United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Mobile Source Air Pollution Control
Emission Control Technology Division
2565 Plymouth Road
Ann Arbor, Ml 48105
EPA-460/3-81-027
Air
Ammonia Health Effects
-------
AMMONIA HEALTH EFFECTS
with Contributions by
Bonnie L. Carson Harry V. Ellis III
Cecily M. Beall Larry H. Baker
TASK 3 REPORT
September 17, 1981
Contract No. 68-03-2928
Task Specification No. 3
"Health Effects Support for the Emission Control
Technology Division"
MRI Project No. 4997-T(3)
For
Emission Control Technology Division
Office of Mobile Source Air Pollution Control
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
2565 Plymouth Road
Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105
Attn: Robert J. Garbe
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PREFACE
This report on health effects of ammonia was prepared by Midwest Re-
search Institute (MRI) as Task No. 3 under Contract No. 68-03-2928, "Health
Effects Support for the Emission Control Technology Division" for the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency.
Health effects literature primarily related to inhalation exposures to
ammonia has been collected, evaluated, tabulated, and summarized so that
this report can be used to derive a range of concern for human exposure to
vehicular atmospheric emissions of ammonia.
Task activities were coordinated by the project leader, Mrs. Bonnie L.
Carson, Senior Chemist, and task leader, Ms. Cecily M. Beall, Assistant Sci-
entist. Documents were rated and summarized by senior pharmacologist
Harry V. Ellis III, of MRI, and epidemiologist Larry H. Baker, M.D., MRI
consultant, who is an Associate Professor in the Department of Community
Health at the University of Kansas Medical Center. Data were tabulated by
Ms. Beall; Joy L. McCann, Assistant Scientist; and Ms. Carol Foret, Liter-
ature Aide. Ms. Beall and Mrs. Carson contributed to the annotated bib-
liography. This study was performed under the general supervision of
Dr. Edward W. Lawless, Head, Chemical Impact Assessment Section.
Mr. Robert J. Garbe was the project monitor for the Emission Control
Technology Division, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and Ms. Colleen
DeMeyer served as Branch Technical Representative.
Approved for:
MIDWEST RESEARCH INSTITUTE
Bruce W. Macy, Director
Center for Technoeconorftic Analysis
September 17, 1981
111
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SUMMARY
The goal of this task is to compile and evaluate data from the litera-
ture on the health effects of inhalation exposure to NHs- The results will
assist the Emission Control Technology Division (ECTD) of the U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency in establishing a range of concern for NHg in ex-
hausts from vehicles equipped with emission control devices (e.g., catalytic
converters) and in providing guidance to automobile manufacturers. The ex-
posures of particular concern are those that may occur in traffic jams, in
public parking garages, in home and repair shop garages, in tunnels, and in
other situations where little dilution of the exhaust is expected before
inhalation. Most of the report (as directed by ECTD) is in the form of tables
based on the literature reviewed. Data from exposures at higher levels than
of primary concern are included because strictly relevant information was
scarce and these related data might prove helpful in assessing health effects
at lower levels.
Documents on inhalation effects of NHs identified from manual and com-
puterized literature searches were rated in a two-step process by the project
pharmacologist and epidemiologist. First, the document received an A, B,
C, D rating according to its applicability for deriving a range of concern
for NH3 in automobile emissions. Second, if the paper was not a low-rated
foreign-language document,* a theoretical paper, a review, or a nontoxicology
experimental paper, it received a numerical score based on itemized features
that should be present in an ideal report.
All A- or B-rated documents were tabulated. Occupational documents
receiving a C or D rating because of the possible presence of confounding
factors were included if the exposure to NHs was confirmed and of a low
level.
ANIMAL STUDIES
A summary of the animal data for exposures to £ 36 mg NHs/m3 is given
in Table S-l. The complete data are given in the tables in Section III.
Most foreign-language articles rated C and D were usually not translated.
Each foreign-language abstract tentatively rated A or B from an English-
language abstract or brief examination of the paper was translated in
sufficient degree to judge the experimental design and details. These
papers were numerically scored from the translation.
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TABLE S-l. SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENTAL ANIMAL EXPOSURE TO
Level of
Exposure
(rag/m3)
36-36.7
7.2-32.4
14.4-21.6
14.4
0-8.6
2-3
0.2
Exposure
Time
48 h
4 wk or 33 d
3 h
2 d
12 d
2 h
19 or 71 d
6 wk
52 d
35 d
4 wk
10 wk
52 d or 7 mo
49 d
42 d
42 d
6 d
72 h
4-12 wk
5 wk
4 mo
12 wk
84 d or 4 mo
84 d
Effects
w
>, C "
c fci en c js
§JJ 14 tH OJ -^ 4
MR) U1O *J W Q> 0
CQjCv-IQ)M w o 1-1 e "* Comments
^
+
NOEL
Anorexia
-H- Bacterial exposure prior to NH3 exposure.
Decreased body weight gain when also exposed
to 300 mg/ra3 dust.
NOEL at 22°C; slight effect at 10°C.
Concurrent bacterial exposure.
NOEL, compared to more exposed groups.
Effect probably due to dust at 0.1-0.4 mg/ft .
Slight initial decrease in reflex response;
decreased vitamin levels in some organs;
biochemical changes in blood and urine.
Concurrent bacterial exposure.
-H- High level viral exposure following NH-j
exposure.
Feed consumption above groups exposed to
higher levels.
++ Concurrent bacterial exposure.
Only with concurrent high levels of dust (0.6-
1.0 mg/ft3).
NOEL (even following concurrent bacterial ex-
posure) other than slight inhibition of the
blood redox function in the first mo.
NOEL
* In comparison to control animals given the same microbial exposure.
i Initial response, at early stages only.
D Delayed response.
+ Slight symptoms.
++ Moderate symptoms.
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Acute Animal Studies
Among the rodent studies, Lehmann (1886) found minor, reversible irri-
tation ("annoyance") in rats and guinea pigs given the lowest reported dose,
about 400 rag NHs/m3 for 4 h. The one mouse study is not contradictory.
Lehmann (1886) found that higher doses (about 800 mg/m3 and up) produce de-
creased respiration, secretions, and other such obvious symptoms of irrita-
tion. At extreme doses (lethal to near lethal) of several thousand milli-
grams per cubic meter, the lung reaction included hyperemia as well as edema.
Both Lehmann (1886) and Richard et al. (1978b) found similar thresholds
in rabbits. In Richard et al.'s study, curarized rabbit preparations showed
bradycardia, arrhythmias, and extrasystoles at the toxic levels of NH3.
Lehmann (1886) reported that the same minimum dose in cats (about 400
mg/m3) produced reversible irritation, with increased effects, especially
secretions, at higher doses. Dodd and Gross (1980) made pulmonary function
tests on cats given 720 mg/m3 for 10 min. This level was quite toxic, with
slow recovery. One cat of 20 died of bronchopneumonia, presumably influenced
by the lung damage caused by NH3-
In other species, Charles and Payne (1966a) found a decrease in respir-
ation rate in some chickens given 72 rag NHa/m3 for an unspecified period
and a small increase in blood pH in hens given 54 mg/m3. In a test of sus-
ceptibility to infection, Drummond et al. (1978) found that swine given 36
mg/m3 of ammonia had increased retention of viable aerosolized bacteria and
increased pulmonary weight, but no apparent gross or histopathologic lesions.
These results correlate well with the report of bronchopneumonia in the cat.
Repeated Dose Animal Studies
Anderson et al. (1964) found that 4-wk exposure of mice and of guinea
pigs to 14.4 mg NHg/m3 had no effect, but 6-wk exposure produced lung lesions
(hyperemia, edema, congestion). Anderson et al. (1964) also found that if
guinea pigs were exposed to 36 mg/m3 continuously for 6 wk, they devel-
oped similar but more severe lung lesions, plus congestion in the liver and
spleen. In sharp contrast, Coon et al. (1970) found that 155 mg/m3 given
to guinea pigs 40 h/wk for 6 wk or 40 mg/m3 given to guinea pigs continuously
for 114 d was nontoxic. The strain of guinea pig used in Anderson et al.
(1964) was not given, but these differences may be due to varying sensitivity
between strains. Exposure to 770 mg/m3 8 h/d for 6 wk did cause lung lesions
(Coon et al., 1970). These studies imply a fairly good "C x t effect" (con-
centration times time is constant for similar effects).
Many relevant studies have been made with rats. In Russian studies
aimed at determining a maximum permissible concentration (Saifutdinov, 1966
and 1968), 12-wk exposures to 0.2 mg/m3 had no effects; exposure to 2 mg/m3
had negligible effects (inhibition of blood redox function in the first few
weeks only); and exposure to 20 mg/m3 had some minor effects (inhibition of
brain cholinesterase, increased urinary coproporphyrins), which disappeared
after exposure ceased. The observed effects are minor and of questionable
toxicological importance, further marred by a lack of experimental detail.
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In more usual types of studies, Stolpe and Sedlag (1976) found that a
52-d exposure to 21.6, 36, or 65 mg/m3 did not affect rats dosed at normal
temperature, whereas the 36 and 65 mg/m3 levels were mildly toxic (decreased
weight gain with partial recovery) to rats kept at 10°C. Broderson et al.
(1976) found some histopathologic changes in respiratory and olfactory epi-
thelia of rats exposed to 108 mg/m3 for 75 d or to 180 mg/m3 for 35 d. Coon
et al. (1970) found no effects in rats exposed to 155 mg/m3 40 h/wk for 6
wk, but severe effects (including death of two-thirds of the rats) in those
exposed to 455 mg/m3; no histopathology was done. Richard et al. (1978a)
found that 360 mg/m3 for 5 d or more was toxic, with respiratory lesions
appearing after 3 wk.
Broderson et al. (1976) exposed rats to varying levels of NHs for 5
wk, and challenged them with an intranasal inoculation of infectious bacteria
on day 7. While even the lowest dose (18 mg/m3) increased the infection
severity, there were increasingly severe effects at each level up to the
highest used (180 mg/m3).
Only two studies reported results with rabbits. Mayan and Merilan (1972)
found that both levels used (36 and 72 mg/m3) decreased the respiration rate
every time the brief (2.5-3 h) exposure was repeated (at unstated intervals).
Coon et al. (1970) exposed rabbits 40 h/wk for 6 wk. His higher dose of
770 mg/m3 caused dyspnea and lacrimation during the first few days only.
Repeated exposure to that dose beyond the first week or to 155 mg/m3 had no
effects. Coon et al. (1970) also tested dogs and monkeys with the same pro-
tocol. Results in beagle dogs were identical to those in rabbits. The
squirrel monkeys were apparently unaffected; one low-dose monkey had focal
pneumonitis, but this is not unusual.
Because closed, air-conditioned livestock and poultry facilities are
widely available, many studies have involved swine and poultry. Most of
these involved combined exposures (with manure gas, dust, and similar con-
taminants); but some studies do have useful, separate exposures. Stombaugh
et al. (1969) found inconsistent, but probably negligible, effects in pigs
exposed to 44 or 9 mg NH3/m3 for 5 wk. Higher levels (74 and 104 mg/m3)
decreased feed consumption and caused coughing and nasal, lacrimal, and
oral secretions. The highest level (201 mg/m3) was given to only one
animal which exhibited severe irritation symptoms and convulsed after 36-h
exposure, but recovered 7 h after exposure.
Curtis et al. (1975) found no consistent changes in pigs exposed to 36
mg NH3/m3 for 71 d or to that dose plus 2.8 mg H2S/m3 for 19 d or to that
dose plus 10 mg dust/m3 for 27 d. If the dust concentration was increased
to 300 mg/m3, weight gain decreased. Exposure to 54 mg NHs/m3 for 109 d
without added dust had no adverse effects, indicating that the high dust
levels gave reduced weight gain.
Doig and Willoughby (1971) found slight effects (conjunctivitis in the
first or second week, upper respiratory tract epithelium reaction) in pigs
exposed for 6 wk to 77 mg NH3/m3 alone or with ground corn dust (10.6 or
213 mg/m3).
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Anderson et al. (1964) found that exposure of chickens to 14.4 mg NH3/m3
for 24 h to 28 d caused a brief (up to 3 or 4 d) increase in mucus secretion,
but no pathology or obvious discomfort. Exposure for 6 wk or longer produced
hyperemic, dense lungs with congestion, edema, and hemorrhage. Valentine
(1964) studied exposures of chickens at rather widely varying NH3 levels,
apparently without controls, and reported a dose-response curve. Decreased
weight gain and, at sufficiently high doses, eye ulcerations were observed.
Charles and Payne (1966a) found mild, somewhat inconsistent, toxic ef-
fects in two groups of chickens exposed to 37 or 38 mg NH3/m3. Larger doses
(56 and 72 mg/m3) gave decreased feed consumption and weight gain in the
later parts of the studies.
Anderson et al. (1964) did an interaction study in which chickens were
exposed to NH3 for 18 d and then given an aerosol of Newcastle disease virus.
At the lowest NH3 level studied (14.4 mg/m3), the lower virus dose (3 ELDso'8
liter for 3 min) was not affected by the pretreatment, while the higher virus
dose (6 ELDso's/liter) infected all the pretreated birds and half of the
controls. With pretreatment at 36 mg/m3 and the higher virus dose, results
were similar.
Anderson et al. (1964) found that turkeys exposed to 14.4 mg NH3/m3
for 6 d followed by 36 mg/m3 for 2 d were unaffected. However, exposure to
36 mg/m3 for 12 d did produce increasing lung effects (congestion, edema,
hemorrhage) plus anorexia and decreased weight gain. Anderson et al. (1968)
reported on studies with turkeys exposed to low (nontoxic) levels of NH3
plus various levels of dust. The dust caused adverse effects, but no inter-
action between the NH3 and dust was reported.
Chronic Studies in Animals
Coon et al. (1970) found that 114 d at 40 mg NH3/m3 and 90 d at 127 mg
NH3/m3 had no adverse effect on rats. However, 90 d at 262 mg/m3 caused
some symptoms (nasal discharge in *• 25% of rats) while 470 mg/m3 was lethal
to most rats, with interstitial pneumonitis the main lesion. Mikhailuts et
al. (1979) studied in rats the interaction of exposure for 35 h/wk for 4 mo
to low levels of NH3 with intranasal exposure to pathogenic bacteria. The
low dose of 3 mg/m3 had no effect, but the high dose of 6 mg/m3 increased
bacterial effects. Particularly significant were decreases in the usual
protective effect of phagocytes.
Coon et al. (1970) found that guinea pigs were much like rats, although
somewhat less sensitive, with no effects from 114 d at 40 mg/m3 and some
deaths from interstitial pneumonitis after 90 d at 470 mg/m3. They found
that rabbits were about as sensitive as guinea pigs (no deaths, but lung
lesions in the three rabbits dosed at 470 mg/m3 for 90 d); marked eye irri-
tation was noted. Results in beagle dogs and squirrel monkeys followed the
pattern: no adverse effects after 114 d at 40 mg/m3, interstitial pneumonia
and (in dogs) irritation, but no deaths, in the few animals given 470 mg/m3
for 90 d.
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HUMAN STUDIES
A summary of all the human experimental data is given in Table S-2,
and of the occupational data in Table S-3.
Experimental Studies
A moderate number of experiments has been done on humans exposed to
ammonia at various concentrations. The details of acute experimental in-
halation exposure studies are given in Table IV-1, with repeated dose
studies in Table IV-2.
The first observed effect at low levels of NH3 appears to be odor per-
ception. Reported threshold values vary considerably within studies and
between studies. Sayfutdinov (1968) reported perception thresholds for 22
subjects varying from 0.45 to 1.0 mg/m . In contrast, Keplinger et al.
(1973) found that one subject (of 10) could not detect 23 mg NH3/m3, al-
though he could detect 33.7 mg/m3. In a poorly controlled study, Mikhailov
et al. (1969) found metabolic evidence of ammonia exposure (such as increases
in urinary ammonia and urea) after 8-h exposure to 13 mg NH3/m3, but not
after 3 mg/m3. No adverse effects were reported; the alterations are within
normal metabolic ranges.
The first adverse effect of NH3 appears to be irritation of the nose
and/or eyes. Keplinger et al. (1973) found no (subjective) irritation after
5-min exposure to 23 or 36 mg NH3/m3, but some effects in 6 of 10 subjects
given 52 mg/m3. In a more thorough study, Verberk (1977) found slight irri-
tation, but no effects on pulmonary function or hypersusceptibility, from
2-h exposures to 36 mg NH3/m3. Increasing the concentration to 57.6 mg/m3
caused small (< 10%) decreases in pulmonary functions. Even higher concen-
trations (79.2, 100.8 mg/m3) greatly increased irritation; the higher level
was unbearable to all eight inexperienced subjects before the 2-h exposure
was completed. Other studies, generally at higher concentrations for
shorter periods, were consistent with these.
The most useful repeated dose study was that of Ferguson et al. (1977)
involving 2 x 3-h exposures, 5 d/wk for 6 weeks, at concentrations of 18,
36, or 72 mg NH3/m3, in an industrial setting. They found some dose-dependent
changes in respiratory function (increased 1-sec forced expiratory volume,
but not changes in ventilatory capacity) and consistent irritation signs only
at the highest concentration (72 mg/m3). Some other studies (Mikhailuts,
1977; Sayfutdinov, 1968) report inhibition of odor thresholds to other com-
pounds and lowered eye sensitivity to light at low concentrations (0.32-
10.5 mg/m3) of NHs, with minor, transient changes in cardiovascular and
respiratory functions at 6.1 and 10.5 mg/m3. The importance of these find-
ings is dubious.
Occupational Exposures
Several studies, summarized in Table S-3, have involved workers occu-
pationally exposed to NH3. Most of these studies have little value, their
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TABLE S-2. SUMMARY OF HUMAN EXPERIMENTAL EXPOSURE TO NH3
Level of
Exposure
(mg/m3)
360-403.2
(several
studies)
180-344
144
96.5-106
(several
studies)
50-79.2
(several
studies)
18-72
51.8-57.6
(several
studies)
36
(several
studies)
36
33.7
23
21.6
13
Exposure
Time
Acute
Acute
Acute
Acute
Acute
Repeated
Acute
Acute
Repeated
Acute
Acute
Acute
Acute
Table No.
1V-1
IV-1
IV-1
IV-1
IV-1
•IV-2
IV-1
IV-1
IV-2
IV-1
IV-1
IV-1
IV-1
Effects
Blood pressure decreased; NHj levels in the blood increased;
rapidly reversible changes in lung functions; lacrimation but
no coughing; widely varied subjective responses.
Changes in lung functions at rest and during exercise; changes.
in exercise cardiac frequency.
Lung function and slight cardiac changes.
Significant lung function and cardiac changes, at rest and exer
cise; some strong irritation of eyes, nose, mouth or throat,
though others were relatively unaffected.
Slight lung function changes in some ; reduced cardiac frequency
in some; definite eye and throat irritation in some, though
others relatively unaffected.
Occasional mild irritation; increased FEV-^ but not other
respiratory or blood pressure parameters; apparent adaptation
in the ability to withstand brief excursions to 144 mg/m^.
Slight decrease in lung functions; definite eye and slight
throat irritation at the higher level; slight irritation of
some at the lower level; odor detected.
No lung function changes; slight to moderate irritation in
some; odor detected.
No significant changes in lung function, blood pressure,
rate of irritation or neurological response.
Lowest concentration at which 4/4 detected the odor.
9/10 detected the odor; no irritation.
Faint irritation in some; odor detected.
Increased NHo levels in blood and urine; decreased 02 con-
10 Repeated
6.1 Repeated
3 Acute
2.2 Repeated
0.45-1.0 Acute
0.32-0.76 Repeated
0.32-0.65 Repeated
sumption; no EKG changes; rapid recovery.
IV-2 Some changes in lung functions, heart rhythm, and odor
sensitivity.
IV-2 No change in lung functions or heart rhythm; changes in odor
sensitivity.
IV-1 Tendency to decreased Oo consumption; insignificant EKG changes;
rapid recovery.
IV-2 Decreases in some lung functions and camphor odor theshold,
IV-1 Range of thresholds of NH^ perception for 22 people.
IV-2 The upper range changed cerebral cortical activity; 0.32 mg/m^
was the subthreshold level.
IV-2 Upper levels decreased eye sensitivity to light; 0.32 mg/m3 was
the subthreshold value for eye sensitivity.
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TABLE S-3. SUMMARY OF OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE TO NH3
Level of
Exposure
(mg/m3)
3.6-144
(plus CO,C02,
H2S)
50-75
10-40
5-29
Length
of Table
Exposure No.
Effects
2-12 h/d V-l Mainly respiratory complaints; some eye irritation
and nausea.
y V-l Increased cancer rates compared to non-NH3 produc-
tion workers, and the general population of the
GDR, especially of the lungs, stomach, lymphatic
tissue, and urinary tract. Perhaps there was also
exposure to asbestos.
5-10 y V-l Various signs of overexcitability of the nerve
tracts by the end of the workday.
V-l Higher incidence of chronic bronchitis and dyspnea;
lower
18.3-26.3
(plus H2S04)
6-26
(plus
£20
(plus
2 y
V-l ~507o had slight or moderate impairment of lung
function, the percentage decreasing over the years
with decreasing NH3 levels.
V-l Lower FEV1 values.
V-l Increased incidence of upper respiratory tract dis-
orders and xeroderma with increasing exposure time;
biochemical changes indicating possible hepatic
stress.
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major faults being lack of precise exposure data and the presence of con-
founding variables such as smoking (a known source of MS exposure) and
exposure to other irritants.
The most useful study is that of Herrman and Viehrig (1979). Despite
its faults, especially the few subjects involved, a decrease in ammonia ex-
posure is well correlated with a decrease in impairments of lung function.
The inverse effect (increased lung impairment with increased NH3 exposure)
was reported by Kujawska et al. (1977) and Giguz (1968).
Accidental Exposures
Table V-2 contains details of the reports of accidental overexposures,
generally to massive concentrations for a few minutes. None gives actual
concentrations; most involve only 1 or 2 persons. However, they do demon-
strate that the effects of very high concentrations are qualitatively similar
to those seen from the lower concentrations reported for experimental and
occupational exposures. The most clear-cut dose-response curve is from Caplin
(1941), the report with the greatest number of exposed persons (47). Nine
victims had only "mild" exposure, giving acute pharyngitis and tracheitis
with rapid recovery. The 25 victims of "moderate" exposure had more exag-
gerated symptoms, including acute bronchitis and bloody sputum. While
15/25 recovered completely, 6 died, 3 from bronchopneumonia (in those pre-
antibiotic years) and 3 from pulmonary edema. The 11 victims of "severe"
exposure were gravely ill, with pulmonary edema, intense dyspnea, etc.; 7
died.
The basic pattern is irritative damage followed by death or recovery,
with no evidence of late sequelae other than rare pulmonary obstruction,
possibly due to scarring.
OTHER POSSIBLE EXPOSURES TO AMMONIA
To put the levels of NHa encountered in automobile exhaust in some per-
spective, other common ammonia exposure sources are given here. The most
obvious, and a frequent confounding factor in human studies, is cigarette
smoke. Estimates of NHs levels in cigarette smoke vary with the type of
tobacco and the investigator: 51-153 |Jg/nonfilter cigarette, 36 pg/filter
cigarette (Sloan and Morie, 1974), and 25-29 [Jg/g of tobacco smoked (~ 50%
being retained by the smoker; Bhown et al., 1971).
Human breath itself can contain measurable levels of NHg, but it varies
with the subject: 0.029-0.520 mg/m3 (Larson et al., 1977), 0.1-1.50 mg/m3
in healthy smokers, and 0.4-1.93 mg/m3 in nonsmokers (Nefedov et al., 1969).
Ammonia can also be present in the ambient air. The average level of
ammonia in urban air has been estimated to be about 20 ppb (~ 0.014 mg/m3;
NAS/NRC, 1972). Limits have been set on the levels which are to be allowed
in the workplace air. The American Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygienists gives 18 mg NHa/m3 as the time-weighted-average threshold limit
value, and 27 mg/m3 as the short-term-exposure limit (ACGIH, 1981). For
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^.comparison, the Maximum Allowable Concentrations in air in the USSR for 1972
,were 20 mg/m3 in the workplace, and 0.2 mg/m3 as both the one-time and aver-
age limit in populated places (USSR, 1972).
RECOMMENDED RANGE OF CONCERN
The available evidence is that the adverse effects of NH3 are due to
its irritation of mucous membranes, particularly in the eye and respiratory
tract. Unless the exposure is lethal, recovery usually occurs. The odor
threshold is regularly reported as being less than the irritation threshold.
Therefore the odor threshold (the consensus opinion is about 5 ppm, 3.6 mg
NHs/m3; NAS/NRC, 1972) is recommended as the upper bound of the range of
concern.
Because of the lack of solid studies of effects at lower levels, and
the routine recovery from nonlethal over-exposure, the lower bound would be
an arbitrary margin of safety. We recommend 0.36 mg NHg/m3, below the lowest
reported odor threshold.
Animal studies provide little assistance in setting ranges of concern
because of the practical difficulties in determining an odor threshold in a
nontalking creature.
10
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SECTION I
INTRODUCTION
This report was compiled as the third of several tasks under Contract
No. 68-03-2928, "Health Effects Support for the Emission Control Technology
Division (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Ann Arbor, Michigan)." The
goal of the project is to evaluate health effects literature on specific
compounds emitted from automobiles equipped with emission-control devices
(specifically catalytic converters), not for the purpose of creating a cri-
teria document but to identify a range of concern or a no-observable-effect
level for each compound to serve as guidance to automobile manufacturers in
their development of future emission-control devices.
The present report was meant to be largely a series of charts or tables
of pertinent data with the tests logically ordered according to exposure
levels. The narrative summary was not meant to describe again each paper
in detail. There are admittedly some disadvantages in not doing so; e.g.,
some of the gradations in effect the authors of a particular paper observed
may be diluted or lost when the details are spread throughout an exceptionally
large table, or between several tables. Papers described in a largely narra-
tive fashion, however, often are difficult to compare. Results that appear
within their source paper to be quite definitive may appear less so or even
anomalous when juxtaposed in tabular format with other results from similar
studies. Hence, the present format was designed to facilitate comparisons.
Literature related to health effects of inhaled NHs was collected mainly
by computer search of TOXLINE and TOXBACK and manual search through the NRC
Subcommittee report on ammonia. Approximately 200 papers and other documents
were evaluated, but only about 50 contained original data suitable for
tabulation.
Experimental animal and human exposure studies were evaluated and sum-
marized by a senior Ph.D. pharmacologist. Occupational exposures were rated
by an epidemiologist with an M.D. degree. Figure 1-1 is the form used for
rating documents by the project pharmacologist and epidemiologist. Each
document was rated in a two-step procedure according to the applicability
of its subject matter and to the quality of the experimental methodology.
The letter assigned in rating the document A, B, C, or D was derived from
the corresponding lower case letters under item 7 in Figure 1-1. Thus, a
study was rated A if it directly applies to or assists in establishing a
range of concern for exposure to NHs- The second part of the rating is the
methodology score. The document reviewer checked off which score should be
11
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Article No. 4997-3-
CHECK WHERE APPROPRIATE:
1. Do they state/limit the problem?
2. Adequacy of sample
3. Replicability
4. Controls/control procedures
5. Completeness and comprehensibility
of results
6. Validity of conclusions, inter-
pretation of data
PAPER
DEFECTIVE
0
PAPER IS
SUB-
STANDARD
1
STANDARD
QUALITY
2
'
SUPERIOR
PAPER
3
7. Applicability to health effects of ^3 as guidance for establishing a range
of concern for NH3 in automobile exhaust.
(.circle one)
a. Clearly, directly applies/assists in establishing a range of concern
(Chronic human studies; acute exposure of humans if minimal effects.)
b. Research requires major inferences; potentially applicable.
(Chronic animal studies; acute human, maximal effect; acute animal,
minimal effects.)
c. Useful hints or suggestions; tentatively applicable.
(Acute animal, lethal effects; studies in above categories but effects
reported not appropriate.)
d. Not directly applicable (peripheral useful information).
Figure 1-1 - Form for Report Rating.
12
-------
given for each of the first six items in Figure 1-1, and the total was writ-
ten at the top of the page along with the letter that rated the paper's ap-
plicability. In some cases, such as reviews, theoretical papers, and low-
rated foreign-language documents, a paper may have received an applicability
rating (generally C or D) but none on methodology.
Data, including the MRI-assigned rating, from the A-, B-, and some
C-rated papers were tabulated by a mid-level scientist. Information for
each topic heading was looked for; so if blanks appear in the table, the
reader can generally assume the data were not given. Information which was
unclear in the original document but needed for tabulation is preceded in
the tables by a qualifying word such as "apparently." Sometimes a group
published several papers that described the same tests. To avoid redundancy,
all pertinent papers were cited and the test was described as well as possible
from all the papers' descriptions.
The final written summary of the tabulated data was also performed by
a senior pharmacologist. This summary attempts to reflect objectively the
scientific community's thought as a whole and does not reflect the tabular
material by weight. The tables reflect the amount of data generated, and
the summary puts the evaluated data in perspective with the overall scien-
tific community's opinions.
13
-------
SECTION II
BIOASSAY
The studies described in Table II-l are considered bioassays because
they do not deal with intact animals. They are all concerned with the ef-
fect of NHs on tracheal ciliary activity, and so mucociliary clearance and
possibly the risk of microbial infection. The tracheas were either removed
entirely or opened in situ and then exposed, generally for S 45 min.
There are a few possibly helpful hints to be gained from these studies.
The results of Dalhamn (1963) show a 95% reduction in the NHs concentration
in the inhaled air by the time it reaches the trachea, indicating that the
upper respiratory tract may be the site of much of the toxic symptoms. There
appears to be a possible slight synergism between MS and carbon particles
(Dalhamn, 1963; Dalhamn and Reid, 1967). The effect of lower levels of NH3
on ciliary movement is unclear, Dalhamn and Reid (1967) indicating no effect
at 73.7-85.5 mg NH3/m3 and Dalhamn (1956) reporting a rapid effect at 2.2-
64.8 mg NHs/m3. The former study is perhaps more useful because it deals
with the repeated exposure of live animals. If so, the levels of NHs ex-
pected to be encountered in automotive exhaust should be of little concern
in this respect, except perhaps in the presence of particulates.
15
-------
TABLE II-l. BIOASSAYS
Compound (s) and
Concentration(s) in
mg/m3 (ppm)
NH3 1,440
(2,000)
Carbon particles
2
(95% < 3 pm)
Temperature
and Mode of
Humidity Exposure
Not given Not given
Preparation
Exposed Description of Tests and Duration
Live rabbits Exposure was to NH3 alone or with the
particles for 45 rain. Experimental de-
tails were not given, but the tracheas
were apparently exposed while in place
in the animals, and ciliary beat fre-
quency determined cinematographically .
Results
NH3 alone caused a reduction in ciliary
activity, though not its cessation.
There was a possible slight synergism
with carbon particles.
This level in the inhaled air resulted
Reference
and
Rating
DJ lhamn
(1963)
D-7
NH3 180-720
(250-1,000)
NH,
288-432
(400-600)
37°
100%
30-31°
NH3
54-121.7 34-37.5°
(75-169) 100%
73.7-85.5 Not given
(102.3-118.7)
Carbon particles
3.46
(95% < 3 Mm)
NH
3 2.2-64.8
(3-90)
34°
90-95%
Chamber Excised rabbit Ciliary activity was observed (method
trachea opened not given) for a 20-min exposure.
longitudinally
Constant Excised'rabbit Gas was delivered through a syringe at a
temperature tracheal tissue rate near natural rabbit air flow for
tissue 10 min.
chamber
Ciliary activity was observed through a
microscope during exposure, and recovery
in humid air or Ringer's solution.
Thermo- Excised rabbit Ciliary activity, including frequency,
regulated trachea opened was observed (method not given) before
chamber longitudinally and after a 45-rain exposure to constant
level of NH3.
Not given Live rats Rats were exposed 5 h/d, 5 d/wk for 60 d,
apparently in vivo. At the end, ciliary
beating frequency was determined (prob-
ably cinematographically) while rats
lay with tracheas exposed and opened
lengthwise (unclear, but probably not
while air flow was continuing). Ex-
posure to Nil3 alone and with particles.
Chamber Rat tracheas Ciliary activity was continuously ob-
(unclear if served microscopically for < 10 min,
they were ex- with continuous gas flow over the
cised or opened tracheas.
and exposed
"in place")
in ~ 100 ppm in the tracheal air in live
rabbits with cannulae inserted in the
tracheas.
Ciliary activity stopped (recovery not Dalhamn and
considered) in ~ 5 min when exposed to Sjb'holm
500-1,000 ppm. The time required was (1963)
* 20 min when exposed to ~ 250 ppm. D-6
Cessation of ciliary activity without Cralley
recovery in Ringer's solution occurred in (1942)
10 min at 600 ppm. It occurred without D-6
recovery in air in 5 or 10 min at 500 or
400 ppm, respectively.
A concentration of ~ 100 ppm seemed to Dalhamn
be the critical level influencing ciliary (1963)
beating. D-7
NH3 alone had no effect on ciliary activ- Dalhamn and
ity. Combined with carbon particles, Reid
beat frequency decreased significantly. (1967)
6/10 rats exposed to only NH3 had mod- C-7
erate to severe histological damage to
the tracheal mucosa.
Very rapid loss of ciliary movement: Dalhamn
after 5-s exposure to 90 ppm and after (1956)
7-8 min exposure to 3 ppm. Recovery was C-6
also rapid, in 10 to 30 s after expo-
sure stopped.
-------
SECTION III
EXPERIMENTAL ANIMAL INHALATION EXPOSURES
The essential parameters of numerous animal inhalation exposure experi-
ments are tabulated in this section (Tables III-l to 111-22). The primary
organization of the data is by species, in order of increasing weight (bats
to swine in this case). Within a species, studies are divided by dosing
duration: acute exposure (S 24 h), repeated exposure, and chronic exposure
(^ 90 d). Within a single table, reported results are listed in order of
decreasing exposure level.
The tables have been arranged in the aforesaid manner for the following
reasons: (1) there were almost 200 separate tests being tabulated; (2) there
are distinct differences in lung anatomy among the laboratory species used,
and the differences seen in their relative responses may have been largely
due to these anatomical differences; and (3) by putting the highest concen-
trations and worst effects first, one can more readily understand the sig-
nificance of minor or less-severe changes occurring at lower levels.
However, a composite Table S-l appears in the Summary. Because of the
large amount of data, this table groups the results seen in various species
only at levels ^ 36 mg NH3/m3.
In the animal exposure tables in this section, the column headed Total
Length of Expt. includes not only the total length of exposure to NH3 but
also any recovery time observed in the study. This recovery time was in-
cluded to note the endurance or reversibility of the toxic effects.
17
-------
TABLE III-l. BATS—ACUTE EXPERIMENTAL EXPOSURE TO NH,
oo
Compound (s) and
Concentration(s) in
mg/m3 (ppm) Humidity
NH3 3,960 Not
(5,500) given
NH3 2,520 Not
(3,500) given
NH3 2,160-2,376 Not
(3,000-3,300) given
NH3 1,440 Not
(2,000) given
NH3 972 Not
(1,350) given
Mode of
Exposure
Inhala-
tion
chamber
Inhala-
tion
chamber
Inhala-
tion
chamber
Inhala-
tion
chamber
Inhala-
tion
chamber
Species/
Strain/
Age/Weight
Bats,
Macrotus
californi-
cus, 8.8-
15.0 g .
Bats,
Macrotus
californi-
cus, 8.8-
15.0 g
Bats,
Macrotus
californi-
cus, 8.8-
15.0 g
Bats,
Macrotus
californi-
cus, 8.8-
15.0 g
Bats,
Macrotus
californi-
cus, 8.8-
15.0 g
No. of
Test
Animals
Unknown
number
out of
group of
59 M+F
used in
study
Unknown
number
out of
group of
59 M+F
used in
study
Unknown
.number
out of
group of
59 M+F
used in
study
Unknown
numbe r
out of
group of
59 M+F
used in
study
Unknown
number
out of
group of
59 M+F
used in
study
Duration & Total
No. of Frequency Length of
Controls of Exposure Expt.
Appar- < 1 h < 1 h
ently once
served as
own con-
trols for
heart and
respira-
tory rates
Appar- S 4 h S 4 h
ently once
served as
own con-
trols for
heart and
respira-
tory rates
Appar- 9 h 9 h
ently once
served as
own con-
trols for
heart and
respira-
tory rates
Appar- 9 h 9 h
ently once
served as
own con-
trols for
heart and
respira-
tory rates
Appar- 9 h 9 h
ently once
served as
own con-
trols for
heart and
respira-
tory rates
Effects
Decrease in heart rate and
respiration, death in 40 min.
Brain greatly congested, lungs
edematous with large hemor-
rhages, distended heart, gal]
bladder, and urinary bladder,
greatly distended stomach and
intestines, and congested liver
and kidneys .
Decrease in heart rate and res-
piration, death in 4 h. Brain
greatly congested, lungs edema-
tons with large hemorrhages,
distended heart, gall bladder,
urinary bladder, greatly dis-
tended stomach and intestines,
and congested liver and kidneys.
The highest level "tolerated"
for 9 h was 3,000 ppm. At
3,300 ppm the bats changed from
nasal to mouth breathing. Oily
condition developed on body
hair.
In addition to eye irritation,
reddening of skin and inflamed
lips and mouth. Oily condition
developed on body hair.
Apparent eye irritation with
excessive lacrimation. Oily
condition developed on body
hair.
Reference
and
Rating
Mitchell
(1963)
B-9
Mitchell
(1963)
B-9
Mitchell
(1963)
B-9
Mitchell
(1963)
B-9
Mitchell
(1963)
B-9
-------
TABLE III-2. MICE—ACUTE EXPERIMENTAL EXPOSURE TO NH3
Corapound(s) and
Concentration(s) in
n>g/m3 (ppra) Humidity
NH3 360 Not
(500) given
Followed by 10 min
exposure to an
aerosol of
Pasteurella
raultocida, with
no further. NH3.
Species/ No. of Duration & Total
Mode of Strain/ Test No. of Frequency Length of
Exposure Age/Weight Animals Controls of Exposure Expt. Effects
Exposure Mice, avg. 49 M A9 tt 8 h 13 d 21/49 died, not significantly
chamber wt 25 + 2 g different from control group.
(specific
pathogen
free)
Reference
and
Rating
Richard et al.
(1978a)
B-ll
-------
TABLE III-3. MICE—REPEATED DOSE EXPERIMENTAL EXPOSURE TO NH3
Compound(s) and
Concentration(s) in
mg/m3 (ppm)
NH3 360
(500)
Followed by 10 rain
exposure to an
aerosol of
Pasteurella
multocida, with no
further NH,.
Species/ No. of Duration & Total
Strain/ Test No. of Frequency Length of
Age/Weight Animals Controls of Exposure Expt.
Exposure Mice, 49 M 50 M 168 h 19 d
chamber avg. wt
25 + 2 g
Effects
42/49 died, a significant
increase compared to the
control group. Mortality
also higher than the group
exposed to NH3 for only 8 h.
Reference
and
Rating
Richard et al.
(1978a)
B-ll
Nil,
14.4 10-30% Cabinet Swiss
(20) (336 ft3) Albino mice,
3-4 wk
7 d
14 d
21 d
28 d
42 d
42 d No effect up to 6 wk. After
6 wk, lung tissue became dark
red and more dense than con-
trol lung tissue, with pul-
monary congestion, edema, and
hemorrhage.
Anderson et al.
(1964)
B-12
N3
O
-------
TABLE III-4. RATS—ACUTE EXPERIMENTAL EXPOSURE TO NH3
Compound(s) and
Concentration(s) in
mg/m3 (ppm)
NH3
NH3
NH3
NH3
NH3
NH3
NH3
22,500
(31,300)
9,580-11,150
(13,300-13,600)
8,780
(12,200)
1,640-1,800
(2,280-2,500)
1,555
(2,160)
590-1,030
(820-1,430)
346-410
(480-570)
Humidity
Not
given
Not
given
Not
given
Not
given
Not
given
Not
given
Not
given
Species/ No. of Duration S
Mode of Strain/ Test No. of Frequency
Exposure Age/Weight Animals Controls of Exposure
Well- Rats 50 0
ventilated
chamber
Well- Rats 41 0
ventilated
chamber
Well- Rats 40 0
ventilated
chamber
Well- Rats 15 0
ventilated
chamber
Well- Rats Groups 0
ventilated of 10
chamber and 11
Well- Rats 8 0
ventilated
chamber
Well- Rats 3 0
ventilated
chamber
32 min
3'h
once
4 h
once
2.5 h
once
4.5 h
once
5.5 h
once
4 h
once
Total
Length of
Expt. Effects
Died in 32 min after severe
dyspnea. Lung hemorrhages.
Slightly injured. No observ-
able symptoms after exposure.
Slightly injured. No observ-
able symptoms after exposure.
Same symptoms as after 1,555
mg/m3. Normal after exposure.
Some secretion. Respiration
fell to 10 then gradually rose
to 45. Eyes mostly closed.
Normal after exposure.
Quiet. Slight annoyance.
Normal after exposure.
Very slight annoyance. Normal
after exposure.
Reference
and
Rating
Lehmann
(1886)
B-9
Lehmann
(1886)
B-9
Lehmann
(1886)
B-9
Lehmann
(1886)
B-9
Lehmann
(1886)
B-9
Lehmann
(1886)
B-9
Lehmann
(1886)
B-9
-------
TABLE 111-5. RATS—REPEATED DOSE EXPERIMENTAL EXPOSURE TO NH3
Compound(s) and
Concentration(s) in Mode of
mg/ro3 (ppm) Humidity Exposure
NH3 770 + 55 50% Modified
(1,070) Rochester-
type in-
halation
chamber
NH3 455 + 23 50% Modified
(632 + 32) Rochester-
type in-
halation
chamber
NH3 360 Not Exposure
(500) given chamber
Species/ No. of Duration & Total
Strain/ Test No. of Frequency Length of
Age/Weight Animals Controls of Exposure Expt.
Sprague- 15 123 8 h/d, .6 wk
Dawley and (4 died) 5 d/wk,
Long-Evans 6 wk
rats
Sprague- 50 123 Continuous 65 d
Dawley and (4 died) 65 d
Long-Evans
rats
Rats, 27 M 27 M 1-8 wk 8 wk
avg. wt
196 + 7 g
(specific
pathogen
free)
Effects
No deaths. The lungs showed
consistent nonspecific inflnm-
matory changes. (Note the
milder effects compared to the
455 mg/m3 exposure, and the
different exposure schedules.)
32/51 died by 25 d. 50 died
by 65 d . All rats showed mild
signs of dyspnea and nasal ir-
ritation. No histopathologic
exams were made.
At wk 3, nasal irritation and
severe inflammation of the up-
per respiratory tract. No dif-
ference in the number of pul-
monary alveolar macrophages.
Food consumption and body
weight significantly less than
controls after 5 d.
NH3 180
(250).
With intranasal
inoculation of
tlycoplasma pulmonis
on day 7 of NH3 ex-
posure, both test
and control groups.
51-69% Exposure Fischer 12 12
chamber rats, 2-4 (matched
mo (specific on age,
pathogen sex, and
free) no./cage)
35 d
35 d Increased incidence of gross
and microscopic lung lesions,
and severity of rhinitis,
otitis, tracheitis, and pneu-
monia. All symptoms are
characteristic of mycoplas-
mosis, and seemed to increase
with increasing NH3 concentra-
tion (25, 50, 100, 250 ppm).
Coon et al.
(1970)
B-12
Coon et al.
(1970)
B-12
Richard et al
(1978a)
B-ll
Broderson et al.
(1976)
B-12
(continued)
-------
TABLE III-5. (continued)
Compound (s) and
Concentration(s) in
mg/rn3 (ppm) Humidity
NH3 180 66 + 5%
(250)
NH3 155 + 32 50%
(215)
NH3 152.6 69 + 5%
(212)
With intranasal
inoculation of
Mycoplasraa pulmonis
on day 7 of NH3 ex-
posure, both test
and control groups.
NH3 108 Not
(150) given
NH3 77.8 69 + 5%
(108)
With intranasal
inoculation of
Mycoplasma pulmonis
on day 7 of NH3 ex-
posure, both test
and control groups.
Mode of
Exposure
Exposure
chamber
Modified
Rochester-
type in-
halation
chamber
Shoe box
cage with
no change
of bed-
ding
Shoe box
cages with
filter
caps, and
bedding
not
changed
Shoe box
cages
without
bedding
changes
Species/ No. of
Strain/ Test
Age/Weight Animals
Fischer 12
rats, 2-4
mo (specific
pathogen
free)
Sprague- 15
Dawley and
Long-Evans
rats
Fischer 22
rats, 2-4
mo (spe-
cific
pathogen
free)
Sherman 10
rats, 2-4
mo (spe-
cific
pathogen
free)
Sherman 24
rats
Duration &
No. of Frequency
Controls of Exposure
12 35 d
(matched
on age,
sex, and
no. /cage)
123 8 h/d,
(4 died) 5 d/wk,
6 wk
24 (NH3 37 d
level:
1.44 +
4.32 mg/
m3)
10 (NH3 75 d
level:
7.2 +
12.9 mg/
n.3)
23 (NH3 42 d
level:
7.9 +
13.7 mg/
m')
Total
Length of
Expt. Effects
35 d Nasal lesions and histologic
alterations in both respira-
tory and olfactory epithe-
lia in the test group only.
6 wk No deaths, visible signs of
toxicity, or gross tissue
abnormalities. Hematological
values normal.
37 d Snuffling, sporadic head shak-
ing, moderate dyspnea and apnea
by day 14, rough hair coats,
and hunched posture. Increased
incidence of lung lesions and
severity of entire respiratory
tract lesions in test animals
compared to controls.
75 d Excessive blinking of the eyes
after 1 wk. Nasal lesions in
the test group only. Histo-
logic changes in respiratory
and olfactory epithelia.
42 d Snuffling, sporadic head shak-
ing, moderate dyspnea and apnea
beginning day 14, rough hair
coats and hunched posture. In-
creased incidence of lung le-
sions and severity of respira-
tory tract lesions (except
otitis).
Reference
and
Rating
Broderson et
(1976)
B-12
Coon et al.
(1970)
B-12
Broderson et
(1976)
B-12
Broderson et
(1976)
B-12
Broderson et
(1976)
B-12
al.
al.
al.
al.
(continued)
-------
TABLE III-5. (continued)
Compound (s) and
Concentration(s) in
mg/m3 (ppm) Humidity
NH3 72 51-69%
(100)
With intranasal
inoculation of
Mycoplasma pulmonis
on day 7 of NH3 ex-
posure, both test
and control groups.
NH3 64.8 40-80%
(90)
NH3 36 51-69%
(50)
With intranasal
inoculation of
Mycoplasma pulmonis
on day 7 of NH3 ex-
posure, both control
and test groups.
NH3 36 50-80%
(50)
Mode of
Exposure
Exposure
chamber
(bedding
changed
daily)
Climate-
proof
case
Exposure
chamber
(bedding
changed
daily)
Climate-
proof
case
Species/
Strain/
Age/Weight
Fischer
rats, 2-4
mo (spe-
cific
pathogen
free)
Wistar
rats
Fischer
rats,
2-4 mo
(specific
pathogen
free)
Wistar
rats,
40-45 d,
90-140 g
No. of
Test
Animals
12
32 M
(3 sep-
arate
expts.
were done)
12
21 M
(2 trials
with 2
groups of
animals)
Duration & Total
No. of Frequency Length of
Controls of Exposure Expt.
12 35 d 35 d
(matched
on age,
sex, and
no. /cage)
32 M 50-56 d 56 d
12 35 d 35 d
(matched
on age,
sex, and
no. /cage)
28 M 50 or 52 d 52 d
Effects
Increased incidence of gross
and macroscopic lung lesions,
and increased severity of
rhinitis, otitis, tracheitis,
and pneumonia. All are typical
of mycoplasmosis .
Test done at 10°C: decreased
percent body weight increase
and food consumption at wk 4,
with some recovery by wk 7 .
Test done at 22°C: no effect
on body weight increase or
food consumption. All tests
showed increased hemoglobin
content.
Large increase in gross lesions
and slight increase in micro-
scopic lesions. Increased
severity of rhinitis, otitis,
and pneumonia. All symptoms
are typical of mycoplasmosis.
Test done at 10°C: reduced per-
cent body weight increase at
4 wk, near recovery by wk 7, and
food consumption was above that
of the controls. Test done at
22°C: no effect by wk 7 on body
Reference
and
Rating
Broderson et al
(1976)
B-12
Stolpe and
Sedlag (1976)
B-ll
Broderson et al
(1976)
B-12
Stolpe and.
Sedlag (1976)
B-ll
weight increase, food consumption,
or hematocrit values.
(continued)
-------
TABLE III-5. (continued)
Compound (s) and
Concentration(s) in
mg/m3 (ppm) Humidity
NH3 21.6 50-80%
(30)
KH3 20+0.1 Not
given
Mode of
Exposure
Climate-
proof
case
Exposure
chamber
Species/
Strain/
Age/Weight
Wistar
rats ,
40-45 d,
90-140 g
Albino
rats
No. of Duration & Total
Test No. of Frequency Length of
Animals Controls of Exposure Expt. Effects
13 M 13 M 52 d 52 d No effect on body weight in-
crease, food consumption, or
hematocrit values at 4 or 7
wks.
15 M 15 M 84 d 84 d About 15% decrease in the la-
tent period of reflex response
to faint electric stimulus only
in the 1st mo. Inhibition of
Reference
and
Rating
Stolpe and
Sedlag (1976)
B-ll
Saifutdinov
(1966 and 1968)
B-9
B-7
NJ
Ul
NH3 18
(25)
With intranasal
inoculation of
Mycoplasma pulmonis
on day 7 of NH3 ex-
posure, both test
and control groups.
51-69%
NH,
0.021
Not
given
Exposure
chamber
(bedding
changed
daily)
Exposure
chamber
Fischer
rats,
2-4 mo
(specific
pathogen
free)
Albino
rats
NH,
0.2 + 0.002
Not
given
Exposure Albino
chamber rats
24
15 M
24
(matched
on age,
sex, and
no./cage)
15 M
37 or 49 d 49 d
84 d
84 d
15 M
15 M
84 d
84 d
cholinesterase activity in, and
redox function of, the blood
(recovery after exposure stopped).
Increased coproporphyrin levels
in the urine. No macroscopic
changes in the organs.
Greater incidence of gross and
microscopic lung lesions,
otitis, and pneumonia in both
trials. Increased rhinitis
and tracheitis in 1/2 trials.
All symptoms are typical of
mycoplasmosis.
Broderson et al.
(1976)
B-12
No effect on latent period of
reflex response, blood cho-
linesterase activity, or urine
coproporphyrin levels. Some
inhibition of blood redox func-
tion during first month of ex-
posure.
No effect on latent period of
reflex response, blood cho-
linesterase activity and redox
function, or urine copro-
porphyrin levels. Author rec-
ommends this as the mean daily
maximum permissible concentration
in the USSR.
Saifutdinov
(1966 and 1968)
B-9
B-7
Saifutdinov
(1966 and 1968)
B-9
B-7
-------
TABLE III-6. RATS—CHRONIC EXPERIMENTAL EXPOSURE TO NH,,
Compound(s) and
Concentration(s) in
NH
NH
rag/m3 (ppm) Humidity
3 470 + 16 50%
(653)
3 262 + 10 50%
(364)
Species/
Mode of Strain/
Exposure Age/Weight
Modified Sprague-
Rochester- Dawley and
type in- Long-Evans
halation rats
chamber
Modified Sprague-
Rochester- Dawley and
type in- Long-Evans
No. of
Test No. of
Animals Controls
15 123
(4 died)
49 123
(4 died)
Duration & Total
Frequency Length of
of Exposure Expt.
Continuous 90 d
90 d
Continuous 90 d
90 d
Effects
13/15 died. Hematological val-
ues did not vary from controls.
Histopathologic examination re-
vealed focal or diffuse inter-
stitial pneumonitis in all ani-
mals. Other histopathology of
the liver, kidneys, heart, and
bronchi seen, with similar but
lesser changes seen in the con-
trols .
No deaths or pronounced symp-
toms of toxicity. ~ 25% ani-
mals had mild nasal discharge.
Reference
and
Rating
Coon et al.
(1970)
B-12
Coon et al.
(1970)
B-12
NH,
NH,
127 + 8
(176)
40 + 2
(56)
50%
50%
halation rats
chamber
Modified Sprague-
Rochester- Dawley and
type in- Long-Evans
halation rats
chamber
48
123 Continuous 90 d
(4 died) 90 d
Modified Sprague-
Rochester- Dawley and
type in-
halation
15
123 Continuous
(4 died) 114 d
114 d
Long-Evans
rats
chamber
Hematological results were
normal except that 4 rats had
slightly high leukocyte counts.
Microscopic examination showed
nonspecific circulatory and de-
generative changes in lungs and
kidneys but they may not be re-
lated to ammonia inhalation.
No deaths or signs of toxicity Coon et al.
in any of the animals: hema- (1970)
tological values, liver histo- B-12
chemical results, or microscopic
exam for nonspecific inflamma-
tion of the lungs.
No deaths or signs of toxicity. Coon et al.
Necropsy observations were nor- (1970)
mal. 1 rat had lipid filled B-12
macrophages in its lung, but it
was not deemed significant.
(continued)
-------
TABLE III-6. (continued)
Compound(s) and
Concentration(s) in
mg/m3 (ppm)
NH,
20 + 0.6
HH,
19 + 0.16
Not
given
Mode of
Exposure
Exposure
chamber
Species/
Strain/
Age/Weight
Albino
rats
No. of Duration &
Test No. of Frequency
Animals Controls of Exposure
11 M 9 M 5-6 h/d,
3-3.5 mo
Total
Length of
Expt.
3.5 mo
Effects
No significant changes in vita-
rains A, Bl( ascorbic acid, py-
ruvic acid levels in the blood,
body weight, or weight coeffi-
cients of the organs. Decrease
in total B2 content of the
blood, liver, and kidneys. De-
crease in nicotinamide coenzymes
in the adrenals, cerebral hemi-
spheres, and skeletal muscles.
Reference
and
Rating
Nizhegorodov
and Kalinin
(1967)
D-6
Not
given
Exposure Albino
chamber rats
NH3 6+0.1 Not
With 3 short intra- given
nasal exposures to
Staphylococcus strain
No. 209, each followed
by 8-10 d without NH3
exposure.
Not
given
Rats
8 M 6 M 5-6 h/d, 7 mo No change in liver vitamin A Nizhegorodov
6.5-7 mo content. Decreased vitamin Bt and Kalinin
in the blood and liver. In- (1967)
creased total ascorbic acid D-6
content of the adrenals,
liver, and skeletal muscles.
Unchanged levels of nicotin-
amide coenz'ymes. Body weight
loss of 10 g. Increased weight
of spleen, lungs, and brain.
64 64 7 h/d, 4 mo By the end of the study, the Hikhailuts
(32 with 5 times/wk, test group had more histo- et al. (1979)
microbial for 4 mo chemical and pathomorpholog- B-10
exposure, ical changes of both the up-
32 with- per and lower respiratory
out) tracts than the infection-
control group. Particularly
decreased protective phagocytic
action, increased histamine in
the lung, and increased macro-
phage but decreased glycogen
index.
(continued)
-------
TABLE III-6. (continued)
Compound (s) and
Concentration(s) in
mg/m3 (ppm) Humidity
NH3 3 + 0.08 Not
With 3 short iritra- given
nasal exposures to
Staphylococcus strain
No. 209, each followed
by 8-10 d without NH3
exposure.
Species/ No. of
Mode of Strain/ Test No. of
Exposure Age/Weight Animals Controls
Not Rats 32 64
given (32 with
raicrobial
exposure,
32 with-
out)
Duration & Total
Frequency Length of
of Exposure Expt.
7 h/d, 4 mo
5 times/wk,
for 4 mo
Reference
and
Effects Rating
Caused no reliable disturbances Mikhailuts
in the period after respiratory et al. (1979)
infection. B-10
K>
OO
-------
TABLE III-7. GUINEA PIGS—ACUTE EXPERIMENTAL EXPOSURE TO NH3
Compound(s) and
Concentration(s) in
mg/m? (ppm) Humidity
NH3 1,858-3,312 Not
(2,580-4,600) given
NH3 1,634-1,872 Not
(2,270-2,600) given
.
NH3 590-1,030 Not
(820-1,430) given
NH3 346-410 Not
(480-570) given
Species/ No. of
Mode of Strain/ Test
Exposure Age/Weight Animals
Well- Guinea 20
ventilated pigs
chamber
Well- Guinea 18
ventilated pigs
chamber
Well- Guinea 7
ventilated pigs
chamber
Well- Guinea 2
ventilated pigs
chamber
Duration &
No. of Frequency
Controls of Exposure
0 10 h,
once
0 8.33 h,
once
(exposed
4 day pre-
viously to
4,600 ppm
for 10 h)
0 5.5 h
0 4 h,
once
Total
Length of
Expt. Effects
Moderate symptoms of irritation.
Respiration 21, 13, 18, 25.
Some salivary secretion. Cor-
nea clear although eyes remained
open. Killed after 24 h with
CHC13. Entire lung hyperemic
and somewhat edematous. Upper
lobe had numerous small hemor-
rhages; left lower lobe com-
pletely empty of air. Trachea
without ecchymoses .*
Very quiet. Slight symptoms
of irritation. Corneas
slightly cloudy. Killed by
CHC13 immediately after the ex-
posure. Purulent-mucous bron-
chitis. Numerous hemorrhages
in the lower and middle lobes
of the lungs apparently from
the earlier exposure.
Symptoms of irritation. Res-
piration slowed to 10.
Slight symptoms of irritation.
Uninjured after exposure.
Referenrp
and
Rating_
Lehmann
B-9
Lehmann
B--9
Lehmann
B-9
Lehmann
B-9
(1886)
(1886)
(1886)
(1886)
Ecchymoses are small hemorrhagic spots in the skin or mucous membrane forming nonelevated, rounded or irregular, blue or purplish patches.
-------
TABLE III-8. GUINEA PIGS—REPEATED DOSE EXPERIMENTAL EXPOSURE TO NH3
Compound (s) and
Concentration(s) in
mg/m3
NH3
NH3
NH3
NH3
(ppm) Humidity
770 + 55 50%
(1,070)
155 + 32 50%
(215)
36 10-30%
.(50)
14.4 10-30%
(20)
Mode of
Exposure
Modified
Rochester-
type in-
halation
chamber
Modified
Rochester-
type in-
halation
chamber
Cabinet
(336 ft3)
Cabinet
(336 ft3)
Species/
Strain/
Age/Weight
Princeton-
derived
guinea
pigs
Princeton-
derived
guinea
pigs
Guinea
Pigs,
6-8 wk
Guinea
figs,
6-8 wk
No- of
Test No. of
Animals Controls
15 73
15 73
6 3
2 3
2 3
2 3
2 3
2 3
Duration & Total
Frequency Length of
of Exposure Expt.
8 h/d, 6 wk
5 d/wk,
6 wk
8 h/d, 6 wk
5 d/wk,
6 wk
6 wk 6 wk
continuous
7 d 6 wk
14 d
21 d
28 d
42 d
continuous
Effects
No deaths. Lungs showed con-
sistent nonspecific inflam-
matory changes.
No deaths, visible signs of
toxicity, or gross tissue
abnormalities. Hematological
values normal.
Dark red and dense lungs; pul-
monary edema, congestion, and
hemorrhage; congestion of the
liver; enlarged and congested
spleen.
No effect up to 6 wk. After
6 wk: dark red and dense lung
tissue, and .pulmonary conges-
tion, edema and hemorrhage.
Reference
and
Rating
Coon et al.
(1970)
B-12
Coon et al.
(1970)
B-12
Anderson et al.
(1964)
B-12
Anderson et al.
(1964)
B-12
-------
TABLE III-9. GUINEA PIGS—CHRONIC EXPERIMENTAL EXPOSURE TO NH,
Compound(s) and
Concentration(s) in
mg/m3 (ppm) Humidity
NH3 470 + 16 50%
(653)
NH3 40+2 50%
(56)
Mode of
Exposure
Modified
Rochester-
type in-
halation
chamber
Modified
Rochester-
type in-
halation
chamber
Species/ No. of
Strain/ Test No. of
Age/Weight Animals Controls
Princeton- 15 73
derived
guinea
pigs
Princeton- 15 73
derived
guinea
pigs
Duration & Total
Frequency Length of
of Exposure Expt. Effects
90 d 90 d 4 died. Hematological values
continuous did not vary from controls.
Histopathological examination
revealed focal or diffuse in-
terstitial pneumonitis in all
animals. Other histopathology
of the liver, kidneys, heart,
and bronchi seen in some ani-
mals, with similar but lesser
changes in the control group.
114 d 114 d No deaths or signs of toxicity.
continuous Necropsy observations were nor-
mal.
Reference
and
Rating
Coon et al.
(1970)
B-12
Coon et al.
(1970)
B-12
-------
TABLE 111-10. CHICKENS—ACUTE EXPERIMENTAL EXPOSURE TO NH3
Compound (s) and
Concentration(s) in
NH
NH
NH
mg/m3 (ppm) Humidity
3 72 Not
(100) given
3 72 Not
(100) given
3 54 Not
(75) given
Mode of
Exposure
"Cabinet"
Small
respi-
ration
chamber
(0.22 m3)
"Cabinet"
Species/
Strain/
Age/Weight
Adult hens,
8-10 mo
Adult hens,
11 mo
Adult hens
No. of
Test
Animals
Not
given,
but
probably
small
Unclear,
but
maybe 4
15
No. of
Controls
Served
as own
controls
Served
as own
controls
Served
a s own
controls
Duration & Total
Frequency Length of
of Exposure Expt. Effects
Not given Not given Significant decrease in res-
piration rates of 10.5-23.9%
as measured by pneumograph
or crissall feather movement.
Significant 12.5-14.7% decrease
in respiration depth in 2/3 ob-
servations .
Not given Not given Significant 23.1% decrease in
respiration rate, as measured
by indirect calorimetry of car-
bon dioxide production, in 1/2
tests .
15 min 30 rain Statistically significant in-
crease in blood pH (from bra-
chial vein) from 6.447 to
Reference
and
Rating
Charles and
Payne (1966a)
B-12
Charles and
Payne (1966a)
B-12
Charles and
Payne (1966a)
B-12
6.563.
OJ
-------
TABLE III-ll. CHICKENS—REPEATED DOSE EXPERIMENTAL EXPOSURE TO NH3
Compound (s) and
Concentration(s) in
rag/m
NH3
3 (ppm) Humidity
720 10-30%
(1,000)
Mode of
Exposure
Cabinet
(336 ft3)
Species/ No. of Duration & Total
Strain/ Test No. of Frequency Length of
Age/Weight Animals Controls of Exposure Expt.
Leghorn
chickens, 2 3
6-8 wk
Continuous 14 d
3 d
Effects
After 3 days: photophobia,
rubbing of eyes, and lacri-
mation.
Reference
and
Rating
Anderson
(1964)
B-12
et al.
NH,
144 10-30% Cabinet Leghorn
(200) (336 ft3) chickens,
6-8 wk
8 d
14 d
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
Continuous
7 d
10 d
13 d
15 d
21 d
17 d
19 d
21 d
After 8 days: corneal opacities,
followed by erosions by the sur-
face layer of the cornea.
After 14 days: nearly all the
birds had bilateral corneal opa-
cities of varying severity, pul-
monary congestion, edema, and
hemorrhage as well as congestion
of the liver and spleen and ero-
sion of the cornea.
Obvious signs of discomfort dur- Anderson et al.
ing the first few days of expo-
sure were considerable rubbing
of the eyes, slight lacrimation,
anoxeria, and weight loss. At
necropsy, gross changes were
only in the respiratory system.
All eye irritation had disap-
peared. Histopathological
changes were pulmonary edema,
congestion, and hemorrhage.
The tissue had an ammonia odor.
Above plus liver congestion and
a slight clouding of the cornea.
(1964)
B-12
(continued)
-------
TABLE III-ll. (continued)
OJ
-P-
Compound (s) and
Concentration(s) in
mg/m3 (ppm)
NH3 ~ 14.4-115.2
(~ 20-160)
(General increase
with time, with
many fluctuations)
NH3 72
(100)
NH3 72
(100)
NH3 ~ 7.2-57.6
(~ 10-80)
(Fluctuated with
time, generally
< 36 mg/m3 except
for last week)
Humidity
~ 6-9.5
grains of
water/ft3
of atmo-
sphere
Not
given
50.1%
•-
~ 6-9.5
grains of
water/ft3
atmo-
sphere
Mode of
Exposure
Environ-.
mental
pens
"Cabinet"
Exposure
chambers
with wire
floor for
removal
of drop-
pings
Environ-
mental
pens
Species/
Strain/
Age/Weight
Chicks of
a light/
heavy com-
mercial
broiler
cross, 1 d
Adult hens,
8-10 mo
White Rock
x Light
Sussex
broiler-
type
chickens,
4 wk
Chicks of
a light/
heavy com-
mercial
broiler
cross, 1 d
No. of
Test No. of
Animals Controls
120 F Appar-
exposed, ently
only 24 none
actually
measured
for ef-
fects
Not Served
given, as own
but controls
probably
small
10 M 10 M
120 F Appar-
exposed, ently
only 24 none
actually
measured
for ef-
fects
Duration & Total
Frequency Length of
of Exposure Expt.
Wks 7-10 10 wk
(exposed in
the first 6
wk to un-
known , but
mainly lower,
NH3 levels)
3 or 4 wk Not
given
19 d 37 d
Wks 7-10 10 wk
(exposed in
the first 6
wk to un-
known, but
mainly lower,
levels)
Effects
During wks 4-7, had higher
weights than chickens exposed
to 5-50, 10-80, or 10-45 ppm.
By wk 10, had significantly
lower weights than the other
groups. By the end of the
expt., 20/24 had ulcerations
of the eye, many more than the
other groups.
Significant 18.4% decrease in
respiration rate only for those
with 4 wk acclimatization, as
measured by crissal feather
movement.
Significant growth rate de-
crease in the last wk of expo-
sure, due to a 14.5% reduction
of voluntary food intake. Con-
sumption did not return to nor-
mal until 12 d after cessation
of NH3 exposure.
Significantly lower weight than
group exposed to 20-160 ppm,
during wks 3, 4, and 6. By wk
10, lower weight than the group
exposed to 10-45 ppm, but higher
weight than the group exposed to
20-160 ppm. 5/24 had eye ulcera-
tions .
Reference
and
Rating
Valentine
(1964)
B-10
Charles and
Payne (1966a)
B-12
Charles and
Payne (1966a)
B-12
Valentine
(1964)
B-10
(continued)
-------
TABLE III-ll. (continued)
u>
Ul
Compound(s) and
Coricentration(s) in
mg/ra3 (ppm) Humidity
NH3 56.2 64. 0%
(78)
NH3 38.2 64.7%
(53)
NH3 36.7 50.1%
(51)
NH3 36
(50)
Newcastle infectious
bronchitis (Mass.)
(NC-IB) vaccination
was administered at
21 d of age by aero-
sol means.
Mode of
Exposure
Exposure
chambers
without
litter,
and the
droppings
removed
daily
Exposure
chambers,
without
litter,
and the
droppings
removed
daily
Exposure
chambers
with wire
floor for
removal
of drop-
pings
Chambers
in an en-
vironmen-
tally
con-
trolled
building
Species/ No. of
Strain/ Test No. of
Age/Weight Animals Controls
White 27 F 27 F
Leghorn
chickens ,
11 wk,
1,250 g
White 27 F 27 F
Leghorn
chickens ,
11 wk,
1,250 g
White Rock 10 M 10 M
x Light
Sussex
broiler-
type
chickens ,
4 wk
Indian 312 M; 156 M
River • 156 for
broiler each ex-
cockerels, posure
1-d-old time
Duration & Total
Frequency Length of
of Exposure Expt. Effects
7 wk 30 wk Significantly decreased food
consumption during wks 15-30
and live-weight gain during
last 4 wk of exposure. Came
into lay later, slightly larger
eggs, and sexual maturity de-
layed 2 wk.
7 wk 30 wk Significantly decreased egg
production (20%) during wks
23-26 (after exposure), and
slightly heavier eggs during
the whole period. Sexual ma-
turity delayed 1 wk. Slight
decrease in food consumption
from wk 15 to wk 38. No
change in live-weight gain.
33 d 33 d Food consumption decreased
slightly after day 12 of expo-
sure. No differences in growth
rate occurred.
28 d or 49 d No difference in avg. body wt.
49 d for either exposure time com-
pared to controls or other ex-
posure groups at any time. No
difference in feed efficiency
at day 28. By day 49, the avg.
feed efficiency of the 49-d ex-
posure group (2.44) was signifi-
cantly less than that of the
28-d group (2.16), all other
groups exposed to lower levels
(2.08-2.35), and the controls
(2.02). Scores for lesions of
the right posterior thoracic
air sac membrane were never
significantly different from
scores for control or other ex-
posure groups. No significant
di rforrnces in avg. paired lung
wts. <>r avg. biirsa of Fahririiis
wLs .
Reference
.inil
Rat i MR
Charles and
Pavne (1966a)
B-12
Charles and
Pay no (1966a)
B-12
Charles and
Payne (1 966a )
B-12
Paveny et al .
(1981)
C-13
(ronl iiincil)
-------
TABLE III-ll. (continued)
Compound (s) and
Concentration(s) in
mg/m3 (ppm)
NH3 18 and 36
(25 and 50)
Newcastle infectious
bronchitis (Mass.)
(NC-IB) vaccination
was administered at
21 d of age by aero-
sol means .
NH3 36
(50)
Followed by a 3-min
exposure to an aero-
sol of Newcastle
disease virus (~ 6
ELD5o's/L), both
test and control
groups.
NH ~ 3.6-36
(~ 5-50)
(generally < 29
until the last
week)
NH3 ~ 7.2-32.4
(~ 10-45)
(some fluctuations,
and general in-
crease with time)
Humidity
Not
given
~ 4.5-7
grains of
water/
ft3 of
atmo-
sphere
~ 5-6.5
grains of
water/ft3
of atmo-
sphere
Mode of
Exposure
Chambers
in an en-
vironmen-
tally con-
trolled
building
Con-
trolled
environ-
ment
cabinet
(336 ft3)
Environ-
mental
pens
Environ-
mental
pens
Species/
Strain/
Age/Weight
Indian
River
broiler
chickens,
1-d-old
Leghorn
chickens,
6-8 wk
Chicks of
a light/
heavy com-
mercial
broiler
cross, 1 d
Chicks of
a light/
heavy com-
mercial
broiler
cross, 1 d
No. of
Test
Animals
156 M
12
120 F
exposed,
but only
24 ac-
tually
measured
for ef-
fects
120 F
exposed ,
but only
24 ac-
tually
measured
for ef-
fects
No. of
Controls
156 M
12
Appar-
ently
none
done
Appar-
ently
none
done
Duration & Total
Frequency Length of
of Exposure Expt.
28 d at 36 49 d
mg/m3; 21 d
at 18 mg/m3
48 h 17 d
Wks 7-10 10 wk
(exposed in
the first 6.
wk to un-
known, but
mainly lower,
levels)
Wks 7-10 10 wk
(exposed in
the first 6
wk to un-
known, but
mainly lower,
Icvrl.s)
Effects
No difference in avg. body wt. .
compared to controls or other
exposure groups at any time.
No differences in avg. feed ef-
ficiencies at d 28. By d 49,
avg. feed efficiency (2.35) was
significantly greater than that
for 49-d exposure to 36 mg/m3,
and less than controls (2.02)
or 28-d exposure to 18 mg/m3
(2.08). Scores for lesions
of the right posterior thoracic
air sac membranes were never
significantly different from
those for control or other ex-
posure groups. No significant
differences in the avg. wts . of
paired lungs or bursa of
Fabricius .
Significant increase in the
percent of birds infected in
the test group (100%) compared
to controls (~ 40%) . Gross
and microscopic pathology the
same in both groups.
During wks 4-7, significantly
lower weights than the group
exposed to 20-160 ppm. By wk
10, higher weights than that
group. Consistently lower
weights than group exposed to
10-45 ppm. No eye ulcerations.
By wk 10, significantly higher
weight than groups exposed to
20-160 or 10-80 ppm. No eye
ulcerations .
Reference
and
Rating
Caveny p.t al .
(1981)
C-13
Anderson et al
(1964)
B-12
Valentine
(1964)
B-10
Valentine
(1964)
B-10
I ront inueil)
-------
TABLE III-ll. (continued)
Compound(s) and
Concentration(s) in
mg/m3 (ppm) Humidity
NH3 ~ 30.2
(~ «)
Measurement was made
at the end of the
expt.; values prob-
ably varied during
exposure.
NH3 18
(25)
Newcastle infectious
bronchitis (Mass.)
(NC-IB) vaccination
was administered at
21 d of age by aero-
sol means.
NH3 ~ 16.6
(~ 23)
Measurement was made
at the end of the
expt.; values prob-
ably varied during
exposure.
Mode of
Exposure
Partially
enclosed
wire
cage,
with
accumu-
lation of
fecal
matter
Chambers
in an en-
vironmen-
tally con-
trolled
building
Partially
enclosed
wire
cage, and
weekly re-
moval of
fecal
matter
Species/ No. of Duration &
Strain/ Test No. of Frequency
Age/Weight Animals Controls of Exposure
White Rock 5 H 3 H 12 wk
chickens, 7 F 2 F,
4 wk exposed
to ~ 5.3
mg NHj/m1
Indian 312 M; 156 M 28 d or
River 156 for 49 d
broiler each ex-
chickens, posure
1-d-old time
White 7 M 3 M 12 wk
Rock 5 F 2 F, ex-
chickens, posed to
4 wk ~ 5.3 mg
NH3/m3
Total RofrrriK-r
Length of ••""'
Expt. Effects Rating
12 wk A statistically significant Caspar el al .
increase in the avg. rate of (1961)
hemoglobin formation by the C-9
4th wk of exposure. Then
a steady decrease in hemo-
globin formation, significantly
below other treatments and
"controls" by the 12th wk of
exposure. Differences between
sexes were reported. Birds
developed keratoconjunctivitis.
3/12 developed unilateral or
bilateral blindness. 2 of 5 M
died between 2nd and 3rd month.
No change in feed consumption.
49 d No difference in avg. body wt., Caveny et al .
for either exposure length, (1981)
compared to controls or other C-13
exposure groups at any time.
No differences in avg. feed ef-
ficiencies at day 28. By day 49,
the avg. feed efficiency (2.35)
of the 49-d exposure group was
less than that of the 28-d group
(2.08) and the controls (2.02),
and greater than that for the
group exposed to 36 mg/m3 for
49 d. Scores for air sac le-
sions were never significantly
different from those for con-
trols or other exposure groups.
No significant differences in
the. avg. wts. of paired lungs or
bursa of Fabricius.
12 wk No difference in the avg. rate Caspar et al .
of hemoglobin formation com- (1961)
pared to the "control" values. C-9
Rate of increase of hemoglobin
levels was higher in males than
females. No change in feed
consumption .
(continued)
-------
TABLE III-ll. (continued)
00
Compound(s) and
Concentration(s) in
mg/m3 (ppm) Humidity
NH3 14.4 Not
(20) given
Followed by a 3-min
exposure to aerosol
of Newcastle disease
virus (6 ELD50's/L),
both test and control
groups.
NH3 14.4 Not
(20) given
Followed by a 3-min
exposure to an aerosol
of Newcastle disease
virus (3 ELD50's/L),
both test and control
groups.
NH3 14.4 10-30%
(20)
NH3 14.4 10-30%
(20)
NH3 14.4 10-30%
(20)
Mode of
Exposure
Con-
trolled-
environ-
ment
cabinet
(336 ft3)
Con-
trolled-
environ-
ment
cabinet
Cabinet
(336 ft3)
Cabinet
(336 ft3)
Cabinet
(336 ft3)
Species/ No. of Duration &
Strain/ Test No. of Frequency
Age/Weight Animals Controls of Exposure
Leghorn 12 12 72 h
chickens ,
6-8 wks
Leghorn 12 12 72 h
chickens ,
6-8 wks
Leghorn 6 3 Continuous
chickens, 12 wk
6-8 wk
Leghorn 3 3 Continuous
chickens, 6 wk
6-8 wk
Leghorn Continuous
chickens ,
6-8 wk 3 3 7 d
3 3 14 d
3 3 21 d
3 3 28 d
Total
Length of
Expt. Effects
18 d Significant increase in the
percent of birds infected in
the test group (100%) compared
to the control group (~ 50%) .
Gross and microscopic pathology
was the same in both groups.
18 d Statistically insignificant in-
crease in percent of birds in-
fected. Gross and microscopic
pathology of test and control
groups the same.
12 wk Lungs were dark red and more
dense when compared to the con-
trols. Microscopic examination
revealed pulmonary congestion,
edema, and hemorrhage.
6 wk Darker colored and denser lung
tissue than controls. Micro-
scopic examination revealed
pulmonary congestion, edema,
and hemorrhage.
28 d Exposure for 24 h was followed
by a slight increase in mucous
secretion. Condition disap-
peared after 3 or 4 days. No
significant pathology. No ob-
vious signs of discomfort.
Reference
and
Rating
Anderson el
(1964)
B-12
Anderson ot
(1964)
B-12
Anderson et
(1964)
B-12
Anderson et
(1964)
B-12
Anderson et
(1964)
B-12
al.
al.
al.
a] .
al.
-------
TABLE 111-12. RABBITS—ACUTE EXPERIMENTAL EXPOSURE TO NH3
VO
Compound(s) and
Concentration(s) in
mg/ra3 (ppm) Humidity
NH3 14,400 Not
(20,000) given
NH3 7,200 Not
(10,000) given
NH3 5, AGO Not
(7,500) given.
NH3 4,320 Not
(6,000) given
Mode of
Exposure
Artifi-
cial
respi-
ration
of cu-
rarized
animals
Artifi-
cial
respi-
ration
of cu-
rarized
animals
Artifi-
cial
respi-
ration
of cu-
rarized
animals
Artifi-
cial
respi-
ration
of cu-
rarized
animals
Species/
Strain/
Age/Weight
"Fauve de
Bourgogne"
rabbits ,
avg. wt
2.5 kg
"Fauve de
Bourgogne"
rabbits ,
avg. wt
2.5 kg
"Fauve de
Bourgogne"
rabbits,
avg . wt
2.5 kg
"Fauve de
Bourgogne"
rabbits,
avg. wt
2.5 kg
No. of Duration &
Test No. of Frequency
Animals Controls of Exposure
Unknown Served 60 min
no. of M as own
(perhaps controls
just 1)
Unknown Served 60 min
no. of H as own
(perhaps controls
just 1)
Unknown Served 60 min
no. of M as own
(perhaps controls
just 1)
Unknown Served 60 min
no. of H as own
(perhaps controls
just 1)
Total
Length of
Expt. Effects
180 min Rapid increase in "total index
of intoxication": strong
bradycardia within 1 min, pro-
found changes in ECG, pulmonary
infarctions and edema, blood
acidosis and elevated p02 , and
deterioration of EEC near time
of death (after ~ 30 min of NH3
exposure).
180 min Rapid increase in "total index
of intoxication": strong
bradycardia within 1 min, ECG
profoundly changed within 20
min, pulmonary infarctions and
edema, blood acidosis and ele-
vated p02 , deterioration of EEC
near time of death.
180 min Rapid increase in the "total
index of intoxication": strong
bradycardia within 1 min, pro-
found changes in ECG within 20
min, pulmonary infarctions and
edema, blood acidosis and ele-
vated p02, and EEC changes near
the time of death (at 60 min).
180 min Increased "total index of intox-
ication" during exposure, rapid
increase after exposure: imme-
diate and strong bradycardia,
changes in ECG, increased blood
pressure, pulmonary infarctions
and edema, elevated p02 , blood
acidosis, and changes in EEC
near time of death.
Reference
and
Rating
Richard et
(1978b)
B-10
Richard et
(1978b)
B-10
Richard et
(1978b)
B-10
Richard et
(1978b)
B-10
al.
al.
al.
al.
(continued)
-------
TABLE 111-12. (continued)
Compound(s) and
Concentration(s) in
Nil
NH
mg/m3 (ppra) Humidity
3 3,600 Not
(5,000) given
3 1,858-3,312 Not
(2,580-4,600)given
Mode of
Exposure
Artifi-
cial
respi-
ration
of cu-
rarized
animals
Well-
ventilated
chamber
Species/
Strain/
Age/Weight
"Fauve de
Bourgogne"
rabbits,
avg. wt
2.5 kg
Rabbits
No. of
Test No. of
Animals Controls
Unknown Served
no . o f M as own
(perhaps controls
just 1)
19 0
Duration & Total
Frequency Length of
of Exposure Expt. Effects
60 min 180 min Increase in the "total index of
intoxication," remaining at that
level during the recovery pe-
riod: foam in the trachea and
bronchial tree, zones of infarc-
tion, acute pulmonary edema,
bradycardia, arrhythmia, extra-
systoles, changes in blood pres-
sure, and blood acidosis.
10 h - Symptoms about the same as at
1,642-1,800 mg/m3. Respiration
12-15. Cornea clear although
Reference
and
Rating
Richard
(1978b)
B-10
Lehmann
B-9
et al.
(1886)
-O
o
NH,
NH,
2,160 Not
(3,000) given
1,634-1,872 Not
(2,270-2,600) given
Artifi-
cial
respi-
ration
of cu-
rarized
animals
Well-
venti-
lated
chamber
"Fauve de
Bourgogne"
rabbits,
avg . wt
2.5 kg
Rabbits
Unknown Served
no. of M as own
(perhaps controls
just 1)
17
60 min
180 min
8.33 h
once
the eyes were mostly open.
Killed with CHC13 24 h after ex-
posure. Many fine hemorrhages
in the tracheal mucosa. The
tracheal epithelia was partially
destroyed, voluminous purulent
mucous tracheal exudate. Numer-
ous ecchymoses (extravasations
of blood under the skin) and
large anectatic (undilated?)
regions in the lung.
Increase in the "total index of Richard et al.
intoxication." Little apparent (1978b)
recovery by 90 min. Foam in B-10
the trachea. Bradycardia,
arrhythmia, and extrasystoles.
Slight symptoms. Respiration Lehmann (1886)
18-26. Cornea slightly cloudy. B-9
Ate immediately after test.
(continued)
-------
TABLE 111-12. (concluded)
Compound (s) and
Concentration(s) in
NH3
NH3
NH3
Nil 3
KH3
rag/m3 (ppm)
1,800
(2,500)
1,642-1,800
(2,280-2,500)
893-1,037
(1,240-1,440)
576-770
(800-1,070)
720
(1,000)
Humidity
Not
given
Not
given
Not
given
Not
given
Not
given
Mode of
Exposure
Artifi-
cial
respi-
ration
of cu-
rarized
animals
Well-
venti-
lated
chamber
Well-
venti-
lated
chamber
Well-
venti-
lated
chamber
Artifi-
cial
respi-
ration
of cu-
rarized
animals
Species/
Strain/
Age/Weight
"Fauve de
Bourgogne"
rabbits,
avg. wt
2.5 kg
Rabbits
Rabbit
Rabbits
"Fauve de
Bourgogne"
rabbits,
avg. wt
2.5 kg
No. of Duration & Total
Test No. of Frequency Length of
Animals Controls of Exposure Expt.
Unknown Served 60 min 180 min
no. of M as own
(perhaps controls
just 1)
12 0 2.5 h
once
45 0 7 h
once
50 7 h
once
Unknown Served 60 min 180 min
no. of M as own
(perhaps controls
just 1)
Reference
Effects
Increase in the "total index
of intoxication." Little ap-
parent recovery by 90 min.
Early bradycardia, often ac-
companied by arrhythmia and
extrasystoles.
Some symptoms of irritation.
Tearing. After 1 h, some sal-
ivary secretion began, which
persisted a long time. Some
milky secretions from the eye.
Slight symptoms. Respiration
fell from 78 to 25-32. Normal
after exposure.
Slight symptoms. Respiration
[sic] before the test 100-140
fell successively to 25. Some
salivary secretion.
An increase in the "total index
of intoxication." No discus-
sion of individual effects.
Some recovery by 90 min.
and
Rating
Richard
(197Rh)
B-10
Lehm.inn
B-9
Lehmann
B-9
Lehmann
B-9
Richard
(1978b)
B-10
el al.
(1886)
(1886)
(1886)
et al.
-------
TABLE 111-13. RABBITS—REPEATED DOSE EXPERIMENTAL EXPOSURE TO NH3
Compound(s) and
Concentration(s) in
mg/m3 (ppm) Humidity
NH3 770 + 55 50%
(1,070)
NH3 155 + 32 50%
(215)
NH3 72 Not
(100) given
NH3 36 Not
(50) given
Mode of
Exposure
Modified
Rochester-
type in-
halation
chamber
Modified
Rochester-
type in-
halation
chambe r
Constant
temper-
ature
chamber
Constant
temper-
ature
chamber
Species/ No. of
Strain/ Test
Age/Weight Animals
New Zealand 3 M
Albino
rabbits
New Zealand 3 M
Albino
rabbits
New Zealand 7 F
White
rabbits
New Zealand 9 F
White
rabbits
No. of
Controls
12 M
12 M
Served
as own
controls
(values
obtained
immedi-
ately
after ex-
posure
included)
Served
as own
controls
(values
obtained
immedi-
ately
after ex-
posure
included)
Duration &
Frequency
of Exposure
8 h/d,
5 d/wk,
6 wk
8 h/d,
5 d/wk,
6 wk
2.5-3 h
(the second
of 3 con-
secutive
equal time
periods)
2.5-3 h
(the second
of 3 con-
secutive
equal time
periods)
Total
Length of
Expt.
6 wk
6 wk
7.5-9 h
(Expt. re-
peated 43
times at
unknown
intervals)
7.5-9 h
(Expt. re-
peated 33
times at
unknown
intervals)
Reference
Effects
No deaths. Mild to moderate
dyspnea and lacrimation during
the first week, disappearing
during the second week. No
further indications of toxicity
or irritation were noted at
necropsy or during heraatolog-
ical and histopathological exam,
attributable to NH3.
No deaths, visible signs of tox-
icity, or gross tissue abnormal-
ities. Hematological values
no rma 1 .
Significant 67% decrease in
respiration rate. Possibly in-
creased depth of respiration
(indirectly measured) . Peri-
odicity of respiratory volume
changes not affected. No his-
topathological changes found.
Significant 34% decrease in
respiration rate. No change in
the periodicity of relative
changes in respiratory volume.
Perhaps an increase in the
depth of respiration (indi-
rectly measured) .
and
Rating
Coon et
(1970)
B-12
Coon et
(1970)
B-12
al.
al.
Mayan and
Merilan
B-ll
(1972)
Mayan and
Merilan
B-ll
(1972)
-------
TABLE 111-14. RABBITS—CHRONIC EXPERIMENTAL EXPOSURE TO NH3
Compound (s) and
Concentration(s) in Mode of
rag/m3 (ppra) Humidity Exposure
NH3 470 + 16 50% Modified
(653) Rochester-
type in-
Species/ No. of
Strain/ Test
Age/Weight Animals
New Zealand 3 M
Albino
rabbit
Duration & Total
No. of Frequency Length of
Controls of
Exposure Expt.
12 M Continuous 90 d
90
d
Effects
No deaths. Marked
eye irrita-
tion: heavy lacrimation and
erythema, dischargt
:, and opac-
Rrference
and
Rating
Coon et al.
(1970)
B-12
NH,
40
(56)
50%
halation
chamber
Modified New Zealand
Rochester- Albino
type in- rabbit
halation
chamber
3 M
12 M
Continuous
114 d
114 d
ity over 1/4 to 1/2 of the
cornea. Moderate lung conges-
tion in 2/3. No difference in
hematological values. Histo-
pathological examination re-
vealed focal or diffuse inter-
stitial pneumonitis in all animals.
Other histopathological changes
seen in the heart, liver, kidneys,
and bronchi, with similar but
lesser changes in the control
group.
No death or signs of toxicity Coon et al.
in any of the animals. Nee- (1970)
ropsy observations were normal. B-12
-------
TABLE 111-15. CATS—ACUTE EXPERIMENTAL EXPOSURE TO NH3
Compound (s) and
Concentration(s) in
"iK/m3 (ppm) Humidity
NH3 893-1,037 Not
(1,240-1,440) given
NH3 590-1,030 Not
(820-1,430) given
NH3 576-770 Not
(800-1,070) given
NH3 720 Not
(1,000) given
NH3 346-410 Not
(480-570) given
Species/ No. of Duration &
Mode of Strain/ Test No. of Frequency
Exposure Age/Weight Animals Controls of Exposure
Well- Cats 44 0 7 h
venti- once
lated
chamber
Well- Cats 6 0 5.5 h
venti- once
lated
chamber
Well- Cats, 4 0 7 h
venti- half-grown once
lated
chamber
Head ex- Stray, 20 2, for 10 min
posure mixed patho-
plethys- breed cats logical
mograph changes
chamber only.
Served
as own
controls
otherwise.
Well- Cat 1 0 4 h
venti- once
lated
chamber
Total
Length of
Expt. Effects
Nose bleeds. Eyes remained
clear. Killed immediately
after the expt. with CHC13.
Suppurative tracheitis, lungs
hyperemic with 6-8 fine ecchy-
moses.
Symptoms of irritation stronger
than when exposed to 800 to
1,070 ppm (576-770 mg/m3). Res-
piration slowed (7-9), dyspneic.
Distinct evidence of pain.
After exposure, some nasal ca-
tarrh, which cleared up very
quickly.
Slight symptoms of irritation,
interruption of motion, persis-
tent salivary secretion of vari-
able consistency. Respiration
12-20. After exposure, the sal-
ivary secretion continued for
2 h and then was normal.
35 d All suffered severe dyspnea,
anorexia, and dehydration.
1/20 died of bronchopneumonia.
Pulmonary function tests indi-
cate 2 stages of dysfunction:
acute and chronic. Good corre-
lation between function data
and pathological lesions found.
Some symptoms of irritation
from the beginning, secretion
of saliva, retarded respira-
tion. Then normal behavior,
very quiet. Then at the end
of the expt. again highly
fluid salivary secretion. No
symptoms of harm after the test.
Reference
and
Rating
Lehmann
(1886)
B-9
Lehmann
(1886)
B-9
Lehmann
(1886)
B-9
Dodd and
Gross (1980)
B-ll
Lehmann
(1886)
B-9
-------
TABLE 111-16. MONKEYS—REPEATED DOSE EXPERIMENTAL EXPOSURE TO NH3
Compound (s) and
Concentration(s) in
mg/m3
NH3
NH3
(ppm) Humidity
770 + 55 50%
(1,070)
155 + 32 50%
(215)
Mode of
Exposure
Modified
Rochester-
type in-
halation
chamber
Modified
Rochester-
type in-
halation
chamber
Species/
Strain/
Age/Weight
Squirrel
monkeys
(Saimiri
sciureus)
Squirrel
monkeys
(Saimiri
scieureus)
No. of Duration & Total
Test No. of Frequency Length of
Animals Controls of
3 M 8 M 8
5
6
3 M 8 M 8
5
6
Exposure Expt.
h/d, 6 wk
d/wk,
wk
h/d, 6 wk
d/wk,
wk
Effects
No deaths. No signs of irri-
tation or toxicity were noted.
No deaths, visible signs of
toxicity, or gross abnormal-
ities in organs or tissues.
Histopathological examination
showed evidence of focal pneu-
monitis in the lung of 1 monkey.
Reference
and
Rating
Coon et
(1970)
B-12
Coon et
(1970
B-12
al.
al.
-------
TABLE III-17. MONKEYS—CHRONIC EXPERIMENTAL EXPOSURE TO NH3
Compound (s) and
Concentration(s) in
mg/m3 (ppm) Humidity
NH3 470 + 16 50%
(652)
NH3 40+2 50%
(56)
Mode of
Exposure
Modified
Rochester-
type in-
halation
chamber
Modified
Rochester-
type in-
halation
chamber
Species/ No. of
Strain/ Test
Age/Weight Animals
Squirrel 3 M
monkeys
(Saimiri
sciureus)
Squirrel 3 M
monkeys
(Saimiri
sciureus)
Duration & Total
No. of Frequency Length of
Controls of Exposure Expt. Effects
8 M Continuous 90 d No deaths. No change in hema-
90 d tological values. Focal or
diffuse interstitial pneumonitis
in all animals. Other histo-
pathological changes seen in the
heart, liver, kidneys, and bron-
chi, with similar but lesser
changes in the control group.
8 M Continuous 114 d No deaths or signs of toxicity
114 d in any of the animals. Nec-
ropsy observations were normal.
Histopathological examination
revealed lipid filled macro-
phages in the lung of 1 monkey.
This finding was judged to be
clinically insignificant.
Reference
and
Rating
Coon et al.
(1970)
B-12
Coon et al.
(1970)
B-12
-------
TABLE III-18. DOGS—REPEATED DOSE EXPERIMENTAL EXPOSURE TO NH3
Compound (s) and
Concentration(s) in
mg/m3 (ppm) Humidity
NH3 770 + 55 50%
(1,070)
NH3 155 + 32 50%
(215)
Mode of
Exposure
Modified
Rochester-
type in-
halation
chamber
Modified
Rochester-
type in-
halation
chamber
Species/ No. of
Strain/ Test
Age/Weight Animals
Purebred 2 M
beagle dog
Purebred 2 M
beagle dog
Duration &
No. of Frequency .
Controls of Exposure
12 M 8 h/d,
5 d/wk,
6 wk
12 M 8 h/d,
5 d/wk,
6 wk
Total
Length of
Expt. Effects
6 wk No deaths. Mild to moderate
dyspnea and lacrimation during
the first week, disappearing
during the second week. No
further signs of irritation or
toxicity were noted at necropsy
or hematological and histopatho-
logical exam, attributable to
NH3.
6 wk No deaths, visible signs of
toxicity, or gross tissue ab-
normalities. Hematological
values normal.
Reference
and
Rating
Coon et al.
(1970)
B-12
Coon et al.
(1970)
B-12
-------
TABLE 111-19. DOGS—CHRONIC EXPERIMENTAL EXPOSURE TO NH3
Compound (s) and
Concentration(s) in
mg/t
NH3
n3 (ppn>) Humidity
470 + 16 50%
(652)
Mode of
Exposure
Modified
Rochester-
type in-
Species/
Strain/
Age/Weight
Purebred
beagle dog
No. of
Test
Animals
2 M
No. of
Controls
12 M
Duration &
Frequency
of Exposure
Continuous
90 d
Total
Length of
Expt.
90 d
Effects
No deaths. No change in hema-
tological values. Heavy lacri-
mation and nasal discharge
Reference
and
Rating
Coon et al.
(1970)
B-12
halation
chamber
NH,
40 +
(56)
50%
Modified Purebred
Rochester- beagle dog
type in-
halation
chamber
2 M
12 M
Continuous
114 d
114 d
noted. Hemorrhagic lesion in
the lung of 1 dog. Focal or
diffuse interstitial pneumonitis
in all animals. Other histo-
pathological changes seen in the
heart, liver, kidneys and bronchi,
with similar but lesser changes
in the control group.
No deaths or signs of toxicity Coon et al.
in any of the animals. Nee- (1970)
ropsy observations were normal. B-12
Histopathologic examination re-
vealed lipid filled macrophages
in the lungs of both dogs.
This was deemed to be of no clin-
ical significance.
-------
TABLE 111-20. TURKEYS—REPEATED DOSE EXPERIMENTAL EXPOSURE TO NH3
Compound(s) and
Concentration(s) in
rag/in3 (ppm)
NH3 72
(100)
NH3 36
(50)
NH3 36
(50)-
NH3 14.4-21.6
(20-30)
Dust 0.6-1.0 rag/ft3
Species/
Mode of Strain/
Humidity Exposure Age/Weight
10-30% Cabinet Bronze
(336 ft3) turkeys,
4 wk
10-30% Cabinet Bronze
(336 ft3) turkeys,
4 wk
10-30% Cabinet Bronze
(336 ft3) turkeys,
4 wk
~ 40-85% Growth Broadwhite
chambers turkeys,
2 wk
No. of
Test No. of
Animals Controls
2 3
2 3
2 3
2 3
2 3
2 3
600 M Appar-
600 F ently
(3 expts . none
with 400
turkeys
each)
Duration & Total
Frequency Length of
of Exposure Expt.
Continuous 18 d
(all animals
previously
exposed to
13 d of 36
mg/m3)
1 d
3 d
5 d
Continuous 12 d
10 d
12 d
Continuous 8 d
2 d (after
6 d exposure
to 14.4 mg/m3)
10 wk, 2 wk
continuous ,
with turkeys
removed
every 2 wk
for autopsy
Effects
Gradually increasing pulmonary
edema, congestion, and hemor-
rhage. Turkeys also exhibited
anorexia and slow weight gains.
Gradually increasing pulmonary
congestion, edema, and hemor-
rhage. Turkeys also exhibited
anorexia and slow weight gain.
Nothing significant.
Averaged 3.1% mortality for the
10-wk period, and 2.79 Ib of
feed/lb of turkey (feed conver-
sion) at 12 wk. No difference
from the other treatments done.
Histopathological changes in
the respiratory tract seen. The
16.2% airsacculitis was due to
the high dust level, not the NH3
level. No interaction was seen
between the dust and the NH3.
Reference
and
Rating
Anderson et al.
(1964)
B-12
Anderson et al.
(1964)
B-12
Anderson et al.
(1964)
B-12
Anderson et al.
(1968)
B-13
(continued)
-------
TABLE 111-20. (continued)
Compound (s) and
Concentration(s) in
mg/m3
(ppm) Humidity
NH3 14.4-21.6 ~ 40-85%
Dust 0.1-0
NH3
NH3
Dust 0.6-1
(20-30)
.4 tag/ ft3
14.4 10-30%
(20)
0-5.8 ~ 40-85%
(0-8)
.0 mg/ft3
Species/
Mode of Strain/
Exposure Age/Weight
Growth Broadwhite
chambers turkeys,
2 wk
Cabinet Bronze
(336 ft3) turkeys,
4 wk
Growth Broadwhite
chambers turkeys ,
2 wk
(both increased grad-
ually with
fluctuated
time, and
, generally
No. of
Test
Animals
600 M
600 F
(3 expts.
with 400
turkeys
each)
2
2
2
2
600 M
600 F
(3 expts.
with 400
turkeys
each)
No. of
Controls
Appar-
ently
none
3
3
3
3
Appar-
ently
none
-Duration & Total
Frequency Length of
of Exposure Expt.
10 wk, 12 wk
continuous,
with tur-
keys removed
every 2 wk
for autopsy
Continuous 6 d
1 d
2 d
4 d
6 d
10 wk, 12 wk
continuous ,
with tur-
keys removed
every 2 wk
for autopsy
stable by wk 8)
NH3
Dust 0.1-0
0-5.8 ~ 40-85%
(0-8)
.4 mg/ft3
Growth Broadwhite
chambers turkeys,
2 wk
600 M
600 F
(3 expts.
with 400
turkeys
each)
Appar-
ently
none
10 wk, 12 wk
continuous,
with tur-
keys removed
every 2 wk
for autopsy
Effects
Averaged 3.6% mortality in the
10 wk period and 2.73 Ib of
feed/lb of turkey (feed conver-
sion) at wk 12, with no signi-
ficant differences from other
treatments done. Histopatho-
logical changes in the respira-
tory tract seen. The 11.0% air
sacculitis is low, due to the
low dust level. No interaction
between dust and NH3.
Exposure for 1 d increased
mucous secretion from the up-
per respiratory tract, symptoms
disappearing in 3-4 d. No
other effect.
Averaged 3.2% mortality for the
10-wk period, and 2.84 Ib of
feed/lb of turkey (feed conver-
sion) at wk 12. No differences
from other treatments done.
Histopathological changes in
the respiratory tract. Averaged
18.2% airsacculitis, due to high
dust levels, not the NH3. No in-
teraction between dust and NH3.
Averaged 3.6% mortality in the
10 wk period, and 2.74 Ib of
feed/lb of turkey (feed conver-
sion) at wk 12. No differences
from the other treatments .
Histopathological changes did
not occur, even by wk 12. The
7.1% airsacculitis was the low-
est of all the treatments.
Reference
and
Rating
Anderson et
(1968)
B-13
Anderson et
(1964)
B-12
Anderson et
(1968)
B-13
Anderson et
(1968)
B-13
al.
al.
al.
al.
-------
TABLE 111-21. SWINE—ACUTE EXPERIMENTAL EXPOSURE TO NH3
Compound(s) and
Concentration(s) in
mg/ra3 (ppm) Humidity
m3 54 Not
(75) given
Exposed to an aero-
sol of a nonpatho-
genic strain of E.
coli immediately
before NH3 exposure.
NH3 36 Not
(50) given
Exposed to an aero-
sol of a nonpatho-
genic strain of E.
coli immediately
before KH3 exposure.
Mode of
Exposure
Exposure
chamber
Exposure
chamber
Species/
Strain/
Age/Weight
.Conven-
tional
crossbred
pigs, avg.
age 6.2 d
Conven-
tional
crossbred
pigs, avg.
age 15.5 d
No. of Duration &
Test No. of Frequency
Animals Controls of Exposure
40 40 2 h
(also ex-
posed to
nonpatho-
genic E.
coli
aerosol)
40 40 2 h
(also ex-
posed to
nonpatho-
genic E.
coli
aerosol)
Total
Length of
Expt. Effects
2+ h Test animals had 75% more vi-
able bacteria in their lungs
than did the control animals.
2+ h Test animals had 46% more vi-
able bacteria in their lungs
than did the controls. In-
creased lung weight and
lung weight-body weight
ratio. No gross or histo-
pathological changes.
Ref eronce
and
Rating
Drumnioml et al .
(1978)
B-10
Drummond et a 1 .
(1978)
B-10
-------
TABLE 111-22. SWINE—REPEATED DOSE EXPERIMENTAL EXPOSURE TO NH,
Compound (s) and
Concentration(s) in
mg/m3
NH3
(ppm)
~ 200.6
(~ 280)
Humidity
Not
given
Mode of
Exposure
Environ-
mental
Species/
Strain/
Age/Weight
Gilt
(young fe-
No. of
Test
Animals
1 F
No. of
Controls
None
Duration &
Frequency
of Exposure
36 h
Total
Length of
Expt.
43 h
Effects
Immediate frothing of the
mouth, lasting 3 h. Secretions
Reference
and
Rating
Stombaugh
(1969)
et al
NH,
avg. 104.4
(US)
77%
NH3 76.6
(106.4)
Corn starch dust
(3-5 pro) 213 mg/m3
19-47%
NH3 76.6
(106.4)
Ground corn dust
(3-5 Mm) 10.6 mg/m3
19-47%
chamber male swine),
30 kg
Environ-
mental
chamber
(with
wastes
removed
daily)
Environ-
mental
chamber
(with
removal
of
wastes)
Environ-
mental
chamber
(with
removal
of
wastes)
Duroc 18
pigs, avg.
wt 54 kg
Yorkshire
Landrace
pigs, 1 wk
Yorkshire
Landrace
pigs, 1 wk
Appar-
ently
none
5 wk
(chamber
air had
8.9 ppm
NH,)
1-5 wk
1-5 wk
of the mouth and nose, short B-ll
and irregular breathing, sneez-
ing and headshaking persisted.
Convulsions by 36 h. Apparent
return to normal 7 h after ex-
posure stopped.
Stombaugh et al.
(1969)
B-ll
5 wk Feed consumption at the level
of the 103 ppm group, and be-
low that of the 12 and 61 ppm
groups. Avg. daily gain fluc-
tuated in relationship to other
groups. Feed conversion not
affected. Nasal, lacrimal, and
mouth secretions decreasing with
time. Increased cough rate.
5 wk Conjunctivitis began the first Doig and
day, and lasted 2 wk. No clin- Willoughby
icopathological or microbiolog- (1971)
ical changes. No epithelial B-ll
thickening, or decrease in gob-
let cell number. Difference in
effects from NH3 alone possibly
due to gas absorption onto the
particles, and removal in the
nasal passages.
5 wk Slight conjunctivitis during Doig and
the first wk. No tracheal or Willoughby
turbinate epithelial thicken- (1971)
ing. Decrease in epithelial B-ll
goblet cell number, similar to
that of NH3 alone.
(continued)
-------
TABLE 111-22. (continued)
Compound(s) and
Concentration(s) in
mg/m3 (ppm) Humidity
NH3 76.6 19-47%
(106.4)
NH3 avg. 74.2 77%
(103)
NH3 avg. 43,9 77%
(61)
NH3 54 Not
(75) given
Mode of
Exposure
Environ-
mental
chamber
(with
removal
of
wastes)
Environ-
mental
chamber
(with
wastes
removed
daily)
Environ-
mental
chamber
(with
waste
removed
daily)
Exposure
chamber
Species/ No. of
Strain/ Test
Age/Weight Animals
Yorkshire 6
Landrace
pigs, 1 wk
Duroc 18
pigs, avg.
wt. 54 kg
Duroc 18
pigs, avg.
wt. 54 kg
Crossbred 8
pigs, avg.
wt. 9.1 kg
Duration &
No. of Frequency
Controls of Exposure
6 1-6 wk
(chamber
air had
8 ppm NH3)
Appar- 5 wk
ently
none
Total
Length of
Expt. Effects
6 wk Slight conjunctivitis during
the first wk. No clinicopath-
ologic or microbiologic changes.
Some subpleural hemorrhage and
lobular atelectasis in both
test and control groups. Tra-
cheal and turbinate epithelia
had increased thickness and de-
creased numbers of goblet cells.
No lower respiratory tract
changes, indicating high NH3 re-
moval in the upper tract. No
weight loss.
5 wk Feed consumption lower than
that for the 12 and 61 ppm
groups, and about equal to that
Reference
and
Rating
Doig and
Willoughby
(1971)
B-ll
Stombaugh et al
(1969)
B-ll
of the 145 ppm group. Avg. daily
Appar- 5 wk
ently
none
8 46, 78, or
109 d
gain varied in relationship to
other groups. Feed conversion
not affected. Nasal, lacrimal,
and mouth secretions decreasing
with time. Increase in cough
rate.
5 wk Feed consumption slightly be-
low that of pigs exposed to 12
ppm, and above the 103 and 145
ppm groups. Avg. daily gain
varied in relationship to the
other groups. Feed conversion
was unaffected.
109 d No effect on mean daily body-
weight gain. No changes in
respiratory-tract structure.
Stombaugh et al
(1969)
B-ll
Curtis et al.
(1975)
B-12
(continued)'
-------
TABLE 111-22. (continued)
Compound (s) and
Concentration(s) in
mg/m3 (ppm) Humidity
NH3 36 Not
and (50) given
Dust 300 mg/m3
NH3 36 Not
and (50) given
Dust 10 mg/m3
NH3 36 Not
and (50) given
H2S 2.8
(2)
NH3 36 Not
(50) given
NH3 avg. 8.6 77%
(12)
Mode of
Exposure
Exposure
chamber
Exposure
chamber
Exposure
chamber
Exposure
chamber
Environ-
mental
chambers
(with
waste
removed
daily)
Species/ No. of
Strain/ Test No. of
Age/Weight Animals Controls
Crossbred 12 12
pigs
Crossbred 4 4
pigs, avg.
wt. 8.2 kg
Crossbred 3 3
pigs, avg.
wt. 20.9 kg
Crossbred 16 16
pigs, avg.
wt. 8.2-
31.8 kg
Duroc 18 Appar-
pigs, avg. ently
initial none
wt. 54 kg
Duration & Total
Frequency Length of
of Exposure Expt. Effects
24, 57, or 71 d Decreased mean daily body-
71 d weight gain. No effect on res-
piratory-tract structure.
27 d 27 d No effect on mean daily body-
weight gain. No changes in
respiratory-tract structure.
19 d 19 d No effect on mean daily body-
weight gain. No changes in
respiratory-tract structure.
24-71 d 71 d No effect on mean daily body-
weight gain. Mild conjunctiv-
itis and blepharitis in 1/16.
No changes in respiratory-
tract structure.
5 wk 5 wk Feed consumption slightly
higher than pigs exposed to
50 ppm, and above that of pigs
exposed to 100 or 150 ppm.
Avg. daily gain varied with time
in relationship to other expo-
sures. No effect on feed con-
version.
Reference
and
Rating
Curtis et al.
(1975)
B-12
Curtis et al.
(1975)
B-12
Curtis et al.
(1975)
B-12
Curtis et al .
(1975)
B-12
Stombaugh et al
(1969)
B-ll
-------
SECTION IV
EXPERIMENTAL HUMAN INHALATION EXPOSURES
Tables IV-1 and IV-2 describe acute and repeated dose laboratory human
exposures to NHs, respectively. Table S-2 in the summary condenses all the
information regarding experimental human exposure, from about 40 mg/m3 to
< 0.5 mg/m3. The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
gives 18.0 mg/m3 as the time-weighted-average threshold limit value and 27
mg/m3 as the short-term-exposure limit (ACGIH, 1981).
55
-------
TABLE IV-1. HUMANS—ACUTE EXPERIMENTAL INHALATION EXPOSURE TO NH-
Compound(s) and
Concentration (s)
in ng/m3 (ppm)
NH3 381.6-403.2
(530-560)
Mode of
Exposure
Room
(unspeci-
fied)
No. of Duration and Total
Test No. of Frequency of Length of
Subjects Controls Exposures Expt. Effects
1 M Served as 4 h, once 7 h The levels of nonprotein nitro-
own control gen and NH3 in the blood plasma
increased with increasing expo-
sure time. The urea and creati-
nine content of the blood showed
no change from normal values.
The carbon dioxide-combining power
of the blood plasma was not impaired.
Pulse rate was constant, and blood
pressure (probably systolic) decreased
in the first 35 min of inhalation.
Reference
and
Rating
Schmidt and
Vallencourt
(1948)
B-8
NH3 360
(500)
Ln
NH3 avg. 235;
range 180-344,
increasing with
exposure time
Mask over
nose and
mouth
7 M
Served
as own con-
trols
30 min, once 45-60 min
Exposure
chamber
(with
oro-nasal
mask and
3-way
valve box
during
exercise)
18 M
(with
~ 60 min
preced-
ing expo-
sure to
72-122
mg NH3/
m3)
Served as
own con-
trols on
days 1 and
3 of ex-
periment
35-60 min,
once, on day
2 of experi-
ment. In-
cluded an
8-min exer-
cise period.
Three con-
secutive 0.
sessions
.5-d
Expired air ammonia at equili-
brium varied from 252 to 346
mg/m3, occurring from 10 to
27 min after exposure began.
Respiratory rate was slightly
elevated, and minute volume in-
creased from 50 to 250% over that
of control levels, both parameters
quickly returning to normal after
exposure ended. Lung ventilation
showed a cyclic variation during expo-
sure in 2/7. No coughing was induced.
Reflexly induced lacrimation occurred
in 2/7. Subjective reactions varied
widely.
Increased exercise cardiac
frequency and respiratory fre-
quency. Decreased ventilation
minute volume and exercise
tidal volume. No material dis-
comfort.
Silverman et al.
(1949)
A-11
Cole et al.
(1977)
B-ll
(continued)
-------
TABLE IV-1. (continued)
Compound (s) and
Concentration(s )
in mg/ra3 (ppm)
NH3 avg. 144;
range 115-158,
increasing with
exposure time
Mode of
Exposure
Exposure
chamber
(with
oro-nasal
mask and
3-way
valve box
during
exercise)
No. of
Test
Subjects
18 M
(with
~ 60 min
preceding
exposure
to 115-
158 mg
NH3/m3, as
near as can
be deter-
mined from
No. of
Controls
Served as
own con-
trols on
days 1 and
3 of exper-
iment
Duration and Total
Frequency of Length of
Exposures Expt.
35-60 min, Three con-
once, on secutive
day 2 of 0.5 d ses-
experiment. sions
. Included
an 11-min
exercise
period.
Effects
Slight decrease in exercise car-
diac frequency. Significantly
reduced ventilation minute volume
due to reduced tidal volume, de-
spite a significant increase in
respiratory frequency. No mate-
rial discomfort.
Reference
and
Rating
Cole et al.
(1977)
B-ll
the methodo-
NH3 avg. 106; range
72-122, increasing
with exposure time
NH3 100.8 (140)
M3 96.48 (134)
NH3 79.2 (110)
Exposure
chamber
(with oro-
nasal mask
and 3-way
valve box
during
exercise)
Exposure
chamber
(25 m3)
Inhala-
tion
chamber
(700 L)
(head only)
Exposure
chamber
(25 m3)
logy given)
18 M
7 M 1 F
"experts"
6 M 2 F
"nonex-
perts"
8 M
2 F
7 M 1 F
"experts"
6 M 2 F
"nonex-
perts"
Served as
own con-
trols on
days 1 and
3 of ex-
periment
Served as
own con-
trols
Served as
own con-
trols
35-60 min, Three con-
once, on secutive
day 2 of 0.5 d ses-
experiment. sions
Included
an 8-min
exercise
period.
•2 h, once
5 min, once
2 h, once
Significant increases in exer-
cise cardiac frequency and
exercise tidal volume. Decreased
ventilation minute volume due to a
slightly reduced respiratory fre-
quency. No material discomfort.
< 10% decrease in VC, FEV1( and
FIV!. No hypersusceptibility
to nonspecific irritants, as
measured by the histamine
threshold. Strong eye and throat
irritation, with cough, in the
"nonexperts," becoming unbearable
so 8/8 had to leave before 2 h.
"Experts" had perceptible eye and
throat irritation, with slight
cough.
10/10 detected the odor. 5-8/10
reported lacrimation and irri-
tation to the eyes, nose, mouth,
or throat. 1/10 reported slight
irritation to the chest.
< 10% decrease in VC, FEVj , and
FIV^ No hypersusceptibility to
nonspecific irritants, as mea-
sured by the histamine threshold.
Definite eye irritation, percep-
tible throat irritation, slight
cough. "Nonexperts" generally more
uncomfortable than "experts-"
Cole et al.
(1977)
B-ll
Verberk
(1977)
A-13
Keplinger et al
(1973)
A-12
Verberk
(1977)
A-13
(continued)
-------
TABLE IV-1. (continued)
00
Compound (s) and
Concentration (s)
in mg/m3 (ppm)
NH3 avg. 71; range
50-79, increasing
with exposure time
NH3 57.6 (80)
NH3 51.84
(72)
NH3 36 (50)
NH3 36 (50)
NH3 36 (50)
Mode of
Exposure
Exposure
chamber
(with oro-
nasal mask
and 3-way
valve box
during ex-
ercise)
Exposure
chamber
(25 m3)
Inhala-
tion
chamber
(700 L)
(head
only)
Exposure
chamber
(25 m3)
Inhala-
tion
chamber
(700 L)
(head
only)
Rochester
chamber,
head
exposure
only
No. of
Test
Subjects
18 M
7 M 1 F
"experts"
6 M 2 F
"nonex-
perts"
8 M
2 F
7 M 1 F
"experts"
6 M 2 F
"nonex-
perts"
8 M
2 F
6 M
Duration and
No. of Frequency of
Controls Exposures
Served as 35-60 min,
own con- once, on
trols on second day
days 1 and of experi-
3 of ex- ment
periment
Served as 2 h, once
own con-
trols
5 min, once
Served as 2 h, once
own con-
trols
5 min, once
Served as 10 min
own con-
trols
Total
Length of
Expt. Effects
3 consecutive Exercise cardiac frequency was
0.5 d ses- reduced. No effect on ventila-
sions tion minute volume, exercise
tidal volume, or mean respiratory
frequency. No material discomfort.
< 10% decrease in VC, FEVj, and
FIVi. No hypersusceptibility to
nonspecific irritants, as mea-
sured by histamine threshold.
Definite eye and slight throat
irritation. Generally, "non-
experts" more uncomfortable.
10/10 detected the odor.
2/10 had slight eye irritation.
1/10 had slight eye irritation,
and dry nose and mouth.
1/10 had dry mouth.
1/10 had dry nose and mouth.
No change in VC, FEVi, or FlVt
of more than 10% after exposure.
No hypersusceptibility to non-
specific irritants, as measured
by histamine threshold. Odor
was detected. Some slight eye
and throat irritation.
10/10 detected the odor. No
significant signs of irritation
(subjective evaluation).
4/6 described moderate eye and
nasal irritation. 1/6 described
a faint nonpainful irritation.
1/6 had no irritation. All des-
cribed a strong, highly penetrat-
ing odor.
Reference
and
Rating
Cole et al.
(1977)
B-ll
Verberk
(1977)
A-13
Keplinger et al.
(1973)
A-12
Verberk
(1977)
A-13
Keplinger et al.
(1973)
A-12
MacEwen et al.
(1970)
C-8
(continued)
-------
TABLE IV-1. (concluded)
Cpmpound(s) and
Concentration(s)
in mg/m3 (ppra)
m3 33.7 (46.8)
NH3 23 (32)
NH3 21.6 (30)
NH3 13
Mode of
Exposure
Exposure
chamber
Inhala-
tion
chamber
(700 L)
(head
only)
Rochester
chamber,
head
exposure
only
Exposure
chamber
(5 n.3)
No. of Duration and Total
Test No. of Frequency of Length of
Subjects Controls Exposures Expt. Effects
4 Not given, Odor threshold, the lowest con-
once centration at which all 4
panelists recognized the odor.
8 H 5 min, once 9/10 detected the odor. No sig-
2 F nificant signs of irritation
(subjective evaluation).
5 M Served 10 min 2/5 felt faint, nonpainful
as own nasal and eye irritation, and
controls described moderate odor intensity.
3/5 detected no irritation and
described a strong, highly pene-
trating odor.
6 H 5 M 8 h ~24 h Immediately after exposure, 50-
100% increase in NH3 and urea
levels in urine, and NH3 levels
Reference
and
Jteting
Leonardos et
(1969)
A-ll
Kepi inger et
(1973)
A-12
MacEwen et al
(1970)
C-8
Mikhailov et
(1969)
C-8
al.
al.
al.
NH3 3
NH3 0.45 - 1.0
Exposure
chamber
(5 m3)
6 M
5 M
8 h
-24 h
Not given
22
Not given
Not given
in blood. Significant decrease
in 02 consumption by 20%. Insig-
nificant changes in EKG, and no
change in arithmetic ability.
Any changes observed were gone by
the day after exposure.
Immediately after exposure, no
changes in NH3 levels in blood
and urine, urea levels in urine,
or ability to make arithmetical
calculations. Tendency to decrease
the coefficient of C<2 consumption.
Insignificant changes in EKG. Any
changes observed were gone the day
after exposure.
Thresholds of ammonia perception
determined:
1.0 mg/m3 for 2/22,
0.75 mg/m3 for 7/22,
0.55 mg/m3 for 9/22, and
0.45 mg/m3 for 4/22
Mikhailov et al.
(1969)
C-8
Sayfutdinov
(1968)
B-7
-------
TABLE IV-2. HUMANS—REPEATED DOSE EXPERIMENTAL INHALATION EXPOSURE TO NH3
Compound(s) and
Concent ration (s)
in rag/m3 (ppm)
NH3
regime
week
1
2
3
4
5
6
NH3
regime:
week
1
2
3
4
5
6
NH3 36
concn.
18
36
72
18
36
72
concn.
72
36
18
18
36
72
(50)
No. of
Mode of Test
Exposure Subjects
Indus- 2 M
trial
work sta-
tion (am-
monium bi-
carbonate
plant with
slight arti-
ficial NH3
enrichment)
Indus- 2 M
trial
work sta-
tion (am-
monium bi-
carbonate
plant with
slight arti-
ficial NH3
enrichment)
Indus- 1 F
trial 1 M
work sta-
tion (am-
monium bi-
carbonate
plant with
slight
artificial
NH3 enrich-
ment)
Duration and Total
No. of Frequency of Length of
Controls Exposures Expt.
Appeared 3 h, twice 6 wk
to serve a day, 5 d/wk,
as own 6 wk
controls
during a
1-3 d non-
exposure
period in
the middle
of the test.
Appeared to 3 h, twice 6 wk
serve as a day, 5 d/wk,
own con- 6 wk
trols dur-
ing a 1-3 d
nonexposure
period in
the middle
of the test.
Appeared to 3 h, twice 6 wk
serve as a day, 5 d/wk,
own con- 6 wk
trols dur-
ing a 1-3 d
nonexposure
period in
the middle
of the test.
Re f e rence
and
Effects Rating
Statistically significant in- Ferguson ft al.
crease in FEVj with increased (1977)
NH3 concentration. No change A-ll
in respiration, pulse, blood
pressures, or FVC. As observed
by a physician, mild irritation
of the eye, nose, or throat was
nonexistent for weeks 4 and 5, and
not statistically different from
the no-exposure periods for week 6.
Brief excursions to 144 mg/m3 during
weeks 2 and 6 caused only 1 case of
increased irritation. All subjects
reported some watering of the eyes
and dryness of the nose and throat.
Slight increase in FEVj with in- Ferguson et al.
creased NH3 . As observed by a (1977)
physician, mild eye, nose and A-ll
throat irritation decreased after
week 2, to control levels. No
change in respiration, pulse,
blood pressures or FVC. Brief
excursions to 144 mg/m3 during
weeks 2 and 6 caused some water-
ing of the eyes and dryness of
nose and throat, and no increase of
physician-observed irritation.
No significant changes in per- Ferguson et al.
spiration, pulse, systolic and (1977)
diastolic blood pressures, A-ll
FVC, FEVj, or rate of mild eye
irritation were found at any
time. No abnormalities of the
chest, vital organs, neurological
response, or significant weight
changes were found.
(continued)
-------
TABLE IV-2. (continued)
Compound (s) and
Concentration(s)
in mg/m3 (ppm)
NH3 10.5 ± 0.85
Mode of
Exposure
NH3 in
air de-
livered
at 15 L/min
through a
funnel in
No. of
Test
Subjects
26
No. of
Controls
Served as
own con-
trols
Duration and Total
Frequency of Length of
Exposures Expt.
4 h (test
repeated 3-4
times at un-
known inter-
vals)
the "breath-
NH3 6.1 ± 0.71
ing zone"
NH3 in
air de-
livered
at 15 L/
min
through
a funnel
in the
"breath-
ing zone"
19 peo-
ple,
2-4 d
after
conva-
lescence
from
acute
diseases of
the upper
26 "prac-
tically
healthy"
people
4 h (tests
repeated 2-4
times at un-
known inter-
vals)
respiratory
NH3 2.2 ± 0.39
NH3 in
air de-
livered
at 15 L/
rain
through
a funnel
in the
"breath-
ing zone"
tract.
19 peo-
ple,
2-4 d
after
conva-
lescence
from
acute
diseases
of the
upper res-
piratory
tract
26 "prac-
tically
healthy"
people
4 h (tests
repeated 2-4
times at un-
known inter-
vals)
Reference
and
Effects Rating
Decrease in the rate of exhala- Mikhailuts
tion during pneumotachometry . (1977)
Duration of the transient pro- B-9
cess of the heart rhythm during
cardiointervalography grew by
an average of 14.6%. Increased
latent period of smell-motion
reaction. Inhibition of the
reduction of odor sensitivity
after loading.
In the test group, there were de- Mikhailuts
creased odor thresholds for ben- (1977)
zene, valerian, and camphor (in B-9
55-67% of the cases), but with
possible exhaustion of the "odor
analyzer." Rate of forced inha-
lation and expiration decreased
with an intensity of the transient
process of the heart rhythm. Con-
trol group had decreased camphor
thresholds by 12-16% of the time
to the transient process, and no
change in other indexes.
In the test group, there was a Mikhailuts
tendency to decrease the forced (1977)
rate of inhalation and exhala- B-9
tion (in 57.1-69% of the obser-
vations), and a lowering of the
odor threshold of camphor (in
71.4% of the observations). Con-
trol group had decreased threshold
odor of camphor, but also a rapid
reduction in odor sensitivity.
Control group pneumotachometry and
cardiointervalography were unchanged.
(continued)
-------
TABLE IV-2. (continued)
Compound(s) and No. of
Concentration(s) Mode of Test No. of
in mg/m3 (ppm) Exposure Subjects Controls
NH3 2.16 ± 0.06 Hermeti-
cally
Original Russian sealed
document reported 6 m3
a concentration chamber
of 2.16 mg/cm3;
assumed to be a
typographical error.
NH3 0.32 - 0.65 Not 3 (at Served as
given least 1 own con-
female) trols
NH3 0.32 - 0.76 Not given 5 Served as
own con-
trols
Duration and Total
Frequency of Length of
Exposures ExpJ^.
35 d 38 d
40 min,
(tests re-
peated 3
times at un-
known inter-
vals)
12 min (tests Not given
repeated 3
times, at un-
known inter-
vals)
Effects
No significant effect on the
level of gas and energy metab-
olism and acid-base equilibrium.
An insignificant increase in 02
consumption. No changes in the
morphological composition of the
peripheral blood. NH3 levels in
blood and breath increased with
the length of exposure. Urea
concentration in the urine in-
creased only on day 32. Inhibi-
tion of the oxidative-reductive
processes, indicated by decreased
blood catalase activity and in-
creased acetone levels in the
breath. All changes disappeard
by the 3rd day post-exposure.
A concentration of 0.45 mg NH3/m3
lowered eye sensitivity to light
in 2/3, while 0.32 mg/m3 was in-
active. In 1/3, the threshold
odor perception concentration
which affected eye sensitivity to
light was 0.65 mg/m3, and the sub-
threshold value was 0.5. mg/m3.
In 3/5 test persons whose odor
threshold was 0.55 mg/m3, cere-
bral cortical activity was
affected by 0.35 mg/m3, de-
creased in 2 and enhanced in 1 .
In the other 2/5, with odor thres-
holds of 0.76 mg/m3, the "activ-
ity" concentration was 0.44 mg/m3
and the subthreshold level was
0.32 mg/m'3.
Reference
and
Rating
Savina et al .
•(1980)
R-7
Sayfutdinov
(1968)
R-7
Sayfutdinov
(1968)
B-7
-------
SECTION V
EPIDEMIOLOGY
OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURES
Data for occupational exposures to ammonia as shown in Table V-l are
not especially useful for deriving a range of concern for ammonia in auto-
mobile, emissions because occupational exposures are higher, and so many
other possibly toxic factors are present. Table S-3 in the Summary con-
denses the occupational exposure data.
ACCIDENTAL EXPOSURES
Data for exposures to NHs due to a wide variety of accidents are given
in Table V-2. These are not very useful because of the unknown (but prob-
ably high) levels of ammonia encountered, but were included because the
description of organs affected and symptoms caused may have some helpful
suggestions.
63
-------
TABLE V-l. STUDIES OF OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE TO AMMONIA
o\
Cqmpound(s)
Concentration(s)
mg/m3 (ppm)
Duration
NH3 3.6-144 (5-200)
CO
(2-200)
C02
(800-10,000)
H2S 7.1-14.2
(5-10)
2-12 h/d
7 d/wk
NH3 50-75, with
occasional
levels above
this for a
short time.
Asbestos (ac-
cording to
Bittersohl,
1971a).
80% of the em-
ployees worked
for > 10 y.
Description
Workers in swine con-
finement units
Population Group
Controls
11
Workers in plants pro-
ducing or manufactur-
ing ammonia.
Unknown Cancer
no. out statis-
of 30,000 tics for
employ- the GDR
ees in
the
study.
NH3 ~ 10-40
5-10 y
Workers in a NH3 pro-
duction plant.
45 M
28 F
55
Description
Over 50% complained of:
coughing, increased sputum
or phlegm, chest tightness,
wheezing, stuffy nose,
shortness of breath, or
sneezing. Some eye irrita-
tion, headache, dizziness,
nausea, and vomiting. Vet-
erinarians surveyed had
similar responses.
Cancer of the lungs, stomach,
lymphatic tissue, and
urinary tract was seen, ac-
counting for 40-60% of all
deaths. Cancer in NH3 pro-
duction plants exceeded
that in other production
plants by 5-6 times the
rate of malignant tumors,
and 15 times higher fre-
quency of cancers than in
the whole chemical factory.
Male cancer rates per
10,000 employees generally
higher than female cancer
rates, probably due to
longer employment times.
At the end of the work day
versus the beginning, sub-
jective data showed an in-
crease in headaches (27.56%
versus 12.71%), vertigo
9.45% versus 3.4%), stagger-
ing (6.30% versus 3.06%),
and tremors (24.26% versus
18.82%). Other signs of
overexcitability of various
nerve tracts were seen:
anorexia, drowsiness, and
forgetfulness.
Remarks
Confounding with other gases
and dust. Gas concentra-
tions varied with season,
and no correlation made with
possible variability in
symptoms. Strictly descrip-
tive study, no controls.
Presence of seasonal varia-
bility demonstrates need for
adequate control group. Num-
bers obviously too small for
any inference to be drawn.
No mention of possible ex-
posure to other compounds
in the plants.
The cancer rates were not
age-adjusted, although dif-
ferences between sexes
were noted.
Both articles are obviously
about the same study, but
the short summary article
(Bittersohl, 1971b) does
not mention asbestos.
According to the other
article, all production em-
ployees were exposed to as-
bestos, and those also ex-
posed to NH3 had the highest
cancer rates, suggesting
possible co-carcinogenicity.
Actually a descriptive study
with poor utilization of in-
ternal controls. This type
of comparison introduces
strong interviewee bias. Be-
ginning versus end-of-day
data was not collected while
the individuals were not ex-
posed to NHs (i.e., off work
or in different area). Could
not determine the comparabil-
ity of external controls.
Exposure levels are not given
and therefore not correlated
with symptoms.
Reference and
Rating
Donham et a I.
(1977)
C-6
Bittersohl (1971a)
D-8
Bittersohl (1971b)
C-6
Kirkov (1977)
C-5
(continued)
-------
TABLE V-l. (continued)
. Compound(s)
Concentration(s)
rag/m3 (ppm)
Duration
NH3 5-29
Not given
Population Group
Description
Workers exposed to ir-
ritating dusts and
gases.
143 H
Controls
67 H
NH3
~ 18.3-26.3,
H2S04 aerosols un-
known but appar-
ently much less
than NH3 concen-
trations.
Not given.
Workers in a cuprammonium 50 M
rayon spinning mill. .30 F
56 M
14 F
Description
Higher incidence of chronic
bronchitis and dyspnea.
Lower FEVt values in those
workers. Occupational ex-
posure to NHa to some degree
connected with lowering of
FEV| values.
24% had slight and 28% mod-
erate impairments of lung
function. Study done 3 y
later, when NH3 levels had
decreased to ~ 12.3 mg/m3,
showed a decrease to 13%
with moderate impairment.
No trends found with age,
weight, smoking habits, or
exposure duration.
Remarks
Reference and
Rating
Epidemiological design: De- Kujawska et al.
scriptive study relies on (1977)
FEVt as relatively crude B-10
outcome measure. Internal
controls are apparently util-
ized, but it is difficult to
determine if they are compar-
able for relevant character-
istics, i.e., age. Age, height
weight are listed in appendix.
Exposure variables are poorly
defined, especially duration
of exposure. Also true for
confounding variables such as
smoking. Only data on whether
or not the workers ever smoked
is utilized.
Strongest point is that clinical
systems can be related to FEVx
measurements so that if expo-
sure research could be refined,
meaningful data could be ob-
tained.
Nonconcurrent/concurrent pro- Herrraan and
spective design (retrospec- Viehrig
tive cohort) using an ap- (1979)
propriate control group. A-9
Stratification performed
on both age and duration
of exposure and reversibil-
ity of outcome measures.
Numbers are relatively small
to place much confidence in
conclusion. However, corre-
lation with decreased NH3
levels is impressive and cer-
tainly valuable information
in assessing levels of con-
cern. Selection bias and com-
parability of controls is
always a concern but cannot
be assessed from the data
given here.
(continued)
-------
TABLE V-l. (continued)
Compound(s)
Concentration(s)
mg/m3 (ppm)
Duration
Description
Population Group
Exposed Controls
Description
Remarks
Reference and
Rating
NH3 6-26
NO 12-61
NH3 exceeded
20 mg/m3 in
25.5% of 800
samples.
Workers exposed to ir- 216 M
ritating dusts and
gases.
67 M
Workers in the main
shops of tanneries
46
NHs generally
< 20
NO avg. < MAC
tnot given)
3 or 6 h/d for
2 y
Adolescents undergoing
vocational training in
a fertilizer factory
or a chemical works.
300
(HO re-
peatedly)
85
Occupational exposure to
dusts, NH3 and NO was con-
nected with the lowering
of fEVi values, perhaps
more so than NH3 alone.
Variations in the diurnal
curves for 8 physiological
functions were seen, par-
ticularly in muscular
endurance, mean pressure,
and pulse, particularly
towards the end of the
day. Probably due to the
manual labor involved.
At the end of 1 y, an 11% in-
crease in the incidence of
disorders of the upper res-
piratory tract, and a 27%
increase in xeroderma.
After 2 y, there were sta-
tistically significant in-
creases of 24 and 36%, re-
spectively. Changes in
certain biochemical indexes
indicated possible stress on
hepatic functions.
Confounding due to multiple
gases and dusts present.
Stricly descriptive study,
primarily focused on
diurnal variations in
physiologic function.
The study does not relate
these changes to variations
in NH3 concentrations. In
. -the absence of controls the
meaning of these changes is
not clear. Most helpful in-
formation is the absence of
H2S and the presence of NH3,
but S02 is variably present.
Clinical measures (i.e.,
respiratory symptoms or
respiratory functions) are
not made.
Apparent concurrent prospec-
tive design comparing per-
sons exposed to NH3 and
and NO to persons unex-
v r
posed "training in different
area of the same school).
Comparability of the control
group and methodology to pre-
vent selection bias is not
given. "Repeated examination"
suggests period prevalence and
not incidence data, but one
cannot be certain. Although
sample size is sufficient, ap-
propriate point estimates are
not made (i.e., relative risk)
with confidence limits and
acute versus chronic effects
are not described. Rates
based on exposure times would
be possible, but are not given.
Kujawska et al.
(1977)
B-10
Sinitsyna
(1965)
D-6
Giguz (1968)
B-6
(continued)
-------
TABLE V-l. (concluded)
Compound(s)
Concent ration(s)
mg/m3 (ppm)
Duration
NHs, unknown,
avg. exposure time
of 16.1 y
Population Group
Description
Workers in an Egyptian
ice factory.
Controls
28
NH3, unknown but
probably very low
to moderate, avg.
6.8 y of employ-
ment
Workers in a frozen food 19 M
warehouse who routinely 1 F
worked inside the
freezer, where inter-
mittent NHs leaks oc-
curred.
Description
Differences in lung function
tests found, but perhaps
due to differences in age
and body size between the
2 groups. Differences in
response to a chest symp-
tomology questionnaire were
considered insignificant
after consideration of smok-
ing habits.
Degree of discomfort ranged
from severe nausea and head-
aches to mild throat and eye
irritations. No serious in-
juries sought.
Remarks
Reference and
Rating
This study is a poor attempt El-Sewefy and
at a noncurrent prospective Awad
design. Numbers are insuf- (1971)
ficient for appropriate C-6
stratifications (i.e., age,
smoking, habits, exposure
variables, etc.) in the anal-
ysis. Either matching was
not performed or a breakdown
in age-matched groups occurred.
(use of average age by group
is not sufficient when small
numbers are involved.) Con-
clusion of article is not
valid. A lack of statistical
significance does not demon-
strate a lack of association
(when small numbers are in-
volved). The relative risk is
1.4 (20% versus 14%), but num-
bers are small and confidence
limits are not given (see con-
clusion, pp. 309-310 of ar-
ticle). This difference would
be likely to disappear with ap-
propriate stratification on age
and smoking habits.
Only interviews were done. Hollett
No physical or lung function (1977)
exams. Descriptive study of C-7
acute affects of NH3 tox-
icity, but there was a strong
possibility for interviewee
bias. No precautions were
exercised to prevent this bias,
and no control group was used.
-------
TABLE V-2. HUMANS—STUDIES OF ACCIDENTAL EXPOSURES TO AMMONIA
Compound (s) and
Concent ration(s)
in mg/m3
Duration of
Exposure
Accident
Description(s)
No. of
Accident
Victims
Description
Reference
.ind
Rating
NH3, unknown
Not given
Not given
, unknown
Not given
Not given
oo
> unknown
Not given
Not given
NHs, unknown, but
high
< 1 min to a
few minutes
Vent stack overflowed
with pure liquid ammonia,
dousing men 100 ft below
2 Two victims with moderate intensity acute phase Voisin et al.
damage (burns to upper respiratory tract without (1970)
apparent pulmonary involvement). One victim, at B-ll
the end of 2 y, had pulmonary function values
very close to the theoretical lower limits of normal,
and normal blood gases. The other victim, followed
for 1 y, had mixed ventilation difficulty of medium
severity, and normal blood gases and exchanges.
2 M Victims with medium clinical results in the acute Voisin et al.
phase (involvement of the upper respiratory tract). (1970)
After 1.5 y, one victim had a restrictive ventila- B-ll
tion problem of medium severity, and normal arter-
ial blood gases. The other victim showed major
mixed respiratory difficulties after one wk, and even
1 y later had significant ventilation difficulty
with preponderant obstructive disease, increased
residual volume, moderate hypoxemia, and decline in
the pulmonary diffusing capacity of CO.
4 (at least Victims with major clinical results (parenchymatous Voisin et al.
2 M) effect is dominant, pulmonary edema extremely (1970)
acute) in the acute phase. One victim showed a B-ll
gradual deterioration of pulmonary functions over
A y, the alteration of blood gas exchanges, and
chronic bronchitis. A second victim showed respira-
tory insufficiency >l y after exposure. A third
victim showed ventilation problems of the mixed
restrictive-obstructive type 1 y after exposure.
There was pre-existing anthracosilicosis. The fourth
victim, 1 y after exposure, had great ventilation
difficulty of a mixed type with major obstructive
involvement.
2 M The victim with the shorter exposure had dyspnea, Walton
chest pain, blepharospasm, burning throat, exten- (1973)
sive blisters, tachycardia, and moist sounds, B-ll
both bases. Lung functions improved for 2 y, but
still below normal after 5 y. The transfer factor
is nearly normal. The more exposed victim lost con-
sciousness, and suffered dyspnea, chest pain,
blepharospasm, burning throat, blisters and sloughs
of oral mucosa and exposed skin, conjunctivitis, and
bronchitis. Later became a physical training tea-
cher, with above normal lung functions.
(continued)
-------
TABLE V-2. (continued)
Compound(s) and
Concent rat ion (s)
in mg/m3
Duration of
Exposure
Accident
Description(s)
No. of
Accident
Victims
Description
Reference
and
Ra t i ng
NHs, unknown, but
high
NHs, unknown, but
high
< 1 min
Not given
NHs, unknown, but Not given
high
NHs, unknown, but Not given
high
NHa, unknown, but < 30 rain
high
Dismantling a valve on
an ammonia high-pressure
line.
Doused with ammonia
liquor from a 130 ft
tower
1 M
2 M
Compressor pump burst
under pressure, releasing
an.ammonia cloud.
Metal fragment pierced a
pipe of an ammonia con-
denser in an occupied
bomb-shelter.
2 M
47
Car driving into a por-
tion of exploding tank
truck carrying anhydrous
ammonia.
1 F
2 M
Experienced blepharospasm and bronchospasm. Ven- W.ilton
tilation tests normal after 1 y, but transfer (1973)
factor still depressed after 5 y, which could be B-11
associated with smoking.
One victim experienced dyspnea, coughing up Walton
frothy pink mucus, severe burns of the face and (1973)
mouth, red, congested and edematous fauces, no B-ll
bronchospasm, and normal chest radiograph. Mixed
lung functions 5 y later. The second victim,
possibly exposed longer, experienced pain in throat
and eyes, pink frothy sputum and burns of the face
and mouth, with clear chest radiograph. Progressive
improvement in ventilation, but consistent depression
of the transfer factor. Both victims continued to
smoke.
One man died in the accident. The other victim Walton
suffered tightness of chest, blepharospasm, blood- (1973)
stained sputum, and loss of voice. Gradual im- B-ll
provement to normal ventilation values and low
normal transfer factor after 5 y.
9/47: Relatively "mild" exposure. Main features Caplin
were acute pharyngitis and tracheitis. Improved (1941)
rapidly. B-10
25/47: "Moderate" exposure. Main features were
acute bronchitis, cough with bloodstained sputum,
and exaggeration of the symptoms of the mild cases.
3/25 developed and died of pulmonary edema, 3/25
died of bronchopneumonia, 15/25 recovered completely.
11/47: "Severe" exposure. Pulmonary edema, slight
cyanosis, intense dyspnea, and cough with frothy
sputum. 7/11 had deterioration in their general conr
dition and died. 4/11 recovered.
Exposure to both liquid and gaseous ammonia. Two Close
victims had epithelial defects of the cornea (1980)
bilaterally and full-thickness burns of the face B-9
and mucous membranes of the upper airways and
particularly the larynx. On follow-up (1 y or
2 mo), there were no significant pulmonary
sequelae with regard to activity restriction.
Third victim was exposed longer, had additional
injuries (burns of the entire airway and over-
whelming pulmonary edema), and eventually died.
(continued)
-------
TABLE V-2. (continued)
Compound(s) and
Concentration(s)
in mg/m3
NHs, unknown, but
high
NHs. unknown, but
"moderate"
NHs, unknown, but
high
Duration of
Exposure
> 30 min
5-10 min
< 30 min
NHsi unknown, but
high
< 1 min
Accident
Description(s)
Drove into an ammonia
cloud from an explod-
ing tank truck.
In a car in the vicinity 3
of an exploding tank
truck containing anhydrous
ammonia.
Train derailment causing 2 F
a cloud of anhydrous
ammonia fumes.
No. of
Accident
Victims
Spray from a safety re-
lief valve on an anhy-
drous ammonia nurse tank.
1 M
Description
First degree burns of the face, eyes, and exposed
skin, and no upper airway obstruction, although
some had greater than first degree burns. Then
gradual deterioration of pulmonary functions over
2 to 6 mo, followed by slight improvement with no
subsequent change over 2 y.
Few clinical findings: conjunctival irritation.
Essentially no long-term pulmonary sequelae.
One victim suffered convulsions, burns of skin,
soft palate and oropharynx, corneal damage, and
respiratory distress. One year later, had bi-
lateral pneumonia and acute right heart failure.
Two years later, had hypoxemia, decreased vital
capacity, and respiratory pathology.
Second victim had burns of the soft palate and
oropharynx. Two years later, continued cough,
shortness of breath, greenish sputum, and lung
function studies indicative of obstruction of the
small airways.
Facial burns, pulmonary edema, pneumonitis, and
inflammation and edema of the upper airways. No
residual lung damage occurred.
Reference
and
Rating
Close (1980)
B-9
Close (1980)
B-9
Kass et al.
(1972)
B-9
Helmers et al.
(1971)
B-8
, unknown
1 min
. unknown
< 1 h
Ruptured refrigerator
tubing
1 F
Explosion in an ice cream
factory due to the burst-
ing of a pipe conveying
ammonia gas.
6 F
Immediate dyspnea and burning eyes. Hospitalized Sestier et al.
20 d later in respiratory distress. Condition (1969)
degenerated, suggestive of subacute bronchiolo- B-8
alveolitis, complicated by pneumomediastinum fol-
lowed by coma. One year later, still had clinical
symptoms of chronic bronchitis, radiological signs
of bronchiectasis, and lung functions indicative
of obstructive syndrome.
All suffered from shock and skin burns. Some had Slot (1938)
conjunctivitis, tracheitis, and bloodstained vomi- B-7
tus probably due to the pharynx. Several developed
bronchitis, or aggravated existing bronchitis. 3/6
had some "nervous" symptoms: minor delirium, migraine
headaches, continued anxiety, or insomnia. One vic-
tim died, with acute laryngotracheitis, tracheo-
bronchitis and bronchopneumonia, and evidence of tox-
emia from the burns manifested by nephritis.
(continued)
-------
TABLE V-2. (concluded)
Compound (s) and
Concentration (s)
in rag/m3
Duration of
Exposure
Accident
Description(s)
No. of
Accident
Victims
Description
Reference
and
Rating
NH3, unknown
Not given Explosion of a tank con-
taining NHs gas, in a
soda factory.
All suffered from burning eyes and pharynx,
dyspnea, cough, and some degree of difficulty in
swallowing. Some had dizziness, violent headaches,
nausea, or inflammation of the digestive tract.
One developed pulmonary edema. 3/4 still had
slight respiratory insufficiency (possibly due to
obesity or smoking and drinking habits), otherwise
no sequelae.
Pernot et al.
(1972)
B-6
-------
BIBLIOGRAPHY*
3-007 ACGIH, American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
Subcommittee on Threshold Limits. 1946. Report of the Subcommittee
on Threshold Limits. In: Proceedings of the Eighth Annual Meeting
of the ACGIH. Chicago, Illinois. April 7-13. pp. 54-57.
D—.** In 1946, the M.A.C. for NH3 was 100 ppm.
3-208 ACGIH, American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygenists TLV
Airborne Contaminants Committee. 1981. TLVs Threshold Limit Val-
ues for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents in the Workroom
Environment with Intended Changes for 1981. ACGIH. Cincinnati,
Ohio.
D--. The TLV time-weighted-average for NH3 is 25 ppm (18 mg/m3)
and the short-term-exposure-limit TLV is 35 ppm (27 mg/m3).
3-220 AIHA, American Industrial Hygiene Association. 1978. Hygienic Guide
Series; Anhydrous Ammonia. American Industrial Hygiene Association.
Akron, Ohio. 5 pp.
D—. Brief review.
3-176 Anderson, D. P., C. W. Beard, and R. P. Hanson. 1964. The Adverse
Effects of Ammonia on Chickens Including Resistance to Infection
with Newcastle Disease Virus. Avian Dis. 8:369-379.
B-12. Four species were exposed to different levels of ammonia for
varying lengths of time, up to 6 wk. Pathological changes were seen,
varying with time, NHs level, and species. Little significant path-
ology was seen in animals exposed to 20 ppm NHs or less for periods
of less than 6 wk. Prior exposure to MS increased the number of
chickens infected when challenged with Newcastle disease virus.
3-175 Anderson, D. P., C. W. Beard, and R. P. Hanson. 1966. Influence
of Poultry House Dust, Ammonia and Carbon Dioxide on the Resistance
of Chickens to Newcastle Disease Virus. Avian Dis. 10:177-188.
C-ll. Groups of 20 chickens were exposed to dust alone, a combina-
tion of dust, MS (30 ppm) and C02 (5,000 ppm), or a combination of
the gases alone for different time intervals, from 6 h to 8 d. Ex-
posures including NHa caused some loss of cilia in the upper trachea
* MRI document acquisition numbers are given in the left margins.
** MRI rating system is described on pages 11-13.
73
-------
and the turbinates. Subsequent exposure to Newcastle disease virus,
and no further air pollutant exposure, had no effect on mean death
time or percent mortality.
3-177 Anderson, D. P., R. R. Wolfe, F. L. Cherms, and W. E. Roper. 1968.
Influence of Dust and Ammonia on the Development of Air Sac Lesions
in Turkeys. Am. J. Vet. Res. 29:1049-1058.
B-13. About the best of the poultry/farm studies reviewed. Tur-
keys exposed to combinations of low or high dust and NHg for 2-10
wk were not significantly affected with regard to mortality and
feed conversion. High concentrations of both components increased
the incidence of air sac lesions and respiratory histopathological
changes. No experiments were done with NHs alone.
3-109 Bagramyan, S. B. , A. S. Pogosyan, E. A. Babayan, R. D. Ovanesyan,
and S. M. Charyan. 1976. Mutagennoe Deistvie Malykh Kontsentratsii
Letuchikh Veshchestv, Vydelyayushchikhsya iz Polikhloroprenovykh
Lateksov LNT-1 i MKh, pri Sovmestnom Postuplenii ik v Organizm [Muta
genic Action of Small Concentrations of Volatile Substances Emitted
from Polychloroprene Latexes LNT-1 and MKh During Their Combined
Uptake by the Animal]. Biol. Zh. Arm. 29 (4): 98-99.
D-2. Albino rats exposed to a mixture of chloroprene (0.89 mg/m3) ,
dodecylmercaptan (0.12 mg/m3), and NH3 (2.07 mg/m3) for 1-120 days
had increased frequency of chromosomal rearrangements compared to
controls, with a maximum at the end of the exposure period. Eleven
shoe factory workers occupationally exposed to a mixture of these
compounds (4-10 mg NHg/m3) had a statistically significant increase
in the frequency of chromosomal aberrations in the lymphocytes of
the peripheral blood.
3-178 Banister, J. , G. Fegler, and C. Hebb. 1949. Initial Respiratory
Responses to the Intratracheal Inhalation of Phosgene or Ammonia.
Quart. J. Exp. Physiol. 35:233-250.
C-10. Sixteen intact dogs and 13 intact cats were exposed to
(1/1,000 to 1/250, vol. /vol.) for less than 1 min, resulting in ac-
celerated, shallower breathing. Other respiratory details varied
with species. Tests were also done on rabbits, vagotomized and
sympathectomized cats and dogs, and isolated dog lungs.
3-110 Barrow, C. S., Y. Alarie, and M. F. Stock. 1978. Sensory Irrita-
tion and Incapacitation Evoked by Thermal Decomposition Products of
Polymers and Comparisons with Known Sensory Irritants. Arch. Environ.
Health. 33(2):79-88.
C-10. Negligible data given for the single chemicals, considered
as "standard irritants." For each NR^ concentration four mice were
exposed for 30 min, decreases in respiratory rates monitored, and a
dose-response curve constructed. From this curve, the RDso (50%
decrease in respiratory rate) for ammonia was 303 ppra.
74
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3-111 Battista Raffi, G. , D. Cascella, F. Morisi, and R. Caudarella. 1979.
Correlazione tra Inquinamento Gassoso Ambientale e Precocita di Com-
parsa della Pneumoconiosi nei Fonditori di Ghisa [Correlation Between
Atmospheric Gaseous Pollutants and the Appearance of Pneumoconiosis
in Cast Iron Foundries]. Ingegneria. No. 9-10:270-272.
D--. Morbidity from exposure to Si02, NHa (3-15 ppm) , CO, S02, phenol,
and HCHO is linked to number of years' exposure rather than by job
even though relative concentrations of the compounds are given by
job. The numbers of workers (total 185) by job, however, are not
given.
3-010 Bhown, A. S., B. B. Maitrya, and M. Bhown. 1971. Ammonia Retention
by Smokers: A Comparative Study. Indian J. Med. Res. 59:1296-1299.
D-9. Ammonia retention from cigarette smoke was studied in human
experiments. Too complex a mixture to be useful for our task.
3-013 Bittersohl, G. 1968. Gesundheitsscha'den durch Ammoniak [Illnesses
from Ammonia] . Z. Gesamte Hyg. 14:803-806.
C--. Review from the point of view of exposure of the agricultural
worker during application of fertilizer
3-012 Bittersohl, G. 1971a. Epidemiologische Untersuchungen uber
Krebserkrankungen in der Chemischen Industrie [Epidemiological
Study of Cancer Morbidity in the Chemical Industry]. Arch.
Geschwulstforsch. 38:198-209.
D-8. An epidemiological study of a chemical factory with 30,000
employees exposed to asbestos found the most frequent occurrence of
malignant neoplasms in those operations also involving NH3. Work-
room air exceeded the M.A.C. of 25 mg NHs/m3 by 2-3 times. No data
on specific chemicals or industrial sections given. Probably con-
founding due to other compounds and smoking.
3-011 Bittersohl, G. 1971b. Epidemiologic Study on Cancer of Workers in
a Chemical Plant. Presented at the XVI International Congress on
Occupational Health, Tokyo, 1969. Toyko, Japanese Industrial Safety
Association, pp. 250-252.
C-6. Apparently the same study as Bittersohl (1971a) [3-012]. A
better rating was given because of the clearer distinctions between
the NH3 group and others. No asbestos exposure discussed. Workers
in ammonia production plants (50-75 mg/m3) had higher rates of cancer
(lung, stomach, lymphatic tissue, urinary tract) than other workers
in the chemical industry. Both groups of workers exceeded cancer
rates for the general population of the GDR (especially respiratory
and digestive systems in men, and breast, genitals, and lymphatic
system for women). Possible exposure to other factors wasn't men-
tioned and apparently age-adjusted rates were not used.
75
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3-015 Boyd, E. M. , M. L. MacLachlan, and W. F. Perry. 1944. Experimental
Ammonia Gas Poisoning in Rabbits and Cats. J. Ind. Hyg. Toxicol.
26:29-34.
C-8. Two to seven cats and 11-17 rabbits were exposed to 7,000 mg
NHs/m3 (a very high level, in the LDso range) for 1 h, then followed
immediately or in the second day by analysis of the respiratory tract.
There were increases in: output of tracheal tract fluid, iron con-
tent (especially tracheal), blood hemoglobin 24 h after gassing,
and plasma lipids involving the cholesterol fraction. Respiratory
tract water and chloride content and serum chloride content were
unaffected.
3-182 Broderson, J. R. , J. R. Lindsey, and J. E. Crawford. 1976. Role
of Environmental Ammonia in Respiratory Mycoplasmosis of Rats. Am.
J. Path. 85(1):115-130.
B-12. Doses used were rather high (150-250 ppm) , but the study was
well done. The "controls" were exposed to ~ 10 ppm, apparently con-
sidered a no-effect dose by the authors.
3-018 Caplin, M. 1941. Ammonia-Gas Poisoning. Forty-seven Cases in a
London Shelter. Lancet. 2:95-96.
B-10. Gaseous ammonia was released in an occupied bomb shelter when
a flying metal fragment pierced a pipe of an ammonia condenser. No
quantitative exposure data. Paper does a good job of describing
symptoms. Note the reversibility of the mild cases. Deaths following
moderate exposures were due to bronchopneumonia; antibiotics would
have helped.
3-221 Caveny, D. D. , C. L. Quarles, and G. A. Greathouse. 1981. Atmo-
spheric Ammonia and Broiler Cockerel Performance. Poult. Sci.
60(3):513-516.
C-13. Exposure of chickens to 25 and/or 50 ppm NH3 for 28 or 49 d
had no effect on avg. body wts . , number of air sac lesions, or paired-
lung and bursa of Fabricius wts. Feed efficiencies were inversely
related to ambient air levels of NHs and the length of exposure.
3-179 Charles, D. R. , and C. G. Payne. 1966a. The Influence of Graded
Levels of Atmospheric Ammonia on Chickens. I. Effects on Respira-
tion and on the Performance of Broilers and Replacement Growing Stock.
Br. Poul. Sci. 7:177-187.
B-12. Chickens exposed to 50-100 ppm NH3 for 19-56 days showed de-
creased food consumption, and decreased growth rate and respiration
rate at the higher NHs concentration.
3-180 Charles, D. R. , and C. G. Payne. 1966b. The Influence of Graded
Levels of Atmospheric Ammonia on Chickens. II. Effects on the Per-
formance of Laying Hens. Br. Poul. Sci. 7:189-198.
76
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C-ll. Groups of 27 or 36 chickens were exposed to 50 or 100 ppm
MS for 10 or 22 weeks. At the higher concentration, egg produc-
tion, food intake, and live-weight gain were decreased, with no re-
covery of production after exposure stopped. Trials run at high
temperatures had more severe effects . A supplemented diet was able
to overcome the deleterious effects of NHa on egg production.
3-113 Close, L. G. , F. I. Catlin, and A. M. Conn. 1980. Acute and Chronic
Effects of Ammonia Burns on the Respiratory Tract. Arch. Otolaryngol.
106(3):151-158.
B-9. Twelve survivors of an accidental NHs spill fell into two groups
(short exposure to high concentrations, and longer exposure to lower
concentrations), each with different medical problems.
3-114 Cole, T. J., J. E. Cotes, G. R. Johnson, H. DeV. Martin, J. W. Reed,
and M. J. Saunders. 1977. Ventilation, Cardiac Frequency and Pat-
tern of Breathing During Exercise in Men Exposed to 0-Chlorobenzyl-
idene Malononitrile (CS) and Ammonia Gas in Low Concentrations. Q.
J. Exp. Physiol. Cogn. Med. Sci. 62(4) :34l-352.
B-ll. Ammonia was used as a "standard irritant" in an experiment
exposing 12 or 18 men to fairly high levels, 71-235 mg/m3, for about
20 min. During submaximal exercise, ventilation minute volume was
reduced about 6% by apparently different mechanisms at low and high
doses. No effect was seen on cardiac frequency.
3-020 Cook, W. A. 1945. Maximum Allowable Concentrations of Industrial
Atmospheric Contaminants. Ind. Med. 14:936-946.
D--. List of M.A.C.'s for 1945. That for NH3 was 100 ppm.
3-021 Coon, R. A., R. A. Jones, L. J. Jenkins, Jr., and J. Siegel. 1970.
Animal Inhalation Studies on Ammonia, Ethylene Glycol, Formaldehyde,
Dimethylamine , and Ethanol. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 16:646-655.
B-12. Five species were repeatedly or chronically exposed to 40-770
mg NHs/m3, with varied effects.
3-022 Couturier, Y. , M. Barbotin, P. Bobin, and J.-P. Derrien. 1971. A
propos de trois cas de poumon toxique par vapeurs d'ammoniaque et
d'hydrogene sulfure [Three Cases of Toxic Lung from Ammonia and
Hydrogen Sulfide Vapors]. Bull. Soc. Med. Afr. Noire Lang. Fr.
16:250-252.
C-5. Short-term exposure to wastewater, both the liquid and the
toxic gas mixture, caused the rapid death of one sailor, and cardiac
and respiratory problems with eventual recovery in two other sailors.
3-023 Cralley, L. V. 1942. The Effect of Irritant Gases Upon the Rate
of Ciliary Activity. J. Ind. Hyg. Toxicol. 24:193-198.
77
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D-6. Exposure to 600 ppm MS for 10 rain caused the cessation of
ciliary activity without recovery in excised rabbit tracheal tissue.
3-024 Curtis, S. E. 1972. Air Environment and Animal Performance. J.
Anim. Sci. 35:628-634.
D--. A review of the literature and a discussion of the problem of
studying the effects of all types of airborne pollutants on live-
stock.
3-025 Curtis, S. E., C. R. Anderson, J. Simon, A. H. Jensen, D. L. Day,
and K. W. Kelley. 1975. Effects of Aerial Ammonia, Hydrogen Sul-
fide and Swine-House Dust on Rate of Gain and Respiratory-Tract
Structure in Swine. J. Anim. Sci. 41:735-739.
B-12. Pigs were exposed to NHa at 50 or 75 ppm, alone or with dust
or hydrogen sulfide. Useful interaction study.
3-027 Dalhamn, T. 1956. Mucous Flow and Ciliary Activity in the Trachea
of Healthy Rats and Rats Exposed to Respiratory Irritant Gases (S02,
H3N, HCHO). VIII. The Reaction of the Tracheal Ciliary Activity
to Single Exposure to Respiratory Irritant Gases and Studies of the
pH. Acta Physiol. Scand. 36(Suppl. 123):93-105.
C-6. Groups of two or three rats were exposed to 3, 6.5, 10, 20,
45, or 90 ppm NH3 until ciliary activity stopped. This occurred at
8 min and 5 sec for the lowest and highest concentrations, respec-
tively, with recovery of ciliary movement within 30 s after expo-
sure stopped.
3-026 Dalhamn, T. 1963. Effect of Ammonia Alone and Combined with Car-
bon Particles on Ciliary Activity in the Rabbit In Vivo, with Studies
of the Absorption Capacity of the Nasal Cavity. Air Water Pollut.
7:531-539.
D-7. Groups of 10 extirpated rabbit tracheas were exposed to high
levels of NH3 (75-2,000 ppm) for 45 min, alone or with carbon par-
ticles. 100 ppm was the threshold MS level to cause slowing of
ciliary beating, and there was only a slight possible synergism be-
tween NH3 and carbon particles. There was considerable NH3 absorp-
tion in the nasal cavity.
3-028 Dalhamn, T. , and L. Reid. 1967. Ciliary Activity and Histologic
Observations in the Trachea After Exposure to Ammonia and Carbon
Particles. In: Inhaled Particles and Vapors II. Proceedings of
an International Symposium. 1965. C. N. Davies, ed. Pergamon
Press. New York, New York. pp. 299-306.
C-7. Two groups of 10 rats were exposed to 100 ppm NH3, alone or
in combination with 7.0 mg carbon/m3 in repeated doses for 60 days.
78
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On day 60 only the group exposed to both NHs and carbon showed a
decreased rate of tracheal ciliary beating, and all groups had in-
creased mucosal damage although the combination group had the most
severe damage.
3-029 Dalhamn, T., and J. Sjoholm. 1963. Studies of S02, N02, and NH3:
Effect on Ciliary Activity in the Rabbit Trachea of Single In Vitro
Exposure and Resorption in Rabbit Nasal Cavity. Acta Physiol. Scand.
58:287-291.
D-6. Single excised rabbit tracheas were exposed to a concentra-
tion of NH3 in the range of 200-1,000 mg/L for 20 min. For 5 min
exposure, 500-1,000 mg/L NH3 was needed to cause cessation of
ciliary activity. There was 93-96% resorption of 2,000 mg/L NH3 in
the rabbit nasal cavity.
3-116 Dautov, F. F. 1977. K Gigienicheskoi Kharakteristike Uslovii Truda
v Proizvodstve Organicheskikh Perekisei [Hygienic Characteristics
of the Working Conditions in the Production of Organic Peroxides].
Kazan. Med. Zh. 58(3):89-91.
D-5. Work atmosphere polluted by many compounds, including NH3
(1-15 mg/m3). Workers suffered from grippe, angina, acute respira-
tory disease, and pneumonia.
3-117 Dautov, F. F. 1978. Gigienicheskaya Otsenka Zagryazneniya Vozdukha
Benz(a)pirenom i Toksicheskimi Veshchestvami v Proizvodstvakh
Polietilena Vysokogo Davleniya i Organicheskikh Perekisei [Hygienic
Evaluation of Air Pollution by Benz[a]pyrene and Toxic Substances
in the Production of High Pressure Polyethylene and Organic Peroxides]
Gig. Tr. Prof. Zabol. No. 2:1-4.
D--. NH3 was one of numerous compounds found in the air during the
title processes at or below the maximum allowable concentration.
No health effects information is given in this article. Hygienic
measures are described for lowering the benzpyrene concentrations.
3-183 Diesch, S. 1974. Potential Occupational Health Hazards of Live-
stock Producers Working in Animal Confinement Units. In: Proceed-
ings of the Society for Occupational and Environmental Health: Con-
ference on Agricultural Health and Safety, University of Iowa, Iowa
City, Iowa. Sept. 4-5, 1974. Society for Occupational and Environ-
mental Health. New York, New York. 141-152.
D--. Review of the possible hazards due to toxic gases, and the
survival of pathogens in animal manure.
3-118 Dodd, K. T. , and D. R. Gross. 1980. Ammonia Inhalation Toxicity
in Cats: A Study of Acute and Chronic Respiratory Dysfunction.
Arch. Environ. Health. 35(1):6-14.
79
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B-ll. A group of 20 cats was exposed to 1,000 ppm NHs for 10 rain.
There was good correlation between the pulmonary function tests (7)
and lung histological samples taken at intervals up to 35 days after
exposure. The acute effects of the initial insult were followed by
indications of chronic respiratory dysfunction. Good pathophysiol-
ogy for high doses.
3-030 Doig, P. A., and R. A. Willoughby. 1971. Response of Swine to
Atmospheric Ammonia and Organic Dust. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc.
159:1353-1361.
B-ll. Pigs were exposed at the fairly high level of 100 ppm for
1-6 weeks, alone and in combination with dust. Histopathologic
changes were seen in the nasal and tracheal epithelium after 2 weeks.
Swine a very useful analog for human skin and digestive system and
adequate for the respiratory system. A nice study, with the fairly
high levels (~ 100 ppm) and few numbers being the only limits.
3-031 Doll, R., M. P. Vessey, R. W. R. Beasley, A. R. Buckley, E. C. Fear,
R. E. W. Fisher, E. J. Gammon, W. Gunn, G. 0. Hughes, K. Lee, and
B. Norman-Smith. 1973. Mortality of Gasworkers — Final Report of a
Prospective Study. Br. J. Ind. Med. 29:394-406.
D-ll. Excess mortality from bronchitis was found in workers exposed
to NHs, benzene, S, tar, etc., in "retort house." Too complicated
a mixture for the purposes of this task.
3-119 Donham, K. J. , M. Rubino, T. D. Thedell, and J. Kammermeyer. 1977.
Potential Health Hazards to Agricultural Workers in Swine Confine-
ment Buildings. J. Occup. Med. 19(6) : 383-387 .
C-6. NHs was one of four gases measured in 13 swine confinement
buildings, exceeding the TLV in two units in the summer, and meeting
or exceeding the TLV in 12 units in the winter. The 11 full-time
and 10 part-time employees and 35 veterinarians surveyed complained
of adverse respiratory symptoms, and a physical examination of two
workers did not reveal the pathogenesis of their symptoms.
3-120 Drummond, J. G. , S. E. Curtis, and J. Simon. 1978. Effects of
Atmospheric Ammonia on Pulmonary Bacterial Clearance in the Young
Pig. Am. J. Vet. Res. 39(2) :211-212.
B-10. Young pigs were exposed to an aerosol of nonpathogenic E.
coli, then retained for a 2-h clearance period in 50 or 75 ppm NHa.
Viable bacteria counts in the lungs were greater in the ammonia-
exposed groups than in the controls.
3-033 El-Sewefy, A. Z., and S. Awad. 1971. Chronic Bronchitis in an
Egyptian Ice Factory. J. Egypt. Med. Assoc. 54:304-310.
C-6. The paper reports on a poorly designed epidemiological study.
There were no quantitative exposure data.
80
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3-207 Ernst, R. A. 1968. The Effect of Ammonia on Poultry. Feedstuffs.
40(32):40.
D--. A very short review, with no references.
3-174 Fairhall, L. T. 1949. Industrial Toxicology. Williams and Wilkins.
Baltimore, Maryland, pp. 13-14.
D — . A short review of the properties, sources and uses, toxicity,
and analysis of
3-122 Ferguson, W. S., W. C. Koch, L. B. Webster, and J. R. Gould. 1977.
Human Physiological Response and Adaptation to Ammonia i J. Occup.
Med. 19(5):319-326.
A-ll. Six unacclimated volunteers were exposed to 25, 50, and 100
ppm NHg for 6 h/d over 6 weeks in an industrial environment. After
2-3 weeks acclimation, there was inurement to eye, nose and throat
irritation, no impairment of ability to perform job duties, no change
in vital functions measured, and toleration of occasional brief ex-
posures to 200 ppm.
3-034 Fieldner, A. C., S. H. Katz, and S. P. Kinney. 1921. Ammonia.
In: Gas Masks for Gases Met in Fighting Fires. Bureau of Mines
Technical Paper 248. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington.,
B.C. pp. 13-14.
D--. A very short review of the hazards of NHs, and minor first
aid after exposure, for firemen. Not relevant to this study.
3-186 Flury, F., and F. Zernik. 1931. Ammoniak [Ammonia]. In: Schadliche
Gase. Da'mpfe, Nebel, Rauch-und Staubarten [Noxious Gases — Vapors,
Mist, Smoke, and Dust Particles], Julius Springer, Berlin, Germany.
pp. 150-154.
B--. Review of acute and chronic animal and human MS exposure.
3-036 Gadaskina, I. D. 1972. Ammonia (NH3), Ammonium ((NH4) ). In:
Encyclopedia of Occupational Health and Safety, Vol. 1. Inter-
national Labour Office, McGraw-Hill. New York, New York. pp. 97-98.
D — . Short review of occurrence, production, uses, hazards, and
safety measures. l
3-123 Gallagher, J. T., R. L. Hall, P. K. Jeffery, R. J. Phipps, and P.
S. Richardson. 1978. The Nature and Origin of Tracheal Secretions
Released in Response to Pilocarpine and Ammonia. J. Physiol. (London).
275:36P-37P.
D-7. Scant methodology given, referring to other papers. Short
exposure to 2,000 ppm NH3 increased the output of 3H-labeled mucus,
and caused the discharge of mucus from glands, goblet cells, and
the release of a distinct glycoprotein from the surface of ciliated
cells .
81
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3-181 Caspar, E., P. H. Sammelwitz, C. R. Richards, and M. S. Cover. 1961;
The Influence of Atmospheric Ammonia on Blood Hemoglobin Levels.
Am. Soc. Anim. Science N. Atlantic Section Proc. 3:68-74.
C-9. Exposure of chickens to 7.4, 23, or 45 ppm NHs for 12 wk
caused changes in rate of hemoglobin formation only at the highest
concentration. That level also caused keratoconjunctivitis and
blindness.
3-037 Gaume, J. G. , P. Bartek, and J. H. Rostami. 1971. Experimental
Results of Time of Useful Function (TUF) After Exposure to Mixtures
of Serious Contaminants. Aerosp. Med. 42:987-990.
C-8. Mice were exposed to gas mixtures and timed until collapse on
an exercise wheel, which occurred within minutes. Useful interaction
study, but high concentrations (0.25-1.5% NHs) were tested and no
straight NHs testing was done.
3-038 Giguz, T. L. 1968. Effect of Low Concentrations of Ammonia and
Nitrogen Oxides on Adolescents Undergoing Vocational Training in
the Chemical Industry. Hyg. Sanit. 33(7-9):431-434.
B-6. Occupational exposure of adolescents to both ammonia and ni-
trogen oxides at concentrations lower than the maximum allowable
(e.g., 20 rag NH3/m3) caused definite changes in fat metabolism and
protein metabolism and caused a higher incidence of upper respira-
tory tract diseases. Any effects due to NHs are confounded by the
presence of NO .
3-040 Golyakova, L. P. 1971. Present-day State of Industrial Hygiene
Problems in Hydrometallurgical Production of Tungsten and Molybdenum
Salts and Oxides. PB 254580T, National Technical Information Ser-
vice, U.S. Department of Commerce, Springfield, Virginia. 10 pp.
D-6. Dust, NHs, H2S, and HC1 were encountered. The most frequent
NHs concentration in working areas was in the range of tens and hun-
dreds of milligrams per cubic meter. No real exposure data, little
toxicity data.
3-041 Haggard, H. W. 1924. Action of Irritant Gases Upon the Respira-
tory Tract. J. Ind. Hyg. 5:390-398.
D—. A description of mechanisms. Obsolete.
3-128 Hatton, D. V., C. S. Leach, A. L. Beaudet, R. 0. Dillman, and
N. Di Ferrante. 1979. Collagen Breakdown and Ammonia Inhalation.
Arch. Environ. Health. 34(2):83-87.
C-10. Three young boys and one female (17-y-old), accidentally ex-
posed to concentrated ammonia vapors, had increased urinary meta-
bolites of hydroxylysine, compared to two other normal children.
82
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This indicates considerable collagen degradation, perhaps related
to the pulmonary and upper respiratory lesions and inflammation
observed on clinical examination.
3-042 Heifer, U. 1970. Kasuistischer Beitrag zur akuten, letalen, in-
halatorischen Ammoniakvergiftung [Casuistical Report on an Acute,
Lethal, Inhalation Poisoning by Ammonia]. Lebensversicherungsmedizin.
22:60-62.
C-8. A 30-year-old office worker was accidentally exposed to a high
concentration of NH3 fumes after losing consciousness following a
thrombosis. Death was due to the ensuing glottal, epiglottal, and
hemorrhagic lung edema. There was also toxic hemorrhagic liver cell
necrosis.
3-043 Helmers, S., F. H. Top, Sr., and L. W. Knapp, Jr. 1971. Ammonia
Injuries in Agriculture. J. Iowa Med. Soc. 61:271-280.
B-8. Case reports of exposures to very high NH3levels.
3-044 Henderson, Y., and H. W. Haggard. 1943. Noxious Gases and the Prin-
ciples of Respiration Influencing Their Action. 2nd ed. Reinhold
Publishing Corporation, New York, New York. pp. 125-126.
D--. A short review of properties, sources, and health effects.
3-129 Herrman, G., and J. Viehrig. 1979. Irritative Atemwegserkrankungen
durch Ammoniak und Schwefelsaureaerosole in einer Kuoxamseidespinnerei
[Irritative Respiratory Tract Diseases from Ammonia and Sulfuric
Acid Aerosols in a Cuprammonium Rayon Spinning Mill]. Z. Gesamte
Hyg. 25(8):581-584.
A-9. Lung functions of the exposed workers were impaired compared
to control group of workers. Some consideration of possible com-
pounding factors, such as sex and smoking habits.
3-130 Hilado, C. J., H. J. Gumming, A. M. Machado, C. J. Casey, and A.
Furst. 1978. Effect of Individual Gaseous Toxicants on Mice. Proc.
West. Pharmacol. Soc. 21:159-160.
D-8. Groups of four male mice were used to determine a 30-min LCso
for NH3 of 21,430 ppm.
3-131 Hollett, B. A. 1977. Health Hazard Evaluation/Toxicity Determina-
tion Report 76-91-371, Safeway Stores, Inc. Distribution Center,
Landover, Maryland. PB-270859, National Technical Information Ser-
vice, U.S. Department of Commerce, Springfield, Virginia. 12 pp.
C-7. Evidence that humans can stand intermittent, moderate exposure
to NH3 with no obvious aftereffects. NH3 concentrations from air
samples taken considered invalid, so precise level of exposure unknown.
83
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3-045 Horvath, A. A. 1924/1925. The Action of Ammonia Upon the Lungs.
Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 22:199-200.
D-6. A much less detailed report of the same experiment described
in Horvath (1926) [3-046].
3-046 Horvath, A. A. 1926. The Action of Ammonia Upon the Lungs (Part
I). Jap. Med. World. 6:17-29.
C-7. A single rabbit or guinea pig was exposed to an ammonia con-
centration in the range of 1,200-15,200 ppm for 4-53 days. There
were no macroscopic changes in the respiratory organs of guinea pigs
exposed to the lower level, both species died at the higher concen-
tration, and there were pathological findings in both species exposed
to the intermediate concentrations .
1-0172 ILO. 1970. Permissible Levels of Toxic Substances in the Working
Environment. Occupational Safety and Health Series 20, International
Labour Office, Geneva, Switzerland, pp. 194-198.
C — . Maximum Acceptable Concentrations in Czechoslovakia.
Normal MAC Short, Single Exposure MAC
(mg/m3) _ (mg/m3) _
Acrolein 0.5 1.0
NH3 40 80
HCHO 2 5
HCN 3 15
MeOH 100 500
H2S 30 -
3-104 ILO/WHO, International Labour Office/World Health Organization.
1969. Permissible Levels of Occupational Exposure to Airborne Toxic
Substances. Sixth Report of the Joint ILO/WHO Committee. WHO Tech-
nical Report Series No. 415, World Health Organization, Geneva,
Switzerland. 16 pp.
D — . Discussion of the general principles and problems in recom-
mending international limits on occupational exposure. The recom-
mended "safe concentration zone" for MS was 20-35 mg/m3.
3-047 ILO/WHO, International Labour Office/World Health Organization.
1970. Permissible Levels of Toxic Substances in the Working
Environment. In: Sixth Session of the Joint ILO/WHO Committee on
Occupational Health. June 4-10, 1968. International Labour Office.
Geneva, Switzerland, pp. 13, 194, 199, 212, 217, 222, 229, 242,
244, 253, 263-264, 267-268, 276, 290, 329-330, 345.
D — . A compilation of various national M.A.C.'s for the working
environment, those for NH3 ranging from 20 to 70 mg/m3. Variations
between states in the United States included.
84
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3-132 Ivanov, N. G. 1978. Metodicheskie Podkhody k Opredeleniyu Poroga
Razdrazhayushchego Deistviya Promyshlennykh Yadov [Methodological
Approaches to Determining the Threshold of the Irritating Action of
Industrial Poisons]. Gig. Tr. Prof. Zabol. No. 2:26-30.
C-7. The threshold of irritating action for 4-h NHa exposure of
white rats was 215 +8.4 mg/m3. Several indexes were used, includ-
ing respiratory frequency, acuity of sense of smell, and intensified
cell migration to the surface of the mucosa of the upper respiratory
tract and lungs.
3-133 Jedrychowski, W., K. Prochowska, J. Garlinska, and J. Bruzgielewicz.
1979. Wystepowanie Przewjektych Nieswostych Chorob Ukjadu Oddechowego
Wsrod Pracownikiv Zak^adu Zywic Winylowych [Occurrence of Chronic
Nonspecific Diseases of the Respiratory Tract in Workers of a Vinyl
Resin Plant]. Przegl. Lek. 36(9):679-682.
D-7. Workers were examined, from different departments with different
atmospheres. One group may have been more exposed to NHs (0.42-
13.39 mg/m3), along with other compounds, and had significantly higher
incidence of chronic bronchitis and lower FEVj values.
3-212 Kachnyi, G. G., and V. G. Vinogradov. 1980. Sostoyanie Slizistoi
Obolochki Verkhnikh Dykhatel'nyk'n Putei u Tkachikh i Rabochikh
Karasil'no-Karbonizatsionnogo Tsekha [State of Upper Respiratory
Tract Mucosa in Weavers and Workers in the Textile Dyeing and Car-
bonizing Departments] . Zh. Ushn., Nos. Gorl. Bolezn. No. 3:35-38.
D—. Workers who dyed and cleaned wool by carbonization were ex-
posed to vapors of 3.0-5.0 mg CH3C02H/m3, 0.5-1.0 mg H2S04/m3, 10-
20 mg NH3/m3, 2-6.0 mg dust/m3, and 0.06-0.08% C02.
3-134 Kane, L. E., C. S. Barrow, and Y. Alarie. 1979. A Short-Term Test
to Predict Acceptable Levels of Exposure to Airborne Sensory Irri-
tants. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 40(3):207-229.
C-6. A discussion of the use of the short-term test described in
Barrrow et al. (1978) [3-110] in proposing threshold limit values,
short-term exposure limits, etc.
3-052 Kass, I., N. Zamel, C. A. Dobry, and M. Holzer. 1972. Bronchiectasis
Following Ammonia Burns of the Respiratory Tract. A Review of Two
Cases. Chest. 62:282-285.
B-9. High dose symptoms; actual exposure unknown, but extreme.
3-053 Kazasov, P. L. Balabayeva, G. Petrova, and M. Mikhov. 1971.
Prouchvane Zamyrsyavaneto na Atmosferiya Vyzdukh v Raiona na
Azotnotoroviya Zavod Krai Stara Zagora i Vliyanieto mu Vyrkhu
Zdraveto na Haselenieto [Study of Air Pollution Around the Nitrogen
Fertilizer Plant Near Stara Zagora and Its Effects on the Health of
the Population]. Khig. Zdraveopa. 14:46-56 (Bui).
85
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D-4. The atmosphere in the region around a nitrogen fertilizer plant
was polluted with several measured compounds, including NHs (some
areas exceeding the M.A.C. in 1968 and 1969). A study of the popu-
lation indicated several possible changes in the blood and immuno-
biological states.
3-135 Kent, P. W. , and J. G. Widdicombe. 1977. Neurophysiological Con-
trol of Glycoprotein Secretion in the Tracheal Epithelium. Biochem.
Soc. Trans. 5(2) :4U-417.
D-7. The trachea of an anaesthetized cat was labeled with 3H and
35S medium, followed by exposure to NHs (1:100). The labeled se-
creted mucus obtained afterwards was released from goblet cells and
had a low sulfate and high sialic acid content.
3-048 Keplinger, M. L. , K. J. Schadeberg, J. W. Goode, and J. C. Calandra.
1973. Irritation Threshold Evaluation Study with Ammonia. In:
Report to International Institute of Ammonia Refrigeration. In-
dustrial Bio-Test Laboratories, Inc. Northbrook, Illinois. 13 pp.
A- 12. Subjective evaluation of the respiratory irritation due to
acute exposure of human adults to low levels of NHs (32-134 ppm) .
5-367 Kettner, H. 1978. Indoor Contamination by Chemical Substances and
Their Hygienic Significance. In: Org. Verunreinig. Umwelt: Erkennen,
Bewerten, Vermidern, K. Aurand, V. Haesselbarth, E. Lahmann, G.Muller,
and W. Niemitz, eds. Erich Schmidt Verlag. Berlin, Germany, pp.
448-453 (Ger.).
C--. Maximum allowable indoor air concentrations in the USSR:
Acrolein 0.1 mg/m3
NH3 0.2 mg/m3
HCN 0.002 mg/m3
HCHO 0.01 mg/m3
MeOH 0.5 mg/m3
3-136 Kirkov, V. 1977. Kyrkhu Nevro-Vegetativnata Reaktivnost na Rabotnitsi
ot Amonyachnoto Proizvodstvo [Neuroautonomic Response of Workers in
the Ammonia Industry]. Suvrem. Med. 28(10): 10-13 (Bui).
C-5. Signs of overexcitability in various nerve tracts were seen
at the end of the workday in employees of a NHa production plant
(perhaps 10-50 mg/m3 in the atmosphere).
3-210 Klavis, G. 1958. Ammoniakvergiftungen und ihre Folgen unter
Beriicksichtigung neuer Kasuistik [Ammonia Poisoning and its Conse-
quences, with New Case Reports]. Arch. Toxikol. 17:155-158.
C — . Severe poisoning symptoms in workers after acute exposures to
NH3 escaping from a defective safety valve were described. Exposure
levels were not measured. Klavis believed that workers can tolerate
86
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< 100 mg NH3/m3 without chronic irritation (the MAC was 70 mg/m3).
Protective masks should be worn at higher concentrations.
3-137 Kondrashov, V. A. 1978. 0 Sootnosheniyakh Opasnosti Otravleniya
Parami i Gazami Toksicheskikh Veshchestv pri Kozhnom i Ingalyatsionnam
Putyakh Vozdeistviya [Relative Hazards of Poisoning with Fumes and
Gases of Toxic Substances with Their Dermal and Inhalation Routes
of Action]. Gig. Tr. Prof. Zabol. No.2:34-38.
C-8. The 5-min to 1-h LC50 for rats by inhalation of NH3 is 100
mg/ m3 compared to 1,300-200 mg/m3 by skin absorption in the same
period.
3-054 Kornienko, A. P. 1972. Gigenicheskaya Otsenka Smesi Aerozolya Sernoi
Kisloty, Sernistogo Angidrida, Okislov Azota i Ammiaka kak Zagrayaznitelei
Atmosfernogo Vozdukha [Hygienic Evaluation of a Mixture of Sulfuric
Acid Aerosol, Nitrogen Oxides, and Ammonia as an Atmospheric Pollutant].
Gig. Sanit. 37(4):8-10.
D—. A study primarily aimed at investigating the joint action of
a mixture of compounds. The effect obtained was of the summation
type. Human odor threshold and EEG and fat resorptive action, de-
fensive reflex action, cholinesterase activity, liver function, blood,
and tissue studies were done.
3-138 Krystev, E., M. Kolev, and P. Konstantinov. 1978. Prouchvaniya
Vyrkhu Mikroklimata i Smyrtnostta pri Puicheta Broileri [Microcli-
mate and the Mortality Among Turkey Poult Broilers], Vet. Med. Nauki.
15(1):8-13 (Bui).
C-7. Groups of 23 turkeys exposed for 20-25 days to 14, 26, or 55
mg NHa/m3 and apparently no ^S showed statistically significant
increased mortality (8.55, 24.00, 36.90%) with increased NH3 con-
centration. Apparently no controls were used.
3-171 Kujawska et al. 1977. Analiza Sprawnosci Wentylacyjnej PJuc
Pracownikow Narazonych na Dziatonie Gazow i Pyjow Drazniazcych
[Analysis of Lung Function in Workers Exposed to Irritating Dusts
and Gases]. Med. Pr. 28(5):4l9-426.
B-10. Men occupationally exposed to NHs alone or in combination
with dust and NO had decreased FEVi values. The effect was further
x
enhanced in smokers.
3-055 Kustov, V. V. 1967. Means for Determining the Maximum Allowable
Concentration of Toxic Products of Natural Human Metabolism. In:
Obshchiye Voprosy Promyshlenoy Toksikologii [General Questions of
Industrial Toxicology]. Moscow, U.S.S.R. NASA Technical Transla-
tion, TT F-11,358, National Aeronautics and Space Administration,
Washington, D.C. pp. 63-65.
87
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C-7. Gives some biochemical indexes that may be useful for esti-
mating exposure.
3-187 Larson, T. V., D. S. Covert, R. Frank, and R. J. Charlson. 1977.
Ammonia in the Human Airways: Neutralization of Inspired Acid Sul-
fate Aerosols. Science. 197:161-163.
B-ll. In humans, natural expired NHg concentrations ranged from 7
to 520 |jg/m3, varying with the last airway segment traversed. Pos-
sible neutralization of H2S04 aerosols by
3-140 Lee, S. T. , and Y. J. Lee. 1977. Survey on Status of Working En-
vironment in Some Industries. Koryo Taehakkyo Uikwa Taehak Chapchi.
14(1):161-170 (Kor).
D-7. Only one data point for NH3 is given: 43 ppm in the air of
an ammonia room in the chemical industry. No toxicity data are given.
3-219 Legters, L. 1980. Biological Effects of Short, High-Level Exposure
to Gases: Ammonia. AD-A094501, National Technical Information
Service, U.S. Department of Commerce, Springfield, Virginia. 87
pp.
A — . Extensive review of the animal and man NHs exposure literature
(mainly English), primarily in narrative form. Includes an appendix
with summaries and critical analyses of the literature.
3-058 Lehmann, K. B. 1886. Experimentelle Studien iiber den Einfluss
technisch und hygienisch wichtiger Case und Dampfe auf den Organismus.
(Teil I und II--Amoniak und Salzauregas) [Experimental Studies on
the Effect of Technically and Hygienically Important Gases and Vapors
on the Organism. (Parts I and II — Ammonia and Hydrogen Chloride
Gas)]. Arch. Hyg. 5:1-126.
B-9. Dose-response experiments with cats, rabbits, guinea pigs,
and rats.
3-059 Leonardos, G. , D. Kendall, and N. Barnard. 1969. Odor Threshold
Determinations of 53 Odorant Chemicals. J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc.
19:91-95.
A- 11. Definitive paper on the subject.
3-060 Lepine, C., and R. Soucy. 1962. La bronchopneumopathie d'origine
toxique. Evolution physiopathologique [Bronchopneumopathy of Toxic
Origin: Physiopathological Evolution]. Union Med. Can. 91:7-11;
copyrighted English translation provided by the National Institute
of Occupational Safety and Health, Rockville, Maryland.
C-7. The victim of an occupational accidental exposure to NHs (con-
centration and duration not given) showed decreased maximum respira-
tory capacity and vital capacity over a 16-mo period.
88
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3-202 Lillie, R. J. 1970. Air Pollutants Affecting the Performance of
Domestic Animals: A Literature Review. Agriculture Handbook No.
380. Animal Science Research Division, Agriculture Research Ser-
vice, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.
pp. 14-19.
D--. Primarily a review article with 28 references. One short sec-
tion comparing poultry and human susceptibility to NHs, indicating
that poultry may have a slightly higher tolerance.
3-189 Lotoshnikova, Yu. V. 1979. K Gigienicheskoi Otsenke Epoksidno-
Furfurol'nogo Pokrytiya [Hygienic Assessment of an Epoxy-Furfural
Coating]. Khim. Prom-st., Ser.: Toksikol. Sanit. Khim. Plastmass.
No. 4:29-30.
D-4. Epoxy-furfural coating, used on concrete for anti-corrosion
purposes, emits many substances after its application, especially
NH3 and furfural. At no time did levels exceed the maximum allowable
concentrations, and only traces were left after 4 mo. Slight odor
was detected (0.0126 mg furfural/m3, 0.042 mg NH3/m3). Significant
changes in human dark adaptation were seen.
3-062 MacEwen, J. D. , J. Theodore, and E. H. Vernot. 1970. Human Expo-
sure to E.E.L. Concentrations of Monoethylhydrazine. AMRL-TR-70-102
Paper No. 23. Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory, Aerospace Med.
Div., Air Force Systems Command, W-P AFB, Ohio. 9 pp.
C-8. Six men tested found 30 and 50 ppm NHs to have a moderate or
strong odor intensity, and no to moderate nasal and eye irritation.
Subjective evaluation only.
3-144 Makshanova, E. I. 1977. Hekotorye Pokazateli Zabolevaemosti i
Nespetsificheskoi Reaktivnosti Organizma Robachikh Otdelochnogo
Tsekha Kozhevenogo Proizvodstva [Some Morbidity Indexes and Non-
specific Responses of Leather Industry Finishing Department Workers].
Zdravookhr. Beloruss. No.9:85-86.
D-5. The air in the title area is polluted by NH3, esters, xylene,
toluene, and turpentine in concentrations at or somewhat above the
maximum permissible limits. The workers suffered from catarrh of
the upper respiratory tract, angina, bronchitis, hypertonic disease,
neuralgia, neuritis, and radiculitis.
3-172 Marschang, F., and C. Petre. 1971. Der NH3-Gehalt der Stalluft
und sein Einfluss auf die Morbiditat und die Tierverluste in
Rindmaststallen [The NH3 Content of Stall Air and Its Influences on
Morbidity and Animal Losses in Cattle Fattening Houses]. Zentralbl.
Vet. Med. B. 18:646-654.
C-8. There was a direct relationship between too high concentration
of NH3 (3-2,000 ppm by volume) in the buildings, and the development
of disease and the severity of signs of the disease (mainly respira-
tory disorders).
89
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3-173 Martin, W., and A. C. Stern. 1974. The World1s Air Quality Man-
agement Standards, Vol. I. EPA-650/9-75-001-a, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, B.C. 15 pp.
D--. In seven other countries, the ambient air quality standards
were 0.1-0.5 mg NH3/m3, for 24 h.
3-064 Mayan, M. H., and C. P. Merilan. 1972. Effects of Ammonia Inhala-
tion on Respiratory Rate of Rabbits. J. Anim. Sci. 34:448-452.
B-ll. Exposure of rabbits to 50 or 1QO ppm for 3 h caused increased
depth of respiration, increased blood urea nitrogen and C02, and no
pathological changes in several organs examined.
3-145 Mickiewicz, L. 1978. Effect of Industrial Pollution on the Mucous
Membrane of Upper Respiratory Tract. Med. Pr. 29(1):65-68.
D—. A review of upper respiratory tract effects of ammonia as well
as of cotton, wood, and rock salt dusts; HC1; H2S04; and F compounds.
3-065 Mikhailov, V. I., Z. I. Pilipyuk, V. S. Georgievsky, B. S. Katkovsky,
and A. N. Kalinina. 1969. Vliyanie Malykh Kontsentratsii Ammiaka
na Nekotonye Biokhimicheskie i Fiziologicheskie Pokazateli u Cheloveka
[The Effect of Low Concentrations of Ammonia on Certain Biochemical
and Physiological Indices in Man]. Gig. Tr. Prof. Zabol. 13(10):53-55.
C-8. Experimental acute exposure of men to low levels of NH3 (3 or
13 mg/m3) temporarily altered oxygen consumption.
3-146 Mikhailuts, A. P. 1977. Vliyanie Nizkikh Kontsentratsii Ammiaka
na Lits, Perenesshikh Ostrye Zabolevaniya Verkhnikh Dykhatel'nykh
Putei [The Effect of Low Concentrations of Ammonia on Persons Re-
covered from Acute Diseases of the Upper Respiratory Tract]. Gig.
Sanit. 9:16-19.
B-9. People in the 2 to 4 days after convalescence were more sensi-
tive to the action of low concentrations of NHs than practically
healthy people. Odor thresholds of other chemicals, pneumotachometry,
and cardiointervalography were studied.
3-213 Mikhailuts, A. P. 1980. Vozdeistvie Zagryaznenii Atmosfernogo Vozdukha
Territorii Khimicheskogo Predpriyatiya na Rabotayushchikh, Imeyushchikh
Khronicheskie Ishemicheskuyu Bolezn1 Serdtsa, Bronkhit i Pnevmoniyu
[Effect of Air Pollution in the Area of a Chemical Plant on Workers
with Chronic Ischemic Heart Disease, Bronchitis, or Pneumonia].
Gig. Tr. Prof. Zabol. No. 7:1-3.
D--. Chemical plant workers afflicted with the title diseases and
exposed during 68-72% of their work shift to NH3, NO , S02, and H2S04
[presumably as a mixture] at total concentrations or 0.43-0.61 the
MAC (MPC) values showed rapid loss of olfactory response to benzene
90
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vapors and an increase of heartbeat and breathing rates despite only
light to moderate exertion. Changes absent or barely detectable in
healthy controls.
3-147 Mikhailuts, A. P., V. A. Poponnikov, I. V. Golubev, and S. A. Lambina.
1979. Vliyanie Ammiaka i Dvuokisi Azota na Razvitie Respiratornykh
Mikrobnykh Infektsii [Effect of Ammonia and Nitrogen Dioxide on
Respiratory Microbial Infections]. Gig. Sanit. No. 8:8-11.
B-10. Chronic exposure of rats to low concentrations of NHa (3 or
6 mg/m3) and repeated innoculation with respiratory-infection microbes
caused increased pathomorphology compared to rats with no gas exposure.
3-206 Mitchell, H. A. 1963. Ammonia Tolerance of the California Leaf-
Nosed Bat. J. Mammal. 44(4):543-551.
B-9. Acute exposure of bats to 500-5,500 ppm NHg indicates that
they are much less sensitive than humans. Organ damage and decreased
respiratory and heart rates were seen. The maximum sublethal concen-
tration tolerated for 9 h was 3,000 ppm.
3-148 Montague, T. J., and A. R. Macneil. 1980. Mass Ammonia Inhalation.
Chest. 77(4):496-498.
C-10. Fourteen men, accidentally exposed to high concentrations of
ammonia vapors for up to several minutes, were differentiated by
physical examination into mildly or moderately affected groups.
All had significant respiratory distress, some combination of pharyn-
geal or pleuristic chest pains, cough or dyspnea. Those with abnormal
chest findings on admission had longer hospital stays, but both groups
responded well to treatment.
3-066 Mulder, J. S., and H. 0. van der Zalm. 1967. A Fatal Case of Am-
monia Poisoning. Tijdschr. Soc. Geneeskd. 45:458-460; copyrighted
English translation provided by the National Institute of Occupa-
tional Safety and Health, Rockville, Maryland.
C-8. During an accidental spill, a male worker was exposed to roughly
30,000 ppm NH3 for several minutes during physical exertion. The
first cardiac arrest occurred about 4 h after exposure, and the fatal
cardiac arrest 6 h later. On autopsy, destruction of deep lung tissue;
pharyngeal, epiglottal, and pulmonary edema; and other respiratory
damage were found.
3-067 Nakatani, T., and S. Sugano. 1971. Survey Report Concerning Damages
Caused by Air Pollution Due to Waste Gases from Sanitation Center
in Yabase. Part I. Effects on the Human Body. Nakadori Byoin Iho
[Nakadori Hosp. Bull.]. 11:796-800.
D--. The acute and chronic respiratory complaints of 46 people with-
in 500 m of a sanitation center. It was believed that most of the
problems were due to nitrogen compounds but. no concentrations were
given. No controls.
91
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3-068 NAS/NRC, National Academy of Science/National Research Council Com-
mittee on Toxicology. 1972. Guides for Short-Term Exposures of
the Public to Air Pollutants. IV. Guide for Ammonia. PB-244336,
National Technical Information Service, ILS. Department of Commerce,
Springfield, Virginia. 10 pp.
A—. Review of effects on humans, animals, plants, and materials.
3-214 Nefedov, Yu. G., V. P. Savina, N. L. Sokolov, and V. E. Ryzhkova.
1969. Issledovanie Mikroprimesei v Vydykhaemom Chelovekom Vozdukhe
[Trace Contaminants in the Air Exhaled by Man]. Kosm. Biol. Med.
3(5):71-77.
D—. Ammonia levels found in the breath of healthy 25 to 35-y-old
people were 0.1-1.50 mg/m3 in smokers and 0.4-1.93 mg/m3 in nonsmokers.
6-124 Newsome, J. R., V. Norman, and V. L. Zaratzian. 1965. Vapor Phase
Analysis of Cigarette Smoke. Tob. Sci. 9:102-110; or Tobacco
l6l(4):24-32.
D—. Levels in tobacco smoke (|Jg/40 ml puff):
Unfiltered Filtered
Methanol
HCHO
Acrolein
HCN
H2S
NH3
13
4.1
8.2
32
3.4
12
10
3.6
7.9
29
3.1
13
3-203 Niden, A. H. 1968. Effects of Ammonia Inhalation on the Terminal
Airways. Eleventh Aspen Emphysema Conference. 11:41-44.
D-4. An expanded abstract, so few data are given. Acute exposure
of mice to NHs (up to 280,000 ppm) caused changes in capillaries,
alveoli, and nonciliated bronchiolar cells (examination by electron
microscopy).
3-190 NIOSH, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. 1979.
Working Safely with Anhydrous Ammonia. PB80-184427, U.S. Department
of Health, Education, and Welfare, Cincinnati, Ohio. 23 pp.
D--. A general common sense safety booklet. It stresses the tox-
icity, rapid changes of volume and pressure, and the cooling capac-
ity of ammonia. First aid for NH3 exposure consists of flushing
with water and calling a doctor. Accident avoidance is using the
proper equipment in the proper way. Lists causes of most accidents.
3-070 Nizhegorodov, V. M., and I. T. Kalinin. 1967. The Effect of Pro-
longed Exposure to Low Ammonia Concentrations on the Content of
Vitamins A, Bj, 63, PP and Ascorbic Acid in Animals. Hyg. Sanit.
32(1-3)-.277-280.
92
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D-6. Exposing rats to 20 mg NHs/m3 for 3-7 mo affected metabolism
significantly as well as the contents of vitamins B1? 82, PP, and
ascorbic acid in the animals.
3-071 Nizhegorodov, V. M. , and Ya. L. Markhotskii. 1971. Vitamin B6
Requirement for Workers Occupied in the Manufacture of Nitrogen
Fertilizers. Hyg. Sanit. 36(7-9):478-480.
C-7. The vitamin Bg requirement of workers exposed to MS, NO ,
and CO was increased, but only the CO concentration was given in
the article.
3-211 NRC, National Research Council, Committee on Medical and Biologic
Effects of Environmental Pollutants, Subcommittee on Ammonia. 1979.
Ammonia. University Park Press. Baltimore, Maryland. 38A pp.
A--. Authoritative review of properties, chemical interactions,
monitoring, sources and sinks, transportation, toxicology, human
health effects, and effects on materials.
3-215 OAQPS, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards. 1977. Air
Pollutant Assessment Report on Mobile Source Ammonia Emissions.
Strategies and Air Standards Division, Office of Air Quality Plan-
ning and Standards, Office of Air and Waste Management, Environmental
Protection Agency. Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. 27 pp.
C--. Tailpipe emissions from cars equipped with catalytic converters
averaged 3.5 mg NH3/m3 when properly adjusted and 14 mg NH3/m3 when
improperly adjusted. Extensive discussion of a series of tests,
and possible NH3 levels in enclosed areas and in congested traffic.
Includes a review of NH3 health effects literature.
3-074 Patty, F. A. 1963. Alkaline Materials. In: Industrial Hygiene
and Toxicology. Vol. 2. Toxicology. 2nd ed. D. W. Fassett and
D. D. Irish, eds. Interscience Publishers, New York, New York.
pp. 859-869.
D--. Short review of properties, uses, and toxicity of NH3 and other
compounds. Considers mostly relatively high concentrations.
3-075 Pernot, C. , C. Huriet, A. Midon, and G. Grun. 1972. L'intoxica-
tion aique professionnelle par le gaz ammoniac. A propos de quarte
observations. [Acute Occupational Poisoning by Ammonia Gas. A Study
of Four Cases] Arch. Mai. Prof. Med. Trav. Secur. Soc. 33:5-12.
B-6. Accidental exposure of four men following the explosion of a
tank containing NHs gas. Some acute symptoms, and apparent recovery
with few or no sequelae.
3-204 Phipps, R. J., and P. S. Richardson. 1976. The Effects of Irrita-
tion at Various Levels of the Airway Upon Tracheal Mucus Secretion
in the Cat. Am. J. Physiol. 261:563-581.
93
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D-6. A mechanism study. NHs exposure caused coughing followed by
slow, deep breathing. Inhalation into the lower airways caused in-
creased mucus output from the isolated trachea.
3-107 Pliskovskaya, G. N. , A. L. Germanova, N. G. Ivanov, E. A. II1 in, V.
M. Milyavskii and A. D. Noskin. 1975. Opredelenie Soderzhaniya v
Atmosfere Maketov Biosputnikov Ammiaka i Podkhod k ego Normirovaniyu
[Determination of the Ammonia Content in the Atmosphere of Biosatel-
lite Mockups and a Method for Its Normalization]. Kosm. Biol.
Aviakosmicheskaya Med. 9 (2): 27-32.
C-6. Tests with 60 rats exposed to NHa concentrations for 4 h de-
termined the threshold of irritating action to be 228 mg/m3, the
threshold of acute action to be 462 mg/m3, and the no-effect level
to be 115 mg/m3. Rats held for 30 days in conditions of hypokinesia
before testing had threshold values roughly half those for normal
rats.
3-151 Quarles, C. L. , and D. J. Fagerberg. 1979. Evaluation of Ammonia
Stress and Coccidiosis on Broiler Performance. Poult. Sci. 58(2):
465-468.
C-10. Groups of 80 broiler chickens were exposed to 0, 50, or 100
ppm NHs from 28 to 53 days of age, and were orally inoculated with
coccidia at 36 days of age. By day 42, the exposed groups had sig-
nificantly decreased body weights, and the ammonia-exposed groups
with coccidiosis infection had mild intestinal and airsac lesions,
the birds exposed to 50 ppm NH3 the most affected.
3-185 Quarles, C. L., and H. F. Kling. 1974. Evaluation of Ammonia and
Infectious Bronchitis Vaccination Stress on Broiler Performance and
Carcass Quality. Poult. Sci. 53:1592-1596.
C-9. A total of 320 broiler chicks was exposed to 0, 25, or 50 ppm
MS from 4-8 weeks of age, and were vacinnated in that time. By
week 8, broilers exposed to ammonia had significantly reduced body
weights and feed efficiencies. At weeks 6 and 8, broilers had a
severe airsacculitis condition.
3-152 Reece, F. N. , B. D. Lott, and J. W. Beaton. 1980. Ammonia in the
Atmosphere During Brooding Affects Performance of Broiler Chickens.
Poult. Sci. 59 (3): 486-488.
C-10. Less useful model than the swine reports. Eighty chicks were
exposed to 50, 100, or 200 ppm for 28 days, which caused decreased
body weight, with recovery to normal weight within 8 days after ex-
posure stopped for the lower levels. 100 and 200 ppm caused con-
siderable mortality, but authors suggest that low levels are more
damaging to performance on a per-unit-of-ammonia basis.
3-199 Renne, R. A., and K. E. McDonald. 1979. Toxic Effects of Geothermal
Effluents: Acute and Subacute Inhalation Toxicology of Hydrogen
94
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Sulfide and Ammonia in Rodents. In: Pac. Northwest Lab. Annu. Rep.
1979 DOE. Assist. Sec. Environ. Pt. 1: Biomedical Science, p. 275.
D--. Part of an annual report, so this reference is just a summary.
An initial 7-day exposure to 250 ppm NHa caused no significant changes
in rats or guinea pigs. A subsequent 7-day exposure to the same
level caused a mild increase in the incidence of acute respiratory
tract inflammatory lesions in guinea pigs. Subsequent exposure in-
stead to 220 ppm H2S caused mild interstitial pneumonitis. Mild
chronic nephritis was also present in both groups.
3-155 Richard, D., G. Bouley, and C. Boudene. 1978a. Effects of Ammonia
Gas Continuously Inhaled by Rats and Mice. Bull. Eur. Physiopathol.
Respir. 14(5)=573-582.
B-ll. A good study, the only limit being the high NH3 level used
(500 ppm). Rats seemed able to adapt to this exposure. Mice were
more susceptible to airborne infection after 7-d exposure.
3-154 Richard, D. , J. M. Jouany, and C. Boudene. 1978b. Toxicit£ aigue
par voie a^rienne du gaz ammoniac chez le lapin [Acute Inhalation
Toxicity of Ammonia in Rabbits]. C. R. Acad. Sci. [D] (Paris).
287(4):375-378.
B-10. Acute exposure of rabbits to very high levels (1,000-20,000
ppm) by artificial ventilation (and so of limited use in this task)
caused pulmonary edema and cardiovascular dysfunction.
3-157 Richardson, P. S., R. J. Phipps, K. Balfre, and R. L. Hall. 1978.
The Role of Mediators, Irritants and Allergens in Causing Mucin
Secretion from the Trachea. Ciba Found. Symp. 54:111-131.
C-6. An anaesthetized cat with 3 cannulae inserted into the trachea
was exposed to NHs between 0.33 and 0.1%, directly into the lungs
or into the trachea in different experiments. Coughing and rapid
breathing occurred during lung exposure. Increased 35S-labeled mucin
output in the tracheal segment occurred during both exposures. This
response was apparently both nervously mediated and partly due to
. local excitation.
3-217 Rumyantsev, G. I., T. A. Kozlova, I. K. Atyakina, E. P. Vishnevskaya,
S. M. Novikov, V. A. Relsov, and L. A. Porokhova. 1980. Problems
of Industrial Hygiene in Ammonium Sulfate Production. Gig. Sanit.
No. 8:66-67 (Russ.).
D--. Workers were exposed to H2S04, S02, NHs, and dust, none exceed-
ing the permissible limits. Heart-contraction frequency, arterial
pressure, hetnodynamic index, response time of erythemal-motor reactions,
and other parameters indicate that the workers belong in the first
and second category of severity.
95
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3-160 Sadasivudu, B., and C. Radha Krishna Murthy. 1978. Effects of Am-
monia on Monoamine Oxidase and Enzymes of GABA Metabolism in Mouse
Brain. Arch. Int. Physiol. Biochim. 86(l):67-82.
D-8. Groups of six mice were exposed for 2 or 5 days to unknown
but high concentrations of NHg vapor. After 2 days, monoamine ox-
idase activity had decreased in the brain stem and cerebellum, and
increased in the cerebral cortex. On day 5, MAO activity had in-
creased in the cerebellum, increased further in the cortex, and
showed no change in the brain stem over day 2. Enzyme levels of
GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) metabolism also fluctuated. The
implications are discussed.
3-159 Sadasivudu, B., T. Indira Rao, and C. Radhakrishna Murthy. 1979.
Chronic Metabolic Effects of Ammonia in Mouse Brain. Arch. Int.
Physiol. Biochim. 87(5)=871-875.
D-8. Methods the same as Sadasivudu and Radhakrishna Murthy (1978.).
Glutamate, aspartate, alanine, glutamine, GABA, RNA, protein, (Na
and K )-ATPase, and the enzymes in glutamate metabolism were mea-
sured in three regions of the brain (cerebellum, cerebral cortex,
and brain stem). Results indicated that the brain was in a state
of more depression and less of excitation.
3-076 Saifutdinov, M. M. (alternatively transliterated as Sayfutdinov)
1966. Maximum Permissible Concentration of Ammonia in the Atmos-
phere. Hyg. Sanit. 31(4-6): 171-176.
B-9. Rats exposed to low levels (0.2-20.0 mg/m3) of NH3 had short-
ened reflex response time and some altered blood and urine chemistry.
Few actual data given.
3-216 Savina, V. P., L. N. Mukhamedieva, M. P. Kalandarova, V. V. Zhuravlev,
K. N. Mikos, T. I. Kuznetsova, E. I. Nikitin, and K. V. Grishina.
1980. Evaluation of the Effect of Prolonged and Continuous Exposure
of a Human Subject to Low (2 mg/m3) Ammonia Concentrations under
Conditions of an Airtight Chamber. Gig. Tr. Prof. Zabol. No. 12:63
(Russ.).
B-7. Exposure of humans to 2.16 rag NH3/m3 for 35 d caused a slight
increase in 02 consumption, increased NHs levels in the blood and
exhaled breath and inhibition of the oxidative-reductive processes.
All changes disappeared 3 d after exposure stopped.
3-078 Sayfutdinov, M. M. 1968. Experimental Data Proposed as a Basis
for the Determination of Maximal Allowable Ammonia Concentration in
Atmospheric Air. In: USSR Literature on Air Pollution and Related
Occupational Diseases; A Survey. B. S. Levine (Translator). 17:67-76.
PB180-522T, National Technical Information Service, U.S. Department
of Commerce, Springfield, Virginia.
96
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B-7. The effect of low NHs concentrations on the cerebral-cortical
electrical activity of five people.
3-079 Sayfutdinov, M. M. 1973. Sanitary Characteristics of Ammonia and
Validation of Its Maximum Permissible Concentration in Atmospheric
Air. In: American Institute of Crop Ecology (AICE) Survey of USSR
Air Pollution Literature. Vol. 19. M. Y. Nuttonson, ed., Silver
Spring, Maryland, pp. 58-61.
C-4. A very brief review of several studies by the author, abstracted
elsewhere in this bibliography.
3-080 Schmidt, F. C., and D. C. Vallencourt. 1948. Changes in the Blood
Following Exposure to Gaseous Ammonia. Science. 108:555-556.
B-8. The effects on blood pressure and concentrations of non-protein
nitrogen, urea, and creatinine in the blood from breathing 530-560
ppm NHs by one human male for 4 h are described.
3-081 Sestier, F. , J. Bernier, and R. Charbonneau. 1969. Bronchopneu-
mopathie d'origine toxique par inhalation de vapeurs ammoniacales.
A propos d'un cas [A Case History of Bronchopneumopathy Caused by
the Inhalation of Ammonia Vapors]. Union Med. Can. 98:1903-1910.
B-8. A young woman accidentally exposed to NH3 when refrigerator
tubing ruptured suffered extensive and long-term respiratory com-
plications.
3-082 Shimkin, M. B., A. A. de Lorimier, J. R. Mitchell, and T. P. Burroughs.
1954. Appearance of Carcinoma Following Single Exposure to a Refriger-
ation Ammonia-Oil Mixture. Report of a Case and Discussion of the
Role of Cocarcinogenesis. A.M. A. Arch. Ind. Hyg. Occup. Med. 9:186-193.
C-7. Cannot separate effects of oil (and its contaminants); need
more case studies (ammonia and interactions). Tannic acid is as
likely a co-carcinogen as NH3 in this case (if not more so—repeated
use, known tissue reactions).
3-083 Silver, S. D. , and F. P. McGrath. 1948. A Comparison of Acute Tox-
icities of Etnylene Imine and Ammonia to Mice. J. Ind. Hyg. Toxicol.
30:7-9.
C-ll. Exposure of mice for 10 min to very high levels of NH3 yielded
an LDso of 7.06 + 0.32 mg/L. Practically all deaths occurred during
actual exposure, with rapid recovery after exposure of those who
did not die.
3-084 Silverman, L. , and J. L. Whittenberger. 1949. Blood Changes Due
to Ammonia Inhalation? Science (Comments and Communic.). 109:121-122.
C-8. Comments on the study by Schmidt and Vallencourt (1948), and
comparisons to the study by Silverman et al. (1949) [3-085].
97
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3-085 Silverman, L., J. L. Whittenberger, and J. Muller. 1949. Physio-
logical Response of Man to Ammonia in Low Concentrations. J. Ind.
Hyg. Toxicol. 31:74-78.
A-ll. Human males were experimentally exposed to 500 ppm NHs in
air, which is high by pollution standards.
3-200 Sim, M. , and R. E. Pattle. 1957. Effect of Possible Smog Irritants
on Human Subjects. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 165:1908-1913.
D-7. The effects of sulfuric acid mist exposure for 50 min on an
unknown number of men were alleviated when NHs was introduced in
"sufficient" concentration.
3-086 Sinitsyna, E. L. 1965. Investigations into Certain Aspects of the
Health of People Working in the Main Shops of Tanneries. Hyg. Sanit.
30(4-6) :336-340.
D-6. Variations in the diurnal curves of tannery employees exposed
to unknown, but probably low, levels of
3-087 Sloan, C. H. , and G. P. Morie. 1974. Determinations of Ammonia in
Tobacco and Tobacco Smoke with an Ammonia Electrode. Anal. Chim.
Acta. 69:243-247.
D-12. The amounts of NHs in smoke per cigarette (smoked down to a
27-mm butt) found according to tobacco and/or filter type were:
dark tobacco, 153 Hg; hurley, 102 pg; flue-cured, 51 [Jg; nonfilter,
blended tobacco, 67 |Jg; and filtered, blended tobacco, 36 pg.
3-088 Slot, G. M. J. 1938. Ammonia Gas Burns. An Account of Six Cases.
Lancet. 2:1356-1357.
B-7. Six cases of ammonia burns and respiratory symptoms are de-
scribed. Exposure was due to explosion of a pipe conveying ammonia
gas in an ice cream factory.
3-090 Smirnova, N. A., and N. P. Granik. 1971. Ob Otdalennykh Posledstviyakh
Professional'nykh Ostrykh Porazhenii Dykhatel'nykh Piitei Razdrazhayiishchimi
Gazami [Late After-Ef fects of Occupational Acute Damage to Respiratory
Passages by Irritating Gases]. Gig. Tr. Prof. Zabol. 15(11) : 16-19.
D--. Of 88 cases of occupational poisoning by irritating gases,
only two had been affected by NHg. These two poisonings were ac-
companied by edema of the mucous membrane of the pharynx with sub-
sequent necrosis of the tonsils. In one of the cases, subatrophic
pharyngo-laryngitis was late after-effect.
3-162 Sobonya, R. 1977. Fatal Anhydrous Ammonia Inhalation. Hum. Pathol.
8(3):293-299.
98
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C-10. Morphologic and raorphometric pulmonary alterations in a male
patient with anhydrous NH3 inhalation (accidental, high levels) dying
2 mo after exposure are described. Terminal nocardial (microbially
caused pulmonary infection) pneumonia, cylindrical bronchiectasis
of the lower lobes, and fibrous obliteration of the small airways
were found. The latter may be responsible for the chronic obstruc-
tive lung disease in the survivors of an episode of NH3 inhalation.
3-108 Stolpe, J., and R. Sedlag. 1976. Die Einzel- und Komplexwirkung
von Ammoniak und Schwefelwasserstoff in der Luft a uf kleine
Versuchestiere (Ratten) bei unterschiedlichen Umweltbedingungen.
1. Meitteilung: Die Wirkung von Ammoniak [Single and Complex Effect
of Ammonia and Hydrogen Sulfide in the Air on Small Laboratory Animals
(Rats) Under Various Environmental Conditions. 1. Effect of Ammonia].
Arch. Exp. Veterinaermed. 30(4):533-539.
B-ll. Little effect was seen on rats exposed to 30 ppm NH3. Good
controls, but fairly small sample sizes in all groups.
3-092 Stombaugh, D. P., H. S. Teague, and W. L. Roller. 1969. Effects
of Atmospheric Ammonia on the Pig. J. Anim. Sci. 28:844-847.
B-ll. Good dose range, to 10 ppm. Exposure of pigs to dose range
(10-150 ppm) which included levels useful for pollution studies.
Little respiratory effect seen, particularly after 2 weeks, but ad-
verse effect on feed consumption.
3-218 Stupfel, M., F. Romary, M. Magnier, and J. Polianski. 1971. Com-
parative Acute Toxicity, in Male and Female Mice, of Some Atmospheric
Pollutants: Automobile Exhaust, NO , S02, 03, NH3, and CO. C. R.
Soc. Biol. 165:1869-1872 (Fre). X
D—. Mice were exposed to 12,000 ppm NH3 for 20 min or 11,000 ppm
NH3 for 40 min, with overall mortalities of 71 and 54%, respectively.
Differences were reported in the mortality rates of.the sexes, those
for males being greater.
3-209 Taiganides, E., and R. K. White. 1969. The Menace of Noxious Gases
in Animal Units. Trans. ASAE (Am. Soc. Agric. Eng.). 12(3):359-362.
D--. A review of the occurrence of H2S, NH3, COg, and CH4 in animal
units, and their toxicities to different species. Includes a dis-
cussion of potentially lethal situations and preventive measures.
3-163 Trubitskaya, G. P., A. N. Boiko, R. F. Komarova, and N. P. Cherednichenko.
1978. Vozdeistsvie Khimicheskogo Faktora Maloi Intensivnosti na Organizm
Detei v Usloviyakh Primeneniya Polimernykh Materialov v Stroitel'stve
[Effect of a Low-Intensity Chemical Factor on Children Under Conditions
of the Use of Polymeric Materials in Construction]. Pediatriya (Moscow).
No. 8:26-29.
99
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D-7. Four hundred and three children (2- to 7-y-old) in three dif-
ferent schools were studied for possible effects of air pollutants
from the use of polymeric construction materials. Test groups (with
0.124 or 0.134 mg NH3/m3, trace or 0.124 mg phthalates per cubic
meter, and 0.010 or 0.017 mg HCHO/m3) showed increased immunobio-
logic changes and allergic-type reactions compared to the control
group (0.92 mg NH3/m3, trace of phthalates, and 0.010 mg HCHO/m3).
3-164 Ulfvarson, U. 1978. Chemical Hazards in the Paint Industry. Proc.
Int. Symp. Control Air Pollut. Work. Environ. Part 2:62-75.
D-8. Measurements of dust, NH3, and solvent levels in 10 factories
of the Swedish paint industry indicated that all were generally above
hygienic health standards. Twenty-six percent of the 244 employees
(in nine different job categories) interviewed had some skin changes
on their hands or under their arms. However, NH3 concentrations
were poorly presented, not correlated with types of jobs and skin
changes, and the employees washed their hands with solvents or
solvent-containing soaps.
5-424 Urban, C. M. , and R. J. Garbe. 1980. Exhaust Emissions from Mal-
functioning Three-Way Catalyst-Equipped Automobiles. S.A.E. Tech.
Pap. Ser. 1980, 80051. 11 pp.
C--. Maximum emission rates (mg/m3) in four malfunctioning, three-
way catalyst-equipped automobiles:
NH3 254
CN 67
H2S 8
HCHO 3
3-094 USSR State Committee of the Ministers for Construction. 1972.
Sanitarnyye Normy Proyektirovaniya Promyshlennykh Predpriyatiy
[Sanitary Norms for Industrial Enterprise Design]. Izdatel'stvo
Literatury po Stroitel'stvu [Publishing House of Literature on Con-
struction]. Moscow. 96 pp.
C--. In the USSR, the MAC for NH3 in workplaces was 20 mg/m3 and
in populated places was 0.2 mg/m3 (one-time and avg.).
3-189 Valentine, H. 1964. A Study of the Effect of Different Ventila-
tion Rates on the Ammonia Concentrations in the Atmosphere of Broiler
Houses. Br. Poul. Sci. 5:149-159.
B-10. The effect of increased NH3 levels on chickens, and some useful
information on relative humidity and NH3 concentration.
5-413 Van Gemert, L. J., and A. H. Nettenbreijer. 1977. Compilation of
Odour Threshold Values in Air and Water. National Institute for
Water Supply. Leidschendam, The Netherlands, and Central Institute
for Nutrition and Food Research, TNO, Zeist, The Netherlands.
100
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A—. Compilation of odor threshold values reported by different
researchers, for many compounds, including:
Ammonia 0.03-37 mg/m3
HCN < 1.1-6 mg/m3
H2S 0.001-2 mg/m3
HCHO 0.033-2.2 mg/m3
Methanol 4.3-11,700 mg/m3
Acrolein 0.05-4.1 mg/m3
3-165 Verberk, M. M. 1977. Effects of Ammonia in Volunteers. Int. Arch.
Occup. Environ. Health. 39(2):73-82.
A-13. "Experts" (members of the Subcommittee on Toxicology, familiar
with the literature on NH3) and "nonexperts" (nonscience students)
were exposed to NHs with no change in lung function tests, and varying
subjective responses. No actual lung function data given. Authors
felt that results justified Public Emergency Limits as high as 100,
75, and 50 ppm for, respectively, 10, 30, and 60 min.
3-097 Vigliani, E. C., and N. Zurlo. 1955. Erfahrungen der Clinica del
Lavoro mit einigen maximalen Arbeitsplatzkonzentrationen (MAX) von
Industriegiften [Experience of the Labor Clinic with Several Maximal
Workplace Concentrations (MAC) of Industrial Poisons]. Arch.
Gewerbepathol. Gewerbehyg. 13:528-534.
D—. Review. The maximum allowable concentration was 50 ppm NH3
rather than the 100 ppm set by the ACGIH.
3-098 Vikshraitis, Ch. Yu., and N. P. Motejunene. 1972. Kol'poskopicheskoe
Vyyavlenie Predrakasheiki Matki u Zhenshchin, Razbotayushchikh s
Nekotorymi Promyshlennymi Yadami [Colposcopic Recognition of the
Cervical Precancer in Females Working with Certain Industrial Poisons].
Vopr. Onkol. 18(12):4l-45.
D—. Three hundred ninety-three female pharmaceutical workers occu-
pationally exposed to a complex air mixture including 7.2-136.2 mg
NH3/m3 had increased percentage of precancerous lesions of the cervix
compared to the control group.
3-166 Vilisov, B. A., N. S. Irger, L. M. Kremko, Z. N. Pavlyutina, I. G.
Tseluiko, Y. S. Danishevich, and S. S. Khudnitskii. 1980.
Gigienicheskaya Otsenka Nekotorykh Sinteticheskikh Smol i Ikh Vliyanie
na Zabolevaemost1 Rabochikh Liteinykh Tsekhov [Hygienic Evaluation
of Some Synthetic Resins and their Effect on the Health of Molding
Department Workers]. Zdravookhr. Beloruss. No. 1:31-34.
D-7. Foundry core workers usng phenol-formaldehyde copolymer, urea-
formaldehyde, and furan resins suffered a higher rate of disorders
of the skin, liver, kidney and respiratory organs compared to workers
involved in machine building. Metal casting workers using these
resins were ill about half as often and half as long as the core
101
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makers. The casters were more exposed to phenol, NH3, CO, and HCN
than the core makers, who were more exposed to HCHO, methanol, and
furyl alcohol.
3-168 Visek, W. J. , S. K. Clinton, and C. R. Truex. 1978. Nutrition
and Experimental Carcinogenesis . Cornell Vet. 68(l):3-39.
D — . The ammonia ultimately produced in the alimentary tract from
ingested protein may be implicated in colon carcinogenesis.
3-099 Voisin, C., F. Guerrin, H. Robin, D. Furon, and F. Wattel. 1970.
Sequelles fonctionelles respiratoires des intoxications par I1 ammoniac
(A propos de 8 observations) [Respiratory Functional Sequelae of
Ammonia Poisoning]. Poumon Coeur 26:1079-95; copyrighted English
translation provided by the National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health, Rockville, Maryland.
B-ll. A good study for late effects. The pulmonary functional changes
of eight victims of accidental NHs exposures, with different degrees
of severity of the initial acute phase, were followed for 1-5 y after
exposure.
3-100 Walton, M. 1973. Industrial Ammonia Gassing. Brit. J. Ind. Med.
30:78-86.
B-ll. Seven cases of ammonia gassing with 5-y follow-up for six
survivors and post mortem findings for the fatal case are described.
NB: Interaction with smoking described. No quantitative exposure
data.
3-101 Weatherby, J. H. 1952. Chronic Toxicity of Ammonia Fumes by In-
halation. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 81:300-301.
D-7. Twelve male guinea pigs were exposed to a variable NHs concen-
tration (140-200 ppm) , with 170 ppm the desired concentration, in
repeated daily doses for 6-18 weeks. Only in the 18-week exposure
group were mild, though definite, changes seen in the spleens, kid-
neys, livers, and adrenal glands. No consistent changes were found
in hearts, lungs, stomachs, or small intestines.
3-102 Weedon, F. R. , A. Hartzell, and C. Setterstrom. 1940. Toxicity of
Ammonia, Chlorine, Hydrogen Cyanide, Hydrogen Sulphide, and Sulphur
Dioxide Gases. V. Animals. Contrib. Boyce Thompson Inst. 11:365-385.
C-8. A group of eight rats and four mice was exposed to 1,000 ppm
NHa for 16 h, and autopsies were performed 5 months later on two
rats. A few slight eye and respiratory symptoms were observed dur-
ing exposure, and there were no findings on autopsy.
3-170 Wood, R. W. 1979. Behavioral Evaluation of Sensory Irritation Evoked
by Ammonia. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 50(1) : 157-162. > '
102
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D-ll. Behavioral response of six mice to 0.05-0.2% (500-2,000 ppm)
NHs for a maximum of 60 s. The duration of exposure decreased and
the percentage of ammonia deliveries terminated by the trained mice
in response to the NH3 exposure increased with increasing MS concen-
tration.
3-105 Yelfimova, Ye. V., N. S. Yevseyenko, Ya. K. Yushko, N. N. Pushkina,
S. K. Nenosheva, and G. N. Kuznetsova. 1971. Sanitary Evaluation
of Air Pollution in Areas Around Ferrous Metallurgical Plants. In:
American Institute of Crop Ecology (AICE) Survey of U.S.S.R. Air
Pollution Literature. Vol. 7. M. Y. Nutlonson, ed., Silver Spring,
Maryland, pp. 22-26.
D-6. Ammonia (0.3 to 8.0 mg/m3) was only a minor component of gases
emitted from the metallurgical plants. Children living within 1,000 m
of the plant showed more upper respiratory, somatic, and infectious
diseases than did the children living 12,000 m from plant No. 1,
which caused heavy SQz pollution in its environs.
103
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA 460/3-81-027
. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION'NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Ammonia Health Effects
5. REPORT DATE
1981
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
Bonnie L. Carson,
Cerilv M. Beall
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
Harry V. Ellis III, and
Larr H. Baker
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Midwest Research Institute
425 Volker Boulevard
Kansas City, Missouri 64110
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
68-03-2928
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Mobile Source Air Pollution Control
Emission Control Technology Division
Plvmouth Road,, Ann Arbor. Michigan 48102
13. TYPE OF REPORT .'.NO PERIOD COVERED
Final "Report"
AGENCY CODE
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT • .
Health effects literature primarily related to inhalation exposures to ammonia
was collected, evaluated, tabulated, and summarized. Approximately 200 documents
were collected from computerized and manual literature searches covering the period
1886-1981. Pharmacologists and an M.D. epidemiologist rated the documents according
to their applicability to the study and their methodology. The approximately 50
documents considered useful for deriving a range of concern for human exposure to
ammonia from automotive emissions were tabulated. The 50 pages of tables detail
the results of acute, repeated dose, and chronic testing of bats, mice, rats, guinea
pigs, chickens, rabbits, cats, monkeys, dogs, turkeys, swine, and humans as well as
human occupational and accidental studies. Most of the documents evaluated are
described in an annotated bibliography.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COSATI Field/Group
Toxicity
Ammonia
Mammals
Bibliographies
Toxic Tolerances
Occupational Diseases
Respiratory System
Inhalation Health Effects
06T
Release Unlimited
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
Unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
107
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
Unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
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