U. S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
ARCTIC ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
COLLEGE, ALASKA 99701
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DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR SAMPLING
PROGRAMS IN REMOTE AREAS
by
Lawrence A. Casper
University of Alaska
and
Ronald C. Gordon
Ernst W. Mueller
Arctic Environmental Research Laboratory
Working Paper No. 23
Presented at
"Symposium on Water Quality Parameters—
Selection, Measurement and Monitoring,"
Burlington, Ontario, Canada
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
ARCTIC ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
COLLEGE, ALASKA
Associate Laboratory of
National Environmental Research Center
Corvallis, Oregon
Office of Research and Development
November 1973
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11
A Working Paper presents results of investigations which are, to some
extent, limited or incomplete. Therefore, conclusions or recommendations
experssed or implied, are tentative. Mention of commercial products or
services does not constitute endorsement.
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PREFACE
Field work in the Arctic is in some respects, as much an art as a
science. Each investigator develops his own set of procedures and designs
apparatus to meet his scientific objectives. Frequently the innovation of
one person has the potential for being of value to another investigator
conducting field work. Such innovations are often taken for granted despite
their ingenuity and are not passed on to other workers.
This paper is by no means a complete discussion of innovations in Arctic
field work. However, it is a start toward compiling and communicating tech-
niques which have been used successfully.
Readers are encouraged to direct comments on the subject to the authors
so that the information herein may be continually upgraded. Specific informa-
tion on techniques and apparatus are especially welcome and will hopefully
be incorporated into future editions.
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ABSTRACT
Water quality field studies in the Arctic rapidly reveal flaws in
logistic schemes and equipment reliability because of severe constraints
placed on all components by the environment. Since these studies gen-
erally require collection of samples in areas remote from central laboratory
facilities, the time lag between sampling and analysis necessitates the in-
clusion of field analyses in the sampling scheme where the analytes may
exhibit rapid change. The selected scheme includes components of sampling,
field processing, shipping and laboratory analysis which are dependent on
both the time and mode of transportation as well as the requirements for
analytical reliability. Decisions regarding analytical specification are
dependent upon the resources of the investigator, although in a more immed-
iate sense are a function of the working environment and available field
instrumentation.
Investigations conducted in the Arctic frequently involve component
failure problems exaggerated by the extreme conditions encountered. Be-
yond local interest, this experience has implications for the planning of
all field projects in that lack of component reliability becomes apparent
more rapidly and perhaps with more severe consequences under these condi-
tions. Out of this experience, equipment and procedures have been inno-
vated which allow more reliable sampling specification.
N
Additional development and design is necessary to bring component
reliability up to the state-of-the-art. Unit data cost and statistical
reliability can be optimized through critical path analysis. Equipment
reliability can be greatly improved through the application of environ-
mental simulation techniques such as those developed for space program
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instrumentation. Research on analyte concentration for improved trans-
portability and preservation could achieve a reduction in statistical
and logistical restraints.
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VI
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
INTRODUCTION :1
EQUIPMENT RELIABILITY AND USE 7
LOGISTICS 16
HUMAN PERFORMANCE 33
SAMPLING PROGRAM DESIGN 40
DIRECTIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT 45
REFERENCES 49
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LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE
NUMBER PAGE
1 Distances between major points in Alaska. 2
2 Mean Alaskan January minimum temperature, °F 3
3 State of Alaska superimposed on the contiguous
United States at same scale 4
4 Climatic zones of Alaska 5
5 Commercially available ice auger showing modifications
to enable rapid field assembly. 11
6 Sampling device used to collect water samples under
ice cover. 13
7 Container for storage and shipment of equipment for
microbiological examination of water 15
8 Snow machine with field equipment used for sampling
freshwaters in winter. 18
9 Tracked all-terrain vehicle in use collecting samples
from an ice-covered lake. 20
10 Snow machine towing two trailers with field equipment
for sampling lakes in winter 21
11 Aluminum supports attach to center sled for tent over
sampling area. 21
12 Parachute covers sled and supports, providing shelter
for sampling through hole in lake ice. 21
13 Flat bottom boat with engine lift for use in shallow
rivers 23
14 Small, single engined aircraft used in sampling on
ice-covered rivers. 26
15 Small helicopter with external equipment storage racks. 28
16 Turbine powered helicopter with internal equipment
storage compartments. 29
17 Helicopter laying experimental gill net for sampling
fishes. 30
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FIGURE
NUMBER PAGE
18 Trailer laboratory being transported by U.S. Army
Chinook helicopter to field site 31
19 Chill factor chart relates equivalent chill temperature
to wind speed and air temperature 35
20 Cutting hole in ice with gasoline powered ice auger
results in wet hands. 37
21 Kneeling to obtain water samples often causes wet
clothing and subsequent chilling. 38
22 It is often necessary to perform field manipulations
without gloves in cold weather 39
23 Bar chart and Critical Path method "graph" as used
in planning a simple field program. 42
24 Two electronic calculators representing the state-of-
the-art in 1968 (rear) and 1973 (front). 46
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INTRODUCTION
Recent emphasis on natural resources and the environment has
taken the scientist and engineer from their traditional roles and imposed
the task of cooperative studies in locations far from the laboratory
or desk. This has required interrelation of a type not experienced by
these professions in their more traditional, strictly defined roles.
Therefore, it becomes critical that participants have an awareness and
appreciation for the objectives and techniques of other disciplines as
well as for problems inherent in interdisciplinary studies. This becomes
most evident in planning and executing field data acquisition where the
physical environment imposes additional constraints.
The difficulty of field operations grows rapidly as distance is
increased from central facilities, particularly where geography imposes
its own set of limitations (Figure 1). Nowhere is this more apparent
than in the vast cold regions of Alaska (Figure 2) and Canada. Alaska has
about 20% of the U. S. land mass (Figure 3), 66% of its coastline, approx-
imately 40% of its freshwater, and is characterized by several distinct
climatic/geographic areas (Figure 4). The population of only 300,000 is
predominantly concentrated in a few cities which has resulted in a road
system less extensive than found in many smaller states. Thus, sampling
programs in northern regions have been conducted in remote areas.
The additional stress of an extreme environment has placed a critical
burden on the ability to function in a scientifically reliable and cost-
effective manner. Any weak point in a field operation, whether in planning
or in equipment specification and performance, will generally become ap-
parent and may cause failure in meeting project objectives. Field
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OCEAN
DISTANCES
WITHIN ALASKA
(Stotut* Miltil
(reprinted from-Environmental
Atlas of Alaska," Univer-
sity of Alaska, 9/1969)(13)
CAN A D A
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MEAN ALASKAN JANUARY
MINIMUM TEMPERATURES, °F
(reprinted from "Environmental
Atlas of Alaska," University of
Alaska, 09/1969) (13)
enerally from low-lying coastal! and river
t 1s probably not valid for tilnher elevations
f A C I F I C
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ALASKA
ALASKA SUPERIMPOSED
ON THE UNITED STATES
100 0 100 200 300 4OO
h—I 1 1 I I
M i I 11
Figure 3. State of Alaska Superimposed on the Contiguous United States at same scale. (Reprinted from
"Environmental Atlas of Alaska," University of Alaska, 09/1969) (13)
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CLIMATIC ZONES
OF ALASKA
(Reprinted from "Environmental Atlas
of Alaska," University of Alaska,
,09/1969) (13)
South wester n
A R I T /
Southeastern
Islands
0 100 200 300
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experience under extreme conditions has resulted in observations on
support system performance, requirements for effective project management,
and cost-benefit evaluation.
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EQUIPMENT RELIABILITY AND USE
A key consideration in the design of field sampling programs in remote
areas is the capability of instrument and equipment systems to withstand
being transported to field laboratory locations and/or to sample stations,
and the ability to function properly under severe environmental conditions.
This is a particular challenge in the Arctic where cold and high winds
combine with remoteness to place great stress on equipment.
Each sampling program plan must specify the precision and accuracy
criteria for the information desired. These criteria will dictate whe-
ther complex electronic instrumentation will be required or whether
simple field methods can be used. This, in turn, will indicate which
parameters must be determined on site, the sample volume necessary for
analysis, and the means and necessity of sample preservation. Recent
developments in field analysis techniques provide the project designer
with a number of alternatives for sample collection and analysis. These
factors not only permit the designer to construct a system which will
generate data meeting his project requirements, but should also minimize
program cost and the number of on-site manipulations required.
As field analytical and sampling systems become more complex, the
need for reliable energy sources to power these systems becomes greater.
Although simple field techniques may require only manual manipulation,
more sophisticated instrumental analysis and sampling techniques require
sources of electrical and/or mechanical energy. The capability of such
energy sources to function adequately is essential if data are to be
gathered in severely stressed environments. Currently available commer-
cial power sources must be kept at warm temperatures to operate reliably.
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Dry-cell batteries become inoperative at temperatures below approximately
-20°C, and the lead-acid storage battery generally unuseable below -40°C.
Portable power generation systems can be used in arctic climates if they
are operated continuously. Diesel-powered generators are used in field
stations, but require special arctic fuels, with a pour point of -57°C,
rather than the more common -20°C pour point. For continuous monitoring
systems requiring low power, thermoelectric generators can be used. The
propane fuel commonly used in these systems must, however, be stored
above ~40°C or it will not vaporize.
Electrical generation systems of the small size commonly used in
field applications may not provide the frequency and voltage stability
required to operate sensitive electronic instruments, especially if
heavy variable loads are also pres.ent on the same circuits. Rechargeable
battery powered instruments are superior in this regard, as they can be
operated on the battery phase, and can be recharged with unstable power.
The battery also provides some "back-up" in the event of a generator fail-
ure. For monitoring purposes, circuitry can be developed to separate the
power-critical elements, powering them with batteries, while the less
critical pumps, heaters, etc., can be powered by a generator. Intermit-
tent charging periods can be used to maintain the batteries.
The amount of field manipulation required to operate apparatus in
harsh environments must be minimized. Instrumentation requiring cali-
bration, such as pH meters and dissolved oxygen analyzers should be
designed to retain calibration for an extended period. In an artic
climate, the operator must limit the external exposure of himself and his
instruments. This would include minimizing the time spent on activities
not directly related to sample collection and field analysis.
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Instruments must also be designed for optimal manipulation of controls.
Control knoby and switches must be shaped and positioned so that they can
be easily used while the operator is wearing gloves. Potentiometers
should have easily operated locking devices attached so that vibration and
accidental movement cannot change critical settings. Meters should be
designed so that they can be read in the low light levels found in the
north during winter months, not be affected by static electricity, and
be free from condensation.
In many cases, commercially available instruments and equipment may
be easily modified to improve their usability in arctic field situations.
Standard potentiometers used for calibration can be replaced with ten-
turn "Helipots" which have a convenient locking feature and a positive
position indicator. Instruments may be made somewhat waterproof by the
addition of gaskets and use of sealants; dessicant packages can be added
to prevent condensation. Plug-in circuit boards, which have a tendency to
vibrate loose in transit, should have screw tabs attached so that they
are firmly seated in their sockets.
All equipment should be designed for minimum operational maintenance.
Although solid-state.circuitry is extremely reliable in this regard, other
elements of the measuring systems are frequently poorly designed. In addi-
tion most solid state circuitry requires sophisticated electronic test
equipment for even minor repairs. As these repairs are not readily done in
the field, the field scientist must often carry redundant sets of equipment.
This is true of many other devices, including ice augers, tools, pumps, etc.
In addition, at least twice the amount of supplies normally used for
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supporting sample collection and analysis should be provided. Items like
batteries, electrodes, chemicals, chart paper etc., must be in sufficient
supply to guard against uncertainties. In the Arctic, the investigator
is frequently at the end of the traditional "line of supply" and cannot
rely on local sources for spare parts or materials necessary to support
the operation.
Figure 5 shows a standard commercially available ice auger that has
been modified for rapid and positive field assembly and addition of flights.
The square coupling design simplifies assembly, and strengthens the joint
which can also be more easily cleaned of ice. The cutting tip has also
been redesigned for rapid removal, as it dulls very rapidly in silty or
sandy ice, or when it inadvertently strikes the stream bottom. This
apparatus is successfully used to temperatures of -50°C, but an ether spray
is often required to start the gasoline engine at subzero temperatures.
The ability of instruments and equipment to operate well at low
temperatures is not only a function of physical design of the system and
its circuitry, but also the materials of construction. Today, as synthe-
tic plastics replace metals and natural rubber as construction materials,
the capability of field instrumentation to withstand rigorous field use is
lessening. This is particularly true when instruments, associated external
wiring, and probes are exposed to extremely cold temperatures. Conventional
plastic insulated wire not only becomes inflexible, but also may become
quite brittle at low ambient operating temperatures. The development of
criteria for evaluating flexibility and brittleness is not well defined,
as they depend not only on the material itself, but also on the cross-
sectional area, configuration and application. In the absence of these
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Figure 5. Commercially available ice auger showing modifications to enable rapid field assembly.
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criteria, the tendency is to select the best material available, a
practice which can be unnecessarily costly. Manufacturers, on the other
hand, attempt to minimize costs to meet competition, and frequently
provide equipment inadequate to meet severe arctic conditions. The small
market potential of those who use equipment in cold climates is not likely
to result in design and materials for instruments useful for work in the
arctic at a low cost. Until readily available synthetic materials have
been developed which meet the criteria of use in harsh environments, we will
continue to have instrument failure.
Metals are frequently the preferred construction material because of
ruggedness. However, their high rate of heat transfer often makes them
unusable for field equipment. Metal sampling devices become ice-coverd
almost instantly in use, rendering them inoperative. Differential expan-
sion and contraction, coupled with vibration in transit and use, may
loosen fasteners such as pins, bolts and screws. Plastic samplers fare
somewhat better, but have the disadvantage that they cannot be unfrozen
by direct application of high heat, and thaw very slowly because of their
low heat transfer coefficient. Sampling devices must have the simplest
possible field assembly and operation. At times, some sacrifice of
accuracy must be made in sampler design in order to collect a sample at
all. Figure 6 shows a simple sampling device developed for collection of
samples below ice cover. We are currently modifying this device so that
the sample container is sealed sterile when it enters the water, and can
be resealed before it is removed. Although a simple system, it has proven
successful, particularly in collection of samples for bacteriological
examination.
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Figure 6. Sampling device used to collect water samples under ice cover.
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The transport of equipment and instruments to field labs and sample
sites requires particular care in planning and design. Material must
be securely packed to avoid damage in transit, yet must also be easily
and quickly unpacked and repacked, and arranged conveniently for the
user. We have designed and experimented with a series of shipping con-
tainers for equipment and supplies, particularly those required for
analyses which must be performed in the field. Figure 7 shows a contain-
er which holds all of the equipment necessary for the examination of
samples for bacteria by the membrane filter technique at a field labor-
atory, not including supplies and incubators. Styrofoam is used as the
packing material, cut out for each individual item. This also provides
some thermal insulation.
The cost of field operations in remote areas can be extremely high,
particularly in the arctic winter. Collection of a single sample, and
its field analysis, has cost as much as $600. To justify this high cost,
the quality of the sample collection and field analysis must be as high
as possible. Through a combination of adequately designed field equip-
ment, efficient field procedures, and proper sample preservation, field
data quality should approach that gathered under less severe conditions.
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Figure 7. Container for storage and shipment of equipment for microbiological examination of water.
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LOGISTICS
Selection of transportation modes for a particular remote area
sampling program is a critical consideration. Accessibility of the
geographical area in which the sampling will be conducted, season of the
year and expected weather conditions, operating costs, number of sample
stations which must be visited each day, time required on station, distance
between stations, sample preservation methods, load restrictions (space
and weight), and time limitations between sampling and laboratory process-
ing are among the factors which must be considered. Two over-riding
considerations, regardless of transportation type, are: that adequate
survival gear for the operating conditions must be carried at all times
and that field crews consist of no less than two persons. In addition a
two-way radio should be carried if possible.
Highway vehicles, including the various types of mobile laboratories,
have only limited usefulness in remote area sampling. Among the main
factors restricting their usefulness in Alaska and much of Canada are:
that the limited road system permits access to only a small portion of the
geographical area under the best conditions, poor road quality often neces-
sitates very low travel speed in many areas, many roads are closed during
winter months, and access to rivers along the road system is severely limited,
Road transportation would be useful for indepth study at a single
station or series of stations on a particular river which has road access-
ibility and short travel time between stations. Highway vehicles can also
be used along the road system as tow vehicles for moving snow machines,
all-terrain vehicles and boats to a launching point.
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The recreational snow machine, prevalent throughout the northern
United States and Canada, is a useful vehicle in remote area winter sampling
programs under some circumstances. These vehicles are easily and rapidly
loaded, transported and off-loaded, and have fairly high travel speed.
They can be an asset when a station or series of stations fairly close to
the road system must be visited regularly with bulky or heavy sampling
equipment.
Most models of these machines are fairly reliable, but all are
subject to mechanical break-down in the field and require continuous
preventive maintenance. A few basic considerations when selecting such
a unit are: maximum flotation on snow, ability to carry two persons and
pull a sled with the necessary field gear, availability of repair parts,
and ease of field repairs, A typical unit is the Alpine Ski-Doo with
sled and field gear (Figure 8).
The range limitation of snow machine travel is dependent on several
variables. When traveling with one machine a basic consideration is to
travel no further than the field crew would be willing to or capable of
walking. When two machines travel together the range can be extended.
However, for most sampling programs it would be an impractical utiliza-
tion of time to make extended trips. Other operating range variables all
relate to travel time. Travel speed is affected by the condition of the
trail, the load being transported, and the effect of equivalent chill
temperature on the field crew. The ambient air temperature not only affects
the field crew but is a primary consideration in sample preservation. There
is generally no heated area available during snow machine operations so
keeping samples from freezing becomes a significant problem, and in effect
becomes a limitation on operating range.
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Figure 8. Snow machine with field equipment used for sampling freshwaters in winter.
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Tracked all-terrain vehicles are available in sizes and capabilities
from small recreational units to the large heavy duty construction rigs.
These specialty vehicles have a definite place in some remote area
sampling programs and selection of a vehicle must be based on the needs
of a particular program. They can be used year-round, are capable of
negotiating unfavorable terrain, can cross small rivers, carry a large
pay-load and may be enclosed so that the field crew and samples are
protected. Their travel speed is low which increases the time required
to obtain and return samples to the laboratory for processing. The
Thiokol Imp (Figure 9), which is about in the middle of the available
size range, is typical of this mode of transportation. The figure shows
a sampling device being lowered into a lake using a boom and winch. The
major application of this particular vehicle has been to carry personnel
and supplies to a field laboratory site located in a watershed set aside
for research use.
Snow machine and trailer systems can be easily developed to carry
necessary field equipment and portable shelters for use during sampling
and other field operations. Figure 10 shows a snow machine set up to
pull two sled-trailers. The center sled is designed to be the base
for a tent-shelter, supported by aluminum poles fitted into sockets on
the sled (Figure 11). Figure 12 shows the tent set up over the supports
and sled. Inside this minimal shelter, which covers the sampling hole
through the ice, field operations can be performed in relative comfort.
A small heater can also be used in severe weather.
All-terrain vehicles or snow machines can both be used under many
similar types of winter sampling situations. The snow machine has the
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o
Figure 9. Tracked all-terrain vehicle in use for collecting samples from an ice-covered lake.
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Figure 10. Snow machine towing two trailers with field equipment for sampling lakes in winter.
Figure 11. Aluminum supports attached to center sled for tent over sampling area. Note storage of
sampling equipment inside sled.
PO
Figure 12. Parachute covers sled and supports, providing shelter for sampling through hole in lake Ice.
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advantage of lower initial and operating cost, smaller size and weight,
and higher travel speed under most circumstances.
Boats are widely used in lake and river sampling programs, so little
need be added except for the adaptations which are used in some remote
area sampling programs. There are several inflatable boats available on
the market which are designed for use with outboard engines up to 50
horsepower. The compact packaging and light weight of these boats make
them excellent for transporting to remote sample sites in small aircraft.
The length of time required to prepare the boat for use and to repackage
it may limit the usefulness depending on time limitations. However, they
have excellent application for such work as measuring river discharge or
lake sampling in remote areas.
The most commonly used boat for remote area travel in Alaska is the
flat bottom river boat (Figure 13). These have excellent carrying capacity
and 20 to 28 foot models are generally used. Outboard engines of more than
100 horsepower are occassionally used but the 40 to 60 horsepower engines
are more common. A back-up unit, usually in the 18 to 35 horsepower range,
is always carried with these craft. The engine, with either a propeller
or jet unit, is mounted on a lift rather than directly on the transom
which permits raising the engine for travel through shallow water. Be-
cause rivers may be braided and contain submerged sand or gravel bars,
these boats must be operated by a highly skilled person. Speeds in excess
of 35 miles per hour are possible on a sustained basis but are limited by
operator skill, equivalent chill temperature, river conditions, and
weather. These craft are the summer equivalent of the snow machine and
provide a relatively inexpensive and fairly rapid means of conducting a
sampling program on otherwise inaccessible rivers.
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Figure 13. Flat bottom boat with engine lift for use on shallow rivers
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It is apparent that most of the types of surface transportation are
adequate for some remote area sampling programs. However, they are all
essentially dependent on the area being relatively close to a usable
road system. Considering the conditions prevalent in Alaska and much
of Canada, aircraft generally provide the most satisfactory means of
transportation. This is particularly true when the sampling program is
to be conducted in areas far removed from a road system. It is also the
case along the road system wherever several widely separated stations
must be visited in a short time period, or even in visiting one station
if extended surface travel time is required to reach that station.
Both fixed wing aircraft and helicopters are used for remote area
sampling programs. Circumstances such as season, weather conditions, and
geography of the sample area must be considered when selecting the air-
craft type. The size of the aircraft can be selected within limits; there-
fore space and weight requirements must be predetermined. It may be neces-
sary to make some compromise either in number or size of samples in order
to stay within the capabilities of the aircraft. Although aircraft cabin
heaters are excellent when flying, rapid cooling is experienced after the
aircraft has landed at a sample station. Thus, sample preservation be-
comes a problem unless adequate measures are taken to prevent freezing.
Aircraft charter is expensive and may run into several hundred dollars
per hour. Any cost data presented here is the current price in the Fair-
banks, Alaska, area and is only indicative of what might be expected else-
where. The procedure of contracting with the lowest bidder may otherwise
provide satisfactory results but is often poor economy in obtaining
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charter aircraft. Only firms which have well-maintained aircraft and can
provide pilots qualified for the type of operation being undertaken should
be hired. The charge for most charters is by the flying hour regardless
of the number of days involved. When the aircraft is required for an entire
day there is usually a minimum charge for flying time (four hours in most
cases), and there is often a lower rate charged for standby time while at
a sample station. Thus, written contractual agreements, to ensure that the
desired services are provided, should be made as necessary.
Large fixed wing aircraft are often used to stage materials, equipment,
and personnel into a remote airfield if a field laboratory is to be estab-
lished. Occasionally, regularly scheduled commercial flights can be
utilized, but it is often necessary to charter. When such items as avi-
ation fuel must be staged, charter is the only way it can be handled.
However, this may be the most economical means of putting the sampling
program in the field.
Small single engine, fixed wing aircraft are much less expensive to
charter than helicopters of similar capabilities. These aircraft are,
however, limited to use during winter sampling programs because the ice
cover is usually the only available landing strip at the sample sites.
They are generally equipped with wheel-ski combinations which permit
operation on snow, ice, or from a cleared runway. The Cessna model 180 or
185 (Figure 14) has a charter rate of $70.00/hr., and is widely used for
this type of operation. The model 185 is the same size as the 180 but
has a larger engine, permitting a heavier load to be carried and a shorter
take-off distance. If the landing area at the sample station is very
short, a STOL (Short Take Off and Landing) aircraft of similar capabilities
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CT.
Figure 14. Small, single engined aircraft used in sampling on ice-covered rivers
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27
can be obtained for $75.00/hr. Larger standard or STOL aircraft are
available if needed to carry the field gear and sample load, but cost per
hour and required landing strip length both increase rapidly.
Helicopters are probably the most versatile means of transportation
in remote areas. Although they have a shorter range than an equivalent
sized fixed wing aircraft, they can be used year-round, require a very
short landing space and can be used for a variety of tasks. The smallest
(Figure 15) carry three persons including the pilot and cost $150.00/hr.
All field gear and samples are carried in baskets outside the cabin which
makes the samples very vulnerable to environmental factors. Therefore,
this particular type should not be considered for winter operations when
samples cannot be allowed to freeze.
The most useful size of helicopter for water quality sampling is shown
in Figure 16. This unit can carry four persons other than the pilot
and charters for $225.00 to $245.00/hr., depending on the model. All
samples can be carried internally and preservation problems are about the
same as with the fixed wing aircraft.
The next two figures demonstrate the versatility of the helicopter
for field operations. It can be used to lay and retrieve gill nets in
remote lakes as shown in Figure 17. This eliminates the need to carry an
inflatable boat with the resultant time loss in setting up the boat for
use and repackaging for travel. If the services of a large unit can be
obtained, it can reduce the time and effort in moving heavy objects such
as the trailer laboratory shown in Figure 18. This field laboratory was
placed by helicopter in a research watershed and serves as .the operations
base for studies being conducted there.
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Figure 15. Small helicopter with external equipment storage racks
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Figure 16. Turbine powered helicopter with internal equipment storage compartments.
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Figure 17. Helicopter laying experimental gill net for sampling lake
fishes.
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Figure 18. Trailer laboratory being transported by U.S. Army Chinook helicopter to field site.
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A point which must be considered in all aircraft operations is the
effect of weather, particularly fog or snow conditions which may limit
visibility. Although helicopters can operate under somewhat lower
visibility than fixed wing aircraft, they too are grounded under severe
circumstances. Such weather problems are more often encountered in re-
mote areas because accurate weather forecasts are usually totally lack-
ing. Thus, a crew in the field can be weathered out of part of the
study area and find it necessary to alter the day's sample program, or be
forced to turn back entirely. Since time in the field will usually be
lost because of weather, extra time must be included in the program
schedule. Changes to the original sampling program made in the field make
two-way communications valuable for other than emergency use because it
permits the personnel at the base laboratory to be informed of the situ-
ation without delay.
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HUMAN PERFORMANCE
Perhaps the single most important factor in designing a sampling
program is the performance expected from the field crew. Long working
days are generally the rule and, when combined with severe environmental
conditions encountered in the field, varying degrees of stress result
which may impair human performance. The severity of the environmental
conditions, along with the physical and mental state of individuals in
the crew, determine the total effect of the stress. Remote area condi-
tions accentuate any problems which may arise and basic survival must
be a prime consideration. Thus, the need for a field crew of no less
than two persons carrying adequate survival gear can not be overempha-
sized.
Field crew performance during summer sampling programs in remote
areas would be expected to be little different than that found in other
locations. The irritation caused by mosquitoes and/or black flies is
well known to most persons involved in field operations. The severity
of this irritation in Alaska and much of Canada can be such, however,
that it may impair an individuals ability to obtain samples and data
at a particular station. This problem is reasonably overcome by using
a good insect repellent or mosquito netting.
The effect of cold on field crew performance is also not exclusively
a remote area problem. However, sampling programs in a large portion of
northern North America are conducted in remote areas under conditions of
continuous extreme cold not encountered elsewhere. The effect becomes
a consideration in field crew performance when the equivalent chill
temperature (combination of wind velocity and ambient air temperature)
begins to cause discomfort. The overall discomfort can be minimized by
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proper utilization of protective clothing. This makes it necessary that
the field crew understand the potential hazards and what constitutes
adequate protective clothing for the conditions. Even when properly
clothed, the potential dangers of frostbite must not be underrated. The
information presented in Figure 19, adapted from a U. S. Air Force publi-
cation (2), indicates that the danger of freezing exposed flesh becomes
an increasingly significant factor as the equivalent chill temperature
decreases below -20°F (-28°C)..
The equivalent chill temperature below which field work should be.
suspended is difficult to ascertain. If the field crew is protected
from adverse environmental conditions while traveling between sample
stations, the coldest acceptable working conditions become a function
of exposure time at any station and the length of time during which
work without hand protection is required. If the samples can be
collected in five to ten minutes with little or no hand exposure, an
equivalent chill temperature of -100°F (-73.3°C) is often tolerable.
This, of course, is also dependent on the ambient air temperature because
the actual temperature is what affects sample preservation and impairs
vehicle and equipment operation.
Medical research indicates that humans do become acclimatized to
cold after prolonged exposure (3,4,5). However, field crews conduct-
.ing the type of operations discussed in this presentation are generally
exposed only intermittently to cold and, therefore, do not have the
opportunity to become acclimatized (4). Cold has been shown to be a
stress factor even in acclimatized individuals (6), and becomes a signi-
ficant factor during intermittent exposure because of fatigue, loss of
efficiency, and impairment of manual dexterity (7). Although attention
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WIND SPEED
MPH
COOLING POWER OF WIND EXPRESSED AS "EQUIVALENT CHILL TEMPERATURE"
TEMPERATURE (°F)
CALM 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 -5 -10 -15 -20
-25 -30 ,-35 -40 -45 -50 -55 -60
EQUIVALENT CHILL TEMPERATURE
5 35 30 25 20 15 10
10 30 20 15 10 5 0
15 25 15 10 0 -5 -10
20 20 10 5 0 -10 -15
25 15 10 0 -5 -15 -20
30 10 5 0 -10 -20
35 10 5 -5 -10 -20
40 10 0 -5 -15 -20
WINDS ABOVE LITTLE DANGER
40 HAVE
LITTLE
ADDITIONAL
-25
-30
-30
5
-10
-20
-25
-30
-30
-35
-35
0 -5
-15 -20
-25 -30
-30 -35
-35 -45
-40 -50
-40 -50
-45 -55
INCREASING DANC
(Flesh may fret
within 1 nrin.
-10 -15 -20 -25 -30 -35
-25 -35 -40 -45 -50 -60
-40 -45 -50 -60 -65 -70
-45 -50 -60 -65 -75 -80
-50 -60 -65 -75 -80 -90
-55 -65 -70 -80 -85 -95
-60 -65
-60 -70
;ER
>ze
-75 -80 -90 -100
-75 -85 -95 -100
(Flesh may
-40 -45
-65 -70
-80 -85
-85 -95
-95 -105
-100 -110
-105 -115
-110 -115
GREAT DANGER
freeze within
-50 -55 -65 -70
-75 -80 -90 -95
-90 -100 -105 -110
-100 -110 -115 -120
-110 -120 -125 -135
-115 -125 -130 -140.
-120 -130 -135 -145
-125 -130 -140 -150
30 seconds)
EFFECT
DANGER OF FREEZING EXPOSED FLESH FOR PROPERLY CLOTHED PERSONS
CO
en
Figure 19. Chill factor chart relates equivalent chill temperature to wind speed and air temperature.
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36
to detail is not necessarily diminished (6), sample quality can suffer
progressively throughout a day in the field if the conditions are
sufficiently extreme. This occurs if the field crew becomes more inter-
ested in minimizing exposure time than in observing proper sampling
procedures.
Water sampling programs add the dimension of being wet to other cold
exposure problems. This ranges from the remote possibility of going
through the ice to the chronic problem of wet feet, legs, and hands. The
operation of cutting a hole in the ice (Figure 20) always results in wet
hands, and sometimes wet legs and feet, as the auger is pulled from the
completed hole. The water beneath the ice is often under pressure,
causing overflow on the ice surface around the hole. Kneeling to obtain
the water samples (Figure 21) compounds the wet leg problem. Figure 21
also shows shoulder length rubber gloves used to submerge sample contain-
ers In the water and short rubber gloves used to handle the ice auger
and other wet materials. It is often necessary to do manipulations with-
out gloves (Figure 22); this must be minimized as handling wet containers
increases the cooling rate and the resultant frostbite danger.
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ex
Figure 20. Cutting hole in ice with gasoline powered ice auger results in wet hands and clothing.
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CO
CD
Figure 21. Kneeling to obtain water samples often causes wet clothing and subsequent chilling
use of rubber gloves to collect samples.
Note
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to
£
Figure 22. It is often necessary to perform field manipulations without gloves in cold weather.
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SAMPLING PROGRAM DESIGN
In the preceding discussion, we have considered criteria necessary to
select components for a field operation. It is also essential to consider
the process of planning and conducting the study in which these criteria
will be applied.
Certainly all projects involve planning, which ranges from listing
required equipment and activities to setting up a flow chart and develop-
ing a complete activity schedule. Although this is important for field
operations in general, it is absolutely critical in remote regions.
Obviously a sampling program in New Jersey is not subject to the same
constraints as one on Alaska's North Slope. A project component failure
in New Jersey could probably be remedied in a few hours, or a day at
worst. Similar failure due to lack of planning on the North Slope could
be disastrous, in comparison, not only in terms of failure to meet sched-
uled objectives, but also in terms of cost, and very possibly, field
personnel safety.
Water resource studies may include: chemists, biologists, engineers,
resource specialists and technicians. In addition, administrators, data
processors, editors, and other non-field personnel may be involved. It
is difficult to conceive that a single person could adequately integrate
the performance of such an interdisciplinary team. The key to successful
implementation of a field project is coordinated planning by all disci-
plines involved. This includes not only the field personnel but also
those in laboratory support, administration, and data-processing roles.
Communication and coordination among the various disciplines involved
in a field project is critical from the very onset, when objectives, criteria,
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41
and constraints can be fully discussed in terms of individual needs.
Several alternate plans and subplans should be developed in this early
phase, and the best selected.
This planning process is common in large-scale operations. Expeditions
in polar regions have been conducted for decades by governments, scientific
groups and more recently, industry, where extensive logistical resources
were available for support (8). Such an operation-may involve support from
military forces and other large agencies. However, we are concerned with
planning for a group of, perhaps, not more than a dozen persons where
professionals must be involved in disciplines outside their field, and
must function as planner, stevedore, laborer, equipment operator and,
possibly, cook or medic.
The planning process should begin by evaluating various planning
techniques in order to select one which will best achieve the desired re-
sults. The most common planning technique is the bar chart (Figure 23).
These .diagrams are valuable since they display project activities on a
time scale. This can include preparatory operations such as equipment
checking and packing, vehicle maintenance or purchasing, or the allocation
of budget items. As progress is made on a task, this can be indicated by
marks or pins on the bar. The technique is simple, rapid, inexpensive, and
may be entirely adequate for some purposes. However, a major drawback is
that it fails to indicate the interrelationship of tasks and it is difficult
to adjust time assignments for critical tasks. Also, if a large number of
small tasks are represented the chart quickly becomes unmanageable.
A more sophisticated technique utilizing networks to display planning
functions is termed the Critical Path Method (CPM). A variation of this
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iviaimenance
Purchasing
Scheduling •*
FIELD FUNCTIONS
LABORATORY
FUNCTIONS
TRAVEL
SITE PREPARATION
SAMPLING
EQUIPMENT
HANDLING
MEASUREMENTS
1
Critical Path
Set up Materials
_L_J
TIME SCALE
Figure 23. Bar Chart and Critical Path method "graph" as used in planning a simple field program.
ro
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43
is the Program Evaluation and Review technique (PERT). Such a scheme may
be viewed as an application of the traditional flow chart commonly used in
qualitative chemical analysis or taxonomic classification. The formal
CPM and PERT procedures were developed for large construction projects,
such as buildings or commercial aircraft. These procedures can, however,
be used in planning less complex projects since they involve coordination
of various skills to produce the most efficient attainment of objectives.
The basic Critical Path Method (Figure 23) utilizes a two dimensional
graph where lines represent activities, and points of intersection or
nodes represent status of the project. Dependencies, such as required
communication between activities, can be shown by dotted lines. A com-
pleted network may show several separate paths which converge at some point
of readiness. Each path will require a different time allocation such that
the most time consuming path, the critical path, dictates the completion
time for that set of activities. Determining the critical path clarifies
which activities are most important in terms of scheduling, and allows
estimation of the slack time, or float, in the non-critical paths. From
this the most efficient utilization of personnel can be achieved. It can
be seen that the functional detail of the network allows inclusion of many
small tasks while maintaining a logical, sequential representation.
The network is valuable in the field since alternatives have been
programmed for contingencies. Interruption of a sampling run because of
inclement weather or mechanical breakdown would require re-scheduling of
laboratory analyses, replacement of a broken part, or other appropriate
responses which should have been planned in advance.
Advanced techniques are available which allow for resource allocation,
corrections for failure probability, and budget control (9). Since the
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44
network may be written as a matrix; it can be analyzed by digital computer.
Frequent updating of the program for time or budget expenditures and changes
in activity time estimation provides a management system which is always
current. However, the expense of maintaining a computerized management
system is generally beyond the budget limitations of small field projects.
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DIRECTIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT
Components for field operations must generally be adapted to the
natural conditions if the project is to be successful. Where they have
been specifically designed for operation in remote areas, they may be
adequate or easily adapted. In other cases, components such as surface
vehicles and aircraft are limited in the extent to which they can be
modified.
Human performance can be improved through research in apparel de-
signed for specific climatic conditions. Corporations working in the
Arctic as well as the U. S. Armed Forces are developing garments which
have superior insulating and freedom-of-movement properties. There is
generally an extended lag time between design of garments for military
use and ayatlability to the general public. This lag time could be
shortened through technology transfer from the military to the garment
industry.
The capability to perform physical-chemical measurements is a funda-
mental concern in field operations and, in remote areas, takes on greater
importance because of laboratory unavailability. There is clearly a lack
of instrument packages for which state-of-the-art materials and concepts
have been used.
Size and weight are major factors in instrument transportation.
Units are commonly packaged in cast-aluminum cases which are bulky, heavy,
and readily conduct heat. Perhaps the best illustration of the state-of-
the-art in miniaturization is a comparison of two electronic calculators
representing a span of about 5 years in design (Figure 24). As a point
of comparison the older unit, which in order of magnitude is larger and
heavier, performs five functions as compared with approximately 40 in the
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Figure 24.
Two electronic calculators representing the state-of-the-art in 1968 (rear) and 1973 (front)
Not only is the earlier model much larger but also cost four times as much as the later
model, for far fewer functions.
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47
smaller unit. Application of integrated circuitry and liquid crystal
displays to field instruments would allow production of a pocket-sized
unit, such as a pH meter. Extending the concept of miniaturization
further, it should be possible to transfer technology from the biomed-
ical engineering field. Sensors play an increasingly important role in
in situ analysis of physiological systems (10), and have been designed
to meet stringent criteria such as small size, inertness, ruggedness, and
low power consumption. Integration of existing electronic and sensor
technologies would allow the design of a single unit having the capabilities
to measure pH, dissolved oxygen, electrical conductivity, and specific
ions. A digital multi-meter recently marketed by Hewlett-Packard has
applied such concepts, resulting in a unit which meets the needs of field
personnel in electronics.
The preservation of samples for future analysis at a central facility
has long been a concern to environmental scientists. Methods such as
filtration, freezing, and the use of toxins have the advantage of speed
and simplicity. However, the validity of trace component analysis on pre-
served samples is always open to question. Techniques for proceeding with
color development to a point where an analyte is in a stable form for trans-
port to the laboratory have been described (11). These methods may have
only limited field application under adverse environmental conditions. An-
other area having possible application is the development of separation
techniques. Forensic analysis has successfully utilized resin loaded
papers for quantitative sampling of drug metabolites' in urine. Resins
and other ion exchangers as well as fixative reagents should be further
examined for sampling and preservation under field conditions (12).
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Component failure in the field could be reduced by the application
of environmental testing to ascertain performance under a range of condi-
tions. Such testing has been applied in the aero-space industry to
produce systems nearly fail-safe under extremes of temperature, pressure,
vibration and other physical stresses. The lack of uniform design stan-
dards is so serious that investigators must often learn of instrument
performance only through costly experience. Standards should be develop-
ed for field equipment and instrument evaluation with societies and
agencies concerned with the environmental sciences forming a study com-
mittee to begin the development of an evaluation program.
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49
REFERENCES
1. H. E. Hanson and R. F. Goldman, Mil. Med.. #134. 1307 (1969).
2. U. S. Air Force, Arctic Aeromedical Laboratory, Tech. Report
64-28, Fort Wainwright, Alaska, 1964.
3. E. R. Buskirk, Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. #134. 733 (1966).
4. L. D. Carlson, A. C. Young, H. L. Burns and W. F. Quinton,
U. S. Air Force Report No. 6247, March 1951.
5. R. W. Eisner, Arctic Aeromedical Laboratory Project No. 8-7951
Report No. 1, Nov 1955.
6. F. E. Pope and T. A. Rogers, J. Nervous and Mental Pis. #146,
433 (1968).
7. R. H. Fox, Brit. Med. Bull. #17. 14 (1961).
8. National Academy of Science, National Research Council "Symposium
on Antarctic Logistics," Wash. D. C. 1963.
9. Joseph 0. Moder and Cecil R. Phillips, "Project Management with
CPM and PERT," Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., N. Y. 1970.
10. Marc Lavallee, Otto Q. Schanne and Normand C. Hebert, ed., "Glass
Microelectrodes," John Wiley and Sons Inc., N. Y. 1969.
11. J. Shapiro. Limnology and Oceanography, #18, 143 (1973).
12. Stephen L. Law, Amer. Laboratory, 91, July 1973.
13. P. R. Johnson and C. W. Hartman "Environmental Atlas of Alaska,"
University of Alaska, College, Alaska 1969.
U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1974—798-474 (94 REGION 10
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