EPA-560/8-76-004
CONSIDERATIONS RELATING TO TOXIC SUBSTANCES
IN THE
APPLICATION OF MUNICIPAL SLUDGE TO CROPLAND AND
PASTURELAND
v A BACKGROUND SUMMARY
PREPARED BY
OFFICE OF Toxic SUBSTANCES
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WASHINGTON, D,C, 2f
NOVEMBER 1976
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EPA-560/8-76-004
CONSIDERATIONS RELATING TO TOXIC SUBSTANCES
IN THE
APPLICATION OF MUNICIPAL SLUDGE TO CROPLAND AND
PASTURELAND
A Background Summary
Prepared By
Office of Toxic Substances
Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
November 1976
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Introduction 1
I. Municipal Sludge 2
II. Elements and Substances Found in Municipal Sludge 4
III. Plant Uptake of Chemical Substances from Municipal
Sludge-Amended Soil 7
IV. Health Effects Aspects 13
Literature Cited 18
Appendix - Sludge Information Summary 23
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 - Trace Elements and Substances Found in Municipal
Sludge 5
Table 2 - Factors Influencing Plant Uptake of Chemical
Substances 8
Table 3 - Studies on Plant Uptake of Chemical Substances
from SI udge-Amended Soi 1 9
Table 4 - Plant Uptake of Trace Elements from Other
Substrates 12
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NOTICE
This report has been reviewed by the Office of Toxic Substances, Environ-
mental Protection Agency, and approved for publication. Approval does
not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the views and policies
of the Environmental Protection Agency. Mention of tradenames or commercial
products is for purposes of clarity only and does not constitute endorse-
ment or recommendation for use. This document is available to the public
through the National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia
22151.
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INTRODUCTION
Background information is presented pertinent to an assessment of
the potential health hazards from toxic substances when disposing/utilizing
municipal sludge on agricultural lands, particularly croplands and
pasturelands where the products enter the human food chain.
The report considers some of the toxic elements and synthetic
organic chemical substances known to be present in municipal sludges.
Only readily available information has been used. The report clearly
does not represent an exhaustive review of the subject. Nevertheless, it
is clear that applicable and available data on this subject are scarce
adding to the uncertainties regarding the hazard potential associated
with applying municipal sludge to cropland and pastureland. Potential
difficulties which might be associated with bacterial and viral pathogens
and radioactive substances present in municipal sludge are beyond the
scope of the report.
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I. Municipal Sludge
The volume of municipal sludge requiring disposal in the United
States is estimated to be about 17,000 dry tons per day and is expected
to increase over the next ten years, with the implementation of nation-
wide secondary treatment, to be about 23,000 dry tons per day. Current
disposal methodologies reported to the EPA Office of Water Programs
Operations are presented in the Appendix. A review of that information
has indicated that the quantity of sludge will increase by about 35% and
that industrial users of municipal sewage treatment plants will increase
by over 40% in the next 10 years. Industrial wastes are estimated to
account for about 25% of municipal treatment plant influent nationally
and may be near 100% in some localities. The toxic metal content of
municipal sludge from various cities approaches the levels found in some
industrial sludges.
At present, it is estimated that 20% of the total municipal sludge
produced is applied to croplands (see Appendix). Estimates of the
amount of agricultural land area that would be used if all sludges were
disposed/utilized for landspreading have been made. One estimate is
that with a "typical" application rate of 20 tons/acre/year about 570
square miles would be required (Dean, 1973). This amounts to less than
1% per year of the total agricultural land areas of the United States.
Other estimates of typical application rates range from 10 to 20
tons/acre/year but these vary considerably due to site-specific condi-
tions. Some guidelines exist which limit applications based on fertil-
• 'izer rates of nitrogen.
]
I The levels of trace elements and chemical substances found in munic-
i
ipal sludge can be highly variable even on a daily basis. The range of
levels detected is quite wide, depending to a large degree on the type
-2-
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and quantity of industrial input to the municipal treatment plant (see
p. 23). Considering purely domestic sludge to be free of trace element
and chemical substance contaminants is not warranted. In sewer systems
with no industrial connections there are inputs from hospitals, research
laboratories, and dentist offices (mercury). Other sources of contaminants
include motor oil additives; flow entrainment of lead, copper, cadmium,
zinc, and antimony from water-carrying pipes; street runoff; detergents
and laundry products; and consumer products, including pesticides and
organics, flushed into the sewer.
-3-
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II. Elements and Substances Found in Municipal Sludge
Table 1 lists some of the trace elements and chemical substances
found in municipal sludge which may deserve attention from a health
effects standpoint. The range of concentrations (dry weight) observed
is indicated. The amount of sludge-analysis data is limited and the use
of different analytical methodologies complicates the evaluation of
the available data. The wide ranges observed have been attributed to
the variable quantity and character of industrial input to different
municipal treatment plants. References 1, 9, 13, 21, 25, 26, 27, 32,
47, 53, and 61 were used as sources in compiling table 1.
Commercial "bagged sludge" soil conditioners derived from municipal
sludge, such as Milorganite, also deserve consideration. Milorganite
has been analyzed and found to contain what were considered high cadmium
and chromium levels. Recent analysis of a sample by EPA Region X found
cadmium at 117 mg/kg and chromium at 6,042 mg/kg. Home and hobbyist use
of municipal sludge such as Milorganite can result in intensive application
to small plots of land. Use is not limited to ornamental plants, but it
has been applied to vegetable gardens as well. Home-grown vegetables
are not subject to FDA monitoring, nor are contaminants in them diluted
in family use by the commercial food distribution system. In season,
they can form a major portion of a family's diet.
As table 1 indicates, municipal sludges also may contain persistent
organic chemical contaminants such as PCBs and chlorinated pesticides.
Data are scarce on other organics present in municipal sludge largely
due to lack of research in this area, although the range of contaminants
(over 100) reported for drinking water is indicative of the compounds
which could be present in municipal sludge. Typical drinking water
contaminants which might be present in municipal sludges include halogenated
j (mostly chlorinated) hydrocarbons, long chain hydrocarbons, benzenes and
j polynuclear aromatics. Other classes of organic chemicals which appear
! to have a high potential for sludge contamination due to their persistence
j in environmental waters include chlorobenzenes, chlorophenols, chlorinated
paraffins, and halogenated cyclodiene flame retardants (Braude e£. al_.,
1975).
-4-
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Table 1. TRACE ELEMENTS AND SUBSTANCES FOUND
) Elements
Aluminum (Al)
Antimony (Sb)
Arsenic (As)
Boron (B)
Barium (Ba)
Beryllium (Be)
Bismuth (B1)
Bromine (Br
Cadmium (Cd
Calcium (Ca
Cerium (Ce)
Cesium (Cs)
Chlorine (Cl)
Chromium (Cr)
Cobalt (Co)
Copper (Cu)
Dysprosium (Dy)
Erbium (Er)
Europium (Eu)
Fluorine (F)
Gadollmlum (Gd)
Gallium (Ga)
Germanium (Ge)
Gold (Au)
Hafnium (Hf)
Holmlum (Ho)
Indium (In)
Iodine
Irldlum (Ir)
Iron (Fe)
Lanthanum (La)
Lead (Pb)
Lutecium (Lu)
Magnesium (Mg)
Manganese (Mn)
Mercury (Hg)
Range of Concentration (ppm dry weight)
In Municipal Sludge
8,100-51,200
2.6-44.4
3.0-50
4-1 ,430
272-1066
<4-<15
0.03-55.8
13.7-165
2-1,100
1760-116,400
12.4-272
0.45-2.9
500-17.800
22-30,000
2-800
84-17,000
0.7-19.8
0.2-4.5
0.7-12.2
2.2-738
1.1-22.7
0.9-54
1.1-10.5
0.21-7.00
1.3-10.7
0.07-0.67
0.07-3.7
1.0-17.1
0.04-0.46
1,000-144,000
5,1-380
80-26,000
0.04-0.34
2,000-14,035
32-8,800
0.1-89
IN MUNICIPAL SLUDGE
Concentration Range (ppm)
In Unamended Soil (dry)
10,000-300,000
2-10
0.1-40
2-100
100-3,000
0.1-40
--
1-10
0.01-7
7,000-500,000
__
0.3-25
5-3,000
1-40
2-100
-_
__
30-300
__
__
__
__
__
^^
__
__
_«.
__
7.000-550,000
1-5,000
2-200
•»_
600-6.000
100-4.000
0.01-0.3
Mean level (ppm)
In dry Soil
71,000
6
6
10
500
6
5
0.06
13,700
50
6
100
100
8
20
200
30
1
38,000
30
10
5,000
850
0.03
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A) Elements
TABLE 1. (CONT.)
Range of Concentration (ppm dry weight)
In Municipal Sludge
art
I
B)
Molybdenum (Mo)
Neodymium (Nd)
Nickel (Ni)
Nitrogen (N)
Osmium (Os)
Palladium (Pd)
Phosphorus (P)
Platinum (Pt)
Protractlnlum (Pr)
Rhenium (Re)
Rubidnium (Rb)
Ruthenium (Ru)
Samarium (Sm)
Scandium (Sc)
Selenium (Se)
Silver (Ag)
Sodium (Na)
Strontium (Sr) /
Sulfur (S)
Tantalum (Ta)
Tellurium (Te)
Terbium (Tb)
Thorium (Th)
Thulllum (Tm)
Tin (Sn)
Titanium (T1)
Tungsten (N)
Uranium (U)
Vanadium (V)
Ytterbium (Yb)
Yttrium (Y)
Zinc (Zn)
Zirconium (Zr)
Organics
Aldrin
Chlordane
ODD
DDT
Dieldrin
fluorescent whitening
agents
PCBs
1.2-1000
0.6-8.6
12-8,000
16,000-66,000
0.06-3.18
0.5-16.2
8,000-40,000
0.05-0.74
1.1-119
0.03-0.98
4.3-94.6
0.21-7.05
1.0-14.2
0.5-7.1
1.7-8.7
ND-960
567-8,800
ND-2,230
9,000-11,000
0.11-1.45
0.07-1.52
0.27-4.83
3.1-16.8
0.06-3.31
40-700
1080-4580
0.9-99.6
0.8-6.4
ND-2100
0.29-1.30
0.8-10.1
72-50,000
4.8-319
ND-16
ND-32.2
ND-1.0
ND-1.1
0.8-2.2
12-50
ND-1700
Concentration Range (ppm)
In Unamended Soil (dry)
0.2-5
10-1000
200-2500
20-600
10-25
0.01-2
0.01-5
750-7,500
50-1,000
30-900
0.1-12
2-200
1,000-10,000
0.9-9
20-500
25-250
10-300
60-2000
Mean level (ppm)
in dry Soil
40
1000
650
100
7
0.2
0.1
6,300
300
700
10
5,000
1
100
50
50
300
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•;| III. Plant Uptake of Chemical Substances from Municipal Sludge-Amended Soil
.:i
i
A limited amount of data were located on the uptake of metals and
] other substances by plants from soil, especially the uptake of non-
• essential elements from sludge-amended soils. Many factors have been
...: recognized as having an effect on plant accumulation of toxic metals;
; however, few definitive studies have been conducted to allow a precise
description of soil-piant relationships for all factors for any
element or substance.
t
Knowledge of the chemical forms preferentially absorbed from the
soil by plants is an important factor in estimating plant uptake.
Considerable research is necessary to define plant-available forms. Any
factor that affects the availability of elements in the soil also may
affect plant accumulation. Table 2 is a partial .list of factors known
to influence plant uptake. In addition, there are probably several
unknown factors which contribute to the complexity of this problem.
Table 3 lists some of the elements and types of plants for which
uptake has been observed. An uptake of 50% or greater over controls was
the criterion for inclusion on the list. The cited studies are not
directly comparable with each other and do not adequately describe all
aspects of uptake for any element. The elements and substances listed
(except manganese) have been considered non-essential for plants.
Excess concentrations of the essential elements also may accumulate in
plant tissue from sludge and/or soil substrate. In some cases, excess
nutrient may be toxic to the plant. When plant injury occurs due to
toxicity, there is some protective value for those (animals and humans)
who may choose not to consume damaged crops; however the accumulation of
substances in crops without phytotoxicity raises some concern with
respect to the human food chain. Even though some elements are essential
nutrients for plants, their importance as potential toxic hazards when
plant accumulation occurs should not be overlooked when additions of
municipal sludge are made to soils used to grow crops in the human
food chain.
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Table 2. Factors Influencing Plant Uptake of Chemical Substances
Soil/Sludge Factors
PH
organic matter content
cation exchange capacity
phosphate (amounts) availability
specific metal characteristics
presence of competing ions
soil distribution of metals
soil variables - moisture, temperature, aeration (02)5 composition
soil solubility status
Plant Factors
rooting depth
plant age
plant species and variety, tissue differences with species
Other
climatic (seasonal) effects
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TABLE 3. STUDIES ON PLANT UPTAKE OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES
Element* or
Substances
arsenic
cadmium
chromium
lead
manganese
mercury
nickel
PCBs
FROM SLUDGE-AMENDED
Plants in which Uptake
has been observed **
fodder rape
bush beans, corn
barley
wheat
corn
corn
rye
soybeans
sorghum
tomatoes (leaves)
sudan grass
alfalfa
white clover (forage)
tall fescue
bermuda grass
Swiss chard
spinach, lettuce, curly cress
fescue (forage)
carrots, radishes, potatoes
peas (vines, pods), tomatoes
corn, lettuce
barley
corn, rye
fescue (forage)
fodder rape
barl ey
fodder rape
fescue (forage)
Swiss chard
fescue (forage)
corn, rye
' corn
fodder rape
barley
corn, rye
soybeans (grain, leaves)
carrots, beets, leeks
corn, bush beans
grain, corn
SOIL
Type of
Study***
F
F
X
X,X,F,F
X,F,X,X
F.F.F
X,X
X,X .
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
F
X
F
X
X
X
X
X,X
F
F
X
F
F
F
F
X
X
F
X
X
F
F
F
F
literature
Citation
( 2)
(24)
(38)
(6,43,60)
(6,4,13,15)
(36,39,59)
(13, 15)
(6, 35)
(45)
( 9)
( 9)
( 9)
( 7)
( 7)
( 7)
(23)
( 6)
( 8)
(18)
(18)
(18)
(17)
(13, 14)
( 8)
( 2)
(17)
( 2)
( 8)
(23)
( 8)
(13)
(15)
( 2)
(17)
(13)
( 4)
(42)
(24)
( 3)
* without regard to oxidation state or compound
**without regard to tissue
***Type of Study
F= field study
X = experimental/greenhouse
-9-
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Some specific element interactions have been observed to influence
plant uptake. Due to the insolubility of lead phosphate (Pb-^PO^)
lead uptake and accumulation by plants may be significantly mediated by
phosphate levels in the substrate. Zinc and cadmium interactions also
have been observed to influence plant uptake. Control of zinc:cadmium
ratios to 100:1 or greater has been proposed by some investigators to
protect against cadmium accumulation by plants (Chaney, 1973).
The utilization/disposal of municipal sludge on croplands and
pasturelands emphasizes the need for definitive data on plant uptake of
synthetic organic chemicals. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has
indicated that based on uptake studies, edible parts of plants contain
some of the pesticides listed in table IB), but the levels are 5 to 20
percent of the levels in the soils used and that, in general, root crops
take up more chlorinated organics from the soil than other types of
crops. However, other studies have shown that chlordane, heptachlor and
dieldrin are translocated from soil into soybeans and stored in the oil
of the seed. Although the pesticides levels found were low, these data
revealed that sludge can be a source of recycling of chemical contami-
nants from sludge back into the food supply (Jelinek e_t al_., 1976).
Table 4 reports plant uptake of certain elements (known to be in
sewage sludge at variable concentrations) where sewage sludge was not
part of the substrate employed in the experiment. These studies are
listed because many of them were cited frequently in the past as indi-
cating the potential for plant uptake of heavy metals from sludge-
amended soils. Cunningham ejt al_. (1975) has urged caution in attempting
to evaluate phytotoxicity or uptake from sludge-amended soils based on
such studies.
It should be recognized that surface contamination of the above
ground portions of plants is also a potential problem in sludge applica-
tion to croplands and pasturelands. Recent work by the United States
Department of Agriculture for the FDA showed that dried grass contained
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about 5% by weight of sludge, when the grass had been mowed 80 days
after it had been sprayed with the sludge. In this case about 30% of
the applied sludge remained on the grass. It is noteworthy that the
grass in this study was grown in the East; not an arid section of the
country. This work indicated a potential for contamination by persist-
ent synthetic organics such as organochlorine pesticides and PCBs as a
resul^ of sludge application (Jelinek e£ al_., 1976).
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TABLE 4. PLANT UPTAKE OF TRACE ELEMENTS FROM OTHER SUBSTRATES*
Element or
Substance
cadmi um
lead
nickel
selenium
Plants in which increased
Uptake has been observed
lettuce, radish, celery, green
pepper, soybeens, wheat
corn, turnips, beets, beans,
tomatoes, cabbage, lettuce,
green pepper, barley
lettuce, broccoli, spinach,
cauliflower, peas, oats,
radish, carrots
raddish, lettuce
lettuce, oats
corn, alfalfa
tree seedlings (8 species)
pasturage herbage (mixed clovers)
wild oats
corn
oats, soybeens
oats, barley, clover, turnip
potatoes, beets, cabbage, kale
oats, beans, peas, sunflowers
tomatoes
wheat, barley, cotton, peanut
ryegrass, rice, sorghum
grasses, clovers, garden
vegetables
alfalfa
wheat, corn
Literature
Citation
(25)
(51)
(32,33)
(34)
(33)
(41)
(54)
(47)
(53)
( 5)
(56)
(27)
(12)
(62)
(40)
(10)
(55)
*Specific metal additions to soils or hydroponic solutions.
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IV. Health Effects Aspects
The chronic effects resulting from low-level dietary exposure to many
of the trace elements and substances (found in sewage sludge) that make
their way into the food chain are not known. A major health concern is
that application of municipal sewage sludge to cropland and pastureland
can result in plant uptake and accumulation of heavy metals and other
toxic substances. Chronic exposure to the increased amounts of these
materials in food could give rise to adverse health effects. Although
FDA expressed concern (Jelinek e£al_., 1976) about the application of
sludge to land used to grow crops in the human food chain, no quantitative
guidance, except for PCBs, was given as to what levels of metals or
other substances in sludge or plants would protect human health. In
view of the uncertainties and real lack of data on this subject, a
controversy has ensued as to whether such practices are "safe".
Past presentations in the literature on this subject have not
always clearly distinguished phytotoxicity from animal toxicity. It is
recognized that toxic effects to crops can provide some protection for
crop consumers (animal and human). However, accumulation of elements or
toxic substances in crops without manifest phytotoxicity provides the
opportunity for human exposure to potentially harmful substances. The
reported levels in plant tissue are sometimes subject to misinterpretation.
Care must be taken to distinguish between data on the edible and non-
edible portions of the plant. However, even the "non-edible" portions
may be used for animal feed so that a particular substance of concern
may still enter the food chain. Also, non-harvested portions of the
plant may remain in the soil where the elements accumulated could contribute
to local increases in soil levels.
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Cadmium
The most frequently cited concern, with a specific toxic chemical
in sludge, is the potential for adverse chronic effects such as kidney
disease (renal tubular dysfunction) from increased cadmium intake. The
Joint Food and Agricultural Organization/ World Health Organization
(FAO/WHO) Expert Committee on Food Additives proposed a tolerable weekly
intake for cadmium of 400 to 500 micrograms (about 57-71 micrograms/day)
(WHO, 1972). In comparison, the FDA estimates (based on their market
basket surveys)the present daily cadmium intake (including drinking
water) to be approximately 72 micrograms per day (Jelinek e_t a_l_., 1976).
Even though only six percent of ingested cadmium has been shown to be
accumulated by the body, most of the accumulation is by the kidney so
that even at low concentrations in food, the concentration of cadmium in
the kidney will gradually increase (Friberg e_t a]_., 1974). The Joint
FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives recommended that cadmium
levels in food should not be allowed to rise further. It is recognized
that soil improvement with nutrient supplements is a source of cadmium
entry into the food chain. The practice of applying municipal sludge to
croplands has been shown to increase up to several fold the cadmium
content of some crops. The Swedish National Board of Health and Welfare
in 1973 established a regulation that limits the application of sludge
on available land to one metric ton of dry matter per hectare annually
(English equivalent 0.446 ton/acre), with the cadmium concentration
limited to 15 milligrams per kilogram of dry matter (Stenstrom, 1974).
By comparison, the typical U.S. rate of sludge application is high, 10-
20 dry/tons/acre with a range of 2-1,100 ppm cadmium in sludges analyzed.
A recent review of cadmium as an environmental problem concluded
that food intake is the major exposure route (EPA, 1975). The report
indicated that the mechanisms involved in the transfer of cadmium into
food chains are not adequately understood. It also pointed out that
knowledge is insufficient regarding the cycling of cadmium in the
environment. The document did not address land application of municipal
sludge as a possible source/mechanism for entry of cadmium into the
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food chain although it did mention the use of super-phosphate fertilizers
which can contain significant amounts of cadmium.
Lead
The World Health Organization has recommended a tolerable weekly
intake for adult humans of 3 milligrams of lead (430 micrograms/day).
Infants and children are considered a high-risk group. An HEW-appointed
ad hoc committee of experts on pediatric lead toxicity has proposed a
tolerable daily intake of lead of 300 micrograms per day for 1 to 3 year
olds. No level has been proposed for infants, but it would probably be
lower due to smaller body size and greater gastrointestinal absorption
of lead (Jelinek, 1975).
The potential exists for increased levels of lead in foods as a
result of sludge application. Considering the often limited lead uptake
by plants, especially under pH conditions greater than 5.5 and with the
i presence of phosphate in the substrate, the margin of safety seems to be
greater than that for cadmium. However, since lead accumulates in
bones, liver, and kidneys, its ingestion via dietary intake cannot be
ignored.
ij Mercury
: The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives established a
] provisional tolerable weekly intake of 0.3 mg of total mercury per
| person, of which no more than 0.2 mg should be present as methyl/mercury
(WHO, 1972). Little or no mercury has been found in plant produce. The
principal source of mercury in the diet is fish (Mahaffey e_t al_., 1975).
There is, however, a potential for mercury uptake by plants grown on
sludge-amended soil since the presence of mercury in municipal sludge
has been documented. The limited data available indicate little plant
uptake of mercury; however, since mercury is a cumulative poison and
biological methylation yields highly toxic alky! forms, the potential
cannot be ignored.
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PCBs
The recent discovery (April, 1976) of PCBs in the milk of a family
cow in Bloomington, Indiana, illustrated one potential consequence of
municipal sludge application to pastures when industrial discharge
contaminates the sludge. This cow grazed on pasture to which 12 tons
per acre of city sludge from the Winston-Thomas treatment plant had been
applied in November 1975. Subsequent analysis of the sludge samples
from that plant showed 105 ppm and 240 ppm PCBs (dry weight basis). The
cow's milk contained 5 ppm PCBs (Arochlor 1016) on a fat basis, which is
twice the FDA limit of 2.5 ppm (Jordan, 1976). Transfer of PCBs to the
cow was probably related to grazing habits resulting in consumption of
the contaminant rather than uptake by the pasturage. In this instance,
the FDA limit did not provide direct control since the product was not
shipped in interstate commerce.
Other Substances of Concern
The Food and Drug Administration has expressed concern about "heavy
metals" in foods in the U.S. and is according highest priority to mer-
cury, lead, cadmium, arsenic, selenium, and zinc in its program on toxic
elements in foods. Specifically, it is suggested that new developments,
such as widespread application of municipal sludge to land used for
growing crops, should hot be initiated on such a substantial scale that
a significant increase of cadmium in the diet would result (Jelinek,
1975). More recently, "In regards to methods of disposal of sludge, FDA
prefers that the sludge be disposed of by means other than on productive
land, if at all possible. If sludge is to be applied to productive
land, we would prefer it be used to grow plants not in the human food
chain, such as trees, ornamentals, grass on rights of way, etc. Finally,
it if is_ to be used for growing crops in the human food chain, we prefer
that it be applied to the land itself, rather than sprayed on the grow-
ing crops," (Jelinek e_t al_., 1976).
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A recently published study involving feeding a vegetable (Swiss
chard) grown on sludge-amended soil to guinea pigs has indicated that
other chemical elements may deserve some attention. Analysis for 41
elements showed elevated concentrations of some elements in certain
animal tissues. Accumulations were noted for antimony in adrenals,
cadmium in kidneys, manganese in liver, and tin in kidney, muscle, and
spleen. The animals did not reveal any observed toxicological effects
after 28 days on a 45% Swiss chard diet (subsequent to a week of graduated
introduction to the 45% amount). This study involved only a small
number of animals for a short period of time and must be treated with
caution in drawing inferences. The authors concluded that the preliminary
data developed are inconclusive, but emphasized the need for conducting
similar replicated feeding studies over a long term and with a greater
number of animals. A similar study is being conducted under EPA and FDA
sponsorship with cattle grazing on pasture to which sludge has been
applied. The results will be available within several months (FDA,
1976).
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LITERATURE CITED
(1) Allaway, W.H., "Agronomic Controls Over the Environmental Cycling
of Trace Elements", Advance Agron, 20: 235-275 (1968).
(2) Andersson, A. and Nilsson, K.O., "Enrichment of Trace Elements from
Sewage Sludge Fertilizer in Soils and Plant", AMBIO, ]_: 176-179
(1972).
(3) Background to the Regulation of Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB) in
Canada, A report of the Task Force on PCB, to the Environmental
Contaminants Committee of Environment Canada and Health & Welfare
Canada, Technical Report 76-1, (April, 1976).
(4) Bauer, W.J. and Sheaffer, J.R., Sludge, Soils, Water, and Plants,
Soil Enrichment Materials Corp., December 1973.
(5) Baumhardt G.R. and Welch L.F., "Lead Uptake and Corn Growth with. Soil
Applied Lead", J. Environ. Quality, !_: 92-94 (1972).
(6) Bingham, F.T., Page, A.L., Mahler, R.J., and Ganje, T.J., "Growth
and Cadmium Accumulation of Plants Grown on a Soil Treated with a
Cadmium-Enriched Sewage Sludge, J. Environ. Qua!., £: 207-11 (1975).
(7) Bingham, F.T. et_al_., "Yield and Cadmium Accumulation of Forage
Species in Relation to Cadmium Content of Sludge-Amended Soil",
J. Environ. Qua!., 5: 57-60 (1976).
(8) Boswell, F.C., "Municipal Sewage Sludge and Selected Element
Applications to Soil: Effect on Soil and Fescue", J. Environ. Qua!.,
4: 267-272 (1975).
(9) Bowen, H.J.M., Trace Elements in Biochemistry, Academic Press, New
York, 1966.
(10) Bradford, G.R. ejt ^1_., "Trace Element Concentrations of Sewage
Treatment Plant Effluents and Sludges: Their Interactions with
Soils and Uptake by Plants", J. Environ. Qua!.. 4_: 123-127 (1975).
(11) Braude, G.L., Jelinek, C.F., and Corneliussen, P., FDA's Overview
of the Potential Health Hazards Associated with the Land Application
of Municipal Wastewater Sludges," in Proceedings of the 1975
National Conference on Municipal Sludge Management and Disposal (1975).
(12) Carter D.L., Brown M.J., and Robbins C.W., "Selenium Concentrations in
Alfalfa from Several Sources Applied to Low Selenium, Alkaline Soil",
Soil Science Society of America Proc.. 33_: 715-718 (1969).
(13) Chaney, R.L., "Crop and Food Chain Effects of Toxic Elements in
Sludges and Effluents", in Recycling Municipal Sludges and Efflu-
ents on Land, Proceedings of Joint Conference, (July 9-13, 1973).
-18-
-------
(14) Crooke, W.M., "Effect of Heavy-Metal Toxicity on the Cation Ex-
change Capacity of Plant Roots", Soil Sci., 86.: 231-240 (1958).
(15) Cunningham, J.D., Keeney, O.K., and Ryan, J.A., "Yield and Metal
Composition of Corn and Rye Grown on Sewage Sludge-Amended Soil",
J. Environ. Qua!., 4: 448-454 (1975).
(16) Cunningham, J.D., Keeney, D.R., and Ryan, J.A., "Phytotoxicity and
Uptake of Metals Added to Soils as Inorganic Salts or in Sewage
Sludge", J. Environ. Qua!., 4: 460-462 (1975).
(17) Cunningham, J.D., Ryan, J.A., and Keeney, D.R., "Phytotoxicity in
and Metal Uptake from Soil Treated with Metal-Amended Sewage
Sludge", J. Environ. Qua!., 4: 455-460 (1975).
(18) Dean, R.B., "Disposal and Reuse of Sludge and Sewage: What are the
Options", in Proceedings of Conference on Land Disposal of Munici-
pal Effluents and Sludges, Rutgers University, N.J. (March, 1973).
(-19) Dowdy, R.H., and Larson, W.E., "Metal Uptake by Barley Seedlings
Grown on Soils Amended with Sewage Sludge", J. Environ. Qua!., 4_:
229-233 (1975).
(20) Dowdy, R.H. and Larson, W.E., "The Availability of Sludge-Borne
Metals to Various Vegetable Crops", J. Environ. Qua!., 4_: 278-282
. (1975).
(21) EPA, Review of PCB Levels in the Environment, EPA-560/7-76-001,
(January, 1976).
(22) EPA, Scientific and Technical Assessment Report on Cadmium, EPA-
600/6-75-003, (March 1975).
(23) FDA, personal communication, Dr. George Braude, April, 1976.
(24) Friberg, L. et al., Cadmiurn in the Environment, CRC Press, Cleve-
land, Ohio, 2nd edition (1974).
(25) Furr, A.K. et al., "Study of Guinea Pigs Fed Swiss Chard Grown
on Municipal Sludge-Amended Soil", Archives of Env. Health, 31:
87-91 (1976).
(26) Furr, A.K. et_al_., "Multielement and Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Analysis
of Municipal Sewage Sludges of American Cities," Environ. Sci. and
Tech.. j_0: 683-687 (1976).
(27) Giordano, P.M., Mortvedt, J.J., and Mays, D.A., "Effect of Munic-
ipal Wastes on Crop Yields and Uptake of Heavy Metals", J. Environ.
Qua!.. 4: 394-399 (1975).
(28) Haghiri, F., "Cadmium Uptake by Plants", J. Environ. Qua!., 2_:
93-96 (1973).
-19-
-------
(29) Hinesly.T.D. and Sosewitz, M. "Digested Sludge Disposal on Cropland", J_._
Water Pollution Control Federation, 41_: 822 (1969).
(30) Hunter, J. and Vergano, 0., "Nickel Toxicity in Plants", Ann.
Appl. Biol., 39_: 279-284 (1952).
(31) IARC (1973), IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic
Risk of Chemicals to Man, Vol. 2, p. 100, IARC, Lyon.
(32) Jelinek, C.F., Braude, G.L., and Read, R.B., "Management of
Sludge Use on Land, FDA Considerations", Presented at the Associ-
ation of Metropolitan Sewerage Agencies Conference on Sludge
Management, Houston, Texas, April 13, (1976).
(33) Jelinek, C.F., Mahaffey, K.R., and Corneliussen, P.E., "Estab-
lishment of Regulatory Levels for Heavy Metals in Foods in the
U.S.", delivered at the Intl. Conf. on Heavy Metals in the Env.,
Toronto, Ontario (Oct. 31, 1975).
(34) John, M.K., "Cadmium Uptake by Eight Food Crops as Influenced by
Various Soil Levels of Cadmium", Environ. Pollut.', 4_: 7-15 (1973).
(35) John, M.K., Chuah, H.H., and Van Laerhoven, C.J., "Cadmium Con-
tamination of Soil and Its Uptake by Oats", Env. Sci. and Tech.,
6_: 555-7 (1972).
(36) John, M.K. and Van Laerhoven, C.J., "Lead Uptake by Lettuce and
Oats as Affected by Lime, Nitrogen, and Sources of Lead", J. Environ.,
Qua!., 1: 169-71 (1972).
(37) John, M.K., Van Laerhoven, C.J., and Chuah, H.H., "Factors Affect-
ing Plant Uptake and Phytoxicity of Cadmium Added to Soils", Env.
Sci. and Tech., 6.: 1005-09 (1972).
(38) Jones, R.L., Hinesly, T.D., and Ziegler, E.L., "Cadmium Content of
Soybeans Grown in Sewage-Sludge Amended Soil", J. Environ. Qua!.,
2: 351-53 (1973).
(39) Jones, R.L. et al., "Cadmium and Zinc Contents of Corn Leaf and
Grain Produced" by Sludge-Amended Soil", J. Environ. Qua!., 4: 509-
514 (1975).
(40) Jordan, D., "PCBs Discovered in Family Cow's Milk", Bloomington
. Herald Telephone (Indiana), (4/20/76).
(41) Kirkham, M.B., "Uptake of Cadmium and Zinc from Sludge by Barley
Grown Under Four Different Sludge Irrigation Regimes", J. Environ.
Qua!.. 4: 423-26 (1975).
(42) Kirkham, M.B., "Trace Elements in Corn Grown on a Long-Term Sludge
Disposal Site", Environ. Sci. and Tech.. 8; 765-68 (1976).
-20-
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(43) Kubota, J. Allaway, W.H., Carter, D.L., Gary, E.E., and Lazar,
V.A., "Selenium in Crops in the United States in Relation to
Selenium-Responsive Diseases of Animals", J. Agr. Food Chetn., 15:
448-53 (1967).
(44) Lagerwerf, J.V., Armiger, W.H., and Specht, A.W., "Uptake of Lead
by Alfalfa and Corn from Soil and Air", Soil Sci.. 115: 455-60 (1973).
(45) LeRiche, H.H., "Metal Contamination of Soil in the Woburn Market
Garden Experiment Resulting from the Application of Sewage Sludge",
J. Agric. Sci., 7]_: 205-208 (1968).
(46) Linnman, L. et_al_., "Cadmium Uptake by Wheat from Sewage Sludge
Used as a Plant Nutrient Source", Arch. Environ. Health, 27; 45-47
(1974).
(47) Lisk, D.J., "Trace Metals in Soils, Plants and Animals", Advance
Agron, 24: 267-325 (1972).
(48) Lu, Po-Yung e_t aj_., "Model Ecosystem Studies of Lead and Cadmium
and of Urban Sewage Sludge Containing These Elements", J. Environ.
Qua!.. 4: 505-509 (1975).
(49) Mahaffey, K.R., Corneliussen, P.E., Jelinek, C.F., and Fiorino,
J.A., (1975) "Heavy Metal Exposure from Foods", Environ. Health
Perspec.. 12.: 63-69.
(50) Mitchell, R.L. and Reith, "The Lead Content of Pasture Herbage",
J. Sci. and Food Agric., 1_7_: 435-440 (1966). «
(51) NAS Medical and Biological Effects of Environmental Pol-
lutants, Chromium, NAS, Washington, D.C. (1974).
(52) NAS Medical and Biological Effects of Environmental Pol-
lutants. Nickel. NAS. Washington. D.C. (1975).
(53) Page, A.L., Fate and Effects of Trace Elements in Sewage Sludge
When Applied to Agricultural Lands. A Literature Review Study,
EPA-670/2-74-005 (NTIS No. PB-231171) (1974).
(54) Page, A.L., Bingham, F.T., and Nelson, C., "Cadmium Absorption
and Growth of Various Plant Species as Influenced by Solution
Cadmium Concentration", J. Environ. Qua!., 1_: 288-291 (1972).
(55) Papers from Proceedings of the National Conference on Municipal
Sludge Management, (June 11-13. 1974).
(56) Rains, D.W., "Lead Accumulation by Wild Oats (Avena fatua) in a
Contaminated Area", Nature, 233: 210-11 (1971).
(57) Rolfe, G.L., "Lead Uptake by Selected Tree Seedlings", J. Environ.
Qua!.. 2: 153-157 (1973).
-21-
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(58) Rosenfield, I. and Beath, O.A., Selenium: Geobotany Biochemistry,
Toxicity, Nutrition, Academic Press, NY (1964).
(59) Roth, J.A., Wallihan, E.G., and Sharpless, R.G., "Uptake by Oats
and Soybeans of Copper and Nickel Added to a Peat Soil", Soil
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i " ™ ~* ""•"••• '*- * ^~
: (63) Stenstrom, T., "Cadmium Availability to Wheat: A Study with Radio-
! active Tracers Under Field Conditions", AMBIO, 3_: 87-90 (1974).
i
1 (64) WHO, "Evaluation of Certain Food Additives and the Contaminants
i Mercury, Lead, and Cadmium", Sixteenth Report of the Joint FAQ/WHO
1 " Expert Committee on Food Additives, WHO Tech. Rept. Series No. 505,
j Geneva (1972).
i
i (65) Wiltshire, G.H., "Effect of Nitrogen Source on Translocation of
Nickel in Some Crop Plants and Weeds", Kirkia. 8.(2): 103-123 (1972).
-22-
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APPENDIX
SLUDGE INFORMATION SUMMARY*
1. Quantities of sludge (estimated)
dry tons/day
Domestic
Industrial users of
municipal plants
Total municipal
sludge
Current
10,000
7,000
17,000
2. Current disposition of sludge
Method % Total Sludge
Landfill 25%
Ocean dump 15%
Incineration 35%
Land application 25%
Croplands (20%)
Others ( 5%)
Secondary Treatment
(next 10 years)
13,000
10,000
23,000
Reliability of Estimate
Good
Good
Good
Good
Poor
Poor
*Derived from background information to the Technical Bulletin on
Municipal Sludge Management: Environmental Factors, Fed. Reg. 41,
108: 22532-22543, (June 3, 1976).
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3. 1972 Land Spreading Survey (Liquid Sludge Only)
EPA Regions 2, 3, 4, 5, and 9
Mailed 1909, Responded 745 (39%)
4.
Region
2 (NJ.NY
3 (DE..MD
VA.WV)
4 (AL.FL
KY,MS,
SC.TN)
5 (IL.IN
MN,OH,
9 (CA.HI
Total
Size
MGD*
1-10
10-100
Greater
Currently
Use
) 6%
, PA
27%
,GA,
NC,
18%
WI)' 36%
,NV) 14%
25%
Currently
Use
27%
15%
than 100 7%
Will Use
6%
5%
12%
9%
6%
8%
Will
Use
8%
. 9%
13%
Do Not Use
88%
68%
70%
55%
80%
67%
Do Not
Use
65%
76%
80%
Total Costs for Various Sludge Methods
Includes
operating and construction costs
1 MGD
Land Application 127-168
Landfill 171-208
Incineration 250-320 1
Ocean Dumping 376-417
$/Dry Ton
10 MGD
53-71
77-116
11-174
93-134
100 MGD
57-84
63-98
79-120
56-93
MGD = million gallons/day
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:•
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA 560/8/76/004
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Considerations Relatinc
Application of Muni ci pi
Pastureland (A Backgroi
2. 3. RECIF
5. REPO
] to Toxic Suhstanrps in t^p
il Sludge to Cropland and 6-PERF
jnd Summary)
7. AUTHOR(S) 8. PERF
Frank D. Kover
EPA-Office of Toxic Substances
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME M
U.S. Environmental Pro1
Office of Toxic Substar
401 "M" Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 2046C
JD ADDRESS 10. PRO
:ection Agency ?|
lUeb 11. CON
)
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS 13. TYP
Fl
14. SPO
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
'lENT'S ACCESSION-NO.
RT DATE
jvember 1976
ORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
ORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
GRAM ELEMENT NO.
_A328
TRACT/GRANT NO.
= OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
nal
NSORING AGENCY CODE
16. ABSTRACT
This report presents background information pertinent to an assessment of
the potential health hazards from toxic substances when disposing/utilizing
municipal sludge on agricultural lands, particularly croplands and pasturelands
where products enter the human food chain.
17.
a. DESCRIPTORS
municipal sludge
soi 1 amendment
trace elements
heavy metals
PCBs
cadmium
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Document is available to th
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Springfield, Virginia 2215
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDE
plant uptake
food chain
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rmatlon Service 20. SECURITY CLASS (TMs i
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D TERMS c. COSATI Field/Group
02/A.D
06/F,H,I,T
07/B,C
leport) 21. NO. OF PAGES
•>age) 22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
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