ORNL
Oak Ridge
National
Laboratory
Operated by
Union Carbide Corporation for the
Department of Energy
Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830
ORNL/EIS-148
SERA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Toxic
Substances
Washington, DC 20460
EPA-560/2-78-006
INVESTIGATIONS OF SELECTED
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS:
1,2-DICHLOROETHANE
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This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency
of the United States Government. Neither the United States Government nor
any agency thereof, nor any of their employees, contractors, subcontractors,
or their employees, makes any warranty, express or implied, nor assumes any
legal liability or responsibility for any third party's use or the results
of such use of any information, apparatus, product or process disclosed in
this report, nor represents that its use by such third party would not
infringe privately owned rights.
This report has been reviewed by the Office of Toxic Substances, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for publication. Approval
does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the views and policies
of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, nor does mention of trade names
or commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
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ORNL/EIS-148
EPA-560/2-78-006
Contract No. W-7405-eng-26
Information Division
INVESTIGATIONS OF SELECTED ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS:
1,2-DICHLOROETHANE
John S. Drury and Anna S. Haimnons
Health and Environmental Studies Program
Information Center Complex
Work sponsored by the Office of Toxic Substances, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., under Interagency Agreement No.
D7-0151.
Project Officers
Charles M. Auer
James P. Kariya
Date Published: April 1979
OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY
Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830
operated by
UNION CARBIDE CORPORATION
for the
DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY
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CONTENTS
Figures vii
Tables ix
Preface xi
Abstract xiii
1. Summary and Conclusions 1
2. Physical and Chemical Properties 15
2.1 Nomenclature, Formula, and Structure 15
2.2 Physical Properties 16
2.3 Chemical Properties 17
2.4 Contaminants and Characteristics of the Commercial
Product 19
3. Production and Uses 20
3.1 Production Methods 20
3.1.1 Direct Chlorination 20
3.1.2 Oxychlorination 21
3.1.3 Balanced Process 21
3.2 Producers, Production Capacities, and Production Sites . . 22
3.3 Annual Production, Market Prices, and Market Trends. ... 24
3.4 Uses 27
3.4.1 Major 28
3.4.2 Minor 29
3.4.3 Discontinued 30
4. Sources and Levels of 1,2-Dichloroethane in the Environment . . 31
4.1 Potential Sources of Environmental Contamination 31
4.1.1 Manufacture of End Products 31
4.1.2 Synthesis of 1,2-Dichloroethane 37
4.1.2.1 Direct Chlorination 37
4.1.2.2 Oxychlorination 38
4.1.3 Dispersive Uses 40
4.1.4 Storage and Distribution 48
4.1.5 Potential Inadvertent Production in Other
Industrial Processes 48
4.1.6 Potential Inadvertent Production in the
Environment 48
4.1.7 Control Practices Currently Used 49
4.2 Monitoring Data 50
4.2.1 Air 51
4.2.2 Water 52
4.2.3 Biota 72
5. Environmental Characteristics 73
5.1 Chemical and Physical Interactions 73
5.1.1 Oxidation and Photolysis ' 73
5.1.2 Hydrolysis 75
5.1.3 Adsorption 75
5.1.4 Evaporation 75
5.2 Bioaccumulation, Biomagnification 76
5.3 Biological Degradation 77
5.4 Environmental Transport 77
iii
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iv
6. Biological Aspects in Humans 79
6.1 Metabolism 79
6.1.1 Uptake and Absorption 79
6.1.2 Transport, Distribution, Transformation, and
Elimination 79
6.2 Effects 80
6.2.1 Toxicity 80
6.2.1.1 Acute 80
6.2.1.2 Chronic 81
6.2.1.3 Poisoning Incidents and Case Histories. . 82
6. 2.1. A Epidemiology 83
6.2.2 Carcinogenicity, Mutagenicity, and Teratogenicity. 85
6.2.3 Other 85
7. Biological Aspects in Nonhuman Mammals 87
7.1 Metabolism 87
7.1.1 Uptake and Absorption 87
7.1.2 Distribution, Transformation, and Elimination. . . 87
7.2 Effects 89
7.2.1 Toxicity 89
7.2.2 Carcinogenicity 96
7.2.3 Mutagenicity 104
7.2.4 Teratogenicity 105
8. Biological Aspects in Other Vertebrates 106
8.1 Metabolism 106
8.2 Effects 106
9. Biological Aspects in Invertebrates 108
9.1 Metabolism 108
9.2 Effects 108
9.2.1 Toxicity 108
9.2.2 Mutagenicity 116
10. Biological Aspects in Plants 119
10.1 Metabolism 119
10.2 Effects 120
11. Biological Aspects in Microorganisms 124
11.1 Metabolism 124
11.2 Effects 124
11.2.1 Bacteria, Viruses 124
11.2.2 Fungi 127
11.2.3 Nematodes 128
11.2.4 Algae 128
12. In Vitro and Biochemical Studies 130
13. Analytical Methods and Monitoring Techniques 132
13.1 Chloride Analysis 132
13.2 Colorimetry 133
13.3 Direct-Reading Detector Tubes 133
13.4 Halide Meters 134
13.5 Infrared Spectrometry 134
13.6 Gas Chromatography 135
13.7 Monitoring Techniques 136
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14. Regulations and Standards 138
14.1 Current Regulations 138
14.1.1 Food, Drug, and Pesticide Authorities 138
14.1.2 Air and Water Acts 139
14.1.3 Occupational Safety and Health Regulations . . . 139
14.1.4 U.S. Department of Transportation 140
14.1.5 Foreign Countries 140
14.2 Consensus and Similar Standards 141
14.2.1 American Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygienists 141
14.2.2 American National Standards Institute 141
14.3 Current Handling Practices 142
14.3.1 Handling, Use, Transport, and Storage 142
14.3.2 Spills and Leakage 143
14.3.3 Respiratory Protection 144
14.3.4 Accidents 144
Appendix 145
Bibliography 153
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FIGURES
1 Manufacture of 1,2-dichloroethane by direct chlorination of
ethylene 20
2 Simplified flow diagram of 1,2-dichloroethane production by
the oxychlorination process 22
3 Arrangement of direct chlorination and oxychlorination
facilities in the balanced process 23
4 Balanced chlorination process for producing
1,2-dichloroethane 23
5 Locations of 1,2-dichloroethane plants 25
6 Production trends for 1,2-dichloroethane, 1954-78 26
7 1,2-Dichloroethane cracking process for vinyl chloride
production 32
8 Environmental pollutants arising from manufacture of vinyl
chloride monomer in a typical chlorination process 36
9 Losses of 1,2-dichloroethane to the media by the direct
chlorination process 39
10 Losses of 1,2-dichloroethane to the media by the
oxychlorination process 40
11 Industrialized areas sampled 69
vii
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TABLES
1 Physical properties of 1,2-dichloroethane 18
2 Producers of 1,2-dichloroethane (1977) 24
3 Population living within 5 miles of plants producing
1,2-dichloroethane 25
4 U.S. exportation of 1,2-dichloroethane, 1970-74 27
5 Consumption of 1,2-dichloroethane in the United States,
1968-74 28
6 Typical material balance for vinyl chloride monomer production
via balanced ethylene process 33
7 Estimated emissions of 1,2-dichloroethane based on 1974 U.S.
production of 4218 million kilograms 34
8 Emissions report for 1,2-dichloroethane, June 1977 35
9 Composition of wastewater from a typical manufacturing
facility using the direct chlorination process 38
10 Environmental pollutants arising from the manufacture of
1,2-dichloroethane by typical chlorination and hydro-
chlorination processes 41
11 Estimates of 1,2-dibromoethane exposures from self-service
gasoline pumping 46
12 Monitoring data of 1,2-dibromoethane in urban areas 46
13 Summary of human exposures to atmospheric 1,2-dibromoethane
from emission sources 47
14 Cost data for scrubbers and condensers for control of
1,2-dichloroethane emissions 49
15 Cost data for the control of 1,2-dichloroethane by
incineration 50
16 Water quality data from the National Organics Reconnaissance
Survey 54
17 Water utilities studied in the National Organics Reconnaissance
Survey 60
18 Summary of findings, National Organic Monitoring Survey,
March 1976 through January 1977 63
ix
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19 1,2-Dichloroethane in potable water supplies, National
Organic Monitoring Survey, March 1976 through January 1977. . 65
20 Concentration of 1,2-dichloroethane in surface waters from
industrial areas 70
21 Correlation of symptoms, exposure time, and concentration for
guinea pigs inhaling 1,2-dichloroethane 90
22 Mortality after single acute exposure to 1,2-dichloroethane by
inhalation 91
23 Lethal doses of 1,2-dichloroethane to nonhuman mammals 92
24 Terminal survival of rats in experimental and control groups
involved in carcinogenicity studies with 1,2-dichloroethane . 98
25 Squamous-cell carcinomas of the forestomach in 1,2-
dichloroethane-treated rats 99
26 Hemangiosarcomas in 1,2-dichloroethane-treated rats 99
27 Adenocarcinomas of the mammary gland in 1,2-dichloroethane-
treated female rats 100
28 Terminal survival of mice in experimental and control groups
involved in carcinogenic studies with 1,2-dichloroethane. . . 101
29 Hepatocellular carcinomas in 1,2-dichloroethane-treated mice. . 102
30 Alveolar/bronchiolar adenomas in mice treated with
1,2-dichloroethane 103
31 Squamous-cell carcinomas of the forestomach in 1,2-
dichloroethane-treated mice 103
32 Lethal concentrations of 1,2-dichloroethane for selected
invertebrates 109
33 Lethal concentrations for selected invertebrates of mixtures
containing 1,2-dichloroethane 115
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PREFACE
This review is a product of the Health and Environmental Studies
Program, Information Center Complex, Information Division, Oak Ridge
National Laboratory. It was prepared for the Office of Toxic Substances,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), in partial fulfillment of an
interagency agreement to review environmental effects of selected pollut-
ants. Information provided will be used in the development of regulations
for hazardous materials. Most of the approximately 250 cited references
were collected during the first quarter of 1978, but updating of some
reference material occurred subsequent to the EPA review of the manuscript
in September 1978.
The authors are indebted to Gerald U. Ulrikson, manager of the Infor-
mation Center Complex, for his support during the preparation and revision
of this review. The advice and support of Charles M. Auer and James P.
Kariya, EPA project officers, and the cooperation of the Toxicology Infor-
mation Response Center, the Environmental Mutagen Information Center, the
Environmental Teratology Information Center, and the Energy and Environ-
mental Response Center of the Information Center Complex are gratefully
acknowledged. The authors also thank Patricia Hartman and Donna Stokes,
typists, and Carol McGlothin, editor, for preparing the manuscript for
publication.
xi
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ABSTRACT
This study is a comprehensive, multidisciplinary review of the health
and environmental effects of 1,2-dichloroethane. Other pertinent aspects
such as production, use, methods of analysis, and regulatory restrictions
are also discussed. Approximately 250 references are cited.
1,2-Dichloroethane is manufactured in greater tonnage than any other
chlorinated organic compound; in 1977 nearly 5 million metric tons was
synthesized in the United States. It is used primarily as a raw material
in the production of vinyl chloride monomer and a few other chlorinated
organic compounds. 1,2-Dichloroethane does not occur naturally. The
environment is exposed to this chlorinated hydrocarbon primarily through
manufacturing losses. Smaller exposures occur through dispersive uses
such as grain fumigations and application of paints and other coatings
and through storage, distribution, and waste disposal operations. Con-
centrations of 1,2-dichloroethane in environmental air and water distant
from point sources are small — on the order of parts per billion or less.
Concentrations in the environment near point sources are unknown.
1,2-Dichloroethane rapidly photooxidizes in air and apparently does
not accumulate in the environment. It does not bioconcentrate or bio-
magnify. However, the chlorinated hydrocarbon is appreciably toxic to
humans, other vertebrates and invertebrates, plants, and microorganisms.
The ingestion of as little as 1 or 2 oz of liquid is usually fatal to
humans, and inhalation of 4000 ppm for 1 hr causes serious illness.
1,2-Dichloroethane is an established carcinogen in rats and mice exposed
by oral intubation. It is also a weak mutagen in some bacteria and cer-
tain grains.
1,2-Dichloroethane appears to pose little environmental risk to the
population distant from point sources, but more information is needed to
assess risks near point sources and to those parts of the population
exposed to dispersive uses of the compound.
xiii
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1. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1,2-Dichloroethane is a synthetic organic compound initially pro-
duced by Dutch chemists in 1795. Little used for more than a century,
it is now extensively employed as a raw material in the production of
vinyl chloride and is manufactured in greater tonnage than any other
chlorinated organic compound.
1.2 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
1.2.1 Physical Properties (Sect. 2.2)
1,2-Dichloroethane (ethylene dichloride) is a saturated aliphatic
hydrocarbon that should be distinguished from a common unsaturated
industrial solvent, dichloroethylene. 1,2-Dichloroethane is a colorless,
oily liquid that has a sweet taste, a chloroformlike odor, and a vola-
tility similar to gasoline. It boils at 83.47°C, melts at -35.36°C, and
has a density of 1.2351 at 20°C. 1,2-Dichloroethane is a powerful sol-
vent for fats, greases, waxes, unvulcanized rubber, resins, and many
other organic compounds; it is completely miscible with most common
organic solvents but has only limited solubility in water. Vaporized
1,2-dichloroethane is readily flammable; however, the liquid has a rela-
tively high ignition temperature, 413°C, and burns poorly. At 25°C and
760 torr a concentration of 1 ppm 1,2-dichloroethane in air corresponds
to 4.05 mg/m3 or 4.05 yg/liter.
1.2.2 Chemical Properties (Sect. 2.3)
Dry 1,2-dichloroethane is stable at room temperature but decomposes
slowly when exposed to air, moisture, and light. The decomposing liquid
becomes darker in color and progressively acidic and can corrode iron or
steel containers; however, decomposition can be completely inhibited by
adding a small amount of alkylamine. All commercial grade product is
normally treated in this manner.
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Both chlorine atoms in 1,2-dichloroethane are reactive and can be
displaced thermally or by other substituents. The economic importance
of 1,2-dichloroethane is based in part on the ease with which hydrogen
chloride can be removed from the molecule by thermal cracking (Sect.
3.1.2). The bifunctional nature of 1,2-dichloroethane also makes it
useful in the manufacture of condensation polymers as well as ethylene-
diamine and may be the reason for the increased mutagenic effectiveness
of the solvent (Sect. 10.2).
1.3 PRODUCTION AND USES (Sect. 3)
1,2-Dichloroethane is manufactured by treating ethylene with chlo-
rine gas (direct chlorination process) or with oxygen and hydrogen chlo-
ride (oxychlorination process). Nearly all U.S. manufacturers use a
combination of both methods (balanced process) in which production is
split almost equally between each process. Use of the balanced process
is economically attractive because this arrangement allows manufacturers
to recycle the hydrogen chloride that results when 1,2-dichloroethane is
converted to the principal product, vinyl chloride monomer.
1,2-Dichloroethane is produced in the United States by 11 manufac-
turers in 17 production facilities, most of which are concentrated in
Texas and Louisiana along the Gulf Coast. In 1977 the combined annual
capacity of these plants was about 6.35 million metric tons; however, the
plants operated at less than full capacity, and actual production amounted
to only 4.75 million metric tons.
Most of this 1,2-dichloroethane was used to synthesize vinyl chlo-
ride monomer and a few other chlorinated organic compounds. In 1976 the
major uses were vinyl chloride monomer, 86%; methyl chloroform, 3%; ethyl-
eneamines, 3%; trichloroethylene, 2%; and perchloroethylene, 2%. About
2% of the production in that year was used to formulate lead scavengers
for gasoline.
Minor uses of 1,2-dichloroethane are not well known. On the basis
of the best available information, the 1977 consumption of 1,2-dichloro-
ethane for minor uses was estimated at about 5 million kilograms, or
slightly less than 0.1% of the total annual U.S. production. The most
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Important minor uses In 1977 were manufacture of paints, coatings, and
adhesives, 28%; extracting oil from seeds, treating animal fats, and
processing pharmaceutical products, 23%; cleaning textile products and
polyvinyl chloride manufacturing equipment, 19%; manufacture of poly-
sulfide compounds, 11%; grain fumigation, 10%; and miscellaneous, 9%.
The following uses, often cited in the literature, are now considered
obsolete or rarely used: upholstery and carpet fumigant, soap and scour-
ing compound ingredient, wetting and penetrating agent, and degreasing
fluid. No current cosmetic or drug uses are known.
1.4 ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE FACTORS (Sect. 4)
The environment is exposed to 1,2-dichloroethane primarily through
losses occurring during the manufacture of 1,2-dichloroethane and its end
products. Smaller exposures occur through dispersive uses of products
containing the halogenated hydrocarbon, such as fumigants, paints, coat-
ings, and adhesives, and through storage, distribution, and waste dis-
posal operations. Based on process stream compositions and engineering
considerations, manufacturing losses of 1,2-dichloroethane to the environ-
ment are estimated to exceed 50 million kilograms (1% of production)
annually. Of the three principal manufacturing operations, losses are
greater from the oxychlorination process than from the direct chlorina-
tion process; they are least from the synthesis of vinyl chloride monomer.
More than half of all manufacturing losses of 1,2-dichloroethane escapes
to air, more than one-fourth occurs in aqueous wastes, and about 14% is
contained in solid wastes.
Despite large aerial losses of 1,2-dichloroethane from manufacturing
operations, the average concentration of 1,2-dichloroethane in air distant
from point sources is generally too low to be detected by sensitive ana-
lytical methods. Concentrations of 1,2-dichloroethane in the air near
point sources are unknown. One calculation of the concentration of 1,2-
dichloroethane downwind from a manufacturing operation indicated rela-
tively low levels of the compound, but adequate monitoring data supporting
this calculation are not yet available. The absence of aerial monitoring
data near point sources of 1,2-dichloroethane is the chief impediment to
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a realistic assessment of the environmental impact of this chlorinated
organic compound.
Liquid wastes from direct chlorination and oxychlorination processes
result chiefly from scrubbing gases or crude product with water or caustic
solutions. These wastes are generally processed to remove 1,2-dichloro-
ethane before ultimate disposal in surface waters and streams. Generally,
concentrations of 1,2-dichloroethane in water samples from U.S. industri-
alized river basins are low, near 1 ppb, although values up to 100-fold
higher occur occasionally. Although the average concentration of 1,2-
dichloroethane in U.S. surface waters is low, monitoring of streams near
point sources is needed to assure that short-term fluctuations of appre-
ciably greater magnitude do not sometimes occur.
Based on limited data, it appears that 1,2-dichloroethane is not
usually present in subterranean waters and is only occasionally present
in municipal raw-water supplies at the parts-per-billion level. It occurs
with somewhat greater frequency in municipal finished-water supplies,
apparently as a result of chlorine treatment.
Solid wastes occur chiefly as heavy ends or EDC-tar from the direct
chlorination, oxychlorination, and vinyl chloride monomer processes.
These wastes may contain large amounts of 1,2-dichloroethane and are prob-
ably the most hazardous process wastes associated with vinyl chloride pro-
duction, although not necessarily because of their 1,2-dichloroethane
content. In the United States, disposal of heavy ends is usually by
burial in a landfill or by incineration. The latter option may result
in considerable air pollution if not controlled because the resulting
combustion products include both chlorine and hydrogen chloride. Because
of its volatility, 1,2-dichloroethane contained in buried wastes may be
expected to eventually leak into the atmosphere. At present, no relevant
monitoring data exist by which to judge the environmental impact of 1,2-
dichloroethane from this source.
1.5 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS (Sect. 5)
Although some well-known chlorinated hydrocarbons, such as DDT and
polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB), have high persistence in the environment,
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there is no evidence to suggest that 1,2-dichloroethane poses a similar
problem. 1,2-Dichloroethane is relatively stable in water, but it evapo-
rates rapidly to the atmosphere, where it is destroyed by photooxidation.
1,2-Dichloroethane is thus unlikely to accumulate in the environment. It
should be noted, however, that one of the photooxidative products of 1,2-
dichloroethane is chloroacetyl chloride, which may be sufficiently stable
to reach the stratosphere and interact destructively with the ozone layer.
1,2-Dichloroethane does not bioaccumulate in food chains in the marine
environment, and no firm evidence now exists to support bioaccumulation
in other biota.
Two schools of thought exist regarding the possibility of microbial
degradation of 1,2-dichloroethane. Some microbiologists report that this
and similar chlorinated hydrocarbons are not metabolized by either aerobic
or anaerobic microorganisms. Other experts in the field believe biodegra-
dation of simple chlorinated organic compounds can occur via cometabolic
processes. However, no evidence supporting microbial biodegradation of
1,2-dichloroethane has been found. There is general agreement that mammals
metabolize 1,2-dichloroethane, producing chlorinated acetic acids either
directly or via chloroethanols. All of the chlorinated acetic acids are
susceptible to further biodegradation by microorganisms in seawater. At
least two of the mammalian metabolites (monochloroacetic acid and 2-chloro-
ethanol) are more toxic to mice than is 1,2-dichloroethane.
1.6 BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS IN HUMANS (Sect. 6)
Inhalation is the principal route of human exposure to 1,2-dichloro-
ethane. Uptake occurs primarily at work sites where this compound is
manufactured or used. Ingestion of 1,2-dichloroethane is relatively un-
common and is chiefly the result of mistaken identity or attempts at
suicide. Once inhaled or ingested, 1,2-dichloroethane is readily absorbed
in the lungs or gastrointestinal tract. Uptake by skin absorption is slow,
and large doses are required to cause serious poisoning.
Information is lacking on the metabolism, transport, distribution,
and elimination of 1,2-dichloroethane in humans. It is known, however,
that this compound appears in the breath and milk of nursing mothers
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exposed by inhalation and skin absorption. In the absence of other
information, it is generally assumed that human metabolism of 1,2-
dichloroethane proceeeds through the formation of 2-chloroethanol and
chloroacetic acid, as it does in mice.
1,2-Dichloroethane is toxic to humans when ingested, inhaled, or
absorbed through skin or mucous membrane. The primary effects of acute
or chronic exposures are central nervous system depression, gastrointes-
tinal upset, and injury to liver, kidneys, lungs, and adrenals.
Ingestion of 1 or 2 oz of 1,2-dichloroethane is usually fatal to an
adult male. Clinical symptoms of acute poisoning by ingestion usually
appear within 2 hr of exposure and include headache, dizziness, general
weakness, nausea, vomiting of blood and bile, dilated pupils, heart pains
and constriction, pain in the epigastric region, diarrhea, and unconscious-
ness. Pulmonary edema and cyanosis often occur. Autopsies frequently
reveal hyperemia and hemorrhagic lesions of the stomach, intestine, heart,
brain, liver, and kidney. Death is often attributed to circulatory and
respiratory failure.
An exposure of 1 hr to air containing 4000 ppm 1,2-dichloroethane
produces serious illness in humans. The effects of acute exposure by
inhalation are similar to those described for ingestion, except that the
central nervous system appears to be the primary target. Absorption of
1,2-dichloroethane through skin produces effects similar to those reported
for inhalation, but large doses are required to cause systemic poisoning.
Chronic exposures to low concentrations of 1,2-dichloroethane by
inhalation or skin absorption usually result in progressive effects that
closely resemble symptoms described for acute exposure, especially neuro-
logical changes, loss of appetite, gastrointestinal problems, irritation
of mucous membranes, and liver and kidney impairment. If exposure is
brief, symptoms may disappear when exposure ceases.
There are no published studies of carcinogenic, mutagenic, or tera-
togenic effects of 1,2-dichloroethane on humans, but based on recent
animal studies the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
recommends that the compound be handled in the workplace as if it were a
human carcinogen.
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The human odor threshold for 1,2-dichloroethane varies from about 3
to 6 ppm in the laboratory, but under other conditions some individuals
consider it barely detectable at 50 or 100 ppm. In other tests, it has
been established that inhalation of a few parts per million of 1,2-dichloro-
ethane by humans decreases the sensitivity of the eye to light, increases
temporary vasoconstriction in fingers, and increases the depth of breathing.
1.7 BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS IN NONHUMAN MAMMALS (Sect. 7)
More information is available on the metabolism of 1,2-dichloroethane
in nonhuman mammals than in humans, but experimental data are still sparse
and metabolic processes are poorly understood. In female mice intraperi-
toneally injected with l/*C-labeled 1,2-dichloroethane, metabolism occurred
rapidly; about 90% of the dose was eliminated within 24 hr. Roughly one-
third of the dose was expired unchanged or as carbon dioxide, and almost
all of the remainder was excreted in the urine. The chief metabolites in
the urine were chloroacetic acid, S-carboxymethylcysteine, and thiodiacetic
acid; these compounds also formed when chloroacetic acid was administered.
Thus, it appears that the metabolism of injected 1,2-dichloroethane in
female mice proceeds mainly through a dehalogenation step that yields
chloroacetic acid. In other studies, the dehalogenation of 1,2-dichloro-
ethane was shown to occur in vitro both enzymatically and nonenzymatically.
Information is lacking on the distribution of 1,2-dichloroethane in
nonhuman mammals. However, it has been established that small amounts of
1,2-dichloroethane concentrate in milk from cows fed grain containing 100
to 1000 ppm 1,2-dichloroethane.
The primary toxic effects of 1,2-dichloroethane on nonhuman mammals
are similar for acute, subacute, and chronic exposures. They consist
mainly of central nervous system depression and hemorrhagic or hyperemic
lesions of the liver, kidneys, lungs, and adrenals. Injuries chiefly
reflect the powerful narcotic and solvent properties of the chlorinated
hydrocarbon and are usually dose related. Rapid death in deep narcosis
often follows acute exposure by inhalation or ingestion. Deaths occurring
a few hours after recovery from narcosis are usually the result of shock
or cardiovascular collapse. Deaths delayed by several days most often
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8
result from renal damage. Nevertheless, it is frequently difficult to
correctly ascribe the exact mechanism of death for many acutely or chron-
ically exposed animals. Weakness, vertigo, persistent thirst, eye and
nasal irritation, static and motor ataxia, retching movements, and marked
changes in respiration are common signs of acute 1,2-dichloroethane
poisoning in nonhuman mammals.
Generally, 1,2-dichloroethane appears to be more toxic to mammals
than carbon tetrachloride. Few animals survive exposure to air contain-
ing 1500 or 3000 ppm for 7 hr, although death is delayed for days in some
species. Typically, the most sensitive animals succumb to a 4-hr exposure
at 1000 ppm.
Because of its chemical structure, 1,2-dichloroethane has been
classified as a substance having limited suspicion of carcinogenicity;
however, few studies have addressed the carcinogenic potential of this
compound. The earliest studies revealed no evidence of carcinogenic activ-
ity in Wistar rats exposed to 1,2-dichloroethane by inhalation or in male
mice injected intraperitoneally, but more recent studies established a
significant positive association between dosage and the incidence of sev-
eral types of carcinomas, adenomas, or sarcomas in rats and mice exposed
by oral intubation. Two ongoing studies of carcinogenic effects of 1,2-
dichloroethane in mice and rats are expected to be completed in 1979.
No evidence was found in the literature indicating mutagenic or
teratogenic activity of 1,2-dichloroethane in nonhuman mammals. However,
studies dealing with the teratogenic effects of 1,2-dichloroethane on
rats and rabbits are expected to be completed by early 1979.
1.8 BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS IN OTHER VERTEBRATES (Sect. 8)
Little information is available on the biological aspects of 1,2-
dichloroethane in nonmammalian vertebrates. In general, the few published
LCSO values for fish indicate relatively low toxicity effects compared
with other simple aliphatic chlorinated hydrocarbons. The aquatic toxic-
ity rating (96-hr TL^, species unspecified) assigned to 1,2-dichloro-
ethane is 1000 to 100 ppm, which indicates very low toxicity to aquatic
animals.
-------
Concentrations of 1,2-dichloroethane normally remaining on fumigated
grains used as chicken feed appear unlikely to cause adverse effects on
growth, semen, or fertility in chickens, but egg weight and egg produc-
tion can be reduced if excessively high residual 1,2-dichloroethane is
present in the grain.
1.9 BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS IN INVERTEBRATES (Sect. 9)
1,2-Dichloroethane is toxic to a variety of annelids and arthropods
and is widely used to control infestations of the latter in stored prod-
ucts such as grain. To reduce flammability and increase penetrating
power in deep stacks of grains, 1,2-dichloroethane is usually applied as
a mixture with other compounds such as carbon tetrachloride. The LCSo
values for 1,2-dichloroethane alone vary with species, exposure time,
and other test conditions but usually range from 10 to 100 mg/liter for
exposures of 24 hr.
1,2-Dichloroethane exhibits mutagenic activity in some types of
invertebrates. Sex-linked mutations have been observed in eggs, larvae,
and imagoes of Drosophila melanogaster after brief exposures to air con-
taining the chlorinated hydrocarbon. Increased chromosomal nondisjunc-
tions and recessive sex-linked lethal mutations in exposed adult male and
female Drosophila have also been observed.
1.10 BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS IN PLANTS (Sect. 10)
Prolonged exposure to 1,2-dichloroethane inhibits germination and
increases mutations in some seeds. In certain species, the vigor of sub-
sequent seedling growth is also reduced. Mixtures of 1,2-dichloroethane
with carbon tetrachloride and ethylene chlorohydrin (Rindite) are also
effective in breaking bud dormancy in potato tubers, beech branches, and
grapevine cuttings.
The lethal and mutagenic effectiveness of 1,2-dichloroethane in bar-
ley seeds is much greater than expected from simple model calculations.
This increased effectiveness has been attributed to the formation of
toxic mustard-type compounds through reactions with thiols and amines
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10
and to the bifunctional nature of $-halogenoethylating agents which per-
mits cross-linking with DNA. Alkylation and cross-linking of DNA can
prevent exposed cells from replicating and undergoing mitosis.
1.11 BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS IN MICROORGANISMS (Sect. 11)
1,2-Dichloroethane inhibits the growth of many different bacteria,
but its effectiveness varies with concentration and species. 1,2-Dichlo-
roethane also interacts mutagenically with some bacteria, both with and
without metabolic activation, and can alter the DNA structure of Eache-
ri-ohia coli. However, as measured by the Ames test, 1,2-dichloroethane
is a relatively weak mutagen.
Certain fungi appear to tolerate mixtures of 1,2-dichloroethane and
trichloroethane reasonably well. In some instances, spore germination
was inhibited by application of the mixture at typical commercial rates,
but germination resumed following aeration. The action of the gas mix-
ture on these microorganisms thus appears to be fungistatic rather than
fungicidal.
1,2-Dichloroethane inhibits the uptake of carbon dioxide by some
algae; however, the effective concentration for a 50% reduction in uptake
is orders of magnitude greater than the highest concentration of 1,2-
dichloroethane thus far reported in surface waters from industrialized
regions. Many common waterborne microflora also tolerate 1,2-dichloro-
ethane in concentrations much higher than those reported in U.S. surface
waters.
1.12 IN VITRO AND BIOCHEMICAL STUDIES (Sect. 12)
1,2-Dichloroethane inhibits the in vitro growth of several kinds of
cells (HeLa, Ehrlich-Landschtitz diploid, and erythrocytes). In general,
however, the inhibition is less pronounced than that for other common
aliphatic chlorinated hydrocarbons under similar conditions.
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11
1.13 ANALYTICAL METHODS AND MONITORING TECHNIQUES (Sect. 13)
Chloride analysis, colorimetry, halide meters, infrared spectrometry,
and gas chromatography have been used to determine 1,2-dichloroethane in
environmental samples. However, only the last two methods are specific
for this compound, and only the last method is sure to provide quantita-
tive information when the sample contains other common chlorinated hydro-
carbons. Thus, gas chromatography is the method of choice for determining
1,2-dichloroethane in environmental samples. Fortunately, the method is
capable of great sensitivity. With adequate sampling techniques and use
of a mass spectrometer as a detector, a limit of detection in air of 5 ppt
is feasible. Although few environmental analyses of this precision exist
and the necessary analytical protocols are not generally established, the
lack is due to motivation rather than insufficient technology. Adequate
analyses of 1,2-dichloroethane in environmental samples can be achieved
whenever the need is justified.
Halide meters and infrared spectrometry are useful monitoring methods
when only 1,2-dichloroethane is present, but they are not generally useful
for environmental samples that usually contain other simple chlorinated
hydrocarbons in far greater amounts than 1,2-dichloroethane. For this
situation, laboratory processing of field-collected samples appears
necessary.
1.14 REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS (Sect. 14)
Well-defined rules and recommendations exist for exposures to 1,2-
dichloroethane in the workplace. However, less stringent conditions
govern the use of 1,2-dichloroethane in foods, drugs, cosmetics, and
pesticides. The solvent is exempt from the requirement of a tolerance
in or on raw agricultural commodities, and permissible residues of 1,2-
dichloroethane in spice oleoresins intended for human consumption may
amount to 30 ppm. There are no regulations of the compound in specialty
uses such as cleaning solutions or adhesive solvents. 1,2-Dichloroethane
is approved for use as an extracting solvent in the manufacture of animal
feeds, providing the residual concentration does not exceed 300 ppm. It
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12
is also approved for use as an adjuvant for pesticide dilutions prior to
application to the growing crop.
1.15 CONCLUSIONS
1. Large quantities of 1,2-dichloroethane are released to the environ-
ment primarily from manufacturing losses during the synthesis of the
compound and its end products.
2. Additional environmental contamination arises from dispersive uses
of 1,2-dichloroethane, such as fumigants, paints, coatings, and
adhesives, and from storage, distribution, and waste disposal
operations.
3. 1,2-Dichloroethane is volatile; it enters the atmosphere rapidly
from aqueous effluents and less quickly from solid wastes.
A. 1,2-Dichloroethane is subject to photooxidation and has a relatively
short half-life in the troposphere; thus, it is unlikely to accumu-
late in the environment.
5. Apparently, 1,2-dichloroethane is not biodegraded by microorganisms,
but neither does it appear to bioconcentrate nor biomagnify.
6. On the basis of a limited number of samples, the concentrations of
1,2-dichloroethane in environmental air distant from point sources
appear to be very low, probably of the order of parts per trillion
or less.
7. In general, the concentrations of 1,2-dichloroethane in surface
waters distant from point sources are about 1 ppb, but some samples
may contain a 100-fold greater amount.
8. The concentrations of 1,2-dichloroethane in environmental air and
water near point sources are unknown.
9. 1,2-Dichloroethane is toxic to humans, other vertebrates, inverte-
brates, plants, and microorganisms.
10. Inhalation is the chief route of human exposure. Exposure by inges-
tion occurs only rarely, but it is usually fatal. Absorption of
1,2-dichloroethane through the skin occurs slowly; therefore, this
route of exposure is relatively unimportant.
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13
11. The primary effects of acute or chronic exposures are central nervous
system depression, gastrointestinal upset, and injury to liver, kid-
neys, lungs, and adrenals.
12. An exposure of 1 hr to air containing 4000 ppm 1,2-dichloroethane
produces serious illness in humans.
13. There are no published studies of carcinogenic, mutagenic, or tera-
togenic effects of 1,2-dichloroethane on humans, but based on animal
studies the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
recommends that the compound be handled in the workplace as if it
were a human carcinogen.
14. 1,2-Dichloroethane is a carcinogen in rats and mice exposed by oral
intubation.
15. 1,2-Dichloroethane is a weak mutagen for certain strains of Salmonella
and can alter the DNA structure of Escherichia coli. It also causes
mutations in barley and pea seeds.
16. Environmental samples can be adequately analyzed by the gas chromato-
graphic technique. Samples containing 1,2-dichloroethane at the
parts-per-trillion level will probably require a mass spectrometric
detector and may require development of better sample-collecting
techniques.
17. On the basis of present information, it appears that 1,2-dichloro-
ethane in the environment poses little risk to the population distant
from point sources.
18. The most pressing need relative to environmental pollution by 1,2-
dichloroethane is to determine the risk to the population near point
sources by obtaining adequate analyses of air and surface waters near
these locations.
19. In view of the established toxic and carcinogenic character of the
solvent, it is important to minimize exposure to 1,2-dichloroethane
from dispersive uses of this compound. In many instances, the sol-
vent function of 1,2-dichloroethane in proprietary formulations can
probably be replaced by less toxic compounds with little or no detri-
ment to other qualities of the product. It is not presently known
when or in what concentrations 1,2-dichloroethane is used in many
proprietary formulations.
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14
20. Because it is volatile, little unreacted 1,2-dichloroethane remains
on cooked foods prepared from 1,2-dichloroethane-fumigated grain.
However, some fumigant reacts with grain to form nonvolatile resi-
dues. It is not known if these residues or their metabolites are
noxious.
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2. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
1,2-Dichloroethane, the first chlorinated hydrocarbon described in
the chemical literature, was initially produced by Dutch chemists in
1795 (Hardie, 1964). For more than a century, little commercial use of
the compound occurred. By 1970, however, such strong demand existed that
1,2-dichloroethane was manufactured in greater tonnage than any other
chlorinated organic compound (Rothon, 1972). In 1975, 1,2-dichloroethane
was the sixteenth highest-volume chemical produced in the United States
(Hawley, 1977). Previously regarded by some investigators as an irritat-
ing but relatively nontoxic liquid (Rothon, 1972), 1,2-dichloroethane is
now recognized as a highly toxic material (National Institute for Occupa-
tional Safety and Health, 1976) and a potential human carcinogen and
mutagen (Fishbein, 1976).
2.1 NOMENCLATURE, FORMULA, AND STRUCTURE
The Chemical Abstracts Service registry number for 1,2-dichloroethane
is 107-06-2; the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
number listed in the Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances is
K005250 (Fairchild, 1977). Many synonyms and trade names are also used:
Brocide, Destruxol Borer-Sol, Di-chlor-mulsion, sz/w-dichloroethane, a, 3-
dichloroethane, Dutch liquid, EDC, ENT 1,656, ethane dichloride, ethyl-
ene chloride, ethylene dichloride, glycol dichloride, and oil of the
Dutch chemists (Fairchild, 1977; Mitten et al., 1970).
The composition and structure of 1,2-dichloroethane are indicated
by the molecular formula C2H4C12 and the line diagram:
H H
Cl — C — C — Cl
H H
1,2-Dichloroethane is a saturated organic compound, a chlorinated ethane,
that contains no double-bonded carbon atoms. It should be distinguished
15
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16
from a common unsaturated industrial solvent, dichloroethylene, that has
the molecular formula C2H2C12 and the structural formula:
Cl H
C = C
H Cl
To minimize confusion between these two compounds, it is recommended
that synonyms for 1,2-dichloroethane which have -ene endings (i.e., ethyl-
ene chloride and ethylene dichloride) no longer be used since this suffix
indicates unsaturation in the molecule. Unfortunately, the names ethyl-
ene chloride and ethylene dichloride are well established in commercial
usage and are unlikely to disappear quickly.
1,2-Dichloroethane should also be distinguished from its isomer,
1,1-dichloroethane, which has the identical molecular formula, C2HfcCl2,
but has a different structural arrangement:
Cl H
H — C — C — H
I I
Cl H
1,1-Dichloroethane is also known as ethylidene chloride (Browning, 1953).
2.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
1,2-Dichloroethane is a colorless, oily liquid that has a sweet
taste and an odor like chloroform (Hawley, 1977). It is appreciably
volatile, evaporating at a rate which is 0.788 times that of carbon
tetrachloride or gasoline (Whitney, 1961). Air saturated with 1,2-
dichloroethane contains 350 g/m3 at 20°C and 537 g/m3 at 30°C. 1,2-
Dichloroethane is completely miscible with ethanol, chloroform, ethyl
ether, and octanol (Johns, 1976; Windholtz, 1976). The partition co-
efficient (P) of 1,2-dichloroethane between octanol and water is 1.48
(Radding et al., 1977), reflecting preferential solubility in organic
media.
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17
Vaporized solvent is readily ignited; the closed-cup flash point is
only 13°C. The liquid is also flammable, burning with a smoky flame, but
the ignition temperature, 413°C, is high. 1,2-Dichloroethane forms an
azeotrope with water which distills at 71.9°C under a pressure of 1 atm.
The binary azeotrope contains 19.5% water. Fourteen other binary azeo-
tropes are known (Mitten et al., 1970). A ternary azeotrope containing
78% 1,2-dichloroethane, 17% ethanol, and 5% water boils at 66.7°C.
1,2-Dichloroethane is a good solvent for fats, greases, waxes, unvul-
canized rubber, resins, and many other organic compounds (Hardie, 1964);
however, its usefulness as a solvent for cellulose ethers and esters is
greatly enhanced by the addition of methanol, ethanol, or their acetates
(Mitten et al., 1970). Other physical properties are listed in Table 1.
2.3 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Dry 1,2-dichloroethane is stable at ambient temperature but decom-
poses slowly in the presence of air, moisture, and light, forming hydro-
chloric acid and other corrosive products. Decomposing liquid, which
becomes darker in color and progressively acidic, can corrode iron or
steel containers. This deleterious reaction is completely inhibited by
small concentrations of alkylamines (Hardie, 1964).
Both chlorine atoms in 1,2-dichloroethane are reactive and can be
replaced by other substituents. This bifunctional nature of 1,2-dichloro-
ethane makes it useful in the manufacture of condensation polymers (Rothon,
1972). Hydrolysis, with slightly acidulated water at 160°C to 175°C and
15 atm pressure or with aqueous alkali at 140°C to 250°C and 40 atm pres-
sure, yields ethylene glycol, HOCH2CHaOH; at 120°C, addition of ammonia
under pressure yields ethylenediamine, H2NCH2CH2NH2. 1,1,2-Trichloro-
ethane, CH2C1CHC12» and other higher chloroethanes are formed by chlori-
nating 1,2-dichloroethane at 50°C in light from a mercury vapor lamp.
1,2-Dichloroethane reacts with sodium polysulfide to form polyethylene
tetrasulfide and with fuming sulfuric acid to give 2-chloroethylsulfuryl
chloride, CH2C1CH2OS02C1. With Friedel-Crafts catalysis, both chlorine
atoms in 1,2-dichloroethane can be replaced with aromatic ring compounds;
for example, with benzene, diphenylethane, C6H5CH2CH2C6HS, is formed
(Hardie, 1964).
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18
Table 1. Physical properties of 1,2-dichloroethane
Molecular weight
Density at 20°C
Melting point, °C
Boiling point, °C
Index of refraction at 20°C
Vapor pressure, torr
At -44.5°C
At -13.6°C
At 10.0°C
At 29.4°C
At 64.0°C
At 82.4°C
Solubility in water, ppm
At 20°C
At 30°C
Biochemical oxygen demand (5 days), %
Theoretical oxygen demand, mg/mg
Measured chemical oxygen demand, mg/mg
Vapor density (air = 1)
Flash point, closed cup, °C
Ignition temperature, °C
Explosive limit, % by volume in air
Lower
Upper
Specific resistivity
Viscosity at 20°C, cP
Dielectric constant, e
Surface tension, dynes/cm
Coefficient of cubical expansion at 10°C to 30°C
Latent heat of fusion, cal/g
Latent heat of vaporization at boiling point, cal/g
Specific heat, cal g"1 "C"1
Liquid at 20°C
Vapor, 1 atm, at 97.1°C
Critical temperature, °C
Critical pressure, atm
Critical density, g/cm3
Thermal conductivity at 20°C, Btu hr"1 ft""
Heat of combustion at constant pressure, kcal/g-mole
Dipole moment, esu
Conversion factors at 25°C and 760 torr
98.96
1.2351
-35.36
83.47
1.4448
1
10
40
100
400
760
8690
9200
0
0.97
1.025
3.42
13
413
6.2
15.9
9.0 v 104
0.840
10.45
33.23
0.0016
21.12
77.3
0.308
0.255
288
53
0.44
0.825
296.36
1.57 x 10'18
1 mg/liter 1 g/m3 = 247 ppm
1 ppm =4.05 mg/m3 =4.05 ug/liter
Source: Compiled from Faith, Keyes, and Clark, 1965a; Price, Waggy, and Conway, 1974;
Verschueren, 1977; Weast, 1977.
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19
2.4 CONTAMINANTS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COMMERCIAL PRODUCT
Commercial 1,2-dichloroethane is usually technical grade material
that is 97% to 99% pure. Common commercial specifications for this prod-
uct include: (1) free from suspended matter and sediment; (2) color, to
pass test; (3) distillation range, 82.5°C to 84.5°C at 760 torr; (4)
specific gravity at 20/20°C, 1.253 to 1.257; and (5) maximum acidity, as
HC1, 0.005%. Most commercial products contain about 0.1% by weight alkyl-
amine to inhibit spontaneous decomposition (Mitten et al., 1970). Unin-
hibited or impure 1,2-dichloroethane may contain chlorine or hydrogen
chloride that can corrode iron or steel containers normally used to store
or transport technical grade material. Technical grade 1,2-dichloroethane
is a severe fire hazard and a moderate explosion hazard, but spontaneous
heating is not a problem. When subjected to excessive heating, such as
during a disaster, technical grade 1,2-dichloroethane may decompose,
releasing hydrogen chloride and phosgene, both of which are highly toxic
(Sax, 1975).
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3. PRODUCTION AND USES
3.1 PRODUCTION METHODS
1 ,2-Dichloroethane is manufactured by direct chlorination of ethyl-
ene , oxychlorination of ethylene, or a combination of these methods.
3.1.1 Direct Chlorination
In the direct chlorination process ethylene is treated with chlorine
in the presence of a catalyst:
CH2 = CH
Cl
C1CH2CH2C1 .
Either vapor- or liquid-phase reactions may be used, but undesirable side
products are obtained unless conditions are carefully controlled. In one
vapor-phase procedure, product yields of 96% to 98% are obtained by treat-
ing ethylene at 40°C to 50°C with chlorine containing traces of 1,2-dibromo-
ethane, which serves as a catalyst (Faith, Keyes, and Clark, 1965a) . The
1 ,2-dibromoethane is subsequently separated from the crude product and
recycled to the reaction chamber, while the gaseous 1,2-dichloroethane
is fed into a fractionating column to yield the refined product (Fig. 1).
Other direct chlorination procedures differ primarily in reaction condi-
tions and catalyst. Catalysts mentioned most often in the patent litera-
ture include ferric, aluminum, cupric, and antimony chlorides (Hardie,
1.2-DIBROMOETHANE
ORNL-DWG 7821760
1 metric Ion
1.2-DICHLOROETHANE
13
I!
u <•>
1.2 DIBROMOETHANE '
RECYCLE BOTTOMS
315 kg
Fig. 1. Manufacture of 1,2-dichloroethane by direct chlorination
of ethylene. Source: Adapted from Faith, Keyes, and Clark, 1965a., Indus-
trial Chemicals, 3rd ed., p. 368. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley
and Sons, Inc.
20
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21
1964). In 1974 the direct chlorination of ethylene accounted for 58% of
the U.S. productive capacity for 1,2-dichloroethane.
3.1.2 Oxy ch lor ina t ion
1,2-Dichloroethane is also manufactured commercially by treating
ethylene with anhydrous hydrogen chloride and oxygen (or air) in a fluid-
ized bed of finely divided particles containing cupric chloride:
2CH2 = CH2 + 02 + 4HC1 CatalySt> 2C1CH2CH2C1 + 2H20 .
Typically, the reaction pressure and temperature are maintained at 20 to
70 psig and 200°C to 315°C respectively. Efficient removal of heat from
the reactor is essential for good temperature control because the reac-
tion is strongly exothermic (2200 Btu/kg). The process is shown schemati-
cally in Fig. 2. The oxychlorination process is preferred to the direct
chlorination method by manufacturers who have excess supplies of hydrogen
chloride (Faith, Keyes, and Clark, 1965a; Hardie, 1964; Mitten et al.,
1970). In 1974, 42% of the 1,2-dichloroethane produced in the United
States was manufactured by the oxychlorination process.
3.1.3 Balanced Process
Normally, 1,2-dichloroethane is synthesized primarily as an inter-
mediate product in the manufacture of vinyl chloride monomer (CHaCHCl).
Conversion of 1,2-dichloroethane to this product involves thermal
dehydrochlorination:
C1CH2CH2C1 thermal cracking, ^^ + RC1 >
Manufacturers of vinyl chloride monomer thus have excess hydrogen chlo-
ride on hand, and most manufacturers choose to reuse this hydrogen
chloride as a raw material in the synthesis of more 1,2-dichloroethane
by the oxychlorination method. However, only half of the chloride
originally present in 1,2-dichloroethane is recovered as hydrogen chlo-
ride during the manufacture of vinyl chloride monomer. Consequently,
most manufacturing facilities make use of both the direct chlorination
and oxychlorination processes. The manner in which these processes are
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22
OBNLDWO 7121761
4 PROCESS
VENT GAS
04 «•
X-~^-N
ETHYIENE
HYDROGEN
CHLOniOE
©
'
REACTOR
AREA
T
©
• WASTEWATER
11
O
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23
ORPUOWG 7121782
FUGITIVE EMISSION (1)
OXYCHLORINATION
VENT
PRODUCT
> VINYL CHLORIDE
MONOMER
Fig. 3. Arrangement of direct chlorination and oxychlorination
facilities in the balanced process. Source: Adapted from U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, 1975&, Fig. 3-2, p. 3-6.
AIR OR (3,
OXYGEN T
HCI
(RECYCLED FROM 1. 2-
OICHLOROETHANE
OXYCHLORINATION
PROCESS VENT
GAS
OXYCHLORINATION
REACTOR
AND QUENCH
AREA
ORNL-DWG 78 21763
I. 2-DICHLOHOETHANE
TO CRACKING
UNIT
CKING SECTION)
ETHYLENE Y
(?)
CHLORINE y
WASTEWATER
1
DIRECT
CHLORINATION
REACTOR
1. 2-OICHLOROETHANE
RECYCLED FROM
1. 2-OICHLOROETHANE
CRACKING SECTION
Fig. 4. Balanced chlorination process for producing 1,2-dichloro-
ethane. Source: Adapted from Bellamy and Schwartz, 1975, Fig. VC-2,
p. VCM-5.
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24
Individual producers, plant sites, and plant capacities are listed in
Table 2. Plant locations are concentrated in Texas and Louisiana along
the Gulf Coast (Fig. 5). The approximate number of people living within
5 miles of most of these plants is indicated in Table 3. Population data
for areas near other plants are not available. In a few instances, some
residents are located near more than one 1,2-dichloroethane production
facility.
Table 2. Producers of 1,2-dichloroethane (1977)
Producer
Allied Chemical Corp.
Conoco Chemicals
Diamond Shamrock Chemical Co.
Dow Chemical Co.
Ethyl Corp.
Goodrich Chemical Co.°
PPG Industries, Inc.^
Shell Chemical Co.
Stauffer Chemical Co.
Union Carbide Corp.
Vulcan Materials Co.
Total
Location
Baton Rouge, La.
Lake Charles, La.
Deer Park, Tex.
Freeport, Tex.
Oyster Creek, Tex.
Plaquemine, La.
Baton Rouge, La.
Houston, Tex.
Calvert City, Ky.
Lake Charles, La.
Guayanilla, P.R.
Deer Park, Tex.
Norco , La .
Long Beach, Calif.
Taft, La.
Texas City, Tex.
Geismar, La.
Annual
capacity
(million
metric tons)
0.272
0.544
0.145
0.726
0.499
0.590
0.318
0.114
0.454
0.585
0.485
0.635
0.544
0.141
0.068
0.068
0.159
6.35
Production
Direct
chlorination
(%)
66.7
49.2
35.8
57.1
51.7
52.7
100.0
33.3
77.2
66.2
69.2
100.0
100.0
0.0
method
Oxychlorination
m
33.3
50.8
64.2
42.9
48.3
47.3
0.0
66.7
22.8
33.8
30.8
0.0
0.0
100.0
?Based on 1974 data (Pervier et al., 1974).
In July 1978, Allied Chemical disclosed plans to sell its Baton Rouge vinyl chloride complex,
including production facilities for 1,2-dichloroethane, to ICI Americas.
GGoodrich Chemical Co. has announced plans to construct a 1,2-dichloroethane plant in Convent,
Louisiana, that will have an annual capacity of 0.36 million metric tons.
^A planned expansion of the vinyl chloride plant at Lake Charles was announced in July 1978 by
PPG Industries, Inc.
Source: Compiled from Chemical Marketing Reporter, 1977a, and Pervier et al., 1974.
3.3 ANNUAL PRODUCTION, MARKET PRICES, AND MARKET TRENDS
From 1973 to 1977 the industry operated at about 60% of capacity,
producing A.22, 4.16, 3.62, 3.65, and 4.75 million metric tons of 1,2-
dichloroethane respectively (Storck, 1978; U.S. International Trade Com-
mission, 1973-1977). The overall production rate during these years may
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25
ORNL- DWO 70- 21764
NEW HAMPSHIRE
MASSACHUSETTS
MODE ISLAND
CONNECTICUT
NEW JERSEY
iE LA WARE
MARYLAND
Fig. 5. Locations of 1,2-dichloroethane plants. Source: Adapted
from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1975Z?, Map 3-2, p. 3-31.
Table 3. Population living within 5 miles of plants
producing l,2-dichloroethanea
Producer
Allied Chemical Corp.
Conoco Chemicals
Diamond Shamrock Chemical Co.
Dow Chemical Co.
Ethyl Corp.
Goodrich Chemical Co.
PPG Industries, Inc.
Shell Chemical Co.
Stauffer Chemical Co.
Union Carbide Corp.
Vulcan Materials Co.
T . Population within
Location c .-, c ,
5 miles of plant
Baton Route, La.
Lake Charles, La.
Deer Park, Tex.
Freeport, Tex.
Plaquemine , La .
Baton Rouge, La.
Calvert City, Ky.
Lake Charles, La.
Guayanilla, P.R.
Deer Park, Tex.
Norco , La .
Long Beach, Calif.
Taft, La.
Texas City, Tex.
Geismar, La.
79,808
55,701
131,479
20,625
15,415
79,808
9,070
55,701
17,847
131,479
18,869
681,311
18,869
57,651
5,358
^Population figures are based on 1970 standard metropolitan statis-
tical area census tract reports.
Source: Compiled from American Public Health Association, 1975.
-------
26
have been even higher than indicated because captive production is not
always adequately reflected in published production data. However, the
supply of 1,2-dichloroethane available to the merchant market was less
than the cited production rates because only 1,2-dichloroethane produced
by direct chlorination of ethylene can be isolated for sale. 1,2-Dichlo-
roethane manufactured by oxychlorination of ethylene is used captively
as an intermediate in vinyl chloride production and cannot be separated
from that production (Stanford Research Institute, 1975, as cited in
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1978a). In recent years, only a
small fraction, 10% to 15%, of the total amount of 1,2-dichloroethane
produced has been sold on the commercial market (U.S. International
Trade Commission, 1973-1977).
Spurred primarily by the demand for 1,2-dichloroethane as a raw
material for the manufacture of vinyl chloride, production of 1,2-dichlo-
roethane has increased almost every year since 1954 (Fig. 6). This up-
ward trend is expected to continue despite small declines in production
during 1971, 1974, and 1975, when short-term recessionary influences
temporarily reduced demand. Future growth of the market is expected to
ORNL-OWG 78-21765
78
Fig. 6. Production trends for 1,2-dichloroethane, 1954-78. Source:
Adapted from Lowenheim and Moran, 1975, Faith, Keyes, and Clark's Indus-
trial Chemicals, 4th ed., p. 394. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley
and Sons, Inc.
-------
27
average 4% to 5% per year through 1981, at which time demand for 1,2-
dichloroethane is expected to be about 6.6 million metric tons. Five of
the major producing companies are currently expanding production facili-
ties or are planning increased production in the near future (Chemical
Marketing Reporter, 1977&).
About 5% to 10% of the annual U.S. production is normally exported.
In 1974 such sales amounted to 0.36 million metric tons (Table 4). No
evidence of recent imports was found.
Table 4. U.S. exportation of
1,2-dichloroethane, 1970-74
Year Exports
(million metric tons)
1970 0.308
1971 0.156
1972 0.171
1973 0.167
1974 0.359
Source: Adapted from U.S. Depart-
ment of Commerce, 1970-1974, as cited in
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
1978Z?.
The selling price of 1,2-dichloroethane ranged from 2.8 to 12c/lb
between 1952 and 1977. Currently, the product is offered in tanks, un-
delivered, at 11 to 12c/lb (Chemical Marketing Reporter, 1978).
3.4 USES
1,2-Dichloroethane is used primarily as a chemical intermediate in
the synthesis of other compounds and as a solvent, extraction agent, or
fumigant. The first category accounts for the major fraction, about
99.9% of the annual U.S. consumption of 1,2-dichloroethane. All other
uses are labeled minor because they represent only 0.1% to 0.2% of the
annual production.
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28
3.4.1 Major
Since the mid-1940s, 1,2-dichloroethane has been chiefly used as a
raw material in the synthesis of other chemical compounds, particularly
vinyl chloride, methyl chloroform, trichloroethylene, perchloroethylene,
vinylidene chloride, and ethyleneamines. In 1976 the manufacture of
vinyl chloride consumed 86% of all 1,2-dichloroethane produced in the
United States. Synthesis of the remaining compounds requires only a
small fraction of the annual production of 1,2-dichloroethane. For
example, in 1976 methyl chloroform required 3%; ethyleneamines, 3%; tri-
chloroethylene, 2%; and perchloroethylene, 2% (U.S. Environmental Pro-
tection Agency, 1977). The use of 1,2-dichloroethane as a scavenger for
lead in gasoline amounted to about 2% of the 1976 production. Quantities
of 1,2-dichloroethane consumed for these and other uses between 1968 and
1974 are listed in Table 5.
Most of the major uses of 1,2-dichloroethane are expected to increase
during the next few years. Stanford Research Institute has predicted
(cited in Patterson et al., 1975) the following annual growth rates for
products manufactured from 1,2-dichloroethane: vinyl chloride, 9%;
Table 5. Consumption of 1,2-dichloroethane in the
United States, 1968-74
(million metric tons)
Use
Vinyl chloride
Methyl chloroform
Trichloroethylene
Perchloroethylene
Vinylidene chloride
Ethyleneamines
Lead scavenger
Minor uses
Exports
Total
1968
1.778
0.111
0.062
0.080
0.057
0.122
0.101
0.005
0.095
2.411
1970
2.782
0.120
0.102
0.112
0.074
0.124
0.108
0.005
0.308
3.735
1972
3.465
0.106
0.112
0.125
0.092
0.122
0.108
0.006
0.171
4.305
1974
3.895
0.153
0.133
0.125
0.097
0.132
0.097
0.007
0.167
4.805
Source: Adapted from Stanford Research Institute,
1975, as cited in U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
1978a.
-------
29
perchloroethylene, 6%; methyl chloroform, 9%; ethyleneamines, 7%; vinyl-
idene chloride, 7%; and miscellaneous, 7%. A decreased use of 1,2-
dichloroethane as a lead scavenger in gasoline and for manufacture of
trichloroethylene was predicted, but a steady demand for exports was
forecast.
3.4.2 Minor
Information concerning minor uses of 1,2-dichloroethane is not gen-
erally available in standard literature sources because distribution is
highly fragmented and end-use data are often considered proprietary. How-
ever, it has been established that 1,2-dichloroethane is used in textile
cleaning and processing, in formulations of acrylic-type adhesives, as a
product intermediate for polysulfide elastomers, as a constitutent of
polysulfide rubber cements, in the manufacture of grain fumigants, and
as a cleaning and extraction solvent. Stanford Research Institute (1975,
as cited in U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1978a) concluded that
these minor uses of 1,2-dichloroethane amounted to 7 million kilograms
in 1974 (Table 5). In a more detailed description, Auerbach Associates,
Inc. (1978a) estimated consumption of 1,2-dichloroethane by minor uses
at about 5 million kilograms in 1977. Of this total, about 28% was used
in the manufacture of paints, coatings, and adhesives. Extracting oil
from seeds, treating animal fats, and processing pharmaceutical products
required 23% of the total. An additional 19% was consumed cleaning tex-
tile products and polyvinyl chloride manufacturing equipment. Nearly
11% was used in the preparation of polysulfide compounds. Grain fumiga-
tion required about 10%. The remaining 9% was used as a carrier for
amines in leaching copper ores, in the manufacture of color film, as a
diluent for pesticides and herbicides, and for other miscellaneous pur-
poses. The names, compositions, and toxicity ratings of typical pesti-
cide products containing 1,2-dichloroethane are listed in the Appendix.
Several processes have been developed by which fish solids can be
treated with solvents to remove most of the lipid and moisture, yielding
a flour containing 70% to 90% protein. Various extracting solvents, in-
cluding 1,2-dichloroethane, can be used in such processes, but Morrison
-------
30
and Munro (1965) established that the quality of the resulting food
product depends on the choice of solvent. When 1,2-dichloroethane is
the extracting solvent, it reacts with sulfhydryl groups in proteins,
forming stable thioether linkages that interfere with the subsequent
release of cysteine, histidine, and methionine in pancreatic digestion.
The reaction of 1,2-dichloroethane with sulfhydryl groups is strongly
pH dependent, occurring readily at pH 8.6 but hardly at all near pH 4.5.
Typically, the pH of the extracting system is sufficiently high so that
use of 1,2-dichloroethane in this application results in a food product
of reduced nutritional value; however, increasing the acidity of the
extracting solution will prevent the occurrence of thioethers in fish
flour.
3.4.3 Discontinued
The use of 1,2-dichloroethane as a solvent appears to be decreasing,
particularly in areas where occupational health hazards or consumer-
oriented products are involved. For example, the following applications
often cited in the literature are now considered obsolete or rarely used:
upholstery and carpet fumigant, soap and scouring compound ingredient,
wetting and penetrating agent, and degreasing fluid (Auerbach Associates,
Inc., 1978a). 1,2-Dichloroethane was once registered for use in finger-
nail enamel, but the Food and Drug Administration believes that it is no
longer used in cosmetics. Bureau of Drug scientists sought, but did not
find, 1,2-dichloroethane as an active or inactive ingredient in any
registered drug products (Kennedy, 1978&).
-------
4. SOURCES AND LEVELS OF 1,2-DICHLOROETHANE IN THE ENVIRONMENT
4.1 POTENTIAL SOURCES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION
Reports dealing with contamination of the environment by 1,2-dichlo-
roethane are scarce and inadequate. Only a few quantitative measurements
of emissions are available, and estimates by different authors vary sub-
stantially. Early observers agreed that losses of 1,2-dichloroethane
occurring during the manufacture of end products, primarily vinyl chlo-
ride monomer, constituted the major source of contamination. Losses
sustained during the synthesis of 1,2-dichloroethane were considered sub-
stantial, but less than losses incurred during the manufacture of vinyl
chloride. Emissions from all other sources were considered minor by
comparison (Patterson et al., 1975). More recently, some authors have
attributed almost all losses to the manufacture of 1,2-dichloroethane
and virtually none to the manufacture of vinyl chloride (Eimutis and
Quill, 1977). This anomaly appears to be largely semantic, stemming from
arbitrary definitions of what constitutes vinyl chloride production in a
multipurpose plant that also synthesizes 1,2-dichloroethane. In the dis-
cussion that follows the original concepts of each author are retained.
4.1.1 Manufacture of End Products
Vinyl chloride monomer is the most important end product manufactured
from 1,2-dichloroethane. It is prepared by dehydrochlorination of 1,2-
dichloroethane in a cracking furnace packed with pumice or charcoal cata-
lyst (Fig. 7). After dehydrochlorination, the hot effluent gases are
quenched and partially condensed by direct contact with cold 1,2-dichloro-
ethane in the quench tower. The liquid streams from the quencher are
fractionated to separate vinyl chloride monomer from unreacted 1,2-dichloro-
ethane, which is then recycled. Losses of 1,2-dichloroethane to the envi-
ronment can occur in the 1,2-dichloroethane recycle purification system,
in effluents from associated aqueous by-product production units, in the
heavy ends, and in miscellaneous leaks and spills. Vapor vented from the
light-ends distillation column (stream AI in Fig. 7) is an important
31
-------
32
I. 2-DICHLOROETHANE
4 ,
TO STACK
HCI RECYCLED
TO
OXYCHLORINATION ( 5 '
REACTORS
1. 2 DICHLOROETHANE
INTERMEDIATE
STORAGE
ORNl DWG 7821766
VINYL CHLORIDE MONOMER
PRODUCT
VINYL CHLORIDE MONOMER
STORAGE
1. 2-DICHLOROETHANE
RECYCLED TO CRUDE
1. 2 DICHLOROETHANE
FRACTIONATION
TRICHLOROETHANE
PERCHLOROETHYLENE
HCI
TOWER
KL) HEAVY ENDS
I T ». TO WASTE OR
LIGHT ENDS VINYL i INCINERATOR
TOWER CHLORIDE C2 CHLOROCARBONS
(OPTIONAL) MONOMER TOWER
TOWER (OPTIONAL)
Fig. 7. 1,2-Dichloroethane cracking process for vinyl chloride
production. Source: Adapted from Bellamy and Schwartz, 1975, Fig. VC-3,
p. VCM-7.
potential source of loss of 1,2-dichloroethane to the atmosphere; typically,
this stream contains about 0.0045 kg of 1,2-dichloroethane per kilogram of
vinyl chloride monomer product (Table 6). The heavy ends (stream 7 in Fig.
7) from the final distillation of the vinyl chloride monomer may also be
an important environmental contaminant; this stream typically contains
about 0.008 kg of the chlorinated hydrocarbon per kilogram of vinyl chlo-
ride product. These heavy ends, the so-called EDC-tars, are extremely
toxic, causing acute biologic effects in concentrations as low as 10 to
100 ppb. Trichloroethane seems to be the main by-product in tars from
ethylene processes, but tetrachloroethane, pentachloroethane, trichloro-
butene, tetrachlorobutene, and a score of other compounds have also been
identified (Jensen et al., 1975). In 1970 large amounts of European EDC-
tars were dumped in the North Sea; more recently, incineration at sea
appears to be the usual practice (Jensen et al., 1975). There is no indica-
tion in published reports that these disposal procedures have been used by
-------
Table 6. Typical material balance for vinyl chloride monomer production via balanced ethylene process12
(kg/kg product)
Raw materials
Component ^ ^ ^
(1) (2) (3)
Carbon dioxide 0.0003
Carbon monoxide
Nitrogen 0.5782
Oxygen 0.1537
Chlorine 0.5871
Hydrogen chloride
Water 0.0171
Caustic soda
Sodium chloride
Ethylene 0.4656
Other hydrocarbons 0.0002
1 , 2-Dichloroethane
Vinyl chloride
monomer
Light
chlorocarbons
Heavy
chlorocarbons
Total vinyl
chloride
monomer 0.4658 0.5871 0.7493
Intermediates By-products Water streams
1,2-Dichlo- Light Heavy Dilute °J««_
roethane ,c. ,*. ends ends ,?. caustic .
(4) (5) (6) (la) (7b) (8) (9) n^°n
^HI^
b
b
b
b
0.0001
0.6036
0.1438 0.1166 0.0030
0.0008
0.0014
0.0025
1.6370G 0.0017 0.0012 0.0016
0.0008^ 0.0001
0.0017 0.0012 0.0003
0.0023
1.6370 0.6036 0.1438 0.0042 0.0047 0.1180 0.0038 0.0045
Vent streams
Oxychlo- Distil-
rination lation
(Ha) (A, A,)
0.0116
0.0032
0.5779 0.0003
0.0214
0.0001
0.0413
0.0001
0.0017 0.0045
0.0012 0.0024"'
0.0025
0.6609 0.0075
Product
Vinyl
chloride
monomer
(10)
l.OOOO6
1.0000
lumbers in parentheses under headings refer to stream identification numbers in Fig. 4 and 7. Miscellaneous intermittent emissions not
noted in this material balance, such as sampling, annual vessel openings, and miscellaneous fugitive emissions, amount to about 0.0001 kg/kg
product.
^Inerts present in chlorine feed will be emitted in this vent stream.
CThe amount of 1,2-dichloroethane in this column represents the 1,2-dichloroethane for a stoichiometric balance, including the amount that
is changed to other products (i.e., heavy chlorocarbons), but does not include any recycled 1,2-dichloroethane.
%inyl chloride monomer fugitive emissions are included in this category in order to make a material balance, even though part of the
actual losses occur elsewhere.
''Excludes storage and loading losses of vinyl chloride monomer. The average of these losses for surveyed plants was 0.0008 kg/kg product.
Source: Adapted from Bellamy and Schwartz, 1975, Table VC-1, p. VCM-9.
to
-------
34
U.S. producers. In the United States, disposal of heavy ends is usually
by burial in a landfill or by incineration. The latter option may result
in considerable air pollution if not controlled because the resulting
combustion products include chlorine and hydrogen chloride as well as
phosgene (Patterson, 1975; Sax, 1975).
Good estimates of present losses of 1,2-dichloroethane to the envi-
ronment from vinyl chloride production plants are not available because
manufacturers have been installing equipment to reduce these losses dur-
ing recent years. Earlier, Patterson et al. (1975), assuming emissions
of 1%, computed losses of 39 million kilograms for all end-product manu-
facturing (Table 7), of which vinyl chloride production comprises about
86%. Now, this estimate undoubtedly represents only an upper limit.
Eimutis and Quill (1977) estimated total emissions of 1,2-dichloroethane
from all sources in 1977 at 50.2 million kilograms per year but attributed
90% of these losses to the manufacture of 1,2-dichloroethane and none to
vinyl chloride synthesis (Table 8). Additional estimates of environmental
pollutants arising from the manufacture of vinyl chloride monomer in a
typical chlorination process are shown in Fig. 8.
Vinyl chloride monomer may also be prepared by processes which do
not involve the use of dichloroethane. Currently, about 10% of the
Table 7. Estimated emissions of 1,2-dichloroethane based on 1974
U.S. production of 4218 million kilograms
Source
End-product manufacturing
1,2-Dichloroethane production
Oxychlorination
Direct chlorination
Solvent uses
Storage, distribution
Total
Source
strength
(million kg)
3856
1772
2447
6
4218
Estimated
loss
(%)
1.0
1.2
0.2
100
0.06
Estimated
emissions
(million kg)
39
21
5
6
3
74
Source: Compiled from Patterson et al., 1975, pp. 11-12 to 11-16.
-------
35
Table 8. Emissions report for 1,2-dichloroethane, June 1977
Source
1 , 2-Dichloroethane
Oxychlorination
Direct chlorination
1,1, 1-Trichloroethane
Ethyl chloride — ethylene
hydrochlorination
Tetraethyl/tetramethyl
lead
Polysulfide rubber
Ethylenediamine
Chlorobenzene
Polyvinyl chloride
Total
Accuracy
of dataa
8
B
B
B
C
C
C
B
A
Mass of emissions
(metric tons per year)
23,935.2
21,299.9
2,433.1
2,313.4
169.6
21.8
18.4
15.6
0.1
50,207
Percent
of total
47.67
42.42
4.85
4.61
0.34
0.04
0.04
0.03
0.00
A — adequate data of reasonable accuracy; B — partly estimated data
of indeterminate accuracy; C — totally estimated data of indeterminate
accuracy.
Source: Adapted from Eimutis and Quill, 1977, p. 45.
national production of vinyl chloride monomer is by reacting acetylene
with hydrogen chloride in the presence of mercuric chloride (Faith, Keyes,
and Clark, 1965Z>) :
CH = CH + HC1 »• CH2 = CHC1 .
This exothermic reaction is maintained near 200°C with cooling water,
and a yield of 80% to 85% is usually achieved. The acetylene process is
economically unattractive to most manufacturers because of the high cost
of acetylene relative to ethylene, the feedstock for the 1,2-dichloro-
ethane process, but two manufacturers continue to use the process because
of special circumstances.
More recently in 1971, the Lummus Company of New Jersey developed a
new vinyl chloride synthesis, called the Transcat process, which produces
vinyl chloride monomer from ethane and chlorine or hydrogen chloride. As
originally developed, the process experienced some difficulties due to
-------
36
ORNL DWG 78-21767
HCI SEPARATOR
BASIS: 1 kg VINYL CHLORIDE MONOMER
ETHYLENE 0.50 kg
PYROLYSIS
FURNACE
QUENCH HCI
0.6025
VINYL
CHLORIDE
SEPARATION
VINYL CHLORIDE
1.0kg
CHLORINE 1.22kg
CRUDE
.DILUTE REFLUX
A CONDENSER
ISOLUTION^S VENT
(3
I
HEAVY ENDS
PRODUCT
FILTER
CAUSTIC EFFLUENT
WASHAGE \
HEAVY ENDS
RECYCLE PRODUCT
CHLORINATION FEED FILTER LIGHT ENDS HEAVY ENDS
REACTOR NEUTRALIZATION REMOVAL REMOVAL
CAUSTIC WASHAGE (WATER)
DICHLOROETHANE 0.00435 kg
SODIUM HYDROXIDE 0.00098 kg
SODIUM CHLORIDE 0.00033 kg
VINYL CHLORIDE 0.00098 kg
METHYL CHLORIDE 0.00085 kg
ETHYL CHLORIDE 0.00085 kg
TO WATER
FILTER EFFLUENT
-------
37
the formation of undesirable by-products such as chlorine, nitrous oxide,
and heavy chlorinated metals. The company is currently refining the
method to make it pollution free. The improved process will essentially
be a closed system that utilizes ethane, chlorine or hydrogen chloride,
and a circulating molten salt catalyst comprised of copper and potassium
chlorides. According to company spokesmen, waste chlorinated hydrocarbons
can also be used as feedstock for the process, making it an efficient
cleanup method for other processes that give off excess chlorinated prod-
ucts. Gaseous effluents from the Transcat process are said to include
only carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen, and water vapor. Wastewater from
the process is described as being slightly alkaline and containing only
sodium chloride. The Transcat process has not yet been commercialized,
but the company planned to set up a U.S. demonstration plant by the end
of 1978 (Auerbach Associates, Inc., 19782?) .
4.1.2 Synthesis of 1,2-Dichloroethane
4.1.2.1 Direct Chlorination — The manufacture of 1,2-dichloroethane
by direct chlorination of ethylene is described in Sect. 3.1.1 and Figs. 1
and 4. Emissions of 1,2-dichloroethane to the environment from this
process occur mainly as gases vented "from the scrubbing column, head
column, or storage tanks; as wastewater used to scrub vented gases or
wash crude 1,2-dichloroethane; and as tars produced in the heavy-end
column (streams H, 7a, 8, and 7b, respectively, in Fig. 4). Fugitive
emissions also occur as leaks from pressure relief valves, pumps, com-
pressors, agitator seals, valve stems, flanges, loading and unloading
operations, and sampling operations (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
1975&). Several hundred of these potential leaks exist in a typical
manufacturing facility. Generally, the greatest losses of 1,2-dichloro-
ethane in a direct chlorination plant are associated with streams la and
7b (Fig. 4) from the 1,2-dichloroethane finishing still - about 0.001 to
0.002 kg per kilogram of vinyl chloride product. Typical values for
other streams are indicated in Table 7. Pervier et al. (1974) listed
additional detailed estimates of losses for several selected direct chlo-
rination plants.
-------
38
According to Patterson et al. (1975), overall total emissions of
1,2-dichloroethane to the environment in 1974 from manufacturing plants
using the direct chlorination process amounted to about 5 million kilo-
grams, or 0.2% of the 1,2-dichloroethane produced by this method (Table
7). Eimutis and Quill (1977) estimated the 1977 total at about 22
million kilograms, but as previously noted (Sect. 4.1), these two investi-
gating teams defined mixed-process production facilities differently.
The composition of wastewater from a direct chlorination plant obvi-
ously varies with operating conditions but usually contains 1,2-dichloro-
ethane as well as hydrogen chloride, vinyl chloride, and chlorine. Table
9 indicates the composition suggested as typical for direct chlorination
plants by one research team. The amount of such wastewater produced in
one representative direct chlorination plant amounted to 0.82 kg per
kilogram of 1,2-dichloroethane (Nardella, 1974). Because of volatility,
more 1,2-dichloroethane is lost to air than to other media (Fig. 8).
Solid wastes from direct chlorination plants occur mainly as tars from
the heavy-ends column (stream Ib in Fig. 4). Losses of 1,2-dichloro-
ethane to the environment from these solids amount to about 1.5 kg per
metric ton of product (Fig. 9).
4.1.2.2 Oxychlorination — The manufacture of 1,2-dichloroethane by
the oxychlorination of ethylene is discussed in Sect. 3.1.2 and outlined
Table 9. Composition of wastewater from
a typical manufacturing facility using
the direct chlorination process
„ , Quantity produced
Compound (kg/metric ton)
Chlorine 0.87
1,2-Dichloroethane 2.60
Hydrogen chloride 3.8
Vinyl chloride 0.6
Methyl chloride 0.05
Ethyl chloride 0.05
Sodium hydroxide 0.60
Sodium chloride 0.20
Source: Adapted from Hedley et al.,
1975, p. 194.
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39
ORNL-DWG 78-21768
AIR
57%
5.69 kg/metric ton
WATER
29%
2.90 kg/metric ton
SOLID
WASTE
14%
1.45 kg/metric ton
Fig. 9. Losses of 1,2-dichloroethane to the media by the direct
chlorination process. Source: Adapted from Hedley et al. , 1975.
schematically in Figs. 2 and 4. Losses of 1,2-dichloroethane from the
oxychlorination process are considerably greater than those from the
direct chlorination process. Patterson et al. (1975) estimated losses
in 1974 at 21 million kilograms, or 1.2% of the 1,2-dichloroethane pro-
duced by the oxychlorination method (Table 7) . Eitnutis and Quill (1977)
put the annual 1977 losses at about 24 million kilograms (Table 8).
According to one report (Schwartz et al., 1974), emissions from the oxy-
chlorination process amounted to 1.75% of all the 1,2-dichloroethane
synthesized by this method. Losses occurred chiefly in the process vent
gas, distillation vent gas, chlorinated by-product, and heavy ends (Fig.
2) and amounted to 0.70%, 0.45%, 0.37%, and 0.23%, respectively, of the
total product output.
Wastewater from the typical oxychlorination process also contains
more 1,2-dichloroethane than wastewater from the direct chlorination
process. Estimates by the Monsanto Research Corporation (Hedley et al.,
1975) placed the concentration of 1,2-dichloroethane in liquid wastes
from oxychlorination plants at 4.6 kg per metric ton of product (Fig. 10)
-------
AO
ORNL-DWG 78-21769
AIR
61%
11.4 kg/metric ton
WATER
24.5%
4.6 kg/metric ton
SOLID
WASTE
14.5%
2.75 kg/metric ton
Fig. 10. Losses of 1,2-dichloroethane to the media by the oxy-
chlorination process. Source: Adapted from Hedley et al., 1975.
Solid wastes from oxychlorination plants occur mainly as heavy-end
tars from the 1,2-dichloroethane finishing column (stream 9 in Fig. 2)
or as spent catalyst from fluidized bed reactors. Losses of 1,2-dichloro-
ethane to the environment from these solids amount to about 2.75 kg per
metric ton of product (Fig. 10). Additional estimates of environmental
pollutants arising from the manufacture of 1,2-dichloroethane by typical
chlorination and hydrochlorination processes are given in Table 10.
4.1.3 Dispersive Uses
Dispersive uses constitute the third major source of emissions to
the environment (Patterson et al., 1975). These applications include
the use of 1,2-dichloroethane as a solvent for processing pharmaceutical
products and animal fats; cleaning textiles; cleaning polyvinyl chloride
processing equipment; extracting oil from oil seeds; manufacturing paints,
coatings, and adhesives; and fumigating stored grain products (Auerbach
Associates, Inc., 1978a). In 1974 approximately 6 (Table 7) or 7 (Table
5) million kilograms was consumed in this manner. It is generally assumed
that all of this material is eventually released to the atmosphere.
-------
41
Table 10. Environmental pollutants arising from the manufacture of
1,2-dichloroethane by typical chlorination and hydrochlorination processes
Process
Compound
Amount
(kg/metric ton
of product)
Ethylene chlorination
Vent on the reflux condenser
(air)
Reactor section — hydrogen
chloride absorber (water)
Purification section — caustic
storage (water)
Purification section — filter
effluent (solid)
Purification section — filter
effluent (water)
Purification section —
distillation column bottoms
(solid)
Ethane
1,2-Dichloroethane
Methane
Chlorine
Hydrogen chloride
Chlorine
1,2-Dichloroethane
Hydrogen chloride
Vinyl chloride
Methyl chloride
Ethyl chloride
1,2-Dichloroethane
Sodium hydroxide
Sodium chloride
Mercuric hydroxide
Tars
Solids (as carbon)
1,2-Dichloroethane
Sodium hydroxide
1,2-Dichloroethane
1,1,2-Trichloroethane
Tetrachloroethane
Tars
3.0
7.5
3.0
0.0005
0.0005
0.875
2.45
3.8
0.6
0.005
0.005
0.15
0.6
0.2
0.0035
Trace
0.05
0.03
Trace
5.8
9.8
9.8
Trace
Oxychlorination of ethylene
Water gas from entrainment
separator (air)
Water waste from surge and
decanter vessel (water)
Ethylene
Carbon monoxide
1,2-Dichloroethane
Vinyl chloride
Dichloroethylene
Vinylidene chloride
Methane and ethane (av)
Hydrogen chloride
•2.7
1.2
8.15
8.5
0.45
0.05
0.45
0.35
Source: Adapted from Hedley et al., 1975, pp. 193-195.
-------
42
Environmental exposure to 1,2-dichloroethane from dispersive uses
occurs as point-source losses from industrial sites where these products
are manufactured and from use of end products, especially paints, coat-
ings, adhesives, cleaning solvents, and fumigants. No quantitative meas-
urements of exposure to 1,2-dichloroethane arising from these uses (except
fumigants) were found in this survey of the literature. A need exists for
monitoring data to define levels of 1,2-dichloroethane occurring in typical
applications, especially closed rooms freshly coated with paint that con-
tains 1,2-dichloroethane. Such tasks would be greatly simplified if the
amount of 1,2-dichloroethane in a product were specified on the container
label. At present this information is not normally available to the user.
Exposure to 1,2-dichloroethane also occurs through the use or consumption
of food, such as fumigated grains, or pharmaceutical products from which
all residual processing solvent has not been removed (Food Chemical News,
1978). Exposure to 1,2-dichloroethane from such sources may occur with-
out warning to the user. Proprietary cleaning and thinning solvents con-
taining 1,2-dichloroethane may carry label warnings of flammability but
rarely identify solution components or give warnings of biological risk.
The amount of 1,2-dichloroethane remaining on fumigated grain re-
quires special mention. Retention of the chlorinated hydrocarbon depends
on many factors, some of which are type of grain, extent of grinding,
type and concentration of fumigant, exposure conditions, and degree of
subsequent ventilation. Berck (1974) cited several other factors. Part
of the 1,2-dichloroethane appears to be sorbed physically and part is
sorbed chemically. Some investigators reported difficulty in satisfactorily
recovering residues of 1,2-dichloroethane from some grains, presumably when
chemical sorption has occurred (Berck, 1974). Steaming, toasting, or treat-
ment with selected solvents may release all or only part of the residual
1,2-dichloroethane (Storey, Kirk, and Mustakas, 1972). It is not known if
nonvolatile residues of 1,2-dichloroethane in grain are noxious or can be
metabolized to toxic substances. In view of these complexities, it is
necessary to view cautiously reported statements of the safety of 1,2-
dichloroethane residues in fumigated grains.
When a 140-Ib bag of 85% extraction wheat flour was fumigated for
48 hr in a 17.5-ft3 chamber at 25°C with 300 g of 1,2-dichloroethane
-------
43
applied as a vapor, 1060 ppm of the chlorinated hydrocarbon remained in
the surface flour after a ventilation period of 1 hr. A sample from the
center of the bag contained 1030 ppm. After standing two days in still
air, the surface and center samples contained 210 and 350 ppm respectively.
Seven days after exposure, these concentrations had fallen to 22 and 46
ppm respectively. Baking the flour that had been aired seven days re-
moved all detectable traces of 1,2-dichloroethane (Lindgren, Sinclair,
and Vincent, 1968). The sensitivity of the analytical method used in
this experiment was not specified.
Berck (1974) also performed experiments in which wheat was treated
with several fumigants, including 1,2-dichloroethane. He reported that
1,2-dichloroethane residues could not be satisfactorily removed from, or
determined in, the treated wheat or resulting flour, bran, middlings, and
bread. Nevertheless, in earlier work using a different technique, he
established that 51 cereals substrates sorbed 1,2-dichloroethane singly
or in mixtures of other fumigants in amounts ranging from 0% to 84% of
the applied charge, depending on the type and particle size of the cereal
(Berck, 1965). Sosedov (1959) and Whitney (1960) also reported absorp-
tion of 1,2-dichloroethane by wheat.
Storey, Kirk, and Mustakas (1972) fumigated soybeans with a 3:1
mixture of 1,2-dichloroethane and carbon tetrachloride for 72 hr at a
dosage equivalent to 6 gal of fumigant per thousand bushels of soybeans.
Following aeration for 1 hr and standing overnight, the beans were pack-
aged and transferred to the laboratory for milling and extracting. Whole
beans contained 51 ppm 1,2-dichloroethane. Residues found in various
milling fractions indicated that toasting removed residues from the hulls,
but steaming did not remove residues from dehulled soybeans. 1,2-Dichloro-
ethane residues from the soybean flakes passed into the miscella and
extracted marc and, subsequently, into the hexane recovered from both of
these fractions. The solvent-free oil and meal products did not contain
1,2-dichloroethane residues. Buildup of 1,2-dichloroethane in hexane
represents a contamination problem because this solvent is continuously
recycled in the extraction process.
Munsey, Mills, and Klein (1957) added 1,2-dichloroethane (40 ppm)
and other fumigants to flour at approximately ten times the concentration
-------
44
normally present in fumigated wheat. The fumigants were added to the
flour in an alcohol solution immediately before water was introduced dur-
ing the normal preparation of bread. The standard 1-lb loaves were baked
at 425°C for 30 min. Loaves were cooled for 1 hr and then placed in
plastic bags and held for analysis the following day. Bread from treated
flour and from untreated flour (blank) contained less than 2 ppm 1,2-
dichloroethane. Rolled oats spiked with 60 ppm 1,2-dichloroethane con-
tained about half of the added contaminant after cooking in a normal
manner; however, the authors stated, "It seems very unlikely that any
measurable amount of these fumigants would be left in the cooked com-
mercial rolled oats resulting from milling fumigated oats." It should be
noted that the analytical method on which these conclusions were based
was much less sensitive than presently used methods. Residues of 1,2-
dichloroethane ranging from 23 to 43 ppm were also found in sacks of
wheat several weeks after fumigation by Wit et al. (1969, as cited in
Fishbein, 1976).
In summary, varying amounts of 1,2-dichloroethane remain on fumigated
grain, depending on grain type, exposure conditions, and degree of subse-
quent ventilation. Most investigators consider that further processing
or cooking operations associated with the preparation of grain for human
consumption reduces this 1,2-dichloroethane to a negligible level. How-
ever, animals that consume grain directly, such as chickens and cattle,
may be exposed to relatively high concentrations of the compound.
Another topic of special interest concerns the exposure received by
the U.S. population from 1,2-dichloroethane in gasoline. No discussion
of this question was found during an extensive search of the literature,
but a similar study dealing with 1,2-dibromoethane (Mara and Lee, 1978)
allows some generalized conclusions to be drawn. Leaded gasoline contains
1,2-dichloroethane and 1,2-dibromoethane as lead scavengers. Enough of
each compound is added to provide two atoms of chlorine and one atom of
bromine for each atom of lead. Leaded gasoline contains approximately
2.5 g of lead (0.012 mole) per gallon; therefore, typical additions of
1,2-dichloroethane and 1,2-dibromoethane amount to 1.2 g (0.012 mole) and
1.1 g (0.006 mole) per gallon respectively.
-------
45
Exposure to 1,2-dichloroethane in gasoline only occurs prior to com-
bustion because the chlorinated hydrocarbon is destroyed during ignition
of the fuel. For most of the population, exposure occurs chiefly through
inhalation of fumes during refueling of automobiles. Persons residing
near gasoline filling stations or storage facilities may be exposed to
somewhat lower concentrations of 1,2-dichloroethane for much longer times.
The concentrations of 1,2-dichloroethane to which these motorists and
residents are exposed has not been measured experimentally. However, if
it is assumed that the rates of evaporation of 1,2-dichloroethane and
1,2-dibromoethane are proportional to their vapor pressures, solubilities,
and molecular weights, the concentration of 1,2-dichloroethane in gasoline
fumes may be estimated from values for 1,2-dibromoethane calculated by
Mara and Lee (1978). The vapor pressure of 1,2-dichloroethane at ambient
temperatures is about six times greater than that of 1,2-dibromoethane,
and the molar concentration of 1,2-dichloroethane in leaded gasoline is
twice as great as 1,2-dibromoethane; therefore, the evaporation rate of
1,2-dichloroethane may reasonably be expected to exceed that of 1,2-dibro-
moethane by a factor of 12. The same factor should also apply to the ratio
of concentrations near an evaporative source. Table 11 shows that the
estimated 1,2-dibromoethane concentrations at a self-service gasoline pump-
ing station varied from 45 to 679 ppt. On the basis of the correlation
suggested here, the corresponding 1,2-dichloroethane concentration range
would be 540 to 8148 ppt. The monitored levels of 1,2-dibromoethane in
six urban areas ranged from 8 to 47 ppt (Table 12). On the basis of the
suggested correlation, corresponding values for 1,2-dichloroethane would
be 96 to 564 ppt. Table 13 gives estimates of human exposure to atmos-
pheric 1,2-dibromoethane from principal emission sources. More than 100
million persons are thought to be exposed to concentrations of 1,2-dibromo-
ethane at an annual average concentration of 1 to 5 ppt. Similar popula-
tions are probably exposed to 1,2-dichloroethane at concentrations estimated
here at 12 to 60 ppt. In conclusion, it should be emphasized that this
discussion on 1,2-dichloroethane exposures from gasoline is intended to be
illustrative rather than definitive. Satisfactory data for both 1,2-dibro-
moethane and 1,2-dichloroethane are lacking, and oversimplified models have
been used to compute the results presented above. Consequently, the stated
conclusions should be verified by experimental measurements.
-------
46
Table 11. Estimates of 1,2-dibromoethane exposures
from self-service gasoline pumping
Customer
1
2
3
Estimated
Nozzle Amount 1,2-dibromoethane
timea pumped level^
^min^ ^gax^
(yg/m3) (ppt)
2.5 14 0.345 45
1.1 8 0.972 126
1.6 9 5.220 679
, Average nozzle time = 1.7 min.
Time-weighted average exposure = 260 ppt.
Source: Adapted from Mara and Lee, 1978, Table
IV-5, p. 29.
Table 12. Monitoring data for 1,2-dibromoethane
in urban areas
Location
Phoenix
Los Angeles
Seattle
Phoenix
Los Angeles
Kansas Citya
Number
of sites
1
1
2
10
9
1
Average
sampling
time
(hr)
17
16
12
18
18
18
Average
1 , 2-dibromoethane
concentration
(yg/m3)
0.069
0.110
0.083
0.360
0.124
0.060
(ppt)
8
13
11
47
16
8
a
Suburban area.
Source: Adapted from Mara and Lee, 1978, Table VII-2,
p. 57.
-------
Table 13. Summary of human exposures to atmospheric 1,2-dibromoethane from emission sources
Source
Manufacturing and formulating
Gasoline service stations
People using self-service
People living in the vicinity
Petroleum refineries
Storage and distribution
Urban exposures — automotive
10.0-50.0 ppt
1.0-5.0 ppt
580,000
100,000,000
2,000,000
e
24,000,000
Population exposed to 1,2-dibromoethane concentrations'2
50.1-100.0 ppt 100.1-200.0 ppt 200.1-400.0 ppt >400.0 ppt
5.1-10.0 ppt 10.1-20.0 ppt 20.1-40.0 ppt >40.0 ppt
250,000 160,000 99,000 84,000
d
10,000,000
170,000 53,000 16,000 3,000
Totalb'C
1,200,000
30,000,000
110,000,000
2,200,000
24,000,000
Comparison
among sources
(106 ppt-
person-years)
14.0
1.3
380.0
8.7
72.0
°To convert to ug/m3, divide each exposure level by 100. First line represents 8-hr worst-case exposure and second line indicates
annual average exposure.
^Population estimates are not additive vertically because some double counting may exist.
^Totals are rounded to two significant figures.
Estimated at 260 ppt for 1.5 hr per year per person.
^Estimated at «1.0 ppt annual average.
Source: Adapted from Mara and Lee, 1978, Table 1-1, p. 3.
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48
4.1.4 Storage and Distribution
Storage and distribution constitute the last major sources of emis-
sion of 1,2-dichloroethane to the environment. Losses occur primarily
from vents in fixed-roof storage tanks and other rigid containers. To
minimize this problem, producers usually store crude 1,2-dichloroethane
under a layer of water; however, this technique cannot be used for the
dry product. Techniques for controlling losses of the dry product are
discussed in Sect. 4.1.7.
The total number and sizes of the storage tanks involved in storing
and distributing 1,2-dichloroethane could not be estimated from the avail-
able literature, but oxychlorination plants, which account for almost half
of U.S. production, typically maintain a storage capacity of 1.5 to 2 days
production (Schwartz et al., 1974). If a similar retention of product
occurs in all U.S. plants, a storage capacity of 4 to 6 million gallons
would be required to accommodate production in 1977. Based on domestic
production and a loss factor of 0.06%, an estimated 3 million kilograms
of 1,2-dichloroethane was vented to the atmosphere in 1974 (Table 7).
4.1.5 Potential Inadvertent Production in Other Industrial Processes
Inadvertent production of 1,2-dichloroethane could occur in indus-
trial operations in which organic compounds, particularly aliphatic hydro-
carbons, are chlorinated or in processes in which chlorinated hydrocarbons
are dissociated by heat or other agents; however, no industrial processes
were found, other than those previously described in this report, which
produce appreciable quantities of 1,2-dichloroethane (Johns, 1976).
4.1.6 Potential Inadvertent Production in the Environment
There are no known sources of 1,2-dichloroethane in nature (Johns,
1976). The presence of low concentrations of this compound in some surface
waters and suburban atmospheres is generally attributed to the polluting
influence of point sources. The 1,2-dichloroethane in many municipal water
systems apparently results from the reaction of organic impurities in the
water with chlorine added at the local water treatment plant (Symons et
al., 1975).
-------
49
4.1.7 Control Practices Currently Used
Emissions of 1,2-dichloroethane from manufacturing processes are
normally controlled by scrubbers and condensers (Pervier et al. , 1974).
Scrubbers are used primarily to remove small amounts of hydrogen chloride
or chlorine from noncondensed reactor effluents. Water is usually employed
as the solvent for hydrogen chloride, but dilute caustic must be used to
eliminate chlorine from vent gases. Scrubbers also remove some 1,2-
dichloroethane from the gas stream, but their effectiveness varies with
operating conditions. Generally, only about one-third of the 1,2-dichloro-
ethane is absorbed. Condensers are designed primarily to recover 1,2-
dichloroethane. When cooled to about -23°C, a well-constructed condenser
will recover about 98% of the 1,2-dichloroethane in the effluent stream.
Capital and operating costs are substantially greater for condensers than
for scrubbers. However, the greatly increased recovery efficiency of con-
densers allows a rapid amortization of these costs (Table 14).
Table 14. Cost data for scrubbers and condensers
for control of 1,2-dichloroethane emissions
Parameter Scrubber Condenser
Gas rate, Ib/hr
Installed cost, material
and labor
Yearly installed cost,
C/lb of dichloroethane
Annual operating cost
Annual value of recovered
product
Annual net operating cost
(1972)
65
$6,300
0.0066
$2,450
$1,250*
$1,200
178
$125,000
0.026
$15,800
$60,800a
$45,000a
Net operating cost, C/lb of
dichloroethane 0.00013 0.0095
Overall efficiency, % 25 89.4
1,2-Dichloroethane
efficiency, % 39 97.9
^Credit.
Source: Adapted from Pervier et al., 1974,
Table EDC-IV, p. 149.
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50
Incineration can also be used to prevent release of 1,2-dichloroethane
in vent gases. In well-designed equipment, removal of 1,2-dichloroethane,
as well as all other pollutants, can approach 100%. However, both hydro-
gen chloride and chlorine are formed during combustion and must be removed
before the combustion products may be released to the atmosphere. Some
incineration systems allow recovery of steam or heat, but all are substan-
tially more expensive than current techniques (Table 15); consequently,
none are currently used by the industry.
Table 15. Cost data for the control of 1,2-dichloroethane by incineration
Parameter
Total flow,
Ib/hr
scfm
Total capital cost
Annual operating cost
Steam production, savings
Net annual cost
Control of all pollutants, %
Control of specific pollutant
1,2-dichloroethane, 2
Direct-fired
boiler and
caustic scrubber
78,588
17,280
$1,500,000
$765,600
$218,400
$547,200
100
100
Thermal
incinerator and
caustic scrubber
78,588
17,280
$750,000
$503,200
$503,200
100
100
Thermal incinerator,
waste heat boiler,
and caustic scrubber
78,588
17,280
$1,025,000
$610,000
$218,400
$391,600
100
100
Flare
system
17,588
17,280
$132,000
$386,700
$386,700
62
Source: Adapted from Patterson et al., 1975, Table 10, p. 11-18.
The control of 1,2-dichloroethane emissions from vented fixed-roof
storage tanks requires the use of condensers on the vents or use of float-
ing roofs. The use of floating roofs reduces emissions by about 70% as
compared with vented rigid-roof tanks. For existing structures, internal
floating covers may be used to achieve results comparable to the installa-
tion of new pontoon floating roofs at a substantial reduction in conver-
sion costs (Patterson et al., 1975). According to one report (Schwartz et
al., 1974), several manufacturers are currently studying techniques to
increase recovery of 1,2-dichloroethane from product storage tank vents.
4.2 MONITORING DATA
Although data for occupational exposure to 1,2-dichloroethane have
been reported in the literature for more than four decades (National
-------
51
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 1976), interest in environ-
mental monitoring of this compound is relatively new and only limited
data are available. The earliest measurements of this substance in environ-
mental air and drinking water were published in the mid-1970s.
4.2.1 Air
The level of 1,2-dichloroethane in environmental air is generally
below the limit of detection of analytical methods as currently applied;
consequently, monitoring data for 1,2-dichloroethane in environmental air
do not exist in the usual sense of the term. However, several searches
for chlorinated hydrocarbons in environmental air have been made which
would have revealed 1,2-dichloroethane if it existed at detectable levels.
These studies, cited below, define the upper concentration limit of 1,2-
dichloroethane in environmental air under conditions existing at the time
of sampling.
Grimsrud and Rasmussen (1975) searched for a variety of simple halo-
carbons in the troposphere of the rural northwestern United States using
a highly sensitive analytical technique based on a gas chromatograph
linked to a mass spectrometer. The concentration of 1,2-dichloroethane
in all samples was less than 5 ppt, the detection limit of the method.
Using chromatographic techniques capable of detecting other aliphatic
chlorinated hydrocarbons in the parts-per-billion range, Pearson and
McConnell (1975) found no measurable concentration of 1,2-dichloroethane
in nonpoint-source atmospheric samples taken near Liverpool, England.
Lovelock (1977) also studied halogenated hydrocarbons in the atmosphere
of the United Kingdom. Using chromatographic techniques, he observed
several common chlorinated compounds at parts-per-billion levels, but
1,2-dichloroethane was not detected.
Singh, Salas, and Cavanagh (1977) conducted two comprehensive field
studies of atmospheric halogenated compounds in California using a gas
chromatographic method capable of detecting many chlorinated hydrocarbons
at parts-per-trillion levels, but no evidence of 1,2-dichloroethane was
reported. Hanst (1978) cited 1,2-dichloroethane as an expected, but as
yet undetected, component of atmospheric samples.
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52
Although not yet generally detected in the atmosphere, 1,2-dichloro-
ethane has nevertheless been found in the controlled airspace of a grounded
spacecraft. Using continuous cryogenic trapping techniques, Harris (1972)
measured the concentrations of 39 pollutants in the spacecraft atmosphere
by means of a gas chromatograph coupled with a mass spectrometer. The
concentration of 1,2-dichloroethane was monitored at 0.011 mg/m3, or about
3 ppb. The source of the chlorinated hydrocarbon was undetermined; proba-
bly, it resulted from insulation, paints, adhesives, and other coatings or
components of the spacecraft.
Pellizzari (1977, 1978) collected and analyzed environmental air
samples in the vicinity of industrial sources using a gas chromatograph—
mass spectrometer technique. He reported atmospheric concentrations of
1,2-dichloroethane near point sources at or near the limit of detection
of his equipment. However, these data are not definitive and will not be
cited here because, according to the author, "the sensitivity of this
technique for the very volatile organic compounds (Cx to C3) is inade-
quate for the purpose of this study."
Air samples taken 1000 m from two Russian plants that used 1,2-
dichloroethane as a processing solvent were reported to contain an aver-
age concentration of 2 ppm, about 4% of the present U.S. occupational
standard for 8-hr exposures (Borisova, 1960).
In summary, it is apparent that the concentration of 1,2-dichloro-
ethane in environmental air distant from point sources is very low, prob-
ably parts per trillion or less. The concentration of 1,2-dichloroethane
near point sources, such as vinyl chloride monomer manufacturing plants,
may also be acceptably low, but monitoring data supporting this premise
are required for substantiation. Current monitoring techniques appear
to be adequate if sample collecting and analyzing procedures are opti-
mized with respect to 1,2-dichloroethane.
4.2.2 Water
During the National Organics Reconnaissance Survey (NORS) in 1975,
the water supplies of 80 U.S. cities were examined for 1,2-dichloroethane
and other halogenated organic compounds (Symons et al., 1975). Three raw
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53
and three finished water samples taken at each location were carefully
analyzed by a gas chromatographic technique that had a demonstrated detec-
tion limit for 1,2-dichloroethane of 0.1 yg/liter, a minimum quantifiable
concentration range of 0.2 to 0.4 yg/liter, a relative standard deviation
of 5%, and a relative error of 30% or less at the 5 yg/liter concentration
level. 1,2-Dichloroethane was not detected frequently nor found in high
concentrations in either raw- or finished-water samples. It was present
in only 14% and 32.5%, respectively, of the samples examined. The high-
est concentration observed in finished-water samples was 6 yg/liter. A
complete listing of results from this survey is given in Table 16. The
locations of the utilities are identified in Table 17.
Subsequent to the National Organics Reconnaissance Survey in 1975,
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency conducted a National Organic
Monitoring Survey (NOMS) to determine the frequency of occurrence of
specific contaminants in finished drinking water and to provide data for
the possible establishment of additional maximum contaminant levels of
organic compounds in drinking water. The NOMS covered 113 community water
supplies; replicate samples were taken during March-April 1976, May-June
1976, and November 1976 — January 1977. A fourth sampling phase is now
in progress. In phase I (March-April 1976) samples were collected and
analyzed in the manner described earlier for the National Organic Recon-
naissance Survey. After collection these samples were stored at 2°C to
8°C for one to two weeks before analysis. In phase II (May-June 1976),
samples were allowed to stand at 20°C to 25°C for three to six weeks
prior to analysis. Under these conditions the analytical data reflected
equilibrium or terminal reaction values. In phase III (November 1976 —
January 1977), all water sources were sampled with and without a chlorine
reducing agent present at the time of sampling (quenched and terminal).
These conditions were employed to help understand the distribution of
total trihalomethane concentrations occurring in processed water. All
findings of the NOMS are summarized in Table 18. Average values of 1,2-
dichloroethane in water supplies of specific cities are shown in Table
19. In general, 1,2-dichloroethane was detected infrequently (six or
less times per survey) and at relatively low concentrations (median con-
centration was <2 yg/liter).
-------
Table 16. Water quality data from the National Organics Reconnaissance Survey
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Utility number and name
(plant name when applicable)
Lawrence Water Works
Waterbury Bureau of Water (Morris
Treatment Station)
Metropolitan District Commission
(Norumbego Treatment Station)
Newport Dept. of Water (South Pond
Reservoir Treatment Plant No. 1)
Dept. of Water Resources
Puerto Rico Aqueduct and Sewer
Authority (Sergio Cuevas Water
Treatment Plant)
Passaic Valley Water Commission
Toms River Water Co.
Buffalo Water Dept.
Village of Rhinebeck Water Dept.
Philadelphia Water Dept.
(Torresdale Plant)
Wilmington Suburban Water Corp.
(Stanton Plant)
Artesian Water Co. (Llangollen
Well Field Plant)
Washington Aqueduct
(Delacarlia Plant)
Content of
1,2-
Dichloro-
e thane
NFC
NF
NF
<0.2
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
<0.2
<0.2
NF
NF
NF
<0.2
3
2
3
6
NF
<0.4
NF
<0.2
NF
<0.3
selected compounds in raw and finished water (pg/liter)^
Bromo-
dichloro-
me thane
<0.2
9
NF
10
NF
0.8
NF
42
NF
7
NF
29
NF
16
NF
<0.8
NF
10
NF
11
NF
9
<0.4
11
NF
0.5
NF
8
Dibromo-
chloro-
methane
NF
0.6
NF
0.6
NF
NF
NF
13
NF
0.9
NF
• 16
NF
2
NF
3
NF
4
NF
1
NF
5
NF
3
NF
1
NF
2
Bromo-
form
NF
NF
NF
<1
NF
NF
NF
1
NF
NF
NF
2
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
<1
NF
NF
Chloro-
form
<0.1
91
NF
93
NF
4
NF
103
NF
22
<0.2
47
0.3
59
0.4
0.6
NF
10
0.3
49
0.2
86
0.3
23
0.2
0.5
<0.2
41
Carbon
tetra-
chloride
NF
NF
NF
<2
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
<2
<2
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
<2
NF
NF
NF
NF
Nonvolatile
total
organic
carbon
(mg/liter)
3.7
1.6
2.2
2.9
2.1
2.0
4.6
4.1
3.0
2.5
2.0
2.0
3.6
1.9
<0.05
<0.05
2.6
1.7
3.5
1.6
2.6
1.7
2.8
1.8
0.05
0.2
1.8
1.2
-------
Table 16 (continued)
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
Utility number and name
(plant name when applicable)
Baltimore City Bureau of Water Supply
(Montebello Plant No. 1)
Western Pennsylvania Water Co.
(Hays Mine Plant)
Strasburg Borough Water System
Fairfax County Water Authority
(New Lorton Plant)
Virginia-American Water Co.
Hopewell District
Huntington Water Co.
Wheeling Water Dept.
Miami-Dade Water and Sewer Authority
(Preston Plant)
Jacksonville Dept. of Public Works
(Highlands Pumping Station)
Atlanta Waterworks
(Chattahoochee Plant)
Owensboro Municipal Utilities
Greenville Water Dept.
Tennessee American Water Co.
Memphis Light, Gas and Water Division
(Malloy Plant)
Metropolitan Water and Sewerage Dept.
(Lawrence Plant)
Content of
1,2-
Dichloro-
ethane
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
<0.3
<0.4
<0.3
<0.4
<0.2
<0.2
NF
NF
<0.3
NF
NF
NF
NF
<0.2
NF
<0.4
NF
NF
NF
NF
selected compounds in raw and finished water (vg/liter)^1
Bromo-
dichloro-
methane
NF
11
NF
2
NF
NF
<0.4
6
NF
1
NF
16
NF
28
NF
78
NF
4
NF
10
NF
20
NF
6
NF
9
NF
2
NF
5
Dibromo-
chloro-
me thane
NF
2
NF
0.4
NF
NF
NF
--0.6
NF
0.8
NF
5
NF
0.17
NF
35
NF
2
NF
2
NF
17
NF
3
'NF
0.7
NF
1
NF
<0.4
Bromo-
form
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
<2
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
3
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
3
NF
<1
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
Chloro-
form
NF
32
0.3
8
NF
<0.1
<0.2
67
0.2
6
1
23
0.2
72
NF
311
NF
9
<0.2
36
NF
13
0.3
17
0.9
30
<0.2
0.9
<0.1
16
Carbon
tetra-
chloride
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
4
3
NF
NF
<2
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
Nonvolatile
total
organic
carbon
(rag/liter)
1.8
1.2
0.9
0.8
0.2
0.05
4.7
2.7
4.2
0.2
2.2 <-n
Ln
1.0
3.2
1.8
9.8
5.4
2.4
2.3
1.3
0.9
1.7
2.0
3.3
4.0
1.1
0.6
0.2
0.2
1.2
0.8
-------
Table 16 (continued)
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37a.
37fe.
38.
39.
40.
41.
Utility number and name
(plant name when applicable)
Commissioners of Public Works
(Stoney Plant)
Cincinnati Water Works
Chicago Dept. of Water and Sewers
(South District Water Filtration
Plant) , two samples
Clinton Public Water Supply
Indianapolis Water Co.
(White River Plant)
Whiting Water Dept.
After pre C12
Before pre C12
Detroit Metro Water Dept.
(Waterworks Park Plant)
Mt. Clemens Water Purification
Mt. Clemens Water Purification
(after replacement of granular
activated carbon)
St. Paul Water Authority
Cleveland Division of Water
(Division Filtration Plant)
City of Columbus
(Dublin Road Plant)
Dayton Water Works
(Ottawa Plant)
Content of
1,2-
Dichloro-
e thane
NF
NF
NF
<0.4
NF/NF
<0.4
NF
NF
<0.3
NF
NF
NF
NF
0.5
0.4
NF
•<0.4
<0.2
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
<0.2
selected compounds in raw and finished water (ug/liter)^
Bromo-
dichloro-
methane
NF
9
NF
13
NF/<0.5
10
NF
0.5
NF
8
11
<0.8
0.3
NF
9
NF
6
NF
3
NF
7
NF
9
NF
8
NF
8
Dibromo-
chloro-
methane
NF
0.8
NF
4
NF/NF
4
NF
NF
NF
<2
3
NF
NF
NF
3
NF
<2
NF
<2
NF
2
NF
4
NF
<0.4
NF
11
Bromo-
form
NF
0.8
NF
NF
NF/NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
4
Chloro-
form
<0.2
195
0.5
45
<0.2/0.4
15
<0.2
4
0.1
31
16
0.1
0.5
<0.2
12
NF
11
0.9
6
<0.2
44
NF
18
0.1
134
NF
8
Carbon
tetra-
chloride
NF
NF
<2
<2
NF/NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
2
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
<2
Nonvolatile
total
organic
carbon
(mg/liter)
11.4
4.1
2.3
1.1
1.9/1.7
1.5
7.7
6,7
5.1
2.6
2.0
1.9
1.5
2.6
1.2
2.0
1.4
6.7
1.4
7.9
4.4
2.2
1.8
6.8
2.3
0.9
0.7
-------
Table 16 (continued)
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55a.
55fc.
Utility number and name
(plant name when applicable)
Indian Hill Water Supply
Piqua Water Supply
Mahoning Valley Sanitation District
Milwaukee Water Works (Howard
Avenue Purification Plant)
Oshkosh Water Utility
Terrebonne Parish Waterworks
(District No. 1)
Camden Municipal Water Works
Town of Logansport Water System
City of Albuquerque
Oklahoma City Water Dept.
(Hefner Plant)
Brownsville Public Utility Board
(Plant No. 2)
Dallas Water Utilities
(Bachman Plant)
San Antonio City Water Board
Ottumwa Waterworks (2/17/75)
Ottumwa Waterworks (4/7/75)
Content of
1,2-
Dichloro-
e thane
NF
NF
NF
<0.2
NF
NF
NF
<0.2
NF
<0.2
NF
0.2
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
<0.4
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
selected compounds in raw and finished water (ug/liter)
Bromo-
dichloro-
me thane
NF
7
NF
13
NF
5
NF
7
NF
4
NF
32
NF
19
NF
39
NF
1
NF
28
NF
37
NF
4
NF
0.9
NF
NF
NF
NF
Dibromo-
chloro-
me thane
NF
11
NF
3
NF
<1
NF
3
NF
<0.4
NF
8
NF
7
NF
24
NF
2
NF
20
NF
100
NF
<2
NF
3
NF
NF
NF
NF
Bromo-
form
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
"^
NF
NF
NF
3
NF
3
NF
6
NF
92
NF
NF
NF
3
NF
NF
NF
NF
Chloro-
form
<0.2
5
NF
131
NF
80
<0.2
9
NF
26
NF
134
NF
40
0.7
28
NF
0.4
NF
44
NF
12
<0.1
18
NF
0.2
<0.2
0.8
NF
1
Carbon
tetra-
chloride
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
<2
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
Nonvolatile
total
organic
carbon
(mg/liter)
0.8
0.9
6.0
4.2
4.7
3.1
2.4
1.7
4.5
3.3
5.4
3.2
3.1
1.5
5.3
3.5
<0.05
<0.05
3.6
2.8
4.7
3.1
3.4
2.9
0.5
0.5
4.1
2.3
4,9
2.4
-------
Table 16 (continued)
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
Utility number and name
(plant name when applicable)
Clarinda Iowa Water Works
Davenport Water Co.
Topeka. Public Water Supply
(South Plant)
Missouri Utility Co.
Kansas City (Mo.) Water Dept.
St. Louis County Water Co.
(Central Plant)
Lincoln Municipal Water Supply
City Water Dept.
Denver Water Board
(Marston Plant)
Pueblo Board of Waterworks
(Gardner Plant)
Huron Water Dept.
Salt Lake Water Dept.
City of Tucson Water and Sewers
Dept. (Plant No. 1)
City of Phoenix Water and Sewers
Dept. (Verde Plant)
Content of
1,2-
Dichloro-
• ethane
NF
NF
NF
<0.4
NF
NF
0.2
0.3
NF
NF
0.3
0.4
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
<0.4
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
selected compounds in raw and finished water (pg/liter)*
Bromo-
dichloro-
methane
NF
19
NF
8
<0.8
38
NF
21
NF
8
NF
13
NF
6
NF
1
NF
10
NF
2
NF
116
NF
14
NF
<0.8
NF
15
Dibromo-
chloro-
methane
NF
4
NF
<0.6
NF
19
NF
2
NF
2
NF
3
NF
4
NF
NF
NF
3
NF
<2
NF
49
NF
8
NF.
2
NF
17
Bromo-
f orm
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
5
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
-1
NF
<2
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
8
NF
NF
NF
13
NF
<4
Chloro-
form
<0.2
48
0.4
88
0.4
88
0.2
116
NF
24
NF
55
NF
4
NF
3
<0.2
14
<0.2
2
NF
309
0.2
20
<0.1
<0.2
<0.2
9
Carbon
tetra-
chloride
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
3
NF
2
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
Nonvolatile
total
organic
carbon
(rag/liter)
3.5
3.0
6.5
4.4
3.4
2.2
4.5
3.6
3.4
1.9
3.4 <•"
oo
2.6
1.4
1.4
9.2
5.2
2.0
1.7
1.8
1.6
19.2
12.2
1.2
0.9
<0.05
<0.05
1.0
1.0
-------
Table 16 (continued)
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
Utility number and name
(plant name when applicable)
Dept. of Supply and Purification
Contra Costa County Water Dept.
(Bollman Plant)
City of Dos Palos Water Dept.
Los Angeles Dept. of Water and Power
San Diego Water Utilities Dept.
(Miramar Plant)
San Francisco Water Dept.
(San Andreas Treatment Plant)
Seattle Water Dept. (end of
distribution system)
Douglas Water System
Idaho Falls Water Dept.
City of Corvallis Utilities Division
(Taylor Plant)
Ilwaco Municipal Water Dept.
Range
Content of
1,2-
Dichloro-
e thane
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF-3
NF-6
selected compounds in raw and finished water (pg/liter)*
Bromo-
dichloro-
me thane
NF
17
<0.3
18
NF
53
NF
6
NF
30
NF
15
NF
0.9
NF
0.8
NF
3
NF
3
NF
35
NF-0.8
NF-116
Dibromo-
chloro-
me thane
NF
15
NF
6
NF
34
NF
3
NF
19
NF
4
NF
NF
NF
<0.4
NF
3
NF
NF
NF
5
NF
NF-100
Bromo-
form
NF
2
NF
<1
NF
7
NF
NF
NF
3
NF
<0.8
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF-92
Chloro-
form
<0.2
16
0.3
31
NF
61
<0.1
32
NF
52
NF
41
<0.2
15
NF
40
<0.2
2
NF
26
0.1
167
NF-0.9
<0. 1-311
Carbon
tetra-
chloride
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF-4
NF-3
Nonvolatile
total
organic
carbon
(mg/liter)
3.7
2.4
3.4
1.9
4.4
2.9
1.2
1.3
2.9
2.8
1.3
1.6
0.9
0.9
3.4
2.8
0.5
0.3
1.0
0.4
7.5
3.1
<0. 05-19.
<0. 05-12.
2
2
Ln
vo
iSee Table 17 for location of utility.
First line indicates raw-water data; second line indicates finished-water data.
NF — none found.
Source: Adapted from Symons et al., 1975, Table 5, pp. 640-641. Reprinted with permission of the American Water Works
Association from JOURNAL AWWA Volume 67, copyrighted 1975.
-------
60
Table 17. Water utilities studied in the National Organics Reconnaissance Survey
1. Lawrence Water Works
Lawrence, Mass.
Merrimack River
2. Waterbury Bureau of Water
Waterbury, Conn.
Wigwam and Morris reservoirs
Morris Treatment Station
3. Metropolitan District Commission
Boston, Mass.
Quabbin and Wachusett reservoirs
Norumbego Treatment Station
4. Newport Dept. of Water
Newport, R.I.
Reservoirs
South Pond Reservoir Treatment
Plant No. 1
5. Dept. of Water Resources
New York, N.Y.
Croton Reservoir
6. Puerto Rico Aqueduct and
Sewer Authority
San Juan, P.R.
Lake Carraizo
Sergio Cuevas Water Treatment Plant
7. Passaic Valley Water Commission
Little Falls, N.J.
Passaic River
8. Toms River Water Co.
Toms River, N.J.
Ground
West No. 20
9. Buffalo Water Dept.
Buffalo, N.Y.
Lake Erie
10. Village of Rhinebeck Water Dept.
Rhinebeck, N.Y.
Hudson River
11. Philadelphia Water Dept.
Philadelphia, Pa.
Delaware River
Torresdale Plant
12. Wilmington Suburban Water Corp.
Claymont, Del.
Red Clay and White Clay Creek
Stanton Plant
13. Artesian Water Co.
Newark, Del.
Ground
Llangollen Well Field Plant
14. Washington Aqueduct
Washington, D.C.
Potomac River
Delacarlia Plant
15. Baltimore City Bureau of Water Supply
Baltimore, Md.
Loch Raven Reservoir
Montebello Plant No. 1
16. Western Pennsylvania Water Co.
Pittsburgh, Pa.
Monongahela River
Hays Mine Plant
17. Strasburg Borough Water System
Strasburg, Pa.
Ground
18. Fairfax County Water Authority
Annandale, Va.
Occoquan River Impoundment
New Lorton Plant
19. Virginia American Water Co.,
Hopewell District
Hopewell, Va.
Appomattox River
20. Huntington Water Corp.
Huntington, W. Va.
Ohio River
21. Wheeling Water Dept.
Wheeling, W. Va.
Ohio River
22. Miami-Dade Water and Sewer Authority
Miami, Fla.
Ground
Preston Plant
23. Jacksonville Dept. of Public Works
Jacksonville, Fla.
Ground
Highlands Pumping Station
24. Atlanta Waterworks
Atlanta, Ga.
Chattahoochee River
Chattahoochee Plant
25. Owensboro Municipal Utilities
Owensboro, Ky.
Ground
26. Greenville Water Dept.
Greenville, Miss.
Ground
Water Plant Well No. 2
27. Tennessee American Water Co.
Chattanooga, Tenn.
Tennessee River
28. Memphis Light, Gas and Water Division
Memphis, Tenn.
Ground
Malloy Plant
-------
61
Table 17 (continued)
29. Metropolitan Water and Sewerage Dept. 42.
Nashville, Tenn.
Cumberland River
Lawrence Plant
30. Commission of Public Works
Charleston, S.C.
Edisto River
Stoney Plant
31. Cincinnati Water Works
Cincinnati, Ohio
Ohio River
32. Chicago Dept. of Water and Sewers
Chicago, 111.
Lake Michigan
South District Water Filtration Plant
33. Clinton Public Water Supply
Clinton, 111.
Ground
34. Indianapolis Water Co.
Indianapolis, Ind.
White River and wells
White River Plant
35. Whiting Water Dept.
Whiting, Ind.
Lake Michigan
36. Detroit Metro Water Dept.
Detroit, Mich.
Detroit River intake at head
of Belle Isle
Waterworks Park Plant
37a. Mt. Clemens Water Purification
Mt. Clemens, Mich.
Lake St. Clair
37b. Mt. Clemens Water Purification
Mt. Clemens, Mich.
Lake St. Clair
38. St. Paul Water Dept.
St. Paul, Minn.
Mississippi River
39. Cleveland Division of Water
Cleveland, Ohio
Lake Erie
Division Filtration Plant
40. City of Columbus
Columbus, Ohio
Scioto River
Dublin Road Plant
41. Dayton Water Works
Dayton, Ohio
Ground
Ottawa Plant
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55a.
55b.
Indian Hill Water Supply
Cincinnati, Ohio
Ground
Piqua Water Supply
Piqua, Ohio
Swift Run Lake
Mahoning Valley Sanitation District
Youngstown, Ohio
Meander Creek Reservoir
Milwaukee Water Works
Milwaukee, Wis.
Lake Michigan
Howard Avenue Purification Plant
Oshkosh Water Utility
Oshkosh, Wis.
Lake Winnebago
Terrebonne Parish Waterworks
District No. 1
Houma, La.
Bayoulafourche
Camden Municipal Water Works
Camden, Ark.
Ouachita River
Town of Logansport Water System
Logansport, La.
Sabine River
City of Albuquerque
Albuquerque, N.M.
Ground
Oklahoma City Water Dept.
Oklahoma City, Okla.
Lake Hefner
Hefner Plant
Brownsville Public Utility Board
Brownsville, Tex.
Rio Grande River
Plant No. 2
Dallas Water Utilities
Dallas, Tex.
Elm Fork, Trinity River
Bachman Plant
San Antonio City Water Board
San Antonio, Tex.
Ground
Ottumwa Water Works
Ottumwa, Iowa
Des Moines River
Ottumwa Water Works
Ottumwa, Iowa
Des Moines River
-------
62
Table 17 (continued)
56. Clarinda Iowa Water Works
Clarinda, Iowa
Nodaway River
57. Davenport Water Co.
Davenport, Iowa
Mississippi River
58. Topeka Public Water Supply
Topeka, Kan.
Kansas River
South Plant
59. Missouri Utility Co.
Cape Girardeau, Mo.
Mississippi River
60. Kansas City (Mo.) Water Dept.
Kansas City, Mo.
Missouri River
61. St. Louis County Water Co.
St. Louis, Mo.
Missouri River
Central Plant
62. Lincoln Municipal Water Supply
Lincoln, Neb.
Ground
63. City Water Dept.
Grand Forks, N.D.
Red Lake
64. Denver Water Board
Denver, Colo.
Marston Lake
Marston Plant
65. Pueblo Board of Waterworks
Pueblo, Colo.
Arkansas River
Gardner Plant
66. Huron Water Dept.
Huron, S.D.
James River
67. Salt Lake Water Dept.
Salt Lake, Utah
Mountain Dell Reservoir
68. City of Tuscon Water and Sewers Dept.
Tucson, Ariz.
Ground
Plant No. 1
69. City of Phoenix Water and Sewers Dept.
Phoenix, Ariz.
Salt and Verde rivers
Verde Plant
70. Department of Supply and Purification
Coalinga, Calif.
California Aqueduct
71. Contra Costa County Water Dept.
Concord, Calif.
Contra Costa Canal and San Joaquin
River
Bollman Plant
72. City of Dos Palos Water Dept.
Dos Palos, Calif.
Dalta-Mendota Canal
73. Los Angeles Dept. of Water and Power
Los Angeles, Calif.
Van Norman Reservoir
74. San Diego Water Utilities Dept.
San Diego, Calif.
Colorado River Aqueduct
Miramar Plant
75. San Francisco Water Dept.
San Francisco, Calif.
San Andreas Reservoir
San Andreas Treatment Plant
76. Seattle Water Dept.
Seattle, Wash.
Cedar River Impoundment
Cedar River System
77. Douglas Water System
Douglas, Alaska
Douglas Reservoir
78. Idaho Falls Water Dept.
Idaho Falls, Idaho
Ground
79. City of Corvallis Utilities Division
Corvallis, Ore.
Wilamette River
Taylor Plant
80. Ilwaco Municipal Water Dept.
Ilwaco, Wash.
Black Lake
The name of the utility is listed first, followed by the city name, the name of
the raw-water source, and the name of the treatment plant sampled, if the utility has
more than one treatment plant.
Source: Adapted from Symons et al., 1975, Table 1, pp. 638-639. Reprinted with
permission of the American Water Works Association from JOURNAL AWWA Volume 67, copy-
righted 1975.
-------
Table 18. Summary of findings, National Organic Monitoring Survey, March 1976 through January 1977
Number of positive analyses Mean concentration for positive Median
Compound
Chloroform
Bromodichlorome thane
Dibromochlorome thane
Bromoform
Dichloroiodome thane
1,2-Dichloroethane
1,1,1-Trichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1,1, 2-Tr ichloroethylene
Tetrachloroethylene
Benzene
o-Dichlorobenzene
m-Dichlorobenzene
p-Dichlorobenzene
1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene
Vinyl chloride
Methylene chloride
2 ,4-Dichlorophenol
Pentachlorophenol
Bis(2-chloroethyl)
ether
Bis(2-chloroisopropyl)
ether
Polychlorinated
biphenyls
Conditions0
Quenched
Terminal
Quenched
Terminal
Quenched
Terminal
Quenched
Terminal
Terminal
Quenched
Terminal
Quenched
Terminal
Quenched
Terminal
Quenched
Terminal
Quenched
Terminal
concentration
for all
per number of analyses results only (ug/liter) results (yg/liter)
Phase I
102/111*
88/111*
47/111*
3/111*
6/111*
3/111*
4/112*
0/111
2/111
1/112
15/109
56/108
86/108
0/112
2/110
Phase II
18/18
112/113
18/18
109/113
15/18
97/113
6/118
38/113
85/111
2/113
19/111
10/110
28/113
48/111
7/113
0/113
0/113
20/113
2/113
2/113
0/9
5/10
13/113
8/113
4/113
Phase III Phase I
98/106 47*
101/105
100/106 22*
103/105
83/106 17*
97/105
19/106 21*
30/105
50/105
1/106 4 . 3b
1/105
4/105
4/104
8/106 2.9*
11/105
10/106 11*
19/105
8/106
9/105
4/16
4/110
2/110
29/110 2.0
10/110 10
6.1
0.18
0.07
8/110
7/110
2/110 0.76
Phase II
68
84
16
18
13
14
28
12
d
0.9
d
2.4
2.1
d
0.4
0.14
0.29
0.14
0.008
0.10
0.17
0.13
Phase III Phase I
38 27*
73
9.2 9.6
17
7.5 '0.6-3'"
11
13 <3-5°
13
d
1.3
d
<0.05-2°
<0.05-2
<0.2-0.4f'
<0.2-0.4°
<0.01°
<0.!°
-------
Table 18 (continued)
Compound Condi
Fluorantl ane
3,4-Benzofluoranthene
1 , 2-Benzpyrene
3 , 4-Benzopy rene
Indeno (1,2, 3-cd) pyrene
Nonpurgeable total
organic carbon
Chemical oxygen demand
Carbon chloroform
extract
Number of positive analyses
a per number of analyses
tions
Phase I
17/110
0/110
0/110
0/110
0/110
108/112
80/60
Ill/Ill
Phase II Phase III
0/9
0/9
0/9
0/9
0/9
108/113 107/110
107/107 109/109
Mean concentration for positive Median concentration for all
results only (ug/liter) results (ug/liter)
Phase I Phase II Phase III Phase I
0.02 <0.01C
<0.02-0.05~
<0.02-0.05G
<0.02-0.05C
<0.02-0.05C
('" & f> f
2.1 2.1 2.4 1.8
l.O6 (,.
-------
65
Table 19. 1,2-Dichloroethane in potable water supplies,
National Organic Monitoring Survey, March 1976 through January 1977
(yg/liter)
Location
Albuquerque, N.M.
Amarillo, Tex.
Annandale, Va.
Atlanta, Ga.
Baltimore, Md.
Baton Rouge, La.
Billings, Mont.
Birmingham, Ala.
Bismarck, N.D.
Boise, Idaho
Boston, Mass.
Brownsville, Tex.
Buffalo, N.Y.
Burlington, Vt.
California Aqueduct,
California
Camden, Ark.
Cape Girardeau, Mo.
Casper, Wyo.
Cheyenne , Wyo .
Charleston, S.C.
Charlotte, N.C.
Chattanooga, Tenn.
Chicago, 111.
Cleveland, Ohio
Columbus , Ohio
Concord, Calif.
Corvallis , Ore .
Dallas, Tex.
Davenport, Iowa
Phase I,
iceda
ND 1000
ND 100
7.0
ND 2000
ND 1000
ND 2000
ND 2000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 1000
Lost
ND 2000
ND 2000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 2000
ND 2000
ND 2000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 2000
8.
ND 2000
ND 1000
ND 2000
ND 2000
Phase II.
terminal^5
ND 50
ND 500
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 50
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 50
ND 50
ND 500
ND 500
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 500
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 500
ND 500
ND 1000
ND 500
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 1000
Phase
Terminal^
ND 50
ND 500
ND 20006
ND 1000
ND 500
ND 100
ND 50
Lost
ND 10006
Lost
ND 100
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 2000
ND lOOO6
ND 2000
ND 2000
ND 100
ND 2000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 2000
Lost
ND 500
ND 1000
ND 100
ND 2000
ND 10006
ND 1000
III
Quenched5
ND 50
ND lOO6
ND lOOO6
ND 500
ND 500
ND 100
ND 50
Lost
ND 500
Lost
ND 100
ND 1000
ND 100
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 2000
ND lOOO6
ND 500
ND lOOO6
Lost
ND 5006
ND 1000
ND 100
ND 1000
ND 5006
ND lOOO6
-------
66
Table 19 (continued)
Location
Dayton, Ohio
Denver, Colo.
Des Moines, La.
Detroit, Mich.
Duluth, Minn.
Elizabeth, N.J.
Erie, Pa.
Eugene, Ore.
Fort Wayne, Ind.
Fort Worth, Tex.
Fresno, Calif.
Grand Rapids, Mich.
Greenville, Miss.
Hackensack, N.J.
Hagerstown, Md.
Hartford, Conn.
Houston, Tex.
Huntington, W. Va.
Huron, S.D.
Illwaco, Wash.
Indianapolis, Ind.
Jackson, Miss.
Jacksonville, Fla.
Jersey City, N.J.
Kansas City, Mo.
Las Vegas, Nev.
Lincoln, Neb.
Little Rock, Ark.
Los Angeles, Calif.
Louisville, Ky.
Madison, Wis.
Phase I,
iceda
ND 2000
ND 1000
ND 2000
2.
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 2000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 2000
ND 1000
ND 2000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 2000
ND 2000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 2000
ND 2000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 2000
ND 2000
ND 2000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 1000
Phase II.
terminal^
ND 500
ND 500
ND 50
ND 500
ND 50
ND 1000
ND 500
ND 500
ND 1000
ND 50
ND 50
ND 1000
ND 50
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 500
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 50
ND 1000
ND 500
ND 500
ND 50
ND 1000
ND 500
ND 1000
0.02
Phase
Terminal^
ND 500
ND 1000
ND 50
ND 500
ND 500
ND 500
ND lOOO6
ND 1000
ND 500
ND 50
Lost
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 1000e
ND 1000
ND 500
ND 2000
1.2
ND 2000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 2000
ND 100
ND 1000
ND 500
ND 1000
ND 100e
Lost
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 100
III
Quenched0
ND 100
ND 1000
ND 506
ND 50
ND 50
ND 500
ND 100
ND 100
ND 1000
ND 50-f
Lost
ND 1000
ND 100
ND 2000
ND 1000
ND 500
ND 2000
1.30
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 50
ND 500
ND 500
ND 500
ND 500e
Lost
ND 1000
ND 500
ND 100
-------
67
Table 19 (continued)
Location
Manchester, N.H.
Melbourne, Fla.
Memphis , Tenn .
Milwaukee, Wis.
Monroe, Mich.
Montgomery, Ala.
Mount Clemens, Mich.
Nashville, Tenn.
New Haven, Conn.
Newport, R.I.
Norfolk, Va.
Oklahoma City, Okla.
Oakland, Calif.
Omaha, Neb.
Passaic Valley, N.J.
Phoenix, Ariz.
Portland, Me.
Portland, Ore.
Poughkeepsie, N.Y.
Providence, R.I.
Provo , Utah
Pueblo, Colo.
Richmond, Va.
Rockford, 111.
Rome, Ga.
Sacramento, Calif.
Salt Lake City, Utah
San Antonio, Tex.
San Diego, Calif.
San Francisco, Calif.
Santa Fe, N.M.
Phase I,
iceda
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 2000
ND 1000
ND 2000
3.
3.
ND 2000
ND 2000
ND 2000
ND 2000
ND 2000
ND 2000
ND 1000
ND 2000
ND 2000
ND 1000
ND 2000
ND 2000
ND 1000
ND 2000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 2000
ND 1000
ND 2000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 2000
ND 3000
Phase II.
terminal^1
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 50
ND 500
ND 500
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 500
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 500
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 50
ND 500
1.8
ND 500
ND 80
ND 50
ND 500
ND 50
ND 1000
ND 500
ND 500
ND 50
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 1000
Phase
Terminal^1
ND 1000
ND 20 00-*
ND 500
ND lOO6
ND 500
ND 2000
ND 500
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 2000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 2000
ND 1000
ND 100
ND 500
Lost
ND 100
ND 50
ND 100
ND 1000
ND 100
ND 2000
ND 1000
ND 2000
ND 100
ND 2000
ND 2000
ND 2000e
III
Quenched13
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 100
ND 100
ND 500
ND 1000
ND 500
ND 1000
ND 506
ND 2000
ND 2000
ND lOOO6
ND 20006
ND 500e
ND 500
ND 500e
ND 100
ND 500e
Lost
ND 100
ND 100
ND 100
ND 100C/
ND 100
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 100
ND 50
ND 1000
ND 2000
-------
68
Table 19 (continued)
Location
Sioux Falls, S.D.
South Pittsburg, Pa.
Spokane, Wash.
Springfield, Mass.
St. Croix, Virgin
Islands
St. Louis County, Mo.
St. Paul, Minn.
Syracuse, N.Y.
Tacoma, Wash.
Tampa, Fla.
Terre Bonne Parish, La.
Toledo, Ohio
Topeka, Kan.
Tulsa, Okla.
Washington, D.C.
Waterbury, Conn.
Waterford Township,
N.Y.
Wheeling, W. Va.
Whiting, Ind.
Wichita, Kan.
Wilmington Stanton, Del.
Yuma, Ariz.
Phase I,
iceda
ND 2000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 2000
ND 2000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 2000
ND 2000
ND 2000
ND 1000
ND 2000
ND 2000
3.
ND 2000
ND 2000
Lost
ND 1000
ND 2000
ND 2000
Phase II,
terminal^
ND 1000
ND 500
ND 50
ND 500
ND 50
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 500
ND 50
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 500
ND 1000
ND 500
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 50
ND 80
ND 1000
ND 500
Phase
Terminal^
Lost
ND lOO3
ND 100
ND 1000
ND 50
ND WOO6
ND 2000
ND 1000
Lost
ND 2000
ND 1000
ND 500
ND 2000
ND 500
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND 2000
ND 2000
ND WO6
ND lOOO6
ND 1000
ND 500
III
Quenched0
ND 1000
ND 100
ND 100
ND 1000
ND 100
ND 1000
ND 20006
ND 100
Lost
ND 2000
ND 500
ND 100
ND 1000
ND 500
ND 1000
ND 500
ND 1000
ND 1000
ND lOO6
ND 1000
ND 500
ND 500
a
Samples were shipped iced and stored at 2°C to 8°C for one to two
weeks.
^"Samples were shipped at ambient temperature and stored at 20°C to
25°C for three to six weeks.
Samples were preserved with sodium thiosulfate, shipped at ambient
temperature, and stored at 20°C to 25°C for three to six weeks.
"ND — value was below the detection limit. The number following is
the detection limit multiplied by 1000.
eValue is the average of duplicate results.
^Value is the average of triplicate results.
Source: Compiled from Mello, 1978.
-------
69
During 1975 and 1976 a total of 204 water samples were collected
from 14 heavily industrialized U.S. river basins by investigators from
the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (Ewing et al. , 1977). Gas
chromatographic and mass spectrometric techniques were used to identify
and measure volatile organic compounds present in the samples in concen-
trations of 1 ppb or more. 1,2-Dichloroethane was detected in 53 of the
204 samples. Concentrations were near 1 ppb in most samples, but one
sample from the Delaware River near Bridesburg, Pennsylvania, contained
90 ppb. Concentrations of 1,2-dichloroethane contained in other samples
are given in Table 20. Sample sites are indicated in Fig. 11.
1,2-Dichloroethane and related chlorinated hydrocarbons have not been
reported in well waters. Apparently, these compounds tend to be more or
less completely adsorbed as surface waters percolate to the aquifers
(Pearson and McConnell, 1975). Using analytical methods having a detec-
tion limit in the parts-per-billion range, Pearson and McConnell (1975)
ORNL-DWG 7821770
NEW YORK (19/28)
PHILADELPHIA (lO/30)
PITTSBURGH
CINCINNATI
1/2T;
ENCIRCLED NUMBERS INDICATE NUMBER OF
SAMPLES CONTAINING 1,2-DICHLOROETHANE
OUT OF TOTAL SAMPLES COLLECTED AT SITE.
Fig. 11. Industrialized areas sampled. Source: Adapted from
Ewing et al., 1977, Fig. 1, p. 2.
-------
70
Table 20. Concentration of 1,2-dichloroethane in surface
waters from industrial areas
Site
Nearest town
1,2-Dichloroethane
concentration
(ppb)
Chicago
Chicago Sanitary and
Ship Canal
North Side Sewage
Treatment Plant
North Side Sewage
Treatment Plant
Calumet River
Calumet-Sag Channel
Des Plaines River
Illinois River
Illinois River
Illinois River
Delaware River
Delaware River
Delaware River
Delaware River
Delaware River
Delaware River
Delaware River
Delaware River
Delaware River
Delaware River
Raritan Bay
Raritan Bay
Arthur Kill
Arthur Kill
Arthur Kill
Arthur Kill
Arthur Kill
Newark Bay
Hudson River
Hudson River
Hudson River
Hudson River
Hudson River
Hudson River
Hudson River
area and Illinois River Basin
Lockport, 111.
Lincolnwood, 111.
Lincolnwood, 111.
Chicago, 111.
Blue Island, 111.
Elwood , 111 .
Dresden, 111.
Utica, 111.
Hennepin, 111.
Delaware River Basin
Woodland Beach, Del.
Port Penn, Del.
Pigeon Point, Del.
Marcus Hook, Pa.
Paulsboro, N.J.
Philadelphia, Pa.
Philadelphia, Pa.
Bridesburg, Pa.
Pigeon Point, Del.
Torresdale, Pa.
Hudson River Basin
Tottenville, N.Y.
Perth Amboy, N.J.
Perth Amboy, N.J.
Sewaren, N.J.
Chrome, N.J.
Graselli, N.J.
Port Elizabeth, N.J.
Newark , N.J.
Bayonne, N.J.
Rosebank, N.J.
Sandy Hook, N.J.
Beacon, N.Y.
Poughkeepsie, N.Y.
Poughkeepsie, N.Y.
Glenmont, N.Y.
1
1
1
6
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
12
15
9
15
11
90
8
4
10
9
8
9
9
8
1
3
2
2
2
1
2
2
5
-------
71
Table 20 (continued)
1,2-Dichloroethane
Site • Nearest town concentration
(ppb)
Passaic River Newark, N.J. 1
Hackensack River Jersey City, N.J. 1
Hudson River Fort Lee, N.J. 1
Hudson River Fort Montgomery, N.Y. 1
Mississippi River Basin, Alabama, and Texas
Houston Ship Channel Morgan Point, Tex. 1
Houston Ship Channel Lynchburg, Tex. 1
Houston Ship Channel Deer Park, Tex. 2
Mississippi River Venice, La. 1
Mississippi River Port Sulphur, La. 2
Mississippi River Luling, La. 1
Mississippi River Lutcher, La. 2
Mississippi River New Orleans, La. 1
Mississippi River New Orleans, La. 1
Mississippi River Plaquemine, La. 1
Ohio River Basin
Ohio River Joppa, 111. 2
Tennessee River Paducah, Ky. 3
Kanawha River Winfield, W. Va. 1
Great Lakes and Tennessee 'River Basin
Fields Brook Ashtabula, Ohio 4
Lake Superior Beaver Bay, Wis. 1
Source: Adapted from Ewing et al., 1977, appendix.
also failed to find evidence of 1,2-dichloroethane in samples of Liverpool
Bay water and marine sediments.
Based on the limited data presented in this section, it appears that
1,2-dichloroethane is not usually present in subterranean waters, is only
occasionally present at the parts-per-billion level in municipal raw-
water supplies, and is not commonly present at the parts-per-billion level,
even in chlorine-treated municipal waters or in surface waters from heavily
industrialized regions. These observations are consistent with the short
half-life of 1,2-dichloroethane in water, but more monitoring is required
-------
72
near point sources to provide assurance that short-term fluctuations of
appreciably greater magnitude do not sometimes occur.
4.2.3 Biota
Pearson and McConnell (1975) searched for a variety of simple aliphatic
chlorocarbons in marine biota near Liverpool, England, using an analytical
technique generally capable of detecting concentrations of such compounds
in the parts-per-billion range, based on wet tissue mass. Although tri-
chloroethane, perchloroethylene, trichloroethylene, chloroform, and hexa-
chlorobutadiene were frequently found, no evidence of 1,2-dichloroethane
was reported. Species examined included Nereis divers-Lector (ragworm),
Mytilus edulis (mussel), Cerastoderma edule (cockle), Ostrea edulis
(oyster), Buccinwn undatum (whelk), Crepidula fornicata (slipper limpet),
Cancer pagurus (crab), Eupagurus bernhardus (hermit crab), Crangon crangon
(shrimp), Asterias rubens (starfish), Solaster sp. (sunstar), Echinus
esculentus (sea urchin), Enteromorpha compressa (marine alga), Viva
lactuca (marine alga), Fucus vesiculosus (marine alga), F. serratus
(marine alga), F. spiralis (marine alga), Raja clavata (ray), Pleuronectes
platessa (plaice), Platychthys flesus (flounder), Limanda limanda (dab),
Scomber scombrus (mackerel), Solea solea (sole), Aspitrigla cuculus (red
gurnard), Trachurus trachurus (scad), Trisopterus luscus (pout), Squalus
acanthias (spurdog), Gadus morrhua (cod), Sula bassana (gannet), Phala-
crocerax aristotelis (shag), Alca torda (razorbill), Uria aalge (guillemot),
Rissa tridactyla (kittiwake), Cygnus olor (swan), Gallinula chloropus
(moorhen), Anas platyrhyncos (mallard), Halichoerus grypus (grey seal),
and Sorex araneus (common shrew).
-------
5. ENVIRONMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS
Although some well-known chlorinated hydrocarbons, such as DDT and
polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB), have high persistence in the environment,
this behavior is not necessarily typical of all chlorinated hydrocarbons.
Some simple aliphatic organochlorine compounds are slow to break down in
the hydrosphere, but due to high volatility, they rapidly transfer to the
atmosphere, where photooxidation occurs with characteristic half-lives of
weeks or months (Pearson and McConnell, 1975; Spence and Hanst, 1978).
This latter pattern of behavior characterizes 1,2-dichloroethane; it has
a long hydrolysis half-life (Sect. 5.1.2), a short vaporization half-life
from water (Sect. 5.1.4), and a relatively short photooxidative half-life
in the atmosphere (Sect. 5.1.1). 1,2-Dichloroethane is thus unlikely to
accumulate in the environment. It should be noted, however, that one of
the photooxidative products of 1,2-dichloroethane is chloroacetyl chlo-
ride (Sect. 5.1.1), which may be sufficiently stable to reach the strato-
sphere and interact destructively with the ozone layer.
5.1 CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL INTERACTIONS
Airborne or waterborne organic compounds may interact with the
environment in different ways; generally, the most significant routes are
oxidation, hydrolysis, and photolysis. Adsorption and evaporation may
also be important. The manner in which 1,2-dichloroethane responds to
these environmental influences is discussed in the following subsections.
5.1.1 Oxidation and Photolysis
The current environmental literature does not carefully distinguish
between oxidative and photolytic reactions of 1,2-dichloroethane; conse-
quently, these processes will be discussed together. Oxidative processes
in the atmosphere are usually initiated and controlled by the amount of
either HO radical or ozone present; in aquatic systems the concentration
of peroxy or alkoxy radicals (fl02- and flO») is frequently rate control-
ling. Photochemical reactions occur when one or more reactants absorb
73
-------
74
ultraviolet energy from sunlight. However, the presence of sunlight also
increases the concentration of HO radicals in the atmosphere or of peroxy
and alkoxy radicals in aquatic systems; consequently, oxidative and photo-
lytic processes tend to occur simultaneously under environmental condi-
tions. The combined process is sometimes called photooxidation.
Photooxidative reactions involving atmospheric 1,2-dichloroethane
probably result in monochloroacetyl chloride, hydrogen chloride, formyl
chloride, and monochloroacetic acid (Spence and Hanst, 1978). Alcohols,
ketones, alkyl nitrates, and cleavage products arising from intermediate
alkoxy radicals are also possible products. Preliminary data indicate
that the half-life of 1,2-dichloroethane in the atmosphere may be about
three to four months (Pearson and McConnell, 1975; U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, 1975a). Based on an average HO radical concentration
of 0.8 x 10"1A M, Radding et al. (1977) estimated a combined oxidative-
photolysis half-life of 234 hr. A definitive determination of the half-
life remains to be made, but it is apparent from available estimates that
the lifetime of 1,2-dichloroethane in the troposphere, although short in
an absolute sense, is sufficiently long for aerial transport to play a
major role in the distribution of 1,2-dichloroethane. According to some
investigators, the chlorinated reaction products from the photooxidation
of 1,2-dichloroethane, particularly monochloroacetyl chloride, may be
significant with respect to the ozone depletion controversy, if these com-
pounds are sufficiently stable to reach the stratosphere (U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, 1975a). In contrast, other authors discount
such a possibility (Patterson et al., 1975). It is apparent that more
research is needed to resolve this question.
The oxidation or photooxidation of 1,2-dichloroethane in aerated
water seems to be very slow, probably because of the low concentrations
(approximately 10"il4 M) of peroxy and alkoxy radicals (Pearson and
McConnell, 1975). Qualitatively, the half-life of 1,2-dichloroethane
exposed under these conditions appears to be greater than six months;
however, firm data supporting this estimate are lacking (Billing,
Tefertiller, and Kallos, 1975; McConnell, Ferguson, and Pearson, 1975;
Radding et al., 1977).
-------
75
5.1.2 Hydrolysis
The vicinal dihalogen derivatives of paraffin hydrocarbons are char-
acteristically resistant to hydrolysis, and 1,2-dichloroethane is no
exception. It is virtually unreactive in water. Based on a rate con-
stant of approximately 5 x 10"13 sec"1 at pH 7 and 25°C, Radding et al.
(1977) estimated a hydrolysis half-life of approximately 50,000 years.
This estimate is much longer than the 6- to 18-month half-lives observed
for similar, but not identical, compounds subjected to a combination of
hydrolysis, oxidation, and photolysis (Billing, Tefertiller, and Kallos,
1975). Nevertheless, it appears that hydrolysis of 1,2-dichloroethane
is slow as compared with other pertinent environmental processes, such
as volatilization or photolysis.
5.1.3 Adsorption
Billing, Tefertiller, and Kallos (1975) and McConnell, Ferguson, and
Pearson (1975) studied the removal of compounds similar to 1,2-dichloro-
ethane from water by adsorption on several common substrates. Billing,
Tefertiller, and Kallos observed little or no adsorption of chlorinated
hydrocarbons on clay, limestone, sand, and peat moss in laboratory experi-
ments involving aqueous solutions containing 1 ppm organic contaminant.
McConnell, Ferguson, and Pearson reached similar conclusions for adsorp-
tion of chlorinated hydrocarbons from seawater by coarse gravels but
found relatively high adsorption by Liverpool Bay sediments rich in organic
detritus. The divergent conclusions of these studies probably reflect
different experimental conditions. The hydrocarbon concentrations in
the experiments of Billing, Tefertiller, and Kallos were well below the
solubility limits of the various compounds used, and adsorption under
these conditions is less likely than in Liverpool Bay, which receives
large volumes of industrial and domestic effluents.
5.1.4 Evaporation
The relatively high vapor pressure of 1,2-dichloroethane causes
rapid volatilization of the hydrocarbon from aqueous effluents. After
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76
96 min at ambient temperature, about 90% of the 1,2-dichloroethane ini-
tially present in water at a concentration of 1 ppm evaporated (Dilling,
Tefertiller, and Kallos, 1975). This rate corresponds to a vaporization
half-life of 29 min. Comparison of these data with those for other
environmental removal processes indicates that volatilization is the
chief process for removal of 1,2-dichloroethane from water.
5.2 BIOACCUMULATION, BIOMAGNIFICATION
The physical and chemical properties of 1,2-dichloroethane exhibit
opposing tendencies with respect to bioaccumulation. Theoretically, the
lipophilic and somewhat nonreactive nature of 1,2-dichloroethane favors
bioaccumulation, but its high vapor pressure and low latent heat of
vaporization argue for unchanged elimination of the compound via the
lungs. In fact, there is no firm evidence for bioaccumulation of 1,2-
dichloroethane in food chains under environmental conditions (Radding et
al., 1977). Pearson and McConnell (1975) searched for simple aliphatic
chlorocarbons in several trophic levels of the marine environment near
the industrialized area of Liverpool, England. They found no evidence
of 1,2-dichloroethane. Furthermore, they observed no tendency for other
more abundant aliphatic chlorocarbons, such as chloroform, carbon tetra-
chloride, trichloroethylene, perchloroethylene, and trichloroethane to
bioaccumulate or biomagnify under environmental conditions. In labora-
tory studies of accumulation by oysters and fish of 1,2-dichloroethane
labeled with 1£*C, Pearson and McConnell did see rapid storage of the
chlorinated hydrocarbon up to an asymptotic level, but this accumulation
was followed by loss of 1,2-dichloroethane when the organisms were trans-
ferred to clean seawater. Parallel analyses by chromatographic tech-
niques showed even more reduced levels of 1,2-dichloroethane in the
organisms, indicating that some metabolism of the compound occurred in
the tissues of both fish and oysters.
Jernelov, Rosenberg, and Jensen (1972) investigated the bioaccumula-
tion of components of EDC-tar in marine animals taken near EDC-tar dumping
sites in the North and Norwegian seas. They reported accumulation factors
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77
between 10 and 3000 for several EDC-tar components. However, the compo-
nents were not identified, and it is uncertain how this evidence relates
to 1,2-dichloroethane (Rosenberg, Grahn, and Johansson, 1975).
5.3 BIOLOGICAL DEGRADATION
Literature references to microbial degradation of simple chlorinated
hydrocarbon compounds are few and conflicting. Some authors report that
these compounds are not metabolized by either aerobic or anaerobic micro-
organisms (Pearson and McConnell, 1975). Other microbiologists believe
that biodegradation can occur via cometabolic processes (Horvath, 1972),
but no evidence supporting biodegradation of 1,2-dichloroethane has been
found. There is general agreement, however, that mammals metabolize these
compounds, producing chlorinated acetic acids either directly or via
chloroethanols. All of the resulting chlorinated acetic acids are sus-
ceptible to further degradation by microorganisms in seawater (McConnell,
Ferguson, and Pearson, 1975). At least two of these metabolites (mono-
chloroacetic acid and 2-chloroethanol) are more toxic to mice than 1,2-
dichloroethane (Ambrose, 1950; Woodard et al., 1941).
Biological degradation is an important mechanism in the present
operation of municipal sewage treatment plants. Accordingly, it is of
interest how 1,2-dichloroethane interacts with these systems. Concentra-
tions of all chlorinated hydrocarbons in raw sewage are normally less
than 0.1 mg/liter, and typically, levels of 1,2-dichloroethane are only
a small fraction of this total. According to McConnell, Ferguson, and
Pearson (1975), inhibition of aerobic oxidation does not occur at chlori-
nated hydrocarbon concentrations less than 10 mg/liter. Thus, except for
catastrophic circumstances, environmental concentrations of 1,2-dichloro-
ethane would appear to pose no threat to the normal operation of municipal
sewage treatment plants.
5.4 ENVIRONMENTAL TRANSPORT
Because the vapor pressure of 1,2-dichloroethane is moderately high,
most emissions from manufacturing operations occur as vapors that are
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78
vented directly to the atmosphere. Even when initially present in waste-
water or solid waste products, 1,2-dichloroethane tends to transfer rapidly
to the atmosphere (Sect. 5.1.4). This volatility, coupled with a moder-
ately long atmospheric half-life (Sect. 5.1.4), results in aerial trans-
port playing the principal role in the distribution of 1,2-dichloroethane
in the environment (McConnell, Ferguson, and Pearson, 1975; Pearson and
McConnell, 1975). Some transfer of 1,2-dichloroethane from air to water
also occurs, particularly as a result of rainfall. This effect is con-
sidered minor as compared to aerial transport, but quantitative data com-
paring these transport routes are lacking.
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6. BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS IN HUMANS
6.1 METABOLISM
6.1.1 Uptake and Absorption
Inhalation is the principal route of exposure to 1,2-dichloroethane.
Uptake occurs primarily through inhalation of air at work sites where
this compound is manufactured or used. Ingestion of 1,2-dichloroethane
is relatively uncommon and is chiefly the result of mistaken indentity
or attempts at suicide (Menschick, 1971). Once inhaled or ingested,
however, 1,2-dichloroethane is readily absorbed in the lung or gastro-
intestinal tract. Uptake by skin absorption also occurs, but large
doses are required to cause serious systemic poisoning (Irish, 1963).
6.1.2 Transport, Distribution, Transformation, and Elimination
No systematic studies of the metabolism of 1,2-dichloroethane by
humans have been published, and only a few pertinent observations exist.
Bryzhin (1945, as cited in National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health, 1976) found no trace of 1,2-dichloroethane in the internal organs
of four persons who died after drinking 150 to 200 ml of the liquid, but
he did detect the presence of an organic chloride. He concluded that
1,2-dichloroethane underwent rapid transformation after ingestion. This
conclusion is consistent with results obtained later from an extensive
study of the metabolism of 1,2-dichloroethane in mice (Yllner, 1971).
In the latter work, evidence was obtained that the metabolism of 1,2-
dichloroethane in mice proceeded through the formation of 2-chloroethanol
and chloroacetic acid. This route now appears to be generally accepted
as typical for mammals, including humans (Heppel and Porterfield, 1948;
McCann, Simmon, Streitwieser, and Ames, 1975; Yllner, 1971), but this
assumption awaits experimental confirmation.
In 1953, Urosov (as cited in National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health, 1976) reported that 1,2-dichloroethane occurred in
the milk of nursing mothers occupationally exposed by inhalation and
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80
skin absorption. The concentration of the chlorinated hydrocarbon
reached a maximum about 1 hr after the women left work and then declined.
In related experiments, Urosov measured the concentrations of 1,2-dichloro-
ethane in the breath and milk of women exposed to approximately 15.5 ppm
for an unspecified length of time. Initially, concentrations were 14.5
ppm (breath) and 0.58 mg per 100 ml (milk); however, 18 hr after exposure,
these values declined to about 3 ppm and 0.20 to 0.63 mg per 100 ml
respectively.
No detailed studies have been made of the excretion of 1,2-dichloro-
ethane by humans. In observations of Polish agricultural workers who
were exposed to large quantities of the liquid by inhalation and absorp-
tion, Brzozowski et al. (1954, as cited in National Institute for Occupa-
tional Safety and Health, 1976) indicated that rapid urinary elimination
of 1,2-dichloroethane occurred; however, the amounts excreted were not
indicated (Sect. 6.2.1.4).
6.2 EFFECTS
6.2.1 Toxicity
1,2-Dichloroethane is toxic to humans when it is ingested, inhaled,
or absorbed through skin or mucous membrane (Sax, 1974). The primary
effects of acute or chronic exposure to 1,2-dichloroethane are central
nervous system depression, gastrointestinal upset, and injury to the
liver, kidneys, lungs, and adrenals (Irish, 1963).
6.2.1.1 Acute — Oral ingestion of 1 or 2 oz, about 400 to 800 mg/kg
body weight, of 1,2-dichloroethane by an adult male is fatal (Fairchild,
1977). Clinical symptoms of acute 1,2-dichloroethane poisoning by inges-
tion usually appear within 2 hr after exposure. Typically, they include
headache, dizziness, general weakness, nausea, vomiting of blood and
bile, dilated pupils, heart pains and constriction, pain in the epigas-
tric region, diarrhea, and unconsciousness. Pulmonary edema and increas-
ing cyanosis are often observed. If exposure is sufficiently brief, these
symptoms may disappear when the individual is no longer exposed (Borisova,
1960; McNally and Fostvedt, 1941; Wirtschafter and Schwartz, 1939). How-
ever, persistent effects occur with sufficient exposure (Sect. 6.2.1.3).
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Autopsies frequently reveal hyperemia and hemorrhagic lesions of vital
organs, especially the stomach, intestines, heart, brain, liver, and
kidney. Not all instances of 1,2-dichloroethane ingestion are fatal,
but death has resulted in the majority of reported cases. Most often
these deaths were attributed to circulatory and respiratory failure
(Budanova, 1965; Luzhnikov et al., 1976; National Institute for Occupa-
tional Safety and Health, 1976; Yodaiken and Babcock, 1973; Zhizhonkov,
1976).
Exposure to 4000 ppm of 1,2-dichloroethane vapor for 1 hr produces
serious illness in humans (Association of the Pesticide Control Officials,
Inc., 1966). However, two men exposed experimentally in 1930 to 1200 ppm
of 1,2-dichloroethane for 2 min apparently suffered little discomfort,
except that the odor of 1,2-dichloroethane was extremely noticeable
(Sayers et al. , 1930). The effects of acute exposure by inhalation are
similar to those described for ingestion, but the primary target appears
to be the central nervous system (Patterson et al., 1975). Neural
depression increases with the amount of 1,2-dichloroethane absorbed
(Stewart, 1967). Damage of the liver, kidneys, and lungs also occurs,
and reports of leukocytosis and elevated serum bilirubin are common
(National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 1976).
The absorption of 1,2-dichloroethane through skin produces effects
similar to those reported for inhalation, but large doses are required
to cause serious systemic poisoning. Brief contact of 1,2-dichloro-
ethane with skin seldom causes serious difficulties; however, repeated
or prolonged contact results in extraction of normal skin oils and can
cause cracking or chapping (Duprat, Delsaut, and Gradski, 1976; Wirt-
schafter and Schwartz, 1939). Although pain, irritation, and lacrimation
normally occur when 1,2-dichloroethane contacts eye tissue, significant
damage usually occurs only if the compound is not promptly removed by
washing (Irish, 1963).
6.2.1.2 Chronic — No instances of chronic ingestion of 1,2-dichloro-
ethane were found, but a few reports of repeated exposures to low concen-
trations of 1,2-dichloroethane by inhalation or skin absorption have been
published. Chronic exposures to 1,2-dichloroethane by inhalation or
absorption usually result in progressive effects that closely resemble
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the symptoms described for acute exposure, especially neurological
changes, loss of appetite, gastrointestinal problems, irritation of the
mucous membranes, and liver and kidney impairment. The concentrations
and exposure times associated with the onset of chronic symptoms in
humans are difficult to deduce from existing literature. In general,
8-hr exposures of 10 to 100 ppm for durations of a few weeks to a few
months appear to be characteristic of most cases. Fatalities may occur
following such exposures, but they are more frequently associated with
acute rather than chronic poisonings (Irish, 1963; National Institute
for Occupational Safety and Health, 1976).
Odor is not a dependable guide for avoiding dangerous chronic
exposures to 1,2-dichloroethane. Although some individuals can detect
as little as 3 ppm under laboratory conditions (Sect. 6.2.3), others
consider it barely detectable at 50 or 100 ppm (Hoyle, 1961; Verschueren,
1977). The odor of 1,2-dichloroethane is generally considered unmis-
takable at 180 ppm, but even at this concentration it may not be con-
sidered unpleasant. In addition, it is easy to become adapted to odor
at low concentrations (Irish, 1963).
6.2.1.3 Poisoning Incidents and Case Histories — More than 100
case histories of fatal and nonfatal 1,2-dichloroethane poisonings have
been reported in some detail in the literature (National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health, 1976). In almost all cases involving
ingestion of 1,2-dichloroethane (approximately 30), death resulted. The
amounts of 1,2-dichloroethane consumed by the victims varied from "one
sip" to 100 ml or more. Ages varied from 1.5 years to about 80. Signs
and symptoms were similar to those listed in Sect. 6.2.1.1, with violent
vomiting, nausea, collapse, and unconsciousness mentioned most frequently.
Death usually occurred within two days of exposure, but in a few instances
it was delayed up to six days.
More than 70 cases of acute inhalation exposures to 1,2-dichloro-
ethane are described in the literature (National Institute for Occupa-
tional Safety and Health, 1976); only a small fraction of these, about
13%, resulted in fatalities. In general, acute inhalation exposures have
been work related and associated with the use of end products containing
1,2-dichloroethane. Most fatalities have been adult males. Symptoms and
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83
signs associated with acute inhalation exposures are generally similar
to those previously described. In lethal exposures by inhalation, death
does not occur as rapidly as in lethal exposures by ingestion. However,
most victims succumb within two weeks.
Among recorded case histories, most victims of acute inhalation
poisoning recovered and were released as clinically normal a few days
after exposure. Only a few follow-up case studies have been made to
determine if long-term effects develop from acute inhalation exposure to
1,2-dichloroethane. In a few poorly documented instances, chronic changes
in the central nervous system appear to have persisted 1 to 18 years
following exposure (Smirnova and Granik, 1970, as cited in National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 1976). In the most serious
case, illness was accompanied by encephalitis and special injury to the
subcortical region that improved only slowly during 14 years. It is
uncertain, however, that exposures were only to 1,2-dichloroethane.
Further studies of delayed effects of acute inhalation exposures to 1,2-
dichloroethane are needed.
6.2.1.4 Epidemiology — Several epidemiological studies of the effects
of 1,2-dichloroethane have been made. Di Porto and Padellaro (1959)
reported on 48 cases of poisoning in Italy by a fumigant containing three
parts 1,2-dichloroethane and one part carbon tetrachloride. The effects
were mild for 28, moderate to severe for 16, and fatal for 4 persons.
The clinical findings were similar to those described in Sect. 6.2.1.1.
The extent to which carbon tetrachloride influenced these findings is
unknown.
In the same year, Cetnarowicz (1959) published a study of Polish
workers employed by an oil refinery that used a 4:1 mixture of 1,2-
dichloroethane and benzene as a processing fluid. After a two- to eight-
month exposure to 10 to 200 ppm 1,2-dichloroethane in the work site air,
16 workers on one shift experienced a general reduction in body weight of
2 to 10 kg; 4 had tender, slightly enlarged livers, 7 had tenderness of
the epigastrium, and most had elevated urobilinogen levels in the urine.
Thirteen of the workers had normal levels of erythrocytes and hemoglobin,
but only 9 showed a normal distribution of white blood cells. Other
workers had abnormal levels of serum bilirubin, albumin, globulin, fibrin,
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84
and blood nonprotein nitrogen. In general, about half of the workers had
some loss of liver function, and nearly one-third experienced changes in
the gastrointestinal tract, sinus bradycardia, or hematopoietic system.
It should be noted, however, that some of the reported blood changes
could reflect benzene poisoning rather than 1,2-dichloroethane poisoning.
Khubutiya (1964) studied hematologic changes in an unspecified
number of 1,2-dichloroethane workers. Blood cell morphology, color index,
red blood cell count, and hemoglobin content were recorded. Samples from
about one-third of the workers contained hyperchromic erythrocytes with-
out megaloblasts. Nearly half of the blood samples showed moderate to
high sedimentation rates induced by an increase in blood globulin.
Leukopenia with relative and absolute neutrophilia and absolute lympho-
penia was noted. Moderate or marked monocytosis was frequently observed.
Turk's cells occurred in the peripheral blood of one worker in five.
Khubutiya attributed both the monocytoses and the Turk's cells to stimula-
tion of the reticuloendothelial system by long, unspecified exposures to
1,2-dichloroethane.
Brzozowski et al. (1954, as cited in National Institute for Occupa-
tional Safety and Health, 1976) reviewed the health status and work
practices of Polish agricultural workers who used 1,2-dichloroethane as
an insecticide. The liquid was brought to the field in barrels and was
then poured by hand into open buckets which the workers emptied into a
series of holes. Skin absorption, which resulted from spillage on clothes
and shoes, was probably as significant a contribution to exposure as
inhalation. Air concentrations of 1,2-dichloroethane were estimated at
15 to 60 ppm. Signs and symptoms of exposure were reported in 90 of 118
workers; the most common were conjunctival congestion, weakness, redden-
ing of the pharynx, bronchial symptoms, metallic taste in the mouth,
headache, dermatographism, nausea, cough, liver pain, tachycardia, and
dyspnea after effort.
No changes were found in the blood or functions of internal organs
of 100 factory workers exposed to 1,2-dichloroethane for six months to
five years at concentrations of 25 ppm or less (Rosenbaum, 1947, as cited
in National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 1976). However,
functional disturbances of the nervous system occurred in several workers,
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85
including heightened lability of the autonomic nervous system, diffuse
red dermatographism, muscular swelling, bradycardia, and increased
sweating.
Kozik (1957, as cited in National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health, 1976) studied the health of Russian aircraft workers chroni-
cally exposed to 1,2-dichloroethane during the manufacture of soft rubber
tanks. Concentrations of 1,2-dichloroethane varied from 5 to 40 ppm and
persisted for 70% to 75% of the working time. Total morbidity, acute
gastrointestinal disorders, neuritis, radiculitis, and other diseases
were generally more pronounced among workers exposed to 1,2-dichloro-
ethane than among other workers in the factory. Among 83 exposed workers,
19 were found to have diseases of the liver and bile ducts, 13 had neu-
rotic conditions, 11 experienced autonomic dystonia, 10 had goiter or
hyperthyroidism, and 5 reported asthenic conditions. Other details con-
cerning most of these epidemiological studies may be found in the NIOSH
criteria document for 1,2-dichloroethane (National Institute for Occupa-
tional Safety and Health, 1976).
6.2.2 Carcinogenicity, Mutagenicity, and Teratogenicity
There are no published studies of mutagenic, teratogenic, or carcino-
genic effects of 1,2-dichloroethane on humans, but based on recent animal
studies the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health recom-
mends that 1,2-dichloroethane be handled in the work place as if it were
a human carcinogen (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,
1978). Experimental animal data are discussed in Sect. 7.
6.2.3 Other
Only a few studies have been made to determine other physiological
effects of 1,2-dichloroethane on humans. Borisova (1960) measured the
odor threshold for 1,2-dichloroethane as well as the influence of this
compound on light sensitivity of the eye, pulse fluctuations, and changes
in blood volume in limbs. In 1256 tests on 20 subjects to determine the
odor threshold, 1 individual detected as little as 3 ppm, 6 persons
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86
noticed 4.5 ppm, and the others in the group were first aware of the
compound at a concentration of 6 ppm. When 3 persons were exposed by
inhalation to a concentration of 1 ppm, no change occurred in the light
sensitivity of their eyes; however, as the concentration was increased
to 12.5 ppm, the threshold of perception decreased. Similarly, when 4
subjects inhaled 1.5 ppm 1,2-dichloroethane for 30 sec, temporary vaso-
constriction occurred in the fingers of all subjects. As the concentra-
tions were increased to 3, 6, and 12.5 ppm, and the exposure time to 15
min, the degree of response increased with exposure. Borisova also
measured changes in the respiration of subjects exposed to concentrations
of 1, 1.5, 3, 6, and 12.5 ppm for 1 min. Spirograms obtained by introduc-
ing a tube into the nostril of each subject indicated that concentrations
of 1,2-dichloroethane greater than 1 ppm produced increased depth of
breathing.
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7. BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS IN NONHUMAN MAMMALS
7.1 METABOLISM
7.1.1 Uptake and Absorption
1,2-Dichloroethane is readily absorbed by the lungs and gastro-
intestinal tract of nonhuman mammals. As with humans, absorption through
the skin also occurs, but at such a low rate that this route of uptake
is relatively unimportant compared with inhalation or ingestion (Irish,
1963). The percutaneous absorption rate through mouse skin is 479.3 ±
38.3 nanomoles min"1 cm"2 of skin (Tsuruta, 1975).
7.1.2 Distribution, Transformation, and Elimination
Mammalian metabolism of 1,2-dichloroethane is not well understood.
Based on the chemical properties of the molecule, 1,2-dichloroethane may
be expected to interact with the principal fatty tissues of mammals.
However, there are no highly obvious target organs, and little informa-
tion on tissue distribution is available.
Perhaps the most extensive of the few existing studies is the work
of Yllner (1971), who injected female albino mice intraperitoneally
(0.05 to 0.17 g/kg) with 10% olive oil solutions of 1AC-labeled 1,2-
dichloroethane (3.6 yCi/mg) and followed the elimination of radioactivity
for three days. The turnover was rapid; more than 90% of the activity
was excreted within 24 hr of injection. Depending on the dose, 10% to
42% of the compound was expired unchanged and 12% to 15% as carbon diox-
ide. From 51% to 73% of the dose was excreted in the urine, 0% to 0.6%
was excreted in the feces, and 0.6% to 13% remained in the animals. The
urine contained three major metabolites in proportions that also occurred
when li'C-labeled chloroacetic acid was administered: chloroacetic acid
(6% to 23%), S-carboxymethylcysteine (44% to 46%, free; 0.5% to 5%, con-
jugated), and thiodiacetic acid (33% to 34%). Accordingly, the author
concluded that metabolism of 1,2-dichloroethane in the mouse proceeds
mainly through a dehalogenation step that yields chloroacetic acid.
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An enzyme capable of dehalogenating 1,2-dichloroethane or similar
chlorocarbons was identified in rat liver extract by Heppel and Porter-
field (1948) and by Van Dyke and Wineman (1971). However, Bray et al.
(1952) were unable to confirm enzymatic decomposition of 1,2-dichloro-
ethane in rabbit liver extracts and suggested that dechlorination of 1,2-
dichloroethane occurred nonenzymatically through abstraction of chlorine
atoms by compounds containing sulfhydryl groups. Morrison and Munro
(1965) showed that such reactions occur in vitro with cysteine to form
the thioether, S,S"-ethylene-bis-cysteine. The tendency of 1,2-dichloro-
ethane to injure kidney tubules and cause pulmonary edema suggests that
the chlorinated compound is indeed capable of reacting with sulfhydryl
groups in vivo (Winteringham and Barnes, 1955).
Inhaled 1,2-dichloroethane is transported into the uterus and ovaries
of nonpregnant rats. During pregnancy it passes through the placental
barrier of rats and is accumulated in fetal tissues, especially the liver
(Vozovaya and Malyarova, 1975).
The accumulation of 1,2-dichloroethane in the milk of cows fed with
fumigated grain was studied by Sykes and Klein (1957). These researchers
administered the 1,2-dichloroethane as a corn oil solution in sealed
gelatin capsules. Two cows received the equivalent of 100 ppm in 7 kg
of grain concentrate daily. Two other cows were fed the equivalent of
500 ppm for the first 10 days, then 1000 ppm for an additional 12 days.
A fifth cow served as a control. Seven milk samples were analyzed be-
tween the 3d and 22d days of the experiment. The concentration of 1,2-
dichloroethane in the control sample varied from 0.0 to 0.10 ppm, with a
mean of 0.06 ppm. The milk of cows receiving 100 ppm daily varied from
0.10 to 0.29 ppm, reaching a peak on the 5th day, then declining to the
minimum. The milk of cows receiving the higher dose of 1,2-dichloro-
ethane varied from 0.18 to 0.45 ppm. The highest concentration was
reached on the 9th day, after which a slow decline was observed. No
reduction in appetite or milk production occurred during the experiment.
Sykes and Klein (1957) also considered the possibility that 1,2-dichloro-
ethane is metabolized by cows to a nonvolatile organic chloride, but they
were unable to verify the presence of chloride in milk from a cow fed
1000 ppm 1,2-dichloroethane for 12 days.
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In other studies, Johnson (1965, 1966, 1967) observed that within
2 hr a single oral dose of 1,2-dichloroethane (4 millimoles/kg) reduced
the level of liver glutathione in rats 31% to 84% of that in controls.
2-Chloroethanol (0.67 millimole/kg) similarly lowered glutathione levels
to 17% of control values with formation of S-carboxymethylglutathione.
Reduction of liver glutathione may have serious toxicological consequences
because the liver is more susceptible to injury in the absence of this
compound (Hayes, 1975). Johnson also observed rapid in vitro conjugation
of chloroacetaldehyde, a metabolite of 2-chloroethanol, with the reduced
form of glutathione in a nonenzymatic reaction at pH 7 and concluded that
this was probably the principal in vivo reaction in mammals. However,
based on Yllner's later experiments, it appears likely that in vivo de-
hydrogenation of 2-chloroethanol in mammals proceeds through chloroacetal-
dehyde to chloroacetate before conjugation with glutathione occurs (Yllner,
1971).
Bondi and Alumot (1966, as cited in National Institute for Occupa-
tional Safety and Health, 1976) also studied the reaction between 1,2-
dichloroethane and glutathione. Using enzymes present in the soluble
supernatant from rat liver, they obtained small amounts of S-(8-hydroxy-
ethyl)glutathione and S,S"-ethylene-bis-glutathione. However, in a
subsequent quantitative study, Yllner (1971) showed that these compounds
were only minor components of metabolic products in mice.
7.2 EFFECTS
7.2.1 Toxicity
The primary toxic effects of 1,2-dichloroethane on nonhuman mammals
are similar for acute, subacute, and chronic exposures. They consist
mainly of central nervous system depression and hemorrhagenic or hyperemic
lesions of the liver, kidneys, lungs, and adrenals. Injuries chiefly
reflect the powerful narcotic and solvent properties of 1,2-dichloroethane
and are usually dose related. Rapid death in deep narcosis often follows
acute exposure by inhalation or ingestion. Deaths occurring a few hours
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after recovery from narcosis are usually the result of shock or cardio-
vascular collapse; deaths delayed by several days most often result from
renal damage (Irish, 1963; Spencer et al., 1951). Despite these qualita-
tive statements, the manner in which 1,2-dichloroethane exerts'its lethal
effects in mammals cannot always be easily identified or characterized.
For example, Heppel et al. (1946) stated, "In spite of the fact that this
important compound has been extensively studied in this laboratory for
nearly three years, it must be admitted that the exact mechanism of death
remains obscure."
Weakness, vertigo, persistent thirst, eye and nasal irritation,
static and motor ataxia, retching movements, and marked changes in res-
piration are common signs of acute 1,2-dichloroethane poisoning in non-
human mammals. Sayers et al. (1930) observed all of these signs in guinea
pigs after less than 10 min exposure to 60,000 ppm 1,2-dichloroethane and
in 25 min at 10,000 ppm (Table 21). However, no signs of poisoning were
apparent following exposure at 1200 ppm for 8 hr. Death occurred in less
than 30 min with animals exposed to 60,000 ppm and usually after about a
Table 21. Correlation of symptoms, exposure time, and concentration
for guinea pigs inhaling 1,2-dichloroethane
Average period necessary to produce symptom at
various concentrations (min)
2000 ppm
Nose and eye
irritation 6a
Unsteadiness 20-45
Inability to
walk a
Retching a
Jerky, rapid
respiration a
Unconsciousness a
4000-
4500 ppm
3-10
8-18
30
b
b
30-60
10,000-
17,000 ppm
1-2
2-3
4-10
7-15
10-30
10-20
25,000-
35,000 ppm
1-2
1-2
3-5
5-13
5-13
4-7
60,000-
70,000 ppm
1
1-2
2-4
2-4
4-8
3-7
,This symptom was not observed even after 480 min of exposure.
This symptom was not observed even after 360 min of exposure.
Source: Adapted from Sayers et al., 1930, Table 1, p. 232.
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day following a 25-min exposure to 10,000 ppm. Congestion and edema of
the lungs and generalized passive congestion throughout the visceral
organs were common characteristics of animals that died during exposure.
Renal hyperemia and pulmonary congestion and edema were typical condi-
tions in animals that died one to eight days following exposure. Similar
characteristics, as well as fatty degeneration of the myocardium and
renal tubular epithelium, were also reported by other observers who ex-
posed mice, rats, guinea pigs, rabbits, cats, and dogs sufficiently long
to air containing 1000 to 3000 ppm 1,2-dichloroethane (Heppel et al.,
1945; Heppel et al., 1946; Spencer et al., 1951).
The acute toxicity of 1,2-dichloroethane varies with species, route,
and dose. In general, it appears to be more toxic to mammals than is
carbon tetrachloride (Hofmann, Birnstiel, and Jobst, 1971). Table 22
summarizes mortality in seven species of animals due to a single acute
exposure by inhalation that varied from 1.5 to 7 hr. Few animals survived
exposure at 3000 or 1500 ppm for 7 hr, but death was frequently delayed
Table 22. Mortality after single acute exposure to 1,2-dichloroethane by inhalation
Animal
Mice
Rats
Guinea pigs
Rabbits
Raccoons
Cats
Hogs
Mice
Rats
Guinea pigs
Number
22
19
20
16
15
14
16
2
3
2
20
23
20
13
12
Weight
(g)
146
177
257
885
3,940
3,240
27,300
170
257
321
Time
(hr)
Exposure
7
2
7
&
ih
7
7
7
7
7
Exposure
7
2
7
4
7
Mortality
ratio
to 3000 ppm
22/22
19/19
20/20
15/16
0/15
14/14
12/16
0/2
0/3
2/2
to 1500 ppm
20/20
1/23
4/20
0/13
6/12
Cumulative mortality
0
22
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
0
0
0
1st
day
19
19
1
11
7
0
20
0
2
1
2nd
day
20
3
13
11
2
0
2
4
3rd
day
5
14
12
1
4
5
4th
day
13
6
Source: Adapted from Heppel et al., 1945, Table 1, p. 55. Reprinted by permis-
sion of the publisher.
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92
for days in some species. Congestion of the viscera and degeneration of
the liver and kidneys were common findings among these animals (Heppel
et al., 1945).
The most recent data published by the National Institute for Occupa-
tional Safety and Health (1978) indicate that, for exposure by inhalation,
the lowest doses that are lethal for a variety of common mammalian species
range from about 1000 ppm for 4 hr to about 3000 ppm for 7 hr. In contrast,
a dose of 175 mg/kg administered intravenously is lethal in the dog (Fair-
child, 1977). Other minimum lethal doses are indicated in Table 23.
The effects of acute exposure to 1,2-dichloroethane are strongly
dependent on the concentration of the toxicant. For example, when rats
were exposed to air containing 1000 ppm 1,2-dichloroethane, 7.20 hr
elapsed before half the population died; however, with concentrations of
Table 23. Lethal doses of 1,2-dichloroethane to
nonhuman mammals
Species
Mouse
Rat
Guinea pig
Rabbit
Dog
Pig
Category
LCLo
LDLo
LDLo
LDLo
LDLo
LDLo
LD50
LCLo
LDLo
LCLo
LDLo
LD50
LDLo
LDLo
LCLo
Dosage
5000 mg/m3
600 mg/kg
380 mg/kg
250 mg/kg
1000 ppm/4 hr
500 mg/kg
680 mg/kg
1500 ppm/ 7 hr
600 mg/kg
3000 ppm/ 7 hr
1200 mg/kg
860 mg/kg
2000 mg/kg
175 mg/kg
3000 ppm/ 7 hr
Route
Inhalation
Oral
Subcutaneous
Intraperitoneal
Inhalation
Subcutaneous
Oral
Inhalation
Intraperitoneal
Inhalation
Subcutaneous
Oral
Oral
Intravenous
Inhalation
LCLo — lowest published lethal concentration in air;
LDLo — lowest reported lethal dose by any route other than
inhalation; LD50 — median lethal dose by any route other
than inhalation.
Source: Adapted from Fairchild, 1977, p. 388.
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93
3000 and 12,000 ppm, the median lethal response times decreased to 2.75
and 0.53 hr respectively (Spencer et al., 1951). Similarly, when male
guinea pigs were injected intraperitoneally with 150 or 300 mg/kg 1,2-
dichloroethane in corn oil, no noticeable hepatotoxic effects occurred;
when 600 mg/kg was injected, a low order of damage occurred, as measured
by increased serum concentrations of ornithine carbamyl transferase
(Divincenzo and Krasavage, 1974). 1,2-Dichloroethane also exhibits con-
centration-dependent nephrotoxic characteristics when it is injected
intraperitoneally into male Swiss mice. Plaa and Larson (1965) observed
a progressive increase in the fraction of mice (10%, 30%, and 56%) having
excessive urinary protein, but not excessive urinary glucose, following
injection of 0.075, 0.2, and 0.4 ml of 1,2-dichloroethane per kilogram of
body weight. It should be noted, however, that the last cited dose is
well above the minimum lethal dose for mice.
Duprat, Delsaut, and Gradski (1976) studied the irritant power of
1,2-dichloroethane and other simple chlorinated hydrocarbons by making a
single application or instillation of the solvents to the skin or eye of
rabbits and then following the course of the resulting lesions macro-
scopically and histologically. 1,2-Dichloroethane was rated a primary
irritant in both applications but was considered less potent as a skin
irritant than perchloroethylene, chloroform, 1,1,2-trichloroethane, tri-
chloroethylene, and methylene chloride. As an eye irritant 1,2-dichloro-
ethane was classified less potent than chloroform, methylene chloride,
dichloroethylene, trichloroethylene, and trichloroethane.
Although acute exposures to 1,2-dichloroethane produce more or less
similar responses in many mammalian species, the systemic administration
of this compound to dogs produces one effect not ordinarily seen in
other mammalian species: clouding of the cornea. Typically, there is
a necrosis of the endothelium beginning in the basal portions of the
cells, followed by secondary swelling of the stroma, formation of excess
basement membrane, and thickening of Descemet's layer. This response
also occurs in cats and rabbits when 1,2-dichloroethane is injected
directly into the anterior chamber of the eye but not with systemic
administration of the compound. The unique response of the dog eye
appears to result from a greater amount of 1,2-dichloroethane coming in
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94
contact with the dog endothelium rather than from any unusual suscepti-
bility of the eye itself (Heppel et al., 1944; Kuwabara, Quevedo, and
Cogan, 1968).
Chronic exposures of rats and guinea pigs to air containing 100 ppm
1,2-dichloroethane for 7 hr per day, five days per week for several months
generally produced no deaths and no evidence of adverse effects as judged
by general appearance, behavior, mortality, growth, organ function, or
blood chemistry (Heppel et al., 1946; Hofmann, Birnsteil, and Jobst,
1971; Spencer et al., 1951). However, similar exposures of rats, guinea
pigs, rabbits, and monkeys to air containing 400 or 500 ppm 1,2-dichloro-
ethane usually resulted in high mortality and a limited number of varying
pathological findings, including pulmonary congestion; diffuse myocardi-
tis; slight to moderate fatty degeneration of the liver, kidney, and
heart; and increased plasma prothrombin time (Heppel et al., 1946;
Hofmann, Birnsteil, and Jobst, 1971; Spencer et al., 1951). Different
effects were observed in rabbits chronically exposed to high concentra-
tions of 1,2-dichloroethane for brief intervals. After inhaling 3000 ppm
1,2-dichloroethane for 2 hr per day, five days per week for 90 days,
rabbits exhibited varying degrees of anemia accompanied by leukopenia and
thromobocytopenia. In addition, there was frequent hypoplasia of granu-
loblastic and erythroblastic parenchyma in the bone marrow. The cellular
concentration of leukolipids was also reduced, but no change occurred in
polysaccharides, peroxidase, or ribonucleic acid. In view of these find-
ings, the authors suggested that 1,2-dichloroethane might exert a direct
poisoning effect on bone marrow (Lioia and Elmino, 1959; Lioia, Elmino,
and Rossi, 1959).
Other chronic effects of 1,2-dichloroethane have also been observed.
In a series of studies, Vozovaya (1971, 1974, 1975, 1976) exposed female
white rats to air containing 57 mg/m3 (14 ppm) 1,2-dichloroethane for
4 hr per day, six days per week for six to nine months to determine the
effect of this compound on generative function of these animals and on
the development of progeny. Fertility of the treated rats decreased, and
the number of stillbirths increased relative to controls. Viability of
first generation offspring decreased. First generation females exhibited
prolonged estrus and a high perinatal mortality rate. These effects were
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95
augmented and new difficulties were introduced when rats were exposed in
similar experiments to mixtures of 1,2-dichloroethane (30 ± 10 mg/m3) and
gasoline (1210 ± 70 mg/m3). In particular, a decrease in the incidence
of conception occurred which was not seen during similar exposures to the
separate compounds. In addition, there was a significant decrease in the
viability of first generation offspring. For example, at the end of the
sixth month, mortality in the group exposed to 1,2-dichloroethane alone
was 25.0 ± 6.92% as compared with 5.4 ± 3.75% in the controls (P < 0.05);
however, for the group exposed to the combination of 1,2-dichloroethane
and gasoline, mortality (P < 0.05) was 28.0 ± 9.16% (Vozovaya, 1975).
In a later study in which 108 random-bred female white rats were exposed
to gasoline (31.0 ± 33 mg/m3) and 1,2-dichloroethane (15 ± 3 mg/m3) sepa-
rately and in combination 4 hr per day, six days per week for four months,
Vozovaya (1976) found increased numbers of degenerative follicles in the
microstructure of ovaries of rats exposed to the mixture of compounds but
not in ovaries of rats exposed to the separate compounds. In the affected
rats, a high total embryonic mortality was caused by a high rate of pre-
implantation deaths and also by a high rate of resorptions of embryos at
an early stage of development.
In other studies, Alumot, Nachtomi, Mandel, Holstein, Bondi, and
Herzberg (1976) added 250 or 500 ppm 1,2-dichloroethane to the food of
rats for two years. No significant differences were found between these
animals and controls with respect to growth, feed consumption, or feed
efficiency. At the levels tested, the added 1,2-dichloroethane had no
effect on male fertility or reproductive activity of rats of either sex.
Based on the results of this study, the authors recommended an acceptable
daily intake and tolerance of 1,2-dichloroethane in human food of 0.07
mg/kg of body weight and 10 ppm respectively.
Malinskaya and Yanovskaya (1957) studied the effect of 1,2-dichloro-
ethane on the metabolism of vitamin C in rats. After exposing rats to
air containing 20 mg/liter for 2 hr, they sacrificed the animals and
determined ascorbic acid concentrations in the liver, spleen, brain,
kidneys, adrenals, heart, and walls of the small intestine. Significant
increases of ascorbic acid occurred in the liver (80%), spleen (36%),
and brain (15%) but not in the adrenals. In rats exposed for 25 2-hr
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96
periods a month to air containing 0.3 mg of 1,2-dichloroethane per liter,
the ascorbic acid level in all organs was normal. However, the ascorbic
acid levels in the liver and brain of rats similarly exposed to 0.6 mg
of 1,2-dichloroethane per liter were very much higher than in controls.
The authors stated that the large increase in ascorbic acid in the organs
of rats exposed to high concentrations of 1,2-dichloroethane was due to a
rise in the rate of synthesis of the vitamin. They postulated that the
increased synthesis was a compensatory process that participated in the
defensive reaction of the organism to toxic factors. Malinskaya and
Yanovskaya then concluded that inhalation of 1,2-dichloroethane consid-
erably raises the bodily requirements for vitamin C.
7.2.2 Carcinogenicity
Because of its structure 1,2-dichloroethane has been classified as
a substance having limited suspicion of carcinogenicity (U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, 1977); however, few studies have addressed the
carcinogenic potential of this compound. Two such studies were reported
in 1951 and 1977, two were completed in 1978, and two others are currently
nearing completion.
In an early inhalation study that lasted 212 days, Spencer et al.
(1951) found no evidence of carcinogenic activity when Wistar rats were
exposed 151 times to 200 ppm 1,2-dichloroethane for 7 hr per day. More
recently, in an inhalation study still in progress at the Montedison
Research Institute in Bologna, Maltoni (as cited in Albert, 1978) sep-
arately exposed 90 male and 90 female Swiss mice and Sprague-Dawley rats
7 hr daily, five times weekly, to 0, 5, 10, 50, and 150 ppm 1,2-dichloro-
ethane. Initially, the highest exposure was 250 ppm, but this was reduced
after ten weeks to 150 ppm because the animals could not tolerate the
higher concentration. After exposures of two year's duration, surviving
animals will be held until the end of their natural lives. In an interim
report after 78 weeks of exposure and 26 weeks of observation, Maltoni
indicated that he "has found no evidence of any exceptional tumors in
rats or mice" (Albert, 1978). This conclusion was qualified as "almost
conclusive."
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97
In 1977 Theiss et al. investigated the carcinogenic potential of
1,2-dichloroethane and other organic contaminants of U.S. drinking water
by injecting the compounds intraperitoneally into six- to eight-week-old
strain A/St male mice. Each dose of reagent grade 1,2-dichloroethane was
injected into groups of 20 mice three times a week for 24 injections.
Three dose levels were used: 20, 40, and 100 mg/kg in each injection;
100 mg/kg was the maximum tolerated dose. Tricaprylin was used as the
vehicle. Twenty-four weeks after the first injection the mice were
sacrificed, and their lungs were placed in Tellyesniczky's fluid. After
48 hr the lungs were examined microscopically for surface adenomas, and
the frequency of lung tumors in each group was compared with that in a
vehicle-treated control group by means of the Student's t test. The
incidence of lung tumor increased with dose, but none of the groups had
pulmonary adenoma responses that were significantly greater (P < 0.05)
than that of the vehicle-treated control mice.
Two studies of the carcinogenicity of 1,2-dichloroethane were per-
formed for the National Cancer Institute (NCI) by the Hazleton Labora-
tories,' Inc. , Vienna, Virginia. The results of both studies were released
by NCI on September 26, 1978. In one of these studies, 200 8-week-old
Osborne-Mendel rats were exposed to technical grade 1,2-dichloroethane
delivered by oral intubation. Fifty rats of each sex separately received
either the maximum tolerated dose (95 mg/kg daily, time-weighted average
dosage over a 78-week period) or one-half of this dose. Twenty rats of
each sex served as untreated controls, and an equal number were given the
vehicle (corn oil) by intubation. Survival of male rats exposed to the
high dose was low; 50% (25/50) were alive by week 55, but only 16% (8/50)
lived to week 75. None survived the study. Male rats in other groups
fared better: in the low dose group 52% (26/50) survived at least 82
weeks, and in the untreated control group 50% (10/20) survived at least
87 weeks. The survival rate of female rats exposed to the high dose was
50% (25/50) by week 57 and 20% (10/50) by week 75. Half (25/50) of the
female rats in the low-dose group survived at least 85 weeks. Terminal
survival times for all groups are shown in Table 24.
Gross necropsies were performed on animals that died during the
experiment or were killed at the end. Twenty-eight organs, as well as
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98
Table 24. Terminal survival of rats in experimental and control groups
involved in carcinogenicity studies with 1,2-dichloroethane
Group
Untreated controls
Vehicle controls
Low-dose group
High-dose group
Weeks in
study
106
110
110
101
Males
Animals
alive at end
of study
4/20 (20%)
4/20 (20%)
1/50 (2%)
0/50 (0%)
Females
Weeks in
study
106
110
101
93
Animals
alive at end
of study
13/20 (65%)
8/20 (40%)
1/50 (2%)
0/50 (0%)
,Five male and female rats were sacrificed at 75 weeks of study.
All animals in this group died before the bioassay was terminated.
Source: Adapted from Albert, 1978, Table I, p. 15.
all tissues containing visible lesions, were fixed in 10% buffered for-
malin, embedded in paraplast, and sectioned for microscopic examination;
H and E stain was normally used. Diagnoses of any tumors and other lesions
were coded according to the Systematized Nomenclature of Pathology of the
College of American Pathologists, 1965. Squamous-cell carcinomas of the
forestomach occurred in 18% of the high-dose males and- in 6% of the low-
dose males but were not found in the controls. The Cochran-Armitage test
included a significant positive association between dosage and the inci-
dence of squamous-cell carcinomas in these animals. The Fisher exact test
also confirmed the significance of these results (P = 0.001) when compari-
son was made between the high-dose group and the pooled vehicle control
group. Only one squamous-cell carcinoma of the forestomach occurred in
the exposed female rats and none were found in the controls (Table 25).
Hemangiosarcomas also occurred in exposed male and female rats but
not in the control animals (Table 26). They were seen in the spleen,
liver, adrenals, pancreas, large intestine, and abdominal cavity. Low-
dose animals had higher incidences of hemangiosarcoma than high-dose
animals. The Cochran-Armitage test indicated a significant (P = 0.021)
positive association between dosage and the incidence of circulatory
system hemangiosarcoma in males, but not females, when dosed groups were
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99
Table 25. Squamous-cell carcinomas of the
forestomach in 1,2-dichloroethane-treated rats
Q Rats with squamous-cell
carcinoma of forestomach
Male
Untreated controls 0/20 (0%)
Vehicle controls 0/20 (0%)
Low-dose group 3/50 (6%)
High-dose group 9/50a (18%)
Female
Untreated controls 0/20 (0%)
Vehicle controls 0/20 (0%)
Low-dose group 1/49 (2%)
High-dose group 0/50 (0%)
A squamous-cell carcinoma of forestomach was
metastasized in one male of high-dose group.
Source: Adapted from National Cancer Institute,
1978.
Table 26. Hemangiosarcomas in 1,2-dichloroethane-
treated ratsa
Males
Low-dose
11/50 (22%)
High-dose^
5/50 (10%)
Females
Low-dose
5/50 (10%)
High-dose
4/50 (8%)
No hemangiosarcomas were found in male or
female controls.
^Only 49 animals were examined for hemangio-
sarcomas of the spleen and adrenals and 48 for
hemangiosarcomas of the pancreas.
C0nly 48 animals were examined for hemangio-
sarcomas of the large intestine.
Source: Adapted from National Cancer Institute,
1978.
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100
compared with the pooled vehicle control group. The Fisher exact test
confirmed these findings with statistically significant probability
values as follows: P = 0.016 for high-dose males versus pooled control
and P = 0.003 for low-dose males versus pooled control.
In addition to the previous findings, the National Cancer Institute's
rat study also showed significant increases in the incidence of mammary
adenocarcinomas in treated female rats. In the high-dose group, tumors
were noticed as early as 20 weeks after treatment. Eventually 36% (18/50)
of this group developed lesions (Table 27). The Cochran-Armitage test
indicated significant (P = 0.001) positive association between dosage and
the incidence of mammary carcinomas when results were compared with either
control group. The Fisher exact tests were significant when compared with
the high-dose group and either the matched vehicle group (P = 0.001) or
the pooled vehicle control group (P = 0.002). Historically, adenocarci-
nomas of the mammary gland occur in 2% (4/200) of the vehicle control
females.
Table 27. Adenocarcinomas of the mammary gland
in 1,2-dichloroethane-treated female rats
1,2-Dichloroethane-
Untreated Vehicle treated rats
controls controls
Low-dose High-dose
2/20 (10%) 0/20 (0%) 1/50 (2%) 18/50 (36%)
Source: Adapted from National Cancer Insti-
tute, 1978.
In summary, the NCI study indicates a positive association between
exposure to 1,2-dichloroethane and the incidence in male, but not female,
rats of squamous-cell carcinomas of the forestomach and hemangiosarcomas
of the circulatory system. The study also statistically links increased
incidence of adenocarcinomas of the mammary gland in female rats with ex-
posure to technical grade 1,2-dichloroethane.
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101
The second NCI carcinogenic study of 1,2-dichloroethane used 200 5-
week-old B6C3F1 mice instead of rats. Fifty male and female mice were
administered technical grade 1,2-dichloroethane in maximum tolerated
doses or in half of the maximum tolerated dose by oral intubation. For
male mice this dose was 97 or 195 mg/kg daily, but for female mice it
was 149 or 299 mg/kg daily (time-weighted average dose over a 78-week
period). Twenty mice of each sex were used as untreated controls, and
an equal number were given the vehicle (corn oil) by oral intubation.
As in the previous NCI study, a gross necropsy was performed on each
animal that died or was killed at the end, and similar histopathologic
examinations were made. Mortality was high in the combined high-dose
groups, with 72% (36/50) of all animals dying between weeks 60 and 80.
However, for male mice there was no statistically significant associa-
tion between dosage and terminal mortality: 42% of the animals exposed
to the high dose were alive at the end of the study, but only 22% of the
low-dose males survived. At the end of the study, 55% (11/20) of the
vehicle control group and 35% (7/20) of the untreated control group
remained. Except for the high-dose group, mortality of the female mice
was appreciably lower than that for treated or untreated males (Table 28)
Hepatocellular carcinomas occurred in all male mice (Table 29), but
only two were seen in females. The number of hepatocellular carcinomas
Table 28. Terminal survival of mice in experimental and control groups
involved in carcinogenic studies with 1,2-dichloroethane
Group
Untreated controls
Vehicle controls
Low-dose group
High-dose group
Weeks in
study
90
90
90
91
Males
Animals
alive at end
of study
7/20 (35%)
11/20 (55%)
11/50 (22%)
21/50 (42%)
Females
Weeks in
study
90
90
91
91
Animals
alive at end
of study
16/20 (80%)
16/20 (80%)
34/50 (68%)
1/50 (2%)
Source: Adapted from National Cancer Institute, 1978.
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102
Table 29. Hepatocellular carcinomas in
1,2-dichloroethane-treated mice
_ Mice with hepatocellular
Group .r
carcinomas
Male
Untreated controls 2/17 (12%)
Vehicle controls 1/19 (5%)
Low-dose group 6/47 (13%)
High-dose group 12/48 (25%)
Female
Untreated controls 0/19 (0%)
Vehicle controls 1/20 (5%)
Low-dose group 0/50 (0%)
High-dose group 1/47 (2%)
Source: Adapted from National Cancer Institute,
1978.
in the high-dose male group were significantly greater than those in the
control groups. The Cochran-Armitage test indicated a positive dose-
response association with either the matched (P = 0.025) or the pooled
(P = 0.006) controls. The Fisher exact test also yielded a significant
(P = 0.009) comparison of the high-dose to the pooled control group.
A large number of alveolar/bronchiolar adenomas were also observed
in the second NCI study. They were present in 31% of the male (15/48)
and female (15/48) high-dose mice. None occurred in the untreated or
vehicle control males, and only one appeared in each female control group
(Table 30). The Cochran-Armitage test showed a significant (P = 0.005)
positive dose-response association when either high-dose male or female
groups were compared with appropriate untreated or vehicle control groups.
The Fisher exact test also indicated that the high-dose groups had a
significantly (P = 0.016) higher incidence rate than either of the con-
trol groups, but this test attributed no statistical significance to the
incidence of alveolar/bronchiolar adenomas in the low-dose female mice.
Squamous-cell carcinomas of the forestomach occurred in ten of the
mice treated with 1,2-dichloroethane and in two of the controls (Table 31).
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103
Table 30. Alveolar/bronchiolar adenomas in
mice treated with 1,2-dichloroethane
Mice with
Group alveolar/bronchiolar
adenomas
Male
Untreated controls 0/17 (0%)
Vehicle controls 0/19 (0%)
Low-dose group 1/47 (2%)
High-dose group 15/48 (31%)
Female
Untreated controls 1/19 (5%)
Vehicle controls 1/20 (5%)
Low-dose group 7/50 (14%)
High-dose group 15/48 (31%)
Source: Adapted from National Cancer
Institute, 1978.
Table 31. Squamous-cell carcinomas of the
forestomach in 1,2-dichloroethane-treated mice
Mice with squamous-cell
carcinoma of forestomach
Male
Untreated controls 0/17 (0%)
Vehicle controls 1/19 (5%)
Low-dose group 1/46 (2%)
High-dose group 2/46 (4%)
Female
Untreated controls 0/19 (0%)
Vehicle controls 1/20 (5%)
Low-dose group 2/50 (4%)
High-dose group 5/48 (10%)
Source: Adapted from National Cancer Institute,
1978.
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104
The Cochran-Armitage test indicated a significant (P = 0.035) positive
association between dosage and the incidence of these lesions when dosed
female groups were compared with the pooled vehicle control, but the
Fisher exact tests did not confirm this association.
A statistically significant positive association between dosage and
the incidence of mammary adenocarcinomas in female mice was also reported.
These malignancies occurred in 18% (9/50) of the low-dose mice (P = 0.001,
Cochran-Armitage test; P = 0.039, Fisher exact test) and 15% (7/48) of the
high-dose mice (P = 0.003, Cochran-Armitage test). No adenocarcinomas of
the mammary gland occurred in either the pooled vehicle control (0/60) or
the matched vehicle control (0/20) (National Cancer Institute, 1978).
To summarize, this NCI study indicated statistically significant
association between oral intubation exposure to 1,2-dichloroethane and
the incidence of alveolar/bronchiolar adenomas in both male and female
mice. The study also established a statistically significant relation-
ship between oral intubation exposure and the occurrence of hepatocellu-
lar carcinomas in male mice. No such relationship was found for female
mice, nor was an unequivocal association found between oral intubation
exposure to 1,2-dichloroethane and the occurrence of squamous-cell car-
cinomas of the forestomach in either male or female mice.
In another study underway at the New York University Medical Center
by Van Duuren, 1,2-dichloroethane and a suspected metabolite, chloro-
acetaldehyde, are being tested as initiators, promoters, and complete
carcinogens using two-stage skin tests on female ICR/Ha mice. The results
of these studies were expected to be reported during the fourth quarter
of 1978.
7.2.3 Mutagenicity
Although 1,2-dichloroethane is weakly mutagenic in certain strains
of Salmonella and can alter the DNA structure of Escherichia ooli (Sect,
11.2.1), no reports were found indicating mutagenic activity of this
compound in mammals.
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7.2.4 Teratogenicity
No reports of mammalian teratogenic effects from 1,2-dichloroethane
were found in an exhaustive search of the literature. Vozovaya (1974)
found toxic (Sect. 7.2.1), but not teratogenic, effects from exposing
gestating female rats to 57 mg/m3 4 hr per day, six days per week for
six months. However, the issue may be defined more clearly by two labora-
tory tests currently in progress. In the first study, separate groups of
Sprague-Dawley rats and New Zealand white rabbits are being exposed to
0, 100, and 300 ppm 1,2-dichloroethane in closed inhalation chambers 6 hr
per day, five days per week for eight months. At the termination of
exposure, complete histopathological examinations of the offspring will
be performed. Results of the study are expected in the second quarter
of 1979 (Olson, 1977Z>).
The second laboratory experiment is a reproductive study in which
separate groups of male and female Sprague-Dawley rats are being exposed
to 0, 50, 100, and 300 ppm 1,2-dichloroethane in closed inhalation cham-
bers 6 hr per day, five days per week. Exposure will continue through
two litters. All animals will receive complete histopathological examina-
tions at termination of exposure. A report of results is expected during
the first quarter of 1979 (Olson, 1977a).
-------
8. BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS IN OTHER VERTEBRATES
8.1 METABOLISM
No studies dealing with the metabolism of 1,2-dichloroethane in
nonmammalian vertebrates were found.
8.2 EFFECTS
Pearson and McConnell (1975) measured the acute toxicity of 1,2-
dichloroethane to Limanda limanda (dab) by placing five 15- to 20-cm-long
fish in a glass apparatus through which water containing predetermined
concentrations of 1,2-dichloroethane was passed. Because of the high
volatility of the organic compound, no artificial aeration was used.
The experimentally determined LC50 value was 115 mg/liter. This value is
2 to 20 times greater than that for other simple aliphatic chlorinated
hydrocarbons and more than three orders of magnitude greater than the
highest concentrations of 1,.2-dichloroethane reported in a survey of U.S.
waters (Sect. 4.2.2).
According to Adema (1976, as cited in Verschueren, 1977), the 96-hr
LC50 in seawater at 15°C for the fish Gobius minutus is 185 mg of 1,2-
dichloroethane per liter. Details of the experiment establishing this
value were not available.
1,2-Dichloroethane has an aquatic toxicity rating (96-hr TL^, species
unspecified) of 1000 to 100 ppm, a range of values indicating relatively
low toxicity (Fairchild, 1977). The Columbia National Fishery Research
Laboratory of the Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Department of the
Interior, estimated the LC50 value of technical grade 1,2-dichloroethane
for rainbow trout as greater than 100 mg/liter (Cotant, 1978). This
result applied to fish weighing 1.65 g in 13°C water of pH 7.1 and 40
mg/liter hardness.
Chickens may be exposed to 1,2-dichloroethane when fed grain pre-
viously fumigated with this compound. Alumot, Meidler, Holstein, and
Herzberg (1976) studied possible effects of such exposure by adding 1,2-
dichloroethane to the diet of male and female leghorn chickens for two
years. They found no effects on growth, semen characteristics, or
106
-------
107
fertility when concentrations of 250 and 500 ppm were used. However,
egg weight decreased from the 4th month of the laying period at both
concentrations. At 500 ppm egg production decreased from 7% to 25%
between the 4th and 18th months. Based on these findings, the authors
recommended limiting the exposure of cocks and growing chickens to con-
centrations of 250 ppm and a daily intake of 25 rag/kg. For laying hens,
a tolerance of 100 ppm and a daily intake of 5 mg/kg were suggested.
Jensen et al. (1975) recorded the LCSO of EDC-tar on Gadus morhua
(cod) and Pleuroneetes platessa (plaice) as approximately 5 ppm. The
tar contained at least 80 substances, one of which was 1,2-dichloroethane.
Thus, the toxic effects cannot be attributed to 1,2-dichloroethane alone,
but the results are summarized here for the sake of completeness.
-------
9. BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS IN INVERTEBRATES
9.1 METABOLISM
No studies of the metabolism of 1,2-dichloroethane in invertebrates
were found.
9.2 EFFECTS
9.2.1 Toxicity
1,2-Dichloroethane and mixtures of chlorinated hydrocarbons contain-
ing 1,2-dichloroethane are toxic to annelids and arthropods and are
widely used to control infestations of the latter in grains and other
stored products. The names and compositions of some common mixtures are
listed in the Appendix. The lethal effects of these fumigants in inverte-
brates depend on the susceptibility of the species, the amount of chlo-
rinated hydrocarbon available at the site of action, and the duration of
exposure. With insects the concentration of toxicant diffused through
spiracles and the body wall is controlling (Vincent and Lindgren, 1965).
Factors that increase the rate of insect respiration, and hence the
effectiveness of a fumigant, include increases in temperature and in the
carbon dioxide concentration of the insect atmosphere and a decrease in
the oxygen concentration of the insect atmosphere (Bond, 1961). Consider-
able experimental variation occurs in determining the resistance of dif-
ferent species and life stages of invertebrates to 1,2-dichloroethane
(Ellis and Morrison, 1967; Kenaga, 1961); consequently, many different
estimates of the median lethal concentration for a particular species can
be found in the literature. The lethal concentrations of 1,2-dichloro-
ethane for a variety of invertebrates are summarized in Table 32. Similar
information for mixtures of organic solvents containing 1,2-dichloroethane
is given in Table 33.
In addition to the species listed in Tables 32 and 33, 1,2-dichloro-
ethane or mixtures containing this compound are also toxic to a number
of other invertebrates. Among these are the bark-eating caterpillar,
Indavbela quadrinotata (Srivastava, 1972); the peach tree borer,
108
-------
Table 32. Lethal concentrations of 1,2-dichloroethane for selected invertebrates
Invertebrate
Barnacle (Elminius modes-bus)
Bean weevil (Aaanthosoelides
obtectus) , adult
Cadelle (Tenebroides
mauritanicus) , 4th ins tar
larvae
Confused flour beetle
(Triboliwn confusum) ,
adult
1 , 2-Dichloroethane
concentration
(mg/liter)
186
127.0
186.0
49.0
83.0
43.0
4.03
5.80
9.95
15.21
18.07
36.78
7.72
21.13
19.92
39.51
Parameter
LCso
LCso
LC9S
LCso
LC9S
LCso
LCso
LC9 5
LCso
LC95
LCso
LC95
LCso
LC9 s
LCjo
LC9s
Test
duration
(hr)
48
2
2
6
6
24
16
16
5
5
2
2
16
16
5
5
Test
conditions'2
Not stated
Static, 21°C, 50%
RH
Static, 21°C, 50%
RH
Static, 21°C, 50%
RH
Static, 21°C, 50%
RH
Static, 25°C, 70%
RH
Static, 27°C,
40%-90% RH
Static, 27°C,
40%-90% RH
Static, 27°C,
40%-90% RH
Static, 27°C,
40%-90% RH
Static, 27°C,
40%-90% RH
Static, 27°C,
40%-90% RH
Static, 16°C,
40%-90% RH
Static, 16°C,
40%-90% RH
Static, 16°C,
40%-90% RH
Static, 16°C,
40%-90% RH
Reference
Pearson and
McConnell, 1975
Lindgren, Vincent,
and Krohne, 1954
Lindgren, Vincent,
and Krohne, 1954
Lindgren, Vincent,
and Krohne, 1954
Lindgren, Vincent,
and Krohne, 1954
Bond and Monro,
1961
Kenaga, 1961
Kenaga, 1961
Kenaga, 1961
Kenaga, 1961
Kenaga, 1961
Kenaga, 1961
Kenaga, 1961
Kenaga, 1961
Kenaga, 1961
Kenaga, 1961
-------
Table 32 (continued)
1 , 2-Dichloroethane
Invertebrate concentration
(mg/liter)
48.98
87.90
9.19
26.16
24.50
76.38
62.53
125.45
32
132.0
226.0
53.0
84.0
5.8
Drugstore beetle (Stegobium 161.0
paniaeum) , adult
242.0
77.0
Parameter
LC50
LC9S
LCso
LC9 3
LCso
LC95
LCso
LC9S
LC99
LCso
LC95
LCso
LC95
LC5o
LCso
LC95
LCSO
Test
duration
(hr)
"2
2
16
16
5
5
2
2
5
2
2
6
6
5
2
2
6
Test
conditions'2
Static, 16°C,
40%-90% RH
Static, 16°C,
40%-90% RH
Static, 4°C,
40%-90% RH
Static, 4°C,
40%-90% RH
Static, 4°C,
40%-90% RH
Static, 4°C,
40%-90% RH
Static, 4°C,
40%-90% RH
Static, 4°C,
40%-90% RH
Static, 25°C, 70%
RH
Static, 21°C, 50%
RH
Static, 21°C, 50%
RH
Static, 21°C, 50%
RH
Static, 21°C, 50%
RH
Static, 20°C, 60%
RH
Static, 21°C, 50%
RH
Static, 21°C, 50%
RH
Static, 21°C, 50%
RH
Reference
Kenaga, 1961
Kenaga, 1961
Kenaga, 1961
Kenaga, 1961
Kenaga, 1961
Kenaga, 1961
Kenaga, 1961
Kenaga, 1961
Bond and Monro,
1961
Lindgren, Vincent,
and Krohne, 1954
Lindgren, Vincent,
and Krohne, 1954
Lindgren, Vincent,
and Krohne, 1954
Lindgren, Vincent,
and Krohne, 1954
Ellis and
Morrison, 1967
Lindgren, Vincent,
and Krohne, 1954
Lindgren , Vincent ,
and Krohne, 1954
Lindgren, Vincent,
and Krohne, 1954
-------
Table 32 (continued)
Invertebrate
Granary mite (Leiodinychus
krameri) , adult
Granary weevil (Sitophilus
granarius) , adult
Lesser grain borer
(Rhyzopertha dominica) ,
adult
Mexican bean weevil
(Zabrotes peatoralis) ,
adult
1 , 2-Dichloroethane
concentration
(mg/liter)
128.0
24.60
44.5
>271.0
>271.0
127.0
>135.0
81.46
139.04
137.0
228.0
65.0
106.0
60.07
89.73
52.0
92.0
Parameter
LC95
LCso
LC5o
LC5o
LC9s
LCso
LC9S
LC5o
LC90
LCso
LC95
LC5o
LC9s
LCso
LC90
LCso
LC9s
Test
duration
(hr)
6
24
24
2
2
6
6
6
6
2
2
6
6
6
6
2
2
Test
conditions
Static, 21°C, 50%
RH
Static, 28°C, 90%
RH
Static, 25°C, 70%
RH
Static, 21°C, 50%
RH
Static, 21°C, 50%
RH
Static, 21°C, 50%
RH
Static, 21°C, 50%
RH
Recirculating ,
24°C, 75% RH
Recirculating,
24°C, 75% RH
Static, 21°C, 50%
RH
Static, 21°C, 50%
RH
Static, 21°C, 50%
RH
Static, 21°C, 50%
RH
Recirculating,
24°C, 75% RH
Recirculating,
24°C, 75% RH
Static, 21°C, 50%
RH
Static, 21°C, 50%
RH
Reference
Lindgren, Vincent,
and Krohne, 1954
Rout and Haiti,
1974
Bond and Monro,
1961
Lindgren, Vincent,
and Krohne, 1954
Lindgren, Vincent,
and Krohne, 1954
Lindgren, Vincent,
and Krohne, 1954
Lindgren, Vincent,
and Krohne, 1954
Bang and Tel ford,
1966
Bang and Tel ford,
1966
Lindgren, Vincent,
and Krohne, 1954
Lindgren, Vincent,
and Krohne, 1954
Lindgren, Vincent,
and Krohne, 1954
Lindgren, Vincent,
and Krohne, 1954
Bang and Telford,
1966
Bang and Telford,
1966
Lindgren, Vincent,
and Krohne, 1954
Lindgren, Vincent,
and Krohne, 1954
-------
Table 32 (continued)
Invertebrate
Polychaete (Ophryotrocha
labroniaa)
Red flour beetle (Tribolium
eastaneum)
Larvae
Pupae
Adult
Adult, DDT-resistant
Adul t , DDT-sus c ep t ib 1 e
Adult
1 , 2-Dichloroethane
concentration
(mg/liter)
26.0
48.0
400
900
400
41.55
92.38
70.23
149.87
58.55
76.95
41.73
49.65
45.71
Parameter
LC50
LCss
LCso
LC50
Eggs rarely
hatched
LCso
LCgo
LCso
LC90
LCso
LC90
LCso
LCso
LCSo
Test
duration
(hr)
6
6
96
96
Not
given
6
6
6
6
6
6
24
24
24
Test
conditions
Static, 21°C, 50%
RH
Static, 21°C, 50%
RH
Rapid addition
Gradual addition
Not given
Recirculating,
24°C, 757, RH
Recirculating,
24°C, 75% RH
Recirculating,
24°C, 75% RH
Recirculating,
24°C, 75% RH
Recirculating,
24°C, 75% RH
Recirculating ,
24°C, 75% RH
Static, 30°C
Static, 30°C
Static, 30°C-33°C
50%-55% RH
Reference
Lindgren, Vincent,
and Krohne, 1954
Lindgren, Vincent,
and Krohne, 1954
Rosenberg, Grahn,
and Johansson,
1975
Rosenberg, Grahn,
and Johansson,
1975
Rosenberg, Grahn,
and Johansson,
1975
Bang and Tel ford,
1966
Bang and Telford,
1966
Bang and Telford,
1966
Bang and Telford,
1966
Bang and Telford,
1966
Bang and Telford,
1966
Bhatia and
Bansode, 1971
Bhatia and
Bansode, 1971
Pradhan and
Govindan, 1954
N>
-------
Table 32 (continued)
Invertebrate
Red scale (Aonidiella
aurantii) , adult
Rice weevil (Sitophilus
oryza)
Egg
Larvae
1st instar larvae
2nd instar larvae
3rd instar larvae
4th instar larvae
Pupae
Preemergent adult
Adult out of grain mass
Adult in grain mass
Adult
1 , 2-Dichloroethane
concentration
(mg/liter)
173.20
19
197.0
>270.0
197.0
>270.0
18
16
28
13
13
>270.0
>270.0
12
13
13
177.0
>270.0
166.0
271.6
66.0
123.0
Parameter
LCso
LCso
LCso
LCgs
LCso
LCgs
LC5o
LCso
LCso
LCso
LCso
LCso
LCgs
LCso
LCso
LCso
LCso
LCgs
LC50
LCg 5
LCso
LCgs
Test
duration
(hr)
2
24
2
2
2
2
24
24
24
24
24
2
2
24
24
24
2
2
2
2
6
6
Test
conditions
28°C-36°C
Static
Agitated, 27°C,
60% RH
Agitated, 27°C
60% RH
Agitated, 27°C,
60% RH
Agitated, 27°C,
60% RH
Static
Static
Static
Static
Static
Agitated, 27°C,
60% RH
Agitated, 27°C,
60% RH
Static
Static
Static
Agitated, 27°C,
60% RH
Agitated, 27°C,
60% RH
Static, 21°C, 50%
RH
Static, 21°C, 50%
RH
Static, 21°C, 50%
RH
Static, 21°C, 50%
RH
Reference
Wadhi and Scares ,
1965
Adkisson, 1957
Krohne and
Lindgren, 1958
Krohne and
Lindgren, 1958
Krohne and
Lindgren, 1958
Krohne and
Lindgren, 1958
Adkisson, 1957
Adkisson, 1957
Adkisson, 1957
Adkisson, 1957
Adkisson, 1957
Krohne and
Lindgren, 1958
Krohne and
Lindgren, 1958
Adkisson, 1957
Adkisson, 1957
Adkisson, 1957
Krohne and
Lindgren, 1958
Krohne and
Lindgren, 1958
Lindgren, Vincent,
and Krohne, 1954
Lindgren, Vincent,
and Krohne, 1954
Lindgren, Vincent,
and Krohne, 1954
Lindgren, Vincent,
and Krohne, 1954
u>
-------
Table 32 (continued)
Invertebrate
Saw-toothed grain beetle
(Ory zaephilus
surinamensis) , adult
Scud (Gamnarus fasciatus) ,
adult
Shrimp
(Artemia salina)
(Crangon crangon)
Stone fly (Pteronarcys
calif arnica) , 2nd year
class
Trogoderma granaria, 4th
ins tar larvae
1 , 2-Dichloroethane
concentration
(mg/liter)
122.0
230.0
39.0
77.0
34.85
50.51
16.7
>100
320
170
>100
95.90
Test
Parameter duration
(hr)
LCso 2
LC95 2
LCso 6
LCg s 6
LCso 6
LCgo 6
LCso 5
LCso 96
TLm 24
LCso 24
LCso 96
LCso 24
Test
conditions
Static, 21°C, 50%
RH
Static, 21°C, 50%
RH
Static, 21°C, 50%
RH
Static, 21°C, 50%
RH
Recirculating,
24°C, 75% RH
Recirculating ,
24°C, 75% RH
Static, 20°C, 60%
RH
Static, 21°C, pH
7.1, hardness
of 40 mg/liter
Static
Static
Static, 15°C, pH
7.1, hardness
of 40 mg/liter
Static, 33°C-38°C,
50%-55% RH
Reference
Lindgren, Vincent,
and Krohne, 1954
Lindgren, Vincent,
and Krohne, 1954
Lindgren, Vincent,
and Krohne, 1954
Lindgren, Vincent,
and Krohne, 1954
Bang and Telford,
1966
Bang and Telford,
1966
Ellis and
Morrison, 1967
Cotant, 1978
Price , Waggy , and
Conway, 1974
Rosenberg, Grahn,
and Johansson,
1975
Cotant, 1978
Pradhan and
Govindan, 1954
a.
RH - relative humidity.
-------
Table 33. Lethal concentrations for selected invertebrates of mixtures containing 1,2-dichloroethane
Invertebrate
Mixture
Concentration
Parameter
Test duration
and conditions
Reference
Granary mite
(Leiodinyahus
krameri), adult
Rice moth (Coreyra
aephalonica)
Shrimp (Leander
adsper-sus)
Starfish (Ophiura
texturata)
3:1 (v/v) 1,2-dichloroethane 21.73 mg/liter LC50
and benzene
3:1 (v/v) 1,2-dichloroethane 960 mg/liter
and carbon tetrachloride
EDC-tar
EDC-tar
2-8.5 ppm
15-23 ppm
Killed all 1st
instars and
>50% of all
other instars
LCs o
24 hr, static, Rout and
28°C, 90% RH Haiti, 1974
Static, 45-min Bhatia and
exposure Tonapi, 1975
Not stated
Not stated
Jensen et al.,
1975
Jensen et al.,
1975
-------
116
Sanninoidea cxitiosa (Snapp, 1958); the plum curculio, Conotrachelus
nenuphar (Snapp, 1955); the lesser peach tree borer, Synanthedon piotipes
(Snapp, 1955); the oriental fruit fly, Daous dorsal-is (Claypool and Vines,
1956); the pine root collar weevil, Hylobius radio-is (Finnegan and Stewart,
1962); and the rice insect, Trogoderma granariwm (Husain and Ahmad, 1958).
In other studies, Winteringham and Hellyer (1954) observed that
lethal exposure of adult houseflies, Musca domestica, to 1,2-dichloro-
ethane (concentration unspecified) for 1 hr caused a delayed depletion of
ATP and arginine phosphoric acid, but not phosphoglycerate, in thoracic
muscle tissue. The delayed depletion of ATP was said to support the
theory that narcotics impede the oxidative synthesis of ATP.
9.2.2 Mutagenicity
Several studies involving exposure of eggs, larvae, or imagoes of
Drosophila melanogaster to 1,2-dichloroethane have demonstrated that this
chlorinated hydrocarbon, like 1,2-dibromoethane (Vogel and Chandler, 1974),
-p
is a potent mutagen. Rapoport (1960) treated a strain of yellow^ Z?.
melanogaster males in an early larval period of metamorphosis with 53 mg
of 1,2-dichloroethane (in a volume of 20 liters) for 48 hr at room tem-
perature and observed lethal sex-linked mutations in 4.57% of the chromo-
somes examined. The analysis was made in the second filial generation of
a cross of male yellow^" with female BCI/white. In a similar study the
frequency of sex-linked mutations in adult male flies exposed 24 hr to
105 mg of 1,2-dichloroethane (in a volume of 20 liters) was 11.1%. Even
higher mutagenic activity (22.2%, 20.8%) was observed in adult males ex-
posed 6 hr at room temperature to 35 mg of 1,2-dichloroethane in a volume
of 1.5 liters.
Shakarnis (1969) exposed three-day, virgin, wild-type D. melano-
gaster females to 10 ml of a 0.07% solution of 1,2-dichloroethane for
intervals of 4 and 8 hr. Immediately after exposure at 25°C the females
were mated either individually to males of the Meller-5 line (M-5) or in
mass (five females x five males) to males having an inverted X chromo-
some marked with the genes w B. In the first generation (Fi) in both
types of matings, the appearance of exceptional individuals resulting
-------
117
from nondisjunction of X chromosomes was determined. The exceptional
females were subjected to a genetic analysis, and the exceptional males
were tested for sterility. In the second generation (F2), the frequency
of recessive sex-linked lethal mutations was determined using the M-5
method. Control matings were conducted simultaneously with all varia-
tions of the experiments. Exposure of female Drosophila imagoes to 1,2-
dichloroethane for 4 hr produced small (0.03%) but significant increases
(P < 0.05) in the frequency of nondisjunctions, but not in the frequency
with which X chromosomes were lost. However, 8-hr exposures resulted in
significant increases in the frequencies of both exceptional females
(0.18%) and males (0.09%) compared with controls (0.00%). Exposure to
1,2-dichloroethane also increased the frequency of recessive sex-linked
lethal mutations. In experiments involving 4- and 8-hr exposures to
1,2-dichloroethane, 3.22% and 5.91% lethal mutations, respectively, were
observed compared with 0.30% in the controls. Shakarnis attributed the
observed mutagenic activity of 1,2-dichloroethane to reactions of this
compound with DNA molecules so that a change in nucleotide composition
or cross-links between DNA molecules occurred. He assumed that changes
in the nucleotide composition resulted in recessive sex-linked lethal
mutations and that cross-linkages between DNA molecules led to chromo-
somal nondisjunctions. In another study, using a radioresistant strain
of D. melanogaster, Sharknis (1970) observed both recessive lethal muta-
tions and chromosome nondisjunctions in adult females exposed at 25°C to
vapor from a 0.07% solution of 1,2-dichloroethane for 4 to 6 hr. An
attempt to discover the mechanism responsible for chromosome nondisjunc-
tion was unsuccessful.
Later, in 1978, Nylander et al. also demonstrated that 1,2-dichloro-
ethane had high mutagenic activity in D. melonogastev. Eight batches of
100 larvae having a stable or unstable transposable genetic element in
the X chromosome were supplied with food containing 0.1% or 0.5% 1,2-
dichloroethane. Experiments were conducted at 25°C and 75% relative
humidity. Mutagenicity was measured by the frequency of somatic muta-
tions for eye pigmentation. Both genotypes showed very highly signifi-
cant increases (P < 0.001) in the rate of somatic mutations when exposed
to 0.1% 1,2-dichloroethane (stable, 4.20%; unstable, 9.48%) and 0.5%
-------
118
1,2-dichloroethane (stable, 7.21%; unstable, 24.88%) compared with
controls (stable, 0.045%; unstable, 0.075%). The high frequency of
mutations indicated the existence in Drosophila of a metabolic activat-
ing system. The authors postulated that activation involved glutathione
mediated by glutathione S-transferases.
-------
10. BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS IN PLANTS
Only a few studies have dealt with the effects of 1,2-dichloroethane
on plants. However, several reports linked effects on plants or seeds
with mixtures of chlorinated hydrocarbons containing 1,2-dichloroethane.
The two most common blends are Rindite, a 7:3:1 mixture by volume of
2-chloroethanol, 1,2-dichloroethane, and carbon tetrachloride, and an
unnamed 3:1 mixture by volume of 1,2-dichloroethane and carbon tetra-
chloride. Rindite is used primarily to stimulate early sprouting of
certain dormant plant species, such as potato tubers. The 3:1 mixture
of 1,2-dichloroethane and carbon tetrachloride is used to disinfect
stored grains from insect infestation. The principal role of carbon
tetrachloride in this mixture is to make the solution less flammable and
to aid in spreading 1,2-dichloroethane uniformly through the mass of
stored grain. Obviously, however, neither the effects of this mixture
on grain nor of Rindite on tubers can be attributed solely to 1,2-dichlo-
roethane; other solvents and synergistic effects may also contribute to
the results.
Because 1,2-dichloroethane or mixtures containing this chlorinated
hydrocarbon are used extensively as grain and seed f uinigants, it is
commonly supposed by some that such mixtures are not toxic to seeds and
do not inhibit seed germination (Patterson et al., 1975). However, as
the following reports indicate, both toxic and mutagenic effects may
occur, depending on species susceptibility and exposure.
10.1 METABOLISM
Khramova and Zhirnov (1973) studied the uptake and elimination of
1,2-dichloroethane and carbon tetrachloride in plants irrigated with
industrial effluents containing unspecified amounts of these chlorinated
compounds. The concentrations of 1,2-dichloroethane ranged from 0.83
to 10.41 mg/kg of raw weight in beet roots, 0.83 to 4.17 mg/kg in beet
leaves, 11.66 to 43.75 mg/kg in corn, and 1.25 to 64.54 mg/kg in grasses.
No permanent accumulation of 1,2-dichloroethane occurred in any plant,
but temporary peak concentrations were observed in beet roots on the
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6th and 7th day after irrigation. Similar maxima occurred on the 3d
and 4th day for beet leaves, corn, and grasses. No 1,2-dichloroethane
was found in corn and grasses 10 days after irrigation, and beet leaves
and roots were free of contamination in 12 and 20 days respectively.
The authors attributed the presence of 1,2-dichloroethane in plants to
differences in rates of absorption and removal processes. They observed
that detoxification or elimination occurs more slowly in roots than in
leaves, making the former a greater toxicological hazard to humans.
10.2 EFFECTS
Ehrenberg et al. (1974) studied the reaction kinetics and mutagenic
activity of 1,2-dichloroethane and other 3-halogenoethylating or methylat-
ing compounds on barley kernels. Barley seeds (two-rowed variety Bonus)
were exposed in closed tubes to 30.3 millimoles of 1,2-dichloroethane at
20°C for 24 hr. This treatment was lethal to half of the seeds; the
balance subsequently grew to maturity and were examined for mutations.
The mutation frequency in the survivors was 6.8%. According to the
authors' model, the lethal and mutagenic effectiveness of 1,2-dichloro-
ethane and the other $-halogenoethylating agents was about 100 times
greater than expected based on the frequency of initial reactions with
DNA. The increased effectiveness was attributed to the formation of
toxic, mustard-type compounds in reactions with thiols and amines and to
the bifunctional nature of 8-halogenoethylating agents which permits
cross-linking reactions with DNA. Alkylation and cross-linking of DNA
prevent exposed cells from replicating and undergoing mitosis.
Treatment with 1,2-dichloroethane inhibits germination and increases
mutations in pea seeds. Both effects were observed in eight varieties of
peas following the application at 12°C of the chlorinated hydrocarbon at
a rate of 300 g/m2 for 120 hr (Kirichek, 1974).
Caswell and Clifford (1958) determined that prolonged storage of
certain varieties of maize with 1,2-dichloroethane and mixtures contain-
ing this compound affected the vigor of subsequent seedling growth. The
effect was ]ess pronounced when the storage temperature was lowered below
that generally prevailing in the tropics.
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Kristoffersson (1974) found that very low levels (concentration
unspecified) of 1,2-dichloroethane were toxic to Alliwn roots, but no
chromosome-breaking effect was seen. However, exposure (concentration
unspecified) to 1,2-dichloroethane for 12 days did induce C-mitoses.
Susceptible varieties of potato tubers, such as Early Yellow, Early
Rose, Kisvarda-Rose, and Lorch, alter their normal dormancy cycle when
exposed for 48 hr to 0.8 ml of Rindite per kilogram of tuber and sprout
in 5 days rather than in the usual 28 days if untreated. Rindite appears
to act in susceptible varieties by reducing the concentration of growth-
inhibiting substances such as indoleacetic acid. There is a concurrent
breakdown of proteins into amino acids and a decrease in ascorbic acid
content (Szalai et al., 1957; Varga and Ferenczy, 1956). The fixation
of carbon dioxide, which is negligible during the dormant period, is
also increased on exposure of the tuber to Rindite vapors (Jolivet, 1968).
The manner in which Rindite causes these changes has not been established,
nor is the role of 1,2-dichloroethane apparent.
Thorup (1957) used Rindite to successfully break the dormancy of
small beech trees and branches. After a 24-hr exposure to 51 ml of Rindite
in a 15-liter container, trees with green, yellow, brown, and withered
leaves all burst into leaf weeks before untreated trees responded.
Rindite treatments hastened the breaking of bud rest in grapevine
cuttings of the Thompson Seedless variety. When cuttings were immersed
1 min in 1.9% Rindite solution and then were placed in an airtight con-
tainer for 24 hr or were exposed for 24 hr to 0.25 ml Rindite per liter
of space, 90% to 100% of the cuttings budded within 26 days (Weaver,
McCune, and Coombe, 1961). Alleweldt (1960) also observed a similar
effect on dormant buds of grape cuttings and of one-year-old pot-grown
plants.
Izard and Hitier (1958) examined the effects of Rindite on seeds of
Ovobandhe, a parasite of tobacco. The seeds were exposed at 24°C for
several hours to 0.1 ml of the solvent in a closed tube. Seed dormancy
was not broken, but subsequent germination was inhibited. The authors
did not suggest a mechanism of inhibition nor indicate the role, if any,
of 1,2-dichloroethane.
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Kamel (1959) determined the effect of 3:1 mixtures of 1,2-dichloro-
ethane and carbon tetrachloride on the germination of ten varieties of
wheat, barley, rice, and corn. Samples were exposed to one-half normal
(0.18 mg/liter of space), normal (0.35 ml/liter of space), and double
normal (0.70 ml/liter of space) concentrations of the fumigant for 5, 10,
and 30 days at relative humidities of 46%, 49.5%, and 50.8% respectively.
The seeds were sealed with the fumigant in gasoline cans for the required
times, then ventilated, and germinated in sand. If normal radicals and
plumules were formed, germination was considered normal. Stunted growth
and nongerminating seeds were counted together and tabulated as dead
seeds. Experiments were performed in duplicate with control samples,
and results were reported at the P = 0.05 level of significance. Giza
135 wheat and Toson wheat were not affected by any concentration for ex-
posures of 5 and 10 days, but after 30 days 83% to 99% of both varieties
failed to germinate, even when exposed to the lowest concentration. The
barley variety Giza 73 was unaffected by any concentration or exposure
period, but Balady 16 barley was mildly affected at all three concentra-
tions after an exposure of 30 days. The sensitivity of Giza 68 barley
to the effects of the fumigant was intermediate to the other barley
varieties. The germination of exposed rice species also varied greatly.
Only 20% of the Japanese Pearl variety survived exposure for 30 days at
the low concentration. In comparison, the corresponding survival rates
for Japanese Selected and Giza 14 varieties averaged 85% and 74%. About
one-third of the seeds of the most resistant strain failed to germinate
following an exposure of 30 days at a concentration of 0.70 ml/liter,
compared with 12% for controls. The unfavorable effect of the fumigant
on the germination of Syrian Early American and Giza Balady varieties
of corn increased significantly with increases of exposure at a given
concentration and with increases of concentration at a fixed exposure
time. After an exposure of 30 days to the normal fumigation concentra-
tion, about one-third of the seeds of each variety failed to germinate,
compared with only 7% for controls.
In summary, the 3:1 mixture of 1,2-dichloroethane and carbon tetra-
chloride generally had no effect on seeds exposed to 0.18 mg/liter of
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space for five days. Little or no effect was observed with a concentra-
tion of 0.35 ml/liter for five days. However, the germination of several
species was inhibited by five-day exposures to 0.70 ml/liter. In some
cases, inhibition of germination increased with increasing time of ex-
posure; usually, the unfavorable effect on germination increased with
increasing concentrations of fumigant. In most of the tests, the effect
on seed germination varied with variety; however, corn was a notable
exception.
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11. BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS IN MICROORGANISMS
Studies of interactions between 1,2-dichloroethane and microorganisms
have been prompted primarily by concern over environmental damage from
waste disposal practices, evidence of mutagenic characteristics of 1,2-
dichloroethane and some of its metabolites, and the need for fumigants
compatible with specific agricultural problems. In the latter case, mix-
tures of halogenated hydrocarbons, not pure 1,2-dichloroethane, are usually
used. It should be noted that effects of these fumigants are not neces-
sarily attributable to 1,2-dichloroethane because other compounds, as well
as synergism, may be contributing factors to their action. Despite this
ambiguity, these reports are discussed here to ensure full coverage of
the subject.
11.1 METABOLISM
No studies of the metabolism of 1,2-dichloroethane by microorganisms
were found.
11.2 EFFECTS
11.2.1 Bacteria, Viruses
1,2-Dichloroethane inhibits the growth of a variety of bacteria under
laboratory conditions, but its effectiveness varies with concentration and
species. In a series of experiments, Kulshrestha and Marth (1970, 1974a-/)
inoculated 50-ml portions of nutrient or APT broths and sufficient bacteria
to yield a final concentration of 100 to 1000 organisms per milliliter,
added 1, 10, 100, or 1000 ppm 1,2-dichloroethane, and sealed the resulting
solutions in epoxy-lined cans for incubation at 37°C. After 2, 5, 8, 11,
and 14 hr, the number of bacteria was counted and the degree of inhibition
or stimulation was determined. The growth of Streptococcus cvemoris was
inhibited relative to controls by 100 ppm 1,2-dichloroethane after only
2 hr of exposure. The growth of Escherichia coli, Streptococcus lactis,
and Leuconostoc citTODOvwn were significantly inhibited after 5 or 8 hr
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125
by 10 ppm 1,2-dichloroethane, but 100 ppm and periods of incubation vary-
ing from 2 to 11 hr were required to inhibit the growth of Salmonella
typh-imurium, Staphylocoacus aureus, and Streptococcus thevmophilus.
Hagstrom and Normark (1974) studied the toxic effects of EDC-tar, a vinyl
chloride waste product containing 1,2-dichloroethane and other short-
chained chlorinated hydrocarbons, on E. ool-i. They found a strong bac-
tericidal effect when a water extract (0.5% v/v) of the EDC-tar was added
to log-phase cells resuspended in a sodium chloride solution. However,
no lethal effect was observed when E. coli cells were suspended in a
sodium chloride solution containing the same concentration of purified
1,2-dichloroethane as was found in the first water extract of the EDC-tar.
The authors suggested that components other than 1,2-dichloroethane were
responsible for the bactericidal action of the EDC-tar extract, but no
compounds were identified.
1,2-Dichloroethane also interacts mutagenically with some bacteria,
both with and without metabolic activation. In the Ames test (Ames and
Yanofsky, 1971; McCann, Choi, Yamaski, and Ames, 1975), reversion of his-
tidine mutants of 5. typhimuriion strains TA100, TA1530, and TA1535, but
not TA1538, occurred when these bacteria were incubated on agar for two
days at 37°C with 1,2-dichloroethane and rat liver homogenates (Brem,
Stein, and Rosenkranz, 1974; Rannug, Sundvall, and Ramel, 1978; Rosenkranz,
Carr, and Rosenkranz, 1974; Rosenkranz, 1977; Tardiff, Carlson, and Simmon,
1976; Voogd, 1973; Voogd, Jacobs, and van der Stel, 1972). The mutagenic
activity of 1,2-dichloroethane in S. typhimuriwn is relatively weak (Rannug
and Ramel, 1977), but that of chloroacetaldehyde, a probable metabolite
of 1,2-dichloroethane in mammalian systems, is hundreds of times more
pronounced on a molar basis (McCann, Simmon, Streitwieser, and Ames, 1975).
1,2-Dichloroethane becomes a more potent mutagen for S. typhimuriwn when
glutathione is present in the test system, apparently because of the for-
mation of a conjugate between 1,2-dichloroethane and glutathione (Rannug
and Ramel, 1978; Rannug, Sundvall, and Ramel, 1978).
1,2-Dichloroethane can also alter the DNA structure of E. coli.
Brem, Stein, and Rosenkranz (1974) obtained evidence of this action by
incubating normal and DNA polymerase-deficient E. ooli with 1,2-dichloro-
ethane on agar plates for 8 hr at 37°C, then comparing the areal ratios
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126
of the zones of inhibition of each bacterial strain. The DNA polymerase—
deficient strain was unable to repair 1,2-dichloroethane-induced damage
to its DNA and did not grow at the same rate as normal E. coli, that could
repair such damage. The tendency of 1,2-dichloroethane to alter the DNA
of E. ~'oli, like its mutagenic potential with S. typhi-murium, is weak.
Both polybrominated alkanes and mixed bromochloroalkanes produced much
greater preferential inhibition of the DNA polymerase—deficient E. coli
than did 1,2-dichloroethane.
McGaughey (1975) examined the toxicity of a 3:1 mixture of 1,2-
dichloroethane and carbon tetrachloride on Baoillus thwringiensis and a
granulosis virus that were suggested as pathogenic control agents for the
Indian meal moth, Plod-la interpunGtella, in stored wheat. Wheat samples
of 1 kg were separately treated with aqueous suspensions of the pathogens,
dried, and fumigated with 55 ml or 110 ml of a 3:1 mixture of 1,2-dichloro-
ethane and carbon tetrachloride at 25°C and 60% relative humidity. The
treated wheat was then infested with 25 or 100 Indian meal moth eggs and
maintained at constant temperature and humidity until adults emerged.
Mortality was calculated from the number of eggs introduced and the num-
ber of adults that emerged. Based on mortality data, fumigation by the
1,2-dichloroethane—carbon tetrachloride mixture had no adverse effect on
either 5. thuringiensis or the granulosis virus.
In contrast to B. thuri-ngiensis, Rhizobiicm sp. appears sensitive to
mixtures of 1,2-dichloroethane and other chlorinated solvents. Kulkarni,
Sardeshpande, and Bagyaraj (1975) examined the effects of a mixture of
1,2-dichloroethane and carbon tetrachloride (composition unspecified) on
the symbiosis of Rhizobium sp. with groundnut (Arachis hypogae) seeds.
After treatment for seven days in closed 600-ml bottles containing the
fumigant at the dose rate of 3 ml/kg, seeds were treated with a peat cul-
ture of Rhlzobium sp. effective against groundnut and sown in pots of
loam soil containing plant nutrients at pH 6.8. Eight weeks later the
plant yield and the number, weight, and leghaemoglobin content of the
resulting nodules were determined. Plants derived from seeds fumigated
with mixtures of 1,2-dichloroethane and carbon tetrachloride produced
only 36% by coant and 32% by weight of the nodules grown by control plants.
The final weight of dry plant matter produced by the treated seeds was
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only 75% of that from control plants. No reduction in yield of nodules
or dry plant matter was experienced when seeds were treated with malathion
instead of the 1,2-dichloroethane—carbon tetrachloride mixture. The
authors attributed the reduction in plant and nodule yields to adverse
effects of the fumigant on the Rhizobium-legume symbiosis, but no detailed
explanation of the mechanism was attempted.
11.2.2 Fungi
The fungi Diplodi-a natalensis, Phomopsis c-itri, and Penicillium
digitatwn tolerate 1,2-dichloroethane well. Berry (1958) studied the
effect of exposing these citrus fruit pathogens to a mixture of 1,2-
dichloroethane (63.52%) and trichloroethane (35.48%). In preliminary
tests, mycelial growth of the fungi was not measurably altered by expo-
sures to the solvent mixture, but after 6 hr spore germination by P.
citri. and P. dig-itatum ceased. Germination of D. natalensis spores
remained high. In subsequent studies, aqueous spore suspensions were
placed on agar plates and exposed at 28°C to the gas mixture at a con-
centration of 3.4 ml/fta. At the end of 6- to 30-hr treatment periods,
spore suspensions were aerated. In all cases germination of the treated
spores increased sharply 4 hr after aeration, and after 16 hr it rivaled
that of untreated spores. The action of the gas mixture on these micro-
organisms thus appears to be fungistatic rather than fungicidal.
Studies by Vandergraft et al. (1973) indicate an even greater toler-
ance of 1,2-dichloroethane by some fungi. These authors examined the
effect of fumigation on the formation of mycotoxin by eight strains of
Aspergillus flavus, A. parasiti,ous, A. ochraceus, and Penicillium viri-
dicatwn. Fumigated and nonfumigated whole-grain wheat was used in the
study. The fumigated grain was treated with a 3:1 mixture of 1,2-dichlo-
roethane and carbon tetrachloride at a rate of 3 gal per 1000 bu for 72
hr. After aeration the grain was stored for two weeks at 0°C before
inoculation with fungi. Inoculated samples were harvested after incuba-
tion for 6 days at 28°C (A. flavus, A. parasitious, and A. ochraceus) or
for 12 days at 20°C (P. viridicatum). Mycotoxins were produced by all
fungi on all samples of fumigated wheat. Treating the wheat with the
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fumigant appreciably increased the mycotoxin levels in some strains (A.
flavus NRRL 3251, NRRL 3353, and NRRL 3357), decreased it in others (A.
flavus NRRL 3517 and A. parasiticus NRRL 2999 and NRRL 3145), and left
it essentially unchanged in two strains 04. ochraceus NRRL 3174 and P.
viridi-eatum NRRL 3712) . Similar results were obtained in parallel exper-
iments using sterilized grain, except the amounts of aflatoxin and ochra-
toxin were generally higher.
11.2.3 Nematodes
Chu and Tsai (1961) studied the use of fumigants for the control of
nematodes in Taiwan fields growing sugarcane. Under field conditions,
larvae of Pratylenohus sp., Melo-idogyne sp., Dorylaimus sp., and Rotylen-
chus sp. were resistant to Chlorofin-22 (identified as 1,2-dichloroethane,
but no composition given) applied at a rate of 450 kg/ha. Subsequent lab-
oratory studies also indicated little or no killing effect when 10 kg of
nematode-infested soil was exposed to 2 or 4 ml of Chlorofin-22 in an
unsealed glass vessel for one week.
11.2.4 Algae
Pearson and McConnell (1975) assessed the toxicity of 1,2-dichloro-
ethane to the unicellular alga Phaeodactylum tricomution by measuring
changes in the uptake of 14C-labeled carbon dioxide during photosynthesis.
The concentration of 1,2-dichloroethane at which a 50% reduction in uptake
was observed was 340 ing/liter. Other experimental conditions were not
stated.
A study by Loabacheva (1957, as cited in Johns, 1976) indicates that
many common waterborne microflora tolerate 1,2-dichloroethane at a con-
centration of 25 mg/liter. This concentration is much higher than those
generally reported for U.S. surface waters.
Bringmann (1975) determined threshold values of 125 biologically
harmful water pollutants by measuring the lowest effective dose that
induced inhibition of cell proliferation by the blue alga Microcysti-s
aerug-Lnosa. The technique involved preparation of a series of test cul-
tures containing varying amounts of pollutant. After aging for eight
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days under uniform conditions, the algal concentration was determined by
turbidimetry and compared with that of standard stock solutions. Meas-
ured values of the degree of transmission of three test cultures were
used to calculate the lowest effective pollutant dose. The lowest con-
centration of 1,2-dichloroethane causing inhibition of cell proliferation
was 105 mg/liter. In a later study of the bacteria Pseudomonas putida,
the threshold concentration of 1,2-dichloroethane was determined to be
135 mg/liter (Bringmann and Ktihn, 1976).
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12. IN VITRO AND BIOCHEMICAL STUDIES
1,2-Dichloroethane inhibits the growth of HeLa cells in vitro.
Gradiski et al. (1974) observed this effect by adding 1 ml of 1,2-
dichloroethane to a test tube containing 35,000 HeLa cells per milliliter.
After incubation at 37°C for three days, the inhibitory dose (ID50) was
determined to be 2.3 x 10~6 mole/ml. This in vitro toxicity of 1,2-
dichloroethane for HeLa cells is roughly comparable to that observed for
mice exposed intraperitoneally. The ID50 observed for 1,2-dichloroethane
during these studies was greater than that for any of the other common
aliphatic chlorinated hydrocarbons tested, except dichloroethylene.
Holmberg and Malmfors (1974) determined the cytotoxicity of 33 organic
solvents, including 1,2-dichloroethane, by separately incubating varying
quantities of the solvents with Ehrlich-Landschiitz diploid (ELD) ascitic
tumor cells obtained from albino mice from the Naval Medical Research
Institute. After washing, the ascitic cells were resuspended in Eagle's
suspension medium containing 10% heat-inactivated calf serum, antibiotics,
and glutamine at a concentration of about 106 cells per milliliter. Por-
tions of this preparation were incubated at 37°C for varying times up to
5 hr with 50, 100, and 200 ppm 1,2-dichloroethane. A dye exclusion test
was used to estimate the number of cells in a stage of irreversible in-
jury. The percentage of dead ELD cells occurring during incubation with
1,2-dichloroethane varied from about 3% after 1 hr to about 9% after 5 hr,
compared with 2% to 4% for controls. 1,2-Dichloroethane was only mildly
toxic to the test cells as compared with tetralin, crotonic aldehyde,
formaldehyde, and acrolein; it was also less toxic than benzyl chloride,
carbon tetrachloride, methyl ethyl ketone, and 1,1,1,2-tetrachloroethane.
Holmberg, Jakobson, and Malmfors (1974) studied the effect of 1,2-
dichloroethane and other organic solvents on rat erythrocytes during hypo-
tonic hemolysis. A prepared erythrocyte stock suspension was added to a
hypotonic saline buffer with and without the addition of 1,2-dichloroethane
and other organic solvents. Samples were centrifuged after incubation at
37°C for 30 min. Absorption of the supernatant solutions was determined
spectrophotometrically, and the degree of hemolysis was expressed as a
percentage of the control cells. The EDSO, the effective concentration
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131
of 1,2-dichloroethane reducing the degree of hemolysis by 50% compared
with control cells, was 1500 ppm. The concentration of 1,2-dichloroethane
causing maximum protection was 2000 ppm. The inhibition of hemolysis was
associated with an increase in the critical cell volume of the erythro-
cytes, indicating that the protective effect was related to a solvent-
induced increase in membrane stability of the red cells.
Cox, King, and Parke (1976) investigated the binding of haloalkanes
with hepatic microsomal cytochrome P-450 under aerobic and anaerobic con-
ditions using a spectrometric technique. They observed spectral changes
between 350 nm and 500 nm when selected substrates interacted with oxi-
dized hepatic microsomal P-450. Some spectral changes, labeled type I
spectra, were established as phospholipid dependent. When 1,2-dichloro-
ethane was used as a substrate under aerobic conditions, no type I spectra
were observed, indicating that this chlorinated hydrocarbon did not inter-
act appreciably with cytochrome P-450 under the conditions of the experi-
ment. Van Dyke and Wineman (1971) studied the enzymatic metabolism of
1,2-dichloroethane using rat liver microsomal suspensions activated with
cyanide and either glutathione or cysteine. Employing a liquid labeled
with 36C1, these investigators found that 10% of the initial dose of
1,2-dichloroethane was dechlorinated in 30 min with formation of formal-
dehyde and hydrogen ion.
Bray, Thorpe, and Vallance (1952) used rat liver extracts to study
the enzymatic liberation of chloride ions from 1,2-dichloroethane and
other chlorinated hydrocarbons. The authors were unable to conclude that
the dechlorination step was entirely enzymatic; they found appreciable
dechlorination of most solvents in the absence of the liver extract. Non-
enzymatic dechlorination of 1,2-dichloroethane and other chlorinated
hydrocarbons was attributed to reactions between sulfhydryl groups in
proteins and the halogen atom of the chlorinated solvent.
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13. ANALYTICAL METHODS AND MONITORING TECHNIQUES
Because of its high volatility 1,2-dichloroethane most often occurs
in the environment as an atmospheric pollutant; therefore, analytical
methodology is concerned mainly with measuring the concentration of 1,2-
dichloroethane in air. In general, procedures for analyzing 1,2-dichlo-
roethane in other media are similar to those described for air samples,
except that a preliminary extraction step is used to isolate the chlo-
rinated hydrocarbon from its matrix. For example, water and sediment
samples are frequently extracted with n-pentane, and an aliquot of the
latter is taken for further processing. Typically, biological tissues
are first macerated and then extracted by codistillation with n-pentane
(Pearson and McConnell, 1975). The pentane extract is then processed in
the manner described for air samples.
Many analytical methods are available for determining halogenated
hydrocarbons in air. Usually, all of these techniques are applicable to
the analysis of 1,2-dichloroethane, but interferences may occur in some
methods if mixtures of halogenated hydrocarbons are present in the sample.
The methods that have been used most frequently for 1,2-dichloroethane
are chloride analysis, colorimetry, direct-reading detector tubes, halide
meters, infrared spectrometry, and gas chromatography. These methods are
described below.
13.1 CHLORIDE ANALYSIS
In the chloride analysis method the sample is collected by drawing
1,2-dichloroethane-contaminated air through a fritted glass scrubber,
impinger, or absorption tube containing a suitable liquid or solid absorb-
ent such as 2-aminoethanol or silica gel. The sample is then burned
(Elkins, Hobby, and Fuller, 1937; Kohn-abrest, 1934; Peterson, Hoyle, and
Schneider, 1956) or hydrolyzed (Winteringham, 1942, as cited in Malone,
1971) to convert covalent chlorine to the ionic form. Liberated chloride
is determined by titration with silver nitrate. Samples and known con-
trols are compared to obtain the concentration of 1,2-dichloroethane in
the original sample. Typically, 1 to 5 ppm 1,2-dichloroethane in 60
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133
liters of air can be detected (Leithe, 1970). Unfortunately, the chlo-
ride analysis method is not specific for 1,2-dichloroethane. The proce-
dure responds to the presence of any halogenated hydrocarbon. Because of
this deficiency and the availability of more convenient and sensitive
techniques, this early analytical method is rarely used today.
13.2 COLORIMETRY
The most common colorimetric method for determining 1,2-dichloro-
ethane is based on the Fujiwara reaction, which has a detection limit of
about 20 ppm (Jacobs, 1941). In this procedure a stream of air contain-
ing 1,2-dichloroethane is aspirated through a bubbler bottle containing
aqueous pyridine. Potassium hydroxide and methyl ethyl ketone are added,
and the solution is heated on a water bath. After cooling for a fixed
time, the solution develops a red color with a light absorbance propor-
tional to the concentration of 1,2-dichloroethane initially present in
the sample. Typically, absorbance is measured with a spectrophotometer
at 415 nm. Carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, and trichloroethylene do
not interfere in approved procedures (Leithe, 1970), but chlorine intro-
duces a bias when present in concentrations of 3 ppm or more. Results
must be corrected for the fact that only 80% of dichloroethane is initially
absorbed by the aqueous pyridine solution. The colorimetric method is
faster than the chloride method (Sect. 13.1), but like the latter it may
not be specific for 1,2-dichloroethane when mixtures of chlorinated hydro-
carbons are present. The colorimetric method is less convenient and
sensitive than other available techniques and is seldom used today.
13.3 DIRECT-READING DETECTOR TUBES
Direct-reading detector tubes are glass cylinders packed with solid
chemicals that change color when a measured flow of air containing a halo-
genated hydrocarbon passes through the tube. The color change, or stain,
is caused by halogen ions liberated from the hydrocarbon contaminant in
the air sample. Thus, detector tubes are not usually specific for individ-
ual chlorinated hydrocarbons. Depending on the type of detector tube, a
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variable volume of sample is collected until a standard length of stain
is obtained or a fixed volume of sample is passed through the tube. In
the latter case, the length of stain is measured against a calibration
scale. The measuring range for a typical commercial indicator for 1,2-
dichloroethane varies from 25 to 450 ppm (Saltzman, 1969). Government
regulations for indicator tubes require an accuracy of ±25% (42 CFR
84.50). In general, direct-reading detector tubes are useful for evaluat-
ing toxic hazards in industrial atmospheres, but they lack specificity and
sensitivity for environmental applications and are seldom used for this
purpose.
13.4 HALIDE METERS
Halide meters are photometric devices that detect the increased
brilliance which occurs when an electrical arc operates in an atmosphere
contaminated with halogenated compounds other than fluoride. The instru-
ments are sensitive to all nonfluoride halogens or halogen-containing
compounds; consequently, they are not specific for 1,2-dichloroethane.
However, in instances where 1,2-dichloroethane is known to be the only
halogenated contaminant in the sampled air, halide meters are suitable
for use as continuous monitors (National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health, 1976). Recent versions of this instrument have
detection limits less than 1 ppm, expressed as the halide (First, 1972).
13.5 INFRARED SPECTROMETRY
1,2-Dichloroethane has a unique infrared absorption spectrum. This
characteristic property can be conveniently used to identify and quanti-
tatively measure the concentration of 1,2-dichloroethane in air through
the use of an infrared recording spectrophotometer. The technique is
rapid, precise, and suitable for continuous monitoring of industrial
operations or for individual analysis of isolated samples. In a typical
application of the latter type, contaminated air is collected in a 10-
liter plastic bag for later transfer to an evacuated 10-m gas cell.
Insertion of this cell into the infrared spectrophotometer allows identi-
fication and quantification to be made in about 10 min with a relative
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135
precision of about 5%. Quantitative measurements are usually made at
the wavelength of the strongest absorption band, 13.90 ym. The minimum
detectable quantity of 1,2-dichloroethane is about 2.3 ppm, but ten times
this concentration is usually required for specific identification. Over-
lapping spectra from other air contaminants may cause interference with
the identification and quantification of 1,2-dichloroethane samples;
consequently, adequate experience and training of the analyst is essential.
This method of determining 1,2-dichloroethane is less sensitive than the
gas chromatographic technique and is inadequate for analysis of many
environmental samples. Nevertheless, infrared spectrometry is a recom-
mended method for determining 1,2-dichloroethane in air samples when
equipment is available and instrumental sensitivity is sufficient (American
Industrial Hygiene Association, 1965).
13.6 GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY
Gas chromatography is currently the method of choice for determining
1,2-dichloroethane and other organic solvents in air or fumigant mixtures
(Cropper and Kaminsky, 1963; Horwitz, 1975; Larkin et al., 1977; Levadie
and Harwood, 1960; National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,
1974; Rushing, 1958; Starshov and Ivanova, 1969; White et al., 1970).
The technique provides quantitative data that can be specific for dif-
ferent chlorinated hydrocarbons if the proper detector and adequate care
are used. Many variations of the basic method exist. In one preferred
procedure (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 1974),
1,2-dichloroethane and other organic solvents present in a known volume
of air are collected in a charcoal tube and subsequently desorbed with
carbon disulfide (White et al., 1970). An aliquot of the desorbed sample
is injected into a gas chromatographic column (20 ft x 1/8 in.) packed
with 10% FFAP on 80/100-mesh DMCS Chromosorb W and equipped with a flame
ionization detector. The area of the resulting 1,2-dichloroethane peak
is determined and compared with areas obtained by injecting standards.
A detection limit of 0.05 mg per sample (1 to 12 liters of air) is
typical. The mean relative standard deviation of the analytical method
is 8%, and that for the method including operation of an approved personal
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136
sampling pump is 10%. The accuracy of the overall sampling and analyti-
cal process is about 10%. The efficiency of desorbing 1,2-dichloroethane
from charcoal may vary substantially from one batch to another and must
be determined experimentally in order to achieve the cited precision and
accuracy.
One weakness of the gas chromatography method involves the detector.
Ordinarily, a flame ionization or an electron-capture type detector is
used, but neither of these instruments specifically detects individual
chlorinated hydrocarbons. In some instances, one or more compounds hav-
ing retention times similar to 1,2-dichloroethane can emerge from the
chromatographic column unresolved from the 1,2-dichloroethane peak and
thus bias the analysis. This circumstance could be prevented with a
detector that positively identifies each sample component. Such results
can be obtained by using a mass spectrometer as the chromatograph detec-
tor. Although this arrangement is considerably more costly than the
conventional configuration, increased sensitivity and precision are gained
as well as specificity. For example, Grimsrud and Rasmussen (1975) used
a linked gas chromatograph and mass spectrometer to specifically deter-
mine 1,2-dichloroethane in air with a precision of 5% and a detection
limit of 5 ppt.
13.7 MONITORING TECHNIQUES
Very little environmental monitoring for 1,2-dichloroethane has been
done, and no well-documented procedures exist for determining this com-
pound routinely. Since most environmental samples will usually contain
other simple chlorinated hydrocarbons in concentrations far greater than
that at which 1,2-dichloroethane occurs, the monitoring method must be
capable of resolving 1,2-dichloroethane from its congeners. Several new
methods to accomplish this goal are under development. One promising
technique utilizes a single-ended laser radar to monitor atmospheric
pollutants in situ (Murray, 1978); however, much developmental work
remains to be done before seasoned instruments of this kind are available
for routine use. The best current analytical technique for determining
1,2-dichloroethane is gas chromatography. However, high-resolution gas
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137
chromatographs are laboratory instruments rather than field devices. It
will thus be necessary to collect environmental samples containing 1,2-
dichloroethane on a suitable substrate at the sample site and transport
the collected sample to the laboratory for subsequent fractionation on a
gas chromatograph. Except for isolated instances when contaminating
halogenated hydrocarbons are absent, the 1,2-dichloroethane monitoring
station for environmental air will thus probably consist of a portable
pump drawing a standardized volume of air into the sample container or,
if concentration is required, through a liquid or solid substrate that
efficiently retains 1,2-dichloroethane. Tenax GC (Pellizzari, 1977, 1978)
or charcoal (Larkin et al., 1977) are examples of solid-type sorbents that
have been used for this purpose. However, no consensus currently exists
with respect to sorbents or other procedural matters. Probably, the most
effective analytical protocol remains to be established. Interlaboratory
comparisons of environmental samples have not yet been undertaken, al-
though such a program has been initiated with respect to occupational
exposure samples (Larkin et al., 1977). The development of analytical
procedures suitable for the analysis of 1,2-dichloroethane in both occupa-
tional and environmental samples will be facilitated by the recent release
of Standard Reference Material 2664 (1,2-dichloroethane on charcoal) by
the National Bureau of Standards (Manufacturing Chemists Association,
1978).
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14. REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS
A variety of domestic and foreign regulations, standards, and prac-
tices control occupational and environmental use, exposure, and handling
of 1,2-dichloroethane.
14.1 CURRENT REGULATIONS
14.1.1 Food, Drug, and Pesticide Authorities
Currently, 1,2-dichloroethane is approved for 11 food-related uses
(Kennedy, 1978a). In 1956 the U.S. Secretary of Health, Education, and
Welfare exempted 1,2-dichloroethane from the requirements of a tolerance
for residues when used as a fumigant for barley, corn, oats, popcorn,
rice, rye, sorghum (milo), and wheat. These agricultural commodities
were expected to be freed of any residual fumigant by the cooking custom-
arily performed before human consumption (Federal Register, 1956). In
1961 permissible residues of 1,2-dichloroethane in spice oleoresins in-
tended for human consumption were limited to 30 ppm or less by the Fed-
eral Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (Federal Register, 1961).
1,2-Dichloroethane was approved as a fumigant for grain-mill machin-
ery by the U.S. Commissioner of Food and Drugs in 1963. Use of 1,2-
dichloroethane alone or in combination with carbon disulfide, carbon
tetrachloride, or 1,2-dibromomethane was allowed (Federal Register,
1963). Later, mixtures of solvents consisting of carbon tetrachloride
and either carbon disulfide or 1,2-dichloroethane, with or without pen-
tane, were permitted as fumigants for corn grits and cracked rice used
in the production of fermented malt beverages (Federal Register, 1964).
No detectable residues of chlorinated hydrocarbons in the finished bever-
ages were expected to result from this practice.
The use of 1,2-dichloroethane as an extracting solvent in the manu-
facture of animal feeds was approved under the Federal Food, Drug, and
Cosmetic Act in 1967. The concentration of solvent in the processed
animal feed was limited to 300 ppm (Federal Register, 1967). In 1969
138
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139
the U.S. Commissioner of Food and Drugs approved the use of 1,2-dichloro-
ethane as an adjuvant for pesticide dilutions prior to application to the
growing crop (Federal Register, 1969). In 1971 the Administrator of the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency exempted 1,2-dichloroethane from the
requirement of a tolerance in or on raw agricultural commodities (Federal
Register, 1971). No regulations governing the use of 1,2-dichloroethane
in cosmetic or specialty applications were found.
14.1.2 Air and Water Acts
In January 1978 chlorinated ethanes, including 1,2-dichloroethane,
were designated toxic pollutants in accordance with the provisions of the
Federal Water Pollution Control Act as amended by the Clean Water Act of
1977 (Federal Register, 1978). Toxic pollutant effluent standards have
not yet been issued for these substances. Regulation of 1,2-dichloro-
ethane under the Clean Air Act is being considered.
14.1.3 Occupational Safety and Health Regulations
Current regulations of the Occupational Safety and Health Administra-
tion limit 1,2-dichloroethane exposures of employees to those specified
in the American National Standards Institute air standard Z37.12-1969
(Federal Register, 1974). This regulation imposes an 8-hr time-weighted
average of 50 ppm and a ceiling concentration of 100 ppm, but a maximum
peak concentration of 200 ppm is permitted for 5 min during any 3 hr of
an 8-hr shift.
More recently, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health recommended a reduction in permissible occupational exposures to
1,2-dichloroethane (National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health, 1976). The proposed new standard limits worker exposure to 5 ppm,
determined as a 10-hr time-weighted average, and to a peak concentration
of 15 ppm in any 15-min work period. The proposed standard also restricts
nursing mothers from working with 1,2-dichloroethane. Currently, the
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health is revising its 1976
recommendation to address the carcinogenic potential of 1,2-dichloroethane
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140
in the workplace (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,
1978). None of these proposed changes have yet been implemented.
14.1.4 U.S. Department of Transportation
1,2-Dichloroethane is classified as a flammable liquid by the U.S.
Department of Transportation (DOT). Unless exempted, the compound must
be packed in DOT-approved containers when shipped by rail, water, or
highway. All DOT regulations regarding loading, handling, and labeling
must also be followed (Federal Register, 1976; Manufacturing Chemists
Association, 1971).
14.1.5 Foreign Countries
The literature contains conflicting reports of standards for 1,2-
dichloroethane in foreign countries. For example, maximum allowable
concentrations in the Soviet Union are cited as 1.0 mg/m (average daily)
and 3.0 mg/m3 (maximum single) in one publication (Nikolaeva, 1964), as
12.5 ppm (50 mg/m3) by Bardodej (1969, as cited in National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health, 1976), and as 2.5 ppm (10 mg/m3) by
Roschin and Timofeevskaya (1975) and Verschueren (1977). The different
values apparently reflect confusion over concentration units (1 ppm =
4.05 mg/m3) or, perhaps, revised values of the standard.
The maximum allowable concentration of 1,2-dichloroethane in other
foreign countries also varies appreciably. According to Bardodej (1969,
as cited in National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 1976),
the values are 5 ppm in Hungary, 12.5 ppm in Poland, 12.5 ppm in the
German Democratic Republic, 50 ppm in Great Britain, 100 ppm in the Fed-
eral Republic of Germany, and 100 ppm in Yugoslavia. Other maximum
allowable concentrations reported are 2.5 ppm in Bulgaria, 100 ppm in
Finland (8-hr continuous), 12.5 ppm in Rumania, and 50 ppm in Yugoslavia
(Joint AIHA-ACGIH Respiratory Protective Devices Committee, 1963).
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141
14.2 CONSENSUS AND SIMILAR STANDARDS
The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
and the American National Standards Institute have both published
recommendations for occupational exposure to toxic substances, includ-
ing 1,2-dichloroethane.
14.2.1 American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
In 1942 the maximum allowable concentration of 1,2-dichloroethane
in industrial atmospheres was set at 100 ppm by the Subcommittee on
Threshold Limits of the National Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygienists. Five years later the subcommittee, now part of the American
Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, renamed the standard
threshold limit Value (TLV) and lowered the acceptable concentration to
75 ppm. For a decade, beginning in 1952, the TLV was set at 100 ppm,
but in 1962 it was reduced to the present level of 50 ppm. The 1942
value of 100 ppm was based on existing regulations in California, Colo-
rado, Kansas, Massachusetts, Michigan, Oklahoma, and Wisconsin. The
subcommittee cited no justification for changes in the TLV until 1962
when the experimental animal studies of Spencer et al. (1951) provided
support for the 100 ppm assignment. Evidence from the works of Wirt-
schafter and Schwartz (1939), McNally and Fostvedt (1941), and Heppel et
al. (1946) was used to document the subsequent reduction of the 1,2-
dichloroethane TLV to 50 ppm.
14.2.2 American National Standards Institute
In 1969 Subcommittee Z-37 of the American National Standards
Institute (ANSI) recommended limiting occupational exposure of 1,2-
dichloroethane to an 8-hr time-weighted average of 50 ppm and a ceiling
concentration of 100 ppm. A maximum peak concentration of 200 ppm was
also permitted, provided it occurred no longer than 5 min in any 3-hr
interval. The subcommittee based these recommendations in part on the
animal experiments of Heppel et al. (1946) and Spencer et al. (1951).
In 1974 the ANSI air standard Z37.12-1969 was adopted by the Occupational
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142
Safety and Health Administration as a federal standard (Federal Register,
1974).
14.3 CURRENT HANDLING PRACTICES
Special procedures are required to safely handle, use, transport,
and store 1,2-dichloroethane.
14.3.1 Handling, Use, Transport, and Storage
Pure, uninhibited 1,2-dichloroethane decomposes slowly, darkening
in color and increasing in acidity (Sect. 2.3). The resulting corrosion
products attack iron; consequently, containers for the transportation
and storage of unstabilized 1,2-dichloroethane should be plain, galva-
nized or lead-lined, mild steel (National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health, 1976). Commercial grade 1,2-dichloroethane contains
about 0.1% by weight of alkylamines which stabilize the product against
decomposition and permit the use of unlined iron or steel containers for
indefinite periods. However, strong ultraviolet light, air, and mois-
ture and contact with open flames or hot surfaces cause even stabilized
1,2-dichloroethane to decompose rapidly with evolution of phosgene,
hydrogen chloride, carbon monoxide, and other toxic substances. For
this reason, 1,2-dichloroethane should be stored in cool, dry, well-
ventilated areas away from direct sunlight (Hoyle, 1961; Manufacturing
Chemists Association, 1971).
Equipment for loading and unloading transport vehicles should be
constructed of materials resistant to 1,2-dichloroethane (rubber is not
suitable) and should be inspected before and periodically during opera-
tion. Personal protective clothing is needed during both inspection and
operation of the transfer equipment.
Because of the toxicity of 1,2-dichloroethane, operations in which
it is used in large quantities should be conducted in closed systems
with well-designed hoods and ventilation systems used to maintain ex-
posures at or below acceptable concentration levels. Equipment contam-
inated with 1,2-dichloroethane must be thoroughly cleaned, preferably
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143
by steam, and rinsed with water before entry or disassembly. Pipelines
should be disconnected and capped. Impervious protective suits with
supplied or self-contained air ventilation must be used by maintenance
personnel who come in contact with equipment contaminated with 1,2-
dichloroethane. Such personnel should be constantly observed so that
rescue operations can begin promptly if necessary.
Because 1,2-dichloroethane is flammable, standard fire-prevention
precautions, such as eliminating ignition sources, grounding transfer
containers, inerting, bonding, and general observance of National Fire
Codes, should be practiced when handling the product. Only explosion-
proof motors, switches, and controls should be used if 1,2-dichloroethane
vapors are present during normal operation, but Class I, Group D, Divi-
sion II electrical equipment (National Electrical Code, Article 500) is
permissible if 1,2-dichloroethane vapors are normally absent (Manufactur-
ing Chemists Association, 1971). Numerous other details for safe han-
dling and use of 1,2-dichloroethane are discussed in the Manufacturing
Chemists Association brochure (1971).
14.3.2 Spills and Leakage
Spills and leakage of 1,2-dichloroethane may be expected despite
normal precautions; therefore, provisions should be made in advance to
contain the spilled liquid. Floors of storage rooms should be pitched
to drains that lead to a safe location. Drains should be equipped with
adequate traps. If drains are not used, curbs should be provided at
door openings. Areas susceptible to major spills should be constructed
so that they can be closed until properly protected personnel can venti-
late and clear the site. Some 1,2-dichloroethane or vinyl chloride manu-
facturing plants are constructed entirely out-of-doors (Barnhart, Toney,
and Devlin, 1975; Jones and Bierbaum, 1974); outside storage areas should
also be surrounded by a dike with sufficient capacity to retain the stored
volume of 1,2-dichloroethane (Manufacturing Chemists Association, 1971;
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 1976).
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144
14.3.3 Respira t ory Protection
Various types of respiratory equipment are required for adequate
protection from 1,2-dichloroethane under different conditions of ex-
posure. A list of respirators approved by the National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health is available from the Testing and Certi-
fication Laboratory, National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health, Morgantown, West Virginia 26505. Similar data from the U.S.
Bureau of Mines are available in Information Circular 8559 and supple-
ments. Pertinent aspects of respirator selection and use have also
been discussed by the American National Standards Institute (1969) and
the Joint AIHA-ACGIH Respiratory Protective Devices Committee (1963).
Although many users may be protected at considerably higher levels
of concentration, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health recommends restricting the use of half-mask or quarter-mask
respirators, which are operated with negative pressure, to atmospheric
concentrations of 1,2-dichloroethane not greater than ten times the per-
missible time-weighted average. Similarly, it is recommended that use
of full-facepiece respirators operated with negative pressure be limited
to concentrations of 1,2-dichloroethane not exceeding 50 times the per-
missible time-weighted average.
The safe use of air-purifying respirators also requires considera-
tion of the service life of the associated filter or absorbent canister.
When used in an atmosphere contaminated with 1000 ppm 1,2-dichloroethane,
the standard organic vapor cartridge has a service life of 54 min before
a breakthrough of 10 ppm of 1,2-dichloroethane occurs. Under the same
conditions, the standard industrial-size gas mask canister has an esti-
mated service life of about 160 min (Nelson and Harder, 1974).
14.3.4 Accidents
If a tank truck carrying 1,2-dichloroethane is damaged in transit
so that it cannot proceed safely to its destination, the Manfacturing
Chemists Association (1971) recommends parking the vehicle in an area as
isolated as possible, then notifying the local fire and police depart-
ments. If necessary, safe disposal instructions should be obtained from
the manufacturer. The public should be warned to stay away.
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APPENDIX
145
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147
Pesticide products containing l,2-dichloroethanea
Active ingredients
Pesticide product name
„
Component
Concentration
Product
toxicity
ratingb
Products containing one active ingredient
Destruxol Borer-Sol
Ferti-Lome Tree Borer Killer
Hacienda Borer Solution
Navlet's Borer Solution
Staffel's Boraway
1,2-Dichloroethane
1,2-Dichloroethane
1,2-Dichloroethane
1,2-Dichloroethane
1,2-Dichloroethane
50.0
50.0
50.0
50.0
50.0
Products containing two active ingredients
Best 4 Servis Brand 75-25
Standard Fumigant
Big F "LGF" Liquid Gas
Fumigant
Brayton Flour Equipment
Fumigant for Bakeries
Brayton 75-25 Grain
Fumigant
Bug Devil Fumigant
Cardinalfume
Chemform Brand Bore-Kill
Cooke Kill-Bore
De-Pester Fumigant No. 1
Diamond 75-25 Grain Fumigant
Diweevil
Dowfume 7 5
Excelcide Excelfume
Fume-0-Death Gas No. 3
Fumisol
Gas-0-Cide
1,2-Dichloroethane 70.3
Carbon tetrachloride 29.7
1,2-Dichloroethane 75.0
Carbon tetrachloride 25.0
1,2-Dichloroethane 70.2
Carbon tetrachloride 29.8
1,2-Dichloroethane 70.2
Carbon tetrachloride 29.8
1,2-Dichloroethane 70.3
Carbon tetrachloride 29.7
1,2-Dichloroethane 70.2
Carbon tetrachloride 29.8
1,2-Dichloroethane 35.0
Propylene dichloride 15.0
1,2-Dichloroethane 50.0
Lindane 1.0
1,2-Dichloroethane 70.2
Carbon tetrachloride 29.8
1,2-Dichloroethane 70.2
Carbon tetrachloride 29.8
1,2-Dichloroethane 70.0
Carbon tetrachloride 30.0
1,2-Dichloroethane 70.0
Carbon tetrachloride 30.0
1,2-Dichloroethane 70.0
Carbon tetrachloride 30.0
1,2-Dichloroethane 70.0
Carbon tetrachloride 30.0
1,2-Dichloroethane 70.3
Carbon tetrachloride 29.7
1,2-Dichloroethane 70.3
Carbon tetrachloride 29.7
3
3
3
3
3
3
1
1
1
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
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148
Pesticide product name
Grain Fumigant
Hill's Hilcofume 75
Hydrochlor Fumigant
Hydrochlor GF Liquid Gas
Fumigant
Infuco Fumigant 75
J-Fume 75
Koppersol
Maxkill 75-25
Pearson's Fumigrain P-75
Riverdale Fumigant
Selig's Selcofume
Spray-Trol Brand
Insecticide Fumi-Trol
Standard 75-25 Fumigant
Stephenson Chemicals Stored
Grain Fumigant
Vulcan Formula 72 Grain
Fumigant
Westofume Fumigant
Zep-0-Fume Grain Mill
Fumigant
Products
Brayton EB-5 Grain Fumigant
Crest 15 Grain Fumigant
Active ingredients
„ ,_ Concentration
Component ,„,
1 , 2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1, 2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1 , 2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1 , 2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1 , 2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1 , 2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1 , 2-Dichloroethane
Copper oleate
1, 2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1 , 2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1 , 2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1 , 2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1 , 2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1 , 2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1 , 2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1 , 2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1 , 2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1 , 2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
75.0
25.0
70.2
29.8
70.0
30.0
75.0
25.0
70.0
30.0
70.0
30.0
3.0
11.0
70.2
29.8
67.5
32.5
70.3
29.7
25.0
75.0
70.2
29.8
70.3
29.7
70.2
29.8
70.2
29.8
70.2
29.8
70.2
29.8
Product
toxicity
rating"
1
2
1
1
1
1
3
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
1
containing three active ingredients
1 , 2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1 , 2-Dibromoethane
1 , 2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1 , 2-Dibromoethane
29.2
63.6
7.2
19.6
57.0
20.4
1
2
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149
Pesticide product name
De-Pester Weevil Kill
Dowfume EB-5 Effective Grain
Fumigant
Dowfume EB-15 Inhibited
Dowfume EB-5 9
Farmrite Mushroom Spray
FC-7 Grain Fumigant
(FC-13) Mill Machinery
Fumigant
FC-13 Mill Machinery
Fumigant
Formula 635 (FC-2) Grain
Fumigant
Grainfume MB
Infuco 50-50 Spot Fumigant
J-Fume-20
Leittle Spotfume 60
Max Spot Kill Machinery
Fumigant
Okay Mole and Gopher
Fumigant
Active ingredient
Component Concentration
(%)
1 , 2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1 , 2-Dibromoethane
1 , 2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1 , 2-Dibromoethane
1 , 2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1 , 2-Dibromoethane
1 , 2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1 , 2-Dibromoethane
1 , 2-Dichloroethane
Malathion
Petroleum distillate
1 , 2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1 , 2-Dibromoethane
1 , 2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1 , 2-Dibromoethane
1 , 2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1 , 2-Dibromoethane
1 , 2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1 , 2-Dibromoethane
1 , 2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1 , 2-Dibromoethane
1 , 2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1 , 2-Dibromoethane
1 , 2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1 , 2-Dibromoethane
1 , 2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1 , 2-Dibromoethane
1 , 2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1 , 2-Dibromoethane
1 , 2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
Paradichlorobenzene .
29.2
63.6
7.2
20.0
64.0
7.0
20.0
57.0
20.0
9.0
32.0
59.0
75.0
22.5
2.5
64.7
27.4
7.9
19.6
59.9
20.5
19.6
59.9
20.5
29.2
63.6
7.2
29.2
63.6
7.2
26.84
11.40
61.76
20.0
57.0
20.0
8.5
31.5
60.0
20.0
57.0
20.0
30.0
50.0
20.0
Product
toxicity
rating^
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
1
2
2
3
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150
Pesticide product name
Active ingredient
Component
Concentration
Product
toxicity
rating^
Parson Lethogas Fumigant
Solig's Grain Fumigant
No. 15
Spot Fumigant
T-H Vault Fumigant
Tri-X Garment Fumigant
Vulcan Formula 635 (FC-2)
Grain Fumigant
Waco-50
1,2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1,2-Dibromoethane
1,2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1,2-Dibromoethane
1,2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1,2-Dibromoethane
1,2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1,2-Dibromoethane
1,2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1,2-Dibromoethane
1,2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1,2-Dibromoethane
1,2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1,2-Dibromoethane
73.5
24.5
2.0
19.6
57.0
20.4
19.6
59.9
20.5
29.2
63.6
7.2
30.0
65 0
5.0
29,
63.
7.2
9.0
32.0
59.0
Products containing four active ingredients
Agway Serafume
Coop New Activate Weevil
Killer Fumigant
De-Pester Grain Conditioner
and Weevil Killer
Dowfume F
Dyna Fume
(FC-4) SX Grain Storage
Fumigant
1,2-Dichloroethane
Carbon disulfide
Carbon tetrachloride
1,2-Dibromoethane
1,2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1,2-Dibromoethane
Sulfur dioxide
1,2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1,2-Dibromoethane
Sulfur dioxide
1,2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1,2-Dibromoethane
Sulfur dioxide
1,2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1,2-Dibromoethane
Sulfur dioxide
1,2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1,2-Dibromoethane
Sulfur dioxide
10.0
10.0
76.5
3.5
66.0
27.0
5.0
2.0
64.6
27.4
5.0
3.0
65.0
27.0
5.0
3.0
12.0
83.8
1.2
3.0
64.6
27.4
5.0
3.0
-------
151
Pesticide product name
Component
Concentration
(%)
Product
toxicity
rating^1
Formula MU-39
Iso-Fume
Max Kill Spot-59 Fumigant
for Mills and Milling
Machinery
Patterson's Weevil Killer
Pioneer Brand Grain Fumigant
Selig's Grain Storage
Fumigant
Serfume
Sure Death Brand Millfume
No. 2
T&C Fruit and Vegetable
Insecticide and Miticidec
T-H Grain Fumigant No. 7
Weevil Killer and Grain
Conditioner
914 Weevil Killer and Grain
Conditioner
1,2-Dichloroethane
Malathion
Petroleum distillate
Xylene
1,2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1,2-Dibromoethane
Sulfur dioxide
1,2-Dichloroethane
Carbon disulfide
Carbon tetrachloride
1,2-Dibromoethane
1,2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1,2-Dibromoethane
Sulfur dioxide
1,2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1,2-Dibromoethane
Sulfur dioxide
1,2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1,2-Dibromoethane
Sulfur dioxide
1,2-Dichloroethane
Carbon disulfide
Carbon tetrachloride
1,2-Dibromoethane
1,2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1,2-Dibromoethane
Sulfur dioxide
1,2-Dichloroethane
Aromatic petroleum
derivative solvent
Methyl azinphos
Petroleum distillate
1,2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1,2-Dibromoethane
Sulfur dioxide
1,2-Dichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
1,2-Dibromoethane
Sulfur dioxide
10.00
23.75
50.00
15.00
11.4
80.6
5.0
3.0
10.0
1.5
29.5
59.0
63.1
26.9
7.1
2.9
66.0
27.0
5.0
2.0
64.6
27.4
5.0
3.0
10.0
10.0
76.5
3.5
64.6
27.4
5.0
3.0
28.0
28.0
5.0
28.0
63.1
26.9
7.1
2.9
63.1
26.9
7.1
2.9
-------
152
Active ingredient „ ,
6 Product
Pesticide product name _ . toxicity
_ Concentration ,_. t
Component fv^ rating0
\/")
Products containing five active ingredients
Cooke Bug Shot Lawn Special 1,2-Dichloroethane 20.0 2
Spray Concentrate'^ Cyclohexanone 4.0
Lindane 4.0
Petroleum distillate 24.0
Toxaphene 40.0
49'er Gold Strike Bonanza 1,2-Dichloroethane 10.25 3
Plant Spray3 Copper oleate 15.25
Cube resins other
than rotenone 2.00
Pyrethrins 0.50
Rotenone 1.00
Old Scratch Concentrated 1,2-Dichloroethane 11.75 1
Rotenone-Malathion Cube resins other
than rotenone 3.75
Malathion 42.00
Pine oil 40.00
Rotenone 2.50
Sirotta's Sircofume Liquid 1,2-Dichloroethane 1.0 3
Fumigating Gas Carbon tetrachloride 96.0
Tetrachloroethylene 1.0
1,1,1-Trichloroethane 1.0
Trichloroethylene 1.0
Products containing seven active ingredients
KLX^ 1,2-Dichloroethane 10.25 4
Copper oleate 15.25
Cottonseed oil 35.25
Cube resins other
than rotenone 2.00
Ethylene glycol 26.50
Pyrethrins 0.50
Rotenone 1.00
QUnless otherwise indicated, the pesticide is an insecticide or miticide
that is applied without dilution as a liquid fumigant.
^Toxicity scale is relative and is based on acute toxicity; 1 represents the
highest level of toxicity.
^Spray in oil, use undiluted, not pressurized.
Concentrate or emulsifiable.
Concentrate, solution.
Source: Adapted from Fry, 1978.
-------
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-560/2-78-006
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
4. TITLE ANDSUBTITLE
5. REPORT DATE
Investigations of Selected Environmental
Pollutants: 1,2-Dichloroethane
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7 AUTHOR(S)
John S. Drury and Anna S. Hammons
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
ORNL/EIS-148
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
Information Center Complex, Information Division
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
IAG D7-0151
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Office of Toxic Substances
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final Technical Report
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
15 SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16 ABSTRACT
This study is a comprehensive, multidisciplinary review of the health and
environmental effects of 1,2-dichloroethane. Other pertinent aspects such as
production, use, methods of analysis, and regulatory restrictions are also
discussed. Approximately 250 references are cited.
1,2-Dichloroethane is manufactured in greater tonnage than any other chlorinated
organic compound; in 1977 nearly 5 million metric tons was synthesized in the United
States. It is used primarily as a raw material in the production of vinyl chloride
monomer and a few other chlorinated organic compounds. The environment is exposed to
this chlorinated hydrocarbon primarily through manufacturing losses. Smaller ex-
posures occur through dispersive uses, such as grain fumigations and application of
paints and other coatings, and through storage, distribution, and waste disposal
operations. Concentrations of 1,2-dichloroethane in environmental air and water
distant from point sources are small — on the order of parts per billion or less.
Concentrations in the environment near point sources are unknown.
1,2-Dichloroethane is toxic to humans, other vertebrates and invertebrates,
plants, and microorganisms. It is an established carcinogen in rats and mice exposed
by oral intubation and is a weak mutagen in some bacteria and certain grains.
7.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COSATI Field/Group
Pollutants
Toxicology
1,2-Dichloroethane
Ethylene Dichloride
Health Effects
8. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
Unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
Unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (Rev. 4-77) PREVIOUS EDITION is OBSOLETE
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