PB 220 346/1
c:
URBAN AIR
POLLUTION
PROBLEMS
prepared by the
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REGION VII
BRIEFING DOCUMENT
for
THE PRESIDENT'S AIR QUALITY ADVISORY BOARD
Kansas City, Missouri
March 1973
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URBAN AIR POLLUTION PROBLEMS
A Briefing Document for
THE PRESIDENT'S
AIR QUALITY ADVISORY BOARD
Prepared by
William A. Spratlin
Environmental Protection Agency, Region VII
With the Assistance of
Region VII, E.P.A.
The Office of Administrator, E.P.A.
The Office of Land Use Planning, E.P.A.
The Office of Research and Monitoring, E.P.A.
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Superintendent of Documents
classification number is:
EP 1.2:
Url/2
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CONTENTS
PAGE
SECTION 1 - INTRODUCTION 1
SECTION 2 - URBAN AlR POLLUTION - ITS CAUSES AND EFFECTS 2
SECTION 3 - DESCRIPTION OF URBAN ST. LOUIS 10
SECTION k - ECONOMICS - COSTS VS BENEFITS 18
SECTION 5 - FEDERAL ACTIVITIES IN URBAN AREAS 26
REFERENCES 37
APPENDIX A 39
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INTRODUCTION
This Briefing Document has been prepared for the use of the
President's Air Quality Advisory Board in connection with its meeting
in St. Louis, Missouri, from March 26-30, 1973.
The topic of Urban Air Pollution Problems was chosen for discussion
because over three-fourths of the nation's total population lives and
works in urban areas and air pollution is largely, although by no means
exclusively, an urban problem. In many cases it is difficult to separate
the inner city pollution problem from that of the overall urban area
concerned.
This document is an attempt to focus on some of the acute environi-
mental problems faced by urban areas. It is necessarily incomplete and
inconclusive because environmental problems in the urban setting cannot
be sharply differentiated from nonenvironmental problems. The problem
of urban air pollution can be masked or can mask other social problems
such as urban transportation, slum housing, inadequate health care,
recreation and education and unemployment. Presentations by experts
during the first day with attendant questions by the Board should plug
gaps in the written information available.
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URBAN AIR POLLUTION - ITS CAUSES AND EFFECTS
The major sources of urban air pollution are automobiles, trucks,
buses, and aircraft; commercial and residential heating; construction
and demolition; incineration; and steam and electric generation. These
sources release hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur
oxides, particulate matter, oxidants, lead, other gaseous by-products
and dust. (1) Although the mix and levels of pollutants borne in the
air vary from city to city due to differing combinations of effluent
emissions and meteorological dispersion patterns, characteristically,
greatest concentrations are found either in areas surrounding central
commercial districts or in adjacent industrial areas. In these areas
the density of sources is greatest.
Health Effects
Air pollution has a number of adverse effects on urban residents.
The most important effect is real and potential health damage. For
the central city resident, the day-to-day exposure is especially detri-
mental. Not only is he often in the area of highest concentration,
but he is more likely to suffer from other chronic diseases and lack
proper medical care.
Numerous studies have been conducted to determine the effects of
air pollution on human health. Unsurprisingly, the area most frequently
affected is the respiratory system. The cardiac problems associated with
air pollution are often indirect effects since decreased lung efficiency
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puts a greater strain on the heart as it strives to force the ailing
lungs to absorb the minimum required amount of oxygen from the inhaled
air.
Studies in Chattanooga, Tennessee (Air Criteria for Oxides of Nitro-
gen, 1971) and New York City (2), show an increase among adults in bron-
chitis, coughs, and shortness of breath in areas of high levels of sulfur
oxides, particulates, and oxides of nitrogen. In the New York study, the
percentage of women with chronic bronchitis in low pollution areas was
k.l percent as compared with 11.6 percent of the women in high pollution
areas. Only 11.5 percent of men in low pollution areas had bronchitis as
compared to 18.^ percent of men in high pollution areas. In all cases
pollution variables were prime explanatory factors.
Increases in mortality rates as a function of high levels of pollu-
tants have been measured in several studies. (2) In poor urban areas in
Chicago, daily respiratory mortality increased as levels of SOj increased.
(2) The death rate for respiratory disease per 10,000 ranged from 4.3 in
low SO.high socioeconomic areas to .12.5 in areas of high SO low socio-
economic levels. In this study, the people were poor and predominantly
non-white.
Carbon monoxide is probably the most well known automotive pollutant
since deaths due to this gas are frequently recorded. The toxicity of
carbon monoxide results from its chemical characteristic of attacking the
blood's oxygen carrying capacity. Carbon monoxide reacts with the red
blood cells 200 times faster than oxygen.
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The ambient levels of carbon monoxide commonly found in city air
(around 10 ppm) result in individuals living day in and day out,
deprived of 2 percent of their blood's oxygen carrying capacity. (3)
The urban poor who live and play along city streets are deprived of
even more of their blood'x oxygen carrying capacity.
On the city streets where the urban poor live, traffic frequently
creates carbon monoxide levels on the order of 100 parts per million.
A traffic jam can create levels of several hundred parts per million.
The burden of carbon monoxide is further aggravated by the fact that
persons with hereditary traits, such as sickle cell anemia, are partic-
ularly vulnerable to the effects of carbon monoxide.
Carbon monoxide can cause behavioral changes when blood levels of
carbonoxyhemoglobin (COHb) reach 6.6 percent, a level not uncommon in
driving or in many work situations.(2) At this level, vigilance may
be impaired. A driver may not notice a traffic light or another car
beside him and his response to stimulus is slower. The implications for
decreased driving safety are obvious.
Lead is another air pollutant which has been known to be toxic to
humans for over 2,000 years. Every day, millions of U.S. citizens breathe
air which is contaminated to levels exceeding 1.5 ug/m , which is the
Ambient Air Quality Standard adopted by California. Automobiles emit
most of the lead found in urban air (roughly 90 percent). Lead emissions
from tailpipes are a by-product of the combustion of leaded gasoline.
It appears that in suburban areas, the concentration of lead in air
is approximately 0.1 ug/m^, while in urban areas the concentration is
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a
approximately 1.0 ug/m . A composite figure for the blood lead level
of the rural American male is 16 ug/lOOgm, while the composite figure
for the urban American male is 21 ug/lOOgm; more than 30 percent higher.
(3) A similar comparison for females indicates a 60 percent increase
with exposure in the urban area. Additional data on the blood lead
levels of urban and suburban adults was published in the January 10,
1973 Federal Register.
While lead in gasoline is generally recognized as an environmental
hazard, lead in paint is a more immediate problem for the poor. Lead
is present in the paint, plaster, and caulking on some older houses
and apartments which are now in decaying neighborhoods. Prolonged or
recurrent ingestion of this lead, produces abnormal levels of lead in
the blood and, in a significant number of cases, lead poisoning. Eighty
percent of lead poisoning cases can be traced to lead paint consumption.
Effect on Materials and Climate
In addition to the health effects, air pollution causes other adverse
effects on the urban population. These include decreased visibility,
weather modification, increased corrosion on buildings, cars, fences,
and other property and decreased attractiveness of surroundings due to
accumulation of settled particulate matter and increase of corrosion.
The decreased visibility in urban areas resulting from smoke and
smog has played a major role in numerous single-car and multiple-car
accidents. It is not unusual to read of 30 or more cars being involved
in a single accident brought about by a combination of poor visibility
due to air pollution and driver carelessness. Pilots operating out of
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airports located in .the midst of industrial areas report frequently that
smoke and smog obscure visibility during take-off and landing to a degree
that flight operations can be made dangerous.
There are psychological effects associated with reduced visibility
due to air pollution. A Los Angeles study showed that children in school
had become more unruly during days of high pollution, (k)
Ultraviolet rays, considered so important to the health of infants
and growing children, are greatly reduced in intensity by air pollution.
The corrosiveness of certain air pollutants and to a lesser degree,
the erosion caused by particulate matter in motion, take an annual toll
in tens of millions of dollars. New York City has spent more than five
million dollars on City Hall in Manhattan and Borough Hall in Brooklyn
just to repair damage caused by air pollution. Peeling house paint,
rusting iron fences, accelerated automobile corrosion, are all mute
testimony to the havoc wrought by air pollution.
Air pollution can damage and fade clothing, curtains and other fabrics.
Even if not directly disintegrated by air pollutants, fabrics in polluted
atmospheres need more frequent washing or cleaning, adding a dollar cost
and shortening the life of the fabric.
One of the most intriguing aspects of air pollution is its effect on
weather and climate. The introduction of man-made particulate matter into
the atmosphere can alter the cloud forming process and precipitation
patterns. Table 1 indicates some of the climatic changes caused by the
introduction of contaminants into the air.
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Social Effects
The urban poor suffer most from the effects of air pollution. A
number of reasons can be given for this situation.
1. Landlords in run-down urban areas tend to purchase the cheapest
available fuel for space heating. This in conjunction with older, poorly
serviced heating equipment, results in a greater discharge of S02, partic-
uiates, hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide.
2. Automobiles in poorer urban areas are generally older, more
decrepit and poorly maintained. Hence, they have much greater carbon
monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions than autos owned by the more affluent.
3. Streets are not cleaned as often in poor urban areas, as in more
affluent areas. This leaves a greater residue of soot, dust and dirt to
be blown about by wind and re-entrained by traffic.
TABLE 1
Climatic Changes Produced by Cities (5)
Ejement Comparison with Rural Environs
Contaminants:
dust particles 10 times more
sulfur dioxide 5 times more
carbon dioxide 10 times more
carbon monoxide 25 times more
Radiation:
total on horizontal surface 15 to 20% less
ultraviolet, winter 30% less
ultraviolet, summer 5% less
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TABLE 1 (continued)
Cloudiness:
clouds 5 to 10% more
fog, winter 100% more
fog, summer 30% more
Precipitation:
amounts 5 to 10% more
days with 0.2 in 10% more
Temperature:
annual mean 1 to 1.5°F more
winter minima...... 2 to 3°F more
Relative Hunidity:
annual mean 6% less
winter 2% less
summer 8% less
Wind Speed:
annual mean.. .....20 to 30% less
extreme gusts ....10 to 20% less
calms 5 to 20% less
Urban poor tend to live, work, and play in the inner city, thus they
spend twenty-four hours a day, nearly everyday, breathing higher air
pollution levels. The middle class, on the other hand, lives, works,
and/or plays much of the time in the areas where the air is cleaner.
They have the financial means to live in the suburbs, or cleaner parts
of town, take day trips through the countryside and spend summers at
the lake. At the end of a year's time, the urban poor have spent con-
siderable more time breathing polluted air than their more affluent
suburban counterparts.
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Urban poor tend to live in row or tenement housing close to street
traffic. They breathe the high pollution levels produced by traffic
coming into the city in the morning and leaving in the evening. The
road in front of an average suburban home carries traffic typified by
a car cruising at 25 mph - the lowest pollution traffic mode. The
street in front of an average city house carries high traffic counts
typified by frequent stops with long idle periods, accelerations and
decelerations - all high pollution traffic modes.
People who are afflicted with the poorest environmental quality
are least likely to be in the vanguard of those who are complaining. (6)
Their needs for greater income and better living facilities probably
take precedence over needs for better recreation and cleaner air. If
the poor must be concerned about immediate needs, then their environment,
the ecology to which they belong, is likely to be housing and work. Very
few environmental problems are obviously urgent to all.
-9-
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. DESCRIPTION OF URBAN ST. LOUIS
The St. Louis area was chosen as the focal point for the Board's
consideration of air pollution problems because the area presents many
of the problems that are typical to other U.S. cities. The City of
St. Louis has been involved in air pollution control since the first
anti-smoke ordinance was passed in 1893. (7) At present, the City
of St. Louis, St. Louis County, the State of Missouri and the State
of Illinois are involved in air pollution control in the area.
The City of St. Louis covers an area of 62 square miles with a
population of about 622,000 people. (8) The greater metropolitan area
of St. Louis includes a number of counties on either side of the Missis-
sippi River with a population of more than 2.3 million.
The terrain of St. Louis is generally flat, possessing gradual undu-
lations rather than sharply defined ridges and valleys. Although there
are a few rises and drops of 100 feet in elevation over a short distance,
the area within a 25-mile radius of downtown St. Louis is generally free
of major orographic features that strongly influence meteorological vari-
ables. A flat area known as the American Bottoms, surrounded by a cresent-
shaped bluff, lies on the east side of the Mississippi across from St.
Louis.
The average elevation of the American Bottoms is about 60 feet below
the main commercial area of St. Louis. At times, stagnation of a shallow
pool of cool air in this basin during the night enhances radiation fog
formation under clear skies in the early summer. Similar conditions
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exist through the Missouri River bottom area to the west and north of
St. Louis.
The climate of the area is classified "Humid Continental:" springs
and autumns are moderate, winters are brisk, summers are hot; the aver-
age annual temperature is 56.7°F; the average annual precipitation of
38.91 inches is distributed throughout the year. (7)
Metropolitan areas impose their own effects on the atmosphere and
St. Louis is no exception to this rule. The City acts as a heat island,
or heat reservoir, by storing up heat by absorption from the sun's rays
during the day and releasing the stored heat at night. The average
minimum temperatures for each of four months were mapped for several
sites in and around St. Louis and it was noted that in each case the
minimum temperatures in the downtown area averaged higher than at any
of the outlying sites.
In order for a heat island to form, it is important to have haat
supplied by absorption of solar radiation, low wind speed to establish
thermal stratification and the presence of buildings to reduce wind
speeds. The City profile can cause a significant reduction in wind
speed relative to the surrounding rural areas, permitting air pollutants
to accumulate. With the heat island effect, circulating air rises over
the hot center of the City and falls upon the cooler edges, traps pollu-
tants and produces the familiar "dust dome" or "haze hood."
In reviewing the air pollution problem in St. Louis, it is important
to consider the sources of the contaminants within the urban area. Land
use in the City of St. Louis can be broken down as follows:
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1. Residential areas including one, two, three, four and multi-
family dwellings and residential garage space - 20.6 square miles.
2. Commercial areas including local businesses, schools, libraries,
retail trade service businesses, etc. - 6.8 square miles.
3. Industrial areas including light and heavy industries - 7.2
square miles.
4. Transportation areas including streets and railroads - 17.9
square miles.
5. Non-polluting areas including parks, playgrounds, vacant lots,
cemeteries, etc. - 9.7 square miles. (9)
In other words, about 85 percent of the land within the confines
of the City contribute in one way or another to the air pollution
problem.
The City of St. Louis is unique as far as most American cities
are concerned in that there is no room for further expansion. (The
corporate limits of St. Louis City were fixed by the Missouri legislature
and the City is not a part of St. Louis County.) The City is bounded by
the Mississippi River to the east and numerous incorporated communities
in the other directions (see Figure 1).
Referring to Figures 2 and 3, it can be seen that the heavy concen-
trations of both particulates and S0_, are located along the Mississippi
River near the center of the urban area. (10) Because of a heavy concen-
tration of industry to the south and the prevailing southerly winds, the
center city area is exposed to much higher concentrations of both pollu-
tants than the outlying suburbs.
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GRANITE
CITY
OVERLAND
UNIVERSITY
CITY
Madison _Co
St.Clair Co.
!
EAST
ST. LOUIS
Lou/s Co.
SI ST. LOUIS
at
WEBSTER \
GROVES
CRESTWOOD
SCALE OF MILES
91??
FIGURE 1
ST. LOUIS AREA
\
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ST. CHARLES CO.
MO.
MISSOURI
ILLINOIS
ST. LOUIS CO.
MADISON CO.
ST.
LOUIS
i
"100
ST/CLAIR CO.
60
///MONROE'
/// CO.
FIGURE 2
ST. LOUIS AREA
Unregulated Particulate
Levels (Existing 1968)
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ST. CHARLES CO-
IT ILLINOIS
ST./CLAIR CO.
FIGURE 3
ST. LOUIS AREA
Unregulated S0£
Levels (Existing 1968)
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To monitor the future changes in air quality, the St. Louis Air
Quality Control Region has expanded its existing air quality system to
include eight remote controlled telemetry stations with two additional
sites planned. Each station includes the following instrumentation:
Sulfur Dioxide Analyzer; Nitrogen Dioxide, Nitric Oxide; Total Hydro-
carbons; Carbon Monoxide; and COH. The samples collected are analyzed
and the results are stored in a central computer in the City Hall.
A study of the St. Louis area made in 1966 by the National Air
Pollution Control Administration reported that suspended particulates,
dust fall, and concentrations of sulfur dioxide were higher in the
predominantly poor black neighborhoods of St. Louis and East St. Louis
than elsewhere in the metropolitan area. Table 2 published in the 1971
CEO. Report, indicates a direct correlation between income level and the
pollution level. As the income level rises, the concentrations of partic-
ulates and sulfation decrease.
TABLE 2
Air Pollution Exposure Indices by Income (11)
Income Suspended particulates * Sulfation **
St. Louis
0 2,999 91.3 .97
3,000-4,999 85.3 .88
5,000-6,999 79.2 .78
7,000-9,999 75.4 .72
10,000-14,999 73.0 .68
15,000-24,999 68.8 .60
25,000-over 64.9 .52
*micrograms/cubic meter
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Another fact which closely relates to the income level concerns
the problems in the neighborhood. In 1963, people living in St. Louis
City felt that unemployment, juvenile delinquency and lack of recreation
areas were a far more serious problem than air pollution, whereas the
residents of suburban Madison and St. Clair County in Illinois, considered
air pollution to be one of the most serious problems. (7) A similar
relationship could probably be shown to exist in most urban areas.
Results of a similar survey presented by Hodges (12) in January 1973,
reflect a change in attitude and an increased awareness of the air pollu-
tion problem. Of the ten social problems listed, air pollution was shown
to be more serious than any other problem as far as the overall City was
concerned. Public transportation and traffic outranked air pollution as
serious problems in the immediate neighborhood.
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ECONOMICS - COSTS vs BENEFITS
In a large city, the closing down of a single plant would have
less severe economic impact than in a smaller city. Theoretically,
workers could move from facilities with high pollutant emissions to low
polluting ones as long as the required skills were similar. Further,
the effects of decreasing capital efficiency and increasing cost of
capital will be less severe in low polluting industries since little
expenditures for pollution control equipment are required. The economy
of the metropolitan area might also support some pollution abatement
equipment industries, and therefore experience some economic benefit.
Concurrent to the growth in the abatement industry will be growth in
the ancilliary service industry.
At this point, a judgement must be made. Will the center city
function as part of the metropolitan system? Or, will the effects of
pollution control be similar to those of the small town? Physically,
the center city is part of the overall metropolitan system. The
unskilled worker of the center city tends to resist migration and seeks
other local employment. (2) Even if he wanted to migrate and seek work
elsewhere in the metropolitan area, it is doubtful whether he could
afford it. By living and working within the inner city, a resident
saves considerably on transportation costs. This problem may become
more acute when considered in the context of the requirements for
mobile emission devices on automobiles. The cost of these devices is
estimated at 300 dollars per vehicle. (2) A price use of 300 dollars
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per automobile becomes a highly regressive tax for the low income center
i
city resident. It is possible that a cost increase of that amount could
virtually eliminate the automobile as an alternative means of transporta-
tion in the center city.
Speaking at the 52nd Annual Conference of the Highway Research
Board at the Sheraton Park Hotel in Washington on January 24, 1973, EPA
Administrator William D. Ruckelshaus said, "We have to balance the bene-
fits of achieving healthy air within a certain time frame against the
social costs. The benefits are undeniable, but if the price is a
severely crippled city, then it may be necessary to stretch out the
time for compliance."
It is generally assumed that air pollution tends to depress property
values despite the lack of data to substantiate this assumption. In 1970
the National Air Pollution Administration completed an analysis of pro-
perty values in relation -to air pollution in various neighborhoods in
Washington, D.C., Kansas City and St. Louis.(13) In each community, a
comparison was made of the selling prices of homes in neighborhoods with
different levels of sulfur oxides and particulate pollution. Even after
allowance was made for other relevant factors, such as size of homes,
proximity to schools, and character of the neighborhood, it was found
that homes in the areas of higher air pollution levels generally sold
for 300 to 500 dollars less.
The aggregate impact of expenditures for air pollution control on
the national economy includes effects on the levels of demand and supply
of total production and on prices, employment and economic growth. Some
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of these prices will be reflected in higher consumer prices.
The largest increase in consumer prices is projected for transpor-
tation. (14) The 4.3 percent projected increase in transportation
prices is primarily due to the increase in motor vehicle prices, but
to some extent also due to higher electricity, iron and steel and alu-
minum prices.
The actual cost of the air pollution burden on the urban dwellers
is incalculable. Some specific costs can be measured - the cost of
commercial laundering, cleaning, and dyeing of fabrics soiled by air
pollution is about 800 million dollars a year. (15) The cost of washing
cars dirtied by air pollution-is about 2^0 million dollars a year. (15)
Air pollution also imposed many other costs which cannot be mea-
sured. Among them:
. Hospital bills, doctor bills, and medicines for people made
sick by air pollution.
. Time lost from work by those incapacitated by air pollution.
. Added maintenance and painting of buildings and homes.
Damaged equipment, materials and-fabrics.
. Injuries and property damage caused by reduced visibility.
. Burning lights in cities darkened by air pollution.
A study in New York City has estimated that air pollution could
impose costs of up to 850 dollars a year on each family living there
for extra cleaning household maintenance and personal care.
On the national scale, the 1972 CEQ/Report (16) suggests that
direct job loss attributable to environmental regulations in the affected
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industry activities examined may range from 50,000 to 125,000 jobs over
the 1972-76 period. These figures represent approximately 1 percent to
k percent of total employment in the industry activities studied.
In the 21 months through last September, according to the latest
EPA data, there were only 29 shutdowns of industrial establishments
throughout the country in which environmental costs were mentioned as
even a contributing factor. (17) The 29 shutdowns involved 7,013 jobs
which represent less than two-tenths of 1 percent of total national
unemployment.
Unemployment as a result of meeting the air quality standards does
not appear to be a serious problem in the St. Louis area. (18) According
to local authorities, only one foundry has closed as a result of air
pollution requirements. This foundry has since been sold; the necessary
controls were installed and it is now in operation again.
An additional problem which could result, although there is no data
to substantiate the assumption, concerns fuel conversions. Many plants
in St. Louis have switched or cut back on the use of coal; therefore,
the demand for skilled boiler firers has declined.
In considering the economic impact of air pollution control, it is
important to compare the direct and indirect costs of control with the
direct and indirect costs of the damage which could be mitigated by such
control.
A report issued by the U.S. Public Health Service entitled "The
Cost of Air Pollution Damages: A Status Report," (1*0 estimates that
in 1977, the direct costs of human mortality and morbidity due to only
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two pollutants, sulfur oxides and particulates, will total 9.3 billion
dollars, with an .additional damage estimate to property values of around
8 billion dollars annually, and materials and vegetation of around 8
billion dollars. The total annual damage cost is about 25 billion dollars,
The effects of the air pollutants discharged by automobiles (HC, CO,
NOX, and indirectly, 03) are not covered in the report because of an
almost complete lack of data on which to base any estimates.
If reductions in damage are equated to benefits, then it is possible
to compute a crude estimate of the value of benefits obtained from the
emission reductions summarized in Table 3« Table 4 gives the projected
national annual benefits (damage cost reduction) attributable to these
emission reductions in Fiscal 1977- With the assumptions made, the
total computed benefits in 1977 of 14.2 billion dollars are generated
by the 12.3 billion dollars estimated to be spent in that year for emis-
sion control, a benefit/cost of over one to one. When it is considered
that due to lack of data, the value of health benefits generated by
reductions in CO, Ox, and NOX have not been included in Table 3, even
though the costs of control for these pollutants are included in the
12.3 billion total annual control cost in Table 4, then the one to one
benefit/cost ratio appears conservative.
While the above figures represent national totals, it is reasonable
to assume that the major portion of these benefits will be for the urban
population.
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Page 1 of 2
TABLE 3 - NATIONAL EMISSION REDUCTIONS AND COSTS UNDER ASSUMED STANDARDS FOR FISCAL YEAR 1977
(COSTS IN 1970 DOLLARS
K>
Source Class
Type
Emission Level .
without further control^/
(Thousands of Tons Per Year)
Part
Mobile Sources
Solid Waste Disposal 1,
Stationary Fuel Combustion:
Small & intermediate
boilers 2,
Steam-electric-o'ower 5,
TOTAL 7,
Industrial Process Studied:
Asphalt Patching
Cement x
Coal Cleaning
Grain Plants: Handling 1,
Feed
Gray Iron Foundries
Iron and Steel 1 ,
Kraft (Sulfate) Pulp
Lime
Nitric Acid
Petroleum Products &
Storage
Petroleum Refineries
Phosphate
Primary Nonferrous Metallurgy
Copper
Lead
Zinc
Al umi num
450
830
330
600
930
403
908
342
430
362
260
991
536
609
241
350
314
39
71
49
SOX CO
1,490 165,000
260 6,720
7,660
27,600
35,260
3,800
3,010 12,100
3,335
213
555
HC NOX
28,000 9,900
2,530 510
4,800
6,000
10,800
230
1,349
197
Emission
Reductions and Costs Under
Decrease of Emission
Level (Percent).*-/
Part SOX CO HC NOX
y y
66 72 44
96 0 92 86 0
84 83 0
49 90 0
72 88 0
86
07
g?
86 94
96 -T-
8c
QL
QQ
- 78
59 99 99 94
cL
9 84
33 86
0 75
89
Assumed Standards
Total Control
Cost (Millions of .
Dollars in FY 77)-2/
Invest-
ment
$
$
$
$ 5
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
A
$
$
$
$
<
U
472
879
,660
,539
272
89
21
395
19
348
841
132
29
37
378
31
313
65
41
097
Annual
$
$
$
5
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
8.385Z/
224
1,116
1,360
2,476
63
35
9
83
4
126
306
40
7
14
1
1 73
15
100
16
18
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Page 2 of 2
TABLE 3 - NATIONAL EMISSION REDUCTIONS AND COSTS UNDER ASSUMED STANDARDS FOR FISCAL YEAR 1977
(COSTS IN 1970 DOLLARS (1*0
Reductions and
i
f
Source Class
Type
Secondary Noriferrous
Metal lurgy
Sulfur ic Acid
TOTAL
Industries Not Studies
Mi seel 1 aneous Sources
Not Studiedi/
National Total &/
FOOTNOTES;
\J Assumed standards
Emission
Costs Under
Emission Level .
without further control^/ Decrease of Emission
(Thousands of Tons Per Year) Level ( Percent )2/
Part
34
38
7,977
10,150
7,940
36,280
given
SOX CO HC
920
8,033 15,900 1,546
1,530 9,750 1.610
280 19,740 7,750
46,850 217,110 41,440
in Appendix. Blanks in
NOX Part
y
83
74
230 86
0
5,250 0
26,690 39
SOX CO
.
81
89 98
0 0
0 0
81 57
the table indicate that emi
. »
HC
___
80
0
0
17
ssion
NOX
___
89
0
0
60
levels
Assumed Standards
Total
Cost (Mi
Dollars
Invest-
ment
$ 32
$ 169
$ 4,135
0
0
$10,146
meet appli
Control
11 ions of .
in FY 77)2/
Annual
$
$
$
$1
cabl
9
39
1,213
0
0
2,298
e
2/ Emission abbreviations are: particulates (Part), sulfur oxides (SOX), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons
(HC), nitrogen oxides (NOX).
J/ Projected costs are the initial investment expenditures for purchasing and installing control equipment
(total investment) and the continuing annual costs for interest, property taxes, insurance, depreciation,
etc., and for operating and maintaining of equipment (ultimate annual cost). Cost of government programs
is not included.
4/ Includes light duty and heavy duty road vehicles only. Control of particulate and sulfur oxides from
mobile sources was not considered in this study.
Forest fires, structural fires, solvent evaporation, agriculture burning, natural gas production and
transmission, coal refining, etc.
6/ To nearest 10,000 tons.
2/ All mobile source emission control investment costs are assumed to be expended in Fiscal 1977. Annual
costs are based on Alternative 1 in Table A-5 for meeting 1975 and 1976 vehicle emission standards.
-------
TABLE 4
PROJECTED NATIONAL ANNUAL BENEFITS (DAMAGE COST REDUCTION)(1/0
BY SOURCE CLASS IN FISCAL 1977
(1970 DOLLARS IN MILLIONS)
BENEFIT CLASS
SOURCE CLASS
Mobile
Solid Waste
Stationary Fuel Combustion
Industrial Processes Studied
Industries Not Studied
Mi seel 1 aneousit/
TOTAL BENEFIT.4/
Health
V
172
3,8122/
1,413
0
0
$5,397
Residential
Property
V
145
3,267
1,302
0
0
$4,615
Materials and
Veqetation
$ 945
119
2,366
734
0
0
$4,164
TOTAL
BENEFIT
$ 945J/
436
9,445
3,350
0
0
$14,176
CONTROL COST .
(Table 1-1)
$ 8,385J/
224
2,476
1,213
0
0
$12,298
\J Value of benefits from reducing CO, NOX, and HC emissions not available due to lack of data.
2/ Health damage cost due to NOX, from stationary fuel combustion not include'd due to lack of data.
J/ Based on Alternative 1 in Table A-5 for meeting the 1975 and 1976 vehicle emission standards.
k/ Benefit computation based on proportional reduction of damage costs in Table A-6 excluding "miscel-
laneous" source damage costs since these are generally not controllable and, therefore, cannot become
benefits.
-------
FEDERAL ACTIVITIES IN URBAN AREAS
The Environmental Protection Agency is attacking the urban air pol-
lution problem through implementation of the nationwide program set
forth under the Clean Air Act of 1970. Achievement of the Primary and
Secondary Ambient Air Quality Standards promulgated by EPA for sulfur
oxides, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, photochemical oxidants,
nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons should protect the inner-city residents
from these contaminants.
The basic vehicle for attaining the Ambient Air Standards is the
State Implementation Plans. In these Plans, the States must formulate
control strategies which will result in attainment and maintenance of
the National Ambient Air Quality Standards. Figures 1 and 2 indicated
the 1968 air quality levels in St. Louis for particulates and S02 with-
out controls. Figures k and 5 show the levels that should be achieved
by 1975 with the application of a Missouri and Illinois control strategy.
These new levels of air pollution will provide a safer, healthier
environment for the urban residents to live and work in.
In St. Louis, it is expected that the Ambient Standards for CO, NOX,
HC and oxidants can be met by the imposition of emission controls on
stationary sources of pollution and the decrease in pollution due to
increasingly stringent Federal emission standards for new cars. As a
result, the St. Louis Region will not be required to develop a strategy
for transportation controls.
In other major metropolitan areas, land use and transportation con-
trols will be required to meet the Standards by 1975. Several
-26-
-------
ST. CHARLES CO.
ILLINOIS
MADISON CO.
ST. CLAIR CO.
FIGURE 4
ST. LOUIS AREA
Particulate Levels
Forecast for 1975
-27-
-------
ST. CHARLES CO
ILLINOIS
f.'/MONRO^V
ill co. \
MADISON CO.
ST. CLAIR CO.
FIGURE 5
ST. LOUIS AREA
Sulfur Dioxide Levels
Forecast for 1975
-28-
-------
alternatives are available in each case.
Transportation
There are seven broad categories in which urban air pollution can
be reduced or the effects minimized.
1. Reduction of vehicle miles traveled.
2. Increased use of public transportation.
3. Installation of pollution control devices on vehicles.
4. Conversion to less polluting engines (i.e., diesel, gas turbine,
electric, etc.).
5. Usage of less polluting fuels (i.e., LPG, NG, etc.).
6. Highway and street planning designed to reduce total emiss/fons
and also minimize effects of emissions.
7. Staggered working hours.
It is important to examine how each of the seven aforementioned
methods can serve to reduce pollution from mobile sources.
A. Reduction of vehicle miles traveled. There are at least seven ways
in which we can reduce vehicle miles traveled. These are:
1. Pollution tax based on an estimate of the quantity of effluents
emitted.
2. Wheel tax that would place a fee on any privately owned vehicle
in proportion to the number of wheels. Motorcycles would pay
the least and large trucks would pay the most.
3. Gas rationing. In cities where mobile sources of pollution
represented endangerment to health, this,method could be employed
-29-
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and, in fact, has been recommended by the Administrator of the
Environmental Protection Agency for the greater Los Angeles area.
Mr. Ruckelshaus has recommended an 82 percent reduction in vehicle
miles traveled as being the only short-range solution to the smog
problem of this area.
In announcing the proposed transportation controls to lower
air pollution levels in the Los Angeles area, Mr. Ruckelshaus
said he recognized the economic and social disruptions that could
result from the proposed plan, including the direct costs to
automobile owners, the possible loss of income to individuals
missing work because of inadequate transportation, the impact on
service and retail establishments and the entire transportation
system.
k. Auto-free zones which would generally include the heart of those
urban areas where truck traffic is most dense. High truck den-
sity virtually assures slow moving bumper-to-bumper traffic
which greatly increases emissions.
5. Parking limitations which could have almost the same effect as
an auto-free zone. If people can't park their cars in a certain
area except in the high-cost parking lots of many urban areas,
they often won't use them.
6. Car-pooling which could conceivably reduce automobile traffic by
a factor of as much as four or five.
7- Improved traffic flow which would result from wider streets,
traffic light synchronization, reducing the number of two-way
-30-
-------
streets, reduced parking areas, etc.
B. Any substantial reduction of VMT would almost undoubtedly result in
a corresponding increase in the use of public transportation. The
methods available to make the use of public transportation more
attractive are:
1. Improving bus service by minimizing passenger waiting time during
peak hours, having express buses that make only a few stops,
designating exclusive bus lanes, making buses as confortable as
possible by minimizing noise, providing air conditioning, etc.,
and by keeping fares as low as possible.
2. Providing peripheral parking close to bus and train terminals
and stations in outlying suburban areas.
3. Offering one price "park and ride" systems that cover the cost
of parking and using an adjacent public conveyance. One month
trip booklets could be purchased at a much lower average fee .per
trip than if purchased on a daily basis.
4. Subsidizing a transit system would probably provide the fastest
transportation to and from urban areas. The initial cost of a
subway would, of course, be very high, but it would probably pro-
vide the best means of alleviating urban traffic congestion.
C. By far, the greatest advances to date in reducing air pollution from
mobile sources has been in the field of pollution control devices on
cars. Beginning in 1968 and continuing until 1976, increasingly
sophisticated equipment has been and will be installed to reduce the
"big 3" of automotive pollution: HC, CO, and N02. Hopefully, that
-31-
-------
equipment installed by 1976 will be sufficient to provide the goal
of reducing automotive emissions by 90 percent as compared to emis-
sions from automobiles built in 1970.
D. -Much research has been conducted in the last 13 years on developing
feasible alternatives to the reciprocating spark-ignition engine.
The gas turbine, the rotary engine, the steam engine and the battery-
powered automobile have all been considered as possible alternatives
and all show promise of being potentially capable of providing great
reductions in auto emissions without requiring the complex and fairly
expensive emission controls required for the spark-ignition engine.
Each one of these alternatives presently has one or more disadvan-
tages which must be overcome or eliminated in order that they receive
widespread use in the near future.
E. Less polluting fuels, such as liquified petroleum gas (LPG) and
natural gas (NG) are possible alternatives to gasoline. Estimates of
cost of conversion from gasoline to LPG and NG run between 300 and
700 dollars per vehicle. Since a gas shortage currently exists in
the United States, the continued supply of these fuels is question-
able and the price of LPG and NG is likely to climb should these
fuels be widely adopted for automobile use.
In an effort to minimize automotive lead pollution, a regulation
has been adopted requiring every gasoline dispenser to have either a
low-lead or no-lead gasoline available. The regulation was published
in the Federal Register on January 10, 1973* Automobile manufacturers
have responded by greatly reducing the compression ratios of their
-32,
-------
engines to eliminate or minimize an engine's need for high octane
leaded gasolines.
F- Highway and street planning that can provide good access to and from
commercial and industrial centers will reduce traveling time which,
in turn, reduces automotive and bus emissions.
G. Staggering work hours in concentrated commercial and industrial areas
can relieve transportation congestion which causes cars and buses to
idle longer, thereby causing greater transportation emissions. By
staggering work hours, you also have the advantage of reducing the
intense concentration of pollutants during what is referred to as the
"peak hours" of 7 to 9 in the morning and ^ to 6 in the evening.
Land Use
One method of attacking the urban air pollution problem is through
the effective use of land. The effects of air pollution can be minimized
through the distribution of industries, power plants, incinerators and
other stationary sources in such a way as to avoid high concentrations of
pollutants in certain urban areas. Land use planning can influence the
quantity, quality and spatial distribution of pollution sources by taking
into account such factors as topography, meteorology and background air
pollution level. (19)
It has been traditional for city planners to use open space to
beautify cities and provide recreational areas for adults and children
alike in the heart of an urban area. Parks, zoos, playgrounds and
botanical gardens have frequently been used for this purpose. This
-33-
-------
technique is even more useful today since open areas tend to diminish the
impact of air pollution in several ways.
Greenery absorbs moisture and cools by evaporation, creating a
cooler, more humid climate than stone and exposed soil. Temperatures
over grassy surfaces on sunny summer days are 10 to 1^ degrees cooler
than over exposed soil. (20)
The President recently called for a major expansion of open space
programs focusing on urban area parks. He called for an HUD program of
grants to cities and States to develop open space with budget authority
increased from 75 million to 200 million dollars.
Mr. Nixon also proposed changes in the Internal Revenue Code to
encourage charitable land transfers for conservation purposes and conver-
sion of surplus Federal property to public park use. (21)
There is a continuing need to monitor the health impact of air and
other environmental pollution. The Environmental Protection Agency Com-
munity Health and Environmental Surveillance Study (CHESS) is now under
way in seven metropolitan areas, including St. Louis. The CHESS investi-
gations seek to quantify close-response effects of existing air pollution
upon asthma, acute respiratory disease, chronic respiratory disease,
heart disease, cancer, lung function, irritation symptoms, death rates,
and other health indices. Both the acute and chronic effects of short-
term and long-term air pollution exposure will be evaluated. CHESS will
also quantify the benefits of pollution control in these areas.
Another important EPA study which is getting underway in St. Louis
is the Regional Air Pollution Study (RAPS). The overall objective of the
-------
RAPS program is the development of mathematical simulation models of air
pollution processes. Some of the more important considerations in the
program include information relating the costs of air pollution controls
to benefits to be realized from the achievement of air quality standards.
This includes evaluating the effect of air pollution on human social
behavi or.
People tend to modify life syles and other aspects of behavior as
a result of the atmospheric environment and the level of pollution is one
factor of that environment. Depending on a wage earner's skills, he may
move into a community that is subject to petroleum processing fumes.
Another may move to a rural area to avoid air pollution. An individual
who chooses to live in a polluted area to avoid commuting costs may be
faced with the cost of air filters or purifiers in his home. As thousands
of residents are affected by air quality, such costs may add up to major
changes in community economy and in the failure or relocation of entire
industries. With the completion of this study, the impact of air pollu-
tion on the social and economic behavior of urban residents can better
be evaluated.
EPA proposed limitations of lead and phosphorous in fuel in the
Federal Register on January 10, 1973. Lead in gasoline would be limited
to 2.0 grams/gal by January 1, 1975, and gradually cut to 1.5 grams/gal
after January 1977. In the same Federal Register, an EPA regulation
became effective requiring that every owner or operator of a retail
outlet at which 200,000 or more gallons of gasoline were sold during any
calendar year beginning with 1971, shall offer for sale at least one
-35-
-------
grade of lead-free and phosphorous-free gasoline. Unleaded gasoline is
defined as containing less than 0.05 grams/gal lead; phosphorous-free
gasoline is defined as containing less than 0.005 grams/gal phosphorous.
Agencies other than EPA are also considering regulations that will
help relieve the urban air pollution problem. The Department of Housing
and Urban Development (HUD) is now considering regulations to encourage
improved land utilization patterns for housing. The regulations would
prohibit HUD support for construction of new housing units in the areas
and on sites having unacceptable air pollution exposures.
The 1970 Federal-Aid Highway Act required the Secretary of the
Department of Transportation to promulgate guidelines designed to ensure
that new highways will be consistent with a State's Air Quality Implementa-
tion Plan. These guidelines will enable planners to predict and to mini-
mize the air quality impact of a proposed roadway.
On January 1, 1970, President Nixon signed the National Environmental
Policy Act of 1969 which established a national policy on the environment.
The act requires each Federal agency to prepare a statement of environ-
mental impact in advance of each major action that may significantly affect
the quality of the human environment. The agency preparing the statement
must consider comments from interested persons and groups as to the
potential environmental impact and the agency must present alternatives
to the proposed action.
-36-
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REFERENCES
(1) Environmental Protection Agency, Statement before Subcommittee on
the Environment, Senate Committee on Commerce, April 7, 1972
(2) Environmental Protection Agency, Upcoming Division Report, Working
Papers in the Environment. 1973
(3) Environmental Protection Agency, unpublished report, Our Urban
Environment and Our Most Endangered People, September 1971
(4) Rodale, J. I., Our Poisoned Earth and Sky. Rodale Books, Inc., 1964
(5) Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Technical Report A62-5,
Air Over Cities. November 1961
(6) Krieger, Martin H., The Poverty of Policy for the Environment Council
of Planning Librarians, Exchange Bibliography 139, July 1970
(7) Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Public Awareness and
Concern with Air Pollution in the St. Louis Metropolitan Area, May
1965
(8) Rand McNally Road Atlas, 1972
*
(9) Bunyard, Francis L. and Williams, James D., Interstate Air Pollution
Study - St. Louis Area Air Pollutant Emissions Related to Actual Land
Use. Journal APCA, April 1967
(10) Argonne National Laboratories, Preliminary Results of Sulfur Dioxide
and Particulate Control Strategy Study of the St. Louis Metropolitan
AdCR, July 1971
(11) Council on Environmental Quality, Environmental Quality - 1971 Second
Annual Report, Government Printing Office, 1971
(12) Hodges, Paul B., Trends in Public Opinion Toward Air Pollution in the
Greater St. Louis Area. Master's Thesis, January 1973
(13) Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Third Annual Report on
Progress in the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution, March 1970
(14) Environmental Protection Agency, Annual Report on The Economics of
Clean Air, March 1972
(15) Department of Health, Education and Welfare Publication, Danger in the
Air; Sulfur Oxides and Particulates, May 1970
(16) Council on Environmental Quality, Environmental quality - 1972 Third
Annual Report. Government Printing Office, 1972
-v
(17) Current EPA Economic Dislocation Early Warning System in House Summary
Report
-37-
-------
(18) Personal communications with Charles Copley, St. Louis Air Pollution
Control Agency, January 1973
(19) Environmental Protection Agency Pamphlet, Planning for Air duality
(20) Journal of the American Institute of Planners, Air Pollution and Urban
Form; A Review of Current Literature, Vol. 3k, March 1968
(21) Environment Reporter, Vol. I, 1973
(22) Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Interstate Air Pollution
Study - Introduction, May 1966
.38-
-------
APPENDIX A1
I. INTRODUCTION
Under the Clean Air Act, as amended in 1970, air quality standards
have been established for the whole country. Each State is required to
adopt and to submit implementation plans to the Administrator of the
Environmental Protection Agency for the emission reduction strategy
and enforcement thereof to achieve national standards for particulates,
sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide.
For this report, uniform emission standards were selected without
going through the various steps of emission inventories and diffusion
calculations to determine acceptable emission standards for achieving
air quality standards in each air quality control region. The basis for
the selections was the sample limitation procedures promulgated in the
Federal Register, Volume 36, Number 158, Part II, "Requirements for
Preparation, Adoption, and Submittal of Implementation Plans," August
14, 1971 (^0 C.F.R. 51).
Newly constructed and modified sources are subject to national
standards of performance based on adequately demonstrated control tech-
nology in accordance with section 111 of the Clean Air Act, as amended.
In this report, steam-electric power plants, nitric and sulfuric acid
plants, cement plants, and municipal incinerators scheduled for construc-
tion after January 1, 1972, were assumed to be subject to national
standards of performance promulgated in the Federal Register, Volume 36,
Number 159, "National Standards of Performance for Stationary Sources,"
August 17j 1971.
-39-
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II. STATIONARY
A. Standards for Particulates
For industrial processes, the process weight rate regulations (Table
A-1) are the bases of control cost estimates. These regulations limit
the weight of particulate emissions per hour as a function of the total
weight of raw materials introduced into a process operation. For sulfuric
acid plants, the allowable mist emission is 0.5 pounds per ton of acid
produced; for incinerators, the particulates are limited to 0.10 pounds
per 100 pounds of refuse charged; for fuel-burning equipment, the particu-
lates are limited to 0.10 pounds per million B.t.u. of heat input.
Limitations for incinerators and for fuel-burning equipment are based on
the source test method for stationary sources of particulate emission
published by EPA in 40 CFR-Part 60, December 22, 1971». Federal Register.
B. Standards for Sulfur Oxides
For fuel-burning equipment, cost estimates are based on mass emissicn
rate of 1.50 pounds of sulfur dioxide per million B.t.u. input. This
limit is approximately equivalent to a sulfur content of 1.0 percent by
weight in coal and 1.4 percent by weight in oil. For sulfuric acid
plants, a mass rate of 6.5 pounds of sulfur dioxide per ton of acid is
used for existing sources. Primary copper, lead, and zinc smelters are
assumed to limit sulfur oxide emissions to 10 percent of sulfur (measured
as sulfur dioxide) in the ore. Sulfur recovery plants at refineries are
limited to 0.01 pounds of sulfur emissions per pound of input sulfur.
C. Standards for Carbon Monoxide
Cost estimates were based on treatment of all exhaust gases to reduce
the weight of carbon monoxide emission by at least 95 percent.
-40-
-------
D. Standards for Hydrocarbons
For industrial processes, cost estimates were based on treatment of
all exhaust gases to remove organic material by 90 percent (or more) by
weight. For petroleum products storage, it was assumed that all stationary
tanks, reservoirs, and containers with more than a 40,000-galIon capacity
and with a vapor pressure of 1.5 pounds per square inch absolute (or
greater) must be equipped with floating roofs, vapor recovery systems, or
other equally efficient devices. In addition, it was assumed that sub-
merged filling inlets must be installed on all gasoline storage tanks
with a capacity of 250 gallons or more.
E. Standards for Nitrogen Oxides
No specific cost estimates were made pertinent to the reduction of
nitrogen oxides. Limestone injection scrubbing, assumed for power plants,
can reduce some oxides of nitrogen by 20 percent. Existing nitric acid
plants are restricted to 5.5 pounds of nitrogen oxide per ton of acid
produced.
III. MOBILE SOURCES
Table A-2 summarizes the current and projected emission control
requirements for reducing hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen
oxides emissions from passenger cars and light duty trucks through
Fiscal '77. This table is based on information available through August
15, 1971. Table A-3 shows possible emission control requirements for
reducing the same pollutants for heavy duty trucks through Fiscal '77.
The assumed standards no longer iriclude particulates. This change was
-------
brought about by the assumption that unleaded or low lead gasoline will
be in widespread use during the next 5 years; removal of lead reduces
particulates from gasoline engines by 75 to 80 percent (by weight).
Table A-4 provides the reports and estimates of motor vehicle pro-
duction that served as a basis for cost estimates.
-42-
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TABLE A-1. ALLOWABLE RATE OF PARTICULATE EMISSIONS BASED ON
PROCESS WEIGHT RATE*
Process Weight Rate
(Ibs/hr)
50
100
500
1,000
5,000
10,000
20,000
60,000
80,000
120,000
160,000
200,000
400,000
1,000,000
Emission Rate
(Ibs/hr)
0.30
0.55
1.53
2.25
6.34
9.73
14.99
29.60
31.19
33-28
34.85
36.11
40.35
46.72
* To interpolate the data for the process weight rates up to
60,000 Ibs/hr, the equation
62 P < 30 tons/hr;
To interpolate and extrapolate in excess of 60,000 Ibs/hr,
the equation
E = 17.3lP°»1^ P > 30 tons/hr
where E is emissions in pounds per hour, and p is process
weight rate in tons per hour.
-43-
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TABLE A-2. CURRENT AND PROJECTED EMISSION CONTROL EQUIREMENTS
FOR AUTOMOBILES AND LIGHT TRUCKS (6000 LB. GVW OR LESS)
Model Test
Year Procedun
196&V
1969^
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975S/
1976§/
1977S/
FTP
FTP
FTP
FTP
CVS
CVS
CVS
CVS
CVS
CVS
Exhaust Emissions, Gm/Mi
£§/ HC
(275 ppm)
(275 ppm)
2.2
2.2
3.4S/
3.4
3.4
0.41
0.41
0.41
CO
(1.5 vol.%)
(1.5 vol.%)
23
23
39£/
39
39
3.4
3.4
3.4
NOV
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
3.0
3.0
3.1
0.4
0.4
Evaporation
Gm/Test
NR
NR
NR
6
2
2
2
2
2
2
Assembly
Line Test
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
d/
d/
d/
d/
d/
Notes:
NR - No Requirement
GVW - Gross Vehicle Weight
a/ - Federal Test Procedure (FTP), 7-mode cycle.
- Constant Volume Sample'r (CVS) using 1372 second driving cycle.
b/ - Standards for 1968 and 1969 are expressed as parts per million (ppm)
or volume percent.
c/ - The larger numbers for HC and CO standards beginning 1972 are due to
the fact that the CVS procedure gives larger readings than FTP. On
an equal test procedure 1972 standards are more stringent than 1971
and do not represent a relaxation of previous requirements.
d/ - Assumes federal requirement for test on 3 percent of nationwide sales
expected starting 1973, using a new short test cycle now under development.
e/ - Definition of standards was published by EPA on 7-2-71. A hot start cycle
is added to the procedure beginning MY 1975.
-44-
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TABLE A-3. CURRENT AND POSSIBLE* EMISSION CONTROL REQUIREMENTS
HEAVY DUTY VEHICLES (OVER 6000 LB. GVW)
GASOLINE ENGINES
Model Test
Year Procedure^/
1967-69 NR
1970-71 Eng. Dyn.
1972 Eng. Dyn.
1973-7^ Eng. Dyn.
1975-77 Eng. Dyn.
Exhaust Emissions b/
Concentration-ppm or % Mass-qm/bhp hr
HC CO HC+NOx CO
ppm Vol . %
NR NR
275 1.5
275 1.5
275 1.5
5 25
Evaporation
Grams/Test
NR
NR
NR
10
10
DIESEL ENGINES
Model Test
Year Procedure^/
1967-69
1970-74
1975-77 Eng. Dyn.
Exhaust Emissions
Mass-gm/bhp hr
HC+NOx CO
NR NR
NR NR
5 25
Smoke
%0bscure§/
NR
20-40
20-40
'NOTES:
NR - No Requirement
GVW - Gross Vehicle Weight
a/ - HEW engine dynamometer test cycle (steady 2000 rpm, various loads).
b/ - Concentrations are expressed on a volume portion basis through 1974,
parts per million (ppm) or volume percent. After 1974 a mass basis
of grams per brake horsepower-hour is used.
c/ - Evaporative control requirements may possibly be delayed until MY 1975,
d/ - EMA engine dynamometer test cycle (various stabilized speeds and
loads.
e/ - HEW engine dynamometer test - acceleration and luggingmodes.
* EPA announced on February 11, 1972 that the 1973 heavy duty vehicle stan-
dards proposed on October 5, 1971 were being withdrawn and that new
standards would be imposed for the 1974 model year instead. There was
insufficient time to change this report to reflect either this new
effective date or likely changes in the technical nature of the control
requirements assumed in the table.
-45-
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TABLE A-4. MOTOR VEHICLE PRODUCTION
(Domestic Production Plus Net Imports)
Calendar
Year*
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
Autos
8.1
10.0
9.7
10.0
10.0
10.1
10.2
10.4
10.7
10.9
11.2
Numbers of Vehicl
L.D. Trucks
1.0
1.1
1.1
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
es (Millions)
H.D. Trucks & Buses
0.6
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
Total
9.7
11.9
11.6
12.0
12.0
12.2
12.4
12.7
13.0
13.2
13.5
* Reported numbers through 1968, estimated thereafter. Source:
U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administra-
tion, Bureau of Public Roads, with light duty truck numbers
estimated from total truck and bus numbers.
-46-
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PAGE 1 of 2
TABLE A-5. - CONTROL TECHNIQUES AND ESTIMATED INVESTMENT
COSTS FOR MOBILE SOURCE EMISSION CONTROLS 1967-1977
Model
Year
1967
1968-
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973-
1974
Autos and Light Duty Trucks
Typical Changes or Controls Added
None
Closed PCV system, carburetor changes,
ignition timing changes, inlet air
temperature control
Additional carburetor changes, idle
control solenoid, ignition timing
changes
Evaporative emission control, improved
idle control solenoid with overheat
protection (including transmission
spark control), low compression ratios,
additional carburetor changes
Valve and valve seat changes for
unleaded gasoline
Exhaust gas recirculation for NOX con-
trol, speed controlled spark timing
Additional
Cost
Per New
Vehicle
(Dollars)
0.00
5.40
7.40
19.70*
2.00
48.00
Emissions Per Vehicle
Total Cost
Per Vehicle
(Cumulative)
(Dollars)
0.00
5.40
12.80
32.50*
34.50
82.50
as Percent
Vehicle
HC CO
100 100
53 45
ZiH "50
"TU }£»
25 32
\0
20 28
20 28
of 1967
Level
NOX
100
111
85
85
69
42
above the cost of controls or simpler system replaced
-------
PAGE 2 of 2
TABLE A-5. - CONTROL TECHNIQUES AND ESTIMATED INVESTMENT
COSTS FOR MOBILE SOURCE EMISSION CONTROLS 1967-1977
Model
Year
Autos and Light Duty Trucks
Typical Changes or Controls Added
Additional
Cost
Per New
Vehicle
(Dollars)
Total Cost
Per Vehicle
(Cumulative)
(Dollars)
Emissions Per Vehicle
as Percent of 1967
Vehicle Level
HC CO NOX
1975 -
1976-
1977
1975
m
c
CM
(0
c
1_
(U
Catalytic oxidation of HC and CO 163.50
(includes long-life exhaust system),
unitized ignition systems for 50,000
mile service-free performance, air
injection for catalytic unit
Dual catalyst units for HC, CO, and NOx; 105.00*
or tandem NOx and CO-HC catalytic units;
modified manifold reactors to reduce
catalyst load
Cumulative 1974
Extremely lean fuel mixtures (unitized 125.00
electronic ignition with electronic con-
trol of spark timing), electromechanical
fuel injection, special valves and
intake design
246.00
351.00*
82.00
207.00
12
12
16
42
16
42
1976-
1977
1975
1976-
1977
-p
<
in
u/
r~
4->
ro
C
9)
t \
fw*
Low temperature NOX decomposition cata-
lyst unit
Cumulative 1974
Catalytic oxidation of exhaust HC and CO,
air injection to assist catalytic unit
Exhaust gas recirculation increased to
maximum for NOX control, Modulation of
recirculation
85.00*
133.00
14.00*
292.00*
82.00.
215.00
229.00*
3 3
12 16
3 3
6
42
6
above the cost of controls or simpler system replaced
-------
TABLE A-6. - GROWTH OF VEHICLE POPULATION 1967-77
Fiscal
Year
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
Millions of Vehicles
Gasol ine-Powered
Autos
and
Light
Duty
Trucks
81.8
84.6
88.1
91.1
93.8
96.8
100.1
103.5
106.9
110.5
114.2
Heavy
Duty
Trucks
5.6
6.0
6.3
6.6
6.8
7.1
7.5
7.8
8.3
8.7
9.1
Buses
0.28
0.29
0.30
0.30
0.31
0.32
0.33
0.34
0.35
0.36
0.37
Diesel -Powered
Heavy
Duty
Trucks
0.46
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.77
0.84
0.91
0.99
1.08
Buses
0.06
0.06
0.07
0.07
0.07
0.07
0.07
0.07
0.08
0.08
0.08
Percent Controlled
Gasoline
Autos
and
Light
Duty
Trucks
9.0
20.5
31.5
42.0
52.0
61.0
69.0
76.0
82.0
87.0
Trucks
and
Buses
7.5
17.0
26.0
34.5
42.5
49.5
55.5
61.0
Diesel
Trucks
and
Buses
*
7.5**
17.0
26.0
Smoke control began in 1970 for diesels. Since some prior model
vehicles meet standards with careful operation (and perhaps in-
service modifications) percent controlled is applied only to
gaseous emissions.
Assume same age distribution for diesels as for HD gasoline
trucks.
-49-
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