EPA 560/6-77-032
   MULTIMEDIA LEVELS
             CADMIUM
               PRO
            SEPTEMBER 1977
        ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
          OFFICE OF TOXIC SUBSTANCES
           WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460

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EPA-560/6-77-032
                             MULTIMEDIA LEVELS
                                 CADMIUM
                              September  1977
                                 BATTELLE
                           Columbus  Laboratories
                              505 King Avenue
                           Columbus,  Ohio  43201
                           Vincent J. DeCarlo
                             Project Officer
                         Contract No. 68-01-1983
                     ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
                       OFFICE OF TOXIC SUBSTANCES
                        WASHINGTON, D.C.  20460

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                      NOTICE
     This report has been reviewed by the Office of
Toxic Substances, Environmental Protection Agency, and
approved for publication.  Approval does not signify
that the contents necessarily reflect the views and
policies of the Environmental Protection Agency.
Mention of tradenames or commercial products is for
purposes of clarity only and does not constitute
endorsement or recommendation for use.
                         ii

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                                PREFACE
        This review of the environmental levels of cadmium was conducted
for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Toxic Substances,
under Contract Number 68-01-1983.  It involved (1) the review and
evaluation of existing monitoring data and  (2) development of an inte-
grated data package.  Information sources were identified from computerized
and manual searches.  Data were obtained from specialized data centers;
university programs; federal programs; state programs; the Smithsonian
Science Information Exchange; EPA's Storet, SAROAD, and NASN data centers;
the USGS, and Fish and Wildlife Service; and from readily available open
literature.

        Information gathered included cadmium concentrations in air,
surface and drinking water, groundwater, soil, food, sediment, sludge,
aquatic and terrestrial organisms, human tissues, and body fluids.
Details were obtained on the methods of sample collection, interferences,
meteorological data, and analytical methods employed.
                               iii and iv

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                             TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.  INTRODUCTION	   1-1

         Physical and Chemical Properties	   1-1
         Production and Uses of Cadmium	   1-1
         Sources of Environmental Contamination with Cadmium ....   1-4

2.  CADMIUM LEVELS IN THE ENVIRONMENT	   2-1

         Air	   2-1
         Water and Sediment	   2-16
         Drinking Water	   2-26
         Sludge	   2-28
         Rocks and Soils	   2-36
         Terrestrial Biota 	   2-42
         Aquatic Biota 	   2-58

3.  CADMIUM BEHAVIOR IN THE ENVIRONMENT	   3-1

         Air Transport	   3-3
         Soil Transport	   3-4
         Water Transport	   3-8
         Sediment Transport	   3-12
         Food Chain Transport	   3-12

4.  CADMIUM IN FOODS	   4-1

         Sources of Food Contamination	   4-1
         Cigarettes	   4-2
         Foods	   4-2

5.  EXPOSURE AND BIOACCUMULATION IN MAN	   5-1

         Distribution of Cadmium 	   5-1
         Body Burden	   5-2
         Excretion of Cadmium	   5-12
         Biological Half-Life	   5-19

6.  REFERENCES	   6-1

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                                .FIGURES

Number                                                                 Page

 1.1     U.S. cadmium consumption in 1975	   1-3

 1.2     Projectd cadmium consumption in the United States by end
           use, year 2000	   1-5

 1.3     Geographical distribution of recoverable zinc resources
           in the United States	   1-6

 1.4     Cadmium consumption (percent) by state* 	 * . . i  .   1-7

 1.5     Geographical distribution of independent job platers by
           EPA region (percent)	   1-9

 2.1     Map showing NASN stations for measuring cadmium	   2-2

 2.2     Trends in 50th percentile of annual averages for cadmium
           associated with metal industry sources at urban sites .  .   2-5

 2.3     Ambient atmospheric cadmium concentrations, Chicago,
           Illinois, November 5, 1972	   2-13

 2.4     Ambient atmospheric cadmium concentrations, Chicago,
           Illinois, November 23,  1972	   2-14

 2.5     Cadmium concentrations in surface waters at USGS benchmark
           stations in 1970	   2-18

 2.6     Percent of river water samples containing cadmium greater
           than 1 ppb in five U.S. regions	   2^19
 2.7     Frequency distribution of cadmium in Great Lakes sediments.   2-24

 2.8     Cadmium in plants grown in 200 mg Cd/1000 g soil ......   2-46

 2.9     Localities of Spanish moss samples, and cadmium concentra-
           tions found in these samples ...............   2-49

 2.10    The effect of soil pH and cadmium concentration on the
           cadmium content of soybean leaves ............   2*-53

 2.11    Locations of study areas for cadmium levels in terrestrial
           animals, excluding birds ........... ......   2-56

 2.12    Locations for cadmium sampling in birds ..........   2-74

 2.13    Mean cadmium concentrations in Atlantic- and Gulf of Mexico
           (Crassostrea virginica) and Pacific Ocean oysters
           (C_. gigas) .......................  ,   2-80
                                 vi

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                            FIGURES (Continued)

Number                                                                 Page

 2.14    Cadmium in marine fish—muscle tissue,  ppm	     2-84

 3.1     Environmental flow of cadmium emitted by man's activities .     3-2

 3.2     Flow of cadmium in a land area segment	     3-6

 4.1     Average values (in ppm)  of cadmium content in institutional
           total diets, 1967	     4-5

 5.1     Zinc, cadmium, and mercury distributions in the kidney of
           a 42-year-old female	     5-9

 5.2     Molar relationship of cadmium and zinc  in the renal cortex.     5-13
                                TABLES

 1.1     Cadmium Discharge  Rates to  the  Environment  from Steelmaking
           and Coke  Production	     1-10

 1.2     Cadmium Concentrations  from Five  Power  Plants  	     1-13

 1.3     Revised Cadmium Emission Estimates	     1-15

 2.1     Annual Average  Urban  Atmospheric  Cadmium Concentrations
           Reported  by the  National  Air  Surveillance Networks,
           1970-1974	     2-3

 2.2     Atmospheric Cadmium Concentrations  for  Urban Sampling
           Stations  in Eight States,  1971-1976  	     2-7

 2.3     Atmospheric Cadmium Concentrations  for  Nonurban Sampling
           Stations  in Eight States,  1971-1976  	     2-12

 2.4     Cadmium Levels  in  Surface Waters  of the United  States  .  .  .     2-20

 2.5     Cadmium Levels  in  Ground Waters of  the  United States.  .  .  .     2-21

 2.6     Summary of  Cadmium Concentrations in U.S. waters	     2-22

 2.7     Cadmium Concentrations  in the Ohio  River and Some of Its
           Tributaries	     2-25

 2.8     Sewage Sludge Data on U.S.  Cities	     2-29

 2.9     Variability of  Cadmium  Contents in  Sewage Sludges 	     2-35
                                  vii

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                            TABLES (Continued)

Number                                                                 Page

 2.10    Cadmium Content of Rock Types	    2-37

 2.11    Cadmium Concentrations in Missouri Soils	    2-37

 2.12    Concentrations of Cadmium in Urban and Suburban Soils—
           1972	    2-38

 2.13    Cadmium Concentrations in Soil Near East Helena, Montana. .    2-40

 2.14    Cadmium Soil Concentrations in Northwestern Indiana ....    2-41

 2.15    Cadmium Concentrations in Plants of an Industrial Region. .    2-44

 2.16    Cadmium Concentrations in Plants Remote from Industriali-
           zation	    2-45

 2.17    Cadmium Levels in Spanish Moss,  Tillandsia usneoides.  . . .    2-48

 2.18    Concentration of Cadmium in Wheat and Grass Growing Under
           Normal Conditions in 19 States East of the Rocky
           Mountains	    2-50

 2.19    Cadmium Content of Crops Grown in the Greenhouse on
           Calcareous Domino Silt Loam With and Without Treatment
           With Sewage Sludge	    2-52

 2.20    Levels of Cadmium in Terrestrial Invertebrates	    2-54

 2.21    Cadmium Levels in Cattle	    2-57

 2.22    Cadmium Levels in Starlings Measured in 1971 and 1973  . . .    2-60

 2.23    Freshwater Fish—Cadmium Levels  in Tissues	    2-64

 3.1     Cadmium Content and Zn/Cd Ratios in Uncultivated Soil
           Surrounding East Helena Stack  	    3-4

 3.2     Distribution of 284 pCi of 115mCd in Microcosm Experiments
           at 27  Days after Tagging with  115mCdCl2	     3~7

 3.3     Cadmium Content of Water,  Suspended Sediment,  and Bottom
           Sediment in Two Tennessee Streams 	     3-9

 3.4     Concentration Ratios of 109Cd in a Stream  Ecosystem ....     3-1°

 3.5     Cadmium Cycling Budgets in Several Watersheds  and Salt
           Marshes	     3-11
                                  viii

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                            TABLES (Continued)

Number                                                                 Page

 3.6     Trends of Arithmetic Average Concentrations (ppm)  of
           Cadmium in Dietary Food Groups in Two Major Food
           Pathways to Man	      3-13

 4.1     Media Contributions to Normal Retention of Cadmium	      4-3

 4.2     Estimated Daily Cadmium Intake from Foods in Various
           Locations in the United States	      4-4

 4.3     Cadmium Content in Different Food Categories in the U.S.A..      4-6

 4.4     Food Groups by Mean Cadmium Content and their Contribution
           to Daily Cadmium Intake	      4-8

 4.5     Cadmium Content of Selected Adult Foods 	      4-9

 4.6     Cadmium Content of Selected Baby Foods	      4-10

 4.7     Cadmium Content of Foods by Year and Daily Intake	      4-11

 4.8     Potential Exposures of Human Beings to  Cadmium from Food
           Sources	•	     4-11

 5.1     Summary Data on Cadmium Levels in Various Tissues  of
           Exposed and Nonexposed Persons	     5-3

 5.2     Cadmium Concentration in Wet Tissue, Smokers and
           Nonsmokers	     5-4

 5.3     Cadmium Body Burden Media Retention 	     5-5

 5.4     Mean Cadmium Levels in Human Placentas, Maternal Blood, and
           Fetal Blood	     5-6

 5.5     Whole Blood Assays  	     5-7

 5.6     Cadmium Concentrations in the Human Renal Cortex,  by Age.  .     ^ in

 5.7     Renal Cadmium and Zinc Levels in 40 to  79-Year-Old Males,
           by Smoking Category 	     5-11

 5.8     Cadmium in Renal Cortex,  by Sex and Age	     5-11

 5.9     Summary of Tests Between Patients With  and Without Cancer,
           by Tissue and Metal	     5-14

 5.10     Cadmium Concentration in Human Liver, by Age	     5-14
                                     ix

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                          TABLES (Continued)

Number                                                                 Page

 5.11    Concentrations of Cadmium in Kidney Cortex in Workers
           Exposed to Cadmium Oxide Dust in Relation to
           Morphological Kidney Changes Seen at Autopsy or Biopsy. .    5-15

 5.12    Urinary Excretion of Cadmium in "Normal" Subjects 	    5-16

 5.13    Cadmium Levels in Acculturated and Unacculturated
           Populations	    5-17

 5.14    Cadmium in Hair from Boys Living in Urban Areas	    5-18

 5.15    "Normal" Concentrations of Cadmium in Hair	    5-20

 5.16    Cadmium in Blood, Urine, Hair, and Feces	    5-21

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                            EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
         This report is a review of environmental levels of cadmium based
on published reports and other information sources.

         Cadmium is a relatively rare element in the earth's crust always
found in association with zinc and ranking in abundance between mercury
and silver, that is, about 0.1 to 0.5 ppm.  The annual release of cadmium
to the environment is approximately 2,000 metric tons (1974 estimate).
About 20 percent of this comes from zinc mining and smelting (primary
cadmium production is a by-product of zinc production).  Another 30
percent comes from the manufacture, use, and disposal of cadmium products.
These include electroplating  (the major use for cadmium), paint pigments,
alloys, plastics, and nickel-cadmium batteries.  The remaining 50 percent
comes from inadvertent releases resulting from cadmium being a contaminant
in other substances.  The principal inadvertent sources are phosphatic
fertilizers, sewage sludge, and combustion of fossil fuels.  The major
portion (82 percent) of these releases is land-destined waste, followed
by air emission (16 percent).  Waterborne effluents constitute a little
over 1 percent.

         Cadmium concentrations in the atmosphere of the U.S. are a few
hundredths or thousandths of micrograms per cubic meter of air, with
certain exceptions.  The principal exceptions are areas where zinc or
lead mining and smelting is or has been conducted.  In Shoshone County,
Idaho, for example, levels exceeding 0.1 yg/m  have been reported.

         Surface water concentrations of cadmium are less than 10 ppb near
headwaters of tributary streams, increase somewhat in areas of high popula-
tion density, and reach ppm levels near mining and smelting operations.  In
12 percent or less of samples obtained from surface waters in the 50 states
the U.S. Public Health Service limit for potable waters (10 ppb) was
exceeded.  The highest level found (1,400 ppb) was near mining and smelting
operations in Idaho.  On the average, groundwater quality with respect to
cadmium exceeds that of surface waters.  In U.S. drinking water, cadmium
levels are normally less than 1 ppb.  The present concentration of cadmium
in the oceans is about 0.11 ppb.

         Cadmium is found to concentrate in sediments, and whereas water
concentrations are in the ppb range, cadmium concentrations in sediments are
in the ppm range, particularly in localized areas exposed to industrial or
mining wastes.  Levels as high as 60,700 ppm have been reported in Hudson
River sediment below the outfall of a nickel-cadmium battery plant.  Sedi-
ments not exposed to wastes may contain only fractions of a ppm.
                                 xi

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 Concentrations  of  cadmium in marine  sediments  are  the  highest  in  harbors,
 with mean  concentrations  on the  order  of  10  ppm being  reported.

         Cadmium concentrations  in sludge resulting  from treatment  of
 wastewater are  extremely  variable among U.S. cities, with levels  ranging
 from a  few ppm  to  several thousand ppm.   The highest values  occur in
 sludges from cities  that  are highly  industrialized.  Municipal sewage
 sludge  disposition in  1975 in  the U.S. has been reported to  be 15 percent
 in  the  ocean, 25 percent  in landfills, 35 percent  by incineration,  and
 25  percent by application to land.

         Cadmium concentrations  in U.S. soils  not  excessively disturbed
 by  man  approximate those  found in rocks,  i.e.,  0.2 to  0.5  ppm.  Fertilizer
 applications  do not  appear to have raised this  level above 1 ppm.   Highest
 soil concentrations  are found  in the vicinity  of smelters.   In the  vicinity
 of  major urban  industrial areas, several  ppm of cadmium  may  be found in
 surface soils.

         In terrestrial plants and animals,  cadmium concentrations  are
 generally  a few ppm  or less, with higher  levels appearing near smelters
 (up to  50  ppm).  Similar  levels  have been found in aquatic plants,  with
 levels  of  the order  of hundreds  of ppm being found in  contaminated  areas
 near smelters and  nickel-cadmium battery  plants.   Plants  differ greatly
 in  their ability to  take  up cadmium, and  this  is an important consideration
 in  selecting crops to be  grown on sludge-treated land.   To minimize cadmium
 concentrations  in  food crops grown on sludge-treated land  it is also
 necessary  to control soil pH, to limit annual applications of sludge, and
 to  use  sludge that is low in cadmium.

         Vascular  plants, algae, and plankton have been  shown to  contain
 levels  of  cadmium  in their tissues several orders  of magnitude greater than
 that found  in their  immediate environment.  Invertebrates accumulate cadmium
 from both  soils  and  foods, and levels in  marine mammals  are  generally much
 higher  than those  found in prey  fish species.   Immature mammals were also
 found to contain lower cadmium concentrations in their tissues than adults.
 The highest concentration of cadmium found in fish was 1.7 ppm, in  the
 Columbia River.  The levels are  lower in marine fish than in freshwater fish
 and they are somewhat higher in  aquatic invertebrates  (up to 5 ppm  in
 Atlantic oysters).

         The available data on biota do not permit definition of  trends over
 time.   The studies are rarely concerned with analysis of comparable species
 or  tissues analyzed,  the  same location, similar sampling or analytical
methods or monitoring conducted over more than  1 year.  Data from the
National Pesticide Monitoring Program for starlings provide the most
uniform base from which trends may be indicated.  These data show an overall
 slight  increase  in the cadmium concentration found in starlings between 1971
 and 1973.

         Unlike plants, the species'  dependency of the cadmium levels in
 animals were not very clearly demonstrated.  Most of the animals from the
 same geographical areas seemed to have approximately the same levels of

                                  xii

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cadmium in their bodies.  Exceptions were domestic rabbits and mountain
cottontails found in the polluted Helena Valley, Montana.  Their levels
were 7 to 16 times higher than those of cows, ground squirrels, and mice.
No clear indication of any difference in the cadmium content of herbivorous
and carnivorous animals were observed from the available data.

         Knowledge gaps still exist on the behavior and fate of cadmium
in atmospheric, terrestrial, and aquatic environments, but some statements
can be made.  Airborne cadmium particles are presumed to eventually return
to the land and water environments, the major fallout appearing to be
within a few kilometers from the source, e.g., a smelter stack.  Soil
receives cadmium directly from emission sources as land-destined wastes
and fallout deposition from the atmosphere, the estimated amount being
nearly 96 percent of the total environmental cadmium emissions.  About 95
percent of this is retained in the soil, the remainder being leached or
washed into streams.  There is a lack of information on sedimentation
losses of cadmium in the freshwater environment; thus the flux of cadmium
from freshwater streams into the oceans can only be estimated.

         Although cadmium is present in measurable quantities in virtually
all areas, for the general population oral ingestion in foods can represent
the most important source of cadmium intake.  Airborne sources appear to
constitute a significant portion of cadmium intake for those occupationally
exposed or those residing in areas heavily polluted by cadmium-emitting
industries.  Data from the FDA's Total Diet Studies indicate no trend of
increasing or decreasing cadmium exposure from foods during the period 1968
through 1974.

         The estimated biological half-life of cadmium in man is from 13 to
47 years.  The average body burden of cadmium in adults in the United States
is reported to be 15 to 20 mg.  This is reflected by increased concentrations
in the kidney, liver, pancreas, and blood vessels.  The adult American male
nonsmokers with mean age of 60 have, on the average, a total body burden of
13 mg of cadmium.  In contrast, the adult cigarette smokers have a total
body burden of 30 to 40 mg.  Studies of cadmium levels in whole blood in
normal, nonexposed human populations generally reveal whole blood cadmium
levels of less than 1 ng/100 ml but in exposed workers the range may be
1 to 10 ng/100 ml.

         Based on the information in this document, current cadmium releases
to the environment appear to be declining.  However, the cadmium content in
fossil fuels and fertilizers is only partially controllable, and these two
sources may set the lower bounds of attainable minimums in cadmium
emissions to the environment.  Most of the dissipated cadmium eventually
becomes bound to soil,  sediment, and ocean sinks.  Biological accumulations
of cadmium are found in most living organisms.
                                   xiii

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                                1.  INTRODUCTION
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

      Cadmium is a relatively rare element in the earth's crust, ranking in
abundance between mercury and silver, 0.1 to 0.5 ppm, and does not occur in
sufficient abundance to be mined as an ore.  Cadmium is a soft metal with
low melting and boiling points, 312 C and 765 C, respectively.  These
physical properties account for its volatility and high vapor pressures
encountered at only moderate temperatures and contribute to its release to
the atmosphere through the pyrometallurgical operations in its recovery from
ores and in welding and torch cutting, and from incineration of wastes and
the combustion of coal.  However, ambient concentrations of cadmium in the
air are, in general, of the order of a few hundredths or thousandths of a
microgram per cubic meter, suggesting the existence of an effective removal
mechanism (fallout and rainout).  More detailed information is available in
Hammons and Huff (1975).

      Cadmium sulfide (CdS) , carbonate (CdC03>, and oxide (CdO) are
insoluble compounds.  The hydroxide, Cd(OH)2, is also insoluble and can be
precipitated from solution by the addition of hydroxide ion (OH~).  Unlike
zinc hydroxide, cadmium hydroxide does not redissolve in excess hydroxide
(Fulkerson and Goeller, 1973).  Because of the low solubility of the carbo-
nate and the sulfide, the amount of cadmium which can remain dissolved in
natural waters is quite low.  Additionally, in waters free of sulfide or
any complex-forming ligands, dissolved cadmium concentrations can be very
low as a result of the equally low solubilities of the carbonate.  In
nonacid waters, at a pH less than 9.5 and with <10~5 M total carbonate, the
concentration of dissolved cadmium can be as low as a few parts per billion
(Fulkerson and Goeller, 1973).  Nearly all of the U.S. Geological Survey
benchmark surface water stations which are discussed later exhibit dissolved
cadmium concentrations of this order of magnitude, where cadmium was detect-
able at all.  Most cadmium found in aquatic systems tends to be associated
with particulates.
PRODUCTION AND USES OF CADMIUM

Production

      Cadmium is one of the lesser nonferrous metals, produced almost
totally as a by-product of zinc mining and smelting.  Annual consumption in
the U.S. has during the last several years averaged around 5,000 metric tons
(De Filippo, 1975).  Although the U.S. has been the leading producer for

                                    1-1

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 over half  a  century,  that  portion  of  domestic  consumption which  is  produced
 by  the  U.S.  has  steadily declined.  Nearly  40  percent  of U.S.  demands  are
 now imported.  In  1974, domestic demand,  5,600 metric  tons  (6,200 short
 tons),  was 33 percent of world production.
Uses

      Total U.S. cadmium consumption in recent years has been  in  the  range
of 4,000 to 6,000 metric tons/year and is expected to reach about 10,000
metric tons annually.  The uses of cadmium are almost totally  dissipative;
there is no significant recycling.  Although data on the ultimate end use of
cadmium are sparse, the largest single use which consumed about 46 percent
of the total  (2,700 metric tons) in 1974 is for electroplating and coating,
including that for transportation uses.  Cadmium is widely used for plating
motor vehicle parts, aircraft parts, marine equipment, hardware,  household
appliances, and miscellaneous industrial machinery parts (nuts, bolts,
springs, washers, rivets, and other fasteners) to prevent corrosion
(De Filippo, 1975).

      Cadmium has many superior properties compared to competitive materials
for corrosion protection and its use is likely to continue, at least in the
near term.  The properties of cadmium which have led to its widespread use
in electroplating include the following: (1) good protection from only a
thin coating, (2) low electrical resistance of plated contacts, (3) retention
of luster for long periods, (4) ease of soldering plated parts, (5) good
corrosion resistance to salt water and alkalies, (6) uniform deposition on
intricately shaped objects, and (7) little effect on strength of  steel parts
stressed in high-temperature service (Heindl, 1971).

      The second largest use (M.,000 metric tons in 1974) is for  paint
pigments; cadmium sulfide, yellow to orange, and cadmium sulfoselenide,
orange to deep maroon, are the most widely used pigments.

      Cadmium salts of long-chain organic acids are used as plasticizers and
heat stabilizers for plastics,  ^900 metric tons in 1974.  However, because of
its toxicity, cadmium cannot be used in plastics for food containers.

      The only other identified use of significance, 550 metric tons in 1974,
is in nickel-cadmium batteries.  There are a number of other uses.  Cadmium
has a very high neutron-absorbing cross section and is accordingly used in
nuclear reactor controls.   It finds some use in fluorescent phosphors, in
low-melting alloys, in bearing alloys,  and in brazing alloys and  solders.
Total consumption for other uses in 1974 was approximately 450 metric  tons.

      Figure 1.1 represents U.S. cadmium consumption in 1975.   In contrast
to 1974,  plastics stabilization utilized more cadmium than the processes
involved in developing pigments.

      The forecasts by the U.S. Bureau of Mines for the year 2000 estimate
cadmium consumption to lie between 8,400 and 15,600 metric tons (9,300 to
                                    1-2

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             PLASTICS
          STABILIZATION
               20%
              (16%)
                                ELECTROPLATING
                                    55%
                                   (35%)
PIGMENTS
  12%
 (23%)
MISCELLANEOUS
     8%
   (13%)
        BATTERIES
            5%
          (13%)
 Figure 1.1.  U.S. cadmium consumption in 1975
              (American Metal Market, 1975).
              Figures in parentheses represent consumption
              in 1975 for U.S., West Germany, Britain, and
              Japan (Anonymous, 1977).
                        1-3

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17,200 short tons) with the most probable value being 11,500 metric tons
(12,700 short tons)  (De Filippo, 1975).  The projected breakdown of this
total by end uses is shown graphically in Figure 1.2.

      Zinc and zinc-tin alloys are expected to be satisfactory substitutes
for cadmium in some electroplating uses.  Organotins are being considered
as a cadmium replacement in the plastics stabilizer market.  Ion Vapor
Deposition (IVD) of aluminum is currently under consideration as a
substitute for cadmium in electroplating.  McDonnell Aircraft Company and
the Department of Defense have developed the IVD aluminum process and have
adapted it to numerous military aircraft coating applications.  Some of
the advantages of IVD aluminum plating are higher temperature usability,
lower cost, reduced hydrogen embrittlement, and reduced plating thickness
which is translated to both reduced weight and cost.
SOURCES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION WITH CADMIUM

      Cadmium is introduced into the environment either as a result of the
manufacture, use, or disposal of some cadmium product, or as a contaminant
in some other substance.  Sargent and Metz (1975) pointed out that while
20 percent of the release arises from the primary nonferrous metals industry,
and 30 percent from the conversion, use, and disposition of cadmium in our
economy, an approximately equal amount is estimated to arise from inadver-
tent sources.
Release from Production and Use of Cadmium Products

      Introduction of cadmium into the environment from primary production
operations is a fairly localized problem and the number of primary sites is
small (Figure 1.3).  While, as shown later in the sections on environmental
levels in air, water, and soil, the environs around many of these plants
received significant cadmium burdens in past years, the trend now is toward
effective control of emissions.  Incremental burdens in future years are,
therefore, being reduced.

      The cadmium-consuming industry is geographically somewhat concentrated.
Fulkerson and Goeller (1973), reporting to a 1960 U.S. Bureau of Mines
survey, noted that approximately 58 percent of the cadmium-consuming industry
of the United States was in states bordering the Great Lakes.  The remaining
28 percent of the consuming industry was distributed among the other states.
Thus, releases of cadmium to the environment from manufacture, use, and
disposal would be expected to follow a similar geographic distribution
(Figure 1.4).

      An assessment of industrial hazardous waste practices in the electro-
plating and metal-finishing industries (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
1975b) developed a model of the geographic distribution of independent job
shop platers based upon survey response (Figure 1.5).
                                   1-4

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Transportation
Coating and Plating
Batteries
Paints
Plastics & Synthetics
Others
                                                       2              3
                                                   Thousands of Metric Tons
                             Figure 1.2.   Projected cadmium consumption in the United States
                                          by end use,  year 2000.

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I
ON
                         Figure 1.3.   Geographical distribution of recoverable zinc resources
                                      in the United States (Wedow, 1973).

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Figure 1.4.  Cadmium consumption (percent) by state.  Remaining
             37 states—28% (Fulkerson and Goeller, 1973) .

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       Cadmium is  associated with  all  zinc  ores  and  is  a  by-product  of  the
 zinc  industry.  Its  removal from  zinc is necessary  and would be  performed
 even  in  the  absence  of  a market for cadmium.  Cadmium  follows  the zinc
 through  the  beneficiation  step and, as  in  the past,  effluents  from  zinc mill
 tailings ponds  introduced  very significant quantities  of both  into  the
 environment.

       The major use  for cadmium,  electroplating, has also been a major
 contributor  to  the escape  of cadmium  to the environment.  It has been
 estimated (Ottinger  et  al., 1973a and b) that approximately 18 percent of
 the cadmium  used  in  electroplating is lost as a liquid,  solid, or semisolid
 sludge during the plating  operation,  usually to the  sewers.  The sources of
 the liquid,  solid, and  semisolid  wastes generated in the electroplating
 industry include  the following:

           •  Rinse waters from plating, cleaning, and other
              surface finishing operations

           •  Concentrated plating and finishing baths that
              are intentionally or accidentally discharged

           •  Wastes from plant or equipment cleanup

           •  Sludges,  filter cakes,  etc., produced by
              naturally occurring deposition in operating
              baths or  by intentional precipitation in the
              purification of operating baths, chemical
              rinsing circuits, etc.

           •  Regenerants from ion exchange units

           •  Vent scrubber waters.

      The most important of these wastes, especially from the standpoint of
 the smaller plater, is the rinse water.  This is the constantly  flowing,
 production-oriented stream which  is generally so large in volume that some
 form of concentration is warranted before it can be economically trans-
 ported to a central disposal facility for treatment (Ottinger et al.,
 1973a and b).  Ottinger's estimate of loss suggests a loss of approximately
 490 metric tons from the approximately 2,700 tons of cadmium consumed
 annually in electroplating.  After application of pollution abatement
practices in compliance with effluent guidelines, Sargent and Metz (1975)
estimate 10.5 MT/yr waterborne waste and 73.5 MT/yr wastes to land disposal
for the electroplating industry.

      Yost's (1976) projections of cadmium discharged (in metric tons)  from
electroplating facilities to natural waters are:
                                   1-8

-------
                                                38.6
                                                                         13.4
Figure 1.5.  Geographical distribution of independent job platers
             by EPA region (percent).  (Source: U.S.  Environmental
             Protection Agency, 1975b.)

-------
   Year   Direct
   1976
   1980
   1985
13.6
 1.0
 0.22
    Through
Publicly Owned
Treatment Works

     35.8
      3.3
      0.74
To Publicly Owned
 Treatment Works
     Sludge	

      107.3
       10.0
        2.23
  Concentrated
Waste and Sludge
  to Landfill

        18.3
       160.7
       135.3
He forecasts a downward trend in cadmium discharge, though landfill cadmium
will first increase until after 1980 when it will turn downward.

      Cadmium discharge rates to the environment from steelmaking and coke
production are summarized in Table 1.1.  The steel industry is considered
to be among the leading contributors of cadmium to the environment.
Cadmium emissions are associated primarily with the refining processes
(open-hearth, basic-oxygen, and electric arc furnaces) in which No. 2 scrap
steel (contains galvanized and plated metal) is used and coke production.,
           TABLE 1.1.  CADMIUM DISCHARGE RATES TO THE ENVIRONMENT
                       FROM STEELMAKING AND COKE PRODUCTION3
Year
1975
1980
1985
Total
Production,
tons x 106
116.8 (steel)
82.2 (coke)
152 (steel)
107 (coke)
158 (steel)
111 (coke)
Cadmium Discharge, metric tons per year
Atmosphere
13
7
13
10
10
10
Landfill
105
290
322
Aqueous Discharge
6
5
3
       Source: Yost, 1976.
      Powers (1976), in discussing disposal of toxic substances in industrial
wastes, claims that the only adequate method for the disposal of concentrated
cadmium wastes is coagulation with lime, then sedimentation, followed by sand
filtration.  The cadmium hydroxide sludge produced can be dried and placed in
an approved landfill.  Powers further points out that cadmium hydroxide is
not very soluble, 2.6 mg/£, so that contamination of water supplies from a
landfill operation should not be a problem, at least in an approved chemical
                                    1-10

-------
 landfill  area  of  the California Class  I  type  ("those at which complete
 protection  is  provided  for  all time  for  the quality of ground and surface
 waters  from all wastes  deposited  therein and  against hazard to public
 health  and  wildlife resources") (Fields  and Lindsey, 1975).

      Most  processes associated with cadmium  in pigments involve a high-
 temperature calcination treatment so air emissions are encountered,
 estimated at 9.5  MT by  Fulkerson  and Goeller  (1973).  While it does appear
 that  little cadmium is  lost to the environment in manufacturing of paints,
 the cadmium is ultimately dispersed  in use by weathering and discarding of
 painted items.  Although their use and disposal results in almost total
 dispersal to the  environment, other  major uses of cadmium  (alloys, plastics
 manufacture, and  nickel-cadmium batteries) contribute only minor quantities
 of cadmium  to  the environment in  their manufacture.
Inadvertent Sources of Cadmium Release

      Principal inadvertent sources of cadmium released to the environment
are phosphate fertilizers, sewage sludge, and the combustion of fossil
fuels.  Minor sources are rubber tire wear, from the cadmium associated
with zinc oxide vulcanization accelerator, as well as use and recycling of
galvanized steel which already have been discussed.

      Fulkerson and Goeller (1973) estimate a range of 110 to 900 metric
tons of cadmium inadvertently emitted per year, corresponding to a
consumption of 450 million metric tons of coal and assuming cadmium
contents in the rather wide range of 0.25 to 2 ppm.   Estimation of the
total quantities of cadmium released is subject to considerable uncertainty
as a result of the large variability in intrinsic cadmium contents of
natural raw materials.   Fulkerson (1975) later revised this estimate to
150 MT/yr of atmospheric emissions, based on 600 million MT/yr of coal at
an average of 2.5 ppm cadmium and 90 percent precipitator efficiency.  These
appear to be high values for average cadmium concentrations on the basis of
available coal analyses.  Ruch et al. (1974) reported the results of
the analyses of 101 coal samples, 82 of which were from the Illinois basin.
Only about 50 percent of the samples exceeded 0.6 ppm and only 34 percent
exceeded 1.2 ppm.  Thus, a more realistic estimate appears to be the one
developed by Sargent and Metz (1975) who estimated 80 MT/yr atmospheric
emissions and 470 MT/yr in the residues and captured fly ash, on the basis
of 450 million MT/yr of coal and an average 1 ppm cadmium content.

      Klein et al. (1975) studied the pathways of 37 trace elements through
a coal-fired plant, measuring the concentrations and mass flows in the
coal, slag, fly ash, and exit gas stream.  Cadmium was analyzed by isotope
dilution spark source mass spectroscopy.  The following ppm concentrations
of cadmium were observed:

                       Coal - 0.47
                       Slag -1.1
                       Precipitator inlet fly ash -  8.0
                       Precipitator outlet fly ash - 51.0

                                    1-11

-------
The increased concentration in the particles leaving the electrostatic
precipitator suggests that cadmium losses will be associated with ultrafine
particulate matter.  Size ranges of outlet fly ash particles were not
reported, although other test data indicated that they would be 0.1 to
0.5 micrometer in diameter or less.  The cadmium mass balance indicated
less than 2.5 percent was contained in the exit gas stream, considerably
lower than the 17.5 percent assumed by Sargent and Metz (1975) in their
estimation of atmospheric emissions.

      A more detailed study of flow pathways of cadmium through power plants,
including the flue gas desulfurization step, has recently been reported by
Holland et al. (1975).  Cadmium concentrations determined in the coal feed
and in various streams in 5 coal-fired power plants are summarized in Table
1.2.  These results provide evidence that collected cadmium is satisfactorily
immobilized in flue gas scrubber sludges as indicated by the 0.5 to 2 ppb in
leachate from the sludge.

      Oils exhibit the same type of variability in cadmium content as does
coal, so that selecting an average value for purposes of estimating emissions
presents problems.  Lagerwerff and Specht (1971) found 0.07 to 0.11 ppm in
diesel oils and 0.42 to 0.53 ppm in heating oils.  Fulkerson and Goeller
(1973) assumed an average of 0.3 ppm and a 50 billion-gallon annual consump-
tion in deriving an estimate of about 55 MT/yr emitted.  The practical
technology to eliminate cadmium from oils does not appear to be available,
and this source of cadmium will probably continue at about its present levels.

      Cadmium is found associated with the phosphate in phosphate rock, and
tends to follow the phosphorus in processing, and thus is a contaminant in
phosphate fertilizers.  Fulkerson and Goeller (1973) assumed a range of 2 to
20 ppm and estimated an input of 23 to 230 MT/yr from commercial fertilizers.
Sargent and Metz (1975), assumed a lower value of 7.8 ppm on the basis of
other analyzes, and estimated cadmium input to the soil from this source of
100 metric tons in 1975.

      Sewage sludge is a third significant source of inadvertent cadmium
release.  Fulkerson and Goeller's (1973) estimate of inadvertent releases
assumed a cadmium content in sludge of 15.6 ppm, based on some Swedish data.
On the basis of recent U.S.  data, this appears to be low for the more
industrialized wastes of this country.  Salotto et al. (1974)  analyzed about
100 digested sludge samples from 33 wastewater treatment plants in 13 states;
they found the cadmium contents to be log-normally distributed, with a
geometric mean of 43 ppm, an arithmetic mean of 75 ppm, and a median value
of 31 ppm.  Sargent and Metz (1975) , using an assumed average cadmium content
of 75 ppm, derived an estimate of 300 MT/yr from sludge.  They further
assumed that 60 percent is applied to land,  10 percent is dumped at sea, and
30 percent is incinerated, producing 20 metric tons of air emissions at an
incinerator scrubber efficiency of 80 percent.
                                   1-12

-------
          TABLE 1.2.  CADMIUM CONCENTRATIONS FROM FIVE POWER PLANTS'
                                    (in ppm)
Electric Power Generating Station
Source
Coal
Bottom ash
Particulate collector ash
Lime or limestone scrubber
feed
Ash pond liquor
Scrubber sludge
Scrubber liquor
Make-up water for
scrubber
Coal ash leachate
Flue gas desulfurization
sludge leachate
1 2
0.028 0.05
0.19 0.41
0.39 1.4
0.28 0.24
-
0.0005
0.40
0.006b
0.0004b 0.0004b
0.001 0.0025
0.0005
3
0.30
0.86
5.3
0.92

0.0001
0.0009b
0.01

4
0.11
1.1
4.2
0.90

0.001
1.1
0.002b
o.ooib
0.001
0.001
5
7.9
1.6

0.65

0.04
0.25
0.009b
0.0007b
0.0011
0.002
Source:  Holland et al., 1975.

Concentration in ppb.
                                   1-13

-------
Summary of Cadmium Input to the Environment

      As shown in Table 1.3, Sargent and Metz (1975) estimate the current
total quantity of cadmium released to the environment to be about 1,800
MT/yr.  Land-destined wastes constitute a major portion of the total
environmental emissions with more than 82 percent, followed by air emission
at 16 percent, and waterborne effluents only a little over 1 percent.
These numbers are based on limited measurements and estimates.  Also
included in the table are estimates provided by Yost (1976).

      Of the approximately 2,000 metric tons of cadmium emitted to the
environment in 1974, about 20 percent came from zinc mining and smelting;
50 percent was from fossil-fuel combustion, fertilizer use, and disposal
of sewage sludge; and 30 percent was from industrial uses including
remelting of cadmium-plated scrap, incineration of plastics containing
cadmium, and electroplating.

      Since cadmium is used primarily dissipatively, the total destined
for introduction into the environment will approximately equal that
produced and used.  Thus, the principal problem is determining to which
compartment—air, water, land—the emissions are consigned.  Nevertheless,
at present, it appears that the overall trend in uncontrolled emissions of
cadmium to the environment are definitely down, spurred by the increasingly
complete application of pollution abatement controls.  This trend is
expected to continue, although there will be some offset as a result of
natural growth in the economy.  Also, there are further opportunities for
substitution of other materials for cadmium and its compounds and for
further reduction of the cadmium content of commercial zinc.  On the other
hand, the cadmium contamination in fossil fuels and in fertilizer is only
partially controllable and these two sources may set the lower bounds of
attainable minimums in cadmium emissions to the environment.
                                   1-14

-------
                    TABLE 1.3.  REVISED CADMIUM EMISSION ESTIMATES'
                       (Metric Tons per  Year  as Elemental Cadmium)

Source
Zinc ore mining and beneficiation
Primary zinc industry


Total: Extraction, refining, and
production
Electroplating shops





Pigment manufacture
Stabilizer manufacture
Alloy manufacture
Battery manufacture


Total: Industrial conversion

Secondary nonferrous metals
Iron and steel industry
Steelmakingc


Coke production0


Galvanized products
Rubber tire wear
Incineration
Total: Consumption and disposal of
cadmium-containing products
Phosphate fertilizers

Phosphate detergents
Coal combustion

Diesel and fuel oil combustion
Lubricating oils
Sewage sludge
Total: Inadvertent sources

Grand totals

Airborne
Emissions
0.2
102


102

1.0





9.5b
2.7b
2.3h
O.?b


15.0

2.2
10.5
13.0 (1975)
13.0 (1980)
10.0 (1985)
7.0 (1975)
10.0 (1980)
10.0 (1985)
-0
5.2b
16.0
34.0

-0

-0
80.0 (1974)
80.0 (1980)
50. Ob
0.8°
20.0
151.0

300.0

Waterborne
Effluents
-0
10.0 (1971-72)
2.0 (1977)
1.3 (1983)
-7.0 (1974-75)
-2.0 (1980)
10.5 (1972)
49.4 (1976)c
4.0 (1977)
4.3 (1980)c
0 (1983)
0.96 (1985)c
0.75
-0
-0
0.3


-8.0 (1974-75)
-3.0 (1980)
-0
-0
6 (1975)
5 (1980)
3 (1985)



-0
-0
-0
-0

-0

10.2
-0
-0
-0
-0
-0
10.0

25.0 (1974-75)
15.0 (1980)
Land -Destined
Wastes
250
-0


250

73.5 (1972)
18.3 (1976)C
80.0 (1977)
160.7 (1980)=
0 (1983)
135.3 (1985)c
16.5
-0
-0
8.4 (1973)
11.4 (1977)
9.1 (1983)
-102.0 (1974-75)
- 75.0 (1980)
20
330
105 (1975)
290 (1980)
322 (1985)



40
-0
70
460

100 (1974)
130 (1980)
-0
370 (1974)
680 (1980)
-0
-0
250
720 (1974-75)
1,060 (1980)
1,500 (1971-75)
1,800 (1980)

Total Emissions




359 (1974-75)
354 (1980)












125 (1974-75)
93 (1980)











494









831 (1974-75)
1,221 (1980)
1,800 (1974-75)
2,100 (1980)
aSource:  Sargent and Metz, 1975 (with additional data from Yost, 1976).
^Estimates unchanged from Fulkerson and Goeller (1973).
CYost, 1976.


                                           1-15

-------
                    2.  CADMIUM LEVELS IN THE ENVIRONMENT
      Cadmium is a relatively rare element and is only a minor element in
U.S. technology.  When total U.S. consumption is only of the order of 5,000
MT/yr, even total dispersion would not begin to compare to the quantities
of other metals, e.g., copper, lead, or zinc, entering the environment each
year.  While the uses of cadmium are largely dissipative, the forms in which
it is utilized are fairly stable and so its dispersal is not rapid and total,
as it tetraethyl lead antiknock fluid, for example.  Thus, cadmium is found
in the environment in ppm and ppb levels.
AIR

National Atmospheric Monitoring Program

      In recent years the EPA has begun monitoring of cadmium on a national
level as part of the National Air Surveillance Networks (NASN).  Since 1968,
the number of urban stations operating has been 164; the nonurban total is
30 (Figure 2.1) (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1972).  NASN also
compiles and reports data collected by state and local agencies.  The EPA
maintains a record of most ambient air sampling performed in the U.S. on its
SAROAD (Storage and Retrieval of Aerometric Data) computer system.

      Due presumably to the employment of emission spectroscopy instead of
atomic absorption, the atmospheric cadmium concentrations reported for 1970-
1974 NASN samples (Akland, 1976) have only a small fraction of positive
values which permit calculation of annual averages; for many states no
detectable atmospheric cadmium concentrations are reported for this 5-year
period.  All urban stations with at least one reported annual average are
presented in Table 2.1.  Analyses of samples taken at 46 nonurban stations
during the 1970-1974 period were uniformly below the limit of detection.

      To appraise trends, the 50th percentile (the median) and the 90th
percentile of the annual averages were chosen by Faoro and McMullen (1977)
as the statistics to best describe the change in metals' concentrations over
time.  This minimizes the influence of individual extreme values and simpli-
fies the characterization trends for metals having large amounts of data
below the detection limit.  Also, these statistics can portray different
aspects of the yearly average distribution—the 50th percentile, the typical,
and the 90th percentile, the high concentration site.

      Figure 2.2 graphically presents the urban cadmium concentrations for
the two broad emission categories (combustion and industry) in terms of the
                                   2-1

-------
to
to
                          Figure 2.1.   Map showing NASN stations for measuring cadmium.

-------
TABLE 2.1.  ANNUAL AVERAGE URBAN ATMOSPHERIC CADMIUM CONCENTRATIONS
            REPORTED BY NATIONAL AIR SURVEILLANCE NETWORKS, 1970-19742
                        (L.D. = Limit of Detection)
Location
Arizona
Douglas
Tucson
Colorado
Denver
Connecticut
Bridgport
Waterbury
Georgia
Atlanta
Illinois
Chicago
East St. Louis
Peoria
Indiana
East Chicago
Indianapolis
Kentucky
Ashland
Covington
Louisiana
New Orleans
Shreveport
Maine
Portland
Michigan
Detroit
Grand Rapids
Minnesota
St. Paul
Missouri
St. Louis
Montana
Helena
Station
Number

01
01

01

01
01

01

01
01
01

01


02
01

02
01

02

01
01

01

01

01
3
Cadmium Concentration, yg/m
1970


0.0065

0.0102

0.0117
0.0251



L.D.

0.0067

0.0187
0.0066

0.0108
0.0048b

L.D.
L.D.

L.D.

0.0047


0.0060




1971


0.0251

0.0101


0.0048

0.0210

0.0065
0.0045b


0.008b
0.0063


0.0049

0.0184
0.0132

0.0086

L.D.
0.0116



0.0155

0.0150
1972

0.0132
0.0045b



0.0057
0.0174



0.0030b
0.0052



0.009b

0.0093
0.003b

L.D.
L.D.




L.D.

0.0086




1973 1974


0.0045b 0.0062b




0.0027b 0.0139







0.0056


0.006b
L.D.


L.D.











                               2-3

-------
                             TABLE 2.1.  (Continued)
Location
New Jersey
Camden
Elizabeth
Jersey City
Newark
Perth Amboy
New York
New York City
North Carolina
Winston Salem
Ohio
Cincinnati
Cleveland
Youngs town
Pennsylvania
Allentown
Bethlehem
Hazleton
Philadelphia
Scranton
Texas
El Paso
Virginia
Lynchburg
Wisconsin
Kenosha
Racine
Station
Number
01
02
01
01
01

01

02

01
01
01
01
02
01
04
01

02
01

o'i
01
3
Cadmium Concentration, yg/m
1970 1971
0.0063
0.0167
0.0081 0.0056
0.0125
0.0055b 0.0128

0.0071

0.0076

0.0086
0.0088
0.0056
0.0081 0.0042b
0.0140 0.0191
L.D 0.0067

0.0618
0.0135 0.0040b

L.D.
L.D.
1972


0.0124
0.0159
0.0189

0.0060






0.0178
0.0068b
0.0057
L.D.

0.0442
L.D.

0.0143
0.0071
1973 1974


0.0052








0.0042b 0,0134
0.0068
0.0065
0.0038b
L.D.

0.0206 0.0242"




Source:  Akland, 1976.




L.D./2 used for computation of annual average.
                                   2-4

-------
   003
   002
   0008
   0001
                                 A
                                      Jt_4_4—1—I
               CS   66    67    68    69    70    71   72    73    74   YEAR
4 indicates value below lower discrimination limit.
     Figure 2.2.  Trends in 50th percentile of annual averages for cadmium
                  associated with metal industry sources at urban sites
                  (Faoro and McMullen, 1977).
                                    2-5

-------
50th percentile of annual averages.  The 90th percentile plots are not shown
since they provided very similar results.  Cadmium shows a sharp downward
trend, 1969-1970, and for the period 1970-1974, the reported cadmium metal
concentrations were below the lower discrimination limit (Faoro and McMullen,
1977).
Local Monitoring of Atmospheric
Cadmium Concentrations

        As noted above, EPA also compiles atmospheric data submitted by
states; these are stored in the SAROAD data file.  Cadmium results are
available for eight states over the period 1971-1976.  Since the size of
sample is limited, it cannot be considered to delineate trends over the
entire U.S.  However, most of the states reporting have data for an
extensive network of many stations.  Arizona, for example, has data from
53 urban and 14 nonurban stations.  Also, several of the states are
included among the producers of lead and zinc (Missouri, Montana, Idaho,
Tennessee) so that some insight is provided on the importance of mining,
milling, and smelting of these ores on entry of metals into the environment.
Annual averages are given for only a small fraction of the stations.  How-
ever, the results for odd-numbered deciles along with the maximum and
second maximum are given.  The 50 percent decile approximates the median
value and was selected as the stand-in for the average where an annual
average was not reported.  These analyses were by atomic absorption rather
than by emission spectroscopy.  Beginning about 1970, the analytical method
of choice of the states' laboratories has almost universally been atomic
absorption.

        The SAROAD 50 percent decile results for these eight states are
tabulated in Tables 2.2 (urban) and 2.3 (nonurban).  Unlike the NASN
emission spectroscopic analyses, positive values were the rule and ND
entries were absent, even for nonurban areas.  In areas remote from
cadmium sources, concentrations as low as 0.0001 to 0.0005 yg/m3 were
measured.

        The midwestern section of the country has been the subject of several
atmospheric monitoring studies of trace metals.   A study was conducted during
a 2-day period in 1972 in Chicago, Illinois (Harrison, 1973).  Atomic absorp-
tion spectroscopy was the analytical method used for this investigation.
With these data it was possible to plot isopleths, as shown in Figures 2.2
and 2.4.  The November 5, 1972, data, Figure 2.3, show a maximum concentra-
tion of 0.0083 yg/m  on the north side of Chicago, in an area free of point
sources to which the high concentration could be attributed.  On November 23,
1972, the area of maximum concentration, 0.0073 yg/m3, was located some miles
to the west,  and concentration at the north side area had decreased to 0.002
yg/m .  From these data, it is evident that mesoscale meteorological factors
were dominant in determining atmospheric cadmium distribution.  However,
given adequate mesoscale meteorological data, it appears that with some
refinements the approach could be used to identify and locate point sources.
                                    2-6

-------
TABLE 2.2.  ATMOSPHERIC CADMIUM CONCENTRATIONS FOR URBAN
            SAMPLING STATIONS IN EIGHT STATES, 1971-1976
Locnt ion
Ar i zona
A.jo
(];is;i Crande
Chandler
Claypool
Clifton
Cochise County
Cochise County
Cochise County '
Flagstaff
Gila County
Glendale
Creenlee County
Kingman
Maricopa County
Mesa
Mohave County
Mohavr Conn t y
Nava jo Conn Ly
Nava jo Count y
Noj;a 1 es
Paradise Valley
Paradise Valley
Phoenix
Phoenix
Phoenix
Phoenix
Phoenix
Phoenix
Phoenix
Phoenix
Phoenix
Phoenix
Piraa County
Final County
Pinal County
Pinal County
Prescott
Scottsdale
Scottsdale
Scottsdale
Scottsdale
Sierra Vista
Sierra Vista
South Tucson
Sun City
Superior
Tucson
Tucson
Tucson
Tucson
Tucson
Yav^n;l'' Cnnntv
Yuma
Idaho
Kellogg
Kellogg
Kellogg
Kellogg
Kellogg
Kellogg
Shoshone County
Slat ion
Number

01
01
01
01
03
01
02
04
01
01
01
91
01
09
02
06
01
02
07
02
01
02
02
04
05
06
08
09
10
11
13
14
11
01
02
03
01
01
02
03

01
02
01
02
03
02
07
08
12
13
01
02

04
06
07
08
09
10
04
Cadmium Concentration, vg/rn^ '
1971 1972

0.0001 0.002


0.0001 0.007
0.0001 0.005
0.119 0.012
0.008 0.002

0.0001 0.0001






0.0001 0.001

0.0001 0.002




0.001
0.003
0.001
0.004
0.004






0.016 0.002



0.004







0.006 0.001





o.ooifi n.oom
0.0001 0.0001








1973

0.0001

0.003
0.0001
0.003


0.01
0.001
0.009


0.003


0 . 000 1
0.003


0.003
0.002
0.005
0.0018d
0.0036d
0.0017d
0.0035d

0.0001
0.002
0.003



0.003
0.005
0.002
0.001
0.003
0.003





0.006
0.002





n.ooi
0.001








1974

0.001
0.003
0.0021d

0.006


0.006
0.001
0.01
0.0001
0.028
0.001
0.0001
0.0008d
0.0001
0.002

0.0001
0.003
0.001d
0.0039d
0.0019d
0.0023d
0.001
0.0001


0.0015d
0.0059d
0.0001
0.001

0.0001

0.005
0.0001

0.0001
0.0001
0.0001
0.001
0.003

0.0071d
0.003





o.noi
0.001

0.3
0.24
0.222
0.252
0.489
0.199
0.16
1975 1976



0.0001







0.0001


0.0001
0.001d






0.0001
0.0008d
0.0008d




0.003
0.004
0.0004d

0.0001






0.0003d
0.0006d


0.0001
0.0001

0.0001
0.0001
0.0001
0.0001
0.0001



0.0965d
0.1189d
0.126
0.122
0.247
0.104
0.1287d
                           2-7

-------
TABLE 2.2..(Continued)
Location
Idaho
Shoshone County
Shoshone County
Shoshone County
Shoshone County
Shoshone County
Shoshone County
Shoshone County
Shoshone County
Shoshone County
Shoshone County
Minnesota
An oka
Austin
Bemidj i
Bc'.mid j i
Bloomington
Brainerd
Carlton County
Cloquet
Dakota County
Dakota County
Dakota County
Duluth
Duluth
Duluth
Duluth
Duluth
Duluth
Dill H Ih
Duluth
Duluth
F.ust (irand Forks
Kly
Fa i rbaul t
Fergus Falls
Fergus Falls
Grand Rapids
Hastings
Hibbing
Hoyt Lakes
Hutchinson
International Falls
International Falls
International Falls
International Falls
Itasea County
Ltasea County
Mankato
Marshall
Minneapolis
Minneapolis
Minneapolis
Minneapolis
Minneapolis
Minneapolis
Minneapolis
Minneapolis
Moorhead
Moorhead
Moorhead
OrtonvJ lie
Station
Number 1971

16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25

01
01
01
02
04
01
01
11
07
20
21
02
03
04
05
06
13
13
15
17
O'l
01
01
01
10
03
05
01
01
01
01
02
03
05
01
02
OJ
01
05
07
14
20
22
27
31
32
03
04
05
01
Cadmium Concentration, pg/m^ >c
1972












0.003
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001


0.001
0.007

0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001



0.001

0.001
0.001
0.001

0.001
0.001
0.001
0.003
0.001



0.001

0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001

0,001
0.004
0.001
0.001

0.001
0.001
0.001
0 . 00.1
1973













0.001

0.001
0.002
0.002
0.001


0.010
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.003
0.002

0,004

0.001
0.001
0 . 004
0.001
0.008
0.001
0.004
0.003
0.004
0.001
0.020
0.006


0.010
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.004
0.002
0.001
0.002
0.002
0.006


0.014
0.001
".-.."."I
0 .00 1
1974

0.07
0.08
0.03
0.06
0.12
0.37
0.174
0.125
0.146
0.095


0.001

0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001

0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.002
0.001
0.001
0.003

0.001
0.001

0.001

0.001
0.002
0.002
0.001
0.001

0.001




0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.002
0.001
0.002

0.002


0.001
0 . 00 1
1975 1976

0.0154d
0.0574d
0.0095d
0.0293d
0.0346d
0.2489d
0.137
0.071
0.108
0.073


0.001

0.001
0.001
0.001

0.001

0.001

0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001

0.001

0.001
0.00')
0.002
0.001
0.001

0.001
0.002
0.001


0.001
0.001
0.001
0.002
p. 001
0.001
0.002
0.003

0.002

0.001
0.001
0.001
          2-8

-------
TABLE 2.2. (Continued)
Location
Minnesota
Red Wing
Red Wing
Rochester
Rochester
Rochester
Rochester
Rochester
St. Cloud
St. Cloud
St. Cloud
St. Cloud
St . Louis County
St. Louis County
St. Louis Park
St. Paul
St. Paul
St. Paul
St. Paul
St. Paul
St. Paul
St. Paul
St. Paul
St. Paul
St. Paul
St. Paul
St. Paul
St. Paul Park
Shakopee
Silver Bay
Silver Bay
Silver Bay
Silver Bay
Silver Bay
Silver Bay
Stearns County
Stearns County
Stearns County
Stillwater
Virginia
Waite Park
Wayzata
Wayzata
Willmar
Winoma
Winoma
Winoma County
Worthington
Missouri
Camden County
Cape Girardeau
Chillicothe
Columbia
Columbia
Fulton
Hannibal
Jefferson City
Jefferson County
Joplin
Kirksville
Maryville
Mexico
Station
Number 1971

02
03
01
10
14
15
16
01
16
17
21
01
03
06
01
03
13
14
16
18
21
23
24
30
31
32
04
02
08
09
10
11
12
13
01
02
03
02
01
01
02
03
01
02
09
01
01

01
02
01
02
03
01
02
02
0505
01
01
01
01
Cadmium Concentration, pg/m-^ '
1972



0.001
0.005
0.002
0.001
0.003
0.001
0.004
0.008

0.001
0.001
0.003
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.002
0.001
0.012
0.003
0.001
0.001



0.004

0.0001
0.001
0.0001
0.001
0.002

0.001
0.001
0.006

0.001
0 . 002

0.001
0.001
0.001

0.001
0.001














1973

0.003

0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.006
0.011

0.002
0.001
0.001
0.005
0.002
0.002
0.006
0.002
0 . 004
0.006
0.003
0.001
0.001


0.004

0.001
0.00 1
0.001
0.002
0.001
0.001
0.007
0.006
0.007
0.001
0.001

0.001
0.005
0.001
0.001
0.003
0.001
0.001














1974

0.001

0.001
0.002
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001

0.008
0.001
0.002
0.001
0.004
0.003
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.009
0.006
0.001
0.001
0.002
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001






0.004
0.003
0.003
0.001
0.001

0.001

0.001

0.002

0.001














1975 1976

0.001
0.004
0.001
0.008
0.001
0.002
0.003


0.004
0.001
0.002
0.001
0.001

0.001

0.001
0.001
0.006
0.002
0.002
0.001
0.002
0.002

0.002
0.001






0.001
0.004
0.001
0.001
0.001

0.001

0.001

0.001

0.001

0.001
0.0034
0.002
0.0032
0.0035
0.005
0.0039
0.002
0.11
0.004
0.003
0.003
0.004
          2-9

-------
TABLE 2.2. (Continued)
Location
Missouri
Mexico
New Madrid
North Kansas City
Platte County
Poplar Bluff
Rolla
St. Joseph
St. Joseph
Sedalia
Sikeston
Montana
Anaconda
Anaconda
Billings
Billings
Butte
Butte
Butte
Butte
Butte
Butte
Butte
Butte
Cascade County
Columbia Falls
Deer Lodge
Deer Lodge
Deer Lodge County
Deer Lodge County
Great Falls
Hard in
Keiispull
Lewis and Clark
Libby
Miles City
Powder River County
Rosebud County
Sanders County
Silver Bow County
Oklahoma
Ada
Bartlesville
Bethany
Blackwell
Blackwell
Blac:kwell
Edmond
Edmond
Midwest City
Midwest City
Oklahoma City
Oklahoma City
Oklahoma City
Oklahoma City
Oklahoma City
Oklahoma City
Oklahoma City
Oklahoma City
Oklahoma City
Station
Number 1971

04
01
04
01
02
01
02
03
05
02

05 0.0301d
06
05 0.001
08 0.0001
01 0.017
02 0.0221d
03 0.01
04 0.019
05 0.012
06 0.0176d
07 0.023
10
16 0.0001
02
01 0.008
02 0.002
01 0.046
21 0.017
07
01
02
06
01
01
06
21
01
07 0.0660

243 0.0070
216
14
591 0.0040
548 0.0140
549
16
16
06
10
01
01
15
15
17
17
18

21
Cadmium Concentration,
1972 1973 1974












0.003
0.013


0.009
0.013
0.003

0.014
0.1500

0.017
0.002
0.002
0.009



0.002
0.001
0.0020
0.0720
0.0010
0.0001
0.0001
0.0010
0.0020
0.0770


0.0060 0.0028
0.0005 0.0005


0.0130 0.0025.
0.0001
0.0005 0.0005
0.0005 0.0005
0.0005 0.0005
0.0001
0.0005 0.0005
0.0005 0.0001
0.0005 0.0005
0.0030
0.0020 0.0024
0.0030
0.0005 0.0020
0.0001
/ 3b'c
yg/m-"
1975 1976

0.0044
0.0018
0.0037
0.002
0.004
0.002
0.0059
0.0047
0.0065
0.0026
































0.0005 0.0005




0.0005 0.0005
0.0005 0.0024
0.0005 0.0005

0.0005

0.0005

0.0005

0.0005 0.0005

            2-10

-------
                               TABLE  2.2.    (Continued)
      l.ocat imi


Ok.lahoma
  Oklahoma  City
  Oklahoma  City
  Oklahoma  CiLy
  Oklahoma  City
  ()klalH>ma  County
  Oklahoma  County
  Ponci.1 City
  Pryor
  Sapulpa
  Sapulpa

Tt-'iinusHL't.1
  Columh in
  K ingsport
  Kingsport
  Marion County
  Morr is town
  I'oIk CounLy
  Korkwooil
  TnIlahoma
  1'u 1 I ahoma
                           Stat ion
                           Number
                                    1971
               Cadmium Concent rat ion,
           'l9~72       1973	1974"
0.0250
0.0040
                               0.0005
                               0.0001
                               0.0005
                               0.0005
                               0.0001
                               0.0005
                                                                             1975
0.0005

0.0005
0.0005

0.0005
0
0
0


0,
0.
ii
0
0.
0,
. 00 'j
.0001
.0020


.0020
.0020
. no.-o
.0020
.0020
.002(1

0
0


0.
0,
0,
0,
0,
0.

.0001
.0020


.0020
,0020
,0020
,0020
,0020
,0020


0
0
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0.


.0020
.0020
.0020
.0020
.0020
.0020
.0020
.0020
.0020
                                                                                        1976
0.0005

0.0005
 Sourri.': ('.:'•. Muv i roniin-nt a I  1'rol i-f I i on Agi'in-v SAIiDAI)  l-'ili',  Durham,  North Carolina.

 DcLc rm i iK'il hv .it'omii1 .ihsorpt ton  on  Iow-[ rmprr.it uri1 ashed -..imp I rs .

 r>0 pi-rrcnl di-riU' valnr, i-xn-pl  as  nolrd.
                                            2-11

-------
           TABLE 2.3.  ATMOSPHERIC CADMIUM CONCENTRATIONS FOR NONURBAN
                       SAMPLING STATIONS IN EIGHT STATES, 1971-1976a
Station
Arizona
Coconino County
Coconino County
Coconino County
Kavapai County
Gila County
Maricopa County
Maricopa County
Maricopa County
Maricopa County
Navajo County
Pima County
Pima County
Pima County
Winslow
Minnesota
Lake County
Stearns County
Montana
Beaverhead County
Big Horn County
Billings
Deer Lodge County
Deer Lodge County
Jefferson County
Rosebud County
Rosebud County
Oklahoma
Oklahoma City
Oklahoma City
Oklahoma City
Oklahoma City
Oklahoma City
Ottawa County
Section
Number

02
03
04
02
03
03
06
07
08
01
05
09
10
01

01
04

02
08
07
03
22
04
09
24

02
02
19
20
20
25
3b
Cadmium Concentration, yg/m
1971 1972

0.0001 0.001
0.0001 0.001
0.0001
0.0001 0.001

0.003



0.0001 0.001
0.0001 0.001


0.0001

0.0020



0.0001
0.0001
0.02
0.018
0.032
0.0001








1973



0.001
0.0001

0.0029C
0.001
0.0001
0.0001

0.0001
0.006

0.001

0.0020
0.0060

0.001





0.0001
0.0010


0.0019
0.0005

0.0005

1974



0.001
0.001
0.003
0.001
0.0005C
0.0016C
0.0045C

0.001
0.001
0.002
0.002


0.0020








0.0001

0.0001
0.0005
0.0005
0.0001
0.0005
0.0001
1975 1976







0.0006C
0.0006C
0.004C







0.0030











0.0005 0.0005
0.0005 0.0005

0.0005 0.0005

 Source:  U.S.  Environmental Protection Agency SAROAD File,  Durnham,  N.C.
 Determined by  atmoic absorption on low-temperature ashed samples;  50 percent
   decile value, except as noted.
°Annual average.
                                    2-12

-------
    p..,  11/5/7."

    Cily AY.roge	!i_i_i.
      High _.'

      low -JL
    Wind Oi«»elion	il5	V»l  10 • *  mph
Figure 2.3.   Ambient atmospheric  cadmium concentrations,  Chicago,
              Illinois, November 5,  1972 [Reprinted from Advances in
              Experimental Medicine  and Biology, Volume  40 (Sanat K.
              Dhar,  Editor) by P.  R.  Harrison, by permission of Plenum
              Publishing Company.  Published 1973.]
                                2-13

-------
                                                                   .0
Figure 2.4.  Ambient atmospheric cadmium concentrations,  Chicago,
             Illinois, November 23, 1972 [Reprinted from Advances  in
             Experimental Medicine and Biology,  Volume 40 (Sanat K.
             Dhar, Editor) by P. R. Harrison, by permission of Plenum
             Publishing Company.  Published 1973.].
                               2-14

-------
        As a part of a broad-scale investigation  for the National Science
Foundation (NSF) examining  the environmental  flow of cadmium and other trace
metals, Yost et al.  (1975)  have studied northwestern Indiana and the metro-
politan Chicago area in considerable detail.  A statistical study of Chicago
atmospheric dust concentrations (TSP) and meteorological data including wind
speeds and precipitation led to the conclusion that the generally overlooked
phenomenon of reflotation of dust appeared to account for approximately 20
percent of the annual TSP value in Chicago, and that daily values of TSP may
be increased by as much as  40 to 50 percent due to winds and traffic on a
dry day.  The possibility of reducing TSP by  street sweeping and washing was
suggested.  Although no such specific conclusion  was drawn, it is inferred
that urban Chicago atmospheric cadmium concentrations could be similarly
reduced.
Trends in Cadmium Atmospheric Concentrations

        Cadmium concentrations in the atmosphere of the U.S. are, with very
few exceptions, of the order of a few hundredths or thousandths of micrograms
per cubic meter of air.  Principal exceptions to the above generalization are
found in a few areas where zinc or lead mining and smelting is or has been
conducted.  The most notable exceptions are in Idaho and Montana, as
evidenced by the 1971-1976 state data (Tables 2.2 and 2.3).  Both median
values and annual averages exceeding 0.1 yg/m3 of cadmium were reported for
Kellogg, Idaho, and the surrounding Shoshone County for 1974 and 1975.
Kellogg is the site of a lead smelter; and an electrolytic zinc plant, which
is one of the principal producers of primary cadmium metal, is located in
nearby Wallace, Idaho.  Data prior to 1974 are not available for these
stations, so long-term trends are indeterminate, although 1975 values are,
without exception, below the corresponding values for 1974 (Table 2.2).

      The Butte (Jefferson County)-Anaconda (Deer Lodge County)-Helena
(Lewis and Clark counties) triangle in Montana is a center of copper and
lead mining, smelting and refining, and this is reflected in the atmos-
pheric cadmium concentrations reported for this area (Tables 2.2 and 2.3).
Although lower than in the Wallace-Kellogg area, they are as much as an
order of magnitude higher than average U.S. cadmium concentrations.

      Jefferson County, Missouri, is the site of a lead smelter, Hercu-
laneum, and the highest median concentrations of cadmium, 0.100 yg/m3,
in the 1975 tabulation is in this county (Table 2.2).

      An information resource which has to date been overlooked or
neglected is the filters from the numerous local monitoring programs which
are conducted by various state and local agencies.  Many of these are
routinely collected and stored in state agency headquarters.  As a result
of staff and funding problems, many of these filters are stored for long
periods before analysis, which frequently consists only of particulate
determination.  These filters, if they have been carefully handled and
stored, could supply a large mass of data on heavy metal concentrations
if analyzed.  Now that atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) is so
                                   2-15

-------
universally available and so utilitarian, the retrieval of this information
from old filters is a practical possibility.  Consequently, some of the gaps
in atmospheric cadmium data for prior years could be filled in by the
adoption of this scheme.

      The uncertainties in the NASN data, the changing analytical proce-
dures, the lack of sufficient series of comparable continuous data, and
the generally barely detectable cadmium concentrations preclude the
identification of definite quantitative trends in ambient atmospheric
cadmium concentrations.

      A definite downward trend is apparent for atmospheric cadmium
concentrations associated with metal industry sources at urban sites
(Figure 2.2) (Faoro and McMullen, 1977).  With the exception of an
unexplained increase in 1969, the concentrations declined from 1965 through
1970.  For the period 1970-1974, the concentrations were below the lower
discrimination limit.  Possible causes given by Faoro and McMullen for this
downward trend are reduced particulate emissions from metals industries and
improved incineration and waste-burning practices.

      No apparent trends are evident in the eight-state data, in spite of
the precision of the analytical procedure used.  Part of the difficulty in
assessing these preliminary results arises from the fact that most of the
tabulated data are 50 percent decile values, since averages were computed
in,only a few cases.  These median values were generally lower than
arithmetic averages, where both were reported, and more closely approxi-
mated than the geometric means.  Although the decile values cannot be
summed and averaged, it is evident by inspection that the median value of
these data, smelting areas expected, is approximately yg/m3.  Whether this
truly represents a decreasing trend from past years is obscured by the lack
of analyses of comparable accuracy for previous years.
WATER AND SEDIMENT

National Monitoring Programs

      In the autumn of 1970, a nationwide reconnaissance of selected minor
elements in the surface waters of the 50 states and Puerto Rico was con-
ducted by the U.S. Geological Survey in cooperation with the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service (Durum et al., 1971).  More than 720 samples were analyzed
for arsenic, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, lead, mercury, and zinc.  Samples
were taken from three sources: (1) benchmark stations (located in headwaters
of tributary streams); (2) surface water sources for cities greater than
100,000 pouplation (or largest city in state); and (3) water courses
downstream of major municipal and/or industrial complexes.  Samples were
filtered through a 0.45-micron filter and were acidified when collected to
stabilize the trace pollutants present.  Thus, results reported are for
dissolved metal only and provide no information on total concentrations
present.  Such results may be low, since cadmium tends to be associated with
the particulate matter.  The detection limit given for cadmium was less than
1 ppb by AAS.

                                   2-16

-------
         The benchmark station analyses have been abstracted  from these  results
 and are presented in Figure 2.5 grouped by drainage basin.   Of  the 49 bench-
 mark station samples analyzed, cadmium was detected in only  24  (49 percent).
 In none was the 10 ppb U.S. Public Health Service limit for  potable water
 exceeded.  There were some differences in basins.  Even though  the benchmark
 stations were presumably near headwaters and above sources of man-made  pollu-
 tion, the more industrialized areas and the down-gradient areas had the
 higher cadmium levels.  Highest values were found in the Lower  Mississippi
 River Basin(7), the Ohio River Basin(3), and the North Atlantic Basin(l).

         Cadmium was detected in 42 percent of the total group of 720 samples
 in concentrations ranging from 1 to 10 ppb.  This included not  only the
 benchmark stations but also several hundred public water supplies and
 industrial complex samples.  The regional distribution of percentages of
 water samples containing detectable cadmium concentrations has  been
 presented in a subsequent paper by Durum (1974), and is illustrated by
 Figure 2.6 and summarized as follows:

                            Maximum,  Minimum,  Median,   <1 ppb,   >1 ppb,
                              ppb       ppb      ppb       %        %

 New England and northeast     32        <1        2       36       64
 Southeastern                  90        <1       <1       55       45
 Central                       40        <1       <1       55       45
 Southwestern                 130        <1       <1       65       35
 Northwestern                  21        <1       <1       78       22

         The association of detectable  correlation of cadmium concentrations
 with regions of higher population density is evident upon comparing the New
 England and northeastern area,  64 percent, with  the Northwestern area,  22
 percent.   About 4 percent of the river samples had cadmium in excess of the
 10 ppb Public Health Service limit for drinking  water,  and these occurred  in
 about one-third of the states.   The maximum concentration found  was 130 ppb,
 near Ray,  Arizona,  evidently near a highly mineralized  area,  since the  same
 sample had 42,000 ppb of zinc and 4,500 ppb of cobalt.

         The USGS maintains a computerized data bank for six  toxic substances,
 cadmium,  lead,  mercury,  PCB's,  Silvex,  and Toxaphene,  in water and stream
 sediments.   A summary of these  data was submitted by the USGS to the Commit-
 tee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries,  U.S.  House of Representatives
 (Pickering,  1976).   The  data for cadmium in surface waters (streams, lakes,
 reservoirs)  and in groundwaters  (wells  and springs)  have been extracted from
 this summary and are presented  in Tables 2.4 and 2.5,  and summarized in
 Table 2.6.

        Dissolved values  shown are based  on  the  analyses  of water passed
 through a 0.45 micrometer  filter;  "total" values  are for  unfiltered samples
 containing suspended  sediment.  Dissolved values  are compared with  the  10
 ppb maximum cadmium  level  contained  in  the National  Interim Primary Drinking
Water Regulations  (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,  1975a).  For "total"
values the comparison  is with the  30 ppb  criterion recommended in Water
Quality Criteria 1972  for  freshwater aquatic life and wildlife (Rooney,

                                   2-17

-------
        ND1
   Range (1) 1
        ~   ^^fcf
      ND2
 Range (1J 1 ppb
"*-^. ^     ^*~-
     ND 2
Range (1) 1 ppb
      *_^_
H1
oc
                                                                                                ND1
                                                                                           Range  (4)  l-6_
                                                                   ND4
                                                              Range (4) 1-5 ppb
             Figure 2.5.  Cadmium concentrations in surface waters at USGS benchmark stations
                          in 1970 (Durum et al., 1971).

                          ND  = Not detected.  The number following ND  is the  number of stations,
                          ( ) = Number of stations with detectable cadmium concentrations.

-------
Figure 2.6.  Percent of river water samples containing cadmium
             >1 ppb in five U.S. regions (Durum, 1974).

-------
TABLE 2.4.   CADMIUM LEVELS  IN  SURFACE WATERS  OF THE UNITED STATES
                                                                               a,b
Dissolved
(Filtered
Cadmium
Sample)
Total Cadmium
(Unfiltered Sample)
N >10 Max,
State
Alabama
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
Florida
Georgia
Hawaii
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
United States
N
97
69
21
37
154
495
63
10
280
136
9
76
26
45
33
24
103
271
' 14
21
25
125
41
20
72
101
99
11
5
62
53
185
67
78
44
52
24
218
8
11
47
28
162
43
4
17
21
53
38
64
3,755
N >0
90
26
15
29
78
221
50
10
105
68
5
57
16
23
22
15
79
157
10
21
15
80
29
12
51
65
70
6
3
40
58
179
56
63
34
36
20
175
8
11
37
18
135
29
4
15
15
39
15
28
2,423
ppb
14
1
0
1
3
47
32
0
2
0
0
11
4
0
6
0
6
11
5
0
0
3
0
1
10
5
6
1
0
27
19
137
6
5
10
2
0
20
4
0
3
1
3
8
0
7
1
5
0
3
430
ppb
90
140
10
14
340
910
78
2
13
5
2
1,400
16
10
40
8
18
25
<2,000
6
6
20
8
11
80
55
89
20
2
<2,400
714
220
50
26
100
30
5
100
10
7
14
190
30
270
6
50
10
25
10
38
1,400
N
34
51
12
128
118
197
2
0
293
9
48
39
13
19
5
9
72
71
9
13
9
38
29
66
14
74
16
10
19
38
26
122
44
65
33
60
13
198
4
11
15
47
29
15
1
4
17
51
14
59
2,283
N >0
32
34
12
118
83
190
2
0
210
7
12
39
8
13
4
9
63
69
4
4
9
31
26
41
14
72
16
10
15
31
26
57
41
62
15
60
13
184
4
10
15
35
29
15
1
4
17
38
10
55
1,869
N >30
ppb
0
2
0
3
20
53
0
0
1
0
0
5
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
3
2
0
0
0
3
7
. 32
2
1
6
0
14
4
0
2
1
1
0
0
0
2
0
0
1
168
Max,
ppb
10
360
20
111
80
960
10

35
5
10
440
20
10
20
20
23
60
1
1
550
10
20
25
60
30
211
20
16
12
40
230
80
30
76
100
10
420
210
16
30
840
50
20
1
2
40
22
3
30
960
Cadmium in
Bottom Material

N
5
0
1
13
26
0
38
0
52
11
3
1
6
14
0
1
39
169
2
1
7
0
20
51
2
5
0
0
2
10
1
6
18
3
1
7
4
35
0
5
0
1
3
0
0
0
0
15
13
0
591

N >0
4
0
1
12
22
0
22
0
52
11
1
0
4
10
0
0
39
143
1
0
7
0
20
50
0
5
0
0
2
2
1
3
17
2
1
6
4
27
0
4
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
10
0
485
Max,
ppb
10

1
10
10

9

20
20
1
0
4
10

0
20
10
2
0
300

10
10
0
10


2
1
1
3
20
10
1
8
3
10

10

0
1




0
10

300
    aSource:  Pickering, 1976.
     N    = Number of stations  for which data are available.
     N >0 = Number of stations  with detectable cadmium.
     Max  = Maximum value found.
                                    2-20

-------
TABLE  2.5.   CADMIUM LEVELS IN  GROUND WATERS  OF THE UNITED STATES
                                                                     ,a,b
Dissolved
(Filtered
Cadmium
Sample)
Total Cadmium
(Unfiltered Sample)
N >10 Max,
State
Alabama
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
Florida
Georgia
Idaho
Indiana
Iowa
Kentucky
Louisiana
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
United States
N
54
69
21
25
30
354
22
0
232
192
10
50
13
' 14
24
17
40
4
0
41
211
90
0
24
99
258
2
77
0
9
4
146
0
60
0
50
43
6
41
19
31
52
2,431
aSource: Pickering,
b
/if c> t- 1
N >0
31
12
7
3
12
141
8

75
102
3
32
13
10
9
5
14
3

8
40
79

18
36
28
0
29

1
1
86

28

20
13
2
33
12
13
13
940
1976.
.
ppb
1
0
0
0
3
6
2

7
7
0
I
0
1
0
1
9
0

0
1
65

14
8
0
0
0

0
0
16

8

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
150

.
ppb
32
4
9
10
1,400
690
21

21
18
1
60
10
<10
4
100
2
4

5
13
900

500
51
8
0
3

1
1
120

28

1
10
5
10
1
9
9
1,400


N
7
14
0
0
7
20
0
1
338
0
0
0
0
12
0
23
145
9
17
0
0
0
16
39
8
188
6
11
2
0
11
3
12
9
18
0
0
0
0
19
0
54
859


N >0
5
14


7
20

0
192




9

8
145
7
17



2
12
8
26
6
10
1

10
0
10
9
4




2

54
448

«vi „
N >30 Max,
ppb
0
1


0
6

0
0




0

0
0
0
0



0
0
3
0
6
0
0

0
0
0
0
0




0

2
18


ppb
7
60


10
<7,500

0
20




5

21
10
- 4
10



8
10
750
8
170
20
1

10
0
1
12
2




1

60
750


   N >0 = Number of stations with detectable cadmium.
   Max  = Maximum value found.

                                   2-21

-------
        TABLE 2.6.  SUMMARY OF CADMIUM CONCENTRATIONS IN U.S. WATERS
                                  Surface Waters         Groundwater
                                Dissolved    Total    Dissolved   Total

     Number of states sampled        50        49          36       25

     Number of sites sampled      3,755     2,283       2,431      859
     Positive values
       Number                     2,423     1,869         940      448
       Percent                       64.5      81.0        38.7     52.2

     Values >10 ppb
       Number                       430                   150
       Percent                       11.5                   6.2
     Values >30 ppb
       Number                                 168                   18
       Percent                                  7.4                  2.1

     Maximum value, ppb          1,400        960       1,400      750
1973).  In 6 to 12 percent of the samples dissolved cadmium exceeded
the 10 ppb limit recommended for drinking water, and in 2 to 7 percent
total cadmium exceeded the 30 ppb water quality criterion recommended for
cadmium by the National Academy of Sciences.  The USGS data indicate that
on the average, groundwater quality with respect to cadmium exceeds that of
surface waters.

        Although the ocean is the final sink for most of the cadmium
dispersed to the environment, the present concentration of cadmium in the
oceans, approximately 0.11 ppb, is much lower than that which would be
calculated from the cumulative natural input, suggesting that cadmium is
being continuously deposited from ocean waters (Fleischer et al., 1974).
James of Stanford University suggests that one vehicle for bioaccumulation
of cadmium in polluted waters might exist because of the metal's strong
propensity to form chloride ion complexes.  These complexes would make
cadmium more available to marine organisms, because it is less removable
than, say, lead and zinc, through oxide and carbonate sedimentation
(Anonymous, 1977).   There is no national program for monitoring sediment
concentrations of cadmium.
Local Monitoring of Cadmium Concentrations

        Results of an unpublished EPA study (U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, 1976b) present information on the cadmium contents observed in

                                    2-22

-------
 395  sediment  samples collected  from harbors along the shores of the Great
 Lakes between Erie, Pennsylvania, and Duluth, Minnesota.  As shown in the
 frequency  distribution curve in Figure 2.7, over 90 percent of the samples
 contained  less  than 10 ppm and  over 80 percent contained less than 5 ppm.
 The  median was  below 2 ppm.  Eight samples, all from Michigan City,
 Indiana, exceeded 35 ppm; these would appear to represent gross contamina-
 tion from  a point source.

        The Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Commission has monitored for
 cadmium on the  Ohio River and its major tributaries.  Some of the recent,
 1975-1976, results are presented in Table 2.7 to illustrate typical surface
 water cadmium concentrations in an industrial area.  It is apparent that
 there is no consistent trend of increasing cadmium concentration with
 downstream distance; if anything, the lower values are found closer to the
 junction of the Ohio River and  the Mississippi River at Cairo, Illinois.
 Cadmium concentrations above 2  ppb are typically found in the upstream
 reaches, above  Cincinnati, Ohio.  These data suggest that dilution (or
 precipitation)  is occurring as  the river proceeds downstream.

        The Coeur d'Alerie region of Idaho is an important lead-zinc district
 in which mining and smelting operations have been conducted for many years.
 The  South  Fork  of the Coeur d'Alene River passes the mining and smelting
 operations at Kellogg and Wallace on its way to Coeur d'Alene Lake, approxi-
 mately 60  km  to the west.  Elevated cadmium concentrations have been
 measured in this river.  Mink et al. (1971) reported cadmium concentrations
 as high as 450  ppb.  Roberts et al. (1975) reported mean concentrations
 ranging between 150 and 300 ppb for 100 samples taken from the river in 1970
 and  1971;  the range of individual concentrations was from 1 to 3,600 ppb.
 These data are  believed to be total cadmium, i.e., the samples were unfilter-
 ed.  Maxfield et al. (1974), investigating the sediments in the lake,
 observed cadmium concentrations in the sediments ranging from 30 to 90 ppm.
 Concentrations were greatest in silt, typical of mine tailings.

        Cadmium is found to concentrate in sediments, and whereas water
 concentrations  are in the ppb range, cadmium concentrations in sediments
 are  in the ppm  range.  A number of investigations of cadmium concentrations
 in sediments have been frequently conducted in connection with the study of
 a known or suspected point source.  Perhac (1974) investigated heavy metal
 concentrations  in the aquatic environment in a region of Tennessee which was
highly mineralized, including sphalerite (ZnS).  He found cadmium concentra-
 tions of 3 to 8 ppm in local stream sediments.  In this same region of
Tennessee, Perhac and Tamura (1977) found cadmium concentrations approaching
 100  ppm in bottom sediments downstream from a zinc mill.  Even so, the
dissolved cadmium in the overlying river water was only 3 ppb, which is
typical of the region.

        Yost et al. (1975) found high cadmium contents in the sediments of
Palestine Lake, a small lake in Indiana which had received effluents from a
plating operation for a period of years.  Contents ranged from 0.7 to 19.8
ppm,  with a mean concentration of 9.1 ppm.  Similarly, they found sediments
                                    2-23

-------
  100
  90
  80
0)
3
rH
cO




s70
cfl
4-1
C/3


g
  60
c
0)
o
•H
4-1
CO
iH
  40  -
  30
                        10        15        20        25

                          Cadmium in Sediment,  ppm
30
35
                Figure  2.7.   Frequency  distribution of cadmium

                              in Great Lakes  sediments.
                                     2-24

-------
                  TABLE 2.7.  CADMIUM CONCENTRATIONS IN THE OHIO RIVER AND SOME OF ITS TRIBUTARIES
I
IS5
Location
Illinois
Ohio River at Joppa
Indiana
Ohio River at Evansville
Ohio River at Uniontown
Kentucky
Licking River, Kenton County
Ohio River at Louisville
Ohio River at West Point
Green River at Sebree
Ohio
Ohio River at East Liverpool
Ohio River at Shadyside
Muskingum River at Marietta
Ohio River at Belleville
Ohio River at Kyger Creek
Ohio River at Kenova
Scioto River at Lucasville
Ohio River at Meldahl
Ohio River at Cincinnati
Little Miami River
Great Miami River
Pennsylvania
Allegheny River at Oakmont
Monongahela River at South Pittsburgh
Ohio River at South Heights
Beaver River at Beaver Falls
West Virginia
Ohio River at Pike Island
Ohio River at Willow Island
Date of Data
Collection

9/75-4/76

11/75-4/76
11/75-4/76

9/75-4/76
10/75-4/76
11/75-4/76
9/75-4/76

9/75-3/76
9/75-10/75
9/75-4/76
9/75-4/76
10/75-4/76
11/75-4/76
10/75-4/76
10/75-4/76
10/75-4/76
9/75-4/76
10/75-4/76

9/75-3/76
9/75-3/76
9/75-3/76
9/75-3/76

9/75-4/76
9/75-4/76
Number of
Samples

7

6
6

8
7
6
7

8
2
8
8
7
6
7
7
7
8
6

7
7
8
8

8
8
Frequency of
Detection, %

57

50
50

25
43
83
57

100
50
100
100
100
83
71
86
43
50
100

86
86
88
63

88
75
Concentration, ppb
Mean

0.86

0.50
1.0

0.25
0.57
1.5
0.57

2.13
2.5
2.13
2.13
1.57
1.33
0.86
1.14
0.43
0.63
1.0

2.14
1.86
2.25
1.13

2.00
2.38
Range

0-2

0-1
0-3

0-1
0-2
0-2
0-1

1-4
0-5
1-4
1-4
1-3
0-4
0-2
0-2
0-1
0-2
0-1

0-4
0-6
0-6
0-3

0-4
0-5
       Source:   Ohio  River  Valley  Water  Sanitation  Commission,  1975,  1976.

-------
 in  the  Grand  Calumet  River  in  the highly  industrialized  Chicago  area  to
 range from  1  to  20 ppm, with means  in  the 6  to  7 ppm  range.  Kneip  et al.
 (1975)  found,  in Foundry Cove, near Cold  Springs on the  Hudson River  in
 New York, extremely high cadmium contents in sediments immediately  below
 the effluent  outfall  of a nickel-cadmium  battery plant.   In  1971, values
 ranging from  33  to 60,700 ppm were  detected;  in 1973, the range  was from 3  to
 48,000  ppm.   These reports  are illustrative  of  the cadmium concentrations
 which can be  reached  in sediments exposed to  cadmium  sources and are
 confirmed by  other studies  in  similar  environments.   However, they  repre-
 sent localized problems and cannot  be  considered representative  of  average
 cadmium concentrations in sediments.

         Sediments not exposed  to industrial  or  mining wastes are lower in
 cadmium and may  contain only fractions of a  ppm.  Illustrative are  the
 results of  Proctor et al. (1975) in the Meramec River Basin  of Missouri.
 In  nonmineralized areas, mean  cadmium  concentrations  in  river sediments were
 0.3 to  0.4  ppm,  whereas in  the mineralized area near  Viburnum, the  range was
 from 0.2 to 18 ppm, with a  mean of  4 ppm.

         Cadmium  concentrations in marine  sediments have  been investigated
 at  a number of U.S. locations  in harbors,  estuaries,  and offshore.  Harbor
 sediments can  carry appreciable contents  of  cadmium.  Villa and  Johnson
 (1974)  determined concentrations of less  than 1 to 654 ppm, with an
 average concentration of 6.3 to 6.6 ppm in Baltimore  Harbor.  Roberts
 et  al.  (1975)  found 3.3 to  29 ppm,  mean 12.5 ppm, in  the inner portion of
 Boston  Barbor, and 0.8 to 13 ppm, mean 6.2 ppm, in the outer harbor.
 Moyer and Budinger (1974) found values ranging  from 0.7  to 1.5 ppm  in
 San Francisco  Harbor.

         Cadmium  concentrations in offshore sediments  appear to be much lower
 than harbor concentrations, even in the vicinity of dumpsites, presumably
 as  a result of large dilution provided by  ocean dumping.  Szucs  and Oostdam
 (1975),  investigating heavy metals  in sediments of ocean dumpsites  found,
 for example, that around the present and  former dumpsite  used by Philadel-
 phia for sewage  sludge, mean cadmium concentrations ranged from  0.05  to
 0.13 ppm, with a maximum concentration of  0.37  ppm in a  slough close  to the
 former  dumpsite.

         Information describing the  long-term fate of  cadmium in  nonmarine
 sediments appears to be lacking.  The presumption is  that the cadmium  is
 fairly  well immobilized, and barring physical disruption, such as by
 dredging, will remain so.  River bottom sediments are likely to be  gradually
 transported to the lake or marine estuary  into  which  the  river empties, but
 it  does not necessarily follow that a significant fraction of the cadmium
will be liberated in -this transit.
DRINKING WATER

        One of the first broad-based investigations of cadmium concentrations
in drinking water was included as a part of the Community Water Supply


                                    2-26

-------
 Survey  conducted in 1969 by the U.S. Public Health Service (U.S. Department
 of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1970).  The study was designed to give an
 assessment of drinking water quality in urban and suburban areas in each of
 the nine HEW regions.  It included an entire Standard Metropolitan Statisti-
 cal Area (SMSA) in eight regions; in Region I, the entire state of Vermont
 was studied.  As reported by Taylor (1971), in only 4 out of 2,595 distribu-
 tion samples (0.15 percent) did cadmium content exceed the 10 ppb Drinking
 Water Standard; these were found in 3 out of the 969 water systems investi-
 gated.  The three systems each served a population of less than 100,000
 people.  The average concentration was 3 ppb; the maximum sample contained
 3.94 ppm.  Method of analysis was atomic absorption (McCabe et al., 1970).
 No data were presented by either Taylor or McCabe et al. on the number of
 samples below the limit of detection, estimated to be 1 ppb.  In a later
 paper, McCabe (1974) described the average cadmium concentration determined
 by the study as 1.3 ppb and also claimed that 63 percent of the samples were
 above a 1 ppb detection limit.

        At the time EPA was established (1970), it was assigned the responsi-
 bility of certifying water supply systems serving interstate carriers,
 formerly the responsibility of the Public Health Service, Department of
 Health, Education, and Welfare.  Analytical data for 735 sampling points
 covering the U.S. and possessions through March 1, 1975, have been reported
 and summarized by EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1975a).  Out
 of 594 analyses, none failed to meet the USPHS Drinking Water Standards of
 1962 for cadmium (10 ppb), and for only seven samples (1.2 percent) were
 detectable limits higher than the standards.

        In areas not known to be polluted from mining, smelting, or other
 industrial cadmium sources, the concentration of cadmium in water is
 generally less than 1 ppb in both natural and drinking waters (Friberg et al.,
 1971).  These observed levels fall well below the World Health Organization's
 recommendation of less than 5 ppb cadmium (Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on
 Food Additives, 1972).  Because dissolution of metals from pipes is most
 likely to occur in areas having soft "acid" (pH 5-6) water supplies, EPA has
 conducted special studies of water systems where the water is particularly
 corrosive to the distribution system and plumbing.  Results of two of these
 studies indicate that in Boston none of the homes were found to exceed the 10
 ppb USPHS standard while in Seattle, 7 percent of the homes exceed the
 standard (Deane et al., 1976).  While low levels of cadmium are found in
municipal water supplies, additional uptake may be occurring between the inlet
and the consumer.  A study reported by McCabe et al. (1970) showed that 15
percent of water samples had picked up cadmium between the treatment plant
and the distribution system.
                                   2-27

-------
SLUDGE

        The sludge resulting from treatment of wastewater contains small
but useful concentrations of the fertilizer elements, nitrogen, phosphorus,
and potassium as well as useful organic matter.  It also contains most of
the toxic elements, including heavy metals, present in the raw wastewater,
since these tend to distribute to the sludge.  Disposal options for sludge
are fairly limited.  Municipal sewage sludge disposition in 1975 in the U.S.
has been reported to be 15 percent in the ocean, 25 percent in landfills,
35 percent by incineration, and 25 percent by application to land (CAST,
1976).

        There is a wide range in reported values for metal contents in
sludge.  There appears to be a significant correlation between the degree
of industrialization and elevated metal levels in sludges; and cadmium also
follows this pattern.  Electroplating has been a major source of cadmium in
wastewater heretofore, and other industrial processes have contributed.
Data on cadmium contents of sewage sludge from U.S. cities have been compiled
from various sources by the EPA Office of Solid Waste and are given in Table
2.8.

        The extreme variability between cities is quite evident.  The lowest
values are for cities with little or no industry, and cadmium contents as
low as 2 ppm are reported.  At the other extreme are Frankfort, Indiana,
with 3,171 ppm and Owosso, Michigan, with 1,100 ppm.  Both are relatively
small (15,000 to 20,000 people) but fairly industrialized.  Each has a large
battery manufacturer, and Owosso also has electroplaters.

        Sommers et al. (1976) also obtained data on the variability over a
22-month period of the cadmium content of sludge from individual sewage
plants.  As illustrated in Table 2.9, although the between-samples variations
were large, the between-plant variations were significantly larger.   The
number of samples from each plant ranged from 5 to 7.  Salotto et al. (1974)
reported the same conclusion from their study of about 100 samples collected
from 33 wastewater treatment plants in 13 states from the summer of 1971
through 1973.

        Also reported in Table 2.8 are the cadmium:zinc ratios for the cities
where the cadmium content was greater than 25 ppm.   Cadmium concentrations
ranged from 0.2 to 70 percent of the zinc concentrations.  In 5 cities
out of the 60 reported the ratio was below the 1 percent advocated by the EPA
Draft Document on Acceptable Methods for the Utilization or Disposal of
Sludges (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1974).

        Even before the promulgation of EPA effluent guidelines regulations,
some cities had enacted ordinances to limit the discharge of heavy metals to
the sewer system.  The Metropolitan Sanitary District of greater Chicago has
had such an ordinance since 1969 for the purpose of protecting the biological
processes utilized in sewage treatment (Zenz et al., 1975).   The Chicago
ordinance, which limits cadmium concentration in incoming sewage to  2 ppm,
has produced a significant downward trend in cadmium concentrations,  as

                                   2-28

-------
TABLE 2.8.  SEWAGE SLUDGE DATA ON U.S. CITIES (COMPILED OCTOBER 1976)'
City
New York NY
(Metropolitan Area)
Hampstead-Bay Park
Long Beach
Bowery Bay
Coney Island
Hunts Point
Jamaica
Newton Creek
Owls Head
Port Richmond
Rockaway
Tallmans Island
26th Ward
Wards Island
Hempstead-West
Long Beach
Yonkers
Chicago IL
North Side
Calumet
Hanover Park
Lemont
W. Southwest
Los Angeles CA
Philadelphia PA
N.E. Plant
S.W. & S.E.
Detroit MI
Year


1975
1975
1975
1975
1975
1975
1975
1975
1975
1975
1975
1975
1975
1975

1975
1976
1976
1976
1976
1976
1976
1972-73

1976
1976

Cadmium
Content ,
ppm


70
18
47
8
18
4
71
18
3
16
6
17
6
4

163
35
180
42
10
16
210
171

90
25
290
Cd/Zn
Ratio, Present
T- C
% Disposition Source of Information

Ocean
6.3 Interstate Sanit. Com., 1975
n
0.9
"
"
11
1.9
"
n
"
11
n
11
n

8.2
3.0 Land application Ehorn (n.d.)
8.1 Give away "
1.8
11
"
7.8
3.7 Ocean, compost Furr et al., 1976

2 . 0 Ehorn (n.d.)
1.0
2.5 Incineration "

-------
                                           TABLE 2.8.  (Continued)
I
U)
o
City
Houston TX
North Side
Simms
Baltimore MD
Back River
Patapsco
Dallas TX
Washington DC

Cleveland OH
Southerly
Westerly
Indianapolis IN
Belmont
Southport
Milwaukee WI
Jones Island
South Shore
San Francisco area

Boston MA
Denver CO
Seattle WA

Atlanta GA

Newark NJ
Miami FL
Tampa FL
Little Ferry NJ
Grand Rapids MI
Year
1972-73
1976
1976



1976
1975







1972-73


1975

1973-75
1972-73
1972-73

1972-73

1975
1972-73
1975
1975
Prior to 1974
Cadmium
Content,
ppm
112
17
22
, . 2.5
7
9
59
22


390
578

240
260
444
107
50
15

82
46
64

104

173
149
10
240
480
Cd/Zn
Ratio,
%b
4.4
0.2

0.5


5.7



10.0
8.0

17.0
17.0
32.0
9.0
1.5



1.6
3.5

3.7

4.1
10.0


5.1
Present
Disposition
Fertilizer-soil
conditioner

Landfill


Lagoon
Land application,
landfill
Landfill


Incineration, land
application

Miloganite-soil
conditioner

Landfill , land
application
Ocean
Land application
Landfill or soil
conditioner
Landfill or soil
conditioner
Incineration
Soil conditioner
Land application
N.A.
N.A.
c
Source of Information
Furr et al. , 1976
Public Works Director
ti
Ehorn (n.d.)
ii
ii
Public Works Director
Camp et al., 1975


Ehorn (n.d.)
ii
ii

ii
Furr et al. , 1976
Ehorn (n.d.)
ii
Brown and Campbell, 1975

EPA (n.d.)
Furr et al. , 1976
it

ii

Interstate Sanit. Com.,
Furr et al. , 1976



























1975

Greenley and Hansen, 1975
Interstate Sanit. Comm.
Blakeslee, 1973
(1975)


-------
TABLE 2.8.(Continued)
City
Flint MI
Syracuse NY
Madison WI
Warren MI
Macon GA
Elizabeth NJ
Camden NJ
Springfield MO
Saginaw MI
Pontiac MI
Kalamazoo MI
Ann Arbor MI
Anderson IN
Kokomo IN
Wyoming MI
Bay City MI
Jackson MI
Danville VA
Muskegon MI
Linden NJ
Battle Creek MI
Port Huron MI
East Lansing MI
Ithaca NY
Easton PA
Midland MI
Columbus IN
Holland MI
Ypsilanti MI
Sayreville NJ
Hopkinville IN
Cadmium Cd/Zn
Content, Ratio,
Year ppm %b
Prior to 1974
1972-73

Prior to 1974
1976
1975

1976
Prior to 1974
n
"
"
1972-74
1972-74

Prior to 1974
11
1976
Prior to 1974
1975
Prior to 1974
"
"
1972-73

Prior to 1974
1976
Prior to 1974
"
1975
1976
20
200
73
110
6
72
601
54
48
12
12
4
170
806
14
80
520
18
166
65
8
8
6
66
16
10
2
10
166
39
18

11.0
3.1
3.1

6.0
56.0
1.2
6.5



5.0
5.0

6.0
8.0

5.0
1.5



4.0




2.0
1.1

Present
Disposition
N.A.
Solvay process
N.A.
N.A.
Land application
N.A...
N.A.
Land application
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
Land application
Land application
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
Land application
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
Soil conditioner
Land application
N.A.
Land application
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
Land application
Source of Information
Blakeslee, 1973
Furr et al. , 1976
Ehorn (n.d.)
Blakeslee, 1973
SCS Engineers, 1976
Interstate Sanit. Com., 1975
Ehorn (n.d.)
SCS Engineers, 1976
Blakeslee, 1973
"
11
ii r
Sommers et al., 1976
n
Blakeslee, 1973
n
n
SCS Engineers, 1976
Blakeslee, 1973
Interstate Sanit. Com., 1975
Blakeslee, 1973
"
"
Furr et al. , 1976

Blakeslee, 1973
SCS Engineers, 1976
Blakeslee, 1973
"
Camp et al. , 1975
SCS Engineers, 1976

-------
TABLE 2.8. (Continued)
City
Xenia OH
Monroe MI
Marquette MI
Muskegon Heights MI
Mt. Clemons MI
Trenton MI
Sault Ste. Marie MI
Logansport IN
Traverse City MI
Adrian MI
Owosso MI
Mt. Pleasant MI
Benton Harbor MI
Escanaba MI
Dixon IL
Frankfort IN
Las Virgenes CA
Peru IN
Crawfordsville IN
Iron Mountain MI
Albion MI
Niles MI
Grand Haven MI
Menominee MI
Cadillac MI
Lebanon IN
Noblesville IN
Marshall MO
Wilmington OH
Charlotte MI
Ironwood MI
Year
1976
Prior to 1974
n
n
n
11
n
1972-74
Prior to 1974
n
n
n
n
it
1976
1976
1976
1972-74
1972-74
Prior to 1974
"
n
n
ii
n
1972-74
1972-74
1976
1976
Prior to 1974
11
Cadmium
Content,
ppm
80
8
2
150
12
8
2
663
10
260
1,100
14
220
10
16
3,171
5
154
15
6
48
14
14
4
36
40
12
16
15
14
4
Cd/Zn
Ratio,
%b
0.6


1.0



4.0

5.0
20.0

1.7


70.0

6.0


1.5



3.0
1.6





Present
Disposition
Land application
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
Land application
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
Land application
Land application
Land application
Land application
Land application
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
Land application
Land application
Land application
Land application
N.A.
N.A.
Source of Information
SCS Engineers, 1976
Blakeslee, 1973
n
n
n
n
it
Sommers et al . , 1976
Blakeslee, 1973
n
n
n
n
n
SCS Engineers, 1976
n
"
Sommers et al., 1976
"
Blakeslee, 1973
"
"
"
n
ii
Sommers et al., 1976
"
SCS Engineers, 1976
"
Blakeslee, 1973
11

-------
                                         TABLE 2.8.  (Continued)
I
OJ
CO
City
Hancock MI
Three Rivers MI
Chippewa Falls WI
Litchfield IL
Kendallville IN
Marshall MI
Gladstone MI
Howell MI
Manistique MI
Tipton IN
Milford MI
Essexville MI
Norway MI
St. Ignace MI
Constantine MI
Dexter MI
Lanse MI
Cadmium
Content,
Year ppm
Prior to 1974 4
44
1976 7
1976 6
1976 28
1976 16
Prior to 1974 4
18
4
1972-74 . 11
Prior to 1974 . 2
" 4
n 2
4
16
36
8
Cd/Zn
Ratio, Present
%b Disposition
N.A.
1.0 N.A.
Land application
Land application
0.6 Land application
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
Land application
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
2.5 N.A.
N.A.
Source of Information
Blakeslee, 1973
SCS Engineers, 1976
ii
"
Blakeslee, 1973
n
n
Sommers et al . , 1976
Blakeslee, 1973
n
"
n
n
n

      Source:  U.S.  Environmental Protection Agency,  Office  of Solid Waste Management,  1976.   Includes
       the references  listed in Footnote  (c).

      DThe Cd/Zn ratio is only listed when the Cd content is greater than 25  ppm.

      "Sources  of Information:
       Blakeslee, Paul A.  1973.  "Monitoring Considerations for Municipal Wastewater Effluent and Sludge
         Application to the Land", Recycling Municipal Sludges and Effluents  Joint Conference, Champaigne IL.
       Brown and Caldwell.  1975.  San Francisco Bay  Area Municipal Wastewater Solids Management Study
         (May 1975).
       Camp, Dresser,  and McKee.  1975.  Alternative  Sludge  Disposal Systems  for the District of Columbia
         Water  Pollution Control Plant at Blue Plains (December 1975) .

-------
                                     TABLE 2.8.   (Continued)
rt
 Sources of Information (Continued)
  Ehorn,  Douglas.   Personal  communication.  EPA-Region  V;  and Albert Montague,  EPA-Region III.  1976,
  EPA,  Region I Office,  Solid Waste  Staff  communication.   1976.
  Furr, "AvK. ,"et  al.   1976.  Multielement and  Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Analysis of Municipal
    Sewage Sludges of  American Cities.   Journal of  Environmental Quality (July  1976).
  Greeley and Hansen.   1975.  Report on Management  and  Disposition of  By-Product Solids
    Hookers Point  Sewage Treatment Plant,  City  of Tampa,  Florida (June 1975).
  Interstate Sanitation Commission.   1975.  Phase One Report of  Technical Alternatives to
    Ocean Disposal of  Sludge in New  York City.   By  Camp,  Dresser, and  McKee for New Jersey
    Metropolitan Area  (1975).
  Public Works Directors, [n.d.]  Personal Communication.
  SCS Engineers.  1976.   Environmental  Assessment of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Sludge
    Utilization Practices.   EPA Contract No.  68-01-3265.   Work ongoing.
  Sommers, L. E.,  D. W.  Nelson, and  K.  J.  Yost. 1976.  Variable Nature of Chemical Composition
    of Sewage Sludges.  Journal of Environmental Quality.   5(3).
                                                           ~

-------
             TABLE 2.9.  VARIABILITY OF CADMIUM CONTENTS
                         IN SEWAGE SLUDGES3
                          	Cadmium Content, ppm	  V.,
                          Minimum  Maximum  Median  Mean    %
Anderson
Crawfordsville
Kokomo
Lebanon
Logansport
Noblesville
Peru
Tipton
109
4
483
3
24
12
22
11
372
39
1,177
150
756
163
256
32
170
15
806
40
663
12
154
11
210
19
846
53
503
42
136
16
45
67
27
95
63
160
69
54
                                                  Average  72
           Source: Sommers et al., 1976.

           V. = Standard deviation expressed as a percentage
                  of the mean.
evidenced by typical sludge concentrations from the Calumet Sewage Treatment
Plant:
                                         Cadmium Concentration,
             Year
Sludge Source
             1969   Lagoons
             1972   Anaerobic digester
             1974   Anaerobic digester
                          190
                          100
                           54
Cadmium concentrations reported in digested sludges from this plant in
Chicago have been reduced by 72 percent during the period 1969-1974.  Data
for 1976 were similar to those for 1974, indicating that industrial pre-
treatment has reached its level of effectiveness (CAST, 1976).

        Simultaneously, zinc concentrations have also dropped markedly, from
5,500 to 2,800 ppm, and the cadmium:zinc ratio has steadily decreased from
3.4 to 1.9 percent.  It is still a long way from the 1 percent ratio proposed
in the EPA draft guidelines.

        There has been some controversy over the need for a cadmium:zinc
ratio of 1 percent or less, especially in view of the fact that most sludges,
from all but essentially unindustrialized areas, will not achieve this ratio
                                    2-35

-------
 (Zenz et al., 1975).  They note that the EPA discussion of the draft guide-
 lines stated that more than 50 percent of the 188 sludges examined would not
 qualify.

        In view of the variability of sludges, as indicated above, only very
 approximate estimates of input to the environment from this source can be
 made.  Fulkerson and Goeller's (1973) estimate assumed a cadmium content in
 sludge of 15.6 ppm, based on some Swedish data.  On the basis of recent U.S.
 data such as described above, 15.6 ppm appears to be low for the more indus-
 trialized wastes of this country.   Sargent and Metz (1975),  using an assumed
 average cadmium content of 75 ppm, derived an estimate of 300/MT yr from
 sludge.  They further assumed that 60 percent is applied to land, 10 percent
 is dumped at sea, and 30 percent is incinerated, producing 20 metric tons of
 air emissions, at an incinerator scrubber efficiency of 80 percent.
ROCKS AND SOILS

        Cadmium is one of the minor nonferrous metals, ranking 57th in
abundance in the earth's crust, between mercury and silver, 0.1 to 0.5 ppm
(Howe, 1964).  Illustrative of the cadmium concentration in rocks and
geologic formations are the data summarized by Fleischer et al. (1974),
shown in Table 2.10.  Igneous rocks appear to fall in the lower end of
the cadmium concentration range, with the average concentration being 0.25
ppm or below.  Of the sedimentary rocks, limestone is also low in cadmium,
shales are higher on the average; and the cadmium content appears to
increase with increasing carbonaceous content.

        Since rocks are the precursors of soils, cadmium concentrations in
soils undisturbed by man would be expected to approximate those found in
rocks.  This appears to be the case.  Fleischer et al. (1974) noted that
recent analyses of uncontaminated soils indicate that normal contents of
cadmium are less than 1 ppm, perhaps about 0.4 ppm on the average.  Connor
and Shacklette (1975) have analyzed a large number of soil samples from
rural Missouri farmland (Table 2.11), finding a mean cadmium concentration
of less than 1 ppm.

        Additional data on cadmium concentrations in U.S. soils are supplied
by the results of EPA's 1972 National Soils Monitoring Program, which, in
addition to the regular pesticide analyses, also analyzed soil samples for
four heavy metals: lead, mercury, cadmium, and arsenic.  Five Standard
Metropolitan Statistical Areas (SMSA) were selected at random, and one 2.56
km2 site within city limits (urban) and one 51.8 km2 site outside city limits
(suburban) were randomly selected for each SMSA.  Each site was classified
as "lawn", mowed or cultivated, or "waste", uncared for.   Results of
cadmium analyses are shown in Table 2.12 (Gowen et al., 1976).  The
comparison of lawn and waste sites indicated no statistically significant
differences, supportive of the hypothesis that the deposition is from
airborne fallout, which would fall equally on both types  of sites within a
given urban or suburban area.  These data were not normally distributed as
shown by tests for skewness and kurtosis, but. tended to fit a lognormal
distribution, and the geometric mean is consequently regarded as providing
a more meaningful estimate of central tendency.

                                    2-36

-------
    TABLE 2.10.  CADMIUM CONTENT OF ROCK TYPES3
                                 Concentration, ppm
     Rock Type                     Mean       Range


Igneous Rocks
  Alkalic rocks                    0.25    0.004-0.90
  Basalts, diabases, gabbros       0.13    0.01-1.00
  Dunite                                   0.005-0.154
  Eclogites                        0.1     0.03-1.6
  Granitic                         0.2     0.01-1.6
  Intermediate                             0.02-0.32
  Peridotite                       0.3    <0.001-0.029
  Rhyolite                         0.23    0.03-0.57
Sedimentary Rocks
  Limestone                        0.10
  Sandstone                       <0.03
  Shales                           1.4    <0.3-4.0
    Organic content <0.5%          0.35   O.3-0.8
    Organic content 0.5%-1.0%      0.8    <0.3-1.8
    Organic content >1.0%          2.0     0.5-8.4
aSource:  Fleischer et al., 1974.
  TABLE 2.11.  CADMIUM CONCENTRATIONS IN MISSOURI SOILS
                             (in ppm)
                            Number of   Concentration, ppm
     Soil Horizon            Samples   .   Mean       Range


Plow zone, corn field
  Oak-hickory forest           10          <1       <1-1.5

Plow zone, soybean field
  Glaciated prairie            10          <1       <1-1.0
  Unglaciated prairie          10          <1       
-------
                TABLE 2.12.   CONCENTRATIONS OF CADMIUM IN URBAN AND SUBURBAN SOILS—1972'
NJ
I
CO
Cadmium, ppm
SMSA
Des Moines IA
Fitchburg MA
Lake Charles LA
Pittsburgh PA
Reading PA
Number of
Samples
59
25
26
10
16
54
51
138
10
41

Urban
Suburban
Urban
Suburban
Urban
Suburban
Urban
Suburban
Urban
Suburban
Arithmetic
Mean
0.89
0.28
0.13
0.13
0.36
0.01
1.21
0.90
0.63
0.25
Geometric
Mean
0.640
0.124
0.059
0.051
0.015
0.002
0.743
0.454
0.261
0.039
Extremes
0.1-3.56
0.00-1.76
0.00-0.70
0.00-0.38
0.00-5.32
0.00-0.11
0.00-4.95
0.00-8.03
0.00-1.70
0.00-2.45
Percent of
Positive
Detections
100
80
62
60
25
7
98
93
90
44
        Source: Gowen et al., 1976.
        Sensitivity 0.5 ppm.

-------
        In an investigation of the distribution of metals in the soils of a
mining district, in this case the Coeur d'Alene lead-zinc district in Idaho,
Cannon (1969) reported that the pattern of zinc-soil concentrations over 600
ppm correlated well with the occurrence of ore.  Cadmium-high (greater than
5 ppm) areas in the eastern part of the district were found to be related to
mineralized ground, but the values near Kellogg were thought to be affected
by smelter contamination.

        The possibility that cadmium mobility in soil is pH dependent has
been suggested by Munshower (1972) in his discussion of an investigation of
the region around the East Helena, Montana, smelter (Table 2.13).  In his
opinion, the pH variations between sites may account for some of the
differences; and he noted that the correlation between cadmium mobility in
the soil and pH was strong.  Whenever any horizon reached or exceeded a pH
of 7, the cadmium concentrations in lower horizons dropped to normal or near
normal levels.  The soil reservoir of introduced cadmium is restricted
essentially to the top 2 to 5 cm (1 to 2 in.), is geographically distributed
in relation to distance from the smelter and the prevailing winds, and is
normally not transferred to lower horizons.  Therefore, the only exit from
the system by cadmium is by erosion or cropping, and not by leaching.
Interpretation of long-term changes indicate a half-life for this introduced
cadmium in the grassland habitat in excess of 1,000 years; it would be
shorter in cultivated lands.

        Fleischer et al. (1974) have summarized the results of a number of
investigations of cadmium soil concentrations around smelters, including
the extensive study of the East Helena smelter from which came the estimate
of a total deposition of up to 236 metric tons (260 short tons) of cadmium
within a radius of 16 km of the smelter stack.  Other studies have been
conducted around smelters, with similar findings of increased soil concen-
trations, including those of Cannon and Anderson (1971), Roberts et al.
(1975), and Ratsch (1974).

        Higher than normal (>0.4 ppm)  cadmium soil concentrations can result
from sources other than smelters—i.e., from use rather than production.  Yost
et al. (1975) in their study of northwestern Indiana,  in the Gary and East
Chicago area, have shown that cadmium soil concentrations are higher close
to concentrated industrial areas than in rural areas removed from such
sources (Table 2.14).  Additionally, even in areas of normal soil concen-
trations, they confirmed the observations of Bolter et al. (1975) that
concentrations in litter were significantly higher than in the underlying
soil.

        Fertilizers are a source of cadmium additions to soil.  The small
concentrations of cadmium associated with phosphate ores carry through the
processing to fertilizer.  There is a good deal of variability in cadmium
content.   Florida and South Carolina rock phosphate typically contains 8
to 16 ppm cadmium (Yost et al., 1975).  Western rock phosphate, which will
be drawn upon more in future as the eastern deposits are depleted, may
contain several times as much cadmium, up to 50 ppm.
                                   2-39

-------
               TABLE 2.13.  CADMIUM CONCENTRATIONS IN SOIL
                            NEAR EAST HELENA, MONTANA3
Soil Horizon, Concentration,
cm ppm pH
2.4 kmb
0.0-5.0
5.0-17.0
17.0-30.0
30.0-60.0
4.0 km
0.0-5.0
5.0-11.0
11.0-19.0
19.0-25.0
>25.0
5.3 km
0.0-3.5
3.5-7.0
7.0-15.0
15.0-35.0
8.1 km
0.0-7.5
7.5-26.0
26.0-37.0
37.0-42.0


27.3
11.3
0.6
0.3

8.1
7.1
7.0
0.6
0.3

4.7
7.2
0.2
0.2

4.2
1.4
0.2
0.2


6.0
7.0+
7.0+


6.0
7.0
7.5
7.0+


6.5
6.5
7.4


5.2
5.4
8.2
8.2

Soil Horizon, Concentration,
cm ppm pH
11.3 km
0.0-4.0
4.0-7.5
7.5-18.0
18.0-33.0
16.9 km
0.0-3.0
3.0-9.5
9.5-18.4
>18.4

23.3 km
0.0-6.5
6.5-10.0
10.0-18.0
18.0-21.0
33.8 km
0.0-2.5
2.5-5.0'
5.0-8.0
8.0-23.0
23.0-30.0

2.5
0.7
0.4
NDC

3.4
0.9
0.8
ND


1.8
0.8
0.3
0.3

1.5
0.4
0.1
0.2
ND

5.4
7.6
7.6


7.6
7.8
7.8



6.6
6.8
7.2


6.4
6.7
6.9
7.4

o
 Source: Munshower, 1972.


 Distance from smelter.
CND = Not detected.
                                 2-40

-------
            TABLE 2.14.  CADMIUM SOIL CONCENTRATIONS
                         IN NORTHWESTERN INDIANA3
Soil Horizon, cm
                          Concentration, ppm
                                                        Remarks
 0-2.55
 9.4
10.9
12.2
Litter
0-2.5
2.5-10.2
>10.2

Litter
0-2.5
2.5-10.2
>10.2

Litter
0-15.2
                      East Chicago, Indiana

                               2.5-14.0
                                 2.51                Dunes
                                 5.40                Marsh
                                 5.95                Floodplain
                                                  Q
                  Willow Slough Fish and Game Area

                                 1.03                Grassland
                                 0.30
                                 0.20
                                 0.14
                                  1.21
                                  0.23
                                  0.08
                                  0.08
                                 1.16                Marsh
                                 0.36

                 Jasper — Pulaski Fish and Game Area
                                                     Black oak forest
Litter
0-15.2
                                 1.1
                                 0.4
Source:  Yost et al., 1975.

Less than 8 km from concentrated heavy industrial area.

Approximately 80 km south of East Chicago.
                              2-41

-------
        The Yost team  (1975) performed a study to determine the extent of
cadmium buildup in soils associated with long-term application of known
quantities of phosphate fertilizers, using "fertility plots" at the Purdue
University Agronomy Farm.  Soils from plots which, over a 20-year period,
had received a variety of levels of fertilizer application were analyzed
for cadmium.  Soybeans and corn raised on these plots were also analyzed to
determine whether or not there was a significant correlation between.
cadmium levels in soils and crops.  No significant correlation was detected.

        Definitive analytical data are relatively sparse on the effects of
fertilizer application on soil cadmium contents; some data have been
reported on Virgin Islands soil, as measured at the surface:


                      Cadmium, ppm       Treatment

                         0.15        Unfertilized soil
                         0.8         Fertilized
                         3.38        Phosphate fertilized


        Overall, it appears that the cadmium concentrations in U.S. soils
not excessively disturbed by man approximate those found in rocks, i.e.,
0.2 to 0.5 ppm.  The application of fertilizers does not appear to have
generally raised this level above 1 ppm.  Highest soil concentrations are
found in the vicinity of smelters.  These are proportional to the distance
from the smelter.  Several ppm of cadmium may be found in surface soils in
the vicinity of major urban industrial areas.

        Since the land and ocean sediments are the ultimate sinks for most
of the cadmium annually dispersed to the environment, it appears inevitable
that their concentrations will slowly increase.  Except for the pockets of
high concentration represented by landfills, the increase in average soil
cadmium concentrations should proceed at an almost unmeasurable rate, espe-
cially as atmospheric emissions from past major point sources such as
smelters are brought under control.  Most of the increase may come from
inadvertent sources such as fertilizers and the combustion of coals.
TERRESTRIAL BIOTA

Vegetation

        Cadmium has been reported in plants over a large area of the United
States.  There is notj however, a national monitoring program or agriculture
reporting program.  Sargent and Metz (1975) reported that cadmium concentra-
tion in plants has an approximately 1:1 relationship with that of the soil.
However, existing data show that cadmium is concentrated in plant tissues to
varying degrees depending upon the species and the amount of cadmium in the
environment.  In laboratory studies by Page et al. (1972), the amount of
cadmium in plant leaves varied between 9 ppm (beans) and 90 ppm (corn) when
the concentration of culture solution was 0.1 yg Cd/ml (0.1 ppm) and from

                                    2-42

-------
35 ppm  (beans) to 469 ppm (turnip) at a solution concentration of 1.0 yg/ml
(1.0 ppm).

        Yost and his associates  (1975) found varying cadmium concentrations
in herbaceous plants from industrial regions of northwestern Indiana with
a range between 0.24 and 7.70  (Table 2.15).  Similarly, they found tree stems
to exhibit cadmium concentrations between 0.11 and 0.48 ppm.  Hammons and
Huff (1975) report mean cadmium  concentrations in Alaskan grasses of 0.10
ppm.  Shacklette (1972) reports  plant concentrations in the Colorado Rockies
which range from 0.03 to 1.50 ppm in stems and 0.07 to 0.97 ppm in leaves
(Table  2.16).

        The magnitude of species difference in ability to absorb cadmium
appears to increase with increasing cadmium content in the environment.
John (1973) has demonstrated a dramatic increase in cadmium content,
particularly in the root portions of some plants grown on cadmium-contami-
nated soils (Figure 2.8).  He reported cadmium concentrations of 1.8 to
12.2 ppm in various parts of 8 crops in control experiments as opposed to
a range of 19.7 to 6,121.5 ppm when soil cadmium concentrations were
increased to 200 mg cadmium per  1,000 g soil, air-dry basis.  Hemphill et
al. (1973) have shown that the main concentrations of cadmium in the roots
of lettuce and radishes'from less contaminated areas in Missouri were in
the same range (0.7 to 1.6 ppm), while in samples from a small town where
a smelter was located the cadmium concentration in lettuce (28.1 ppm) was
about six times higher than that of radishes (4.7 ppm).

        The work of numerous researchers has shown that different plant
species, varieties, and plant tissues, when exposed to similar levels of
cadmium, will contain different  concentrations.  For example, cadmium
concentrations in corn grain are usually only 3 to 15 percent of those
found in the leaf.  In comparison, grain of soybeans, wheat, oats, and
sorghum may contain 30 to 100 percent of the foliar levels.  Additional
studies have shown that leafy vegetables, such as lettuce, chard, spinach,
and turnip greens, can accumulate levels undesirable to man (in excess of
100 ppm) without showing toxicity symptoms (CAST, 1976).

        Many studies have been conducted to determine the cadmium content
in plants as a function of distance from metal sources.  For Kay County in
Oklahoma, the cadmium contents of tree leaves were 32.9 and 5.8 ppm for
samples collected at 1.6 and 7.2 km, respectively, from the cadmium source
(Benenati, 1974).  In Galena, Kansas, Lagerwerff et al. (1973) found that
the cadmium concentrations in native grasses diminished from 8.6 to 1.4
ppm (dry weight) as the distance from the cadmium source increased from
0.3 to 2.4 km, and from 5.7 to 9.6 ppm with increasing distance from 1.7
to 0.3 km, even though cadmium was no longer being released at the time of
sampling.  In Tacoma, Washington, however, Ratsch (1974) found that cadmium
levels in plants increased with  increasing distance from cadmium sources,
in this case smelters, up to 4.8 km (3 mi) and then decreased afterward.
The mean cadmium concentrations  of herbaceous grasses were 3.4 ppm at 0 to
1.6 km  (0 to 1 mi), 6.6 ppm at 3.2 to 4.8 km (2 to 3 mi), and 2.4 ppm at
8 to 9.6 km (5 to 6 mi).

                                   2-43

-------
            TABLE  2.15.   CADMIUM CONCENTRATIONS IN PLANTS
                         OF AN INDUSTRIAL REGION3>b
Species
Whole
Herbaceous
Andropogon sp.
Anemone cylindr-iao
Apios americana
Aster sp.
Carex stricta
Coreopsis lanceolate.
C. tripteris
llquisctiw arvenpc
E. hyemale
Eryngiwn yuacifo liwn
Euphorbia corollata
Fra.ga.ria virginiana
Galiwri obtusum
Helianthus divarieatus
H. ocoidentalis
Hypoxis hirsuta.
Juncus sp.
tioeleria crista.ta.
Liatris spicata
Liparis Ulifolla
Lithosperum canesceris
Lupinus perennis
Monarda fistulosa
Pedicularis canadensis
Phlox pilosa

Woody
Sweetgum, Liquidambar styraciflua
White oak, Quercus alba.
Willow oak, Q. phellos
Winged sumac, Rhus copallina
No. of Cadmium Concentration,
Samples ppm dry weight
Plant0

13
1
1
4
14
1
8
3
17
6
5
7
1
10
9
1
20
7
11
1
17
1
3
1
2
Stem







0.55
1.20
4.40
2.42
0.47
4.40
4.85
2.00
0.87
0.37
0.86
0.89
1.80
1.72
5.16
7.70
0.39
1.01
4.79
1.90
0.94
0.70
0.93
2.50
0.75


0.41
0.16
0.28
0.11
aYost et al., 1975.  Data collected June, 1974.


 Sampling location south of East Chicago—no lead smelters in the area.

Q
 Whole above-ground plant unless specified.

                                .2-44

-------
               TABLE 2.16.  CADMIUM CONCENTRATIONS IN PLANTS
                            REMOTE FROM INDUSTRIALIZATION
                 Organism
        Mean Concentration,
Organ     ppm dry weight
Alaskan grasses

Colorado blue spruce
Douglas fir

Englemann's spruce

Juniper

Kinnikinnik

Limber pine

Lodgepole pine

Mountain maple

Ponderosa pine

Snowberry

Sticky laurel
Quaking aspen

Wild gooseberry

Willow



Pioea pungens
Pseudotsuga menziesii

Piaea englemannii

Juniperus communis nana

Arctostaphylos uvo-ursi

Pinus flexilis

Pinus contorta lati folia

Aoer glabrum

Pinus ponderosa scopulorwn

Symphoricarpus oooidentalis

Ceanothus velutinus
Populus tremuloides

Ribes sp.

Salix sp.

Entire
Plant
Stem
Stem
Leaves
Stem
Leaves
Stem
Leaves
Stem
Leaves
Stem
Leaves
Stem
Leaves
Stem
Leaves
Stems
Leaves
Stems
Leaves
Stem
Stems
Leaves
Stems
Leaves
Stems
Leaves
o.ioa

0.03b>c
0.20
0.07
0.22
0.05
0.26
0.11
0.23
0.21
0.14
0.10
0.38
0.21
0.17
0.09
0.22
0.11
0.09
0.12
0.03
0.77
0.45
0.08
0.07
1.50
0.97
 Hammons and Huff,  1975.   Alaska.

 Shacklette, 1972.   Colorado,  Rocky Mountains.

"Cadmium concentrations in stems range from 0.03 to 1.50 ppm while in
   leaves the range is 0.07 to 0.97 ppm.
                                      2-45

-------
 20 Pea seeds
 28 Pea pods
 30 Carrot tubers
 34 Oat grains
 96 Oat husks
  117 Oat stalks
•  117 Pea vines
-   123 Radish tubers
—   177 Oat  leaves
••  199 Cauliflower leaves
mmm   239 Spinach leaves
•—  269 Broccoli leaves
       294 Carrot tops
         398 Radish tops
         -  491 Spinach  roots
         ——   663 Oat roots
         __   668 Lettuce leaves
         _____________  1357 Cauliflower roots
         —_____   1571  Pea roots
                                       "  1628 Lettuce roots
                               ———•-»•  1647 Broccoli roots
                                                     / f     M22 Carrot roots

o
o
ts

o
o

1
o
o

o
o

o
o

1
0
0

o
0

o
o

o
o

0 '
o
f !
1 i
o
o

o
o

-------
        Hemphill et al.  (1973) have shown that plants along traffic routes
were higher in cadmium concentration but diminished with increasing distance
from the road.  Connor et al. (1971) found that the cadmium concentration
in cedar trees along the lead-ore truck route near Centerville, Missouri,
was more than three times the amount found in cedars from off-road sites
(9.3 vs. 2.8 ppm, ash weight).  However, they also found no significant
difference between average cadmium content in on-road and off-road samples
of cedar trees from 16 locations elsewhere in Missouri off the ore truck
routes.

        Table 2.17 and Figure 2.9 summarize, cadmium concentrations in
Spanish moss (Tillandsia usenoides) from eight states along the Atlantic
and Gulf coasts in a U.S. Geological Survey study (Shacklette, 1972).  Samples
having extremely high cadmium content (above 20 ppm in ash) were from Limona
and Panama City, Florida; Natchez, Mississippi; and East Baton Rouge Parish,
Louisiana,  These areas were considered to be affected by considerable
industrial and automotive contamination.  Low cadmium concentrations (less
than 5 ppm in ash) were found in samples from areas where minimal airborne
cadmium pollution is expected, such as Paradise Key, Everglades Park in
Florida, and Monticello, Mississippi.

        Distributions of cadmium in crops were studied in 19 states east of
the Rocky Mountains by Huffman and Hodgson (1973).  As shown in Table 2.18,
the cadmium content in wheat and perennial grasses was relatively low, with
less than 0.5 ppm in ash weight.  They found no distinct geographic pattern
for observed cadmium concentration.
Crops Grown on Sludge-Treated Land

        The application of sewage sludge to croplands and the potential
uptake of cadmium by food crops is a matter for concern.  In 1976, EPA
commissioned 30 scientists from the Council for Agricultural Science and
Technology (CAST) to develop a state-of-the-art concensus on the application
of sludge to croplands as it relates to heavy metal activity, including
cadmium.  Land disposal offers the opportunity of utilizing the fertilizer
value of sludge, if there are not adverse effects from its metals content.
the CAST study reports that metal levels may be a principal factor in
determining acceptable rates of application of sludge to land, and cadmium
is.one of the metals governing the utilization of sludge.  Repeated
applications of sludge to land may lead to undesirable concentrations of
cadmium in crops.

        The chemistry of cadmium in soils is not yet well understood, but
its lability in soil is reduced by organic matter, clay, hydrous iron
oxides, high pH, and reducing conditions.  The CAST committee identified
the following land management options which can minimize the mobility of
cadmium in soil/sludge or which can minimize the concentration in food
plants.  These include: (1) maintenance of soil pH at 6.5 or above; (2)
choice of crops which accumulate relatively low concentrations of cadmium;
(3) making only small annual sludge applications when food crops are to be


                                  2-47

-------
 TABLE 2.1.7.   CADMIUM LEVELS  IN  SPANISH MOSS,  TILLANDSIA USNEOIDES*
Concentration, ppm
Location
Alabama
Baldwin County, beach at Josephine
Cirrington County, 11.2 km (7 mi) west of Opp
Lowndes County, 4.8 km (3 mi) south of Letohatchee exit U.S. 65
Florida
Bay County, Panama City
Broward County, Ft. Lauderdale
Collier County, Coximba area, Marce Island
Dade County, Paradise Key, Everglades
Dixie County, Cross City
Hillsboro County, Limona
Indian R. County, Vero Beach
Jefferson County, Monticello
Palm Beach County, West Palm Beach
Georgia
Emanuel County, 4.8 km (3 mi) west of Stillmore
Lowndes County, 3.2 km (2 mi) north of Valdosta
Louisiana
East Baton Rouge Parish
Franklin Parish, 1.6 km (1 mi) northeast of Winnsboro
Point Coupee Parish, near Batchelor
Tangipahoa Parish, Robert
Terrebonne Parish, Gibson
Vernon Parish, Rt. 8 at Sabine River Bridge
Mississippi
Adams County, Natchez
Hinds County, 3.2 km (2 mi) south of Jackson
Lawrence County, 9.6 km (6 mi) south of Monticello
Walthall County, Rt. 27 at state line
Yuk,oo County, 9.6 km (6 mi) west of Yazoo
North Carolina
Onslow County, Verna
Washington County, 12.8 km (8 mi) east of Roper
South Carolina
Beauford County, Hunting Island State Park
Charleston County, Charleston
Dillon County, near Latto
Florence County, near Lake City
Georgetown County, Georgetown
Texas
Fort Bend County, Sugar Land
Harris County, 8.0 km (5 mi) east of 1-16 and 1-10 junction
Jasper County, 1.6 km (1 mi) east of Neeches River on Rt . 190
Jefferson County, Beaumont
Polk County, 1.6 km (1 mi) east of San Jacinto
Ash Weight

5.2
3.4
4.4

23.0
3.0
4.3
2.0
4.8
25.0
2.2
15.0
2.0

13.0
13.0

21.0
3.6
19.0
3.6
5.0
4.2

27.0
13.0
2.0
4.8
16.0

17.0
19.0

5.2
13.0
14.0
14.0
4.2

15.0
14.0
4.6
13.0
3.8
Dry Weight0

0.23
0.15
0.20

1.04
0.14
0.19
0.09
0.22
1.13
0.10
0.68
0.09

0.59
0.59

0.95
0.16
0.86
0.16
0.23
0.19

1.22
0.59
0.09
0.22
0.72

0.77
0.86

0.23
0.59
0.63
0.63
0.19

0.68
0.63
0.21
0.59
0.17
aSource:  Shacklette, 1972.

 Data taken from 123 locations in eight states  during the  period 1965-1970; 122  samples
 Converted from ash weight  using geometric mean of ash in percentage  of dry weight, 4.5
were analyzed.

inverted from as
 (ppm dry weight = ppm  in ash x 0.045).


                                 2-48

-------
                               800 KILOMETERS
    20 -
             SYMBOL AND PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL SAMPLES
               17
                           16   23
                                      21
                                      >
17
•
    15 -
  u
  2
  LJJ
  D 10-
  O
  LJJ
  QC
     5 -
             J~l_
       •-  in co  CN  r-.
       IN  CN CM'  ("i  (")
                                  incoroo)  cooin
-------
     TABLE 2.18.  CONCENTRATION OF CADMIUM IN WHEAT AND GRASS
                  GROWING UNDER NORMAL CONDITIONS IN 19 STATES
                  EAST OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS3
Location
Alabama
Colorado
Connecticut
Georgia
Idaho
Illinois
Iowa
Indiana
Kansas

Kentucky
Louisiana
Massachusetts
Mississippi
Montana
Nebraska

New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
South Carolina
Texas
Virginia
Summary Data:
East of Mississippi River
West of Mississippi River
All data
Number of
Samples
8
11
7
24
2
9
7
2
13
1
3
1
7
2
1
8
2
6
8
3
8
3
3
4
23
1




Mean Concentration, ppm
Wheat
NAb
0.19
NA
0.18
0.04C
0.34
NA
0.03C
0.16
0.01C
0.12
NA
NA
NA
0.06C
0.32
0.13C
NA
0.22
0.06C
NA
0.12
0.05
NA
0.14
0.25

0.22
0.20
0.20
Grass
0.17
0.27
0.13
0.16

0.21
0.26

0.15

0.11
0.18
0.13
0.44

0.25

0.14
0.20

0.17
0.14

0.18
0.15
NA

0.17
0.18
0.17
 Source:   Huffmann and Hodgson,  1973.   Measurements were  made  in
   1969 and 1970.

  Not  available.

:Source:  D.  R.  Buhler, 1976  (unpublished  data).
                               2-50

-------
grown;  (4) use  of  sludges low  in cadmium on croplands; and  (5) growth of
nonedible crops, e.g., biomass or  fiber crops, on sludge-treated lands.

         Sludge  has a  tendency  to lower soil pH, and cadmium uptake by plants
is higher in acid  soils, so pH control is a fundamental requirement for
proper  management  of  sludge-treated soils.  Numerous investigators have
studied the effect of pH on cadmium uptake by various plants.  Data presented
by Chaney and Hornick at the first International Cadmium Conference in
February, 1977, illustrate the pH  effect very well  (Figure  2.10).  These
data  show a decline in the cadmium content of soybean leaves as the soil
pH is increased to near neutrality.  Figure 2.10 also shows the significant
effect  of increasing the cadmium concentration of the soil.  However, other
work  involving  repeated annual applications of sludge to soil cropped to
corn  show that  the amounts applied in a given year influence the cadmium
uptake  to a greater extent than the total cumulative amounts of cadmium
applied (CAST,  1976).  The proper management involves not only the use of
sludges low in  cadmium on croplands, but the making of only small sludge
applications each  year.

         Another important consideration is the fact that crops differ
greatly in the ability to take up cadmium.  The cadmium contents of a
variety of crops grown on sludge-treated soil containing 10 ppm of cadmium
are given in Table 2.19.  The leafy vegetables in these studies were high
in cadmium content (e.g., 161 ppm  for spinach), whereas the edible portions
of grains such as  corn and rice were low (less than 1 or 2 ppm).  The same
crops grown on control soil containing only 0.1 ppm of cadmium exhibited
significantly lower cadmium contents.

         It has also been suggested that rates of application of sludge
should  be limited  by the ratio of cadmium to zinc in the sludge.  A cadmium
concentration below 1 percent that of zinc is advocated in the EPA Draft
Document on Acceptable Methods for the Utilization or Disposal of Sludges
(U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1974).  One premise for this concept
is that  it would result in high enough zinc concentrations in soil to kill
plants  before cadmium could accumulate to levels in foods considered
hazardous to animals and humans (CAST, 1976).  However, the CAST committee
cautions that this premise often is not correct, and they advocate that the
concept be abandoned or used only in combination with other criteria.
Invertebrates

        Little information has been documented on the cadmium content in
terrestrial invertebrates even though they play an important role in the
vertical transport of trace elements in the environment (Table 2.20).

        Gish and Christensen (1973) found that cadmium concentrations in
earthworms along the Baltimore-Washington, D.C., Parkway were approximately
ten times the cadmium levels in the soil (6.9 to 12.6 ppm in worms vs. 0.68
to 1.2 ppm in soil).  The earthworms near the highway seemed to have a
higher concentration of cadmium than those further from the road.  In
Tennessee, Anderson et al.(1974) found approximately 17 times more cadmium

                                    2-51

-------
  TABLE 2.19. CADMIUM CONTENT OF CROPS GROWN  IN THE GREENHOUSE
              ON CALCAREOUS DOMINO SILT LOAM  WITH AND WITHOUT
              SEWAGE SLUDGE TREATMENTS
Cadmium per Gram of
Crop
Paddy rice
Upland rice
Sudangrass
White clover
Alfalfa
Bermudagrass
Field bean
Wheat
Zucchini squash
Soybean
Tall fescue
Corn
Carrot
Cabbage
Radish
Swiss chard
Table beet
Romaine lettuce
Tomato
Curlycress
Spinach
Turnip
Control
Diagnostic
Leaf
<0.1
0,4
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.6
<0.1
0.6
0.4
1.4
3.9
1.4
0.7
4.2
1.4
0.8
0.8
2.6
2.4
3.6
1.8
Soilb
Edible
Tissue
<0.1
<0.1
0,2
0.2
0.3
0.3
<0.1
<0.1
<0.1
0.7
1.4
<0.1
0.9
0.2
0.3
1.4
0.2
0.8
<0.1
2.4
3.<6
<0.1
Dry Plant Tissue
Sludge-Treated
Diagnostic
Leaf
<0,1
0.9
5.7
6.0
8.2
9.4
10.3
11.6
12,5
15 ..6
1.7.3
27,0
38.0
39.0
40.0
42.. 0
47, 0
62.0
71.0
89,0
161,0
162.0
, yg
Soiic
Edible
Tis.sue
'.0.2
0.4
5.7
6.0
:8.3
9,4
0.7
5. .'8
,0.7
10.7
17.3
1.4
16.0
1.8
4,0
42.«0
4.5
.62,0
2,4
89.-0
161.0
9.2
a
 Source: Bingham et al., 1975, 1976;; CAST, 1976.
^Domino silt loam containing 0.1 ppm of Cd,
cSludge treated with cadmium sulfa.te to supply 10 yg 
-------
   50.0
   40.0
00
   30.0
0)
4J
o
•H
iH
O
   20.0
   10.0
                                      ppm Soil Cd
           5.2
5.6
   6.0
Soil pH
6.4
6.8
       Figure 2.10. The effect of  soil  pH  and  cadmium concentration
                    on the cadmium content of  soybean leaves
                    (Chaney and Hornick, 1977).
                                 2-53

-------
                              TABLE 2.20.   LEVELS OF CADMIUM IN TERRESTRIAL INVERTEBRATES
ho
I
Ol
Location
Maryland
Highway 1 and
Baltimore- Washington
Parkway

Montana
Deer Lodge Valley




Tennessee, East

Date of
Data
Collection
1970




1970





Not avail-
able
Concentration,
ppm dry weight
Organism
Earthworm
(whole



body)



Grasshoppers
(whole




body)




Earthworm
(whole
body)
Mean Range
12
8
8
6
1
5
2
2
5
2
0
5

.6
.8
.3
.9
.1
.0
.1
.7"^- -7— — _
.2 •*•--...
.2
.4
.1 3.1-9.3

Reference
Gish & Christensen, 1973 3
6
12
24
48
Munshower, 1972 4
24
5
6
' -••- •^-— — ^_ 14
"~~~""' ^-^_ 201
Anderson et al., 1974


.1
.1
.2
.4
.8
.0
.1
.6
.1
.5
.1



m
m
m
m
m
km
km
km
km
km
km



(10
(20
(40
(80
(160
(2.
(15
(3.
(3.
(9.
Remarks
ft) from highway
ft) from highway
ft) from highway
ft) from highway





ft) from highway
5 mi) from zinc
.0 mi) from zinc
5 mi) from zinc
8 mi) from zinc
0 mi) from zinc
smelter
smelter
smelter
smelter
smelter
(125.0 mi) from zinc smelter







-------
 in earthworms  (5.7  ppm  dry weight)  than in soil  (0.35 ppm).  Grasshoppers
 in Montana  contained  slightly higher cadmium concentrations than their food
 (Munshower,  1972).
Mammals

         Data  pertaining  to  cadmium  levels  in terrestrial mammals are
available  from  locations  in eight states  (Figure 2.11).  No national or
comprehensive regional monitoring program  exist.  Many of these studies
are  related to  highly contaminated  regions and none was continued for a
period long enough to allow trends  to be established.

         There appears to  be no difference  between cadmium concentrations in
domestic and  wild animals.  Munshower (1972) found that mean cadmium levels
in the kidneys  of cattle  from Deer  Lodge Valley in Montana (1.67 to 3.04 ppm)
were in  the same range as those in  their wild counterparts—red fox, badger,
and  ground squirrel  (1.35 to 3.47 ppm).

         More  marked  differences were shown in the cadmium values found in
domestic rabbits and cottontails.   Cadmium levels in the kidneys of rabbits
from Missoula,  Montana (control), and from East Helena, Montana (near a
lead smelter),  were  0.3 and 35.6 ppm, respectively (Gordon, 1972).  Cotton-
tail rabbits  in Ohio contained 1.3  to 1.6  ppm of cadmium (Bachant and
Schumann, 1971; Lynch, 1973), while mountain cottontails in East Helena,
Montana, had  as high as 53.0 ppm (Gordon,  1972).

         Cadmium levels in the milk  of cattle ranged from less than 0.0005
ppm in samples  from Missouri (Dorn  et al., 1973) to 0.2 ppm in those from
an area  near  the smelter  in East Helena, Montana (Lewis, 1972).  The cadmium
content  in the  blood of cattle from southern Missouri was less than 0.01 ppm.
Concentrations  of cadmium in blood  appear  to be affected by seasons, with
the highest levels being  found in the fall (Dorn et al., 1973) (Table 2.2.).
However, in cattle as in other domestic and native animals, cadmium levels
are highest in  the kidneys, hair, and secondarily in the liver.  Cadmium
levels are at or near background levels in other internal organs, indicating
that these organs do not accumulate cadmium from the environment.

         Unlike  plants, the  species-dependency of the cadmium level in
animals  has not been demonstrated.  Most of the animals from the same
geographical  areas seemed to have approximately the same levels of cadmium
in their bodies except for  those of rabbits found in the polluted Helena
Valley, Montana.  Cadmium levels in domestic rabbits and mountain cotton-
tails were 7  to 16 times higher than those of cows, ground squirrels, and
mice (Munshower, 1972).  No clear indication of any differences in the
cadmium  content of herbivorous and carnivorous animals was observed from
the data presented in the literature.

        Age could be a contributing factor in bioaccumulation of cadmium in
animals.   Mature ground squirrels and gray squirrels had about 4 to 5 times
greater cadmium concentrations than their  immature counterparts (Munshower,

                                   2-55

-------
                                                                                   Vermont
1-0
i
Ol
a*
                                                                                                New Hampshire
                                                                                                      B
                                                                                              Maryland
                                                                                                 A
   Earthworms  (Gish & Christensen,
   1973:  Anderson et al., 1974)
   Mice and  Shrews
   (Schlesinger  & Potter, 1974)
C. Cottontails and deer
   (Bachant  and  Schumann, 1971;
    Devendorf, 1975; Lynch, 1973)
D. Rodents,  r'abbits and livestock
   (McKinnon et  al., 1976; Dorn
    et al, 1973; Gordon, 1972;
    Munshower, 1972; Lewis, 1972)
E. Insects,  squirrels, livestock
   and predators (Munshower, 1972)
F. Deer and  Rodents (Schroeder
   et al., 1976)
G. Moose (Franzmann et al, 1975)
                              Figure 2.11.  Locations of study areas  for cadmium levels in
                                             terrestrial animals, excluding birds.

-------
                TABLE 2.21.  CADMIUM LEVELS IN CATTLE3'b
                             (ppm, dry weight)
                 1971
                                1972
1973
Organ
Blood
Milk
Hair
Fall
0.0174
0.02163
0.0030
0.0043

Winter
0.0038
0.0038
0.0042
0.0040

Spring
0.0060
0.0080
0.0030
0.0030

Summer Fall Winter
0.0076
0.0036
0.0020
0.0030
1.29 1.74
0.06 0.13
Spring Summer


2.80 0.67
0.05 0.04
Liver


Kidney


Diaphragm
1971-1972

   0.90
   0.24

   3.70
   1.40

   0.10+
   0.10+
 Note each number pair in table.  Top number represents environmentally
   exposed animals—bottom number represents controls.

 Source: Dorn et al., 1973.
                                  2-57

-------
1972; McKinnon et al., 1976).  However,  in most cases, the ages of animals
studied were not known.
Birds

        Data on cadmium levels in birds from national monitoring programs
are limited to starlings collected at 56 sites from 44 states  (Figure 2.12)
during 1971 (Martin and Nickerson, 1973) and 1973  (White et alt, 1976).
The levels of cadmium for both years ranged from less than 0.05 ppm to 0;2
ppm, but a light increase in overall values was observed in 1973 (Table 2.22).
In 1971, 32 of the 50 samples contained less than  0.05 ppm^ with only 14
samples exceeding 0.05 ppm.  In 1973, however cadmium levels in 2-1 of 51
samples were higher than 0.05 ppm, with 18 samples being less  than 0.05 ppm.
Cadmium levels at all 6 sites which had more than  0.1 ppm during 1971
dropped to less than 0.07 ppm in 1973, while the concentrations in 6 other
sites were nearly doubled from less than 0.06 ppm  in 1971 to more than
0.11 ppm in 1973.  Locations where more than 0.1 ppm of cadmium was found in
starlings were Phoenix, Arizona; Stuttgart, Arkansas; Bakersfield, California;
Farmington, New Mexico; and Elkins, West Virginia, in 1971; and Brighton,
Colorado; Evansville, Indiana; Gary, Maine; Maiden, Missouri;  Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania; and Salt Lake City, Utah, in 1973.

        Lynch (1973) conducted a statewide study on cadmium levels in ring-
necked pheasants in Ohio and found that the mean cadmium level in kidneys
was 7.45 ppm, while edible portions, leg and breast muscle, contained 0.08
to 0.17 ppm, respectively.

        Studies of the common tern from Long Island, New York, and from
Hamilton, Lake Ontario, failed to show any significant differences in
cadmium in the kidneys, 21.3 to 29.5 ppm (Connors  et al., 1975).  Brown
pelicans from California had much higher cadmium in the liver  than those
from Florida, but the cadmium level in other parts of the body (breast and
bone) were in the same range for both groups (Fleischer et al., 1974)*
The highest cadmium concentration reported from birds, 53.2 ppm, was found
in the ashy petrel from the California coast (Anderlini et al.j 1-972) s

        Comparisons between ecologically equivalent species of different
species occupying the same locality were possible  for the ring-necked
pheasant and mourning dove from Ohio.  The breast muscle of mourning dove's
had much higher concentrations of cadmium than the ring-necked pheasants.
This may be attributed to a number of factors, including migratory behavior
and the kinds of food eaten.
AQUATIC BIOTA

Plants and Algae    ;

        In a study of the environmental flow of cadmium and other trace
metals in northwestern Indiana, Yost et al. (1974) found tha't filiime'ntoiis


                    !':             2-58

-------
                                                        1  Ring-necked pheasants
                                                        2  Wild  common terns
                                                          Starlings
                                                        4  Abnormal young  terns
                                                        5  Jerpms  amd  egrets
                                                        6  Chipping sparrows
                                                        7  Domestic chicken
                                                        8  American kestrel eggs
                                                        9  Coopers hawk eggs
                                                       10  Ruddy ducks
                                                       11  Brown pelicans
                                                       12  Ashy  petrels
                                                       13  Ruffed  grouse
Figure 2.12.  Locations for cadmium sampling in  birds.
             [*Exact location(s)  in state  not indicated.]

-------
TABLE  2.22.   CADMIUM LEVELS  IN STARLINGS MEASURED IN 1971 and 1973'


Alabama, Mobile
Arizona, Phoenix
Arkansas, Stuttgard
California, Bakersfield
Los Angeles
Sacramento
Colorado, Brighton
Greeley
Connecticut, Connecticut River Valley
Delaware, Dover
Florida, Gainesville
Georgia, Atlanta
Idalio, lioise
Illinois, Chicago
Indiana, Kvansville
Ca ry
Iowa, Des Moines
Kansas, Garden City
Louisiana, Baton Rouge-
Maine, Cray
Maryland, Patuxent
Annapolis
Massachusetts , Quincy
Michigan, Lansing
Minnesota, Twin Cities
M i ss i ss ipp i , Starkville
Missnur i , Maiden
Nebraska, North I'latte
Nevada, MrCil 1
Keno
New Jersey, Brunswick
New Mexico, Carlsbad
Farmington
New York, Albany
Jamestown
Nortli Carolina, Raleigh
North Dakota. Bismarck
Ohio, Columbus
Oklahoma, Tishomingo
Oregon, Corvallis
Wilsonvil le
Pennsylvan ia, Pi ttsburgh
South Carolina, Columbia
South Dakota, Pierre
Tennessee, Nashville
Texas, Hillsboro
San Antonio
Utah, St. Lake City
Vermont, Champlain Valley
Virginia, Blackshurg
Washington, Spokane
Yakima
West Virginia, Elkins
Wisconsin, Horicon
Portage
Wyoming, Worland
n.-ir/i rpnrpsenf whole body analysis of
Concentration,
197lb
<0.05
0.11
0.10
0.18
0.06
<0.05

0.05
<0.05
0.09
'0.05
<0.05
<0.05
0.06
•'.0.05


0.05
<0.05
<0.05

-------
 algae  had  relatively higher concentrations of cadmium, with mean values
 up  to  2.33 ppm,  than rooted plants.  Other aquatic plant samples contained
 less than  1.0  ppm cadmium.

        Aquatic  plants from the more heavily contaminated area of the Coeur
 d'Alene-Spokane  River drainage system showed high concentrations of cadmium
 in  their tissues.  Funk et al. (1973) measured cadmium levels from 30 to
 270 ppm in algae, mainly Cladophora sp.,  indicating the ability of algae  to
 concentrate cadmium by factors of 102 to  103 in relation to water.  Submer-
 gent or emergent aquatic plants from Foundry Cove in the Hudson River near
 a nickel-cadmium battery plant were found to contain concentrations of
 cadmium averaging up to 89.4 ppm, with a  range from 1.8 to 269 ppm in their
 leaves and stems.  The roots of Spartina  grass from the same area exhibited
 a mean cadmium content of 1,100 ppm (range 247 to 2,960 ppm), whereas the
 cadmium content  in their leaves averaged  only 13.6 ppm (Kneip et al., 1975).

        Marine algae in southern California showed relatively higher
 concentrations (with maximum levels up to 20.9 ppm) than the algae from the
 northern coast,  reflecting the cadmium contamination of the San Diego area
 (Martin and Broenkow, 1975).
Invertebrates

        Comparison of data on cadmium levels in aquatic invertebrates with
those for fish indicate a much greater concentration of cadmium in inverte-
brates.  In general, the distribution of elevated cadmium levels in inverte-
brates is more uniform than in fish.  Elevated levels were found most often
in whole organisms rather than in muscle tissue.  The highest levels (5 ppm)
in Atlantic oysters were from the Housatonic River, Connecticut.  Levels
greater than 2 ppm were found in scallops from Cape Kennedy, Florida; green
abalone from San Diego, California; and Pacific oysters from Puget Sound
(National Marine Fisheries Service, 1975).

        In one of many local studies, Fleischer et al. (1974) indicated that
cadmium levels in marine invertebrates from unpolluted areas were in the
range 0.4 to 2.6 ppm (dry weight).  Cadmium levels greater than 1 ppm were
found in clam, oyster, and scallop specimens from Long Island Sound, New
York; Cape Canaveral, Florida (Zook et al., 1976); West Bay and Nueces Bay,
Texas (Robe.rts et al., 1975); and the southern California coast (Vattuone
et al., 1976); probably reflecting higher cadmium levels in these waters.
Cadmium content in most of the commercial shrimp was less than 0.1 ppm,
except those in Trinity Bay, Texas (0.22 ppm).  Mean cadmium concentrations
in oysters appeared to reflect the degree of industrialization in the
estuary in which they lived (Figure 2.13).

        Marine zooplankton exhibited higher cadmium content than those from
freshwater.  Freshwater zooplankton from Lake Michigan and vicinity had
average values greater than 0.4 ppm cadmium (Mathis and Kevern, 1973;
Martin and Broenkow, 1975), while marine zooplankton from southern California
waters had maximum levels up to 15.2 ppm and those from the northern

                                    2-61

-------
NJ
I
N5
  a. National Marine
     Fisheries Service, 1975
  b. Roberts et al., 1975
  c. Zook et al., 1976.
Figure 2.13.
                                                                 0.63
                                          Mean cadmium concentrations  (ppm)  in Atlantic and Gulf of
                                          Mexico oysters  (Crassostrea  virginica)  and Pacific Ocean
                                          oysters  (C. gigas) .
                                                                                                        0.388

-------
 California and  Oregon  coasts about  6.2 ppm.  Martin  (1970) reported that the
 cadmium concentration  factor for  zooplankton was  approximately 6,000 times
 that  in water.   This high  concentration  level was not  common  in most of the
 zooplankton studied.

         Cadmium levels in  tubificid worms  (Oligochaeta) varied greatly,
 ranging from 1.1 ppm for worms  in the Illinois  River at Peoria (Mathis and
 Cummings,  1973)  to  230 ppm for  those from  the Palestine Lake  in Indiana
 (Yost  et al., 1975).   Oligochaete worms  from highly  contaminated water of
 the Spokane River in Idaho contained a comparatively lower level of 4.3 ppm
 cadmium, while  other bottom-dwelling invertebrates such as midges, mayfly
 larvae,  and snails  concentrated cadmium  up to 97  ppm (Funk et al., 1973).
Fish

        Fish are  the most widely  studied species among all aquatic organisms
and numerous local and/or statewide studies have been made throughout the
United  States.  The National Pesticide Monitoring Program compiled cadmium
levels  in  freshwater fish from 92 rivers and streams in 46 states, but data
are available only for 1972.  From most of the rivers studied,  cadmium
concentrations were within the range of less than 0.05 to 0.5 ppm with only
those from 10 rivers exceeding this limit.  A maximum cadmium level of
greater than 1 ppm was found in fish collected from the Sacramento River in
California, Connecticut River in  Connecticut, Wabash River in Indiana, Yazoo
River in Mississippi, and Columbia River in Washington.  The highest cadmium
level recorded was 1.7 ppm in a northern squawfish from the Columbia River,
Washington.  Other high values (greater than 1.0 ppm) typically occurred in
carp, suckers, and other bottom feeders.

        The cadmium levels in the muscle or whole body of most  freshwater
fish found in the localized studies were less than 0.1 ppm with a few
exceptions.  Fish from Palestine  Lake, Indiana, contained more  than 0.5 ppm
in the muscle (Atchison, 1975).  Mean cadmium residues in trout  from Climax
Colorado,  were relatively higher, reaching up to 4.2 ppm in muscle (Roberts
et al., 1975).  Cadmium concentrations in fish from Foundry Cove in the
Hudson River, New York, were highest of all, averaging 9.1 to 12.3 ppm
(Schroeder, 1974).  Of the organs surveyed in a study by Roberts et al.
(1975), bone and liver tissues of freshwater fish consistently  showed
highest levels of cadmium (Table  2.23).  Values in bone ranged  as high as
46.6 ppm,  liver to 25.9 ppms in these contaminated fish, where  muscle
tissue cadmium concenterations were as high as 4 ppm.  These data show some
indication-of a reduced cadmium burden in the trout of these areas over the
3 years of the study (Roberts et  al., 1975).

        Cadmium levels appeared to be lower in marine and estuarine fish
than in the freshwater fish.  Data from the NMFS Microconstituent Resource
Survey indicate elevated concentrations in fish generally along the southern
Atlantic and the Pacific coastlines of the U.S.  Highest concentrations
(greater than 0.2 ppm) were found in analyses of whole fish, mainly menhaden
and ballyhoo.   High concentrations (greater than 0.1 ppm)  in muscle tissue


                                    2-63

-------
     TABLE  2.23.   FRESHWATER FISH—CADMIUM LEVELS IN TISSUES

Organ
Bone















Muscle







Liver












Whole fish







Species
Brook trout
Brown trout
Rainbow trout
Brook trout
Brown trout
Rainbow trout
Brown trout
Brook trout
Brown trout
Rainbow trout
Brook trout
Rainbow trout
Brook trout
Rainbow trout
Brook trout
"
Brook trout
Rainbow trout
Brook trout
Brown trout
Brook trout
Brown trout
"
Brook trout
Brook trout
Rainbow trout
Brook trout
"
Rainbow trout
Brown trout
Brook trout
Brown' trout
Rainbow trout
Brook : trout
Rainbow trout
Brook trout
n
Brook trout
Brown trout
Rainbow trout
Brook .trout
Brown -trout
Rainbow trout
Brown trout

Location
Climax area, CO
it
-
"
"
"
Lake City, CO
"
"
11
Silverton area, CO
"
"
"
M
n
Climax area, CO
"
"
"
"
Lake City, CO
n
Silverton area, CO
Climax area, CO
"
n
n
"
Lake City, CO
n
"
Silverton area, CO
"
it
"
"
Climax area, CO
"
n
tt
11
ti
Lake City, CO
Mean Concentration, ppm
1969 1970 1971
20. 3b
26. 4°
4.0
6.0
1.6
7.8
8.9
0.0
2.5
2.8
11.3
19.9
13.1
8.1
4.0
1.7
3.1
3.3
1.2
1.2
0.0
4.2
0.0
1.1
13. 5b
1.1
7.7b
7.0
2.1
0.0
4.5
8.1
2.6
4.2
7.4
0.0
0.4
6.5
3.0
3.0
0.0
2.3
2.7
0.0
 Source: Roberts et al.,  1975.
Calculated value.
                                    2-64

-------
were found in blue marlin from Hawaii, petrale sole from Pidgeon Point,
California, and Pacific bonita from Coranado Island, California (Figure
2.14).  Highest mean concentrations were less than 0.2 ppm (National Marine
Fisheries Service, 1975).

        Sampling of yearling estuarine fish for pesticide and heavy metal
residues analyses was initiated in 1972 by the National Estuarine Monitoring
Program (Heath, 1976).  Cadmium analyses of more than 540 samples (25 fish
per sample) showed no consistent trends between July, 1972, and June, 1976
(Heath, 1976).  Geometric means of the positive residue ranged from less
than 0.02 to 0.15 ppm, wet weight of whole fish, for cadmium.
                                    2-65

-------
            0.019-0.119
aExtremes refer to a
 of means.
"Single number indicates
 only one data base, a
 single mean.
cFar offshore values for
 those states; all other
 figures indicate estua-
 rine and/or nearshore
 organisms.
                                                        -0.116
0.031-0.157
0.046-0.074°
                                                                                                0.034
                                                                   0.011-0.078
                                                                   0.033-0.078C

                                                                   0.027-0.053a

                                                                   0.049-0.054

                                                                    0.016-0.091
                                               0.036
                               Figure  2.14.
                Cadmium in marine fish—muscle tissue, ppm
                [data averaged among various species along
                whole coastline of indicated state (National
                Marine Fisheries Service, 1975)].

-------
                   3.  CADMIUM BEHAVIOR IN THE ENVIRONMENT
        The routes of cadmium flow in the environment are presented in
Figure 3.1.  The diagram shows the pathways from the sources through air,
soil, and aquatic  (freshwater and ocean) environments and interactions
between the ecosystems.  The cadmium in each environment has different
characteristics but the main flux through the system is to the soil
environment and then toward the ocean sediment.

        Although the residence time of cadmium in the atmosphere varies
greatly depending upon the particle size and other meteorological factors,
presumably the airborne cadmium particles are eventually returned to the
land and aquatic environments by fallout, adsorption, agglomeration, or
inhalation.  A major fraction of the cadmium emission accumulates mainly
in the proximity of the sources, varying from a negligibly small value
for submicron particles to practically complete deposition for particles
greater than 10 microns (Fleischer et al., 1974).  Long-range transport of
cadmium may occur for the smaller particles by wind action, but it appears
to be within a limit of relatively small range, a radius of 16 km (Meisch
and Huffman, 1972) or up to 24 km from the smelter stack (Bolter et al.,
1975; Munshower, 1972).  Thus it is estimated that about 254 metric tons
(93.5 percent) of cadmium emitted into the air are redeposited on soil and
180 metric tons (6.5 percent) on surrounding oceans within a 22 km limit
(12 nautical miles) from the shore.

        Soil receives cadmium directly from the emission sources as land-
destined wastes and fallout deposition from the atmosphere.  This amounts
to approximately 1,780 MT/yr, comprising nearly 96 percent of the total
environmental cadmium emissions.

        Upon deposition, the cadmium sulfates and chlorides may be leached
or washed out from the soil by rainfall.  But the majority of cadmium,
possibly in the form of oxides, accumulates in the soil (Fleischer et al.,
1974).  Studies of cadmium transport in soil indicate that about 95 percent
of cadmium introduced in soil is retained, while only 5 percent exists via
the stream discharge (Andren et al., 1975; Huckabee and Blaylock, 1974).

        Only a speculative estimate can be made for the cadmium flux from
freshwater to the ocean due primarily to the lack of information on the
sedimentation loss of cadmium in the freshwater environment.  The rate of
sedimentation of cadmium would be controlled largely by the rate and mode
of river flows as well as by chemical and physical processes occurring in
estuaries.  When freshwater reaches the river-estuary boundary, cadmium
associated with other organic materials tends to deposit rather rapidly

                                   3-1

-------
CADMIUM SOURCES

Zn ores smelter refinery:
Industrial conversion use
  disposal:

Coal & oil combustion fertilizer
  sewage sludge

Total Input 1860 MT/yr
1500

_o
LU

Inhalation
|
A I R
1 Input: 300 MT/yr)
*
o 1
CO ^1
1
SOIL
(1 Input: 1780 MT/yr
Runoff
F
OJ
A Leaching

SO) x- '
" 3 |
O QJ t^ I. IN"
ro O i
g sl
k 1
RESH WATER
(X Input: 150-240 MT/yr)
Estuaries

X
^.J
-I
i !j-
CO '
^ i
OCEAN
i Input: 140-210 MT/yr)
Sediment
Fallout
^ 	 20 	
Dumping Outfalls
Evaporation _
: ^-
Evaporation
__ 20
Evaporation
^
I


                                   Data used are cadmium emission estimates by Sargent and Metz(1975):
                                   Fluxes from air compartment based on the ratio of U.S. land (including inland waters) vs. seas (12- mile
                                   limit): 93.5 vs 6.5;
                                   Flux from soil compartment estimated cadmium net flu« (output) as 5-10 percent of the total input;
                                   Flux from freshwater based on net flux through river as 80 percent (20 percent sedimentation loss)
  Figure  3.1.    Environmental  flow of  cadmium emitted by  man's  activities.
                                                      3-2

-------
 due  to  increased  salinity  (Windom, 1976) and is thus confined to estuaries
 or to coastal waters.

        Windom  (1976)  found that about 17 percent of cadmium is lost in the
 southeastern U.S.  salt marsh environment through sedimentation, and the net
 flux of cadmium through the estuary was about 83 percent.  Assuming that 80
 percent net flux  goes  into the ocean environment, the cadmium delivered to
 the  adjacent U.S.  oceans each year would be about 120 to 190 metric tons,
 amounting  to a  total cadmium input of 140 to 210 MT/yr, including fallout.
AIR TRANSPORT

        Cadmium in the atmosphere is mainly in the form of suspended aerosol
particles as oxides, chlorides, or sulfates (Hise and Fulkerson, 1973).
The size of particles varies considerably from submicron range to probably
greater than 50 microns, with the mass median diameter (MMD) being 1.54 to
3,1 microns (Lee and von Lehmden, 1973).  Particles 1.5 microns in diameter
are the most abundant in fly ash (100 ppm), but much lower concentrations
of cadmium (less than 5 ppm) are associated with particles larger than 3.5
microns.  Lee and von Lehmden (1973) indicated that larger particles (greater
than 50 microns) settle out very rapidly, and smaller ones remain airborne
for longer periods and are transported to greater distances by wind or
diffusion forces.  Thus the concentrations and residence time of cadmium in
the air increase markedly with decreasing particle size (Davison et al.,
1974).

        There are basically three phases of the air pollution cycle: (1)
pollutant release from the source; (2) diffusion and transport of the con-
taminant within the atmosphere; and (3) removal of the pollutant from the
air or the reception of the pollutant by animate and inanimate objects.
Data on the behavior and the movement of cadmium particles in the atmosphere
(2nd phase) are not yet available.  Meteorological factors, such as wind
(direction, velocity, advection), precipitation, air masses, and turbulence
greatly influence this atmospheric pollutant cycle.  Henmi and Reiter (1974)
emphasized the role of clouds as an important factor in controlling the
concentration of pollutants in rainwater.  Newman et al. (1974) found that
the transport of cadmium and other aerosol contaminants around the southern-
most area of Lake Michigan was affected by terrestrial and topographical
features.

        Although there have been a few studies on the atmospheric aerosol
composition and concentrations in industrial and urban air, data on spatial
distribution and concentration gradients of cadmium in the air are largely
lacking.  Long-range aerial transport of cadmium has been estimated
indirectly from the studies of soil concentrations surrounding smelters.
Miesch and Huffman (1972) observed that cumulative deposits of emissions
from local smelters corresponded roughly with the amount accumulated in
surrounding soils, less small amounts taken up by vegetation and leaching.
Plant uptake of cadmium did not play a major role for cadmium removal from
the soil.  Miesch and Huffman estimated that about 260 metric tons of cadmium
had been accumulated in the soils within a radius of 1 to 16 km from the

                                   3-3

-------
smelter stack.  Cadmium concentrations in uncultivated soil surrounding the
East Helena smelter stack decreased from 68 ppm to 4 ppm  (0 to 2.5 cm depth)
as the distance from the stack increased from 1.8 km to 7.2 km (Table 3.1).
However, the estimates appear to be too approximate to identify or to
characterize pure atmospheric transport of the element.
        TABLE 3.1.  CADMIUM CONTENT AND ZN/CD RATIOS IN UNCULTIVATED
                    SOIL SURROUNDING EAST HELENA STACK3
Depth of Soil,    1.8 km from Stack    3.6 km from Stack    7.2 km from Stack
     cm            Cd, ppm   Zn/Cd      Cd, ppm   Zn/Cd      Cd, ppm   Zn/Cd
0-2.5
5-10
15-25
68
30
3
16
33
70
17
7
2
14
25
42
4
2
1
12
15
33
aSource: Miesch and Huffman, 1972.
        Cadmium aerosols in the air are removed by wet deposition through
rain and snow, sedimentation (dry deposition), and impaction on obstacles.
Andren et al. (1975) reported that the ratio of cadmium to manganese in
fly ash was comparable to that of rain, indicating wet deposition is a major
mechanism for the removal of cadmium from the air.  Cadmium removal by dry
deposition at Walker Branch watershed, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, was less than
4.5 percent of the wet deposition.

        More complex mechanisms in the atmospheric transport of cadmium were
observed by Yost et al. (1974, 1975),  In their studies of the City of
Chicago and vicinity, they found the flushing of particulates as well as
their repeated refloatations, and thus repeated atmospheric transport.  The
total suspended particulates (TSP) due to refloatation in the Chicago area
constituted 20 to 30 percent of the annual mean TSP under normal meteoro-
logical conditions.  Daily values of TSP could be increased up to 50 percent
by refloatation due to winds and traffic on a dry day.  Since the refloat-
ation of particulates is not a function of industrial emission sources,
studies directed at defining the source of refloated materials are highly
desirable.
SOIL TRANSPORT

        The normal content of cadmium in uncontaminated soils is probably in
the range of less than 1 ppm with about 0.4 ppm on the average (Fleischer

                                    3-4

-------
 et  al.,  1974).  However,  the levels of cadmium in soils vary considerably
 depending  upon  the extent of pollution and distance from the contaminating
 sources.

         Sargent and Metz  (1975) estimated the total amount of land-destined
 cadmium  emission as about 1,500 MT/yr, which is over 82 percent of the total
 release  of cadmium to the environment.  Major sources of cadmium in soils
 are atmospheric fallout and man's input through use of fertilizer and sewage
 sludge or  leaking and dumping of industrial wastes.

         The material flow model (Figure 3.2) has been used to simulate the
 movement of cadmium in the Walker Branch watershed in Tennessee by Raridon
 et  al. (1974).  The transported cadmium to the soil environment is absorbed
 by  biota,  and adsorbed on soil particles by ion exchange.  Most cadmium in
 the soils  is found in the top layer (Lagerwerff et al., 1973; Munshower,
 1972; Matti et al., 1975) with downward migration reaching to a depth of
 at  least 30 cm  (Kobayashi, 1972).  Cadmium leaves the soil environment by
 direct surface runoff, leaching, and solute interflow by underground path-
 ways or  through biochemical activities.  Through testing a predictive model
 of  cadmium and lead ion transport in soil systems, Jurinak and Santillan-
 Medrano  (1974) found that cadmium content in soils is regulated mainly by
 ion exchange or adsorption but not by precipitation except at higher
 concentrations.

        The availability and uptake of cadmium in soils are largely
 determined by the pH, organic matter, other metals, and the cation exchange
 capability of the soils.  Bolter et al. (1975) reported that organic acids
 from decaying leaf litter in the soils increase the solubility, and thus,
 subsequent transport of heavy metals including cadmium.  They found higher
 than background concentrations of cadmium at distances up to 24 km from the
 smelters.

        For soils with an overlying well-decomposed organic litter layer,
Wixon and Downey (1977) report consistently low concentrations of cadmium
 in  the soil layers of even smelter-exposed soils.  They hypothesize that
 the litter layer effectively binds the cationic metals, so that even as the
 organic matter continues to decompose the opportunities for horizontal
 transport are sufficient to greatly reduce vertical transport to the soil
 column.

        Cadmium appears to be less mobile in the soil than other heavy metals
except lead.  Huckabee and Blaylock (1974) found that 27 days after tagging
with 115mCdCl2, 94 to 96 percent of the initial cadmium added was retained in
the terrestrial portion of test microcosms, and less than 4 percent was
transported to the aquatic portion of the system (Table 3.2).  Most of the
cadmium remaining in the terrestrial portion (68 to 77 percent) was bound in
the soil, with approximately 11 to 15 percent retained in the litter.  Matti
et al. (1975)  showed that about 56 percent of tagged cadmium (109Cd) leached
to the soil, and 42 percent adsorbed on the litter with less than 2 percent
retained by vegetation.
                                   3-5

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LEAKS.  DUMPING
  FERTILIZER
DRY & WETFALL
  DEPOSITION
                            / V
                                                   DIRECT
                                                 DEPOSITION
                  VEGETAL
                INTERCEPTI ON
                ION EXCHANGE
                    AT
                SOIL SURFACE
                      MATERIAL EROSION
                           AND
                       SOLUTE RUNOFF
                  SOLUTE
                INFILTRATION
                         SOLUTE
                         INTERFLOW
                 INACTIVE
                 STORAGE
                                         CHANNEL
                                         MATERIAL
                                           FLOW
        Figure  3.2.   Flow of  cadmium in a  land area segment
                       (Raridon et al., 1974).
                                         3-6

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TABLE 3.2.  DISTRIBUTION OF 284 yCi of 115mCd IN
            MICROCOSM EXPERIMENTS AT 27 DAYS
            AFTER TAGGING WITH 115mCdCl*
                        Percent of 115mCd
   Component      Microcosm AbMicrocosm Bb
Terrestrial
Moss
High plants
Litter
Soil
Aquatic
Water
Sediment
Fish
Snails
Watercress
Plastic liner
93.8
10.2
0.1
15.3
68.2
3.4
0.2
3.1
<0.1
<0.1
<0.09
2.8
95.9
8.2
0.3
10.6
76.8
3.2
0.2
3.0
<0.05
<0.05
<0.05
1.1
o
 Source: Huckabee and Blaylock, 1974.

 These are intact microcosms;  A and B  are
   replicates.
                        3-7

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         In an attempt  to  quantify  the  cycling  of  trace  elements  in Walker
Branch watershed, Andren  et al.  (1975)  determined a  complete  input-output
budget for cadmium.  During a  6-month  period,  the watershed retained  about
94-95 percent of  the total cadmium input, while less than  6 percent was
carried  away through the  streams.   The retention  efficiency of cadmium in
soils was next highest of the  heavy metals,  only  that of lead being higher.
A considerable amount  of  cadmium appeared to be accumulated in the water-
shed, and the estimated doubling time  was only 9  years  for the soil profile
of  the area.
WATER TRANSPORT

        Cadmium occurs as the free ion in surface waters.  As it moves
through the aqueous environment, it remains as dissolved solids, as parti-
culate matter, or in colloidal form, depending on pH and hardness, and
other soluble complexes of water.  Some portions of the total cadmium in
water are taken up by aquatic life, some discharged, and some are adsorbed
or bound to particulate solids and tend to concentrate in the sediment.

        Movement and distribution of this element in the aquatic environment
are complex and are influenced by the physicochemical and biological condi-
tions within the system.  Studies of two streams in Tennessee by Perhac and
Tamura (cited in Fulkerson and Goeller, 1973) showed that most of the cadmium
in the stream waters, was found in the suspended sediment and bottom sediment
(3 to 230 ppm), while extremely small amounts (less than 0.003 ppm) were
dissolved in water (Table 3.3).  Distribution of the tagged cadmium in the
aquatic portion of microcosms (Table 3.1) was mainly limited to the sediment,
while concentrations in the biota were minimal (Huckabee and Blaylock, 1974) .
In another study by Fulkerson and Goeller (1973) (Table 3.4), however, the
accumulation of the cadmium radioisotope was much greater in living organisms
than in the sediment, which consisted mainly of gravel and sand with low
organic materials.  Initial concentrations (4-hour) in watercress, peri-
phyton, and snails were much higher than in fish, but they were reduced
greatly with time, whereas the fish slowly picked up 1(^9Cd, probably through
the food chain.

        Removal of cadmium from water may be achieved by precipitation as an
insoluble salt, or by adsorption on the surface of solids.   Gardiner (1974)
indicated that adsorption and possible desorption were major factors which
influenced the distribution and transport of cadmium in the waters.   Hydroxy
and chloride complexes contribute to the mobilization of cadmium in waters
(Hahne and Kroontje,  1973).   Other ligands,  such as phosphate, cyanide,
carboxylic,  hydrocarboxylic, and amino acids, may also contribute to the
distribution of cadmium, although these ligands will complex with cadmium
only if their concentrations are very high.

        Organic materials play an important  role in heavy metal mobility by
forming organo-metallic complexes (Baker, 1973;  Bolter et al., 1975;
Schnitzer and Kahn,  1972)  which retard precipitation (Rashid and Leonard,
1973).  For  several southeastern U.S. rivers and estuaries, the organic  acids
                                   3-8

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                       TABLE  3.3.   CADMIUM CONTENT OF WATER,  SUSPENDED SEDIMENT,  AND
                                   BOTTOM SEDIMENT IN TWO TENNESSEE STREAMS3
u>
VO
                                                                Suspended Sediment,
                                                                        ppm
Water, ppm
Location
Cd
Zn
Zn/Cd
Coarse Fine Bottom Sediment,
Cd
Zn Cd
Zn Cd
Zn
.ppm
Zn/Cd
Joe Mill Creek
1.6 km (1.0 mi) above outcrop
0.08 km (0.05 mi) below outcrop
0.96 km (0.6 mi) below outcrop
2.4 km (1.5 mi) below outcrop
0.0031
0.0028
0.0016
0.0020
0.010
0.016
0.025
0.033
3.2
5.7
15.6
16.5
15
21
24
15
230 230
2,480 170
820 70
1,400
50 3
1,840 4
1,360 5
3.4
117
280
300
133
39
70
60
39
Holston River
2.4 km (1.5 mi) above Big Flat Creek
Junction with Big Flat Creekb
0.8 km (0.5 mi) below junction)

0.0008
0.003
0.003

0.020
0.138
0.039

25
46
13


32
61


9,000 460
5,000


9,400 66-87
31-41


12,000
3,500-
4,000

^150
^100

     Source:  Perhac and Tamura (cited in Fulkerson and Goeller, 1973).

     Discharge of plant.

-------
       TABLE  3.4.  CONCENTRATION RATIOS3 OF  1Q9Cd  IN A  STREAM ECOSYSTEM1*
                          	Time, days	
        Source    4-Hour     1       8       14      28      35      42
Sediments
Watercress
Periphyton
Snails
Fish
2.5
11.5
205
7.5
2
2.5
8
160
4.5
2.5
5.5
8
30
6
4
2
2.5
35
6.5
3
4.5
1.5
15
4.5
5
3
. 1.5
10
3.5
10.5
3
1.5
10
2.5
15.5
    o
     Concentration ratio = activity of Cd/g sample * initial activity of
       Cd/ml water.

     Source: Fulkerson and Goeller, 1973.
were to be significant factors in transportation of cadmium (Windom,
1976).  Salt marshes, highly abundant in organic matter, act as a sink for
iron, manganese, and particulate cadmium.

        Cadmium concentrations and their transport by U.S. rivers have not
been investigated utilizing reliable analytical techniques.  However, older
studies suggest that highest cadmium flows were found in the mineralized
areas of the Mississippi-Missouri rivers (Durum et al., 1971).  Cadmium
flow was also reportedly high in the Illinois River.  These data further
suggest that mining drainage and industrial effluent were the major sources
of cadmium contamination in rivers.  Sargent and Metz (1975) indicate that
the waterborne cadmium effluent from industry is approaching comparatively
negligible quantities due to improved technologies for wastewater treatment
and cadmium removal.

        Table 3.5 summarizes data on the cycling budgets for cadmium in
several watersheds and salt marshes.  Approximately 95 percent of the
introduced cadmium in the Walker Branch watershed in Tennessee was retained,
while only 17 percent of the total cadmium input (in rain) remained in the
Atlantic salt marshes.  More variations in cadmium transport, ranging from
9 to 89 percent, were observed in the 8 small watersheds in Delaware (Biggs
et al., 1973).  This may be due to the amount of stream discharge and
available organic acids in the ecosystems.  Proportions of cadmium trans-
ported as dissolved and particulate species in the Walker Branch stream were
99.4 and 0.6 percent, respectively, and for the southeastern Atlantic salt
marshes, were 78.8 and 21.2 percent.
                                   3-10

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                      TABLE 3.5.   CADMIUM CYCLING BUDGETS  IN SEVERAL  WATERSHEDS AND  SALT MARSHES
                                                    	Total Stream Output
                                  Total Cadmium                           Input,
            Location                  Input              Net  Flux           %             Reference               Remarks


<_0    Walker Branch Watershed      63.9 g/ha/6 months   3/5 g/ha/6 months       5.5       Andren et al,  1975   97.5  ha catchment
.)_,      Oak Ridge, Tennessee                                             (Range: 5-6)
M
      Delaware Watersheds          1,387.1 kg/yr       285.1 kg  yr            20.6       Biggs, et al., 1973  8 small watersheds
                                                                       (Range: 9-89)

      Southeast Atlantic Salt      52  x 103 kg/yr       43 x 103  kg yr         82.7       Windom, 1976         Coastal rivers and littoral-
        Marshes—South Carolina,                                                                             salt marsh estuaries
        Georgia, Florida

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SEDIMENT TRANSPORT

        The distribution patterns in the sediments appeared to be mainly a
function of water current, basin depth and slope, winds and shoreline
patterns (Browne, 1975; Klein and Russell, 1973; Peyton and Mclntosh, 1974).
In the vicinity of Erie, Pennsylvania, Browne  (1975) found that the site
with the highest concentration of cadmium in the sediment was not associated
with a tributary, nor were the water concentrations significantly higher
than those at other stations.  This may indicate that the area nearest the
emission source may not necessarily be the most severely affected area,
perhaps due to currents and wind activities.  Cadmium in water may not
disperse evenly or settle out rapidly but be carried by currents or wave
action to other areas.

        Generally, areas undergoing more mixing and having less vegetation
accumulate less heavy metals in the sediments  (Browne, 1975).  Accumulations
by vegetation and bacteria and subsequent decompositions affect the retention
of the metals in the sediments.  The presence of other heavy metals, such as
lead (0.1 to 0.5 ppm) may inhibit bacterial decomposition and thus alter
cadmium content.  Moyer and Budinger (1974) indicated that sulfur dioxide
might play an important role in precipitation of cadmium as greenockite
(CdS) from dissolved cadmium salts.  This mechanism was suggested for higher
cadmium levels in tidal shoreline sediments in San Francisco Bay.  Oxidate
sediments such as manganese nodules also adsorb significant amounts of
cadmium as do phosphorite deposits of organic origin.  Selenium and cadmium
will precipitate as cadmoselite (CdSe) into the sediments.

        Tidal effects on cadmium concentrations were observed in Foundry Cove
on the Hudson River, New York (Kneip et al., 1975).  With rising ebb tide,
alkalinity and dissolved oxygen increased which resulted in increased
insoluble cadmium concentrations.  Bondietti et al. (1974) found that the
carbonate-rich sediments of Foundry Cove stabilized the cadmium, thus
limiting its availab.ility for chemical and biological reactions.  The
sediments of Long Island Sound appear to have become progressively more
enriched in cadmium over the past 100 years (Turekian, 1974) .  The sediments
below about 2 cm become anoxic, allowing sulfate-reducing bacteria to
produce H2S, which reduces solubility and, therefore, mobility of most heavy
metals (Turekian, 1974) .  Metals that do escape are sequestered by the
precipitation of iron and manganese oxide formation at the sediment/water
interface; therefore, there is little chance of metal escaping in the
estuary except for extreme perturbations.  Disturbances by dredging,
turbulence, and biological activities of living organisms may induce
redistribution of the sedimented cadmium.  The relative insolubility of
cadmium and its tendency to adsorb and complex with other particulate
matter appear to destine it to the sediments of the estuaries and oceans.
FOOD CHAIN TRANSPORT

        Man depends on the following major trophic compartments for food:
                                   3-12

-------
                  •  Land plants
                  •  Land animals and animal products
                  •  Freshwater fish
                  •  Marine fish and free-moving crustaceans
                  •  Shellfish.

 Using various references cited elsewhere in this report, potential dietary
 pathways by which man can be exposed to cadmium were constructed (Table 3.6)
 Mean concentrations of cadmium vary among the five major food groups.
 Concentrations (ppm) in milk averaged <0.01; marine fish, freshwater pond
 fish, and land plants <0.3; mammals, birds, and shellfish, about 0.7.
 Finally, freshwater stream fish exhibited the highest average, 1.87.
     TABLE  3.6.   TRENDS  OF ARITHMETIC  AVERAGE  CONCENTRATIONS  (PPM)  OF
                 CADMIUM IN DIETARY  FOOD  GROUPS  IN  TWO MAJOR  FOOD
                 PATHWAYS TO MANa
                                      Water-Based  Food  Chains  to Man
 Land-Based  Food  Chains  to Man                    Marine  Fish/
      Plants         Animal        Freshwater  Fish  Crustaceans    Shellfish


      0.261     0.756  (mammals)     0.112  (pond)        0.102         0.889
                0.496  (birds)       1.87  (stream)
                0.008  (milk)
  Various references—cited elsewhere  in  this  report.
        Marine and pond fish move freely in essentially standing-water
ecosystems where cadmium concentrations are relatively low compared to soil
and sediments.  Fish in moving-water systems are exposed to the constant
flow of cadmium leached from the land, are near the stream/sediment inter-
face, and eat invertebrates which may contain up to 60 ppm of cadmium (see
Section 2).  Sessile marine shellfish live at a water/sediment interface
where filter and sediment feeding exposes them to greater quantities of
cadmium than does the water column.  Thus, the foods in the water-based food
chain with lowest concentrations are marine and pond fish.  Higher exposures
may be involved by eating freshwater stream fish and shellfish.

        In the land-based food chain to man, animals showed higher average
concentrations than did plants, although milk was very low.  The matching
of plant species with those herbivores which specialize on those species and
man within food chains will be necessary to develop a defendable conclusion,
but it appears that animal parts would expose man to more cadmium than would
                                    3-13

-------
plants.  Foods produced by terrestrial ecosystems show intermediate concen-
trations of cadmium between (1) marine and pond fish and (2) stream fish and
shellfish.

        The above observations should be tempered with the fact that uptake
of cadmium by plants and animals is insignificant compared to cadmium loads
in the soil, although some living organisms are known to accumulate cadmium
greater than their background levels by orders of magnitude.  Munshower
(1972) reported that cadmium loads in plants and herbivore animals were less
than 0.1 percent of the soil cadmium load in an area about 15 miles from the
smelter near Deer Lodge Valley, Montana.
                                   3-14

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                            4.  CADMIUM IN FOODS
SOURCES OF FOOD CONTAMINATION

        Incorporation of cadmium into foods can take place through a variety
of mechamisms.  For grains and processed foods, several of these contamina-
tion mechanisms seem to operate simultaneously (Fishbein, 1974).  Listed in
order of importance, they are:

             (1)  Uptake from soils by roots of plant foods.
                  This may occur:

                  a.  Naturally as a normal constituent of soils
                      of marine origin

                  b.  As an impurity (cadmium oxide) in phosphate-
                      treated soils, especially "superphosphate"

                  c.  In soils fertilized by sludge containing
                      cadmium

                  d.  As an impurity of zinc in certain zinc-
                      containing fungicides and herbicides

                  e.  By deposition on plants and soil by cadmium-
                      containing pesticides

                  f.  By soil contamination from runoff of mine
                      tailings or from electroplating washing process.

             (2)  Meat animals may accumulate cadmium from

                  a.  Feeding on crops which have absorbed cadmium.
                      The organs of such animals may have very high
                      cadmium concentrations.
                          «
                  b.  From cadmium-containing helminth killers,
                      used especially in swine.

             (3)  Molluscs and crustaceans normally concentrate
                  cadmium from ambient waters,  as do most other
                  aquatic organisms.
                                    4-1

-------
              (4)   Contamination of foods from use of zinc-galvanized
                   containers,  cans,  implements or cooking vessels,
                   or utensils  used in food preparation, particularly
                   grinders, pressing machines, or galvanized netting
                   used to dry  fish and gelatin.

              (5)   Contamination from absorption of cadmium contained
                   in -wrapping  and packaging materials such as paper,
                   plastic bags, and tin cans.

              (6)   Use of cadmium-contaminated water in cooking or
                   processing operations.

         For the general population,  oral ingestion of foods may represent
 the most important source of cadmium intake.   Airborne sources constitute a
 significant portion of cadmium intake only for those occupationally exposed,
 particularly to cadmium oxide  fumes, or those residing in areas heavily
 polluted by cadmium-emitting industries (Friberg et al.,  1973).

         Continued, low-dose exposure to cadmium in foods  is of great concern
 because the long  biological half-life of cadmium,  17 to 33 years, permits
 substantial accumulation in the body (Deane et al., 1976).
 CIGARETTES

         Lewis  et  al.  (1972)  found  that  cigarette  smoking provides  a
 surprisingly great  contribution to cadmium intake and  subsequent body burden.
 After examining cadmium levels  in  liver,  lungs, and  kidney from autopsy
 tissues,  they  estimated body retention  levels  of  1 yg/day or  less  from
 nonsmokers compared to  2.5  yg/day  for smokers:.  Indicated in  Table 4.1 is
 the  magnitude  of  the  contribution  to daily intake from cigarettes.  The
 respiratory intake  from 2 packs per day ranges between 4 to 6 yg,  supplying
 over 30  percent of  daily cadmium retention for the pack-a-day smoker and 56.6
 percent  of retention  for the 3-packs-a-day smoker (Deane et al., 1976).  The
 amount of cadmium inhaled from  2 packs  of cigarettes per day  equals 10 to  20
 times the estimated intake  from air in  lower Manhattan (Fleischer  et al.,
.1974).  Yet despite the possible exceptions mentioned—occupational exposure,
 residents of heavily  polluted areas, or heavy  cigarette smokers—Table 4.1
 illustrates that  diet is generally by far the  greatest source of cadmium.
 FOODS

        Unlike  many  other  metals which  are  restricted  to  a narrow range  of
 foods,  cadmium  has an  extremely generalized distribution.   Of  the 33  pesti-
 cide residues detected in  food composites by the  National  Pesticide Monitor-
 ing Program in  FY 1971,  cadmium heads the list  as the  most frequently found
 residue with two-thirds''of 360 composites reporting  positive findings with
 the range  of values  for.-the positive composites being  0.01 to  0.20 ppm
 (Manske and Corneliussen,  1974).   Cadmium is found in  measurable  quantities
                                   4-2

-------
 in  all  food  groups, but  it  is  uncertain whether  the cadmium content of most
 food  is ubiquitous or  "natural",  or whether  cadmium has been introduced into
 foods and  beverages as an industrial  contaminant.
                   TABLE  4.1.  MEDIA CONTRIBUTIONS TO NORMAL
                              RETENTION OF CADMIUM3
                                               Daily Retention,
              Medium        Exposure Level            yg
Ambient air
Water
Cigarettes
Packs /day
1/2
1
2
3
Food
3
0.03 yg/m
1 ppb
b
yg/day
1.1
2.2
4.4
6.6
50 yg/day
0.15
0.09


0.70°
1.41C
2.82C
4.22°
3.0
            aSource: Deane et al., 1976.

             Based on 0.11 yg per cigarette.
             Assumes a 6.4 percent retention rate.
        Friberg et al. (1973) have collected and reviewed extensive data on
cadmium in foods.  There seems to be general agreement that foods average
about 0.05 ppm cadmium (wet weight); however, there is substantial variation
depending on the source (Fleischer et al., 1974).

        Estimates derived from analysis of institutional diets (Murthy et al
al., 1971), school lunch studies (Murphy et al., 1971), and the continuing
Market Basket Program of the National Pesticides Monitoring Program (Friberg
et al., 1973; Manske and Corneliussen, 1974; Mahaffey et al., 1975) represent
further attempts to quantify cadmium intake in the context of a normal diet.
Table 4.2 presents estimates of daily cadmium obtained from six dietary
surveys in the U.S.  Most studies coincide reasonably well with the 30 to 70
yg/day range which has been proposed by Friberg et al. (1973) as the typical
dietary cadmium intake for Americans.
                                    4-3

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           TABLE  4.2.  ESTIMATED DAILY CADMIUM INTAKE  FROM FOODS
                       IN VARIOUS LOCATIONS  IN THE  UNITED  STATES3
  Date  of
  Sample    Concentration,  yg/day
Collection    Mean        Range        Reference                Remarks
   1966        39        <141       Murphy et al., 1971    School  lunch  survey

   1967        92          32-158   Murthy et al., 1971    Institutional total
                                                             diet  study

   1969                   170b      Friberg, 1971

   1973        51.2                 Mahaffey et al., 1975  FDA  total diet study
aSource: Mahaffey et al., 1975.

 Assayed without preliminary extraction.
        Studies of seasonal and regional variations have failed to reveal
any meaningful trends or geographic patterns  (Murthy et al., 1971; Murphy
et al., 1971).  This is illustrated in Figure 4.1 which shows the distribu-
tion of cadmium levels in institutional diets in the United States.

        Table 4.3 contains Friberg's interpretation (1974) of data taken from
Corneliussen  (1970) and Duggan and Corneliussen (1972) .  Their work covers
studies made on samples collected from 30 markets in 24 cities in the United
States.

        The FDA National Pesticides Monitoring Program's Market Basket
Program utilizes samples collected from 30 markets in 27 U.S. cities.  Foods
are purchased according to a specified list of 117 items.  Content and
portions are prepared to simulate the diet of a 16 to 19-year-old male,
statistically the largest eater.  Market Basket Program data show that on a
national basis cadmium was:  (1) found in composites from all food categories
and (2) present in greater than 10 percent of composites in all food groups
(Carroll et al., 1975).  Composites of potatoes, root vegetables, garden
fruits, and oils, fats, and shortenings yielded positive findings in over
90 percent of composites.

        Fish and shellfish typically have elevated cadmium concentrations,  but
as a rule are not consumed in large quantities by most Americans.  As shown
in Table 4.4, lower levels of cadmium in potatoes, fruits,  and grains and
cereals may warrant greater concern, because these foods are consumed in
                                    4-4

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SAN <^ic° w«)
                                                                          \V! LMI NGTON
                                                                          (0.055)
                  / FALLS
                  (0.060)*
              CARSOf
                   ALT LAK
                    CITY  i
                   (0.029)
                                                   (0.056)
                                                                             BOSTON
                                                                               0 5 2)
LOS ANGELE
  (0.033)
                                                                    CHARLESTON
                                                                     (0.048)
                                                                   (TAMPA
                                                                     (0.060)
         Figure 4.1.  Average values (in ppm) of cadmium content in institutional
                     total diets,  1967  (Murthy et al., 1971).

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TABLE 4.3.  CADMIUM CONTENT IN DIFFERENT FOOD CATEGORIES IN THE U.S.A.
                                                                      a,b
                                Cadmium, yg/g wet weight
1968-1969
Type of Food
Dairy products
Meat, fish, and
poultry
Grain and cereal
products
Leafy vegetables
Legume vegetables
Root vegetables
Garden fruits
Fruits
Oils, fats, and
shortening
Sugar and adjuncts
Beverages
Potatoes
No. >0.01
10

21

27
27
16
24
25
15

27
18
8

Maximum
0.09

0.06

0.08
0.08
0.03
0.08
0.07
0.38

0.13
0.07
0.04

1969-1970
No. >0.01
9

22

27
28
10
27
27
10

28
9
9
29
Maximum
0.01

0.03

0.06
0.14
0.04
0.08
0.07
0.07

0.04
0.04
0.04
0.08
  aSource: Corneliussen, 1970; Duggan and Corneliussen, 1972.

   Cadmium was analyzed by atomic absorption and/or polarography at
   a sensitivity of 9.01 yg/g.
                                4-6

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 vastly  greater  quantities  than  fish  and,  consequently,  contribute a large
 proportion  of dietary  cadmium.  Two  food  classes,  (1) meat,  fish, and
 poultry,  and  (2)  dairy products, have  positive  findings  for  cadmium less
 frequently  than would  be expected  if food chain accumulation of cadmium were
 significant  (Table 4.5).   Mean  concentrations in these  food  groups ranked
 eighth  and  twelfth out of  12, respectively (Mahaffey et  al., 1975).  Studies
 of  the  Market Basket type, which analyze  foods  in  composite  categories
 rather  than performing cadmium  determinations on individual  foods, run the
 risk of concealing foods which  may contain unusually high  cadmium concentra-
 tions,  by combining them into composites  with other foods  typically having
 much lower  cadmium content.  Undoubtedly,  this  factor applies when meats and
 poultry are composited with  fish.

        In  1973 the FDA initiated  a  new program called  the Heavy Metals in
 Foods survey designed  to measure the content of lead, cadmium, and zinc in
 individual  foods  rather than composites (U.S. Department of  Health, Education,
 and Welfare, 1975).  Criteria for  selection of  foods to  survey were (1) rela-
 tive importance in the diet, both  adult and infant, (2)  past indication of
 particularly high levels in  the selected  foods, and (3)  balanced coverage of
 raw and processed foods.   The following is a summary of  the  mean levels of
 cadmium found in  the 41 foods surveyed.   Foods  are grouped as adult noncanned
 foods,  adult canned foods, and  baby  foods  to provide an  overview as to
 whether canning might  be a source  of increased  cadmium  in  foods:

                        Category                Cadmium,  ppm

                  All adult foods (32)             0.047
                   Canned  adult foods  (13)        0.029
                   Noncanned adult foods  (19)     0.060
                  Baby  foods  (9)                   0.024

        It appears that cadmium levels are not  affected  by canning processes.
 Comparing fruits  and vegetables in jars and cans with raw  vegetables shows
 canned  foods do not contain  increased  cadmium levels.  Cadmium levels in
 selected  adult  foods are presented in  Table 4.5.  Cadmium  concentrations in
meats are generally higher and  more  than  in most other foods.
Concentrations  in grains and cereal  items  are also higher  than in most other
foods.   Among adult foods,  raw  liver had the highest mean  cadmium level,
0.183 ppm.  Sugar, hamburger, and eggs followed with mean  levels of 0.100,
0.075,   and 0.067  ppm,  respectively.  Milk  and canned peas were lowest with
means of 0.008  ppm for  both.  Overall, 99  percent of adult samples had 0.68
ppm or  lower and  35.3  percent had no detectable cadmium.

        Results for the baby foods surveyed are presented  in Table 4.6.
Spinach had the highest mean level, 0.057  ppm.   Orange juice, mixed vege-
tables,  and vegetables  and  beef were next  in order, having means of 0.040,
0.034,  and 0.026 ppm,  respectively.  Peaches,  0.003 ppm, and applesauce,
0.007 ppm, had  the lowest baby food means.
                                    4-7

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                         TABLE 4.4.  FOOD GROUPS BY MEAN CADMIUM CONTENT AND THEIR

                                     CONTRIBUTION TO DAILY CADMIUM INTAKE3
I
oo
Concentration, ppm Intake,
Food Group
Leafy vegetables
Potatoes
Fruits
Grains and cereals
Oils, fats, and shortening
Root vegetables
Garden fruits
Meats, fish, and poultry
Sugars and adjuncts
Legume vegetables
Beverages
Dairy
Mean
0.051
0.046
0.042
0.028
0.027
0.021
0.019
0.0093
0.0083
0.006
0.0057
0.005
yg/day
3.18
9.11
9.38
11.66
1.36
0.76
1.71
2.49
0.68
0.42
6.49
3.94
Percent of
Total
Daily Diet
2.0
7.0
7.4
12.6
1.8
1.2
3.0
9.9
2.8
2.5
23. 9b
25.9
Contribution to
Daily Cadmium
Intake , %
6.2
17.8
18.3
22.8
2.7
1.5
3.4 '
4.9
1.3
.0.8
12.7
7.7
             Source: Mahaffey et al., 1975.
             Includes water.

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     TABLE 4.5.  CADMIUM CONTENT OF SELECTED ADULT FOODS3
Commodity
Carrots, roots fresh
Lettuce, raw crisp head
Potatoes, raw white
Butter
Margarine
Eggs, whole fresh
Chicken fryer, raw
whole or whole cut up
Bacon, cured raw, sliced
Frankfurters
Liver, raw beef
Hamburger, raw ground beef
Roast, chuck beef
Wheat flour, white
Sugar refined, beet or cane
Bread, white
Orange juice, canned frozen
concentrate
Green beans, canned
Beans, canned with pork and
tomato sauce
Peas , canned
Tomatoes , canned
Diluted fruit drinks, canned
Peaches , canned
Pineapple, canned
Applesauce, canned
No. of
Samples
69
69
71
71
71
71

71
71
69
71
71
71
71
71
70

71
71

71
71
71
71
71
71
71
Average ,
ppm
0.051
0.062
0.057
0.032
0.027
0.067

0.039
0.040
0.042
0.183
0.075
0.035
0.064
0.100
0.036

0.029
0.018

0.009
0.042
0.042
0.017
0.036
0.059
0.020
Standard
Deviation,
ppm
0.077
0.124
0.139
0.071
0.048
0.072

0.088
0.160
0.111
0.228
0.122
0.034
0.150
0.709
0.063

0.095
0.072

0.000
0.113
0.113
0.052
0.061
0.153
0.027
a
 Source:  U.S.  Department of Health,  Education,  and Welfare,  1975,
                             4-9

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              TABLE 4.6.  CADMIUM CONTENT OF SELECTED BABY FOODS'


Commodity
Vegetables and beef
Mixed vegetables
Spinach
Orange juice
Apple juice
Applesauce
Pears
Peaches
Apricots

No. of
Samples
71
71
69
71
71
71
71
71
71

Average ,
ppm
0.026
0.034
0.057
0.040
0.023
0.007
0.013
0.003
0.011
Standard
Deviation,
ppm
0.035
0.052
0.054
0.084
0.035
0.023
0.053
0.005
0.037

Range
Low
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

, PPm
High
0.24
0.401
0.43
0.43
0.264
0.18
0.520
0.04
0.32
     Source: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1975.
        Table 4.7 shows yearly values in the cadmium content of U.S. foods,
as obtained from the FDA's total diet surveys.  No trends of increasing or
decreasing cadmium levels were noted from 1968 to 1974.

        Foods processed by grinding, milling, powdering, drying, or pressing
often appear to contain cadmium in larger amounts than in the original
ingredients.  "Instant" products,, for example, coffees and teas, as well as
some condiments and spices appear to contain abnormally high levels of
cadmium.  The precise mechanism of the possible transfer of cadmium from
processing equipment to these foods has not been investigated.  In Table 4.8
Schroeder (1974) presents some speculations.  In an analytical study of paper
products commonly used for packaging foods, Lagerwerff and Specht (1971)
found 0.22 ppm of cadmium in thin cardboard and 0.30 ppm in gloss paper,
presumably of the type used inside food boxes.  Again, the mechanism for
the possible transfer of cadmium in packaging materials to foods remains
to be investigated.
                                   4-10

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        TABLE 4.7.  CADMIUM CONTENT OF FOODS BY YEAR AND DAILY INTAKE3
                                  (microgratns/day)
            1968    1969    1970    1971    1972    1973    1974

             26      61      38      29      37      51      34



             Source: Mahaffey et al., 1975.

             Estimated level.
               TABLE 4.8.  POTENTIAL EXPOSURES OF HUMAN BEINGS
                           TO CADMIUM FROM FOOD SOURCES3
              Source
               Remarks
Galvanized iron pipes

Galvanized iron roofs
Galvanized iron cisterns and tanks
Cola drinks

Instant coffees
Oysters
Some canned and dried fish

Pigment in candy
From plastic wrappings
Plated ice trays
Plated roasting pans
Pigmented pottery
Silver polish
Pork kidneys
Butter
Olive oil
Gelatin, dried fish
Many processed meats
Tin and aluminum cans
Soft and acid waters dissolve from zinc
  coating.
Dissolved by rainwater.
Dissolved by soft water.
From processing, usually 10 yg/quart or
  less.
From processing.
Up to 7 ppm, with much zinc.
From canning, dying, or smoking.
  Galvanized wire netting?
"Luv beads" make children ill.
Absorbed by food.
Dissolved by acid sherbets.
Dissolved by roasting fats.
Dissolved by acid foods and juices.
Residue on eating utensils.
Cadmium used as a vermifuge.
Probably from galvanized milk cans.
From cans and presses.
From galvanized netting for drying.
From contact in processing machines.
Tin cans made of old cars, aluminum
  from old aircraft.
 Reprinted from The Poisons Around Us by H. A. Schroeder, by permission of
   Indiana University Press.  Year of publication 1974.
                                 4-11

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                             5.  CADMIUM IN MAN
        Cadmium is a highly toxic element with no known useful biological
function except as might be indicated by Schwartz1 studies  (1977).  The need
for precautions in industrial operations in which workers are exposed to
dusts and vapors of the elements has long been known, and in recent years
concern has been expressed over the possible effects on human health of
chronic exposure to low concentrations of cadmium.  This concern has been
triggered by  (1) the steadily increasing industrial consumption and conse-
quent rise of cadmium levels in the environment and (2) the outbreak in
Japan of Itai-Itai disease in the late 1940's and early 1950's.
DISTRIBUTION OF CADMIUM

        The average human intake of cadmium is about 50 to 75 yg/day,
chiefly from food.  Intestinal absorption, which is governed by nutritional
factors, is about 6 to 10 percent.  Absorption through the lungs, which
plays the major role in occupational exposures, ranges from 10 to 40 percent.
The significance of inhalation exposure depends upon the concentration,
particle size, solubility of the particulate matter, and the physiologic
parameters such as the rate and depth of the respiration.  Threshold limit
values adopted by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygienists for cadmium dusts, fumes, and salts (as cadmium) are 0.05 mg/m .
Cigarette smoke is also a source of cadmium absorption via the pulmonary
route.  Cadmium accumulates in the kidney cortex, where it can cause renal
tubular dysfunction at levels of approximately 200 ppm in outer cortex.
Autopsy studies show current levels of 15 to 50 ppm in kidneys of people
over 50 who were not occupationally exposed.  The higher levels generally
were found in individuals who had been smokers.  Cadmium accumulation in the
placenta during pregnancy has been reported as not more than 5 ppm; in the
neonate, 1 ppm.  However, with years of nonindustrial exposure, the average
body burden at age 50 has been estimated in the U.S. at about 30 mg.  This
is reflected by increased concentrations of cadmium not only in the kidney
and liver but also in the pancreas and blood vessels.  About 5 percent of
ingested cadmium is retained in the body and its biological half-life in
humans is estimated to be about 15 to 50 years.  Absorbed cadmium is
transported in the red blood cells.  The normal cadmium blood level is
below 1 yg/100 ml; but in exposed workers, the range may be from 1 to 10 yg/
100 ml.  Normal urinary levels of cadmium in the U.S. are in the range of
0.5 to 10 ppm.  The urine is the primary route of excretion of absorbed
cadmium.  Secondary routes of excretion occur in the feces and in hair.
                                    5-1

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BODY BURDEN

        Table 5.1 summarizes cadmium levels in various tissues of exposed and
nonexposed persons.   "Nonexposed" refers to persons living under normal
environmental levels  of cadmium in air, water, and food.  "Exposed" refers
to persons having occupational contact with cadmium or to residents of areas
with elevated ambient levels of cadmium, or in the case of Lewis et al.
(1972), the exposed and nonexposed categories differentiate between persons
who are exposed to cadmium through cigarette smoking and nonsmoking indivi-
duals.  The high levels in the kidney and liver are believed to reflect the
storage of cadmium in metallothionein (Hammons and Huff, 1975).  However,
autopsy studies have  revealed that smaller, yet significant, amounts of
cadmium may accumulate in the lungs, pancreas, adrenal glands, thyroid,
spleen, salivary glands, and testes.

        Hammer et al. (1973) state that body burdens are best estimated from
the total cadmium content of the kidney and the liver.  Noncigarette smoking
males, aged 40 to 70, have about 5.2 mg of cadmium in their kidneys and about
3.7 mg of cadmium in  their liver or a combined total of 8.9 mg.  Comparable
figures for males smoking one-half pack or more daily would be 11.4 mg in the
kidney and 7.5 mg in  the liver for a combined total of 18.9 mg of cadmium in
these two organs.  Since the amount in the kidneys and liver represents
approximately 50 percent of the adult body burden, this is estimated to be
about 17.8 mg of cadmium for male nonsmokers and about 37.8 mg of cadmium in
smokers.

        As presented  in Table 5.2, data reported by Lewis et al. (1972) show
that adult American male nonsmokers with mean age of 60 have, on the average,
a total body burden of about 13 mg of cadmium.  In contrast, the adult
cigarette smokers have a total body burden of 30 to 40 mg.  The difference
between the two groups suggests that more than one-half of the cadmium found
in the smoking group comes from cigarette smoking.  Cigar and pipe smokers
yielded average cadmium values.  Ex-smokers had mean total organ and
composite values similar to those of light cigarette smokers.  The multiple
regression analysis of composite cadmium content of each organ for each
subject implicates cigarettes as a major source of the total body burden of
cadmium.  Lewis et al. (1972) found that when control is made for smoking
habits, subjects with chronic bronchitis, emphysema,  cancer of the bronchus
or lungs, and arterial hypertension do not have more cadmium in their tissues
than those without.   Table 5.3 illustrates the contribution of the various
media to cadmium retention and subsequent body burden (Environmental Health
Resources Center, 1973).   Intake levels of less than the given amounts would
result in body burden of less than 30 mg/45 years.  Friberg et al.  (1974)
suggest that currently the body burden of adults in the United States is in
the 15 to 20 mg range.
Placental Transfer

        The effectiveness of the placental barrier in protecting the fetus
from cadmium varies with dose and with time during pregnancy.  Normally in
                                    5-2

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        TABLE 5.1.  SUMMARY DATA ON CADMIUM LEVELS IN VARIOUS TISSUES OF EXPOSED AND NONEXPOSED PERSONS
Ul
I
OJ
Concentration, ppm
Tissue
Renal
Cortex
Blood

Urine

Feces
Hair


Age Sex Nonexposed
50-75 25-503

0.01
10C
l-2e

3ie
Female 1.77

10 Male 1.3
Exposed
20-500b

0.01-0.1
0.41d
Up to 100 yg/day
f
NA


3.5
Reference Remarks
Friberg et al., 1974 About 2/3 of workers were
above 100 ppm average .
" Levels below 0.1 most typical.

"

11
Schroeder and Nason,
1969
Hammer et al, 1971 "Nonexposed" refers to resi-
    Kidney
14.8
31.1
      Wet weight.
     "Upper  limit  approximate.
     cNanograms per  gram.
     "Mean value.
     eMicrograms per day.
     fNA = Not available.
Lewis et al., 1972
  dents of lowest two popula-
  tion levels.  "Exposed" were
  residents of heavy pollution
  area rather than industrial
  exposure.

Exposure to cadmium from
  cigarette smoking—not
  industrial exposure.
Liver
Lung
1.38
0.33
2.05
0.56

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TABLE 5.2.  CADMIUM CONCENTRATION IN WET TISSUE, SMOKERS AND NONSMOKERS'
Concentration, ppm,
ash weight^3
Date of
Data No. of
Collection ~ Source Samples
Nonsmokers
ca. 1971 Male 23
23
21
Female 11
11
9
Total 34
34
30
Cigarette Smokers
ca. 1971 Light, <1 pack/day 11
11
11
Moderate, >1 pack/day 57
but <2 packs /day 57
56
Heavy, >2 packs day 37
38
Total, cigarette smokers 105
106
103
Ex-Cigarette Smokers
21
21
19
Organ

Kidney
Liver
Lung
Kidney
Liver
Lung
Kidney
Liver
Lung

Kidney
Liver
Lung
Kidney
Liver
Lung
Kidney
Liver
Kidney
Liver
Lung

Kidney
Liver
Lung
Standard Error
of the Mean,
Mean ppm

13.2
1.06
0.30
18.0
2.06
0.41
14.8
1.38
0.33

24.3
1.79
0.51
32.5
2.02
0.59
30.9
2.16
31.1
2.05
0.56

21.6
1.69
0.70

2.33
0.11
0.05
2.83
0.29
0.10
1.86
0.24
0.04

3.00
0.32
0.11
2.49
0.17
0.59
2.28
0.22
1.63
2.05
0.03

2.49
0.18
0.13
Source: Lewis et al., 1972.

Data were collected at Boston, Massachusetts, Veterans Administration
  Hospital and Providence, Rhode Island, Roger Williams Hospital.
                                 5-4

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               TABLE 5.3.  CADMIUM BODY BURDEN MEDIA RETENTION3
                                               Concentration
        Cadmium Source                 yg/day    mg/year    mg/45 years


     Food and water ingestion:
       50 Mg/day x 0.025                1.25       0.46        20.1
     Cigarettes: 0.067 yg/cigarette                                ,
       x 10 cigarettes/day              0.67       0.25         4.9
              3
     Air: 20 m /day x 0.30 x
       0.05 yg/m3                       0.30       0.11         5.0
                                                               30.0
     Q
      Source:  Environmental Health Resources Center,  1973.


      Estimate based on 20-year period.
humans the placenta is an effective barrier.  The total body content of
cadmium in newborn fetuses from West Germany was less than 1 yg (Hammons and
Huff, 1975).  In areas where the normal daily uptake of cadmium is higher
than that in West Germany, Japan, for example, higher fetal cadmium levels
may occur (Chaube et al., 1973).
Placental and Fetal Levels

        Baglan et al. (1974), in a study of human placentas as possible
indicators of environmental exposure, measured the levels of eight trace
metals, including cadmium, in placentas, maternal blood, and fetal blood.
In general, the placental levels of metals exceed both maternal and fetal
blood levels, and the maternal blood levels exceed the fetal blood levels.
Data for cadmium are shown in Table 5.4.

        Dawson et al. (1968) investigated seasonal variations in nine
cations including cadmium in normal term placentas.  Results from 554
placentas indicated a seasonal variation in mean monthly levels of sodium,
potassium, magnesium, and lead.  Race, maternal age, and pregnancy had no
observable effect.

        In areas where there is an abnormally high intake of cadmium,
elevated fetal levels of cadmium may occur (Chaube et al., 1973.  These
investigators determined zinc and cadmium concentrations in 36 first-
trimester intact human embryos and in liver, brain, and kidney of 14 second-
and 1 third-trimester fetuses.  Zinc increased sevenfold between the 31st
and 35th day of gestation.  Cadmium was present in 57 percent of specimens
in concentrations from 0.032 ppm to 0.07 ppm of wet tissue.  In second

                                   5-5

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            TABLE 5.4.  MEAN CADMIUM LEVELS IN HUMAN PLACENTAS,
                        MATERNAL BLOOD, AND FETAL BLOOD3
     Number of
      Samples
  Organ Site
Concentration, ppm
      Mean
        Remarks
       135
Placenta
   0.102 ± 0.077
Placentas obtained from
four large Nashville
hospitals.
83
123
Maternal blood
Fetal blood
0.093 ± 0.115
0.076 ± 0.109
      Source: Baglan et al., 1974.

      Samples were collected from September, 1971, to November, 1972,
        in Nashville, Tennessee.
trimester specimens, mean zinc concentration in brain was 5.6 ppm, in
kidney 15.7 ppm, and in liver 167.7 ppm.  Cadmium was present in 80 percent
of livers (mean, 0.113 ppm), 28 percent of kidneys (mean, 0.05 ppm), and 17
percent of brain specimens (mean, 0.140 ppm).  Although mothers of these
fetuses did not live in areas of Japan'where endemic cadmium poisoning
exists, the higher cadmium content of the average Japanese diet may be
reflected in the cadmium concentrations of these specimens.
Cadmium Levels and Distribution in Blood

        Studies of cadmium levels in whole blood in normal, nonexposed human
populations generally reveal whole blood cadmium levels of less than 1 yg/100
ml; but in exposed workers the range may be from 1 to 10 yg/100 ml.  Friberg
et al. (1971) caution, however, that the analytical methods have not been
sufficiently perfected to enable accurate determination of cadmium in blood
because the usual quantities of cadmium observed in blood are so small.
Within the blood, more cadmium is in the plasma than in the cells in those
persons without known exposure to cadmium (Friberg et al., 1971).  A ratio
of 1.9 between plasma and cell levels and a mean of 0.35 yg/100 ml was found
in healthy persons (Friberg et al., 1974).  Similarly, Friberg et al. (1973)
reported a mean value of 0.49 yg/100 ml in normal, healthy children.

        Bogden et al. (1974) assayed whole blood of inner-city children in
Newark, New Jersey, for cadmium, lead, and zinc and determined frequency
distributions for each metal.  The mean concentration of cadmium (0.3 yg/100
ml) found in 369 analyses is somewhat lower than values found in other studies
                                    5-6

-------
reported by Bogden  (Table 5.5).  Significant correlations were found between
whole blood concentrations of zinc and cadmium and between concentrations of
lead and cadmium.   Paint is suggested as the major source of ingested lead
and cadmium and air as a respiratory contaminant for all three metals.
                      TABLE 5.5.  WHOLE BLOOD ASSAYS3
                                           Cadmium, yg/100 ml
                 Population Tested          Mean       Range


             Hospitalized children           0.5      0.0-1.9
             Children with suspected pica    0.6      0.0-7.9
             Adult males                     0.9      0.3-5.4
             Inner city children             0.3      0.0-2.8
             aSource: Bogden et al., 1974.
        Glauser et al. (1976) found living normal humans to have a blood
cadmium level of 0.34 ± 0.05 yg/100 ml, while a matched group of living
untreated hypertensive humans had a blood cadmium level of 1.1 ± 0.15 yg/
100 ml.  Workers chronically exposed to cadmium may not only have blood
cadmium levels elevated considerably in excess of those observed in "normals"
but also the distribution of cadmium within the blood may differ.  In
contrast to normal persons in whom the majority of cadmium is in the plasma
fraction of the blood, exposed workers' blood contains more cadmium in the
cells than in the plasma.  Friberg et al. (1974) reported a cell-to-plasma
ratio of 0.5 and a mean whole blood level of 4.1 yg/100 ml for an occupa-
tionally exposed group.  Little can be generalized from the studies of
exposed workers except that their blood cadmium levels may be markedly
elevated.  One difficult problem is that individual exposure conditions
usually cannot be specified adequately.  Secondly, wide fluctuations within
some individuals are observed during exposures, while in other co-workers,
a more steady level is seen (Friberg et al., 1971).  Piscator and Lind
(1972) studied a group of 25 workers in an alkaline battery factory in an
effort to relate cadmium concentrations in blood to exposure time.  Results
were negative.

        Friberg et al. (1973) have concluded that there were no consistent
relationships among the following: (1) between cadmium levels in blood and
exposure time, (2) between blood levels and body burden, (3) between degree
of proteinuria and blood levels, and (4) between levels of cadmium in blood
and urinary excretion of cadmium.
                                    5-7

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Cadmium in the Renal Cortex

        Friberg et al.  (1973) reviewed several studies which estimated the
average cadmium levels  in the renal cortex for United States adults aged
50 to 75.  Most of these estimates lie in the range of 25 to 50 ppm wet
weight.  These values are perhaps slightly higher than those reported by
Sweden, United Kingdom, and Europe; however, they are much lower than the
90 to 125 ppm wet weight which has been reported for comparably aged
Japanese in nonpolluted areas (Friberg et al., 1973).

        Livingstone (1972) studied renal accumulations of zinc, cadmium, and
mercury to determine the distribution of the metals within the various tissue
layers of the kidney (Figure 5.1).  The specimens were obtained from an
individual who died from a gunshot wound, not kidney disease.  In all
samples, there was a decreasing concentration gradient from the outer
surface of the cortex to the medullary surface for zinc, cadmium, and
mercury.  Such findings suggest that much of the variability in the reported
values may be due to lack of a standardized sampling technique and sampling
location among studies.  Since the cortex is the area of the kidney which
would be expected to show the most variability, the sampling location within
the cortex may be an important factor.  Because concentrations of all three
metals increase toward the outer surface of the cortex, analyses of samples
of gross kidney tissue, which included medulla or calices, may yield results
which are consistently low relative to cortical concentrations.  This study
found a median concentration for renal cadmium in adults which was 900 times
that found in infant tissues.

        Morgan (1972), in establishing the "normal" lead and cadmium content
of the human kidney, assayed kidneys which were collected at postmortem
examination from 100 unselected autopsies (32 blacks and 68 whites) between
October, 1967, and March, 1968,  at the Birmingham, Alabama, Veterans
Administration Hospital.  The mean age for the entire group was 62 years.
The mean cadmium concentration for all subjects was 2,359 ppm of ash (with
a range of 109 ppm); for blacks, 2,267 ppm,  and for whites 2,667 ppm of ash.
On the basis of present data, Morgan concludes that 5,000 ppm of ash should
be considered the upper limit of "normal" for cadmium but that further
analysis might indicate that this figure is  still too high.

        Hammer et al.  (1973) report as follows:

        (1)   Renal cadmium levels increased  over tenfold from
             infancy to middle age and then  declined somewhat
             thereafter (Table 5.6).

        (2)   Average renal cadmium and zinc  levels increased
             progressively with increasing smoking intensity
             (Table 5.7).

        (3)   Average renal cadmium concentrations in males
             generally exceeded those of females (Table 5.8).
                                   5-8

-------
200
     100
                                 (a)-
                                 (b)
                                 (0
                             ZINC
                            •CADMIUM
                            -MERCURY
                                                     (a)
                                                     (b)

  I
  ki
    CORTEX
                              -»«-
                               MEDULLA
I     234567
      Loyer Number  (from organ surface.)
                                                     •(0
           i   i   i   i   i   i  i   i   i   i   i  i   i   i   i   i
                                                  8
Figure 5.1.  Zinc, cadmium, and mercury distributions in the
             kidney of a 42-year-old female (cause of death:
             gunshot wound to head).  [Reprinted from
             Proceedings of University of Missouri's 5th
             Annual Conference on Trace Substances in
             Environmental Health (D. D. Hemphill, Editor)
             by H. D. Livingstone, by permission of
             Environmental Toxic Substances Center,
             University of Missouri.  Published 1972] .
                          5-9

-------
         TABLE 5.6.  CADMIUM CONCENTRATIONS IN THE HUMAN
                     RENAL CORTEX, BY AGEa
   Location
Date of Data   Age,
 Collection    Mean
      Number of
       Samples
                                                   Concentration, ppm,
                                                   	by weight"
          Mean
           Range
South Carolina
Carolinas

North Carolina
 1970-1971
 1970-1971
    1970
17

23
34
45
55
65
75
85
91
         14
12
 7
16
13
17
12
 3
 1
 188

1051

1408
2338
2063
2696
1768
1755
1267
 596
                     21-489

                    551-1891
 934-
1282-
 710-
1230-
 608-
 455-
 940-
3164
3350
3347
•3525
3000
4771
1512
 Source: Hammer et al., 1973.

 Tissue from adult autopsy materials was obtained from seven North
   Carolina hospitals in 1970.  Pediatric tissues were from the
   Medical College of South Carolina in Charleston.
                              5-10

-------
     TABLE 5.7.   RENAL  CADMIUM AND  ZINC  LEVELS  IN  40-  TO  79-YEAR-
                 OLD MALES,  BY SMOKING CATEGORY3
Smoking Category
Never smoked
1 to 1-1/2 packs
daily
No. of
Samples
10
6
8
5
Concentration, ppm ash weight
Metal
Cadmium
Zinc
Cadmium
Zinc
Cadmium
Zinc
Cadmium
Zinc
Level
1286 ±
2511 ±
2132 ±
3052 ±
2795 ±
3513 ±
2812 ±
3551 ±
± SDC
404
544
592
345
1045
1931
946
2064
Median
1286
2519
2144
2923
2086
2980
2650
3237
Range
710-1823
1759-3278
1303-2891
2526-3429
1752-4771
2306-8050
1562-4000
1682-7000
 Source:  Hammer  et  al.,  1973.

 Smoking  history was  queried  for  the  last  5  years  of  the patient's
   life only.
>
~SD =  Standard deviation.
      TABLE  5.8.   CADMIUM IN RENAL  CORTEX, BY  SEX AND AGEC
Cadmium in
Age
Interval
in Years
10-19
20-29
30-39
40-49
50-59
60-69
70-79
80-89

No. of
Samples
2
8
4
10
9
12
8
1
Males

Mean
1221
1469
2601
2064
2941
1743
1878
940
renal cortex , ppm
ash weight
Females

Range
551-1891
972-3164
1797-3350
710-3347
2000-4000
860-3450
768-4771
768-477
No. of
Samples
2
4
3
6
4
4
4
2

Mean
881
1285
1988
2062
2197
1804
1509
1431

Range
832-929
934-1622
1282-2530
1268-3200
1230-2850
608-3000
455-3700
1350-1512
Male to
Female
Ratio
1.39
1.14
1.31
1.00
1.34
0.97
1.24
0.66
Source: Hammer et al., 1973.

Excludes 15 subjects with cancer—one with schleroderma and one
  with acute hepatitis and pancreatitis.
                               5-11

-------
         (4)   Increases  in renal  zinc concentration are  related
              to  cadmium virtually on a one-to-one basis (Figure 5.2).

         (5)   As  shown in Table 5.9, cancer patients had a
              significantly more  variable renal cadmium  concen-
              tration IF(16,57) = 3.18 p<0.005] and a significantly
              less variable hepatic cadmium concentration [F(57,16) =
              6.50 p<0.001].

         (6)   Hepatic cadmium increased four- to fivefold from
              infancy to adulthood but remained relatively constant
              thereafter (Table 5.10).

         (7)   Hepatic cadmium was significantly higher in 40 to 70-
              year-old males with any smoking history when compared
              to  those with no smoking history.

         Repeated exposures to cadmium among workers may cause accumulation
of cadmium in the organs, particularly the kidneys.  Cadmium accumulation of
200 ppm  in the renal cortex is believed to be the critical level needed to
produce  renal tubular dysfunction (Friberg et al., 1973).  Renal tubular
damage leads  to  an increase in urinary cadmium excretion.  Adams et al.
(1969) found  0 to 168 ppb in urine in 56 workers exposed to cadmium oxide
dust.  Generally, a large degree of individual variation has been observed
among exposed workers.

         Table 5.11 illustrates cadmium concentration in renal cortex at
autopsy  and the  associated morphological changes observed in workers exposed
to cadmium oxide dust.  Profound morphological changes  occurred in persons
having greater than 15-year exposure.  These same workers also tend to have
much lower levels in the cortex, probably reflecting the greater release of
cadmium  from  the kidneys following the onset of proteinuria (Friberg et al.,
1974).   Adams et al. (1969) have reported that proteinuria frequently
persists after exposure to cadmium has ceased and urinary cadmium excretion
has decreased.
EXCRETION OF CADMIUM

        Urinary excretion of cadmium is considered the major route for body
burden-related elimination (Friberg et al., 1974).  Reported values for
cadmium are extremely variable; however, recent studies suggest an average
normal urinary excretion of cadmium of 1 to 2 yg/day (Friberg et al., 1974).
Table 5.12 summarizes the results of studies of urinary excretion in persons
without known industrial exposure.  Cadmium levels reported in urine of
occupationally exposed workers range from 0 to 1,000 yg/day.  There is no
evident relationship between urinary cadmium excretion in exposed workers
and the degree of exposure.  Some workers had been exposed to cadmium in
sufficient quantity to cause considerable tissue accumulation, yet had
urinary levels of less than 2 ppb (Friberg et al., 1974).  Due to the wide
individual scatter, Friberg et al. (1975) concluded that there were no data
which show that concentrations of cadmium in blood or urine can be used for

                                   5-12

-------
in
v)
"
E
a.

c"
o
.{3

U
O


8

o

.5
N
          0     10    20    30     40     50    60


               Cadmium  concentration, /imols/g. ash weight


      Figure  5.2.   Molar relationship of cadmium and zinc  in

                    the  renal cortex (Hammer et al., 1973).
                               5-13

-------
          TABLE 5.9.  SUMMARY OF TESTS BETWEEN PATIENTS WITH AND
                      WITHOUT CANCER, BY TISSUE AND METAL3
Average tissue level ,
ppm ash weight
Tissue
Kidney
Liver
Metal
Cadmium
Zinc
Cadmium
Zinc
Cancer (17)
3232 + 1744
3653 + 1368
248 + 99
5063 + 2871
Noncancer (58)
2061 + 960
3020 + 1165
244 + 53
4120 + 2181
Probability
of Observed
Difference
P < 0.01
0.10 > P > 0
P < 0.80
0.60 > P > 0
.05
.40
      Source: Hammer et al., 1973.
      Includes one patient with scleroderma and one with pancreatitis
        and hepatitis.
     Differences were tested by a student test of long-transformed
        data.
       TABLE 5.10.  CADMIUM CONCENTRATION IN HUMAN LIVER, BY AGEC
            Date of Data  Age,   Concentration, ppm
Location     Collection   years   Mean    Range
Remarks
South 1970-1971
Carolina
Carolinas 1970-1971
North 1970
Carolina






0-9

10-19
20-29
30-39
40-49
50-59
60-69
70-79
80-89
90-99
39

168
140
194
197
206
198
273
282
97
8-115

124-247
21-396
21-343
58-375
73-368
21-460
65-1720
168-684
21-173
Adult autopsy tissues
obtained from seven
North Carolina hospi-
tals in 1970. Pedi-
atric tissues were
obtained from Medical
College of South
Carolina in Charles-
ton.



 Source:  Hammer et al.,  1973.
                                  5-14

-------
                   TABLE 5.11.
Ui
i
CONCENTRATIONS OF  CADMIUM IN KIDNEY CORTEX  IN WORKERS EXPOSED
TO  CADMIUM OXIDE DUST IN RELATION TO  MORPHOLIGICAL  KIDNEY
CHANGES SEEN AT AUTOPSY  OR BIOPSY3
Morphological
Worker Changes^3

S.W.H. -H-
K.J. ++
K.N. e
H.B. -H-
A.B. ++
O.J. -H-

G.J. (+)
G.K. (+)
A.L.
E.Y.
E.H.
J.P.
N.U.
H.N.
K.N.
Reprinted from Cadmium
Cadmium in Cortex ,
Proteinuriac ^g/g wet weight

+ 83
+ 75
+ 20
+ 33
+ 174
+ 63

+ 321
+ 152
(+) 220
446
+ 320
+ 330
180
+ 21
190
in the Environment, 1st Edition, L.
Age

46
49
57
60
39
62

44
46
36
39
40
43
44
45
50
Years
Exposed

28
22
18
26
16
20

11
15
6
7
15
20
12
13
15
Friberg, L. M.
Years Since
Last
Exposure

1
9
6
3
4
1

12
0
0
0
10
6
0
0
2
Piscator, and
Year of
Autopsy
or Biopsy
Autopsy
1960
1951
1952
1949
1950
1967
Biopsy^
1959
1959
1959
1959
1959
1959
1959
1959
1959

                   G.  Nordberg, (c) CRC Press,  Inc., 1971.   Used  by permission of CRC Press, Inc.

                     = No morphological changes
                 (+)  = Slight morphological  changes
                 ++  = Profound morphological changes.

                     = Negative results on  repeated testing with  trichloracetic acid
                 (+)  = Varying results
                 +   = Positive results on  repeated testing.

                 Underlined  figures are based on cadmium concentrations in whole kidney, assuming that the  cadmium
                   concentration in cortex  is 1.5 times the average kidney concentration.
                3
                "Results from histological  examinations not reported but in an examination in 1946, this worker
                   had the lowest kidney function tests of  all.   '     '

-------
                        TABLE  5.12.   URINARY  EXCRETION  OF CADMIUM IN "NORMAL" SUBJECTS'
h-1
O
No. of
Country Samples
United States

Japan
Gifu






West Germany




Belgium

Sweden







Reprinted from
154

30
. 46
40
41
56
37
40
43
14
15


169C
44

10


88

10
10
10d
Cadmium
Age Group



4-6
9-10
14-15
20-29
30-39
40-49
50-59







20-47


50-59

15-16
15-16
34-63
Concentration
Mean SDb Range
1.59 <0.5-10.8

3.1 0.0-15.9
0.47 0.25
0.65 0.45
0.72 0.50
0.99 0.63
1.13 1.06
1.76 1.33
1.75 1.38
1.0
0.98 0.34-1.57


1.25 0-5
0.95 0.8

0.39 0.05-0.77


0.62 0.1-2.0

0.25 0.2-0.5
0.21 0.1-0.3
1.7 0.4-3.7
in the Environment, 2nd Edition, L.

Units
ppb

ppb
ppb






ppb
Ug/24 hr


ug/g creatinine
ug/g creatinine

ug/24 hr


jjg/g creatinine

ppb
ug/g creatinine
Ug/g creatinine

Method
Spectrographic after
dithizone extraction
Dithizone
Atomic absorption spectro-
scopy after extraction
Ditto
11
M
M
1 1
Dithizone
Atomic absorption spectro-
scopy after MIBK-APDC
extraction
Ditto
Atomic absorption spectro-
scopy after extraction
Atomic absorption spectro-
scopy after MTBK-APDC
extraction
Atomic absorption spectro-
scopy after extraction
Ditto
it
ii
Friberg, M. Piscator, G. Norberg,
        c
  and T.  Kjellstrom,  (c) CRC Press, Inc.,  1974.   Used  by  permission of CRC Press, Inc.

SD = Standard  deviation.

Includes  both  children and adults; values  for children did  not differ on an average from those of adults.

Workers without  known industrial exposure  to cadmium but  living  in a cadmium-contaminated area.

-------
estimating levels of cadmium in human beings.  It is not possible to use a
fixed level of cadmium in blood or urine to be used for analytical control
of (1) exposed workers or (2) populations exposed to cadmium in food or
ambient air.  Concentrations of cadmium in urine above "normal" would
indicate that signs of cadmium-induced renal dysfunction had already
occurred, provided other reasons for the increased excretion could not be
demonstrated.

        As shown in Table 5.13, a comparison of cadmium levels in the blood
and urine of 100 acculturated and 90 unacculturated individuals shows
markedly lower levels of cadmium in the unacculturated population (Hecker
et al., 1974).  The technologically developed population consisted of 100
Red Cross donors, ages 18 to 58, from Ann Arbor, Michigan.  The unaccultura-
ted population consisted of 137 Yanomamo Indians living in the area drained
by the Upper Orinoco River and its tributaries in southern Venezuela.
Cadmium was determined by anodic stripping voltammetry (Table 5.13).
              TABLE 5.13.  CADMIUM LEVELS IN ACCULTURATED AND
                           UNACCULTURATED POPULATIONS3
Population
Ann Arbor
Yanomamo

Matrix Statistic
Blood Number of subjects
Range
Mean
SDC
Blood Number of subjects
Range
Mean
SDC
Urine Number of subjects
Range
Mean
SDC
Cadmium
47
<0.1-9.6
1.71b
1.89b
90
0.07-3.72b
0.57b
0.51b
47
0.0-4.5d
1.2d
1.2d
           o
            Source:  Hecker et al.,  1974.

            Values in yg/100 ml.

           CSD = Standard deviation.

            Values in yg or ppb.
                                    5-17

-------
        Fecal excretion of cadmium has been estimated at 31 yg/day by
Friberg et al. (1974) and 42 yg/day by Tipton and Stewart (1969).  These
values include unabsorbed dietary cadmium.  Tracer studies show that less
than 0.1 percent of a retained oral dose of 115mCd was excreted in feces
(Rahola et al., 1972).  High concentrations of cadmium in bile from autopsy
samples suggests an enterohepatic circulation of cadmium in man.  Animal
studies suggest also that less than 5 percent of fecal excretion could be
accounted for by this route (Friberg et al., 1974).  At present, the
precise mechanisms for fecal excretion of cadmium in human beings are not
known (Friberg et al., 1974).

        Other possible routes of cadmium excretion include milk, saliva,
and hair.  Excretion of cadmium into milk of nursing mothers may be of
some significance in body clearance of cadmium.  Pinkerton et al. (1973)
showed that cadmium concentrations in human milk ranged from 0.0088 to
0.1335 ppm with a median value of 0.0111 ppm.  Cadmium may also be
secreted into human saliva.  Friberg et al. (1973) reported concentrations
of up to 0.1 yg/g in human saliva.  Hammer et al. (1971) have suggested
using hair as an indicator of exposure to various trace metals, including
cadmium.  Ten-year-old boys from five cities ranked according to trace
metal contamination supplied the hair samples.  As can be seen from Table
5.14, there is good agreement between exposure levels and cadmium levels
in hair.  Another study conducted by Schroeder and Nason (1969) investigated
the influence of age, sex, and hair color on levels of cadmium in hair.
Their results showed differences in cadmium content related to hair color,
         TABLE 5.14.  CADMIUM IN HAIR FROM BOYS LIVING IN URBAN AREAS3
           Exposure Ranking ,       Number of        Geometric Mean,
                  city            Determinations            ppm
I High
II High
III Lowc
IV Low
V Low
45
25
37
21
37
2.1
1.5
1.0
1.0
0.7
            Source:  Hammer et al.,  1971.

            Ranking  determined by combining aerometric, geologic, and
              industrial data.

           £
            Low approximates usual U.S.  urban level.
                                   5-18

-------
 sex,  and age.   Black-haired males had less  cadmium  in their hair than those
 with  brown,  blonde,  or  red hair.  In women,  gray hair had less cadmium than
 either natural-color hair or  gray hair  obtained from males.  Also, cadmium,
 nickel, and  lead  did not accumulate with age.  The  authors concluded that
 concentration  of  cadmium in hair probably does not  reflect tissue stores
 under normal conditions (Schroeder and  Nason, 1969).  Petering et al. (1973)
 investigated the  relationship of age and sex to cadmium  in human hair.
 Regression analysis  showed two groups of males with respect to cadmium
 concentration  in  hair,  namely those over and under  12 years of age.
 Similar analyses  indicated that hair cadmium distribution for females
 delineated one group below and one group above 50 years  of age.  The
 authors conclude  that comparisons of metallic content of hair in humans
 should be limited to a  narrow age range and  to one  sex.

         Table  5.15 presents findings from several studies of cadmium in hair,
 showing the  typical  values and ranges observed.  Analysis of metals in hair
 also  presents  additional difficulties in that external contamination from
 dust  and from  metals in hair  sprays, hair coloring  products, etc., must be
 taken into account (Friberg et al., 1974).

         Johnson et al.  (1975)  conducted an epidemiological survey in the
 metropolitan area of Houston,  Texas, on cadmium, lead, zinc, manganese,
 and copper.  Six  groups, with 36 individuals in each group, were monitored,
 three exposed,  and three corresponding  controls:

                Exposed                                 Control

   I.    Policeman on foot patrol     IA.   Office workers in downtown Houston
   II.   Garage  attendants            IIA.  Orderlies and custodians
   III.  Females living  within two    IIIA. Females  living away from a freeway.
         blocks  of a  freeway

 Each  subject was  sampled four  separate  times for blood,  urine, and hair.

         As shown  in  Table 5.16, there appeared to be wide variations in
 cadmium content,  particularly  in hair.  Statistical comparison of the data
 indicated that  there were significant differences in cadmium levels in urine
 between Group  I and  IA  and Group II and IIA  at the  95 percent confidence
 limits.  No  differences were  seen in the female subjects.  Conceivably, the
 levels  of cadmium in urine are related  to the exposure to air pollutants.
BIOLOGICAL HALF-LIFE

        The extremely long biological half-life of absorbed cadmium in the
body results in essentially continuous accumulation throughout life (Hammons
and Huff, 1975).  Cadmium becomes bound to the protein metallothionein in
the kidney, and accumulates until the fifth or sixth decade of life, after
which it begins to diminish in concentration (Environmental Health Resource
Center, 1973).  Estimates of half-life can be made on a group basis by
comparing body burden and excretion.  In the United States, body burden has


                                    5-19

-------
                              TABLE  5.15.   "NORMAL"  CONCENTRATIONS  OF CADMIUM IN HAIRC
Ul
CO
O

Country
U.S.A.

Sweden
Yugoslavia
Reprinted

Sex
Male
Female
Male
children
Male
Female
Male
from Cadmium
No. of
Samples
82
47
45
25
37
21
37
7
8
17
Concentration, yg/g
Mean SDb
2.77 ± 4.37
1.77 ± 1.64
3.5 ± 4.94
2.0 ± 1.54
1.3 ± 0.99
1.3 ± 1.30
0.9 ± 0.8
0.44 ± 0.14
0.87 ± 0.26
0.54 ± 0.27
in the Environment, 2nd
Median

2.1
1.6
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.43
0.92
0.45
Edition,
Range Method
Atomic absorption; hair
treated with detergent
Atomic absorption; hair
treated with EDTA
0.24-0.60 Atomic absorption; hair
0.41-1.27 treated with detergent
0.20-1.48 Ditto
L. Friberg, M. Piscator, G. Norberg,

not
solution
pre-
pre-

and
         T. Kjellstrom, (c)  CRC Press,  Inc.,  1974.   Used by permission of CRC Press, Inc.
       SD = Standard deviation.
      "Ten years of age from five areas with  differing degrees of cadmium contamination.

-------
            TABLE 5.16.  CADMIUM IN BLOOD, URINE, HAIR, AND FECESC
Blood, yg/100 ml
Group
I
IA
II
I LA
III
IIIA
Mean
0.5
0.7
0.5
0.4
0.9
0.8
SDb
0.67
0.85
0.52
0.44
1.1
1.7
Urine, yg/& (ppb) Hair, yg/g
Mean
1.4
0.6
0.8
0.5
0.6
0.6
SD
1.05
0.44
0.63
0.23
0.67
0.40
Mean
1.1
1.1
1.0
2.2
0.6
0.7
SD
2.09
2.02
0.97
2.10
0.41
0.55
Feces
Mean
0.19
0.20
0.30
0.24
0.27
0.23
, yg/g
SD
0.07
0.11
0.21
0.13
0.16
0.13
  Source: Johnson et al., 1975.
  SD = Standard deviation.
been estimated to range from 15 to 20 mg of cadmium.  Urinary excretion
amounts to 1.6 ppb, corresponding to a daily excretion of 0.012 to 0.015
percent of body burden.  Such findings would place the biological half-life
somewhere between 13 and 47 years (Friberg et al., 1974).

        Friberg et al. (1974) have computed similarly long biological half-
lives of 19 to 38 years, using mathematical models.  The validity of some
of the assumptions of these models (i.e., excretion rates and body burden
values) is still open to question and, as Friberg et al. (1974) conclude,
the exact biological half-life of cadmium is still uncertain.
                                    5-21

-------
                              6.  REFERENCES
Adams, R. G., J. F. Harrison, and P. Scott.  1969.  The Development of
Cadmium-Induced Proteinuria, Impaired Renal Function, and Osteomalacia in
Alkaline Battery Workers.  Quarterly Journal of Medicine, New Series
.38(152) :425-443.

Akland, G. G.  1976.  Air Quality Data for Metals, 1970-1974, from National
Air Surveillance Networks.  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  EPA-
600/4-76-041.

American Metal Market.  1975.  Metal Statistics: The Purchasing Guide of
the Metal Industries.  Fairchild Publications.

Anderlini, V. C., P. G. Connors, R. W. Risebrough, and J. H. Martin.  1972.
Concentrations of Heavy Metals in Some Antarctic and North American Sea
Birds.  In: Proceedings of Colloquium on Conservation Problems in Antarctica,
Parker, B. C. (ed.).  Lawrence Allen Press,  p. 49-61.

Anderson, S. H., A. W. Andren, C. F. Baes, III, G. J. Dodson, W. F. Harris,
G. S. Henderson, D. E. Reichle, J. D. Storey, R. I. Van Hook, W. Van Winkle,
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National Marine Fisheries Service.  1975.  First Interim Report on Micro-
constituent Resource Survey.  National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra-
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Newman, J. E., M. D. Abel, W. A. Bruns, and K. J. Yost.  1974.  Some
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Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Commission.  1975.  An Appraisal of
Conditions in the Ohio River and Some of Its Tributaries.  ORSANCO Quality
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Ottinger, R. S., J. L. Blumenthal, D. F. Dal Porto, G. I. Gruber, and
M. J. Santy.  1973a.  Recommended Methods of Reduction, Neutralization,
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Ottinger, R. S., J. L. Blumenthal, D. F. Dal Porto, G. I. Gruber, and
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California.  PB-224 593/4.  NTIS.  160 p.


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 Page,  A. L.,  F. T. Bingham, and C. Nelson.  1972.  Cadmium Absorption and
 Growth of Various Plant Species as Influenced by Solution Cadmium Concen-
 tration.  Journal of Environmental Quality 1.(3) :288-291.

 Perhac, R. M.  1974.  Water Transport of Heavy Metals in Solution and by
 Different Sizes of Particulate Solids.  Tennessee University, Knoxville,
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 Perhac, R. M. and Tamura, T.  1977.  Cadmium Content of the Holston River
 (Tennessee) as Related to the Milling of Cd-Bearing Zinc Ores.  Unpublished.

 Petering, H.  G., D. W. Yeager, and S. 0. Witherup.  1973.  Trace Metal
 Content of Hair.  II. Cadmium and Lead of Human Hair in Relation to Age
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 Pickering, R. J.  1976.  Summary of Toxic Substances in Water and Stream
 Sediments.  USGS.  14 p.

 Piscator, M.  and B. Lind.  1972.  Cadmium, Zinc, Copper and Lead in Human
 Renal  Cortex.  Archives of Environmental Health 24(6);426-431.

 Powers, P. W.  1976.  How to Dispose of Toxic Substances and Industrial
 Wastes.  Park Ridge, Noyes Data Corporation.  497 p.

 Proctor, P. D., T. Butz, and B. Sinha.  1975.  Heavy Metal (Cu, Pb, Zn, Cd,
 Ni, As, Hg) Additions to the Surface Waters.  Stream Sediments and Selected
 Aquatic Life  in the Meramec Park Reservoir Drainage Basin, Missouri.  Phase
 I and  II.  Office of Water Research and Technology, Washington, D.C.
 PB-247  310/65T.  NTIS.  56 p.

 Rahola, T., R. K. Aaran, and J. K. Miettinen.  1972.  Half-Life Studies of
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 Raridon, R. J., D. E. Fields, G. S. Henderson, and A. W. Andren.  1974.
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 Berkeley Laboratory,  Berkeley, University of California.  NTIS.  p. 210-215.

 Rashid, M. A. and J. D. Leonard.  1973.  Modifications in the Solubility and
 Precipitation Behavior of Various Metals as a Result of Their Interaction
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 Ratsch, H. C.  1974.  Heavy Metal Accumulation in Soil and Vegetation from
 Smelter Emissions.  Environmental Research Center.  Corvallis, Oregon.
 EPA 660/3-74-012.  USGPO.   23 p.

Roberts, E., R. Spivak, S.. Stryker, and S. Tracey.  1975.  Compilation of
 State Data for Eight Selected Toxic Substances: Vol. IV. Compilation of
                                    6-11

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Summaries and Analyses of State Data.  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Washington, B.C.  EPA 560/7-75-001-4.  NTIS.  663 p.

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Schlesinger, W. H. and G. L. Potter.  1974.  Lead, Copper, and Cadmium
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                                   6-12

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 Metals  in  the Environment: Abstracts-Resumes-Programme, Toronto, Canada,
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                                    6-13

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Wedow, H.  1973.  Cadmium.  In: United States Mineral Resources, Brobst, D.A.
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Yost, K. J., M. D. Abel, W. A. Bruns, J. E. Christian, D. R. Masarik,
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Zenz, D. R., B. T. Lynam, C. Lue-Hing, R. R. Rimkus, and T. D. Hinesly.
1975.  U.S. EPA guidelines on Sludge Utilization and Disposal—A Review of
Its Impact Upon Municipal Wastewater Treatment Agencies.  Presented at
the 48th Annual WPCF Conference, Miami Beach, Florida, October, 1975.

Zook, E. G., J. J. Powell, B. M. Hackley, J. A.  Emerson, J. R. Brooker,
and G. M. Knobl.  1976.   National  Marine Fisheries Service Preliminary Survey
of Selected Seafoods for Mercury,  Lead, Cadmium, Chromium and Arsenic
Content.  Journal of Agricultural  and Food Chemistry ^4_(1): 47-53.
                                    6-14

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                                    TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
                            (/'lease read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
 1. REPORT NO.
  EPA-560/6-77-032
                                                            3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
  MULTIMEDIA LEVELS—CADMIUM
                                         5. REPORT DATE
                                           September 1977
                                                            6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)

 Battelle Columbus Laboratories
                                                            8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
 Battelle Columbus Laboratories
 505  King Avenue
 Columbus, Ohio  43201
                                                            10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
                                         11.
                                                               68-01-1983
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS

 Environmental Protection Agency
 Office  of  Toxic Substances
 Washington,  D.C.  20460
                                         13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
                                         14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
 This report  is a review of environmental  levels of cadmium based  on  published reports
 and other  information sources.  Cadmium levels are reported for the  atmosphere, surface
 and ground waters, drinking water,  sediments,  soil, sludge, terrestrial and aquatic
 biota, and man.   The behavior of cadmium  in the environment is also  discussed.
 Although cadmium is present in measurable quantities in virtually all  areas, for the
 general population oral ingestion in  foods can represent the most important source of
 cadmium intake.   Airborne sources appear  to constitute a significant portion of
 cadmium intake for those occupationally exposed or those residing in areas heavily
 polluted by  cadmium-emitting industries.   Based on the information in  this document,
 current cadmium releases to the environment appear to be declining.  However, the
 cadmium content  in fossil fuels and fertilizers is only partially controllable, and
 these two  sources may set the lower bounds of  attainable minimums in cadmium emissions
 to the environment.  Most of the dissipated cadmium eventually becomes bound to soil,
 sediment,  and  ocean sinks.  Biological  accumulations of cadmium are  found in most
 living organisms.
                                KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
                  DESCRIPTORS
                                               b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
                                                         COS At I Held/Group
  Cadmium
  Water
  Sediment
  Soil
  Air
  Biota
  Human
Food
Behavior
 8. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
 Distribution unlimited
                           19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
                             Unclassified	
21. NO. OF PAGES
      141
                                               20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)

                                                ^Unclassified	
                                                                          22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (Rev. 4-77)   PREVIOUS EDITION is OBSOLETE

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