANSVERSE
                                 CHANNELS
NATURAL LEVEES
                                                      POINT BARS
                               STREAMS. LAKES
                                 & SWAMPS
                                                                                                          O
                                                                                                          II
                                                                                                          o
                                                                                                          3
                                                                                                          it
                                                                                         in
                                                                                         Q
                                                                                         3
                                                                                         O.
                                                                                         w
                                                                                         O
                                                                                         3
                                                                                         It
                                                                                                                                It
                                                                                                                                2
                                                                                                                                o
                                                                                                                                o
                                                                                                                                Q.
         EOUAN
                                    COASTAL DUNES
                        DUNES
                                     DESERT DUNES
                                     OTHER  DUNES
                                   TYPES:

                                 TRANSVERSE

                                    SEIF
                               (LONGITUDINAL)

                                  BARCHAN

                                 PARABOLIC
                               DOME-SHAPED
                           Tio. 2—Alluvial (fluvial) and eolinn environments and models of clastic sedimentation.
                                                                                                                               CO

-------
                        ENVIRONMENTS
                                                            DEPOSITIONS  MODELS
Z
O
        DEITAIC
                         UPPER
                        DELTAIC
                         PIAIN
LOWER
DEITAIC
 PLAIN
                        FRINGE
                         DISTAL
                                        MEANDER
                                          BELTS
                                      FIOODBASINS
                                      DISTRIBUTARY
                                       CHANNELS
                                         INTER-
                                      DISTRIBUTARY
                                         AREAS
                                          INNER
                                          OUTER
                                                       CHANNELS
                             NATURAL LEVEES
                               POINT BARS
                                STREAMS,
                                 LAKES
                                &  SWAMPS
                                                       CHANNELS
                                                     NATURAL LEVEES
    MARSH.
    LAKES,
TIDAL CHANNELS
 4 TIDAL FLATS
                              RIVER-MOUTH
                                  BARS
                               BEACHES 4
                              BEACH RIDGES
                              TIDAL FLATS
                                                                         ItlUAIIHf OflTA
                                                                        WIOI tANCI »H IIOII
                                                                        OI1MIIVI4IIII IMMt
                                                                        IN fllUAIIII.
                                                       BIRDFOOT-LOBATE
                                                            DELTA
                                                       CUSPATE-ARCUATE
                                                             DELTA
                                                                                                         C
                                                                                                         •*»
                                                                                                         D>
                                                                                                         5"
                                                                                                         n
                                                                                                           ESTUARINE DELTA
                                    Fic. 3—Deltaic environments and modek of clastic sedimentation.

-------
                       Geometry of Sandstone  Reservoir Bodies
                                        139
            Meandering Streams
  H. N. Fisk's studies of the Mississippi allu-
vial valley, conducted for the Mississippi River
Commission during the period 1941—48, repre-
sent  the first significant contribution on mean-
dering stream environments and deposits. This
pioneer effort provided geologists with knowl-
edge of the fundamental  processes of alluvial-
valley sedimentation. Another study of a mean-
dering stream, the  Connecticut  River,  and its
valley  was made by Jahns (1947). Important
work on alluvial sediments deposited by mean-
dering streams  was also  done. by Sundborg
(1956) in Sweden,  and by Frazier and Osanik
(1961),  Bernard  and  Major   (1963),  and
Harms et al. (1963) on the Mississippi, Brazos,
and  Red River point bars, respectively. Thus,
by 1963 the general characteristics of point-bar
sequences,  and the  closely related abandoned-
channel and  flood-basin sequences, were suffi-
ciently well established to permit  geologists to
recognize  this type of sedimentary deposit in
outcrops and in the  subsurface.
  Other important contributions were made by
Allen (1965a) on the origin and characteristics
of alluvial sediments, by Simons et al  (1965)
on the flow regime in alluvial channels, by Ber-
nard et al.  (1970) on the relation of sedimen-
tary  structures to bed form in the Brazos valley
deposits, and by McGowen and Garner (1970)
on coarse-grained point-bar deposits.

                   Deltas
  The early work by W. Johnson (1921, 1922)
on the Fraser delta, Russell (1936) on the Mis-
sissippi delta, Sykes (1937) on  the  Colorado
delta, and Fisk (1944) on the Mississippi delta
provided a firm  basis for subsequent studies of
more than 25 modern deltas during  the late
1950s and the 1960s.
  Fisk continued his studies of  the Mississippi
delta for more than 20 years. His greatest con-
tributions were concerned with the delta frame-
work,  the origin and character of delta-front
sheet sands, and the development of bar-finger
sands by seaward-migrating rivermouth bars.
  Scruton's  (1960) paper on  delta  building
and  the deltaic  sequence  represents results of
API  Project 51 on  the Mississippi delta. Addi-
tional research on Mississippi delta sedimenta-
tion,  sedimentary  structures, and mudlumps
was  reported  by  Welder  (1959),  Morgan
(1961), Morgan  el al. (1968), Coleman et al.
(1964), Coleman (1966b), Coleman and Gagli-
ano  (1964, 1965),  and also by  Kolb and Van
Lopik (1966). Coleman and Gagliano (1964)
also  discussed  and  illustrated  processes of
cyclic sedimentation. The  most recent  papers
on the Mississippi delta are by Frazier (1967),
Frazier   and   Osanik  (1969),   and  Gould
(1970).
  Studies of  three  small  birdfoot deltas of
Texas—the Trinity,  Colorado,  and Guadaiupe
—were   made  by   McEwen  (1969),  Kanes
(1970),  and Donaldson (1966),  respectively.
In addition, Donaldson et al. (1970) presented
a summary paper  on the Guadaiupe  delta.
These four contributions are valuable because
each one presents  photographs  and logs of
cores of  complete deltaic sequences.
  European geologists associated with the pe-
troleum  industry  and  universities  also have
made valuable contributions to our understand-
ing of deltas. Kruit  (1955) and  Lagaaij and
Kopstein (1964)  discussed their  research on
the  Rhone  delta  of southern France,  Allen
(1965c,  1970) summarized the geology of the
Niger delta of western Africa, ^and van Andel
(1967) presented a resume^  of the work done on
the Orinoco delta of eastern Venezuela. More
recently, the Po delta of Italy was studied by B.
Nelson (1970) and the Rhone delta of southern
France by Oomkens (1970).
  Other recent contributions on modern deltas
are by Coleman et al. (1970)  on a Malaysian
delta, by R. Thompson (1968)  on the Colo-
rado delta in  Mexico,  and by Bernard et al.
(1970)  on the Brazos delta of Texas.
  The deltaic model is probably the most com-
plex of  the clastic models.  Although additional
research is needed on this aspect of sedimenta-
tion, the studies  listed have  provided some
valuable concepts and  criteria  for recognition
of ancient deltaic facies.

        Coastal-Interdeltaic Sediments
  Valuable contributions to our knowledge of
this important type of sedimentation have been
made by several groups of  geologists.  In  the
Gulf Coast region, the extensive Padre Island-
Laguna   Madre  complex was studied by Fisk
(1959),  and the chenier plain of southwestern
Louisiana was studied by Gould and McFarlan
(1959)  and Byrne et al. (1959).  The Galves-
ton barrier-island complex of the  upper Texas
coast was investigated mainly by LeBlanc and
Hodgson (1959), Bernard  et al. (1959,  1962),
and Bernard and LeBlanc (1965).
  Among the impressive studies made by Euro-
peans during the past 15 years are those  by van
Straaten  (1954), who presented results of very

-------
2
o
z
<
ex.
        COASTAL
         INTER-
        OEITAIC
                         ENVIRONMENTS
                                                           DEPOSITIONAL  MODELS
                        COASTAl
                         PLAIN
                      (SUBAERIAL)
                     SUBAQUEOUS
                                         BARRIER
                                         ISLANDS
                 CHENIER
                  PLAINS
                   TIDAL
                                        LAGOONS
                   TIDAL
                CHANNELS
                                          SMALL
                                        ESTUARIES
                                 BACK BAR.
                                  BARRIER,
                                   BEACH.
                               BARRIER FACE,
                               SPITS 4 FLATS.
                              WASHOVER   FANS
                                   BEACH
                                  *  RIDGES
                                                        TIDAL  FLATS
                                                        TIDAL  FLATS
                                                       TIDAL DELTAS
                                  SHOALS
                                  & REEFS
                                                                                                             BARRIER IS.
                                                                                                              COMPLEX
                                                                     CHENIER
                                                                      PLAIN
                                                                                                                                jo
                                                                                                                                c
                                                                                                        0
                                                                                                        o>
                                                                                                        a
                                                                                                        3
uj
Z
        SHALLOW
        MARINE
          DEEP
        MARINE
                                          INNER
  SHELF.
(NERITIC)
MIDDLE
 SHOALS
4 BANKS
                                          OUTER
                       CANYONS
                      FANS (DELTAS)
                        SLOPE &
                        ABYSSAL
                      TRENCHES 4
                        TROUGHS
SHALLOW
 MARINE
                                                                                      DEEP
                                                                                    MARINE
                      Fic. 4—Coaslal-interdeltaic and marine environmenU and models of clastic sedimentation.

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                        Geometry  of Sandstone  Reservoir Bodies
                                        141
significant  work on  tidal flats, tidal channels,
and  tidal deltas of the northern Dutch coast,
and  by  Horn  (1965)  and  H.  £. Rebeck
(1967), who reported on the barrier islands and
tidal flats of northern Germany.
  During the past several years, a group of ge-
ologists has conducted interesting research on
the coastal-interdeltaic complexes which  char-
acterize  much of  the  U.S. Atlantic Coast re-
gion. Hoyt and Henry (1965, 1967) published
several papers on  barriers and related features
of Georgia. More  recently, results of studies at
the  University of  Massachusetts on  recent
coastal environments of New England were re-
ported by  Daboll  (1969)  and by the Coastal
Research Group (1969).
  In addition, Curray et at.  (1969) described
sediments associated with a strand-plain barrier
in Mexico, and Potter (1967) summarized the
characteristics of barrier-island sand bodies.

             Eolian Sand Dunes
  Prior  to the middle  1950s,  eolian deposi-
tional environments were studied principally by
European  geologists  (Cooper, 1958).  Since
that time, the coastal sand dunes of the Pacific,
Atlantic, and  Gulf coasts of the United States,
as well as the desert dunes of the United States
and  other countries, have been investigated by
university professors and by geologists with the
U.S. Geological Survey. Some of the most  sig-
nificant  contributions,  especially  those con-
cerned with dune stratification, are discussed in
the section on the eolian model of clastic sedi-
mentation.
              Marine Sediments
   Early work on modern marine sands, exclu-
sive of those deposited adjacent to  and related
to interdeltaic and deltaic depositional environ-
ments, was conducted largely by scientists asso-
ciated with Scripps, Woods Hole, and Lament
oceanographic  departments. Several aspects of
marine sediments were discussed by Trask et al.
(1955), and  the  recent  sands  of  the Pacific
Ocean  off California were  studied  by Revelle
and Shepard (1939), Emery et al (1952), and
Emery (1960a). Stetson  (1953) described the
northwestern  Gulf of Mexico sediments, and
Ericson et al. (1952, 1955)-and Heezen et al.
(1959)  investigated  the  Atlantic Ocean sedi-
ments.   Later,  Curray   (1960),  van  Andel
(1960), and van Andel and Curray (1960) re-
ported results of the API project on  the Gulf of
Mexico. A few years later, results  of the API
project studies on the Gulf of California were
reported by van Andel (1964) and van Andel
and  Shor  (1964). Menard  (1964)  discussed
sediments of the  Pacific Ocean. For a more
complete list of references to studies  of recent
marine sands, the  reader is referred to Kuenen
(1950).  Guilcher  (1958),  Shepard   et  al.
(1963), and Kukal (1971).
  Much of the early research on modern  ma-
rine environments was devoted  to submarine
canyons, fans, and basins considered by the in-
vestigators  to be characterized mainly  by  tur-
bidity-current sedimentation. Several  scientists
affiliated with  Scripps  and the  University of
Southern California published numerous papers
on turbidites which occur in deep  marine ba-
sins.
  It is  extremely  difficult to  observe the pro-
cesses of turbidity-current sedimentation under
natural  conditions; consequently, the relations
between sedimentary sequences  and  processes
are still relatively  poorly  understood. Much of
the research dealing with  turbidity currents has
been concerned with theory, laboratory models,
and cores of deep-water sediments deposited by
processes which have not  been observed.

ALLUVIAL-FAN  MODEL OF CLASTIC
S EDIMENT ATI OK
   Occurrence  and General  Characteristics
  Alluvial   fans occur throughout  the  world,
adjacent to mountain  ranges or high hills. Al-
though they form  under practically  all types of
climatic conditions, they are more common and
best developed  along mountains  of bold relief
in arid and  semi-arid regions (Figs.  5, 6).
  The  alluvial-fan  model  has   the  following
characteristics:   (1)  sediment transport  occurs
under  some of the highest  energy  conditions
within the entire realm of clastic sedimentation,
(2)  deposition  of clastic sediment occurs  di-
rectly adjacent  to the areas of erosion  which
provide the sediments, and  (3) deposits are of
maximum possible range in size of clastic parti-
cles  (from  the largest boulders  to clays)  and
are  commonly  very poorly sorted compared
with other  types of alluvial sediments (Fig. 5).
  The size of  individual alluvial fans  is con-
trolled by  drainage-basin area,  slope, climate,
and  character  of rocks  within  the  mountain
range. Individual fans range in radius from sev-
eral  hundred feet  to several  tens of miles. Co-
alescing  fans can  occur in linear belts that are
hundreds of miles  long. Fan deposits usually at-
tain  their maximum thicknesses and grain size
near  the mountain base  (apex  of fan)  and

-------
142
Rufus J. LeBlanc
                                                        StCtlON  I-C
                         Fie. S—Alluvial-fan model of clastic sedimentation.
gradually decrease in thickness away from.the
apex.
  The  alluvial-fan  environments  commonly
grade  downstream  into  braided-stream  or
playa-lake environments. In some areas, where
mountains are adjacent to oceans or large in-
land lakes, alluvial fans are formed under both
subaerial and submerged conditions. Such fans
are now referred to as "Gilbert-type" deltas.
  Alluvial-fan deposits  form important  reser-
voirs for groundwater in many areas, and adja-
cent groundwater basins are recharged through
the fan deposits which fringe these basins.
             Source, Transportation, and Deposition
                         of Sediments
            Tectonic activity and climate have a  pro-
          found influence on  the  source, transportation,
          and deposition of alluvial-fan  deposits. Uplift
          of mountain  ranges results  in very intensive
          erosion  of rocks and development  of a  very
          high-gradient  drainage  system.  The  rate of
          weathering and production of clastic  material is
          controlled mainly by  rock characteristics  and
          climate (temperature and rainfall).
            Clastic materials are transported from source
          areas in mountains or high hills to alluvial  fans

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                        Geometry of Sandstone Reservoir Bodies
                                        143
 by several  types  of  flows: stream  flows and
 sbeetfloods and debris flows or mudflows. Sedi-
 ment transport by streams is usually character-
 istic of large fans in regions of high to moder-
 ate rainfall. Mudflows or debris flows are more
 common on small fans  in regions of low rain-
 fall characterized by sudden and brief periods
 of heavy downpours.
   Stream deposits—Streams which  drain rela-
 tively small segments  of steep mountain ranges
 have steep gradients; they may erode deep can-
 yons  and  transport very  large quantities of
 coarse debris. The typical  overall stream gra-
 dient is concave upward, and the lowest gra-
 dient occurs at the toe of the fan (Fig. 5).
   Hooke  (1967)  described a special type of
 stream-flow deposit, which  be called  "sieve de-
 posits," on fans which are deficient in fine sedi-
 ments. These gravel deposits are formed when
 water infiltrates completely into the fan. Bull
 (1969) described three types of water-laid sedi-
 ments on alluvial fans: channel, sheetflood, and
 sieve deposits. Stream  channels radiate outward
 from the fan apex and commonly are braided.
The processes of channel migration,  diversion,
 abandonment and filling, and  development of
 new  main channels and  smaller  distributary
channels on the lower part  of the fan surface
 are characteristic  features.  Most fan surfaces
are characterized by one or a few active chan-
nels  and numerous abandoned channels. De-
posits on  abandoned  portions  of gravelly and
 weathered  fan  surfaces are  referred  to  as
 "pavement."
  Alluvial-fan  channel  deposits  have  abrupt
basal contacts and channel  geometry; they are
 generally coarse.  Bull (1972)  described chan-
nel deposits as imbricated and massive or thick-
 bedded.
  Heavy rainfall in mountainous source areas
can result in floods on alluvial fans. The rela-
tively shallow and  wide fan channels are not
capable of carrying the sudden influx of large
volumes of water; consequently, the streams
overtop their banks and flood part  of the fan
surface. The result is the deposition of thin lay-
ers of  clastic material between channels. Bull
 (1969)  reported sheetflood  deposits  to be finer
grained than  channel deposits,  cross-bedded,
and massive or thinly bedded.
  Debris-1lo\v deposits—Some workers refer to
both fine-grained and coarse-grained  types of
plastic  flowage in stream channels as mudflows,
but others consider mudfiows to be fine-grained
debris  flows. Examples  of  transportation  and
deposition  of  clastic  sediments  by  mudflows
  Fio. 6—Stratigraphic geometry  of BO alluvial fan.
               Alier Bull  (1972).
were first described by Rickmers  (1913) and
Blackwelder  (1928). The following conditions
favor the development of mudflows:  presence
of unconsolidated material with enough clay, to
make  it slippery  when  wet, steep  gradients,
short periods of abundant  water, and sparse
vegetation.
  Pack  (1923) discussed  debris-flow deposi-
tion on alluvial-fan surfaces. Debris flows occur
as a result of very sudden, severe flooding of
short duration.  Beaty  (1963)  described  eye-
witness accounts of debris flows on  the west
flank of the White Mountains of California and
Nevada. Debris  flows follow  channels, overtop
the channel banks,  and form lobate tongues of
debris along  channels. Debris-flow  deposits are
very poorly sorted,  fine- to coarse-grained, and
unstratified;  they have  abrupt margins. This
type of deposit  is probably most common on
the upper parts of  the fans between  the apex
and midfan areas.

    Summary: Character and Geometry of
            Alluvial-Fan Deposits
  Most of the  alluvial-fan  studies conducted
thus far have been  concerned  primarily with
the origin  and general characteristics of  fans
and the distribution of  sediments  on the sur-
faces of fans. An exception is  Bull's  excellent
summary  paper (Bull,  1972), which  contains
significant  data  on the  geometry  of  channel,
sheetflood, debris-flow,  mudflow, and  sieve de-
posits. The abstract of Bull's paper  is quoted
below:

-------
144
Rufus J. LeBlanc
  Alluvial fans commonly are thick, oxidized, erogenic
deposits whose geometry is influenced by the rate and
duration of uplift of the adjacent mountains and by
climatic factors.
  Fans consist of water-laid sediments, debris-flow de-
posits, or both. Water-laid sediments occur as channel,
sheelnood,  or sieve deposits. Entrenched  stream chan-
nels commonly are backfilled with gravel that may be
imbricated, massive, or thick bedded. Braided sheets of
finer-grained sediments  deposited  downslope from the
channel may be cross-bedded, massive, laminated, or
thick bedded. Sieve  deposits are overlapping lobes of
permeable gravel.
  Debris-flow deposits generally consist of cobbles and
boulders in a poorly sorted matrix. Mudflows are fine-
grained  debris flows. Fluid  debris flows have  graded
bedding and horizontal orientation of tabular particles.
Viscous flows  have  uniform  particle distribution and
vertical  preferred orientation that  may be  normal to
the flow direction.
  Logarithmic plots of the coarsest one percenlile ver-
sus median particle size may make patterns distinctive
of depositional environments. Sinuous patterns indicate
shallow  ephemeral  stream  environments.  Rectilinear
patterns indicate debhs flow environments.
  Fans consist of lenticular sheets of debris (length/
width ratio generally 5  to 20) and abundant channel
fills  near the apex.  Adjacent  beds commonly  vary
greatly in particle size, sorting, and thickness. Beds ex-
tend for long distances along, radial sections and chan-
nel deposits are rare. Cross-fan sections reveal beds of
limited extent that are interrupted by cut-and-fill struc-
tures.
  Three longitudinal  shapes are common in cross sec-
tion. A fan may be lenticular, or a wedge that is either
thickest, or thinnest, near the mountains.

        Ancient Alluvial-Fan Deposits

   Some examples of ancient alluvial-fan depos-
its  which have  been reported  from the United
States,  Canada, Norway, and the British Isles
are summarized in Table 1, together with other
types of alluvial deposits.
           BRAZDED-STREAM MODEL or CLASTIC
           SEDIMENTATION
              Occurrence and General  Characteristics
             Braided streams occur throughout  the world
           under a very  wide range of  physiographic and
           climatic conditions. They are common features
           on extensive alluvial plains which occupy a po-
           sition in the clastic realm of sedimentation be-
           tween  the   high-gradient  alluvial-fan environ-
           ment  at the base  of mountain  ranges and the
           low-gradient meandering-stream model of  sedi-
           mentation   (downstream).   In  physiographic
           provinces  characterized by mountainous areas
           adjacent to the sea, the braided-stream environ-
           ment  can extend  directly to  the coastline and
           thus constitute the  predominant environment of
           alluvial deposition. In  this  type  of  situation,
           meandering streams do not exist (Fig. 7). The
           braided stream is also a common feature of gla-
           cial outwash-plains associated with the  fluvio-
           glacial environment.
             The braided-stream model  is characterized
           by extremely variable rates of sedimentation in
           multiple-channel streams (Fig. 8),  the patterns
           of which vary widely compared with  meander-
           ing channels. Braided channels are usually wide
           and shallow; they  contain numerous bars, are
           slightly sinuous or  straight,  and  migrate at
           rapid rates.  Stream gradients are high, are quite
           variable, and are less than those of alluvial fans
           but generally greater than those of meandering
           streams. Large fluctuations in discharge occur-
           ring over  short periods of time are  also  com-
           mon.  The  combination of steep gradients and
           high discharge  rates results  in the transporta-
                                                               MOUNTAINS OR HILLS
                                                   AP • AUUV1AI f*
                                                   US • M(AMI
                                                   0 "Oil I*
                         Fie. 7—B raided-stream model of clastic sedimentation.

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                        Geometry of Sandstone Reservoir  Bodies
                                        145
tion and deposition of large amounts of coarse
material,  ranging  from  boulders  to sand.
Braided-stream deposits  overall are finer than
those of alluvial fans, coarser than those of
meandering streams, and quite varied in stratifi-
cation.

    Source, Transportation, and Deposition
                of Sediments
  Aggrading  braided  streams  transport  very
large quantities of clastic material derived from
a variety of sources, such as outwash plains, al-
luvial  fans,  mountainous  areas,  and  broad
plains. Unlike that of meandering streams, the
bulk of the sedimentary load of most braided
streams is  transported  as  bed load.  Rates of
sediment  transport and  deposition   are  ex-
tremely variable, the maximum  rate occurring
during severe floods of  short duration.  High-
gradient upstream segments of braided streams
close to source areas are characterized by depo-
sition of poorly sorted clastic sediments  which
       Table 1. Examples of Ajicient Alluvial-Fan, Braiderl-Stream, and Meandering-Stream Deposits
Jltutlal Fan
Arizona
California
California

Colorado




Colorado
Colorado
Conneclkul Valley






Massachusetts
Massachusetts




Montana

Montana
Montana










S.W. USA

Texas



Wyoming


Northeastern Canada

Northwest Territories

Wales and Scotland

Norway




BtaUed Slrtam
















Llano Enacado
Maryland





Mississippi
Montana





New York
New Jersey. New York



Pennsylvania








Wyoming




Nonhwelt Territories




Scotland
Spain
Spitsbergen

Meandering Stream






Colorado





Illinois
Illinois

Kansas

Maryland



Michigan
Montana
Mississippi






New York



Pennsylvania

Pennsylvania




Texas
Wen Virginia
Wyoming




No vi Scotia
Northwest Territories
England

South Wales



Spitsbergen
Nc»- South W.lci
Comptaile
Arizona

California
California

Colorado

Colo. Plateau
Colo. Plateau





Kansas





Massachusetts




Montana


Nebraska
Nebraska


North Dakota
Oklahoma



Rhode Island

Texas





Alberta
Quebec











Aulrar
Melton. 1965
Crowell. 1954
Flemal. 1967
Gatehouse. 1967
Boggs. 1966
Bolyard. 1959
Brady. 1969
Finch. 1959
Stokes, 1961
Howard, 1966
Hubert, I960
Klein. 1968
Hewitt el al.. 1965
Shelion. 1972
Lins. 1950
Shelion. 1971
Bretz 4. Horberg, 1949
Hansen. 1969
Wesiel. 1969
Stanley. 1968
Mutch. 1966
Shideler. 1969
Cwinn. 1964
Ecrg & Cook. I96S
Gwinn & Mutch, 1965
Shelion. 1967
Wilson. 1967. 1970
Bcaiy. 1961
Exum & Harms, 1968
Harms, 1966
Butlner. 1968
Smith. 1970: Shelion, 1972
Royse. 1970
Visher. I965b
Beutner fl cl.. 1967
Smith. 1970
Ryan. 1965
Mutch. 1968
Bull. 1972
Fisher & McGowcn. 1969
McCowen & Croat. 1971
McCowen & Gamer. I96S: Shelion, 1971
Beerbower. 1964, 1969
Berg. I96S
Spearing. 1969
Byen. 1966
Oineley & Williams, 1968
Klein, 1962
Way. 1968
Mia II. 1970
Allen. 1964: Laming. 1966
Bluck. 1965. 1967
Kelling. 196S
Nilsen. 1969
Williams. 1966. 1969
Naglcgaal. 1966
Moody-Sluart. 19(6
Conolly. 1965

-------
146
Rufui  J.  LeBlanc
 FIG.  8—Types of braided-slream chancels and ban.


range in  size  from boulder  to  sand. Farther
downstream,  there  is  a  gradual  decrease in
grain size and an increase in sorting.
   The bed-load materials are transported under
varying bed-form  conditions, depending  upon
river stage.  Coleman  (1969) reported ripple
and dune migration in the Brahmaputra  River
of Bangla Desh ranging from 100 ft to 2,000 ft
(30-610 m)  per day.  Chein (1961)  reported
downstream movement of sandbars in the Yel-
low River of China to be as  great  as  180-360
ft  (55-110  m) per day. (For comparison, the
rate of  bed-load movement in the  meandering
Mississippi is about 40 ft [12 m]  per day.)
   Process of channel division (braiding) by de-
velopment of bars—The exact causes  of  chan-
nel division which results in the development of
the  braided  pattern are not  very well under-
stood. Two methods in which channel division
takes place have been described by Ore (1963)
as follows:
  Leopold  and Wolman  (1957,  p. 43-44), using re-
sulis of both stream-table studies and observation] of
natural  braided  streams,  discuss  in some  detail  bow
channel  division  may  take  place. At any  time, the
stream is carrying coarser fractions along the channel
center than at the margins, and due to some local hy-
draulic condition, pan of the coarsest fraction is  depos-
ited. Finer material is, in  part, trapped by coarser par-
ticles, initiating a central ridge in the channel. Progres-
sive additions to the top and downstream end  of the
incipient  bar  build the surface toward water level. As
progressively more water is forced into lateral channels
beside the growing bar, the channels  become unstable
and widen. The bar may then emerge as  an island due
to downcutling in lateral channels, and eventually may
become  stabilized  by  vegetation. New bars  may  then
form  by  the  same process in  lateral channels.  These
authors  stress that braiding is not developed by the
stream's  inability to  move the total quinuty of sedi-
ment  provided to it;  as incapacity lead:  merely to ag-
gradation without braiding. The condition requisite to
braiding  is  that  the stream cannot move certain sizes
provided; that is, the stream  is incompetent to trans-
           port the coarsest fraction furnished to a given reach.
           Observations  for  the  present  study  substantiate  the
           braiding process of Leopold and Wolman.
             Many features of streams,  bars, and braided reaches
           result from changes in regimen (e.g., discharge, load,
           gradient),  to a large extent representing seasonal fluc-
           tuations. Other  features of  ban  result from normal
           evolution, and represent no change in regimen.
             The incipient  longitudinal  bar formed in a channel
           commonly has  an asymmetric,  downstream-pointing,
           crescenlic  shape. This  coarse part is the "nucleus"  of
           the bar, is coarser than successive additions  to  the
           downstream end, and  largely retains  its position and
           configuration  as long as any part of the bar remains.
           During longitudinal bar evolution downstream of this
           incipient bar  the water and its sediment  load com-
           monly  sweep from one  lateral  channel  diagonally
           across  the  downstream end  of the  bar,  forming a
           wedge  of  sediment with an advancing  front at   its
           downstream edge. This  wedge of sediment  is higher at
           its downstream edge, both on the longitudinal bars  de-
           scribed here, and where found as transverse bars to  be
           considered later. The latter build up the channel floor,
           independent of  longitudinal  bar development,  simply
           by moving downstream.
             After a  certain evolutionary stage, bar height stops
           increasing  because  insufficient  water  for  sediment
           transport is flowing over its surface, and deepening and
           widening of lateral channels  slowly  lower  water level.
           From then on, the bar may be either stabilized by veg-
           etation or dissected.
             Widening of a reach  after  bar deposition is in some
           cases associated  with lateral dissection  of the newly
           formed bar. Most erosion,  however, apparently occurs
           on the  outer  channel margin*  If water level remains
           essentially  constant for long periods  of  time,  lateral
           dissection may establish terraces along bar margins. A
           compound terrace  etfect  may  be  established  during
           falling  water  stages.  The  constant tendency of  the
           stream  to establish a cross-sectional profile of equilib-
           rium is the basic cause of lateral cutting by the stream.
             Longitudinal bars which become awash during high-
           water stages may be dissected by small streams flowing
           transversely over their surfaces. In stream-table experi-
           ments, sediment added  to a system eroding transverse
           channels on bar surfaces is first transported along lat-
           eral channels  beside the bars. Eventually,  these chan-
           nels fill to  an  extent that sediment starts moving trans-
           versely  over bar  surfaces, and  fills bar-lop, transverse
           channels. The addition  of sufficient sediment to fill lat-
           eral and bar-top channels often culminates in a trans-
           verse bar covering the whole  bar surface evenly.
             Another process of braiding, in  addition to that de-
           scribed  by Leopold and Wolman, takes  place in well
           sorted sediments, and involves dissection of transverse
           bars. This is in opposition to  construction of longitudi-
           nal bars in poorly sorted sediment, the  type of braiding
           discussed  above.  Both  types  may occur  together geo-
           graphically and temporally. During extended periods  of
           high  discharge, aggradation is by large tabular bodies
           of sediment with laterally sinuous fronts at the angle
           of repose  migrating downstream.- Stabilization of dis-
           charge or decrease in load after establishment of these
           transverse ban results in their dissection by anastomos-
           ing  channels;  bars  in this  case form  as residual ele-
           ments of  the  aggradational pattern.
             The transient nature of braided stream depositional
           surfaces  is characteristic of the  environment The
           streams and deposilional areas within the stream exhibit
           profound lateral-migration tendencies, especially during

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                        Geometry  of Sandstone  Reservoir Bodies
                                         147
periods of high discharge.  Channel  migration lakes
place on several scales. Individual channels erode later-
ally, removing previously deposited bars. They divide
and coalesce, and several are usually  flowing adjacent
to one another concurrently within the main  channel
system. The whole channel system, composed of sev-
eral flowing channels with bars between, also  exhibits
migrating tendencies.

   Braided-stream deposits—Our knowledge of
modern  braided-stream deposits  has increased
substantially during the past several years as a
result of studies' of several rivers in Wyoming,
Colorado, and Nebraska by Ore  (1963,  1965);
the Brahmaputra River of Bangla Desb (for-
merly East  Pakistan) by Coleman (1969); the
Platte  River of Colorado and Nebraska by N.
Smith  (1970); the Red River of the Texas pan-
handle  by  Waechter (1970);  the  Canadian
River  of northwest Texas  by Kessler  (1970,
1971); and the Copper  River  of Alaska  by
Boothroyd (1970). These studies revealed that
braided-stream  deposits are  laid  down  princi-
pally in channels as longitudinal bars and trans-
verse bars. Abandoned-channel deposits  (chan-
nel fills)  have  been reported  by  Doeglas
(1962) and Williams and Rust (1969).
   According  to Ore (1963, 1965),  longitudi-
nal-bar  deposits  occur mainly  in  upstream
channel segments and transverse  bars are more
common in downstream segments; however, in
some places these two types of  bars occur  to-
gether (Fig. 8). Longitudinal-bar deposits are
lens-shaped and elongated in the downstream
direction.  Grain  size  decreases  downstream
from coarse to fine in an individual bar;  depos-
its are  poorly sorted  and mainly horizontally
stratified  but  laterally discontinuous.  Trans-
verse-bar deposits occur  as long thin wedges
and  are  highly  dissected  by  channels. The
downstream edges of transverse bars migrate to
produce planar  cross-stratification  and some
festoon crossbedding.  Sediments  of transverse
bars are generally finer and  better sorted than
those of longitudinal bars.
   N. Smith (1970)  described some very  signifi-
cant relations between types of bars, straiifica-
tion, and grain  size in the Platte  River.  In the
upstream segment  in Colorado,  the  deposits
consist  mainly of longitudinal bars character-
ized  by low-relief stratification, generally hori-
zontally  bedded but  including  some festoon
crossbedding.  The  downstream   channel seg-
ment  in Nebraska  is characterized  by  trans-
verse-bar deposits  consisting of  better sorted,
fine-grained sand  with abundant  tabular cross-
stratification and some festoon  crossbedding.
  The Red  River braided-stream sediments of
West Texas consist of longitudinal-bar deposits
with low-angle or horizontal stratification; they
are  deposited  during   waning  flood  stages
(Waechter,  1970).  Low-river-stage  deposits
consist  mainly of  migrating transverse-bar de-
posits (in channels) with tabular cross-stratifica-
tion and some festoon crossbedding. The migra-
tion of very shallow channels results in stratifica-
tion sets that are horizontal, tabular or  lentic-
ular, and laterally  discontinuous.
  Kessler (1970)  reported longitudinal-bar de-
posits  consisting mainly  of fine  sand in up-
stream reaches of  the Canadian River in West
Texas. Transverse-bar deposits are predominant
in the downstream  part  of the  area studied.
Kessler (1971)  also  discussed individual flood
sequences  of deposits  which contain parallel
bedding and tabular and small-ripple cross-lam-
inations. These sequences are covered by clay
drapes and are laterally discontinuous.
  Coleman (1969)  presented the results of a
significant  study of one of  the largest braided
rivers of the world, the  Brahmaputra in Bangla
Desh. This river is  2-6 mi (3-9.5  km) wide
and migrates laterally as much as 2,600 ft (790
m)  per year; deposition of sediments  in  its
channels during  a  single flood occurs in  a defi-
nite sequence of change, ranging from ripples
up  to 5  ft  (1.5 m)  high that migrate  down-
stream 400 ft (120 m)  per day to sand  waves
50  ft (15 m) high that migrate up to 2,000 ft
(610 m) per day.
  Williams and  Rust (1969) presented  results
of a very  detailed  study of a  4-mi  (6.5 km)
segment of  a degrading braided stream, the
Donjek River of the Yukon Territory, Canada.
They divided the  bar  and  channel deposits,
which  range from  coarse gravels to clays, into
seven facies. Ninety-five percent of the bar de-
posits are of the longitudinal type and consist
of  gravel,  sand,  and  some finer  sediments.
Abandoned-channel  deposits consist  of  grada-
tional sequences  of gravels, sand, and clays that
become finer upward.

     Summary:  Braided-Stream Deposits
  Most of the sediments of modern braided
streams studied  during the past  decade have
been referred to by  authors as transverse- or
longitudinal-bar  deposits. These sediments were
deposited within braided channels during vary-
ing discharge conditions ranging from low wa-
ter  to  flood  stage.  Thus, all longitudinal and
transverse bars should be considered as  a spe-
cial  type of  bed form occurring within  active
braided channels.

-------
148
Rufus  J.  LeBlanc
                     MARINE
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     7I-OX3-7

     Pic. 9—Selling  and general • characteristics of meandering-stream model of clastic sedimentation.
  Studies by  Doeglas  (1962)  and Williams
and  Rust (1969)  are significant because they
describe  abandoned-channel deposits. Doeglas
discussed the methods of channel abandonment
and described the channel-fill deposits as coarse
grained, with channel or festoon laminations, in
the upstream portions of abandoned channels,
and  as fine grained, silty,  and rippled in  the
downstream porticos of abandoned channels.

      Ancient Braided-Stream Deposits
  Some examples of ancient braided-stream  de-
posits  which  have been  reported from   the
United States,  Spitsbergen, and Spain are sum-
marized in Table 1.

MEANDEHINC-STREAM MODEL OF
CLASTIC  SEDIMENTATION
   Occurrence and General Characteristics
  Meandering  streams  generally  occur  in
coastal-plain  areas updip  from  deltas and
downdip from the braided streams. The axis of
sedimentation  is usually perpendicular to   the
shoreline (Fig. 9).
  This model is characterized by a single-chan-
nel stream which is deeper than the multichan-
nel braided stream. Meandering streams usually
have  a  wide range in  discharge  (cu ft/sec)
which varies from extended periods of low-wa-
ter  flow  to  flood  stages of shorter duration.
Flooding can occur one or more times per year
and  major flooding once every  several  years.
          The meandering channel is flanked by natural
          levees and point bars, and it migrates within a
          zone (meander belt) about 15 to 20 times the
          channel width.  Channel segments are  aban-
          doned and filled with fines as new channels de-
          velop.

             Source, Transportation, and Deposition
                          of Sediments
            Sediments are derived from whatever type of
          deposit occurs in the drainage area. Clays and
          fine silts are transported in suspension (sus-
          pended  load), and  coarser sediments such  as
          sand, gravel, and pebbles are transported as bed
          load. Sediment transport and deposition during
          extended low-water stages are confined to  the
          chancel and can be nil or very slow. Maximum
          sediment transport occurs during  rising flood
          stage when the bed of the channel is scoured.
            The  maximum rate  of sediment deposition
          occurs  during falling flood  stages.  Grain size
          depends on  the  type of sediment  available  to .
          the channel; the coarsest sediments are depos-
          ited in  the deepest part of the channel, and the
          finest sediments  accumulate  in floodbasins and
          in some parts of the abandoned channels.
            Channel migration and deposition of point-
          bar sediments—The  most important processes
          of   sedimentation  in  the  meandering-stream
          model are related to channel migration which
          occurs as a result of bank caving and point-bar
          accretion (Fig.  10). The process of bank cav-
          ing occurs  most rapidly during  falling flood

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                        Geometry of Sandstone  Reservoir Bodies
                                         149
                               I IANK CAVING


                                 roml-iAi ACCIIIION
            Fic. 10—Areas of bank caving and point-bar accretion along a meandering channel.
stage, when currents of maximum velocities are
directed against the concave bank. Bank caving
occurs  at maximum rates in bends where the
bed  and bank materials are very sandy. Rates
are much slower in areas where banks are char-
acterized  by clayey sediments (Fisk,  1947).
  Deposition occurs on the convex bar (point
bar) simultaneously  with  bank caving  on the
concave bank.
  Bank caving and point-bar accretion result in
channel migration and the development of the
point-bar  sequence of sediments (Fig. 11). The
point bar is probably the  most common and
significant environment of sand deposition. The
thickness  of this sequence  is governed by chan-
nel depths.  Point-bar sequences along the Mis-
sissippi River  attain thicknesses  in  excess  of
150 ft  (45 m). Medium-size rivers like the Bra-
zos of Texas produce point-bar sequences that
are 50 ft  (15 m)  thick (Bernard et at., 1970).
  Channel diversions and filling of abandoned
channels—The process of  channel   diversion
and channel abandonment is another  character-
istic feature of meandering streams.  There are
two basic types of diversion and abandonment:
(1) the neck or chute cutoff of a single mean-
 der loop  and (2) the abandonment of a long
 channel segment as a result of a major stream
 diversion  (Fisk, 1947).
   Meander loops which are abandoned as a re-
 sult of neck or chute cutoffs become filled with
 sediment  (Fig.  12A).  The  character of the
 channel fill depends on the orientation of the
 abandoned loop with respect to the direction of
 flow in the  new channel. Meanders  oriented
 with their  cutoff ends  pointing  downstream
•(Fig. 12B)  are  filled  predominantly with  clays
 (clay plugs); those oriented with  the  cutoff
 ends pointing  upstream  are filled principally
 with sands and silts.
   A major channel diversion is one which re-
 sults in the abandonment of a long channel seg-
 ment or meander belt, as shown in Figure 13.
 Channeling of flood water in a topographically
 low place along the bank  of the active channel
 can rapidly erode  unconsolidated sediments
 and create  a new  channel.  This process  can
 happen during a single flood or as a  result of
 several  floods.  The newly established channel
 has a gradient advantage across the topographi-
 cally lower fioodbasin. A diversion can occur at
 any point along the channel.
                                                       FOINT'iAl DIFOSMl
                      Fic. 11—Development of point-bar sequence of sediments.

-------
150
Rufus  J. LeBlanc
                                        CHUTE  CUTOFF
                                                            TYPES OF CHANNEL FILLS
         Fio. 12—Channel diversion, abandonment, and filling u a result of neck and chute cutoffs.
  The character of the sediments  which fill
long channel segments is governed by the man-
ner of channel diversion. Abrupt abandonment
(during a single flood or a  few floods) results
in the very rapid  filling of  only  the upstream
end of the old channel, thus  creating a long sin-
uous  lake.  These  long, abandoned  channels
(lakes) fill very  slowly with  clays  and silts
transported by flood waters (Fig.  14, left).
   Gradual channel abandonment (over a long
period) results in very gradual channel deterio-
ration. Diminishing flow transports and depos-
its progressively smaller amounts  of finer sands
and silts (Fig. 14,  right).

  Summary: Characteristics of  Meander-Belt
           and Fioodbasin Deposits
   The meandering-stream model  of sedimenta-
tion  is characterized by four types  of  sedi-
ments: the point bar, abandoned channel, natu-
ral levee, and fioodbasin. The nature of each of
these four types of sediments and their interre-
lations are summarized in Figure  15.
   Only two main types of sand bodies are asso-
ciated with a meandering stream: the point-bar
       -AlAMOOMtO MtAMDt* Mil
          sands and the abandoned-channel fills. The for-
          mer, which are much more abundant than the
          latter, occur in the lower portion of the point-
          bar sequence and constitute at least 75 percent
          of the sand deposited by a meandering stream.
          Coalescing point-bar sands can actually form a
          "blanketlike" sand body of very large regional
          extent.  The continuity  of sand is interrupted
          only by the "clay plugs" which  occur in aban-
          doned meander loops or in the last channel po-
          sition of meander belts  which have been aban-
          doned abruptly.
             Examples  of ancient  alluvial  deposits of
          meandering-stream origin which have  been re-
          ported  in the Literature  are  summarized  in
          Table  1.

          DELTAIC MODELS OF CLASTIC SEDIMENTATION
              Occurrence and General Characteristics
             Deltaic sedimentation occurs  in the  transi-
          tional zone between continental  and marine (or
          inland  seas and lakes)  realms of deposition.
          Deltas  are formed  under  subaerial and suba-
          queous  conditions by a combination of fluvial
          and marine processes which prevail in an  area
          where a fluvial system  introduces land-derived
          sediments into a standing body of water.

 Flc. 13—Major  channel  diversion  and  abandonment
               of a meander belt.
           Fio. 14—Variations in character of abandoned channel
                     nil typical of meander belts.

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 152
Rufus  J.  LeBlonc
      FIG.  16—Occurrence of deltaic models of
              clastic sedimentation.
  Large  deltas usually are associated with ex-
tensive  coastal  plains;  however,  all  coastal
plains do not include large  deltas. The deltaic
environment   occurs  downstream  from  the
meandering-stream environment and is directly
adjacent  to,  and  updip (landward)  from, the
marine  environment;  it  is  flanked  by  the
coastal-interdeltaic  environment.  Most large
deltas occur  on the margins of marine basins,
but smaller deltas also form in inland lakes,
seas, and coastal lagoons and estuaries (Fig.
16).
  That portion of a delta which is constructed
under subaerial conditions is called the "deltaic
plain"; that portion which forms under water is
called the "delta front," "delta platform,"  and
"prodelta." The bulk of the  deltaic mass is de-
posited under water.
  Deltas are  considered to be extremely impor-
tant because  they are the sites of deposition of
sand much father downdip than the interdeltaic
environment, as well as being tilt sites where
clastic deposition occurred at maximum rates.

         Source and Transportation
               of Sediments
  Sediments  deposited  in large deltas are de-
rived from extensive continental regions which
are usually composed of  rock types of varied
compositions  and geologic ages. Thus, the com-
position of deltaic sediments can be quite var-
ied.
            The sediment load  of rivers consists of two
          parts: (1) the clays and fine silts transported in
          suspension and (2) the  coarser silts and sands,
          and in some cases gravels,  transported as bed
          load. The ratio of suspended  load to bed load
          varies considerably, depending upon the rock
          types  and climatic conditions  of the sediment-
          source areas. The suspended  load is  generally
          much greater than the bed load.
            The transportation  of sediment  to a  delta is
          an intermittent process.  Most rivers  transport
          the bulk  of their sediments during flood stages.
          During extended periods of low discharge, riv-
          ers contribute very little sediment to  their del-
          tas.
            The extent to  which  deltaic  sediments  are
          dispersed into the marine environment is  de-
          pendent upon the magnitude of the marine pro-
          cesses during the  period that a river is in flood
          stage.  Maximum  sediment   dispersal  occurs
          when  a  river  with  a  large  suspended load
          reaches flood stage at  the time the marine envi-
          ronment  is  most  active  (season  of maximum
          currents  and wave action). Minimum dispersal
          occurs when a river  with a  small suspended
          load (high bed load) reaches flood stage at a
          time when the marine environment is relatively
          calm.
            Size of deltas—There is  an extremely wide
          range in  the size  of deltas;1 modern  deltas
          range in area from less  than  1  sq mi  (2.6 sq
          km) to several hundreds of square miles. Some
          large deltaic-plain  complexes are several thou-
          sand square miles  in area. Delta size  is depen-
          dent upon several factors, but_ the three most
          important are the sediment load of the river;
          the intensity of marine currents, waves,  and
          tides;  and the rate of subsidence.  For a given
          rate of subsidence, the ideal condition  for  the
          construction of a large delta is the sudden large
          influx of sediments in a calm body  of water
          with a small tidal range. An equally large sedi-
          ment influx into a highly disturbed body of wa-
          ter with a high tidal range results in the forma-
          tion of a smaller delta, because a large amount
          of sediment is dispersed beyond  the  limits of
          what can reasonably be recognized as a delta.
          Rapid subsidence  enhances the possibility for a
          large fluvial system to  construct a large delta.
            Types  of  deltas—A study of modem deltas
          of the world reveals numerous types. Bernard

            ' Published figures on area! extent of deltas are based
          on size of the deltaic plain  and do not include sub-
          merged portions of the delta, which in many cases are
          as large as or larger than tic deltaic plains.

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                           Geometry of  Sondstone  Reservoir Bodies
                                             153
 (1965) summarized some of the factors which
 control delta types as follows:

   Delias and  dchaic sediments are produced by the
 rapid deposition  of stream-borne materials in relatively
 still-standing  bodies  of  water. Notwithstanding  the
 effects of subsidence and  water level movements, mosl
 deltaic sediments are deposited off  the delta shoreline
 in the proximity  of the  river's mouth. As these materi-
 als build upward to the level of the still-standing body
 of water, the remainder of deltaic sediments are depos-
 ited onshore,  within the  delta's flood  plains, lakes,
 bays, and channels.
   Nearly 2,500 years ago, Herodotus, using the Nile as
 an example, stated that the land  area reclaimed  from
 the sea by deposition of river sediments  is generally
 deltoid in shape.  The buildup and progradation of del-
 taic sediments produces  a  distinct  change in stream
 gradient from the fluvial or  alluvial plain to the deltaic
 plain.  Near the  point of  gradient  change the major
 courses of  rivers generally begin  to iranspon much
 finer  materials, to  bifurcate into  major distributaries,
 and to form subaerial deltaic plains. The boundaries of
 the subaerial plain of  an  individual  delta  are the lat-
 eral-most distributaries, including  their related  sedi-
 ments, and  the coast line.  Successively smaller distribu-
 taries form sub-deltas of  progressively smaller magni-
 tudes.
  Deltas may be  classified on the basis of the nature of
 their associated water bodies, such as lalce, bay, inland
 sea, and marine deltas.  Other classifications  may  be
 based on the depth of the  water bodies into which they
 prograde, or on basin structure.
  Many  delta  types have been described previously.
 Most of  these have been  related to  the vicissitudes of
 sedimentary processes by which they  form.  Names
 were  derived  largely from the shapes  of the delta
 shorelines. The configuration of the delta shores and
 many other deposilional forms expressed  by  different
 sedimentary facies appear  to be directly proportional
 to the relative relationship  of the  amount or  rale  of
 river sediment influx with  the nature and energy of the
 coastal processes. The more common and better under-
 stood types, listed in order  of decreasing sediment in-
 flux and increasing energy of coastal  processes (waves,
 currents,  and tides), are:  birdfoot, lobate,  cuspate, ar-
 cuate,  and  estuarine. The subdeltas  of  the Colorado
 River in  Texas illustrate this relationship.  During the
first  part of this century,  the  river, transporting  ap-
proximately the same yearly load, built  a  birdfoot-lo-
 bate type delta in Matagorda Bay, a low-energy water
 body, and began  to form a cuspate delta in the Gulf of
 Mexico,  a  comparatively  high-energy  water  body.
 Many deltas are  compounded; their subdeltas may be
 representative of  two or more types of deltas! such as
birdfoot,  lobate,  and arcuate. Less-known  deltas, such
 as the Irrawaddy, Ganges, and Mekong, are probably
mature esluarine  types. Others, located very near major
scarps, are referred to the  "Gilbert type," which is sim-
ilar to an alluvial fan.

   Additional studies of modern  deltas  are re-
quired  before  a more  suitable classification of
delta types can be established.  J. M. Coleman
 (personal  commun.)  and  bis  associates,  to-
gether  with  the Coastal  Studies  Institute at
 Louisiana  State University, are  presently con-
ducting  a  comprehensive investigation of more
 than 40 modern dehas. Results  of  their studies
 undoubtedly will be  a significant  contribution
 toward the solution to this problem.
   Only three types of deltas will be considered
 in this report: the birdfoot-lobate,  the  cuspate-
 arcuate, and the esluarine.

     Sedimentary Processes and Deposits of
            the Bird/oot-Type Delta

   The processes  of  sedimentation  within  a
 delta  are much  more complex and  variable
 than  those  which  occur  in  the  meandering-
 stream and  coastal-inierdeltaic  environment of
 sedimentation. It  is impossible  to discuss  these
 deltaic processes in detail in  a short summary
 paper such as this;  therefore, only a brief  sum-
 mary of  the following significant  processes  is
 presented.
  1.  Dispersal  of  sediment in the submerged parts of
 the delta (from river mouths seaward);
  2.  Formation of rivermouth bars,  processes of  chan-
 nel bifurcation, and development of distributary  chan-
 nels;
  3.  Seaward  progradation of delta,  deposition of the
 deltaic sequence of  sediments, and  abandonment and
 filling of distributary channels; and
  4.  Major river  diversions,  abandonment  of  deltas,
 and  development  of  new deltas.

  Dispersal and deposition of sediments—Riv-
 erborne sediments  which  are introduced  in  z
 standing body of water (a marine  body or in-
 land lakes and seas) are transported in suspen-
 sion  (clays   and  fine  silts)  and as  bed  load
 (coarse silts, sands,  and  coarser  sediments).
 Most of the sands and coarse  silts are deposited
 in the immediate  delta-front environment as
 rivermouth  bars and  slightly beyond  the  bar-
 front zone. The degree of sand  dispersal is, of
 course, controlled by  the level  of marine en-
 ergy;  however,  in most  birdfoot deltas, sands
 are not transported  beyond 50-ft (15 m) water
 depths. Fisk  (1955) referred to the sands de-
 posited around (he margins of the subaerial del-
 taic  plain  as "delta-front sands," and  they are
 called "delta-fringe sands" herein.
  The finer  sediments (clays  and fine silts),
 which  are  transported in  suspension,  are dis-
persed over  a  much  broader  area  than the
 fringe sands and silts. The degree of dispersal is
 governed  by  current  intensity  and  behavior.
 Accumulations  of clays  seaward of the delta-
 fringe sands  are referred to  as "prodelta" or
 "distal clays" (Fig.  17).
  Channel bifurcation and development of dis-
 tributary  channels—Some of the most signifi-
cant deltaic processes are those which result in
the  origin and  development  of  distributary

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 154
Rufus  J.  LeBlonc





            FIG. 17—Distribution of distributary-channel and fringe sands in a birdfoot-lobate delta.
channels. Welder  (1959)  conducted  a detailed
study of these processes in a part of the Missis-
sippi  delta,  and  Russell  (1967a)  summarized
the origin of branching channels, as follows:
  The creation of branching channels is determined by
the fact that threads of maximum turbulence and  tur-
bulent interchange  (Austausch; 1.2.3; 3.5) lie deep  and
well toward the sides of channels, particularly if they
have  fiat  bed:  (typical  of clay and  fine sediments in
many delta regions). These threads are associated with
maximum scour and from  them, sediment is expelled
toward areas of less turbulence and Austauscb. Signifi-
cant  load is  propelled  toward  mid-channel,  where
shoals are most likely to form.
          OIICINAl  MAMCHING OF A MITA CHAKMfl

Fio.  18—Stages in development  of channel bifurcation.
                 After Russell (1967).
             At its mouth, the current of a delta channel contin-
           ues forward (as a result of momentum) and creates jet
           flow into the lake or sea it enters. After  leaving the
           confinement imposed by fixed banks, however, the cur-
           rent flares marginally to some extent (widening the jet,
           reducing its velocity, and eventually dissipating its fiow
           energy). Near the termination of confining banks the
           jet fiow is concentrated and moves ahead into relatively
           quiet water. With flaring of jet flow comes  an increase
           in spacing between threads of most intense turbulence
           and exchange. There is a tendency  toward scour below
           each thread, but the exchange prpcess  sends most of
           the entrained  material toward marginal quiet water on
           both sides (Fig. 8 [Fig. 18 of this paper]).  Deposition
           creates a submarine natural levee on  the outer side of
           each thread. Sediment is also attracted toward and de-
           posited in the widening area of  mid-channel water,
           where it builds a shoal. The channel divides  around the
           shoal, creating two distributaries, each of which devel-
           ops its own marginal threads of maximum  turbulence,
           perpetuating conditions for other divisions below  each
           new channel mouth. If not opposed  by wave erosion
           and longshore currents, the subdivision continues in
           geometric progression  (2, 4, 8,  16, etc.) as  the  delta
           deposit grows forward.                    >'„
             The marginal natural  levees are  submarine features
           at first and fish  may  swim across their crests.  Later
           they grow upward, and for awhile become areas where
           logs and  other flotsam  accumulate and where  birds
           walk with talons  hardly submerged. Salt- or fresb-wa-
           ter-tolerant grasses invade the shallow water and newly
           created land, first  along levee crests, later to  widen as
           the levees grow larger. Salicornia and  other plants be-
           come  established pioneer trees  such   as  willows, and
           eventually in  the  plant succession comes  the whole
           complex  characteristic of natural  levees upstream.  In
           tropical areas  mangroves  are likely  to become the
           dominant trees.

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                          Geometry of  Sandstone Reservoir Bodies
                                            155
  A similar  conversion  exists  in mid-channel, where
the original  ihoaJ becomes land and cither  develops
into a lenticular or irregular island or becomes the
point of land at the bead of two branching distributar-
ies.

   Progradation of delta and deposition  oj del-
taic sequence—Fisk's discussion of the  process
of  distributary-channel lengthening  (prograda-
tion of delta seaward) is probably one of the
most significant of bis many contributions on
deltaic  sedimentation  (Fisk,  1958).  His  de-
scription  of this  important  aspect of delta de-
velopment  is  presented below.  (Stages  in the
development of a birdfoot-type  delta are shown
in Figure 19.)

  Each  of the  prc-modern Mississippi River  courses
was initiated by an upstream diversion, similar to the
one presently affecting the Mississippi as the  Atchafa-
laya River enlarges (Fisk, 1952). Stream capture was a
gradual  process  involving increasing  Sow through  a
diversional arm which offered a gradient advantage to
the gulf. After capture was effected, each new course
lengthened seaward by building a shallow-water delta
and extending it gulfward. Successive  stages in course
lengthening are shown djagrammalically on Figure 2
[Fig. 19, this paper]. The onshore portion of the delta
surface  ... is composed of distributaries which are
flanked  by low  natural levees, and  interdistributary
troughs holding near-sea-level marshes and shallow wa-
ter bodies. Channels of  the principal distributaries ex-
tend for some distance across the gently sloping offshore
surface of the delta to the inner margin of the sleeper
delta front where the distributary-mouth bars are situ-
ated. The offshore channels are bordered by submarine
levees which rise slightly above the offshore extensions
of the interdistributary troughs.
  In the process of course lengthening, the river occu-
pies a succession of distributaries, each of which is fa-
vorably  aligned  to receive increasing flow from up-
stream. . . .  The favored distributary gradually widens
and deepens  to become the main stream . . . ; its natural
levees increase in height and width and adjacent inter-
distributary troughs fill,  permitting marshland  develop-
ment. Levees along the  main channel  are built largely
during floodslagc; along the distal ends of distributar-
ies, however, levee construction is  facilitated  by cre-
vasses . .  .  which breach the  low  levees  and permit
water and  sediment to  be  discharged  into   adjacent
troughs  during intermediate river stages as well as dur-
ing fioodslage. Abnormally wide sections of the levee
and of  adjacent mudflats and  marshes are created in
this manner, and some of the crevasses continue to re-
main  open and serve  as minor distributaries while  the
levees increase  in height. Crevasses also occur  along
the main stream during floodstages . . .  and permit
tongues of sediment to extend into the  swamps and
marshes for  considerable distances beyond the normal
toe position of the levee.
   Distributaries  with less favorable  alignment  are
abandoned during the course-lengthening process, and
their  channels are  filled with  sandy sediment. Aban-
doned distributaries associated with the development of
the present course below New Orleans vein the marsh-
lands. . . . Above the birdJoot delta,  the pattern is simi-
lar to that of  the older  courses . .  . ; numerous long,
branching distributaries diverge at a  low angle.
  Stream  diversions,  abandonment  of  deltas,
and development oj  new  deltas—Deltas  pro-
grade  seaward but  they do not  migrate later-
ally, as a point bar  does, for example. A delta
shifts position laterally if a major  stream diver-
sion occurs upstream  in the  alluvial  environ-
ment or in the upper  deltaic-plain region (Fig.
20). Channel diversions were  discussed  in the
section on the meandering-stream  model.
  Deltas, like meander belts, can be abandoned
abruptly or gradually, depending upon the  time
required for channel diversion to occur. Once a
delta is completely abandoned, all processes of
deltaic sedimentation cease to exist in that  par-
ticular delta. With a standing sea level, the sedi-
ments of  the abandoned  delta compact,  and
subsidence probably continues.  The net result is
the encroachment of  the marine environment
over the abandoned delta. This process bas er-
roneously  been  referred to  by  some authors
as  "the  destructive  phase  of  deltaic  sedi-
mentation."  The  author maintains   that   the
proper terminology  for  this  process  is "trans-
gressive marine  sedimentation." The two  pro-
cesses and their related sediments  are  signifi-
cantly different,  as the discussion of the trans-
gressive marine model of sedimentation demon-
strates  (see  the  succeeding  section  on  this
model).
  As the  marine environment  advances land-
ward  over  an   abandoned  subaqueous delta
front and  the margins of the deltaic  plain, the
upp:r portion of the  deltaic sequence of  sedi-
ment is  removed by wave  action. The amount
of sediment removed depends on  the inland ex-
tent qf the transgression  and on the rate of sub-
sidence. The front of the transgression  is  usu-
ally characterized by deposition of thin marine
sand units.  Seaward,  sediments  become  finer
and grade into clays.  Thus, local  marine trans-
gressions  which  occur  because of delta shifts
result in  the  deposition of  a  very  distinctive
marine sedimentary sequence which  is easily
distinguished  from  the  underlying deltaic se-
quence.
   Concurrent with marine transgression  over
an  abandoned delta, a new  delta will develop on
the flanks of the abandoned delta. Sedimentary
processes  in the  new  delta are similar to those
described  under  the discussion of progradation
of deltas.
   Repeated occurrences of river  diversions  re-
sult in the deposition  of several discrete deltaic
masses which are separated by thin  transgres-
sive marine sequences  (Fig. 20). Under  ideal
conditions, deltaic fades can attain thicknesses

-------
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-------
 158
Rufus j. LeBlanc
of several hundreds of feet in a large sedimen-
tary basin.


  Sedimentary Processes and Deposits of the
        Cuspate-Arcuate  Type of  Delta

  The shape of  a delta is controlled by the in-
fluence of marine processes which  are  active
against  the   delta  front   (Table  2). Russell
(1967a) presented the following excellent sum-
mary of  the  modification of deltas by marine
processes.

  The  deposilional processes  characteristic of  river
mouths are opposed by marine processes that work
toward removal of deposits.  In a quiet sea or lake the
geometric increase  in number of distributaries is  most
closely approached. Below the most inland and  earliest
forking, of the river, the delta builds  oul as  a fan-
shaped accumulation, with distributaries creating ribs
with natural levees separating basins that  widen and
open toward the sea. The point deserving greatest em-
phasis is that  the entire delta system originates under-
water and only later becomes features visible as land.
  The ideal delta  front is arcuate or  has a bird-fool
shape as viewed from  the air or indicated on a chart.
The  Utter pattern  indicates  a  condition in which the
deposition of load  is dominant over the efforts of ma-
rine  processes. It results from the forward growth  of
natural levees  and the inability of longshore currents to
carry away sediment about as  rapidly  as it is brought
to the river mouth. The delta of the Mississippi is the
largest and most typically cited example. Some talons
of the foot extend out more  than 20 miles and the
basins between natural levees flank V-sbaped marshes
and bays up to about  1.5  fathoms deep. Many  smaller
bird-foot deltas occur in lakes  and  estuaries, where
there is relatively  little distance for fetch to generate
high waves and where there are only feeble longshore
currents.
  The arcuate-front deltas, such as those of the Nile
and Niger, indicate sufficient wave action and removal
of sediment  by longshore currents  to  maintain  rela-
tively stable, smooth fronts. In some cases the momen-
tum of jet flow is apparently sufficient to prevent much
flaring, and a  single pair of natural levees advances
seaward to form a cuspaie delta front, localized along
a single channel. The Tiber, Italy,  is  the commonly
cited example. The Sakayra River, on  the Black Sea
coast of Turkey has such, a delta, but the reason is
dominance of wave action. Ahead of it is  a large area
of shoal water with an extremely irregular system  of
channels and natural levees (changing so rapidly that a
pilot keeps daily watch over them in order to guide
boats back to the  river mouth). Levees are prevented
from growing  up  to sea  level  because wave erosion
keeps them planed off to a depth of  a few feet and
because longshore  currents entrain and transport  sedi-
ment  away effectively enough  to  prevent seaward
growth of land area. This leaves  but one  channel
mouth in a central position as  a gently  protruding sin-
gle cusp.

  The  modem  Brazos  River delta  of  Texas
(constructed since 1929) is a good example  of
a small modem arcuate delta which has been
           strongly  influenced  by marine processes.  Ber-
           nard el al.  (1970)  discussed  this small  delta
           and its vertical sequence of sediments. Stages in
           the development of this type of delta  are shown
           in Figure 21.
             The modern Niger delta of western Africa is
           a classic example  of a large  arcuate-type delta
           that  is highly  influenced  by marine  processes
           and  tidal currents.  Allen (1965c, 1970)  de-
           scribed the  environments,  processes,  and sedi-
           mentary sequences of this interesting  delta. On
           the basis of data presented by Allen,  it  is obvi-
           ous that, although there are many similarities
           between the Niger delta and  the  birdfoot-type
           Mississippi  delta,  there  are certainly some sig-
           nificant  differences.  For  example,  from  the
           standpoint  of  sand  bodies, the characteristics
           and geometry  of  the  delta-fringe sands of the
           Niger are considerably different from those of
           the  Mississippi. As  indicated on  Figure 22,  a
           very large quantity of the sand that  is contrib-
           uted  to river-mouth  bars  by the Niger is trans-
           ported landward and deposited on the front of
           the  deltaic  plain  as  prominent  beach ridges
           (this is a special  form of delta-fringe sand ac-
           cording to  the writer's deltaic classification).
           This process results  in the development of  a
           thick body of clean sands along the entire front
           of the deltaic plain.
             Another  important  difference  between  the
           Niger and the Mississippi  is the occurrence of a
           very extensive  tidal-marsh and swamp environ-
           ment on the Niger deltaic plain  behind (land-
           ward of) the prominent beach ridges. This en-
           vironment is characterized by a network of nu-
           merous small channels which connect with the
           main  distributary channels.  These   channels,
           which are influenced by a wide tidal  range, mi-
           grate  rather freely and become  abandoned to
           produce extensive point-bar deposits  and many
           abandoned channel fills. In contrast, the Missis-
           sippi River  distributary channels  migrate very
           little and,   hence, point-bar  sands  constitute
           only a small percentage of the deltaic deposits.
             In summary, the Niger  arcuate  delta  is char-
           acterized  by  prominent  delta-fringe  sands
           (which include the  beach-ridge sands) occur-
           ring as a narrow belt along the entire front of
           the deltaic plain. Point-bar sand bodies are very
           common directly  adjacent- to  and landward of
           the  delta-fringe  sands.  The combination  of
           high-level marine  energy  and strong  tidal cur-
           rents  results in  development  of  a  relatively
           large  quantity  of distributary and   point-bar
           (migrating channels) sands.

-------
Tnble 2. Fnclors Which Influence Cliarnclcrlstlca of Dtllnlc Deposits




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-------
 160
Rufus  J.  LeBlanc

                                                 •MV fc^M^ly A^tM »^^«*«
                         Fic. 21—Stages in development of a cuspate delta.
    Sedimentary Processes and Deposits of
            Estuarine-Type  Delta
  Large deltas such as the  Ganges, Amazon,
and Colorado (in Gulf of California)  are  con-
sidered to be examples of estuarine-type deltas.
Although our knowledge of  these deltas is ex-
tremely limited, it is now reasonably well estab-
lished  that  they  are  associated  with  extreme
          tidal conditions (up to 25 ft [8 m] at the mouth
          of the Colorado River). It is apparent that very
          strong tidal currents have a profound influence
          on  the  distribution  of  sediments.  Sands  are
          known to be transported for great distances in
          front of these deltas; however, the geometry of
          these sand bodies is unknown. Additional stud-
          ies of this type delta are badly needed.

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r.:::;,r:r:L;ir: ;rj; ,tr "

-------
 162
                Rufus J. LeBlanc
   Table 3. Examples of Ancient Deltaic Deposits

  Gtographic Occufrtnce              Author
  Caufomi*
  IllLDOU
  Indiana
  Iowa & Illinois
  Kanaas
  Michigan
  Min. La. & Ala.
  Montana
  Nebraska
  New Mexico
  New York

  New York & Ontario
  New York
  North DaJce-ta
  Ohio

  Oklahoma
  Oregon

  Pi., W. V.., Ohio

  South Dakota
  Texu
  W. Va.. Pa., Ohio
  Wyoming
  Wyoming ft Colorado
  Seven! tutu, U.S.A.
  N. Appalachian*
  Central Appalachians
  Central Appalachians
  Upper Mi«« cmbayxDent
   & Illinois basin
  Upper Mm. Valley
  Otli, Iowa, Mo.. KIOL,
   1IL. Ind.. Ky.
  Okla. to Perm.
  Ceatral Gulf Coast
  Alberta. Canada
  England

  Ireland'
  Scotland
Todd and Monroe. 1968
Uneback, 1968
Swsnn ti al., I96J
Hrabarand Poller, 1969
Wicraod Girdley. 1963
Laury. 1968
Brown, 1967
Haitiu, 1965
Clark and Rouse, 1971
Curtis. 1970
Auecz. 1969
Galloway. 1968
Sims. 1967
Shellon, 1972
Schleeaod Moench, 1961
Friedman and Johnson. 1966
Lumideoand Pelleticr. 1969
Manini. 1971
Wolf. 1967
Sbellon. 1972
K-nighl, 1969
Leneand Owen. 1969
Biuch. 1953. 1971
Shellon. 1972
Viaber el al.. 1971
Doit. 1964, 1966
Snavely el al.. 1964
Beerbowcr, 1961
Perm and Cavaroc, 1969
Pettyjohn, 1967
Brown. 1969
Fisher and McGowen. 1969
Gregory, 1966
LeBUnc, 1971
Nam, 19M
Shaonooand Dahl. 1971
Wcrrnund and Jenkins. 1970
Sbellon. 1972
Donaldson. 1969
Barlow and Haun. 1966
Doodanville, 1963
Hale. 1961
Paull, 1962
Weimer, 1961b
Weimer, 1963
Fiaher ti al.. 1969
Fcnn. 1970
Horowitz, 1966
Dcnnuon. 1971
Pryor. 1960, 1961

Swaon, 1964
Manos. 1967

Wanlcai tt el.. 1970
Mann and Thomaa. 1968
Carrigy, 1971
Shawa, 1969
Shepheart) and HIIIj, 1970
Thachuk. 1968
Allen. 1962
Taylor. 1963
Hubbard. 1967
Greerumiih. 1966
        Summary: Deltaic Sand Bodies
  There are three basic types of deltaic sand
bodies:  delta-fringe,  abandoned  distributary-
channel,  and  point-bar sands.  The  relative
abundance and general  characteristics of these
 sand bodies in the three types of deltas consid-
 ered herein are summarized below.
   Birdfoot-rype   delta—The  most  common
 sands are those of the delta-fringe environment.
 These  sands  occur  as  relatively thin,  wide-
 spread sheets,  and  they contain  a substantial
 amount of clays and silts.
   Abandoned  distributary  channels   contain
 varied  amounts of  sand, probably composing
 less than 20 percent of the total delta sand con-
 tent. These  sand  bodies are long and narrow,
 are  only slightly sinuous, and are encased in the
 delta-fringe sands  or prodelta clays, depending
 upon channel depths and the distance that the
 delta has prograded  seaward.
   Cuspate-arcuate type of  delta—Delta-fringe
 sand complexes  are  wide  (width of  delta),
 though  individual sand bodies  are  relatively
 narrow, and  are generally  much cleaner  than
 delta-fringe sands  of the birdfoot-type delta.
   Distributary-channel  sands   and   point-bar
 sands are  much more  common than  in  bird-
 foot-type deltas and can constitute  up to 50
 percent of the total sand content of the delta.
 These two types of  sands are encased in delta-
 fringe and prodelta sediments.
   Estuarine-type   delta—Delta-fringe   sands
 appear to be  much more common  than distrib-
 utary and  point-bar sands.  They probably ex-
 tend for great distances  within the marine envi-
 ronment in front  of the delta;  however,  their
 geometry remains  unknown.

           Ancient Deltaic Deposits
   Deposits of deltaic origin have been reported
 from more than 40 states and from several for-
 eign countries. Some examples are summarized
 in Table 3.

 COASTAL-INTERDELTAIC  MODEL OF
 SEDIMENTATION
      Setting  and General Characteristics
   This  type  of sedimentation  occurs in  long,
 narrow  belts  parallel  with  the  coast  where
 shoreline and nearshore processes of  sedimen-
 tation predominate. The ideal interdeltaic de-
 posit, as the name  implies, occurs along the
coast between deltas and comprises mud  fiats
and  cbeniers  
-------
                        Geometry of  Sandstone Reservoir Bodies
                                         163
       Fie. 23—General setting and characteristics of coastal-interdeltaic model of clastic sedimentation.
   Source and Transportation of Sediments
  Most of the sediments deposited are derived
from land, but minor amounts come from the
marine environment. A  portion of the sediment
transported to the marine shoreline by rivers
and  smaller streams  is  dispersed laterally  by
marine currents  for great distances along tbe
coast. Clays and  fine silts are carried in suspen-
sion, and  sand  is transported  mainly  as  bed
load or by wave action in  the beach and near-
sbore zone. Tbe  suspended silt and clay load is
dispersed at a rapid rate and is most significant
in the development of tbe mud flats of tbe che-
nier  plain. Lateral movement of the sand  bed
load occurs at a relatively slow rate and  is most
significant in  tbe development of the cheniers
and  the barrier-island complex.
  A minor amount of sediment can also be de-
rived from adjacent  continental-shelf areas  if
erosion occurs in the marine environment.
  Sedimentary processes  and deposits  of che-
nier  plain—Major floods result in the  sudden
large influx of sediments at river mouths. Much
of the suspended load introduced to the coastal-
marine environment is  rapidly dispersed later-
ally  along the  coast by the predominant long-
shore drift. A  considerable portion of this sus-
pended load is  deposited  along the shoreline
(on  tbe delta  flank) as extensive  mud flats.
This  period of regressive  sedimentation (pro-
gradation or offlap) occurs in a relatively short
period when rivers  are  at  flood stages (Fig.
24).
  During  long periods  when rivers  are  nol
flooding, the supply of sediment to tbe coast is
reduced  considerably or is nil. Coastal-marine
currents  and wave action rework the  seaward
edge of the newly formed mud flat, and a trans-
gressive situation develops. A slight increase in
  Flo. 24—Stages ID development of a chenier plain.

-------
164
                                    Rufus J. LeBlanc
sand supply can result in a regressive situation,
and the initial transgressive beach accumulation
will grow seaward by regressive beach accretion
to form a long, narrow,  well-defined chenier on
the seaward edge of the extensive mud flat.
  Another  period of river flooding develops an-
other mud  flat on the seaward edge  of the cbe-
nier.  During  the  subsequent nonflood season,
the coastal-transgressive processes produce an-
other beach ridge. Thus, over a long period,  a
chenier plain  consisting  of mud flat and beach
ridges is constructed.
  The width of a mud flat is varied and is de-
pendent on the  magnitude  and duration  of  a
river flood. The size of the chenier (height and
width) is determined by two factors:  duration
of the nonflood season (absence of  muds) and
magnitude  of coastal-marine processes, includ-
ing storm tides and waves.
  Small streams which  drain to the  coastline
across a chenier plain  contribute  little   sedi-
ment to the  chenier-plain  environment.  The
mouths of these streams are generally deflected
in the direction of the littoral drift.
  Sedimentary processes  and deposits of  bar-
rier-island complex—The  typical barrier-island
complex  comprises  three  different but related
depositional environments:  the  barrier island,
the lagoon behind the  barrier, and the  tidal
channel-tidal deltas between the barriers.
  The seaward .face  of  a barrier island is pri-
marily an  environment  of sand   deposition.
Coastal-marine energy (currents and wave ac-
tion)  is usually much greater than  in the  che-
nier-mud-flat  regions.  Sediments   are  trans-
ported along  the  coast in the direction of the
predominant  littoral  drift.  Coarser sands are
deposited  mainly  on  the  beach   and  upper
shoreface, and finer sands are deposited in the
lower shoreface  areas. Silts and clays are de-
posited in the lower shoreface zones on the ad-
jacent shelf bottom—at  depths greater  than
40-50 ft (12-15 m). Storm tides  and waves
usually construct  beach  ridges  several  feet
above sea level,  depending on the  intensity of
storms, and  also  transport sandy sediments
across the barrier from  the beach  zone to the
lagoon.
  Under ideal conditions, a barrier grows sea-
ward by a beach-shoreface accretion process to
produce  a  typical barrier-island  sequence of
sediments which  grades  upward from fine to
coarse (Figs. .25, 27). The various organisms
which live in the beach, shoreface, and adjacent
offshore areas usually have a significant influ-
ence  on  the  character  of sedimentary struc-
tures.
  Dry beach sand can be transported inland by
the  wind and redeposited as dune sand  on the
barrier, in  the  lagoon,  or  on  the  mainland
across the lagoon.
  Tided   channel-tidal  delta—Tidal   action
moves a large quantity of water in and  out of
lagoons and  estuaries through the tidal  chan-
nels which exist between barrier islands. These
channels  are relatively short and narrow and
vary  considerably in depth.  Maximum  chan-
nel  depths   occur  where   the  tidal  flow  is
confined  between  the ends of  barriers. The
channel cross section is  asymmetric:  one side
of the channel merges with  the  tidal  flats and
spit; the opposite side of the channel has  abrupt
margins against the barrier  (Fig. 26).
  As  marine waters enter the lagoon or estuary
system during rising  tides, the inflow  attains its
maximum velocity in the  deepest  part  of the
confined channel. The tidal flow is dispersed as
it enters the  lagoon,  and current velocities are
greatly reduced. The result is the deposition of
sediment in the form of a tidal delta which con-
sists of a shallow distributary channel separated
by  sand or silt shoals. Similar tidal deltas are
also formed on the marine side  of the  system
by similar processes  associated with the  falling
or outgoing tide.
  The depth of tidal  channels and the extent of
tidal deltas are dependent on the magnitude of
the  tidal currents. The deepest channels and the
largest deltas are associated with large lagoons
and estuaries affected by  extreme tidal ranges.
  Tidal channels migrate laterally in  the direc-
tion of littoral drift by eroding the barrier head
adjacent to the deep side  of the channel and by
spit and tidal-flat accretion on the opposite side.
 Flo. 25—Stages in development of a barrier island.

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                         Geometry of  Sondstone  Reservoir Bodies
                                          165
Lateral migration of the tidal system results in
the deposition  of the  tidal-channel and  tidal-
delta  sequences of sediments.

    Summary: Characteristics of Coastal-
             interdeltaic Deposits
   The coastal-interdeltaic model of sedimenta-
tion is characterized by six distinct but related
types of deposits: mud flat, cbenier, barrier is-
land,  lagoon,  tidal channel,  and  tidal  delta.
Characteristics of  these deposits are summa-
rized in Figure 27.
 .  Three main types of sand bodies are associ-
ated  with  this model:  barrier island, chenier,
and tidal  channel-tidal delta.  The barrier-is-
land sand  body, which is the largest and most
significant of the three, is long (usually tens of
miles )and narrow (2—6 mi  or 3-10 km), is
oriented parallel with the coastline,  and attains
maximum  thicknesses of 50-60 ft  (15-18 m).
The chenier  sand  bodies  are very similar to
those of the barriers; however, they are gener-
ally only about a third as thick. Tidal-channel
sand  bodies  are oriented perpendicular to  the
barrier sands,  and their thickness can vary con-
siderably (less than, equal  to, or greater than
that of the  barrier sands), depending on  the
depth of tidal channels.

    Ancient Coastal-interdeltaic Deposits
   Examples  of ancient coastai-interdeltaJc  de-
posits reported from 13  states are summarized
in Table 4.
       Table 4. Examples of Ancient Coastal-
              Inlerddtaic Deposits


   Geographic Occurrence
                               j4 ul far
   Colorado
   Floridi
   Georgia

   Illinois
   Louisiana
   Louitiana & Arkanui

   Montana
   New Mexico
   New York
   Oklahoma & Kanui
   Texas
   Wyoming
Griffith. 1966
Grcmillion rl a!., 1964
Haili and Hoy", 1969
MaeNeil, 19iO
Riuoak. 1937
Sloarx. 19)8
Thomai and Mann, 1966
Berg and Daviu. 1968
Cannon. 1966
Daviet rid.. 1971
Shcllon, 1963
Sabiru. 1963
McCavr. 1969
Bau rl at.. 1937
Boydand Dyer, 1966
Dodge. 196)
Fisher and McGoweo. 1969
Fisher rl cl.. 1970
Shcllon. 1972
Harmi rl el., 1965
Jack*. 1963
Miller. 1962
Paul!. 1962  .
Scruion, 1961
Wtimer, 1961a
Fic. 26— Relation of Udal channels and  udi) dclus 10
                 barrier is
EOLIAN MODEL or SAJTO DEPOSITION
   Occurrence  and Genera] Characteristics
  A very common process of sedimentation  is
transportation and deposition of sand  by ibe
wind. Two basic conditions are necessary for
the formation of windblown sand deposits:  a
large  supply of dry sand  and a sufficient  wind
velocity. These conditions are commonly  pres-
ent along  coastlines  characterized  by sandy
beaches  and  also  in semiarid regions  and de-
serts,  where weathering and fluvial sedimenta-
tion produce  a  large  quantitiy of sand  (Fig.
28).
  Under  certain   conditions,  sands  on  the
downstream parts of  alluvial fans and along
braided  streams are transported and redepos-
ited by  the wind  (Glennie, 1970).  Sands origi-
nally  deposited  on point  bars  of  meandering
streams and along distributary channels of some
deltas are also picked up by the wind and rede-
posited  locally  as  dune sand. Similarly, sands
deposited along beaches of the coastal-interdel-
taic environments are  redeposiled  by  onshore
winds as sand  dunes on  barrier islands or on
the mainland. Thus, the eolian process of sand
deposition is  likely to occur  within all  models
of clastic  sedimentation  discussed  in the  pre-
ceding sections.

     Eolian Transport  and Sedimentation
  The complex processes of sand transport and
deposition  by the wind were studied  and de-

-------
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-------
                         Geometry of Sandstone Reservoir  Bodies
                                         167
     DUNI rrffs

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                  Flo. 28—Occurrences of eoliao sands in coastal and desert regions.

-------
 168
Rofuj  J. LeBlanc
                 Low Bounds and small elongate  ridges •
                 few feet high occurring adjacent and
                 parallel to sand batch and shoreline,
                 usually partly stabilized by vegetation.
         Dunei against vegetation coalesce to form
         long, slightly sinuous ridge or series  of
         ridges parallel to coastline. Closely
         associated with beach accretion rldgei  formed
         by wave action. Characteristic of barrier
         Islands *nd shorelines on flanks of deltas.
                Concentric with  steep slope on concave       U-shaped with open end toward beach (wlnd-
                (lecwerd) side facing away  (roe. beach.  Horni ward) and steep ilde away froa beach.
                extend downwind.  Can occur as scattered     Hesuits from sand blowouts.  Middle part
                Isolated dune* or several barchans can Join   noves forward (downwind) with respect to
                to  fore sinuous  ridge which rcse«bles        sides.  Long eras usually anchored by
                transverse dunes.                         vegetation.
               Dvnes or ridges occur parallel or  slightly Elongated parallel to vtnd direction and
               oblique to coastline and elongated in     usually oblique or perpendicular  to
               direction perpendicular to effective wind  coastlloe. Cross section symmetrical .
               direction.  Generally (/metrical  In cross Separated froa each other by flat areas.
               section.  Leeward side steep and windward  Self dunes are special type of
               side hat very gentle slope.              longitudinal dunes.

                   FIG. 29—Some common types of coastal dunes which also occur in deserts.
scribed  by Bagnold (1941). Recently,  Glennie
(1970)  summarized this type of sedimentation
as observed under desert conditions.
   The most common method of sand  deposi-
tion is in the form  of sand dunes.  Many types
of  dunes have been recognized  and  described
by numerous  authors  (Fig.  29).  H.  Smith
(1954)   presented the following classification
and description of coastal dunes which can oc-
cur either under  active or stabilized conditions.
   1. Foredune ridges, or  elongate mounds  of sand up
to a few  tens of feet in  height,  adjacent and parallel
with beaches.
  2. U-shaped dunes,  arcuate  to  hairpin-shaped sand
ridges with the open end  toward the beach.
  3. Barchans,  or cresceniic dunes, with a  steep  lee
slope on  the concave side, which faces away  from the
beach.
  4. Transverse dune ridges, trending parallel with or
           oblique to the shore, and elongated in a direction es-
           sentially  perpendicular to the  dominant  winds. These
           dunes are asymmetric in cross profile, having a gentle
           slope on the windward  side  and a steep slope on the
           leeward side.
             5. Longitudinal dunes, elongated parallel  with wind
           direction and extending perpendicular or oblique to the
           shoreline; cross profile is typically symmetric.
             6. Blowouts,  comprising   a  wide  variety  of  pits,
           troughs, channels, and chute-shaped forms cutting into
           or across other types of dunes or sand hills.  The larger
           ones are marked by  conspicuous heaps of sand on the
           landward side, assuming  the  form of a  fan.  mound, or
           ridge, commonly with  a slope as steep as 32°  facing
           away from the shore.
             7. Attached dunes,  comprising  accumulations of
           sand trapped by various types of topographic obstacles.

              McKee  (1966)  described an additional type,
           the dome-shaped dune, from  White Sands Na-
           tional  Monument,  and  Glennie   (1970)   de-

-------
                        Geometry of Sandstone Reservoir  Bodies
                                        169
 scribed the self dune of Oman, which is a spe-
 cial type  of longitudinal  dune. Many other
 dune types have been described; however, the
 above types appear to be the most common.
   Studies  of  modern  eolian  sand  bodies—
 Cooper  (1958) reviewed the early  studies of
 sand dunes, mainly.by Europeans, and summa-
 rized  the  status  of  dune  reseach  in  North
 America. Additional  sand-dune studies  in  the
 United States since 1959 were made in  Alaska
 by Black (1961), on the Texas coast by Mc-
 Bride and Hayes (1962), on the Georgia coast
 by Land (1964), in the Imperial Valley of Cal-
 ifornia by -Norris (1966), in coastal California
 by Cooper (1967), and in the San Luis  Valley
 of Colorado by R. Johnson (1967). Additional
 studies outside the United States were made in
 southern Peru  by Finkel (1959), in Baja Cali-
 fornia by Inman et al. (1966), in Libya by Mc-
 Kee and Tibbitts (1964), in Russia by Zenko-
 vich (1967), and in Australia by Folk (1971).
   During the past several years, some very im-
 portant studies on eolian sands, which included
 detailed observations of internal dune structure
 and  stratification in deep trenches cut through
 dunes, were  made along the  Texas coast by
 McBride and Hayes  (1962),  in  White  Sands
 National Monument by McKee (1966), along
 the Dutch coast by Jelgersma et al. (1970), and
in the deserts of the  Middle East by Glennie
 (1970). These authors  presented photographs
 and  sketches of various types of sedimentary
 structures  exposed in  trench  walls  and  de-
scribed their relations to dune types, wind re-
 gime, and grain-size distribution. These studies
 have provided  some badly  needed criteria  for
 recognition of ancient eolian sands. The follow-
 ing summary of the geometry and general char-
 acteristics of modern eolian sand bodies  was
 prepared  largely  from the references  cited
 above.

    Summary:  Coastal Eolian Sand Bodies
   Coastal eolian sand bodies, consisting of sev-
 eral  types  of  dunes,  are very  long and quite
 narrow; they range in  thickness from a few feet
 to a few  hundreds of  feet, and are aligned par-
 allel with or oblique  to the  coastline. Because
these sands are derived from  beach deposits
 and  form in vegetated  areas,  they  commonly
contain fragments of  both  shells and plants.
They are characterized by high-angle crossbed-
ding and are usually well sorted. The adjacent
 and laterally equivalent beach deposits are gen-
erally horizontally bedded and have  some low-
 angle crossbedding.
       Summary: Eolian Sand Bodies of
               Desert Regions
   Desert eolian sand bodies differ from coastal
eolian sands mainly in their distribution. The
internal  sedimentary structures and their rela-
tions to dune types are similar (Bigarella et al.,
1969). Seif dunes are products of two wind di-
rections  and appear to occur  more commonly
in desert areas. These dunes are characterized
by high-angle crossbedding in two directions.

           Ancient Eolian  Deposits
   Ancient  eolian  deposits  have been  reported
from the Colorado Plateau by Baars (1961)
and   Stokes  (1961,  1964,  1968), from  the
southwestern United States by McKee (1934),
from England  by Laming (1966), and from
Brazil and  Uruguay by Bigarella and Salamuni
(1961).  Criteria for recognition of eolian  de-
posits have been summarized  by  Bigarella
(1972).

MARINE  CLASTIC SEDIMENTATION
   Transportation and deposition of sand in the
marine environment occur under a wide range
of geologic  and bydrologic conditions, ranging
from those of the coastal shallow-marine envi-
ronments to the deeper water  environments of
the outer continental shelves,  the  slopes,  and
the abyssal plains (Fig. 30).
   As indicated in the Introduction, sands de-
posited under regressive (progradational) con-
ditions within the  coastal shallow-marine envi-
ronments are considered herein as  products of
either the   coastal-interdeltaic or  the deltaic
model of sedimentation. Other important shal-
low-marine  sand  bodies are produced as a  re-
sult  of marine  transgressions.
   During the past several years, studies made
principally  by the major oceanographic institu-
tions on  the modern deep-marine environments
and  research by  petroleum  geologists, univer-
sity  professors, and graduate  students on an-
cient clastic sediments of various geologic ages
have  revealed that sand bodies of deep-marine
origin are  rather  common  throughout  the
world. Although most  geologists  now accept
the fact that some sands are of deep-marine or-
igin,  our understanding of the  various geologic
processes which produce these sand  bodies  is
relatively poor. The  writer's pzrsonal  experi-
ence  with this  type of clastic  sedimentation  is
limited;  however,  on the basis of familiarity
with  the  literature on marine sediments, it ap-
pears that  most deep-marine sands are depos-

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170
Rufus  J.  LeBlonc
               oj-otiiA MINCI IANPI IIMI IODIIUIC i
               II-IAIIIII IIUNO   JINHIOUUK KOOIll
               TMJ-IIANlGttSllVt MAIINf SAND
                         Fic. 30—Deposition of sand in marine environments.
ited under three principal types of environmen-
tal  conditions:  (1)  on the  outer  shelf,  the
slope,  and the continental rise, as  a result of
slumping, sliding,  and tectonic activity such as
earthquakes; (2)  in abyssal plains, by density
(turbidity)  and bottom currents; and (3)  in
submarine canyons, fan valleys,  and fans,  by
both bottom and density currents.
  Only two  of these  several  types of marine
sands are discussed in this paper: (1) the shal-
low-marine sands  deposited as a result of tran-
gressive-marine  sedimentation  associated  with
the shifting of deltas and  (2)  the deep-marine
sands deposited in submarine canyons, fan val-
leys, and fans.
                 Transgressive-Marine  Model of
                      Clasb'c Sedimentation
            Setting and general characteristics—Deposi-
          tion of clastic sediments during periods of ma-
          rine transgressions  (onlap) is a common pro-
          cess of sedimentation in most basins. There are
          two basic types of marine transgression: that
          which is associated with the shifting of deltas as
          a  result of major river diversions during a pe-
          riod of standing sea level,  and that which oc-
          curs as a result of a relative  rise in sea  level
          (due to subsidence of a coastal plain or eustatic
          rise in sea level). The inland and lateral extents
          of marine  transgressions  resulting  from delta
          shifts are limited  in size,  depending on the di-

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                         Geometry °f Sandstone  Reservoir Bodies
                                                   171
mensions of the abandoned deltaic plains. Ma-
rine  transgressions  resulting   from  relative
changes in sea level extend over much broader
regions  and are commonly referred  to  as  re-
gional  transgressions.  Their  dimensions  are
governed mainly by  the  topography  of the
coastal  plain being transgressed  and by the
amount of relative rise in -sea level. Thus, trans-
gressive-marine  deposition  can occur  locally
over  abandoned deltas or  regionally over eo-
lian,  alluvial, interdeltaic, and  deltaic deposits
of a large part of a coastal plain.
   Modern marine transgressions resulting from
major changes in drainage and delta shifts have
been  described  by several authors:  Russell,
1936; Russell and Russell, 1939; Kruit,  1955;
van  Straaten,  1959; Scruton,   1960; Curray,
1964; Coleman and Gagliano,  1964; Rainwa-
ter, 1964; Coleman,  1966b; Scott  and Fisher,
1969; L. Brown, 1969; and Oomkens, 1970.
   Sources,  transportation,  and deposition  of
sediments—After a delta is abandoned because
of upstream channel diversion,  a  very  signifi-
cant change occurs in conditions of sedimenta-
tion. The abandoned deltaic plain and subaque-
          ous delta front no longer receive sediment and
          gradually subside owing to the compaction  of
          the deltaic  deposits. The seaward edge of the
          abandoned  delta  is attacked  by marine wave
          and current action and recedes landward at rel-
          atively slow rates. As marine  processes erode
          the upper  part of the  deltaic sequence,  the
          sandy sediments within the sequence  are  win-
          nowed  and  deposited  along the  advancing
          shoreline as barrier islands, beaches, and shal-
          low-marine sands; finer sediments are deposited
          farther offshore. Thus, the transgressive-marine
          depositional profile is characterized  by sands
          and shell material  nearshore and by progres-
          sively finer  sediments  offshore. Over a period of
          time,  as the transgression proceeds inland, the
          thin veneer of shallow-marine sands which are
          deposited over the underlying delta sediments is
          in  turn overlain  by  marine  silts  and clays.
          Stages in the development of such a trangres-
          sive-marine sand body are illustrated  in Figure
          31.
            Character of sediments—This type of sedi-
          mentation,  although largely restricted in extent
          to abandoned deltas and adjacent and laterally
      A '.,
                      rtOGtAOING DEIU

                                       DEPOSITION Of DEIIAIC SEQUENCE UNOE« IEGIESSIVE CONDITIONS
                                                         /" AMD i
                                                                          { ""

                AtiNDONMEN! OF DEIH
                MAIINE ItANSGtESSION AND
                DfVElOfMENl Of NF.W DEll*.
EAIIT S1AG! OF ICANSGKESSIVE MitIN! SfDIMENIA1ION
                                             MARINf SfOUtNCf \
      Alt* O* ''•
      rtAMJGKISSIVI •.•'.>?
      MAIIMf Sf DIM1MIATIOI
                                                                ItAMlGMMIVf MAtINf SAND

                                                                01LIAIC SIOUINCI
                                                C
                                         /iirirrs

                                       CONIlNUED ICANSGKtSSlVE MttIN! SEDIMtKlAllON AHD DEVEIO'MEHI OF
                                       ItANSGBESSIVf  SEOUENCI Of SEDIMINIS
                 Fic. 31—Transgrcssive-marinc sediroenlalion resulling from ddl* shifts.

-------
172
Rufus  J.  LeBlanc
equivalent interdeltaic and offshore-marine en-
vironments, is significant because  it produces
very  diagnostic  blanketlike layers of  marine
sediments  (thin  shallow-marine sand  overlain
by clays) which  separate the individual deltaic
units (Fig. 31). These layers usually provide the
only good correlations within thick deltaic fa-
cies, and the  marine shales act as impervious
seals  between  deltaic sand  bodies. The trans-
gressive-marine  sands   containing  calcareous
shell  material  usually  become cemented  and
thus do not form very efficient reservoirs.

       Submarine Canyon-Fan Model of
            Clastic Sedimentation
  Occurrence and general characteristics—The
occurrence of modern and Pleistocene sands in
deep-marine environments of the world is  well
documented as a result of  numerous  deep-sea
investigations   by  oceanographic  institutions
during  the past  20  years.  Although  there is
much controversy regarding the origin of these
sands, it is certain  that such sands do exist. AD
analysis of the literature  reveals  that  some  of
the most common deep-sea sands  are those as-
          sociated  with  submarine canyons  and fans.
          (For a discussion of  types of  submarine can-
          yons, troughs, and  valleys,   the reader is  re-
          ferred to Shepard and Dill, 1966.)
            Submarine  canyons and  fans are  common
          features  associated  with continental  shelves,
          slopes, and rises. The  canyons and fans off the
          Pacific Coast  of the United  States and Canada
          have received the most attention.  Significant
          papers on these features off the coasts of Wash-
          ington, Oregon,  California,  and Baja  Califor-
          nia, and off  the  Gulf and Atlantic  coasts, are
          listed in the  selected references. Also included
          are references to papers on canyons and fans in
          the Mediterranean, the  Atlantic Ocean  off Af-
          rica,  and the Indian  Ocean  off Pakistan.
            Characteristics and  origin of submarine can-
          yons have been discussed by numerous authors
          (for  summary, see  Shepard and  Dill,  1966).
          Although it is still uncertain how some deep-sea
          canyons and  valleys originated, it  is now rea-
          sonably well established that  a large number of
          canyons and fans are related to rivers, and that
          they were formed during stages of low sea level
          of  the Quaternary Period (Figs. 32, 33).  For
                     Ftc. 32—Stages in development of submarine canyon and fan.
    Stage A: Standing sea-level situation.  Development of alluvial valley and delta and deposition of  marine
clays on shelf and slope. Base of aggrading river is well below sea level.
    Stage B: Falling and low-sea-level situation. Development of entrenched-valley system on  coastal plain and
of submarine canyon offshore.  Bases of entrenched valley (near coast) and of canyon are well below sea level.
Rates of  sedimentation are very high.  Material removed by canyon-cutling and sediments flowing through
canyon while it formed are deposited as extensive submarine fan.
    Stage C: Rising and standing sea-level situation. Alluviation of entrenched-valley  system and partial filling
of canyon. Rates of sedimentation  are greatly  reduced after  sea. level reaches a stand. Slight modification  of
fan by normal-marine processes occurs.

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                        Geometry  of  Sandstone Reservoir  Bodies
                                        173
      FIG. 33—Relation of  submarine-fan deposits to submarine-canyon and entrenched-valley system.
example,  the  Mississippi Canyon off southern
Louisiana is a continuation of the late  Pleisto-
cene  Mississippi  entrenched  valley  system
(Fisk, 1944;  Osterhoudt, 1946; Fish and Mc-
Farlan,  1955;  and Bergantino,  1971). Also, the
Astoria  canyon and fan off Oregon are related
to the  Columbia  River  (Duncan and Kulm,
1970);  the Newport Canyon is related to the
Santa Ana River of California (Felix and Gors-
line, 1971); the Congo Canyon connects with
the Congo River  (Heezen ei al.. 1964); the
Monterey and Soquel canyons and  fans occur
off the Great Valley of California (Martin and
Emery,  1967); the Bengal deep-sea fan and the
"Swatch-of-No-Ground" canyon  occur  off the
Ganges   River  delta  (Curray   and  Moore,
1971);  and  the Inguri canyon is  related to  a
river flowing in the Caspian Sea (Trimonis and
Shimkus,  1970).  The  National  Geographic
magazine  maps of the  Indian  and Atlantic
Ocean floors (Heezen and Tharp,  1967, 1969)
show large fans off the Indus and Amazon Riv-
ers and  also off the Laurentian Trough, and the
Hudson Canyon is associated  with the Hudson
River. Seismic reflection surveys between can-
yon heads (on shelves) and the coastline most
probably will reveal more examples of canyons
related to  entrenched river valleys  on land.
  There is an  extremely wide variation in the
size of submarine canyon-fan systems. Some of
the small  ones off California  studied by Gors-
line and Emery (1959)  include short canyons
5-10 mi  (8-16  km)  long  and fan areas of
about 50 sq mi (130 sq km). The largest can-
yon-fan systems  studied  thus far are those of
the  Congo, Ganges, and Rhone Rivers. The
Bengal  fan is  2,600 km  long  and 1,100 km
wide; the Congo  fan is more than 520 km long
and  185 km wide;  and one  of the largest fans
off the  Pacific  coast of the  United States, the
Delgade fan, is 300 km long and 330 km wide
(Normark,  1970).  Menard  (1960)  discussed
the dimensions  of several other fans.
   Some  very  significant  studies of deep-sea
sands associated with canyons and fans—based
on core,  seismic reflection,  and bathymetric
data, and bottom  observations and photography
by divers—have  been  made during the past 3
years (Winterer el  al.,  1968; Carlson and Nel-
son,  1969; Shepard ei al.,  1969; Curray  and
Moore,  1971;  Normark,  1970;  Nelson  el al.,
1970; Piper, 1970; Duncan  and Kulm,  1970;
and Felix and Gorsline, 1971).
   Physiographic  features.—Detailed  bathy-
metric surveys over several canyons and fans of
various  sizes have  revealed  that these subma-
rine  features   are  characterized  by physio-
graphic  features very similar  to those of subaer-
ial alluvial fans. The canyons are V-shaped  and
have steep walls and gradients. The surfaces of
the fans are characterized by lower gradient
distributary channels with natural levees and by
topographically low interchannel areas.  Some
fans  are crossed by relatively large fan valleys

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 174
Rufus  J.  LeBlanc
                  FIG. 34—Submarine-canyon and fan model of clastic sedimentation.
which  also have natural levees. The principal
physiographic features of a typical canyon and
fan are illustrated in a generalized fashion in
Figure 34.
  The overall shape of a submarine fan can ei-
ther be symmetrical  or asymmetrical, depend-
ing on  strong current  directions  and  on the
presence of high topographic features  on the
abyssal  plains. Sizes  of the distributary chan-
nels and natural levees are widely varied; the
larger  channels  usually have the  highest  and
broadest natural levees. The lower parts of fans
merge with the abyssal plains. Channels on fan
surfaces were probably formed  by depositional
processes. Erosional  channels that have  been
reported probably represent  an entrenchment
stage, as is the case with subaerial alluvial fans.
  Many canyons were  cut across continental
shelves  and  slopes,  and the fans were  con-
structed at the base of the slopes or OD the con-
tinental rises.  Some canyons presently  do not
extend landward across the continental  shelves
(e.g., the Mississippi  Canyon)  because  they
have been filled with sediments. Seismic surveys
reveal that  this type  of canyon was once con-
nected with inland entrenched valley systems.
  Longitudinal profiles of canyons and fans are
concave upward. The steepest gradients occur
in the upper  (landward) portions of canyons,
          and the lowest gradients occur on the outer or
          lower portions of fans.
            Depositional processes and character of sedi-
          ments—It is absolutely certain that large quan-
          tities  of  sediment,   including  a  significant
          amount of sand, have been transported through
          submarine canyons and deposited as submarine
          fans in deep-sea environments. The manner in
          which these sediments were transported, espe-
          cially the sands, is much less certain.  Nearly 2
          decades ago, some very strong statements were
          made by oceanographers regarding the turbid-
          ity-current origin of both the canyons and the
          fan  deposits. Although  no  one had  actually
          seen or measured a turbidity current in a can-
          yon or over a submarine fan, the turbidity-cur-
          rent  concept was  very  popular  with most
          oceanographers during the early  1950s. During
          the past 20 years, numerous additional observa-
          tions have been made, but no one has yet seen
          a  live turbidity current in a natural marine en-
          vironment.  On the basis of direct observations
          of the ocean bottom and sedimentary structures
          in  cores, many  oceanographers  now  believe
          that some  submarine-fan  sand  deposits were
          transported mainly by normal bottom  currents,
          especially during  low stages of sea level of the
          Pleistocene. A typical  example is the  origin of
          the sand associated with the Mississippi cone in

-------
                         Geometry of  Sandstone Reservoir  Bodies
                                         175
                                MIIVI MiriuouiT
                                CIUNMI. 01 >A«
                             AlAMDOMfD SMII
                    CSBgfttfUfc  IMIMClUMNfL CXrOJiniMNf CIAINID1 MAT COMllSt
                    ™  '      Of *AND Al lOWtl ItlO 0* IAW
                                                                 CKANNII »AKD!
                      Fio. 35—Generalized distribution of submarine-fan deposits.
 the  Gulf  of  Mexico  off  southern  Louisiana.
 Greenman and LeBlanc (1956) did not con-
 sider these sands to be of turbidity-current ori-
 gin, but Ewing et al. (1958) were certain that
 the  sands were transported  and deposited  by
 turbidity currents.  Twelve years later,  Huang
 and Goodell (1970) concluded, on the basis of
 detailed studies of sedimentary structures  ob-
 served  in  numerous cores, that the sands  are
 not  of  turbidity-current origin,  but that  the
 mechanisms of transport are bottom currents,
 differential pelagic settling,  and  mass movement
 by sliding  and slumping. Walker and Massingill
 (1970)  reported that  part of  the Mississippi
 cone sediments were recently involved in large-
 scale slumps. They presented evidence that one
 slump  moved from near the mouth of the Mis-
 sissippi Canyon southeastward  for at least 160
 n. mi.  Thus, the origin of these deep-sea sands
 and many others remains a problem.
  Regardless of the mechanisms  of sediment
 transport through submarine canyons and  of
 deposition of fans, the general  nature and dis-
 tribution of fan deposits  have been determined
 for several fans. The coarsest and most poorly
 sorted  sediments occur in  canyons.  Sands  are
 common in distributary channels and fan val-
 leys and on the lower parts of the open fan.
 Sandy  sediments also occur on natural  levees,
 but the interchariDel areas are characterized  by
 fine-grained sediments (Fig. 35).  Core data
 from several fans indicate that  sand  bodies  are
usually thin and very lenticular, and are inter-
 bedded with fine-grained sediments.
  For  details concerning  the sedimentary struc-
tures which characterize submarine-canyon and
 fan deposits, the reader is  referred to Carlson
 and  Nelson  (1969); Sbepard  el  al. (1969);
Stanley (1969); Huang  and Goodell (1970);
 and Haner (1971).
  Horn el al. (1971) described  the characteris-
tics of  sediments related to  submarine canyons,
fans, and adjacent abyssal plains of the north-
east Pacific Ocean off Alaska, Canada, Wash-
ington, Oregon, and northern California. They
interpreted  sediments with  a wide  range in
layer thickness, with graded and nongraded lay-
ers, and with sand in the basal parts of graded
units to be proximal turbidites related to main
routes followed by turbidity currents (probably
channels). The finer grained sediments, mainly
graded silts and clays, were interpreted as distal
turbidites deposited  beyond  the main avenues
of turbidite flows.
  It is the opinion of the writer that many of
the submarine canyons and related fans which
now are found off rivers are the products of en-
trenchment (canyons)  and  deposition (fans)
during stages  of  low sea level of the Pleisto-
cene. Oceanograpbers who have studied several
of these fan deposits have concluded that they
are of Miocene to Pleistocene age. The geo-
logic-age determinations were made on the ba-
sis  of  present sediment load  of the related riv-
ers and  known thickness  of  fan deposits. This
writer suggests that rates of sedimentation were
probably several  times  greater during Pleisto-
cene  low-sea-level stages than at the present
time (period of higher and standing sea level)
and,  consequently, that the  fan  deposits  are
probably chiefly of Pleistocene age.
  Ancient examples of submarine canyon  and
jan deposits—Some examples of ancient depos-
its  of  submarine  canyon  and fan origin have
been  described from the  Gulf coast by Oster-
houdt  (1946), Bornhauser (1948,  1960), Hoyt
(1959), Paine (1966),  and Sabate  (1968);
from  California by  Sullwold (1960), Martin
(1963), Barlow  (1966),  Dickas and Payne
(1967), Normark and Piper (1969), Piper  and
Normark  (1971),  Davis   (1971),  Fischer
(1971), and Shelton (1972); from Canada by
Hubert ei al. (1970); from Europe by Walker
(1966), Stanley (1967,  1969), and Kelling  and
Woollands (1969); and from Australia by  Co-
nolly (1968).

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176
Rufus  J.  LeBlanc
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                            Geometry  of  Sandstone  Reservoir  Bodies
                                               177
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  Bull., v. 49, p. 363.
Welder, F. A., 1959, Processes  of deltaic sedimentation
  in the lower Mississippi  Rjver: Louisiana Stale Univ.
  Coastal Studies  Inst. Tech. Rcpt. No. 12, p. 1-90.
Wermund, £  G., and W.  A. Jenkins.  Jr.,  1970, Recog-
  nition  of deltas by  filling trend surfaces  to Upper
  Pennsylvanian sandstones in norih-cenlral  Texas, in
  Deltaic  sedimentation—modern  and  ancient:  Soc.
  Econ. Paleontologists and  Mineralogists  Spec.  Pub.
  15, p. 156-269.
Wessel,  J. M.,  1969,  Sedimentary  history  of Upper
  Thassic alluvial fan complexes in  north-central Mas-
  sachusetts:  Massachusetts  Univ.  Dept.  Geology
  Contr. No. 2,  157  p.
Wier, C. E.,  and W. A. Girdley, 1963, Distribution of
  the Inglefield  and  Dicksburg Hills Sandstone mem-
  bers in Posey  and Vanderburgb Counties, Indiana:
  Indiana Acad. Sci. Proc., v. 72, p. 212-217.
Wilde,  P., 1965,  Recent  sediments  of  the Monterey
  deep-sea fan:  Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard
  Univ., PhD dissert., 153 p.
Williams, G. E.,  1966,  Paleogeography of the Torrido-
  nian Applecross Group: Nature, v. 209, no.  5030, p.
  1303-1306.
	  1969, Characteristics and origin of a Pre-Cam-
  brian pediment: Jour. Geology, v.  77, p.  183-207.
Williams, P. F.,  and B. R. Rust, 1969, The  sedimenlol-
  ogy of a braided  river: Jour. Sed. Petrology, v. 39,
  no. 2, p. 649-679.
Wilson,  M. D.,  1967, The stratigraphy of the Beaver-
  head   Group   in  the  Lima  area,   southwestern
  Montana:  Evanston,  Illinois, Northwestern Univ.,
  PhD dissert., 183 p.
	  1970, Upper  Cretaceous-Paleocene synorogenic
  conglomerates  of  southwestern Montana: Am.  As-
  soc. Petroleum Geologists  Bull., v.  54, p.  1843-1867.
Winder, C. G., 1965, Alluvial cone construction by  al-
  pine  mudnow in a  humid  temperate  region: Cana-
  dian Jour. Earth Sci., v. 2, p. 270-277.
Winterer, £.  L.,  et al..  1968,  Geological  history of the
  pioneer fracture zone -with the Delgada deep-sea fan
  northeast Pacific: Deep-Sea Research, v. 15, no.  5, p.
  509-520.
Wolff,  M.  P., 1967,  Deltaic sedimentation of the Mid-
  dle Devonian  M a reel 1 us Formation in southeastern
  New  York: Ithaca, New York, Cornell Univ., PhD
  dissert., 231 p.
Wolman, M.  C-., and L. M.  Brush, 1961, Factors  con-
  trolling the size and shape  of stream channels  in
  coarse noncohesive  sands:  U.S.  Geol.  Survey Prof.
  Paper 282-G, p. 183-210.
	  and L. B. Leopold,  1957,  River  flood plains:
  some observations on  their  formation:  U.S. Geol.
  Survey Prof. Paper 282-C, p. 87-107.
Wurster, P., 1964, Delia sedimentation in the German
  Keuper Basin, in Deltaic and shallow marine deposi-
  tion:  Amsterdam,  Elsevier Publishing Co.,  p. 436-
  446.
Zenkovich, V. P.,  1964, Formation and burial of accu-
  mulaiive forms in  littoral and nearshore marine envi-
  ronments: Marine Geology, v. 1, p. 175-180.
	  1967,  Processes of coaslal development: New
  York, Inierscience  Publishers—Division of John Wi-
  ley and Sons, Inc.

-------
 190
Rufus  J.  LeBlcmc
 Discussion
 EDWARD N. WILSON, Kentucky Geological Sur-
 vey, Lexington, Kentucky
   You  remarked that some of the deltaic bod-
 ies were rather thin and not very extensive. In
 the central United States, the Pennsylvania Sys-
 tem contains several  of these deltaic sequences
 aod some of them are fairly thick. I should like
 to ask if there is anything inherently disadvan-
 tageous to these sandstone bodies for emplace-
 ment of limited volumes of waste?

 R. J. LEBLANC
   I do  not think so,  for the  following reasons.
 Deltas of various sizes  can  prograde  seaward
 into a basin over long periods  of time. Thus,
 they can produce relatively thick deltaic sand
 bodies  over extensive areas  which consist of
 several  individual genetic units stacked over
 each other. It  is true  that some of the Pennsyl-
 vanian sandstones are thick and occur over ex-
 tensive  areas.  There  is'  nothing wrong with
 these sandstones from the standpoint of the em-
 placement  of   limited amounts  of  waste  into
 them. It is- important to mention  that deltaic
 sands grade seaward into prodelta silts  and
 clays.

 PAUL WITHEHSPOON,  University  of  California,
 Berkeley, California
   First, I want to compliment you on  a very
 excellent review  of depositional conditions.  I
 wanted  to ask if you  have looked at conditions
 such as  the Mount Simon Sandstone of  central
United States;  1,000-2,000 ft thick, it  can be
traced all  the way  across  Indiana,  Illinois,
Ohio, and up  to New York,  where it is called
 the "Potsdam," and to Minnesota and southern
Illinois.  Would the mechanisms  you have de-
          scribed relate  to  accumulation  of that thick
          sand body over those hundreds of miles?

          R. J. LEBLANC
            I cannot answer that  specific question  be-
          cause I am not familiar with the Mount Simon
          Sandstone.  However, I can comment  on other
          sandstones  which  occur over  very  extensive
          areas. For example, the Castlegate Sandstone of
          northwestern  Utah extends  for many miles
          from west to  east; but the  Castlegate is not a
          uniform sandstone deposited in one  environ-
          ment.   Actually,   it  consists  of  alluvial-fan,
          braided-stream,  and  deltaic sandstones. I  be-
          lieve that many other sandstones are similar to
          the Castlegate in that they are extensive but of
          multiple origin;  therefore,  the  models  I  de-
          scribed  can explain their origin.

          JIM HALLORAN,   Montana   Water Resources
          Board,  Helena, Montana
            Can you  give us some  idea what this barrier-
          island model will  look like  after marine trans-
          gression or regression?

          R. J. LEBLANC
            One of the largest oil fields discovered in the
          United  States  during the  past several years is
          the Bell Creek field of Montana. Two profes-
          sors from Texas A&M University correctly in-
          terpreted this reservoir as a  barrier-island sand-
          stone body. I refer you to Dr. R.  R. Berg's1  ex- .
          cellent paper on this barrier-bar sandstone,  be-
          cause time does not permit a detailed answer to
         your question.
           1 Berg.  R.  R.,  and D. K.  Davits,  1968,  Origin of
         Lower Cretaceous Muddy Sandstone at Bell  Creek
         field, Montana:  Am.  Assoc.   Petroleum Geologists
          Bull., v. 52, no. 10, p. 1888-1898.

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          HYDROGEOLOGY
PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES


At the end of this lesson, participants will be able to:

•    Explain the hydrologic cycle and its relationship to rocks and
     groundwater

•    Differentiate between recharge and discharge areas

•    Describe the relationship between porosity and permeability

•    Describe  the  effect of  porosity  and  permeability on
     groundwater flow

•    Define aquifer, aquitard, and aquiclude

•    Compare confined aquifers and unconfmed aquifers.

-------
                                      NOTES
    HYDROGEOLOGY
      HYDROGEOLOGY
 The study of the interrelationships of
 geologic materials and processes
 with water, especially groundwater
  H    H
   \  /
   .0.
9/93
Hydrogeology

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      NOTES
                                EARTH'S WATER RESOURCES
                                   • 80% oceans
                                   • 19% groundwater
                                   • 1%ice
                                   • 0.002% streams and lakes
                                   « 0.0008% atmosphere
                                  EARTH'S WATER USES
                                     • Drinking
                                     • Irrigation
                                     • Fisheries
                                     • Individual processes
                                     • Transportation
                                     • Waste disposal
                                HUMAN WATER CONTENT

                                    • 45 - 75% by weight
                                    • 65% average male
                                    • 55% average female
Hydrogeology
9/93

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          Precipitation is a

        beginning point for

       the hydrologic cycle
      HYDROLOGIC
         CYCLE
      Transpiration   /
                           Precipitation
                       Evaporatic
                             ^Runoff
 Water
 table"
       Groundwater
       'Jtrecharge  ,   Groundwater runoff
       DIRECT INFILTRATION
                ^Precipitation
                  Infiltration
                                                       NOTES
9/93
Hydrogeology

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      NOTES
                            CONTROLS ON INFILTRATION
                                  • Soil moisture
                                  • Compaction of soil
                                  • Microstructures in the soil
                                  • Vegetative cover
                                  • Temperature
                                  • Surface gradient
                                      STREAM FLOW
                                                A (cfoss-seetional
                                                    area)
                                            Q = Av
                                   GAINING STREAM
                                  Discharge = 8 cfs
                              Discharge =10 cfs
Hydrogeology
9/93

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                                                        NOTES
         LOSING STREAM
       Discharge = 10

    Discharge = 8 cfs
                Ground surface
    Vadose
     zone
   Saturated
     zone
     4:	
ore spaces partially!
 filled with water
                 oapillary rise
                from water table'
  Groundwater
             POROSITY
                   (n)
  The volumetric ratio between the void
  spaces (Vv) and total rock (V,):


      n = Vv   -   n = s  -+-  s,.
9/93
                                                Hydrogeology

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      NOTES
                                   PRIMARY POROSITY
                               Refers to voids that were formed at

                               the same time the rock was formed
                               Void Space
                              Percent   _
                              Porosity

                                Total Volume - Volume Soil Particles

                                       Total Volume
                                                       Sand Grain
X  100
                                 SECONDARY POROSITY
                              Refers to voids that were formed

                              after the rock was formed
Hydrogeology
     9/93

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                                       NOTES
 SECONDARY POROSITY
        PERMEABILITY
 The ease with which water will
 move through a porous medium



o
<5 40
OJ
CL






• -

c






;ia
POROSITY



[...[j...^. ........

y Sand Gravel Sandstone







9/93
Hydrogeology

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      NOTES
                                     CONDUCTIVITY
                                     Clay
Sand Gravel Sandstone
                                        AQUIFER
                              A permeable geologic unit with the
                              ability to store, transmit, and
                              yield water in usable quantities
                                      AQUITARD
                             A layer of low permeability that
                             can store and transmit groundwater
                             from one aquifer to another
Hydrogeology
                  9/93

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                                                  NOTES
           AQUICLUDE
  A confining layer with low
  permeability that is essentially
  impermeable
     UNCONFINED AQUIFER
            (Water Table)
  A permeable geologic unit having the
  ability to store, transmit, and yield
  water in usable quantities
Ul
^CONFINED AQUIFER



Water table
, _f' II
^ it II
" ' - HI'' ' -Unconfirie'd aquifer:.: .-'
>XJyOOv<^AAAA?vvvv^XiVS<^S<
OvQv* Confining unit - aquitard-OOOO
^S/S^S/v/ V V V \/ N/V V V N/* N^v V V VX'S/S/^


9/93
Hydrogeology

-------
      NOTES
                                    CONFINED AQUIFER
                              	(Artesian)	
                              An aquifer overlain by a confining layer
                              whose water is under sufficient pressure
                              to rise above the base of the confining
                              layer if it is perforated
(
3ONFINED AQUIFER

* " «*«*;
Conffning
unit
- aquitard
1 t V
fV .'&
rfVx ,. «gfe
52
'•*
'•I

M& * •* ~^% ' w ^ ^
^
PotGntiometric
surface
v ;T* ^ 'fs %7
.jL _*SK. - «x|it ,. ^L Ji
^Confjne^|,qui_f|pt,^
';*¥* ^ *" -"A aJ •* \&P« **
^ c*.c* " *fr*i "-#ife*^ /*
Confining Unit - aquitard


                                 Recharge    Vadose zone
                                                    Water table
                                 Confining layers
Hydrogeology
10
9/93

-------
                                                         NOTES
AQl
JIFERS AND AQUITARDS
^~'
tS^^^S\S^S^S\S\S\S^S\ \^\^^S^S^S\ V
^tNcStScScVjfyjtx l"^ 'Scb^S^yNc
= Stable'- 'rf <;
Aquitard sz <
mff^&»^£^' = «
Aquitard
£:J

z
1
rf*




ART
Recharge
^ y .....


\\ X
ESIAN GROUNDS
SYSTEM
Flowing
area artesian R
Potentiometric surface **?
__^^^_^_ _ _ _ _^_ __^___

-.'.Yr\s.>^^ ~^ ^^4F — ^-^-' .s^
. . , • -^^L ' — "^ ^ 	 -\^.~~'' ^""^


**^ "O/>A ,^^^^^^"~ — -^ l-^^' 	

^ v> ^••'./..sandstone .'.'.'..' -^ /
^ ^ 71 Shale — ^. " ^
^ATER
echarge area

• • • • / ^ ^

/

POTENTIOMETRIC SURFACE
The elevation that water will rise to
in an opening (well) if the upper
confining layer of a confined
aquifer is perforated
9/93
11
Hydrogeology

-------
      NOTES
                                       TOTAL HEAD
                                             (hi)
                                Combination of elevation (z) and
                                pressure head (hp)


                                       ht = z  +  hp

                                Total head is the energy imparted to a
                                column of water
                                  SPECIFIC RETENTION
                               	(SR)	


                               The water in an aquifer that will not drain

                               by gravity and remains attached to the

                               aquifer media
                                     SPECIFIC YIELD
                              	(Sy]	


                              The water in an aquifer that will

                              drain by gravity
Hydrogeology
12
9/93

-------
                                                NOTES
   ROCK/WATER
  RELATIONSHIPS
            VOID SPACE
              (Porosity)
          SATURATION
9/93
13
Hydrogeology

-------
      NOTES
                            WATER RETAINED AFTER GRAVITY
                                      DRAINAGE
                                  (Specific Retention)
                             HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY
                             	(K)	__

                             The volume of flow through a unit
                             cross section of an aquifer per unit
                             decline of head
                                  HOMOGENEOUS
                             Hydraulic conductivity is not
                             dependent on position within a
                             geologic formation
Hydrogeology
14
9/93

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       HETEROGENEOUS

  Hydraulic conductivity is dependent
  on position within a geologic
  formation
           ISOTROPIC
  Hydraulic conductivity is independent
  of the direction of measurement at a
  point in a geologic formation
         ANISOTROPIC
  Hydraulic conductivity varies with
  the direction of measurement at a
  point in a geologic formation
                                                 NOTES
9/93
15
Hydrogeology

-------
       NOTES

C"
ft

*/
" X f*
^K* . ,P°tent/ometric Surface
^^J " '-• -i .t .,
V ^">— -
/\| jtraj&, ^3^'
F' :C I '• ;;-:,/^|H:- :
H, " -.
V ** *i IS - ' *• ••


DARCY'S LAW
• The flow rate through a porous material is
proproportional to the head loss and
inversely proportional to the length
of the flow path
• Valid for laminar flow
• Assume homogeneous and sotropic
conditions


tp
A

K;

K


. Z.
A 1 k ^\
'"I
Q> '
^ |
-J
Gradient = H/L = 1, the energy required to
move water the distance L
Q = quantity of flow(gpd)
A = cross-sectional area of flow(ft 3)
K = hydraulic conductivity = gpd/ft3
Hydrogeology
16
9/93

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           DARCY'S LAW
              Q=  KIA
       • Q = discharge
       • K = hydraulic conductivity
       • I = hydraulic gradient
       • A = area
 GROUNDWATER FLOW DIRECTION
                   Underflow
                Mixed
                                                  NOTES
9/93
17
Hydrogeology

-------
      NOTES
                                           STREAM GRADIENTS
                                      High^-
                           Low
                                Channel Gradients in Alluvial Systems
                                                            GW Flow Direction
                                                            • Underflow
                                                            D Mixed
                                                            D Baseflow
                                                            S Unknown
                                       MISSMOARK2SCI RG HUM QMARK1 PT SP
                                               Rivers
                                        STREAM CHANNEL
                                      Width-to-Depth Ratios
                                   High
                                                     J
                             Low
                            W
Hydrogeology
18
                                                                    9/93

-------
                                                        NOTES
Width-to-Depth Ratios in Alluvial Systems
    250
                            GW Flow Direction
                            I Underflow
                            B Mixed
                            HI Baseflow
                            SUnknown
      ARK2HUM MO SCI QM MISS RG ARK1 FT SP
               Rivers
         STREAM CHANNEL
      Width-to-Depth Ratios
    High
->  Low
Stream Penetration
100
C 80
a
0) 60
1 £
E *°
(0
£
W 20
0
in Alluvial Systems




::-::-:-g
SP GM PT HUM ARK1 MO
Rivers


1 	 '1
I


SCI M1SSARK2

GW Flow Direction
1 Underflow
Q Mixed
HO Baseflow

9/93
      19
Hydrogeology

-------
     NOTES
                                 STREAM CHANNEL
                                     SINUOSITY
                              Low <-
                         High
                            SINUOSITY OF RIVER CHANNELS
                                                   GW Flow Direction
                                                   B Underflow
                                                   D Mixed
                                                   D Baseflow
                                                     nknown
                                PT SP ARK1 CM HUM MO RG ARK2 SCI MISS
                                       Rivers
                                                   GREAT
                                                    MIAMI
                                                      IVER
Hydrogeology
20
9/93

-------
                                 NOTES
  ARKANSAS RIVER
   BARRIER ISLAND
  West Bay
      Gulf of Mexico
9/93
21
Hydrogeology

-------
  THE  HYDROGEOLOGICAL
          INVESTIGATION
PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES


At the end of this lesson, participants will be able to:

•   Describe three types of hydrogeological investigations

•   Given a list of seven elements involved in conducting a
    hydrogeological  investigation,  describe  the  processes
    involved in accomplishing each element

•   List three pertinent questions that must be addressed when
    investigating groundwater contamination.

-------
                                          NOTES
   THE HYDROGEOLOGICAL
       INVESTIGATION
       CONTAMINATION
          •:: Leach ate
           Groundwater
 REGIONAL INVESTIGATIONS
  • Cover large areas (10-100 square
   miles)

  • Are used to
   - Locate potential sources
   - Determine regional geology
   - Determine regional hydrology
9/93
The Hydrogeological Investigation

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      NOTES
                              REGIONAL INVESTIGATIONS
                                  • Include evaluation of
                                    - General geology
                                    - General hydrology
                                    - Regional water quality
                                  • Are not detailed studies
                                REGIONAL INVESTIGATION OF
                              COLBERT LANDFILL, SPOKANE, WA
                                  Geology and hydrology
                                  "...hydrogeologic conditions...
                                   ...dominated by...
                                   ...most recent glacial period..."
                                REGIONAL INVESTIGATION OF
                              COLBERT LANDFILL, SPOKANE, WA
                                   Climate
                                   "...values at site...are similar...
                                   ...to airport...
                                   ...because elevations are...
                                   ...similar."
The Hydrogeological Investigation
9/93

-------
                                               NOTES
    LOCAL INVESTIGATIONS
  • Cover few square miles

  • Are used to
    - Define geology, hydrology,
      geochemistry, and water quality
    - Locate sources
    LOCAL INVESTIGATIONS
  •  Include
    - Topographic maps, geologic
      maps, soils maps, well location
      maps, and source locations

  •  Are more detailed studies
     LOCAL INVESTIGATION OF
 COLBERT LANDFILL, SPOKANE, WA
    Hydrogeology


    "...system...defined as containing

    three aquifers and three aquitards."
9/93
The Hydrogeological Investigation

-------
     NOTES
                                 SITE INVESTIGATIONS
                              • Cover immediate area of site

                              • Are used to determine
                               - Site geology
                               - Site hydrology
                               - Contaminant migration controls
                                 SITE INVESTIGATIONS
                            • Include
                              - Water level maps, geophysical
                                surveys, soil samples, water
                                samples, tank location maps,
                                tank inventories, and monitoring
                                wells

                            • Are most detailed (expensive) studies
                                    CONDUCTING THE
                                     INVESTIGATION
                                   1. Establish objectives
                                   2. Collect data

                                   3. Conduct field investigation
                                   4. Compile data
                                   5. Interpret data
                                   e. Develop conclusions
                                   7. Present results
The Hydrogeological Investigation
9/93

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                                                   NOTES
    ESTABLISH OBJECTIVES
    • Detection
    • Monitoring
    • Site evaluation
    • Selection of control methods
    • Selection of treatment/remedial
     methods
    ESTABLISH THE OBJECTIVES
 COLBERT LANDFILL, SPOKANE, WA
   Focus
   •  Do affected residents have supplied
     water?
   •  Is the landfill a continuing source?
   •  What are extent and processes for
     offsite movement?
          COLLECT DATA
         Research Records
   •  Maps (soil, geologic, topographic,
     county, and state)
   •  Aerial photographs
   •  Location of pumping centers (wells)
     and discharge rates
   •  Stream discharge
9/93
The Hydrogeological Investigation

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      NOTES
                                 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY
                                      Historical photography
                                      (1920 - present)

                                      Contract photography
                                      (current site)
                                             EPIC
                                   Environmental Photographic
                                      Interpretation Center
                               Western Region - EMSL/Las Vegas, Nevada
                              Eastern Region - EPA-EPIC/Warrenton, Virginia
                                        USDAASCS
                                 (Agricultural Stabilization & Conservation Service)

                                  Aerial Photography Field Office
                                       Salt Lake City, Utah
                                         (801) 525-5856


                                         1945 - present
                                         black & white
                                         color infrared
The Hydrogeological Investigation
9/93

-------
                                               NOTES
         SANBORN FIRE
       INSURANCE MAPS
  •  1869 to 1950s
  •  Communities over 2000 population
  •  Updated periodically
  •  Locations of industries, pipelines,
    storage vats, old dumps, and
    wetlands
        COLLECT DATA
       Research Records
 • Well logs
 • Climatologica! data
 • Chemical data
 • Source or potential source location
   COLLECT BACKGROUND DATA
 COLBERT LANDFILL, SPOKANE, WA
      Previous site use
      "...electronics manufacturing...
      ...spent organic solvents...
      ...poured...down sides...
      ...hundred gallons a month."
9/93
The Hydrogeological Investigation

-------
     NOTES
                              INFORMATION SOURCES
                                • U.S. Geological Survey
                                • State water commission
                                • State geological survey
                                • Departments of agriculture
                              INFORMATION SOURCES
                            • Soil Conservation Service
                            • Weather service
                              Site records
                              University research (theses, papers,
                              etc.)
                             CONDUCT FIELD INVESTIGATION
                                   (After Record Search)
                                • Note topography
                                • Locate outcrops
                                • Note joint patterns
                                • Measure stream flow
                                • Measure stream temperature
                                • Note stream patterns
The Hydrogeological Investigation
9/93

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                                                      NOTES
   CONDUCT FIELD INVESTIGATION
  COLBERT LANDFILL, SPOKANE, WA
        Monitoring wells

        "...intended to compliment...
         ...wells installed during...
         ...previous investigations..."
   CONDUCT FIELD INVESTIGATION
         (After Record Search)
      • Note flora
      • Locate springs and seeps
      • Conduct geophysical survey
      • Note soil characteristics
      • Note rock type
      • Install monitoring wells
   CONDUCT FIELD INVESTIGATION
         (After Record Search)
  Measure water levels
  Conduct aquifer tests
  Note aquifer thickness
  Note confining layers
  Determine hydrogeologic characteristics
  Determine limits (hydrologic, geologic, and
  climatic)
9/93
The Hydrogeological Investigation

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      NOTES
                                CONDUCT FIELD INVESTIGATION
                               COLBERT LANDFILL, SPOKANE, WA
                                     Soil characteristics

                                     "...percolation tests indicate..
                                     ...surface runoff...
                                     ...occurs very infrequently..."
                                CONDUCT FIELD INVESTIGATION
                                      (After Record Search)
                                 • Conduct tracer studies
                                 • Note hydraulic connections
                                 • Collect samples
                                 • Determine background water quality
                                 • Identify types of contaminants
                                 • Locate potential sources
                                 • Determine types of aquifers involved
                                       COMPILE DATA
                                 • Prepare water level maps
                                 • Prepare cross sections
                                 • Plot potentiometric surface
                                 • Determine contaminant mobility
                                   characteristics
The Hydrogeological Investigation
10
9/93

-------
                                                   NOTES
           COMPILE DATA
  COLBERT LANDFILL, SPOKANE, WA
 Contaminant mobility
 •  Moving with gravity - DNAPLs
 •  Solubilized in groundwater flow
 •  Volatilized in vadose - molecular diffusion
        INTERPRET DATA
  Locate recharge areas
  Locate discharge areas
  Identify sources (responsible parties)
  Predict contaminant impact and fate
          INTERPRET DATA
 COLBERT LANDFILL, SPOKANE, WA
      Identify responsible parties
      "...'secondary' sources...
       ...may be major source...
       ...continued contamination..."
9/93
11
The Hydro geological Investigation

-------
     NOTES
                            DEVELOP CONCLUSIONS
                                • Is there a problem?
                                • How bad is it?
                                • Who is responsible?
                                • Can it be remediated?
                                • How?
                                PRESENT RESULTS
                           Review of reports by others
                           (responsible parties, consultants, etc.)
                           Formal report of investigation
                           Hearings
                           Public meetings
The Hydrogeological Investigation
12
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        CHECKLIST  FOR  A HYDROGEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION
HAZARDOUS WASTE SITES INFORMATION  LIST

When evaluating activities at sites  where hazardous wastes  may be  causing or contributing to
groundwater contamination,  it is important to gather  as  much  information as possible.  The
development of as much site information as possible can often provide valuable  insight about site
history, waste  disposal practices, regional and local geology  and the potential for impacts to the
environment in the site vicinity.

In order to make your information gathering efforts easier, what follows is a list of the types of
questions which may be helpful to a site investigation.  While these questions are oriented more
towards field activities, the questions also may prove to be helpful to those people responsible for
evaluating the adequacy of other site assessment documents.
Sources
       National Water Well Association.   1991.   Groundwater and  Unsaturated Zone
       Monitoring and  Sampling.   45  pp.  In:   Practical Handbook of  Groundwater
       Monitoring.

       U.S. EPA.   1986.   RCRA Ground Water  Monitoring Technical  Enforcement
       Guidance Document.  208 pp.

       Stropes, D.F.   1987.   Unpublished  Research:   Technical Review of Hazardous
       Wastes Disposal Sites.  25 pp.
I.      SITE/FACILITY HISTORY

       A.     Waste disposal history of the site.

               1.     Is this a  material  spill or other emergency response activity not at a Toxic
                     Substances Storage and Disposal Facility (TSSDF) ?

               2.     What hazardous wastes are being manufactured, stored, treated or disposed
                     of at the  site?

               3.     For active manufacturing operations, what industrial processes are being used
                     and what raw materials are used in the industrial processes?

               4.     Are the raw materials altered or transformed in any way during industrial
                     processes to  result  in waste materials which  are different from  the raw
                     materials?

               5.     How long has the facility been in operation?


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               6.     Have the types of hazardous wastes manufactured, stored, treated or disposed
                     of at the site changed during the history of the site?

               7.     Have the industrial processes used at the site changed over the history of the
                     site?

               8.     If the  industrial processes are  different, what previous industrial processes
                     were used in the past, how long, and what types of wastes were end products
                     of the processes.

               9.     What environmental media (air, land, water) have been or are being affected
                     by the facility/site activities?

              10.    What  is the form  of the  site  wastes  (sludge,  slurry,  liquid,  powder,
                     containerized, bulk storage)?

              11.    How much waste is  generated or disposed of at the location daily?

              12.    What is the history of above and underground storage tank use at the site?

              13.    What types of regulated manufacturing or pollution control units exist at the
                     facility?

              14.    What governmental  agencies are responsible for the regulated units?

              15.    Do any historical records about the site exist?  If so, where are these records?

              16.    Has a check of any existing historical maps or aerial photos been done to
                     provide further insight as to past site activities?

              17.    Is there  any history of groundwater contamination as a result  of the  site
                     activities?

       B.     Details of the site disposal activities.

               1.     Are the site disposal units currently in  compliance with all applicable  rules,
                     regulations and standards?

               2.     Are disposal areas  isolated from  the subsurface by  the  use  of  liners,
                     impermeable material, etc.?

               3.     What type of isolating material is  in use?

               4.     Are multiple isolation systems  in use?

               5.     Is a leachate/contaminant  collection  system in use?
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               6.     Are any monitoring wells installed adjacent to the disposal/collection system
                     units?

               7.     Is there a surface water run-off control system?

               8.     Are any parts of the site/facility capped with an impermeable cover material?

               9.     What is the condition of the cap?

              10.    Are areas of previous wastes disposal well defined?

       C.     What is the nature of groundwater usage from aquifers beneath the site or in adjacent
              areas?

               1.     Do any water supply wells exist in the aquifers beneath the site and adjacent
                     areas?

               2.     Are water supply wells used for potable water  supplies or for industrial
                     process water?

               3.     Is the groundwater treated prior to use?

               4.     What are  the  water supply wells'  pumpage  rates?   Daily?   Monthly?
                     Annually?

               5.     What are the  depths of the wells' screened intervals?

               6.     What other well drilling, well construction or well completion information is
                     available?

               7.     Do subsurface geologic well logs exist for the wells?

               8.     Are the wells up gradient, at, or down gradient of the site/facility?

               9.     Does  pumping  from these wells  modify the regional groundwater table or
                     potentiometric surface?


II.     HYDROGEOLOGIC CHARACTERIZATION

       A.     Has the  purpose of  the hydrogeologic investigation been clearly  and adequately
              defined?

               1.     Characterize the hydrogeologic system at the site.
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              2.     Determine whether there has been downgradient degradation of water quality
                     from a potential source of contamination.

              3.     Determine the upgradient source of contamination at a known downgradient
                     contamination receptor (well, spring, or surface water body).

       B.     Has the site location and all major site features been shown on a map?

              1.     Has the site been located on a state map?

              2.     Has the site been  located on a USGS 7-1/2 minute topographic quadrangle
                     map published at a scale of 1:25,000?

              3.     Have coordinates for further site identification (latitude, longitude, degrees,
                     minutes, seconds, or a site specific grid system) been provided?

       C.     Has a base map of the site been prepared?

              1.     What is the map source?

              2.     Are air photos available?

              3.     Are all components  of a map (north arrow,  scale, map legend) shown and
                     defined on the base map?

              4.     Does the map show  elevations and contours?

              5.     Is  the scale of the map adequate  to delineate on-site features' dimensions
                     adequately?

              6.     Does the map show features adjacent to the site which may be pertinent to the
                     hydrogeologic investigation?

              7.     Are all natural physical features (topography, surface waters, surface water
                     flow divides,  etc.) shown on the map?

       D.     Has the subsurface geology  been identified?

              1.     Is the geologic interpretation based on soil borings and well drilling logs?

              2.     Have any other reference materials been used?

              3.     Are aquifers present beneath the site?

              4.     Is the first aquifer encountered confined or unconfmed?

              5.     Are all aquifers and confining units  continuous across the site?
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               6.     Have   all   geologic   strata  been  described   (thickness,   rock   type,
                      unconsolidated/consolidated materials, depth, etc.)?

               7.     Do multiple aquifers exist at the site?

               8.     Have any porous versus fractured flow media been described?

       E.     Do the driller's logs of the  deepest borings  at  each  well  cluster show that soil
              material samples were collected at five foot intervals?  If not at what intervals were
              samples taken?

               1.     Is there  a stratigraphic log of the deepest boreholes?

               2.     Were the borings extended to a depth below any confining beds beneath the
                      shallowest aquifer?

               3.     Have  enough borings of the  area been  done  to  adequately define the
                      continuity and thickness of any confining beds?

               4.     Have all logs been prepared by a qualified geologist, soil scientist or engineer
                      using a standardized classification system?

               5.     Were any laboratory tests conducted on the soil and soil  material samples?
                      What types of tests were performed?

               6.     Were grain size distributions used to determine the size of the gravel pack or
                      sand filter placed in the annular  space opposite  the well screen?

       F.     Have field and/or laboratory permeability tests been performed to  identify variations
              in aquifer and confining bed properties?

               1.     What type(s) of tests were performed?
               2.     What was the range of hydraulic conductivity values found in the aquifer?
                      What was the arithmetic mean value?

               3.     What was the range of hydraulic conductivity values found in the  confining
                      bed? What was the arithmetic mean value?

               4.     Where are the most permeable subsurface zones located relative to the waste
                      disposal facility?

               5.     Have geologic cross-sections been constructed?

       G.     Have field and/or laboratory  tests been performed to determine the specific yield,
              storativity or effective porosity of the  aquifer?
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               1.     What type(s) of tests were performed?

               2.     What is the  range of specific yield, storativity or effective porosity values?

               3.     What are the average values?

       H.     Has the horizontal groundwater flow direction been determined?

               1.     Have a minimum of  three piezometers  been installed  to  determine  the
                     direction of  flow in the aquifer?

               2.     Do any water-level readings show local  variations of the water table caused
                     by mounds or sinks?

               3.     Do any identified mounds or sinks result  in alterations of the regional or local
                     horizontal groundwater direction of flow?

               4.     Do any surface features which may have an effect on the horizontal flow
                     exist?

               5.     Have all piezometer  installations in the  uppermost aquifer been screened at
                     approximately the same depth below the water table?

               6.     Do any discernible seasonal variations in water levels exist?

               7.     Do any short term variations in water levels exist? If so what possible causes
                     may explain these variations?

       I.      Has the magnitude  of the horizontal hydraulic gradient been determined at various
              locations across the  site?

               1.     What is the  average horizontal hydraulic gradient at the site?

               2.     Where is the horizontal hydraulic gradient the steepest?

               3.     Does this  location correlate to a known area of  lower hydraulic conductivity
                     in the aquifer?

               4.     Does this  location correlate to a known  area of lower aquifer thickness?

               5.     Where is the horizontal hydraulic gradient the lowest (flat)?

               6.     Does this location correlate to a known area of greater hydraulic conductivity
                     in the aquifer?

               7.     Does this  location correlate to a known  area of greater aquifer thickness?
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       J.     If multiple aquifers exist, have wells been installed in each aquifer to determine the
              vertical component of groundwater flow?

               1.     Have the wells in each  aquifer been  installed  in  a  single borehole or  in
                      separate boreholes?

               2.     If a single borehole was  used, what tests were conducted to assure that no
                      leakage between the upper and lower aquifers exist?

               3.     If a  single borehole  was  used,  what  well  installation, construction  and
                      development techniques were used to  assure that  no leakage  between the
                      upper and lower aquifers exist?

               4.     Based on the difference in hydraulic head between upper and lower aquifers
                      can the site be described  as:

                      a.     predominantly a recharge area?

                      b.     predominantly a discharge area?

                      c.     predominantly an area of horizontal flow?

               5.     If recharge, discharge or horizontal flow areas exist, have  these locations
                      been shown on a hydrogeologic map (including supporting cross-sections) of
                      the site?

       K.     Has the magnitude of the vertical  hydraulic gradients been  determined at  various
              locations across the site?

               1.     What is the average vertical hydraulic gradient at the  site?

               2.     Where is the vertical hydraulic gradient the steepest?

               3.     Can  this location  be correlated  to any known  areas  of lower hydraulic
                      conductivity?

               4.     Where is the vertical hydraulic gradient the flattest?

               5.     Based upon the vertical hydraulic gradient, what relationship exists  between
                      the shallow and deeper aquifers?

               6.     Is there any regional or off-site vertical  hydraulic gradient information which
                      may support or conflict with the site's vertical hydraulic gradient data?

       L.     Determination of seepage velocities and travel  times.

               1.     What is the average seepage velocity of water moving  from the waste facility
                      to the downgradient site boundary?


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               2.     What is the average travel time of water to move from the waste facility to
                     the nearest downgradient monitoring wells?

               3.     What is the basis for the seepage velocity and travel time determinations?

       M.     Have potentiometric maps, flow nets, geologic maps and cross-sections been prepared
              for the purpose of showing the direction of groundwater flow at the site?

              Horizontal Flow Components (plan view)

               1.     Do the contours  and contour intervals  between  the  equipotential  lines
                     adequately describe the flow regime?

                     Suggested Contour Intervals:

                     a.      0.1 to 0.5 feet if the horizontal  flow component is relatively flat.

                     b.      0.5 to 1.0 feet if the horizontal  flow component is moderately steep.

                     c.      1.0 to 5.0 feet if the horizontal  flow component is extremely steep.

               2.     Have the equipotential lines been accurately drawn?

                     a.      With respect  to  the  elevations of water levels in the  wells or
                            piezometers?

                     b.      With respect  to  nearby or on-site rivers,  lakes,  wells  or  other
                            boundary conditions?

                     c.      With respect  to  other  naturally occurring  or  manmade physical
                            features that might cause groundwater mounds or sinks in the  area?

                     d.      Do variations in the  spacing  of equipotential lines correspond to
                            known areas with relative transmissivity variations?

               3.     Do the constructed groundwater-flow lines  cross equipotential lines at right
                     angles?

               4.     Can conclusions about the  aquifer(s) relative homogeneity and isotropy be
                     made based on variations in the flow lines?

              Vertical Flow Components (cross-sections)

               1.     Is the transect for the vertical flow  component cross-section(s) laid out along
                     the line of a groundwater flow path as seen in the plan view?

               2.     Is  the variation  in land-surface topography accurately  represented  on the
                     cross-section(s)?


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               3.     Have both vertical and horizontal scales been provided?

               4.     What differences exist between the  vertical and horizontal scales?

               5.     Are all monitoring  wells, piezometers, and screened  intervals accurately
                     shown?

       N.     What is the site water quality and geochemistry?

               1.     What are the upgradient-groundwater quality conditions?

               2.     What are the downgradient-groundwater quality conditions?

               3.     What water-quality parameters have been determined downhole?

               4.     What water-quality parameters have been determined at the well head?

               5.     Have all appropriate field water-quality determinations,  equipment used and
                     procedures been followed?

               6.     Does an adequate QA/QC procedure exist?

               7.     What if any, relationship exists between the site water-quality conditions and
                     the past and/or present activities at  the site?


III.     DETECTION MONITORING SYSTEM

       A.     Are the facility upgradient and downgradient monitoring wells properly located to
              detect any water-quality degradation from the waste source(s)?

              Horizontal Flow

               1.     Will groundwater from the upgradient well locations flow through or under
                     the waste source in an unconfmed aquifer?

               2.     Will groundwater from the upgradient well locations flow beneath the waste
                     source  and under an overlying confining bed in a confined aquifer?

               3.     Will groundwater from the upgradient well locations flow beneath the waste
                     source  in  an unconfmed aquifer separated from  the  waste source by  an
                     impervious liner?

               4.     Will  groundwater from the  waste-source  area  flow  toward downgradient
                     wells?
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              Vertical Flow

               1.     Are  the monitoring  wells  correctly screened  to  intercept  a possible
                     contaminant plume from the waste source based on an accurate interpretation
                     of the vertical flow  regime (recharge area, discharge area,  or  area of
                     horizontal flow)?

       B.     Are the monitoring wells located adequately to provide sufficient groundwater- flow
              information?

               1.     Are regional water levels unaffected by local groundwater mounds or sinks?

               2.     Are additional monitoring wells  located to provide water-level information
                     from local groundwater mounds or sinks?

               3.     Do upgradient and downgradient monitoring wells provide representative
                     samples?

       C.     Monitoring Well Construction

               1.     Were precautions taken during the drilling of the borehole and installation of
                     the well to prevent introduction of contaminants into the well?

               2.     Is  the  well  casing  and  screen material  inert  to  the  probable major
                     contaminants of interest?

               3.     What type of well casing and screen material  was used?

               4.     Does  the casing  and screen material manufacturer have  any  available
                     information  about  possible leaching  of contaminants from the  casing and
                     screen material?

               5.     How are the well casing and screen  segments connected?

               6.     If  cement or glue has been used what is  the  potential for contaminants to
                     leach  into the groundwater?

               7.     Were all downhole well  components steam cleaned prior to installation?

               8.     If another cleaning technique was used, what  materials were used?

       D.     Are there as built drawings or details of each monitoring well nest or cluster showing
              depth of well, screen intervals,  type and size of screen,  length of screen and riser,
              filter packs, seals, protective  casings, etc.?

               1.     Do the figures show design details of as built wells as opposed to details of
                     proposed wells?
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               2.     Are the well depth(s) and diameter(s) shown?

               3.     Are the screened intervals and type and size of screen openings shown?

               4.     Is the length of the screen shown?

               5.     Is the length of the riser pipe and stick-up above the land surface shown?

               6.     Is the filter pack around the screened interval shown?

               7.     Does the filter pack extend at least one foot above and below the screened
                      intervals?

               8.     What type of sealant was placed in the annulus above the filter pack?

               9.     What is the thickness of the seal?

              10.     How was the seal put in place?

              11.     Will a  protective casing or  reinforced posts be  necessary to protect  the
                      monitoring well from damage?

              12.     Is any manufacturer's  information available to verify that all materials used
                      in  the  well  construction  do  not  represent  potential  sources of water
                      contamination?

              13.     Have samples of well  construction  materials used been  kept  for future
                      analysis  to verify that  the materials do  not  represent sources of water
                      contamination?

       E.     Are the screened intervals appropriate to the geologic setting and the sampling of a
              potential problem?

               1.     Is the screen set opposite a stratigraphic layer with relatively high hydraulic
                      conductivity?

               2.     Is the screened interval set sufficiently below the water table so that water-
                      level measurements can be  taken and water samples  can  be  collected during
                      periods of low water level?

               3.     Is the screened interval placed in the aquifer(s) of  concern?

               4.     If a single long screen was installed over the entire saturated thickness of the
                      aquifer,  what effect will this have  on analytical data from this monitoring
                      well?

               5.     Has the entire aquifer  thickness been penetrated and  screened?
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              6.     Have piezometers been installed to determine vertical and horizontal  flow
                     directions?

              7.     Is the base of the waste disposal unit above the seasonal high water table?

              8.     What is the thickness of the unsaturated zone between the base of the waste
                     disposal unit and the seasonal high water table?

       F.      Has a professional survey been conducted to determine the elevation and location of
              the measuring point at each well with reference to a common datum?

              1.     Is the survey at each monitoring well accurate to ±0.01 feet?

              2.     Is each surveyed measuring point located at the top of the well casing?

              3.     What benchmark was used as a starting point for the survey?

              4.     Are the elevations of the measuring point at each well referenced to mean sea
                     level and not some local datum?

       G.      Has an adequate sampling and analysis program been written for the site?

              1.     Are the major contaminants inorganic compounds?

              2.     Will field filtering and preservation be done in the field?

              3.     Are the major contaminants organic coumpounds?

              4.     Where would you expect to find the contaminants in the aquifer?

                     a.     Floating at the top of the aquifer (LNAPLs)?

                     b.     Dissolved in  the groundwater and flowing with it?

                     c.     Concentrated at the bottom of the aquifer (DNAPLs)?

              5.     What are  the  possible degradation  end products of  the original  organic
                     contaminants?

              6.     Is the sampling method  adequate to prevent any loss of volatile constituents?

              7.     Are field measurements such  as  pH,  Eh,  specific conductance, dissolved
                     oxygen and temperature taken in the field?

              8.     Does a generic sampling and analysis protocol exist?

              9.     Does the sampling and analysis protocol address sample preservation, storage,
                     transport, container identification and chain of custody procedures?


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              10.    Is the analysis laboratory certified by EPA for the analyses to be performed?

              11.    Did the laboratory provide input to the sampling and analysis program?

              12.    Is the sampling  and analysis program written, clear,  concise, understandable
                     and site specific?

       H.     Has a QA/QC plan been written for the groundwater monitoring program?

              Water-Level Measurements

               1.    Have worksheets containing relevant fixed data, some of which  are indicated
                     below, been prepared for use by the person taking water-level readings?

                     a.     Well identification number?

                     b.     Location of measuring point of each well?

                     c.     Elevation of measuring point at each well relative to mean sea level?

                     d.     Elevations of screened interval at each well?

                     e.     Type of measuring instrument to be used?

               2.    Do the worksheets for use  by the person taking water-level readings have
                     columns for computation of:

                     a.     Depth to the water table?

                     b.     Measuring point data to be added to or subtracted from readings of
                            measuring instrument?

                     c.     Adjusted depth to water surface?

                     d.     Conversion of depth  to water surface?

               3.    Do the worksheets have a space for pertinent comments?

              Sample Collection

               1.    Are  well purging  procedures  prior  to sampling  described as  written
                     procedures?

               2.    Is the method of purging specified?

               3.    Is the sample collection  technique specified?

               4.    Is the sample storage vessel  described?


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              5.    Is the sample volume specified?

              6.    Is the sample identification system described?

              7.    Are there provisions for:

                    a.     Trip blanks?
                    b.     Spiked samples?
                    c.     Duplicate, replicate or blind samples?

              8.    Is the sampling frequency specified?

              Sample Analysis

              1.    Does the laboratory have a QA/QC program for all samples?

              2.    Is the QA/QC program written?

              3.    Does the laboratory provide information on the accuracy and precision of the
                    analytical results?

              4.    Did the laboratory participate in the development of the sampling and analysis
                    plan for the groundwater monitoring  program and the QA/QC plan for the
                    non-laboratory portion of the sampling program?

       I.      Is the QA/QC plan being followed  during  implementation of the sampling  and
              analysis program?

              1.    Is the same consultant who prepared the  QA/QC  plan responsible for its
                    implementation?

              2.    How  many copies are there of the QA/QC  plan?

              3.    Who has copies and where are they located?

              4.    Does the field person taking water-level measurements and collecting samples
                    have a copy?

              5.    Does the  field person understand the importance of following the QA/QC
                    plan explicitly each time?

              6.    What safeguards and checks are there to assure there will be no  deviation
                    from  the QA/QC plan in the field and the laboratory?

       J.      If any more field work or data will  be necessary to meet the objectives of the
              hydrogeologic investigation, what types of additional field installations and data will
              be needed?
The Hydro geological Investigation            26                                         9/93

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  GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES


At the end of this lesson, participants will be able to:

•    Describe the five geophysical techniques listed below:

     1.  Magnetics
     2.  Electromagnetics (EM)
     3.  Electrical resistivity
     4.  Seismic refraction
     5.  Ground-penetrating radar

•    List the physical properties measured by the five geophysical
     techniques

•    Identify interferences for each the geophysical technique

•    Explain  the need  for geological control when making
     geophysical interpretations.

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                                                 NOTES
GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
          GEOPHYSICS
   Nonintrusive, investigative tool
   Methods are site specific
   Data must be "ground truthed"
   Professional interpretation necessary
     RELATIVE SITE COVERAGE
     Volume of typical
   geophysical measurement
Volume of drilling
or water sampling
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                                Geophysical Methods

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     NOTES
                                 "GROUND TRUTHING"

                               Correlation of physical evidence
                               (i.e., rock cores) to geophysical
                               data
                                       ANOMALY
                              Significant variation from background
                              GEOPHYSICAL TECHNIQUES
                              Magnetics
                              Electromagnetics (EM)
                              Electrical resistivity
                              Seismic refraction
                              Ground-penetrating radar
                              Borehole geophysics
Geophysical Methods
9/93

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                                                       .NOTES
            MAGNETICS
   Measurement of magnetic field strength
   in units of gammas

   Anomalies in magnetic field strength are
   primarily caused by variations in
   concentrations of ferromagnetic
   materials  in the vicinity of the sensor
            MAGNETICS
             Advantages
   Relatively low cost (cost-effective)

   Short time frame required

   Little, if any, site preparation needed

   Simple survey sufficient (Brunton)
            MAGNETICS
           Disadvantages
   Cultural noise limitations

   Difficulty in differentiating between steel
   objects
9/93
Geophysical Methods

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      NOTES
                                     ELECTROMAGNETICS

                                • Based on physical principles of inducing
                                  and detecting electrical flow within
                                  geologic strata

                                • Measures bulk conductivity (the inverse
                                  of resistivity) of geologic materials
                                  beneath the transmitter and receiver coils

                                • Currents are induced by application of
                                  time-varying magnetic fields
                                      ELECTROMAGNETICS
                                           Advantages
                                  Rapid data collection with minimum
                                  personnel

                                  Lightweight, portable equipment

                                  Commonly used in groundwater pollution
                                  investigations
                                     ELECTROMAGNETICS
                                          Disadvantages


                                  Cultural noise limitations

                                  Limitations in areas where geology varies
                                  laterally (anomalies can be misinterpreted
                                  as plumes)
Geophysical Methods
9/93

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                                                     NOTES
     ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY
   Measures the bulk resistivity of the
   subsurface in ohm-meters
   Current is injected into the ground
   through surface electrodes
  ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITIES OF
      GEOLOGIC MATERIALS
   Function of:
   «  Porosity
   •  Permeability
   •  Water saturation
   •  Concentration of dissolved solids in
      pore fluids
    ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY
            Advantages
 • Qualitative modeling is possible
 • Models can be used to estimate depths,
   thicknesses, and resistivities of
   subsurface layers
 • Layer resistivities can be used to estimate
   resistivity of saturating fluid
9/93
Geophysical Methods

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      NOTES
                                   ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY
                                         Disadvantages

                                 Cultural noise limitations

                                 Large area free from grounded metallic
                                 structures required

                                 Labor intensive ( 2-3 person crew)
                                    SEISMIC TECHNIQUES
                                • Seismic refraction

                                • Seismic reflection
                                    SEISMIC REFRACTION
                               • Measures travel time of acoustic wave
                                 refracted along an interface

                               • Most commonly used at sites where
                                 bedrock is less than 500 feet below
                                 ground surface
Geophysical Methods
9/93

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                                                     NOTES
      SEISMIC REFRACTION
            Advantages

 • Can determine layer velocities

 • Can calculate estimates of depths to
   different interfaces

 • Can obtain subsurface information
   between boreholes

 • Can determine depth to water table
      SEISMIC REFRACTION
            Assumptions

   Velocities of layers increase with depth

   Velocity contrast between layers is
   sufficient to resolve interface

   Geometry of geophones in relation to
   refracting layers will permit detection of
   thin layers
      SEISMIC REFRACTION
           Disadvantages

   Assumptions must be made

   Assumptions must be valid
9/93
Geophysical Methods

-------
      NOTES
                                     SEISMIC REFLECTION
                                • Measures travel time of acoustic wave
                                  reflected along an interface

                                • Precise depth determination cannot be
                                  made without other methods

                                • Magnitude of energy required is limiting
                                  factor
                                GROUND-PENETRATING RADAR

                                 A transmitter emits pulses of

                                 high-frequency electromagnetic waves

                                 into the subsurface which are scattered

                                 back to the receiving antenna on the

                                 surface and recorded as a function of

                                 time
                                GROUND-PENETRATING RADAR

                                • Depth penetration is severely limited by
                                  attenuation of electromagnetic waves into
                                  the ground

                                • Attenuating factors
                                  - Shallow water table
                                  - Increase in clay content in the
                                    subsurface
                                  - Electrical resistivity less than
                                    30 ohm-meters
Geophysical Methods
9/93

-------
                                             NOTES
 GROUND-PENETRATING RADAR
          Advantages
 •  Continuous display of data
 •  High resolution data under favorable site
   conditions
 •  Real-time site evaluation possible
 GROUND-PENETRATING RADAR
         Disadvantages
 • Limitations of site-specific nature of
   technique
 • Site preparation necessary for survey
BOREHOLE GEOPHYSICS
9/93
Geophysical Methods

-------
      NOTES


- +
Spontaneous
potential
\
I
%


(
>



4
(
^^™^i


Resistivity
— short
— long
y
r
_D'
}
k
\
\ \
y \
Geologic
log
clay
sand
few clay
layers
(fresh water)
shale
dense rock
LMS
sandstone
SH layers
(brackish
water)
. shale
few SS
layers
sandstone
(saline water)
(weathered)
dense rock
probably
granite
Gamma
ray
J
{
)
/
\
\
/
\
Neutron
I
$
r
\
|
£
J
X
Comparison of electric and
radioactive borehole logs


BOREHOLE GEOPHYSICS
• Spontaneous potential
• Normal resistivity
• Natural-gamma
• Gamma-gamma
Geophysical Methods
10
9/93

-------
                                                       NOTES
     BOREHOLE GEOPHYSICS



             • Neutron

             • Caliper

             • Acoustic

             • Temperature
    SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL

  Records natural potential between
  borehole fluid and surrounding materials

  Mainly used for geologic correlation,
  determining bed thickness, and separating
  nonporous from porous rocks
  (i.e., shale-sandstone, shale-carbonate)

  Can only be run in open, fluid-filled
  boreholes
            RESISTIVITY
  Measures apparent resistivity of a volume
  of rock/soil surrounding the borehole

  Radius of investigation is generally equal to
  the distance between the borehole current
  and measuring electrodes

  Can only be run in open, fluid-filled
  boreholes
9/93
11
Geophysical Methods

-------
       NOTES
                                                GAMMA
                                    Measures the amount of natural-gamma
                                    radiation emitted by rocks/soils

                                    Main use is for identification of lithology
                                    and stratigraphic correlation

                                    Can be run in open or cased and fluid- or
                                    air-filled boreholes
                                            GAMMA-GAMMA
                                    Measures the intensity of gamma
                                    radiation from a source in the probe
                                    after it is backscattered and attenuated
                                    in the rock/soils surrounding the borehole

                                    Main use is for identification of lithology
                                    and measurement of bulk density and
                                    porosity of rocks/soils

                                    Can be run in open or cased and fluid- or
                                    air-filled boreholes
                                               NEUTRON
                                  • Measures moisture content in the vadose
                                    zone and total porosity in sediments and
                                    rocks

                                  • Neutron sources and detector are
                                    arranged in logging device so that output
                                    is mainly a function of water within the
                                    borehole walls

                                  • Can be run in open or cased and fluid- or
                                    air-filled boreholes
Geophysical Methods
12
9/93

-------
                                                        NOTES
               CALIPER
   Records borehole diameter and provides
   information on fracturing, bedding plane
   partings, or openings that may affect
   fluid transport

   Can be run in open or cased and fluid- or
   air-filled boreholes
             ACOUSTIC
    A record of the transit time of an
    acoustic pulse emitted and received by
    the logging tool

    Response is indicative of porosity and
    fracturing in sediments or rocks

    Can be run in open or cased, fluid-filled
    boreholes
           TEMPERATURE
   A continuous record of the temperature
   of the environment immediately
   surrounding the borehole

   Information can be obtained on the
   source and movement of water and the
   thermal conductivity of rocks

   Can be run in open or cased, fluid-filled
   boreholes
9/93
13
Geophysical Methods

-------
        MONITORING  THE
           VADOSE  ZONE
PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES


At the end of this lesson, participants will be able to:

•    Describe the vadose zone

•    List three reasons  why the vadose zone  is  important in
     groundwater investigations

•    Describe the principles of soil gas wells

•    Describe the operation of pressure vacuum  lysimeters

•    Characterize the limitations of soil gas wells

•    Characterize the limitations of vacuum lysimeters.

-------
     MONITORING THE
      VADOSE ZONE
     THE VADOSE ZONE
   Consists of:
   •  Soils and participate material
   •  Vapors in pore spaces
   •  Liquids on grain surfaces
           Ground surface
                                        NOTES
9/93
Monitoring the Vadose Zone

-------
     NOTES
                             PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
                                  Vadose Zone
                               • Organic matter
                               • Lithology/stratigraphy
                               • Thickness
                               • Grain size distribution
                             PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
                                  Vadose Zone	
                                 • Water content
                                 • Soil density
                                 • Specific yield
                                 • Specific retention
                         CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
                         	Vadose Zone

                                 • Soil vapors/gases
                                 • Pore water
Monitoring the Vadose Zone
9/93

-------
                                              NOTES
        WATER QUALITY
      Common Parameters

        • Temperature
        • pH
        • Conductivity
        • Chemical analysis
      THE VADOSE ZONE
    Consists of:
    •  Soils and participate material
    •  Vapors in pore spaces
    •  Liquids on grain surfaces
        TENSIOMETER
 Measures the capillary pressure in soil
 Advantages
 — Inexpensive
 — Durable
 — Easy to operate
9/93
Monitoring the Vadose Zone

-------
      NOTES
                                       TENSIOMETER
                                Disadvantages
                                -  Ineffective under very dry
                                   conditions because of air entry
                                -  Sensitive to temperature changes
                                -  Sensitive to atmospheric pressure
                                   changes
                                -  Sensitive to air bubbles  in  lines
                                -  Requires a long time to  achieve
                                   equilibrium
                                         ELECTRICAL
                                    RESISTANCE BLOCKS
                                               Current source
                                        Water
                                        content
                                                Field calibration
                                            Resistance
                                         ELECTRICAL
                                    RESISTANCE BLOCK
                                • Measures moisture content in soil

                                • Advantages
                                 - Suited for general use
                                 - Inexpensive
                                 - Can determine suction or moisture
                                    content
                                 - Requires little maintenance
Monitoring the Vadose Zone
9/93

-------
           ELECTRICAL
       RESISTANCE BLOCK
      Disadvantages
      - Ineffective under very dry
        conditions
      - Sensitive to temperature
      - Calibration is time-consuming
      - Affected by salinity
 NEUTRON MOISTURE LOGGING
       Am-Be
Detector
  Neutrons from source are slowed down by
  hydrogen cloud

  Hydrogen sources are water and
  contaminants
            NEUTRON
      MOISTURE LOGGING

  Interacts with hydrogen in water

  Advantages
  —  Readings directly related to soil
     moisture
  —  Moisture content can be measured
     regardless of physical state
                                                   NOTES
9/93
                         Monitoring the Vadose Zone

-------
      NOTES
                                        NEUTRON
                                  MOISTURE LOGGING
                                Disadvantages
                                - Expensive
                                - No information on soil-water
                                  pressure
                                - No information on changes in
                                  density
                                - Not accurate for small changes
                                - Requires care in handling source
                                - Requires license to use instrument
                              GAMMA-RAY ATTENUATION
                                    Cs
Detector
                              Changes in attenuation indicate
                              differences in moisture content
                              GAMMA-RAY ATTENUATION
                               Determines soil density

                               Advantages
                               -  Can measure wetting front within
                                  2cm
Monitoring the Vadose Zone
           9/93

-------
                                                NOTES
  GAMMA-RAY ATTENUATION

  • Disadvantages
    -  Expensive
    -  Radioactive source requires
       special care
    -  Changes in bulk density affect
       calibration (e.g., swelling and
       frost heave)
        PSYCHROMETER
    Measures relative humidity of soil
    water

    Advantages
    -  Measures capillary pressure
       under very dry conditions
       PSYCHROMETER
    Disadvantages
    —  Very sensitive to temperature
       fluctuations
    —  Expensive
    -  Complex
    —  Performs poorly in wet media
9/93
Monitoring the Vadose Zone

-------
      NOTES
                                        FLOW RATES
                                 • Infiltrometers (constant head)

                                 • Test basins (falling head)

                                 • Water budgets (hydrologic cycle)

                                 • Tracer studies
                                  - Dyes
                                  - Radioactive isotopes
                                  - Selected ions
                                •   Problem:
                                    Water is held under tension in
                                    the vadose zone and will not
                                    flow into wells

                                •   Solution:
                                    Create an area of lower potential
                                    to induce flow into a sampling
                                    device
                                          LYSIMETER
                                  A device for sampling interstitial
                                  moisture in the unsaturated zone
Monitoring the Vadose Zone
9/93

-------
         LYSIMETER INSTALLATION
                       Tubing
                    I
                       4
                            Reservoir
                            pipe
                         Powdered silica sand
       EVACUATION OF LYSIMETER
      Closed valve
      Mine
      spoil
                              Suction
                              pump
                           . Backfill
                            soil
                          •"Ceramic tip
      COLLECTION OF PORE WATER
        Both valves closed
                                                               NOTES
9/93
Monitoring the Vadose Zone

-------
       NOTES
                                     TRANSFER TO SAMPLE BOTTLE
                                      SAMPLING TIME vs. SAMPLE VOLUME
                                            Time after evacuation (days)
SOIL GAS SURVEYS
7
7
SOURCE
7
7
Monitoring the Vadose Zone
10
9/93

-------
        SOIL GAS WELL
          Schematic
     J [-.Seal




Vadose    Well
        Vadose
         zone
                Soil gas
      SOIL GAS SURVEYS
    xxxxxxxxxx

    X               _      X
                    II
             SOURCE

          ——

    XXXXXXX  + +
     SOIL GAS SURVEYS
   xxxxxxxx

    __mm^m^mm       x

I       SOURCE  I     +
              I  +  +  +

   X  X X  X  X
                                           NOTES
9/93
                   11
Monitoring the Vadose Zane

-------
      NOTES
                                       CROSS SECTION
                                      •:::::::• Plume .::::: :j:::.::





                                 Saturated  •••• Regional Flow
                                           PLAN VIEW
                                              Regional Flow
Monitoring the Vodose Zone
12
9/93

-------
     WELL  CONSTRUCTION
PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES


At the end of this lesson, participants will be able to:

•    List six types of drilling methods

•    Identify conditions under which the  following types of
     drilling methods would be used:

     1.    Air rotary
     2.    Mud rotary
     3.    Cable tool
     4.    Hollow-stem auger

•    Describe three methods of well development

•    Define the major components of a monitoring well from a
     diagram

•    List three uses for wells.

-------
  WELL CONSTRUCTION
        USES FOR WELLS
         • Monitoring
         • Remediation
         • Lithology
         • "Ground truthing"
 TYPES OF DRILLING METHODS
         « Mud rotary
         • Air rotary
         • Cable tool
         • Reverse circulation
         • Solid-stem auger
         • Hollow-stem auger
                                             NOTES
9/93
Well Construction

-------
       NOTES
                                             MUD ROTARY
                                              Advantages
                                     Availability
                                     Satisfactory drilling in most formations
                                     Good depth capability
                                     Wide variety of formation logging
                                     Modest cost
                                     Good gravel pack and casing seal
                                            MUD ROTARY
                                             Disadvantages
                                     •  Requires drilling fluid
                                       - Difficult to remove
                                       - May affect sample integrity
                                     •  Circulates contaminants
                                     •  Mobility may be limited
                                     •  Poor rock or soil sample recovery
                                             AIR ROTARY
                                              Advantages
                                   No drilling fluid required
                                   Excellent drilling in hard rock
                                   Good depth capability
                                   Excellent delineation of water-bearing
                                   zones
                                   Potential to evaluate hydraulic properties of
                                   water-bearing zones
Well Construction
9/93

-------
                                                        NOTES
             AIR ROTARY
             Disadvantages
 • Casing may be required during drilling
 • Cross contamination of different formations
  possible
 • Limited equipment availability/mobility
 • Difficult formation sampling
 • High cost of drilling
            CABLE TOOL
              Advantages
   Good sample recovery
   Good delineation of water-bearing zones
   during drilling
   Highly mobile
   Good drilling in most formations
   Inexpensive
            CABLE TOOL
            Disadvantages
  Slow
  Requires driving casing in unconsolidated
  formations
  May be necessary to double case hole for
  good seal or gravel pack installation
9/93
Well Construction

-------
      NOTES
                                   REVERSE CIRCULATION
                                          Advantages

                                Formation water is not contaminated by the
                                drilling water
                                Good sample recovery
                                No caving in unconsolidated formations
                                   REVERSE CIRCULATION
                                         Disadvantages

                                 Not readily available
                                 Expensive
                                 Sealing of wells and placement of grout
                                 may be difficult
                                     SOLID-STEM AUGER
                                          Advantages
                                Fast in shallow, unconsolidated formations
                                Inexpensive to operate
                                Highly mobile
                                Requires no drilling fluid
Well Construction
9/93

-------
                                                     NOTES
        SOLID-STEM AUGER
            Disadvantages
 • Cannot be used in consolidated formations
 • Limited depth capability (175-200 feet)
 • Possible borehole collapse after auger is
  removed
  Difficult sampling
      HOLLOW-STEM AUGER
             Advantages

     Highly mobile
     No drilling fluid required
     Problems of hole caving minimized
     Soil sampling relatively easy
      HOLLOW-STEM AUGER
            Disadvantages

  Cannot be used in consolidated formations
  Limited depth capability (175-200 feet)
  Cross contamination of permeable zones is
  possible
  Limited casing diameter
9/93
Well Construction

-------
     NOTES
                            MONITORING WELL
                              CONSTRUCTION
                             WELL CONSTRUCTION
                                  MATERIALS

                             • Well screen/riser/well points
                               - Teflon®
                               - Stainless steel
                               - PVC

                             • Sand/gravel/filter pack

                             • Bentonite/grout/cement
                               MONITORING WELL
                                CONSTRUCTION
                                  Unconfined aquifer

                                  Confined aquifer
Well Construction
9/93

-------
                                                   NOTES
MONITORING WELL- UNCONFINED AQUIFER
4 Steel cap
Well cap ,5
^^s
Riser —
V
Well screen —
Plug^
tc
*
i
^
^
a
\
i
Ur
*t
.'%
'i?;
V
^t. Grout
^v
— Grout
— Bentonite
— Gravel pack
ISSSS^^

   MONITORING WELL - CONFINED AQUIFER
                     -^ 4 Steel cap
         Well — ^      "^
                       Bentonite
                       Gravel pack
       WELL AND AQUIFER
          DEVELOPMENT
           • Surge block
           • Bailer
           • Pulse pumping
           • Air surging
9/93
                                                        Well Construction

-------
      NOTES
                                         POOR WELL DEVELOPMENT
                                     WELL DEVELOPMENT - SURGE BLOCK
                                                1
                 1
                                                        Of
                                                        * -.
                                       WELL DEVELOPMENT - BAILER
                                 *  *
25La
Well Construction
                                 9/93

-------
                                                     NOTES
    WELL DEVELOPMENT - PULSE PUMPING
                  a




Puls

                         Pulse pumping
WELL DEVELOPMENT - AIR SURGING
, 	 , A 	 k.

w •- "
•:••:•::••:-•:•':••:••--•-••:-•. •••i-:-^-]-i::-'^.
.j



•••'*•
, . .^mm




-c

SL^
tr^
•— —,___
<^x


' ' 'mum
•••••, .
:xx>
Air
*;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
(XXXXXXXXXXXXl
     SUMMARY OF DRILLING AND
 MONITORING WELL CONSTRUCTION
        Hydrogeologic environment
        - Type of formation
        - Depth of drilling
        Type of pollutant
        Drilling location
        Monitoring well design
        Drilling equipment availability
        Cost
9/93
Well Construction

-------
    HYDROGEOCHEMISTRY
PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES


At the end of this lesson, participants will be able to:

•    Evaluate groundwater uses based on chemical parameters

•    Identify the basic inorganic constituents in groundwater

•    Identify the driving factors that control the concentration of
     inorganic constituents, including:

         pH and Eh
         Temperature
         Total dissolved solids
         Dissolved gases

•    Identify  how   the  driving  factors  that  control  the
     concentration of inorganic constituents influence:

         Dissolution and precipitation
         Redox potential (Eh)
         Adsorption
         Hydrolysis
         Carbonate equilibrium

•    List  the  chemical  characteristics  important  to  the
     concentration of organic constituents in groundwater

-------
Define the terms weight fraction of organic carbon in the soil
(foc), organic-carbon partition coefficient (K0J, distribution
coefficient (KD), retardation factor (RD), and octanol-water
partition coefficient (Kow)

Define dense nonaqueous phase liquids (DNAPLs) and light
nonaqueous phase liquids (LNAPLs).

-------
                                             NOTES
 HYDROGEOCHEMISTRY
      PRIMARY DRINKING
      WATER STANDARDS
    • Inorganics
    • Microbiological
    • Pesticides/herbicides
    • Volatile organic compounds
    • Radioactivity
      SECONDARY DRINKING
       WATER REGULATIONS
   Chloride
   Color
   Copper
   Corrosivity
   Fluoride
   Foaming agents
   Iron
Manganese
Odor.
PH
Sulfate
Total dissolved solids
Zinc
9/93
                                 Hydrogeochemistry

-------
    NOTES
QUALITY DETERMINES USABILITY
Taste
Odor
Poisons
Fluoride
Nitrate
Iron
Hardness
Sediment
Dissolved solids

iini£Jr |t
DOMESTIC


PH
Acidity




Alkalinity
Silica Boron
Hardness Alkalinity
Sediment Sodium-calcium ratio
Dissolved solids C
issolved solids
A
bnfl Si.
INDUSTRIAL IRRIGATION
                           INORGANIC
                        GEOCHEMISTRY
                         SURFACE WATER
                      CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
                            • Rain water
                            • Seawater
                            • River water
Hydrogeochemistry
9/93

-------
       SURFACE WATER
        COMPOSITION

   Chemical   Rain Water  River Water
     Fe
       ++
0.015
0.075
0.027
 All concentrations In mg/L
 0.020
38.000
10.000
       SURFACE WATER
         COMPOSITION
   Chemical   Rain Water  River Water
     Na+

     cr
0.220
0.072
20.000
 2.900
24.000
 0.300
 All concentrations in mgIL
       SURFACE WATER
        COMPOSITION

   Chemical   Rain Water  River Water
     so:
    HCO;
     NO;
1.100
51.000
113.000
 2.400
 All concentrations in mgIL
                                               NOTES
9/93
                                     Hydrogeochemistry

-------
     NOTES
                             DOMESTIC WATER QUALITY
                            	Example   ^^^^
                                  Bolton Well Field
                                  Great Miami River Aquifer
                               DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLY
                              Bolton Plant-Great Miami River
                               Chemical  Raw Water
                      Finished
                       Water
Fe+
Ca+
Mg+
                                          0.136
                                          90.000
                                          21.000
                       0.034
                      31.000
                      20.000
                             All concentrations in mg/L
                             DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLY
                            Bolton Plant-Great Miami River
                               Chemical  Raw Water
                      Finished
                       Water
Na+
             33.800
                                                   32.000
     CI"      54.000
     F"      0.250
All concentrations in mg/L
                                                   59.000
                                                   1.020
Hydrogeochemistry
                              9/93

-------
  DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLY
 Bolton Plant-Great Miami River
    Chemical   Raw Water
                      Finished
                       Water
      so;
      HCO-
      NO:
            ' 54.000    51.000
             2.200
2.310
 All concentrations in mg/L
           OTHER WATER
       QUALITY PARAMETERS
   Chemica  ... . ... .   .,. ... .   _   .  Great Miami
   _   .   Rain Water  River Water  Seawater   _.
   Parameter                      River
                             R. / F.
                 138   6581.55 C.  318/164
                 232    34500   463 / 323
                 7.4    8.0-8.4   7.4 / 9.3
Hardness
 TDS    1.609
 pH     4.9
 All concentrations in mgIL
 C. Calculated; R. Raw Water; F. Finished Water
   GROUNDWATER QUALITY

   • Chemicals/compounds present
   • Chemical concentration
   • Subsurface distribution
                                                    NOTES
9/93
                                                      Hydrogeochemistry

-------
      NOTES
                                NATURAL ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS
                                        Constituent
mg/L
                                        Bicarbonate (HCO3)
                                        Carbonate (CO3)
                                        Calcium (Ca)
                                        Magnesium (Mg)
                                        Chloride (Cl)
                                        Fluoride (F)
                                        Iron (Fe)
                                        Manganese (Mn)
                                        Sodium (Na)
                                        Sulfate (SOJ
150-200
150-200
25-30
25-30
250
0.7-1.2
>0.3
>0.05
20-170
300-1000
                                      CHARACTERISTICS
                                   •  Hardness
                                   •  pH (or hydrogen ion activity)
                                   •  Specific electrical conductance
                                   •  Total dissolved solids (TDS)
                                           HARDNESS
                                   Expressed as calcium carbonate in
                                   milligrams per liter or grains per
                                   gallon of water
                                   One grain is equivalent to 17 mg/L
Hydrogeochemistry
             9/93

-------
                                            NOTES
          HARDNESS
      Type
mg/L
      Soft          0-60
      Moderately hard  61-120
      Hard          121-180
      Very hard       >180
    DRIVING FACTORS
      DRIVING FACTORS
 •  pH and Eh
 •  Temperature
 •  Total dissolved solids
 •  Dissolved gases
 •  Aquifer and soil mineral composition
9/93
                             Hydrogeochemistry

-------
     NOTES
                                 Chemical Processes
                                  Affected by These
                                   Driving Factors
                              CHEMICAL PROCESSES
                              • Dissolution and precipitation
                              • Carbonate equilibrium
                              • Hydrolysis
                              • Adsorption
                              • Redox potential
                           DISSOLUTION/PRECIPITATION
                                 NaCI
                               Dependent on:
                               Solubility
                               pH
                               Temperature
Hydrogeochemistry
9/93

-------
  DISSOLUTION
       PRECIPITATION
     ++
CO'
         CO
   Ca
Mg
Na"
   Ca +  SO"
                 CaCO
          MgCO
          NaCI
  CARBONATE EQUILIBRIA
               H2C03
      H2C03
      HCO;
     CaCO,
    H + HC03
    H+ + co;
    Ca"1" + CO,
        HYDROLYSIS
  R-X + H20
 R-X + OH"
      R-OH + H  + X
      R-OH +X~
                                       NOTES
9/93
                                  Hydrogeochemistry

-------
      NOTES
                                    ADSORPTION
                                  Partitioning of elements

                                  Cation exchange capacity
                                 (CAT)ION EXCHANGE

                           	CAPACITY	

                           • Retards movement of chemical constituents in
                             groundwater

                           • Amount of exchangeable ions in
                             milliequivalents per 100 grams soil at pH = 7
  , . . ' - O- _ NaT
  CLAY'     4> Ca
  >^//-0--Na+
                                           2+
                                                 —0\
                             ADSORPTION/DESORPTION
                                   Physical
                                 Electrical

                                  ©   Q    Q   Q
                                  ^^^^^^^^^^^^
                                          Clay
Hydrogeochemistry
10
9/93

-------
                                                    NOTES
OXIDATION/REDUCTION
REACTIONS
Oxidation = reaction resulting in
a loss of electrons
Reduction = reaction resulting in
a gain of electrons
Eh = "redox" potential







Low or negative Eh = reduction
High or positive Eh = oxidation

SOIL ZONE REACTIONS 78° ™
(O2>0.1 ppm)
sulfide oxidation HS "-> SO*"
iron oxidation Fe2+-> Fe 3+
nitrification NH4~KN03
manganese oxidation Mn -^ Mn4+ yj
iron sulfide oxidation Fe2S^Fe ++S0 J
aerobic respiration CHjO +O2 •^CO2 + h^O








SATURATED ZONE REACTIONS o
denitrification N03-^ N2(g»a)
manganese reduction Mn4+-^- Mn2+
iron III reduction Fe3t-> Fe2+
sulfate reduction SO2' -^ HS"+ H2S




methane fermentation CHjO-^ CH4(gaS) .200 mv

Recharge zone
D.O. > 1.0 "+"Eh
""-""Eh D.O. < 1.0
•4— To discharge zone .



9/93
11
                                                        Hydrogeochemistry

-------
     NOTES
                                   Eh°
                                   (volts)
                               THE LIMITS OF WATER

                                     STABILITY
                                  O2+2H + 2e~ = 2H2O
                                  H2 +  O -2e~= H2O
                                           wafers
                                       PH
Hydrogeochemistry
12
9/93

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                                              NOTES
 Mine
waters
  4.0
 0.8V
    WATER IN CONTACT WITH
         ATMOSPHERE
                  Normal  Aerated
Rain  Streams  ocean   saline
            water  residues
       pH

       -Eh
10.0
 0.3V
             pH
    TRANSITIONAL WATERS

   Bog waters      Groundwater
 3.0
 0.1 V
        PH
        Eh
  9.0
- 0.2 V
9/93
                       13
                        Hydrogeochemistry

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       NOTES
                             LU
                                 WATER ISOLATED FROM
                                     ATMOSPHERE
                             Saturated
                               soils
            Euxenic    Organic-rich
            marine       saline
          environment    waters
                             5.0
                            -0.1 V
              Eh
                          11.0
-0.5V
                             ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Hydrogeochemistry
14
                                                      9/93

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                                          NOTES
CHEMICAL-SPECIFIC
CHARACTERISTICS
Chemical phase (solid, liquid
• Solubility
• Vapor pressure
• Specific gravity
' Koc
• Kow
gas)






VOLATILIZATION
tltrr
' T
^-rrr-r-^ O f

n-
Dependent on: Vapor pressure
Henry's Law constant
  CHEMICAL DEGRADATION





         Hydrolysis




         UV Photolysis




         DDT	> DDE
9/93
15
Hydro geochemistry

-------
      NOTES
                                     BIODEGRADATION
                              Tetrachloroethylene •
                       -^. Trichloroethylene



                       •> Vinyl chloride



                       >H,OandCO,
                                               Microbe
                                               Eh
                                        Redox potential
SOIL ZONE REACTIONS 78° ™
(O2>0.1 ppm)
sulfide oxidation HS "-> SO2"
iron oxidation Fe2+-> Fe 3+
nitrification NH4-^NO3
manganese oxidation Mn -^ Mn4+ j^
iron sulfide oxidation Fe2S^Fe 3++ SO J
aerobic respiration CH2O +O2 -^COj + IHjO
k






SATURATED ZONE REACTIONS o
denitrification NO3-^ N2(gas)
manganese reduction Mn4+-^ Mn2+
iron III reduction Fe3+-^ Fe2i
sulfate reduction SO4->HS"+H2S




methane fermentation CH2O-^ CH4(ga8) or>,,
~
-------
  REDUCTION OF MANGANESE (Mn)
         AND IRON (Fe)
3 Mn02 +  18 H+ + 6 OH~= 3 Mn+++ 12 H20
  8 H++ 2 Fe O = 4 Fe+++ 4 H,0 + 02
         23           fc     fc
   REDUCTION OF SULFATE
   HS + 4H20 = SO^+ 9H + 8e
         ADSORPTION
       Partitioning of elements
       Cation exchange capacity
                                            NOTES
9/93
17
                                               Hydrogeochemistry

-------
     NOTES
                          PARTITIONING OF ELEMENTS
                              ADSORPTION OR
                         DISTRIBUTION COEFFICIENT
                                     K
                        ORGANIC CARBON FRACTION
                           The fraction of the aquifer solid

                           material that is organic carbon
Hydrogeochemistry
18
9/93

-------
                                           NOTES
      ORGANIC CARBON
PARTITION COEFFICIENT (Koc)

   The distribution coefficient for the
   organic solute between water and
   natural solid organic matter
             K
d
             oc  *   Toc
   log Kd = log Koc + log f,
           oc
             K
d
   K   =  K    Y   f
   ^d     rxom A   'om
   log Kd = log Kom + log fom
9/93
            19
Hydrogeochemistry

-------
       NOTES
                                            =  1.72   x   K
                                                               om
                                         OCTANOL-WATER
                                  PARTITION COEFFICIENT (Kow)
                                The adsorption of the nonpolar organic
                                molecules to the solid organic material in the
                                formation
                                   OCTANOL
                                     +
                                    WATER
                                          •»,
                                                               OCTANOL
                                                               SOLUTE
                                                               SOLUTE
                                                 SOLUTE
                                        RATIO OF THE AMOUNT OF SOLUTE THAT PARTITIONS
                                      OUT OF THE AQUEOUS PHASE ONTO THE SOLID ORGANIC HATTER
                                             for Toluene
                                                  CH,
                                      log Koc = 0.72 log Kow + 0.49
Hydrogeochemistry
20
9/93

-------
               = Kocfoc
    log K d = 0.72 log Kow + log foc + 0.49


       Kd = distribution coefficient
       KOC = organic carbon partition coefficient
       Kow = octanol-water partition coefficient
       foc = organic carbon fraction
         Kd  for Toluene
        log Kd = log Koc + log f
oc
   log Kd = 0.72 log Kow+ log foc + 0.49
        Koc for Benzene
        log Koc = -0.54 logS +°-44
                                                        NOTES
9/93
    21
Hydrogeochemistry

-------
       NOTES
                                         Kd for Benzene
                                        log Kd = log Koc  +  log foc
                                     log Kd  = - 0.54 log S + log foc + 0.44
                                       RETARDATION FACTOR
                                          Rd =  1 +
                                                     (Kd)(pb)
                                                         n
                                     pb
                                     n =
      = Retardation factor (unitless)
      = Distribution coefficient (ml/g)
            ivd =  i\oc TOC
      = Bulk density (g/cc)
       Porosity (decimal fraction)
                                            RETARDATION
                                            R = 1  +A x Kd
                                                   n
                                      R = Retardation factor
                                      A  = Bulk density
                                      Kd = Distribution coefficient = K oc foc
                                      n = Porosity

                                          Contaminant Velocity:
                                      vx = Contaminant velocity
                                      v = Groundwater flow velocity
                                      Rx = Retardation factor for contaminant x
Hydrogeochemistry
22
9/93

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                                                     NOTES
DENSITY STRATIFICATION

Dependent on:
Specific gravity ^«
Solubility ffL

S.G. < 1
SOLUBLE
S.G. > 1


     PLUME STRATIFICATION
   Unconfined aquifer Q Groundwater flow Li;.;' >-
            '//, Bedrock
            Y//////.
9/93
23
Hydrogeochemistry

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                           Migration  of Chlorophenolic  Compounds
                           at  the  Chemical  Waste  Disposal Site
                           at  Alkali  Lake, Oregon  —
                           1.  Site  Description  and   Ground-Water  Flow

                           by James F. Pankow", Richard L. Johnson1, James E. Houckb,
                              Susan M. Brillante", and W. Jerry Bryan6
                                            ABSTRACT
                                The hydrogeology of the chemical waste disposal site
                           in the closed basin ac Alkali Lake,'Oregon has been
                           examined. Interest in the site is due to the burial
                           (November 1976) of 25,000 drums of herbicide manu-
                           facturing residues in unlined trenches on the playa of the
                           basin. Included in the wastes were large amounts of chloro-
                           phenols and polymeric chlorophenoxyphenols. The flow of
                           the alkaline (pH =* 10) ground water in the site area is
                           driven by: (1) springs which create a mound cast of the site;
                           a:;d (2) the sump effect of "West Alkali Lake," a topo-
                           graphic low to the west of the site. Porosity, bulk mass
                           densities, and grain-size distributions were determined. At
                           one piezometer, the depth to ground water ranged between
                           0.9 m and 2.2 m. With the bottoms of the trenches in
                           which the chemicals were buried between 0.60 and 0.75 m
                           below the level of the ground surface, the bottom portions
                           of the trenches may, at least occasionally, be in direct
                           contact with the ground water.

                                          INTRODUCTION
                                The by-products  of a wide variety of chemical
                           processes are often disposed of together—nonuni-
                           formly, and noninstantaneously in one chemical
                           disposal site. Such disposal usually results in
                           complicated ground-water contaminant plumes
                           which are difficult to model. The disposal of
                           chemical waste in the Alkali Lake Basin (Lake
                           County, Oregon, Figure 1) does not follow this
                           typical model. Wastes  there"were received over a
                           fairly narrow time frame. In addition, nearly all of
                           the wastes were from one chemical manufacturing
                           operation (the production of chlorophenoxy
                           herbicides). As a result, most of the individual
                           compounds making up the waste were chemically
                           similar (chlorophenolic), differing primarily by
                                "Oregon Graduate Center, 19600 N.W. Walker Road,
                           Bcavcrton, Oregon 97006.
                                bNEA, Inc.. 10950 S.W. 5th St.. Ste. 380. Beaverton,
                           Oregon 97005.
                                Received December 1983, revised July 1984.
                           accepted July 1984.
                                Discussion open until March 1. 1985.

                           Vol. 22. No. 5-GROUND WATER-Scpicmbcr-Octobcr 1984
molecular weight. Thus, while the value of the
partitioning coefficient of the contaminants
between the soil matrix and the ground water (Kj)
may vary between the compounds, the physico-
chemical processes which control their values in
the soil and ground-water media will be similar.
     Early interest in the Alkali Lake area was
oriented towards the mining of soda (Na2CO3).
Claims were first filed  by an Oregon firm in the
late 1800s. These claims chingcd ownership several
times. They were purchased by Chem Waste, Inc.
(Portland, OR) in 1967 for the purpose of
establishing a 4 ha waste^cmical storage site. The
location for the site was selected such that it was
just inside the mining claim boundary. Areas
further inside the playa would have been subject to
greater amounts of playa water as well as greater
hauling distances. The site was licensed by the
Oregon Department of Agriculture (ODA) in 1968
for pesticide waste storage. Little or no prior study
was carried out to determine the suitability of the
site to receive chlorophenolic wastes. Storage of
wastes at the site began in 1969. The feasibility of
using shallow land application to degrade the
wastes was investigated in 1970 on several plots of
land near the site (Goulding, 1973). The largest of
the plots was 4 ha in area (Figure  1). The possibil-
ity of using the waste material as a rangeland-
improving herbicide was also investigated (Figure
1).
     By late 1971, a total of twenty-five thousand
206 I (55 gallon) drums of manufacturing wastes
from the production of 2,4-D (2,4-dichloro-
phenoxyacetic acid), and MCPA (4-methyl-2-
chlorophenoxyacetic acid) had been stockpiled  on
pallets at the site. The wastes represented primarily
the distillation residues ("still-bottoms") which
resulted during the separation of desired chloro-
phenols from a phenol chlorination process
mixture. Included in the still-bottoms were various
chlorophenols and a large variety of polymeric

                                          593
Reprinted by permission of the Ground Water Publishing  Company.  Copyright 1984.
All rights reserved.

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Fij. 1. Topographic map of Alkali Lake playa and
surrounding ares. Major contours are at 200 loot intervtli
with supplemental contours at TOO foot intervals. (Prepared
on the basis of maps obtained from the Defense Mapping
Agency Topographic Center, Washington, O.C.)
chlorophcnoxyphenols (CPP) (Pankow etal.,
1981). In addition to the still-bottoms, the waste
materials also included the herbicides 2,4-D, and
MCPA. All available evidence indicates that no
2,4,5-T (2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacctic acid) or
2,4,5-T wastes were present in the disposed
materials. The structures of these various
compounds are presented elsewhere (Johnson
etal., 1984a).
     In 1971, the Oregon Department of Environ-
mental Quality (ODEQ) and ODA stopped addi-
tional wastes from being hauled to the site.
Between  1972 and  1974, DDEQ pursued cleanup
of the site by its owners through State courts, but
ultimately lost. The State of Oregon  condemned
the site and took possession in October 1976. In
July 1976, remedial action funds were requested
and subsequently received from the Oregon Legis-
lature. Given the general corrosiveness of the waste
(the chlorophenols, CPP, and phenoxy herbicides
are all acids) (Johnson et a/., I984a)  by this point
in time, many of the drums had begun to leak. In
October 1976, the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) Alkali Lake Task  Force took
samples from five different barrels and tested them
for solubility and pH when mixed both with the
local ground water and with deionized water. Their
report, dated December 1976, indicates that on the
average, 70% of the material in the drums was
soluble in the highly alkaline (pH =• 10), local
ground water (EPA,  1976). The waste/ground-
water volume or mass ratio used in the solubility
tests was not indicated. When 2 g of each of the
five samples were mixed with 100 ml of deionized
water, pH values of 4.5, 7.0, 5.0, 5.0, and 8.0 were
obtained. The acidic pH values are in the range
expected based on the pKa [-log (acidity con-
stant)) values for chlorophenols. The neutral to
alkaline pH values were probably due to the
presence in some of the barrels of basic residues
from the alkaline coupling of 2,4-dichlorophcnol
with chloroacetic acid to give 2,4-D. A contract
was let by ODEQ to  crush and bury the drums in
12 shallow (0.60 to 0.75 m deep), unlined  trenches
130 m long and 20 m apart (EPA, 1976; ODEQ,
1977a). This operation, carried out in November
1976, converted the  storage site  into a disposal
site. The major portion of the wastes were  there-
fore injected into the ground-water system in a
narrow time period. Although the water table in
the area of the site is very shallow (typically only
1 to 3 m deep), it was hoped that the location of
the site inside of the closed Alkali Lake basin
would limit the movement of the contaminants in
the alkaline ground water.

        HYDROLOGY, GEOCHEMISTRY,
               AND GEOLOGY
     The site is located on the northwestern edge
of the Basin and Range Physiographic Province
(Fenneman,  1931). This area is characterized by a
large grabcn occurring between two dramatic,
north-south-trending fault scarps, Abcrt Rim on
the east (840 m high) and Winter Ridge on the
west (360 m  high). As is typical for the Province as
a whole, the graben contains a variety of closed
basins. The Lake Abert and Summer Lake basins
(2,200 and 1,000 km', respectively) have been the
most studied (Donath, 1958; Phillips and Van
Denburgh, 1971; Van Denburgh,  1975). In  Pleisto-
cene times, "Lake Chewaucan" occupied a large
portion  of the Lake Abcrt and Summer Lake
basins. A second Pleistocene lake once occupied
the Alkali Lake basin. In terms of that former lake.
the Alkali Lake basin has a drainage area of
750 km' (Mundorff, 1947). Abert Rim bounds the
Alkali Lake basin on the east. The land to the west
slopes gently upward (400 m gain over 10 km), and
possesses numerous small eolian deflation areas
(diameters up to 2 km).
     The site is located on the southwest edge of
594

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Fig. 2. Photograph end superimposed topographic map of the site vicinity. Contours are shown it 5 foot intervals. All
unlabeled contours north of the site are 4265 foot contours. Unlabeled .contours east of the site are 4260 contours. (Prepared
with the luistance of U.S. EPA (1983) data.]
the 5 km diameter playa in the Alkali Lake basin
(Figures 1 and 2). The playa serves as a sump for
both surface- and ground-water discharge. Two
flowing wells were drilled in  the playa area by
Stott (1952), well 5N1 (45 m deep), and well
18R1 (90 m deep) (Newton and Baggs, 1971). The
regular flow of the former well has created a small
marshy  environment. The  natural surface- and
ground-water discharges lead to the formation of a
shallow ephemeral lake. Standing water is occasion-
ally within 100 m of the site. As  mentioned above,
the water  table at the site is usually 1 to 3 m below
the ground surface. As is typical for closed basins,
net evapotranspiration exceeds net precipitation in
the playa area. Ground water flowing into the
playa is fresh (total dissolved solids (TDS) = 200 to
500 mg/1; specific conductance = 100 to 250
ymhos/cm; and pH = 7.5 to 8.5), but ground water
within 6 to 12 m of the playa surface is saline and
strongly alkaline (up to 55,000 mg/1 TDS; specific
conductance =» 25,000 jjmhos/cm; pH => 10). The
ground water passing beneath the site is typically
characterized by: TDS =» 10,000 mg/1, specific
conductance = 4,000 to  12,000 pmhos/cm, and
pH " 10.0. The high salinities and alkalinities are
due to the accumulation of both properties over
the history of the closed drainage basin.
     Ground-water flow in the site area is driven
by: (1) springs which create a mound east of the
site; and (2) the sump effect of "West Alkali
Lake," a topographic low on the playa where the
presence of surface water and/or the close
proximity of ground water to the surface causes
large evapotranspiration (specific conductance =»
40,000 ymhos/cm), and correspondingly low water
table levels. Slug tests in the  vicinity of the site
have given hydraulic conductivities in the range of
0.01-0.10 cm/s (Johnson and  Pankow, 1984).
Pumping tracer tests have indicated that the
porosity available for flow is 1 to 5% (Johnson
et al., 1984b). A topographically-low finger,
partially-filled with either eolian  or lacustrine
deposits, extends southeast from West Alkali Lake
directly to the site (Figure 2). This geological
                                                                                                595

-------
feature appears to provide a conduit for ground-
water flow between the springs and West Alkali
Lake.
     The geology of the Alkali Lake area is dis-
cussed by Mundorff (1947) and Newton and Baggs
(1971). Pleistocene and Recent deposition include
alluvium, lake sediments, eolian deposits, and cap-
ping flows of basalt (Newton and Baggs, 1971).
The playa region is believed to be a deflation area
(Mundorff, 1947). The important geologic units
include Recent and Pleistocene eolian and  lacus-
trine beds of gravel, sand, silt, and some clay-sized
particles. [Grain-size determinations carried out in
this study (see below) indicate predominantly silt-
sized materials in the site area.)  Near the site,
the beds are believed to be in excess of 30  m thick
(Newton and Baggs, 1971). Underlying these
surface beds are 30 to 100 m of Pliocene-Pleisto-
cene pyroclastics, basalt, andesite, and some inter-
bedded lake sediments. These materials are in turn
underlain by more than 100 m of Pliocene lavas
and lacustrine beds, then more than 100 m of
Miocene-Pliocene andesite and basalt flows.
     Contemporary surficial influence is predomi-
nantly eolian with  eolian deposits observable
throughout the area. Many of the topographic
highs suggest eolian control. Eolian deposits on the
playa west of the site contain grain sizes from silt
to medium-grained sand. The grains are subangular
to well-rounded, and consist of quartz and volcanic
fragments. The fragments include basalt, andesite,
and well-indurated tuff. The area surrounding the
playa is characterized by the presence of many
vegetation-stabilized dunes.

       PHYSIOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE
     The topography in the direct vicinity of the
site is indicated in Figure 2. The climate is typical
of a high altitude western North American desert.
Meteorological  measurements have been made ai a
highway  maintenance station 4.8 km from the site
since 1961 (NOAA, 1984). During 1972 to 1981,
the annual precipitation averaged 17.5 cm.
Summer  temperature highs reach 38°C and winter
lows are often less than -23°C. The soil freezes to
a depth of 7 to 15  cm.  The average annual temper-
ature is 8.5°C. Due to rapid radiant night-time heat
loss in clear weather, diurnal temperature ranges
can reach 28"C. Due to this variation, a 10 to 30%
relative humidity at mid-day can reach  100% at
night, and frost can occur in mid-summer.  As
mentioned above, evapotranspiration in the playa
area substantially exceeds precipitation. As in
other closed basins, the water deficit is made up
z
o
    o  30  eo  »o  no 190 teo no no  iro 300 330 3to
                  DAY  OF THE YEAR

Fig. 3. Individual precipitation event values plotted vs. day
of the year together with monthly averages. [Based on
1972 to 1981 data, NOAA (1984).)
by ground water flowing towards the playa.
     The period of lowest precipitation occurs
during November to February (Figure 3). This
contrasts with the nearby Lake Abert area where
the precipitation rate is relatively constant except
for a dry period in July to September (Van
Dcnburgh, 1975). The precipitation-weighted
frequency plot (Figure 4) indicates that >80% of
the precipitation falls in events of <1.5 cm. Never-
theless, significant runoff events occur due to
episodes involving > 1.5 cm of rain. In the contami-
nant plume area, the primary plant is greasewood
                 PRECIPITATION  (CM)

Fig. 4. (Precipitation x frequency) vs. precipitation (cm)
histogram and average cumulative annual precipitation vs.
precipitation (cm) curve. (Based on 1972 10 1981 dati,
NOAA (1984).)
596

-------
(Sarcobatvs vermiculatvs), and it covers approxi-
mately -12% of the playa surface. In the less
alkaline upland areas surrounding the playa, it
covers approximate))' 48% of the land surface.

         PRIOR STUDIES AT THE SITE
     In  1976. two 4 m long. 7.5 cm I.D. PVC
piezometer/sample tubes were installed (by hand-
augering) and sampled by ODEQ (1977a). The
open-bottom rubes were randomly  slotted below
1 m. They were  designated "Wells 1 and 2"
(Figure  5). In an effort to find and  keep pace with
: he location of the leading edge of the shallow
ground-wa;: r contaminant plume, Wells 3 to 21
(construct : and installed as above) were added to
the sampling network by ODEQ between 1977 and
1981  (1977a, 1977b,  1978, 1979. 1981, 1982).
Both  total phenols and 2,4-D concentrations were
determined. These data indicated that the plume
was moving west-northwest and towards West
Alkali Lake (ODEQ, 1979) as predicted by EPA
11976).
     The site is of interest for further study  since:
(1) the contaminant plume is moving at a measure-
able rate; (2) similar chemicals with a range of
molecular weights are present; (3) the modeling
and the  comparison of model results with the
moving  plume are possible for the range of similar
compounds; (4) the zone of contamination is
shallow  and accessible by hand-augcring; (5) access
to the site and the surrounding lands is facilitated
due to the low level of economic development in
the area; and (6) the plume constituents are  well
above modern analytical detection limits.

    AQUIFER  CHARACTERIZATION AND
           GROUND-WATER FLOW
Aquifer Properties
     Representative core samples of soil materials
were taken downgradienr (west) of the site in the
saturated zone. The samples contained intact
angular  blocks which measured 1 to 2 cm across
and which appeared relatively undisturbed by
sampling. The blocks were weighed and their
volumes determined by immersion in water.  They
were rcwcighed to verify that no water had been
adsorbed, then dried to a constant weight at 50°C.
'I he contribution to the dry weight from the
dissolved solids was subtracted from the dry
weight. The bulk mass density was calculated as
the corrected-dry mass to volume ratio. The
porosity was calculated as the weight loss to
volume  ratio. Additional samples for mineralogies]
examination and grain-size analyses were taken in
Fig. 5. Map showing the location of Wells 1 to 49 used for
water sampling and water table measurement!.

the area of Well 34 (Figure 5) at depths of 1.2 and
2.4 m. They were extracted with 4:1  methanol:
water to remove contaminants. Mineral content
was determined by X-ray analysis and by examina-
tion with a petrographic microscope. Grain-size
analyses were carried out by sieving with number
40, 50,  100, and 200 standard U.S. screens.  The
sample fractions which  passed through the 200
screen were further analyzed for size  distribution
using a hydrometer. The liquid limit, the plastic
limit, and the plasticity index or "Attcrburg
Number" (liquid limit minus plastic limit) values
were determined for the sample fractions  which
passed the number 40 screen.

Piezometer/Sample Wells
     Between October-1981 and the present, 28
piezometer/sample wells were added by the
authors to the sampling network of 21 such  wells
already  installed at the site by ODEQ (1977 to
1982). The new devices were also  4 m long,  7.5 cm
I.D., open-bottomed, and were  constructed  from
the same type of PVC tubing used in  the installa-
tion of the previous 21 wells. No contamination
problems with PVC casings are expected at this site
since PVC contains no chlorophenolic material.
Each tube was slotted so as to be 9%  open below
the water table. They were designated "Wells 22 to
49," and were installed  at the site by hand-augering
a 9 cm diameter hole and dropping in the  cube. No
caving problems were experienced during  augcring.
No backfilling of the augered hole was necessary.
As with Wells 1 to 21, each PVC tube was fitted
with a removable PVC cap. All of the sample wells
were surveyed with respect to the top of the Well 2
casing which was assigned an  arbitrary height of
1,000 cm. No sinking of the tubes into the ground
after installation has been observed.
                                                                                              597

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Specific Conductance Measurements
     Specific conductance measurements were
made using a Model 33  YSI (YSI, Inc.. Yellow
Springs, OH) portable conductivity meter. During
field monitoring, the calibration and linearity of
the meter were checked twice daily with standards
ranging from 600 to 50,000 «imhos. Single-point
calibration corrections were made several times
daily. At the beginning of the field monitoring
program, several standing columns of water were
bailed from  the PVC wells prior to sampling. How-
ever, this practice was discontinued later in the
study since the high hydraulic conductivity in the
area of the site causes a flushing of the water over
the slotted interval. Measurements were made in
the PVC wells by lowering the probe down to one
meter below the water  surface, and waiting one
minute for the signal to stabilize. In order to
obtain more spatial resolution than would be
provided by the PVC wells, additional points were
sampled using 1.8 to 2.5 m long, 0.64 cm O.D.,
0.46 cm I.D. type 316 stainless steel (SS) tubes
(unslotted, open-bottomed). After placing a 0.45
cm O.D. rod inside each of the tubes, they were
pushed 1.5  to 2.3 m into the ground by hand. The
inner rod was then retracted leaving a clear
sampling tube. A hand  vacuum/pressure pump
(Nalge, Inc., Rochester, NY) was attached to the
steel tube via FEP Teflon tubing, and 100 ml were
withdrawn  and placed in a 125 ml vial. The con-
ductivity was measured after allowing the
electrodes to equilibrate for one minute.

                   RESULTS
Bulk  Mass Density, Porosity, Grain-Size, and
Mineralogical Determinations
     Bulk mass density and porosity values found
for several samples obtained near Well 25 ranged
between 0.85 to 0.95 and 0.60 to 0.70. respective-
ly. The two soil samples subjected to grain-size
distribution analysis were similar (Figure 6). In
both  cases, 90% of the material possessed diame-
ters greater  than 0.006 mm. Very  little material
was found in the operationally-defined "clay" size
range. Examinations with a petrographic micro-
scope revealed that both samples consisted largely
of fine glass (volcanic ash) only partly devitrified,
often entirely vitreous. The index of refraction of
n = 1.51 indicated a silica content near 68% and a
rhyolitic or rhyodacitic composition. An occasion-
al fragment  of pumice was observed. In addition.
the samples contained  fine particles of caicirc and
small amounts of plagioclase feldspar, quartz,
basaltic glass, ortho and clinopyroxenc, and diatom
    § f |  s
    "
|S2!S » S  £
    GK1IN SIZE <»)
Fig. 6. Percent of soil material below a given grain tize vs.
grain size for two samples taken near Well 34.
 tests. While the sample obtained at 2.4 m was
 found to contain a small quantity of clinoptilolite
 (a zeolite), almost no clay minerals were found.
 This observation is consistent with the nature of
 the size distributions. Atterburg rests applied to
 the material passing the number 40 screen gave
 liquid limits, plastic limits, and Atterburg Number;,
 of 70%, 48%, and 22 and 73%, 58%. and 15 for the
 samples obtained at 1.2 and 2.4 m, respectively.
 These results are also consistent with the detection
 of little clay mineral material, though: (1) visual
 inspection of materials obtained in the augering of
 some sample wells has suggested the presence of
 some clays in portions of the aquifer; and (2) Jones
 and Weir. (1983) have found authigenic clay
 materials in nearby Lake Abert.

 Ground-Water Flow System
     The locations of the PVC wells are shown in
 Figure 5. The water table maps  (Figure 7) were
 drawn using data from that well series. Since some
 of the wells were installed at separate times, each
 of the maps shows the location of the sampling
 points which provided the database for that map.
 Figure 8 presents water level data as a function of
 time. All data have been plotted relative to a
 datum level of 1,000 cm as the height of the casing
 on Well 2. The general direction of ground-water
 flow is westward. As mentioned earlier, this direc-
 tion results from the relative locations of the
 springs, West Alkali Lake, and the ground-water
 conduit provided by the partially-filled
 topographic low.
     For the annual cycles presented in Figures 7
 and 8, the highest and lowest water table levels in
 the area of the site occur in March to April and in
 September to November,  respectively. The large
 evapotranspiration losses which  occur in the basin
 598

-------
                  22 Nov. I9BI
                                                                      26 F«t>. 1982
                 14 Stpt. 1982
                                                                      26 Moy 1982
 fit. 7. Water table mips in centimeters obtained during November 1981, «nd February, May, and September 1982. The
 points at which data were taken for the preparation of the maps are shown in each of the figures. All data are relative to the
 datum: top of Well 2 casing - 1,000 cm.
 in the summer months (maximal losses at nearby
 Lake Abert occur in July to August (Van Denburgh,
 1975)] are no doubt largely responsible for this
 cycle. Since the average annual precipitation in
 the basin is only 17.5 cm, other than promoting
 evaporation, the decrease in precipitation during
                                            the summer months probably plays a minimal role.
                                            If summertime losses at West Alkali Lake were
                                            substantially greater than at other areas near the
                                            site, the hydraulic gradient across the site would be
                                            expected to maximize during the summer. This
                                            does not occur. Rather, as Figure 9 shows, it tends
    9OO
 UJ
 tr
 Ul
    80O
    700
77   78   79   80   81   82   83   84
               YEAR
Fig. 8. Water level at Wells 2 and 8 ai a function of time
over the period 1977 to 1984.
                                                         O.002
                                            UJ
                                            o
                                            tr

                                            u o.ooi
                                                      O
                                                      >-
                                                      I
                                                                77   78   79
                                                                               BO   81
                                                                               YEAR
                                                                                         82   83   84
                                            Fig. 9. Hydraulic gradient between Welli 2 and 8 at a
                                            function of time over the period 1977 to 1984.
                                                                                                   599

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Fig. 10. Specific conductance isopleths (April 1983),
pmhoi/cm x 10"'.
to maximize during February to June and has its
lowest values during September to November. This
may be because of large summertime evapotrans-
piration losses from the playa area east of the site.
While the ground-water mound caused by the
springs to the east of the site remains in place
throughout the year, such losses could cause
sufficient decay of the  mound to allow a  decrease
in the east to west gradient. The seasonal variation
in the water table would then be due to the inter-
play between the evaporranspiration losses in the
various areas. Variable spring output could also
explain the observed temporal behavior of the
gradient and the water  table, though such cycling is
not common in springs discharging from volcanic
rock aquifers (Todd, 1980). The causes of the
seasonal variation in the hydraulic gradient
continue to be investigated by the authors.
     The average value  of the annual fluctuation in
the water table height at Well 2 was 0.6 m (Figure
8). The actual average fluctuation must be greater
because discrete  and not continuous data were
obtained. This fluctuation, however, does not
provide an estimate of the evapotranspiration
losses from the playa area since a substantial
amount of the fluctuation is no doubt due to the
growth and subsidence  of the ground-water mound
near the site. The depth to ground water at Well 2
ranged between 0.9 m (April 1982) and 2.2 m
(October 1977).  With the bottoms of the trenches
in which the chemicals  were buried between 0.60
and 0.75 m below the level of the ground surface
(ODEQ, 197/a), the bottom portions of the
trenches may, at least occasionally, be in  direct
contact with the ground water. Since historical
data for nearby Lake Abert  indicate a water level
fluctuation of more than 5 m in the period since
the early 1930s (Phillips and Van Dcnburgh, 1971),

600
(here is a possibility that the wastes will be hydrau-
lically lifted out of the trenches and onto the playa
some time in the future. Given the freshness of the
springs to the east of the site and the high salinity
of the near-surface playa ground water, the specific
conductance contours obtained near the  site
(Figure 10) confirm that the springs arc important
in determining the rate and direction of ground-
water movement. Since the seasonal water table
maps do not show major changes in the direction
of ground-water flow, it is likely that the conduc-
tivity contours arc similar throughout the year.
The fact that the low conductivity water flows
directly along the major axis of the site has proven
convenient in plume modeling work to be
described elsewhere.

       SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
    The fact that the playa surface was initially
selected for chemical storage was due to the
purchasability of the mining patent whose bound-
aries closely followed the playa boundaries. The
subsequent disposal of the waste in trenches at the
same site is unfortunate because: (1) the  water
table is close to the ground surface; and (2) there
is a strong local ground-water flow. The direction
of ground-water movement is westward throughout
the year.  The conductivity contours confirm the
directional nature of the flow as well as the
importance of the springs cast of the site as a
source of a local ground-water mound. With
hydraulic gradients across the site, hydraulic
conductivities, and porosities of the order of
2.0 X 10'4 to 1.2X 10'VO.Ol toO.lOcm/s, and
0.65, respectively, local ground-water velocities of-
0.3 to  16.0 cm/day would be inferred if the total
porosity was available for flow. Since Johnson
et al. (1984b) have shown that the porosity
available for flow at this site  is only 0.01  to 0.05,
the actual ground-water velocities are much higher,
i.e. in  the range of 3.9 to 1,040. cm/day. The
manner in which this ground-water flow has
influenced the shape of the compound-dependent •
contaminant plume downgradient of the  site is the
subject of the second paper in this series (Johnson
etal.,  1984a).

            ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
    We express our appreciation to John A.
Cherry for many helpful discussions. We also
appreciate the permission to work at the  Alkali
Lake Chemical Disposal Site granted to us by the
Oregon Department of Environmental Quality.
This work was financed in part with Federal funds

-------
from the United States Environmental Protection
Agency (U.S. EPA) under Grant Number 808272.
The contents do not necessarily reflect the views
and policies of the U.S. EPA nor does mention of
trade names or commercial products constitute
indorsement  or recommendation for use.


                   REFERENCES
Donath; F. A. 1958. Basin-Range Structure of South
     Central Oregon. Ph.D. Thesis, Stanford  University.
Environmental Protection Agency, U.S.. Region X. Seattle,
     Washington. 1976. Repon of the Alkali Lake Task
     Force. 14 pp.
Environmental Protection Agency, U.S.. Environmental
     Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Las Vegas, Nevada.
     1983. Topographic Map of Alkali Lake, Oregon.
     Project No. AMD 83060 JO 44.10.
Fenneman, N. M. 1931. Physiography of the Western
     United States. McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y. 534 pp.
Goulding. R. L. 1973. The Alkali Lake Project: Soil
     Biodcgradation of Pesticide Manufacturing Work,
     Lake County, Oregon. Repon. Environmental Health
     Sciences Center, Oregon State  University, CorvaUis.
     Oregon 97331.
J'-hnson, R. L. and J. F. Pankow. 1984. Unpublished work.
     Oregon Graduate Center, Beavenon, Oregon 97006.
Johnson, R. I_, S. M. Brillamc, J. F.  Pankow, J. E. Houck,
     and L. M. Isabellc. 1984a. Migration of chloro-
     phcnolic compounds at the chemical waste
     disposal site at Alkali Lake, Oregon. 2. Contaminant
     distributions. In press. Ground Water.
Johnson, R. L., R. T. DeCesar. J. F. Pankow, and J. A.
     Cherry. 1984b. Push-pull tests  in the characteriration
     of ground water flow in fractured media. In
     preparation.
Jones, B. F. and A. H. Weir. 1983. Clay minerals of Lake
     Aben, »n alkaline, saline lake.  Clays and day
     Minerals, v. 31, pp. 161-172.
Mundorff. N. L. 1947. The Geology of Alkali Lake Basin,
     Oregon. Master's Thesis, Oregon State University.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1984.
     Climatological Data, Oregon, May 1961-Prcsem.
     Environmental Data Service, Ashvillc. Maryland.
Newton. V. C, Jr.. and D. Bagps. 1971. Geologic Evalua-
     tion of the Alkali Lake Disposal Site. State of Oregon
     Depanment of Geology and Mineral Industries, Open
     File Repon. July 1.
Oregon Depanment of Environmental Quality. 1977a.
     Alkali Lake Disposal Project Monitoring Repon
     No. I.June 14.1977.8pp.
Oregon Depanment of Environmental Quality. 1977b.
     Alkali Lake Disposal Project Monitoring Repon
     No. 2. November 17, 1977. 5 pp.
Oregon Depanment of Environmental Quality. 1978. Alkali
     Lake Disposal Project Monitoring Repon No. 3.
     December 22.1978. 8 pp.
Oregon Depanment of Environmental Quality. 1979. Alkali
     Lake Disposal Project Monitoring Repon No. 4.
     October 1. 1979. 6 pp.
Oregon Depanmem of Environmental Quality. 1981. Alkali
     Lake Disposal Project Monitoring Repon No. 5.
     January 5. 1981. 7 pp.
Oregon Dcpanmem of Environmental Quality. 1982. Alkali
      Lake Disposal Project Monitoring Repon No. 6.
      February 12.1982.9pp.
Pankow, J. F., L. M. Isabelle. and D. F.  Barofsky. 1981.
      The identification of chlorophenoxyphenols in soil
      and  water samples by solvent extraction and field
      desorption mass spectromctry. Anal. Chim. Acta.
      v. 124, pp. 357-364.
Phillips, K. N. and A. S. Van Denburgh. 1971. Hydrology
      and  Geochemistry of Aben, Summer, and Goose
      Lakes, and Other Closed-Basin Lakes in South-Central
      Oregon. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper
      502-B.  U.S.Govt. Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
      91pp.
Stem. W. J. 1952. Investigation of Saline Deposits in
      Southern Oregon. Bonneville Power Administration
      Study Contract No. IBP-7748 to University of
      Portland. 60 pp.
Todd, D. K. 1980. Groundwater Hydrology. Second
      Edition. Wiley and Sons, N.Y. 535 pp.
Van Denburgh, A. S. 1975. Solute Balance at Abert and
      Summer Lakes, South-Central Oregon. U.S.
      Geological Survey Professional Paper 502-C. U.S.
      Govt. Printing Office, Washington. D.C. 22 pp.
Walker, G. W. and C. A. Repenning. 1965. Geological Map
      of the Adel Quadrangle. U.S. Geological Survey Map
      1-446. U.S. Govt. Printing Office, Washington. D.C.
     James F. Pankow is an Associate Professor in the
Department of Chemical, Biological, and Environmental
Sciences at the Oregon Graduate Center in Beavenon,
Oregon. In 1973 be received bis B^. degree in Chemistry
from the State University of New York at Bingbamton.  He
received a Ph.D. in 1979 in Environmental Chemistry from
the Department of Environmental Engineering Science at
the California Institute of Technology. His research
interests include the transport, fate, and analysis of organic
chemicals in the environment.
     Richard L. Johnson is a Graduate Student Research
Assistant in the Department of Chemical, Biological, and
Environmental Sciences at the Oregon Graduate Center  in
Beavenon. Oregon. In 1973 be received bis B.J. degree in
Chemistry from the University of Washington. His research
interests include the transport, fate, and modeling of
contaminants in ground water.
     James E. Houck is a Senior Scientist at NEA. Inc., in
Portland. Oregon. In 197J be received bis BS. in Chemistry
from the  University of Arizona. He received bis Ph.D. in
Chemical Oceanography from the University of Hawaii in
1978. His research interests include the analysis, monitor-
ing, and modeling of contaminants in the air and water
environments.
     Susan M. Brillante is a graduate student research
assistant in the Department of Chemical, Biological, and
Environmental Sciences at the Oregon Graduate Center  in
Beavenon. Oregon. She received her Bj\. in Chemistry
from Loretto Heights College in Denver,  Colorado, in 1966.
Her research interests include analytical organic chemistry
and the fate and modeling of contaminants in air and water
systems.
     W. Jerry Bryan is a field technician for NEA, Inc.,
and the Oregon Graduate Center. He received bis B.S. in
Geology from Southern Oregon State College in 1982.
                                                 601

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               Migration  of Chlorophenolic Compounds
               at  the  Chemical  Waste  Disposal  Site
               at  Alkali  Lake,   Oregon  —  2. Contaminant
               Distributions,  Transport,  and  Retardation

               by Richard  L.Johnson', Susan M. Brillante1, Lome M. Isabelle*,
                  James E. Houckb. and James F. Pankow4
                               ABSTRACT
                   The behaviors of five chlorophenols and three chloro-
               phcnoxyphenois (CPPs) hive been investigated at the
               chemical waste disposal site at Alkali Lake, Oregon. All of
               the compounds demonstrated similar trends in areal distri-
               bution hydraulically downgradicnt from the site. The
               transport distances for the di- and trichlorophenols were
               influenced greatly by their ionization in the high pH (~10)
               ground water. In batch equilibrium experiments, these
               compounds were found to have Kp values of ~0.0 for the
               soil and ground water taken from the site. While also large-
               ly ionized at pH =• 10, a tetrachlorophenol, pcntachlorophe-
               nol, and the CPPs demonstrated substantial sorption in the
               batch equilibrium experiments as well as retardation
               relative to the di- and trichlorophenob at the site. The
               retardations observed relative to 2.6-dichlorophcnol were
               less than predicted based on the batch equilibrium results.
               Possible reasons include cosolvent effects due to the plume
               itself, nonuniform contaminant distributions at the time of
               the original burial, the fractures which arc present in the
               aquifer, and a decreasing ground-water velocity with
               distance westward of the site. Evidence is presented to
               support the last reason. These results show, for the first
               time, well-behaved concentration contours embodying
               compound-dependent retardation in the transport of
               sorbing and nonsorbing organic compounds from an
               existing waste disposal site.
                    'Department of Chemical, Biological, and Environ-
               mental Sciences, Oregon Graduate Center, 19600 N.W. Von
               Neumann Dr., Bcavcrton, Oregon 97006.
                    bNEA, Inc.. 10950 S.W. 5th St.. Stc. 380, Bcaverton,
               Oregon 97005.
                    Received December 1983, revised November 1984,
               accepted January 1985.
                    Discussion open until March 1, 1986.

               652
                INTRODUCTION
      The widespread contamination of ground
 water by organic compounds requires that the
 processes which control their transport in ground-
 water systems be understood. Sorption has been
 recognized as playing a fundamental role in retard-
 ing the movement of organic compounds (Freeze
 and Cherry, 1979; Roberts etal., 1982). When
 studying the retardation of compounds in contami-
 nated ground-water systems, one must also
 consider the possibility of confounding effects due
 to: (1) the presence of large concentrations of
 contamination-related organic compounds which
 may lead to decreased retardation through cosolva-
 tion; (2) spatially nonuniform and compound-
 dependent contamination; (3) time-dependent
 source strength(s); (4) the presence of fractures in
 the geological  medium comprising the zone of con-
 tamination; and/or (S) changes in the ground-water
 velocity or irregularities in the hydraulic conduc-
 tivity (Kh) with distance downgradicnt of the
 source. All of these processes and conditions must
 be considered  in the study of migration of contam-
 inants at the Alkali Lake, Oregon chemical waste
 disposal site (Pankow et al., 1984).
      The equilibrium partition coefficient
  [Kp, g sorbed  solutc/g soil (dry-weight basis)] of a
 compound is commonly determined by means of
 batch equilibrium experiments. Both the role of
 concentration in sorption (O'Connor et al., 1980;
 Karickhoff, 1981. 1983. 1984; Schwarzenbach and
 Wcstall, 1981;Chiou«fl/., 1983)and the kinetics
 of the sorption process (Karickhoff, 1983) may be
 studied by this technique. The value of Kp depends

Vol. 23, No. 5-GROUND WATER-September-October 1985
Reprinted by permission of the Ground Water Publishing Company.   Copyright 1985.
All rights reserved.

-------
upon the nature of the soil, the solute, and to a
lesser extent the nature of the aqueous phase. The
soil organic carbon (SOC) content of the soil is
generally the most important factor influencing
sorption. It is usually denoted foc where
               = g °f SOC/g of soil
(1)
     When the SOC content is on the order of
0.1% or greater (foc > 0.001), it has been possible,
especially for nonionizing compounds, to predict
the degree of sorption of a given solute for a
variety of soils based on the foc of the soils. Under
such conditions, Kp may be estimated as
                    K= Y   f                  O\
                  p   *^oc *oc                \~/
where Koc (g sorbed solute/g organic carbon) is the
organic carbon distribution coefficient (Karickhoff,
1981). If a compound can ionize by protonation or
deprotonation, the literature Koc .value for that
compound is usually reported for the neutral form
of the compound. For a compound that can become
negatively charged (e.g., a phenol), the negative
form will generally not sorb to the neutral to
negatively-charged soil organic matter as well as
will the neutral form. In such a case, pH-dcpendenr
ionization can lead to a much reduced Kp value.
     In practice, most modeling of the transport of
sorbing organics has employed the Freundlich
isotherm S = KpCn where S = (g sorbed solute)/
(g soil); C =  (g dissolved solute)/(cm3 pore water);
and n is a constant usually less than  1.0. Linearity
of the isotherm is often assumed (n = 1).
     For flow through homogeneous porous media
with linear sorption, the degree of retardation
relative to the ground-water velocity is given by
               R = 1 + (Kppb/fl)
(3)
where R = retardation factor (dimensionless)-,
Pb = soil bulk density (g/cm3); and 6 is the soil
porosity. For a nonsorbed compound, Kp = 0, and
the migration velocity equals the actual physical
ground-water velocity. For a sorbed compound,
the migration velocity will be less (by a factor of
R) than the physical ground-water velocity. R will
be given correctly by equation (3) only when the
assumptions of equilibrium and linear sorption are
satisfied. When a relative retardation factor Rr is
computed as the migration velocity of a sorbed
compound relative to that for a nonsorbed com-
pound,  under these conditions, R, will equal R as
given by equation (3).
     When fractures are present in the medium of
interest, solutes will diffuse into zones of the
aquifer  matrix where the water is  immobile and
there is no advective flow. This process has been
much discussed recently as a mechanism for
retardation. These zones can be either porous
media between fractures (Freeze and  Cherry, 1979;
Grisak  and Pickens, 1980,1981; Sudicky and
Frind,  1982), or simply small volumes of aquifer of
low hydraulic conductivity (van Genuchtcn, 1974).
In such systems, even compounds with Kp values
of 0 will move more slowly than the physical
velocity of the ground water in the mobile regions
since even nonsorbed compounds will diffuse into
the immobile regions. A principal difference
between the effect of "matrix" diffusion and that
of sorption is that the former is less compound-
specific. That is, while the matrix diffusion coeffi-
cients for different species in a given matrix
material can vary over a single order of magnitude,
Kp values  can vary over many orders of magnitude.
     The mechanism of retardation in a mobile/
immobile system rests in the fact that all com-
pounds spend a fraction of their time in the
immobile zone. If the mobile water moves suffi-
ciently slowly that sorption and physical partition-
ing equilibrium is reached rapidly between the
mobile and immobile water,  then the retardation
relative to the physical velocity of the mobile
•water will be given by (Johnson, 1984)
              R = (1 + Kppb/9)U + fiin,B/flmfb)
                                            (4)
where 6 is the overall porosity of the system,
6m( is the porosity of the region in which the
mobile water is flowing, 6jm is the porosity of the
immobile region, B is the average immobile region
halfwidth, and b is the average mobile region half-
width. As noted above, even when Kp is zero, R is
greater than 1.0. In fact, although Kp for water
itself is 0.0, the velocity of tagged (e.g., tritiated)
water relative to the mobile-water velocity also
would be retarded relative to the physical velocity
of the mobile water.  This is the definition of
retardation that is usually implicit in discussions of
mobile/immobile-water systems (Feenstra et al.,
1984). Unlike the porous medium case then, in
mobile/immobile systems, the actual time-averaged
velocity of a specific water molecule is less than
the physical velocity of water in the mobile
regions.
     Since  the migration velocity  of a nonsorbed
compound  in a mobile/immobile system is an
obvious reference for considering  the behavior of
other compounds, it  is often of interest to com-
pute the retardation of a sorbed compound relative
to that of a nonsorbcd compound. When equilib-
rium is established quickly between  the mobile and
                                                                                               653

-------
immobile water, that R, value will be given by
equation (3); the factor involving the specific
mobile and immobile parameters in equation (4)
cancels out. In this case, the system acts like one
in which ground water is moving at the velocity it
would have if all of the porosity was open and
available for flow. This is the equivalent porous
medium (EPM) case.
     If mass transport limitations prevent the rapid
establishment of an equilibrium  partitioning (both
physical and sorptive) between the mobile and the
immobile regions, then: (1) the velocity of both
nonsorbed and sorbed compounds will be closer to
the velocity of the mobile water; and (2)  since the
velocity of a sorbed compound will be closer to
that for a nonsorbed compound, the Rr as com-
puted by the ratio of the former to the latter will
be less than R as given by equation  (3). (This mass
transport kinetics effect is phenomcnologicalJy
distinct from slow sorption/dcsorption chemical
kinetics.)
     The Rr concept is useful in the study of field
data. When carrying out controlled laboratory
tracer experiments in simulated  soil media, well-
defined physical boundaries and tracer source
functions are employed, and retardation factors are
conceptually well-defined. At a contaminated field
site, however, such well-defined  features are
usually absent. As a result,  it may well become
necessary to measure: (1) the transport distances
of the breakthrough fronts of various contaminants
relative to some hopefully uniformly meaningful
physical boundary; and (2) the retardation of
various contaminants, relative to the front of one
of the contaminants which hopefully may be
assumed to be nonsorbing and conservative. The
meaningfulness of an  Rr factor produced  by this
mechanism will suffer from inaccuracies if:
(1) the various contaminants of  interest moved
relative to one another before their arrival at the
selected transport reference boundary; (2) the
various contaminants were  deposited in the source
area at different times and/or in different, non-
uniform distributions; (3) the subjective assign-
ment of the location of the various breakthrough
fronts cannot be done in a meaningful manner;
(4) a spatial variability of the ground-water
velocity is (has been) present; and/or (5) relatively
large amounts of dissolved organic compounds
which affect sorption are (have been) present in
the ground water.
     Depending upon their exact nature,  the first
four conditions could lead to either a decrease or
increase in the R, values. As an example of the
fourth condition, if the ground-water velocity
decreases away from the source, the relatively fast-
moving nonsorbing compounds will experience the
decreasing velocity first while the more retarded
compounds will remain longer in the region of
higher velocity: the Rr values will be reduced. The
fifth condition will generally lead to a reduction in
the measured Rr values due to either: (a) an
increased water solubility of the sorbing com-
pounds; and/or (b) an overloading of the sorbing
SOC. For mobilc/immobile-water systems which
are complicated by any of the above five condi-
tions, if Rr values less than those predicted by
equation (3) are observed, it may be difficult to
ascertain the extent to which disequilibrium
between the two types of regions is responsible.
     To date there have been very few field-scale
studies of the transport and retardation of organic
compounds in undisturbed ground-water systems.
The water-table aquifer system at the chemical
disposal site at Alkali Lake, Oregon (Pankow et al.,
1984) provides a good  opportunity to study some
of the factors controlling these phenomena.
Chlorophenolic organic compounds with Kp
values ranging from —0.0 to greater than 50 arc
present in the waste materials. Some compounds
have migrated over 600 m in 8 years. Field
examination of the aquifer materials has indicated
the presence of a large  number of fractures (and/or
bedding plane openings) spaced from mm to cm
apart 0°hnson, 1984). We believe that this system
comprises a well-defined mobile/immobile-water
system.
     In this paper, the  Rr values of the sorbing
compounds calculated  relative to a nonsorbing
compound have been compared to Rr values calcu-
lated using equation (3) together with Kp results
from batch equilibrium experiments. The differ-
ences between the retardation factors obtained by
these two methods are discussed with regard to
various physical and chemical processes. The role
of ground-water movement through regions of
higher mobility at this site is examined.

    CHEMICAL WASTES AT ALKALI LAKE
     During the period  1960 to 1970, considerable
quantities of the herbicide 2,4-D (2,4-dichloro-
phcnoxyacetic acid) were manufactured for use as
a defoliant in Vietnam (Young et al., 1978). Large
amounts of 2,4-D by-product wastes were disposed
of at Alkali Lake (Pankow et al., 1984). The 2,4-D
was produced by the etherification of 2,4-dichloro-
phenol (2,4-DCP) and chloroacetic acid. Much  of
the 2,4-DCP  used in this process was manufactured
654

-------
••• •  ajc - Q  •  «(-Q).
Fig. 1. Productt and win* by-producti in the lyntheiit of
2,4-D (where n end p • 1 to 5, m » 1 to 4, end x > 1).
by the direct C13 chlorination of phenol (Figure 1).
This step led to the production of a majority of the
unwanted by-products. These included 2,6-di-
chlorophcnol (2,6-DCP); 2,4,6-trichlorophenol
(2,4,6-TCP); 2,3,4,6-tetrachlorophenol (TeCP);
pentachlorophcnol (PCP) (Figure 2); and a host of
polymerization products known as the chloro-
phenoxyphenols (CPPs) (Figure 1). The CPPs were
formed by the linear addition of chlorophenol
units. This process led to CPP dimers, trimers,
tetramcrs, pentarners, etc. Since the coupling
process can occur at any one of the chlorine
positions, and since a variety of different chloro-
     2,4 - DCP
 (2,*-dichlorophtnol)
       2,6-DCP
  (2.6-diehloroplnnol)
     2,4,6-TCP
(2.«.$- IricMorophcnol)
        TeCP
(2. 3,4.6-itirechorephtnol)
Fig. 2. Structures of chlorophenols.
phenols were present in the phenol chlorination
process mixture, a wide variety of CPP compounds
were formed.
     After the G, chlorination step, the desired
2,4-dichlorophenol was separated from the by-
products by distillation. The  "still-bottom"
mixture has been found to include oligomers with
up to at least five rings, and a total of from two
to seven chlorine atoms (Pankow el al., 1981). A
large number of structural isomers (compounds
with the same overall formula, but different
specific structures) will occur in the CPP
compound class.
     The various waste compounds display a wide
range of water solubilities. Many of the chloro-
phenols are quite acidic, in pan because of the
presence of chlorine atoms on the phenol ring. The
ground water flowing beneath the disposal site at
Alkali Lake is very alkaline (pH =» 10). As a result,
most of the chlorophenols exist primarily as anions
and are therefore quite soluble.  The CPPs, while
also rather acidic, contain a hydrophobia phenoxy
group substituent. They are therefore less soluble,
and show greater sorption to the soil. This paper
will consider the distributions of eight different
chlorophenolics (five chlorophenols and three
CPPs) at the Alkali Lake site.

                EXPERIMENTAL
Sampling
     Sample bottles (40 or 125  ml capacity) were
washed with warm water and laboratory detergent,
rinsed with deionized water,  dried, and then rinsed
with-methylene chloride. Samples were collected
on April 30 and May 1, 1984 from'1.6 cm O.D.
(0.9  cm I.D.) PVC tubes. Since the PVC tubes were
slotted to three m below the  water table,'samples
obtained with them reflected an approximate con-
centration average over that interval. (Contamina-
tion  is limited primarily to the top three m of the
ground water.)  Samples were collected using a
hand-operated vacuum pump (Nalge,.]nc.,
Rochester, NY). Because the chlorophenolics arc
primarily in an  ionized state  at pH 10, their vapor
pressures were very low, and  it is unlikely that any
losses occurred during the reduced pressure
sampling. Upon return to the laboratory.and .prior
to analysis, the samples were stored at 4°C.

2.4-Dichlorophenol, 2,6-Dichlorophenol, and
2,4,6-Trichlorophenol Determinations
     Sample work-up was carried out using a
special apparatus (Figure 3) by means of the
following steps: (1) 10 ml of sample placed  in
                                                                                               655

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Yj
^
w
Fig. 3. Appiritut lor umple work-up ind pillage through
"Sep-pik" C-18 cartridge.
apparatus; (2) stirrer activated, pH electrode
inserted, and sample acidified to pH 2-3 with
6 N HC1 to protonate all organic acid analytcs;
(3) electrode rinsed with 2 ml of organic-free
water; then'removed; (4) vessel capped; (5) Waters
Assbc. (Milford.MA) C-18 Scp-Pak cartridge
placed on vessel, and vessel pressurized to 10 psi
with nitrogen gas to obtain 5 ml/min flow rate
until the sample was exhausted; (6) Sep-Pak
removed, then aspirated for 30 s to remove residual
water; (7) organic compounds cluted with 2 ml of
methylene chloride, the first drop (residual water)
discarded; (8) volume reduced to 1.0 ml using a
micro Kuderna-Danish/Snydcr column apparatu;
and a 95°C water bath; (9) 5 j*l of an external
standard (ES) solution in methylene chloride
added containing 10 ^g/^1 of meta-chloropheno!,
and 10 ii\ of an ES solution in  methylene chloride
containing 100 ng/*il each of chrysene and fluor-
anthcnc; (10) 50 mg of anhydrous  sodium sulfate
added for desiccation; (11) concentrated extract
transferred  to a preclcaned 3.5 ml amber glass
minivial (Pierce Chemical, Rockford, IL);
(12) sample stored at 4°C; and (1 3) extract
analyzed by gas chromatography (GC). Standard
chemicals were obtained from  Chem Service (West
Chester, PA).
     The use of the term "external standard" (ES)
here is as described by others (Research Triangle
Institute, 1983). An  ES is a standard compound
which is added to the sample extract just prior to
the analytical determination step:  it is "externil"
to the work-up. The  ES allows compensations to
be made for (1) changes in instrument response
between calibrations, and (2) variations in volume
of sample injected into the analytical  instrument.
An "internal standard" (IS) is added to  the sample
prior to the work-up to monitor the efficiency of
the extraction process: it is "internal" to the
work-up.
     The analyses took place without derivitization
using fused silica capillary gas chromatography
(GC) with helium carrier gas on a Hewlett-Packard
(PaJo Alto.CA) 5880A capillary GC equipped with
a flame ionization detector (FID). [Samples were
also run on a Finnigan (Sunnyvale, CA) 4000
GC/mass  spectrometer/data system (GC/MS/DS)
to ensure that no misidentif ications or coelution
problems would go unnoticed.] The column used
was a 30 m, 0.25 mm I.D., 0.25 Aim film thickness
DB-5 (SE-54) fused silica capillary column (J&W
Scientific, Rancho Cordova, CA). The carrier gas
linear velocity used was 20 cm/s (at 175°C). With
the injector at 275°C and the FID at 310°C,
1.0 pi volumes were injected splitless at 45"C. The
GC temperature program used was: hold at 45*C
for two min; program to 175°C at 10°C/min; then
hold at 175°Cfor 5 min.
     A three-point quadratic calibration curve
(based on peak areas) was developed for the
GC/FID analyses for each compound  using the
HP 5880A system software. Samples were run
following calibration. For quality assurance (QA),
the calibration was randomly verified  by running
an intermediate concentration standard. If the
response varied by more than ± 10% from the
known concentration, the calibration  was repeated.
In addition, for every set of ten samples, a
duplicate, a spiked (recovery) sample, and a blank
were also analyzed. The latter was prepared by
processing 10 ml of deionized water through the
concentration procedure.
2,3,4,6-Tetrachlorophenol (TeCP), Pentachloro-
phenol PCP), and Chlorophenoxyphenol (CPP)
Determinations
     The sample extracts described above for the
di- and trichlorophenol determinations were also
analyzed for TeCP, PCP. and for three CPPs
denoted CL2D2, CL3D3. and CL4D2. These are all
656

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 chlorophenoxyphenol dimers, with rwo, three, and
 four chlorines, respectively. Specific structures for
 these compounds could not be obtained because
 reference compounds arc not currently available.
     The compounds fluoranthene and chrysenc,
 added during the sample work-up, served as the ES
 compounds. Analyses were carried out by injection
 of 1.0 vl of the extract using an on-column  injector
 and the same type of column used in the chloro-
 phenol analyses. The column was mounted in an
 HP5790 GC substituted for the Finnigan 9610 GC
 on the Finnigan GC/MS/DS (Pankow and Isabelle,
 1984). The transfer line, source, and MS manifold
 temperatures were maintained  at 225, 225,  and
 100°C, respectively. The helium carrier gas linear
 velocity used was 30 cm/s (at ambient tempera-
 ture). The on-column injections were carried out
 with the oven at 80°C.  The GC temperature
 program used was: immediate temperature
 program at lO'C/min to 320"C, then hold at
 320° C for 4 min. The analytes were detected using
 multiple ion detection (MID, or "selected ion
 monitoring"). The ions monitored for each of the
 compounds were (in their order of GC elution):
'TeCP (131, 232. 234);  PCP (200, 266, 268);
 CL2D2 (184. 252, 254); fluoranthene, ES
 compound (101, 202); CL3D3 (225. 254, 288.
 290); CL4D2 (146, 322, 324); chrysenc. ES
 compound (114, 228); and 5-chloro-2-<2,4-di-
 chlorophcnoxy)-phenol (Irgasan DP300) (146,
 288, 290). For QA, every tenth sample was
 analyzed both in duplicate and spiked with  a'
 recovery standard. TeCP and Irgasan DP300 were
 used as recovery standards. The latter was obtained
 from Ciba-Geigy, Basil, Switzerland.

 Bulk Mass Density and Porosity Determinations
     Core samples of soil material taken down-
 gradient from the site in the saturated zone con-
 tained intact angular blocks which appeared
 relatively undisturbed by sampling. Measuring
 1 -2 cm across, they were representative of the
 aquifer material. To determine density, the  blocks
 were weighed  and their volume determined  by
 immersion in water. They were rewcighed to verify
 that no appreciable amount of water had been
 absorbed, then dried at 50"C to a constant weight.
 The bulk mass density was calculated as the dry
 mass to volume ratio. The porosity was calculated
 as the weight loss to volume ratio.

 Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) Determinations
     The soil was obtained and composited  from
 the depth range of 1-3 m  from a location 10 m east
of Well 2. The well locations are given by Pankow
et al. (1984). Composite samples of 1.0 g were
treated with 5 ml of a 5% stannous chloride,
3 N HCI solution, then heated for 4 hours at 50°C
under vacuum to volatilize  inorganic carbon
(carbonate and bicarbonate) as CO,. Small aliquots
(10 mg) of the dried soil were weighed, then
combusted in an apparatus developed by Johnson
et a!. (1985) based  on previous work by Johnson
(1981). The combustion was  carried out at 600*C
in a 10% 0,-90% He gas mixture. The CO, formed
was catalytically converted to methane, then
measured with an FID. Calibration of the FID
response was carried out using injections of
methane. The stannous  chloride was used in the
carbonate volatilization step to prevent premature
oxidation of the SOC (Allison and Moodie, 1965).

Batch Equilibrium  Experiments
     Batch equilibrium  experiments were carried
out using contaminated water and uncontaminated
soil from the site. The water used was collected at
Well 38. The soil was the same composite for
which the SOC values were obtained. Three sets of
experiments were carried out, each in triplicate. In
the first, 20 ml of Well 38 water (spiked with the
control compound naphthalene at 12 mg/1) and 2 g
of dry soil were mixed in a 35 ml glass vial. In the
second experiment, 2 ml of Well 38 water was
diluted with 18 ml of Well  2 water, spiked with
naphthalene at 12 mg/1, and mixed with 2 g of soil
in a 35 ml vial. The third experiment was identical
to the second, except that each sample  was spiked
with an additional  500 mg/1 of 2,4-DCP. The latter
was done to investigate if the presence of high
concentrations of the chlorophcnol would decrease
sorption of the other compounds. The samples
were equilibrated by cnd-over-end rotation at
20 ± 3"C for 24 hours (30 inversions/min). Each
sample was then centrifugcd for 15 min. An
amount of 12-15 ml of the supernatant was with-
drawn into a 20 ml syringe, then forced through a
glass fiber prcfllter followed by a silver  membrane
filter (Solas Corp'.,  Huntingdon Valley, PA). Ten
ml was then processed as described above for
chlorophcnol determinations.
     The ground water at the site ranges between
7-12*C. This is ~10*C lower  than the temperature
at which the sorption measurements were made.
Because sorption generally  increases with
decreasing temperature  (Karickhoff, 1984), it is
expected that the sorption  of the compounds at
the site will be somewhat greater than predicted
by the sorption measurements.
                                                                                              657

-------
Fig. 4. Distribution of 2,4-dichlorophenol (2,4-DCP). Contour! art givin in uniti of mg/l.
                                                                         vafr*

                                                                         &&&
                                                                         "'•-.--.'.-V-'J
                                                                         %$$™
                                                                         -£r\Z:4.'-~'.,
                                                                         'Of*'•':..•*
                                                                         'Xf-'ty:-

                                                                         ?M
Fig. 5. Oiiuibutton o( 2.6-
-------
FIB. 6. Distribution of 2,4,6-uichlorophinol (2.4.6-TCP). Contours are given in uniti of mj/l.
                   RESULTS
2,4-DCP, 2.6-DCP. and 2.4,6-TCP Distributions
     The distributions of 2,4-DCP, 2,6-DCP. and
2,4,6-TCP in the ground water at Alkali Lake are
given in Figures 4-6. The sampling points for which
data were obtained and used in the drawing of the
contours are shown on the figures. These three
chlorophcnols display almost identical patterns.
This implies that these chlorophcnols (1) have
similar source functions, (2) have been subject to
the same hydrology, and (3) have  experienced
similar degrees of sorption or lack thereof. Based
on the pH of the ground water (="  10), the acidity
of these compounds, and their low molecular
weights, one could predict that sorption would be
similarly unimportant for all three. Because the
sampling network used was fairly extensive and the
analytical precision quite good (relative standard
deviation 5%). it is possible to discern a narrowing
of the contaminant plume — 150m downgradient
of the western edge of the site. This narrowing may
be caused by irregularities in the KH of the aquifer
surrounding the zone of contamination. This will
be discussed further below.
     The true north-south line which passes
through the northwest -corner of the site was
selected as the uniform transport reference line
(TRL) from which to measure transport distances.
This TRL, marked on the figures, was selected
because: (1) the maximum concentrations of most
of the chlorophenolics (even the retarded ones
discussed below) are near this line; and (2) Rr
values calculated using transport distances
measured  from  this line will be upper bounds on
R, values relative to other, if any, more "meaning-
ful" reference lines to the cast (i.e., upgradient).
     For each compound, the specific point
selected from which to  measure transport distances
was the point on the TRL at which the concentra-
tion of the compound was at a maximum. In
Figures 4-6, boxes arc then used  to mark the loca-
tions of the positions (as located on the line of
shallowest  rate  of descent, i.e., approximate plume
center line for each compound) at  which the con-
centration  drops to 2%  and 25%  of the reference
point value. These arc the endpoints of the 2% and
25% transport'distances which arc  listed in Table  1.
The  concentrations of the three chlorophcnols
                                                                                                 659

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Fig. 7. Diitribution of 2,3.4,6-utrichlorophtnol (T«CP). Contouri ir« givtn in unit! of pg/l.
                                                           e<:-\  '
                                                                                     v.v^
 Fig. 8. Diitribution of pintichlorophcnol (PCP). Cont

 660

-------
          Table 1. Distance Traveled (X) and
          Relative Retardation (R,) Values
 Com-
 pound   X(2%)  X(2t%)  R,<2%)'  R,(2S%)  R,(fredf
2.4-DCP
2.6-DCP
2.4,6-TCP
TeCP
PCP
CL2D2
CL3D3
CL4D2
400.
420.
400.
330.
260.
230.
280.
210.
250.
270.
270.
2)0.
40.
70.
150.
40.
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.2
1.6
1.8
1.5
2.0
1.)
1.0
1.0
1.3
6.8
3.9
1.8
6.8
1.0
1.0
1.0
3.5
13.5
34.
20.
40.
cR,(pred)
retardacion (actor relative to
2.6-DCP - X2(,.DCf(2%)tX(2%).
retardation factor relative to
2,6-DCP • X2
R(prcd)/Rji6.DCp(pred).
drop to 2% of their reference values at distances of
400 to 420 m. The 50% transport distances are not
given in Table 1 since their comparatively low
values are subject to much error, particularly for
the more retarded compounds to be discussed
below.
TeCP and PCP Distributions
     Due to the larger relative standard deviations
for the low (pg/1) level determinations of TeCP and
PCP (]4% and 19%, respectively), it was not
possible to draw the concentration contours of
these two compounds (Figures 7 and 8) with the
same degree of detail present in the 2,4-DCP,
2.6-DCP, and 2,4,6-TCP contours. The minimum
detectable concentrations were nevertheless an
order of magnitude below the lowest values
reported. The general patterns of contamination
were similar to those for the other three chloro-
phenols, though the concentrations of TeCP and
PCP were -100 times lower than those of the
former. Using the same criteria described above,
the concentrations of TeCP and PCP dropped to
2% of their reference values at distances of
approximately 330 and  260 m, respectively (Table
1). These distances are shorter than those for the
other three chlorophenols.

CPP Distributions
     The concentration distributions of the CPP
compounds CL2D2, CL3D3, and CL4D2 are
presented in Figures 9-11. The minimum detect-
able concentrations were an order of magnitude
 Fig. 9. Distribution of CL2D2. Contours are given in units of ug/1.
                                                                                                661

-------
Fig. 10. Diitribulion of CL3D3. Contours art giv*n in uniti of pg/l.
                                                                  >'•?>..   .:'  \
                                                                 ':••'.-?>•>.:    ...>
 Fig. 11. Distribution of CL4D2. Contour) are given in uniti of PB/1.



 662

-------
below the lowest values reported. The concentra-
tions of these compounds dropped to 2% of their
reference values it distances of approximately 230,
280, and 210 m, respectively (Table  1). These
distances arc less than those for most of the
chlorophenols.

Porosity. Density, and Soil Kp  and SOC Values
    Values for the overall soil porosity (0) of
from 0.60 to  0.70 were obtained. The overall bulk
mass density (pt) values were in the range of 0.90
to0.9S.
     For the concentration ranges studied, the
results from the three batch equilibrium experi-
ments indicated no significant dependencies of any
of the Kp values on the concentration of sorbing
analyte, or on the presence of 500 mg/1 of added
2,4-DCP. The Kp values and the associated
standard deviations presented in Table 2 were
therefore calculated from the average of the results
of the total of nine experiments. The Kp values for
the chlorophcnolics studied here ranged from 0.0
to 28. (Table 2). The control compound naphtha-
lene gave a mean i Is vaiue for Kp of 16. i 2.
    The measured SOC values for the soil on a dry
weight basis gave a mean ±1$ value of 2.4  ± 0.3%.
The number of replicates was 12. These determina-
tions were complicated because of the high levels
of carbonate present in the samples. The good
precision suggests that the carbonate-removal step
included in the SOC analysis procedure was
effective, though the possibility of slightly high
SOC values remains. The inclusion of the control
compound naphthalene in the  Kp experiments
permitted an independent measure of the SOC
  Table 2. Measured Kp Values for Alkali Lake Soil/Water
      System (pH =• 10. T - 20°C), pK. Valuei. and
          Literature Koc Values for pH < pK,

 Compound         K~         P^a         ^oc
Naphthalene
2,4-DCP
2.6-DCP
2.4.6-TCP
TeCP
PCP
CL2D2
CL3D3
CL4D2
16. ±2.
0.0 ± 0.5
0.0 ± 0.5
0.0 ± 0.5
1.8 ± 1.0
9.5 1 1.8
24. ± 5.
14. i 3.
28. i5.
7.8
6.8
6.2
5.4
4.7
NA
NA
NA
870.'
545.b
NA
1.070.b
6,640.b
32,900.b
NA
NA
NA
1 Karickhoff, 1981.
bSchellcnbcrg n al.. 1984.
NA • not available.
content of the soil. Literature values for the Koc
for naphthalene are available. Karickhoff (1981)
cites a value of 870, and Mabey ft al.  (1982) cite a
value of 940.  By equation (2), these Koc values
give SOC values of 1.8% and 1.7%, respectively.
(The error in the Kp value/or naphthalene has not
been propagated into these  SOC values since the
available  Koc values are in any event averages for. a
number of different soils, and data on their corre-
sponding statistical variability are not readily
available.) The ratio of the average of these two
values to the measured SOC value is 0.73, i.e., near
1.0.
                 DISCUSSION
     All of the chlorophenols and the CPPs demon-
strated similar trends in area! distribution
hydraulically downgradicnt from the site (Figures
4-11). The direction of transport is consistent with
the previously reported slope of the water table
(Pankow et al., 1984). The transport distances for
the di- and trichlorophcnols were no doubt
influenced greatly by their ionization in the high
pH ground water. Jndecd, as seen in Table 2, these
compounds were found to have Kp values of —0.0
for the soil and ground water taken  from the site.
These results are in agreement with those of Miller
and Faust (1973) and ScheUenbcrg et al. (1984).
Both groups report that while the protonated
forms of these phenols sorb (Koc >  0 for
pH < pKj, see Table 2), their sorption to SOC
decreases to zero when the pH exceeds their pK»
values by at least one unit. The pH ~ 10 ground
water at  the site is 2.2 to  3.8 units above the pK4
values for the di- and trichlorophenols (Table 2). It
may therefore be concluded that the similarities of
the di- and trichlorophcnol distributions were
indeed due in large part to the similarly nonsorbing
natures of these three compounds at pH =• 10.
     While also largely ionized at pH » 10, TeCP
and PCP demonstrated substantial sorption (Table
2). These results are also  in agreement with results
obtained by Schcllcnberg et al. (1984). Similarly,
despite the fact that the CPPs will surely also be
present largely as anions  at pH =" 10, they demon-
strated substantial sorption. Therefore, the fact
that TeCP, PCP, and the  CPPs demonstrated
retardation relative to the di- and trichlorophenols
may be understood in terms of their nonzero Kp
values.
     Of  the three nonsorbing di- and trichloro-
phenols, it may be possible to treat 2,4-DCP,
2,6-DCP, and 2,4,6-TCP as approximately con-
servative. To evaluate the effect of sorption on the
                                                                                               663

-------
transport of TeCP, PCP, and the CPP, therefore. Rr
values referenced to 2.6-DCP were: (1) calculated
using the 2% and 25% transport distances (Rr(2%)
and Rr(25%))  of the compound and those of
2,6-DCP; and (2) predicted using equation (3)
and the experimental Kp values |Rr(pred)). The
results are presented in Table 1.
     It should be pointed out that the most
meaningful measured Rr values for the presumed
constant source input function would have been
the ones based on the 50% concentration fronts of
the sorbed and nonsorbed compounds. Rr values
based on the 2% or 25% fronts will be deflated
relative to the 50% front due to differing relative
effects of dispersion on the sorbed and nonsorbed
compounds. Such differences will  increase with
increasing sorption and/or decreasing defined-
frontal  concentration. For TeCP, this effect
could have caused a decrease in the Rr(2%) and
Rr(25%) values of only-9 and 15%, respectively
(Johnson, 1984). For CL4D2, the  most sorbed
compound, this effect could have caused a decrease
in the Rr(2%) and Rr(25%) values  of ~ 30 and 45%.
respectively (Johnson, 1984).
     If the input function was not a constant, but
rather decreased in time due to depletion of the
finite mass of the source contaminants, that would
lead  to an inflation of the Rr(2%)  and Rr(25%)
values. This is the case because the nonsorbed
compounds will tend to suffer relatively greater
depletion at the source. This in turn requires that
greater transport distances be inferred in order to
reach 2% or 25% of the depleted source concentra-
tion  values. Such inflation would tend to counteract
deflation caused by the use of transport distances
for contamination fronts defined at concentration
values less than 50% of the source  reference value.
     Therefore, it may be concluded that only a
small amount of deflation of the Rr values is
possible. For the sorbing compounds (Kp > 0),
however, the observed Rr(2%) and Rr(25%) values
are in fact smaller than the Rr(pred) values by
substantial amounts (Table 1).  Indeed, had the
sorption measurements been  carried out at 10°C
rather than 20"C, it may be expected that the
Rr(prcd) values in Table 1 would have been even
larger.
     The possible reasons remaining for the differ-
ences between the measured and predicted Rr
values include: (1) cosolvent effects leading to a
decreased retention of TeCP, PCP, and the CPPs;
(2X nonuniform contaminant distributions at the
time of the original burial, e.g., a time zero center
of mass for2,6-DCP further to the cast than the
time zero centers of masses of TeCP, PCP, and the
CPPs; (3) the fractures in the aquifer; and/or
(4) a decreasing ground-water velocity or irregulari-
ties in Kh with distance westward of the site.
     Cosolvent effects could be due to cither
actual solvents in the contaminant plume and/or
the high levels of di- and trichlorophenols. Large
quantities of solvents are not believed to have been
present in the waste, nor have any been detected in
high concentrations. Since the batch equilibrium
experiments demonstrated no changes of the Kp
values with overall phenol concentration nor with
the addition of 500 mg/1 of 2,4-DCP, cosolvent
effects due to the high concentrations of chloro-
phenols in the plume itself also do not appear
important.
     Figures 4-11 provide evidence that the various
compounds were not distributed  perfectly uni-
formly in the site.  It does, however, appear that
the trenches of waste near the selected transport
reference line were the most contaminated in the
compounds of interest to this study since the
concentrations of the nonsorbed  and sorbed
compounds alike seem to be highest in that area.
Most are more or less uniform in.concentration
along, the TRL. (PCP is an exception with its locally
very high concentrations in the northwest corner
of the site (Figure  8). It is believed  that this
different character of the PCP distribution in the
site artificially inflates its Rr(2%) and Rr(25%)
values. Nevertheless, they are still substantially less
than the Rr(pred) for this compound.) Moreover,
when the data for all of the compounds are
replocted after integrating along transects perpen-
dicular to the direction of flow (a process which
should remove dependence on the transverse
irregularities in the source functions), the  Rr(2%)
and Rr(25%) values are still lower than the corre-
sponding Rr(pred) values (Johnson, 1984).
     The fact that the ground water moves in
fractures in the soil is also not believed to  be
responsible for the reduced Rr(2%) and Rr(25%)
values. It has been determined that diffusive
equilibrium between the matrix and the fractures
is approached within approximately two hours
(Johnson, 1984). This short time period implies
that matrix diffusion limitations  are probably not
responsible for the reduction of the Rr(2%) and
Rr(25%) values,  and that the Alkali Lake system
behaves as  an EPM.
     Water-level  measurements indicate that with
increasing distance westward of the site, the
hydraulic gradient first decreases, then increases,
then decreases again as West Alkali  Lake is
664

-------
approached (Johnson, 1 984). The decrease and
subsequent increase in the gradient is most likely
due to a hydraulic conductivity-defined constric-
tion located approximately .150 m west of the
western edge of the site. This constriction is very
likely the  cause of the narrowing observed in the
di- and trichlorophenol distributions. It appears
from the contaminant distributions that all of the
compounds have reached the constriction. The
leading edges of the contaminant distributions of
the nonsorbed  compounds have largely stagnated
on the downgradient side of the constriction. The
leading edges of the contaminant distributions of
the sorbed compounds, however, are still moving.
The effect will be to reduce the measured Rr(2%)
and  Rr(25%) values. This is believed to be the
primary reason why these values are lower than
the Rr(pred) values.

                 CONCLUSIONS
     The  arcal  distributions of eight chlorinated
phenolics hydraulically downgradient from a
chemical disposal site have been presented. These
results show, for the first time, well-behaved
concentration contours embodying compound-
dependent retardation in the transport of sorbing
and  nonsorbing organic compounds from an
existing waste disposal site. The trends in relative
retardations of the compounds are consistent with
the Kp values determined in batch equilibrium
experiments carried out using samples of the native
soil and ground water (pH °- 10).
     While the trend in observed retardations of
•he chlorophenolics is correct, the magnitudes of
the relative retardations are less than those
predicted using Kp values determined from the
batch experiments. This is probably the result of
irregularities in the-Kn values downgradient of the
site. Cosolvent effects due to the plume itself,
nonuniform contaminant distributions, and  the
fractures  in the aquifer are believed to have played
only a minor role in this regard.

             ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
     We express our appreciation to John A.
Cherry for many helpful discussions. We also
appreciate the  permission to work at the Alkali
Lake Chemical Disposal Site granted  to us by the
Oregon Department of Environmental  Quality.
This work was financed in part with Federal funds
from the  United States Environmental Protection
Agency (U.S. EPA) under Grant Number 808272.
The contents do not necessarily reflect the views
and policies of the U.S. EPA nor does mention of
trade names or commercial products constitute
endorsement or recommendation for use. The
sponsorship of ground-water contamination
research at the Oregon Graduate Center by the
Northwest Environmental Research Center
(NWERC) is also gratefully acknowledged.


                 REFERENCES
Allison, L. E.  and C. D. Moodic. 1965. In Meihods of Soil
     Analysis, C. A. Black (Ed.). American Society of
     Agronomy, Inc.. Madison. Wl. pp. 1380-1396.
Chiou, C. T., R. E. Porter, and D. W. Schmedding. 1983.
     Partition equilibria of nonionic organic compounds
     between soil organic matter and water. Environ. Sci.
     Tcchnol. v. 17, pp. 227-231.
Feenstra, S., J. A. Cherry, E. A. Sudicky, and 2. Haq. ] 984.
     Matrix diffusion effects on contaminant migration
     from an injection well in fractured sandstone. Ground
     Water, v. 22, pp. 307-316.
Freeze, R. A.  and J. A. Cherry. 1979. Groundwatcr.
     Prentice-Hall. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. 604 pp.
Grisak. G. E. and J. F. Pickens. 1980. Solute transport
     through fractured media: 1. The effect of matrix
     diffusion. Water Resources Research, v. 16, pp.
     719-730.
Grisak. G. E. and J. F. Pickens. 1981. Ah analytical
     solution for solute transport through fractured media
     with matrix diffusion. J. Hydrology, v. J2, pp. 47-57.
Johnson, R. L. 1981. Design and evaluation of a thermal-
     optical method for the analysis of carbonaceous
     aerosols. M.S. Thesis, Oregon Graduate Center,
     Beaverton, OR 97006.
Johnson, R. L. 1984. The groundwatcr transport of chloro-
     phenolics in a highly fractured soil at Alkali Lake,
     OR. Ph.D. Thesis, Oregon Graduate Center,
     Beaverton, OR 97006.
Johnson. R. L., M. E. Anderson, and J. F. Pankow. 1985.
     The determination of soil organic carbon by oxygen
     combustion with CO) conversion to methane and
     subsequent flame ionization detection. Unpublished
     work, Oregon Graduate Center, Beaverton, OR 97006.
Karickhoff, S. W. 1981. Semi-empirical estimation of
     sorption of hydrophobic pollutants on natural sedi-
     ments and soils. Chemosphere. v. 10, pp. 833-846.
Karickhoff, S. W. 1983. Sorption kinetics of hydrophobic
     pollutants in natural sediments. Extended Abstracts,
     Div. of  Environ. Science. 186th National American
     Chemical  Society Meeting, Washington, D.C.
Karickhoff, S. W. 1984. Organic pollutant sorption in
     aquatic systems. J. Hydraulic Engineering, v. 110,
     pp. 707-735.
Mabey, W. R., J. H. Smith, R.  T. Podoll, H. L. Johnson,
     T. Mill. T.-W. Chou. J. Gates, 1. W. Partridge.
     H. Jaber. and D. Vandcnbcrg. 1982. Aquatic fate
     process data for organic  priority pollutants. EPA
     Report  No. 440/4-81-014.
Miller, R. M..  and S. D. Faun. 1973. Sorption from solu-
     tion by organo-clay: III. The effect of pH on sorption
     of various phenols. Env. Letters, v. 4. pp. 2 11-223.
O'Connor. C. A., P. J. Wierenga. H. H. Cheng, and K. G.
     Doxtadcr. 1980. Movement of 2.4.5-T through large
     soil columns. Soil Science, v.  130, pp. 157-162.
                                                                                                     665

-------
Pankow. J.F.. L M. Ittbelle.and D. F. Barofsky. 1981.
      The identification of ehlorophenoxyphenoli in soil
      and water samples by solvent extraction mnd field
      desorption mass spectrometry. Anal. Chim. Aeti.
      v. 124, pp. 357-364.
Pankow. J. F.. R. L. Johnson, J. E. Houck. S. M. Brillamc,
      and W. J. Bryan. 1984. Migration of chlorophenolic
      compounds at the chemical waste disposal lite at
      Alkali Lake, Oregon. 1. Site description and ground-
      water flow. Ground Water, v. 22, pp. 593-601.
Pankow, J. F. and L. M. Isabellc. 1984. Interface for (he
      direct coupling of a second gas chromatograph to a
      gas chromatograph/mass spectrometer for use with a
      fused silica capillary column. Anal. Chem. v. 56,
      pp. 2997-2999.
Research Triangle  Institute. 1983. Master Analytical
      Scheme for the Analysis of Organic Compounds in
      Water, v. III.
Roberts. P. V.. M. Reinhard, and A. J. Valocchi. 1982.
      Movement of organic contaminants in groundwatcr:
      Implications for water supply. J. American Water
      Works Assoc. v. 14. pp. 408-413.
Schellcnbcrg, K., C.  Lcuenbcrgcr, and  R. P. Schwarzcnbach.
      1984. Sorption of chlorinated phenols by natural
      sediments and aquifer materials. Environ. Sci. and
      Technol. v. 18. pp. 652-657.
Schwarienbach, R. P.. and J. Westall. 1981. Transport of
      nonpolar organic compounds from surface water to
      groundwatcr. Laboratory sorption studies. Environ.
      Sci. Technol. v. 15,  pp. 1360-1367.
Sudicky, E. and E. 0. Frind. 1982. Contaminant transport
      in fractured porous media: Analytical solutions for a
      system of parallel fractures. Water Res. Research.
      v. 18. pp. 1634-1642.
van Cenuchten.M. T. 1974. Mats transfer studies in sorbing
      porous media. Ph.D. Thesis, New Mexico State  Uni-
      versity. Las Cruccs,  NM.
Young. A. L., J. A. Calcagni. C. E. Thalken. and J. W.
      Trembiay. 1978. The toxicology, environmental fate.
      and human risk of herbicide orange and its associated
      dioxin. USAF OEHL Technical Report OEHL
      TR-78-92.
      Richard L. Johnson is o joint Postdoctoral Research
Associate in the Department of Earth Sciences at the Uni-
versity of Waterloo in Waterloo. Ontario, and a Research
Scientist in the Department of Chemical, Biological, and
Environmental Sciences at the Oregon Graduate Center in
Beaverton. Oregon. In 197) he received bis B.S. degree in
Chemistry from the University of Washington. In 1984, he
received bis Ph.D. in Environmental Chemistry from the
Department of Chemical. Biological, and Environmental
Sciences at the Oregon Graduate Center. His research
interests include the transport, fate, and modeling of con-
taminants in ground water in both porous and fractured
systems.
      Susan M. Brillante is a graduate student Research
Assistant in the Department of Chemical. Biological, and
Environmental Sciences at the Oregon Graduate Center.
She received her B.A. in  Chemistry from Loretto Heights
College in Denver. Colorado in 1966. Her research interests
include organic analytical chemistry and the fate of con-
taminants in ground-water systems.
      Lome M. Isobellc is a Research Associate in the
Department of Chemical. Biological, and Environmental
Sciences at the Oregon Graduate Center. He received bis
B.A. in Chemistry from San Francisco Stale College in
1971 and bis M.S. in Organic Chemistry from California
State University at San Francisco. His research interests
include the application of GC/MS/DS instrumentation in
the determination and study of organic compounds in the
environment.
      James E. Houck is a Senior Scientist at NEA, Inc. in
Portland. Oregon. In 1971 be received bis B.S. in Chemistry
from the University of Arizona. He  received bis Ph.D. in
Chemical Oceanography from the University of Hawaii in
1918. His research interests include the analysis, monitor-
ing, and modeling of contaminants in the air and water
environments.
      James F. Pankow is an Associate Professor in the .
Department of Chemical, Biological, and Environmental
Sciences, and Director of the Ground-water Research
Laboratory at the Oregon Graduate Center in Beaverton,
Oregon. In 1973 be received bis B.A. in Chemistry from the
Slate University of New  York at Binghamton. He received
a Ph.D. in 1979 in Environmental Chemistry from the
Department of Environmental Engineering Science ft the
California Institute of Technology in Pasadena. California.
His research group has been involved in the development
and application of sensitive analytical methods incorporat-
ing capillary column GC/MS/DS techniques for the
determination of trace organic contaminants in ground-
water systems. His group employs these methods in studies
which examine and model many aspects of the processes
which control the transport and fate of organic chemicals in
the environment.
666

-------
                                            TREATMENT
                                       TECHNOLOGY.
                        Using the  Properties  of Organic Compounds  to Help
                        Design  a Treatment System
                        by Evan  Nycr. Garv Boeiicher, and Bridget Morello
                           I have decided to provide the physical/chemical and
                        [Testability properties of 50 compounds in my column
                        (or (his issue. The physical/chemical parameters of the
                        compounds can be used 10 help evaluate data generated
                        during remedial investigations.The trealabihty parame-
                        ters can be used  as a basis for the preliminary design
                        of a treatment system that will remove organic com-
                        pounds from ground water.
                           The biggest obstacle in designing a treatment system
                        is where to begin. Typically, the two main staning points
                        1 have seen applied in designing a treatment system are
                        laboratory  ireatability studies and "by-the-book"
                        design. Neither of these methods are accurate  or effi-
                        cient. In laboratory treaiabiiity studies, the designer gen-
                        erally submits a ground water sample to the laboratory
                        for purposes of simulating full-scale treatment units.
                        Laboratory treatabiliiy studies, however, cannot be used
                        as a direct simulation of most organic treatment pro-
                        cesses. (This issue will be discussed in detail in my next
                        column). Textbooks  should  never be used as  "cook-
                        books" for the design of a treatment system. The cook-
                        book recipe simply uses every treatment method availa-
                        ble for removing organic compounds and sizes unit
                        operations based on values  supplied in the textbook.
                        The final design uses all the treatment units in series.
                        Textbooks, including my own. should be used for general
                        knowledge and reference purposes only, not (or design
                        data
                           The treatment system designs I have worked on have
                        always been  preceded by complete evaluation of the
                        properties of the compounds. While 1 would not proceed
                        directly to full-scale installation based strictly upon anal-
                        ysis of compound properties, they can provide  several
                        insights for final design. Most important, the properties
                        of compounds can indicate critical points of a design
                        and areas requiring further data. These areas can then
                        be  further evaluated  in laboratory and field pilot tests.
                           The main physical/chemical properties that  should
                        be evaluated prior to design are solubility, specific grav-
                        ity, and octanol/water coefficient.  These properties
                        mainly help us  understand data generated  during
                        remedial investigations. However, they will have some
                        input in the treatment system design as will be discussed.
 Solubility
    Solubility is one of the most important properties
 affecting the fate and transport of organic compounds.
 The solubility of a compound is described as the maxi-
 mum dissolved quantity of compound in pure water at
 a specific temperature. Solubilities of  most  common
 organic compounds range from  1  to 100,000 ppm  at
 ambient temperature. However, several compounds
 exhibit higher solubilities, and some are infinitely solu-
 ble. Highly soluble compounds are easily transported
 by the hydrologic cycle, and tend to have low adsorption
 coefficients (or soils and low bioconcentration factors
 in aquatic life. Highly soluble compounds also tend  to
 be more readily biodegradable.
    Solubility usually decreases as temperature increases
 due to an increase in water vapor pressure at the liquid/
 gas interface. Escaping molecules then force larger num-
 bers of gas molecules out of solution.
    When reviewing the  results from a ground water
 study, the concentrations of organic compounds should
•be related to the solubilities of those compounds. For
 example, high concentrations of a non-soluble com-
 pound may indicate the presence of a pure compound
 NAPL. Therefore,  the treatment system should be
 designed-with the capability to treat pure compounds.
 Table 1 presents the solubility values for SO organic com-
 pounds.

 Specific Gravity
    Specific gravity is a dimensionless parameter derived
 from density. The specific gravity of  a compound is
 defined as the ratio of the weight of a compound  of a
 given  volume  and at  a specified temperature  to the
 weight of the same volume of water at a given tempera-
 lure. The specific gravity of a water at 4 C is usually
 used as a basis because the  density of water at 4  C is
 1.000 g/mL.
    In environmental analysis, the primary reason for
 knowing the specific gravity of a compound is to deter-
 mine whether liquids will float or sink  in water. Pure
 compounds that are lighter than water will form a layer
 on top of the water. Organic compounds that are heavier
 than water will move through the aquifer until they are
                  F.ll 100| f7WMR                81
Reprinted by permission of the Ground Water Publishing Company.   Copyright1991
All rights reserved.

-------
                          TABLE 1
    Solubility for Specific Organic Compounds

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
J4
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
Compound
Acenaphlhene
Acetone
Aroclor 1254
Benzene
Benzo(a)pyrene
Benzo(g.h.i)perylene
Benzoic acid
Bromodichloromethane
Bromolorm
.Carbon leirachloridc
Chlorobenzene
Oiloroethane
Chloroform
2-Chlorophcnol
p-Dichlorobenzene (1,4)
1 .1 -Dichloroethane
1.2-Dichloroethane
1 .1 -Dichloroethylene
cis-17-Dichloroethylenc
trans- 1 2-Dichloroethylene
2.4-Dichlorophenoxyaceiic acid
Dimethyl phthalate
2.6-Dinitrotoluene
1.4-Dioxane
Ethyl benzene
bis(2-Ethylhexyl)phth»late
Hepuchlor
Hexachlorobenzene
Hexachloroethane
2-Hexanone
Isophorone
Methylene chloride
Methyl ethyl ketone
Methyl naphthalene
Methyl ten-butyl ether
Naphthalene
Nitrobenzene
Pentachlorophenol
Phenol
1.1.27-Tcirachloroelhanc
Tetrachloroethylene
Tetrahydrofuran
Toluene
1.2.4-Trichlorobenzene
1.1.1-Trichloroethane
1.1.2-Trichloroethane
Trichloroethylene
2.4.6-Trichlorophenol
Vinyl chloride
o-Xylenc
Solubility
Ime/L)
3.42 .
1x10° •
1.2xlO-J
1.75X101
1.2x10°
7x10-
2.7X1CT1
4.4x1 01
3.0UI03
7.57X102
4.66x10'
5.74X103
8.2x1 03
Z9X104
7.9x10'
SJxlO3
8J2X101
275x1 03
JJxlO3
6JX103
6.2x1 0^
4J2X101
1J2X105
4JU105
U2X102
2i5xlO-'
1.8x10-'
6xl(TJ
5x10'
1.4x10*
17x10*
2x10*
2.68X103
2^4x10'
4.8
3.2x10'
1.9XI03
1.4x10'
93x10*
2.9x10°
UxlO2
3x10-'
5J5X102
3x10'
UxlO3
4^»lfy
l.lxlO3
BxlO2
2.67X103
1. 75x10*
Reference
T

2
1 (A)
2
2
2
2
1 (B)
1 (A)
1 (A)
2
1 (A)
2
2
1 (A)
1 (A)
1 (A)
1 (A)
1 (A)
2
2
2
2 .
1 (A)
2
2
1 (A)
2
1
4.
1 (B)
1 (A)
2
3
2
2
1 (B)
1 (A")
2
1 (A)
4
1 (A)
2
1 (A)
1 (A)
1 (A)
2
1 (A)
1 (C)
                           TABLE  2
        Specific Gravity for Specific Organic
                         Compounds
   *  Solubility or 1X00.000 mg/L assigned because of reported "infinite solubil-
     ily~ in the liteniure.
   1. Superfund Public Health Evolution Manual, Office of Emergency and Re-
    mediil Response Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response. U.S.
    Environmental Protection. Atcnev. 1986.
  A. Environmental Cntena and Assessment Office fECAO). EPA. Health
    Effects Assessments lor Specific Chemicals. 1982.
  B. Mabey. W.R_ J.H. Smith. R.T. Rodoll. H.l_ Johnson. T. Mill. T.W.
    Chou. J. Gates. l.W. Pstridge. H. Jaber. and D. Vanderber|. -Aquatic
    Fate Process Data for Organic Priority Pollutants." EPA Contract Noi.
    68-01-1867 and 6IMD-7981 by SRI International, for Monttonnf and
    Data Support Division. Office of Water Regulations and Standards.
    Washington. D.C_ 1982.
  C Dawion. el al.. Physical/Chemical Properties of Hazardous Waste Con.
    stituenil. by Souttieasl  Environmental Research Laboratory for U.S.
    EPA. 1980.
2. U.S.EPA "Basics of Pump-and-Treal Ground-Water Remediation Tech-
  nology" EPA/6OV8-SO1003. Roben S. Kerr Environmental Research  Labo-
  ratory. March 1990.
3. Manufacturer's data: Teias Petrochemicals Corp- Gasoline Grade Methyl
  ten-buiyl ether Shipping Specification and Technical Data. I9SA.
<* CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Phviict; 71st Edition. CRC Press. Ohio.
  1990.
                                                                                Compound
                                           Specific
                                          Gravity*
                                                                                                                            Reference
    1  Acenaphthene
    2  Acetone
    3  Aroclor 1254
    4  Benzene
    5  Benzo(a)pyrene
    6  Benzo(g.hj)perylene
    7  Benzoic acid
    8  Bromodichloromethane
    9  Bromoform
   10  Carbon tetrachloridc
   11  Chlorobenzene
   12  Chloroethane
   13  Chloroform
   14  2-Chlorophenol
   15  p-Dichlorobenzene (1.4)
   16  1.1-Dichloroethane
   17  17-Dichloroethane
   18  1,1-Dichloroethylene
   19  cis-17-Dichloroethylene
   20  trans-17-Dichloroethylcne
   21  2.4-Dichlorophenoiyacetic acid
   22  Dimethyl  phthalate
   23  2.6-Dmiirololuene
   24  1.4-Dioxanc
   25  Elhylbenzcne
   26  bis(2-Eihylhexyl)phthalate
   27  Hepuchlor
   28  Hexachlorobenzene
   29  Hexachloroethane
   30  2-Hexanone
   31  Isophorone
   32  Methylene chloride
   33  Methyl ethyl ketone
   34  Methyl naphthalene
   35  Methyl ten-butyl ether
   36  Naphthalene
   37  Nitrobenzene
   38  Penuchlorophenol
   39  Phenol
   40  1.177-Tetrachloroelhane
   41  Tetrachloroethylene
   42  Tetrahydrofuran
   43  Toluene
   44  17.4-Trichlorobenzene
   45  1.1.1-Trichloroethanc
   46  1.17-Trichloroethanc
   47  Trichloroethylene
   48  2.4.6-Trichlorophenol
   49  Vinyl chloride
   50  o-Xylene
                                                                                                         1.069 (9SW)
                                                                                                          .791
                                                                                                           1-5 (25')
                                                                                                          .879
                                                                                                          1J5 (25')
                                                                                                          NA
                                                                                                         1.316 (2S-/4-)
                                                                                                         2.006 (15V4-)
                                                                                                         2.903 (15')
                                                                                                         1.594
                                                                                                         1.106
                                                                                                          .903
                                                                                                          1.49 (20-C liquid)
                                                                                                         1741 (18.2V1S')
                                                                                                         1.458 (21')
                                                                                                         1.176
                                                                                                         1753
                                                                                                         1.250 (15*)
                                                                                                          1.27 (25'C liquid)
                                                                                                          1.27 (25'C liquid)
                                                                                                         1.189 (25V25')
                                                                                                         1783 (111')
                                                                                                         1.034
                                                                                                          .867
                                                                                                         .9843
                                                                                                          1.57
                                                                                                         2.044
                                                                                                          2.09
                                                                                                          .815 (18V4-)
                                                                                                          .921 (25')
                                                                                                         1.366
                                                                                                          .805
                                                                                                         1.025 (14'W)
                                                                                                          .731
                                                                                                         1.145
                                                                                                         1.203
                                                                                                         1.978 (22')
                                                                                                         1.071 (2JV4-)
                                                                                                         1.600
                                                                                                         1.631 (15V4-)
                                                                                                          .888 (21V4-)
                                                                                                          .866
                                                                                                         1.446 (26*)
                                                                                                         1.346 (15V4-)
                                                                                                         1.441 (25JV4-)
                                                                                                         1.466 (20-/20-)
                                                                                                         1.490 (75-W)
                                                                                                          .908 (25V25')
                                                                                                          .880
   * Specific gravity of compound at 20*C referred to water at 4*C
    (20"/4") unleu otherwise specified.
   NA = Not Available
1. Lante's Handbook of Chemistry, llth edition, by John A. Dean.
  McGraw-Hill Book Co.. New 1973.
2. Hazardous Chemicois Doto Book. 2nd edition, by G. Weiss.
  Novel Data Corp.. New York. 1986.
3. U.S. Public Health Service Agency for Toiic Substances and Dis-
  ease Registry. 'Draft Toxicological Profile for Selected PCBs."
  November  1987.
4. U.S. Public Health Service Agency for Toxic Substances and Dis-
  ease Rcsistry. "Draft Toiicological Profile for Benzo(a)pyrene."
  October" 1987.
5. Verschueren. Karel. Handbook of Envtronmtnial Data on
  Organic Chemicals. 2nd edition. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co..
  New York. 1983.
6. Merck Index. 9th edition. Merck and Co. Inc.. New jersey. 1976.
82
                      Fall 1991 CWMR

-------
fully adsorbed by soil panicles or until Ihey encounter
an impenetrable layer. Table 2 presents the specific gra-
vities of 50 organic compounds.

OctanolAVater Partition Coefficient
   The ocunolAvaier partition  coefficient (K0.) is
defined as the ratio of a compound's concentration in
the octanol phase to its concentration in the aqueous
phase of  a two-phase system.  Measured  values  for
organic compounds range from 10"3 to  10'. Low Kow
values (< 10) are considered hydrophilic and lend to
have  higher water  solubility. High !<.„«. values (> 10*)
are very hydrophobic.
   KO« values for organic compounds are used to evalu-
ate fate in the environment. The  parameter can be
related to solubility  in  water and  bioconcenlration
effects, but it is mainly used to relate to soil/sediment
adsorption. When combined with the organic content
of the soil, >v,w values can be used to predict the amount
of material adsorbed in the soil and  the  retardation
factor for movement through the aquifer.
   When pure compounds are lost to the environment,
it is important to know where they are likely to be found.
Soluble compounds will migrate with the surface water
which will infiltrate the aquifer  and migrate with  the
ground water. Non-soluble compounds will be adsorbed
on the soil. However, if the mass  of organic compounds
exceeds the absorptive  capacity of the soil, the com-
pounds will continue to migrate until they reach  the
aquifer. Compounds with low specific gravity will be
retained at the surface of the aquifer, and  compounds
with high specific gravity will continue to move vertically
through the aquifer. Table 3 presents Ko~ values for 50
organic compounds.
   The physical/chemical properties presented here will
help the reader understand  where compounds of con-
cern might be in  the ground and/or aquifer.  These pro-
perties are also necessary for use  in designing treatment
systems such  as  oil/water separators and liquid/liquid
extractors.
   The main trcalability parameters that should be used
to help design a treatment system are strippability (Hen-
ry's law constant), adsorbability. and biodegradability.

Henry's Law Constant
    Generally for non-ideal solutions, Henry's law states
that the equilibrium panial pressure of a compound in
the air above the air/water interface is proportional to
the concentration of that compound in the water. Hen-
ry's law can be expressed as follows:

PA =  HAxA

where:
PA =  Partial pressure of a compound in liquid at equi-
       librium with gas (aim)
HA  = Henry's laws constant (aim)
XA  = Mole fraction of a compound in gas (mole/mole)

Therefore. Henry's law constant expresses the amount of
chemical partitioning between air and water at equilibrium.
                     TABLE 3
       Octanol Water Coefficients (K,,w)
       for  Specific Organic Compounds

1
1
\
4
5
6
7
t;
9
10
1!
12
13
14
15
16
11
IE
19
20
21
22
23
2<
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
4;
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
Compound
Acenaphlhene
Acetone
Aroclor 1254
benzene
benzo(a)pyrene
benzo(g.h,i)perylene
Benzole acid
bromodichloromethane
Bromoform
Carbon tetrachloride
Chlorobenzene
Chloroelhane
Chloroform
2-Chlorophenol
p-Dichlorobeniene (1.4)
1.1-Dichloroeihane
1.2'Dichloroethane
1.1-Dichloroethylene
cis-1 ,2-Dichioroelhylenc
trans- 1 .2-Dichloroethylene
2.4-Dichlorophenoxyacctic acid
Dimethyl phihalaie
2.6-Diniirotolucne
1.4-Dioxane
Elhylbenzcne
bii(2-EthylhexyI)phthalate
Hepuchlor
Hexachlorobenzenc
Hexachloroelhanc
2-Hexanonc
liophoronc
Melhylcnc chloride
Melhy) elhyi ketone
Methyl naphthalene
Methyl ten-buiyl ether
Naphthalene
Nitrobenzene
Pentachloropheno!
Phenol
1 .1 ,2.2-TeirachIoroelhane
Tetrachloroelhylene
Tetrahydroluran
Toluene
1 ,2.4-Trichlorobcnzene
1.1.1 -Trichloroethane
1 .1 ,2-Trichlorocihane
Trichloroethylene
2.4.6-Trichlorophenol
Vinyl chloride
o-Xylene
K..
LUxlCr1
6xl(r'
1.07x10*
1.3xlO:
1. 15x10*
3.24x10'
7.4x10'
7.6x10'
2.5x10'
4.4x10'
6.9x10""
33x10'
9.3x10'
1.5x10'
3.9x10'
6.2x10'
3.0x10'
6.9x10'
5.0
3.0
6.5x10'
1.3x10'
1.0x10'
1.02
1.4x10'
9.5x1 03
2.51x10*
l.lxlO3
3.98xlty
2-5x10'
5.0x10'
l.»xlO'
1.S
uxirr
NA
2.8x10'
7.1x10'
l.OxlO3
2.9x10'
2.5xl03
3.9x10'
6.6
UxlO-"
2.0x10'
3.2x10-'
2.9x10-"
2.4X105
7.4x10'
2.4x10'
8.9x10-"
Reference
2
1 (D)

! (A)
2
1
^
2
1 (B)
I (A)
1 (A)
2
HA)
2
2
i (A)
1 (A)
1 (A)
1 (A)
1 (A)
2
4.
1
2
1 (A)
2
2
1 (A)

3
2
1 (B)
1 (A)
2

2
2
1 (B)
1 (A)
2
(A)

(A)

(B)
(A)
(A)
2
1 (A)
1 (C)
NA • Noi AvBiltbir
\.$upcrfu*d Puttiie Health Equation Manual Office of Emergency and
  Remedial Response Office of Solid Watte and Emergency Response. U.S.
  EnvironmcoLal Proieaion Afeney. 1986.
  A, Environment*) Criteria and Assessment Office (EOO). EPA. Health
    Eliccu AuessmcflU lor Specific QkemicaU. 1985.
  B. Mibey. W.R.. J.H. Smith. R.T. Rodoll. H.L. Johnson. T. Mill. T.W.
    Qiou. J. Gtici. l.W. PtiitCft., H. Jibci. and D. VinoerbcrjL "Aquaik
    File Prooeu D«u lor Orjtnic Pnoriiy Pollounu." EPA Conutd Not.
    66-01-1867 and 68-03-2981 by SRI Imenuiional. lor Moaiionn; tnd
    Dm Support Division. Offict of W»tei Re|ulaitoni mnd Sundarm.
    Wuhmpon. D.C, J982.
  C D»ww. ei »!.. Phmol^temical Propentes of Huaroota Wuie  Con-
    niiuenu, by Smnh^y* Envtronmeou) Research Laboniory for U.S.
    EPA.. 1980
  D. HtnAbook of fjtvtromnoacl &cu for Organic Oiemtceb, Vtn
    Nounnd Reinhotd Co. New York_ 2nd Ediiwn. 1983.
2. \J£. EPA "Bkuo of Pump-and-Treai Cnxutd-Waier Remediaiion Tech-
  Dotofy." EPA/60&-8-9CV003. Roben S. Kerr Environ menu I Ruearcb Labo-
  niory. M»ith 1990.
3. Lvman. Warren J» el a!. "Research and Developmeni of Method* (or Eui-
  maiin| Phytkicochemical PTOpentci of Or|antc Cotnpoundi of Environ-
  ment 11 Conoerr..' June 1981.

-------
                    TABLE 4
             Henry's Law Constants
        for Specific Organic Compounds
Compound
1 Acenaphthene
2 Acetone
3 Aroclor 1254
4 Benzene
5 Benzo(a)pyrene
6 Benzo(g.nj)perylene
7 Benzoic acid
8 Bromodichloromethane
9 Bromoform
10 Carbon tetrachloride
11 Chlorobenzene
12 Chloroethane
13 Chloroform
14 2-Chlorophenol
15 p-Dichlorobenzcne (1,4)
16 1.1-Dichloroethane
17 1.2-Dichloroethane
18 1.1-Dichloroeihylene
19 cis-U-Dichloroethylene
20 traru-U-Dichloroethylene
21 2.4-Dichlorophenoxvacetic acid
22 Dimethyl phthalate
23 2,6-Dinitrotoluene
24 l.4-Dioxane
25 Ethylbenzene
26 bis(2-Ethylh«yl)phthalaie
27 Heptachlor
28 Hexachlorobeiuene
29 Hexachloroethane
30 2-Hexanone
31 Isophorone
32 Methylene chloride
33 Methyl ethyl keione
34 Methyl naphthalene
35 Methyl ten-butyl ether
36 Naphthalene
37 Nitrobenzene
38 Pentachlorophenol
39 Phenol
40 I.li2-Tetrachloroethane
41 Tetrachloroethylene
42 Tetrahydrofuran
43 Toluene
44 1.2,4-Tricnlorobenzene
45 1,1,1-Trichloroethane
46 1.1.2-Trichloroethane
47 Trichloroethylene
48 2.4.6-Trichlorophenol
49 Vinvl chloride
50 o-Xylene
' * at water temperature of 68*F
Henrys Law
Constant* llm m
witer/mj air
5.1
0
150
230
.1
0
0
127
35
1282
145
34
171
0.93
104
240
51
1841
160
429
10
0
.2
.6
359
0
46
37.8
138
1.6
.3
89
1.16
3.2
196
20
1.2
0.15
0.017
21
1035
2
217
128
390
41
544
1
355.000
266

Reference
5
I
5
1
5
5
5
1
3

2
5
1
2






5
5
5
5
1
5
5
2
5
5
5
1
2
2

4
5
2
2
5
1
5
1
5
1
2
1
5
3
1

 1. per Hydro Group Inc.. 1990
 2. Solubility and vapor phase pressure data from Handbook of Envi-
  ronmental Data on Organic Chemicals. 2nd Edition, by Karel Vers-
  chueren. 1983. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.
 3. Michael C Kavanaugh and R. Rhodes Trussel. "Design of Aeration
  Towers to Strip Volatile Contaminants from  Drinking Water'
  Journal AWWA. December 1980. p. 685.
 J. Coskum Yuneri. David F. Ryan. John 1. Callow. Miral D. Gurol.
  "The Effect of Chemical  Composition of Water on Henry* LJW
  Constant." Journal VffCF. Volume 59. Number 11. p. 954. Novem-
  ber 1987.
 5. U.S. EPA. "Basics of Pump-and-Treal Ground-Water Remediation
  Technology." EPA/600-R-90/003. Robert S.  Kerr Environmental
  Research Laboratory. March 1990.
    Aeration  is a technology often employed in water
treatment applications to strip the concentration of vola-
tile organic compounds (VOCs) from water. The con-
trolling factor in removal of VOCs from water is the
rate of transfer from the liquid phase (water) to the gas
phase (air) until equilibrium is established. The transfer
rate of VOCs from water via aeration  depends  upon
the temperature of both the water and the air,  as well
as the  physical and chemical properties of the  VOCs.
Water temperature changes of as little as 10 C can result
in threefold increases in Henry's law constants. In a gas-
liquid system, the equilibrium vapor concentration of a
VOC can  be computed from the compound specific
Henry's law constant and total system pressure.
    Generally, the greater the Henry's law constant (i.e.,
greater than  160 aim), the more volatile a compound.
and the more easily it  can be removed  from solution.
Henry's laws constants can be computer modeled to
develop a preliminary design and cost estimate for an
air stripper. Table 4 presents Henry's law constants for
50 organic compounds.

Carbon Adsorption Capacity
    Activated carbon has variable effectiveness adsorb-
ing organic compounds. Low molecular  weight, polar
compounds are not well absorbed. High molecular
weight, non-polar compounds such as pesticides, poly-
chlorinated biphenyls, phthalaies, and  aromatics are
readily adsorbed.
    Activated carbon adsorption isotherm data  can  be
used to evaluate the carbon  adsorptive  capacity for
organic compounds. These data may be  used to com-
plete an initial estimate of the organic mass that carbon
will adsorb. Since the main cost of carbon adsorption
is carbon, this mass data can be used as  a preliminary
basis for  cost  estimation.  Table  5 presents carbon
adsorption capacity values  for 50 organic compounds.

Biodegradability
    Organic compounds are transformed by biochemical
reactions in the environment and in  engineered unit
operations. Biodegradation of organic compounds occur
aerobically and/or anaerobically depending on the
molecular structure of the chemical and the environ-
mental conditions. Engineered bioremediation is neces-
sary to enhance natural processes that are usually less
than optimal  in the environment.
    The first and most important parameter to evaluate
before implementing bioremediation  is determining
whether the compound is degradable. the most effective
biodegradation mechanism (aerobic vs. anaerobic), and
the biodegradation  rate. From an ecological point of
view, chemicals that are completely degradable. but
slow, can be persistent  in the environment.
    Biodegradation potential has been reviewed and can
be categorized as degradable. persistent, and recalcitrant.
Readily degradable refers to compounds that have passed
biodegradability tests in a variety of aerobic environments.
Degradable also refers to compounds that are normally
degraded in tests but not necessarily in the environment.
84
                  Fill 1991 GWMR

-------
                        TABLE  5
         Adsorption  Capacity for Specific
                 Organic Compounds
                        TABLE 6
 Disappearance or Biodegradation Potential
         for Specific Organic Compounds
Compound
1 Acenaphlhenc
2 Acetone
3 Aroclor 1254
4 Benzene
5 benzo(a)pyrene
6 benzo(g.h,i)perylene
7 Benzoic acid
8 Bromodichloromethane
9 Bromolorm
10 Carbon tetrachloridt
1 1 Chlorobcnzene
12 Chloroethanc
13 Chloroform
14 2-Chlorophenol
15 p-Dichlorobenzcne (1.4)
16 1.1-Dichlorocihane
17 U-Dichloroethanc
18 1.1-Dichloroelhylene
19 cis-1.2-Dichloroelhylene
20 trans-U-Dichloroelhylene
21 2.4-Dichlorophenoxyacciic acid
22 Dimethyl phthalaie
23 2.6-Dinitroioluenc
24 1.4-Dioxane
25 Ethylbenune
26 bis(2-Elhylhexyl)phthalaic
27 Hepiachlor
28 Hexachlorobenzene
29 Hcxachloroethane
30 2-Hexanonc
31 liophoronc
32 Methylene chloride
33 Methyl ethyl ketone
34 Methyl naphthalene
35 Methyl ten-butyl ether
36 Naphthalene
37. Nitrobenzene
3£ Pemachlorophcno!
39 Phenol
40 1.1.2.2-Teirachloroethane
41 Tetrachloroethylene
42 Tetrahydrofuran
43 Toluene
44 1.2.4-Trichlorobenzene
45 1.1.1-Trichloroelhant
46 1.1.2'Trichloroelhane
47 Trichloroethylene
48 2.4.6-Trichlorophenol
49 Vinyl chloride
50 o-Xylcne
Atihnrplion
Capvcilv
(mg compound/?
carbon 1
al 500 ppb
155
43
NA
80
24.8
8.?
40 (at pH = 3)
5
13.6
6.:
45
0..1
1.6
3S
87.3
i.:
•)
3.4
9
2 2
NA
91.2
1)6
0.5-1.0
IE
3995
6313
42
74.2
<13
24.4
o.s
94
150
6.5
5.6
50.5
100
161
8J»
343
<0.5
50
126.6
:
3.7
is.:
179{aipHO)
TRACE
75
Keferrnrcr
4
1

1
4
4
4
4
4 •
2
3
4
1
3
4
4
T
4
5
4

4
4
5
1
4
4
3
4
5
4
1
1
5
5
3
4
3
1
4
1
5
1
4
2
4
2
4
3
4
NA = Not Available
1. Venchuren. Karel. Handbook of Environmental Data on Organic
  Chemicals. New York: Van Nostrand Rcinhold. 19Ej
2- Uhlcr. R.E. el al. Treatment Alternative lor Groundvater Con-
  tamination. Jamei M- Montgomery.  Consulting Engineen
3. Stenzel. Mart- Letter ol Correspondence to Evan Nyer. August
  21.  1984.
4. U.S. EPA  "Carbon Adsorption Isotherms lor Toxic Organic.*
  EPA-600/8-80-02J. Municipal Environmental Research Labora-
  tory. April 1980.
5. Roy. Al. Calgon Carbon. 1991.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
IE
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
4£
49
50
NOICK

Compound
Acenaphlhene
Acetone
Aroclor 1254
benzene
Bcnzoujpyrene
henzo(g.h.i)perylene
Benzoic acid
Bromodichloromethane
Bromoform
Carbon tetrachkoride
Chkorobenzene
Chlotoelhanc
Chloroform
2-Chiorophenol
p-Dichlorobcnzene (1.4)
1.1-Dichloroelhane
1.2-Dichloroethanc
1.1-Dichloroelhylene
cis-U-Dichloroethylenc
tranv~1.2-Dich)oroethylene
2.4.Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid
Dimethyl phthalate
2.6-Dinitroioluene
1,4-Dtoxane
Ethylbenzcne
bis(2-Ethylhexyl)phihalate
Heptachloi
Hexachlorobenzene
Hcxachloroethane
2-Hexanone
Isophoronc
Mcthylcne chloride
Methyl ethyl ketone
Methyl naphthalene
Methyl ten-butyl ether
Naphthalene
Nitrobenzene
Pentachkorophcnol
Phenol
1.1.2.2-Tcirachloroethane
Telrachloroethylene
Teirahydroluren
Toluene
1 .2.4-Trichlorobenzene
1.1.1 -Trichloroethanc
1 .1.2-Trichtoroethane
Trichloroethylcne
2.4.6-Trichlorophenol
Vinyl chloride
o-Xylene
D - Dctradibk
P « Penmenl
degradabiliti
D
D
P.D
D
P.D
P.D
D
P.D
P.D
P.D
D
D
P.D
D
P.D
P.D
P.D
P.D
P.D
P.D
D
D
D.P
P.R
D
P.D
P.R
P.R
D
D
D
D
D
D
NA
D
D
P.D
D
P.D
P.D
D
D
P.D
P.D
P.D
P.D
D
P.D
D
R % Recalcnram
NA « Nol AvilUblt
Reference
;

-1 -
]
2 j
2.J
2
1
1
1
1
6
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
5
23
8
1
23
2
1
2
5
5
1

1

1
2
1
1
23
1
7
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
1


References:
1. Out torn compiled in E.K. Nyer. Gn>u*4>*wfrr Trtotmrni Ttctinology. 2nd
  En. D. Ktnely. A. Chakratwny. CS
  Omenn (£«i-) Advance* in Applied BKneainok>iy Scriei. VoL 4. Portfolio
  Pub. Co.. TV WoodJutoi. Texu. 199C.
4. ~Our*ctcruitkxi and Laboratory Soil Truubiliiy Studio lor Creotote
  and Penucatorophcnol Siudjjes ind Com*minntd Soil.' EPA: Wathmf
  ton. D.C- 198&. EPArtOW-S&Qii.
5. Pi tier. R. J. Omdob*, Biodttrmdobilwr ef Organic $ubste*ca in the
  Aouaitc Eavm+mttu. CRC Pteu, 1990
6. Vofct. TK, PJ_ McOnj, "Tr»ntJorm*ikxu of Httofciuied Aliphstk
  Compounfii.- Env. So. TecanoU 21. 722-736. 1977.
7. Vobt*y. V.T_ CP. Gr*d>. Toxiciiy of Seteoed RCRA Compounoi to
  Acitviicd Sludpc MKTOorfintsrm.' Jounul WPCF. Vol. 60. No. 10. 1850.
  19RL.
B. Kieckt. C.M. SJ. GOAKMT. "Removal of l,*-Dioi«ne from Wuicwaici."
  Journal of Haiardoui Maicruh. 13. 161-16S. 1986.
                                                                                        Fall 199) GWMR
                                                                                                                            85

-------
Persistent refers to chemicals that remain in the  envi-
ronment for long periods of lime. These compounds are
not necessarily  "non-degradable," but  degradation
requires long periods of acclimation or modification of the
environment to induce degradation. Recalcitrant refers to
compounds that are non-degradable.
   From  the literature, each compound must be evalu-
ated to determine the estimated time  to complete the
transformation of the chemical under optimal condi-
tions. If the time period is acceptable, treatability and
pilot plants can then be initiated. Table 6 presents bio-
degradation potential for 50 organic compounds.
   We can combine these treatability propenies with
our experience in full-scale design and  generate a theo-
retical preliminary design.  This design can be used to
generate  a preliminary cost estimate. Based upon this
data, we can eliminate the technologies that obviously
will not work. This data will also show us which com-
pounds are controlling the designs. We can then go back
and confirm their concentrations in  the field, and lest
ihe actual treatment in laboratory and  pilot plant tests.
   I hope you find these tables to be a convenient source
of important information.  1 encourage you, however,
not to use the data as a final basis for full-scale design.
   Evan K. Nycr is an expert in the research and appli-
cation of technology to ground water cleanups. As vice
president with Ceraghty & Miller Inc., he is responsible
for engineering services including hazardous and solid
waste management,  environmental and natural
resource management,  remediation activities and
designing treatment systems for contaminated sites
throughout the United Slates and in foreign countries.
He has designed more than 100 ground water treatment
systems.
   Nyer travels throughout the country teaching treat-
ment techniques at seminars and universities. He has
written numerous papers on ground water decontami-
nation and other water and waste water cleanup tech-
niques. He is responsible for bringing  to the field many
innovative techniques for biological treatment of water,
soils, and in situ treatment and the application of exist-
ing technologies to ground water contamination. He is
a member of the Water Pollution Control Federation,
The  National Water Well Association, The  American
Institute of Chemical  Engineers,  and The  American
Society of Civil Engineers.
   Bridget Morello received a B.S. Che from the Uni-
versity of South Florida in 1987 and is currently work-
ing for Geraghty it Miller^ Process Croup in Tampa,
Florida. She is mainly  involved in trealabiliry evalua-
tion  and design of ground water treatment systems.
   Gary Boettcher is a project scientists with Geraghty
& Miller Inc.  in Tampa, Florida. He  received his B.S.
degree in microbiology from the University of South
Florida and is currently pursuing a Master of Public
Health (MPH) degree.  He is involved in investigation,
treatability, and design of biological remediation
systems.
                  Fall 1991 GWMR

-------
GROUNDWATER  FLOW RATES
             AND  MODELING
   PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES
   At the end of this lesson, participants will be able to:

   •    Describe the physical, chemical and biological processes that
       affect groundwater flow and contaminant transport

   •    List three factors that groundwater models can predict

   •    List three problems associated with groundwater models used
       in groundwater assessment

   •    Identify misuses of groundwater models.

-------
                                          NOTES
 GROUNDWATER FLOW
 RATES AND MODELING
   PHYSICAL PROCESSES
     • Advection
     • Hydrodynamic dispersion
     • Molecular diffusion
     • Density stratification
     • Immiscible phase flow
     • Fractured media flow
    CHEMICAL PROCESSES
    • Oxidation-reduction reactions
    • Radionuclide decay
    • Ion exchange
    • Complexation
    • Cosolvation
    • Immiscible phase partitioning
    • Sorption
9/93
Groundwater Flow Rates and Modeling

-------
     NOTES
                              BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES
                               • Microbial population dynamics
                               • Substrate utilization
                               • Biotransformation
                               • Adaptation
                               • Cometabolism
                                                   Advection
                                     l Distance from source
                                     DARCY'S LAW
                                        Q = KIA
                                • Q =  discharge
                                • K =  hydraulic conductivity
                                • I  =  hydraulic gradient
                                • A =  area
Groundwater Flow Rates and Modeling
9/93

-------
                                                                          NOTES
                         long path
                        short path
                               fast
                                         Pore
                                         size
                                         Path
                                        length
Friction
 in pore
   t
    o
    o>
    o
    o
    O

    I
              Distance from source i
Advection
   plus
dispersion
     0°
     O
         I—A-
                     Distance
9/93
                        Groundwater Flow Rates and Modeling

-------
        NOTES


«•*[
V
V =
L =
t =
erfc
CONCENTRATION
AT DISTANCE "L"
= longitudinal dispersion coefficient
solute concentration at source
average linear velocity
distance
time
= complementary error function


m






t
o
1
'c
(U
g
o
O
0

*\ ~"
V
x
•• Distance from source •••••

Advection
plus
retardation

>•

RETARDATION

R = 1 +Pb X Kd
n

R = retardation factor
A = bulk density
ry = distribution coefficient = (KoC ){foc)
n = porosity
Contaminant Velocity:
»•-*
vx = contaminant velocity
v = ground water flow velocity
R, = retardation factor for contaminant x
Groundwater Flow Rates and Modeling
9/93

-------
                                                              NOTES
        Hypothetical contaminant plume
       with a small transverse dispersivity
                Waste
  Q)
  O

 0
H
wil
i_ ^
Q) 	 ^
15
ir
s "^
o — >
ypothetical contaminant plume
th a large transverse dispersivity
Waste

0
,.SM'WK9f,^
\\\N- ' .
'-' \ \
\ \\ \

•^\
0.3 1
0.2 1
1 *,'
y////////////////////////,

               Continuous source
                  -»
   Groundwater flow
         t
         0 .    *I       -2         -3

                One-time source
9193
                                                    Groundwater Flow Rates and Modeling

-------
         NOTES
                                                                  DNAPL SOURCE
                                                       Residual DNAPL•
                                                  Top of
                                                  capillary
                                                  fringe •
                                                    Groundwater
                                                      flow
                                                                                       Dense vapor
/*
^ \-.-.-.
"^NH





^^^^^^
IV
4.'.v,,,,,,,^>

1 	
•, ~" "" i ' • • • •

..1 	 /.
N •

                                                 ///////TTT/ ////,,
                                                 / Lower permeability strata  ///'/
                                                 /////''' ' ' '
      chemical
       plume
                                                                Product source
                                                                     Groundwater flow
                                                                Product source
                                                                   (inactive)
                                                    Top of
                                                   capillary
                                                    fringe
                                                         Product
                                                                 Product
                                                                 at residual
                                                                 saturation
Groundwater flow
Groundwater Flow Rates and Modeling
                  9/93

-------
                                                NOTES
            :::::::::::::  Diffusion  :
               ;;:::::  into rock
                    matrix
        Fractured porous rock
   PRIMARY MODEL TYPES
      Defined by Objective


   Screening models
   In-depth environmental fate models
    MODELS CAN PREDICT

        • Spatial variation
        • Temporal variation
        • Parameter variation
9/93
Groundwater Flow Rates and Modeling

-------
     NOTES
                               MODEL DIMENSIONS
                             ONE-DIMENSIONAL
                             TWO-DIMENSIONAL
                             THREE-DIMENSIONAL
                               2-D
                             Prediction
Reality
                              MODELING PROBLEMS
                           • Lack of appropriate modeling
                             protocols and standards
                           • Insufficient technical support
                           • Inadequate education and training
                           • Widely used, but selection and use
                             inconsistent
Groundwater Flow Rates and Modeling
                9/93

-------
                                          NOTES
MOST COMMON EPA MODELS
   Name
   MODFLOW
   HELP
   RANDOM WALK
   USGS-2D
   USGS-MOC
Relative Use
    29
    24
    21
    20
    19
   KEYS TO SUCCESSFUL
      USE OF MODELS
  Proper imput data and parameter
  estimates
  Effective communication
  Understanding the limitations of the
  model
           G.I.G.O.
  Garbage in = Garbage out
  The first axiom of computer usage
9/93
                   Groundwater Flow Rates and Modeling

-------
       NOTES
                                        Selection Criteria for Mathematical
                                        Models Used in Exposure
                                        Assessments:

                                        Ground-Water Models
                                         U.S. EPA.  1988.  EPA/600/8-88/075.
                                           MODELING  PROCESS

                                            • Problem characterization

                                            • Site characterization

                                            • Model selection criteria

                                            • Code installation

                                            • Model application
                                                  I Ground-Water Flow \
                                             |  Water Tattle or Confined Aquifer?  \

                                             I  Porous Media or Fracture Flow?  I
                                                          •
                                                 [  1, 2, or 3 Dimensional? \

                                              |  Single Phase or Multi-Phase?  \
                                              Homogeneous or Heterogeneous?
                                              Hydraulic Conductivity. Recharge,
                                              	Porosity, Specific Storage	
                                               |  Single Layer or Multi-Layer?  \

                                                   [Constant or Variable \
                                                    Thickness Layers?  I
                                                         •
                                               |  Steady-State or Transient?  \
                                              Select the Appropriate Analytical or
                                              Numerical Ground-Water Flow Code

                                                         or

                                               Continue with the Decision Tree
                                                  and Select a Combined
                                                  Ground-Water Flow and
                                                Contaminant Transport Model
Groundwoter Flow Rates and Modeling
10
9/93

-------
                                           NOTES
      WATER TABLE OR
     CONFINED AQUIFER

       • Water table
       • Confined (majority)
       • Combination of both
       POROUS MEDIA/
       FRACTURE FLOW
     • Porous media (majority)
     • Fractured media
     • Combination of both
   1,2, OR 3 DIMENSIONAL

     • 3 dimensional (preferred)
     • Availability of data
9/93
11
Groundwater Flow Rates and Modeling

-------
     NOTES
                                SINGLE PHASE OR
                                   MULTI-PHASE
                           • Few models available for multi-phase
                            flow
                               HOMOGENEOUS OR
                                HETEROGENEOUS

                             Homogeneous if:
                             - Conductivity values are within
                               an order of magnitude
                             - Recharge, porosity, and storage
                               values vary less than 25%
                                SINGLE LAYER OR
                                   MULTI-LAYER
                            Single layer aquifer if:
                            - Hydraulic conductivities are
                               within an order of magnitude
                            - Hydraulic gradients and porosity
                               are within 25%
                            - Flow direction is same
Groundwater Flow Rates and Modeling
12
9/93

-------
                                              NOTES
   CONSTANT OR VARIABLE
     THICKNESS LAYERS
   • Constant or uniform if thickness
    changes less than 10%
STEADY-STATE OR TRANSIENT
  Steady-state if water table fluctuations
  are less than 10%

  Transient is difficult to implement
  Select the appropriate analytical or
  numerical groundwater-flow code
              or
 • Continue with the decision tree and
  select a combined groundwater-flow
  and contaminant transport model
  - Compatible but separate models
  - Combined flow and transport
     model
9/93
13
Groundwater Flow Rates and Modeling

-------
     NOTES

L


\ Contaminant Transport I
^^^M~
Point, Line, or Areal Source?
^f

D

I Initial Value or Constant Source? \



Si
Nun

^M
| 1 , 2. or 3 Dimensional?
^^~Wf
1 Dispersion? 1
^B
Adsorption?
* Temporal Variability
• Spatial Variability
^^~BB"
Degradation?
* 1st Order/and Order
* Radioactive Decay
^^TB~
Density Effects?
* Thermal and/or Concentration
^f
ilect the Appropriate Analytical
lerlcal Contaminant Transport C




or
'ode

                                  POINT, LINE, OR
                                  AREAL SOURCE
                            • Point source:  pipe outflow or well

                            • Line source: trench

                            • Areal source:  waste lagoon or
                              agricultural field

                            • Volume source: volume in
                              groundwater
                                 INITIAL VALUE OR
                               CONSTANT SOURCE
                                 • Instantaneous pulse

                                 • Continuous release
                                   - Constant
                                   - Variable
Groundwater Flow Rates and Modeling
14
9/93

-------
                                                NOTES
   1,2, OR 3 DIMENSIONAL
• 3 dimensional unless lower dimension
  is justified

• 1 dimensional generally predicts
  higher concentrations
          DISPERSION
   • Represents spreading of solute
    caused by mechanical mixing

   • Difficult to measure in the field

   • Requires field calibration
         ADSORPTION
   Temporal/Spatial Variability
  Process whereby dissolved chemicals
  become attached to solids

  Current practice:  lump chemical and
  biological processes into retardation
9/93
15
Groundwater Flow Rates and Modeling

-------
      NOTES
                                     DEGRADATION
                             1st/2nd Order - Radioactive Decay
                                  Degradation results from:
                                  -  Biological transformations
                                  -  Hydrolysis
                                  -  Other chemical reactions
                                   DENSITY EFFECTS
                              Thermal and/or Concentration
                              Naturally occurring situations normally
                              not affected by density

                              Landfill leachates often affected by
                              density
                              Select the appropriate analytical or
                              numerical contaminant transport code
                              -  Transport model compatible with
                                 groundwater-flow model
                              -  Combined groundwater-flow/
                                 contaminant transport model
Groundwater Flow Rates and Modeling
16
9/93

-------
                                             NOTES
    SOURCES OF MODELS
 AND MODEL INFORMATION

 Superfund Exposure Assessment Manual

 Chapter 3 - Contaminant Fate Analysis
            (35 Models)


     U.S. EPA. 1988. 540/1-88/001.
    SOURCES OF MODELS
 AND MODEL INFORMATION


   National Ground Water Association

         6375 Riverside Drive
         Dublin, Ohio 43017
           614761-1711
          1-800-551-7379
     SOURCES OF MODELS
   AND MODEL INFORMATION


 International Groundwater Modeling Center (IGWMC)

 Institute for Ground-Water Research and Education

        Colorado School of Mines

        Golden, Colorado 80401-1887

            (303) 273-3103
9/93
17
Groundwater Flow Rates and Modeling

-------
   PROBLEM  1
Flow Net Construction

-------
                  PROBLEM 1:  FLOW NET CONSTRUCTION
GENERAL DISCUSSION

Groundwater-level data can be used to determine direction of groundwater flow by constructing
groundwater contour maps and flow nets. A minimum of three observation points are needed to
calculate a flow direction.  The procedure is first to relate the groundwater field levels to a
common datum - map  datum is usually best - and then accurately plot their position on a scale
plan, as in Figure 1.  Next draw a pencil line between each of the observation points, and divide
each line into a number of short, equal lengths in proportion to the difference in elevation at each
end of the line.

The next step is to join points of equal height on each of the lines to form contour lines (lines of
equal head).  Select a  contour interval which is appropriate to the overall variation in water levels
in the study area.  The direction of groundwater flow is at right angles to the contour lines from
points of higher head to points of lower head.

This simple procedure can be applied to a much larger number of water-level values to construct
a groundwater-level contour map such as the one in the example.  First,  locate the position of
each observation point on a base map of suitable scale, and write the water level against each
well's position. Study these water-level values to decide which contour lines would cross the
center of the map. Select one or two key contours to draw in first.

Once the contour  map is complete, flow lines can be drawn by first dividing a selected contour
line into equal lengths. Flow lines are drawn at right angles from this contour, at each point
marked  on it.  The flow line are extended until the next contour line is intercepted, and are then
continued at right angles to this  new contour line.  Always  select a contour which will enable you
to draw the flow lines in a downgradient direction.
PROBLEM 1: THE THREE-POINT PROBLEM

Groundwater-flow direction will be determined from water-level measurements made on three
wells at a site as depicted in Figure 1:

       A.     Given:

              Well Number        Head (meters)
                  1                26.26
                  2                26.20
                  3                26.08

       B.     Procedure

              1.      Select water-level elevations (head) for three wells as depicted in
                     Figure 1.
9/93                                        1                       Flow Net Construction

-------
       N

o
a

        WELL 2

      ( head, 26.20 m )
      0  25  50
100
          METERS
          Figure 1
                                           WELL1

                                         ( head, 26.28 m )
  \NELL3

( head, 26.08 m )

-------
              2.     Select the well with water-level elevation between the other wells (Well 2)

              3.     Draw a line between Wells 1 and 3. Note that somewhere between these
                     wells is a point, labeled A in Figure 2, where the water-level elevation at
                     this point is equal to Well 2 (26.20 m).

              4.     To determine the distance x from Well 1 to point A the following
                     equation must be solved (see Figures 3, 4, and 5):
                                                           H2
                                     Y                 X

              5.     Distance Y is measured directly from the map (200 m) on Figure 3.
                     H1} H2, and H3 represent head or water-level elevations from their
                     respectively numbered wells.

              6.     After the x distance is calculated, groundwater-flow direction based on the
                     water-level elevations can be constructed 90° to the line representing
                     equipotential elevation of 26.20 m as depicted on Figure 6.
       C.     Problem:
              Based on the previous instructions for the three point solution use the three head
              or water-level elevations depicted on Figure 7 and determine the groundwater-
              flow direction for this site.
9/93                                          3                         Flow Net Construction

-------
I
5
        N
         WELL 2
       ( head, 26.20 m )
                      WELL1
                    ( head, 26.28 m )
                                               Point A
       0  25  5Q
100
           METERS
WELL 3
                                        ( head, 26.08 m )
         Figure 2

-------
        N
I
Uj

       WELL 2
     ( head, 26.20 m )
       0  25  50
100
                     WELL1
                   ( head, 26.28 m )
                          Point A
 WELLS
( head, 26.08 m )
            METERS
     Figure 3

-------
I
      ( 26.28 - 26.20 )   ( 26.28 - 26.08 )
            X
200
                    X = 80
                   Figure 4
I
Ui

-------
I

         N
         WELL 2
        ( head, 26.20 m )
0  25  50
                    100
            METERS
                         X = 80 m
           WELL1
         ( head, 26.28 m )
        A
          WELLS
         ( head, 26.08 m )
Figure 5

-------

§
o'
oo
1
Uj
       N
        WELL 2

      ( head, 26.20 m )
      0  25  50
100
          METERS
                                        WELL1

                                      ( head, 26.28 m )
                                          26-
                                     Groundwater-Flow

                                         Direction
 WELLS

( head, 26.08 m )
         Figure 6

-------
                                                500
            320,
        1 MILE
                                 '420
                     Figure  7
9/93
Flow Net Construction

-------
                  B
                  D
                                                      A '
                 Map
                 View
                                                         Cut away
                                                           cross-
                                                          sect ion
                                      FIGURES
                        DEVELOPMENT OF CONTOUR LINES

Consider an island in a lake and the patterns made on  it when the water level recedes. The
shoreline represents the same elevation all around the island and is thus a contour line (Figure
8A).  Suppose that the water level of the lake drops 10 ft and that the position of the former
shoreline is marked by a gravel beach (Figure 8B).  Now there are two contour lines, the new
lake level and the old stranded beach, each depicting accurately the  shape of the island at these
two elevations.  If the water level should continue to drop in increments of 10 ft, with each
shoreline being marked by a beach,  additional contour lines would be formed (Figures 8C and
8D).  A map of the raised beaches is in essence a contour map (Figure 8E), which represents
graphically the configuration of the island.
Flow Net Construction
10
9/93

-------
PROBLEM  2:  EXAMPLE OF FLOW NETS AND HYDRAULIC GRADIENTS
Purpose

The exercise will employ basic principles defined in the determination of groundwater-flow
directions.  Groundwater gradients (slope of the top of the groundwater table) will be calculated
as shown in the three-point problem (problem 1) in this problem.
Key Terms

       head—The energy contained in a water mass produced by elevation, pressure and/or
       velocity.  It is a measure of the hydraulic potential due to pressure of the water column
       above the point of measurement and height of the measurement point above datum which
       is generally mean sea level. Head is usually expressed in feet or meters.

       contour line—A line which represents the points  of equal values, i.e. elevation,
       concentration, etc.

       equipotential  line—A. line which represents the points of equal head of groundwater in an
       aquifer.

      flow lines—Lines indicating the flow direction followed by groundwater toward points of
       discharge. Flow lines are always perpendicular to equipotential  lines.  They also  indicate
       direction  of maximum potential gradient.
Procedure

1.     Review Figures 8-11.

2.     Select an appropriate contour interval that fits the water-levels available and the size of
       the map on Figure 9.  (Twenty-foot contour intervals should be appropriate for this
       problem.)

3.     Draw the equipotential lines on the  map (Figure 10) interpolating between water-level
       measurements in a similar manner as in problem 1.

4.     Construct flow lines perpendicular to the equipotential lines drawn in step 3 (see
       Figure 11.)
9/93                                        11                        Flow Net Construction

-------
         101.9
                    96.2
                 99.6
 ®
 102.0          e
            100.8

Scale:  1" = 425'
                                            89.4
                                                        88.9
                                94.8
                                               94.8
                                                            ,91.0
                                99.1
                                    102.4
                                                101.9
                                                          101.8
                                  FIGURE 9
                WELL LOCATIONS AND HEAD MEASUREMENTS
               100
                                                        88.9
         101.9
         «
          102.0
                     100.8

         Scale:  1" = 425'
                                 FIGURE 10
          EQUIPOTENTIAL LINES WITH WELL HEAD MEASUREMENTS
Flow Net Construction
                             12
9/93

-------
                 100'
          101.9
                                                             88.9
           e
           102.0
                       100.8

          Scale:  1" = 425'
5.
                                    FIGURE 11
              FLOW LINES ADDED TO EQUIPOTENTIAL LINES AND
                    CALCULATION OF HYDRAULIC GRADIENT

      The hydraulic gradient is calculated by measuring the scale distance between equipotential
      lines along a flow line that crosses the site, and dividing that value into the calculated
      change in head across the same distance (H2 -
                                    i ~ H2    Aff
For example (see Figure 11):

      Head at A = 100' (H,)

      Head at B  = 90'
      Measured distance between the points is 1200' (L)

      Head at point A minus head at point B divided by the distance between the points equals
      hydraulic gradient (slope from point A to point B).
             100 feet - 90 feet _    10
                   1200  feet         1200
                                              = 8.3 x 10'3 feet/foot
      Select a distance on your contour map between two contour lines and compute the
      gradient.
9/93
                                         13
Flow Net Construction

-------
PROBLEM 3:  FLOW NET CONSTRUCTION

After completing the contour map in Problem 2, plot a profile of the site's groundwater surface
at Y-Y' on Figure 12.
Procedure
              Vertically project the contour lines that intersect line Y - Y' on map in Figure 12,
              to the dashed line labeled Y-Y' below this map and above the graph for the
              site's profile.

              Be sure to label each mark on this line with it's respective elevation.

              Plot each elevation point on the graph using the vertical scale given.

              Connect the points on the graph. You have now constructed the site's
              groundwater-surface profile. This profile also represents a cross section.
Flow Net Construction                        14                                        9/93

-------
        420
                     '380
                »400
Y
           380
                           /  320
                           I   •
                                   380
                                  480 •

                                     520
       400*   360
360*
                       340
                               360
                                wl
                                                    500
                                  \
                                               460
      «r
      340
• 340
                 380

                   • 420
                   400
*320
 \
 \

 x  340

     \
                              400 .
         360
                420
                              380  • 420



                                r»V
                               > -cu
                                    \ c^».
                                     ?•&[

                               400     x
                               ,440
                                       360
  1MILE .       0480
                                               420
                                   •420
                                              460
 Y
                                                    Y
                                                     Y
                                                            500
                                                                  LLJ

                                                            400  LL!
                                                            300
                           Figure  12
9/93
                          15
                                    Flow Net Construction

-------
PROBLEM 4:  FLOW NET CONSTRUCTION

Site Name:  Bakers Quarry

Location:    Tippersville, Maine


SITE HISTORY/OPERATION

The quarry operation began in 1905 providing construction grade granite locally and was closed
in 1928 when the volumes of groundwater seeping into the pit made it economically unfeasible to
continue mining (Figure 13). The site was abandoned and the pit filled with water. The owners
of the quarry declared bankruptcy and ownership fell to the city of Tippersville in lieu of
delinquent tax payments.

The quarry was used as a swimming hole and occasional dump site for locals until  1958, when
several children drowned.  The site was fenced and patrolled to prevent swimming.  Uncontrolled
dumping by individuals and local industry increased dramatically with the swimming ban.
Dumping took place around the rim of the quarry and periodically the bulldozer from the town
landfill was used to push material into the pit.  Gradually the pit was filled and several fires
forced the town to terminate dumping in 1971. The surface of the site was covered with local
material, primarily sand and gravel.

The site gained notoriety when an area-wide survey identified it as a potential industrial dump
site.  A preliminary site investigation, started on 4/14/82, including sampling a spring located
approximately 25 feet from the limits of quarrying. Priority pollutant analysis of this sample
identified ppm levels of polychlorinated biphenyls and trichloroethylene.  Results from this
preliminary investigation were used to justify a more extensive hydrogeologic study of the site.


ELEMENTS OF THE HYDROGEOLOGIC INVESTIGATION

The first step of this investigation was to do a literature review of geologic information.  A
discussion with a local amateur geologist revealed a paper from a geologic investigation
performed during active quarrying.  Information from this study and observations at an outcrop
on-site provided a geologic background for the investigation.  The quarry material is a slightly
gneissoid biotite-muscovite granite.  Several dikes were identified in the quarry wall.

The probable high permeability  and infiltration rate of the less consolidated waste material
compared to that of the granite, could cause groundwater mounding in the pit area. Potential
mounding,  and inadequate information about groundwater flow direction dictated a ringing of the
site with monitoring wells.

Twenty-two monitoring wells were planned and installed at the site from 10/1 to 11/14/82.
Eleven were installed in bedrock, the unconsolidated zone sealed with steel casing and  grouted.
Eleven monitoring wells were installed in the unconsolidated heavily weathered bedrock or
unconsolidated zones.   For the purpose of this problem set you will only be using  data from the
eleven wells listed in Table 1. An explanation of this data is depicted in Figure 14.

9/93                                        17                       Flow Net Construction

-------
400'
        800'
                                                    1200'
                                    Site Boundary
                             FIGURE 13
            SITE MAP - BAKERS QUARRY, TIPPERSVILLE, MAINE
Flow Net Construction
18
                                    9/93

-------
TABLE 1
MONITORING WELL DATA
WELL
NUMBER
MW 1
MW2
MW3
MW4
MW5
MW6
MW7
MW 8
MW9
MW 10
MW 11
(a)
TOP OF
CASING
ELEV.
(feet)*
87.29
89.94
88.04
82.50
82.50
72.50
80.58
86.03
114.01
108.67
105.07
(b)
GROUND
SURFACE
(GS)
ELEV.
(feet)*
84.79
87.99
85.44
79.80
80.05
69.50
78.28
83.53
111.21
106.67
103.37
(c)
GROUND-
WATER
ELEV.
(feet)*
80.49
84.69
75.29
72.40
73.40
67.50
74.78
76.93
92.36
93.97
94.97
(d)
WELL
DEPTH
(feet
below GS)
151.9
103.05
103.1
102.3
102.45
99.6
99.5
99.2
99.9
98.7
102.1
BOTTOM
OF WELL
ELEV.
(feet)*
-67.11
-15.06
-17.66
-22.50
-22.40
-30.10
-21.22
-15.67
11.31
7.97
1.27
(e)
BED-
ROCK
DEPTH
(feet
below GS)
7.5
7.5
2.0
14.0
8.5
9.0
8.0
8.5
10.5
10.8
2.5
* Datum: mean sea level
9/93
19
Flow Net Construction

-------
                                 MW   1
                 87.29
                       84.79
                             151.9
                                                    7.5
                                                         Bedrock
                                           80.49
                                                   Datum Csea level}
                   Ca)   Top of  casing elevation
                        Ground  surface elevation
                        Groundwater  elevation
                        Well  depth below ground surface £feet}
                   Ce}   Bedrock depth
                                 FIGURE 14
                      MONITORING WELL ELEVATIONS
Flow Net Construction
20
P/P3

-------
DEVELOPMENT OF SITE PROFILES
Purpose

The development and comparison of topographic profiles across the site will help the student to
understand the variability of the surface terrain usually found on most of the larger sites.  The
water-table profile will also be constructed.  These profiles will be useful during the next
problem, "Flow Nets and Determination of Hydraulic Gradients."
Procedure

1.     To construct cross-section lines, lay the edge of a piece of paper along the cross-section
       line selected and draw a straight line.  Mark the location of the monitoring wells along
       the edge of the paper.  (The placement of some wells may need to be projected, as not all
       of the wells lie along  a straight line.)

A - A'        MW 9, MW 2, and MW 4 (in that order)

B-B'        MW 1, MW8, andMWV

C - C'        MW 11, MW 3, MW 7, and MW 5

NOTE:  One should be aware that projection of wells to a cross-section line could cause
distortions which might affect interpretation of the distribution  of subsurface geology or soil.

2.     Using the graph paper provided, transfer these well locations to the bottom of the page
       along the horizontal axis.

3.     The vertical axis will  represent elevation in feet. Mark off the elevations in ten foot
       increments.  Each division of the graph will  represent an elevation increase of two feet.

4.     Graph the ground  surface  elevation for each  of the chosen monitoring wells.  (This
       information is found in the monitoring well data, Table 1.)

5.     Graph the groundwater elevations for these same locations.

6.     Repeat this  procedure for the other cross-sections lines.

7.     Compare the topographic profile to the water table-profile.  Are they identical?  After
       looking at this data, are there any conclusions that can be drawn?
9/93                                         21                        Flow Net Construction

-------
         PROBLEM 2
Geologic Cross-Section Construction

-------
       PROBLEM  2:  GEOLOGIC  CROSS-SECTION  CONSTRUCTION
Materials necessary to construct cross section:
              Graph paper. Use vertical scale of one graph paper division per 20 feet.

              Colored geologic map from geologic report that covers the area surrounding the
              location of the cross section. The cross section is labeled on the map as A - A'.

              Description of major geologic units from a geologic report.

              Six water well logs which include a driller's description of the  sediments  and rocks
              encountered during the drilling of each well. Location of the wells are depicted on
              the geologic map and the following topographic quadrangle map. These logs will be
              used to construct the geologic cross section.

              Topographic quadrangle map depicting the ground surface elevation along  this cross
              section. This map will be used to construct the surface profile at the cross section.

              Ruler and colored pencils will be supplied upon request.
Procedure to follow in the construction of this cross section:

       •      The instructor will divide the students  into groups after discussing the  materials
              included with this exercise.

       •      Each group will first select an individual to construct a common surface profile that
              the other students will use to put their soil boring interpretation for each well on the
              cross section. This person will use the same procedure employed earlier to construct
              the profile in the flow net exercise.

       •      Each group will then determine who will evaluate the soil boring information from
              each well log and define which major geologic units are present. This interpretation
              will be based on the geologic information already provided. Hint: The geologic map
              indicates the major unit at the top of each soil boring.

       •      When the major unit intervals are defined on each boring, this information will be
              constructed on the graph paper provided using the vertical scale given above. It is
              suggested that one use the same symbols as those used to describe the major geologic
              units in the geologic report.

       •      After the surface profile is completed, the  constructed boring log for each well will
              be transposed onto this profile. This is done by placing the top of each constructed
              well log at its appropriate surface location on the profile. This will eliminate the need

9/93                                         1                    Cross-Section Construction

-------
              of calculating the elevation for the top of each major geologic unit found in each
              boring.

       •      Once this is accomplished each group will attempt to correlate these major geologic
              units between the six soil borings.
Cross-Section Construction                    2                                           9/93

-------
Depth of Soil
Boring


0-5. Oft




5.0- 10.0ft




10.0 - 15.0 ft




1 c r\ 1*7 c ft
iJ.O - i 1 .J It


17.5 - 20.0 ft

20.0 - 22.5 ft


Lithologic
Description


Tan, silty clay
(SC)



Light brown,
sandy silt
(SS)


Brown, fine-grain

sand
/T7C\
(Fb)


Dark brown,
coarse-grain
sand
(CS)
Reddish brown
gravel
(G)

Red Clay
(C)

g
-3
a,

.


000
—
o o o o



. ...
•
•

QoQoooQooo
o o o°°o o°°°
0 O O O O O O O
OOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOO




Boring Log
Example
#2




SC





SS





T7Q
To


CS
G

c


9/93
Cross-Section Construction

-------
§
§
I

       CLAY PLUG
     HORIZONTAL
     BEDDING
   SCOUR AND FILL

     PREVIOUS  _
     FLOOD PLANE
I
VARIOUS
X-BEDDING
STYLES

PLANAR
X-BEDDING

TROUGH X-BEDDING
MASSIVE
GRAVEL BED

CHANNEL LAG

-------
     GRAIN SIZE DECREASES
   FINING UPWARDS SEQUENCE
 POOR
           SORTING
    GOOD
  STREAM VELOCITY DECREASES
9/93
Cross-Section Construction

-------
                         DESCRIPTION  OF MAP UNITS


Symbol                              Description

                    Quaternary Sediments

Qa                 Alluvium or stream deposits(Holocene)—Composed of silt-,  sand-,  and
                    gravel-size sediment. These deposits are found in floodplains, river terraces,
                    and valley  bottoms. The vertical sequence of sediment grain size decreases
                    from bottom to top. Locally the unit includes lacustrine (lake) and paludal
                    (swamp or  marsh)  clays and silts,  eolian (wind blown)  sand deposits in
                    depressions.

Qfg                 Flood deposits (Pleistocene)—Poorly sorted, stratified mixture of boulders,
                    cobbles,  gravel,  and sand resulting from multiple episodes of catastrophic
                    outbursts from glacial-dammed lakes,  such as glacial Lake Missoula.  The
                    Little Spokane River valley was one of the main channelways for outburst
                    flood waters from this  ancient lake. Each flood event is  represented by a
                    sequence of sediment grain size decreasing from bottom to top.

Qls                 Alluvial  fan deposits (Pleistocene)—Composed of unstratified  and poorly
                    sorted  (heterogeneous and anisotropic) clay-,  silt-,sand-, and gravel-size
                    sediment. Some fan deposits contain large blocks of rock as much as 8 meters
                    in diameter.

Ql                  Loess (Pleistocene)—Composed of light- to medium-brown, unstratified eolian
                    particles of clay, silt, sand, and volcanic ash. The loess mantles the Columbia
                    River basalt and is most commonly found on the  tops of low hills and
                    plateaus where erosion by water has  been minimal.

Qglf                Lacustrine and flood deposits (Pleistocene)—Composed of light-gray, friable,
                    sediment of clay, silt, and fine sand near the top of this sequence of deposits.
                    This sediment overlies flood deposits composed of stratified mixtures of
                    boulders, cobbles, gravel, and sand.  Each flood deposit is represented by a
                    sequence of sediment grain size decreasing from bottom to top.

                    Columbia River Basalt Group—Tertiary (Miocene)

Mvwp & MVgro       Wanapum basalt flows and upper flows of the Grande Ronde basalt.

Me,                 Latah Formation—Gray to tan to yellow-orange siltstone, claystone,  and
                    minor sandstone of lacustrine and fluvial depositional environments.

                    Intrusive Igneous Rock—Cretaceous

Kiat,               The symbol represents all Cretaceous and Tertiary-age intrusive igneous rocks
                    including the Mount Spokane granite.

Cross-Section Construction                    6                                        9/93

-------
           Figure 1 Regional Geologic Map
                 Mead Landfill Site
5000
  •  -
                5000
10000
---H -----
 FEET
                                 15000
                                          20000
                                                  25000

-------
                                      WATER  WELL REPORT
                                          STATE OP WASHINGTON
0 OWNER:  N.m.^	._	.._	._...		 Addr
2) LOCATION  OF WF.I.L: county
c-imi »nd dliUnce from McUon or aubdlvUlon corner
(3) PROPOSED USE: Domestic Jg£ IndunrlaJ Q Municipal Q
Irrigation D Tett Well Q Other Q
(4) TYPE OF WORK: %?'££ ^"on,0/ Wf" 1
New well ^$ Uethod: Dux Q Bored D
D*«p«ned D Cable Q Driven Q
Reconditioned D t\\f" Rotaj-y^( Jetted D
(5) DIMENSIONS: Diameter of well 	 O. Q 	 inchea.
Drilled 	 (P.O. 	 _..n. Depth of completed well 	 -OO _ft.
(6) CONSTRUCTION DETAILS:
Casing installed: /T>O - DU^. tnm .-.Q....- ft. to r~SL- «.
Threaded ^S» •• 	 " Dlajn. from 	 ft. to 	 ft.

Perforations: YW Q. NotjJ.
Type of perforator uxd 	 	 	
SIZE of perforations 	 	 In. by 	 .. In.
	 ~ 	 P«rforitlnni from ........ n to ... ., 	 ....... ft
	 p*rfor»t*«»* from ft. tfl ft.
Screens: yM Q NO D ^*— / / . \ [ j ii s ^T^|A G f~\

Di*m ,, 	 , Slot *ixf ...._.._.. from 	 , 	 ft. lo . 	 ft,
Gravel packed: Y«^ NO 0 sin of rravti: ._ d"_° .....
Gravel placed from 	 £..Q_ 	 ft. to - 	 .jgrTwd. 	 — ft.

Material Uifd In M>J \r&/W f'ffTf &Y6 L^T
Did any ruau conLain unusable water} Yu Q No JX(
Type of walrr? 	 .. . D«plh of nrau 	


(7) PUMP' j( nii/irt'.ir-r'f N»mf fe^U l'\ u -rD %
Typ-. SaU fV^f?/ S'i|o U HP 5>

/B\ XUAT'PR T FVFT Q* Land-iurf»ce elevation ifty'-S.
US; TYAlC-n. AjC.vt.l^a. above me»n lea level 	 i • ^ — ' ft


Artxxlan water La controlled by 	
(Cap, valve, etc.)
/^ WT"T T TFCTQ- Drawdown U amount water level lj
\t) YY1LJ-.1J ir-ii3, lowered below italic level
Waj a piunp 1*U made) Yej Q No •$} U ym. by Wbom7 	
Yield: 2& fal./mln. with ft. drawdown after 3O fH*»1^1^.
... .
.. _
arcov«rr dUit (time Lilten aa uiro when pump turned of!) (water Uvel
mtuuj-ed from well top to water level)
Tlmt Waur Ltvtl Time Walrr Level Time Water i-nxl


Dtte of l*rt 	
rXkJItr t«*l aJymln wills 	 ft drawdown arter 	 hr»
-»rtrr1«n f 	 rP™ D-1-
.__

(10) WELL LOG:
rormalion: Dtjrritx by color, chorocttr, fut of matrruil and Jiruciurr one
«hou> thurkn«»j o/ aqui/cn and the kind and naiurr o/ Ihr matrnaJ in tact-.
ctratum pciulrated. u?i(h a< l«ut on» entry /or tach chanoc o/ formation
UATTR1AL
^ VA A v Cocv^S ^ <>xci n^i M_c e^3f% f ~ ' fi (' tf "" s
^Ti /-/S /2rvi-£ Vfl,\€. ^~ tJjfacwa />O/ £-/*?H S fB>i t.
tA^fc* r^.-t^'^cl G~*Ct V\i'J~t*^ \ &£t^j'l\*\-
kwpl'Jfr" "£ ^ **1 jO i^ 6t^ +4 I'M fl.3
Grv/^t^ >^. ? A sz *A (&£* <~*e.




t




a" .

*


















FROM
•o
S'
10
2

' 1 t Work it>ned " ^-^ lO . 19 *L.L Completed ttU!^...!...?...... IS.&..L WELL DRILLER'S STATEMENT: ThU wc.ll was drilled under my jurisdiction and thu report U true to the belt of my knowledge and belief. NAME .. (Ptnon. firm, or corporation) !Typ« or print) [Slrned] (Well Driller) Lic-cni* No . . Date , 19 (USr ADDITIONAL SHTITS


-------
                                                 WATER WELL  REPORT
                                                      STATE OF WASHINGTON
  I) OWNER:
 2)  LOCATION  OF WELL:  county	
Se^rinr and  diit&nce-  from acctlon or  eubdlvuion corner
                                                                                   _- .tL^_v. .titiL'.i s«_.I7..... T.2.7....N.. R.41
(3)  PROPOSED USE;   Domestic ^ Indurtrial D   Municipal D
                            Irrigation D  T««t WeU Q   Other    D
(4)  TYPE OF  WORK:   •$"££
                    New well    ^
                    Deepened     D
                    Reconditioned Q
                                      Method: Duf.    D    Bored D
                                           ,  Cable  D    Driven D
                                         fji r Rotiry £1    J«tted O
(5)  DIMENSIONS:
     Drilled 	?..«?^?.	
                                DUmeUr of well
                             Depth of completed
                                                         ._ . inch«.
(6)  CONSTRUCTION DETAILS:
     Casing installed: "4,0- mam. from .-.S>...... ft. to  SZ~^. ft.
         Threaded O     	" Dtam. from ......	 ft. to  .	ft.
                  Q     	" DUm. trom 	 ft. to	ft.
     Perforations:  Y« Q.   N
          Type of  perforator UMd-
          SIZE of  perforation!
                                           In. by
                     perforation! from	•_>._	 ft. to
          	perforation! from	ft. to
                                      	ft. to
 In.
. ft.
. ft.
     Screens:  ve»'st.  NO Q
          Type...
          D.am. _fl!i
          DUm	-
                                            _kkJi
                                  	 Model No	
                          : lilt ...lQ.	from 3*.?J0... ft. u
                      . Slot lUe	from 	 ft_ to	
     Gravel  packed:  Y«^  NO 0
          Grwel placed from		
                                               '3«    JO—ZQ
                                        size of travel: ---- *_:i_.-..
                                           ft. to 	_
                                                        		__ ft.
     Surface  seal:  yei^  NO Q   TO what  depth? .		,.- ft.
          Material uxed In tejj	C
-------
                                         WATER WELL  REPORT
                                             STATE OF  WASHINGTON
 I)  OWNER:
              Nam*.,.^	...
                                                          Addr
2) LOCATION OF WELL:
      >nd
                from xctlon or lubdlviUon corner
                                                                        - H.U>_U ..NJAV s«c ..... 12. T.2.7.N.. R...43
(3) PROPOSED USE: Dom«tic <^J Industrial Q Municipal Q
Irrtfallon P T««l Well P Other P
(4) TYPE OF WORK: ^m'o'r'e ^"oneV *'" ^
New well ftj. Method: Dur Q Eored P
D*ep«nem «t. ia ,.-,_... «
Threaded p 	 " DUm. Irom 	 fl. to 	 . ft. 1
Welded P . 	 " DUm. from 	 	 ft to , ft
Perforations: YW (3. NO J^
Typ« of perforator u**d 	 . 	


pvrfnntlnni from .._. ft tfl 	 , 	 ... ft.

Screens: Y«^ NO p <-r- | 1 ) ( 1 C
^r> i T £• ^v-\. O /f\
Typ»,T_._._./v..^ ^ (T^^> ^,mWJ^i)N", ,„ J?/0
Dl>m 	 Slot »lif 	 	 from 	 ft to ... , ,. . ft-
Gravel packed: Ye«J5^ No 0 Sixr of travel:' 	




Did any lual* contaan unouible water) Yt* Q No D
Typ« oi w»itr?_ 	 . D«plh of «tr»u....


/7\ PT1M-P- (s-fiA AA-P«3 "•


(8) WATER LEVELS: Land-iurface elevation I tf^ O -
1,01 ii^xii-iiw i-ii.. T j-^i—j. jbov, mt«n M-I levrl 	 !.../_>-•' ^ ft.
•' /(O O
Static level 	 _' *L. ..i:__. .n. below top of well Date 	 — 	


Armlaj) witer li controlled by 	
(Cap. vaJve. etc.)
ffi^ \WT T TP*NT^' Drawdown U amount water level lj
\a i nc*isu A£_DiO. lowered below italic level
Waj t pump UU madtl Yu Q No S( If ye«. by whom? 	
Yield: ^,0 ftl./mln. wllh ft. drawdown after ji? , O hn.
-
... -
Hecoy.rr data  thickneu o/ aqui/en and the kind and tuilurr o/ Iht malrnal in rarh
stratum peTietratcd. uiith a( lean on« entry /or each charter of formation
MATERIAL
^fi^-t^L $ C-*~
'~>v.j +sqci-+<*JK:a
t
q/lsrtwsJh. £=>a^~k~ ^v*i c( iCMJltflf^s
e^flfiJ szAsetsiA Lf ' VL* la ta C*-, tz T ftsisv r^u-
r/, )/t^i cs-ctxZ^c. ha£dn^sS L+>)
eLcpU*. .
'











TROM
O
l£>
J?O
3<=>
40
5"0
(f 0
7 e>
&£>
'•fo
10 0
1/6

/_^X"*i
J4-£)
/5^>
/6o
TO
^7
^r lO
•?o
4o
So
to
7o
fi*c5
fo
^-OT3
//O

/Bo
t^fy
f5&
/(aO
^>L0i=>

J-&0 2*?0

2^0 i 5"5o






























Work rfn-ri 3 tX »1X^ 2 ,p £>£> rnmpi.i»rt Jut^-^D_ IB »O
WELL DRILLER'S STATEMENT:
Thli well wu drilled under my jurUdiclion and this report U
true to the but of my knowledge and belief.
NAME 	
(Panon. firm, or corporation) (Type or pnnt)
Addrris , 	 .,,. ., 	 , - 	 	
[SlfTT^]
(Weil Driller)
L4ceni€ No Z)ale 	 i 19 	

                                       (USE ADDmONAL SHXTTS IT KICrSSABY)
ICY 06O-1-7«

-------
                                        WATER WELL REPORT
                                            STATE OP WASHINGTON
 1)  OWNER:  Na
                                                		 Addroj	
 2)  LOCATION OF WELL:  county ...... '
   ing and diiu.nc« from yctlon or tubdivUion corner
(3) PROPOSED USE: Dom«tic & ladunrlaJ D Municipal D
Irrigation D T«*t Well Q Other Q
(4) TYPE OF WORK: ^"m'o'r. U^SneY *"" X{
Ntw well £3, Method: Duf Q Bored D
. Deepened Q Cable O Driven D
Reconditioned D H 1 / RoUry _JZ( Jetted Q
(5) DIMENSIONS: Dum.t.r of w.u 	 f.r.O 	 toeho-

(6) CONSTRUCTION DETAILS:
Casing installed: *l,u ~ 0.^. tn>m . .*< 	 n. u> ... '...*- ft.


Perforations: YW Q. NO taj
Type of perforator u*«d 	 . 	 	



rxi-fnrattnm from ft In ft
Screens: Ya'rf NO D — - / 1 / ) (I c
M.".,M'iur-r> M.m- "xshrASo/v U^H i>e C ^H
Tyr- ?!/ Cr -^rU ftO Vlr^.l M«


- , , , , € fat £>*-e Io-2o
Gravel packed: Yei^ NO 0 si« of travel: 	 	
Gravel placed from 	 	 	 ft. to 	 	 ft.


Did aoy nraui contain u&uuble water) Yei D No g)
Tyj>« of water; 	 Depth of atrau 	 —


(7) PUMT- Manulicl — r'- N»i"« (— -Vw UfA •£-[> 5


(8) WATER LEVELS: ^v.'Sfe'i^' "iTri*!" /f? fa^l «
Static level 	 .' /. T..rT . . ft h«low tnp of well Date 	 	 ._ 	 	


Anrtltn wattr If <^>ntroll»d by
(Cap. vaJve. etc.)
(Q\ 1XTFT T TfCTC. Drawdown It amount water level Li
\V) rtC.l~.Li i.r_il3. lowered below italic level
Wai a pump ten roadtt Yu O No [^ If yx. by whom? 	 , 	
Yield: //O.O fal./mla. with n. drawdown after iS "1£«

... .
Hecovtrr d^ti «l rime Water Level


Date of l*rt 	




(10) WELL LOG:
formation: Deicrib* by color, character, rut of malcrul and ururiurc one
inois thickneu o/ aquifer! and (he kind and nalurr o/ Ihr malrnal in tact.
Uralum penetrated, loith at leajl one entry /or ioc*l chanpc of formation
UATXRIAL
^>a^iA i*jJ&vaAS<.l i ^*- P*C;^/<;
. ?H3AsJ*'&*-«-«•• t aLl/l*i &*>.QS£t**a
Sft^i^c ks, aLe&4A.A uJf s-»rn^c &ya,<~ IfrVo^Ln*. f^o^ir
1

L-Ql^fr^' CL\frt*W&&4*.\ if'cm. lf.<*.u*\
'"' 1-
S^-m^ ai&bo^t. uJ//^ (^>iff^ v
Ha**. A '
**AA* el tO/ s 0vw<- -^x^f e 1
i o - ' "
/j >e«iiv#r-^A /^^/ttclAt/ ia«s/Llf t.
(^W-^^^evue^ /^^/4s^»-yL* U>lff^ '2
GA**^ 4r> l^Vf^j-v^ ^
L< > ^"^'ru^t^^o ^ayt2-KVv^t t/Sj/*^
CrvvvA dltj /T^ '£r,abCe '* ^e^.fv&cl^
tJU>u t*e- CfYOA^dbc. £fvA** ^
£*>L/-^-s
I/O
I2.o
I3o
f4o
/SD
((oo
f~7o
/ fio '
li2 l> 6 /
WELL DRILLER'S STATEMENT:
ThLi well w»i drilled under my jurisdiction and this report is
true to the best of my knowledge and belief.
NAME 	 	 . 	
(Ponon. firm, or corporation) (Type or print)

(Weil Driller)
Urrnj* No .,, „ Dal* ,. 	 , 19 	

                                      (USt ADDITIONAL KHTTTS tT NXCJCSSARY)
ICY OMM-70

-------
                                       WATER  WELL REPORT
                                           STATE Or WASHINGTON
  1) OWNER:  N.m.,			 Addr
 2) LOCATION  OF WELL: county	.
Bc-nni and dittance  from action or mbdlvUlon corner
(3) PROPOSED USE: Don>««ic */lndunrlaJ D Municipal Q
Irritation D Te«t WeU D Other Q
(4) TYPE OF WORK: ^mo?, ^I'nX *"' -5"~
New well SSS Method: Dut Q Bored D
D»«p«nrd D ^ Cable Q Driven Q
Reconditioned Q A \ /" Rotary $ Jetted Q
(5) DIMENSIONS: Dlam.fr of well 	 B^Q_.-. inch...
Drilled 	 #&TP —ft. Depth of completed well ,. .Iff*?, ...ft.

(6) CONSTRUCTION DETAILS:
Casing installed: A.O . mun tnm ._ 0 	 ft. u J_S^ „.
Thruded D 	 " DUm. trom 	 ft. lo 	 ft.

Perforations: YM Q. NO {^
Typ* of perforator UMd 	 	 . 	 	
SIZE of perforation. 	 . In. by . ,. In.

p*r-fnrpMnni from ft to ft
Screens: YU W NO n * 	 • / / \ / 1 f

Typ* — ITM.L,, r3 thi<-flkL:l.yL. C V-1 . Model No

„ . *5\^A*. St-ye Iff ~2°
Uravel packed: Yej^ No 0 Sire of travel: 	
Crbvcl placed trom »_..«...__ 	 , _, 	 ft. to 	 	 _ -,-.-- 	 — . ft.


Did JLny rtrau con tun uniuAblc water} Yu Q No D
Typ>« of WAttr? . ,.,.._ . D«plh of ftrau 	


(7) PUMP- HamUfr'"~r'« w™« S^W l^ fi 4-T) 2>
•Py^. "^ \O IVjA/Gi o£t MP /£?

mXX/ATPTTT? T WPT ^- U*nd-iujface elevation If (2 r~*\
s* !<•«•'« above mean iea level ' v?.Ci^ ft
/ ^/^ *i f~)


Annlan water U controlled by — - ...
(Cap. valve, etc.)
^Q\ TATT T TPCTQ- Dr.wdown U amount water level U
V.»> VTr.l-lj J.C010. lowered b«low it.Uc level
Wa. a pump UU made! Yej Q No Jft If y«. by whom? 	
Yield: ^J_ SO fal./mln. with ft. drawdown after / ,£? hn.
... .
.. .
Arcovarx data (tlu. taken aa Lcro when pump turned off) (water la-vcJ
meuured from well lop to water level)
Tim. Water Ltvt\ Time Water L*v«l rim. WaUr L«viou> thickneu ol aqui/ert and the ki>«* «"d nature o/ thr malrnol in eorf.
Uralum p«Tielraled. uiltA nl leaJI one entry /or eo^-h changt ol /ormalion
MATXRIAI,
^JU- a^-cl fa^.d
_S^**£/ a^d cUJ-"
1SzA*.& a** J -f~L£ uj/ ^t)>t*< Z£A**S**<- a S ^ Ojfc-*-*_-c^
•*>twt^^ a < a lOf-^^*, -j.
Q^rLLA**~*d}\. G&iA- n 5 *^AA. A
y&VZU^tJt. OM.A -SV*ix,d
/_,^_^^0
%^a^-t-?
^0^1+ e\ t"-y ^XV<^L— Cv\A,a r-f«>vs_
C£^M S< cyYK^Ljbi i^j/ •S-ern-t-e,
e-«<5Z 
S~o
& -0
~?0
So
• (^
/OO
no
I2.&
130
S4o
'•so
I(o0
77o
I&&

(0
2o
3o
4t>

So
9-D
/
IfO
/2O
I3o
/4o
ISo
f(aO
/70
/So
2.£&

25T=> ! 3&a>






























Work .tan.d^W 3^ . HJ5I8 Compl«ted....5i<..^.'7 	 U.^S
WELL DRILLER'S STATEMENT:
Thli well WM drilled xinder my Jurisdiction and thu report ii
true to the but of my knowledge ind belief.
NAME ... 	
(Puion. Ann, or corporation) (Type or print)
[Signed]
(Weil Driller)
IJcrnr* No Pntr 	 	 , la

                                     (USE ADDITIONAL SHTETS DT NXCESSARY)

-------
                                                  WATER WELL  REPORT
                                                      STATE OH  WASHINGTON
  Q OWKER:
 2)  LOCATION  OF  WELL:  county	'
Bearing and  distAJiC*  from  McUon or iubdlvU.ion corner
(3)  PROPOSED USE:   Domestic
                             Irrigation
                                          Industrial  D   MunJcJpaJ D
                                          Te«t WeU  D   Other    D
(4)  TYPE  OF  WORK:  %?'££
                    New well     ]&.
                    D««p«r>ed     Q
                    Reconditioned fj
                                               "*"
                                       Method: Dut    O   Bored  D
                                               Cable  Q   Driven D
                                               Rotary {£  Jetted  D
(5)  DIMENSIONS:          numtfr of w.ii ....&±Q_-. inche*.     ?omp I»r1 made? Yt* Q  No 0 If /•«. by whom?	
Yield:   2. .O  fal./mln.  with	ft. drawdown atur     /, O  hn.
Hecoy>ry d*l> uh at  Ucul ont entry Jor eoch fhonpr o/ /ormaiion
                                                                                         UATTR1AL
                                                                                                                         FROM     TO
'a  \.<7C_
                                                                      Work (ttntd
                                                                                                     <°l
                                                                                                -., \Vj~tJ-. Compltled
                                                                      WELL DRILLER'S STATEMENT:
                                                                         Thlt well wa*  drilled under my Jurisdiction and  this report is
                                                                      true to the  but of zny  knowledge  ind belief.
                                                                      NAME..
                                                                                      (Pmrton. firm, or corporation)
                                                                                                                      (Type or pnnt)
                           Waa a chemical analyila ro*4«? YM Q No Q


                                                (USE ADDITIONAL SHTTTS IT NTCXSSARY)
                                                                                                       (Well Driller)

                                                                      Licenj* No_			DaU	
                                                                                                                                   19
 ICY OK>-|.«

-------
PROBLEM 3
 Aquifer Tests

-------
                                                   NOTES
       AQUIFER TESTS
       GROUNDWATER AND
    CONTAMINANT MOVEMENT
  • Position and thickness of aquifers and
    aquitards
  • Transmissivity and storage coefficient
  • Hydraulic characteristics of aquitard
  • Position and nature of boundaries
  • Location and amounts of groundwater
    withdrawals
  • Locations, kinds, and amounts of pollutants
 AQUIFER RESPONSE DEPENDS ON:

  •  Rate of expansion of cone of depression
    - Transmissivity of aquifer
    - Storage coefficient of aquifer.•
                        /   r
  •  Distance to boundaries
    - Recharge
    - Impermeable
9/93
Aquifer Tests

-------
       NOTES
                                      Limits of cone     Land surface,
                                      of depressiork/T
                                                 Water table
                                            Cone of
                                            depression
                                                   I \
                                                   >x v
                                                               _\
                                                              Flow lines
<-;
4-
                                            " ..... " ....... Aquiciude
                                                Unconfined Aquifer
Limit- of cone Land surface 	
of depression v/1 Potentiometric surface ^ ^v
/\ / ~ * ~ =






ss V "
/ ^
Drawdown — ~~~^
:::::: Aquiciude
- -:-:-:!



fr

j


UIC
- ~ ~ "^ ^\
X \
v ^,
^"' — Cone of
depression

^. 	 	 	
Mude 	 • " ''•'•'"'







Confined Aquifer
                                      AQUIFER TEST METHODS
                                     • Step drawdown/well recovery tests

                                     • Slug tests

                                     • Distance-drawdown tests

                                     • Time-drawdown tests
Aquifer Tests
               9/93

-------
                                                         NOTES
          STEP DRAWDOWN
         Well Recovery Tests
   Well is pumped at several successively higher
   rates and drawdown is recorded

   Purpose
   - Estimate transmissivity
   - Select optimum pump rate for aquifer tests
   - Identify hydraulically connected wells

   Advantages
   - Short time required
   - One well required
             SLUG TESTS
    Water level is abruptly raised or lowered

    Used in low yield aquifers (<0.01 cm/s)
             SLUG TESTS
              Advantages
   •  Can use small-diameter well

   •  No pumping - no discharge

   •  Inexpensive - less equipment required

   •  Estimates made in situ

   •  Interpretation/reporting time shortened
9/93
Aquifer Tests

-------
      NOTES
                                            SLUG TESTS
                                           Disadvantages
                                  Very small volume of aquifer tested
                                  Only apply to low conductivities (0.0000001 to
                                  0.01 cm/s)
                                  Transmissivity and conductivity only estimates
                                  Not applicable to large-diameter wells
                                  Large errors if well not properly developed
                                  Do not give storativity
                                  DISTANCE-DRAWDOWN TESTS
                                             Advantages

                                 • Can also use time-drawdown
                                 • Results more accurate than single well test
                                 • Represent more of aquifer
                                 • Can locate boundary effects
                                  DISTANCE-DRAWDOWN TESTS
                                           Disadvantages

                                  • Requires multiple piezometers or
                                   monitoring wells (at least 3 wells)
                                  • More expensive than single well test
                                  • Must handle discharge water
                                  • Requires conductivities above 0.01 cm/s
Aquifer Tests
9/93

-------
                                                      NOTES
     TIME-DRAWDOWN TESTS
             Advantages


   Only one well required

   Tests larger aquifer volume than slug test

   Less expensive than multiple-well test
     TIME-DRAWDOWN TESTS
            Disadvantages

  • Pump turbulence may interfere with
    water-level measurements

  • Tests smaller aquifer volume than
    multiple-well test

  • Must handle discharge water

  • Requires conductivities above 0.01 cm/s
           THEIS METHOD
    •  First formula for unsteady-state flow
      - Time factor
      - Storativity

    •  Derived from analogy between
      groundwater flow and heat flow

    •  Laborious method
      - Log-log paper
      - Curve matching

    •  More accurate than Jacob method
9/93
Aquifer Tests

-------
       NOTES
                                           THEIS'S ASSUMPTIONS
                                      • Aquifer is confined
                                      • Aquifer has infinite areal extent
                                      • Aquifer is homogeneous and isotropic
                                      • Piezometric surface is horizontal
                                      • Carefully controlled constant pump rate
                                      • Well penetrates aquifer  entirely
                                      • Flow to well is in unsteady state
                                              Potentiometric
                                              'surface
                                               Drawdown
                                         I Confining layer
                                         f i Confined aquiferj-
                                                              Cone of
                                                              depression
                                                THEIS EQUATION
                                          T =
                                          S =
                                              4TS
                                              4Ttu
T = transmissivity
Q = discharge (pumping rate)
W(u) = well function
s = drawdown
S = storage coefficient
t = time
r = radial distance
Aquifer Tests
                    9/93

-------
                                                              NOTES
         WELL FUNCTION - W(u)
   W(u) = -0.577216 -l
                  and u =
                   r's
                   4Tt

      S = storage coefficient

      t = time
                     r = distance

                     T = transmissivity
    W(u) is an infinite exponential series and cannot
    be solved directly
            JACOB METHOD
   • Somewhat more convenient than Theis's
    method
    - Semilogarithmic paper
    - Straight line plot
    - Eliminates need to solve well function
       W(u)
    - No curve matching

   • Applicable to:
    - Zone of steady-shape
    - Entire zone if steady-state
           JACOB'S FORMULA
T =
                T = transmissivity (ft2/day)

                Q = pump rate (ft3/min)

                As = change in drawdown (ft/log cycle)
      2.3 Q   2.3  gal   1,440min
   T = -=— = T= X —r- X 	:	 X
ft
                                1
4TAs ~  4T  mn     day  A 7.48 gal X ¥

              35 Q
   so that Q is now expressed in units of in gallons per minute
9/93
                                                                Aquifer Tests

-------
        NOTES
                                                   JACOB DERIVATION
                                                     T =
35Q
As
                                               T = transmissivity is square feet per day
                                               Q = pump rate in gallons per minute
                                               As = change in drawdown  in feet      '
                                                   over one log cycle
                                               K = hydraulic conductivity  in feet per day
                                               b = aquifer thickness in feet
                                           Land surface
                                                                              River
                                                                          "\
                                        Cone of depression
                                        (unsteady shape)
   p^
                                                                                   i "ft
                                                                        aquifeT)*
                                                                        ^ **•--, -w ^  ^ ^ ^
                                                              (1)
                                                      NONEQUILIBRIUM
                                                                              River
                                       Unsteady shape
                                              Steady shape
                                                     NONEQUILIBRIUM
Aquifer Tests
                           9/93

-------
                                                     NOTES
             EQUILIBRIUM
9/93
Aquifer Tests

-------
TABLE 1
PUMPING TEST DATA
Q = 109 GPM
Pumping Time
(minutes)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
18
20
22
24
26
28
32
35
40
45
50
55
60
90
120
b = 20 feet
Drawdown measured from top of casing
(feet)
6.1
6.5
7.5
8.0
8.6
9.5
10.5
11.2
12.0
13.0
14.0
15.5
17.0
18.0
19.3
20.5
23.5
25.2
26.7
28.2
29.5
30.5
32.0
34.5
36.6
38.5
40.5
42.0
43.5
50.1
54.8
9/93
11
Aquifer Tests

-------
    PROBLEM 4
Groundwater Investigation

-------
               PROBLEM  4:  GROUNDWATER INVESTIGATION
LEAVINGS RESIDENCE

On October 12, 1982, the Bettendorf, Iowa, Fire Department was called to the Leavings residence
with complaints of gasoline vapors in the basement of the home.

October 16, 1982, the Leavings were required to evacuate their home on an indefinite basis until the
residence could be made safe for habitation.
PERTINENT KNOWN FACTS

The site of contamination is a residential neighborhood in Bettendorf, Iowa.

It backs on commercially zoned property, which has only been partially developed to date.  The
residential area is about 10 years old, and contains homes in the $40,000 to $70,000 range. There
was apparently some cutting and filling activity at the time it was developed.

Within 1/4 mile to the northwest and southwest, eleven reported underground storage tanks are in
use, or have only recently been abandoned.

       •      1000 feet northwest to two tanks owned  and operated by the Iowa Department of
              Traasportation (IDOT)

       •      700 feet southwest to three in-place tanks owned initially by Continental Oil and now
              by U-Haul. One reportedly leaked.  (Bettendorf Fire Department (BFD))

       •      1200 feet southwest to three tanks owned and operated by an Amoco service  station,
              no reported leaks (BFD)

       •      1200 feet southwest to three tanks owned and operated by a Mobil Oil service  station,
              no reported leaks (BFD)

Adjoining neighbors have complained about several trees dying at the back of their lots (8 and 10).
No previous problem of gasoline vapors reported at these locations.

The general geologic setting is Wisconsin age loess soils mantling Kansan and Nebraskan age glacial
till.  Valleys may expose the till surface on the side slope.  Valley soils typically consist of the
colluvial and alluvial silts.

Your  previous experience in this area includes a geotechnical investigation of the hotel complex
located west of Utica Ridge Road and northwest of the Amoco service  station.  Loess soils ranged
from twenty-two feet thick on the  higher elevations of the property (western half) to 10  feet thick
on the side slope.  Some silt fill was noted (five to seven feet)  at the east end of the hotel  property.
Loess soils were underlain by a gray lean clay glacial till which apparently had groundwater perched

9/93                                        1                    Groundwater Investigation

-------
on it.  Groundwater was typically within ten to fifteen feet of ground surface.  This investigation was
performed eight years ago and nothing in the boring  logs noted hydrocarbon vapors observed.  It
should be noted that these observations were not routinely reported at that time.

Other projects in the area include a maintenance yard pavement design and construction phase testing
project at the IDOT facility located northwest of the Leavings residence.   Loess soils were also
encountered in the shallow pavement sub-grade project completed three years ago.  It was noted in
the firm's records that the facility manager had a minor gasoline spill a year before and that it had
been cleaned up when the tank was removed and replaced with a new steel tank.  The second tank
apparently was not replaced at that time.

In the Leavings residence, vapors are very strong and the power has  been shut off.  Basement
windows have been left open to reduce the explosion  potential.


OBJECTIVE

Your  consulting geoenvironmental engineering firm has been retained by the attorney representing
the Leavings to:

       1.     Determine the source of the hydrocarbon contamination. This is not an emergency
              response action.

       2.     Be prepared to defend  the data you obtain and the conclusions you draw by means
              of  litigation.

       3.     Consider possible site  remediation plans and recommendations  that will make the
              home habitable again.
BUDGET

The allowable budget to develop the field exploration is $25,000.


INFORMATION AVAILABLE

Interviews of neighbors. IDOT. station managers, and U-Haul

       Lot 9: The trees are in pretty good condition.  The house was vacant.  Mrs. Leavings let
       you in and asked you to put any cigarettes out before entering, just in case.  She wanted to
       have a house, not a hole, to come back to.  You observe six inches of free product that looks
       and smells like  gasoline in the open sump pit in the basement.  The power was cut so the
       water level in the sump was allowed to rise. The fluid level in the sump was about three feet
       below the basement floor level.

       Neighbors: They lost several trees in back yards during the past spring.  They contacted the
       commercial developer behind their homes and complained that the fill that was placed there

Groundwater Investigation                    2                                         9/93

-------
       several years ago has finally killed their trees.  They got no satisfaction from the developer.
       Both said that when you find out where the gas came from let them know so they can sue
       someone too. They noted that this past September and October were unusually wet (lots of
       rainfall).

       IDOT:  The manager remembers your people  testing his parking pad.   Says the  one
       underground storage tank (UST) was replaced in  1979 while the second tank was installed
       when the facility was first built in 1967. Both the original tanks were bare metal tanks.  The
       old one has always had gasoline while the newer one was the diesel tank.  There are no
       inventory records or leak testing records. He has never had any water in his tanks. He will
       check with  his supervisor to have the USTs precision leak tested.

       U-Haul: The manager says the station used to be a Continental Oil station with three USTs.
       One 6000 gal UST unleaded was kept in service for their fleet.  It was found to be leaking
       a month ago. They had originally been installed by Continental in 1970 when the station was
       built. He has no idea how much was lost.

     .  Mobil:  The manager was pleasant until he found  out what you wanted.   You did learn that
       he built the station in 1970 and installed three USTs at that time.  The manager would not
       answer any further questions.

       Amoco:  The manager wasn't in, but you talked to an assistant and got his phone number.
       When you called later the manager said he was aware of the leaking tank  at U-Haul and was
       anxious to prove the product was not from his station.  He said they installed three USTs for
       unleaded, premium and regular in 1972. A diesel UST was installed in 1978.  The tanks are
       tested every two years using the Kent Moore (now Petrotite) test method.  The tanks have
       always tested tight.  No inventory control system is being used at present. If you want to
       put monitoring wells on his property, just let him know  and he'd be happy to help out.

Review of Bettendorf City Hall  records

              An  existing topographic map and scaled land use map are available.

              Ownership records indicate the land was previously owned by Mr.  and Mrs.  Ralph
              Luckless.  Zoning at that time was agricultural only.  The clerk said she had known
              them prior to the farm sale in 1964.  That section was used mostly for grazing cattle.
              It was too steep for crops. She said she remembered a couple wooded valleys in that
              field. A stream used to run along where Golden Valley Drive is now  and that kids
              used to swim in it (get muddy in it).  The other valley was between Golden Valley
              Drive and where all that fill is now near U-Haul and Amoco.  You may want to talk
              to the current property owner about that.

              The current owner of the undeveloped property is Mr. M. Forester  (developer) with
              an Iowa City, IA address.

              There is no record of storm or sanitary sewer lines along Utica Ridge Road south of
              Golden Valley Drive.  Storm and sanitary  sewer lines run along Spruce Hills Drive.
9/93                                         3                     Groundwater Investigation

-------
Iowa Geological Survey

       There are no records of any wells in the section.

       Adjoining section wells indicate top of bedrock at about 650 feet mean sea level (MSL). The
       uppermost useable aquifer is the Mississippian for elevation 350 feet to 570 feet MSL. The
       materials overlying the Mississippian are Pennsylvanian shales and limestone.

Soil Conservation Survey maps

       The  1974  edition indicates "Made Land"  over nearly all of the area not designated  as
       commercial zone.  "Made Land" normally indicated areas of cut or fill.

Interview with developer - Mr. M. Forester

       He bought the property in question in the 1960's. He developed the residential area first and
       some of the commercial development followed.  About forty  acres remain undeveloped to
       date. He is looking to locate a shopping center there if the economy ever turns back around.

       He remembers getting a lot of cheap dirt and fill when the interstate cut went through about
       one half mile west in the late 1960's.  He filled in a couple of good sized valleys at that time.
       He has a topographic map  of the area after it was filled.

       He would be more than happy to help out in any way possible.  If you need to put any wells
       on the property just  let him know ahead of time.  There are  no buried utilities  on the
       property except behind the residential property.
Groundwater Investigation                    4                                         9/93

-------
          ASSIGNMENT:  PHASE 1 FIELD INVESTIGATION
TABULATION OF FEES FOR PHASE 1 FIELD INVESTIGATION  GROUP
WORK SHEET #1 || # UNITS
Recommendation for making residence
habitable
Field Exploration - mobilization
seismic refraction survey
earth resistivity survey
terrain conductivity
soil gas survey
soil boring with photo ionization detector -
25 feet deep max - grouted shut







COST
$500 LS
(lump sum)
$500 LS
not available
not available
not available
$1500 /ac
$500 ea
TOTAL
$
$
t 	


	
6
* 	
$
$
Monitoring wells
2" PVC
1 5 ft screen - 25 ft deep
2" stainless steel
1 5 ft screen - 25 ft deep
well security - locking protector pipe



$1200ea
$1700 ea
$300 ea
$
$
$
Aquifer testing:
lab permeabilities
slug test w/interpretation
pump test w/interpretation
24 - 36 hr test



not available
not available
not available

$.

	
6 	

Chemical analysis (under C-O-C procedures)
priority pollutants
total hydrocarbons by IR
BTEX by GC
Field investigation engineering analysis and
report



not available
not available
15%
$2000 min
TOTAL COST:
fr
9 	
6 	

$

9/93
Groundwater Investigation

-------
SCHEDULE OF FEES AND  ESTIMATE  OF COSTS*
Recommendations for making residence habitable
Field Exploration:
mobilization
seismic refraction survey
earth resistivity survey
terrain conductivity
soil gas survey
soil boring with PID
    25 ft deep - grouted
monitoring well - 2" PVC
    15 ft screen - 25 ft deep
monitoring well - 2" stainless steel
    15 ft screen - 25 ft deep
well security - locking protector pipe
aquifer testing
    lab permeabilities
    slug test with interpretation
    pump test with interpretation
         (24 - 36 hr test)
chemical  analysis (C-O-C procedures)
    priority pollutants
    total hydrocarbons by IR
         BTEX by GC
field investigation engineering analysis
    and report
      $500

      $500
    $2,500
    $2,500
    $1,000
    $1,500

      $500

    $1,200

    $1,700
      $300

      $200
      $300

    $5,000

    $1,000

      $100

    $2,000
(minimum)
 LS

 LS
/acre
/acre
/acre
/acre

 ea

 ea

 ea
 ea

 ea
 ea

 ea

 ea

 ea

 LS
Remediation Study:
                   remedial option evaluation

                   report preparation
                   agency coordination
                                               $8,000
                                           (minimum)
                                               $2,000
                                               $2,000
                   LS

                   LS
                   LS
*  fees and cost estimates are for classroom purposes only.
Groundwater Investigation
                                                                   9/93

-------
Remediation implementation and operation
                   excavate and dispose                               $150      cubic yard
                   air stripper
                       install winterized system                     $45,000          ea
                       operation for one year                        $5,000          ea
                   carbon adsorption unit
                       water phase installation                      $15,000          ea
                       operation for one year                       $10,000         year
                   recovery system (20 - 25 ft trench)
                       trench installation                               $75       linear ft
                       operation for one year                        $2,000          ea
                   well point
                       installation                                   $2,000          ea
                       operation for one year                        $2,000         year
                   construction observation and  testing                20%*

                   analytical  costs (total hydrocarbons by
                   IR, BTEX by GC)
                       recovery system                              $2,400        month
                       monitoring well system (quarterly)               $150         well
* This is based on the remediation system construction and installation costs, not operational costs.
9/93                                         7                    Groundwater Investigation

-------
                                                             600 N
                                                             500 N
                             Scaled Land  Use
               Iowa" DOT
              vlaintehance
               Facility
9/93
Groundwater Investigation

-------
                                                    600 N
                                  Predevelbpment
                                 Topographic Map
                                                    1000 S
Groundwater Investigation
10
9/93

-------
                                                                 600 N
                                                                 500 N
                                Existing Topographic Map
9/93
11
Groundwater Investigation

-------
             o
             o
             o
§DI
5    3
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88
               IJ  I
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ii
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Soil borings
fill
IO6SS
till
alluvium
hit "+"
miss
11 it

. ..

1
500 N
400 N
300 N
4
200 N
100 N
0
7-
100 S
200 S
300 S
400 S
11
500 S
600 S
700 S
14
800 S
900 S
1000 !
Groundwater Investigation
12
    9/93

-------
                                                           L
                                           GROUP
         CD
         cm
         0D
9/93
13
Groundwater Investigation

-------
GROUP
                           MONITORING WELLS

FILL
LOESS
ALLUVIUM
TILL
NON DETECTED
DISSOLVED PRODUCT
FREE PRODUCT
WATER ELEVATION
1








2








3








4








5








6








7








8








9








10








                              SOIL BORINGS

FILL
LOESS
ALLUVIUM
TILL
HIT { + )
MISS (-)
A






B






C






D






E






F






G






H






I






J






9/93
15
Groundwater Investigation

-------
PROBLEM 5
 Nomograph

-------
The information in Problem 5: Nomograph is reproduced or adapted from the following article:

       Kent, D.C., W.A. Pettyjohn, and F.E. Witz.  1982. Methods for the Prediction of
       Leachate Plume Migration,  pp. 246-261.  In:  Proceedings of the Second National
       Symposium on Aquifer Restoration and Ground Water Monitoring.   May  26-28,
       1982, The Fawcett Center, Columbus, Ohio. D.M. Nielsen (ed).

This information is reproduced by permission of the National Ground Water Association.  Copyright
1982.   All rights  reserved.

-------
            Proceedings
                of the
Second National Symposium
    on Aquifer Restoration
                  and
 Ground Water  Monitoring
             May 26-28,1982
   The Fawcett Center, Columbus, Ohio
                  Edited by

             David M. Nielsen, Director of Research
              National Water Well Association
                 Worthington, Ohio
                   Sponsors

            National Center for Ground Water Research
             U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
              National Water Well Association
                  Published by

              National Water Well Association
               500 W. Wilson Bridge Road
               Worthington, Ohio 43085
                  Produced by
             Water Well Journal Publishing Company
               500 W. Wilson Bridge Road
               Worthington, Ohio 43085

                              NATIONAL WATER WELL ASSN.
                                  LIBRARY

-------
                                               Table 1
                                         Definition of Terms
Primary Variables:                                                                            Units

C      •=  Concentration of leachate at a specified time and distance                             (M/L3)

X      =  Distance from source where concentration of leachate is computed. Distance is            (L)
          measured in direction of ground-water flow (perpendicular to gradient)

y      =  Transverse distance measured  from the centerline of ground-water flow (Assumed         (L)
          to be zero in the nomograph)
t       =  Sample time from  beginning of leachate source flow                                    (T)

Aquifer Parameters:

m      =  Effective aquifer thickness or zone of mixing                                           (L)
n      =  Effective porosity of aquifer or zone of mixing                                    (Dimensionless)

V      =  Velocity of ground-water flow within voids:
          estimated directly  or from:    „	Kl
          where:
          K = Coefficient of permeability or hydraulic conductivity of aquifer or zone of
             mixing:     « = —
                             m

          I = Gradient of ground-water flow                                               (Dimensionless)
Transport Parameters:
Dx      -  Longitudinal dispersion coefficient (mixing rate) with respect to distance in x direc-       (L2/T)
          tion and time: estimated directly or from:
          Dx = axV+D*

          where:

          ax = Longitudinal dispersivity                                                         (L)
          D* = Molecular diffusion coefficient, which is assumed to be negligible for velocities      (L2/T)
              typical of permeable aquifers. D' may be the dominant process in aquitards
              where axV would be negligible.
Dy     =  Transverse dispersion coefficient (mixing rate) with respect to distance in the y            0-VT)
          direction and time: estimated directly or from:  •
          where:

          ay = Transverse dispersivity                                                           (L)

          or estimated as:

          Dy = Dx'divided by a ratio, which commonly ranges between 5 and 10 for medium
          to coarse sand aquifers .
                                                                                                              247

-------
R
y
                                       Table 1
                                Definition of Terms
                                    (Continued)
          Retardation factor estimated directly or from:
                                    V
                                                                              (Dimensionless)
                          Vd
where:
          pb = Bulk density of aquifer medium
          n, = Total porosity
          Kd = Distribution factor for sorption on aquifer medium (from sorption isotherm
              column studies)
          V = Velocity of ground water
          Vd = Observed velocity of leachate for a given concentration and chemical species
          Coefficient for radioactive or biological decay. For no decay, the value of y is one.
          (Assumed to be one in the nomograph.) Calculated from:
                                                                                  (M/L3)
                                                                              (Dimensionless)
                                                                                  (L3/M)

                                                                                   (L/T)
                                                                                   (L/T)
                                                                              (Dimensionless)
 y
   =+
where:
 K = Decay constant =    g^2^
*n/2     = Halflife:  time  when half of the  original  mass "remains
Source Rate of Leachate:
QC0    = Mass  flow rate  estimated  directly or obtained  from  the product of:
          Q =  Volume  flow rate estimated directly or  from:
              Q = Aq
              where:
                A =  area  of source
                q =  recharge  rate
          C0 =  Initial concentration
Intermediate Variables (Used for Nomograph only):
XD     = A characteristic  dispersion  length  or scale  factor  given  by:
                  D.
                                                                                    (T)
                                                                                   (M/T)
                                                                                   (L3/T)
                                                                                    (L2)
                                                                                   (L/T)
                                                                                   (M/L3)

                                                                                    (L)
        = A  characteristic dispersion  time  or scale factor  given by:
           T =    d x
                 yV2
        = A  characteristic dilution-dispersion flow
       _  QD =  n m
                                                                                     (T)
                                                                                   (L3/T)

-------
                           PROBLEM 5:  NOMOGRAPH

                 A SIMPLE GROUNDWATER MODEL TO EVALUATE
                         CONTAMINANT PLUME MIGRATION
INTRODUCTION

Groundwater  models are used to evaluate  the fate of contaminant migration  in groundwater.
Typically this migration is depicted as a plume. The size and shape of the plume is dependent on
many interactive  factors  such as the hydraulic  parameters  of the aquifer,  the  compositional
complexities and concentrations of the contaminants, the length of time contaminants were injected
into the groundwater, and the heterogeneity and compositon of the aquifer's geologic framework.
More complicated models are capable of assimilating on a grid or other data distribution system,
which covers the potential area of concern, the interaction of these factors in order to predict the
plume's geometry. Obviously, the more data available to input into the model, the more time
required to compute this  information and to evaluate the extent of migration. Of course this also
requires more money for lengthy computations. Fortunately there are less complex models available
that are not as  costly  and time  consuming. Unfortunately these models  are less sensitive to the
variance of factors that  control plume migration. They are  considered more of an approximation or
screening device to quickly evaluate the extent of contamination.

The nomograph is one such model. It has the capability of quickly estimating the potential distance
and time a contaminant plume migrates downgradient from the source. Other benefits include quickly
evaluating the placement of monitoring wells to further characterize the plume and possibly
controlling migration offsite, and providing an inexpensive predictive method. However, it can only
evaluate the concentration of one  chemical component within this plume. When there are many
contaminants found at a site it is suggested that the most mobile or conservative contaminant should
be considered first. This should provide a worst case senario in evaluating the maximum length the
plume has migrated from  the source.

Computer models are based on an attempt to define the interaction  of physical properties of the
aquifer and the contaminant  in terms of mathematical formulas. The nomograph is not different in
this respect. It utilizes a variance to the Wilson-Miller equation (Wilson and Miller, 1978) as shown
below:
                                                         -  erfc
where:

                                      = (xlXD - t/TD)

                                           ZjilT~D
9/93                                        1                                  Nomograph

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The  Wilson-Miller  equation was formulated to predict a two dimensional plume in a uniform
groundwater-flow environment. The equation shown above provides scale factors based on physical
parameters which are known or can be calculated.  The scale factors in this equation are used as
ratios with the primary parameters of time (t), distance (x), and the mass flow rate from the source
or the product of volume flow rate (Q) times the initial concentration of the contaminant (C0). These
ratios are expressed as t/TD, x/XD, and QC0/QD. These scale factors are defined below as:
                                        T  =
                                        2
                                                V2
where:
              Dx = longitudinal dispersion coefficient or dispersion in the downgradient direction
                                   (i.e., x direction),

              Dy = transverse  dispersion coefficient or dispersion in the crossgradient direction
                                   (i.e., y direction),

              V  = seepage velocity of the groundwater,

              Rd = retardation  of the contaminant,

              n  = effective porosity of the aquifer, and

              m  = total aquifer thickness.

It is important to note that the y distance of contaminant migration is ignored in the nomograph
model.

Values of Dx and  Dy are site-specific  parameters and are dependent on  the homogeneity  and
isotropism of the aquifer, advection rate of the  contaminants, hydrodynamic  dispersion, and the
reaction potential of the contaminants to the aquifer's matrix or geology. Therefore these values are
difficult to determine.  Typically values can be obtained through laboratory experiments but are
usually underestimates due to the size of the aquifer sample. There are also field methods which can
be used to determine these coefficients, but are beyond the scope of this discussion. If the reader is
interested in  further discussion on this matter he/she should review the  modeling section of this
manual, Freeze and Cherry (1979),  Fetter (1988), and Driscoll (1986).
Nomograph                                  2                                          9/93

-------
Seepage velocity (V) is calculated if hydraulic conductivity (K), hydraulic gradient (I), and effective
porosity are known for the aquifer using the formula as shown below:
                                                n
Retardation coefficient (Rd) can also be calculated using the following formula:
                                      R  =
                                        d
where:
              Kd = distribution coefficient of the contaminant between the groundwater and
                                    aquifer,

              PB =  bulk density of the aquifer matrix,' and

              6  =  the total porosity within in the aquifer which is typically a higher value than
                                    the effective porosity used earlier.

Distribution coefficient is also further explained in the  modeling references given  earlier in this
discussion.
APPLICATIONS

As stated earlier, the nomograph is designed to provide a simple technique to estimate one of the
following problems:

       la.    The concentration (C) is determined from a given distance (x) and for a specified time
              (t),
       Ib.    The maximum concentration  (C) that might occur over a long period of time
              usually defined as steady state conditions,

       2a.    The distance (x) where a specified concentration of contaminant will exist given some
              time interval (t),
       2b.    The maximum distance (x) a  contaminant might migrate under steady state
              conditions, or

       3.     The time (t) when a known  or specified concentration  (C)  of a contaminant will
              migrate to a selected location downgradient of the source.
9/93                                          3                                   Nomograph

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EXAMPLE

A disposal facility in South Farmingdale, Nassau County, New York began receiving cadmium- and
hexavalent chromium-enriched electroplating wastes in 1941. The waste was dumped into three pits
on location and immediately began infiltrating into an unconfmed, shallow glacial aquifer. By early
1960 the migrating plume had reached 4,200 feet (ft) downgradient (x), 1,000 ft crossgradient (y),
and 70 ft into the aquifer. The thickness of the aquifer (m) in this area varied  according to soil
borings from 100 to 140 ft with an average of{110 ft. Groundwater  velocity was estimated between
0.5 and 1.5 feet per day  (ft/dy). Specific yield (Sy) of the aquifer was estimated  at 35. According
to site records it was reported  that 200,000 to 300,000 gallons per  day (gpd) of waste fluids  were
discharged  into the three  pits. Infiltration rate (q) was estimated at  a rate of 7,600 inches per year
(in/yr). Chromium concentration in the waste averaged 31 milligrams per liter (mg/1). The combined
area of these pits was measured  at approximately  15,470 square feet (ft2).  Retardation of the
contaminants was not a factor at this site due to the lack of free clay and organic matter within the
surficial aquifer. Based on experimental data obtained from similar sites in the area, longitudinal or
downgradient dispersivity (ax)  and transverse or crossgradient  dispersivity (ay) were assumed to be
70 ft and 14 ft respectively. A summary of this information is provided in Table  1 below:

                                         TABLE 1

              m = thickness of aquifer                              110.0 ft
              Sy = specific yield                                    35.0
              V = groundwater velocity                               1.5 ft/dy
              ax = longitudinal dispersivity                          70.0 ft
              ay = transverse dispersivity                            14.0 ft
              Rd = retardation coefficient                              1.0
              C0 = initial concentration of contaminant                31.0 mg/1
              A = area of discharge  of contaminant               15,470.0 ft2
              q =  infiltration rate of contaminant                   7,600.0 in/yr

Before using the nomograph some basic assumptions and calculations are necessary. First, effective
porosity (n) of the aquifer is not known for this site. However Sy was reported as 35. Without further
information one will estimate n at 35% based on  the Sy value.  Dispersion  coefficients  can be
calculated from dispersivity values already given in Table  1 using the following formulas of Dx =
axV and Dy = oryV where V  is velocity of the groundwater found in Table  l.The results of these
calculations are 105 ft2/dy and 21 ft2/dy, respectively.

For a nonpoint source for contaminants,  such as at this site, the volume flow rate is estimated using
the formula Q = Aq.  Values of A and q are given  above in Table 1 . Converting units of q  from
in/yr to ft/dy requires the following calculation:
                                 yr     \\1in   \365dy)        dy
The value for Q can now be calculated as 26,763 ft3/dy using the above formula Q = Aq. The value
of Q can also be computed from the discharge rate of 200,000 gpd of waste in the pits by using the
Nomograph                                  4                                          9/93

-------
conversion formula of 1 ft3/?. 48 gallons to change the units of gpd to  ft3/dy. The result of this
conversion yields a value for Q of 26,738 ft3/dy which is similar to the previous value of Q.

Now the mass flow rate, expressed as QC0, is (26,763 ft3/dy)(31 mg/1). Changing the units of mg/1
to pounds  per cubic feet (Ib/ft3) requires the following conversion:
              31 mg  = (31mg\    1kg   (22lb\  lQ3l    1m3   = 0.00195 Ib
                 I    ~(   I   )(lQ6mg)( lkg)(lm*)(35ft3) ~    ft3


The mass flow rate (QC0) of (26,763 ft3/dy)(31 mg/1) is equivalent to 52 Ib/dy.

From the above computations and assumptions we now have sufficient information to calculate the
scale factors for the previously decribed applications for the nomograph as shown below:
                                                     =
                         TD -       -                - 46.67dy
                                 V2       (1-Sftldy)2
            QD = nmJD^Dy = (0.35) (110/*) J(l05ft2fdy) (21ft21 dy)  = l,808^3/cfy
Now consider the three applications of the nomograph.  In order to use the nomograph, the ratios
used in the nomograph must be calculated as shown in Figure 1.
9/93                                        5                                  Nomograph

-------
    i 'la
       NOMOGRAPH FOR
      PLUME CENTER-LINE
        CONCENTRATION
 STEADY STATE
F  (t —«)

-------
Application 1a and 1b

       la.    Find the concentration (C) of chromium at a known distance (x) downgradient and
              time (t). Assume for this example x = 4,200 ft and t = 2,300 dy.  Follow Figure 1
              for the solution to this problem.


                   —  =   2°°ft  = 6Q  ^nis val   k located at point A)
X
                     D
                  — =  2>300dy = 49.3  (This value is located at point B)
                  TD    46.67 dy
           __ f (26,763^/40(31 mg//)] =                  value    locQted
       To find the concentration (C) draw a line vertical from point A to the intersection with the
       t/TD value of 49.3 located as point B on Figure 1. Then draw a line horizontally from point
       B to point C. Now from point C draw a straight line through the QC0/QD value of 458.9
       mg/1 (point D) and intersecting the vertical bar graph representing the concentration (C) of
       the contaminant, in this case chromium, under these conditions (point E). The solution to the
       problem is 2.6 mg/1 of hexavalent chromium found 4,200 ft downgradient after 2,300 days
       of migration from the disposal pits.

       Ib.    Find the maximum concentration  of hexavalent chromium  for the same distance
              downgradient as given in application la but for a longer time period (greater than 10
              years). In this solution, as depicted in Figure 1 also, one must project the x/XD value
              vertically to the steady state line which represents a time (t) approximately greater
              than 10 years. This is depicted as point  F on Figure 1. The procedure is now similar
              to application la ultimately projecting  a line through point D and intersecting the
              vertical  concentration bar graph at point H.   Under these  conditions, 20 mg/1 of
              hexavalent chromium is predicted.
Application 2a and 2b

       2a.    Determine the distance (x)  downgradient where a selected concentration (C) of a
              contaminant,  such  as hexavalent chromium, will occur at a given time (t). This
              application is important if one is interested in evaluating chromium's breakthrough
              concentration above its MCL (maximum contaminant level) of 0.05 mg/1 according


9/93                                         7                                  Nomograph

-------
              to  drinking water standards.  Using the  same value for  QC0/QD of 458.9 mg/1 as
              represented as point D on Figure 2 , one now locates the concentration of 0.05 mg/1
              on the vertical concentration bar graph. This is depicted as point A on Figure 2.
              Starting  at point  A project  a straight  line through point D to point B on the
              nomograph of Figure 2.  From point B construct a line horizontally  across the
              nomograph. Now one must determine the amount of time (t) the migration of the
              contaminant has occurred in order to determine the time ratio of t/TD. For example,
              one might be interested in how far downgradient this concentration of 0.05 mg/1 will
              occur after 4,667 days. The time ratio  computes to 100 using the time scalor (TD) of
              46.67 days and is depicted as point C on Figure 2.  Projecting a line vertically down
              from point C to the x/XD value of 150 (point E), the distance (x) downgradient this
              concentration occurs after 4,667 days  is computed  as 10,500 ft or approximately 2
              miles. For a shorter time  (t) period , such as  466.7  days the ratio  t/TD equals 10
              (point F), x/XD is determined as  23.  Therefore the concentration of 0.05 mg/1 of
              hexavalent chromium is estimated at  1610 ft downgradient from the source after
              466.7 days have passed.

       2b.    Find the  distance downgradient the concentration of 0.05 mg/1 will occur under
              steady state conditions. Unfortunately  the steady state line on the nomograph is not
              intersected as depicted on Figure 2. For this scenario, one can only assume that the
              distance downgradient is greater than  7,000,000 ft according to the  computation of
              100,000 (x/XD) times 70 ft (XD).  Let  us hope your agency has remediated this site
              before steady state is ever achieved!
Nomograph                                 8                                         9193

-------
2  '
 2a * 24
       NOMOGRAPH FOR
      PLUME CENTER-LINE J
        CONCENTRATION
STEADY STATE
      500
        IPQO
          ZDOO
                             lO'HT
                                                         rIO'
                                          -2
                      loo.ooo
                                                 3L,0io
                                                         HO'1
                                           c
                                          (mg/l)
                                         1   1
                                        -10
                                                         No2
                                        HO3
                                        HO4

-------
Application 3
       3.     Find the time (t) required for a known concentration (C) to migrate to a specified
              distance (x) downgradient of the source. Let us consider how long it will take for 1
              mg/1 of hexavalent chromium to reach a private water supply well located 5280 ft (x)
              downgradient of the contaminant source. First one must locate the concentration (C)
              of 1 mg/1 on the vertical concentration bar graph. This is depicted  as point A  on
              Figure 3.  Using the same value of 458.7 mg/1 for the ratio of QC0/QD (point D),
              construct a straight line from point A through point D to the nomograph (point B).
              Then project a horizontal line from point B through the graph. Next project a vertical
              line from point C representing the value of 75.45 as computed for x/XD = 5,280  ft/
              70 ft until it crosses the previously constructed horizontal line (point E) as shown  on
              Figure 3. At this intersection the value of t/TD is equal to 60 or t is 2,800  days
              according to the calculation TD times 60 where TD equals 46.67 days.  It is important
              to note that should point E occur above the steady state line for the  value x/XD  of
              75.45 on the nomograph, the  concentration (C) of 1 mg/1 will not be found at this
              distance of 5,280 ft downgradient from the source.
Nomograph                                 10                                        9/93

-------
       NOMOGRAPH FOR   -
      PLUME CENTER-LINE :
        CONCENTRATION   -
STEADY STATE
  (t—»)
                                         I (mg/l)
      500
        IDOO
          2,000
             5.0OO
               KDDOO
                  20,000
                    5C1000
        1,000   10,000  100,000
     X
    XD

-------
                                       PROBLEM
The Alkali Lake chemical storage site in eastern Oregon became a chemical waste disposal site in
November, 1983 when 25,000 55-gallon capacity drums were crushed and buried in 12 shallow
(0.60 to 0.75 meters deep) unlined trenches, 130 meters (m) long  and 20 m apart.  The drums
contained chlorophenolic "still bottoms" or distillation residues from the manufacturing of herbicides
2,4-D (2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid) and MCPA (4-Methyl-2-chlorophenoxyacetic acid) for the
Vietnam War. The average concentration of 2,4-D in the drums was determined to be 200 mg/1.
Burial of these drums injected this chemical waste directly into the groundwater system beneath this
site at the rate of 8,313 gallons per day. A site investigation was conducted eight years later after
many complaints concerning the strange odor and taste in the water from private wells. The results
of the site investigation obtained the following aquifer parameters or properties:

       m  = aquifer thickness                                   30 m (98.43 ft)
       n = effective porosity                                   5  % (0.05)
       0  = total porosity                                      65 % (0.65)
       PB= bulk density                                        0.95 g/cm3
       K  = hydraulic conductivity                              0.1  cm/sec (283 ft/dy)
       I  = hydraulic gradient                                  0.0002
       V  = seepage velocity                                    1.132 ft/dy
       Dx= longitudinal dispersion coefficient                   60 ft2/dy
       DY= transverse dispersion coefficient                    12 ft2/dy
       QC0= mass injection rate                                8,313 gpd x 200 mg/1
       Kd= distribution coefficient                              0.5  cm3/g
       Rd= retardation coefficient                              1.73

Unfortunately this investigation was concluded and a site report submitted  to the State Department
of Environmental Protection  before it  was  discovered that  the  well search was not complete.
Somehow, a municipal water-supply well located 1,700 ft downgradient was overlooked on the initial
well search for potentially impacted water-supply wells within a one-mile  radius of the site. Since
the water from this well was not sampled  during the investigation, how can one  estimate the
concentration (C) of 2,4-D in this well given the following ratios for the nomograph:

       t/TD =  36,  x/XD  = 32, and QC0/QD = 1,696 mg/1.
Nomograph                                 12                                         9/93

-------
                                  PROBLEM
Calculations and Unit Conversions
                            AQUIFER THICKNESS (m)

                                 1.0    1.0m

                         HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY (K)


                    0.1cmT60.0sec|60.0minT24.0/tr|  1.0m T l.Oft

                     sec  j[l.0min}  l.Qhr }  l.Ody f 2.54cm|l2.0w
                              K J 9,640ft ]_2S3ft

                                 [30.38d^J      dy
                            SEEPAGE VELOCITY (V)
                           v-
                                         dy   0.05
                                  V = 1.132-^
                                          dy
                        RETARDATION COEFFICIENT (Rd)
                               Rd =  1.0
                                           6
                         Rd =  1.0
                                   0.5cm3} 0.95gl 1.0
8   [  cm3 10.65
9/93
13
Nomograph

-------
                           TIME SCALE FACTOR
                            Rd = 1.0 + 0.73 = 1.73
                                  0    v>

                               1.73J60.0^2T   dy2   1
                               1.01  dy  {(1.132/*)2]
                            DISCHARGE RATE (Q)
                       Q =
                              dy   \[7A3gal.
                          FLOW SCALE FACTOR

                              QD = nm JDX DY
                      QD = (0.
 \
                                        60.0ft2
                                          dy
           12.0ft*
                         QD = 4.
 dy2
                                                dy
Nomograph
14
9/93

-------
                          LENGTH SCALE FACTOR
                         y  _ I w/.v//fr I  dy    _ -,,
                          " ~'"^nlTm/*]
9/93                                 15                           Nomograph

-------
        NOMOGRAPH FOR
      PLUME CENTER-LINE J
         CONCENTRATION
STEADY STATE
       500
         IPOO
           2,000
              5,000
                 I0£00
                    20,000
                      50JD001
!0'6-

10-sJ


10"^


\0'*J


I0'2^
   IO'lJ
 QCp  i
  QDI  1
(lb/ft3);
   i lo-i
                                              rIO
        QCp

       -I  QD
       (mg/1)
       -10  I


       -I02
         1,000    10,000   100,000
 HO4
 •
 •

HO5


 106


^I07


^108


 I09


i-IO10
      X
    •«^-«*«^«
     XD
         HO-
                                                -2
                                                 c
                                               (mg/l)
                                              -10
               HO3

-------
 APPENDIX A
Sampling Protocols

-------
               GENERALIZED GROUNDWATER SAMPLING  PROTOCOL
           Step
              Goal
      Recommendations
 Hydrologic measurements   Establish nonpumping water level
 Well purging
 Sample collection
 Filtration/preservation
 Field determinations
 Field blanks/standards
 Sample storage,
 transportation, and chain
 of custody (COC)
Remove or isolate stagnant H20,
which would otherwise bias
representative sample
Collect samples at land surface or
in well bore with minimal
disturbance of sample chemistry


Filtration permits determination of
soluble constituents and is a form
of preservation; it should be done
in the field as soon as possible
after sample collection
Field analyses of samples will
effectively avoid bias in
determining
parameters/constituents that do
not store well (e.g., gases,
alkalinity, and pH)

These blanks and standards will
permit the correction of analytical
results for changes that may
occur after sample collection.
Preserve, store, and transport
with other samples.


Refrigerate and  protect samples to
minimize their chemical alteration
prior to analysis. Document
movement of samples from
collector to laboratory.
Measure the water level to
±0.3 cm (±0.01  ft)

Pump water until well purging
parameters (e.g., pH, T, Q"1,
Eh) stabilize to ±10% over at
least two successive well
volumes pumped

Pumping rates should be
limited to -100 mL/min for
volatile organics and gas-
sensitive parameters

For trace metals, inorganic
anions/cations, and alkalinity.
Do not filter TOC, TOX, or
other volatile organic
compound samples; filter other
organic compound samples
only  when required

Samples for determining gases,
alkalinity, and pH should be
analyzed in the field if at all
possible
At least one blank and one
standard for each sensitive
parameter should be made up
in the field on each day of
sampling.  Spiked samples are
also recommended for good
QA/QC.

Observe maximum sample
holding or storage periods
recommended by EPA.
Documentation of actual
holding periods should be
carefully performed. Establish
COC forms,  which must
accompany all samples during
shipment.
Adapted from:  U.S. EPA.  1985. Practical Guide for Ground-Water Sampling.  EPA/600/2-85/104.
Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory, Ada, OK.
9/93
                                             Sampling Protocols

-------
APPENDIX B
  References

-------
                                   REFERENCES
Allen,  H.E.,  E.M.  Perdue, and  D.S.  Brown (eds).  1993.  Metals in Groundwater.  Lewis
Publishers, Inc., Chelsea, MI.

Aller, L., T.W. Bennett, G. Hackett, R.J. Petty, J.H. Lehr, H. Sedoris,  D.M. Nielsen, and I.E.
Denne.  1989. Handbook of Suggested Practices for the Design and Installation of Ground-Water
Monitoring Wells.  EPA 600/4-89/034.  National Ground Water Association Publishers, Dublin,
OH.

AIPG.  1985.  Ground Water Issues and Answers.  American Institute of Professional Geologists,
Arvada, CO,  1985.

Bachmat,  Y.,  J. Bredehoeft, B.  Andrews, D. Holtz, and S.  Sebastian.  1980.  Groundwater
Management:   The Use of Numerical  Models,  Water Resources Monograph 5.   American
Geophysical Union, Washington, DC.

Back, W., and R.A. Freeze.  1983.  Chemical Hydrology.   Benchmark papers in Geology/v.73.
Hutchinson Ross Publishing Co., Stroudsburg, PA.

Barvis, J.H., J.G. McPherson, and J.R.J. Studlick.  1990.  Sandstone Petroleum  Reservoirs.
Springer Verlag Publishing.

Bear, J.  1972.  Dynamics of Fluids in Porous Media. American Elsevier, NY.

Bear, J.  1979.  Hydraulics of Groundwater.  McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.

Bear, J., D. Zaslavsky, and S. Irmay. 1968. Physical Principles of Water Percolation and Seepage.
UNESCO.

Bennett, G.D. 1989.  Introduction to Ground-Water Hydraulics:  A Programmed Text for Self-
Introduction.  Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations of the United States Geological Survey.
United States  Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.

Benson, R.C., et al.  1984.   Geophysical Techniques  for  Sensing Buried Wastes  and Waste
Migration. EPA 600/7-84/064.

Bitton, G., and C.P. Gerba. 1984.  Groundwater Pollution Microbiology. John Wiley & Sons, New
York, NY.

Bouwer, H.  1978. Groundwater  Hydrology.  McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, NY.

Carter, L.W., and R.C. Knox. Ground Water Pollution Control. Lewis Publishers, Inc., Chelsea,
MI.

Cedergren, H.R.   1977.  Seepage, Drainage and Flow Nets.  Second edition. John Wiley & Sons,
New York, NY.

9/93                                       1                                  References

-------
Cole, J.A. (ed).  1974. Groundwater Pollution in Europe.  Water Information Center Inc., Port
Washington, NY.

Collins, A.G., and A.I. Johnson (eds).  1988.  Ground-Water  Contamination:  Field  Methods.
American Society for Testing and Materials.

Davis, S.N., and R.J.M. DeWiest. 1966.  Hydrogeology.  John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY.

Dawson, K.J., and J.D. Istok.  1991.  Aquifer Testing.  Lewis Publishers, Inc., Chelsea, MI.

DeWiest, R.J.M. 1965.  Geohydrology.  John Wiley & Sons, New York,  NY.

Dobrin, M.B.  1960.  Introduction to Geophysical Prospecting.  McGraw-Hill,  New York, NY

Domenico, P.A.  1972.  Concepts and Models in Groundwater  Hydrology.  McGraw-Hill, New
York, NY.

Domenico, P.A.  1990. Physical and Chemical Hydrogeology.  John Wiley & Sons, New York,
NY.

Dragun, J.  1988. Soil Chemistry of Hazardous Materials.  Hazardous Materials Control
Research Institute, Silver Spring, MD.

Drever, J.I.   1988.   Geochemistry of  Natural Waters. Second edition.  Prentice-Hall,  Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ.

Driscoll, F.G.  1986. Groundwater and Wells.  Second edition.  Johnson Division, St. Paul, MN.

Everett, L.G.,  L.G. Wilson, and E.W.  Hoylman.  1984.  Vadose Zone Monitoring for Hazardous
Waste Sites.  Noyes Data Corporation.

Fetter, C.W., Jr.  1980. Applied Hydrogeology. Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co., Columbus,
OH.

Freeze, R.A., and W. Back. 1983. Physical Hydrogeology.  Benchmark Papers in Geology/v. 72.
Hutchinson Ross Publishing Co., Stroudsburg, PA.

Freeze, R.A., and J. Cherry. 1979. Groundwater.  Prentice-Hall, Englewood  Cliffs, NJ.

Fried, J.J.  1975.  Groundwater Pollution.  Elsevier  Scientific Publishing Co., Amsterdam.

Garrels, R.M., and C.L. Christ.  1987.  Solutions, Minerals, and Equilibria. Harper and
Corporation Publishers.

Gibson, U.P.,  and  R.D. Singer.  1971.   Water Well Manual.   Number  4101. Premier  Press,
Berkeley, CA.

Harr, M.E.  1962.  Groundwater and Seepage.  McGraw-Hill, New York,  NY.


References                                  2                                       9/93

-------
Heath, R.C.  1987.  Basic Ground-Water Hydrology.  USGS Water Supply Paper 2220.  U.S.
Geological Survey.

Heath, R.C., and F.W. Trainer.   1992.   Ground Water Hydrology.  National  Ground Water
Association, Dublin, OH.

Hem, J.D.   1989.  Study and Interpretation of the Chemical Characteristics of Natural Water.
United States Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 2254.  U.S.  Government Printing Office,
Washington, DC.

Hillel, D.  1971. Soil and Water:  Physical Principles and Processes. Academic Press,  New York,
NY.

Hoehn, R.P. 1976-77.  Union List of Sanborn Fire Insurance Maps Held by Institutions in the U.S.
and Canada. Western Association of Map Libraries. Santa Cruz, CA.

Johnson, A.I., C.B. Pettersson, and J.L. Fulton (eds).   1992.  Geographic Information Systems
(GIS) and Mapping - Practices and Standards.  American Society for Testing and Materials.

Kranskopf,  K.B.  1967.  Introduction to Geochemistry.  McGraw Hill, Inc., New York,  NY.

Kruseman, G.P., and N.A. deRidder.  1990. Analysis and Evaluation of Pumping Test Data. ILRI
Publication  47.  International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement, Wageningen, The
Netherlands.

Larkin,  R.G.,  and  J.M. Sharp,  Jr.   1992.    On  The  Relationship  Between  River-Basin
Geomorphology Aquifer  Hydraulics and Ground-Water  Flow Direction  in Alluvial Aquifers.
Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 104, pp. 1608-1620.

LeBlanc, R.J.   1972.  Geometry  of Sandstone Reservoir Bodies,  pp. 133-190.   In:  American
Association  of Petroleum  Geologists  Memoir 18.     Underground Waste Management and
Environmental Implications.  T.D.  Cook (ed).  412 pp.

LeRoy, L.W.  1951.  Substance Geologic Methods. Colorado School of Mines.

Lohman, S.W.  1979. Ground-Water Hydraulics. Geological Survey Professional Paper 708. U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.

Mackay,  D., W.-Y.  Shiu, and K.-C.  Ma.   1992.  Illustrated Handbook of Physical-Chemical
Properties and  Environmental  Fate for Organic Chemicals.  Volumes I, II, and III.  Lewis
Publishers,  Inc., Chelsea, MI.

Mandel, S., and Z.L. Shiftan.  1981.  Groundwater Resources:  Investigation and Development.
Academic Press.

Matthess, G.  1982. The Properties of Groundwater.  John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY.
9/93                                       3                                  References

-------
Mazor, E.  1991.  Applied Chemical and Isotropic Groundwater Hydrology.  Halsted Press (a
division of John Wiley and Sons Inc.), New York, NY.

McDonald,  M.G., and A.W. Harbaugh.  1988.  A Modular Three-Dimensional Finite-Difference
Ground-Water Flow Model.  Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations of the United States
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McWhorter, D., and O.K.  Sunada.  1977.  Ground-Water  Hydrology and Hydraulics.  Water
Resources Publishing, Ft.  Collins, CO.

Montgomery, J.H., and L.M. Welkom.  1990. Groundwater Chemicals Desk Reference.  Lewis
Publishers,  Inc., Chelsea,  MI.

Morrison, R.  1983.  Groundwater Monitoring Technology. Timco Mfg. Company, Prairie du Sac,
WI.

Morrison, R.T., and R.N. Boyd.  1959.  Organic Chemistry. Allyn and Bacon, Inc.

NGWA.  1991.  Summaries of State Ground Water Quality Monitoring Well Regulations by EPA
Regions.  National Ground Water Association, Dublin, OH.

NWWA.  No date.  Selection and Installation of Well Screens and Ground Packs:  An Anthology.
National Water Well Association, Dublin, OH.

Niaki, S., and J.A. Broscious.  1987.  Underground Tank Leak Detection Methods.  Noyes Data
Corporation Publishers.

Nielsen, D.M. (ed).  1991.  Practical Book of Ground-Water Monitoring.  Lewis Publishers, Inc.,
Chelsea, MI.

Nielsen, D.M.,  and A.I.  Johnson (eds).   1990.  Ground Water and  Vadose Zone  Monitoring.
American Society for Testing and Materials.

Nielsen, D.M., R.D. Jackson, J.W. Gary, and D.D.  Evans.  1972. Soil Water.  American Society
of Agronomy, Madison, WI.

Nielsen, D.M., and M.N.  Sara (eds). 1992. Current Practices in Ground Water and Vadose Zone
Investigations.  American  Society for Testing  and Materials.

Palmer, C.M., J.L.  Peterson, and J. Behnke.  1992. Principles of Contaminant Hydrogeology.
Lewis Publishing, Inc., Chelsea, MI.

Pettyjohn, W.A. (ed).  1973.   Water Quality  in a Stressed Environment.  Burgess Publishing,
Minneapolis, MN.

Pettyjohn, W.A.  1987. Protection of Public Water Supplies from Ground-Water Contamination.
Noyes Data Corporation, Park Ridge, NJ.
References                                  4                                       9/93

-------
Polubarinova-Kochina, P.Y.  1962. Theory of Groundwater Movement.  Princeton University Press,
Princeton, NJ.

Powers, P.J.  1981.  Construction Dewatering:  A Guide to Theory and Practice.  John Wiley &
Sons, New York, NY.

Princeton  University Water  Resources  Program.   1984.   Groundwater  Contamination from
Hazardous Wastes.  Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ.

Remson, I.,  G.M.  Hornberger, and  F.J.  Molz.   1971.   Numerical Methods  in  Subsurface
Hydrology. Wiley-Interscience, New York, NY.

Sanborn Map  Company.  1905.  Description and Utilization of the Sanborn Map. Pelham,  NY.

Sanborn Map Company.  1905.  Surveyor's Manual  for the  Exclusive Use and Guidance  of
Employees of the Sanborn Map Company.  Pelham, NY.

Summers, W.K., and Z. Spiegel.  1971.  Ground Water Pollution,  A Bibliography.   Ann Arbor
Science Publishing, Ann Arbor, MI.

Sun, R.J.  1978-84.  Regional Aquifer-System  Analysis Program of the U.S. Geological Survey
Summary of Projects. U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1002.

Telford,  W.M.,  L.P. Geldart, R.E.  Sheriff,  and  D.A. Keys.   1976.  Applied Geophysics.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England.

Todd, D.K.  1980.  Ground Water Hydrology.  Second edition. John Wiley & Sons, New York,
NY.

Todd, O.K., and D.E.O. McNulty.  1976.  Polluted Groundwater. Water Information Center, Inc.,
Port Washington, NY.

Travis, C.C., and  E.L.  Etnier (eds).   1984.  Groundwater Pollution, Environmental  & Legal
Problems. American Association for the Advancement of Science, AAAS Selected Symposium 95.

U.S. EPA.  1984.  Geophysical Techniques for Sensing Buried Wastes and  Waste  Migration.
EPA/600/7-84/064.  U.S.  Environmental Protection Agency.

U.S. EPA.   1985.   Practical Guide for Ground-Water Sampling.   EPA/600/2-85/104.   U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency.

U.S. EPA.  1985. Protection of Public Water Supplies from Ground-Water Contamination: Seminar
Publication. EPA/625/4-85/016. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

U.S. EPA. 1986.  RCRA Ground-Water Monitoring Technical Enforcement Guidance  Document.
OSWER-9950. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
9/93                                      5                                  References

-------
U.S. EPA.  1986. Superfund State Lead Remedial Project Management Handbook.  EPA/540/G-
87/002.  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

U.S. EPA.  1987. Data Quality Objectives for Remedial Response Activities Example Scenario:
RI/FS Activities at a Site With Contaminated Soil and Ground Water.  EPA/540/G-87/004.  U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency.

U.S.  EPA.    1987.   Superfund Federal  Lead  Remedial Project  Management Handbook.
EPA/540/G-87/001.  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

U.S. EPA.  1988. Guidance  of Remedial  Actions for Contaminated Ground Water  at Superfund
Sites. EPA/540/6-88/003.  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

U.S. EPA.   1988.  Selection Criteria for  Mathematical Models Used in Exposure Assessments:
Ground-Water Models. EPA/600/8-88/075.  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

U.S.  EPA.   1988.    Superfund  Exposure Assessment Manual.   EPA/540/1-88/001.    U.S.
Environmental Protection:Agency.

U.S. EPA.   1988.  Technology Screening Guide for Treatment of CERCLA Soils  and Sludges.
EPA/540/2-88/004. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

U.S. EPA.   1989.  Ground-Water Monitoring  in Karst Terranes:   Recommended  Protocols &
Implicit Assumptions. EPA/600/X-89/050.  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

U.S.  EPA.    1990.   Basics  of Pump-and-Treat  Ground-Water  Remediation  Technology.
EPA/600/8-90/003. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

U.S. EPA.   1990.   Catalog of Superfund Program Publications.   EPA/540/8-90/015.   U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency.

U.S. EPA.   1990.  Handbook Ground Water  Volume  I:  Ground Water and Contamination.
EPA/625/6-90/016a.  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

U.S. EPA.   1990.  Quality Assurance Project Plan.   U.S.  Environmental Protection Agency,
Emergency Response Branch,  Region VIII.

U.S. EPA.   1990.   Subsurface Contamination Reference Guide.  EPA/540/2-90/001.   U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency.

U.S. EPA.  1991.  Compendium of ERT Ground Water Sampling Procedures. EPA/540/P-91/007.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

U.S. EPA.   1991.  Compendium of ERT Soil Sampling and  Surface Geophysics Procedures.
EPA/540/P-91 /006.  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
References                                 6                                       9/93

-------
U.S. EPA.  1991.   Ground-Water Monitoring (Chapter  11  of SW-846).  Final  Draft.  U.S.
Environmental  Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste.

U.S. EPA.  1991.  Handbook Ground Water Volume II:  Methodology. EPA/625/6-90/016b. U.S.
Environmental  Protection Agency.

Van Der Leeden,  F., F.L. Troise,  and D.K.  Todd.   1990.   The Water Encyclopedia.  Second
edition.  Lewis Publishers, Inc., Chelsea, MI.

Practical Applications of Ground Water Models.  National Conference August 19-20,1985. National
Water Well Association, Dublin, OH.

Verruijt, A.  1970.  Theory of Groundwater Flow.  Gordon & Breach Sciences Publishing, Inc.,
New York, NY.

Walton, W.C.  1962. Selected Analytical Methods for Well and Aquifer Evaluation. Bulletin 49,
Illinois State Water Survey.

Walton, W.C.  1970. Groundwater Resource Evaluation.  McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.

Walton, W.C.   1984.   Practical Aspects  of Ground  Water Modeling.  National Water Well
Association, Dublin, OH.

Walton, W.C.  1989. Analytical Groundwater Modeling.  Lewis Publishers, Inc., Chelsea, MI.

Walton, W.C.  1989. Numerical Groundwater Modeling: Flow and Contaminant Migration. Lewis
Publishers, Inc., Chelsea, MI.

Wang, H.F., and M.P. Anderson. 1982. Introduction to Groundwater Modeling. W.H. Freeman
Co., San Francisco, CA.

Ward, C.H., W. Giger, and P.L. McCarty (eds).  1985.   Groundwater Quality. John Wiley &
Sons, Somerset, NJ.

Wilson, J.L., and  P.J. Miller.   1978.  Two-Dimensional Plume  in Uniform Ground-Water Flow.
Journal of Hydraulics Div. A. Soc. of Civil Eng. Paper  No 13665. HY4, pp. 503-514.
9/93                                       7                                 References

-------
   APPENDIX C
Sources of Information

-------
                       SOURCES  OF INFORMATION
SOURCES OF U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY DOCUMENTS

Center for Environmental Research Information (CERI) (no charge for documents)

      Center for Environmental Research Information (CERI)
      ORD Publications
      26 West Martin Luther King Drive
      Cincinnati, OH 45268
      513 569-7562
      FTS 8-684-7562
Public Information Center (PIC) (no charge for public domain documents)

      Public Information Center (PIC)
      U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
      PM-211B
      401 M Street, S.W.
      Washington, DC 20460
      202 382-2080
      FTS 8-382-2080
Superfund Docket and Information Center (SDIC)

      U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
      Superfund Docket and Information Center (SDIC)
      OS-245
      401 M Street, S.W.
      Washington, DC 20460
      202 260-6940
      FTS 8-382-6940
National Technical Information Services (NTIS) (cost varies)

      National Technical Information Services (NTIS)
      U.S. Department of Commerce
      5285 Port Royal Road
      Springfield, VA 22161
      703 487-4650
      l-800-553-NTIS(6847)

Superintendent of Documents

      Government Printing Office
      202 783-3238

9/93                                   1                     Sources of Information

-------
SOURCES OF MODELS AND MODEL INFORMATION
Superfund Exposure Assessment Manual

      EPA/540/1-88/001, April 1988
      Chapter 3 "Contaminant Fate Analysis" - 35 models
National Ground Water Association

      National Ground Water Association
      6375 Riverside Dr.
      Dublin, OH 43017
      614 761-1711
International Groundwater Modeling Center (IGWMC)

      Paul K. M. van der Heijde, Director IGWMC
      Institute for Ground-Water Research and Education
      Colorado School of Mines
      Golden, CO 80401-1887
      303 273-3103
      303 273-3278 (fax)
Groundwater Flow Model

      Soil and Water Conservation Society (SWCS) Student Chapter
      Iowa State University
      3510 Agronomy Hall
      Ames, IA 50011
      515 294-7850
      Cost:  $384.00 (including shipping)
UST Video:  Groundwater Cleanup

      Industrial Training Systems Corp.
      20 West Stow Road
      Marlton, NJ 08053
      609 983-7300
      Cost:  $595.00
Sources of Information                      2                                     9/93

-------
GEOPHYSICS ADVISOR EXPERT SYSTEM VERSION 2.0

      Gary R. Olhoeft, Jeff Lucius, Cathy Sanders
      U.S. Geological Survey
      Box 25046 DFC - Mail Stop 964
      Denver, CO 80225
      303 236-1413/1200

      U.S.  Geological  Survey  preliminary  computer program for Geophysics Advisor Expert
      System.  Distributed on 3.5" disk and written in True BASIC 2.01 to run under Microsoft
      MS-DOS 2.0 or later on IBM-PC or true compatible computers with 640k or greater memory
      available to the program.  No source code is available.

      This expert  system program was created for the U.S. Environmental Protection  Agency,
      Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Las Vegas, Nevada.  The expert system is
      designed to assist and educate non-geophysicists in the use of geophysics at hazardous waste
      sites. It is not meant to replace the expert advice of competent geophysicists.
COMPREHENSIVE LISTING OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

       U.S. Department of Agriculture, ASCS
       Aerial Photography Field Office
       2222 West 2300 South
       P.O. Box 30010
       Salt Lake City, UT 84130-0010
       801 524-5856
9/93                                      3                      Sources of Information

-------
o
o
fs/
O
o
*
o
o
o
                 °
                 °



4-	>-	-f	
      o
   	K--

.J	
->-	
+	
                           o
                           .+.
*
o
o
 o
 O
o
O
o
O
                                                       o
                                                       O
                   Contaminant Distribution - Dec. 1982

                            	+	—4-	-)-	i-	j.	   300
                         660

->-	-)-	J-	!-	--->•	«-	}-.——-.


                  670

                                   650
                                            1-	->•	>-	>•

                       -7  600
                                                                     500 N
                   	  400
                                                              	   200
                                                              	  100
                                                                     0
                   	  100
                                                                     200
                                                             	   300
                                                             	   400
                                                                     500 S
                                                             	  600
                                                             	  700
Amoco Free Product

Amoco Dissolved

UHaul Free Product

Uhaul Dissolved
nixed Dissolved
                                                                     800
                                                                     900
                                                                     1003 5
                                                       GRID FORM t

-------
500  M
 500 S
 000  S

-------
o
o

-------
o
'S
O
o
o
o
e
o
r-
o
o
  Recovery Operations - July 1987




             670
-1-	r	+-'	-1-	!-	!•-—r—-}-	+-I


           -)-	-•-+	+	+
             670
                         660
                                                                     500 M
                                                                  .   200


                                   650


                                                                     100
                                                                      100
                                                                200
                                                              	   300
                                                                      400
                                                                      500 S
                                                              	  600
                                                              	  700
                                           Amoco Free Product
                                           Amoco Dissolved
                                           UHaul Free Product
                                           UHeul Dissolved
                                           Mixed Dissolved
                                           Disposed Soil Area
                                                                     800
                                                                900
                                                                1000 s

-------
                                     Table 2
                                     Project No.  782563
                Slug-In Test Results
                 Monitoring Well  MW-6
                      Test No. 1
jn*p*«J tiro* |O«p5«J Ti...
R»v
Hin
0.12
0.2*
0.36
0.72
123
\S
1.75
2D1
2.73
325
425
. 6.14
S4*ccf>ds

Y«tw
tfepth
Ft
72) 2JD9
14.4
2.51
21 .6 1 2.76
432) 323
73 JD
3.61
90.0| 3.95
105.0
120.6
163.0
195.0
439
4.72
3.07
5.32
255.0| 6.06
368.4
7.B3! 469.8
951
h


19.91
(tt-h)/(H-Ho)


1.00
19.49) 0.96
1924
18.77
1839
0.93
038
034
16.051 0.80
17.61
1728
16.93
16.68
13.94
724| 14.76
8.12J 1338
570.6i 8.76 1 1324
1l.24| 674.4
0.76
0.72
0.68
0.66
058
0.45
036
029|
9.35) 12.65) 023|
r= 1  in.
L = 8.7 ft
R = 2.25  in.
K = 3.3E-6 ft/sec  or  1.0E-4 cm/sec
   2.8E-1 ft/day   or 1.0E2ft/yr
Tor 466.7 sec.
Note: K is calculated based on Hvorslev Method (1951)
UJJ -



°-°.
1- •
4H
\L'
c
'a?>-qL_
V






) 1C

%^^^
1





» 2£


"^s^





0 3C
Twr



r^^r-
• 'V



1
)0 4C
»inS«ooi





w^


1
» 5C
•4s





^^


10 6C






\^
^>*-
0 70

-------
                                  investigation Results - Phase
                                                                      40
                                    Conlominntion
                                    Bosed on
                                    Phose 1  Study
                                                             Groundweter
                                                               Contours
                                                               Dec 1982
••70
                           fin

-------
                                  500 N
Amoco & TCEC - Phase 1 & 2
Location Diagram
                            ,	   100

                                   400
                                   500 S
                                  800
                                  900
                                  1000 5

-------
FENCE DIAGRAM

LEVINGS GEOENVIRONtlENTAL
ASSESSMENT

-------
                                           North-South Profile
                                           Station 700 W

                                                                         770

aa^^aH^6««^aaiii«{aitupautuaatiaa
:&%!%(& MJS^^^^

                                                                         750
CLAYEY SILT      - FILL


SILT, TRACE CLAY - LOESS


CLAYEY SILT      -ALLUVIUM


                   'GLACIAL TILL
                                                                         710
                   U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1993- 300-574 /  83098

-------