EPA-560/2-77-002
CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY AND
ECONOMICS IN
ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES
TASK IV-ACTIVATED CARBON
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF TOXIC SUBSTANCES
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460
FEBRUARY 1977
-------
CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY AND ECONOMICS IN
ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES
Task IV - Activated Carbon
Contract No. 68-01-3201
Project Officer
Irving J. Gruntfest
Office of Toxic Substances
Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
Prepared for
Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Toxic Substances
Washington, D.C. 20460
February 1977
-------
NOTICE
This report has been reviewed by the Office of Toxic Substances,
Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for publication. Approval
does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the views and
policies of the Environmental Protection Agency. Mention of tradenames
or commercial products is for purposes of clarity only and does not con-
stitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
-------
PREFACE
This report presents the results of Task IV of a project entitled
"Chemical Technology and Economics in Environmental Perspectives" performed
by Midwest Research Institute (MRI) under Contract No. 68-01-3201 for the
Office of Toxic Substances of the U.S» Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),
Dr. Irving J. Gruntfest was project officer for EPA.
Task IV, "Activated Carbon," was conducted by Mr. Gary L. Kelso, Asso-
ciate Chemical Engineer, and Dr. Thomas W. Lapp, Senior Chemist, who is the
project leader for this contract. This report was prepared under the super-
vision of Dr. Edward W. Lawless, Head, Technology Assessment Section. This
program had MRI Project No. 4101-L.
MRI would like to express its sincere appreciation to those companies
who provided technical information for this report.
Approved for:
MIDWEST RESEARCH INSTITUTE
_J^/U0—•vvt-^rvv-
Bhannon, Director
Environmental and Materials
Sciences Division
February 1977
iii
-------
CONTENTS
Section Page
I Introduction* ........... . 1
Objectives 1
II Summary and Conclusions 3
III Background Information. . . . . 5
General History 5
Raw Materials* ...... 6
Activation Processes 7
Uses 9
References ••••••••• ..... 14
IV Current Industrial Data 15
Methodology of Data Collection 15
Manufacturers* ••••• . 16
Production Quantities* •• 16
Raw Materials and Activation Processes ••• 16
Product Types, Grades, and Uses. •• 20
Consumption Pattern. ....... 20
Product Specifications 20
Product Impurities 26
References 28
-------
CONTENTS (Concluded)
List of Tables
Number Title Page
1 Current U»S« Manufacturers of Activated Carbon. ...... 17
2 Production of Activated Carbon, 1967-1975 18
3 Raw Materials and Activation Processes Used to Produce Car-
bon by Manufacturer 19
4 Activated Carbon Products: Types, Grades, and Uses, by
Manufacturer* ...................... 21
5 Consumption of Activated Carbon in 1972 and 1975 23
VI
-------
SECTION I
INTRODUCTION
The use of charcoal and bone char to decolorize solutions has been em-
ployed for centuries but it was not until shortly before World War I that
industrial production of activated carbon began in the United States. During
World War I, extensive interest in activated carbon developed for use in gas
masks as protection against gas warfare. This development provided an impe-
tus for further research and development during subsequent years. These ex-
panded research and development programs not only led to new industrial ap-
plications for activated carbon but also introduced new raw materials and
activation processes.
At the present time, activated carbon finds widespread usage in the in-
dustrial sector. Large quantities are used in the food and beverage industry,
particularly for the decolor!zation of sugar solutions. Other applications
in this industry include those for alcoholic beverages, fruit juices, vege-
table oils, and many other products. The production of vitamins, hormones,
antibiotics, and other pharmaceutical products employs activated carbon.
Municipal water treatment plants use activated carbon to remove odors, dis-
agreeable tastes, and impurities from drinking water. In all of the above
industries, the majority of the products treated with activated carbon are
ingested into the body. Other industries which employ quantities of activated
carbon include the dry cleaning industry to remove odors and coloration from
spent solvent, the rubber tire reclamation sector to prevent oil staining of
white sidewall tires, the electroplating industry, and the general chemical
industry for improvement of the purity of products, treatment of wastewater
effluents, solvent recovery, gas separation and purification, and catalytic
applications.
OBJECTIVES
In view of the widespread and increasing usage of activated carbon in
the United States, this brief study was initiated to compile information on
various aspects of the manufacture and use of this material. Specifically,
the areas of interest were:
-------
!• The raw materials and methods used for the production of each type
of activated carbon.
2» Manufacturers and annual production volumes for the past 8 years.
3. Consumption patterns and the approximate quantity consumed in each
area.
4. The different grades of final product available from each producer.
5. Product quality specifications with respect to the presence of heavy
metal ions and/or polynuclear aromatic compounds in the final product.
6. The procedures used to insure removal of the impurities stated in
Item 5.
-------
SECTION II
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Activated carbon finds widespread usage in numerous industrial appli-
cations and in municipal water treatment. Included in the industrial sector
are many uses directly related to products for human consumption, such as
sugar, alcoholic beverages, fruit juices, vitamins, hormones, and many oth-
ers. Municipal water treatment plants use this material to remove odors,
disagreeable tastes, and impurities from drinking water.
Because of this widespread consumption of activated carbon and its di-
rect participation in the manufacture of products for human consumption,
this brief study was initiated to compile data on various aspects of the pro-
duction of activated carbon. In addition to market input-output data, e.g.,
manufacturers, sites, raw materials, production volumes, grades of product,
use patterns, etc., this study was conducted to determine the product quality
specifications with respect to the presence of heavy metal ions and/or poly-
nuclear aromatic hydrocarbons in the commercial product. If such impurities
are present, the procedures used for their removal were to be determined.
The results of the market input-output aspect of this study show that
seven companies manufacture commercial quantities of activated carbon in the
United States. Of the seven companies, three control about 87% of the total
annual capacity of 305 million pounds. This annual capacity is approximately
equally split between powdered and granular products. Wood and coal are used
quite extensively as raw materials with other materials, e.g., coconut
shells, being used in small volumes or for the production of some specialty
products. High temperature steam activation is the usual method if coal is
the raw material. Wood is normally subjected to the chemical activation pro-
cess. U.S» production quantities are estimated to have exceeded 200 million
pounds annually for the past 3 to 4 years. Of the estimated 180 million
pounds consumed in the United States in 1975, approximately 3770 was employed
in food and pharmaceutical area, 25% in water or waste treatment processes,
and 38% in other applications.
-------
Two types of product quality specifications are normally employed for
heavy metals and polynuclear hydrocarbons: (a) the Food Chemicals Codex;
and (b) specific consumer specifications. Activated carbon intended for use
in the food and pharmaceutical industries conforms to the limits set forth
in the Food Chemicals Codex. Products to be used in municipal water treat-
ment plants are stated to meet the American Water Works Association (AWWA)
specifications; however, these standards do not specify the substances which
are unacceptable impurities nor are the maximum acceptable limits for impur-
ities stated. While information concerning individual customer specifications
was considered proprietary, it is felt that few of the specifications are
directed towards definite limitations on heavy metal ions. Previous studies
have shown that, due to the temperatures (~ 1000°C) reached during the steam
activation process, very little, if any, quantities of polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons would be retained in the activated carbon. In general, activated
carbon for use in the food or pharmaceutical industry or in municipal drink-
ing water is apparently subject to certain limitations on heavy metal con-
tent. For other applications, no published data were available and there
appears to be few limitations on the content of these impurities.
-------
SECTION III
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
This section discusses the general history, raw materials, activation
processes, and uses of activated carbon obtained from literature sources*
GENERAL HISTORY!*!/
The fact that charcoal adsorbs colors from solutions was known as early
as the 15th Century and the first written records which recognized the ad-
sorptive capacity of charcoal in gases and solutions were published in the
latter part of the 18th Century. This knowledge was not put to use on an in-
dustrial scale, however, until 1811 when Figuier discovered that bone char
was more effective than wood char for decolorization. Thereafter, bone char
was used extensively for the purification of sugar and other industrial pur-
ification needs*
Throughout the 19th Century activated carbon was not produced on an in-
dustrial scale since bone char satisfied most of the industrial purification
needs during that period, and activated carbon was too difficult to manufac-
ture since the instrumentation necessary to control the critical activation
process did not exist. Numerous experiments were conducted on carbon to pre-
pare a product with high adsorptive capacity, and several processes to pro-
duce activated carbon were patented during this period of time* It was not
until the turn of the century, however, that the industrial development of
activated carbon began*
In 1900, Raphael von Ostrejko patented two activation processes and de-
signed the equipment to carry out the processes, thereby laying the founda-
tion for the industrial production of activated carbon, Fanto Works of Vienna
adopted one of his processes--the activation of charred materials with steam
or carbon dioxide--and produced the first powdered activated carbon, Eponit,
in 1909* Norit Company of Amsterdam began production of Norit in 1911 using
the same process principles, and Verein fur Chemische und Metallurgische Pro-
duktion of Aussig/Elbe began production of Carboraffin in 1913, using a zinc
-------
chloride activation process on wood and other materials of high carbon con-
tent that was patented by J. Wunsch in 1913. In America, industrial produc-
tion of activated carbon began in 1913 with the manufacture of Filtchar, which
was improved in 1916 and offered as Superfiltchar, and further improved in
1922 to become Nuchar and Suchar. Production of other American activated car-
bons after 1913 included Carbrox (1917), Kelpchar (1920), and Darco (1921).
The powdered activated carbons produced during this time, in both Europe and
America, were intended primarily for decolorizing and purifying raw sugar.
Few companies used the activated carbon process prior to World War I, however,
since large investments in the bone-char process had already been made, and
bone char was already extensively used in the manufacture of sugar.
During World War I, extensive interest in activated carbon developed
around its use in gas masks for the protection of soldiers against gas war-
fare. Since the powdered activated carbons available were unsuitable for gas
adsorption, intense research was conducted in Europe and the United States
to develop a gas-adsorbing carbon. Granular activated carbons were quickly
developed for this purpose, and at the conclusion of the war, further re-
search was conducted on gas-adsorbing carbons to develop important industrial
applications, such as odor elimination, recovery of solvent vapors, and ben-
zene extraction from manufactured gas. The research facilities made available
by the war effort were also used to experiment with the powdered activated
carbons for new applications in liquid purification.
Not only were new applications of activated carbon developed, but new
raw materials and new activation processes were found suitable for making
activated carbon. Verein in Aussig/Elbe made G-1000, a granular activated
carbon with high mechanical strength and adsorptive power for gas and vapor
adsorption, from coconut and almond shells using a zinc chloride activation
process. They also produced two varieties of pelletized activated carbon,
Supersorbon for volatile solvent recovery and Benzorbon for benzene removal
from town gas, from sawdust activated by zinc chloride. Bata Company of
Czechoslovakia produced a similar product using steam activation. In America,
several raw materials were used to produce activated carbon and activation
was conducted mainly by steam and phosphoric acid.
RAW MATERIALS^/
Activated carbon can be prepared from a wide variety of carbonaceous
raw materials. It has been prepared from materials of vegetable origin such
as rice hulls, nut shells, fruit pits, bagasse, cereals, cottonseed hulls,
lignin, kelp, coffee beans, corncobs, hardwoods, softwoods, and molasses;
from materials of animal origin such as fish, bones, animal flesh, and blood;
and from materials of mineral origin such as coal, peat, lignite, petroleum
residues, asphalt, carbon black, tars, and pitches. A review of the 1974 and
1975 Chemical Abstract s^j^i/ shows that 30 different raw materials, including
-------
some of the above, have been patented as a possible source for activated
carbons* These materials are listed below* This listing also includes "older"
sources for which new processes have been developed.
Anthracite
Asphalt
Brown coal
Carbon black
Carbonized black liquor
Cellulose pulp
Charcoal
Coal and polystyrene
Coal tar
Coconut shells
Coconut timber
Coking coal
Forest product wastes
Heavy oil-sulfur mixture
Kraft pulp waste solution
Lignite
Lignite char and limestone
Peat
Olive stones
Peat coke
Petroleum pitch
Petroleum sludge
Polymer foam
Sawdust
Sugarcane juice foam
Swine manure
Waste tires
Wood waste
Novalak (a phenol-formaldehyde type resin)
Within recent times, most of the activated carbons produced for liquid
phase applications are made from bones, wood, peat, lignite, and lignin (pa-
per per mill waste), and most of the material produced for gas adsorption are
made from coal, peat, coconut shells, and petroleum residues* Activated car-
bon production is generally limited to these raw materials for economic rea-
sons*
ACTIVATION PROCESSES
The activated carbon industry employs a variety of processes to produce
activated carbons* A number of activation methods are currently used and may
be divided into two categories: physical activation and chemical activation.
General descriptions of these activation methods are discussed below*
Physical Activation
Activation processes that fall into this category use a gaseous sub-
stance as the activating agent or simply carbonize the raw material into the
final product. When a gaseous substance is used, the process is conducted
in two steps: carbonization and activation. The carbonization step consists
of heating the raw material to temperatures of 600°C in the absence of air
(called calcining) to convert the material to primary carbon* The pores of
the resulting intermediate carbon are generally either too small or too con-
stricted with decomposition products and tars to be a useful material. This
intermediate carbon is then reacted with a gaseous substance (usually steam)
as the activating agent at a high temperature (~ 1000°C) to drive off the
decomposition products and tars and to enhance the pore structure of the car-
bon. A one-step process is sometimes used wherein the raw material, such as
bone char, is carbonized at a high temperature to produce a suitable product
without further treatment.
-------
Activation methods which oxidize the carbon under controlled conditions
may employ steam, carbon dioxide, or air. The steam activation process is by
far the most widely and extensively used physical activation process in the
activated carbon manufacturing industry. The steam activation step consists
of reacting the carbon intermediate with steam at temperatures between 900
and 1000°C. Activation with carbon dioxide, used to a limited extent, gener-
ally consists of using flue gas which contains some steam as the activating
agent. This process involves a less energetic, reaction than that with steam
and generally requires a higher temperature of 900 to 1100°C. Activation with
air is conducted at lower temperatures of 300 to 600°C, but is rarely used
since the process is beset with certain difficulties, such as high carbon
losses, nonuniform activation, and temperature control problems.
A one-step physical activation process is used for bone char wherein
crushed and degreased bones are heated indirectly in steel retorts at tem-
peratures between 750 and 950 C. The carbonized bones are then suitable for
use as a final activated carbon product.
Chemical Activation
Activation processes that fall into this category use a chemical sub-
stance as the activating agent. Chemical activation is used almost exclu-
sively for carbons produced from wood, although it has been used on other
raw materials such as peat. The advantage of chemical activation is that
formation of tars and aqueous distillate during carbonization is minimized,
and lower temperatures are generally required for activation of the carbon.
The carbonaceous raw material is usually mixed with the chemical acti-
vating agent in a concentrated solution prior to carbonization (although oc-
casionally impregnation of the carbon with the chemical will be performed
after carbonization). The chanically treated raw material is then carbonized
at a low temperature of about 400 to 500°G. After carbonization, the carbon
intermediate is calcined at 500 to 900 G to achieve pyrolytic decomposition.
The carbonized product is then removed from the kiln, cooled, and washed to
remove and recover the activating agent from the activated carbon.
Phosphoric acid and zinc chloride are the most widely used activation
agents. Occasionally dolomite, sodium sulfate, sodium phosphate, potassium
sulfide, potassium thiocyanate, hydroxides of alkali metals, and other chem-
icals are used in various processes.
Combination Activation Processes
Both chemical and physical activation processes can be combined dif-
ferent ways to form a single activation process. Sometimes activated carbon
produced by chemical activation is treated further with high temperature
8
-------
steam to increase the number of wider pores or to remove substances that
have fouled the pores during the normal chemical activation process. Other
combinations of the basic processes described above are possible, when the
need arises, to produce activated carbons of particular quality.
USES
Activated carbon is used throughout industry for many liquid phase and
gas phase applications. Liquid phase applications are subdivided into two
major categories: (a) liquid purification, and (b) solute removal for re-
covery. Liquid purification involves removing impurities which cause objec-
tionable colors, tastes, odors, foaming, or crystal retardation. Solute re-
moval for recovery involves adsorption and subsequent elution of the solute.
Gas phase applications are subdivided into three major categories: (a) sol-
vent recovery, (b) gas purification or separation, and (c) catalytic appli-
cations. Solvent recovery involves adsorbing the solvent from a gas stream,
and recovering the solvent from the activated carbon. Gas purification and
separation involves adsorbing impurities from a gas stream or adsorbing val-
uable constituents for recovery. Catalytic applications involve the use of
activated carbon as the catalyst for oxidation of inorganic and organic com-
pounds, or as a catalyst carrier.^/
Both powdered and granular forms of activated carbon are manufactured
in a wide variety of grades and sizes to accommodate the various liquid and
gas phase applications. The powdered form is made for liquid phase applica-
tions only, and is generally ground down to particle sizes in the range of
5 to 100 |j,m, although other sizes are available. This form of carbon is
added to the liquid being treated, intimately mixed with the liquid in stan-
dard chemical plant equipment such as stirrers and tanks, and then filtered
or settled out of the liquid to remove the impurities or solute for recovery<
The granular form is made for both liquid and gas phase applications, and
is produced in various grades with particle sizes ranging from 0.25 to 4 mm.
This form of activated carbon is used in columns, towers, or filters, and
the fluid is passed through it for purification, separation, solvent recov-
ery, or catalytic applications. Regeneration of granular activated carbon
for reuse is normally conducted to make the operation economical••£/
A description of the various uses of activated carbon follows and
the current quantitative use pattern is discussed in Section IV»
-------
Liquid Phase Applications
Purification of liquids with activated carbon is conducted in the food
and beverage industry, in municipal water treatment plants, in the dry clean-
ing industry, in the rubber tire reclamation industry, in the chemical indus-
try, and throughout industry in general for wastewater effluent treatment
and miscellaneous reasons. Solute removal for recovery is conducted in the
pharmaceutical industry.
Food and Beverage Industry - Activated carbon is used extensively in the
sugar industry to decolorize sugar solutions. Though color removal is the
prime objective, nitrogenous substances and lyophillic colloids are also
removed by the carbon. Removal of these substances improves the sugar man-
ufacturing process by increasing the speed of crystallization, reducing
foaming in the evaporators, and improving the filterability of the liquor.—'
Many other food and beverage products are treated with activated car-
bon to remove color, unpleasant taste, disagreeable odors, and colloidal im-
purities that cause turbidity or cloudiness. Some of the products treated
include alcohol, beer, coloring, fruit juice, gelatin, honey, lard, reclaimed
candy syrups, vegetable oils, wine, yeast, meat extracts, whiskey, vinegar
and pec tin .ili.'
Municipal Water Treatment Plants - Removal of disagreeable odors, disagree-
able tastes, and harmful impurities in drinking water has been successfully
achieved with activated carbon.
Dry Cleaning Industry - Solvents used in dry cleaning plants and coin-operated
dry cleaning machines rapidly become contaminated with oils, greases, and
bleeding dyes as they remove the soil from clothes. Activated carbon is used
extensively in this industry to remove the odors and colors from spent sol-
vent so that it can be reused.—'
Rubber Tire Reclamation Industry - The process of reclaiming rubber intro-
duces oils into the rubber which make it unfit for use in the manufacture
of white sidewall tires, since the oil migrates to the outer ply and stains
the white rubber during tire manufacture. Activated carbon powder is milled
into the reclaimed rubber to immobilize the oil, and make the reclaimed rub-
ber fit for use.5/
Chemical Industry - Many chemical manufacturing processes employ activated
carbon to simplify the process and improve the purity of the chemical prod-
uct. Examples of chemicals treated with carbon are detergents, dyestuff in-
termediates, glycerine, monosodium glutamate, organic acids, organic inter-
mediates for optical brighteners, photographic chemicals, plasticizers,
shellac, technical alcohol, glycols and alkaloids*^U
10
-------
Pharmaceutical Industry - Vitamins, hormones, antibiotics, medicinal tablets,
and many other Pharmaceuticals are made with the aid of activated carbon.
The carbon is used in a dilute broth to extract the biochemical which is
subsequently eluted from the carbon with a suitable solvent. This solvent is
then distilled or treated with an immiscible solvent to recover or concen-
trate the biochemical. Penicillin, streptomycin, and other antibiotics have
been separated and purified on a large scale in this manner.£/
Electroplating Industry - Activated carbon has been used to remove impurities
and to recover valuable constituents, such as gold, from electroplating bathsi
Industry in General - Purification of wastewater effluent from manufacturing
plants and other industrial operations represents a significant useage of
activated carbon. It has been found useful in removing various impurities
and contaminants from wastewater generated by pesticide manufacturers and
formulators, dyeing and textile mills, acid mine drainage operations, card-
board and paper mills, photographic processing plants, and paint and print-
ing ink manufacturers, just to name a few examples. The carbon's role in
preventing environmental pollution from contaminated wastewater effluent may
be large in the future, and this market represents a large potential use of
activated carbon.i'
Gas Phase Applications
Activated carbon has a wide range of uses for gas phase applications.
In industry it is used primarily in solvent recovery and in gas purification
and separation, with some uses as a catalyst or catalyst carrier. It is also
used extensively in the home and commercial establishments for air purifica-
tion. Some of the important gas phase uses are described below.
Solvent Recovery - Probably the most important use of activated carbon in
gas phase applications is the recovery of volatile organic solvents from air
in industrial manufacturing plants. A carbon recovery system, consisting of
two carbon beds, an air filter, a blower, a vapor condenser, and a solvent
decanter or continuous still, receives the vapor-laden air from the manufac-
turing process, and the carbon adsorbs the volatile solvent. The solvent is
then removed from the carbon by low'-pressure steam and the steam-solvent mix-
ture is condensed. The condensate is then either decanted or distilled to re-
cover the solvent.—'
There are hundreds of operating plants recovering billions of pounds of
solvent each year with an activated carbon recovery system. The solvents
recovered are valued in the hundreds of millions of dollars, and represent
a substantial economic saving to those industries using this practice. In
11
-------
addition to economic considerations, solvent recovery operations prevent
the escape of volatile solvents into the atmosphere and thereby act as pol-
lution control systems.—'
Some typical industries which use activated carbon solvent systems to
recover valuable solvents and/or prevent air pollution by the solvents in-
clude :lz§/
Industry Solvent (or gas) recovered
Acetate fiber Ketones
Rotogravure printing Acetates, alcohols, hydrocarbons
Rubber production Hydrocarbons, chlorinated solvents
Metal degreasing Chlorinated and fluorinated solvents
Paper, fabric, and plastic film coating Ketone, acetates, hydrocarbons
Cellulose acetate rayon Acetone
Plastic manufacture Alcohols, esters, ketones, hydrocarbons
Nitrocellulose silk Ether, alcohol
Gas Purification and Separation - Gases are often purified by passing the
gas through a two-bed system consisting of two tall vertical towers contain-
ing activated carbon. The carbon adsorbs the impurities in the gas, and is
then thermally regenerated for reuse. Some typical industrial applications
for gas purification are: purification of hydrogen from cracking operations
for use in ammonia synthesis; deodorization of carbon dioxide to be used in
dry ice manufacture; removal of objectionable organic sulfur compounds from
acetylene intended for synthesis; removal of pyridine from ammonia to be ox-
idized into nitric acid; removal of hydrogen sulfide and organic sulfur from
natural and manufactured gas; removal of oil vapor from compressed air and
gases; and purification of gases for critical chemical, pharmaceutical, and
food processes.—1—
The purification of air by removing odors, tastes, and other impurities
with activated carbon filters is widely employed. Carbon filters are used in
gas masks, air-conditioning units, ventilation systems, home kitchens, lab-
oratories, etc. to clean and purify atmospheric air.
Gas separation can also be achieved with an activated carbon system. A
typical example is a tall, vertical-column, moving-bed system for separating
light hydrocarbon gases from lean gas streams.—'
Catalytic Applications - Activated carbon can act as a catalyst in the oxi-
dation of inorganic and organic compounds. Some typical applications of car-
bon as an oxidizing catalyst are for ferrous sulfate, sodium arsenite, po-
tassium nitrite, and potassium ferrocyanide oxidations.—
12
-------
Some other typical industrial operations which take place in the pres-
ence of carbon as a catalyst are hydrogen peroxide decomposition, hydrogen
sulfide oxidation to sulfur, phosgene manufacture from carbon monoxide and
chlorine, and sulfuryl chloride manufacture by the reaction of sulfur dioxide
with chlorine Ji/
Activated carbon is used as a catalyst support in the manufacture of
vinyl chloride (by reaction of acetylene and hydrogen chloride in the pres-
ence of carbon impregnated with barium chloride and/or mercuric chloride),
and in the manufacture of vinyl acetate (by reaction of acetylene and glacial
acetic acid in the presence of carbon impregnated with zinc acetate)* It is
also used as a catalyst support in the manufacture of trichloroethylene,
fluorocarbons, and in many hydrogenation operations.
13
-------
REFERENCES
1. Smisek, M., and S. Cerny, Active Carbon: Manufacture, Properties, and
Applications, Elsevier Publishing Company, New York (1970).
2. Kirk, R. E., and D. F. Othmer, Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, In-
terscience Publishing Company, New York, Vol. 2 (1948).
3. Chemical Abstracts. %l_ (1974).
4. Chemical Abstracts. 82_ (1975).
5. Kirk, R. E., and D. F. Othmer, Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, In-
terscience Publishing Company, New York, 2nd Ed., Vol. 4 (1964).
6. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Process Design Manual for Carbon
Adsorption, Technology Transfer, October 1973.
7. Introduction to Activated Carbon, Norit-Clydesdale Company, Ltd., Glasgow,
United Kingdom (current company publication).
8. Columbia® Activated Carbon; The Capability Carbon, Union Carbide Corpor-
ation, Riverside Plaza, Chicago, Illinois (1973).
14
-------
SECTION IV
CURRENT INDUSTRIAL DATA
The activated carbon industry in the United States consists of seven
manufacturers, each of which produce quantities of activated carbon products
from different raw materials and using different activation processes* Many
grades and types of products are made for a wide variety of uses and appli-
cations for industry, business, and the home.
This section of the report presents current data for the activated car-
bon industry and the methodology used to obtain this information. The data
include information on the manufacturers; production quantities; raw mate-
rials and activation processes; grades, types, and uses of individual prod-
ucts made by each manufacturer;' quantities used in the U.S. by use category;
and product specifications as related to the presence of heavy metal ions
and polynuclear aromatic compounds.
METHODOLOGY OF DATA COLLECTION
The current data for the activated carbon industry given in this sec-
tion of the report were obtained from four primary sources: (a) published
literature; (b) product literature from the manufacturers; (c) telephone in-
terviews and correspondence with representatives of the manufacturers; and
(d) telephone interviews with other knowledgeable persons. The literature
search was conducted to obtain information on the manufacturers, production
quantities, and use pattern of activated carbon; these sources are given in
the references at the end of this section. In addition to these sources,
other sources, including Chemical Abstracts, the Biennial Conferences on
Carbon, an NTIS bibliography on activated carbon (221 references), and recent
books in the subject area were reviewed. These other sources provided no
useful information related to the analysis for, or studies on, the presence
of heavy metal ions or polynuclear aromatic compounds in activated carbon.
Data presented on the raw materials, activation processes, and product grades,
types, and uses, were obtained from product literature of the manufacturers,
the telephone interviews, and correspondence. These sources were also used
to supplement and confirm the data obtained from the literature search.
15
-------
MANUFACTURERS
Activated carbon is manufactured in the United States by seven compa-
nies at eight plant sites. Three of the manufacturers—Westvaco Corporation,
Calgon Corporation, and ICI United States, Inc.--have a total estimated an-
nual capacity of 265 million pounds, or about 87% of the total industry ca-
pacity of 305 million pounds. Table 1 lists the manufacturers, their plant
sites, their respective capacities, and the estimated capacities to produce
granular and/or powdered activated carbon.
American Norit Company does not currently produce activated carbon in
the United States. They prepare specialty products from material imported
from their manufacturing facilities in the Netherlands and Scotland.— The
Carborundum Company is currently producing activated carbon only for testing
and evaluation purposes•£/
PRODUCTION QUANTITIES
The quantities of activated carbon produced in the United States for
decolorizing and water purification purposes during the time interval 1967
to 1975 are shown in Table 2. Estimated imports and exports of all types of
activated carbon are also given for the same time period.
In addition to the quantities of material produced for decolorizing and
water purification purposes, activated carbon was also produced during 1967
to 1975 for gas phase applications. These quantities are not included in the
governmental reports. Industrial sources would not divulge the actual quan-
tities produced for gas phase applications and would state only a percentage
range of 5 to 157, for 1965 to 1970 and 15 to 20% for 1971 to 1975.i/ These
figures are percentages of the quantities produced for decolorizing and water
purification grades.
RAW MATERIALS AND ACTIVATION PROCESSES
The activated carbon industry uses various raw materials and activation
processes to produce a wide variety of products. The raw materials and acti-
vation process used for each raw material are given in Table 3 for each of
the seven manufacturers, along with the source of the information.
16
-------
Table 1. CURRENT U.S. MANUFACTURERS OF ACTIVATED CARBON
Coropfltiy
American NorIt Company, Inc.
Barnebey-Cheney Company
Carborundum Company
Refractories and Electronics Division
Husky Industry, Inc.
Division of Husky Oil Company
ICI United States, Inc.
Calgon Corporation
Division of Merck and Company, Inc.
Union Carbide Corporation
Westvaco Corporation
Witco Chemical Corporation
Total
Site
Jacksonville, Florida
Columbus, Ohio
Niagara Falls, New York
Romeo, Florida
/
Marshall, Texas
Catlettsburg, Kentucky
Neville Island, Pennsylvania
Foster la, Ohio
Covington, Kentucky
Petrolia, Pennsylvania
Annual capacity
(xlO6 lb)-/ Granular^' Powdei—'
NA
10
20
75
-------
Table 2. PRODUCTION OF ACTIVATED CARBON, 1967-1975
U.S. production^ Imports— Exports-
Year; (xlO6 Ib) (xlO6 Ib) (xlO6 Ib)
1967 166.2 5.3 18.3
1968 169.0 5.3 20.0
1969 170.0 4.4 18.6
'1970 159.6 4.7 22.9
1971 166.0 5.0 26.7
1972 166.9 5.0 29.0
1973 168.4 6.9 39.5
1974 176.7 11.0 45.2
1975 (est.) 151.8 13.2 31.7
aj Decolorizing and water purification grades only; U.S. Department of
Commerce/Bureau of the Census data from "Current Industrial Reports -
Inorganic Chemicals."
b_/ Estimated quantities calculated from dollar figures supplied by U.S.
Department of Commerce/Bureau of Domestic Commerce. These quantities
are for all grades of activated carbon (Reference 6).
18
-------
Table 3. RAW MATERIALS AND ACTIVATION PROCESSES USED TO
PRODUCE CARBON, BY MANUFACTURER
Manufacturer
Westvaco
Calgon
ICI
Husky Oil
Barnebey-Cheney
Witco
Union Carbide
Raw material
Coal
Wood
Coal
Coconut shell
Lignite
Wood
Carbonaceous material
Unknown^/
Unknown^/
Mi ley coke
Coal
Petroleum coke
Coconut
Activation process
Thermal
Chemical
High-temperature steam
High-temperature steam
High-temperature steam
Phosphoric acid
High-temperature steam
a/
Unknown—
Unknown^/
Unknown£/
High-temperature
selective oxidation
Reference
7
4,5
9
10
a/ Husky Oil did not respond to written correspondence.
b/ Barnebey-Cheney did not respond to telephone interviews or correspondence•
c/ Witco would not divulge its activation process.
19
-------
PRODUCT TYPES, GRADES, AND USES
The activated carbon industry produces a wide variety of products for
many applications in industry, business, and the home. Each manufacturer
produces a number of types and grades of products for applications in vari-
ous markets* Table 4 shows the types, grades, and uses of the major acti-
vated carbon products made by five of the manufacturers and American Norit
Company, Inc., which imports all of its products from abroad. The table was
constructed from information obtained from References 1, 5, and 7 through
10.
CONSUMPTION PATTERN
Uses of the numerous types and grades of activated carbon compiled from
the manufacturer's specification sheets were presented in the previous sub-
section and in Section III. Table 5 shows the consumption of activated car-
bon in the United States for 1972 and estimated figures for 1975. Estimated
figures are based on information obtained from certain manufacturers. The
tabulated figures do not include those quantities exported.
The miscellaneous category includes uses in the chemical industry for
the production of detergents, glycerine, monosodium glutamate, phenol, soda
ash, organic acids, photographic chemicals, plasticizers, glycols, and num-
erous other chemicals.
PRODUCT SPECIFICATIONS
Activated carbon products have different physical and chemical proper-
ties that depend upon the raw materials from which they are made, and upon
the manner in which they are produced and processed. The raw material, ac-
tivation process, and additional processing chosen for the manufacture of a
particular grade and type of activated carbon depends primarily upon its in-
tended application, and the specifications to which the product is made.
Products made for general uses, such as most gas phase applications,
are normally made to general specifications such as mesh size, apparent or
bulk density, carbon tetrachloride activity, percent moisture, percent ash,
hardness, retentivity, total surface area, total pore volume, void volume,
molasses number, and iodine number. Product bulletins from manufacturers
give the values of many of these general characteristics of their products.
Values reported as "typical" (or general) characteristics are normally de-
termined only occasionally, and are usually not guaranteed by the manufac-
turer. Values reported as "specifications" are determined by routine and
frequent testing, and are generally controlled parameters in the production
pynrQCC.7-10/
20
-------
Table 4. ACTIVATED CARBON PRODUCTS: TYPES, GRADES, AND USES, BY MANUFACTURER
Manufacturer Type
Westvaco Powdered
Granular
ICI
Powdered
Granular
Grade
Nuchar® S-A
Nuchar® S-N
Aqua Nuchar®
Flltchar®
Nuchar® WV-W
Nuchar® WV-L
Nuchar® WV-G
Nuchar® WV-H
Darco® S-51
Darco® G-60
Darco® KB
Darco® BG
Darco® GFP
Granular Darco
Witco Granular Wltcarb® 940
Wltcarb® 950
Witcarb® 960
Wltcarb® 965
Union Carbide Extruded pellets Columbia® MBQ
Columbia® MBT
Columbia® MBV
Meah aize(s)£/
Through 100, Through 200, Through 325
Through 100, Through 200, Through 325
100, 200, 325
100, 200, 300
8 x 30, 12 x 40, 14 x 40, 20 x 50
8 x 30
12 x 40
4 x 8, 4 x 10, 6 x 16
98% Through 100, 70% Through 325
957. Through 100, 707. Through 325
99% Through 100, 70% Through 325
987. Through 100, 707. Through 325
957. Through 325
4 x 12, 12 x 20, 12 x 40, 20 x 40
4 x 10, 8 x 30, 12 x 30, 14 x 40, 50 x 140
4 x 10, 6 x 12, 8 x 30, 12 x 30, 18 x 40, 50 x 140, 80 x 325
4 x 10, 6 x 12
8 x 16, 12 x 20
4 x 6, 6
4 x 6, 6
4 x 6, 6
8, 8
8
8, 8
x 10
10
Industrial decolorizing
Industrial decolorizing
Water treatment
Water treatment
Industrial and municipal water treatment
Corn syrup and sugar processing, purification of chemicals
and Pharmaceuticals, and waste water treatment
Purification and processing of chemicals and pharmaceutl-
cals, and waste water treatment
Vapor phase applications such as solvent recovery, odor
removal, respirators, air conditioning, cigarette fil-
ters, air pollution control, and catalysts or catalyst
support
Many liquid purification applications
Removes Inorganic contaminants from liquids
Decolorize liquids
Beer production and treatment
Removal of flotation reagents and metallic Ions from ore
pulps and concentrates In mineral processing Industry
Continuous column percolation purification of sugar,
Pharmaceuticals, organic acids, and other foods and
chemicals
Gaa phase applications
Gas phaae applications such as solvent recovery,
ditioning, and catalyst carrier
air con-
Calgon Corpora- Powdered
Activated Carbon)
Rfi
RC
BL
C
65 to 85% through 325
Decolorizing, purification, and Isolation of chemical,
pharmaceutical and food products. Types BL and C used
primarily with light colored liquids.
Granular
PCB
4 x 10, 6 x 16, 12 x 30 plus 6 special sizes
Vapor phase applications such as solvent recovery; precious
metal catalyst support.
-------
Manufacturer
Type
Table 4 (Concluded)
Grade Mesh size(s)2/
BPL 4 x 10, 6 x 16, 12 x 30 plus 4 special sizes
BPX 12 x 30
SGL
GAL
CPG
8 x 30
12 x 40
12 x 40
Vapor phase application such as solvent recovery; catalyst
support for production of vinyl chloride and vinyl ace-
tate monomers; hydrocarbon separation; other miscellane-
ous applications*
Vapor phase application such as evaporative emissions con-
trol.
Corn sugar purification decolorization and purification
of numerous products in chemical and food process in-
dustries •
Beet sugar refining, decolorization and purification of
numerous aqueous and organic liquids*
Liquid phase applications.
American Norlt
(All Imported)
Powdered
NJ
fO
Granular
Merit® EX
Norit® A
Norlt® SS
Norit® FQA
Norlt® F
Norit® EXW
Norlt® SG Extra
Norlt® SG
Nortt® 211
Norit® SG II
Polycarbon C
Norlt® EN-4
Nortt*
Extruded pellets Norlt1* RBI
Norlt® RB2
Nortt** RB3
Norlt® RB4
Unspecified
Unspecified
Unspecified
96 to 1007. Through 100, 60 to 657. Through 325
4 x 14, 8 x 20, 14 x 60
16 x 20
8 x 12
6 x R
4x6
Purification of plating solutions and chemical Interme-
diates, decolorlzatlon of vegetable oils and fats,
glycerin, and plastlclzers
Treatment of products of high purity In critical appli-
cations
Decolorlzatlon of wine, plastlclzers, and fine chemicals
Liquid sugar refining, bleaching, fatty acids and esters,
bleaching vegetable oils and fats, and conditioning of
beer
Bleaching glycerin, purification of amine solutions used
In gas desulfurl*atIon, and water treatment
Wide range of Industrial processes for such applications
as gas or vapor phase adsorption, gas separation, and
catalysis
a_/ U.S. standard sieve.
Sources: References 1, 5 and 7 through 10.
-------
Table 5. CONSUMPTION OF ACTIVATED CARBON IN 1972 AND 1975
Quantity (xlo6 Ib)
Area 1972^ 1975^
Sugar decolorizing 50 50
Water treatment 34 35
Waste treatment 4 7
Gas phase applications 32 34
Pharmaceutical uses 8 8
Foods, beverages, fats, oils 7 8
Dry cleaning 6 7
Electroplating industry 3 4
Reclaimed rubber 3 4
Miscellaneous 20 23
Total 167 180
a/ Data from Reference 8.
b_/ Estimated figures based on information from manufac-
turers.
23
-------
Products made to the general specifications described above are not
normally subjected to quality controls that specifically limit the quantities
of impurities in the product, nor to laboratory tests that determine the
levels of impurities present. For example, information received from Union
Carbide and Witco Chemical Corporation indicates the typical specifications
to which activated carbons intended for general uses are made.
Union Carbide manufactures products for gas-phase applications such as
solvent recovery, air conditioning filters, and catalytic processes, and
tests the products for the following properties: mesh size, apparent den-
sity, carbon tetrachloride activity, percent moisture, hardness, percent ash
and retentivity. Their products are not manufactured to any other specifica-
tions than those given here, and the tests performed to determine these char-
acteristics do not determine the amounts of impurities in the products.—'
Witco Chemical Corporation manufactures products for gas-phase applica-
tions and does not make their products to any particular specifications.
Their product bulletins show the six typical characteristics of their prod-
ucts: mesh size, apparent density, carbon tetrachloride activity, percent
moisture, percent ash, and surface area. The first three characteristics are
determined by tests while the latter three characteristics are neither tested
nor guaranteed by Witco, but merely represent typical values for their prod-
ucts. 2J
Products made for food, pharmaceutical, or drinking water applications,
however, are manufactured to more rigid specifications which are routinely
and frequently tested and maintained by quality controls in the production
process. Products used in municipal water treatment are manufactured to the
specifications of the American Water Works Association Standard for Powdered
Activated Carbon, or the American Water Works Association Standard for Gran-
ular Activated Carbon; those used in foods and beverages are manufactured to
the specifications of the Food Chemicals Codex or customer specifications;
and those used in other applications, such as Pharmaceuticals, that require
high-purity activated carbon are manufactured to customer specifications.
The AWWA standards do not specify the substances which are unacceptable
impurities in activated carbons used in municipal water treatment, nor do
they specify maximum acceptable limits for impurities. The AWWA Standard for
Powdered Activated Carbon states:
24
-------
"The powdered activated carbon supplied under this
standard shall contain no soluble mineral or organic sub-
stances in quantities capable of producing deleterious or
injurious effects upon the health of those consuming the
water, or that would otherwise render unfit for public wa-
ter supply use the water, which has been treated properly
with the powdered activated carbon."ii/
The Food Chemicals Codex specifies limits on impurities in the acti-
vated carbon in the following manner:l2/ Water extractables shall not ex-
ceed 4%; arsenic (as As) shall not exceed 3 ppm; heavy metals (as Pb) shall
not exceed 40 ppm; lead shall not exceed 10 ppm; higher aromatic hydrocar-
bons shall pass the test; and cyanogen compounds shall pass the test.
The test procedures are given in detail in the Food Chemicals
and are either quoted* or summarized as follows:
!• Water extractables test; "Transfer 5.00 g of the sample into a
250-ml flask provided with a reflux condenser and a Bunsen valve. Add 100
ml of water and several glass beads, and reflux for 1 hr. Cool slightly, and
filter through Whatman No. 12 or equivalent filter paper, discarding the
first 10 ml of filtrate. Cool the subsequent filtrate to room temperature,
and pipet 25.0 ml into a tared crystalization dish. (Note: Retain the re-
mainder of the filtrate for the arsenic, heavy metals, and lead tests.)
Evaporate the filtrate in the dish to incipient dryness on a hot plate,
never allowing the solution to boil. Dry for 1 hr at 100 in a vacuum oven,
cool, and weight."
2. Arsenic test; Test a 20-ml portion of the filtrate from the water
extractables test, diluted to 35 ml with water, using the silver diethyldi-
thiocarbamate colorimetric method.
3. Heavy metals test; Test a 10 ml portion of the filtrate from the
water extractables test (using 20 meg of lead ion (Pb) in the control solu-
tion) for the common metallic impurities Ag, As, Bi, Cd, Cu, Hg, Pb, Sb, and
Sn. Details of the test are given on pages 920 to 923.
4. Lead test; Test a 20-ml portion of the filtrate from the water ex-
tractables test (using 10 meg of lead ion (Pb) in the control) using the lead
limit test given on pages 929 to 930.
Reproduced with permission of the National Academy of Sciences; grateful
acknowledgement of their cooperation is hereby made.
25
-------
5. Higher aromatic hydrocarbons; "Extract 1 g of the sample with 12
ml of cyclohexane in a continuous-extraction apparatus for 2 hr. The extract
shows no more color and not more fluorescence than does a solution of 100
meg of quinine sulfate in 1,000 ml of 0.1 N sulfuric acid when observed in
ultraviolet light."
6. Cyanogen compounds; "Mix 5 g of the sample with 50 ml of water and
2 g of tartaric acid, and distil the mixture, collecting 25 ml of distillate
below the surface of a mixture of 2 ml of sodium hydroxide T.S. and 10 ml of
water contained in a small flask placed in an ice bath. Dilute the distillate
to 50 ml with water, and mix. Add 12 drops of ferrous sulfate T.S» to 25 ml
of the diluted distillate, heat almost to boiling, cool, and add 1 ml of hy-
drochloric acid. No blue color is produced."
Customer specifications vary as to their requirements for the purity of
the activated carbon the customer purchases, and each limits the impurity
content of the activated carbon based upon the operation for which it is used.
PRODUCT IMPURITES
Metal ions and polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons are potential impuri-
ties in all activated carbon products. There were no published data available
that specified the degree to which activated carbons may be contaminated by
these impurities, but telephone interviews with manufacturers revealed two
important points: (a) most general use activated carbon products are not
specifically tested for these impurities; and (b) tests for these impurities
have been performed by some manufacturers and buyers, but these data are not
available.
Most products do not require specifications that limit their metal ion
and polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon content, and are either tested only oc-
casionally, or not at all, for these constituents. Only those products made
to the Food Chemicals Codex specifications, or to customer specifications
which set upper limits on these impurities, are routinely tested for the
qualitative and quantitative amount of these impurities.
Telephone interviews with industry representatives!^' indicate that
most arsenics and organic materials are destroyed or driven off at the tem-
peratures of activation (about 1,000 C), and that metal ions are not
normally a problem contaminant. In 1961 an examination of fresh activated
carbon did not show the presence of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon and
later studies indicated that, in this respect, the carbon was suitable for
use in water treatment .is/ Activated carbons produced for the food industry
are routinely tested by .both the manufacturer and the buyers for these im-
purities, and neither the manufacturer nor the buyers have found constituents
in the carbon which they felt were detrimental to human consumption.
26
-------
This does not mean, however, that all products meet the heavy metals
and higher aromatic hydrocarbons specifications found in the Food Chemicals
Codex* If the manufacturer should determine that a batch of activated car-
bon contained impurities above the limits specified by the Food Chemicals
Codex, or customer specifications, the product would not be sold for the in-
tended usage. Instead, the product could be reprocessed, or sold for uses
that require less severe specifications.
In actual practice, the manufacturers would perform very little repro-
cessing of off-specification products, and would simply sell these products
for more general uses that have fewer specifications* For example, granular
products which do not meet the hardness specifications can be pulverized and
sold as powdered products, or products which do not meet the activity speci-
fications can be sold as lower grades which have lower activity specifications.
If any products were to exceed the specification limits for hydrocarbons and/
or metal ions, they could be sold for uses for which metal ion and hydrocar-
bon specifications do not exist*
Without laboratory and test data, it is impossible to determine the
qualitative and quantitative amounts of impurities in the form of metal ions
and polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (if any) that exist in activated car-
bon products. This data does exist in some cases but was not available for
this study. For example, one company has performed numerous laboratory tests
to determine the heavy metal content of their own products and competitors'
as well, and has hired independent laboratories to test these products. The
tests involve both qualitative and quantitative determinations of the metals
present in the products. Data regarding these tests are not strictly proprie-
tary since some of them are given to buyers of their products (especially in
the food industry) but were not available for this study.
27
-------
REFERENCES
1. Correspondence with American Norit Company, Inc., Jacksonville, Florida.
2. Correspondence with Carborundum Company, Niagria Falls, New York.
3. Stanford Research Institute, Directory of Chemical Producers. 1976 Edi-
tion, Menlo Park, California (1976).
4. Chem. Eng. News, p. 7, July 22, 1974.
5. Telephone interview and written response from Calgon Corporation,
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
6. Maxey, F., U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Domestic Commerce,
Washington, D.C.
7. Correspondence and telephone interviews with Westvaco Corporation,
Chemical Division, Carbon Department, Covington, Virginia.
8. Correspondence and telephone interviews with ICI United States, Inc.,
Speciality Chemicals Division, Wilmington, Delaware.
9. Correspondence and telephone interviews with Witco Chemical Corporation
Inorganic Specialties Division, New York, New York.
10. Correspondence and telephone interviews with Union Carbide Corporation,
Carbon Products Division, Cleveland, Ohio.
11. Gullans, 0., M. S. Nichols, and C. M. Bach, AWWA Standard for Powdered
Activated Carbon, AWWA B600-66, American Water Works Association,
Denver, Colorado (1966).
12. Food Chemicals Codex. Prepared by the Committee on Specifications, Food
Chemicals Codex, of the Committee on Food Protection of the National
Research Council, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D»C« (1972).
13. Andelman, J. B., and M. J. Suess, Bull. World Health Ore.. 43. 495 (1970).
28
-------
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please mad Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-560/2-77-002
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSIOWNO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Chemical Technology and Economics in Environmental
Perspectives; Task IV - Activated Carbon
5. REPORT DATE
February 1977
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
Gary L. Kelso and Thomas W. Lapp
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
Task IV
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Midwest Research Institute
425 Volker Boulevard
Kansas City, MO 64110
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
Contract No. 68-01-3201
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Toxic Substances
Washington, DC 20460
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final, October-December 1976
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to compile selected information concerning the man
ufacture and use of activated carbon, with particular emphasis on product quality as re
Lated to the presence of heavy metal ions and/or polynuclear aromatic compounds. Spe-
cific areas of interest were the raw materials and methods of production; manufacturers,
production capacities, and actual production; types of final products; and consumption
patterns of activated carbon. Product quality specifications for heavy metal ions and
polynuclear aromatic compounds in the final products were investigated. U.S. production
quantities have exceeded 200 million pounds annually for the past 3 to 4 years. Of the
estimated 180 million pounds consumed in the United States in 1975, about 37% was em-
ployed in food and pharmaceutical areas, 25% in water or waste treatment processes, and
3870 in other applications. Activated carbon for use in foods and Pharmaceuticals con-
forms to the Food Chemicals Codex specifications for heavy metal ions and polynuclear
aromatics. Products for municipal water treatment are subject to AWWA standards. Acti-
vated carbon for other uses are subject only to customer specifications.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
Activated Carbon
Adsorbents
Active Carbon
Manufacturing
Utilization
Heavy Metals
Polynuclear Aromatics
Activation Processes
18. UiSiniGUTION STATEMENT
Release Unlimited
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)
Unclassified
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
Unclassified
c. COSATI Held/Group
Chemistry
Inorganic
Chemistry
21. NO. OF PAGES
34
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
29
------- |