EPA-600/1-76-038
DECEMBER 1976
Environmental Health Effects Research Series
BEHAVIORAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL CORRELATES
OF VARYING NOISE ENVIRONMENTS:
Annotated Bibliography
Office of Health and Ecological Effects
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
-------
RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series. These nine broad cate-
gories were established to facilitate further development and application of en-
vironmental technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The nine series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
6. Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
7. Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
8. "Special" Reports
9. Miscellaneous Reports
This report has been assigned to the ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH EFFECTS RE-
SEARCH series. This series describes projects and studies relating to the toler-
ances of man for unhealthful substances or conditions. This work is generally
assessed from a medical viewpoint, including physiological or psychological
studies. In addition to toxicology and other medical specialities, study areas in-
clude biomedical instrumentation and health research techniques utilizing ani-
mals — but always with intended application to human health measures.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
-------
EPA-600/1-76-038
December 1976
BEHAVIORAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL CORRELATES OF VARYING NOISE
ENVIRONMENTS: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
by
Lawrence F. Sharp
John F. Swiney
Mickey R. Dansby
Department of Life and Behavioral Sciences
United States Air Force Academy, Colorado 80840
Contract No. IAG-D4-0537
Project Officer
George R. Simon
Health Effects Division
Office of Health and Ecological Effects
Washington, DC 20460
OFFICE OF HEALTH AND ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WASHINGTON, DC 20460
-------
DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Health Effects Division, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for publication.
Approval does not signify that the contents necessairly reflect the
views and policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, nor
does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute
endorsement or recommendation of use.
ii
-------
ABSTRACT
Annotated bibliography contains 365 references related to the behavioral
and physiological effects of noise. References to research articles,
texts, other literature reviews and symposia are provided. The review
covers the period 1968 thru 1974. Some foreign research published as
early as 1966 is reported. The review is subdivided into approximately
twenty relevant areas including personality differences, sleep, sonic
boom, noise measurement, effects of noise on socially relevant behavior,
hearing loss, temporary threshold shift, physiological effects, motor
skills, vigilance and perceptual processes.
iii
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Abstract ............................. i"
Table of Contents ......................... v
Acknowledgements ......................... vi
Introduction .................. .......... vii
Overview
Specific Noise Sources
Aircraft and Industrial Noise .................. 4
Sonic Boom ........................... 10
Multiple Stressors ....................... 14
Noise Effects
Auditory Discrimination and Perception ............. 20
Cognitive and Learning ..................... 61
Motor Skills .......................... 80
Physiological Effects ..................... 93
Sleep ............................. 125
Speech and Speech Intelligibility ............... 132
Temporary Threshold Shift - Permanent Hearing Loss ...... 144
Vigilance ........................... 155
Noise Measurement and Audiometry ................. 163
Other
Developmental Aspects of Noise Responses and Individual
and Class Differences ..................... 175
Personality Variables ..................... 185
Socially Relevant Behavior .................. 192
Texts* Bibliographies and Literature Reviews ............ 198
-------
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Annotated bibliographies, unlike original research efforts seem to require
an inordinate expenditure of time with respect to purely administrative
activities such as library research, typing, editing and retyping. In
these efforts, the authors are greatly indebted to a number of individuals
and agencies which provided assistance in the completion of this biblio-
graphy. Mrs. Berthe Giroux patiently tolerated the vagaries of three
different script and writing styles and produced the final typed manu-
script. Mark R. Ogreen and Leslie R. Sanders, two of our students assist-
ed in the library literature review. We are also indebted to Evelyn
Myers and Betty Fogler of the United States Air Force Academy Library
and personnel of the Defense Documentation Center for their assistance
in uncovering relevant references from somewhat inaccessible sources.
vi
-------
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this bibliography is to provide the contractor (EPA) and
interested researchers with an update of noise effects with respect to
both behavioral and physiological variables. The bibliographers do not
guarantee the quality of the research, nor is this annotated bibliography
to be construed as a critical review of the literature. It is intended
as a compilation of research, in some twenty areas, published since 1968.
These areas are represented by 365 bibliographic citations. The entire
bibliography is preceeded by a broad overview intended to convey the
general findings. Each sub area is preceded by a specific overview
intended to present the essence of the research findings for that area.
The casual reader should find adequate coverage thru reading of the
general and specific overviews. The practicing researcher may wish to
pursue a specific topic by critical reading of the pertinent abstracts
and by securing a copy of the original paper.
As in all efforts to provide literature reviews, the bibliographers
found it necessary to exclude certain areas. We did not do so capricious-
ly but only with the intent of limiting the review to articles directly
or peripherally related to the behavioral and physiological effects of
noise. Additionally there was no attempt to survey the "world's" liter-
ature. We generally included articles which were abstracted in psycholo-
gical abstracts or were available thru the Defense Documentation Center.
Those interested in obtaining articles held by the Army Foreign Science
and Technology Center, Charlottesville, Virginia should note that these
articles are limited in distribution to agencies of the United States
Government only. Requests from other agencies must be referred to:
Commander
Army Foreign Science and Technology Center
Charlottesvilie, Virginia 22901
vi i
-------
OVERVIEW
Research on industrial noise seems aimed at demonstrating its adverse
consequences. Findings indicate discomfort, irritation, emotional crises
and a persistent neurotic symptomatology. Autonomic dysfunction, hyper-
tension and ulcers occur more frequently among persons exposed to noise
levels above 85 dB. Research results with respect to community annoy-
ance and aircraft operations indicate that smaller aircraft operating
in larger numbers may help alleviate the annoyance.
Research in the area of Temporary Threshold Shift (TTS) and permanent
hearing loss indicates that the potential costs to industry from noise
are greater than for any other occupational disease. Even newborn
infants are exposed to noise levels wh'fch approach damage risk criteria.
The findings relative to the effects of noise on learning and cognition
are inconsistent. Some researchers note facilitating effects while
others report decrements in performance. This appears to be time and
intensity specific. In addition there are sex, age and socioeconomic
differences in performance under noise environments.
In most areas, both developmental and individual differences are apparent.
Evidence indicates that crying infants quiet more easily when exposed to
auditory stimulations. Additionally, older subjects (60 years) perform-
ed more poorly in both noise and no noise environments. Middle class
elementary students perform at lower levels in a white noise or home
noise environment compared to lower class children.
There appears to be an interaction with respect to the task involved and
the noise environment for motor skills tasks. White noise appears to
have a detrimental effect while continuous noise actually enhanced
psychomotor performance for skilled subjects. Further, task difficulty
and the pace at which tasks are to performed result in decrements in
performance. Asymetrical presentation of intermittent noise affects
equilibrium to a greater extent than either variable alone while free
field noise has greater effects than similar noise presented through
headphones. Noise has been implicated in long term learning effects in
1
-------
that students who learned to type in quiet conditions performed better
than those who learned in a noise environment. These differences were
observed 50 days after the learning sessions.
Socially relevant behaviors can be affected by noise. In a noise environ-
ment, tolerance for ambiguity decreases, anxiety increases and perception
of others assumes negative dimensions. Further, frustration tolerance
decreases following stimulation with unpredictable noise. Although the
organism may physiologically adapt, there appears to be a psychological
cost of noise exposure.
Personality variables have been shown to moderate changes in performance
in a noise environment. For example, extroverts are more prone to noise
distraction and display greater physiological arousal than introverts.
Also, the increasing loudness of a noise stimulus augments subjective
annoyance, with neurotic personality traits contributing to the syner-
gistic effect. Additionally, speakers judged to be angry seem to use
more high frequency elements in .their speech while scores of "Test
Anxiety" are positively correlated with judged loudness.
The physiological effects of noise stimuli have been the subject of a
number of studies. One researcher concludes that medical evidence
clearly shows autonomic habituation to noise does not occur. Experiments
with both human and infra human subjects indicate that noise affects
blood circulation, metabolism, and the pituitary-adrenal cortex system.
Increases in urinary col echo!amines, free fatty acids and adrenal weights
have been reported. Reductions occur in blood eosinophil, concentration
of adrenal calecho!amines and resistance to acute hypoxia. Further,
pulse amplitude decreases, skin blood content increases and heart rate
increases. One Soviet study reports lasting disturbances in the blood
brain barrier permeability to macromolecular phosphoric compounds due
to noise exposure.
In general, no major disruption of sleep patterms are reported for sub-
jects experiencing sonic booms, but some changes in EEG sleep patterns
in response to white noise are reported. REM compensation seems to
-------
occur on quiet nights following noisy nights. There are contradictory
data with respect to the effects of sonic booms. This may be due to a
failure to differentiate between startle responses which tend to hamper
performance and orienting responses which enhance performance.
Speech disfluency, especially misarticulation of consonants appears to
be related to noise masking. Facilitative effects of noise with stutter-
ers are noted. Release of stuttering blocks has been observed when
using high frequency, narrow band masking.
The effects of noise on vigilance tasks continues to be an area of wide
research interest. Some researchers show vigilance performance decre-
ments while others show differential effects depending on vigilance task
difficulty. One study indicates that subjects perform a vigilance task
better when the information is presented in both the visual and auditory
sense modes.
-------
SPECIFIC NOISE SOURCES
AIRCRAFT AND INDUSTRIAL NOISE EFFECTS
With relatively few studies reported since 1970, the primary research
efforts have concentrated on demonstrating the adverse consequences of
noisy industries, as well as those different from industries, tradition-
ally the subject of legislative protection such as the watch making
industry (Stancari, 1967).
Documentation of noise induced trauma include: Angeleri's (1966) finding
of discomfort'and irritation while noise persisted, emotional crises that
occurred at the end of work and a persistent neurotic symptomatology,
latent or obvious; Jansen's (1971) findings of autonomic dysfunction
appearing more frequently among noise exposed workers; and Jirkovo's
(1971) observations indicating that impairment of hearing, subjective
difficulties, hypertension and ulcers occurs more frequently among
persons exposed to noise levels above 85 dB. Also, Cohen (1972) found
that the more obtrusive the noise and the more demanding the task, the
greater is the likelihood of adverse effects of noise on task performance.
With regard to aircraft noise, Johnston (1972) found that as long as the
background noise level is increased less than 10 dB, community annoyance
grows imperceptibly with the number of similar operations, leading to a
recommendation for smaller aircraft operating in larger numbers. Mabry,
(1973) has demonstrated a reliable laboratory technique for measuring
the effective perceived noise level (EPNL) and Stockbridge (1973) has
developed methods to judge the psycho-social consequences of aircraft
noise.
Angeleri, Franco, & Cocuzza, Carlo. The effects of noise on the nervous
system: a clinical and electroencephalographic study on forty workers
exposed to industrial noise for many years. Anna!i di Neurologi a e
Psichiatrio, 1966, 60(4), 257-81.
Fifty percent of 19-54 year old industrial workers, exposed an average
of 15 years to varying noise levels (95-112 db) and frequencies
-------
(300-9600 Hz), revealed 3 basic disturbances, occurring singly, but
mostly in combinations: (1) discomfort and irritation while the noise
persisted, (2) emotional crises that reoccurred at the end of work, and
(3) a persistant neurotic symptomatology, latent or obvious. The disturb-
ances directly attributable to the noise were regarded as the expression
of special underlying reactivity associated with miopragia of the CNS.
The similarities between disturbances directly due to intense noise and
the condition of latent or clear neuroses were stressed. The chronologi-
cal dependency that characterized the relationship between certain
behavior disorders and noise levels prompted a hypothesis centered on
culmulative effects and the critical release of emotional tension.
Chocholle, R. & Augustynska, D. Some preliminary experiments on the
reduction of noise by dephasing. Journal de Psycho!ogie Normale et
Pathologique. 1969, 66(3), 261-279.
This research attempted to determine whether the use of an auxiliary
sound source dephased at 180. would reduce the sound or noise emitted
from another sound source. The procedure was to regulate sounds emitted
from 2 loudspeakers of the same intensity but in opposite phase at a
certain point in space. Results indicate that an important reduction of
acoustical pressure was registered at the point of the control. However,
this was actually only in a very limited zone around this point. The
reduction thus obtained disappeared quickly as one moved away from this
point.
Cohen, Harris, H. Working efficiency as a function of noise level, work
pace, and time at work. Dissertation Abstracts International, 1972, 33(8-B),
3975.
A review of the literature shows that the more obtrusive the noise and
the more demanding the task, the greater is the likelihood of adverse
effects of noise on task performance. A study was conducted which varied
three levels of task speed or work pace (30,40 and 50 signals/min) on a
paced, serial repetitive task requiring complete and sustained attention
under two conditions of aperiodic broadband noise, quiet (50 dB(A)) and
-------
noise (100 dB(A)). One hour work periods were broken down for analysis
into four 15 minute time blocks.
The experimental hypotheses were confirmed. Namely, (1) noise adversely
affected performance on a paced, serial repetitive task; (2) the faster
the work pace, the poorer was performance (3) noise more adversely
affected performance at fast work paces than at slower work paces; and
(4) performance in noise at fast work paces deteriorated disproportion-
ately with time at work. The practical, as well as the theoretical,
implications of the research are discussed.
Jansen, Gerd.*0n the origin of autonomic dysfunctions through the action
of noise. Army Foreign Science and Technology Center Charlottesville, Va.,
1971, Report No. FSTC-HT-23-237-71.
One thousand and five workers from factories of the German metallurgical
industry were examined medically and psychologically in order to be able
to demonstrate the genesis of autonomic dysfunctions as an effect of noise.
Six hundred and sixty-nine workers were employed in factories where an
intense noise influence was prevalent.
Jirkova, Hana & Kremarova, Bohumila. Investigations of the effect of
noise on the general health of the workers in large engineering works.
Army Foreign Science and Technology Center Charlottesville, Va., 1971,
Report No. FSTCfHT-23-273-71.
The investigation concerned 969 persons, using records obtained from
factory physicians. It dealt with the occurrence of overall morbidity
and especially with the occurrence of hypertension, ulcers, impairment of
hearing, neuroses, and subjective difficulties at noisy work centers
(with noise level higher than 85 dB).
The results of observations indicate that impairment of hearing, subjective
difficulties, hypertension, and ulcers occur more frequently among persons
exposed to noise. On the other hand, the data presented did not demonstrate
that a noisy environment would result in a higher number of neuroses, nor
did it demonstrate that the frequency of the diseases under study, with the
exception of impairment of hearing, it is related to the length of employ-
ment.
-------
Johnston, 6. W. V/stol community annoyance due to noise: proposed indices
and levels for Toronto-York transportation committee. Toronto University
Institute for Aerospace Studies, 1972, Report No. UTIAS-TR-177.
Distinctive features of V/stol versus conventional aircraft are noted.
Currently popular methods for assessing conventional aircraft noise
(CNR and NEF, on this continent) are shown to be much less appropriate
for V/stol. Both speech interference and perceived noise annoyances
have been included in parallel. Robinson's noise pollution index is
especially well suited to the evaluation of the total perceived noise
annoynace since background noise effects are included directly. "A"
weighted sound level is adequate for initial assessment of speech inter-
ference annoynace. Maximum v/stol levels for these indices, in urban
residential districts of L sub npmax ='75 (PNDB) and L sub Nmax = 80
(PNDB) are proposed. Perceived noise -contours (L SUB NP) calculated
adjacent to a hypothetical Toronto waterfront stolport site confirm
that when the aircraft noise exceeds the background by 10 dB or less,
community annoyance grows imperceptibly with the number of similar
operations flown. Smaller aircraft operating in larger numbers, to ful-
fill a given transportation task, therefore offer a substantial annoyance
improvement over larger similar technology aircraft.
Mabry, J.E. & Parry, H.J. An evaluation of psychoacoustic procedures for
determining human noise: Volume II. Demonstrated examples. Society of
Automotive Engineers Inc. New York, 1973, Report No. SAE-R-12-2.
A variety of laboratory procedures have been used to measure human response
to aircraft noise during the development of the effective perceived noise
level (EPNL) concept. Evaluation of these procedures to determine their
effectiveness would be useful in further refinements of EPNL. This report
describes a project to demonstrate how four of the laboratory methods can
be tested and the results used to provide a comparative evaluation. The
general conclusion is that experimental plans for four basic psychoacoustic
laboratory methods have been demonstrated.
Mabry, J.E. & Parry, H.J. An evaluation of psychoacoustic procedures for
determining .human response to aircraft noise. Volume I. Specifications
-------
for four experiments. Society of Automotive Engineers Inc. New York,
1973, Report No. SAE-R-12-1.
Absence of good agreement among laboratory studies involving human response
to aircraft noise led to the conclusion that the application of different
psychoacoustic procedures could account for differing requirement to
develop an engineering calculation procedure which validly reflects re-
sponse to flyover noise from future aircraft (Stol, Vtol, sst), A three-
phase program was conceptualized. The document deals with phase 1: detail-
ing of specifications and requirements for four psychoacoustic laboratory
experiments plus the acquisition of tape recordings of noises that match
the four experiments.
Kosa, D. & Lampe, I. *Pneumatization of the mastoid process in individuals
working under conditions of excessive noise. Army Foreign Science and
Technology Center Char!Ottesvilie Va., 1971, Report No. FSTC-HT-23-244-71.
The degree of pneumatization of the mastoid process was tested in 70
workers who had been working under conditions of excessive noise for at
least ten years, all of whom exhibited hearing loss due to noise. X-rays
were made according to the Schuller technique showed no connection
between the degree of pneumatization of the mastoid process and the de-
velopment of noise damage. There was no difference in the average reduc-
tion of individuals with good and poor pneumatization of the mastoid process
Maksimiva, L. I. Changes in hearing of workers under a prolonged effect
of noise with standard parameters. Foreign Technology Division Wright-
Patterson AFB Ohio, 1974, Report No. FTD-HT-23-1036-74.
For prolonged periods of time, under industrial conditions, noise, at
85-88 dB (which is at the maximum permissible levels) in the frequency
range of 800 to 4000 HZ, can present a danger with regard to the develop-
ment of occupational hardness of hearing when the individual's hearing
organ is not sufficiently stable. In order to improve the effective
standards, in addition to physiological studies, it is necessary to
carry out dynamic clinical observations in the process of chronic noise
effect under industrial conditions.
8
-------
Stancari, Vittorio; Gherardi, Gabriele & Sardo, Gabriello. Noise and
acoustic trauma in the processing of watch jewels. Securitas, 1967,
52(12), 43-56.
To study acoustic trauma in noisy industries different from those
traditionally the subject of legislative protection, phonometric and
audiometric research was conducted in a factory where synthetic jewels
for the watchmaking industry were being processed. The spectral phono-
metric analysis permitted the demonstration of a noise level that is harm-
ful, particularly in the department where holes are made in the jewels by
means of electric drilling. Conversely, the audiometric tonal analysis
showed that all of the 52 Ss examined, and particularly those directly
concerned with the drilling, were suffering from signs of a cochleopathy
of the acoustic trauma type, and this was the case even with Ss who had
worked in the factory for comparatively short risks and the harm connect-
ed with acoustic trauma, and should be considered when the proposed
revision of the legislation relating to insurance against professional
ear troubles is undertaken in Italy.
Stockbridge, H.C. & Lee, Mary. The psycho-social consequences of aircraft
noise. Applied Ergonomics, 1973, 4(1); 44-45.
The investigation describes and compares methods including social surveys,
analysis of complaints, and direct observation of investigating the social
disamenity caused by aircraft noise. Effects of aircraft noise are
discussed, and it is concluded that technologists can and will decrease
engine noise levels if social pressure continues to be applied.
-------
SONIC BOOM
The first two articles in this section are reviews of animal and human
responses to sonic booms. The remaining reports deal with two primary
sets of responses: startle responses and orienting responses.
The literature on the behavioral effects of sonic boom appear to be
contradictory. On the one hand, facilitation of behavioral tasks is
observed (e.g. Thackray et al, 1971), while on the other hand, decrements
in performance are seen (e.g., Lips, 1972). In those studies where decre-
ments are observed, there appears to be a direct relationship between
intensity of the boom and impairment.
Thackray (1972) suggests that the apparent lack of consistency in studies
on behavioral effects of sonic booms may be due to a failure to differ-
entiate between the startle responses and the orienting responses. The
former tends to hamper performance and the latter to enhance it. He
proposes objective criteria for distinguishing between the two response
patterns.
Bell, Wilson B. Animal response to sonic booms. Journal of the Acoustical
Society of America, 1972, 51(2, Pt. 3), 758-765.
Reports and studies of animal response to sonic booms are reviewed.
Specific reactions to sonic booms differ according to the species involved,
whether the animal is alone, and perhaps whether there has been previous
exposure. Reactions vary and are not predictable. Sonic boom reactions
of several species are described with considerable detail on the reactions
of mink.
von Gierke H. E. & Nixon, C. W. Human response to sonic boom in the
laboratory and the community. Journal of the Acoustical Society of
America, 1972, 51(2, Pt.3), 766-782.
This report discusses the loudness and annoyance of individual booms and
their dependence on the boom overpressure and pressure-time functions as
well as the complex reaction of individuals, groups, and communities
exposed to sonic booms of varied magnitude and frequency. The few
10
-------
experiments available proving that even sonic booms of the maximum
intensity presently feasible do not produce direct medical injury are
described. Based on the integrated body of results of recent physiolo-
gical, psychoacoustic, behavioral, and sociological studies in various
countries, estimates of the effects and acceptability of regular, frequent
supersonic commercial overland flight schedules are presented and discuss-
ed in terms of aircraft noise pollution in general, and of the potential
certification of aircraft with respect to noise and sonic boom. Findings
support the current policy that commercial supsonic transport aircraft
will not be permitted to fly over the United States unless and until the
noise factors are brought within acceptable limits.
Lips, K.W. An unstable steering task with a sonic-boom disturbance.
Toronto University (Ontario) Institute for Aerospace Studies, 1972,
Report No. UTIAS-TN-179.
An initial study was made concerning the effect of sonic boom disturbances
on an individual's compensatory tracking performance for an unstable
system. In certain respects the tracking task simulated automobile
driving. It was found that most individuals were disturbed and recovered
in varying degrees.
Rylander, Ragner, Sorensen, Stefan, Berglund, Kenneth, & Brodin, Carina.
Experiments on the effect of sonic-boom exposure on humans. Journal of
the Acoustical Society of America, 1972, 51(2, Pt. 3), 790-798.
This research reports the results of a field experiment in Sweden studying
boom exposure effect on structures. Military aircraft flew over a test
area generating sonic booms of various intensities. Thirty-three 20-53 yr-
old females and 165 military recruits were exposed directly under the
flight path, the exposure effect being measured with the aid of a visual
performance and a tracking test. In addition, the subjective reactions of
5>s present at other sites under the sonic-boom carpet were evaluated with
the aid of a questionnaire.
11
-------
Thackray, Richard I., Touchstone, R. Mark & Jones, Karen N. The effects
of simulated sonic booms on tracking performance and autonomic response.
FAA Office of Aviation Medicine. Report No. 71-29, 1971.
Forty Ss were exposed to simulated (indoor) sonic overpressure levels
(outdoors) of 1, 2 and 4/square feet during 30 minute periods of
compensatory tracking. Four booms were presented during each period.
Following booms, performance improved, skin conductance decreased, and
heart rate decelerated; the pattern suggested an orienting response rather
than a startle reflex. However, rise times of the simulated booms were
longer (6-27 msec) than those of true booms, and this factor may have
contributed to the obtained performance and physiological effects.
Thackray, Richard I., Rylander, Ragnar & Touchstone, R. Mark. Sonic
boom startle effects— Report of a field study. Civil Aeromedical
Institute Oklahoma City Okla., 1973, 20 pages.
The study reports the results of a sonic boom field study conducted in
Sweden during October 1972. Ten female subjects were tested indoors on
each of six days. Two age groups were studied: 20-35 and 50-65 years.
Fighter aircraft flying at various heights over the test site produced
booms with outdoor overpressures ranging from 60-640 N/Sq. M. The
number of booms extended from 5 to 13 per day. Subjects performed in-
doors on an arm-hand steadiness task. The results indicated that out-
door overpressures ranging from 70-120 N/Sq. M.(26-35 N/sq. M. indoors)
produced reflexive arm-hand movements in about 10 per cent of the subjects.
Booms of 300 N/sq. M. (67 N/sq. M. indoors) and greater produced responses
in about 75 percent of the subjects, between these extremes of overpressure
there was the suggestion of a critical overpressure range lying between
150-180 N/sq. M. (40-46 N/sq. M. indoors) in which an abrupt increase in
startle response occurred.
Thackray, Richard I., Touchstone, Robert M. & Bailey, Joe P. A com-
parison of the startle effects resulting from exposure to two levels of
simulated sonic booms. Federal Aviation Administration Washington, D.C.
Office of Aviation Medicine, 1973, Report No. FAA-AM-73-16.
Subjects were exposed indoors to simulated sonic booms having outside
12
-------
overpressures of 50 and 150 N/sq. M. Rise times were held constant at
5.5 msecs. In addition to the outside measurements, inside measures of
dBlin and dBa were also obtained. Subjects attempted to hold a hand-
steadiness device on target during boom exposure and amplitude of the
arm-hand startle response was determined. Recordings were also obtained
of the skin conductance and heart-rate responses as well as the eye-blink
reflex. Although the 50 N/sq M. boom produced slight arm-hand startle
responses in a small percentage of subjects, the frequency of these
responses was significantly greater to the higher boom level. Tentative
conclusions advanced that sonic booms experienced indoors may cause slight
arm-hand startle responses which could have adverse effects on occupation-
al tasks in which arm-hand steadiness is the principal skill required,
but that it seems unlikely these responses would significantly impair
performance on less sensitive psychomortor tasks.
13
-------
MULTIPLE STRESSORS
With respect to noise as an independent variable, a casual review
of the literature indicates, with few exceptions, that noise is treated
as a unitary influence and little attention is focused on the potential
interactive effects of noise with other stressors. The exceptions to
this research set are noteworthy. For example, the detrimental effect
of noise is additive to that of vibration when both are presented
simultaneously (Harris and Schoenberger, 1970). Using heat, noise and
vibration, Grether (1972) failed to find combined effects which produced
more severe performance decrements than the most severe single stressor
(heat stress). In a later confirmatory study using additional physiolo-
gical response measures, the same combination of stressors produced no
additive effects and the greatest impairment in performance was
vibration alone, (Grether, Harris, Ohlbaum, Sampson and Guignard, 1972).
Using noise and neomycin, Jauhiainen, Kohonenand and Jauhiainen, 1972,
demonstrated a synergistic effect. The harmful effects were shown to
increase more than predicted by the simple addition of the two effects.
Campbell (1968) showed that noise plus shock were more aversive than
shock or noise alone and concluded that aversive drives resulting from
these stressors summated.
Campbell, Byron A, Interaction of aversive stimuli: Summation or
inhibition ? Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1968, 78(2, Pt. 1).
181-190.
This research attempted to determine the manner in which 2 aversive
stimuli, noise and shock, combined to influence behavior. Exp. I and II
with 40 and 768 male Sprague-Daw!ey rats, respectively, showed that an
irrelevant, inescapable electric shock masked the reinforcing properties
of noise reduction. Exp. Ill with 40 male Sprague-Dawley rats demonstrated
that the aversive properties of noise and shock summated, i.e., noise plus
shock were more aversive than shock alone. Results demonstrated that
aversive drives summated and the reinforcement was proportional of the
relative reduction in total aversiveness.
14
-------
Grether, Walter F. Two experiments on the effects of combined heat, noise
and vibration stress. Aerospace Medical Research Lab Wright Patterson AFB
Ohio, 1972, Report No. AMRL-TR-71-113.
Operational flying often exposes crew members to combinations of environ-
mental stresses that may affect flight personnel differently than would
be predicted from single-stress laboratory experiments. To obtain a
better understanding of such combined-stress effects a major experiment
was conducted using heat (120F), noise (105 dB) and vibration (5 Hz, 0.30
peak G), both singly and in combination. Measurements were made of track-
ing ability, choice reaction time, voice communication, mental arithmetic,
visual acuity, body temperature, heart rate, weight loss, and subjective
ratings of the stress. On none of these measures did the combined
triple-stress-condition produce greater effects than did the most severe
single stress. The physiological measures only heat stress produced
significant effects, and the addition of noise and vibration produced no
further effects. On the performance measures, particularly the tracking
test, impairment was slightly less for the triple-stress condition than
for vibration only. Thus there were no additive interactions, and in
fact some evidence of antagonistic interactions.
Grether, W.F., Harris, C.S., Ohlbaum, M. Sampson, P.A., Guignard, J.
Further study of combined heat, noise and vibration stress. Aerospace
Medical Research Lab Wright Patterson AFB Ohio, 1972, Report No. AMRL-TR
71-131.
In an earlier study a combination of heat, noise and vibration stress
had no greater, and for some measures slightly less, effect on physiol-
ogical and performance functions than did the same levels of heat or
vibration alone. As a follow-up on that finding, this study used the
same levels of heat (120 F), noise (105 dB) and vibration (5 Hz, 0.30
peak G), but with some modifications of the earlier experiment. Physi-
ological measures included skin and rectal temperature, heart rate,
weight loss and biochemical urine analysis. Performance measures included
two-dimensional compensatory tracking, choise reaction time, a voice
communication test of logical alternatives, mental arithmetic, visual
acuity and subjective ratings of the stress conditions. The combination
15
-------
of stresses produced no additive stress interactions. On tracking and
reaction time tests the greatest impairment of performance was produced
by vibration alone. Subject ratings of stress severity progressively
increased with the number of stresses in the combination. Subjective
ratings of stress intrusiveness, however did not show such a trend.
Guignard, J. C. & King, P.P. Aeromedical aspects of vibration and noise.
Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development Paris France 1972,
Report No. AGARD-AG-151.
Vibration and noise are treated separately in parts one and two of this
volume; while part three deals with the special aeromedical problem of
auditory perception in aircrew and ground support personnel and its
conservation. Part four is a glossary of relevant terms. This division
of the subject matter recognizes that in practice vibration and noise
are conveniently studied, measured and controlled as separate entities.
It should, however, be borne in mind that these conditions rarely affect
man singly. They are commonly present at the same time; and vibration and
noise may often be associated with different kinds of environmental agents,
such as heat, to make up a combined environmental stress.
Harris, C. & Schoenberger, Richard W. Combined effects of noise
and vibration on psychomotor performance. USAF AMRL Technical Report,
1970, 70-14, 24 ,p.
Tracking performance and RT of highly trained Ss to the appearance of a
red light and disappearance of a green light were measured during four
experimental conditions: 2 conditions of 85- and 110-dB broad-band
noise exposure, and 2 in which these noise exposures were combined with
.25g vertical vibration at 5 Hz. Duration of exposure for each con-
dition was 19 min. Vibration had an adverse effect on both the hori-
zontal and vertical dimensions of the tracking task and on RT to both
sets of lights. Noise had a significant effect, both with and without
vibration, but only on the vertical part of the tracking task. On
vertical tracking, the detrimental effect of noise was additive to that
of vibration when both noise and vibration were presented simultaneously
(110-db noise and .25g vertical vibration at 5 Hz).
16
-------
Jauhiainen, T., Kohonen, A., & Jauhiainen, Merja. Combined effect of
noise and neomycin on the cochlea. Acta Oto-Laryngologica, 1972, 73(5),
387-390.
The combined harmful effect of intensive noise and neomycin on the
cochlea were studied in 3 groups of guinea pigs; one receiving neomycin
alone (n = 8), One exposed to noise alone (n = 10), and one exposed to
both factors (n = 8). Electrophysiologically and microscopically, the
harmful effects were shown when the 2 factors were combined, to increase
more than predicted by simple addition of the 2 effects. The correlation
between the percentage of destroyed outer cells and the microphonic poten-
tial amplitude loss was calculated. It is suggested that there may be
greater susceptibility to noise-induced hearing loss in patients treated
with ototoxic antibiotics.
Renshaw, Frank Marvin. The combined effects of heat and noise on work
performance. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Cinncinnati) Ann
Arbor Mich.: University Microfilms, 1972, No. 73-3842.
Twelve male subjects performed at a Five-Choice Serial Reaction Task
under environmental conditions of heat alone, noise alone, and heat in
combination with noise. The study was divided into two exposure phases,
a single stress phase and a multiple-stress phase. Subjects in the
single-stress phase experienced four levels of either heat or noise.
The multiple stress phase consisted of both single and combined exposures
to different levels of heat and noise. The four levels of heat used in
the study were: E.T. 72°F., E.T. 78°F., E.T. 84°F., and E.T. 90°F.
The four levels of noise were : 41 dBA, 80 dBA, 90 dBA, and 100 dBA.
All exposure sessions were 1-1/2 hours in length with the performance
task occupying the final thirty minutes of each session. The measures
of performance analyzed in the experiment included total responses,
total errors, relative errors, and gaps in response. Each measure was
statistically treated by analysis of variance techniques. Performance
change was predicted from the Arousal Theory which proposes and inverted
"U" -shaped relationship between environmental stimulation and perform-
ance. Improved performance is anticipated as either heat or noise is
17
-------
raised from a low to a moderate level: however, further increase in
environmental stimulation, either by raising one factor from a moderate
to a high level or by combining factors, will result in performance
degradation. The results indicated a detrimental effect of heat on gap
scores. Subjects showed 18 percent more gaps at E.T. 90°F. than E.T. 72°F.
A detrimental effect of noise was noted in the case of total response
scores. Subjects made 5 percent fewer responses at 90 dBA than at 41 dBA.
Both gap scores and relative error scores revealed an interaction between
the effects of moderate heat and moderate noise. Support for the Arousal
Theory was only evident under multiple stress conditions suggesting
that only combined stresses were truly over-arousing. Individual stress
variations were insufficient to display meaningful performance change.
Only gap scores followed predictions based on the Arousal Theory: more
gaps occurring under multiple-stress conditions than under single-stress
conditions. An alternative explanation for alterations in gap scores
based on Bills' theory of mental blocking could also account for these
findings.
Scull, John. Effects of shock and noise on running after training with
partial or continuous reward. Psychonomic Science, 1971,23(5), 325-326.
Forty male Wistar albino rats were given partial or continuous reward in
>
a runway, continuous reward while either shock or loud noise was presented
early in the runway on 1/2 of the trials, and finally extinction. Shock
produced conditioned suppression in the segment preceding its adminis-
tration, a decrement in running immediately following it., and an increase
in running speed in the last segment. Noise did not produce conditioned
suppression but did produce ah increase in speed following its adminis-
tration. Partial reinforcement did not alter any of the effects of
either stimulus, but reliably increased resistance to extinction.
Wilkinson, Robert. Some factors influencing the effect of environmental
stressors upon performance. Psychological Bulletin,1970, 72(4), 260-72.
Six factors were distinguished in the working situation influencing the
effect of environmental stress upon performance; (1) the duration of work
18
-------
in the task, (2) the familiarity of the operator with the stress and with
the work he has to do under stress, (3) the level of incentive of the
operator, (4) the kind of work he has to do, (5) the aspect of perform-
ance which is most important, and (6) the presence of other stresses in
the working situation. The examples taken to illustrate the importance
of these factors come from only four stresses: heat, loss of sleep,
noisem and alcohol.
Wyon, D.P. Studies of children under imposed noise and heat stress.
Ergonomics, 1970, 13, 598-612.
This paper assesses moderate stress research as a field of study in which
principles governing the choice of criteria of stress and strain are
reviewed. Important parameters of moderate stress research are identified
and placed in the context of an empirical scheme, with reference to which
their interpretation and relevance are discussed. Studies by the author
of 11, 13 - and 17 - year old children under imposed heat stress are
used to illustrate the scheme and are interpreted in terms of arousal
and effort. An approach to the study of .noise in the moderate stress
region is suggested in which measures based on sound pressure level are
unlikely to have much relevance. This view is supported by preliminary
results from a study of 10-12 year olds under intermittent low-level
noise.
19
-------
NOISE EFFECTS
AUDITORY DISCRIMINATION AND PERCEPTION
A large body of research literature exists regarding human auditory
performance and perceptual abilities. Primarily, this knowledge can be
categorized into the following areas:
1. Duration Discrimination - Abel (1972) found that duration discrimi-
nation is not frequency dependent between 200-3500 Hz and Rochester (1971)
found the process of signal detection (in noise) and duration discrimi-
nation to be very similar. Evidence comes from Hawke's (1970) work with
helicopter vibration and time perception that indicates support for the
notion of a psychobiologic clock as the key mechanism in determining
time perception of noise.
2. Frequency Discrimination - Most research concentrates on detection
of pitch changes in various types of noise. Mulligan (1970) shows that
frequency bandwidth is directly dependent on S/N ratio. Maximum sensi-
tivity to pitch appears between 2200 and 2300 Hz at low S/N ratios.
Richards (1969) further demonstrates that when the masking noise is
held constant, pitch shift increases with frequency. This is supported
>
by Lovell (197T) with findings of upward pitch shifts using white noise
and negative pitch shifts using pink noise. Other work in this area
includes Moss's (1970), "Short-term Recognition of Memory of Tones";
Gobhart's (1972), "Frequency Discrimination and MLD"; Jesteadt's (1969),
"Frequency Discrimination Near Masked Thresholds11; and CanahVs (1970),
"Binaural Masking of a Tone by a Tone Plus Noise".
3. Intensity Discrimination - Several studies investigate Weber's Law
using monkeys (Clopton, 1972) and human subjects. Vienmeister (1972),
has investigated intensity discrimination of pulsed tones. Generally,
Weber's Law holds for a large range of background intensities but not
for pulsed tones. One interesting study by Vienmeister (1970) provides
evidence that decisions involving intensity discrimination are made based
on an observed input and a "noisy" stored reference. Other studies
20
-------
center on binaural versus monaural summation of loudness. Scharf (1970)
substantiates that binaural summation does occur over an intensity range
from 40-110 dB (SPL) with a ratio of from 1.6 to 1.85 that increases
with SPL. Davies (1970) found that when judging the intensity of white
noise versus shadowed words, most subjects judged 90 dB shadowed words
to be louder than 90 to 115 dB noise, lending support for Treisman's filter-
amplitude theory of attentional selection. Additional subjective evalu-
ations of noise show that with the use of 5 point scales ranging from
very quiet to intolerably noisy, subjects tend to give most measured
levels of ambient noise a subjective "moderately noisy" rating (Weber 1971).
The area of intensity discrimination has been also investigated by
Melamed (1971), Goldberg (1972), and Pinheiro (1971).
4. Localization of Sound Source - Harris (1971) finds that much usable
directionality exists in the monaural mode of hearing. The duration of
the stimulus in facilitating localization for low frequencies is impor-
tant and also for front-to-back localization, with longer durations
allowing more time for head movements (Thurlow, 1970). Additional work
done in this area by Jeffress (1971) indicates that substantial individual
differences exist in the relative importance of time and intensity cues
used by subjects in the detection and lateralization of a sound source.
Other investigators in this area are: Tonnimg, McFadden, and Hafter.
5. Signal Detection In Noise - Several investigators have looked at
the perception of "click-thresholds and intensity discrimination".
Since click stimuli have virtually no energy variations, stimulus-
oriented theories of detection and discrimination cannot be used to
explain why click intensity discrimination is improved by the addition
of background noise (Raab, 1969). This effect is evident even in the
detection of two-click thresholds where the addition of a steady back-
ground noise produces a remarkedly small change in the magnitude of the
threshold (Leshowitz, 1971). Other research in this area is by Do!an,
Feth, Irwin and Young.
6. Response to Noise (Infants and Children) - Several investigators
have looked at audio discrimination in infants and children. It appears
21
-------
that children (median age 7) can detect auditory signals presented
against a continuous background of noise about as well as adults —
showing differential selection as a function of frequency (Greenburg, 1970)
Other studies center on methods to improve infant auditory testing using
alternated stimuli to reduce response decrements (Ling, 1971) as well
as determining the effect of various audio stimuli on infants. Haverstein
(1969) found that generally, intensity must be from 23 dB above adult
threshold for voice, to 72 dB for a 4000 Hz stimulus. Voice generally
results in the largest percentage of responses for all age groups
(3 and 8 month old). Broadband spectrums also generate more responses
than those of-limited bandwidth (Mendel, 1971). Also, auditory stimu-
lation generally quiets crying babies more readily than non-stimulation
Bench, 1969).
7. Noise Effects and Children's Classroom Performance - Nober (1973)
demonstrates that auditory perception is adversely affected by noise in
the environment; therefore, children's auditory testing should be
conducted in a noise environment to be a valid index within the normal
classroom setting. This finding is further supported by Powers (1971)
who found that in a noise environment, retarded readers show a signi-
ficant (.005 level) decrement in mean auditory discrimination. However,
there is no auditory difference between cerebral palsied and neurologi-
cally unimpaired children (Griffin, 1971).
8. Interaction and Perceptual Effects of Noise:
a. Visual and Ocular Performance
Smith (1970 found that an acoustic signal administered before completion
of the adaptive afterimage process will cause prolongation of the
adaptive process and some defensive reactions. Intermittent noise also
affects visual search tasks similar to actual work situations (Warner,
1970). Additional findings show that the eye and ear behave as independ-
ent sensors presenting both a discrete decision and a measure of confi-
dence to the decision system (Corcoran, 1969). Interestingly, ocular
22
-------
responses (eye movements) only occur in a rotating sound stimulus
condition (McFarland, 1969).
b. Distraction Effects of Noise
Fisher (1974) found that noise bursts cause localized distraction effects
on a serial response bias in yes-no detection with gated noise and simul-
taneously gated signal plus noise and found both sequential and proba-
bility contrast effects dependent on the stability of the judgmental
frame of reference provided by the continuous noise.
c. Sex Effects
Kumar (1969) found that with female subjects, noise had a facilitating
effect on a mechanical task with no deterioration in performance on a
mental task contrasted to male deterioration on both.
d. Effects of Noise on "Sonar Doppler Discrimination and Auditory
Adaptation" were investigated by Smith (1971) and Synder (1971). Results
show a significant interaction between noise level and sensation level
required to maintain pitch discrimination thresholds. Frequency discrimi-
nation was not related to noise level.
e. Influence of White Noise on the Reversibility of the Necker Cube.
Letourneau (1971) found reversibility to be lowered with a sound of
1,024 Hz at 80 and 90 dB.
9. Interaction and Perceptual Effects of Light Stimuli on Audio Discrimi-
nation and Perception.
a. Melamed (1970) found that bright lights enhanced judgments of inten-
sity of soft tones, but Bothe (1970) found no consistent effect of aux-
iliary visual stimulation on absolute auditory sensitivity for subjects
examined in the dark with sound-synchronized flashes of different intensity
light.
23
-------
Abel, Sharon M. Duration discrimination of noise and tone bursts.
Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 1972, 51,(4, Pt. 2), 1219-
1223.
The human O's ability to discriminate a difference in duration was investi-
gated for noise bursts and gated sinusoids. Two undergraduate O's
compared 2 durations T and T + DELTAT in a 2-alternative forced-choice
procedure. The value of T ranged from .16 to 960 msec. For each T the
value of DELTAT for 75% discrimination was determined. Results show
that for most of the range investigated DELTAT was proportional to Tl/2.
Performance was not affected by a change in bandwidth from 3,500-200 Hz.
Values of DELTAT for 75% correct did decrease, however, when the O's
were given audible spectral cues from very short pulsed sinusoids. The
theory best describing the results was the neural counter model proposed
by C. Creelman.
Ahumada, AT & Lovell, John. Stimulus features in signal detection.
Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 1971, 49(6, Pt. 2),
1751-1756.
Short bursts of computer-generated Gaussian noise were rated by O.'s for
the presence or absence of a 500-Hz signal tone burst in 2 experiments
with 17 undergraduates and young faculty members. A multiple regression
analysis found tfor each p_ the linear combination of the energies in
narrow bands around the tone frequency that best predicted his total
ratings. The estimates of the regression coefficients provided graphs
of .the frequency responses of the (Vs. Most of the reliable variance
in the total ratings was accounted for by the regression analysis in
terms of energy in narrow bands. Differences among OJs are explained
in terms of differential weighting by Os of features labeled "tone
presence," "pitch," and "loudness."
Bench, John. Some effects of audio-frequency stimulation on the crying
baby. Journal of Auditory Research, 1969, 9(2), 122-8.
Two experiments are described in which crying babies were stimulated by
pure tones and noise bands of one minute duration. The babies generally
24
-------
quieted more readily when exposed to auditory stimulation than when
unstimulated. The effectiveness of the sound stimulus was in inverse
relation to frequency. Differential masking effects, tactile artifact,
and an innate pitch discrimination or preference are considered as ex-
planatory hypotheses.
Blegvade, B. Bekesy Tracings in normal listeners following centralateral
masking. Acto Oto-Laryngologica. 1968, 65(4) 349-57.
Bekesy fixed-frequency tracings for continuous tones were studied in
normal listeners before and after masking the contralateral ear with wide-
band noise of low and moderate intensity. The effect of contralateral
masking persisted beyond the masking period, and the effect was more
pronounced after the threshold drifts being observed. A weak masking of
one ear was regularly followed by tinnitus in the opposite ear exclusively.
Bothe, Gary 6. & Marks, Lawrence E. Absolute sensitivity to white noise
under auxiliary visual stimulation. Perception & Psychophysics, 1970,
8(3), 176-178.
Absolute sensitivity to white noise was measured with 0^ in the dark, in
constant illumination, and in the dark but with sound-synchronized flashes
of light at three different intensities. A confidence rating procedure
was used, and results were analyzed in terms of the theory of signal
detectibility. There appeared to be no consistent effect of auxiliary
visual stimulation on absolute auditory sensitivity for the four O's
examined.
Canahl, Julius A. Binaural masking of a tone by a tone plus noise.
Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 1970, 47(2, Pt. 2), 476-479.
It was hypothesized that the release from masking observed when noise is
masking a tone signal would be affected by the addition of a tone masker.
If the level of the tone masker is increased to a high enough value, there
should be no release from masking. Results of the study with 3 normal
hearing Ss show that a pure-tone masker does reduce the size of the
magnitude of the release from masking as a function of the level of the
25
-------
masking tone, but not to 0^ as was predicted. The effect was found to
be differential with respect to the phase of the tone masker and is
explained in terms of the interaural correlation of the total masker
waveform. Some evidence is presented that indicates release from masking
occurs when a tone is used to mask another tone.
Clopton, Ben M. Behavioral and neural aspects of increment detection
by monkeys for the intensity of wide-band Gaussian noise. Dissertation
Abstracts International, 1970, 31(2-B), 540.
Clopton, Ben M. Detection of increments in noise intensity by monkeys.
Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 1972, 17(3), 473-481.
Three male rhesus monkeys were trained to detect 100-msec increments in
intensity of continuous white noise. A response on 1 or 2 bars was rein-
forced if it conformed to the presence or absence of the increment on that
trial. Stimulus parameters of background intensity, increment size, and
probability of increment presentation were varied and response probabili-
ties and latencies recorded. Data analysis within the context of signal -
detection theory revealed response biasing toward 1 bar or the other to
be related to probability of increment presentation, whereas sensitivity
depended on combination of increment size and background noise intensity.
Weber's law herld for a large range of background intensities since sensi-
tivity to relative intensity increments varied little.
Corcoran, D. W. & Weening, D. L. On the combination of evidence from
the eye and ear- Ergonomics, 1969, 12(3), 383-394.
Four signals varying in frequency and beat-rate were presented for identi-
fication in noise over an oscilloscope (V), over earphones (A), or over
both systems simultaneously (AV). Four models were used to predict AV /
performance from performances on A and V. The most successful model
assumed that the eye and ear behave as independent 0/s, that the sensors
present both a discrete decision and a measure of confidence to the
decision system, that the certainty is proportional to the probability
of the discrete decision, and that an optimal weighting of certainties
26
-------
occurs in conflict between A and V. Reasons for divergencies between
bimodal word recognition and detection studies are discussed.
Davies, D. R. & Chapman, A. J. Relative loudness judgments of material
presented dichotically. Psychonomic Science, 1970, 19(4), 216-217.
Three groups of 12 undergraduates listened to white noise of 80, 90, or
115 dB. presented to one ear, while they shadowed words presented at an
intensity of 90 dB. to the other ear. Subsequently, Ss judged whether
the noise or the speech was louder or if they were of the same intensity.
All 12 Ss judged 90-dB shadowed speech to be louder than 80-dB noise,
11 Ss judged 90-dB shadowed speech to be louder than 90-dB noise, and
8 _Ss judged 90-dB shadowed speech to be louder than 115-dB noise.
Results support A. M. Treisman's filter-amplitude theory of attentional
selection.
Dolan, Terrence R. & Trahiotis, Constantine. Binaural interaction
in backward masking. Perception & Psychophysics, 1972, ll(l-B), 92-94.
The advantages of the binaural auditory system over the monaural system
were described when detecting a tonal signal in a background of masking
noise. These advantages are referred to as masking-level differences
(MLDS). It has been demonstrated that performance in detecting a tonal
signal that has been reversed in phase at one ear relative to the other
ear is about 15-17 dB. better than detection of the same signal in-
phase at the 2 ears when masked by moderately intense masking noise,
i.e., in-phase at the 2 ears. The explanations for this phenomenon
fall into 2 general categories, and both types of explanations are based
upon the interaction of the tonal signal and masker when they are added
together. Data are presented which indicate that an MLD of at least
4-5 dB. can be obtained in a binaural masking experiment in which the
offset of the tonal signal precedes the onset of the noise masker.
Dorosh, M. E. Tong, J. E. & Boissonneault, D. R. White noise,
instructions, and two-flash fusion with two signal-detection procedures
Psychonomic Science. 1970, 20(2), 98-99.
Two signal-detection procedures were used to parcel out the effects of
27
-------
white noise and instructions with a 2-flash discrimination task. Neither
condition influenced the sensitivity scores of either model. Variations
in instructions changed the criterion and threshold measures. High
correlation coefficients were obtained for the corresponding scores of
the 2 signal-detection analyses.
Elfner, L. F- Continuity in alternately sounded tone and noise signals
in a free field. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 1969,
46(4, Pt. 2), 914-917-
Two experiments are reported that employed 10 normally hearing listeners
who demonstrated an ability to concentrate on an interrupted white noise
that alternated with a tonal burst to demonstrate continuity effects
in a free-field situation and to investigate the effects of frequency
and level of the signal component, the duration of the noise component
and the angular separation of the 2 components. Results show that the
level and the duration variables effected changes in the perception of
continuity in the noise.
Feth, Lawrence L. Auditory signal detection in non-Gaussian noise.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 1970, 30(9-B), 4391.
Fisher, Shirley. A "distraction effect" of noise bursts. Perception,
1972, 1(2), 223-236.
The effects of 2-sec. 80 dB noise bursts on a 5-choice serial response
task were investigated using 18-26 year old enlisted naval ratings. A
localized effect of noise burst onset was reported. This effect was
confined to the distribution of first responses, following noise burst
onset but not offset, and occurred on only a proportion of trials.
Detailed analysis of the occurrence of the brief delays suggests that
there was no systematic occurrence, that the information processing
stage of the on-going serial response might be important, and, finally,
that distraction and not paralysis provided a better description of the
mechanism of the effect.
28
-------
Gabhardt, Carol J., Goldstein, David P. & Robertson, Ronald M.
Frequency discrimination and the MLD. Journal of the Acoustical Society
of America, 1972, 51(4, Pt. 2), 1228-1232
Binaural frequency difference limens were obtained in noise under homo-
phasic and antiphasic conditions. Signal frequencies of 200, 300, 500,
700, and 1000 Hz. were investigated at 5-and 10 dB sensation levels while
500 Hz was also explored at 15, 20, and 25 dB. The masker was a band-
limited noise with a spectrum level of 55 dB. Results with 4 normal
hearing adults indicate significant changes in discrimination behavior
as a function of phase condition and sensation level. Alternative inter-
pretations of the data are considered.
Goldberg, Israel A. Auditory intensity discrimination with bursts of
reproducible noise. Dissertation Abstracts International, 1972, 32(8-B),
4888-4889.
Greenberg, Gordon Z., Bray, Norman W. & Beasley, Daniel S. Children's
frequency-selective detection of signals in noise. Perception & Psycho-
physics, 1970, 8(3), 173-175.
Five children, median age 7 yr., and 6 adults, median age 20 yr., served
as 0/s in a task requiring the detection of auditory signals presented
against a continuous background of noise. Two alternative, temporal-
forced-choice trials of 5-sec duration were presented periodically in
blocks of 50 during 2 or 3 1-hr sessions. During a block, some 70% of
the signals were of 1000 Hz. and approximately 30% were probe signals of
a frequency other than 1000 Hz. After only rudimentary description of
the task, Ss performed adequately. Results from children and adults were
similar, showing differential detection as a function of signal frequency.
The demonstrated frequency selection is consistent with a sensory-filter
model of 0/s auditory behavior.
Griffin, Kathleen Mary Fleming. Certain auditory perceptual abilities
in selected cerebral palsied children. (Doctoral dissertation, University
of Oregon) Ann Arbor, Mich.: University Microfilms, 1971, No. 72-927.
• N
This investigation was an attempt to determine whether or not cerebral
29
-------
palsied children differ from normal children in auditory perceptual
abilities. Literature concerning neurologically impaired children in-
dicates that cerebral palsied children may be inferior to neurologically
unimpaired children in performance on auditory perceptual tests,
especially when such tests are presented in a background of noise.
The hypotheses were stated in the null form: (1) cerebral palsied children
do not differ from neurologically unimpaired children in performances on
auditory perceptual tasks; (2) children at any one age level do not differ
from children at another age level in performance on auditory perceptual
tasks; (3) the-children do not differ in performances on auditory percep-
tual tasks under three acoustic conditions; and (4) cerebral palsied
children do not differ from neurologically unimpaired children in perform-
ances on auditory perceptual tasks in background noise.
The experimental group was composed of 24 cerebral palsied children, six
at each of the following age levels: eight, nine, ten and eleven years.
All children had intelligence levels and bilateral hearing levels within
normal limits; they also had intelligible speech and attended an ele-
mentary school. A control group of 24 neurologically unimpaired children
of similar age levels, intelligence quotients and schools was selected.
>
>
Eight linguistic tests of auditory perception in three areas — auditory
verbal memory, auditory verbal sequencing and auditory verbal discrimi-
nation — were administered to the subjects by means of a tape recorder.
The tests were presented under three acoustic conditions: in quiet, in
a background of cafeteria noise at a signal-to-noise ratio of 30 dB and
in a background of cafeteria noise at a signal-to-noise ratio of 5 dB.
The Principal Components Analysis procedure and an analysis of variance
were used in processing the data: The major findings were:
1. The cerebral palsied children as a group did not differ significantly
from the neurologically unimpaired group in performances on auditory
perceptual tasks.
30
-------
2. A significant difference as a function of age level was found in the
performances of the cerebral palsied children and the neurologically
unimpaired children collectively; the performance of the eleven year
olds was superior to the performances of children at the the three young-
er age levels.
3. The interaction between age and group was not significant; the
cerebral palsied children and the neurologically unimpaired children
performed in a similar manner at all four age levels.
4. No significant differences were found in the performances of the
cerebral palsied children and the neurologically unimpaired children as
a function of acoustic condition. Apparently, neither presence nor
absence of background noise had a significant effect on the performances
of the subjects of this study.
5. The cerebral palsied children did not differ significantly from the
neurologically unimpaired children in performances on the auditory per-
ceptual tasks as a function of acoustic condition. The performances of
the cerebral palsied children were not affected by the background noise
to a significantly greater degree than those of the neurologically
unimpaired children.
It was concluded that a general deficit in auditory perception does not
exist in cerebral palsied children, although certain subgroups of
cerebral palsied children, such as those with low intelligence levels,
hearing impairments or linguistic deficits, may have auditory perceptual
problems. This investigation supports the use of auditory verbal
instruction for cerebral palsied children, at least for those with the
characteristics of the sample in this study. It does not support the
notion that presence of auditory background noise interferes with the
ability of cerebral palsied children to perceive auditory events.
31
-------
Gusev, E. K. Microinterval analysis of binaural hearing. Voprosy
Psikhologii, 1969, 15(6), 36-48.
Investigated the effect of separating the arrival of 2 tones, 1 at each
ear, by 1-5 msec, on binaural masking, loudness, and detectability of
the tones. It is suggested that the interaction of central effects
occurs in 3 stages: reciprocal sensory equilibrium, transitional, and
facilitation; the 1st 10 msec, of interaction being phasic, the rest
tonic.
Rafter, Ervin R., Bourbon, Walter T., Blocker, Anne S. & Tucker, Ann.
A direct comparison between lateralization and detection under conditions
of antiphasic masking. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America,
1969, 46(6, Pt. 2), 1452-1457.
Four §s (2 of the authors and 2 naive Ss) were instructed to indicate the
lateral displacement of signals presented at 5 levels of signal-to-noise
ratio. Signals were 500-Hz 100-msec bursts of tone heard in a wide-band
noise mask. A likelihood ratio analysis of lateralization data allowed a
direct comparison between detection based on lateralized differences and
detection obtained in a standard 2-interval forced-choice detection
experiment. It was found that the measure of detection based on later-
alization is ne.arly the same as that actually obtained in the convention-
,•*
al detection experiment.
Harris, J. Donald & Sergeant, Russell L. Monaural/binaural minimum
audible angles for a moving sound source. Journal of Speech & Hearing
Research, 1971, 14(3), 618-629.
Papers on monaural localization relating to the action of the vestibular
apparatus, influence of the auricle, and movements of the head were
reviewed. To test one conclusion of the review, that a moving sound source
should yield a continuous set of changing loudness/phase/timing cues
available to the ear, an experiment was. conducted which provides more
complete quantification of monaural/binaural comparison. Minimum
audible angles (MAA) were computed from the responses of 3 men, highly
experienced in listening, to white noise and tones produced by a moving
32
-------
sound source. Ss listened (a) with, both ears open, and 0 and 60
azimuth (az.) were as good as the binaural MM for white noise, and for
the lowest tone at 0. az., but distinctly inferior elsewhere. Both az.
and monaural/binaural mode effects reached high significance statisti-
cally. Data show much usable directionality for the monaural mode.
Haversten, G,H. & Moncur, J.P. Stimuli and intensity factors in testing
infants. Journal of Speech & Hearing Research, 1969, 12, 687-702.
Sound stimuli at each of four sound levels were randomly administered to
21 three month old and 22 eight month old infants. Pulsed white noise,
pulsed 500 Hz, pulsed 4000-Hz, pulsed voice, and music stimuli were
presented in a sound field through equi-distant loudspeakers via tape.
Behavioral changes were recorded by 20 Ss. As predicted, percentage of
response increased with increased sound level. In order to reach the
50% point of response, sound levels varying from 23 dB. (voice stimulus)
to 72 dB. (4000-Hz stimulus) above normal adult threshold were necessary.
Voice generally resulted in the largest percentage of responses for both
age groups at each hearing level. The three month old infants generally
gave fewer responses than the eight month old infants at comparable
hearing levels.
Hawkes, Glenn R. & Worsham, Robert W. Time perception for helicopter
vibration and noise patterns. Journal of Psychology, 1970, 76(1)>
71-77.
Judgments of stimulus duration for noise and for vibration for stimuli
ranging from .5-5 sec. were studied. Two methods were used, production
and reproduction, with either noise or quiet backgrounds. Eight male
undergraduates served as Ss. No significant effects were found for kind
of stimulation or for background condition. A consistent significant
effect of method was reported, a finding interpreted as supporting the
notion of a psychobiologic clock. Durations tended to be underestimated
with the production method and overestimated with the reproduction
method. The findings may be applicable to the task of the helicopter
pilot or to-others involving relatively intense stimulus environments.
33
-------
Hellman, Rhona P. Asymmetry of masking between noise and tone.
Perception & Psychophysics, 1972, 11(3), 241-246.
A pure tone was used to mask narrow and wide bands of noise centered on
the frequency of the tone. Four to six listeners participated in each
experimental series. In an experimental session, the SPL of the tone
was held constant and loudness balances were obtained between a masked
and unmasked noise band of equal width. Results are compared to earlier
measures of the partial masking of tone by noise. The comparison shows
that noise masks a tone more effectively than the tone masks the noise.
Although the effect of the tone on a critical band of noise is greater
than its effect on either an octave or wide-band noise, it is considerably
smaller than the effect of the noise on the tone. Decreasing the noise
bandwidth still further to a subcritical width reduces the asymmetry of
masking somewhat, but a difference at high intensities of about 20 dB.
between masking effects of an equally intense noise and tone remains.
Whether the masker is a tone or noise, masking ceases when the effective
energy of the masked and masking stimuli is the same.
Higenbottam, J. & Spreen, 0. Perceptual asymmetry with dichotically
presented click-sentence stimuli. Journal of Auditory Research, 1970,
10(2), 164-175.
>
;»
Three experiments were conducted on college students to determine the
effect of manipulation of presentation laterality on perception of click
location within sentences, each composed of six 2-syllable words.
Manipulation of stimulus configuration laterality by headphone or tape
channel reversal produced no differences in direction of click local-
ization in Exp. I. Increasing task difficulty in Exp. II and III
demonstrated localization differences associated with headphone reversal,
although in Exp. Ill these differences only approached significance.
Results are interpreted as an indication of perceptual asymmetry related
to right-hemisphere dominance in tasks involving the recognition of
sequential order.
34
-------
Irwin, R. J. & Terman, Michael. Detection of brief tones in noise by
rats. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 1970, 13(2),
135-143.
Two albino Charles River rats were trained to detect brief 8000-Hz tones
centered in a 1/3 octave band of noise. The procedure was analgous to
the yes-no method of human psychophysics in that one response was defined
as correct and reinforced if the tone were present in the noise, and
another response was correct and reinforced if the tone were absent.
The percentage of correct responses was determined by the energy in the
tone for the range of durations studied (75-600 msec.), e.g., if the
tone's duration were halved, its power was doubled to keep the percentage
of correct responses about the same. The ratio of energy in the tone to
power/cycle of noise needed to maintain 75% correct responses was about
36 dB. for one _S and 41 dB. for the other. Although the two responses
were similar, and their consequences equal, biases in responding were
sometimes observed.
Jeffress, Lloyd A. & McFadden, Dennis. Differences of interaural phase
and level in detection and lateralization. Journal of the Acoustical
Society of America, 1971, 49(4, Pt. 2), 1169-1179.
By employing the same narrow band of noise (50 Hz wide, centered at
500 Hz.) as both masker and signal, and by introducing a phase-shifting
network between the masking and signal channels, it is possible to
control the phase angle, ALPHA, between the two. For a given signal-to-
noise ratio, controlling the phase angle controls the relative magnitudes
of the interaural phase (time) difference and the interaural difference
in level between the stimuli at the two ears. When ALPHA lies between
0 and 90. and the signal is reversed at one ear relative to the other,
the interaural time and level differences favor the same ear. However,
when ALPHA is between 90 and 180., the ear that leads in phase or time
will receive the weaker stimulus, thus putting time and intensity into
opposition as cues to the lateralization of the stimulus. Data on both
detection and lateralization were obtained in two experiments with seven
35
-------
Ss, using the single-interval forced-choice procedure. Large masking-
level differences were found at all values of ALPHA, and good detection
was exhibited even at those values of ALPHA where time and intensity
were in opposition, and where performance in lateralization was very
poor. Substantial individual differences in the relative importance
of time and intensity as cues were found among the Ss.
Jerger, J. Principles and limitations of the Rainville methodology.
Audiology, 1971, 10(3), 129-137.
Considers M. Rainville's methodology which is based on the principle that
bone-conducted noise masks air-conducted tones in inverse proportion to
degree of sensorineural hearing loss. Principle advantages of the
methodology are (a) ease of calibration, and (b) the virtual elimination
of the problem of cross hearing. The principle limitation is that
sensorineural level is always measured in the occluded state. As a
result, comparison of test results with bone-conduction levels obtained
in the unoccluded state on patients with conductive loss can only be
made by correcting for the average occlusion effect of the earphone used
to deliver air-conducted tones to the test ear. This problem can be
overcome by the use of earphones that do not produce an occlusion effect.
Of the several*available test procedures based on this methodology the
>
simplest and easiest to administer is the SAL test. A recent modifi-
cation in scoring the SAL test is described which permits direct calcu-
lation of the conductive component rather than expressing sensorineural
level relative to an absolute norm.
Jesteadt, Walter H. & Bilger, Robert C. Frequency discrimination near
masked threshold. Perception & Psychophysics» 1969, 6(6-B), 405-408.
Frequency DLs (DELTAf) were obtained at 1000 Hz. in quiet and under
masking conditions similar to those used in pitch-shift experiments,
narrow-band noise at levels of 60, 80, and 100 dB. SPL and tones at 15 dB.
SPL or less. The DELTAfs were obtained by means of tracking task in which
five undergraduates and three laboratory staff members controlled the
36
-------
input voltage to a frequency modulator. Characteristic improvement was
seen when DELTAf was plotted as a function of sensation level. However
noise level itself was a significant factor, with more intense noise
resulting in larger DELTAfs for tones of equal sensation level re masked
threshold. This departure from previous findings is attributed to the
signal and noise levels used, although the possibility exists that it is
due to the use of modulated tones.
Keith, R. W. & Talis, H. P. The effects of white noise on PB scores of
normal and hearing-impaired listeners. Audiology, 1972, 11(3-4), 177-186.
Ten Ss with normal hearing, 10 with high-frequency hearing loss, and 10
with relatively flat hearing loss were selected to serve as experimental
listeners. All listeners yielded phonetically-balanced (PB) scores in
quiet of 92% or better, i.e., a hearing impairment was not reflected in
the PB score obtained in quiet. Central Institute for the Deaf Auditory
Test W-22: Phonetically-Balanced Words List 1 and 2 were presented at 40-dB
sensation level, the sensation level necessary for PB maximum. Words were
presented in quiet and in the presence of white noise. Three signal-to-
noise (S/N) ratios were used: +8, 0, and -8 dB. As the noise interfer-
ence level increased, PB scores deteriorated. The PB score of normal
hearing Ss deteriorated approximately 52% from the quiet to the -8-dB
S/N ratio, Ss with high-frequency hearing loss deteriorated approximately
57%, and Ss with flat hearing loss approximately 67%. The PB scores of
groups at the -8-dB scores of groups at the -8-dB S/N condition were
significantly different at the .01 level of confidence.
Kumar, P. & Mathur, C.N. Sex and Noise Distractibility. Indian Journal
of Applied Psychology, 1969, 6, 13-4.
Forty male and 40 female graduate students were given (a) a mechanical
cancellation task, and (b) a mental task involving simple arithmetic.
Noise was produced by two high-pitched electric bells. It was found that
with female Ss, noise had a facilitating effect on the mechanical task
and did not -cause a deterioration in performance on the mental task.
37
-------
With male Ss, deterioration was found in both tasks.
Larkin, Willard. Response mechanisms in detection experiments. Journal
of Experimental Psychology, 1971, 91(1)* 140-153.
Four Ss were required to rate the'subjective loudness of tones presented
in noise and to make decisions as to the presence or absence of signals.
Loudness ratings and detection decisions were studied in separate
experiments and then in experiments which required both responses to
be made on each trial. The loudness judgments were stable across sessions
and signal probability conditions, and the two responses could be made
on the same trials with no discerning interference. The relation between
the two responses was compared with predictions from psychological models.
While the data support the view that detection responses are composed of
sensory and decision stages, they are inconsistent with several tradi-
tional models. A variable criterion model is proposed which gives a
good account of the detection data.
Larkin, Willard & Greenberg, Gordon Z. Selective attention in uncertain
frequency detection. Perception & Psychophysics, 1970, 8(3), 179-184.
Uncertain frequency detection of brief sinusoids in noise were studied in
a special Yes^o paradigm that included single-frequency trials randomly
interleaved with trials on which either of two frequencies could be
presented. Contrary to implications from previous studies, and to
sensory filter models of attention, Os' deliberate attempts to impose
narrow- or wide-band listening had only a small effect on the relative
detectability of signals at 500 and 1100 Hz. If frequency selectivity
is to be understood as sensitivity adjustment (rather than as a recog-
nition process), the relevant parameters may be entirely stimulus
determined.
Leshowitz, Barry. Measurement of the two-click threshold. Journal of
the Acoustical Society of America, 1971, 49(2, Pt. 2), 462-466.
Os discriminated between a pair of 10-MUsec pulse and a single 20-MU
38
-------
sec pulse having the same total energy. The independent variable was
the time, DELTAT, between the two 10-MUsec pulses. The stimuli were
also presented as elements in a periodic pulse train. The DELTAT required
for resolution of two clicks (two-click threshold) was 10 MUsec. Whereas
the addition of a steady background noise produced a remarkably small
change in the magnitude of the two-click threshold, performance deterio-
rated markedly when the pulses were low-pass filtered. It appears that
discrimination of slight changes in the energy spectrum of the two
transient signals, especially in the high-frequency region (8000 Hz. and
above), underlies the ear's sensitivity to a temporal discontinuity.
Leshowitz, Barry & Wightman, Frederic L. On-frequency masking with
continuous sinusoids. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America,
1971, 49(4, Pt. 2), 1180-1190.
The detectability of brief, 1000 -Hz sinusoids added in phase or in
quadrature to a continuous tonal masker (pedestal) of the same frequency
as the signal in the presence of a continuous wide-band noise was examined.
Ss were three undergraduates, serving in each of two experiments. The
effects of signal duration, shape of the signal's energy-density spectrum,
SPL of the pedestal, and noise spectrum level were investigated. For
conditions in which the background noise level was low, two unusual
phenomena were noted: (a) a complete absence of the customary trading
relation between signal power and duration, and (b) an extremely shallow
masking function relating signal SPL and pedestal level. These departures
from the law of temporal integration and Weber's law are consistent with
a simple filter model of the ear in which it is assumed that the location
of the auditory filter is altered to changes in the parameters of the
signal and masker. A basic assumption of the model is that the location
of the filter is changed in order to maximize the ratio of signal energy
to masker energy at the output of the filter. For detection of a tonal
signal in the presence of another sinusoid, it appears that_§ can
listen at frequencies far removed from that of the signal, where signal
energy is as much as 40 dB. down from the peak.
39
-------
Letourneau, J.E. The influence of a white noise on the reversibility
of the necker cube. American Journal of Qptdmetry & Archives of
American Academy of Optometry, 1971, 48, 568-72.
Reversibility rates were studied in twenty-five 16-28 year old Ss looking
at a Necker cube while hearing a sound of 1,024 Hz at intensities of 50,
60, 70, 80 and 90 dB. Rate of reversibility was lowered by sounds of 80
and 90 dB. Time of adaptation and retinal rivalry had no effect, while
the active and passive attitude of the Ss influenced the rate of
reversals.
Ling, Daniel,- Heaney, Carole, & Doehing, Donald G. The use of alternated
stimuli to reduce response decrement in the auditory testing of newborn
infants. Journal of Speech & Hearing Research,1971, 14(3), 531-534.
Two narrow-band noises, one centered on 2,000 Hz. (Stimulus A), the other
on 1,250 Hz. (Stimulus B), were used to study behavioral response
decrement among 400 newborn infants. A set of three presentations was
administered to each !S at 90-dB SPL. Interstimulus intervals were not
less than 60 sec. For 1/2 the Ss, stimuli within sets were repeated
(either AAA or BBB); for the remainder, alternated (either ABA or BAB).
Response decrement occurred under the first condition, but not under the
second.
Lovell, John Dewey. Contra!ateral and ipsilateral pitch shift in wide-
band white or pink noise. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Calif-
ornia) Ann Arbor, Mich.: University Microfilms, 1971, No. 72-2854.
Pitch matches were made between a fixed standard tone at 100, 400, or
1600 Hz and a variable frequency tone occurring at different time periods
in the right ear. A 40 dB SL wideband white or pink noise occurred at
the same time as the standard tone in either the right or left ear.
When white noise was in the right ear, the results were similar to those
of previous investigations. Shifts at 100, 400, and 1600 Hz were respec-
tively about 0, 0.8, and 1.2 percent of the standard frequency, and
were in an upward direction. When pink noise was in the right ear, pitch
shifts were more negative by about 0.5 percent of the standard frequency.
40
-------
If pink or white noise were presented in the left ear, pitch shift was of
a comparable magnitude to the case of the right ear, but the shift
produced by pink noise was not consistently more negative than that
produced by white noise.
McCommons, R. Bruce & Hodge, David C. Comparison of continuous and
pulsed tones for determining Bekesy threshold measurements. Journal of
the Acoustical Society of America, 1969, 45(6), 1499-1504.
Two studies were performed to determine the parameters affecting the
sensitivity and variability of Bekesy thresholds. Exp. I (N=10 19-35
yr. old males) was concerned with the effects of varying period, duty
cycle, and frequency on threshold measurements obtained using pulsed tones
and was done to derive an "optimal" pulsed tone. Exp. II (N= three 20-24
yr. old undergraduates, highly trained) compared thresholds taken using
the optimized pulsed tone to those obtained with continuous tones. The
effects of varying attenuation rate with both types of presentation were
also investigated. Pulsed tones were found to yield superior threshold
measurements both in terms of greater sensitivity and less intratest
variability. Also, continuous tone thresholds were found to be suscep-
tible to changes in attenuation rate whereas pulsed tone thresholds were
not.
McFadden, Dennis & Pulliam, Kenneth A. Lateralization and detection of
noise-masked tones of different durations. Journal of the Acoustical
Society of America, 1971, 49(4, Pt. 2), 1191-1194.
On different blocks of trials, three Ss either detected or lateralized a
monaurally presented signal in a binaurally presented noise masker.
Eight values of signal duration, ranging from 50-800 msec., were used
for both detection and lateralization. The psychometric functions for
lateralization and those for detection differed in form, but, despite
this difference, both were displaced toward greater signal levels at
about the same rate as signal duration decreased. That is, the differ-
ence between lateralization and detection was approximately the same
for all signal durations. Signal: 400 cps. Masker: wide band noise,
41
-------
45 dB. SPL/cycle. Method: single interval forced choice.
McFarland, William H. & Weber, Bruce A. An investigation of ocular
response to various forms of sound field auditory stimulation. Journal
of Auditory Research, 1969, 9(3), 236-239.
Three different methods of sound field auditory stimulation were
presented to 12 normal-hearing young adults (a stationary white noise,
a white noise that alternated from side to side, and a rotating white
noise). Only the rotating sound stimulus condition created changes in
eye movements significantly different from those observed in controls.
The highly variable form of the response, the high rate of spontaneous
responses and the amount of time necessary to judge the records make
this technique appear clinically unfeasible.
Melamed, Lawrence E. & Thurlow, Willard R. Analysis of contrast effects
in loudness judgments, Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1971, 90(2),
268-274.
Evaluated the relative contributions of a pooled adaptation level and
nonsensory processes in the formation of contrast effects in loudness
judgments using both a category scale and a maximally extensive, number-
response language. Results with 160 female undergraduates indicate
that obtaining a contrast effect is not dependent on certain restrictive
features of the category-judgment language. However, the formal proper-
ties of the contrast effect were found to be characteristically different
from those derived from a sensory interpretation of its origin. A
memory-shift interpretation of S/s judgments is presented.
Melamed, Lawrence E. The role of response processes in the formation
of cross-modality assimilation effects. Perception & Psychophysics,
1970, 8(3), 185-188.
Found the enhanced judgments of intensity of soft tomes judged along with
a series of bright lights (assimilation effect) to be dependent on the
fact that the lights were judged coincidently. S>s were 90 female under-
graduates. This dependence was not observed in a parallel investigation
42
-------
of contrast effects in judgments of tones alone. Both the form of the
assimilation effect and its specific dependence on judging both stimulus
modalities argues against a sensory explanation. Instead, it is argued
that this cross-modality assimilation effect represents a resolution of
the specific difficulties involved in judging two qualitatively different
modalities on one judgment scale.
Mendel, Maurice I. Infant responses to recorded sounds. Journal of
Speech and Hearing Research, 1971, 11(4), 811-16.
Thirty, 4-11 month old infants were tested with five different recorded
sounds that varied in bandwidth and temporal configuration: a continuous
band of white noise, the same band of noise interrupted twice/sec, the
crinkling of onionskin paper, a narrow band of noise centered at 3000 Hz,
and a warbled 3000 Hz tone. With loudness and duration of the stimuli
held constant, more responses occurred to sounds composed of a broad-
band spectrum than to those of a limited bandwidth. Temporal configura-
tion of the sound had no effect on the number of responses elicited.
Moss, Stanley M., Myers, Jerome L., & Filmore, Thomas. Short-term
recognition memory of tones. Perception & Psychophysics, 1970, 7(6),
369-373.
Four right-handed undergraduate male Os participated in a recognition
memory experiment for five weeks. 0^was required to judge whether two
temporally sequenced tones of varied interstimulus interval (ISI) were
the "same" or "different". Latencies and confidence ratings were
obtained for each judgment. TSD analyses applied to individual (Vs data
indicated consistent and rapidly decreasing d's as a function of ISI.
Receiver-operating characteristic functions generated from the latencies
and ratings produced comparable results, indicating the feasibility of
using latency measures along with the type of judgments made to obtain
sensitivity measures. Response bias, as indicated by the differences
in the latencies between "same" and "different" judgments, did not
produce consistent trends.
43
-------
Mulligan, B. E. & Elrod, M. Monaural detection and filtering. Journal
of the Acoustical Society of America, 1970, 47(6, Pt. 2), 1548-1556.
Monaural detection of sinusoidal signals in noise were examined paro-
metrically with an interest in extending earlier work on prediction by
B.E. Mulligan and M. Elrod. The amplitude model is found to be compatible
with empirical psychometric functions, human receiver operating charac-
teristics, and the results of a narrow-band-noise experiment. Through
an interpretation of the amplitude model in terms of filter bandwidth,
an attempt is made to understand further the process of auditory filter-
ing. Bandwidth is shown to vary as a function of both signal frequency
and signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio. At very low S/N ratios, maximal tuning
occurs in the region of 2200-2300 Hz. At higher S/N ratios, tuning
improves as a function of frequency. To facilitate prediction, a table
is provided.
Murphy, E. H. & Venables, P- H. The effects of caffeine citrate and
white noise on ear symmetry in the detection of two clicks.
Neuropsychologia, 1971, 9(1), 27-32.
Previous studies were shown that when one or two clicks are presented
monaurally with white noise in the contralateral ear, there is consider-
able decrement in detection of two clicks presented to the right ear but
little change in detection for the left ear in comparison to the perform-
ance without contralateral noise. Thirty-six right-handed male and
female undergraduates performed a signal detection task. An inverted U
function was obtained when performance was tested with placebo, 375 or
500 mg. of caffeine citrate, for right and left ear, with and without
white noise. The relative superiority of the right ear performance
without caffeine citrate or white noise was significantly correlated
with right ear decrement with caffeine citrate or white noise. Results
are discussed with reference to strength of the nervous system, arousal
and differentiation of function of the right and left cerebral hemi-
spheres .
44
-------
Nober, Linda W. Auditory discrimination and classroom noise. Reading
Teacher, 1973, 27(3), 280-291.
Auditory research clearly demonstrates that auditory perception is
adversely affected by noise in the environment. Because of the presence
of noise in the environment, the noise factor is purposely introduced
into a variety of hearing tests by audiologists. Wepman's test on the
other hand, has been standardized in a quiet environment and widely used
as an index of a child's auditory discrimination does not serve as a
valid index within the normal setting.
Osman, Eli. A correlation model of binaural masking level differences.
Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 1971, 50(6, Pt. 2),
1494-1511.
A quantitative functional model was presented, to be used for interpreting
empirical results on binaural masking level differences (BMLDs), which
are obtained in experiments on the detection of sinusoidal signals
embedded in binaural noise. The receiver is presumed to behave as if
it computes a statistical decision variable equivalent to a linear
combination of three quantities, the energy levels at the channels deriving
from the two ears and the interchannel cross correlation, where the
coefficients are dependent on the interaural noise cross correlation and
the interaural amplitude ratio for noise, but are completely independent
of single parameters. Additive internal noise is assumed. Equations
for BMLDs are derived with the restriction of equal noise levels at the
two ears. Predictions derived from the model are compared with empirical
results from several studies. These show BMLDs for antiphasic, homophasic,
and monaural input configurations at different frequencies of tonal
signal, and BMLDs for varying interaural correlations of signal and of
noise, where the noise correlation is statistical or deterministic.
Similarities and differences between the correlation model and another
model, the equalization-cancellation model, are discussed.
45
-------
Paul, Robert G. The effect of contralateral noise on intensive differ-
ential sensitivity as measured by two variants of the quanta! stimulus
pattern employing continuous versus discontinuous background tones.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 1970, 30(9-B), 4398-4399.
Piazza, R. The masking of binaural heats, of a pure sound with a differ-
ential sound. Audiology, 1972, 11(3-4), 169-176.
The masking of binaural beats between a pure tone, stimulating one ear,
of fO + d frequency (d = Hz.) and the differential sound originated in
the other ear were examined by stimulation with the mixing of two pure
tones of frequency f1, f2 (f2-fl = fO). The masking sound was a third
octave filtered white noise, of nominal frequency fn variable between
200-4,000 Hz., and variable sound pressure. For each fn and for each
constant value of fO, f1, f2, the minimum SPL of the narrow band noises
for masking the beat was measured as a function of the frequency fn;
the SPL of the pure tones was maintained constant at 45 dB. the minimum
SPL of the narrow band noises for masking the normal beats (a pure tone
of 315 Hz. at the left ear, of 318 Hz. at the right ear) was determined.
The latter measurement gave, as expected, a very deep minimum at 315 Hz.;
from the other measurements some oscillations of experimental values
occurred, with a mean value generally decreasing as the nominal frequency
of the masking noise increased.
Pinheiro, Marilyn L. & Ptacek, Paul H. Reversals in the perception of
noise and tone patterns. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America,
1971, 49(6, Pt. 2), 1778-1782.
Perception of auditory patterns based on an intensity difference in 20
experienced normal hearing Ss was investigated under binaural and monaural
listening conditions. Patterns were made up of either three white-noise
bursts or three 1000-Hz tone bursts which were temporally spaced. Bursts
within each pattern differed only in intensity and were either loud (L)
or soft (S), i.e., either pattern included one of one intensity and two
of the other. The six possible patterns were SLS, LSL, LLS, SSL, and
SLL. The loud bursts remained at a constant intensity and the soft
46
-------
bursts were attenuated by either 9, 7, 5, or 3 dB. Patterns were
presented at 50 dB sensation level. Tone-burst patterns were easier to
perceive and resulted in a larger number of correct responses than
noise-burst patterns. However, there was no significant difference
between tone- and noise-burst patterns in the percentage of errors that
were pattern reversals. Symmetrical patterns were reversed more fre-
quently than asymmetrical patterns. Auditory pattern reversals are com-
pared to figure-ground reversal and simultaneous contrast phenomena in
vision and are discussed in relation to sensory inhibition.
Powers, Gerald William. A comparison of the auditory discrimination
ability of average and retarded readers when the auditory stimulus is
masked by noise. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Northern Colorado)
Ann Arbor, Mich.: 1971, No. 71-27,791.
The Problem
The purpose of the investigation was to determine if a difference exists
in the suditory discrimination ability of average and retarded readers
when the auditory stimulus was masked by noise.
Procedure
The setting for this study was the Industrial Acoustics sound studio at
the Special Education Laboratory School located on the campus of the
University of Northern Colorado at Greeley. The subjects for this study
consisted of thirty average readers and thirty retarded readers selected
fifth and sixth grades of District Six, Greeley Public Schools, Greeley,
Colorado. The test population was released from school, transported to
the testing site by taxi, tested, and returned to school.
The purpose of this study required the measurement of each subject's
speech reception threshold and auditory discrimination in quiet or when
the auditory stimulus was not masked by noise. Therefore, this investi-
gation considered three areas: (1) speech reception threshold, (2)
auditory discrimination in quiet, and (3) auditory discrimination in a
noise environment. An Allison 21 B Diagnostic Speech Audiometer, located
47
-------
in the sound field was used to measure these abilities. This study com-
pared average and retarded readers on all three auditory tasks. The
resulting scores were treated statistically using the "t" test of inde-
pendent samples for means and the "F" test for variance.
Findings
1. There was no statistical difference in the mean speech reception
thresholds for the average and retarded readers. There was no statis-
tical difference in the subjects' variability for speech reception
threshold.
2. There was no statistical difference in the mean auditory discrimina-
tion ability for average and retarded readers. There was no statistical
difference in the subjects' variability for auditory discrimination
ability.
3. There was a statistically significant difference in the mean auditory
discrimination in noise performance of the average and retarded readers.
In fact, the means were significantly different at the .0005 level,
although this level was not set prior to the investigation. There was
no statistical difference in the subjects' variability for auditory
discrimination in noise ability.
t
>
Conclusions
There was no difference in the speech reception thresholds or auditory
discrimination ability of the average and retarded readers when the
auditory stimulus was not masked by noise. However, the auditory discri-
minating ability of the retarded readers was significantly lower than
that of the average readers when the auditory stimulus was masked by
noise.
Recommendations
The hearing diagnosis of children with reading problems should include
an assessment of the child's auditory discrimination ability when the
auditory stimulus is masked by noise.
48
-------
auditory discrimination in noise discrepancies revealed in this research
exist among the general reading disabled population and among children
with learning disabilities in academic areas other than reading.
Raab, David H & Taub, Harvey B. Click-intensity discrimination with and
without a background masking noise. Journal of the Acoustical Society
of America, 1969, 46(4, Pt. 2), 965-968.
Three unusual effects of intensity discrimination employing click stimuli
observed by two adult Ss revealed: (a) clicks are difficult to differ-
entiate with respect to intensity; (b) the Weber function differs from
those usually obtained with stimuli of longer duration; and (c) click-
intensity discrimination is improved by the addition of a continuous
background noise. Since click stimuli have virtually no energy variations,
the results cannot be explained by stimulus-oriented theories of detection
and discrimination.
Rainbolt, Harry & Small, Arnold M. Mach bands in auditory masking: An
attempted replication. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 1972,
51(2, Pt. 2), 567-574.
The research attempted to replicate the 1969 report of E. Carterette,
M. Friedman and J. Lovell on the existence of auditory masking effects
similar to Mach bands in visions. Thresholds for sinusoids in anrrow
bands of noise were estimated for five listeners using an adaptive psycho-
physical procedure. Results show little, if any, similarity to Mach band
effects, but are in line with what would be expected based on a tradational
critical band concept.
Richards, Alan M. Perception of pitch i,n a white-noise mask. Journal
of the Acoustical Society of America, 1969, 45(5), 1180-1185.
Three mel scales were obtained, derived from fractionation data, and repre-
senting three differential noise conditions using 12 normal hearing
adults. The no-noise function differed in no essential manner from the
generally accepted mel scale advanced by S. S. Stevens (see PA, Vol.
49
-------
14:5382). However, upon the introduction of a wide-band masker, the
shape of the mel function became more positively accelerated. In general
when holding the intensity of the masker constant, this acceleration
was inversely related to the sensation level of the experimental tones
above masked threshold, and was not frequency dependent. Although this
relationship is not dependent upon frequency per se, the magnitude of
pitch shift increases with frequency.
Roberts, William Huddleston. The effect of pulsed and continuous test
tones on the central masking effects from centralateral narrow-band noise
stimulation. (Doctoral dissertation, Ohio University) Ann Arbor, Mich.:
University Microfilms, 1970.
The purpose of this study is to identify some of the effects of central
masking resulting from contralateral narrow-band noise. All subjects
are tested with and without occlusion of the outer ear- Effects on two
fixed frequencies, 500 and 4000 Hz are examined. Two types of test
signals, pulsed and continuous, are used with the contralateral narrow-
band masking.
A diagnostic test battery consisting of Bekesy audiometry, the SISI test,
and the Monaural Loudness Balance test was selected for the experiment.
Recent research has indicated that contralateral narrow-band masking
will depress the thresholds of a test ear and that the shift is most
pronounced when a continuous test tone is presented simultaneously with
continuous masking or a pulsed tone is presented with pulsed masking.
A Type II Bekesy pattern was also observed when the Bekesy pulsed tone
tracing was compared with the continuous tone tracing. In addition,
positive SISI scores have been reported with contralateral white-noise
masking at 80 dB. SPL. There was no report found in the literature which
used a test battery to study the effects of central masking.
Twelve adult female subjects who had a pulsed tone pre-test threshold
of 10 dB or better were selected for study. Two experimental sessions
utilizing the above mentioned test battery were held. In the first
session thresholds were obtained in quiet and with 40 and 60 dB, SL,
Contralateral narrow-band masking. The identical procedure was used for
50
-------
the second sessions except that the test ear was occluded by a plug of
Swedish Wool in order to raise the subject's auditory threshold. Effects
of the masking on the thresholds of the two test frequencies, 500 and
4000 Hz, were examined by Bekesy audiometry. SISI scores were obtained
for the 4000 Hz tone, only using all conditions of masking. In addition
a SISI score was obtained at 4000 Hz with the test tone elevated to 70 dB,
SPL. For the MLB 500 Hz was used for the reference tone and 4000 Hz for
the test tone.
Rochester, Sherry. Detection and duration discrimination of noise
increments. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 1971,
49(6, Pt. 2), 1783-1789.
When weak signals are presented in a background of continuous noise, the
process of detection and the discrimination of a change in duration
appears to be very similar. Two experimental techniques were used (with
one male and two female listeners in each group) to investigate duration
discrimination. The procedure in which the difference in duration between
signals, DELTAT, was varied given a fixed signal-to-noise ratio gave
different results than the procedure in which signal amplitude was varied
given a fixed DELTAT. Although there were marked individual differences,
all Ss roughly supported the general conclusion.
Sandusky, Arthur, & Ahumada, Al. Contrast in detection with gated noise.
Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 1971, 49(6, Pt. 2), 1790-94.
In two experiments with 10 undergraduates and young faculty members, the
response bias in yes-no detection with gated noise and simultaneously
gated signal plus noise was found to show.both sequential and probability
contrast. The sequential dependencies* showed that the more recent a
signal event, the more the response bias shifts away from yes. Similarly,
the more probable the presentation of a signal, the more the response
bias shifts away from yes. The response bias in detection with continuous
noise usually shows the opposite effect response assimilation. The proba-
bility of a yes response increases with either greater probability or with
51
-------
signal recency. It is suggested that the response-bias learning which has
been postulated to occur in detection experiments depends on the stability
of the judgmental frame of reference provided by the continuous noise.
When this basis is removed, as in the present study, the response pattern
parallels that usually observed in signal recognition studies for which
responses are assumed to depend on the memory of the previous presenta-
tions. It is concluded that the response pattern assimilation or contrast
depends more on the stability of the frame of reference than on the type
of psychological task.
Scharf, B. & Fishken D. Binaural summation of loudness: Reconsidered.
Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1970, 86(3), 374-379.
Loudness functions for a 1000-Hz tone and a white noise, presented
monaurally and binaurally were measured by the methods of magnitude estima-
tion and magnitude production. Results suggest that the ratio of binaural
to monaural loudness for tone and noise is between 1.6 and 1.85 over an
intensity range from 40- to 110-dB SPL. Within this range, the ratio
for white noise increases with SPL, but does not exceed two. The loud-
ness functions for monaural and binaural tones are power functions with
the same exponent, whereas those for noise are not power functions but
are bowed, on log-log coordinates, relative to the tone functions,
being being steeper below about 50- dB SPL and flatter above. The loud-
ness of binaural noise increases more rapidly with SPL than the loud-
ness of monaural noise.
Smith, Gudmund J., Sjoholm, Lena & Andersson, Alf L. Effects of
extraneous stimulation on afterimage adaptation. Psychological Research
Bulletin, 1970, 10(7), 10 p.
Projected afterimages (AI) were measured serially with respect to size,
intensity, and color. It was predicted that an acoustic signal admin-
istered before completion of the adaptive AI process would cause:
(a) disruption of ongoing trends, (b) regression to initial trends,
(c) prolongation of the adaptive process, and (d) at least some defen-
sive reactions. Predictions were substantiated in a group of 26 under-
52
-------
graduates and nonsevere cases from a psychiatric clinic compared with
26 controls.
Smith, Paul F. & Koch, Martha. Sonar doppler discrimination in high noise
environments. U.S. Naval Submarine Medical Center Report, 1971, 651,
12 p. ~~~
The ability of antisubmarine warfare helicopter-borne sonarmen to perform
doppler discrimination in the high background noise existing aboard rotary
winged aircraft was studied. Ss were 45 enlisted men. Performance on
a frequency discrimination task was measured under conditions in which
the background noise was varied in intensity up to levels approaching
those found aboard helicopters. The level of the signal was also varied
such that under some conditions the signal was only slightly audible
above the noise while under some conditions the signals were clearly
audible. It was found that the intensity of the noise was not, of itself,
related to the acuity of frequency discrimination. Pitch discrimination
was relatively unaffected by noise level but greatly dependent on sen-
sation level. A significant interaction between noise level and sen-
sation level was observed.
Schulman, Arthur I. & Greenberg, Gordon Z. Operating characteristics
and a priori probability of the signal. Perception & Psychophysics, 1970,
8(5-A), 317-320.
Two experiments in auditory signal detection produced changes in the
operating characteristic as the a priori probability of signal occurrence,
p(SN), was varied. The signal was a sinusoid of 1000 Hz. presented for
250 msec, against a continuous background of noise to 6 listeners. In
Exp. I, three values of p(SN) .25, .50, and .75 were paired with each of
3 signal intensities. In Exp II, the signal intensity was fixed and
p(SN) was assigned values of .10, .25, .50, .75, and .90. On normal-
normal coordinates, operating characteristics were fitted to the points
obtained from the 4-point rating scale used by Ss. Such characteristics
may be specified by two parameters: ds, and index of detectability related
to d', and m,-its slope. While ds was found to be independent of p(SN),
53
-------
m was found to be independent of p(SN), m was found to be a joint function
of p(SN) and signal intensity. Results are discussed against the back-
ground of the theory of signal detectability.
Snyder, Jack M. The influence of contralateral noise on auditory adap-
tation in normal listeners. Dissertation Abstracts International,
1972, 32(9-B), 5514.
This study was designed to examine the effects of technique and of contra-
lateral noise masking on the amount of threshold tone decay found in
normal ears.
Forty adults with normal hearing were asked to maintain sensitivity
threshold for tonal stimuli over periods of sixty seconds. Temporal data
were recorded at each of the intensity increments, in 5 dB steps, which
were required to maintain threshold. Each subject received forty
stimulus conditions: two test paradigms (the Carhart and the Owens
techniques) presented at four frequencies (500, 1000, 2000 and 4000 Hz)
in quiet and in four conditions of contralateral noise (40 dB narrow-
band). Presentations order was counterbalanced to preclude biased
results.
No significant differences were found between the results obtained with
the two test techniques.
Moderate degrees of tone decay were shown in the quiet condition. Such
findings had previously been attributed to the presence of cochlear
lesions. Mean and maximum levels of tone decay increased as a function
of stimulus frequency.
Similar results were found for the experimental noise condition. Statis-
tically significant tone decay differences were related to the frequency
of the test tone, the sensation level of the masker (40 dB vs 60 dB SL),
and the masker band width (broad-band noise vs narrow-band noise centered
around the test tone). Under masked conditions there were relatively
high percentages of subjects who demonstrated degrees of decay which
54
-------
would be interpreted as being pathognomonic of retrocochlear auditory
lesions.
Data from masked conditions were further analyzed as to the influence
of the central masking phenomenon.
Thurlow, Willard R. & Mergener, James R. Effect of stimulus duration
on localization of direction of noise stimuli. Journal of Speech &
Hearing Research, 1970, 13(4), 826-838.
Localization of the direction of bursts of thermal noise by untrained under-
graduates was measured for both high- low- frequency bands, as a function
of duration of bursts. Durations of .3, 1, 2, and 5 sec. were used. Ss
were free to move their heads to aid in localization. With increase in
stimulation duration, perception of elevation was slightly improved for
low-frequency noise, probably due to increased information from head
movement. A minimum performance (which still was not very good for
these low-frequency stimuli). Perception of the elevation of the high-
frequency noise sources was relatively good even at the briefest durations.
Perception of front-back source position was much improved for both low-
and high- frequency noise when stimulus duration was increased. Results
are discussed in terms of the increased possibility for head movement
with increase in stimulus duration.
Tonning, F. M. Directional audiometry: III. The influence of azimuth
on the perception of speech in patients with monaural hearing loss.
Acta Qto-Laryngologica, 1971, 72(6), 404-412.
The directional threshold of intelligibility (DTI) was measured both with
and without background noise, in 37 patients with one-sided hearing
defects ranging from a 30-dB loss to total deafness. Free field speech
audiometry was done with an apparatus permitting independent radial
positioning of a speech and a noise loudspeaker on S/s head. It was
found that DTI without noise was determined not only by the amount of
the hearing loss in the defective ear, but also by slight variations
55
-------
in the hearing ability of the good ear. A relationship was also found
between the DTI without noise the normal ear's Pure Tone Average (PTA)
in the range 500, 1000, and 2000 Hz. When speech was reproduced against
background noise, the bad ear contributed to the perception of speech if
S^ had one sided PTA of 53- dB hearing level or less.
Tonning, F. M. Directional audiometry: IV. The influence of azmith on
the perception of speech in aided and unaided patients with monaural
hearing loss. Acta Oto-Laryngologica. 1972, 73(1), 44-52.
The directional threshold of intelligibility (DTI) was measured in 20 right-
handed 12-68 yr.. old patients with monaural hearing loss varying from a
pure tone average of 20-dB hearing level to residual hearing. Without
background noise, DTI with hearing aid was better than the DTI without
hearing aid in two of the four positions of the signal loudspeaker.
The difference was statistically significant, at p <.05. With background
noise, DTI with hearing aid was significantly better than without hearing
aid in 6 of the 16 combinations of signal and noise loudspeakers. For
all 20 experimental listening conditions, DTI was better with hearing aid
than without in 11 Ss. For the 16 experimental listening conditions
with background noise, a significantly better DTI was found in nine Ss.
Two Ss showed a poorer DTI with hearing aid than without. Results
indicate the importance of evaluating the effect of hearing aid treat-
ment of monaurally hard-of hearing patients after a sufficiently long
trial period.
Viemeister, N. F. Intensity discrimination: Performance in three paradigms.
Perception & Psychophysics, 1970, 8(6), 417-419.
Performance was compared in the following auditory intensity-discrimination
paradigms: (a) 2IFC, (b) single-interval rating with an intensity
cue preceding each observation internal, and (c) single-interval rating
with no cue. Receiver-operating characteristic curves obtained in the
single-interval conditions could be approximated by assuming that the
underlying distributions were both normal and had equal variance. No
larger difference was observed between performance in the cue and the
56
-------
no-cue conditions. The normalized separation of the means for 2IFC was
approximately twice the corresponding estimate for the single-interval
conditions, i.e., d2 = 1.91dl. This is consistent with the hypothesis
that the 0 in intensity-discrimination tasks bases decisions on the
difference between the observed input and that of a noisy stored refer-
ence. The familiar result that d2 = (2)1/2 dl can be predicted for
simple detection.
Viemeister, Neal F. Intensity discrimination of pulsed sinusoids: The
effects of filtered noise. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America,
1972, 51(4, Pt. 2), 1265-1269: "~ "
It has been shown repeatedly that Weber's law does not hold for intensity
discrimination of pulsed tones. The masking function for such waveforms
(10 logDELTAI vs. logl, for constant performance) typically is linear
with a slope of 0.9 over a range in I of at least 60 dB. Results of an
experiment with two listeners indicate that the slope of the masking
function increases from 0.9-1.0 as regions above the signal frequency
are masked by filtered noise. A sufficient condition for a slope of 1.0
is a high-pass noise which masks regions at and above the second harmonic
of the signal. This suggests that the "near miss" to Weber's law reflects
the (Vs use of information at aural harmonics. A model based upon this
notion gives a good quantitative account of the data. The amount of
distortion assumed in the model is in reasonable agreement with other data.
Warner, Harold D. Effects of intermittent noise on visual search tasks
of varying complexity. Dissertation Abstracts International, 1971,
31(11-8), 6963.
The diverse nature of the results of studies investigating the relation-
ship of intermittent noise and human behavior suggest that noise produced
performance effects are dependent on the combination of the unique
characteristics of the sound stimulus and the nature of the performance
task. The purpose of this investigation was to test the interaction of
intermittent noise and task complexity with parameters selected on the
basis of the degree to which they simulate actual work situations. The
57
-------
no.ise was varied in terms of the total noise on-time in successive
intervals, i.e., the on-off ratio of the sound stimulus. The ratios
utilized were 30, 70, and 100 percent noise on-time in successive five
second periods. Subjects were also tested with noise absent which served
as a control comparison. The performance task was a visual search task
which required the subjects to scan a display and report whether the
display contained a critical "target". The target was an odd, or dis-
similar, letter randomly positioned among a background of single letter
characters. This configuration of letters was prepared on 35 mm. slides
and was projected on a screen. A target appeared on an average of once
every five slide presentations. The number of background characters
defined the level of task complexity. The number of background letters
used among which a target could appear was 8, 16, and 32 letters.
Twenty-two subjects were tested under all noise and task combinations,
a total of 12 test conditions per subject. Analyses of the data, measured
on the parameters of target search time, and detection error, confirmed
the hypothesis that noise effects are dependent on the nature of the
performance task. Furthermore, it was shown that noise effects change
over time as a function of adaptation and operator fatigue. Detection
errors and latency over time were observed to shadow each other in a
series of "saw-tooth" configurations. This was suggested to result from
changes in arousal as the time at task progressed. Noise effects on
reaction time for the various task complexity levels were hypothesized
to be related to changes in operator arousal due to the rate of signal
presentation and differences in the total stimulus input of the noise
stimulus.
Webster, J. C. & Lepon, M. Noise, you can get used to it. Journal of
the Acoustical Society of America, 45(3), 751-7.
On the basis of several laboratory studies, a three band preferred
frequency speech interference level (PSIL) of 64 dB (based on the
octaves centered at 500, 1000, and 2000 Hz.), or an A-weighted level
(LA) of 71 dB., were proposed as the criteria levels for acceptable
58
-------
voice communications. Two validation surveys were undertaken where
ambient noise levels were measured and subjective questionnaires were
completed in various ships' spaces. Ss rated a space along a five
point scale of noisiness (very quiet, quiet, moderately noisy, very
noisy, and intolerably noisy); responses tended to center on moderately
noisy regardless of objective noise level.
Webster, John C., Woodhead, Muriel M., & Carpenter, Alan. Perceptual
constancy in complex sound identification. British Journal of Psychology,
1970, 61(4), 481-489.
This research investigated whether there are perceptual constancies between
classes of complex sounds, even though the acoustic information is very
different. Seventeen male listeners identified sounds consisting of vowels,
musical instrument tones, and meaningless buzz sounds, presented at three
different fundamental frequencies (octave shifts), and at three signal-to-
noise differentials. The sounds were numbered but not named. The vowels
had voice-like quality in mid-octave (110-Hz.); the musical tones sounded
music-like at the highest octave (220 Hz.); at the lowest octave (55 Hz.)
both music and vowels were physically meaningless; the meaningless buzz
sounds had no greater relevance in one octave than any other. These buzz
sounds could be distinguished from each other by differing harmonic
patterns. It was found that, in the absence of masking noise, the vowels
were better identified in midoctave than were the musical and meaningless
sounds. The musical sounds were not better identified than the others
in high octave. The meaningless sounds were unexpectedly easier to
identify in the low octave. They generally withstood thermal noise mask-
ing well, but not buzz masking, compared with the musical and vowel sounds.
It was more difficult to identify musical and vowel sounds during thermal
noise masking than during buzz masking. It is concluded that the fixed
ratio hypothesis is not applicable to vowel (formant) sounds within the
octaves tested, but may be used to explain the constancy of identification
for sounds which depend on harmonic patterning.
59
-------
Young, I. M. Effects of ipsilateral masking on Bekesy amplitude.
Journal of Auditory Research, 1968, 8(4), 357-365.
Bekesy amplitude width for both pulsed and continuous signals was
studied in quiet and in the presence of ipsilateral masking stimuli for
three normal listeners and for 48 patients with pure sensorineural hear-
ing loss; tracing width was found to be similar with and without masking.
Amplitudes were not affected by masking intensity level, different mask-
ing stimuli, or ascending or descending method for both sweep- and
discrete-frequency tracings in normal and pathological ears. White noise
and narrow band noise were used as a masker when pure tone was the test
stimulus, and pure tones were used as masking stimulus when testing with
white noise.
Young, I. M. Effects of pure-tone masking on low-pass- and high-pass-
filtered noise. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 1969,
45(5), 1206-1209.
Threshold measurements for low-pass and high-pass-filtered noise were
obtained in the presence of pure tones in three trained listeners with
normal hearing. High-pass-filtered noise with cutoff frequencies at
2400 Hz. and above yielded masking peaks near the cutoff frequencies.
When noise was filtered with cutoff frequencies at 1200 Hz. and below,
pure tones of 800 and 1000. Hz. had the greatest masking effect. For
low-pass-filtered noise, as the bandwidth increased, masking peaks
moved from low frequency to high.. The masking effect was indistinguish-
able from that of white noise when filtered noise was cutoff at frequen-
cies of 2400 Hz. and above. Results suggest that there is a definite
mechanical resonant frequency effect on noise when the width of filtered
noise exceeds a critical value. Masking effects are discussed in re-
lation to mechanical resonant frequency and the interaction of difference
and summation tones.
60
-------
COGNITIVE AND LEARNING
The findings relative to the learning and cognitive effects of noise are
not easily interpreted. There are seeming inconsistencies in the results
of many experiments. These discrepancies may be due to the specific
noise levels and tasks involved, especially if an arousal effect takes
place. Further, research is needed to clarify the exact relationships
between the arousing and distracting effects of noise.
Some researchers in this area have noted noise-induced facilitation of
learning and cognitive performance (e.g. Archer & Margolin, 1970;
Fechter, 1972; Houston, 1969, 1971; Rosenberg & Jarvella, 1970; Samtur,
1969), while others observe a decrement in performance (e.g., Bates &
Howath, 1971; Brown & Jackson, 1971; Finkelman, 1970; Hartley & Adams,
1973; Rai, 1973; Hartley a,b; Nober, 1973; Renshaw, 1973). Some of the
discrepancy appears to depend on the intensity and length of exposure
of the noise. There seems to be no simple answer to the question of
noise facilitation/impairment on cognitive tasks. In addition to the
problems discussed above, some researchers have found sex, age, and
socioeconomic differences (Anderson, 1973; Kumer, 1969; Mansfield,1971;
Mathur, 1972). Others have shown differential effects depending on the
kind of noise (Wolf & Weiner, 1972). Still others have found no affects
at all (e.g. Mowsesiah & Heyer, 1973; Meyers, 1971). To further
complicate the problem, Harcum & Monti (1973) have demonstrated that
Ss will "cooperate" with the £ on noise disturbance ratings unless this
factor is controlled.
Allen, Dorothy, C. Noise tolerance categories and aspects of teaching.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 1970, 31(5-A), 1986.
This study was designed to answer three questions: (1) Is there a rela-
tionship between a teacher's tolerance of noise and his teaching pattern
as described by Flanders' Interaction Analysis? (2) Is there a realtion-
ship between a teacher's tolerance of noise and age? (3) Is there a rela-
61
-------
tionship between a teacher's tolerance of noise and his sex?
Of a population of 311 fifth and sixth grade teachers, a random sample
of 30 participated in the study. During phase one, individual appoint-
ments were made to collect data on noise tolerance, age, and sex. Kines-
thetic measurements as described by Aseneth Petrie were recorded for the
purpose of validating the noise tolerance instrument.
The split-half method was utilized to determine the reliability of the
noise tolerance instrument.
To establish the -teacher's noise tolerance score video and audio tapes
were utilized. Each participant viewed two 10-minute video tapes; and
unknown to the participant, the sound track was exactly the same for each
video tape. The first 10-minute segment was a sixth grade mathematics
class, which was described as a purposeful activity; the second was the
same class in the same room for a lunch period, which was described as a
non-purposeful activity. The recorded sound level started at approxi-
mately 35 decibels and ended at approximately 100 decibels. The controls
on the video and audio equipment were set at fixed points for testing each
person. To mark the categories, '"annoying" and "unacceptable" for the
purposeful activity, the number of seconds that elapsed in the 10-minute
period were recorded on two electric clocks. The same procedure was
utilized for the 10-minute non-purposeful activity.
Phase two involved the coding of each teacher's classroom behavior. The
instrument utilized was Flanders' Interaction Analysis. Three 20-minute
visits were coded. From these data the teacher's Indirect/Direct ratio
was computed.
The rank difference method was employed to test each of the hypotheses
dealing with noise tolerance and Indirect/Direct ratio. The product-
moment coefficeint of correlation was selected for testing the relation-
ships between noise tolerance and age. The point biserial r was utilized
62
-------
for testing the relationships between noise tolerance and sex. Each
hypothesis was tested for statistical significance at the .05 level.
The following conclusions were drawn on the basis of statistical likeli-
hood from data collected in this study:
Of the five hypotheses relating to noise tolerance and Flanders' Indirect/
Direct ratio, one correlation coefficient was significant. This statisti-
cal significance implies that a relationship existed between "annoying"
noise during a purposeful activity and the Indirect/Direct ratios. These
findings suggest that the more indirect teacher has a greater tolerance
for noise described as "annoying" during a mathematics class.
Of the five hypotheses relating noise tolerance and age, there were two
significant correlation coefficients. These significient coefficients
were both in the area of purposeful noise. These findings suggest that
the older the teacher the less tolerant he was of "annoying" noise and
"unacceptable" noise during a purposeful activity. All of the correla-
tion coefficients between noise tolerance and age were in the same direc-
tion (minus).
There were no significant correlation coefficients found in testing any
of the hypotheses relating noise tolerance and sex. All of the coef-
ficients were very low, indicating that even a chance relationship was
negligible.
In comparing the correlation coefficients between noise tolerance during
a purposeful activity and noise tolerance during a non-purposeful activity,
all significant or even relatively high coefficients were in the area of
purposeful activity. It would appear that the meaning the teacher brings
to the noise in the educational setting is a factor in tolerance.
Alumbaugh, Richard V. & Takemura, Kenichi. Variable noise and informal
transmission. Psychonomic Science.1973, 27(6), 351-352.
This research describes an experiment with 75 undergraduates in which noise
63
-------
levels were varied systematically to determine the effects on information
processing. Slides consisting of circular dots (relevant information)
and triangles (irrelevant information) were presented tachistoscopically.
Ss task was to correctly identify the number of dots. Dots varied
from 3-12 quantitatively, while triangles varied from 0-3. Results
suggest that noise may have a limen similar to channel capacity for
relevent stimuli, and response set needs to be examined more closely
as a biasing effect on information transmission.
Anderson, Patricia A. Social class, noise and performance. Dissertation
Abstracts International, 1973, 33(6-B), 2784.
This study concerned the development and social class differences during
three types of noise. Three classes each of second and sixth graders
from a school in a suburban area of Washington state were tested on
three kinds of performance items (Porteus Mazes, word completion, and
counting) while listening through earphones to two four minute periods
each of silence, white noise, and home noise. All children were white
and without identified hearing problems. Sixty-one second graders and
fifty-eight sixth graders were identified by socioeconomic status and
served as subjects for the experiment. Results of the testing indicated
significant differences on the noise by social class interaction variables
>
for second graders. Middle class second graders do more poorly in the
white noise and home noise condition than in the silence condition.
Lower class children do equally well in each of the three conditions.
Analysis of the sixth grade results indicated no significant differences
although graphically the middle class sixth graders did equally well
in the silence and white noise condition and better under the home noise
condition. Lower class children did equally well in each of the three
conditions. A comparison between middle class second and sixth graders
was significant indicating that second graders do worse during the
home noise condition than in the silence condition and sixth graders do
better during the home noise condition than during the silence condition.
A comparison with lower class second and sixth graders was not significant,
suggesting no developmental differences.
64
-------
Archer, Barbara U. & Margolin, Robert R. Arousal effects in intentional
recall and forgetting. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1970, 86(1),
8-12.
Effects of white noise-induced arousal upon intentional remembering and
forgetting was studied using 2-digit numbers vs stimuli, followed 3 sec.
later by the instruction "remember it" or "don't remember". 16 stimuli
(8 in conjunction with white noise and 8 without) were presented to 24
male and 24 female indergraduates. For 1/2 of the Ss, the noise, when
it occurred, was presented just prior to the stimulus, while for the
remaining Ss, noise occurred after the stimulus but prior to instruc-
tions. Significantly more remember items were recalled than don't
remember items. White noise had no effect on intentional forgetting,
but did produce significant facilitation of recall of remember items,
and that facilitation was significantly greater for men than for women.
A significant difference did not result for the temporal point of noise
introduction.
Bates, F.C. & Horvath T. Discrimination learning with rhythmic and
non-rhythmic background music. Perceptual & Motor Skills,1971, 33(3,
Pt.2), 1123-1126.
The performance of 30 male Long-Evans hooded rats on a discimination
problem was studiaed in a 4-choice apparatus while exposed to 1 of 6
auditory stimulus conditions: (a) a selection of Mozart, (b) an
amelodic version of this piece, (c) a selection of Schoenberg, (d) an
amelodic version of this piece, (e) white noise, and (f) quiet. None
of the groups acquired the discrimination more quickly than quiet
controls. Ss exposed to the Schoenberg music, the amelodic version of
it, and to white noise performed more poorly than the controls. It is
concluded that the presence of nonrhythmic auditory stimulation is
detrimental to performance on a discrimination task.
Brown, C. & Jackson, D.E. The effects of high-intensity noise in early
development upon behavior in the adult rat. Proceedings of the Annual
Convention of the American Psychological Association,^! ,6,207-8.
65
-------
Following 30 days (age 26-56 days) of either high-intensity noise
exposure or control conditions, 38 rats were subsequently either trained
in a U maze or tested in an open field. Analysis of variance revealed
significant Noise, and Noise X Sex interaction effects on U maze perform-
ance. No differences in the open field test were observed. These
results suggest a differential sex effect of noise on subsequent learn-
ing where emotional factors have been controlled.
Cohen, Sheldon: Glass, David C., & Singer, Jerome E. Apartment noise,
auditory discrimination, and reading ability in children. Journal of
Experimental Social Psychology, 1973, 9(5), 407-422.
The relationship between auditory and verbal skills of 73 children in
grades 2-5 and noise level of their homes was studied with expressway
traffic as the principal source of noise. Initial decibel measurements
in a high-rise housing development permitted use of floor level as an
index of noise intensity in the apartments. Ss living on the lower
floors of 32-story buildings showed greater impairment on the Auditory
Discrimination Test and Metropolitan Achievement Tests (MAT) than Ss
living in higher-floor apartments. Auditory discrimination appeared to
mediate an association between noise and MAT reading deficits, and length
of residence in the building affected the magnitude of the correlation
between noise and auditory discrimination. Additional analyses ruled
out explanation of the auditory discrimination effects in terms of social
class did, however, somewhat physiological damage. Partialling out social
class did, however, somewhat reduce the magnitude of the relationship
between noise and reading deficits. Results are interpreted as document-
ing the existence of long-term behavioral aftereffects in spite of noise
adaptation.
Fechter, John Vadnais, Jr. The effects of noise on human learning.
(Doctoral dissertation, University of SoutK Dakota) Ann Arbor, Mich.:
University Microfilms, No. 72-32728.
A series of three experiments was conducted to determine the effects of
66
-------
noise on verbal and motor learning. In the first experiment, a low-
level, irregular sound was presented during paired-associate learning
and recall sessions. Motor learning on the pursuit rotor was accom-
plished with or without loud noise and with or without a subsidiary
task in the second experiment. The last experiment concerned the
effects of loud, intermittent noise on a complex compensatory tracking
task and a subsidiary task.
Experiment I presented paired-associates comprised of consonant-vowel-
consonant (CVC) nonsense syllables of 0% association value, paired with
the numbers 0 through 9. A novel sound presented at 75 dB(A) which was
presented alone or paired with shock did not produce any differences
in the rate of learning, the time to respond to each associate, the
number of trials to a criterion of tbree correct trials in a row, or the
number of associates recalled on a re-test 24 hours later. A significant
increase in the time required for responses to stimulus associates was
observed for those conditions which presented sound and shock, but no
difference in learning rates was observed.
Subjects in Experiment II were presented with the rotary tracking task,
the turntable revolving at a rate of 30 revolutions per minute. When
the task involved only pursuit tracking, white noise at 100 dB produced
improved performance on every trial, in comparison to the quiet group.
Those subjects who learned the task while decoding electrocutaneous
signals produced a general improvement in tracking performance (time on
target) over time, though the difference between groups was not statis-
tically significant. Subsidiary task performance was much improved
over time for the noise group, though not for the quiet group.
The compensatory tracking task of Experiment III involved an aircraft-
type joystick control which the subject moved to control the position of
a dot on a cathode ray oscilloscope. The position of the dot was
changed continuously throughout the hour-long session by a non-repeating
command course. Four times per minute, a binary light display above
67
-------
the oscilloscope was decoded by the subject. Subjects were presented
either quiet or 100 dB white noise at an interim'ttency ratio of 70%
sound - 30% silence. Statistical analyses indicated that learning did
occur over time, but that there were no significant differences between
groups, either in tracking efficiency or subsidiary task performance.
These comparisons were based on the first 10 minutes of the task. A
multiple discriminant analysis of total performance over the whole hour
also failed to detect significant differences between groups. However,
the same trend toward improved performance by the group exposed to
noise (as found in Experiment II) was observed.
Finkelman, Jay M. & Glass, David C. Reappraisal of the relationship
between noise and human performance by means of a subsidiary task
measure. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1970, 54(3), 211-213.
This research investigated the notion that where demands imposed by the
task and concurrent environmental stress are within the operator's total
information-hand,ing capacity, the task can be performed substantially with-
out errors. For performance degradation to occur, the operator's channel
capacity must be exceeded. It was assumed that unpredictable noise in
combination with multiple task performance would result in such an
overload, whereas the introduction of predictable noise would not have
such an effect. Ss ,were 23 undergraduates. A subsidiary task method
consisting of the delayed recall of randomly presented digits was used
to measure overload. As expected, the use of unpredictable, as opposed
to predictable noise resulted in performance degradation on the subsid-
iary task. Performance on the primary task was unaffected by either type
of noise. It is concluded that results reflect a reduction in spare
mental capacity as a function of the aversiveness of the noise stressor.
Harcum, E. Rae & Monti, Peter M. Cognitions and "placebos" in behavioral
research on ambient noise. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 1973, 37(1), 75-79.
Three experiments were conducted with undergraduates (N = 101). In Experi-
ment I, using visual and card-sorting tasks, no effects of 100 dB ambient
noise were found per se, although cognitive variables in the testing
68
-------
situation affected both performance and ratings of disturbance. In Exp.
II and III some of the Ss were told that a noise was extraneous to their
task of reproducing tachistoscopic patterns and others were told that
effects of the noise were being studied. Controls received no noise.
Although group membership did not affect overall perceptual accuracy,
it did interact with other variables, indicating some influence on Ss
distribution of attention. The "relevant" noise was rated generally
less disturbing, as predicted, but with greater variance in ratings;
correlations with interview data suggest that some Ss had "cooperated"
with E by judging the noise to be disturbing. It is concluded that in
the absence of any other adequate "placebo" to control for cognitive
factors, deceptive instructions may always be necessary in studies of
ambient noise.
Hartley, L.R. Performance during continuous and intermittent noise and
wearing ear protection. Journal of Experimental Psychology,1974,
102(3),512-516.
A total of 34 housewives and 34 professional males were tested on a 5-
choice test of serial reaction for 40 min. in intermittent and continuous
broad band noise (Exp.I) and while wear-ing ear protection in continuous
noise (Exp.II). Gaps in performance during intermittent noise were approxi-
mately 50% less than those in continuous noise. Errors were affected equal-
ly adversely by both intermittent and continuous noise. Ear protection
interacted with noise and time-on-task, reducing gaps in noise in the
first half but not the second half of the test. Results are consistent
with the theory that there are 2 different effects of noise. The
improvement of performance when noise was intermittent is attributed to
a reduction in the monotony experienced during a long exposure to contin-
uous noise. The value of ear protection is attributed to a reduction in
perceived loudness and prevention of temporary arousal following the
onset of noise.
69
-------
Hartley, L.R. Effect of prior noise or prior performance on serial
reaction. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1973, 101(2), 255-261.
This research investigated whether the effect of high-intensity noise
appears at the end of a long task because the task has been performed for
some time or because the effect of noise accumulates. In a factorial study,
13 naval enlisted men performed a 5-choice serial reaction test in the last
1/2 of 40 min session or throughout the session. Noise was presented in
either the 1st 1/2, the 2nd 1/2 or throughout the session. Equal dura-
tion of noise and task caused approximately equal impairment, and a
whole session of noise caused twice as much impairment as 1/2 a session.
Noise impairment was similar when the test was performed for either the
whole or half-session. It is concluded that (a) noise has a cumulative
adverse effect on performance, (b) amount of impairment is determined by
duration of exposure to noise, and (c) impairment caused by noise and
performance is additive.
Hartley, L. R. & Adams, R. G. Effect of noise on the Stroop test. Journal
of Experimental Psychology, 1974, 102(1), 62-66.
Noninterference tests and two versions of the Stroop Color-Word Test
were used to evaluate enlisted men's performance in loud noise and quiet.
Interference and noninterference tests were performed during the first
and last 10 minutes of a 30 minute exposure to noise and quiet. Inter-
ference in noise and quiet was measured by taking the difference
between performance on interference and noninterference tests. 18 Ss
in Exp I who were tested at both exposure durations showed increased
interference in noise. In Exp II (n=32) exposure duration and practice
were assessed independently. The brief exposure to noise was beneficial
and decreased interference, while the long exposure increased interference,
suggesting a cummulative adverse effect of noise.
Hawkes, Glenn R. Time perception research: An empirical basis for the
study of attention. Psychonomic Monograph Supplements, 1971, 4(12),
221-224.
A brief report of ongoing research on time perception under conditions
70
-------
appropriate to helicopter flight is presented in the four studies
described, Ss judged .5-8 sec. intervals with backgrounds of noise
(87-dB SPL), vibration, or quiet using either a production or reproduc-
tion method. The effects of response delays of 10, 20, or 30 sec.; 2-7
min. interstimulus intervals; and mental arithmetic tasks in the inter-
vals were assessed. In all studies durations tended to be underestimated
with the production method and overestimated with the reproduction method.
Results support the arousal and habituation hypotheses and suggest that
the habituation processes are general in nature.
Haynes, Jack R. Effects of white noise and presentation rate on serial
learning in mentally retarded males. American Journal of Mental Deficiency,
1970, 74(4), 574-577.
Forty Ss were given 20 trials on a serial learning task under one of four
noise conditions at either a one second or four second rate of presenta-
tion. Results show that the rate of presentation was a significant factor,
but not the level of noise. A significant decrease in errors was found
over trials. It is concluded that learning is reduced in retarded Ss
when a fast response rate is required, and that retarded Ss adapt rapidly
to distracting stimuli if the response-rate requirement is reduced.
Houston B. Kent. Noise, task difficulty and Stroop color-word perform-
ance. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1969, 82(2), 403-4.
Sixty-four undergraduates performed either a high or low difficulty Stroop
color-word (CW) task or high or low difficulty color name (CN) task in a
condition of either quiet (Q) or continuous noise (N). Results supported
predictions that N would facilitate performance on the CW tasks, but not
performance on high difficulty tasks generally. Pulse rate data taken
immediately after Q or N indicated that N had not produced physiological
arousal. Results are discussed in terms of an interaction between the
inhibiting process involved in ignoring N and the inhibitory process
involved in ignoring the conflicting uses in CW.
71
-------
Houston, B. Kent Noise, negative transfer, and meaningful ness.
Psychonomic Science, 1971, 22(4), 255-256.
Two studies with 32 and 48 Ss respectively were conducted to test the
hypothesis that the presence of noise, which Ss were instructed to ignore,
would facilitate performance on a negative-transfer learning paradigm
but not performance on a control learning paradigm. The effect of noise
on two levels of item meaningful ness for each paradigm was also studied.
In both experiments, negative transfer was successfully generated for low-
meaningful items and the predicted interaction between learning paradigms
and treatments was obtained. In neither experiment was significant nega-
tive transfer generated for high-meaningful items, and the predicted
interaction between paradigms and treatments was not obtained.
Joiner, Lee M. & Kottmeyer, Wayne A. Effect of classroom noise on number
identification by retarded children. California Journal of Educational
Research, 1971, 22(4), 164-169.
Using number recognition tasks displayed at 1/10 and 1/1000 sec. duration,
the effects of 4 classroom auditory environments were examined (no noise,
typical classroom background noise, typical classroom background noise
and noise episodes, and noise episodes). The presence of a 1st order
interaction between auditory environment and display rate support
research findings indicating the suppressing effect of meaningful noise
on performance. Earlier findings that the effects of noise were greatest
when display durations are increased are supported.
Knirk, Frederick G. Acoustical and visual environments affect learning.
Audiovisual Instruction, 1970, 15(8), 34-35.
The design of acoustical and visual environments can be controlled by an
industrial technologist to facilitate learning tasks. The effects of
background noise on cognitive, affective, and psychomotor performance
range from those that are undesirable (e.g., breakdown of basilar mem-
brane) to those that are desirable in a learning environment (e.g.,
masking unexpected noises that would interfere with learning tasks).
72
-------
Suggestions for the control of the acoustical environment include the
use of carpeting, acoustical tiling, draperies, and earth embankments
along with wise geographical placement of noise-generating activities.
The visual environment affects a learner's ability to perceive visual
stimuli and affects his mental attitude and thus performance. It is
pointed out that it is the quality of the light that matters most; the
source(s) and relative contrast and color.
Kumar, P. & Mathur, C.N. Sex and Noise Distractibility. Indian Journal
of Applied Psychology, 1969, 6, 13-4.
Forty male and 40 female graduate students were given (a) a mechanical
cancellation task, and (b) a mental task involving simple arithmetic.
Noise was produced by two high-pitched electric bells. It was found that
with female Ss, noise had a facilitating effect on the mechanical task
and did not cause a deterioration in performance on the mental task.
With male Ss, deterioration was found in both tasks.
Mansfield, Richard Scott. Development trends in the effects of noise on
problem solving. (Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University) Ann Arbor,
Mich.: University Microfilms, No. 71-13263.
The purpose of the present study was to test for the development of the
ability to cope with noise in problem solving. Two tasks: an auditory
task and a visual task, were used to test the ability. As a test of
general intelligence, the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test was also admin-
istered. There were 30 kindergarten and 30 second grade subjects: 15
boys and 15 girls at each grade level.
For the visual task the results showed that thresholds for noise were
a function of the type of problem. Kindergarteners had their highest
thresholds on the discriminations with constant position. Thresholds
were slightly lower on the discriminations with varying position. The
lowest thresholds were on the relational problems. Second graders
performed at maximum levels on both types of discrimination problems,
but at significantly lower levels on the relational problems. The
73
-------
second graders were consistently superior to the kindergarteners. At
each grade level subjects with higher IQs performed better than subjects
with lower IQs. However, at the kindergarten level the superiority of
the high-IQ group was more marked on the discriminations than on the
relational problems, while at the second grade level the superiority of
the high-IQ was apparent on the relationship problems, but not on the
discriminations. Thresholds for noise on the auditory task were also
higher for second graders than for kindergarteners. At the kindergarten
level high auditory performance was associated with high visual perform-
ance.
Mathur, C. N. Age as a factor in noise distractibility. Manas, 1972,
19(1), 31-33.
One hundred graduate and undergraduate students worked for 20 minutes
on a mental task consisting of simple arithmetical calculations .under
normal and noise (sound level of 80 db) conditions. It was found that
the distraction was more pronounced in the age groups of 15-17 and 18-
20 years than in the age group of 21-23 years.
Mowsesiah, Richard & Heyer, Margaret R. The effect of music as a dis-
traction on test-taking performance. Measurement and Evaluation in
Guidance, 1973, 6(2), 104-110.
v
\
The basic skills in arithmetic test, the differential aptitude tests, the
Language Usage-Spelling Test, and Self-Concept of Ability Scale were
given to 167-1Oth graders under 5 conditions: a control where test
conditions were considered ideal and four conditions in which either
rock, folk, symphonic, or operatic music was played. No differences
were found on any measures regardless of test condition. It is suggested
that since a variety of noises is a normal part of the environment,
music is not a new experience for test takers and therefore not distract-
ing in a test situation.
74
-------
Myers, Kevin P. The effect of extraneous auditory stimuli on the per-
formance of a complex task by disturbed and non-disturbed youngsters.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 1971, 30(7-A), 2886.
This investigation assessed the effects of extraneous auditory stimuli on
the performance of disturbed and non-disturbed elementary school children
doing a complex learning task.
Two samples of youngsters were randomly selected from one school of a
major city school system. One group attended classes for the emotionally
disturbed while the other was enrolled in regular classes. These major
groups were then subdivided into experimental treatments in which noise
level was manipulated. A no-noise condition was also employed to serve
as a comparative experimental technique.
Subjects randomly assigned to the noise condition were required to hear
a tape recording of regular classroom noise through earphones while
performing the learning tasks. The no-noise condition utilized the
same apparatus with extraneous auditory stimuli deleted in both the orig-
inal learning and relearning trials. All subjects were considered to
have successfully completed the task when .they could correctly identify
seven of nine paired associates on two successive bloc trials.
Following a twenty-four hour period after the original learning task was
completed, each subject was reexamined on the same task so that the
retention rate could be ascertained. Saving scores were computed as a
further measure of retention. It was concluded that neither of the main
effects, presence or absence of extraneous auditory stimuli or degree
of disturbance, nor the interaction of auditory stimuli and disturbance
had any significant effect on original learning, relearning, and saving
scores.
Nober, Linda W. A study of classroom noise as a factor which affects the
auditory discrimination performance of primary grade children. Disserta-
tion Abstracts international, 1973,33(12-A).
Thirty-nine kindergarten through second grade children were evenly divided
75
-------
into (1) normal, (2) speech defective, and (3) reading retarded groups,
to assess their auditory discrimination performance on the Wepman Auditory
Discrimination Test in both quiet and noise listenting conditions. Sound
level measurements in four classrooms and four special teacher rooms in
each of four schools were compared for their dBA means. Classroom means
were 64.7 dBA and special teacher room means were 39.5 dBA. A tape record-
ing of classroom noise preserving the spectral composition obtained in the
four classrooms served as the noise simulation. The two sets of data,
(1) the raw score number of errors and (2) the Wepman pass-fail criteria
relative to errors and age, revealed comparable statistical results. Both
data showed significant (p. 01) scores in quiet versus noise listening
conditions; t-tests of the error scores revealed that the normal and read-
ing retarded groups yielded the significant differences; pass-fail chi
square procedures revealed that only the reading group differed signi-
ficantly between the two listening conditions. The trend was always toward
poorer performance in noise. Conclusion: auditory discrimination perform-
ance in quiet does not always serve as an index of functiona; performance
in the relatively noisy classroom environment, especially for reading
defective kindergarten through second grade children.
Rai, S.N. Effects of auditory distraction on the time estimation
by the verbal estimation method. Indian Journal of Experimental
Psychology, 1973, 7<1), 14-18.
Ten postgraduate students were assigned to each of two groups: a stimulus-
in quiet (SQ) group and stimulus-in-sound (SS) group. The SQ group
received 15, 30, 60 and 120 sec. stimulus intervals, 5 times each in
random order under normal conditions (without distraction). The SS
group received the same stimulus intervals with continuous 1250 CPS
sound. Results show that (a) both methods of verbal estimation had
different effects on time estimation for all stimulus intervals; (b)
a tendency to overestimate was found both for SQ and SS conditions, but
the SS condition caused more overestimation; and (c) for both conditions
repeated trials had significant differential effects on time estimation,
i.e. increase in trial number decreased the magnitude of error.
76
-------
Renshaw, Frank M. The combined effects of heat and noise on work perform-
ance. Dissertation Abstracts International, 1973, 33(8^8), 3699.
Twelve male subjects performed at a Five-Choice Serial Reaction Task
under environmental conditions of heat alone, noise alone, and heat in
combination with noise. The study was divided into two exposure phases,
a single-stress phase and a multiple-stress phase. Subjects in the single-
stress phase experienced four levels of either heat or noise. The multiple-
stress phase consisted of both single and combined exposures to different
levels of heat and noise. The results indicated a detrimental effect of
heat on gap scores. Subjects showed 18 percent more gaps at E.T. 90oF.
than at E.T. 72oF. A detrimental effect of noise was noted in the case
of total reponse scores. Subjects made 5 percent fewer responses at
90dBA than at 41dBA. Both gap scores and relative error scores revealed
an interaction between the effects of moderate heat and moderate noise.
Rosenberg, Sheldon & Jarvella, Robert J. Semantic integration and
sentence perception. Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior, 1970,
9(5), 548-553.
A mixed list of semantically well-integrated (SWI) and semantically poorly
integrated (SPI) sentences were presented for shadowing to 20 undergraduates
under quiet and 20 Ss under noise (5-db signal-to-noise ratio). The SWI
and SPI sentences were balanced for length, number, and word frequency.
An incidental-recall task followed 1 trial of shadowing. As anticipated,
shadowing under quiet was virtually perfect for both SWI and SPI sentences,
noise reduced shadowing overall and SWI sentences were shadowed better
than SPI sentences under noise. Incidental learning of SWI material was
enhanced by noise, and noise produced a difference in incidental learning
in favor of SWI material.
Samtur, Susan J. The effects of noise on a complex task. Graduate Research
In Education & Related Disciplines, 1969, 4(2), 63-81.
This research investigated the effect of a constant or fluctuation noise
on a complex reading task and considered the effect of the noise on easy
77
-------
and difficult problems within the test. Ss were 25 3rd graders, 13 boys
and 12 girls and the problem served as its own control. Most of the
previous literature suggests that noise does affect achievement, when the
task presented is difficult and long enough to permit fatigue. Results of
a few studies were in contradiction to the hypothesis of this experiment
and most other experiments, generally because the factors of task complexity
and sustained periods of time were absent during the testing. The tests
were administered under three conditions: quiet, constant noise, and inter-
mittent noise to the same S^ group. Overall findings do not support the
hypothesis. Rather the Ss, especially the boys, did significantly better
under the noisy conditions. Various explanations are considered.
Stanford, A.J. Effects of changes in the intensity of white noise on
simultaneity judgements and simple reaction time. Quarterly Journal of
Experimental Psychology,1971,23,296-303.
On the basis of earlier work and informal observation it was suspected
that the effect of loudness on simple RT could not be accounted for
by the changes in the time it takes the Ss to hear the stimulus. Two
experiments, each using 8 naval rating volunteers, are described in
which an increment in the level of background random noise is presented
to the Ss. The effect of increment size on RT and on a simultaneity
judgement are investigated using a range of increments from just above
difference threshold to moderately loud and clear. The difference in
the size of loudness effects in the two tasks lends some support to a
model which explains the influence of loudness RT largely in terms of
latency of response initiation.
Wolf, Robin H., & Weiner, Frederick F. Effects of four noise conditions
on arithmetic performance. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1972, 35(3),
928-930.
The proportion of correct responses by 15 female undergraduates on simple
arithmetic problems was compared under four noise conditions: quiet,
speech, music and industrial noise. Ss answered a significantly higher
proportion correctly under the music than under the industrial noise
78
-------
conditions. In all other conditions, the proportion of correctly answered
responses did not differ.
79
-------
MOTOR SKILLS
Studies in this section are concerned with the negative effects of noise
on motor performance. A variety of phenomena are observed. Eschenbrenner
(1971) showed that white noise had a detrimental effect on psychomotor
performance which varied as a function of the temporal pattern and intensity
of the noise. Chatterjee et al (1972) found the same effect with greater
impairment of performance under intermittent than continuous noise. The
same investigators found that for highly skilled Ss, continuous noise
actually enhanced psychomotor performance under specific noise conditions.
Perhaps providing some insight into this phenomenon, Gulian (1972) found
that the negative influence of noise on performance was a direct function
of task difficulty. Also, Thackray and Touchstone (1969) demonstrated
that under noise conditions, Ss least proficient at the tasks suffered
the greatest impairment. Cohen (1973) found that noise more adversely
affected performance when the task had to be performed at a faster pace.
Another area of concern for researchers is the effect of asymmetrical
noise presentation. Typical of this research is Harris (1972), which
demonstrated that intermittent noise, combined with asymmetrical
presentation, had a deleterious effect on equilibrium which was greater
than for either variable alone.
>
.>
Sommer and Harris (1970) showed that noise presented in a free-field
had greater behavioral effects than similar noise presented through
headphones. In this study, ability to use tools was not affected by
headphone noise, but similar free-field noise did cause impaired
efficiency. The same investigators (1973) also determined that when
combined with vibration, 60 db noise resulted in greater performance
decrements than 100 db noise. This contra-logical finding will no
doubt lead to further research.
The possibility of long term learning effects was raised by Sebek and
Brenk (1973). Typewriting students who learned to type under quiet
conditions performed better than their counterparts under noise
80
-------
conditions. This difference was not observed during the learning
sessions, but, rather after 50 days of no typing activity.
In another interesting experiment, Reim et.al. (1971) showed greater
performance impairments after a noise was terminated when Ss had no
control over its termination.
Chatterjee, Amitara & Krishnamurty, V. Differential effect of noise
as environmental stress. Behaviorometric, 1972, 2(1), 1-8.
The effect of noise on performance was investigated with respect to the
interaction of environmental stress and stimulation. Twenty professional
typists typed for 10 minutes from predetermined materials and perform-
ance was measured by the accuracy of work done. From the results it is
concluded that in psychomotor activity (a) performance is a function of
skill, (b) intermittent noise acts as an environmental stress, affecting
performance more than continuous noise, and (c) for highly skilled Ss
continuous noise of optimum intensity may act as an arouser of perform-
ance.
Cohen, Harris H. Working efficiency as a function of noise level, work
pace, and time at work. Dissertations Abstracts International, 1973,
33(8-B), 39^5.
A review of the literature shows that the more obtrusive the noise and
the more demanding the task, the greater is the likelihood of adverse
effects of noise on task performance. A study was conducted which
varied three levels of task speed or work pace (30, 40, and 50 signals/
min) on a paced, serial repetitive task requiring complete and sustained
attention under two conditions of aperiodic broadband noise, quiet
(50 dB(A)) and noise (100 dB(A). One hour work periods were broken down
for analysis into four 15-minute time blocks.
The experimental hypotheses were confirmed. Namely, (1) noise adversely
affected performance on a paced, serial repetitive task; (2) the faster
the work pace, the poorer was performance; (3) noise more adversely
affected performance at fast work paces than at slower work paces; and
81
-------
(4) performance in noise at fast work paces deteriorated disproportion-
ately with time at work. The practical, as well as the theoretical,
implications of the research are discussed.
Eschenbrenner, A. John Effects of intermittent noise on the performance
of a complex psychomotor task. Human Factors. 1971, 13(1), 59-63.
Manual image-motion compensation (a complex psychomotor task involved in
certain photographic activities from orbit was investigated as a function
of the temporal pattern (aperiodic, periodic, or continuous) and intensity
level (50,70 or 90 db.) of white noise. Ss were 24 male aircraft engineers
and engineering students. Performance was measured in terms of the total
amount of time image motion was held at or below a 40-microadians/sec.
criteria for specific blocks of trials. Results show that white noise
had a detrimental effect on image motion compensation performance, and
that the magnitude of the decrement varied as a function of both the
temporal pattern and intensity level of this noise.
Gulian, Edith. The factor "difficulty of the task" and its influences
upon performance level under noise conditions. Revista de Psihologie,
1972, 18(3), 323-330.
A comparative analysis of performance level (amount of errors and reaction
time) was conducted in three experiments under different noise conditions
.1
(quiet, weak continuous noise, and loud intermittent noise). Task diffi-
culty was the main factor accounting for performance deterioration under
noise conditions. The negative influence of noise on performance efficiency
was a direct function of task difficulty. An increase in noise loudness
resulted in performance deterioration according to task difficulty.
Hamilton, P- & Copeman, A. The effect of alcohol and noise on components
of a tracking and monitoring task. British Journal of Psychology, 1970
61(2), 149-56.
The effects of alcohol and noise on a complex tracking and signal-detection
task were examined with particular reference to changes in selective
attention. Each S^was instructed to give the tracking task priority. In
82
-------
noise, tracking performance improved, but detection of lights placed on
the periphery of vision was degraded. Alcohol had the same effect on
peripheral detection, but tracking performance declined. It is concluded
that the effect of alcohol on such simulated driving skills embodied two
factors: an increase in attentional bias towards the high priority regions
of the visual field, and a decrease in the information transmission rate.
Harris, C. Stanley. Long term adaptation of pursuit rotor performance to
impulsive acoustic stimulation. Aerospace Medical Research Lab Wright-
Patterson AFB Ohio, 1970, Report No. AMRL-TR-70-92.
In a previous experiment, performance on a pursuit rotor task was found
to adapt to impulsive acoustic stimulation by the fourth day of exposure.
The purpose of the present study was to determine if performance would
regain sensitivity to the stimulus after an interval of time. Six
subjects who participated in the initial experiment were retested after
intervals ranging from five to eight months. After a retraining day,
the subjects were presented a retention test day in which the procedure
was identical to that used on the four test days of the prior experiment.
The stimulus (peak intensity of 112 dB with a 400 millisecond duration)
was presented nine times in a semi-random fashion. The results are
reported.
Harris, C. Stanley. Effects of increasing intensity levels of intermit-
tent and continuous 1000-Hz tones on human equilibrium. Aerospace
Medical Research Lab Wright-Patterson AFB Ohio, 1972, Report No. AMRL-
TR-72-11.
Human equilibrium was measured during exposure to continuous and
intermittent 1000-Hz tones presented both asymmetrically (one ear) and
symmetrically (both ears). Intermittency combined with asymmetry
produced greater decrements in equilibrium than either variable alone.
The results are interpreted as a possible demonstration of acoustic
stimulation of the vestibular system.
83
-------
Harris, C. Stanley & Von Gierke, Manning E. The effects of high intensity
noise on human equilibrium. Aerospace Medical Research Lab Wright-Patter-
son AFB Ohio, 1971, Report No. AMRL-TR-67-41.
Five experiments were conducted on the effects of broadband, high intensity
noise on human equilibrium. The ability of subject to balance on narrow
rails was measured during exposure to the noise; and immediately after term-
ination of the noise. Four different noise conditions were used in each
experiment: control, 120, 130, and 140 dB (re. 0.0002 dyne/sq cm). In the
first experiment subjects wore earmuffs and earplugs; in the second, only
earplugs were worn; and in the third experiment, subjects wore earplugs
and one earmuff to produce an asymmetrical exposure. At an ambient level
of 140 dB, a detrimental effect was obtained in all three experiments. At
lower intensities of noise, there were performance decrements only for the
asymmetrical exposure. In the remaining two experiments, conducted after
termination of the noise, detrimental effects were obtained for asymmetrical
auditory exposure but not for equal auditory exposure. The results of
these experiments are interpreted as a possible quantitative demonstration
of the direct effect of high intensity noise on the vestibular system.
Harris, C. Stanley & Schoenberger, Richard W. Combined effects of noise
and vibration on psychomotor performance. USAF AMRL Technical Report,
1970, 70-14, 24 p.
Tracking perfromance and RT of highly trained Ss to the appearance of a
red light and disappearance of a green light were measured during four
experimental conditions: 2 conditions of 85- and 110- dB broadband noise
exposure, and 2 in whfch these noise exposures were combined with .25g
vertical vibration at 5 Hz. Duration of exposure for each condition was
19 min. Vibration had an adverse effect on both the horizontal and vertical
dimensions of the tracking task, and on RT to both sets of lights. Noise
had a significant effect, both with and without vibration, but only on
the vertical part of the tracking task. On vertical tracking, the detre-
mental effect of noise was additive to that of vibration when both noise
and vibration were presented simultaneously (110-db noise and .25 g
vertical vibration at 5 Hz.).
84
-------
Harris, C. Stanley, & Sommer, Henry C. Human equilibrium during acoustic
stimulation by discrete frequencies. USAF AMRL Technical Report, 1968,
68-7, 1-11.
The ability of 48 male undergraduates to balance on narrow rails was
measured during exposure to pure tones of 100, 260, 590, 1500 and 2500 Hz
and a control condition. Group 1 was presented the test stimulus at in-
tensity levels of 95 dB in the left ear and 75 dB in the right ear (asym-
metrical exposure). Group 2 was presented the tones at a level of 95 dB in
both ears (symmetrical exposure). A decrement in rail performance occurred
at 1500 Hz for Group 1 and at 590 Hz for Group 2. The decrement with
symmetrical exposure was less than the decrement found with asymmetrical
exposure. Results support previous findings that asymmetrical exposure
has more adverse effects on human equilibrium than symmetrical exposure.
Both frequencies at which decrements occurred were found to have the
lowest threshold for vestibular system.
Heimstra, Norman W. Research on intermittent noise effects on Air Force
target detection tasks. South Dakota Univ. Vermillion Dept. of Psychology,
1972, Final Report, 51 p.
The report discusses how noise influences performance in complex and
unpredictable ways. Variables associated with the sound itself as well
as task variables are seen to determine the effects on performance. In
addition, subject variables are also noted. The investigations were con-
cerned with the relationship between variables in the several categories
and performance on a variety of types of target detection, vigilance,
and psychomotor tasks.
Hockey, G. R. Effect of loud noise on attentional selectivity. Quarterly
Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1970, 22(1), 28-36.
The effects of loud noise were examined by observing its influence upon a
combined tracking and multiscore monitoring task. Ss were 12 naval
ratings who showed satisfactory audiometric performance. Tracking
improves in noise, as does the detection of centrally located signals
in the monitoring task. Peripheral signals are detected less often in
85
-------
noise. Data are interpreted in terms of increased selectivity of
attention with arousal.
Hornbuckle, Phyllis A. Delayed response performance as a function of
sensory stimulation in the squirrel and owl monkeys. Dissertation
Abstracts International, 1969, 30(5-B), 2440.
A comparative study of delayed response performance in squirrel and owl
monkeys was carried out. The effect of light vs. dark and noise vs.
quiet on DR performance was assessed. Squirrel monkeys were found to
perform better in the dark than in the light, while owl monkeys performed
better in the light then in the dark. Both species made more errors in
the noise than in quiet. These results were explained in terms of
increased neural activity reflecting the relative effect of these
sensory conditions on the activity of the reticular formation. Errors
and reaction time were observed to increase as delay intervals increased.
Reaction time was found to decrease as errors increased under light
conditions for squirrel monkeys and was found to increase as errors
decreased under light conditions for owl monkeys.
§
Lambert, Sue E. The effect of white noise and rest interval on pursuit
rotor learning in retardates. Dissertation Abstracts International, 1971,
30(12-A), 5312.
It was the purpose of this experiment to compare several characteristics
of pursuit rotor learning in a retarded population to see if hypotheses
based on a consolidation of memory theory have relevance for retardate's
learning of a motor skill. White noise having been found to effect reten-
tion in verbal learning experiments with normal Ss and thus appearing
to act as an arousal mechanism was used to see if it would effect motor
learning in a retarded population. 120 mentally retarded Ss in the public
schools were randomly assigned to treatment groups. Two experimental
groups were given a programmed rest of 10 minutes between continuous
massed practice trials of five and fifteen minutes. Two other experimen-
tal groups had a 24-hour rest between learning trials. One 10- minute
and one 24-hour group had white noise administered during the three to
86
-------
six minute intervals after five minutes of massed practice.
The only variable having effect on postrest performance was a level of
prerest performance. None of the hypothesized differential effects of
length of rest intervals or white noise was obtained.
Munz, D.C., Ruffner, J.W. & Cross, J.F. Reduction of noise annoyance
through manipulation of stressor relevance. Perceptual and Motor Skills,
1971, 32(1), 55-58.
In order to test the merit of considering noise from an informational
viewpoint, 30 undergraduates were randomly assigned to either a high task-
involvement (HTI) on low task-involvement (LTI) instruction group and per-
formed pursuit rotor tracking under 3 conditions of moderate noise stress:
task-related noise, task-unrelated noise, and no noise. No performance
effects were evidenced. However, HTI _Ss reported experiencing greater
psychological discomfort under task unrelated noise as compared with the
other two noise conditions. Moreover, comparisons of postexperimental
rankings of working condition preference supported this finding.
Murphy, E. H. & Venables, P. H. The investigation of ear asymmetry by
simple and disjunctive reaction-time tasks. Perception & Psychophysics,
1970, 8(2), 104-106.
In a disjunctive RT task in which 20 college students responded to
clicks presented to one ear while white noise was presented to the other,
RT was significantly faster to stimuli presented to the left than the
right ear. In a simple RT task, using the same stimuli, there was no
difference in RT to stimuli presented to right or left ear with 20 Ss.
Results are discussed in relation to functional asymmetry of the cerebral
hemispheres, and a perceptual interpretation of the ear asymmetry effect
is supported.
Nosal, C. Effect of noise on performance and activation level. Polish
Psychological Bulletin.1971. 2, 23-29.
The influence of noise on detection of visual signals was investigated
in two conditions: with noise (90 db.) and without noise. RT,GSR, and
87
-------
the ^s evaluation of his RT were measured. Results are interpreted in
terms of the Yerkes-Dodson law. In the noise conditions, both simple
RT and GSR increased significantly (p <.001). The correlation between
RT and GSR was positive and statistically significant in the noiseless
condition (r=.296; p <.05) and not significant in the noise condition.
Reim, Bruce, Glass, David C. & Singer, Jerome E. Behavioral consequences
of exposure to uncontrollable and unpredictable noise. Journal of Applied
Social Psychology, 1971, 1(1), 44-56.
Behavioral consequences of exposure to high-intensity predictable and un-
predictable noise was investigated under conditions where Ss did or did
not believe they had- control over noise termination. Ss were a group of
men and women, averaging 50 yr. of age, who had lived in an urban environ-
ment for most of their lives. Results showed that the work of adapting
to uncontrollable, in contrast to controllable noise, produced greater
performance impairments following termination of the noise. Predictable
noise had minimal effects on postadaptive performance, even though Ss
could not control its offset. Comparisons of these data with previous
findings indicate that people living in urban settings for long periods
of time show essentially the same negative consequences of noise adapta-
tion as those living in cities for shorter durations.
Sanford, A.J. Effects of changes in the intensity of white noise on simul-
taneity judgements and simple reaction time. Quarterly Journal of
Experimental Psychology, 1971, 23(3), 296-303.
On the basis of earlier work and informal observation it was suspected
that the effect of loudness on simple RT could not be accounted for by
changes in the time it takes the S^ to hear the stimulus. Two experiments,
each using 8 naval rating volunteers, are described in which increment in
the level of background random noise is presented to the £. The effect of
increment size on RT and on a simultaneity judgement are investigated
using a range of increments from just above difference threshold to
moderately loud and clear. The difference in the size of loudness effects
in the 2 tasks lends some support to a model which explains the influence
-------
of loudness in RT largely in terms of latency of response initiation.
Sebek, Levin & Brenk, Klas. Influence of noise on the degree of
development of typewriting skill. Revija za Psihologije, 1973, 3(1-2).
Two groups of 10 Ss each were trained in typewriting for a period of 32
training sessions. The training period was broken for 50 days after the
first 16 sessions. One group of S^s worked in normal acoustical conditions
while the other was exposed to a continuous noise between 68 and 71 db.
The learning curves of the two groups, determined on the basis of number
of letters typed in a one minute period, did not differ during the first
16 sessions. After the 50 days break, a difference between the two
groups appeared. This difference was in favor of the group which learned
in normal conditions and increased during the further training sessions,
being maximal at the end of the training period. The difference is
ascribed to "degeneration of engrams" and poorer central organization of
motor activity-defects which can appear only after a longer period of
inactivity.
Simon, J. Richard, Craft, John, and Small, A. M. Manipulating the strength
of a stereotype; Interference effects in an auditory information- process-
ing task. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1970, 86(1), 63-68.
In a choice RT task, 96 undergraduates pressed either a right- or left-
hand key in response to monaural "right" and "left" commands conveyed
by 200- and 500-Hz, 96-dB SPL tones. Commands were either presented
alone (no-noise trials) or accompanied by a broad-band noise to the same
or opposite ear- On the no-noise trials, RT was significantly faster
when the meaning of the command corresponded to the ear in which it was
heard than when it did not. This Tonal Command * Ear Stimulated inter-
action was eliminated, reduced, or reversed by manipulating the noise
intensity at the opposite ear, and was accentuated by introducing
accompanying noise to the same ear. Results are explained in terms of
a potent natural tendency to react toward the major source of stimulation.
89
-------
Sommer, Henry C. & Harris, C. Stanley. Comparative effects of auditory
and extra-auditory acoustic stimulation on human equilibrium and motor
performance. USAF AMRL Technical Report, 1970, 70-26, 16 p.
Human equilibrium and psychomotor performance of 22 Ss exposed to free-
field broadband noise (140 dB) or a similar spectra of noise presented
through earphones were compared. Approximately twice as much decrement
in equilibrium was obtained for Ss exposed to free-field noise with ear-
plugs and muffs, and earplugs alone than was obtained from Ss who received
comparable auditory exposures through earphones. Four times as much
decrement was obtained for Ss who received an asymmetrical exposure
condition when free-field performance was compared to the earphone
condition. Similarly, the ability to perform with ordinary mechanic
tools was adversely affected by free-field noise and unaffected by noise
presented through earphones. Auditory stimulation combined with extra-
auditory acoustic stimulation produced much more decrement in human
equilibrium and motor performance than auditory stimulation alone.
Sommer, Henry C. & Harris, C. Stanley. Combined effects of noise and
vibration on human tracking performance and response time Aerospace
Medical Research Lab Wright-Patterson AFB Ohio, 1973, Report No. AMRL-
TR-72-83.
Vibration has been shown to be the primary cause of performance impair-
ment in studies of the combined effects of noise and vibration on human
tracking performance. Noise has had little consistent effect when
presented alone, and has added little or not at all to the impairment
produced by vibration. In two studies with heat included as a third
stressor, vibration presented alone had a slightly more adverse effect
on tracking performance than combined heat, noise and vibration. In the
present experiment, 12 subjects were exposed to lower noise and vibration
levels for a longer period of time than used previously. Noise had no
significant effects on tracking performance, while vibration adversely
affected both dimensions of the tracking task. On both horizontal and
vertical tracking, vibration combined with 60 dB noise produced greater
impairment than vibration combined with 100 dB noise. These results
90
-------
parallel previous findings from studies of combined noise, heat, and
vibration, and give support to a subtractive interaction interpretation
of the combined effects of noise and vibration on human tracking perform-
ance.
Takasawa, Noriyoshi. Tapping under the condition of white noise presen-
tation. Journal of Child Development, 1973, 8, 23-41.
Tested the effect of white noise on the motor performance of 110 male
The effect of white noise on the motor perfromance of 110 male undergrad-
uates during a tapping task was investigated. Three degrees of white noise
Tapping pressure was measured as the index of behavioral activity level,
and GSR as that of autonomic activity. Tapping pressure increased in
correspondence to the intensity of white noise. This phenomenon is
discussed in terms of arousal.
Thackray, R. I. & Touchstone, R. M. Recovery of motor performance follow-
ing startle. FAA Office of Aviation Medicine Report, 1969, 69-21, 11 p.
Following training of 30 Ss on RT and tracking tasks while recording heart
rate and GSR, startle stimuli (noise) were presented during performance.
Performance recovered within 15 sec. and startle RTs were shorter than
those for nonstartle stimuli. Ss least proficient in performance showed
the greatest increase in error and reacted most strongly to the startle
stimuli.
Thornton, Jerry W., & Jacobs, Paul D. Analysis of task difficulty under
varying conditions of induced stress. Perceptual and Motor Ski 11s,1970
31(2), 343-348.
Two tasks (simple and choice RT) were examined while varying 3 types of
stressors (shock, threat of shock, and noise) and the stressor task rela-
tionship (i.e., task related stress, task-unrelated stress, and no-stress).
Ss were 36 undergraduates. Four hypotheses were tested and 3 were support-
ed in the simple RT task. There were no significant differences among
stressors for either task, although greater differences were reported
in the simple than in the choice RT task. A significant difference
91
-------
between the task-relatedness of stress levels in the simple task was
interpreted as possibly due to a coping or protective adaptive mechanism
in which increases in performance serve to reduce stress. Practical
applications are examined.
92
-------
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
Research over the past four years related to the physiological effects
of noise encompasses a broad range of investigative areas and a diversity
of responses. It is possible however to comment on several coherent
areas. For example, studies dealing with the attentional and arousal
effects of noise indicate that subjects exposed to noise show GSR adap-
tation whereas similar adaptation does not occur to electric shock stress
(Stern, Gaupp and Leonard, 1970). Stability of Rod and Frame Test
performance and amount of EEG alpha are not affected by noise (Hayes and
Venables, 1970). Williams, Wells and Lowe (1971) found that response
rate to a light reinforcement in rats was depressed in a noise environ-
ment. A number of studies since 1970 purport to show the effects of
noise on clinically important physiological variables. Jansen (1971)
concludes that medical evidence clearly shows that autonomic habituation
to noise does not exist. Experiments with humans and animals show that
noise can affect the autonomic control of blood circulation, metabolism,
and can also attack the pituitary-adrenal cortex system (Grandjean,1971).
Eosinophil levels in the blood drop after acoustic fatigue (Amorella,1971),
Semczuk (1971) found that supra!iminal acoustic stimuli (pure tones)
markedly change respiratory movements and elicit no adaptation. Increases
in urinary catecholamines, free fatty acids in blood plasma and adrenal
weights have been reported (Hrubes and Benes, 1971), in response to
noise environments along with increased oxygen consumption, reduction in
the concentration of adrenol catecholamines, and reduced resistance to
acute hypoxia (Dadidovic, Debijadi, Elcic and Dadidovic, 1971). Udalov,
Lapoco and Syzrantsev (1971) report that administration of vitamin
therapy, and glutamic acid limit the damaging effects of noise on
flying personnel. Further, Raskin, Kotses and Baver (1969) demonstrated
changes in pulse amplitude (decrease), skin blood content (increase)
and heart rate (acceleration). Loss of cerebral capacity to react to
different impulses in noise environments is reported by Strakhov (1968).
Of the research abstracts cited two allude to potential noise and stress
93
-------
effects of vital importance. Getsel and Aleksev (1970) have demonstrated
lasting disturbances in the blood-brain barrier permeability and metabo-
lism of macromolecular phosphoric compounds due to the effects of noise.
Also, Lown, Verrier and Corbalan (1973) have produced a reduction in the
threshold for ventricular fibrillation in the dog as a result of the
psychological stress associated with the administration of shock.
Adreeva-Galavina E. Ts, Alekseev, S.V., Suvrov, G.A. Kadzslin, A.V.
On the problem of the mechanism of noise-action on the organism.
Vestrik Akademii Meditsinskikh Nauk SSSR, 1969, 24(3), 11-18.
Twenty, 25 year old human Ss and laboratory animals (rabbits, guinea
pigs, rats, mice) were employed in a study of the unfavorable effects of
noise on the organism, employing "reflexemetry, determination of concen-
tration of attention, EEG, EKG, autoradiography, pulsotachometry, taxoo-
scillography, determination of summated threshold indices, integral
methods (determination of oxygen consumption, changes in weight of
internal organs, muscular strength, and total weight), and histological
methods". Under the action of noise with the intensities and spectral
composition employed, (1) changes occurred in the equilibrium, strength,
and lability of the nervous processes, (2) lengthening of the latent
period of the the CRs occurred, (3) differentiations were lost, and (4)
concentration of attention was reduced. The noise applied produced
marked changes in the biolectric activity of the cerebral structures
investigated, depending on the parameters of the stimuli. In phase 1
(active) there was a predominance of low amplitude frequency activity
in the biolectric picture of the cortical regions (auditory, occipital,
sensorimotor) and the subcortical regions (mesencephalic reticular
formation, pons Varolii, non-specific thalmic nuclei). Excited behavior
accompanied the active phase which was followed by the development of
phase 2 (passive) characterized by sleepiness and sluggishness.
Neuropharmacological drugs, which selectively enhance and depress the
adreno and cholinoreactive systems of the brain, produced evidence that
in the 1st period under the influence of noise the functional activity
of the structures of the brain was enhanced, but in the 2nd period
94
-------
sharply reduced.
Amorelli, A. Contribution to the study of the effect of acoustic stimu-
lation on the blood eosinophil count. Army Foreign Science and Technology
Center Char!ottesvilie Va.,1971, Report No. FSTC-HT-23-257-71.
The writers report the findings of an investigation of variations in
peripheral hematic eosinophil levels in 20 subjects with normal hearing.
They advance the hypothesis that a combined acoustic-hypothalmic-pituitary
reflex is involved in determining a drop in eosinophil levels in the
blood after acoustic fatigue, and that it is analogous to the optical-
hypothalamic-pituitary reaction to light stimulus.
Arnal, D. & Gerin P. Study of the residual noise of average evoked
potentials. Electroencephalography & Clinical Neurophysiology, 1969,
227(3), 315-321.
An experimental study of the evolution of the signal-noise ratio during
summation and of the residual noise at the end of summation is described.
Results were: (a) the description of the alpha rhythm which agreed best
with the results was that of narrow band noise in which the central
frequency fluctuated slowly in a random fashion; (b) the method of
random summation proposed by D.S. Ruchkin was valuable to obtain better
extraction of the short-term noise but proved useless in the long term;
(c) only the components of the averaged evoked potentials with amplitudes
greater than twice the standard deviation of the residual noise were
significantly different from the background noise; (e) applying the
above criteria to 100 Ss, significant late oscillatory responses were
seen in 30% of the ^s with the eyes closed but in no S^ with the eyes
open; and (f) a simple practical way of measuring 4 times the standard
deviation of the residual noise is proposed.
Ashton, R. The effects of the environment upon state cycles in the human
newborn. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1971, 12(1), 1-9.
The effects of increased ambient noise level or decreased illumination
level upon the postprandial state cycles of the neonate are investigated.
95
-------
Forty-two full-term, healthy neonates served as Ss. Only the dimmer light
condition had any effect, stabilizing the respiration rate per minute over
Ss, irrespective of state, and significantly lowering the mean respiration
rate in epochs of either alertness or active sleep. Increased level of
ambient noise had no such effect. Neither environmental change signifi-
cantly affected the cycling of the states in the postprandial period nor
the mean heart rate per minute of the babies. A simple explanation for
positive effect of the dim-light condition is offered.
Atherly, G.R., Gibbons, S.L. & Powell, J.A. Moderate Acoustic Stimuli;
The interrelation of subjective importance and certain physiological
changes. Ergonomics,1970, 13, 536-545.
A preliminary stufy was conducted with 14 male and 14 female Ss to deter-
mine the interrelation between moderate stimulation and certain physiolo-
gical changes. It was shown the "subjective importance" of the noise
was a material factor effecting changes in skin resistance. Further
studies were made of the effect of whole day exposure to aircraft,
typewriter, and white noise. The noises of high subjective importance
(the aircraft and the typewriter) both showed measureable physiological
changes, whereas that of low subjective importance (white noise) showed
no significant change compared with control levels. Estimations from
4 university staff Ss.with sedentary occupations showed a marked decrease
.*(
in 24 hour urinary 17 ketosteriod and eosinophils, and an increase in
total white cell count, lymphocytes, and neutophils. It is suggested
that moderate noise does not act as a conventional stresser and that
it may result in a characteristic syndrome which is comparable with a
mild form of anxiety-depression.
Becker, R.W., Poza, F. & Kryter, K.D. A study of sensitivity to noise.
Stanford Research Institute Menlo Park California, 1971, Final Report,
65 p.
In the study, 140 subjects were exposed to simulated sonic booms and
recorded residential noises in one, two, or three two-hour sessions over
a period of six months. Electrophysiological measures of heart rate and
96
-------
electromyographic responses to the stimuli were analyzed. Biographical,
demographical, and personality inventories were also obtained for each of
the subjects. The purpose of this research was to: determine whether
there are different degrees of psychological and physiological sensitivity
to noise in a large group of people; to determine whether and how such
sensitivity varied in time; and to relate such sensitivity to other
psychological and personality variables. Significant differences in
psychological sensitivity to noise were found in the subject population.
These differences remained stable for the duration of the experiment and
were also found to be related to the attitudinal and belief structures of
the individuals. Definite physiological responses to the simulated sonic
booms were observed. However, the physiological indices used in this
research did not show individual differences in physiological sensitivity
to noise. These results do not preclude the possibility that more elab-
orate and extensive psychophysiological measurements might demonstrate
varying physiological sensitivity to noise.
Brackbill, Yvonne Continuous stimulation and arousal level in infants:
additive effects. Proceedings of the Annual Convention of the American
Psychological Association. 1970, 5(pt.l), 271-2.
This research attempted to determine whether level of arousal decreases as
an inverse function of the number of sensory modalities continuously stimu-
lated, ^s were one anencephalic infant and 24, one month old normal infants
who served under five different conditions: no extra stimulation (control
condition) and continuous stimulation of 1,2,3, and 4 sensory modalities.
The four types of stimulation were auditory, visual, proprioceptive-
tactile (swaddling), and temperature. Indices of arousal level included
heart rate, respiration, regularity, and gross motor activity.
Results: (a) reaffirmed the pacifying effect of continuous stimulation,
(b) indicated that the effect is not restricted to one sensory modality
but is instead a general characteristic of sensory stimulation in early
development, and (c) demonstrated that the pacification effect is indeed
cumulative across modalities.
97
-------
Butukhanov, V.V.. Reflectory biolelectric response of skeletal muscles
to the pulse noise. Fiziologicheskii Zhurnal SSSR, 1971, 57(4), 566-574.
Noise pulses of 30/min frequency and 80-, 90-, and 100-db intensity, were
given during 60 sec. Increase in frequency and amplitude of the skeletal
muscle bioelectrical activity was noted. The maximum value of potentials
in the muscles was obtained after 5 sec. of stimulation. The noise pulses
of different intensity caused different reflexes. The maximum value of
action potentiala in the m. masseter, m. latissimus dorsi, and m. rectus
abdomini was observed after the influence of 90-db noise, and in the m.
biceps, m. triceps, m. tibialis ant., and m. gastrocnemius after 100-db
noise. Switching off of the stimulation was accompanied by a stepwise
decrease in the parameters of the electrical activity: it returned to the
initial level or was near it in 15 sec. During stimulation, the action
potentials increased in all muscles. The frequencies of groups of poten-
tials and noise pulses were identical.
Cheuden, H.G. The masking noise and its effect upon the human cortical
evoked potential. Audiology, 1972, 11(1-2), 90-96.
Both white and narrow-band noise were used as monaural stimuli to record
cortical evoked potential from normal hearing adults with different inten-
sities of stimuli. With such stimuli, the Ml peak of the response was
prolonged in comparison to the response to the onset of a pure tone. The
effect of simultaneously stimulating 1 ear with a burst of pure tone and
the other with noise such as might be used for masking the centralateral
ear was also studied. In this situation, the Ml peak in response to the
tone usually showed the amplitude that was to be expected if only the pure
tone had been given without contralateral masking. The response to pure
tones of various intensity levels in the presence of contralateral noise
at a steady intensity was also measured.
98
-------
Clopton, Ben Michael Behavioral and neural aspects of increment
detection by monkeys for the intensity of wide-band Gaussian noise.
(Doctoral dissertation, University of Washington) Ann Arbor, Mich.:
University Microfilms, No. 70-14744.
The object of this research was to further define the auditory decision
process behaviorally and neurophysiologically. The psychophysical
behavior of monkeys was analyzed according to the suggestions of signal
detection theory in order to better characterize the behavior and provide
a structured context for neural investigations.
Rhesus monkeys were trained to detect a 100-msec. increment in the inten-
sity of a continuous Gaussion noise. The task was analogous to the "yes-
no" task used with humans. It required a differential response on one of
two bars every trial, reinforcement being contingent on the response and
whether the increment occurred or not. The behavior of the monkeys was
consistent with the expectations of signal detection theory in that
observer sensitivity and response bias were descriptive of the results
and amenable to experimental manipulation. The results were compared to
the predictions of a specific detection model or "ideal observer" based
on characteristics of the physical stimulus. Although qualitative agree-
ment was demonstrated by this comparison, the quantitative discrepancies
suggested further modification of the model to more closely parallel
the animals' behavior. The animal observers were somewhat less sensitive
than human observers in similar tasks. Suggestive patterns in the re-
sponse latencies were consistently found and may reflect importantly on
the nature of the auditory decision process.
After the behavioral phase, electrodes were implanted bilaterally at
the inferior colliculi and auditory cortex and unilaterally at other
cortical sites. Field potentials recorded at the inferior colliculus
during the task reflected stimulus information only. They were not
predictive of the animal's response. It proved possible to replace
the peripheral stimulus to be detected with stimulation at the inferior
colliculus and auditory cortex through the same electrodes. Stimulation
99
-------
outside the auditory pathway was ineffective. Central stimulation used
to condition the peripheral stimulus predominantly produced changes of
response bias. These neurophysiological results suggest neural process-
ing arrangements which incorporate biasing as a separate aspect of the
auditory decision process..
Cohn, Robert. Differential cerebral processing of noise and verbal stimuli
Science, 1971, 172(3938), 599-601.
Psychophysiological measurements have indicated that the right cerebral
hemisphere processes noises and other nonverbal data and that the left
processes verbal material. Results of a study with 37 Ss with clinically
normal auditory acuity, indicate that direct physiological measurements,
as expressed in summated auditory evoked cortical responses, demonstrate
that click noises show a greater amplitude of initial output over the
right brain, and that verbal stimuli produce either equal or higher
amplititudes of output over the left cerebral hemisphere.
Dadidovic, Jovan; Debijadi, Rudi; Elcic, Stojanka & Dadidovic, Vukosava.
* Effect of noise on resistance to acute hypoxia. Army Foreign Science
and Technology Center Char!ottesvilie Va., 1971, Report No. FSTC-HT-23-
275-71.
Studies were undertaken in order to obtain more detailed information on
the relation between noise and the tolerance to hypoxia. The following
conclusions were drawn: Exposure of animals to intense acoustic trauma
of 115-120 decibels (frequency — 800-1,100 cycles per second) causes
increased oxygen consumption. The same intensity of auditive stimulation
causes a significant reduction in the concentration of catecholamines
in the adrenal glands. Previous exposure of animals to the described
level of noise for one hour daily on six successive days or for a total
of only one hour considerably reduces resistance to acute hypoxia induced
by a simulated altitude of 12,000 meters.
100
-------
DeSchriver, Richard Lee. The effect of noise upon the instrumental perform-
ance of exercised and non-exercised rats. (Doctoral dissertation, University
of Minnesota) Ann Arbor, Mich.: University Microfilms 1969, No. 60-20,009.
The purpose of this study was to determine if the treatment of swimming
and/or noise would produce an increased capacity to instrumentally respond
during exposure to noise.
Procedure
Sixty 75 day old male Sprague-Dowley rats were randomly divided into a
control group and four treatment groups: 1) 6 wks. exercise, 2) 6 wks.
exercise + noise, 3) 3 wks exercise + noise, and 4) noise.
All subjects learned a Skinner box bar-touching response under a condition
of 23 hr. food and water deprivation. When the rat touched the bar, the
investigator depressed the bar causing a delivery of 20% sugar solution.
The forced swimming treatment consisted of ten 8 min. swims, eleven 10 min.
swims, and forty 12 min. swims for the two 6 wks. exercise groups. The
3 wks. exercise + noise control groups were not swum.
During the final twenty-nine treatment sessions, the 6 wks. exercise +
noise groups were exposed to an intermittent 90 decibel white noise while
swimming. The 6 wks. exercise and the control groups were not exposed to
noise.
Post treatment performance was assessed by two 5 min.Skinner box tests
administered 24 hrs. apart and under a condition of 23 hr. food and
water deprivation. During both tests, the rats were exposed to an inter-
mittent 100 decibel white noise signal. The subjects received a 20% sugar
solution reward by means of the previously learned bar-touching response.
The following measures were obtained: 1) latency and reciprocal latency
of the initial bar-touch, 2) number of bar-touches for each 1 min. test
interval and 3) total number of bar-touches.
Body weights were recorded at 80, 105, and 107 days of age. The 6 wks.
101
-------
exercise group swam to exhaustion at 87 and 108 days of age. All groups
swam to exhaustion at 134 days of age. Immediately following sacrifice,
the adrenal glands were weighed.
Statistical Analysis
Between group means were compared by a one-way analysis of variance.
Within group mean comparisons were tested by a randomized block, two-way
analysis of variance. Posterior analyses were accomplished by either
orthogonal contrasts or a Newman Keuls test.
Relationships between the variables were determined by the Pearson-Product
Moment Correlation Coefficient.
Results
Between group differences in the speed of the initial bar-touch and the
rate of bar-touching for the two 5 min. Skinner box tests were not
statistically significant. Compared to the control group, the mean num-
ber of bar-touches for each of the four treatment groups tended to be
greater during each 1 min. interval and for the total test.
A general pattern of statistically significant within-group rate of bar-
touching improvement between the two 5 min. tests was found for all groups
Significant probabilities ranged from .05 to .001 among the five groups
for twenty-six of the thirty possible rate measures.
The two 6 wks. exercise groups had statistically significant lower body
weights at 105 and 127 days of age (p<.001). The swim times of the six
wks. exercise groups were significantly lowered during the experiment
(.01
-------
Implications
Although between-group comparisons of the Skinner box variables were non-
significant, the elevated level of instrumental performance by the treat-
ment groups is of interest. The facilitating effect of the noise treatment
was expected. However the indication that swimming may have promoted
improved instrumental responding during noise exposure, as evidenced by
the 6 wks. exercise group, is noteworthy and suggestive of a possibly
unique outcome for exercise.
Dinsmoor, James A., Bonbright, James C. & Lilie, Daniel R. A controlled
comparison of drug effects on escape from conditioned aversive stimu-
lation ("anxiety") and from continuous shock Psychopharmacologia, 1971,
22(4), 323-332.
The effects of chlordiazepoxide and chlorpromazine on the response of 6
squirrel monkeys exposed to alternating stimuli of (a) continuous shock
at a lower intensity were compared. A variable interval schedule of
stimulus termination was used. It was found that chlordiazepoxide
(2.5-10 mg/kg,ip) produced a significantly greater decrease in response
rate under the continuous shock condition than with noise. The fact that
previous findings of selective action with this drug reflect uncontrolled
factors (e.g, differences in reinforcement contingencies or in escape and
avoidance responding).
Dresher, Dennis G. Noise induced reduction of inner ear microphonic re-
sponse: Dependency on body temperature. Science, 1974, 185, 273-274.
The rate of reduction of chinchilla cochlear microphonic response with
exposure to steady noise is less at lower body temperatures and greater
at higher body temperatures. Before exposure to noise, this auditory
response is invariant within the range of temperatures employed. The
mechanism of reduction of cochlear response appears to involve processes
sensitive to body temperature.
103
-------
Dumkina, G.Z.*Some clinical and physiological studies of workers subject-
ed to stable noise. Army Foreign Science and Technology Center Charlottes-
ville Va., 1973, Report No. FSTC-HT-23-2405-72.
Machine operators studied, subjected to the influence of middle and high
frequency noise at 82-99 dB, showed functional changes in the nervous
system characteristic for the astheno-vegetative syndrome. The degree
and frequency of these changes increased with increasing noise intensity
and working experience under the influence of noise. A number of persons,
with no organic changes in the cardiovascular system, showed functional
changes of hemodynamics, manifested as cardiac-type complaints, lability
of blood pressure and tendency toward capillary spasm. In some cases,
a persistent reduction in auditory sensitivity was noted in the high
frequency range, progressive with increasing noise intensity and work
experience.
Feldman, Shoul & Dafny, Nachum. Acoustic responses in the hypothalmus.
Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 1968, 25(2), 150-9.
Evoked potentials and single cell responses were recorded in the hypothal-
mus of 31 cats following acoustic stimulation. The possible pathways
involved in the propogation of the acoustic responses to the hypothalmus
are reviewed and factors modifying the sensory input to the hypothalmus
are discussed.
•i
Fichtel, K. On the features characterizing the elaboration of vasodila-
tional conditioned responses in man. Fiziologicheskii Zhurnal SSSR,
1970, 56(4), 610-7.
Ss were 8, 16-38 year olds. A biphasic thermovascular response was evoked
by utilizing arm baths of increasing temperature: a vasoconstrictive
phase for temperatures of 32-34°C, followed by a vasodilational phase
for higher temperatures. Combining such arm immersions with prolonged
acoustic stimulation in the form of tape-recorded music, it is possible
to elaborate a vasodilational CR to a stimulus eliciting initially an
orienting vasoconstrictive reaction. An odd byproduct of the study was
the finding that the music, itself, exhibited a vasodilational effect.
104
-------
Furedy, John., et al. Preparatory-response vs information-seeking inter-
pretations of preference for signaled loud noise: Further limits on
human informational cognitive control. Psychonomic Science, 1972, 27(2),
108-110.
A series of .3-sec noises of varying intensity (80,90,100,110, or 120 dB
were presented to 56 undergraduates. One half the noises were preceded by
an 8-sec signal. A postexperimental questionnaire indicates a reliable
group preference for signaled over unsignaled noise. A preparatory-
response interpretation of the preference would require the presence of
informational cognitive control, defined as occurring whenever the signal
reduces the subjectively-rated.intensity of a noxious inescapable out-
come. No such reduction was observed, even though the subjective
intensity ratings were clearly sensitive to physical noise-intensity
differences. Results are consistent with an information-seeking inter-
pretation of the preference-for-signaled-noise phenomenon.
Getsel,KH.A. & Alekseev, S.V. The permeability of blood-brain barrier
to radio active phosphorus and the phosphoric metabolism in cerebral
structures of wistar rats under the influence of noise. Fiziologicheskii
Zhurnal SSSR, 1970, 56, 1758-66.
Employing the quantitative autoradiographic method, disturbance in the
blood-brain barrier permeability were shown to disappear 24 hours after
a single application of noise. Lasting disturbances in the blood-brain
permeability and metabolism of the macromolecular phosphoric compounds
due to the multiple effect of noise in Ss were also shown.
Giannitrapani, Duilio. EEG changes under differing auditory stimulations.
Archives of General Psychiatry, 1970, 23(5), 445-453.
Amplitude changes and phase angle relationships were investigated between
16 brain areas for frequencies from 1-33 cps. Ss were 32, 11-14 yr. old
right-handed boys. Besides two resting control periods, 3 auditory
conditions were used, one unpatterned (white noise), a musical excerpt,
and a story. The three conditions showed similarities in the patterning
of EEG data and distinctive features characteristic of each condition.
105
-------
Similarities consisted of amplitude changes primarily in the prefrental-to-
occipital and homologous temporal comparisons. The noise condition was
characterized by left temporal increase in beta activity and anterior
leading of alpha in the left prefrental-to-occipital comparison. Music
was characterized by the smallest change in amplitude from resting,
bilaterally symmetrical leading in the prefrontal-to-occipital comparisons,
and anterior leading in the left central-to-occipital comparison. Voice
was characterized by a bilateral increase of beta activity in the temporal
areas and posterior leading of alpha in the left prefrontal-to-occipital
comparison. Both the music and voice test conditions showed a decrease
in the left leading activity characteristic of the resting condition in
this right-handed group, but in slightly different beta frequency bands.
Findings, indicate both the specificity and the generality of the mediation
of auditory processes in the human brain.
Glaser, Edmund M. Cortical responses of awake cat to narrow-band FM
noise stimuli. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 1971,
50(2, Pt. 2), 490-501.
Four female unanesthetized cats were stimulated with chronically emplanted
epidural electrodes in the region of primary auditory cortex with FM
noises of varying bandwidths. The average evoked responses were compared
with responses to tone bursts of the same center frequency and intensity.
It was found that (a) tfie magnitude of the early response components
increased with the bandwidth of the modulating noise, the relationship
being fitted well by a power function; (b) there was a smaller power-law
type of increase in response amplitude with RMS rate, noise bandwidth
being held constant; and (c) responses to transitions from tone to noise
were quite marked, often exceeding burst responses, while responses to
transitions from noise to tone were only rarely observed. Results are dis-
cussed in terms of the activity of single units in auditory cortex. A
simple neuronal model is proposed to explain and unify the findings. Find-
ings are compared with phychological loudness summation studies.
106
-------
Grandjean, Etienne. *Physiological and psychophysiological effects of
noise. Army Foreign Science and Technology Center Charlottesville Va.,
1971, Report No. FSTC-HT-23-239-71.
Present knowledge of the physiological and psychophysiological effects
of noise is reviewed. Experiments with animals and humans show that
noise stimuli can effect the autonomic control of blood circulation,
metabolism, and various inner organs. Animal experiments show that at
high noise intensities the noise effects can also attack the pituitary-
adrenal cortex system.
Greenwood, Donald D. & Goldberg, Jay M. Response of neurons in the
cochlear nuclei to variations in noise bandwidth and to tone-noise
combinations. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 1970, 47(4,
Pt. 2), 1022-1040.
Experiments were performed in which bands of noise were widened (arith-
metically) around the best frequencies of single units in the cochlear
nuclear complex of 12 cats. 2 types of effect were studied: (a) summation,
in which increasing bandwidth from narrow widths (constant spectrum level)
produced increases in firing; and (b) suppression, in which increasing
bandwidth beyond the range in which summation occurred produced system-
atic reductions in firing. In monotic units, in which summation was more
readily observed, increasing bandwidth was approximately equivalent to
increasing the spectrum level of a narrow band of constant width; the
subsequent suppression at larger bandwidths ranged from slight to very
marked. The bandwidths at which summation ceased and suppression began,
decreased somewhat at high spectrum levels and were similar in width on
a log scale for units of differing best frequency but, for several
reasons, these turnover bandwidths were not readily interpretable. Tone-
noise combination stimuli were also used to study some units, and it was
possible to repeat and extend earlier observations by D.D. Greenwood
and N. Maruyama to the effect that depending on intensity a band of noise
centered at one frequency may eliminate, i.e., mask, a unit's response to
a tone at a different frequency either (a) by inhibiting that response,
or (b) activating ttie unit itself so that the tone has no additional
effect.
107
-------
Hammond, G. R., MacAdam, D. W. & Ison, J. R. Effects of prestimulation
on the electromyographic response associated with the acoustic startle
reaction in rats. Physiology & Behavior,1972, 8(3), 535-537.
Five male albino rats were presented with high intensity acoustic stimuli,
alone (control trials). Stabilimetric measures of the startle reflex as
well as the amplitudes and latencies of EM6 activity to the stimuli were
recorded. Both sorts of prestimulation depressed the amplitude of subse-
quent effector activity to the startle stimulus as well as the stabili-
metric measure, indicating that demonstrations of Stabilimetric depression
caused by prepulses do result from direct effector inhibition. The
auditory but not the visual prepulse increased the latency of the subse-
quent startle reaction. The inhibitory effects were not determined by
effector activity initiated by the prepulse, supporting central rather than
peripheral mechanisms of reflex inhibition.
Hayes, R. W. & Venables, P. H. EEG measures of arousal during RFT perform-
ance in "noise". Perceptual & Motor Skills. 1970,31(2),594.
EEG alpha of 21 undergraduates was measured during upright Rod and Frame
Test (RFT) performance in 6 blocks of 4 trials in a portable apparatus.
Neither the stability of RFT performance nor the amount of EEG alpha was
found to be affected by loud earphone noise delivered whenever alpha
exceeded 80% of Ss maximum alpha. Results are discussed in relation to
Oltman's proposal that RFT performance may be influenced by physiological
arousal.
Horvath, T., Kirby, H. W. & Smith, A. A. Rats1 heart rate and grooming
activity in the open field. Journal of. Comparative & Physiological
Psychology, 1971, 76(3), 449-453.
Thirty male Long-Evans hooded rats were observed in a novel open-field
situation under different levels of white noise and illumination. Grooming
and heart rate were recorded, the latter with a telemetry apparatus. Heart
rates were lower when white noise and illumination were present, but no
differences between groups exposed to different intensities were found.
No grooming differences, either in amount or distribution in time, were
108
-------
observed. It is concluded that heart rate and grooming in novel open-
field situations are unrelated.
Hrubes, V. & Benes, V. * The influence of repeated noise stress on rats.
Army Foreign Science and Technology Center Charlottesville Va., 1971,
Report No. FSTC-HT-23-246-71.
The effect of repeated noise on rats was investigated. An increased
excretion of catecholamines in the urine, a rise in the level of free
fatty acids in the blood plasma, an increase in the weight of the
adrenals, and an inhibition of growth of the animals was determined,
in comparison to untreated control animals and to the initial values of
the test animals. The course of the weight curves showed characteristic
changes also. Excretion of 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid did not change
significantly, however.
Hunter, Edna J. Autonomic responses to aircraft noise in dyslexic
children. Psychology in the Schools, 1969, 8, 362-7.
The effects of noise from low-flying aircraft on autonomic response
patterns were analyzed in dyslexic children (RDS) and a group of match-
ed controls (CS) during a task and a no-task situation. Nonreaders and
CS were compared for skin conductance level, skin potential response,
heart rate level, heart rate response, finger pulse level, and finger
pulse response. The RD child appeared more distracted by the noise and
elicited significantly larger noise-evoked skin potential and heart rate
responses than CS, but only when the noise occurred while task-oriented.
Data support the hypothesis that defective inhibitory mechanisms, not
defective arousal levels, underlie the attentional deficit of the non-
reader.
Jackson, Donald E. Prolonged exposure to high-intensity noise: I. No
effect on subsequent acquisition of conditioned suppression. Proceed-
ings of the Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association,
1970, 5(Pt. 1), 27-28.
Observing reports' that rats exposed to high-intensity sounds suffer
109
-------
physiological and metabolic changes, 21 Ss were exposed to constant
noise (102 dB.), intermittent noise, or control conditions 45 minutes
daily for 25 consecutive days. Following 5 days rest and 9 days
variable-interval training, Ss received 2 days CER training. Following
2 recovery days, Ss were given 9 days CER extinction. Analysis of sup-
pression ratios indicated no significant treatment effect; nor were
earlier findings of weight loss following noise exposure confirmed.
Since data hinted that noise Ss were less suppressed, there was agree-
ment with others that prior stress may render subsequent stress less
noxious.
Jansen, G.*Noise as a cause of disease. Army Foreign Science and Tech-
nology Center Char!ottesvilie Va., 1971, Report No. FSTC-HT-23-241-71.
Results of medical noise research presented here are sufficient grounds
for physicians to promote effective and technical noise control, since
human health is jeopardized by noise. Technical and acoustical experts
often say that we can become accustomed to noise, and that noise control
is not necessary to the extent that it is required. Medical research
in recent years seems to have shown clearly that such habituation does
not exist, at least in the autonomic sphere, even if noise is tolerated
as a physiological phenomenon. Noise research has already provided
evidence that the physicians' demands are justified.
>
Jatho, K. *Psychological and physiological-organic damage due to the
effects of noise and high sound and tone intensities. Army Foreign
Science and Technology Center Char!ottesvilie Va., Report No. FSTC-HT-
23-252-71.
The article reports on the psychological and physiological-organic
damage due to the effects of noise and high sound and tone intensities.
The individual in modern industrial society is forcibly subjected to
acoustically damaging factors in meeting places, down-town areas of
large cities and in many places of work. The organism and sense of
hearing react to these with first temporary and then lasting disturbances,
110
-------
Keating, Lawrence W. & Ruhm, Howard B. Within average variable of the
acoustically evoked response. Journal of Speech & Hearing Research,
1971, 14(1), 179-188.
The effects of various tasks, designed to alter the degree of "attention
to stimuli", on the variability of the EEG activity which gives rise to
the average acoustically evoked response were explored. Evoked responses
to 50- dB SL clicks were recorded from the vertex of 8 male graduate
students under four conditions: quiet, counting, discriminating, and
reading. Results show the quiet condition yielded the greatest varia-
bility while reading exhibited the least.
Keinosuke, Sakashita. *Effects of acoustic stimuli on guinea pigs. Ex-
perimental studies on the effects of long-term and repeated acoustic
stimulation on the inner ear pituitary - adrenal cortex. Army Foreign
Science and Technology Center Char!ottesvilie Va., Report No. FSTC-HT-
23-253-71.
Guinea pigs were exposed for a long period to strong acoustic stimu-
lation (4,000 cps, 100-115 dB). They were divided into the 10 day
group (exposed to noise for three hours per day for 10 days), the 23
day group (12 hours per day for 23 days), and the 40 day group (12 hours
per day for 40 days). In all groups morbid change of the inner ear,
the biochemical function of the pituitary-adrenal cortex system, and the
pathological-histological observations of these organs were compared.
In connection with the so-called Selye's general adaptation syndrome,
the pathological physiology of living bodies was pursued, and relation-
ships with endocrinal metabolism in noisy workshops were compared and
investigated.
Kharkevich, D. A. & Sinitsyn, L. N. The influence of sodium oxbutyrate
on exitatory conduction in afferent systems when different sensory
modalities are stimulated. Farmakologiya i Toksikologiya, 1969, 32(3),
265-270.
Ss were cats subjected to urethane and chloralose narcosis. Evoked
potentials were recorded in the cerebral cortex and in specific, assoc-
iative, and nonspecific thalmic and mesencephalic structures, following
111
-------
supra- and submaximal electrical stimulation of the vagus, inferior
cardiac, and sciatic nerves, and photo and audiostimulation. Sodium
oxybutyrate inhibited evoked potentials following stimulation of the
visceral nerves and increased potential amplitude, following stimulation
of the sciatic nerve and after photo- and audiostimulation. It appears
that sodium oxybutrate exerted primarily a blocking action on the
conduction of excitation in the afferent pathways of the visceral nerves
(inferior cardiac and vagus nerves).
Kohlenberg, Robert J. Instructions to ignore a stimulus and the GSR.
Psychonomic Science.1970, 19(4), 220-1.
Twelve undergraduates were presented with three different tones and
instructed Ss to ignore one of them. Results indicate that the GSR is
enhanced for the ignored stimulus and support the notion that effects due
to signal value are larger than the effects due to demand characteristics.
Landers, William F., Ball, Steven E. & Hal comb, Charles G. Digital
skin temperature as a physiological correlate of attention in nonretard-
ed and retarded children. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1972,
76(5), 550-554.
Digital skin temperature (SKT) of 20 9-yr-old nonretarded and mildly
retarded Negro males was recorded during alternate periods of white noise
and a movie to test that decreases in SKT reflect a physiological component
of the attentional process, and that attentional differences of non-
retarded and retarded Ss are manifested in this hypothesized physiolo-
gical correlate of attention. Results indicate that: (a) SKT decreases
occurred to changes in environment for both nonretarded and retarded
Ss, (b) SKT drop durations were longer during the movie than during
white noise for all Ss, and (c) SKT changes did not conclusively differ-
entiate between nonretarded and retarded Ss.
Lown, Bernard, Verrier, Richard & Corbalan, Ramon. Psychologic stress
and threshold for repetitive ventricular response. Science, 1973, 182,
834-836.
A psychologically stressful environment reduced the threshold of the
112
-------
dog's ventricle for repetitive response. Elicitation of such a response
indicates the presence of electrical instability and a predisposition
to ventricular fibrillation, the mechanism of sudden death.
Matsui, Kiyoo & Sakamoto, Hiroshi. *Studies on water content in the
brain in a noisy environment. Army Foreign Science and Technology
Center Charlottesville Va.. 1971, Report No. FSTC-T7023012301.
The experiments were undertaken to clarify the revelation between the
water metabolism and the noisy environment as compared with cold. 100
to 105 phon noise characterized by wide octave band spectrum at room
temperature (20C) was used. The temperature in the cold condition was
IOC. The adult male rabbits were arranged in 4 groups of 5 animals each;
control, exposure to cold, one or repeated exposure to noise. The
rabbits were exposed to cold for 90 minutes, and to noise for 3 hours
once or 8 hours daily during one month. There-after, the brain was
removed and separated into 7 parts; cerebrum, cerebellum, upper and
lower part of mesencephalon, interbrain, medula oblongata, and pons.
The water content was determined by Hatschek's method. Results were:
(1) in the control group, the free water content in cerebrum and cere-
bellum were higher than that in medulla oblongata, pons and upper-part
of mesencephalon. The bound water content in cerebrum and cerebellum
were lower than that in medulla oblongata and upper-part of mesencephalon.
Maugeri, Salvatore & Odescalchi, Cajo P. Occupational Noise: Present
day problems, pathology, and preventative measures. Securitas, 1968,
53(5-6).
The characteristics of noise (intensity, frequency, duration timbre, etc.)
is described and draws a distinction between occupational and non-occu-
pational noise. The effect of the noise is felt across the channels of
the sympathetic system and centrally, on the diencephalic centers (reti-
cular substance). Occupational noise harms the hearing organs of the
worker in a characteristic and constant manner, and frequently is the
cause of accidents as a result of interfering with verbal communications.
It affects the performance of man-machine systems and disturbs the com-
113
-------
munity at large. The prevention of the damage caused by noise must begin
by acting on the source of the noise itself and on the work environment.
A criteria for evaluating the risk, based on daily exposure to noise for
a period of 290 working days is proposed. A review of technical and medi-
cal prevention, and occupational audiometry both at the time of starting
work and periodically repeated is presented.
Mayer, J. *New data of acute acoustic trauma (auditory trauma due to
sudden noise) based on new measurement techniques. Army Foreign Science
and Technology Center Charlottesville Va.1971, FSTC-HT-23-249-71.
On the basis of a special measuring technique it was possible, in addition
to level measurements, to show the distribution of sound energy for short
sound impulses and to construct a frequency spectrum. The physical prin-
ciples of acute acoustic trauma (trauma due to acoustic shock) were broad-
ened.
Mefferd, Roy B.,Jr., Sadler, Timothy 6., & Wieland, Bett A. Physiolo-
gical responses to mild heteromodal sensory stimulation. Psychophysi-
ology, 1969, 6(2), 186-96.
The interaction of 3 pairs of heteromodal sensory stimuli-reading vs.
continuous banging noise, continuous flashing light vs. banging noise,
single flash vs. bang was evaluated. Order of presentation was con-
founded both within,and between Ss. Interstimulus time periods were
\
15 sec. with the last. Although most variables had large mean differ-
ences in the expected direction, the largest and most often significant
effects were with GSH. The responses were less with a stimulus imposed
either simultaneously or within a short period after another, than they
were to the stimulus imposed alone. Habituation effects were marked.
Nash, Richard F., Gallup, Gordon G. & McClure, Michael K. The immo-
bility reaction in leopard frogs (Rana pipiens) as a function of noise-
induced fear. Psychonomic Science, 1970, 21(3), 155-156.
It was hypothesized that a loud preindiction noise should prolong the
duration of the immobility reaction by increasing the level of fear or
arousal prior to manual restraint. Thirty-four frogs served as Ss, with
114
-------
1/2 receiving a loud noise just prior to being immobilized, while the
remainder serves as a control group. Ss exposed to preindiction noise
remained immobile significantly longer than controls. Results are
discussed as providing additional support for the idea that the immobility
response represents an innate fear reaction.
Nielsen, D. W., Teas, D. C. & Idzikowski, R.P. Variation in cortical
evoked responses as a function of performance criterion. Perception &
Psychophysics, 1970, 8(1), 29-32.
Averaged evoked cortical responses (CER) were recorded from the scalp of
human Ss within an experimental paradigm that permitted the performance
criterion to be varied. The signals evoking the cortical responses were
contingent upon S/s pressing a button to bisect a temporal interval within
certain tolerance limits. Under passive conditions averaged response
waveforms lacked a 2nd, late component that became prominent under tempo-
ral bisection conditions. The late component P2-N2, was neither as large
nor as systematic as that shown by P2-N2.
Osterhammel, P., Terkildsen, K. & Arndal, P. Evoked responses to SISI
stimuli: Centralateral masking effects. Acta-Oto-Laryngologica, 1969,
263, 245-247.
In an experiment with 3 Ss, it was found that evoked cortical responses
to Short Increment Sensitivity Index type stimuli at 20-dB sensation
level and increment magnitudes 2,3, and 5 dB. tended to be enhanced by
the application of contralateral masking noise. With 5-dB increments
and the continuous tone at the threshold of hearing, the same masking
noise caused the response to disappear. The enhancement of auditory
discrimination at suprathreshold levels through application of contra-
lateral masking and the central masking effect at the threshold are
thought to be comparable to the so-called indirect adaptation mechanism
of the eye, and an indication that the efferent innervation to the
cochlea is important for the adaptation of the ear.
115
-------
Pfefferbaum, Adolf, Buchsbaum, Monte & Gips, James. Enhancement of the
average evoked response to tone onset and cessation. Psychophysiology,
1971, 8(3), 332-339.
Auditory average evoked responses (AERS) produced by tone onset (on
responses) and tone cessation (off responses) were studied in 14 normal
19-26 yr. old adult Ss. When short (500 msec.) tone bursts were presented
widely spaced (2500 msec, between tones), on responses were large, in
contrast to off responses, which were less than 1/3 their size. But
when long tones (2500 msec.) were succeeded by brief (500 msec.) silences,
off and on responses were comparable in size. In addition to this ob-
served effect of the ratio of the % of time the tone was on to the
percent of time the tone was off, control experiments suggest that in-
creased duration of preceding interval, enexpectancy of stimulus occur-
rence of stimulus, and decreased mean frequency of stimulus presentation
all increase the amplitude of both off and on responses. Off responses
were found to be more sensitive to stimulus spacing effects than on
responses.
Pollak, George David. An investigation of masking the cochlear nucleus
of the cat. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Maryland) Ann Arbor,
Mich.: University Microfilms, 1970, No. 71-4052, 162 pages.
The behavior of slow waves from the cochlear nucleus in response to tone
bursts and tone bursts in narrow and broad band noise was investigated.
Three different groups of experiments were performed. In the Group I
experiments the origin of the slow wave activity was identified. This
was accomplished by topically applying tetrodotoxin (TTX) to the cochlear
while slow waves and cochlear microphonic responses were recorded. It was
found that the TTX completely abolished the slow wave while leaving the
microphone response unaffected. It was therefore, concluded that the
slow waves did not originate from hair cells potentials but were, in fact,
neural in origin. The Group II experiments demonstrated that the slow
wave responses from the PVCN can be elicited in a tonotopic fashion.
This tonotopic organization was in agreement with single unit studies
performed in the subnucleus. The Group III experiments were concerned
116
-------
with the manner in which the slow waves were masked by narrow and wide
band amplitude modulated noise. The results of the narrow band noise
experiments may be summarized as follows: 1) Only a limited band of fre-
quencies are effective in masking the response to a tone burst. This
band of frequencies is called the masking bandwidth (MBW); 2) the size
of the MBW increases linearly with tonal frequency; 3) the size of the
MBW increases as the relative intensity is raised.
It was expected that if wide band noise were to mask a tone whose MBW
was found to be considerably narrower than the noise bandwidth, this
noise would be less effective in masking the tone than narrow band noise
of equal power because some of the energy in the wide band noise was
spread to frequencies which were outside of the MBW and thus considered
to be ineffective in the masking of this particular tone. This expect-
ation was not realized. The data shows that noise whose bandwidth
significantly exceeds the MBW does not produce less masking than noise
of equal power whose spectral components are entirely within the limits
of the MBW.
The results are discussed in the light of psychophysical experiments and
in terms of the current knowledge of the behavior of single units in the
auditory system.
Rasbury, W. & Shemberg, K. The effects of aversive levels of white noise.
Psychonomic Science, 1971, 22(3), 166-167-
This research investigated the effects of aversive levels of white noise on
consumnatory behavior with 15 male Holtzman rats assigned to each of three
conditions of sound level (90,100, and 110 dB) and 15 to a no-sound
control group. Results show that Ss in the sound treatment conditions
consumed significantly greater quantities of food on the second sound
treatment day than controls. In addition, there were no systematic
differences in consummatory behavior among the three treatment conditions.
117
-------
Raskin, David €., Kotses, & Baver, James. Cephalic vasomotor and heart
rate measures of orienting and defensive reflexes. Psychophysiology,
1969, 6(2), 149-59.
The problem of differentiating orienting (OR) and defensive reflexes (DR)
was studied by measurement of forehead-skin pulse amplitude (PA) fore-
head skin blood content (BC), and heart rate (HR). Thirty male under-
graduates received thirty stimulations of .5-sec. white noise at either
80 or 120 dB. Analyses of the physiological measures indicated that
both intensities of stimulation produced decreases in PA. Forehead BC
showed larger increases to 120 dB than at 80 dB., and successive stimu-
lations produced a change to overall decreases in BC at both intensities.
HR acceleration occurred to both stimuli, and a short latency deceleration
occurred to 80 dB. Results showed that cephalic vasoconstriction is the
dominant response to auditory stimulation and that cephalic vasomotor
responses do not differentiate between ORs and DRs. The short latency
HR deceleration and smaller HR acceleration differentiated the OR from
the DR.
Rothschild, Henri C. The effect of high intensity noise of varying
frequencies on neuroendocrine response in the rat. Dissertation
Abstracts International, 1973, 33(9-B), 4326.
High intensity ambient noise is becoming increasingly evident as an
environmental pollutant. One biological effect of high intensity noise
is the production of a condition of physiological stress. The capacity of
noise to generate a stress response in an organism allows the evaluation
of the potentially deleterious effects of high intensity noise by the
measurement of physiological variables such as the excretion of potassium
and sodium in the urine. In the present investigation, urinary K/Na ratios
were studied to determine whether the stress response of the organism to
high intensity noise varies with the frequency of the sound.
Twelve studies were undertaken: six studies at 65 db and six studies
at 120 db. In each study, six experimental and six control animals were
used. The noise treated animals were subjected to a 30 minute exposure of
sound. Pure tone frequencies of 1000, 2000, 4000, 8000, and 10,000 Hz
118
-------
were used, as well as a broad-band frequency at 1000-10,000 Hz. Urine
was collected prior to the noise exposure, or control conditions from all
animals as well as at intervals of 6, 12, and 18 hours following noise
exposure. Blood was collected from the animals at the 18 hour sampling
period and analyzed for glucose content. Urinary K/Na ratios were deter-
mined by flame photometry and blood glucose content was determined by an
automic analysis based on the enzymatic degradation of glucose.
No effective difference in urinary K/Na ratios was observed between treat-
ed and control animals at any of the frequencies studied for 65 dB.
Analysis of the data obtained for the 120 dB study showed, in all fre-
quencies except 2000 Hz, a drop in the urinary K/Na ratio of the noise
treated rats relative to controls 6 hours after noise exposure. In the
study undertaken at 120 dB and 10,000 Hz, the urinary K/Na ratio for the
noise-treated rats decreased 48.78% after 6 hours relative to the corres-
ponding controls. This was the greatest drop in urinary K/Na ratios scored
at 6 hours. The percent decrease of urinary K/Na ratios for the other
studies at 120 dB, 6 hours after the noise were 35.25%, 29.95%, 43.00%,
and 30.85% for the studies at 1000, 4000, 8000, and 1-10,000 Hz respect-
ively. The general pattern of response in all studies at 120 dB was a
return to control urinary K/Na values at 12 and 18 hours following noise.
In the 8000 Hz study, the urinary K/Na ratio of the noise treated rats at
12 hours was lower than the corresponding control by 56.05%. The decrease
in urinary in urinary K/Na ratios in the noise treated animals 6 hours
following the noise was greatest at 10,000 Hz, although, no statistically
significant variation of the response at 6 hours with the frequency of
the sound was found. The results of the investigation nevertheless can
be interpreted to shwo that, at the higher frequencies studied, the stress
response was more pronounced. The study undertaken at 120 dB and 2000 Hz
showed no difference in urinary K/Na ratios of noise treated and control
rats. The data suggest that, at 2000 Hz, white rats may exhibit some
degree of resistance to noise stress. There was no significant change
of blood glucose levels in the noise treated rats relative to controls
in any of the studies taken.
119
-------
Segal, Richard F. & Isaac, Walter. Sensory influences upon amphetamine
tolerance. Physiology & Behavior, 1971, 7(6), 877-879.
The effects of illumination, noise, and d-amphetamine upon locomotor acti-
vity in 12 Cherokee SD male albino white rats was studied. While both
noise and illumination altered activity level, only illumination was
related to drug effects. The effectiveness of the drug was found to
decrease, primarily in the dark, over repeated trials.
Semczuk, Boleslaw. investigation of the effects of acoustic stimuli on
respiratory movements. Army Foreign Science and Technology Center
Charlottesville Va., 1971, Report No. FSTC-HT-23-274-71.
Respiratory movements of the chest were recorded in 150 healthy subjects
(100 adults and 50 children) by means of a thoracograph and kymograph,
while pure tones of a definite frequency and intensity, generated by an
audiometer, were delivered to both ears. The tests were done in the
waking state amd om physiological sleep. The results have shown that
supraliminal acoustic stimuli markedely change the respiratory movements
and that, contrary to other stimuli (visual, for example), they elicit
no adaptation of the body to repetitive acoustic stimulation. Changes
produced in respiratory movements by acoustic stimuli are discussed in
detail.
>
Stern, Robert M., Gaupp, Larry and Leonard, WiTliam C. A comparison of
GSR and subjective adaptation to stressful stimuli. Psychophysiology,
1970, 7(1), 3-9.
Subjective and physiological adaptation, as measured by magnitude of GSRs,
to electric shock and auditory noise were compared. In Exp.l, 48 under-
graduates received 15 shocks of constant intensity, one subgroup always
receiving low shocks and the other high. Ss were told that shock intensity
would vary and rated the intensity of each shock immediately following
its presentation. In Exp. II, the same procedure was followed with 50
different Ss, using noises instead of shocks. Shock Ss showed subjective
adaptation but no GSR adaptation. Noise Ss showed GSR adaptation with an
increase in subjective intensity reports. The importance of anticipation,
120
-------
in terms of level of arousal at the onset of the session, is discussed.
Strakhov, A.B. On the dynamics of critical electrical responses to
photic stimulation under the action of intense noise in man. Zhural
Vysshei Nervnoi Deyatel Nosti, 1968,18(5),873-9.
Twenty humans were used to study the influence of high-frequency noise
(95-100 dB) up to one hour) on cortical responses invoked by rhythmic
photostimulation (9 cps.). Five of the original Ss were used in a similar
study, and, after prior administration of M-cholinolytics (scopolamine,
aerone), recordings were made every 3-5 minutes of the EEG and responses
to light flashes. The action of the applied noise was accompanied
by a growing generalized depression of alpha-rhythm which developed for
the duration of "several tens of minutes1'. Photo-stimulation, applied
at the onset of noise, led to the emergence of bursts of alpha-rhythm
which weakened and completely disappeared with continuation of its action.
Cessation of exposure to noise at first led to the appearance of bursts
of alpha-rhythm in response to photo-stimulation and later to its full
restoration. The application of M-cholinolytics retarded the develop-
ment of these changes in the CNS. These data are interpreted as the
result of: (a) the development of an inhibitory state in the cerebral
cortex owing to the activation, under the action of noise, of the
reticular structures of the inferior sections of the brainstem; and
(b) the release of inhibitory mechanisms located in the nonspecific thalmus.
The loss of cerebral capacity to react to afferent impulsation under the
action of intense noise lies at the basis of many changes in the activity
of the CNS individuals subjected to the chronic action of noise.
Thalken, Charles E. Use of beagle dogs in high intensity noise studies.
School of Aerospace Medicine Brooks AFB Tex., 1971, Report No. SAM-TR-
70-423.
To evaluate the effects of high intensity white noise, beagles were
individually exposed to noise levels of 120 decibels. The stressing
effects of noise at this intensity were studied by determining changes
in circulating venous levels of 17-hydroxycorticosteoid (17-OHCS, cortisol)
121
-------
Steroid levels in blood samples were analyzed using the Peterson modifi-
cation of the Porter-Silber colorimetric reaction. No significant
differences (p<0.05) in circulating steroid levels could be detected
between control samples and samples taken after noise exposure. This
study suggests that high intensity white noise does not detectably stress
dogs as it does other animals. Therefore, the canine may not be the
animal of choice for investigations utilizing noise in the range most
important mentally and physically to man.
Udalov, Yu. F., Lapaev, E. V. and Syzrantsev, Yu. K. Effect of aviation
noise on some indices of protein and vitamin metabolism. Army Foreign
Science and Technology Center Char!ottesvilie Va., 1971, Report No.
FSTC-HT-23-272-71..
Research results in this report point to the need for wider employment
of vitamins and glutamic acid to prevent the damaging effects of noise
on flying personnel and aircraft maintenance personnel.
Welch, Bruce L. & Welch, Annemarie S'. (Eds.) Physiological effects of
noise. New York, N.Y. Plenum Press, 1970.
Papers presented in this volume represent the content of a 1969 symposium
devoted to the physiological effects of audible sound. Contributions
represent the efforts of scientists from the western hemisphere and both
eastern and western Europe. Papers are presented based on both human
and infra-human data in the areas of: Adaptation, Disease resistance;
Endocrine and metabolic function; Cardiovascular and reproductive effects;
Neurological, biochemical and pharmacological effects; Sleep and sonic
boom studies.
Williams, D.I., Wells, P.A. & Lowe, G., Light reinforcement, noise and
arousal level. Nature, New Biology, 1971, 232(29), 95-96.
Using 80 male hooded rats results of an experiment with continuous
auditory stimulation in light reinforcement situation support the
prediction from arousal theory. Responding for light was depressed
in the noise condition whereas there was no difference in responding
in the control groups.
122
-------
Williston, John S. Habitation of the multiple unit discharge response
to white noise stimulation in the unanesthetized rabbit. (Doctoral
dissertation, University of Southern California) Ann Arbor, Mich:,
University Microfilms, 1969, No. 70-5233.
Certain characteristic parameters have been found in studies of the
habituatioon of responses as diverse as monosynaptic spinal reflexes and
exploratory behavior. Previous work with the EEG arousal response ind-
icate that certain neural activity may also conform to these parameters,
although the exact meaning of the EEG changes in habituation training
with the less ambiguous multiple unit response in a variety of subcortical
areas.
Fifteen rabbits were chronically implanted with asymmetrical bipolar
electrodes stereotaxically directed to a number of sites in the brain,
particularly the mesencephalic reticular formation, brachium of the
inferior colliculus, and medial geniculate. Following surgery and a
recovery period, the animals were restrained inside a sound-attenuated
box for three sessions of adaptation to the experimental environment and
then given six additional days of habituation training to white noise.
The animals were randomly assigned to either a ten- or thirty-second
intertrial interval group and also to a sequence of the three intensity
levels of white noise stimulation of 60, 80, and 100 db. Two days of
habituation at each of three noise intensity levels were given at the
assigned intertrial interval with a day of rest between different intensity
conditions. Each day's session consisted of 56 presentations of a two-
second burst of white noise and a two-second dishabituatory bright-light
stimulus immediately preceding the noise onset on the 16th, 24th, 32nd,
40th, and 48th trials. The major response reported was defined as the
net change in unit activity between a two-second control period preceding
noise onset and the two two-second period during the stimulus present-
ation.
In general, substantial decrements in the multiple unit response to the
novel white noise stimulus developed in auditory, nonspecific, association,
123
-------
and extrapyramidal sites. These changes were quite significant in the
brachium of the inferior colliculus (p <.Q05), medial geniculate (p .01),
and reticular formation (p <.025). On the second day of stimulation
decrements occurred faster and more profoundly, indicating that the
effects of training persisted overnight. Some spontaneous recovery did
occur, but the response did not appear to return to prestimulus levels.
Other parameters were examined in the auditory and reticular formation
placements. A shorter intertrial condition led to faster and more
profound habituation, as did weaker stimulus intensities. Both effects
were statistically significant in all three structures. Dishabituation
was seen in the two auditory structures but was more anbiguous in the
reticular formation; Here, an interaction with the excitation evoked by
the light stimulus led questions regarding possible occlusional mechanisms.
When dishabituation trials were repeatedly presented, this arousal response
diminished in intensity in all structures observed.
These results support the view that a net decrease in the firing of
neurons in a number of neural areas parallels the loss of the arousal
or EEG desynchronization response in the central nervous system and a
variety of peripheral responses. The development of this stimulus-
specific decrement amy reflect the loss of an excitability necessary
for evocation of these,responses. The variability observed between
>
structures does not support the view that the decrement which appears
at early synaptic relays is due mainly to inhibition exerted there
from higher structures but does suggest that these results are due to
the existence of an inhibitory mechanism operating at all levels of
stimulus input and processing.
124
-------
SLEEP
For the most part, these studies deal with the disruptive effects of noise
on sleep. The research includes investigations of both intermittent and
continuous noise.
Several investigators have been concerned with aircraft noise and sonic
booms. In general, no major disruptions of sleep patterns are reported
for Ss experiencing sonic booms. Where effects are reported, they are
minor and are all correlated with the booms. Age and sex differences are
observed in several reports. Some studies, concerned with performance
decrements on the day following administration of simulated sonic booms,
revealed no significant effects.
Studies using intermittent noise "pings" showed no significant effects on
sleep patterns. Once again, as with sonic booms, the normal sleep patterns
seemed to correlate with the onset of the stimulus. Some subjective com-
plaints of difficulty in falling to sleep were not corroborated by observ-
able data.
Other studies using white noise revealed some changes in EE6 sleep patterns.
Stage REM sleep was disturbed. Scott (1972) reported compensatory
increases in REM sleep on quiet nights following noisy nights. Age effects
and impairment on cognitive tasks are observed for both continuous and
impulse noise conditions.
Brezinova, V., et al. The Czechoslovak EEG Commission: Subjective
appraisal and EEG of night sleep disturbed by sounds in normals.
Electroencephalography & Clinical Neurophysiology,1967, 22(3), 285-286.
Noise and verbal stimuli, applied during the greater part of the night
sleep of 20 normal Ss, reduced the amount of high voltage slow waves and
disturbed the development of the normal sleep cycles. Ss evaluating their
sleep as poor did not differ from Ss with subjectively good sleep in the
EEG quantities of alertness, sleep and in numbers of EEG arousals; they
showed a more freqifent incidence of subjective awakening, a greater
125
-------
score in the MA scale. Ss who felt drowsy in the morning showed a
smaller number of EEG arousals and better preserved high voltage slow
wave periods during the night, a more frequent incidence of very good
sleep in the last six months.
Chiles, W.D. & West, Georgetta. Residual performance effects of simulated
sonic booms introduced during sleep. FAA Office of Aviation Medicine
Report. 1972, 72-19, 8 p.
Eight Ss each in three age groups (21-26, 40-45, 60-72 yr. old) were tested
with the Multiple Task Performance Battery for 30 minutes every morning
and evening for 21 consecutive days. Tasks involved mental arithmetic,
pattern discrimination, monitoring meters and monitoring warning lights.
All Ss slept in the laboratory during baseline (days 1-5), boom (days
6-17) and recovery (days 18-21) phases of a study of the effects of simu-
lated sonic booms. During the 12 boom nights, there were hourly present-
ations of-simulated sonic booms of 1 pound/sq.ft. (outdoor measure).
Significant age effects and time-of-day effects emerged for five of the
10 performance measures, but there were no measureable consequences on
performance which could be attributed to the booms.
Collins, William E., & lampietro, P.P. Simulated sonic booms and sleep:
Effects of repeated booms of 1.0 psf. FAA Office of Aviation Medicine
Report, 1972, 72-35,
Eight male Ss in each of 3 age groups (21-26, 40-45, and 60-72 yr. old)
slept in pairs in a sonic boom simulator facility for 21 consecutive
nights. The first 5 nights acclimated the §,s (nights 1 and 2) and provid-
ed baseline data (nights 3-5); the 12 subsequent nights (boom) involved
the hourly presentation of simulated sonic booms at an outdoor overpressure
level of 1 Ib./sq.ft.; during 4 additional nights (recovery) there were
no boom presentations. All night records of EEG, electrooculogram, EMG,
electrocorticograms, and basal skin resistance (BSR) were obtained and
analyzed. None of the physiological measures showed statistically signi-
ficant effect of the boom presentation on nightly sleep patterns. However,
average heart rate increased during the minute following each boom (by
126
-------
less than 1 beat/min), EMG responses occurred for 45-50% of the booms,
and BSR changed following 19% of boom presentations. The frequency of
these occurrances increased as a function of age. That these changes
were probably mild is supported by the facts that only 5% of the booms
produced awakening and only 14% produced shifts in stages of sleep (4% of
the stage shifts might be expected by chance); both of these measures
showed higher frequencies of occurrence as a function of age.
Johnson, Laverne C., Townsend, Richard E., Naitoh, Paul, & Muzet, Alain.
Prolonged exposure to noise as a sleep problem. Navy Medical Neuro-
psychiatric Research Unit San Diego Calif., 1973, Report No. NMNRU-73-33.
In one 15-day and one 55-day laboratory study and one operational 7-day
training cruise, the effect of 24-hou.r-a-day exposure to pings of intensi-
ties ranging from 80-90 dB SPL on sleep'was examined. Pings were less
than a second in duration with an interstimulus interval of 45 or 22
seconds, and in the 3-4 KHZ frequency range. Maximum duration of ping
exposure was 30 days. In this young adult sample, exposure to the noise
did not produce a decrease in sleep duration or an increase in number
of awakenings. There were, however, reports of sleep onset difficulty
and a decrease in percent of sleep stage four during ping exposure. No
significant changes in waking performance or behavior were found as a
result of the ping exposure during any of the three studies.
Kramer, Milton; Roth, Thomas; Trindar, John, & Cohen, Alexander.
Cincinnati University of Ohio College of Medicine, 1971, Final Report,
174 p.
The study investigated the effects of noise on sleep and post-sleep
behavior in two 25, 50, and 70 year-old males. The subjects were run for
15 consecutive nights, the first five and the fifteenth serving as controls.
Following each night's sleep, subjects completed a series of performance
and psychological tests. Threshold sound levels for sleep disturbance
were obtained for an impulse and a continuous test noise and discussed in
terms of type of sleep disturbance stage of sleep, time of night, adaptation
and age of subjects.' The sleep profile results indicated that the pattern
127
-------
of noise-induced sleep disruption was related to age. The 25-year olds
showed an increase in stage 1 and movement time. The 70-year olds showed
an increase in time awake and a decrease in time spent in stage 3-4. The
50-year old subjects were intermediate with respect to each measure. The
daytime performance data revealed no effects of noise-induced sleep dis-
ruption on pursuit rotor and reaction time tasks but some decrements were
found in time estimation, arithmetic, and memory task measures. In ad-
dition, verbal sample scores demonstrated an increase in cognitive impair-
ment and a decrease in human relations.
Lukas, Jerome S. & Dobbs, Mary E., Effects of aircraft noises on the
sleep of women. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1972,
CR-2041, 38.
The EEG and behavioral responses during sleep of eight 29-49 year old
females exposed to subsonic jet flyover noise and simulated sonic booms on
14 consecutive nights was tested. Stimulus intensities were 101, 103, and
119 Pndb for the subsonic jet fly over and .67, 2.50 and 5.0 psf for the
simulated sonic booms, ^s were awakened, on the average, by approximate-
ly 42% of the flyover noises and by approximately 15% of the simulated
sonic booms. Comparison with a previous study using males as Ss reveals
that females were awakened more frequently by the subsonic jet flyover
noise, while males were awakened more frequently by the simulated sonic
boom.
Mabry, J.E. & Parry, H.J. The effect of simulated sonic boom rise time
and overpressure on electroencephalographic waveforms and disturbance
judgements. Man-Acoustics and Noise Inc Seattle Wash., 1973, Final
Report, 39 p.
The three main objectives of this study were: determine the feasibility
of investigating effect of simulated sonic booms on some sleep patterns
of persons undergoing routine electroencephalographic (EEG) examinations;
determine the extent that EEG waveforms are altered by the simulated
sonic booms; and obtain ''disturbance", judgements as a function of the
simulated boom noises. Results were obtained from fifty (50) subjects
of both sexes with ages ranging from 15 to 72 years of age. Data were
128
-------
relevant to resting, dozing, or light sleep. The EE6 waveforms for
resting or dozing persons was not changed by the simulated boom noises.
In general, the subjects were not, "disturbed" by the simulated booms.
Ninety-two (92) percent of the subjects reported no, "disturbance" to
any of the simulated booms presented. Two rise times of 15 and 7 ms
were employed with overpressures ranging from 0.94 to 2.85 PSF.
Minard, J., Quick, G., Gory, Eliot, & McWilliams, Jun-Ko. Polygraph-
ically recorded rapid eye movement and reliably observable behavior
obtained during sleep as indicators of neonate function: Effects of
major tranquilizers and nursery noise. Proceedings of the Annual
Convention of the American Psychological Association.1971,6,185-6.
This report describes exceptions to previously reported patterning and day
to day change in cumulative REM records of sleeping neonates. An infant
lacking patterning had REM abolished by nursery noise and proved hyper-
active. Marked day to day REM increas and absence of sleep onset REM were
observed in neonates of mothers given major tranquilizers during pregnan-
cy. Related studies suggest nursery noise usually lacks marked effect
of REM measures, absence of sleep-onset REM is unusual and latency from
lid closure to directly observed REM has -convenience, reliability and
stability in neonate research.
Olivier-Martin, N.; Schrieber, J.P., & Muzet, A. Responses to question-
naires on nightime and daytime sleep while experiencing sleep disturb-
ances through four levels of airplane noise. Bulletin de Psycho!ogie,
1974, 26 (17-18), 972-994.
Intermediate and consecutive effects of sleep disturbance through four
levels of airplane noise were compared. Nineteen 24 year old volunteer
students served as Ss. Audiogram recordings of Ss responses were made at
scheduled intervals during 4 days and 3 nights. Ss completed question-
naires on night and daytime sleep, reporting on quality and quantity of
various aspects. Data analysis was designed to relate physiological and
personality characteristics of Ss to responses on questionnaires. Pre-
liminary analysis indicated immediate subjective effects manifested in
reported difficulty in getting to sleep, diminution in quality of sleep,
129
-------
and altercation in patterns of waking. Female Ss reported secondary
effects. Differences were found between male and female Ss in the sub-
jective assessment and actual state of sleep.
Scott, Thomas D., The effect of continuous, high intensity, white noise
on the human sleep cycle. Psychophysio1ogy,1972, 9(2), 227-232
Eight male undergraduates slept for eight consecutive nights under
conditions of 91-95 db. white noise (N) and under normal quiet conditions
(Q). On N nights the percentage of total sleep time spent in Stage REM
was decreased ( p .001), percentages of stages 1 and 2 were increased
( p .05, p .001 respectively), and REM latency was increased (p .02)
compared to Q nights prior to N nights). On Q nights following N nights,
percentages of stage REM increased above baseline levels indicating
compensatory recovery effects from REM sleep deprivation on prior N
nights. Stages 3 and 4 remained unchanged throughout the study.
Reduction in Stage REM on N nights was directly attributed to the effects
of noise on the CNS and not a secondary result of increased number of
awakenings on N nights.
Smith, R.C. & Hutto, G.L. Sonic booms and sleep: Affect change as a
function of age. FAA Office of Aviation Medicine Report. 1972, 72-24.
The Composite Mood Adjective Check List was administered every morning
and evening for 21 consecutive days to 8 Ss in 3 age groups: 21-26,
40-45, and 60-72 year olds. All Ss slept in the laboratory in base-
line (days 1-9), boom (days 6-17), and recovery (days 19-21) phases of
a study of the effects of simulated sonic booms. During the 12 boom
nights, simulated sonic booms of 1 pound/sq ft (outdoor measure) were
presented hourly. Although some clear differences were obtained
related to age, no change in mood scores was attributable to booms.
Townsend, Richard E; Johnson, Laverne C., & Muzet, Alain. Effects of
long term exposure to tone pulse noise on human sleep. Psychophysiology,
1973, 10(4), 369-376.
Electrophysiological and self-report data, were obtained from 10 and 20
130
-------
U.S. navy enlisted men, respectively, during 15 days of baseline, 30 days
of 24-hr per day exposure to a 660 msec, 3.5 k Hz tone pulse with a 22 sec
interstimulus interval (10 days each at 80, 85 and 90 db), and during a
10 day postexposure period. A self-reported increase in difficulty
falling asleep was not substantiated by objective sleep latency measures.
Changes in total hours of sleep, number of awakenings, and percent time
for sleep stages were of small magnitude and not consistently related to
stimulus intensity. All 10 monitored Ss gave clear EEG and autonomic
responses to the stimulus, with no evidence of response extinction
over the 30 day exposure period. There was no change in the average all
night heart rate. Total number of body movements during the nights did
not change. However, the movements that did occur tended to be triggered
by the stimulus, with most movements closely following the tone pulse.
The youth and good health of the Ss, and the 24 hr. per day exposure,
favoring rapid adaptation to the stimulus, are suggested to account
for the lack of disruption of sleep.
131
-------
SPEECH AND SPEECH INTELLIGIBILITY
Recent work in this area can generally be categorized as demonstrating
the effects of noise on: The fluency of normal speakers; the restorative
effects of those suffering disorders of speech and the intelligibility
of speech and speech sounds. Silverman (1972) found fluency to increase
as a result of masking noise whereas Gammon, Smith, Daniloff, Raymond and
Chin (1971) had previously shown that noise masking produced a decline in
speech quality and a disruption of rhythm. Misarticulation of consonants
was most pronounced. Similar to Gammon et al (1971), Smith (1969) had
previously shown that random bursts of 95 dB white noise increased
disfluency.
The effects of noise on stuttering inhibition has been investigated by
Barr and Carmel on two occassions (1969, 1971). In their earlier study,
stutterers showed a decrease in the number and duration of stuttering
blocks under two different high frequency, narrow band masking noise
conditions. In their later study, again under high frequency narrow band
masking, whenever rhythmic distress was observed, the subject was
supplied the correct items in his non-masked ear. Immediate release of
all stuttering blocks was observed. In contrast to the therapeutic
results of noise with stutterers, Wertz and Porch (1970) failed to find
significant differences in accuracy or quality of verbal performance of
adult aphasis in the presence of continuous noise. Apraxic subjects'
phonemic accuracy has also been shown to be independent of the influence
of noise (Deal and Parley, 1972) Speech discrimination and speech
intelligibility have been extensively studied. Kreul, Bell and Nixon (1969)
have shown that noise level is an important factor in the difficulty of
speech discrimination tests. Kreul (1971) also found that intervening
noise increased the difficulty in speech discrimination for both words
and nonsense syllables.
132
-------
Barr, David F. & Carmel, Norman R. Stuttering inhibition with high
frequency narrow band masking noise. Journal of Auditory Research, 1969,
9(1), 40-44.
Two ways of masking the speech of 10 stuterers were used. Patients were
normal by conventional pure-tone and speech audiometry. The number and
duration of stuttering blocks were compared under 3 test conditions:
(a) while reading a prose passage with no masking noise present; (b)
while reading in the presence of high frequency narrow-band masking noise
at that frequency and in that ear which the greatest amount of auditory
adaptation was shown on the Carhart tone decay test (adaptation of up to
35 dB. was found); and (c) reading in the presence of high frequency
narrow-band masking noise at one "other" high frequency (4 or 6 kcps).
Masking stimuli were always presented monaurally at the patient's 50-db
sensation level. Normal controls with no decay showed no effects. In
contrast, the stutterers showed a decrease in the number and duration of
stuttering blocks under the 2 noise conditions, particularly at the
frequency where the greatest amount of adaptation occurred. Two tentative
hypotheses are presented to explain how high frequency narrow-band
masking noise may inhibit stuttering.
Barr, David F- & Carmel, Norman R. Stuttering inhibition with live voice
interventions and masking noise. Journal of Auditory Research, 1970,
10(1), 59-61.
Five stutterers read a prose passage aloud while high-frequency narrow
band noise was presented at that frequency range and to that ear showing
the most auditory adaptation. Whenever rhythmic distress was observed,
E_ supplied the correct items to the stutterer's nonmasked ear at 30 dB.
re speech reception threshold. Immediate release of all stuttering
blocks occurred with the live voice interventions, often with only the
first sound of the blocked word being spoken by the E_. By employing the
procedure outlined, an additional therapeutic method is advanced for the
treatment of stuttering. Implications are discussed in the light of
research on dichotic listening tasks.
133
-------
Brookshire, Robert H. Effects of random and response contingent noise
upon disfluencies of normal speakers. Journal of Speech & Hearing
Research, 1969, 12(1), 126-134.
Twenty normal speakers read a passage during a 30-min session divided into
base rate (5 min.) conditioning (15 min.) and extinction (10 min.).
Each read in random condition and contingent condition. During condition-
ing in random condition, Ss received .75-sec, 95-db bursts of white noise
according to a random schedule. During conditioning in contingent
condition, Ss received a burst of 95-db white noise each time they were
disfluent. Ten Ss (Group RC) read in random condition on one day and in
contingent condition on a subsequent day. The other 10 Ss (Group CR)
read in the opposite order of conditions on the 2 days. Results indicate
that the effects of random and contingent noise are influenced by the
order of conditions. Random aversive stimuli caused increases in dis-
fluency for Ss in both groups. Response contingent aversive stimuli
caused a decrement in disfluency for Ss in Group CR, but not for Ss in
Group RC. Analysis of poststimulus d,isfluency indicate that random
aversive stimuli caused disorganization of the speech of Ss in Group RC.
Deal, Jon L., & Parley, Frederic. The influence of linguistic and
situational variables on phonemic accuracy in apraxia of speech.
Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 1972, 15(3), 639-653.
i
V
Twelve apraxic Ss with minimal apharic involvement were tested in 4 experi-
mental conditions: effects of instructions, effect of 3 different experi-
mentally imposed response-delay intervals on a word-repetition task, effect
of noise, and the effect of visual monitoring. Also studied in one or
more of these conditions were the loci of errors in oral reading. Ss
ability to predict and to recognize their errors, and the nature of errors
made. Instructions, response-delay intervals, noise, and visual monitoring
had no significant influence on phonemic accuracy. Ss had significantly
more difficulty with 3-than with 1- syllable words. They made more errors
in words weighted high than in words weighted low; word length and
grammatical class appeared to be important characteristics influencing
increases in errors. The ability of apraxic jJs to predict errors appears
134
-------
to be an individual characteristic. Ss constantly made substitution,
repetition, addition and omission errors. Results support the contention
that apraxia of speech is a motor programming disorder.
Erber, Norman P- Auditory and audiovisual reception of words in low-
frequency noise by children with normal hearing and by children with
impaired hearing. Journal of Speech & Hearing Research, 1971, 14(3),
496-512.
Common words (monosyllables, trochees, spondees) were presented in low-
frequency noise to 9 9-12 yr. olds who attempted to detect their acoustic
patterns or to recognize them under a range of acoustic speech-to-noise
(S/N) ratios. Both profoundly deaf (-10 db.) and severely hearing-
impaired Ss (-17 db.) required higher S/N ratios for auditory detection
of words than did Ss with normal hearing (-23 db.). The normals (92%)
were superior to the severely hearing-impaired Ss (57%) in auditory
recognition of words in noise, while deaf Ss (3%) were unable to recognize
words by ear alone. The deaf Ss were poor even at classifying the
stimulus words by stress pattern. Provision of acoustic cues increased
the audiovisual (AV) scores of normal-hearing and severely hearing-
impaired Ss 54% and 33%, respectively, above lipreading alone, but it
improved the lipreading performance of profoundly deaf Ss only 9%.
Improvement in AV recognition depended for all groups upon their detection
of acoustic cues for speech. The profoundly deaf Ss achieved their
maximum AV scores only at a higher S/N ratio (+5 db.) than that for the
severely hearing-impaired Ss (0 db.), who in turn required a higher S/N
ratio for maximum AV recognition than did the normals (-10 db.).
Freedman, Sanford J. & Gerstman, Hubert L. The role of the pinna in
speech intelligibility. Journal of Communication Disorders, 1972, 5(3),
286-292.
Nine normal-hearing adults listening through earphones were required to
identify spoken words in a noisy background. Acoustic stimulation was
picked up alternately by bare microphones and by microphones equipped with
casts of human external ears (pinnae). Test scores and subjective im-
135
-------
pressions both indicated a highly significant and consistent superiority
for the pinna condition.
Gammon, Sylvia A.; Smith, Philip J.; Daniloff, Raymond G. Kim, Chin W.
Articulation and stress/juncture production under oral anesthetization
and masking. Journal of Speech & Hearing,1971, 14(2), 271-282.
Eight undergraduates, 1/2 of them naive and the other 1/2 aware of the
purpose of the experiment, spoke 30 pairs of sentences involving the
production of intricate stress/juncture patterns along with a passage
containing all major consonant phonemes in English in various intra-
word positions. Ss spoke all materials under: (a) normal conditions,
(b) 110 db. white noise masking, (c) extensive local anesthesia of the
oral cavity, and (d) masking and anesthesia combined. Stress and juncture
patterns were correctly produced despite all feedback disruption, and
there was no difference between naive and aware Ss. Noise masking produced
a decline in speech quality and a disruption of normal rhythm, both of
which were even more seriously affected by anesthesia and anesthesia
plus masking. There were no significant vowel misarticulations under any
condition, but there was nearly a 20% rate of consonant misarticulation
under anesthesia and anesthesia and noise. Misarticulation was most
severe for fricatives and affricates in the labial and alveolar regions,
presumably because these productions demand a high degree of precision
>
of articulate shape and location, and, hence, intact feedback. Results
are discussed in terms of feedback-control mechanisms for speech production,
Kreul, E. James; Bell, Donald W.; Nixon, James C. Factors affecting
speech discrimination test difficulty. Journal of Speech & Hearing
Research, 1969, 12(2), 281-287.
Changes in item and overall test difficulty of speech discrimination and
intelligibility tests as a function of (a) carrier phrase, (b) talker,
(c) reutterances by a talker, and (d) level of accompanying noise were
examined. Results with 23 junior college students indicate that all of
these variables must be considered in test development. It is concluded
136
-------
that only the actual recordings of the spoken lists of words, not the
word lists themselves, should be thought of as test material.
Kreul, E. James. Speech intelligibility for interaural alternated speech
with and without intervening noise for words and nonsense. Language
& Speech, 1971, 14(1), 99-107-
This research examined speech discrimination for 9 sophisticated listeners
for the effect of interaural alternation of both word and nonsense syllable
test materials in the presence and absence of intervening noise. No
degradation of speech discrimination was noted for words without inter-
vening noise; however, there was some effect for speech discrimination
of nonsense syllable test materials. When intervening noise was employed
difficulty in speech discrimination was noted for both the word and
nonsense syllable test materials.
Nichols, Alan C. Effects of noise on articulation scoring: A methodical
study. Journal of Communication Disorders, 1971, 4(3), 199-207.
A video-tape of children's responses to an articulation test was played
once in the ambient quiet of a television studio, and once while electroni-
cally mixed with 5 conditions of broadband noise. The responses were scored
by 14 trainees in speech pathology. Differences in scoring between the
play and replay showed that (A) errors that could be heard in both quiet
and noise decreased, and (B) more errors were obscured by noise as a
function of greater noise levels. Responses scored as errors in noise,
but not scored as errors in quiet, were maximized when the broadband
noise was between 60 and 65 dB. It is concluded that the noise affected
the listeners' judgements of the apparent defectiveness of the articula-
tions they heard in complex and conflicting ways. Results illustrate
the need for control of noise in experimental studies of articulation
and in articulation testing.
137
-------
Schwartz, Arthur Henry. The effect of variations in context of stimulus
item presentation on speech sound discrimination performance under differ-
ent listening conditions. (Doctoral dissertation, Vanderbilt University)
Ann Arbor, Mich.: University Microfilms, 1972, No. 72-26,131, 164 pages.
The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of variations in
the context of stimulus item presentation on speech sound discrimination
performance under different listening conditions.
Subjects consisted of a total of 72 nursery, kindergarten, and first
grade childred selected on the basis of successfully passing a battery
of screening tests. These children were then divided into three equal
groups on the basis of age.
Thirty monosyllabic nouns that were visually depictable in line drawings
were selected as stimulus items. These items were presented to each
subject in three different contexts and under a quiet and noise listen-
ing condition. A total of six subtests, representing each combination of
context and condition, were compiled. All materials including instruc-
tions and practice items were presented via magnetic tape recording and
through individual earphones. Mean number of error responses and mean
latency of error responses were compiled for each of the six subtests.
Several analyses of variance were performed to determine the effect of age,
context, condition, dnd type of response alternative on performance.
The results of the present study indicate that both the context of stimulus
item presentation and background listening conditions effected performance.
There were significantly more errors in the paired comparison context
than in the carrier phase or sentence context. There were more errors in
the noise subtest for each context. However, noise seemed to have the
most disrupting influence on performance when the stimulus items were
presented in a paired comparison context. It was proposed that the
presence of syntactic and phonetic cues facilitated performance in the
carrier phrase and sentence contexts. However, no differences were found
between the carrier phrase and sentence contexts with respect to number of
errors. Analyses of latency of error responses revealed longest laten-
138
-------
cies for the paired comparison context and shortest latencies for the
carrier phrase context.
When error responses were subdivided into type of response alternatives,
it was found that listeners consistently made more errors in choosing
foil words that shared many features with the target word. Similarly,
it was found that it took less time to make an error involving the selec-
tion of a foil word that shared many features with the target word.
In conclusion, it appears that variables in the construction of speech
sound discrimination tests do affect performance in young children. It
seems that the syntactic components of language interact with the discrim-
ination process in such a way to facilitate performance. Absence of fam-
iliar syntactic and co-articulatory components may present the young child
with a unique and unfamiliar task, thus increasing the probability of error.
This suggests a need to revise widespread practices of using a paired
comparison context exclusively to assess speech sound discrimination.
Silverman, Franklin H. & Goodban, Marjorie T. The effect of auditory
masking on the fluency of normal speakers. Journal of Speech and Hearing
Research, 1972, 15(3), 543-546.
This research investigated the effect of masking noise on the disfluency
frequency of 20 nonstuttering undergraduates. The majority of Ss became
more fluent under this condition, suggesting that an increase in fluency
when speaking in the presence of masking noise does not differentiate
stutters from normal speakers.
Tobias, J.V. Binaural processing of speech in Tight aircraft. FAA
Office of Aviation Medicine Report, 1973, 72-31, 6.
Symmetrical or asymmetrical signals were presented in a combination of phase
relations by means of three loudspeakers suspended from the rear of the
cabin ceiling in a light airplane. Ss were 5 women and 32 men who fes-
ponded to words on modified-rhyme tests presented against a background
of noise from the airplane (in level flight and at cruising speed).
139
-------
Words were presented over 2 speakers at a time, and, in different condi-
tions, the pairs of speakers were used in phase and out of phase. Lowest
intelligibility scores were obtained when the speakers were in phase;
highest scores were obtained when the speakers were out of phase. Improve-
ment under the later condition was equivalent to approximately 2 db.
Wertz, Robert & Porch, Bruce. Effects of masking noise on the verbal
performance on adult aphasics. Cortex, 1970, 6(4), 399-409.
Investigated the effects of auditory stimulation on the performance of
adult aphasics in an attenpt to clarify previous results. Previous
investigations using auditory stimulation to improve speech in express-
ive aphasics show conflicting results, an attempt was made to resolve
the existing confusion by having aphasics perform various naming and
reading tasks during quiet and during stimulation with a continuous in-
tense noise. Comparison of results obtained in quiet and in noise re-
vealed no significant differences in accuracy or quality of response,
but reduced latency during noise. Improvement, or the lack of it, was
not related to the duration of aphasia or its severity, to minimal
problems of auditory input, or to the amount of previous therapy.
Williams, William E. & Young, Donald D. An evaluation of four methods
of monitoring simultaneous primary and secondary voice messages.
Human Factors, 1967, 9(1), 45-52.
Four methods of monitoring simultaneous primary and secondary voice
messages were investigated in high and low ambient noise environments.
Two methods used a single earpiece headset and wall speaker, and 2 used
a dual earpiece headset with either the primary message in one ear and the
secondary message in the other ear, or the primary message in both ears
and the secondary message in a single ear. A realistic script and oper-
ational setting were used to test the conditions using 54 trained Ss.
The dual-headset methods were found to be significantly superior to the
headset/speaker method in most scoring categories. No significant
differences were found between noise levels. The findings are compared
140
-------
with previous research on multimessage monitoring.
Wolfe, Asher Sorrel. The relationship between estimates of speech
intelligibility in social contexts and paracusis Willisiana. (Doctoral
dissertation, The Ohio State University) Ann Arbor, Mich.: University
Microfilms, 1971, No. 72-4692, 98 pages.
This study was based on a widely accepted principle that listeners with
conductive hearing losses hear speech better in noise than in quiet. In
order to test this phenomenon, known as Paracusis Willisiana, an appro-
priate noise environment was recorded for use in four experiments. This
noise, which was produced by many people speaking spontaneously and
simultaneously, was named demophonic noise, for ease of reference in this
study.
Stereophonic recordings of demophonic noise in a large cafeteria were
made, and also of an announcer speaking four lists of monosyllabic words
(CID Auditory Test W-22) in a soundproof room. Both recordings were
made with two microphones in a dummy head. The two recordings were mixed
electronically at three signal-to-noise ratios. The resulting test mater-
ials were played back stereophonically, monotically, and diotically both
to listeners who had normal hearing and listeners who had bilateral
conductive hearing losses.
Experiment I was performed only with listeners who had normal hearing in
order to establish rank ordering of word intelligibility under four basic
stimulus conditions, and to provide data that would relate to the relia-
bility of abbreviated versions of the test material. Three additional
experiments were performed with listeners who had bilateral conductive
hearing losses. The obtained data were analyzed statistically, articu-
lation functions were determined, and inferences were drawn on the basis
of these functions.
The major findings of Experiment I, which was conducted in demophonic
noise with listeners who had normal hearing, were:
1. The highest word intelligibility occurred during stereophonic
141
-------
listening.
2. The lowest word intelligibility occurred during monotic two-
channel listening.
3. Intermediate word intelligibility occurred during either monotic
one-channel or diotic listening.
Experiment II was conducted in demophonic noise with listeners who
had conductive hearing losses. The major finding was that these listeners
performed almost as well as listeners with normal hearing when tested
under identical stimulus conditions. Thus conductive hearing loss imposed
only a slight handicap in the demophonic noise of this study, which was
always constant at an average level of 78 dB, re .0002 microbar.
The foregoing information did not relate to a test of Paracusis Willisiana.
Therefore, two additional experiments were conducted in order to compare
word intelligibility in quiet and in demophonic noise. Experiment III
was conducted both in quiet and in demophonic noise with listeners who
had conductive hearing losses. The principal finding was that, when
the talker's level remained constant, word intelligibility in quiet was
obviously superior to word intelligibility in demophonic noise. Experi-
ment IV was also conducted in quiet and in demophonic noise with listen-
\
ers who had conductive hearing losses. In this experiment talker's levels
in noise were more intense than in quiet in two of the three comparable
stimulus conditions. Statistical analysis revealed no significant differ-
ence between word intelligibility in quiet and in noise. In summary,
Paracusis Willisiana was not demonstrated as an auditory phenomenon
in any of the experiments.
Viewed in light of available information about talker's levels in demo-
phonic noise ranges of speech intelligibility in social contexts were
estimated from the articulation functions in quiet and in demophonic
noise. These estimates tended to indicate that Paracusis Willisiana,
as a purely auditory phenomenon, occurs rarely, if at all.
142
-------
Despite the results obtained in these experiments, some listeners with
conductive hearing losses reported that they could hear speech better
in noise than in quiet. A tentative explanation might be that when
these listeners are very near the talker, as is much more usual in
noisy surroundings than in quiet ones, they might be aided considerably
by lipreading because of the higher visibility of the talker's face and
mouth.
Young, I.M. & Harbert, F- Noise effects on speech discrimination score.
Journal of Auditory Research, 1970, 10(2), 127-131.
This research studied effects of ipsilateral and contralateral presentation
of masking noise on speech discrimination (DS) scores of 7 normal hearing
Ss, 64 Ss with unilateral total hearing loss and normal hearing in the
opposite ear, and 15 Ss with bilateral symmetrical hearing loss. Speech
and noise were combined and presented monaurally. The normal and the
bilateral loss group yield similar results: a DS greater than 70% when the
signal/noise (S/N) ratio is +5 dB and higher, and less than 50% when the
S/N ratio is -5 dB and lower. Ss with unilateral total hearing loss require
a S/N ratio about 10 dB higher to approximate the DS obtained by normals.
143
-------
TEMPORARY THRESHOLD SHIFT - PERMANENT HEARING LOSS
A great deal of research literature exists regarding Temporary Thresh-
hold Shift (TTS) and permanent hearing loss in man. Principally, mention
is made of the generally poor military noise environment (Carr, 1971)
with conflicting evidence that submarine sonar technicians receive up
to 118 dB via headphones (Harris, 1971), yet one study of tank crewmen
indicated no TTS over an 18 month period (Spirov, 1969). Efforts should
be made to control military noise at its source whenever possible. How-
ever, more adherence to noise regulations, and support for hearing
conservation programs is mandatory (Carr, 1971). The civilian indus-
trial sector studies offer proof that the potential costs to industry
from noise are greater than for any other occupational disease
(Alexander, 1968). Since man cannot adapt, legislation is needed. Some
examples cited concluded that hazardous exposure levels are common to
users of diving helmets and hyperbaric chambers (Summitt, 1971).
Commercial flight crews (inspectors and pilots) show mild-to-moderate
hearing loss, but stewardesses require 7000 plus hours to show increased
thresholds (see Tobias, 1972, AUDIOMETRY). Even newborn are exposed to
close to damage risk levels in many intensive care wards, with concern
focused on the masking of possible important developmentally required
sounds (Peltxman, 197P). Subjective affects of noise induced hearing
losses are an intense sensation of deafness and a tinnitus (ringing in ears);
complaints of headache, pressure in the head and increased sleep depriva-
tion in combination with deafness and tinnitus (Wagemann, 1971).
Specific research on TTS indicates that up to 85-95 dB, TTS increases
linearly with the log of the exposure duration. Above 95 dB, TTS
increases become parabolic (Nakumura, 1967). Additionally, low frequen-
cy (5-9 Hz) vibration appears to increase TTS in combination with high
intensity 101 dB broadband noise (Okada, 1972). Further human research
yields changes in TTS due to spectral content of equal SPL profiles
(Cohen, 1972). Work with chinchillas (which are more susceptible to
noise than Rhesus monkeys) indicate that bands of noise produce equal TTS
144
-------
when noise levels are equated for the acoustic properties of the external
and inner ears (Mills, 1972). However, Pinheiro, 1972, showed that
impulse noise will destroy hair cells in the cochlea (monkey subjects)
but, lower levels show the well known logarithmic recovery in addition to
diaphasic, plateau and rebound recovery (Luz, 1970).
Alexander, Walter. Some harmful effects of noise. Canadian Medical
Association Journal, 1968, 99(1), 27-31.
Noise constitutes a problem of increasing magnitude in our society
and, indeed, one authority is of the opinion that the potential cost
to industry of noise-induced hearing loss is greater than that of any
other occupational disease. From an ecological point of view, noise
induced hearing loss is a sympton of the failure of social integration
in which man has met new environmental conditions for which his heritage
does not provide adaptive capacity, and hence the need for legislative
assistance, education and protection from the hazard of sound.
Benoay, Leroy W. Prevention of deafness from industrial noise and
acoustic trauma. Journal of the American Osteopathic Association,
1968, 68(2), 161-167.
Noise does produce high frequency hearing loss. Instruments are currently
available for determining whether or not noise in a given industrial plant
is at a hazardous level; it is stressed that these should measure the
components of different frequencies present in noise. Hearing conserva-
tion programs have been established by employers of more than 1/3 of those
persons working in hazardous noise areas. Such programs attempt to conserve
hearing and prevent hearing loss among workers, prevent economic loss to
the company, and gather scientific information. Ideally, they would also
involve the removal of noise at its source, by direct treatment of noise-
generating machines and devices and by acoustic treatment of work areas.
In areas where noise levels cannot be effectively reduced by currently
available methods, specially designed ear devices can be used to protect
the hearing of the worker. The medical aspects of these devices are
explored with attention to anatomic, physiologic, and psychologic considera-
tions.
145
-------
Carder, Henry M. & Miller, James D. Temporary shifts from prolonged
exposure to noise. Journal of Speech & Hearing Research. 1972, 15(3),
603-623.
Eight monaural male chinchillas were trained to respond to tones and their
auditory thresholds measured. Ss were exposed to octave-band noise centered
at either .5 or 4 IHz. for periods of 2-21 days. Octave-band levels (OBL)
between 65 and 105 db were used. The growth of temporary threshold shift
(TTS) was measured during brief interruptions in the exposure. TTS
increased for the first 24-48 hours of an exposure and then reached an
asymptote and remained constant for as long as the exposure continued.
At asymptote the relation between the TTS and the level of the octave
band centered at .5 kHz. was TTS =1.6 (OBL-65), where TTS was measured
with a test tone of .715 kHz. at 4 min. after an interruption of the
noise. Decay of TTS after termination of the exposure was slow and approx-
imately exponential with a time constant of about 29 hr- Empirically,
the time for TTS to decay to near-zero values ranged from 3-6 days. The
course of decay of TTS was independent of the duration of the exposure
once asymptote had been reached.
Carr, C. Jelleff & Fisher, Kenneth D. A review of adverse biomedical
effects of sound in the military environment. Technical Report, 1971,
107 p.
The report provides a comprehensive review of the adverse effects of
sound on man in the military environment. The diversity and complexity
of army systems that overexpose the soldier to noise have caused concern
for his health and his capability to perform efficiently. Despite the
recognition of the deleterious effects of noise exposure, problems
with noise-induced hearing loss and human performance decrement continue
to enlarge. It is generally recognized that over exposure to high-
intensity noise during a lifetime will result in progressive hearing
loss. There is no way to correct permanent threshold shift.
Permanent hearing loss is irreversible. It is not possible at the
present time to identify audiometrically individuals with increased
susceptibility or resistance to injury from noise exposure. Protection
146
-------
by sound attenuating devices, such as earplugs or earmuffs, has proved
to be the most practical way to protect and to conserve the hearing of
men required to work in a noisy environment. Effective hearing conserv-
ation and reduction of noise induced hearing loss are compromised by
lack of adherence to existing army regulations and frequent waiving of
equipment design standards. Work should be directed toward reduction
of noise at its source; and, emphasis should be placed on increased
support for army hearing conservation programs. The report identifies
research opportunities that are related to army needs.
Cohen, Alexander, Anticaglia, Joseph R. & Carpenter, Paul L. Journal
of the Acoustical Society of America, 1972, 51(2 Pt. 2), 503-507.
Sound-level measurements in the dBA were investigated to determine if they
could adequately depict harmfulness to hearing from exposures to noises
differing widely in spectra. Eleven 20-26 year old male listeners were
exposed in separate sessions to each of 3 noises whose spectral slopes
were -6, 0, and +6 db/oct band, and then reexposed to the same noises in
3 additional sessions. All noises were presented for 30 min. by earphone
at 100 dbA. Analyses of variance of the temporary threshold shift,
corrected to 2 min. postexposure (TTS2), showed insignificant differ-
ences owing to the spectral variations for both test and retest con-
ditions as averaged across audiometric frequencies 250-8,000 Hz. Inter-
active effects between spectra and test frequencies were significant,
the -6- and 0-db. spectral conditions causing relatively more TTS2 at
frequencies above 3,000 Hz. Implications for noise hazard rating
schemes using dbA measures as contrasted with spectral determinations
are discussed.
Cohen, Alexander & Jackson, Emanuel. Threshold shift in hearing as a
function of bandwidth and mode of noise presentation. Journal of
Auditory Research, 1968, 8(4), 401-414.
Fifteen Ss were each exposed to three bandwidths of fatiguing sound pre-
sented under three intensity level conditions. The Committee on Hearing,
Bioacoustics and'Biomechanics (CHABA) has established equinoxious criteria
147
-------
for exposures to differing bandwidth intensity noise combinations The
present study viewed the adequacy of these criteria by exposing 15 Ss to
each of 9 experimental conditions and recording the resulting temporary
threshold shifts (ITS). Results suggest that the CHABA criteria may be
conservative. Implications of these findings with reference to both
critical band -ITS notions and acoustic reflex action are noted.
Feldman, H. Homolateral and contralateral masking of tinnitus by noise
bands and by pure tones. Audiology, 1971, 10(3), 138-144.
A series of tests was conducted using approximately 200 patients suffering
from tinnitus. Results indicate that tinnitus was masked by broad band
noise, narrow band noise, and pure tones. The levels necessary for
masking formed 5 characteristic patterns. Ultimate tinnitus was usually
inhibited by stimulation of the contralateral ear. When using inter-
rupted stimuli, inhibition was effective in the intervals up to a certain
length, dependent on various parameters.
Gasaway, Donald C. & Sutherland, Harrell C. Application of current
auditory damage risk criteria to aerospace operations. School of
Aerospace Medicine Technical Report, 70-36.
Valid and realistic criteria are needed for identifying and determining
potentially hazardous noise encountered during ground and airborne
.1
aerospace operations. A set of criteria proposed by a working group
on hearing, bioacoustics, and biomechanics, has been modified for
easier interpretation and use in assessing auditory risk. An auditory
risk calculator has been devised to simplify the task of assessing wide-
band and narrow-band noise exposures. In addition, a simple chart has
been prepared for use in evaluating intermittent noises. Examples of
noise exposures encountered in aerospace operations are illustrated
and applications of the three basic types of auditory risk criteria
are demonstrated. Desirable and undesirable features of older and newer
criteria are discussed.
148
-------
Harris, J. Donald & Lacroix, Paul 6. Reduction in audiogram shifts in
sonar watchstanders when exposed to surface ship echo-ranging. U.S. Naval
Submarine Medical Center Memorandum Report,1971, 71-4, 8 p.
Audiograms collected underway on sonar technicians on the submarine
USS GATO (SSN 615) during exposure to echo-ranging 19-31 January 1971
showed that SPLS in the sonar headsets may be hazardous to hearing. Two
of 3 headsets were modified so as to limit the peak SPLs delivered to the
ear. On a cruise 21-31 March 1971, during which light to moderately
heavy echo-ranging was encountered, 6 men using an unmodified headset,
were exposed to SPLs up to 118 db. In 1/2 of the Ss, a temporary hearing
loss was found which exceeded a widely-disseminated damage-risk criterion.
However, of 6 Ss who used modified headsets, no average loss whatever was
found, and only one ear slightly exceeded the criterion. Whether the
modification introduced on this occasion was an optimal compromise between
protecting the ears vs. obtaining all possible information from the sea,
is still an open question.
Hickling, S. Experimental studies relating to the SISI test. Journal of
Auditory Research, 1968, 8(4), 477-481.
Studies were undertaken to determine the effect of induced conductive
temporary threshold shifts and of noise-induced temporary threshold
shifts on the lowest SPL of the steady tone (Short increment Sensitivity
Index SISI threshold) at which a positive SISI response could be obtained.
The effect of a conductive shift was to elevate the conventional threshold
and the SISI threshold equally. The effect of a noise induced shift
was to elevate the SISI threshold by a small amount regardless of the
degree of conventional audiometric shift. This small SISI threshold shift
is thought to represent a small and constant component of noise-induced
temporary threshold shift (TTS) which is retrocochlear in origin. Con-
sidering the possibility that the SISI threshold concept might be applica-
ble in clinical practice, the test-retest reliability of threshold
measurements and their validity in relation to a norm were evaluated.
Although poorer than for corresponding values from conventional audiometry
it was considered that they could be adequate for this purpose.
149
-------
Luz, George A. &.Hodge, David C. Recovery from impulse induced TTS in
monkeys and men: a descriptive model. Human Engineering Labs Aberdeen
Proving Ground, MD, 1971, Report No. HEL-TM-11-71.
The recovery from impulse-noise induced temporary threshold shift was
systematically traced for individual rhesus monkeys and men. In addition
to the well known logarithmic recovery, three other types of recovery
were seen (diphasic, plateau, and rebound). A descriptive model is
developed for the classification of these recovery functions. The model
postulates the existence of two types of temporary threshold shift, process
M and process S, both of which may be seen after impulse-noise exposure.
Luz, George A. & Mo$ko, James D. The susceptibility of the chinchilla ear
to damage from impulse noise. Army Medical Research Lab Fort Knox Ky,
1971, Report No. USAMRL-921.
Five monaural chinchillas were exposed to impulses of 168 dB SPL, and the
loss of sensitivity for the pure tones of .3, .75, 1.5, 4.0, 6.0, 7.9,
11.0, 14.5, and 16.5 KHZ was determined through an avoidance condition-
ing technique. The recovery of sensitivity was studied over 64 days
after exposure. The chinchillas proved to be much more susceptible to
this noise than the rhesus monkey.
Mills, John H. & Talo, Seija A. Temporary threshold shifts produced by
exposure to high-freqpency noise. Journal of Speech & Hearing Research,
1972, 15(3), 624-631.
Four trained monaural chinchillas were exposed for 24 days in a diffuse
sound field to an octave-band noise centered at kHz. The octave-band levels
(OBL) were 57 db for Days 1-6, 65 db for Days 7-12, 72 db for Days 13-18,
and 80 for Days 19-24. At regular intervals throughout the noise exposure
each S^ was removed from the noise and threshold measurements were made.
For each noise level, temporary threshold shift (TTS) reached an asymptote.
In the frequency region of maximum effect, the relation between TTS and
noise level is given by the equation TTS = 1.6 (OBL-47). Results for
noise centered at 4 kHz. in combination with those results for a noise
centered at .5 kHz. suggest that bands of noise produce equal TTS when
150
-------
noise levels>are equated for the acoustic properties of the external ears
Nakamura, S. & Katano, Y. Relationship between temporary threshold
shift and duration of noise exposure. Journal of Auditory Research,
1967, 7(4), 401-411.
Temporary shift (ITS) damage-risk criteria are established for the para-
meter of duration of exposure to various noise bands. Four octave bands
of noise (281-561, 561-1122, 1122-2245, and 2245-4490 cps) and broad
band noise were applied to 6 normal Ss. Exposure intensity ranged from
60-100 db. sensation level (SL), and duration from 5-240 min. Not all
possible combinations of conditions were used. As long as SL did not
exceed a limit, which varied from 85-95 db. SL, ITS increased linearly
with the logarithm of exposure duration;-as SL exceeded the limit, the
rate of increase of ITS became parabolic upward.
Okada, Akira; Miyake, Hirotsugu; Yamamura, KotaroMinami, Masayasu.
Temporary hearing loss induced by noise and vibration. Journal of the
Acoustical Society of America, 1972, 51(4, Pt. 2), 1240-1248.
Gave 5 normal hearing male 19-20 yr. olds exposures to (a) steady-state
noise, (b) vibration, and (c) noise and vibration at the same time. In
a control experiment the S sat beside the moving vibrator with earplugs
and earmuffs. Temporary threshold shift (TTS) occurred after both 20 and
60 min. of exposure to the vibration of acceleration 500 cm/sec2 and
frequency 5 Hz. which is regarded as a resonance frequency of human body.
The TTS by a steady-state noise (101-db SPL broad band) was increased by
simultaneous vibration (500 cm/sec2 and 5. Hz.).
Outz, James W. Auditory temporary threshold shift (TTS) following
exposure to high-intensity and variable-peaked farm machinery noise.
Journal of Auditory Research,1969, 9(1), 64-70.
Noise from three types of farm machinery was recorded binaurally to 27
normal hearing young adults for 15 minutes under each of three "peak
factor" conditions. The "peak factor" was tailored by the E as the ratio
of instantaneous peak pressure observed on an oscilloscope to the root-
t «
mean-square (RMS) pressure of the complex sound wave. Bekesy post-
151
-------
exposure threshold tracings at 4 kcps were obtained for 7 min.; mean
ITS over this time was taken as the index of ITS. Within each type of
noise, at the same SPL, a critical factor exists at and above which ITS
may become significant; these critical factors must be taken into
consideration when predicting ITS from complex noises.
Peltxman, P., Kitterman, J.A. & Ostwald, P. F. Manchester, D. Effects of
incubator noise on human hearing. Journal of Auditory Research, 1970,10(4),
335-339.
The maximum readings on a sound level meter were about 75 dbC. in the
intensive care room of a new born baby nursery. Overall and band-
limited spectral analyses of the noises inside individual incubators
showed that one unit at 250 cps approached widely-accepted damage-risk
criteria. The average threshold shift of 12 young normal-hearing adults
exposed to this noise was about as predicted from the acoustic spectrum
and from classic masking data. One £, exposed to this noise for 45 min.,
showed no measureable TTS at any frequency. It was suggested that the
noise, while not probably damaging, may yet be enough to mask out sounds
which the infant, in this critical period of life, might use for develop-
ment of sensory and social differentiations and perhaps even for speech
and language acquisition.
Pinheiro, Marilyn, Jordan, Valdemar, & Luz, George A. The relationship
between threshold shift and the loss of hair cells in monkeys exposed
to impulse noise. Army Medical Research Lab Fort Knox Ky, 1972, Report
No. USAMRL-990.
A comparison of permanent threshold shift sustained by monkeys exposed
to impulse noise with hair cell and nerve fiber loss in their inner ears
demonstrated that impulse noise damages the cochlea by destroying hair
cells in a restricted area. This destruction was not disclosed by pure
audiometry until there was a severe loss of outer hair cells extending
over several millimeters of the basilar membrane, the overall correlation
between the two measures of damage (audiometric and histological) was
statistically significant. Individual deviations were hypothesized to be
152
-------
due to the redundancy among the population of sensory cells in the inner
ear, spread of excitation as a function of intensity, release from
inhibition or masking, and a possible change in the elasticity of the
denuded basilar membrane which might have affected the traveling wave
pattern.
Sommer, Henry C. The combined effects of vibration, noise, and exposure
during on auditory temporary threshold shift. Aerospace Medical Research
Lab Wright-Patterson AFB Ohio, 1973, Report No. AMRL-TR-73-34.
To determine the combined effects of noise and vibration on auditory
function, the temporary threshold shifts (TTS) of two groups of 10 subjects
each were measured as a function of intensity and duration of exposure.
Combined noise and vibration was presented to one group for 5 minutes
and to the other for 20 minutes. Both groups were exposed in the Z
axis at frequencies of 9 HZ (peak) and 0.950 GZ, respectively. Noise
levels of 90 dB and 100 dB were presented simultaneously with the
vibration. TTS was measured at post exposure recovery times of 0.5,2.0,
5.0, 10.0, and 20.0 minutes. Although the mean difference was small
(0.72 dB), a significantly larger TTS was obtained at 9 HZ than 18 HZ
vibration, and 100 dB produced a larger TTS than 90 dB. Significant
differences in TTS were also obtained as a function of duration of
exposure and as a function of post exposure recovery time.
Spirov, Aleksandar Results of examination of hearing lesions in tank crew
and infantrymen. Vojnosanitetski Pregled, 1969, 26(2), 78-80.
On the basis of examination and control of 122 soldiers from infantry
and tank units exposed to noise it was found that an 18-mo period was in-
sufficient to provoke professional damages of hearing.
Summitt, James K. & Reimers, Stephen D. Noise : a hazard to divers and
hyperbaric chamber personnel. Navy Experimental Diving Unit Washington,
D. C., 1971, Report No. NEDU-RR-5-71.
Series of experiments conducted at the Navy Experimental Diving Unit to
determine the sound level in a variety of helmet diving and hyperfaaric
153
-------
chamber situations from the surface to a depth of 200 feet. Data is
defined in terms of hearing damage risk criteria currently in use by the
Navy. Results indicate that operations involving both diving helmets
and hyperbaric chambers frequently expose personnel to hazardous levels
of noise depending on the length of time of the exposure. Three cases of
temporary sensorineural hearing loss thought to be related to noise
exposure during air helmet dives are also presented.
Wagemann, W.*Subjective complaints of noise-induced hearing loss.
Army Foreign Science and Technology Center Charlottesville, Va.,
1971, Report No. FSTC-HT-23-242-71.
The investigations of initial and later subjective complaints of noise
induced hearing loss are reported. The main complaints are: an intense
sensation of deafness and tinnitus, which in part are reported together.
Complaints are made of headache both by itself and in combination with
the sensation of deafness. The sensation of pressure in the head occurs
exclusively in combination with the sensation of deafness. Increased
sleep deprivation occurs only in combination with deafness and tinnitus.
154
-------
VIGILANCE
Vigilance continues to be an area of concern for noise researchers.
The primary variable investigated is the effect of noise on various
vigilance tasks. For example, Blackwell & Belt (1971) investigated
three levels of continuous white noise and found no differential effects
of the noise on a vigilance task. However other investigators (Warner &
Heimstra, 1971; 1972; 0'Mailey & Poplawsky, 1971) demonstrated that
noise does have differential effects on vigilance performance depending
on the difficulty of the task and the way the noise is presented.
Chi Ids & Hoi comb (1973) suggest that the type of response required may
also affect the performance, with increased complexity of response aiding
in signal detection.
Bernstein & Eason (1970) and Fidel! (1970) have shown that Ss perform
better in a vigilance task when the information is presented in two
sensal modes. Both studies used vision and audition. Davies, Garland
and Shackleton found that music aided performance in a difficult vigilance
task.
Bernstein, Ira H. & Eason, Thomas R. Use of tone offset to facilitate
reaction time to light onset. Psychonomic Science, 1970, 20(4), 209-210.
Four undergraduates participated in a visual discriminative RT task to
explore the phenomenon of intersensory facilitation. Previous research
has indicated that RT to a joint visual-auditory event is more rapid
than RT to the visual component alone, even when the auditory component
is noninformative. In the present study, a tone offset was used in place
of the usual affirmative event (click). Results indicate that RT is
more rapid when the tone offset is in conjunction with the occurrence of
the visual event as compared to when the tone remained on throughout the
trial. The effect was comparable in magnitude to that obtained in prior
studies using an affirmative auditory event.
155
-------
Blackwell, P. J. & Belt, J. A. Effect of differential levels of ambient
noise on vigilance performance. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 1971, 32, 734.
Ambient white noise is often used in a vigilance task to mask equipment
and extraneous noise. However, an acceptable level has not been
established and a wide range of intensity levels has been used. The
question of whether the intensity level of ambient white noise has any
effect on vigilance performance was investigated. Results indicate no
significant difference between the noise levels of 50, 75, and 87 dB.
Brown, John. Recognition and the direction of attention. Acta Psycho-
logica, Amsterdam, 1970, 33, 149-157-
Four experiments with 20, 10, 10, and 20 Ss are described which tested
the hypothesis that the mechanism of attention enables unwanted inputs to
be attenuated. In Exp I., two words were presented simultaneously, one
to each ear, in uncorrelated noise. In a recognition test the S^ then
attempted to select the word which had been presented to a designated
ear. Under a k condition, the ear was designated in advance and under
and nk condition it was designated only in the test itself. It was
argued that, if a filter mechanism can attenuate unwanted inputs and if
noise with the input adversely affects buffer storage at a sensory level,
then recognition should be superior under the k condition. However no
difference between the conditions was found. In Exp. II, omitting the
word to the unwanted ear had a highly favorable effect on recognition,
thus showing that there was plenty of scope for attenuation of the un-
wanted input to improve performance in Exp. I. Exp. Ill repeated Exp.I
but with noise-free inputs. Exp. IV was similar to Exp. I except that,
instead of using a visual signal to try to switch-in the appropriate ear
under the k condition, an auditory signal was given to the ear concerned.
Negative results were again obtained. Explanations for this failure to
support the hypothesis are discussed. One is consistent with a sub-
sidiary finding that words were not tagged effectively by ear-of-arrival
and a further experiment to test the hypothesis is suggested.
156
-------
Chi Ids, Jerry M. & Hal comb, Charles 6. Effects of noise and response
complexity upon vigilance performance. Perceptual and Motor Skills,
1972, 35(3), 735-741.
Visual vigilance performance was investigated with respect to environ-
mental stimulation (90-dB, 1000 cps noise) and intra-organismic stimulation
(simple vs complex response). One hundred undergraduates monitoring a
display for one hour under one of two noise types were instructed either
to press a button upon detection of a periodic signal (simple response)
or to additionally perform a checklist operation subsequent to the signal
detection (complex response). Significant correct detection differences
occurred between response groups with complex groups showing high perform-
ance (p < .05). Mean differences in correct detection were obtained
for noise conditions (continuous = 831; intermittent = 78.5%). Results
are evaluated in terms of the activation-hypothesis.
Davies, D.R. Garland, Lesly & Shack!eton, V.J. The effects of music and
task difficulty on performance at a visual vigilance task. British
Journal of Psychology, 1974, 64(3), 303-389.
Forty, 18-28 undergraduates performed a difficult or easy visual vigi-
lance task in music or noise. Response measures taken were correct
detections, commission errors, detection latencies, and d'values. For
the difficult version of the task a significant increase in detection
latencies was found which music prevented. Broadly similar findings were
obtained for correct detection. Results are compared with other studies
of detection latency and task difficulty and are discussed in terms of
arousal.
Fidel!, Sanford. Sensory function in multimodal signal detection.
Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 1970, 47(4, Pt. 2) 1009-1015.
Five female undergraduates were tested on a two-interval forced choice
task involving the detection of a sinusoid in noise, where the signal
could occur on an earphone, an oscilloscope, or both devices simultaneous-
ly. Detection performance was studied as related to (a) mode of occurrence
of the signal (-s), (b) the external noise correlation in the auditory
157
-------
and visual channels, and (c) Ss a priori knowledge of the mode of
occurrence of the signal. Improvement in sensitivity (measured in d1
units) as a function of bimodal signal presentation closely followed the
predictions of a statistical summation model and was much lower than
predicted by linear and probabilistic addition models. Under conditions
of independence of noise in the auditory and visual channels, some
improvements in sensitivity were of almost three dB. Improvement in
sensitivity afforded by a priori knowledge of the mode of occurrence
of the signal was less for bimodal signals than for unimodal signals.
Green, David M. & Luce, R. Duncan. Detection of auditory signals
presented at random times: III. Perception & Psychophysics, 1971, 9(3-A),
257-268.
RTs of three Ss to a pure tone in noise were measured. Throughout, the
time from the warning signal to the reaction signal was exponentially dis-
tributed, and the signal was response terminated. Response criterion,
signal intensity, and mean foreperiod wait were varied. A model that
assumes a Poisson sensory transduction, a pulse-activated decision
process, and an additive bounded residual process, was tested. It is
concluded that the assumed decision process was in error- Among the
empirical results, the dependence of mean RT on signal waits was shown
to depend largely on the average wait, not the actual one, and that this
relationship between mean RT and average stimulus wait increased for
strong signals and decreased for weak ones.
Gulian, Edith. Auditory vigilance under noise conditions: Psychophysio-
logical correlations. Studia Psycho!ogica, 1971, 13(2), 114-120.
The effects of noise upon auditory vigilance and its physiological concomi-
tants were studied in fifteen 19-30 yr. olds during five experimental
sessions. Performance measures (RTs, GSRs, and EEGs) were recorded. Modi-
fications of behavioral vigilance and the other indicators under quiet and
different levels (70 and 90 dB) and types (continuous and intermittent) of
noise were investigated. Results indicate a certain dissociation between
158
-------
EEG, GSR, and behavioral activation, but the concordance of all measures
varied as a function of the degree of stress.
Harris, C. Stanley & Filson, George W. Effects of noise on serial
search performance. USAF AMRL Technical Report, 1971, 71-56, 27 p.
Broadbent's statements concerning the necessary conditions for demonstra-
ting an adverse effect of noise on human performance were evaluated in a
test of 70 Ss on a serial search task. Performance was measured during
broadband noise exposure at an overall level of 105 db re .0002 dyne/cm2.
One group of Ss was tested for 36 minutes with two, 3 minute interpolated
rest periods, while another group was tested for 36 consecutive minutes
with no rest periods. The performance of these groups was compared with
that of comparable control groups for five days. Noise produced a stati-
stically significant reduction in the number completed for the rest
group for the first 12 minutes of testing on each day. There were no
significant differences between the noise and control group during the
last 24 minutes of testing. For the no rest groups, noise resulted in a
statistically significant smaller number of items completed on the last
two days of testing. On these days, the effect was constant throughout
the 36 min. of testing. Results are interpreted as generally supporting
Broadbent's position.
O'Malley, John J. & Poplawsky, Alex., Noise-induced arousal and
breadth of attention. Perceptual and Motor Skills. 1971, 33(3), 887-890.
The effect of intermittent noise upon attention span was investigated.
In Exp. I with 44 male undergraduates, 4 levels of noise intensity
were used: 0,75,85 and 100 db. The task was a serial anticipation task
in which the relevant stimuli were 4-letter words located in the center
of a projected slide. Three letter words were peripherally located
and were not mentioned to the Ss. §s in the 85- and 100- db conditions
learned fewer of the peripheral words as indicated by a free-recall
test, indicating a narrowing of attention due to the higher noise
levels. In.Exp. II with 30 female nursing students. Ss operating under
85-db noise performed significantly better on the Stroop Color Word
159
-------
Test than did Ss operating under no noise, again indicating a focusing
of attention due to noise-induced arousal. Results are consistent
with the proposal that increased emotional arousal causes a narrowing
of attention.
Pastore, Richard E. & Sorkin, Robert D. Simultaneous two-channel signal
detection: I. Simple binaural stimuli. Journal of the Acoustical
Society of America, 1972, 2(2, Pt. 2), 544-551.
Two experiments were conducted in which two female college student Ss
performed two simultaneous increment detection tasks, one in each ear.
This task, together with monaural and binaural control conditions, was
used to investigate interaural time sharing, sensory interactions,
internal noise, and binaural decision spaces. When the signals were
binaurally in phase, there was no evidence of cross-channel facilitation
or inhibition, and Ss were able to perform the task without performance
decrements relative to single-channel control conditions. For one S_,
the derived estimate of the between-channel correlation in the absence
of an external masking noise was +.40 and was consistent across differ-
ent experimental conditions. Differences in the results for 180 phase-
shifted signals indicate probable changes in the nature of the process-
ing mechanisms involved in the detection of the different types of sig-
nals. It is concluded that the paradigm and related analyses should be
of value in the study of other kinds of perceptual phenomena.
Thurmond, John B., Binford, John R. & Loeb, Michel. Effects of signal
to noise variability over repeated sessions in an auditory vigilance
task. Perception & Psychophysics, 1970, 7(2), 100-102.
Thirty-two paid undergraduates listened to a sequence of Gaussian noise
pulses of .5-sec duration, occurring at 2.5-sec intervals. Performance
was compared under two conditions: One group detected the occurrence of
a 1.8-dB increment in noise pulses; a second group detected the occurrence
of increments of 1.3, 1.8, or 2.3 dB. All Ss performed for three 90-min.
false alarms. Theory of signal detectability indices, d1 and BETA
were also derived. It was found that d1 increased slightly over sessions
160
-------
and decreased almost negligibly during sessions, and criterion indices
and BETA increased both within and over sessions. Performance was compa-
rable under the fixed- and mixed-signal conditions.
Warner, Harold D. & Heimstra, Norman W. Effects of intermittent noise
on visual search tasks of varying complexity. Perceptual & Motor Skills,
1971, 32(1), 219-226.
Four noise ratios were utilized: 0, 30, 70 and 100% noise on-time in
successive 5 second intervals. The task required that Ss search a dis-
play for a single letter located among a larger background of letters
which were all the same but different from the single letter. Task
complexity was varied by changing the number of background letters. Two
difficulty levels were utilized: 8 and 32 letter displays. Twenty-two
male college students were tested under all conditions specified by the
Task Complexity * Noise Ratio matrix. Detection speeds for the 32 letter
task condition were faster for any ratio of noise than in the control
condition but for the 8-letter condition only the 30% noise ratio was
faster than the control. The speeds for the 70 and 100% ratios were
slower for the 8-letter condition. The order of the 30, 70, and 100%
ratios, however, without the control comparison , indicated that the
relative differences between noise effects were the same for both levels
of task complexity. The order of conditions beginning with fastest was:
30, 100, and 70%.
Warner, Harold D. & Heimstra, Norman W. Effect of noise on visual target-
detection performance. Human Factors, 1972, 14(2), 181-185.
The effects of several intensity levels of continuous white noise were
examined in a target-detection task with 20 male undergraduates having
normal hearing and vision. Variables manipulated were noise-intensity
level, display-difficulty level, and target location. The four noise
levels utilized were: 0 (used as a control condition), 80, 90, and 100 dB.
Display difficulty was defined in terms of number of nontarget, or back-
ground, display elements on three levels of difficulty, 8,16, and 32 back-
ground letter characters. The central and peripheral region of the visual
161
-------
display were examined, and detection time and error recorded. Results
indicate that noise-intensity and display-difficulty level were signifi-
cantly interrelated with respect to detection speed but not to detection
error.
162
-------
NOISE MEASUREMENT AND AUDIOMETRY
The primary areas of investigation have centered on perceived judgements
of the aversiveness of noise as measured in laboratories utilizing
improved methods of rating noisiness such as Effective Perceived Noise
Level (EPNL) used by Pearsons (1971) rather than Perceived Noise Level
(PNL) to more accurately rate aircraft noise. A-weighted noise measure-
ments appear to be generally adequate descriptors of transportation noise
levels except in instances where pure tones exist in jet aircraft noise
(Serendipity, 1970). Stevens (1972) has completed a new procedure for
calculating Perceived Level dB using the Mark VII method with a new
reference of loudness defined as a 1/3-octave band centered at 3,150 Hz.
Generally the perceived magnitude doubles with each 9 dB increase in SPL.
A large body of research deals with various comparisons of white noise
as a reference for aversiveness measures. Chapman (1971) found that at
60 dB, white noise is judged louder than speech of the same intensity,
but that above 70 dB speech is judged louder. Sullivan (1970) found
that thresholds for the attribute of aversive loudness can be effectively
specified in the laboratory, and Berglund (1973) demonstrated that labora-
tory developed scales for judging loudness show aircraft noise is more
annoying than noisy and more noisy than loud.
Noise duration, time intervals and Doppler effects have been investigated
to determine their respective influences on perceived loudness. Perry,
(1972) found that only when noise is above the Speech Interference Level
(SIL) is duration a factor in community annoyance. Rosinger et. al.(1970)
found that approaching sounds generated by aircraft flyovers were judged
more annoying than receding sounds of equal intensity. Schneider (1972)
worked with time between stimulus presentations set at 24 hours to
determine magnitude estimation differences with findings that show more
variance and lower perceived intensity as a result.
Another large area of concern deals with the use of loudness contours
as standards for noise control. Recent work by Beranek (1971) on the old
163
-------
Noise Criterion (NC) curves indicates that they may be misleading as a
standard and potentially, allow excessive low and high frequency noise
to exist while technically meeting the specified NC curve. Using
S.S. Stevens Mark IV method, new Preferred Noise Criterion (PNC) curves
have been developed. PNC standards lower by 2-5 dB noise allowed below
125 Hz and above 1000 Hz. These findings are supported by Ohlerhead (1969)
From an applied standpoint, findings by Kanda (1970) lead to the recom-
mendation that ships should change warning horns to a higher fundamental
frequency, and Sidova (1970) found that general excitability of children
in day nurseries is correlated to the noise levels present.
Finally, Hodge (1972) recommends that the military revise noise criteria
from decibels of hearing loss to more meaningful predictions about per-
formance of military people after exposure to noise. This type of
criterion would be of more practical assistance to key decision makers
who generally may not be familiar with hearing loss criteria.
Beranek, Leo L., Blazier, Warren E., & Figwer, J. Jacek. Preferred
noise criterion (PNC) curves and their application to noise. Journal of
the Acoustical Society of America, 1971, 50(5, Pt. 1), 1223-1228.
The noise criterion (NC) curves were developed both as a method for
evaluating existing noise situations and as a means for specifying
design goals for noise control.-' They have also influenced the N ratings
used abroad. It has been demonstrated that if a background noise whose
spectrum conforms to an NC-curve shape is deliberately generated, it does
not sound to a listener as a pleasant or neutral noise, but is both
"hissy" and "rumbly". A recent tendency in consulting practice, there-
fore, has been to specify noise levels that are lower than NC curves at
both low and high frequencies. Also, the original NC curves were derived
using S.S. Stevens' Mk I method of calculating loudness level from noise
levels measured with the old octave bands, the lowest of which was the
"below 75 Hz" band. A reexamination of the noise criterion curves has
been undertaken using Stevens' Mk. VI method and the new octave bands.
164
-------
The result is a new set of curves, called "preferred noise criterion (PNC)
curves", having levels in the bands below 125 Hz. and above 1,000 Hz.
that are lower than those of the 1957 NC curves by 2-5 dB. The new set
also considers the engineering realities of achieving the specified
noise levels with conventional air-handling equipment. Results of a
number of recent noise-control projects in buildings are presented for
comparison.
Berglund, Birgitta, Berglund, Ulf & Lindvall, Thomas. Scaling loudness,
noisiness, and annoyance of aircraft noise. Stockholm University (Sweden)
Psychological Labs, 1973, Report No. 393.
The capacity of man to differentiate and scale aircraft noise with regard
to three attributes frequently used in social survey research on ambient
noise was tested. A two-step psychological scaling procedure was adopted
that produced calibrated scales for the attributes. Further, instructions
were designed that carefully defined the meaning of the attributes to the
subjects. It was demonstrated that subjects in such carefully designed
laboratory situations are able to use and produce scales of loudness,
noisiness, and annoyance for aircraft noise. The results consistently
showed that aircraft noise is more annoying, than noisy and more noisy
than loud. The data on the relationships between pairwise attributes
were well described by linear functions but a mechanism of inter-attribute
power transforms could not be rejected.
Chapman, A. J. & Cumberbatch, W. 6. Relative loudness judgments of non-
shadowed material presented dichotically. Perceptual & Motor Skills,
1971, 32(1), 79-82.
In a nonshadowing dichotic loudness judgement task, 20 male university
students matched speech and white noise intensities at 60, 70, 80, 90,
100, and 110 dB. above 70 dB., Ss judged speech to be louder than white
noise, at 70 dB. they were judged to be equally loud, but at 60 dB. white
noise was considered to be louder than speech. These findings are dis-
cussed in terms of the attenuability of different types of material.
165
-------
Hodge, David C. Improved weapon noise exposure criteria. U.S. Army
Human Engineering Laboratories Technical Note, 1972, No. 1-72, 13 p.
Reviews the state of the art in noise-exposure criteria and suggests
that such criteria are in need of revision and extension to meet
future operational requirements of the army. It is recommended that
existing noise criteria, expressed in terms of "decibels of hearing loss"
should be restated in terms of predictions about the performance of
military personnel after they have been exposed to noise. Such restate-
ment in performance terms will significantly improve communication about
the risk of noise exposure to people who are in a position to utilize
such information but who generally do not comprehend the notation of
decibels of hearing loss.
Kanda, Hiroshi, Oguro, Hideo & Ohara, Takehumi. Fundamental frequency
of signal sound and audible distance. Journal of Science of Labour,
1970, 46(2), 80-125.
In estimating the audible distance of the signal sounds issued from ships
this research considers the divergence decrease due to the spreading of
sound waves from a point source, the masking effect of environmental noise
on the signal sound, and the attenuation due to absorption and the
shadow zone created by the bending of sound waves caused by atmospheric
conditions. When the environmental noise of the side of the source
signal sound is too loud, the signal sound is masked by the environment-
al noise and it cannot be heard unless it has an adequate SPL. Results
suggest that ship's signal sounds with a higher fundamental frequency
than that used by ships in the past are necessary for more effective
signaling.
Namba, Seiichiro, Nakamura, Toshie & Yasuda, Sonoko. On the loudness
of level-fluctuating noises. Japanese Journal of Psychology, 1971, 42(2),
93-103.
The regulating factors in perception of level-fluctuating noises were
investigated. Fluctuating noises were generated by systematically changing
the physical intensity of white noise, and perceived loudness determined
166
-------
by having Sis match them with the loudness of level-fixed noises. A
relationship was found between the physical intensity and perceived loud-
ness of level-fluctuating noises. Ss reported that it was not difficult
to match loudness of fluctuating and fixed noises, and intraindividual
variance was small. Perceived loudness of fluctuating noises changed
with the width of the level-fluctuating range. It is concluded that the
data are not complete enough to suggest a model of noise perception.
Ollerhead, J. B. The noisiness of diffuse sound fields at high intensi-
ties. Wyle Labs Huntsville Ala., 1969, Report No. WR-69-17.
An experimental study was conducted to establish the relationships be-
tween the subjective noisiness, frequency and sound pressure level of
random noise in a diffuse acoustic field. The experiments were perform-
ed in a fabric enclosure installed within a 100,000 cubic foot reverber-
ant chamber- Twenty-four subjects took part. The growth of noisiness
with sound pressure level of an octave band of noise centered at 1000 Hz
was determined. The variation of noisiness with frequency was measured
at four perceived noise levels between 78 and 104 PNdB. For comparison
purposes, one equal noisiness contour was also determined for free field
listening conditions in a progressive wave chamber. The results indicated
that currently used noisiness growth functions are adequate but that the
equal noisiness contours may need some modification at low frequencies.
Also the contour shapes vary as sound pressure level increases indicating
relatively greater noise sensitivity at both high and low frequencies.
Parry, H.J. & Ends, E.J. *Study of improved methods for predicting
human response to aircraft noise: magnitude estimation test. Lockheed-
California Co Burbank, 1972, Report No. LR-24985.
Laboratory determinations of the effect of duration on the judged
acceptability of noises have produced conflicting, if not confusing,
results. Further, there is the question of application of so-called
duration corrections to the prediction of community response to vehicle
noises. This develops the very strong implication that judging duration
in terms of equivalent noise levels is, in reality, a type of cross-
167
-------
modality experiment wherein the subject is simply measuring duration.
There is some evidence also that only above the speech interference
level is the community concerned with noises of different duration. An
experiment designed to resolve the possible interactions between differ-
ent main noise descriptors (annoyance, loudness, noisiness, acceptable-
ness) and duration cues is described. Results indicate that duration
cues do have a significant effect on judgements of noises having varying
duration. Further, the data indicate that the calculation procedures
PNL, PNLT and EPNL correlate better with the results for some descriptors
than with others.
Pearsons, Karl S. & Bennett, Ricarda L. Effects of temporal and spectral
combinations on the judged noisiness of aircraft sounds. Journal of the
Acoustical Society of America, 1971, 49(4, Pt. 1) 1076-1082.
The effects on perceived noisiness of spectral and temporal combinations
of stimuli were determined at varying durations in an anechoic chamber.
Ss were 20 undergraduates. Several recordings of turboprop, turbofan,
turbo-jet, and helicopter flyovers were also included in the list of stimuli
Results indicate that the most accurate predictor of the judged noisiness
was perceived noise level with tone and duration corrections as outlined
by the 1968 Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) aircraft certification
procedure. To illustrate the responsiveness of effective perceived noise
level (EPNL) over perceived noise level (PNL) in predicting the noisiness
of stimuli, the results of the duration test reveal that, at judged equal
noisiness, 75% of the data were within 4 dB. of the standard signal for
EPNL with the FAA and integrated duration measure as compared to 11 dB.
for PNL.
Rosinger, George, Nixon, Charles W. & von Gierke, Henning E. Quantifica-
tion of the noisiness of "approaching" and "receding" sounds. Journal
of the Acoustical Society of America, 1970, 48(4, Pt. 1), 843-853.
The first phase of a research program designed to quantify subjective
responses to time-varying sounds grossly approximating those produced by
aircraft flying over an £ at rest are described. The basic sounds employed
168
-------
represented "approaching" and "receding" sources that continuously in-
creased or decreased in intensity and/or frequency over a period of 15.25
sec. The comparative annoyance or noisiness of such sounds was evaluated
by means of paired comparison and individual adjustment judgments. For
the 3 experiments conducted with 72 16-27 year old undergraduates and high
school students, the findings indicate that (a) Signals representing an
approaching sound were generally judged more annoying than those represent-
ing a receding sound in spite of the fact that the approaching and
receding signals contained the same average intensity and frequency content
over signal duration, (b) Sognals with time-varying components whether
intensity or frequency were judged to be noisier than signals with non-
time-varying components, (c) Time-varying intensity components appeared
to have a greater influence on judgements of noisiness than did time-
varying frequency components. And (d) on the average, only small non-
systematic differences in noisiness were found as a function of the 3
frequency conditions investigated (125-, 1000-, and 4000-Hz-band center
frequency).
Sanders, Jay W. & Josey, Anne F. Narrow-band noise audiometry for hard-to
test patients. Journal of Speech & Hearing Research, 1970, 13(1), 74-81.
The applicability, validity, and reliability of narrow bands of white noise
was investigated as test stimuli for obtaining audiograms under earphones
with 10 normal-hearing adults, 10 hearing-impaired children, and 10 mentally
retarded children. Test results for the hearing-impaired and mentally
retarded Ss suggest that validity and reliability were better for noise-
band audiometry than for pure-tone assessment in Ss. Results with the
mentally retarded suggest that the task of attending to narrow-band noise
stimuli was easier than the pure-tone listening task. The noise-band
procedure retains the advantages of pure tone audiometry in that it (a)
can be used as a means of monaural assessment of hearing sensitivity by
frequency, and (b) tests functional hearing rather than peripheral sensi-
tivity.
169
-------
Schneider, Bruce A., Neuringer, Allen J. & Ramsey, Douglas. Magnitude
estimation of loudness with a minimum 24-h interstimulus interval.
Psychonomic Science, 1972, 27(4), 243-245.
Twenty four high school students made magnitude estimates of the loudness
of white noise in each of 2 conditions: when the time between consecutive
stimulus presentations was at least 24 hr., and when it was less than
2 min. In both conditions, the relationship between the reports of Ss
and intensities of the stimuli was best described by a power function.
The exponent of the function was lower and the variance slightly greater
in the 24-hr, interstimulus condition.
Selery, Frank L. & Streczyn, Micheal. Noise characteristics in the baby
compartment of incubators. American Journal of Diseases in Children, 1969,
117(4), 445-50.
An analysis of noise in 17 baby incubators and their surrounding environ-
ments indicated high levels, well above the recommended acceptance level.
A study of the magnitude of transportation noise generation and potential
abatement. Volume II. Measurement criterion. Serendipity Inc Arlington
Va Eastern Operations Div., 1970, 119 p.
Evaluations of the effectiveness of transportation noise abatement require
the use of a measure which relates individual and community reactions to
transportation noise. Previous.studies were examined to determine how
well various measures predicted response to noise. A-weighted sound level
(in dBA) and noise pollution level (in dBA) were examined to determine
their relationships to other measures and their prediction of reaction,
i.e., loudness, annoyance, noisines . The A-weighted sound level, on the
average, correlated as well with subjective response as the other measure.
Only for jet aircraft pure tones was there a significant predictive perform-
ance difference between effective perceived noise level (EPNL) and dBA,
favoring EPNL.
Average community response measures were developed for aircraft and motor
vehicle noise. Using the aircraft noise and number index and motor vehicle
170
-------
traffic noise index data, the noise pollution level was shown to correlate
as well with average community response as both of the measures. Since
noise pollution level is compatible with the use of dBA for individual
vehicles, its selection as a community measure complements the choice of
dBA as a vehicle measure.
Sidorova, A. V. On the character of noise in day nursery groups.
Pediatriya, 1970, 49(1), 67-70.
This research attempted to determine the factors affecting the noise level
in the day nursery, and the noise level in the day nursery for children of
different ages and at different intervals of time. There is no doubt that
degree of exitation in children and their behavior are a direct function
of noise level in the group.
Stevens, S. S. Perceived level of noise by Mark VII and decibels (E).
Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 1972, 51(2, Pt. 2), 575-601.
The calculation procedure, Mark VII, which gives the perceived level (PL)
of loudness or noisiness in dB (PLdB) is described. It utilizes a set of
frequency-weighting contours based on an.average of 25 experimental
contours. The standard reference sound is defined as a 1/3 band center-
ed at 3,150 Hz. The perceived magnitude (loudness or noisiness) grows
as the 2/3 power of the sound pressure, so that perceived magnitude
doubles with each increase of 9 dB. The summation formula for the total
subjective magnitude remains St=F(SIGMAS - Sm), but the value of F is
made to vary as a function of level to reflect the nonlinear growth (in
log-log coordinates) of broad-band noise. As a result of the new ref-
erence sound at 3,150 Hz., PLdB is approximately 8 dB. lower than the
older loudness level in phons. Except for the nearly constant difference
of 8 dB., Mark VI and Mark VII give closely similar results for typical
broad-band noises. The 8-dB downward shift makes it possible for a
sound level meter with an "ear weighting" to give readings within 1-2
dB. of perceived level in PLdB. With the frequency-weighting contours-
weighting contours-extended down to 1 Hz., Mark VII also provides a pro-
171
-------
cedure for calculating the PLdB of sonic booms and other impulse noises.
Sullivan, Richard, Warren, Richard & Dabice, Margaret. Minimal aversion
thresholds for white noise: Adaptation. American Journal of Psychology..
1970, 83(4), 613-620.
Noises of four different amplitude were presented to 20 undergraduates,
who then judged minimal aversion thresholds for a white noise presented
binaurally in ascending and descending series. Both adaptation and
series influenced their judgments, but.the differences in judgments were
greater between series types than across adaptation levels. Findings
suggest that thresholds for the attribute of aversive loudness can be
effectively specified. The possibility of a psychological scale of
aversiveness common to all -sensory systems is discussed.
Tobias, Jerry V. Noise audiometry. FAA Office of Aviation Medicine
Report, 1971, 71-1, 5 p.
An audiometric device is described which uses a narrow band of noise as a
test signal and an efficient procedure that yields masking patterns.
Wood, Thomas J. An application of digital computer logic to pure-tone
audiometric procedures. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Southern
Mississippi) Ann Arbor, Mich.: University Microfilms, 1970, No.71-13,
593, 174 pages.
Specifically, this study involved programming approximately 10,000
individual computer instructions. These instructions provided the logic
by which a PDP-8/1 computer was programmed to administer stimuli and
analyze responses associated with pure-tone audiometric procedures. A
second purpose of this study was to develop and refine innovative
methods of coupling or interfacing the computer with audiometric testing
equipment. By interfacing the computer by means of an AX08 Laboratory
Peripheral Unit and related circuitry, it was possible to achieve computer
patient interaction. Interaction involved indirect communication
between the computer and the patient as a function of input and output
signals fed to and from the AX08 unit.
172
-------
In order to test the relative accuracy of computer- determined thresholds
based on binary logic, it was necessary to audiometrically test the
hearing sensitivity of a number of patients employing computer controlled
audiometric procedures, and compare and contrast the obtained results
with thresholds obtained by means of conventional-manual audiometry. Six-
teen subjects were selected from patients attending the University of
Southern Mississippi Speech and Hearing Clinic. Each of the sixteen
patients was randomly assigned to an A1-A2 comparison condition and were
subsequently tested by two audiologists. The eight patients within
Group 2 participated in an Al-C comparison and were audiometrically
evaluated by one of the above audiologists and a PDP-8/1 computer As a
result of the preceding experimental design, it was possible to compare
paired correlations obtained between the audiologists (A1-A2 comparisons)
and between one of the audiologists and the computer (Al-C comparisons).
Correlational data involved paired observations between masked and un-
masked thresholds as well as effective masking levels employed in the
determinations of masked thresholds. Correlations obtained in the above
manner provided a means of conducting a concurrent validity type of study
in which conventional manual audiometry provided a generally accepted
method for testing hearing.
In general the obtained data indicated high correlations between both Al-
A2 and Al-C comparisons. The results of this study indicate that, among
the subjects tested, computer-determined thresholds based on binary-
computer logic correlate quite well with thresholds obtained by means of
conventional-manual-audiometric procedures.
Zwislocki, J. J. Temporal summation of loudness: An analysis. Journal
of the Acoustical Society of America, 1969, 46(2, Pt 2) 431-441.
A quantitative psychophysiological theory for loudness level and loudness
as a function of stimulus duration was developed. It is based on the
psychophysical and neurophysiological evidence that the apparent temporal
summation of acoustic energy is a result of neural summation at a high
level of th.e auditory system. The theory shows how this can be achieved
173
-------
in spite of a nonlinear relationship between sound intensity and neural
excitation. The temporal decay of neural firing preceding the final stage
of temporal summation seems to be responsible for overcoming the non-
linearity.
174
-------
OTHER
DEVELOPMENT ASPECTS OF NOISE RESPONSES AND INDIVIDUAL AND CLASS DIFFERENCES
In this area, age differences, class differences and the effects of
auditory stimulation on the newborn have been investigated. For example
Mendel (1971) found that four to eleven month old infants responded more
frequently to broadband than to narrow band noise. Ling (1923) showed
that the proportion of whole body responses increased as a function of
the duration of narrow band noise and that pulsed trains of 50 msec.
pulses proved to be less effective in eliciting the responses than did
continuous noise. Bench (1969) has produced evidence that crying babies
"quiet" more readily when exposed to auditory stimulation than when
unstimulated.
Smith (1969), Jeffrey (1969) and Smith and Prather (1971) have investi-
gated age differences in responses to varying noise environments. With
respect to consonant identification, phoneme discrimination and serial
reaction time, subjects older than 60 years performed significantly more
poorly in identifying consonants in both a noise and no noise environ-
ment; performed more poorly on phoneme discrimination tasks than younger
subjects (less than 30 years old); but showed no differences in reaction
time. Social class differences have been investigated by Anderson (1972).
Her results indicate that middle class second graders do more poorly in
a white noise and "home noise" environment than in quiet while lower class
children did equally well in the noise environments in the Porteus Maze
task, word completion and counting. This suggests that lower class
children growing up in a noisy environment may develop some mechanism for
"tuning out" environmental noise.
Anderson, Patricia Ann Skildum. Social class, noise, and performance.
(Doctoral dissertation, Claremont Graduate School) Ann Arbor, Mich.:
University Microfilms, 1972, No. 72-30, 554, 77 pages.
This study was concerned with the development and social class differences
175
-------
during three types of noise.
Three classes each of second and sixth graders from a school in a sub-
urban area of Washington state were tested on three kinds of perform-
ance items (Porteus Mazes, word completion, and counting) while listen-
ing through earphones to two four minute periods each of silence, white
noise, and home noise. All children were white and without identified
hearing problems. Sixty-one second graders and fifty-eight sixth
graders were identified by socioeconomic status and served as subjects
for the experiment.
Results of the testing indicated significant differences on the noise
and noise by social class interaction variables for second graders.
Middle class second graders do more poorly in the white noise and home
noise condition than in the silence condition. Lower class children do
equally well in each of the three conditions.
Analysis of the sixth grade results- indicated no significant differences
although graphically the middle class sixth graders did equally well in
the silence and white noise condition and better under the home noise
condition. Lower class children did equally well in each of the three
conditions.
2
A Chi comparison between middle class second and sixth graders was
significant indicating that second graders do worse during the home
noise condition than in the silence condition and sixth graders do better
during the home noise condition than during the silence condition. A
p
Chi with lower class second and sixth graders was not significant,
suggesting no development differences.
Bench, John. Some effects of audio-frequency stimulation on the crying
baby. Journal of Auditory Research, 1969, 9(2), 122-8.
Two experiments are described in which crying babies were stimulated by
pure tones and noise bands of one minute duration. The babies generally
quieted more readily when exposed to auditory stimulation than when
176
-------
unstimulated. The effectiveness of the sound stimulus was in inverse
relation to frequency. Differential masking effects, tactile artifact,
and an innate pitch discrimination or preference are considered as ex-
planatory hypotheses.
Brown, Cheryl & Jackson, Donald E. The effects of high -intensity noise
in early development upon behavior in the adult rat. Proceedings of the
Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, 1971, 6(Pt.l),
207-208.
Following 30 days (age 26-56 days) of either high intensity noise exposure
or control conditions, 38 rats were subsequently either trained in a U
maze or tested in an open field. Analysis of variance revealed signi-
ficant Noise and Noise x Sex interaction effects on U maze performance.
No differences in the open field test were observed. These results
suggest a differential sex effect of noise on subsequent learning where
emotional factors have been controlled.
Imes, Shirley A. & Etaugh, Claire F. Emotionality in mice as a function
of infantile stimulation. Psychonomic Science, 1971, 22(1), 19-20.
Assigned 2 litters of inbred C57B1/10J mice (N = 74) to each of 6 groups
consisting of 3 early experience and 2 later testing conditions. Early
experience consisted of handling, auditory stimulation (buzzer), or
neither. At 25-27 and 35-37 days, defecation and motility in both an
open field and an enclosed runway were measured, with the buzzer present
during testing for 37 Ss. The handled Ss were more emotional than the
other early-experience groups, as shown by more defecation in the open
field and less motility in the runway with the buzzer present.
Jeffrey, Dwight W. Age differences in serial reaction time as a function
of stimulus complexity under conditions of noise and muscular tension.
(Doctoral dissertation, University of Southern California) Ann Arbor, Mich.:
University Microfilms, 1969, No. 70-8527.
The objective of this study was to examine serial reaction times in the
light of the neural noise hypothesis and activation hypothesis of the
aging central nervous system.
177
-------
According to the neural noise hypothesis, slowing of response speed with
age is due to an increasing level of internal random "noise" in the brain,
which tends to reduce the signal-to-noise ratio of the sensory input.
This increased neural noise makes it more difficult for the brain to dis-
tinguish a signal from the background and consequently the older indi-
vidual must accumulate data over a longer period of time. This sampling
time becomes longer as the ratio of signal strength to background noise
becomes smaller. It is postulated that conditions which would lower the
signal-to-noise ratio would tend to result in the slowing of behavior.
Exposure to added sensory stimulation, such as auditory white noise or
induced muscular tension, is postulated to result in an increased level
of background noise, a lower signal-to-noise ratio, and slower response
speed.
The activation hypothesis would predict the opposite result. The acti-
vation hypothesis assumes that because of loss of functional neural cells
with age or a reduction in the overall level of stimulation, the central
nervous system in the older individual is at a lower level of activation
than in the younger individual. The older nervous system, being less
activated and less sensitive to any input, must integrate data over
longer intervals of time and thus the older individual's responses become
slower. It is postulated that the older, less activated, central nervous
system, when presented with added sensory stimulation such as auditory
white noise or induced muscular tension, would have the level of activation
raised and that consequently the response times would become faster.
Serial reaction times were recorded using the PSYCHOMETER apparatus for
five levels of task complexity under sensory conditions of induced muscular
tension (20 per cent of maximum hand grip), auditory white noise (75 deci-
bels), and a control condition without noise or tension. Thirty young
(18 to 26 years) and 30 elderly (62 to 85 years) subjects, selected to be
free from chronic illness or sensory disabilities participated in the
study. All subjects were exposed to all conditions in a balanced design.
Mean serial reaction times for the two age groups differed as expected,
178
-------
in that the elderly subjects responded more slowly than the young subjects
at all levels of task complexity. Age differences ranged from .12 seconds
for the simplest task to .32 seconds for the most complex task. Reaction
time was found to increase linearly with task complexity, as measured.
A significant interaction between age and task complexity was found.
This consisted of two components. At the simplest level of complexity,
elderly subjects appeared to be at a lower limit of responding and there
was less of an effect of differences in complexity than was the case for
the younger subjects. In the more complex tasks, elderly subjects slowed
to a greater extent as the level of complexity was increased than did
young subjects. Examination of serial reaction times in the three
sensory conditions for both age groups indicated no different effect due
to white noise or induced muscular tension as compared with the control
condition. However, an order of presentation effect was found indicat-
ing that the subjects tested first under the conditions of noise and
tension had shorter response times under the first condition as well as
under subsequent conditions, than those subjects who were tested first
under the control conditions. These interaction effects on reaction time
were greater for the elderly than for the young subjects, and are inter-
preted as supporting the activation hypothesis. However, the overall
mean response latencies for the three conditions were not different and
did not support the activation theory.
The lack of differences in reaction time under the three conditions, and
the interaction between conditions and order of presentation appear to
offer contradictory evidence for the activation hypothesis.
Mansfield, Richard Scott Developmental trends in the effects of noise on
problem solving. (Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University) Ann Arbor,
Mich.: University Microfilms, 1971, No. 71-13,263.
Earlier research has shown that there is a development with age in the
ability to attend selectively. Selective attention may be viewed as coping
with irrelevant stimulus variation or noise, during problem solving.
179
-------
The purpose of the present study was to test for the development of the
ability to cope with noise in problem solving. Two tasks: an auditory
task and a visual task, were used to test the ability. As a test of
general intelligence, the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test was also admin-
istered. There were 30 kindergarten and 30 second grade subjects: 15 boys
and 15 girls at each grade level.
The visual task tested the ability to cope with visual noise in three types
of problems: the first a discrimination with constant position of presenta-
tions of cues, the second a discrimination with varying position of presenta-
tion of cues, and the third a relational problem. In all problems the
positive and negative cues appeared on the right and left sides of a movie
screen. Both types of discrimination problems required the subject to point
to a constant pair of shapes, and the relational problems required the
subject to point to larger, thinner, or flatter pairs of shapes. On all
problems the subject first learned to point correctly in the absence of
noise. Visual noise, irrelevant shapes superimposed over the cues, was
then added in graduated increments on successive trials, until the subject
made an error.
The auditory task tested a subject's ability to detect a target message
through different intensities of noise. The task required the subject
repeatedly to point to one of eight familiar objects drawn on a sheet of
paper in the absence of noise. The noise, a mixture of four voices talk-
ing together, was then superimposed over the signal in graduated increm-
ents on successive trials, until the subject made an error. Next, the
noise level was set high enough to preclude perception of the signal,
and then lowered in graduated increments, until the subject pointed
correctly. The procedure was repeated five times at each of three levels
of signal volume.
For the visual task the results showed that thresholds for noise were a
function of the type of problem. Kindergarteners had their highest thresh-
olds on the discrimination with varying position. Thresholds were
slightly lower on the discriminations with varying position. The lowest
180
-------
thresholds were on the relational problems. Second graders performed at
maximal levels on both types of discrimination problems, but at signifi-
cantly lower levels on the relational problems. The second graders were
consistently superior to-the kindergarteners. At each grade level subjects
with higher IQs performed better than subjects with lower IQs. However
at the kindergarten level the superiority of the high IQ group was more
marked on the discriminations than on the relational problems, while at
the second grade level the superiority of the high-IQ group was apparent
on the relational problems, but not on the discriminations.
Ling, Daniel. Acoustic stimulus duration in relation to behavioral
responses of newborn infants. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research,
1973, 15(3), 567-571.
The responses of 160 1-4 day old infants to short duration (50-1000 msec.)
narrow-band noise stimuli were studied. The proportion of responses
obtained, particularly of the whole-body type increased as a function
of duration. Interrupted stimuli (trains of 10 50 msec, pulses)
proved to be much less effective than continuous stimuli of the same
duration.
Mendel, Maurice I. Infant responses to recorded sounds. Journal of
Speech and Hearing Research, 1971, 11(4), 811-16.
Thirty, 4-11 month old infants were tested with five different recorded
sounds that varied in bandwidth and temporal configuration: a continuous
band of white noise, the same band of noise interrupted twice/sec, the
crinkling of onionskin paper, a narrow band of noise centered at 3000 Hz,
and a warbled 3000 Hz tone. With loudness and duration of the stimuli
held constant, more responses occurred to sounds composed of a broad-
band spectrum than to those of a limited bandwidth. Temporal configura-
tion of the sound had no effect on the number of responses elicited.
Smith Raymond Akert. A study of phoneme discrimination in older versus
younger subjects as a function of various listening conditions. (Doctoral
dissertation, University of Washington) Ann Arbor, Mich.: University
Microfilms, 1959, No. 69-18,316.
181
-------
A review of the research literature dealing with the effect of aging on
the nervous system reveals at least two assumptions that have been made by
various authors: (1) with advancing age there is a lowering of resistance
to interference with signal transmission in the nervous system, and (2)
with advancing age there are fewer functional cells, contributing to
reduced "channel capacity" in the nervous system.
These assumptions are of particular interest in the consideration of
speech discrimination problems commonly found in the aging person.
To attempt to learn more about the functioning of the central auditory
neural system, with these assumptions as a basis, the present study was
designed to (1) investigate systematically the effects of aging on speech
discrimination as a function of varying levels of signal (speech) presenta-
tions and levels of background noise, (2) determine and evaluate quantita-
tively and qualitatively the phoneme errors and confusions made by a sub-
ject group of older individuals whose hearing losses are judged to be
primarily due to the aging process and not to other etiologies, and (3)
to compare the results to those obtained from a group of younger individ-
uals with normal hearing.
To investigate these above items the following hypotheses were formulated:
1. As a group, older individuals 60 years of age or more, and having
essentially normal hearing for pure tones through the speech frequency
range, will perform significantly poorer on speech discrimination tasks
than will younger, normal hearing individuals, 18 to 30 years of age.
2. That the between-the-group differences will become progressively
greater as the sensation level of noise is increased for any given signal
to-noise relationship.
3. That the between-the-group differences will become progressively
greater as the signal-to-noise relationship is decreased for any given
level of noise.
182
-------
Two groups of subjects were selected, both of which met certain maximum
criteria for "normal" hearing. The experimental group consisted of
individuals 60 years of age and older, the control group 18 to 30 years.
Both groups were required to listen to thirty tasks of sixteen CV
nonsense syllables presented monotically under conditions of varying
SL's of noise and S/N relationships and write their responses as to what
they heard. From the subject responses error response scores were derived
and confusion matrices were compiled. The data were then analyzed and
discussed both quantitatively and qualitatively.
The results of the analysis supported the first test hypothesis but not
the second and third hypotheses.
The following were concluded:
1. Under the conditions of this study older subjects, as a group,
performed more poorly on the discrimination tasks than did younger sub-
jects as a group.
2. The presumption that the CNS (including the central auditory system)
experiences an increasingly poorer resistance to exogenous noise inter-
ference was not demonstrated or supported.
3. There are qualitative as well as quantitative differences in the
performance of the "old" versus the "young" on auditory discrimination
tasks of CV nonsense syllables presented under varying conditions of
noise.
Smith, Raymond A. & Prather, William F. Phoneme discrimination in older
persons under varying signal-to-noise conditions. Journal of Speech &
Hearing Research, 1971, 14(3), 630-638.
Two groups of Ss, 10 older than 60 yr. of age and 10 18-30 yr. olds,
having essentially normal hearing for pure tones at the speech frequencies
identified 16 consonants in a CV context. These syllables were presented
at 6 sensation levels (SL) of noise over 4 signal-to-noise (S/N) ratios.
An analysis of variance of the mean percent correct responses showed that
183
-------
the older group performed significantly more poorly than the younger
group over all listening conditions. There was no difference in the
relative performance between the 2 groups as either the SL of noise was
increased or the S/N ratio became poorer. An additional listening
condition in which no noise was present in the signal and the syllables
were presented at 6 SLs revealed results similar to the main experiment.
184
-------
PERSONALITY VARIABLES
Most recent studies of noise and personality have focused on introversion
or extraversion as contributors to psychomotor performance differences
under noise conditions. These studies have been generated by Eysenck's
theory of personality and cortical arousal. In general, extroverts were
found to display greater decrements in psychomotor performance while experi-
encing noise stimulation than were introverts. Di Scipio (1971) showed
that white noise facilitates psychomotor response for an optimal period of
time, after which decrements were observed. This effect was heightened for
extroverts . Even though extroverts are more prone to noise distraction
Elliott (1971) showed that they will tolerate greater intensities of white
noise than will introverts. In the same study, sex differences were
found in noise tolerance, with boys tolerating higher intensities. No
age differences were observed between 5- and 10- year olds. In several
studies, physiological measures tended to corroborate the prediction that
extroverts experience greater arousal in the presence of the noise stimulus
than do introverts.
Other studies on noise and personality are diverse. Edsell (1973), dis-
covered that Ss in a game situation perceived other players as more dis-
agreeable, disorganized, and threatening under noise as apposed to no-
noise conditions. Jansen & Hoffman (1971) demonstrated that increasing
loudness of a noise stimulus augmented subjective annoyance, with
neurotic personality tendencies contributing to this effect. Angrier
speakers were found to use more high frequency elements in their speech
in a study by Mason (1969). Stephens (1970) showed that test anxiety
scores correlated positively with the slope of a loudness judgement
function.
Other research was ambivalent in trying to relate noise to psychiatric
morbidity.
185
-------
Colby, Kenneth Andrew. Effects of white noise intensity and changes
in intensity on the reaction time of schizophrenics and non-psychiatric
patients. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Iowa) Ann Arbor, Mich.:
University Microfilms, 1971, No. 71-30418.
To test the differential predictions of an under-arousal hypothesis
and an attention hypothesis of schizophrenic deficit, 36 process schizo-
phrenics, 36 reactive schizophrenics and 36 non-psychiatric medical
and surgical patients performed 48 disjunctive reaction time trials
under each of four conditions of white noise presentation: 1) constant
high intensity, 2) constant moderate intensity, 3) change from moderate
to high intensity one second before onset of the reaction time signal,
4) change from moderate to low intensity one second before onset of
the reaction time signal. The under-arousal hypothesis predicted that
the noise conditions with high intensity would differentially facilitate
performance of schizophrenics, while the attention hypothesis predicted
that the conditions which change in intensity would differentially
facilitate performance of schizophrenics. None of the noise manipulations
differentially facilitated performance of schizophrenics. The results
were interpreted as supporting neither the under arousal nor the attention
hypotheses.
Di Scipio, W.J. Psychomotor performance as a function of white noise
and personality variables. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1971, 33(1), 82.
The psychomotor performance of 14 Ss selected for extreme extraversion
and introversion scores on the Eysenck Personality Inventory (Form A)
was studied under white noise and silence conditions. White noise facili-
tated massed psychomotor performance for an optimal period of time, after
which noise became a distracting or aversive stimulus. As expected from
H. Eysenck's theory of personality and cortical arousal, the extroverts
were significantly more susceptible to this effect than the introverts.
Edsell, Richard D. The effect of noise on some interrelationships between
social interaction and anxiety. Dissertation Abstracts International,
1973, 33(8-18), 3976.
The primary purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of noise
186
-------
on some interrelationships between social interaction and anxiety. Three
independent groups of subjects participated in the simulation game
Starpower while they were exposed to different levels of environmental
noise: Quiet, Very Noisy. To assess the change in anxiety resulting
from the increased noise, the following measures were employed as oper-
ational definitions of anxiety: (1) STAI anxiety inventory, (2) eye
blink rate, (3) Digit Symbol test, and (4) Self-Evaluation of Group
Behavior scale.
The results indicate that relatively low levels of noise induced anxiety
in subjects engaged in social interaction. STAI and Group Behavior
scale scores demonstrated significant increases with increasing noise.
Subjects who played Starpower under noisier conditions perceived other
players as more disagreeable, disorganized, and threatening.
Digit Symbol data showed a definite tendency for scores to improve with
louder noise. Apparently the subjects adapted successfully to the
accumulative stress effects by increasing their effort to prevent decre-
mental performance. Eye blink was not significantly affected by the
experiment, suggesting that the threshold of sensitivity of the eye-
blink mechanism is too high for the stress levels induced. The four
measures were found to be largely uncorrelated, thus supporting the
hypothesis that the manifestations of anxiety are multi-dimensional.
Elliott, Colin D. Noise tolerance and extraversion in children. British
Journal of Psychology, 1971, 62(3), 375-380.
A method of measuring tolerance of white noise is described. Thirty-two
5-yr-olds and 32, 10-yr-olds were rated for extroversion and tested for
noise tolerance. Extroverts tolerated a significantly greater intensity
than introverts. Boys tolerated a significantly greater intensity than
girls. There was no difference between the 2 age groups in level of
noise tolerance. It is concluded that the method can be used to measure
extroversion in a younger age range than is possible with questionnaires.
187
-------
Results are discussed in terms of Eysenck's concepts of stimulus hunger,
stimulus avoidance, and hedonic tone.
Epstein, Seymour & Fenz, Walter D. Habituation to a loud sound as a
function of manifest anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 1970, 75(2),
189-194.
Forty undergraduates were subdivided on each of several scales of a
specially devised test of manifest anxiety. They were presented with 10
trials of a 115-dB noise. GSR and basal skin conductance were monitored
continuously. The habituation curve of the GSR was a typical negatively
decelerated habituation curve. The habituation curve of basal conductance
rose in the first few trials and then gradually declined, resenbling a
giant GSR. While there were no differences in curve form for Ss divided
on the total scale, differences emerged when Ss were divided on subscales
of Striated Muscle Tension and Autonomic Arousal.
Fisher, S. Boundary effects of persistent inputs and messages. Journal
of Abnormal Psychology, 1971, 77(3), 290-5.
The effects of intense white noise, hostile messages, dependency messages,
depressive messages, and optimistic-reassuring messages on the body image
boundaries of 87 male and 86 female undergraduates were evaluated.
Ss completed the first 25 blots^ of the Holtzman Inkblot Technique Series
under ordinary conditions and Series A under sensory input. Results
indicate that only hostile messages produced boundary decrement and
this effect was supported in a cross-validation study. Reasons why
hostility should have a greater boundary-disturbing impact on males
than on females are discussed.
Gattoni, F- & Tarnopolsky, A., Aircraft noise and psychiatric morbidity.
Psychological Medicine.1973,3(4), 516-520.
This research replicated a 1969 investigation which showed that admission
rates to a pschiatric hospital were higher from higher noise zones close
to Heathrow Airport than from relatively quieter areas. Data do not
188
-------
confirm those results, although a trend in agreement with the original
findings was found. The scope of the relationship between levels of air-
craft noise and types of psychiatric morbidity is discussed.
Gulian, Edith Focusing of attention and arousal level under inter-
action of stressors in introverts and extroverts. Revue_Roumaine
des Sciences Sociales-Serie de Psycho!egic, 1972, 16(2), 153-167.
This research tested the hypothesis that two stressors, noise and inter-
mittent light, would impair reaction time (RT) performance in extroverts
more than introverts and that the effects of personality predisposition
would be constant across attention tasks. Twenty Ss equally divided between
introverts and extroverts based on Eysenck personality inventory scores
were exposed to noise and light stressors while responding to a serial
choice RT task, and J.R. Stroop color-word interference task, and Pieron's
geometric figure selection task. Introverts made fewer errors on the RT
task. In general, extroverts showed a higher arousal level and poorer
performance while introverts performed the tasks better but their arousal
level was lower and decreased throughout the experiment.
Gulian, Edith, Psychophysiological (autonomic) correlates of auditory
vigilance under noise conditions. Revista de Psycholegie, 1972, 18(1),
41-51.
A comparison of the mean heart rate (HR) values of 20 Ss showed that,
under weak continuous noise (70db), there were only slight changes in
HR, whereas anticipation of loud intermittent noise (90db) induced
HR acceleration. Changes in HR variability depended on personality
type (introversion-extroversion) and the stimuli sequence. It is con-
cluded that HR acceleration is a component of the orientation reaction.
Jansen, G. & Hoffman, H. Noise-induced changes in fine motoricity and
noise-induced feelings of annoyance which depend upon definite personal-
ity dimensions. Army Foreign Science and Technology Center Charlottes-
ville Va., 1971, Report No. FSTC-HT-23-236-71.
Judging noise situations by means of adjective scales it was proved that
increasing loudness caused an augmentation of annoyance. The concept of
annoyance consists of three dimensions: emotional factor, activity and
189
-------
tension. Certain dimensions of personality (neuroticism) augment the
negative judging of noise.
Janssen, R.H. & Topman, R.M. Differentiation between endogenous and
neurotic depression. Nederlands Tijdschrift voor de Psychologic eh haar
Grensgebieden, 1971, 26(7), 454-475.
A study with 9 endogenous-depressive, 10 neurotic-depressive and 11
schizophrenic women under medication is described. Ss mean CA ranged from
41-47 yr. 4 hypotheses were tested that the basal GSR would be the high-
est with the most depressed group; (b) the amplitude of the psychogalvanic
response (PGR) would be about equal among the groups; (c) the process of
becoming accustomed to noise-stimuli, as measured by the PGR, would be
more evident among neurotic-depressive Ss than other groups; and (d) that
the GSR would be higher among extroverts than introverts. Experimental
techniques measured the GSRs, PGRs, piethymograms, Rts, and responses on
several adjustment questionnaires, e.g., the Amsterdam Biographical
Questionnaire. The 1st, 2nd, and 4th hypotheses were confirmed. The 1st
and the 4th were found to be significant at the .05 and .01 levels.
Mason, R.K. The influence of noise on emotional states. Journal of
Psychosomatic Research, 1969, 13(3), 275-282.
In order to discover what significance could be attached to the presence
of high frequency sound in human conversation, this element of voice
pattern was studied by recording asthmatic and control families asked to
say certain words of emotive and nonemotive content on a 3rd octave band
analyzer. Only words with emotive meanings yielded differences between
the parents of the 2 groups: it seems that adults modulate the ultra-
sonic content of their voices according to the emotional meaning of the
words. Further, the angrier the speaker, the more high frequency elements
were found. It appeared also that the endpoints of hearing of asthmatics
were higher than those of the controls, which makes them more sensitive
to high frequency sounds. The action of asthmatic breathing which is of
high pitch is discussed.
190
-------
Mohan, Jitendra & Munjal, Nalini. Neuroticism extraversion as determiner
of effect of distraction on psychomotor performance. Psycho!ogia: An
International Journal of Psychology in the Orient, 1972, 16(1), 49.
An experiment was planned to analyze the effect of auditory distraction
on simple "psychomotoor performance. The study was aimed at "qualifying"
the relationships among personality, performance, and distraction. The
general theoretical background was based on Eysenck's arousal theory,
Broadbent's filter theory of distraction, and Wilkinson's theory of environ-
mental stressors. 120 Ss were students selected from a group of 500 on the
basis of their score on the Junior Personality Inventory. Distraction was
provided by an electric bell timed by a stop watch. It is concluded that
the distracting effect of noise depends on its intensity and quality as
well as on task difficulty.
Stephens, S.D. Personality and the slope of loudness function. Quarterly
Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1970, 22(1), 9-13.
The slope of the loudness function in direct magnitude estimation at
two frequencies was studied in two groups of naive Ss. In Group I a
limited scale was used and in Group II, and open-ended scale. In all
conditions the slope of the loudness function was found to be significant-
ly positively correlated with test anxiety scores.
Sullivan, Richard. Subjective matching of anxiety to intensities of
white noise. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 1969, 74(6), 646-50.
Twenty undergraduates (a) matched intensities of white noise to levels
of experienced anxiety under stress and nonstress conditions, (b) judged
a minimal aversion threshold of white noise, and (c) rated a level of
anxiety which matched the aversiveness of the noise. Anxiety and noise
matchings indicated relatively lawful agreement during stress and non-
stress conditions. It was found that at only one point during the stress
condition did the anxiety and noise judgements exceed the mean subjective
aversion level. Findings suggest that changes in the intensity of internal
states may be measured through the use of judged matchings with changes in
intensive sensory stimuli.
191
-------
SOCIALLY RELEVANT BEHAVIOR
Evidence in this area seems to indicate that noise has the potential for
influencing a wide range of socially relevent behaviors. For example,
Bull, (1973) has shown that tolerance for ambiguity decreases in a
noise environment of 84 dB. Also, Edsell (1973) produces evidence
which indicates that even "low" noise levels induce anxiety in social
situations and that perception of others assumes negative dimensions,
such as disagreeable, disorganized, and threatening. Glass (1974) has
shown both frustration tolerance and task performance decrease follow-
ing stimulation with unpredictable noise and that the after effects are
more marked for unpredictable noise, although the organism physiolog-
ically adapts, there is a "psychological" cost of exposure to the noise
environment.
Bull, Andres, J. et al. Affects of noise and intolerance of ambiguity
upon attraction for similar and dissimilar others. Journal of Social
Psychology, 1973, 88(1), 151-152.
Noise as a mild stressor was used in an experiment which followed the
procedure of W. Griffith and K. Veitch (see PA,Vol 45: 9845). Eight
like-sexed groups of 8 volunteers (a) completed an attitude question-
naire; (b) were exposed to background noise levels of 84 or 40 db.
,>
(control condition) while completing the Intolerance of Ambiguity scale
the Nowlis Adjective Check List of Mood, and multiplication and anagram
Tasks; and (c) used the interpersonal judgement scale to rate the £
sitting opposite the 2 hypothetical others with attitudes similar or
dissimilar to their own. Although noise did not influence attraction,
differences in similarity of attitudes and the interaction of noise,
sex, and similarity had significant effects. As predicted, controls
who were tolerant of ambiguity were more influenced by the similarity
dissimilarity of other than controls who were tolerant. However, in
the noise condition tolerant Ss showed a significant increase in respon-
siveness to similarity and were indistinguishable from intolerant Ss.
192
-------
Cameron, Paul; Robertson, Donald; Zaks, Jeffry. Sound pollution,
noise pollution, and health: Community parameters. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 1972, 56(1), 67-74.
A random sample of 2,130 Detroit, Michigan and 496 Los Angeles, California
families were interviewed by telephone to explore urban parameters of
noise and sound pollution. An adult member of the family reported the
health status and sound-noise exposure of all family members. Results
suggest (A) a possible association between sound exposure and increased
prevalence of both acute and chronic illness; (B) the exposure of males
to noise more frequently than females; (C) the interpretation of machine,
plane, and traffic sounds as noise and musical and children's sounds;
(D) the interpretation of sounds at work as noise and sounds at home as
sound; and (E) the regular annoyance by sounds of approximately 1/4 of
the women and 1/3 of the men in our society.
Edsell, Richard Dean. The effect of noise on some interrelationships
between social interaction and anxiety. (Doctoral dissertation, Drexel
University) Ann Arbor, Mich.: University Microfilms, 1973, No. 73-4040.
The primary purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of noise
on some interrelationships between social interaction and anxiety.
Three independent groups of subjects participated in the simulation
game Starpower while they were exposed to different levels of environ-
ment noise: Quiet, Very Noisy. To assess the change in anxiety result-
ing from the increased noise, the following measures were employed as
operational definitions of anxiety: (1) STAI anxiety inventory, (2) eye
blink rate, (3) Digit Symbol test, and (4) Self-Evaluation of Group
Behavior scale.
The results indicate that relatively low levels of noise induced anxiety
in subjects engaged in social interaction. STAI and Group Behavior
scale scores demonstrated significant increases with increasing noise.
Subjects who played Starpower under noisier conditions perceived as more
disagreeable, disorganized, and threatening.
193
-------
Digital Symbol data showed a definite tendency for scores to improve
with louder noise. Apparently the subjects adapted successively to the
accumulative stress effects by increasing their effort to prevent
decremental performance. Eye blink was not significantly affected by the
experiment, suggesting that the threshold of sensitivity of the eye-
blink mechanism is too high for the stress levels induced. The four
measures were found to be largely uncorrelated, thus supporting the
hypothesis that the manifestations of anxiety are multidimensional.
Glass, D.C., Reim, B., & Singer, J.E. Behavioral consequences of adaptation
to controllable and uncontrollable noise. Journal of Experimental Social
Psychology, 1971, 7, 244-57.
The behavioral consequences of adaptation to high-intensity periodic noise
were investigated under conditions where Ss believed or did not believe
they had indirect control over termination of the noise. Findings with
47 undergraduate males show that the work of adapting to uncontrollable,
in contrast to controllable, noise resulted in heightened overall
tension (tonic skin conductance), and impaired performance efficiency
after termination of all the noise. Several theoretical explanations
of these results are discussed, including interruption-based helplessness.
The relationship of the present experiment to previous noise research is
considered.
Glass, David C.,& Singer, Jerome E. Experimental Studies of uncontrollable
and predictable noise. Representative Research in Social Psychology,1973,
4(1),165-183.
A series of laboratory and field experiments were conducted with more than
200 Ss to study behavioral effects and aftereffects of exposure to
unpredictable and uncontrollable high-intensity noise. Ss tolerance for
frustration and quality of task performance were impaired following stimu-
lation by unpredictable noise. Even though physiological adaptation
occurred to an equivalent degree under predictable and unpredictable
noise, adverse aftereffects were greater following exposure to the latter
type of noise. Subsequent experimentation suggested that unpredictable
194
-------
noise has these effects because the individual believes he cannot deter-
mine onset and/or offset of the stressor. When perception of control
over unpredictable noise was manipulated, frustration tolerance and post-
noise task performance were appreciably improved. It is concluded that
psychological factors, not simply physical paramteres of noise, are the
determinants of adverse aftereffects of noise exposure. Further evidence
suggests possible mechanisms for the ameliorative effects of perceived
control. It is considered that while man adapts to unpredictable stressors,
behavioral residues occur that are inimical to his subsequent functioning.
There is a "psychic cost" for exposure to unpredictable and uncontrol-
lable aversive events in spite of the facts that individuals seem able
to adapt to a variety of stressors.
Green, Russell G., Powers, Patrick , C. Shock and noise as instigating
stimuli in human aggression. Psychological Reports, 1971, 28(3), 983-985.
In two separate experiments, with 15 male undergraduates each, Ss were
either attacked or not attacked by a confederate (C), with shocks or
loud noises. In each case, S_ was later allowed to reply in kind to C_.
Ss attacked with shocks retaliated with both a greater number and
greater intensities of shock than Ss not attacked. Ss attacked with
loud noise retaliated more than nonattacked Ss only in terms of the
number of noise bursts given. It is concluded that shock is a more reli-
able instigator of retaliatory aggression than aversive noise.
Katz, Roger C. Interactions between the facilitative and inhibitory
effects of a punishing stimulus in the control of children's hitting
behavior. Child Development, 1971, 42(5), 1433-1446.
The effects of a response-produced intense-noise stimulus (punishment)
on the extinction of hitting behavior were investigated in 48 male first
graders. The noise stimulus appeared to possess sufficient aversive
properties to attenuate the level of responding during extinction. Ss
who first received noise in extinction emitted significantly fewer
hitting responses than Ss with no exposure to noise in either acqui-
sition or. extinction . Conversely, Ss who received noise with rein-
195
-------
forcement in acquisition, followed by noise in extinction, showed
greater resistance to extinction than Ss with no exposure to noise.
Results suggest that the differential effects of the punishing stimulus
on responding in extinction were determined by its previous association
with positively reinforcing events. Implications for previously
reported punishment research are briefly discussed.
Nemecek, Jan; Grandjean, Etienne. Results of an ergonomic investigation
of large-space offices. Human Factors, 1973, 15(3), 111-124.
Ergonomic measurements of noise, lighting, and room climate were performed
in 15 large-space Swiss offices. Simultaneously, 519 employees were given
a questionnaire about working in such offices (continuation of work,
distractions, disturbances, interpersonal relations, and communications).
Correlations among measures indicated factors that have special influence
on the judgements of the large space office. Results form an objective,
usable decision base for the selection and planning of an office building.
Sidorova, A.V. On the character of noise, in day nursery groups.
Pedlatriya. 1970,49(1),67-70.
This research attempted to determine the factors affecting the noise
level in the day nursery, and the noise level in the day nursery for
children of different ages and at different intervals of time. There is
>
no doubt that degree of excitation in children and their behavior are a
direct function of noise level in the group.
Stoller, Alan. Urbanization and mental health. Medical Journal of
Australia,1969, 2(5), 223-228.
Australian data was examined and compared with American studies on
advancing industrialization and mental health. Pathological results
often cited of urbanization, besides mental illness, are juvenile
delinquency, suicide, marital breakdowns, illegitimate births and
extranuptial conceptions, alcoholism, crime, and increasing road
accidents. The effect of noise on mental health is also discussed.
196
-------
Evidence shows that "... there is no clear evidence that mental
disorders are increasing with high-density urbanization; in fact, there
is evidence to show that there is, with advancing medical progress, an
actual decrease in certain types of disorders".
197
-------
TEXTS, BIBLIOGRAPHIES AND LITERATURE REVIEWS
During the period covered by this bibliography, a number of texts biblio-
graphies, literature reviews and symposia have been generated dealing
with noise as a general environmental pollutant or with specific noise
sources. Williams, Leyman, Karp & Wilson (1973) survey the literature
on the relationship between mental health and noise. Shin's (1971)
literature survey covers the present status of noise pollution, its
sources, effects and control. A series of reports available from the
Defense Documentation Center are particularly noteworthy. These consist
of volumes dealing with gunfire noise, airplane noise, and sonic boom
effects. Also available is a two volume work on the noise effects on
human performance. Welch and Welch (1970) have produced a text on the
physiological effects of noise with data from both human and infra
human research in a wide range of areas including endocrine, cardio-
vascular arid reproductive effects. A well conceived and written volume
by Glass, Singer and Jerome (1972) contains the results of a series of
experiments dealing with noise and other social stressors. Also avail-
able is Hodge and Garinther's (1973), Bioastonautics Data Book. This
summary deals with the noise and blast environment, effects on perform-
ance and the auditory and non-auditory effects.
Chalupnik, James D. Transportation noises: A symposium on acceptability
criteria. U. Washington Press, 1970, xiii, 358 pages.
Proceedings of a symposium sponsored by the Office of Noise Abatement
of the Department of Transportation are presented. Articles by various
authors include discussions of (a) transportation noise sources, (b)
scales for expressing noise level, (c) laboratory methods for evaluating
community response to noise, and (e) relation between laboratory results
and community response.
198
-------
Confer, Violet J. & Ashley, Thelma M. Noise and blast; An annotated
bibliography of research performed at the human engineering laboratories.
Human Engineering Labs Aberdeen Proving Ground Md., 1971, Report for
1956-1970.
The bibliography is an annotated compilation of 70 formally published
reports dealing with noise and blast.
Environmental Pollution: Noise Pollution-Noise Effects on Human Perform-
ance. Defense Documentation Center Alexandria Va., 1971, Report No. DDC-
TAS-71-39-1.
This is Volume I of two volumes on environmental pollution: noise
pollution - noise effects on human performance in a series of annotated
bibliographies on environmental pollution. Noise effects on humans such
as motor reactions, hearings, speech, sleep, perception, nervous system,
visual signals and fatigue are presented.
Environmental Pollution; Noise Pollution - Airplane Noise. Defense
Documentation Center Alexandria Va., 1971, Report No. DDC-TAS-71-26-1.
The annotated bibliography is an unclassified compilation of references
on airplane noise pollution in a series of bibliographies on environ-
mental pollution. References deal primarily with effects on noise
exposure on hearing, speech, communications and community/airport noise.
Environmental Pollution; Noise Pollution - Sonic Boom. Defense Documen-
tation Center Alexandria Va., 1973, Report No. DDC-TAS-73-74.
The references in the bibliography cover a wide range of the parameter
of sonic boom and noise pollution, as well as damages caused by it.
Environmental Pollution; Noise Pollution - Noise Effects on Human Perform-
ance. Defense Documentation Center Alexandria Va., 1973, DDC-TAS-73-69.
The bibliography is comprised of 111 citations of unclassified reports
dealing with environmental pollution: Noise pollution - noise effects
on human performance in a series of bibliographies on environmental
pollution. References deal primarily with effects of noise exposure on
199
-------
hearing, speech, communications and community/airport noise.
Environmental Pollution (Noise Pollution - Gunfire Noise). Defense
Documentation Center Alexandria Va., 1974, Report No. DDC-TAS-74-11.
The bibliography is a collection of 42 references on environmental
pollution (noise pollution - gunfire noise) such as auditory tests from
exposure to various weapon sounds. The test also analyzes projectiles
and their potential damage to hearing and the use of ear plugs to reduce
the possibility of hearing loss from gun noise.
Environmental Protection Agency. Proceedings of the International
Congress on Noise as a Public Health Problem, Ward, W.D. (Ed.) Document
No. 550/9-73-008, Washington, D.C., 1973.
These proceedings represent world wide contributions to the congress on
research results in the areas of hearing loss, performance and behavior,
non-auditory reactions to noise, sleep disturbance and community response
to noise exposure.
Environmental Protection Agency. Public Health and Welfare Criteria for
Noise, Washington, D.C. 1973.
This document was published in response to the Noise Control Act of 1972.
The criteria were designed to reflect the scientific knowledge most
useful in indicating the kind and extent of all identifiable effects of
noise on the public health. This document contains a comprehensive
summary of research results dealing with noise exposure, noise rating
schemes, annoyance, noise induced hearing loss, masking and physiological
effects.
Environmental Protection Agency. Information on Levels of Environmental
Noise Requisite to Protect Public Health and Welfare with an Adequate
Margin of Safety, Document No. 550/9-74-004. Washington, D.C., 1974.
This report is a follow on to the EPA Noise Criteria document, (EPA, 1973)
The document identifies maximum exposure levels, to avoid significant
adverse effects from environmental noise and both infra and ultra sound.
200
-------
Glass, David C. & Singer, Jerome E. Urban Stress. Experiments on Noise
and Social Stressors, New York, N. Y. Academic Press, 1972.
This volume deals with the conduct and results of some two-dozen
research projects using urban noise as a stressor. Experiments are
roughly trichotomized as; those which deal with the direct effects
of stress, adaptation to stress and the adverse after-effects of stress.
With respect to the direct effects of noise, the researchers indicate
their data show:
1. Noise does not affect task performance or psychophysiological
reaction.
2. Especially aversive noise does not prevent behavioral and
autonomic adaptation.
3. Performance decrements seem to occur only for highly complex
tasks or vigilance tasks.
After effects include lowering of frustration tolerance following
unsignaled noise. Additionally , quality of proofreading performance,
and ability to resolve response competition were also impaired following
noise exposure.
Grether, W.F. Noise and human performance. USAF AMRL Technical Report,
1971, 70-29, 48 pgs.
The possible effects of noise on human performance have been the subject
of considerable research dating back to 1916. This interest has been
stimulated by concern about noise in factories, offices, schools, air-
craft, and other military vehicles. Two very direct and harmful effects
of noise, permanent hearing loss and auditory masking, are briefly
reviewed. The nonauditory effects on performance measures e.g., RT,
vigilance, time estimation, tracking, manual manipulation, intellect-
research data on noise and human performance appear rather contradictory
and inconsistent. While many studies have found no performance impair-
ment, and even improvement, there are some types of measures that rather
201
-------
consistently show decrements from exposure to noise. Some theoretical
explanatory mechanisms to account for effects of noise on performance
are included.
Guignard, J.C. A basis for limiting noise exposure for hearing conver-
sation. Dayton University Ohio Research Institute, 1973, Report No.
UDRI-TR-73-29.
A compilation of data is provided, with references to published work,
which represents the present state of- knowledge concerning the effects
of continuous and impulsive noise on hearing. The danger to the ear of
both occupational and nonoccupational human exposure to noise is consider-
ed. Data are included or cited which enable quantitative predictions to
be made of the risk to hearing in the American population due to noise
exposure in any working or living context. Recommendations are made
concerning the need to obtain more definitive data. Relevant aspects
of noise effects on the ear are discussed in appendices to the main report.
Hodge, David C. & Garinther, George K. Noise and blast. Bioastronautics
Data Book.,Wash.,DC NASA Scientific and Technical Information Office,
1973, VIII, 930 pgs.
The noise and blast environment, techniques of noise measurement, and
the effects of noise on hearing sensitivity and performance are described.
Community response to^noise exposure, physiological (i.e. nonauditory)
effects of noise exposure, and methods for minimizing the detrimental
effects of noise on hearing and communication are also considered.
Holding D. H. Experimental psychology in industry: Selected reading.
Baltimore Md.: Penguin Books, 1969, 445 pgs.
This work contains a collection of papers by various authors on man-machine
interactions, covering a broad range of human performance topics
including human engineering, noise abatement, and quality control.
202
-------
Kryter, Karl D.; Jansen, Gerd; Parker, Donald; Parrack, Horace 0. &
Thiessen, George. Non-auditory effects of noise. National Academy of
Sciences-National Research Council Washington D.C. Comm on Hearing
Bioacoustics and Biomechanics, 1971, 31 pages.
The report is a summary and evaluation of research findings that relate
to any effects of noise other than to the ear and related structures.
For example, included herein are research efforts concerned with
psychological effects of noise, effects on task performance, effects on
the cardiovascular system, and on general health. This report also
presents areas and types of research studies that may help to provide
full answers to questions on the degree of noise control desirable with
respect to the non-auditory effects of noise normally present in living
and working environments.
Mangano, M.G. Some consideration on the biological effects of noise
in modern civilization. Difeso Sociole. 1970, 47(3), 167-68.
On the basis of a review of the literature on the biological
psychological, and social effects of noxious auditory stimuli, various
corrective ways and means are suggested.
Nixon, Charles W. Some effects of noise on man. Aerospace Medical
Research Lab, Wright Patterson AFB Ohio, 1971, Report No. AMRL-TR-71-53.
The primary reason for noise abatement is to eliminate deleterious effects
on man. Consequently, it is important that personnel who implement noise
control measures understand what human responses are to be expected when
man experiences various categories of noise exposure. It is the intent
of this paper, through citing of laboratory experimentation and noise
exposure experience over the years, to demonstrate that there are types
of acoustic exposures which do affect the physiological and psychological
functions of man in different ways.
Shih, H. H. A literature survey of noi.se pollution. Catholic University
of America Washington, D.C. Institute of Ocean Science and Engineering,
1971, Report No. 71-5.
Physically, noise is a complex sound that has little or no periodicity.
203
-------
However, the essential characteristic of noise is its undesirability.
Thus, noise can be defined as any annoying or unwanted sound. In recent
years, the rapid increase of noise level in our environment has become a
national public health hazard. Noise affects man's state of mental,
physical, and social well-being. The problem forms a special type of
air pollution. Noise study is a rather new subject among other branches
of science. The transition from art to near-science started from before
World War II. The work is an attempt to arrive at an understanding
of the general situation on the problem of noise. The survey consists
of four major parts: The present status of noise pollution, its
sources, its effects, and the control. Many urgent research needs are
also identified.
Welch, Bruce L. & Welch, Annemarie S. (Eds.) Physiological effects of
noise. New York, N.Y. Plenum Press, 1970.
Papers presented in this volume represent the content of a 1969 symposium
devoted to the physiological effects of audible sound. Contributions
represent the efforts of scientists from the western hemisphere and both
eastern and western Europe. Papers are presented based on both human
and infra-human data in the areas of: Adaptation, Disease resistance;
Endocrine and metabolic function; Cardiovascular and reproductive effects;
Neurological, biochemical and pharmacological effects; Sleep and sonic
boom studies.
Williams, John S.,Leyman, Edward; Karp, Stephen A. & Wilson, Paul T.
Environment pollution and mental health. Washington D.C.: Information
Resources Press. 1973,Xi,136pgs.
Recent research on the relationship between mental health and environ-
mental pollutants, noise, housing, and recreation is surveyed. Method-
ological implications and neglected research areas are discussed.
204
-------
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-600/1-76-038
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSIOI»NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
BEHAVIORAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL CORRELATES OF VARYING
NOISE ENVIRONMENTS: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
5. REPORT DATE
December 1976 issuing date
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
Lawrence F. Sharp, John F. Swiney, Mickey R. Dansby
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
Department of Life and Behavioral Sciences
United States Air Force Academy, Colorado 80840
1GA085
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
IAG-D4-0537
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Office of Health and Ecological Effects - Wash., DC
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington. D. P.. ?0460
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/18
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
Annotated bibliography contains 365 refereoces related to the behavioral and
physiological effects of noise. References to research articles, texts, other
literature reviews and symposia are provided. The review covers the period
1968 thru 1974. Some foreign research published as early as 1966 is reported.
The review is subdivided into approximately twenty relevant areas including
personality differences, sleep, sonic boom, noise measurement, effects of noise
on social relevant behavior, hearing loss, temporary threshold shift, physiological
effects, motor skills, vigilance and perceptual processes.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COSATI Field/Group
Noise (sound)
Behavior
Arousal (sleep disturbance)
Auditory perception
Auditory masking
Physiology
Speech
2001
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release to Public
19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)
Unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
213
20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
Unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
205
. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1977-757-056/559't Region No. 5-11
------- |