EPA-560/8-76-004
         CONSIDERATIONS RELATING TO TOXIC SUBSTANCES

                           IN THE

       APPLICATION OF MUNICIPAL SLUDGE TO CROPLAND AND

                         PASTURELAND

             v       A BACKGROUND SUMMARY
                         PREPARED BY
                 OFFICE OF Toxic SUBSTANCES
               ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
                   WASHINGTON, D,C,  2f
                        NOVEMBER 1976

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EPA-560/8-76-004
              CONSIDERATIONS RELATING TO TOXIC SUBSTANCES
                                IN THE
            APPLICATION OF MUNICIPAL SLUDGE TO CROPLAND AND
                              PASTURELAND
                         A Background Summary
                              Prepared By
                      Office of Toxic Substances
                    Environmental Protection Agency
                        Washington, D.C.  20460
                             November 1976

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                      TABLE OF CONTENTS

                                                            Page
Introduction	    1
I.   Municipal  Sludge	    2
II.  Elements and Substances Found in Municipal  Sludge	    4
III. Plant Uptake of Chemical Substances from Municipal
     Sludge-Amended Soil	     7
IV.  Health Effects Aspects	     13
     Literature Cited	     18
     Appendix - Sludge Information Summary	    23
                       LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 - Trace Elements and Substances Found in Municipal
          Sludge	      5
Table 2 - Factors Influencing Plant Uptake of Chemical
          Substances	      8
Table 3 - Studies on Plant Uptake of Chemical Substances
          from SI udge-Amended Soi 1	     9
Table 4 - Plant Uptake of Trace Elements from Other
          Substrates	     12

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                           NOTICE
This report has been reviewed by the Office of Toxic Substances, Environ-
mental Protection Agency, and approved for publication.   Approval does
not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the views and policies
of the Environmental Protection Agency.  Mention of tradenames or commercial
products is for purposes of clarity only and does not constitute endorse-
ment or recommendation for use. This document is available to the public
through the National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia
22151.

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INTRODUCTION

     Background information is presented pertinent to an assessment of
the potential health hazards from toxic substances when disposing/utilizing
municipal sludge on agricultural lands, particularly croplands and
pasturelands where the products enter the human food chain.

     The report considers some of the toxic elements and synthetic
organic chemical substances known to be present in municipal sludges.
Only readily available information has been used. The report clearly
does not represent an exhaustive review of the subject. Nevertheless,  it
is clear that applicable and available data on this subject are scarce
adding to the uncertainties regarding the hazard potential associated
with applying municipal sludge to cropland and pastureland.   Potential
difficulties which might be associated with bacterial and viral pathogens
and radioactive substances present in municipal sludge are beyond the
scope of the report.
                              -1-

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             I.    Municipal  Sludge

                  The volume of municipal  sludge requiring disposal  in the United
             States is estimated to be about 17,000 dry tons  per day and is expected
             to  increase over the next ten years,  with the implementation of nation-
             wide secondary  treatment, to  be about 23,000 dry tons  per day.  Current
             disposal methodologies reported to the EPA Office of Water Programs
             Operations are  presented in the Appendix.  A review of that information
             has indicated that the quantity of sludge will  increase by about 35% and
             that industrial users of municipal sewage treatment plants will  increase
             by  over 40% in  the next 10 years.   Industrial wastes are estimated to
             account for about 25% of municipal treatment plant influent nationally
             and may be near 100% in some  localities.   The toxic metal content of
             municipal sludge from various cities  approaches  the levels found in some
             industrial sludges.

                  At present, it is estimated that 20% of the total  municipal sludge
             produced is applied to croplands (see Appendix).   Estimates of the
             amount of agricultural land area that would be used if all sludges were
             disposed/utilized for landspreading have  been made.  One estimate is
             that with a "typical" application rate of 20 tons/acre/year about 570
             square miles would be required (Dean, 1973).   This amounts to less than
             1%  per year of  the total agricultural land areas of the United States.
             Other estimates of typical application rates range from 10 to 20
             tons/acre/year  but these vary considerably due to site-specific  condi-
             tions.  Some guidelines exist which limit applications  based on  fertil-
•            'izer rates of nitrogen.
]
I                  The levels of trace elements and chemical  substances found  in munic-
i
             ipal sludge can be highly variable even on a daily basis.  The range of
             levels detected is quite wide, depending  to a large degree on the type
                                                -2-

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and quantity of industrial  input to the municipal  treatment plant (see
p. 23). Considering purely domestic sludge to be free of trace element
and chemical substance contaminants is not warranted.  In sewer systems
with no industrial connections there are inputs from hospitals, research
laboratories, and dentist offices (mercury).  Other sources of contaminants
include motor oil additives; flow entrainment of lead, copper, cadmium,
zinc, and antimony from water-carrying pipes; street runoff; detergents
and laundry products; and consumer products,  including pesticides and
organics, flushed into the sewer.
                              -3-

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              II.  Elements and Substances Found in Municipal  Sludge
                   Table 1  lists some of the trace elements and chemical  substances
              found in municipal sludge which may deserve attention from a health
              effects standpoint.  The range of concentrations (dry weight) observed
              is indicated. The amount of sludge-analysis data is limited and the use
              of different analytical methodologies complicates the evaluation of
              the available data.  The wide ranges observed have been attributed to
              the variable quantity and character of industrial input to different
              municipal treatment plants.  References 1, 9, 13, 21, 25, 26, 27, 32,
              47, 53, and 61 were used as sources in compiling table 1.

                   Commercial "bagged sludge" soil conditioners derived from municipal
              sludge, such as Milorganite, also deserve consideration.  Milorganite
              has been analyzed and found to contain what were considered high cadmium
              and chromium levels.  Recent analysis of a sample by EPA Region X found
              cadmium at 117 mg/kg and chromium at 6,042 mg/kg.  Home and hobbyist use
              of municipal sludge such as Milorganite can result in intensive application
              to small plots of land.  Use is not limited to ornamental plants, but it
              has been applied to vegetable gardens as well.  Home-grown vegetables
              are not subject to FDA monitoring, nor are contaminants in them diluted
              in family use by the commercial food distribution system.  In season,
              they can form a major portion of a family's diet.

                   As table 1 indicates, municipal sludges also may contain persistent
              organic chemical contaminants such as PCBs and chlorinated pesticides.
              Data are scarce on other organics present in municipal sludge largely
              due to lack of research in this area, although the range of contaminants
              (over 100) reported for drinking water is indicative of the compounds
              which could be present in municipal sludge. Typical drinking water
              contaminants which might be present in municipal sludges include halogenated
j              (mostly chlorinated) hydrocarbons, long chain hydrocarbons, benzenes and
j              polynuclear aromatics. Other classes of organic chemicals which appear
!              to have a high potential for sludge contamination due to their persistence
j              in environmental waters include chlorobenzenes, chlorophenols, chlorinated
              paraffins, and halogenated cyclodiene flame retardants (Braude e£. al_.,
              1975).
                                            -4-

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Table 1. TRACE ELEMENTS AND SUBSTANCES FOUND
) Elements

Aluminum (Al)
Antimony (Sb)
Arsenic (As)
Boron (B)
Barium (Ba)
Beryllium (Be)
Bismuth (B1)
Bromine (Br
Cadmium (Cd
Calcium (Ca
Cerium (Ce)
Cesium (Cs)
Chlorine (Cl)
Chromium (Cr)
Cobalt (Co)
Copper (Cu)
Dysprosium (Dy)
Erbium (Er)
Europium (Eu)
Fluorine (F)
Gadollmlum (Gd)
Gallium (Ga)
Germanium (Ge)
Gold (Au)
Hafnium (Hf)
Holmlum (Ho)
Indium (In)
Iodine
Irldlum (Ir)
Iron (Fe)
Lanthanum (La)
Lead (Pb)
Lutecium (Lu)
Magnesium (Mg)
Manganese (Mn)
Mercury (Hg)
Range of Concentration (ppm dry weight)
In Municipal Sludge
8,100-51,200
2.6-44.4
3.0-50
4-1 ,430
272-1066
<4-<15
0.03-55.8
13.7-165
2-1,100
1760-116,400
12.4-272
0.45-2.9
500-17.800
22-30,000
2-800
84-17,000
0.7-19.8
0.2-4.5
0.7-12.2
2.2-738
1.1-22.7
0.9-54
1.1-10.5
0.21-7.00
1.3-10.7
0.07-0.67
0.07-3.7
1.0-17.1
0.04-0.46
1,000-144,000
5,1-380
80-26,000
0.04-0.34
2,000-14,035
32-8,800
0.1-89
IN MUNICIPAL SLUDGE
Concentration Range (ppm)
In Unamended Soil (dry)
10,000-300,000
2-10
0.1-40
2-100
100-3,000
0.1-40
--
1-10
0.01-7
7,000-500,000
__
0.3-25
5-3,000
1-40
2-100
-_
__
30-300
__
__
__
__
__
^^
__
__
_«.
__
7.000-550,000
1-5,000
2-200
•»_
600-6.000
100-4.000
0.01-0.3
Mean level (ppm)
In dry Soil
     71,000
     6
     6
     10
     500
     6

     5
     0.06
     13,700
     50
     6
     100
     100
     8
     20
     200

     30
     1
     38,000
     30
     10
     5,000
     850
     0.03

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      A)   Elements
                                TABLE  1.   (CONT.)
               Range of Concentration  (ppm dry weight)
               In Municipal  Sludge	
art
I
      B)
Molybdenum (Mo)
Neodymium (Nd)
Nickel (Ni)
Nitrogen (N)
Osmium (Os)
Palladium (Pd)
Phosphorus (P)
Platinum (Pt)
Protractlnlum (Pr)
Rhenium (Re)
Rubidnium (Rb)
Ruthenium (Ru)
Samarium (Sm)
Scandium (Sc)
Selenium (Se)
Silver (Ag)
Sodium (Na)
Strontium (Sr)  /
Sulfur (S)
Tantalum (Ta)
Tellurium (Te)
Terbium (Tb)
Thorium (Th)
Thulllum (Tm)
Tin (Sn)
Titanium (T1)
Tungsten (N)
Uranium (U)
Vanadium (V)
Ytterbium (Yb)
Yttrium (Y)
Zinc (Zn)
Zirconium (Zr)

Organics
Aldrin
Chlordane
ODD
DDT
Dieldrin
fluorescent whitening
agents
PCBs
1.2-1000
0.6-8.6
12-8,000
16,000-66,000
0.06-3.18
0.5-16.2
8,000-40,000
0.05-0.74
1.1-119
0.03-0.98
4.3-94.6
0.21-7.05
1.0-14.2
0.5-7.1
1.7-8.7
ND-960
567-8,800
ND-2,230
9,000-11,000
0.11-1.45
0.07-1.52
0.27-4.83
3.1-16.8
0.06-3.31
40-700
1080-4580
0.9-99.6
0.8-6.4
ND-2100
0.29-1.30
0.8-10.1
72-50,000
4.8-319


ND-16
ND-32.2
ND-1.0
ND-1.1
0.8-2.2

12-50
ND-1700
Concentration Range (ppm)
In Unamended Soil (dry)
0.2-5

10-1000
200-2500
                                                                       20-600
10-25
0.01-2
0.01-5
750-7,500
50-1,000
30-900
                                                                       0.1-12

                                                                       2-200
                                                                       1,000-10,000

                                                                       0.9-9
                                                                       20-500

                                                                       25-250
                                                                       10-300
                                                                       60-2000
                                                                      Mean level (ppm)
                                                                      in dry Soil
                                                                                                               40
                                                                                                               1000
                                                                                                               650
                                        100
7
0.2
0.1
6,300
300
700
                                        10
                                        5,000

                                        1
                                        100

                                        50
                                        50
                                        300

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•;|              III. Plant Uptake of Chemical Substances from Municipal Sludge-Amended Soil
.:i
 i
                    A limited amount of data were located on the uptake of metals and
 ]              other substances by plants from soil, especially the uptake of non-
 •              essential elements from sludge-amended soils.  Many factors have been
...:              recognized as having an effect on plant accumulation of toxic metals;
 ;              however, few definitive studies have been conducted to allow a precise
               description of soil-piant relationships for all factors for any
               element or substance.
                                                         t
                    Knowledge of the chemical forms preferentially absorbed from the
               soil by plants is an important factor in estimating plant uptake.
               Considerable research is necessary to define plant-available forms.  Any
               factor that affects the availability of elements in the soil also may
               affect plant accumulation.  Table 2 is a partial .list of factors known
               to influence plant uptake. In addition, there are probably several
               unknown factors which contribute to the complexity of this problem.

                    Table 3 lists some of the elements and types of plants for which
               uptake has been observed.  An uptake of 50% or greater over controls was
               the criterion for inclusion on the list.  The cited studies are not
               directly comparable with each other and do not adequately describe all
               aspects of uptake for any element.  The elements and substances listed
               (except manganese) have been considered non-essential for plants.
               Excess concentrations of the essential elements also may accumulate in
               plant tissue from sludge and/or soil substrate.  In some cases, excess
               nutrient may be toxic to the plant.  When plant injury occurs due to
               toxicity, there is some protective value for those (animals and humans)
               who may choose not to consume damaged crops; however the accumulation of
               substances in crops without phytotoxicity raises some concern with
               respect to the human food chain.  Even though some elements are essential
               nutrients for plants, their importance as potential toxic hazards when
               plant accumulation occurs should not be overlooked when additions of
               municipal sludge are made to soils used to grow crops in the human
               food chain.
                                              -7-

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Table 2.  Factors Influencing Plant Uptake of Chemical Substances

Soil/Sludge Factors
PH
organic matter content
cation exchange capacity
phosphate (amounts) availability
specific metal characteristics
presence of competing ions
soil distribution of metals
soil variables - moisture, temperature, aeration (02)5 composition
soil solubility status

Plant Factors
rooting depth
plant age
plant species and variety, tissue differences with species

Other
climatic (seasonal) effects
                               -8-

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                    TABLE 3.   STUDIES ON PLANT UPTAKE OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES

Element* or
Substances
arsenic
cadmium



















chromium



lead



manganese


mercury
nickel




PCBs
FROM SLUDGE-AMENDED
Plants in which Uptake
has been observed **
fodder rape
bush beans, corn
barley
wheat
corn
corn
rye
soybeans
sorghum
tomatoes (leaves)
sudan grass
alfalfa
white clover (forage)
tall fescue
bermuda grass
Swiss chard
spinach, lettuce, curly cress
fescue (forage)
carrots, radishes, potatoes
peas (vines, pods), tomatoes
corn, lettuce
barley
corn, rye
fescue (forage)
fodder rape
barl ey
fodder rape
fescue (forage)
Swiss chard
fescue (forage)
corn, rye
' corn
fodder rape
barley
corn, rye
soybeans (grain, leaves)
carrots, beets, leeks
corn, bush beans
grain, corn
SOIL
Type of
Study***
F
F
X
X,X,F,F
X,F,X,X
F.F.F
X,X
X,X .
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
F
X
F
X
X
X
X
X,X
F
F
X
F
F
F
F
X
X
F
X
X
F
F
F
F

literature
Citation
( 2)
(24)
(38)
(6,43,60)
(6,4,13,15)
(36,39,59)
(13, 15)
(6, 35)
(45)
( 9)
( 9)
( 9)
( 7)
( 7)
( 7)
(23)
( 6)
( 8)
(18)
(18)
(18)
(17)
(13, 14)
( 8)
( 2)
(17)
( 2)
( 8)
(23)
( 8)
(13)
(15)
( 2)
(17)
(13)
( 4)
(42)
(24)
( 3)
* without regard to oxidation state or compound
**without regard to tissue
***Type of Study
  F= field study
 X = experimental/greenhouse
                                   -9-

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     Some specific element interactions have been observed to influence
plant uptake.  Due to the insolubility of lead phosphate (Pb-^PO^)
lead uptake and accumulation by plants may be significantly mediated by
phosphate levels in the substrate.   Zinc and cadmium interactions also
have been observed to influence plant uptake.  Control  of zinc:cadmium
ratios to 100:1 or greater has been proposed by some investigators to
protect against cadmium accumulation by plants (Chaney, 1973).

     The utilization/disposal of municipal sludge on croplands  and
pasturelands emphasizes the need for definitive data on plant uptake of
synthetic organic chemicals.  The Food and Drug Administration  (FDA) has
indicated that based on uptake studies, edible parts of plants  contain
some of the pesticides listed in table IB), but the levels are  5 to 20
percent of the levels in the soils used and that, in general, root crops
take up more chlorinated organics from the soil than other types of
crops.  However, other studies have shown that chlordane, heptachlor and
dieldrin are translocated from soil into soybeans and stored in the oil
of the seed.  Although the pesticides levels found were low, these data
revealed that sludge can be a source of recycling of chemical contami-
nants from sludge back into the food supply (Jelinek e_t al_., 1976).

     Table 4 reports plant uptake of certain elements (known to be in
sewage sludge at variable concentrations) where sewage sludge was not
part of the substrate employed in the experiment.  These studies are
listed because many of them were cited frequently in the past as indi-
cating the potential for plant uptake of heavy metals from sludge-
amended soils.  Cunningham ejt al_. (1975) has urged caution in attempting
to evaluate phytotoxicity or uptake from sludge-amended soils based on
such studies.

     It should be recognized that surface contamination of the  above
ground portions of plants is also a potential problem in sludge applica-
tion to croplands and pasturelands.  Recent work by the United  States
Department of Agriculture for the FDA showed that dried grass contained
                               -10-


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about 5% by weight of sludge, when the grass had been mowed 80 days
after it had been sprayed with the sludge.  In this case about 30% of
the applied sludge remained on the grass.  It is noteworthy that the
grass in this study was grown in the East; not an arid section of the
country.  This work indicated a potential for contamination by persist-
ent synthetic organics such as organochlorine pesticides and PCBs as a
resul^ of sludge application (Jelinek e£ al_., 1976).
                                -11-

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   TABLE 4.  PLANT UPTAKE OF TRACE ELEMENTS FROM OTHER SUBSTRATES*
Element or
Substance
cadmi um
lead
nickel
selenium
Plants in which increased
Uptake has been observed
lettuce, radish, celery, green
pepper, soybeens, wheat
corn, turnips, beets, beans,
tomatoes, cabbage, lettuce,
green pepper, barley
lettuce, broccoli, spinach,
cauliflower, peas, oats,
radish, carrots
raddish, lettuce
lettuce, oats
corn, alfalfa
tree seedlings (8 species)
pasturage herbage (mixed clovers)
wild oats
corn
oats, soybeens
oats, barley, clover, turnip
potatoes, beets, cabbage, kale
oats, beans, peas, sunflowers
tomatoes
wheat, barley, cotton, peanut
ryegrass, rice, sorghum
grasses, clovers, garden
vegetables
alfalfa
wheat, corn
Literature
Citation
(25)

(51)

(32,33)
(34)
(33)
(41)
(54)
(47)
(53)
( 5)
(56)

(27)

(12)

(62)

(40)
(10)
(55)
*Specific metal  additions to soils or hydroponic solutions.
                                -12-

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IV.  Health Effects Aspects

     The chronic effects resulting from low-level  dietary exposure to many
of the trace elements and substances (found in sewage sludge)  that make
their way into the food chain are not known.  A major health concern is
that application of municipal sewage sludge to cropland and pastureland
can result in plant uptake and accumulation of heavy metals and other
toxic substances.  Chronic exposure to the increased amounts of these
materials in food could give rise to adverse health effects. Although
FDA expressed concern (Jelinek e£al_., 1976)  about the application of
sludge to land used to grow crops in the human food chain, no quantitative
guidance, except for PCBs, was given as to what levels of metals or
other substances in sludge or plants would protect human health.  In
view of the uncertainties and real lack of data on this subject, a
controversy has ensued as to whether such practices are "safe".

     Past presentations in the literature on this subject have not
always clearly distinguished phytotoxicity from animal toxicity.  It is
recognized that toxic effects to crops can provide some protection for
crop consumers (animal and human).  However, accumulation of elements or
toxic substances in crops without manifest phytotoxicity provides the
opportunity for human exposure to potentially harmful substances.  The
reported levels in plant tissue are sometimes subject to misinterpretation.
Care must be taken to distinguish between data on the edible and non-
edible portions of the plant.  However, even the "non-edible" portions
may be used for animal feed so that a particular substance of concern
may still enter the food chain.  Also, non-harvested portions of the
plant may remain in the soil where the elements accumulated could contribute
to local increases in soil levels.
                              -13-

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Cadmium

     The most frequently cited concern, with a specific toxic chemical
in sludge, is the potential for adverse chronic effects such as kidney
disease (renal tubular dysfunction) from increased cadmium intake.   The
Joint Food and Agricultural Organization/ World Health Organization
(FAO/WHO) Expert Committee on Food Additives proposed a tolerable weekly
intake for cadmium of 400 to 500 micrograms (about 57-71 micrograms/day)
(WHO, 1972).  In comparison, the FDA estimates (based on their market
basket surveys)the present daily cadmium intake (including drinking
water) to be approximately 72 micrograms per day (Jelinek e_t a_l_., 1976).
Even though only six percent of ingested cadmium has been shown to  be
accumulated by the body, most of the accumulation is by the kidney so
that even at low concentrations in food, the concentration of cadmium in
the kidney will gradually increase (Friberg e_t a]_., 1974).  The Joint
FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives recommended that cadmium
levels in food should not be allowed to rise further. It is recognized
that soil improvement with nutrient supplements is a source of cadmium
entry into the food chain.  The practice of applying municipal sludge to
croplands has been shown to increase up to several fold the cadmium
content of some crops.  The Swedish National Board of Health and Welfare
in 1973 established a regulation that limits the application of sludge
on available land to one metric ton of dry matter per hectare annually
(English equivalent 0.446 ton/acre), with the cadmium concentration
limited to 15 milligrams per kilogram of dry matter (Stenstrom, 1974).
By comparison, the typical U.S. rate of sludge application is high, 10-
20 dry/tons/acre with a range of 2-1,100 ppm cadmium in sludges analyzed.

     A recent review of cadmium as an environmental problem concluded
that food intake is the major exposure route (EPA, 1975).  The report
indicated that the mechanisms involved in the transfer of cadmium into
food chains are not adequately understood.  It also pointed out that
knowledge is insufficient regarding the cycling of cadmium in the
environment.  The document did not address land application of municipal
sludge as a possible source/mechanism for entry of cadmium into the
                                -14-

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               food  chain  although  it  did mention  the use of  super-phosphate  fertilizers
               which can contain  significant  amounts of cadmium.

               Lead

                    The World  Health Organization  has recommended a  tolerable weekly
               intake for  adult humans of 3 milligrams of lead  (430  micrograms/day).
               Infants and children are considered a high-risk  group.  An HEW-appointed
               ad hoc committee of  experts on pediatric lead  toxicity has proposed a
               tolerable daily intake  of lead of 300 micrograms per  day for 1 to  3 year
               olds.  No level has  been proposed for infants, but it would probably be
               lower due to smaller body size and  greater gastrointestinal absorption
               of lead (Jelinek,  1975).

                    The potential exists for  increased levels of lead in foods  as a
               result of sludge application.   Considering the often  limited lead  uptake
               by plants,  especially under pH conditions greater than 5.5 and with the
          i     presence of phosphate in the substrate, the  margin of safety seems to be
               greater than that  for cadmium.  However, since lead accumulates  in
               bones, liver, and  kidneys, its ingestion via dietary  intake cannot be
               ignored.

ij              Mercury

:                    The Joint  FAO/WHO  Expert  Committee on Food  Additives established a
]              provisional tolerable weekly intake of 0.3 mg  of total mercury per
|              person, of  which no  more than  0.2 mg should  be present as methyl/mercury
               (WHO, 1972). Little or no mercury  has been  found in  plant produce.  The
               principal source of  mercury in the  diet is fish  (Mahaffey e_t al_.,  1975).
               There is, however, a potential for  mercury uptake by  plants grown  on
               sludge-amended  soil  since the  presence of mercury in  municipal sludge
               has been documented. The limited data available  indicate little  plant
               uptake of mercury; however, since mercury is a cumulative poison and
               biological  methylation  yields  highly toxic alky! forms, the potential
               cannot be  ignored.
                                             -15-

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PCBs
     The recent discovery (April, 1976) of PCBs in the milk of a family
cow in Bloomington, Indiana, illustrated one potential consequence of
municipal sludge application to pastures when industrial  discharge
contaminates the sludge.   This cow grazed on pasture to which 12 tons
per acre of city sludge from the Winston-Thomas treatment plant had been
applied in November 1975.  Subsequent analysis of the sludge samples
from that plant showed 105 ppm and 240 ppm PCBs (dry weight basis).  The
cow's milk contained 5 ppm PCBs (Arochlor 1016) on a fat basis, which is
twice the FDA limit of 2.5 ppm (Jordan, 1976).  Transfer of PCBs to the
cow was probably related to grazing habits resulting in consumption of
the contaminant rather than uptake by the pasturage.  In this instance,
the FDA limit did not provide direct control since the product was not
shipped in interstate commerce.

Other Substances of Concern

     The Food and Drug Administration has expressed concern about "heavy
metals" in foods in the U.S. and is according highest priority to mer-
cury, lead, cadmium, arsenic, selenium, and zinc in its program on toxic
elements in foods.   Specifically, it is suggested that new developments,
such as widespread application of municipal sludge to land used for
growing crops, should hot be initiated on such a substantial scale that
a significant increase of cadmium in the diet would result (Jelinek,
1975).  More recently, "In regards to methods of disposal of sludge, FDA
prefers that the sludge be disposed of by means other than on productive
land, if at all possible.  If sludge is to be applied to productive
land, we would prefer it be used to grow plants not in the human food
chain, such as trees, ornamentals, grass on rights of way, etc.  Finally,
it if is_ to be used for growing crops in the human food chain, we prefer
that it be applied to the land itself, rather than sprayed on the grow-
ing crops," (Jelinek e_t al_., 1976).
                                -16-

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     A recently published study involving feeding a vegetable (Swiss
chard) grown on sludge-amended soil  to guinea pigs has indicated that
other chemical elements may deserve  some attention. Analysis for 41
elements showed elevated concentrations of some elements in certain
animal tissues. Accumulations were noted for antimony in adrenals,
cadmium in kidneys, manganese in liver, and tin in kidney, muscle, and
spleen.  The animals did not reveal  any observed toxicological  effects
after 28 days on a 45% Swiss chard diet (subsequent to a week of graduated
introduction to the 45% amount).  This study involved only a small
number of animals for a short period of time and must be treated with
caution in drawing inferences.  The  authors concluded that the preliminary
data developed are inconclusive, but emphasized the need for conducting
similar replicated feeding studies over a long term and with a greater
number of animals. A similar study is being conducted under EPA and  FDA
sponsorship with cattle grazing on pasture to which sludge has been
applied.  The results will be available within several months (FDA,
1976).
                              -17-

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                           LITERATURE  CITED
(1)   Allaway,  W.H.,  "Agronomic  Controls  Over the  Environmental  Cycling
     of Trace  Elements",  Advance Agron,  20:  235-275  (1968).

(2)   Andersson,  A.  and Nilsson, K.O.,  "Enrichment of Trace  Elements  from
     Sewage Sludge Fertilizer in Soils and Plant", AMBIO, ]_:  176-179
     (1972).

(3)   Background  to the Regulation of Polychlorinated Biphenyls  (PCB)  in
     Canada, A report of  the Task Force  on PCB, to the Environmental
     Contaminants Committee of Environment Canada and Health  &  Welfare
     Canada, Technical Report 76-1,  (April,  1976).

(4)   Bauer, W.J.  and Sheaffer,  J.R., Sludge, Soils,  Water,  and  Plants,
     Soil  Enrichment Materials  Corp.,  December 1973.

(5)   Baumhardt G.R.  and Welch L.F.,  "Lead Uptake  and Corn Growth  with. Soil
     Applied  Lead",  J. Environ. Quality, !_:  92-94 (1972).

(6)   Bingham,  F.T.,  Page, A.L., Mahler,  R.J., and Ganje, T.J.,  "Growth
     and Cadmium Accumulation of Plants  Grown on  a Soil  Treated with a
     Cadmium-Enriched Sewage Sludge, J.  Environ.  Qua!., £:  207-11  (1975).

(7)   Bingham,  F.T.  et_al_., "Yield and Cadmium Accumulation  of Forage
     Species  in  Relation  to Cadmium  Content of Sludge-Amended Soil",
     J. Environ.  Qua!., 5: 57-60 (1976).

(8)   Boswell,  F.C.,  "Municipal  Sewage Sludge and  Selected Element
     Applications to Soil: Effect on Soil and Fescue", J. Environ. Qua!.,
     4: 267-272  (1975).

(9)   Bowen, H.J.M.,  Trace Elements in Biochemistry,  Academic  Press,  New
     York, 1966.

(10) Bradford, G.R.  ejt ^1_., "Trace Element Concentrations of  Sewage
     Treatment Plant Effluents  and Sludges:  Their Interactions  with
     Soils and Uptake by  Plants", J. Environ. Qua!.. 4_:  123-127 (1975).

(11) Braude,  G.L., Jelinek, C.F., and Corneliussen,  P.,  FDA's Overview
     of the Potential Health Hazards Associated with the Land Application
     of Municipal Wastewater Sludges," in Proceedings of the  1975
     National  Conference  on Municipal  Sludge Management and Disposal  (1975).

(12) Carter D.L., Brown M.J., and Robbins C.W., "Selenium Concentrations in
     Alfalfa from Several Sources Applied to Low  Selenium,  Alkaline  Soil",
     Soil  Science Society of America Proc..  33_: 715-718 (1969).

(13) Chaney,  R.L.,  "Crop  and Food Chain  Effects of Toxic Elements in
     Sludges and Effluents", in Recycling Municipal  Sludges and Efflu-
     ents  on  Land,  Proceedings  of Joint  Conference,  (July 9-13, 1973).
                              -18-

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(14)  Crooke,  W.M.,  "Effect of Heavy-Metal  Toxicity on the Cation Ex-
     change Capacity of Plant Roots",  Soil  Sci.,  86.:  231-240 (1958).

(15)  Cunningham, J.D.,  Keeney, O.K.,  and Ryan,  J.A.,  "Yield and Metal
     Composition of Corn and Rye Grown on Sewage  Sludge-Amended Soil",
     J.  Environ. Qua!., 4: 448-454 (1975).

(16)  Cunningham, J.D.,  Keeney, D.R.,  and Ryan,  J.A.,  "Phytotoxicity and
     Uptake of Metals Added to Soils  as Inorganic Salts or in Sewage
     Sludge", J. Environ.  Qua!., 4: 460-462 (1975).

(17)  Cunningham, J.D.,  Ryan, J.A., and Keeney,  D.R.,  "Phytotoxicity in
     and Metal Uptake from Soil Treated with Metal-Amended Sewage
     Sludge", J. Environ.  Qua!., 4: 455-460 (1975).

(18)  Dean, R.B., "Disposal and Reuse  of Sludge  and Sewage: What are the
     Options", in Proceedings of Conference on  Land Disposal of Munici-
     pal Effluents  and Sludges, Rutgers University,  N.J. (March, 1973).

(-19)  Dowdy, R.H., and Larson, W.E.,  "Metal  Uptake by Barley Seedlings
     Grown on Soils Amended with Sewage Sludge",  J.  Environ. Qua!., 4_:
     229-233 (1975).

(20)  Dowdy, R.H. and Larson, W.E., "The Availability of Sludge-Borne
     Metals to Various Vegetable Crops", J. Environ.  Qua!., 4_: 278-282
  .   (1975).

(21)  EPA, Review of PCB Levels in the Environment, EPA-560/7-76-001,
     (January, 1976).

(22)  EPA, Scientific and Technical Assessment Report on Cadmium, EPA-
     600/6-75-003,  (March 1975).

(23)  FDA, personal  communication, Dr.  George Braude, April, 1976.

(24)  Friberg, L. et al., Cadmiurn in the Environment, CRC Press, Cleve-
     land, Ohio, 2nd edition (1974).

(25)  Furr, A.K. et al., "Study of Guinea Pigs Fed Swiss Chard Grown
     on Municipal Sludge-Amended Soil", Archives  of Env. Health, 31:
     87-91 (1976).

(26)  Furr, A.K. et_al_., "Multielement and Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Analysis
     of Municipal Sewage Sludges of American Cities," Environ. Sci. and
     Tech.. j_0: 683-687 (1976).

(27)  Giordano, P.M., Mortvedt, J.J.,  and Mays,  D.A., "Effect of Munic-
     ipal Wastes on Crop Yields and Uptake of Heavy Metals", J. Environ.
     Qua!.. 4: 394-399 (1975).
(28) Haghiri, F., "Cadmium Uptake by Plants", J.  Environ. Qua!., 2_:
     93-96 (1973).
                              -19-

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(29)  Hinesly.T.D.  and Sosewitz,  M. "Digested Sludge Disposal  on  Cropland",  J_._
     Water Pollution Control  Federation,  41_:  822 (1969).

(30)  Hunter,  J.  and Vergano,  0., "Nickel  Toxicity in Plants", Ann.
     Appl. Biol.,  39_: 279-284 (1952).

(31)  IARC (1973),  IARC Monographs on the  Evaluation of Carcinogenic
     Risk of Chemicals to Man,  Vol.  2,  p.  100,  IARC, Lyon.

(32)  Jelinek, C.F., Braude,  G.L., and Read, R.B., "Management of
     Sludge Use  on Land, FDA Considerations", Presented at  the  Associ-
     ation of Metropolitan Sewerage  Agencies  Conference on  Sludge
     Management, Houston, Texas, April  13, (1976).

(33)  Jelinek, C.F., Mahaffey, K.R.,  and Corneliussen, P.E.,  "Estab-
     lishment of Regulatory Levels for Heavy  Metals in Foods in the
     U.S.", delivered at the Intl. Conf.  on Heavy Metals in  the Env.,
     Toronto, Ontario (Oct.  31, 1975).

(34)  John, M.K., "Cadmium Uptake by  Eight Food  Crops as Influenced by
     Various Soil  Levels of Cadmium", Environ.  Pollut.', 4_:  7-15 (1973).

(35)  John, M.K., Chuah, H.H., and Van Laerhoven, C.J., "Cadmium Con-
     tamination  of Soil and Its Uptake by Oats", Env. Sci.  and  Tech.,
     6_: 555-7 (1972).

(36)  John, M.K.  and Van Laerhoven, C.J.,  "Lead  Uptake by Lettuce and
     Oats as Affected by Lime,  Nitrogen,  and  Sources of Lead",  J. Environ.,
     Qua!., 1: 169-71 (1972).

(37)  John, M.K., Van Laerhoven, C.J., and Chuah, H.H., "Factors Affect-
     ing Plant Uptake and Phytoxicity of  Cadmium Added to Soils", Env.
     Sci. and Tech., 6.: 1005-09 (1972).

(38)  Jones, R.L.,  Hinesly, T.D., and Ziegler, E.L., "Cadmium Content of
     Soybeans Grown in Sewage-Sludge Amended  Soil", J. Environ. Qua!.,
     2: 351-53 (1973).

(39)  Jones, R.L. et al., "Cadmium and Zinc Contents of Corn  Leaf and
     Grain Produced" by Sludge-Amended Soil",  J.  Environ.  Qua!., 4: 509-
     514 (1975).

(40)  Jordan,  D., "PCBs Discovered in Family Cow's Milk",  Bloomington
   .  Herald Telephone (Indiana), (4/20/76).

(41)  Kirkham, M.B., "Uptake of Cadmium and Zinc  from Sludge  by  Barley
     Grown Under Four Different Sludge Irrigation Regimes",  J.  Environ.
     Qua!.. 4: 423-26 (1975).

(42)  Kirkham, M.B., "Trace Elements  in  Corn Grown on a Long-Term Sludge
     Disposal Site", Environ. Sci. and  Tech.. 8; 765-68 (1976).
                              -20-

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(43)  Kubota,  J.  Allaway,  W.H.,  Carter,  D.L.,  Gary,  E.E.,  and Lazar,
     V.A.,  "Selenium in Crops  in  the United States  in Relation  to
     Selenium-Responsive Diseases of Animals",  J. Agr.  Food Chetn.,  15:
     448-53 (1967).

(44)  Lagerwerf,  J.V., Armiger,  W.H., and Specht,  A.W.,  "Uptake  of  Lead
     by Alfalfa  and Corn from  Soil  and  Air",  Soil Sci.. 115: 455-60 (1973).

(45)  LeRiche, H.H., "Metal  Contamination of Soil  in the Woburn  Market
     Garden Experiment Resulting  from the Application of Sewage Sludge",
     J. Agric. Sci., 7]_:  205-208  (1968).

(46)  Linnman, L. et_al_.,  "Cadmium Uptake by Wheat from Sewage Sludge
     Used as a Plant Nutrient  Source",  Arch.  Environ. Health, 27;  45-47
     (1974).

(47)  Lisk,  D.J., "Trace Metals  in Soils, Plants and Animals", Advance
     Agron, 24:  267-325 (1972).

(48)  Lu, Po-Yung e_t aj_.,  "Model Ecosystem Studies of Lead and Cadmium
     and of Urban Sewage Sludge Containing These Elements", J.  Environ.
     Qua!.. 4: 505-509 (1975).

(49)  Mahaffey, K.R., Corneliussen, P.E., Jelinek, C.F., and Fiorino,
     J.A.,  (1975) "Heavy Metal  Exposure from  Foods", Environ. Health
     Perspec.. 12.: 63-69.

(50)  Mitchell, R.L. and Reith,  "The Lead Content of Pasture Herbage",
     J. Sci.  and Food Agric.,  1_7_: 435-440 (1966).          «

(51)  NAS Medical and Biological Effects of Environmental  Pol-
     lutants, Chromium, NAS, Washington, D.C. (1974).

(52)  NAS Medical and Biological Effects of Environmental  Pol-
     lutants. Nickel. NAS.  Washington.  D.C. (1975).

(53)  Page,  A.L., Fate and Effects of Trace Elements in Sewage Sludge
     When Applied to Agricultural Lands. A Literature Review Study,
     EPA-670/2-74-005 (NTIS No. PB-231171) (1974).

(54)  Page,  A.L., Bingham, F.T., and Nelson, C., "Cadmium Absorption
     and Growth  of Various  Plant  Species as Influenced by Solution
     Cadmium Concentration", J. Environ. Qua!., 1_:  288-291 (1972).

(55)  Papers from Proceedings of the National  Conference on Municipal
     Sludge Management, (June  11-13. 1974).

(56)  Rains, D.W., "Lead Accumulation by Wild  Oats (Avena fatua) in a
     Contaminated Area", Nature,  233: 210-11  (1971).

(57)  Rolfe, G.L., "Lead Uptake by Selected Tree Seedlings", J.  Environ.
     Qua!.. 2: 153-157 (1973).
                              -21-

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               (58)  Rosenfield,  I.  and Beath, O.A., Selenium: Geobotany Biochemistry,
                    Toxicity,  Nutrition, Academic Press, NY  (1964).

               (59)  Roth,  J.A.,  Wallihan,  E.G.,  and Sharpless,  R.G.,  "Uptake by  Oats
                    and  Soybeans of Copper and Nickel Added  to  a  Peat  Soil", Soil
                    Sci.,  112: 338-42  (1971).

               (60)  Sabey,  B.R.  and Hart,  W.E.,  "Land Application of  Sewage Sludge: I.
                    Effect on  Growth and Chemical Composition of  Plants", J. Environ.
                    Qua!.,  4:  252-56 (1975).
j               (61)  Shipp,  R.F.  and  Baker,  D.E.,  "Pennsylvania's Sewage Sludge Research
]                    and  Extension  Program",  Compost Sci.,  16(2)  (March-April 1975).

!               (62)  Siddle,  R.C.,  Hook, J.E., and Kardos,  L.T.,  "Heavy Metals Applica-
J                    tion and Plant Uptake in a  Land Disposal System for Waste Water,
1                    J. Environ.  Qua!.. 5: 97-102  (1976).
i            "               ™ ~* ""•"••• '*- *  	    ^~

:               (63)  Stenstrom,  T., "Cadmium Availability to Wheat: A Study with Radio-
!                    active  Tracers Under Field  Conditions", AMBIO, 3_: 87-90  (1974).
i
1               (64)  WHO,  "Evaluation of Certain Food Additives and the Contaminants
i                    Mercury, Lead, and Cadmium", Sixteenth Report of the Joint FAQ/WHO
1   "                 Expert  Committee on Food Additives, WHO Tech. Rept. Series No. 505,
j                    Geneva  (1972).
i
i               (65)  Wiltshire,  G.H., "Effect of Nitrogen Source  on Translocation of
                    Nickel  in Some Crop Plants  and Weeds", Kirkia. 8.(2): 103-123 (1972).
                                            -22-

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                         APPENDIX
                 SLUDGE INFORMATION SUMMARY*
1.    Quantities of sludge (estimated)
                                             dry tons/day
     Domestic

     Industrial  users of
     municipal  plants
     Total  municipal
     sludge
Current


10,000

 7,000



17,000
2.   Current disposition of sludge

          Method         % Total Sludge


          Landfill            25%
          Ocean dump          15%
          Incineration        35%
          Land application    25%
               Croplands      (20%)
               Others         ( 5%)
Secondary Treatment
(next 10 years)

     13,000

     10,000
     23,000
                    Reliability of Estimate


                         Good
                         Good
                         Good
                         Good
                         Poor
                         Poor
*Derived from background information to the Technical Bulletin on
Municipal Sludge Management:  Environmental Factors, Fed. Reg. 41,
108: 22532-22543, (June 3, 1976).
                             -23-

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3.    1972 Land Spreading Survey (Liquid Sludge Only)

          EPA Regions 2, 3,  4,  5,  and 9
          Mailed 1909, Responded 745 (39%)
4.
Region
2 (NJ.NY
3 (DE..MD
VA.WV)
4 (AL.FL
KY,MS,
SC.TN)
5 (IL.IN
MN,OH,
9 (CA.HI
Total
Size
MGD*
1-10
10-100
Greater
Currently
Use
) 6%
, PA
27%
,GA,
NC,
18%
WI)' 36%
,NV) 14%
25%
Currently
Use
27%
15%
than 100 7%
Will Use
6%
5%
12%
9%
6%
8%
Will
Use
8%
. 9%
13%
Do Not Use
88%
68%
70%
55%
80%
67%
Do Not
Use
65%
76%
80%
Total Costs for Various Sludge Methods
Includes


operating and construction costs

1 MGD
Land Application 127-168
Landfill 171-208
Incineration 250-320 1
Ocean Dumping 376-417
$/Dry Ton
10 MGD
53-71
77-116
11-174
93-134

100 MGD
57-84
63-98
79-120
56-93
             MGD = million gallons/day

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:•
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA 560/8/76/004
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Considerations Relatinc
Application of Muni ci pi
Pastureland (A Backgroi
2. 3. RECIF
5. REPO
] to Toxic Suhstanrps in t^p
il Sludge to Cropland and 6-PERF
jnd Summary)
7. AUTHOR(S) 8. PERF
Frank D. Kover
EPA-Office of Toxic Substances
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME M
U.S. Environmental Pro1
Office of Toxic Substar
401 "M" Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 2046C
JD ADDRESS 10. PRO
:ection Agency ?|
lUeb 11. CON
)
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS 13. TYP
Fl

14. SPO
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
'lENT'S ACCESSION-NO.
RT DATE
jvember 1976
ORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
ORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
GRAM ELEMENT NO.
_A328
TRACT/GRANT NO.
= OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
nal
NSORING AGENCY CODE

16. ABSTRACT
This report presents background information pertinent to an assessment of
the potential health hazards from toxic substances when disposing/utilizing
municipal sludge on agricultural lands, particularly croplands and pasturelands
where products enter the human food chain.
17.
a. DESCRIPTORS
municipal sludge
soi 1 amendment
trace elements
heavy metals
PCBs
cadmium
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Document is available to th
the National Technical Info
Springfield, Virginia 2215
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDE
plant uptake
food chain
19. SECURITY CLASS (This I
e public through unclassified
rmatlon Service 20. SECURITY CLASS (TMs i
•| unclassified
-•
D TERMS c. COSATI Field/Group
02/A.D
06/F,H,I,T
07/B,C
leport) 21. NO. OF PAGES
•>age) 22. PRICE
        EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)

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