vvEPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Water
WH-550
Radionuclides in Drinking Water
National Primary Drinking Water Regulations
for Radionuclides
Proposed Rule
June 1991
Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, DC
Printed on Recycled Paper
Printed on Recycled Paper
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SUMMARY
These regulations will:
Propose Maximum Contaminant Level Goals (MCLGs) and Maximum
Contaminant Levels (MCLs) for four radionuclide contaminants and two categories
of radionuclides.
- The four radionuclide contaminants are: radium-226, radium-228, radon-222,
and uranium.
- The two categories of radionuclides are adjusted gross alpha emitters, and beta
and photon emitters.
• The category of adjusted gross alpha emitters regulates alpha emitters and
is gross alpha measurement less uranium and less radium-226.
• The category of beta and photon emitters regulates total beta and photon
emitters (mostly man-made).
When this proposed rulemaking is final:
• These rules will establish
— Four revised radionuclide standards; and
— Two new radionuclide standards (radon and uranium) for a total of six.
These proposed rules also include additional provisions for:
• Monitoring, analytic methods and laboratory requirements;
• Best Available Technologies (BATs) for compliance with the MCLs and for the
purpose of issuing variances:
— aeration - ion exchange
— reverse osmosis — coagulation/filtration
— anion exchange
• Mandatory health effects language to be used by systems when notifying the public
of violations;
• State reporting, recordkeeping and primacy requirements; and
• Unregulated contaminant monitoring for lead-210, the first long-lived progeny of
radon-222.
Radionuclides in Drinking Water Fact Sheet—1
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EPA is seeking comment from the public in this proposed rulemaking on:
• A number of alternative MCLs for radon, uranium, and radium; and
• A variety of technical and policy issues.
Key Datesr 1
June 1991
^September 1991
September 1991
(approximate)
April 1993
(22 months after
proposal)
October 1994
(18 months after
promulgation)
January 1996
Standards for 4 radionuclide contaminants and
2 categories of radionuclides proposed
Public hearingsjm Washington, D,C. andiGhicagoy 1L
Close of public comment period
(90 days after Federal Reeister publication)
Standards for 4 radionuclide contaminants and
2 categories of radionuclides promulgated
• Standards for 4 radionuclide contaminants and
2 categories of radionuclides effective
• State adoption complete
First monitoring compliance period begins |
Regulatory Impact
As proposed, these regulations, when implemented, will reduce the exposure of
20 million consumers to the regulated contaminants and result in avoidance of an
estimated 83 cancer cases per year.
• This includes:
- Avoidance of an estimated 80 cancer cases per year due to reduced radon
exposure of an estimated 17 million customers of public water systems served
by ground-water sources;
— Avoidance of an estimated 3 cancer cases per year due to radium; and
— Reduced exposure of approximately 875,000 people to kidney toxicity risk.
• Regulation of radon is expected to result in the most violations, increased cost to
public water systems, and provide the greatest health benefits.
2—Radionuclides in Drinking Water Fact Sheet
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i
5
I
5
X > * * •• '
National
Costs of Proposed Radionuclide MCLs
'
!,' - '•.
Proposed MCL**
Systems Affected
Treatment Cost
Total Capital ($M)
Annual 6&M ($M)
Total Annual Cost ($M)
Monitoring ($K/Yr)*****
State Implementation
Initial ($M)
Annual ($M)
Annual Household Cost
by System Size
Very Small (25-500)
Small (501-3,300)
Medium (3,301-10,000)
Large (over 10,000)
, Rn-222
300
26,000
1,600
70
180
5,000
•• • .
'•
120
30
6
5
Rft-226
20
70
190
20
30
3
630
150
90
60
Ba-22e
20
40
40
3
6
r
860
MA
.. MA
650
150
90
60
Uranium
20***
1,500
350
30
60
3
580
180
80
40
AGA*
15
130
230
20
40
640
770
340
200
140
Beta
Emitters
4****
0
0
0
0
250
0
0
0
0
TOTAL
28,000
2,400
140
310
6,800
15-28
10-19
• Adjusted Grata Alpha.
"UCLs an expressed In pCI/L unless otherwise noted.
***UCL tor Uranium It expressed In \ig/L.
***MCL tor Beta Emitters Is expressed In mllllrems effective dose equivalent per year (mrem ede/yr).
'Cross Alpha Is used as a screen tor Radlum-226 and uranium.
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Total Costs
• Total costs to all public water systems will be approximately $317 million per
year. Approximately 75% of these costs will be borne by systems serving fewer
than 10,000 people.'
• State implementation costs will be $15-28 million initially and $10-19 million in
future years.
Monitoring and Treatment
• Monitoring requirements will be standardized, with monitoring required every
three, six, or nine years depending on the system's vulnerability to the particular
contaminant.
• Nationally, it will cost approximately $7 million per year for systems to monitor.
• Nationally, monitoring for lead-210 will cost systems an addition $8 million
one-time cost.
• Monitoring for radionuclides will be required for approximately 80,000 systems.
Ground Water
- Approximately 68,000 community and non-transient non-community public
water systems with ground-water or mixed surface and ground-water sources
must monitor for radon, radium-226, radium-228, uranium, and adjusted gross
alpha emitters. Vulnerable systems also must monitor for beta and photon
emitters.
Surface Water
- Approximately 12,000 community systems and non-transient non-community
public water systems with surface water sources must monitor for radium-226,
radium-228, uranium, and adjusted gross alpha emitters. Vulnerable systems
also must monitor for beta and photon emitters.
• Nationally, approximately 28,000 or 35% of affected public water systems will be
required to provide treatment or find an alternative source of water.
- Treatment will cost approximately $3 to $800 per household annually
. depending upon system size, degree of contamination, and other factors.
- It will cost systems $310 million per year to provide treatment.
— At State's option, extendable exemptions based on costs may be allowed for
systems with less than 500 service connections, as long as the level does not
exceed unreasonable risk to health and alternative sources are not feasible.
4—Radionuclides in Drinking Water Fact Sheet
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RadionucHde National Primary Prinking Water Regulations
Oorrtnrolrwit*
O.lnWngW.tw
HonMh pfftcis
EPA Standard*
Proposed
MCWJ
Proposed
MW,1
Current MCL
Source?
Analytic
Method
BAT
R«dlum-226
Radlum-228
cancer
zero
zero
20pCI/l 5 pCI/l combined naturally occurring RE; RC IE; LS; RO
with radium 228
20pCI/l 5 pCI/l combined naturally occurring RC; LS IE; LS; RO
with radlum-226
Radon-222 cancer , , zero , 3OOpCI/l
Uranium kidney, cancer zero 20|ig/l*
Ad|usted gross alpha cancer . zero 1SpCI/l 1SpCI/l
emitters
Gross beta and cancer ' zero 4 mrem 4 mrem/yr
photon emitters ede/yr any organ
naturally occurring LS; LC
naturally occurring RC; FL; AS
naturally occurring GA/B; GA
and man-made
man-made and
or naturally occurring
AER
C/F; AE; LS; HO*
RO
IE;RO
whole body
- radioactive cesium : . . . • . .
- radioactive Iodine .
- radioactive , .' ' • •
strontium 89.90
-UUum
-gamma and ,
photon emitters
PREC
PHEC
PREC; RC
LS
GRS
Analytic Methods Key: Best Available Technology Key:
RE Radon Emanation , ' IE
RC Radloctwmlcal LS
LS Liquid SclnUlatlon ' RO
LC Lucas Call : . AER
FL Ruoromstrle t C/F
IAS Alpha Spsctromelry AE
GA/B Gross alpha and/or bala activity
GA Gross alpha activity
PREC Precipitation
GRA Gamma Ray Speclrometry
Ion Exchange
Lime Softening
R«v«r>« Ounotl*
Aeiatlon
Coagulation/Filtration
Anlon Exchange
I
I'
'pCI/l Is an activity measurement of radioactive decay (1 pd = 2.2 disintegrations per minute); \>g>l is a mass measuiement; mrem Is measurement ot effective
radiation dose to organs).
'Except as noted, BAT for Ihe purpose of Issuing variances Is the same as BAT for compliance.
'20 (ig/l Is based on kidney toxlclty. 2O \>g/l Is the equivalent of 3O pCI/l
'Coagulation/Filtration and Lime Softening are not BAT for small systems (those with less than 50O connections) lor the purpose ot granting variances.
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I
I
K
l
s
I
Summary of
[Calendar Year1
Minimum Monitoring Kreqiiuncies for Kadioiuiclidcs
2(K)3 21XM
W Framework |il
••'f:v. • ^. . . K'-fv
Divisions p!
Firsl 9-ycar cycle
Sec-oiiil 0-year cyck
Monitor for Current MO.s
||i||p|yliiili;il
Itepeal period
New Monitoring
Requirements
Noi Yet In liffcci
IGW
!GW/5w"
tliyif?
sw
New Monitoring
Requirements
Not Yet In Effect
New Monitoring
Requirements
Not Yet In effect
Slate Discretion
g«OW/SW
O^, Waiver,
* "
' Calendar to be adjusted to dale of final regulations.
2 Vulnerable systems only (based on Vulnerability Assessment).
-* Waiver based on monitoring results.
4 Numbers shown in each monitoring period refer to number of samples |>cr sampling point per year.
* Gross Beta is a screen for Ua-22K and an MCI. standard.
(iross Alpha is a screen for Ka-226 and uranium, anil an M( 'I. staiulanl.
I/cycle
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Summary of Proposed Monitoring Requirements for kadionuclides
Base Requirements
Contaminant
Gross Beta
(Vulnerable systems)
Radon - GW
YRS 2 • 3 • WOT, PER.
Gross Alpha
Ka-226, Ra-228,
Uraniu
(Compositing is
permined)
GW/SW - I per
3-year period
GW/SW-Annually
nregulated
Contaminant
Pb-210
I
s
I
3
1
a1
(st
I
System is out
of compliance
IF:
Average of I sample + I
mandatory confirmation
sample > MCI.
Y|T?i;r INITIAL PERIOD
Annual average of
<|iianerlysam|>le!>
> MCL
ALL OTHER YEARS
I sample > MCL
Average of I sample + I
mandatory confirmation
sample > MCL
N/A
Increased
Frequency
Triggered by
N o n - c o in |i I i a n c c
Monthly if oui of
ctMiipliance. Uciiirn 10
huse when 3 mo. < MC
VR . I - INITIAL PERIOD
Continue t|iiaricily if
oui of compliance.
Annually when avenige
ol -4 <|uaiicrs < MCI.
ALL OTHER VEARS
Quarterly if eriod
Waiver reduces
lo I per 9-year
|>eri(xl
N/A
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Radon in Water
The proposed radon regulation will provide a substantial public health benefit
compared with other drinking water regulations and other environmental
regulatory programs administered by EPA.
• The regulation will reduce the exposure to radon of 17 million consumers whose
household water comes from a public water system served by ground-water
sources.
• The regulation, when implemented, may result in an estimated avoidance of about
80 cancer cases per year.
Radon comes from the natural break-down of uranium in soil, rock and water.
• Radon is a volatile gas and is not a problem in drinking water from surface water
sources.
• Radon may be present in drinking water from ground-water sources.
- Public water supplies with ground-water or mixed ground and surface water
sources would be required to monitor for radon and to provide treatment or
find an alternative source of water if the radon MCL is exceeded.
- Radon also may be present in drinking water from private wells not regulated
by EPA.
The primary health hazard conies from breathing air containing radon.
• Breathing air containing radon can damage lung tissue and increase the risk of
lung cancer. .
— Radon in water generally accounts for about 5% of the total indoor air
concentration in homes with ground-water sources of drinking water.
- EPA estimates that indoor radon may result in 8,000-40,000 lung cancer deaths
annually.
— The higher the level of radon, the greater the risk of developing lung cancer.
- Smokers exposed to radon may have up to ten times the risk of contracting
lung cancer as never-smokers exposed to the same radon levels.
8—Radionuclides in Drinking Water Fact Sheet
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— Radon present in drinking water is released into indoor air during household
water use such as showering and washing clothes.
- As an average, every 10,000 pCi/1 radon in water contributes about 1 pCi/1
radon to indoor air for an average house.
•-V- •
- On average, outdoor levels of radon range from 0.2 pCi/1 to 0.7 pCi/1.
• Drinking water contaminated with radon may add some minor risk of developing
stomach or other internal organ cancer. This risk is small compared to the risks
from breathing indoor air containing radon.
EPA is taking action to protect public health from radon in air and radon in
water to the highest degree possible, given existing mitigation technologies.
• Central water treatment for radon by public water systems is affordable and
technologically feasible. Under the Safe Drinking Water Act, EPA is proposing to
regulate radon at a level public water systems can achieve—300 pCi/1. Radon at
this level contributes about 0.03 pCi/1 of radon in air. This corresponds to an
estimated lifetime cancer risk of approximately 2 x 10"* (2 in 10,000) and is
consistent with EPA's risk guidelines for regulating drinking water contaminants.
This risk may vary for individuals.
• Concerning radon in air, EPA has proposed to keep its current action level of
4 pCi/1, corresponding to an estimated lifetime risk of 1-5 x 10'2 (1-5 in 100)
because the Agency believes that level can be achieved consistently and
economically in homes, given current technology. The new Citizen's Guide,
scheduled for publication in Fall 1991, also will provide information on testing
methods to determine radon levels in homes.
All homes should be tested for radon in air. :
• Most radon in household air comes from soil gas which seeps into the home
through the foundation.
• - "- . '• ^.' "'-'*' -
• Information about radon testing and mitigation of household air can be found in
the following EPA publications:
- A Citizen's Guide to Radon: What It Is and What To Do About It; and
— Radon Reduction Methods: A Homeowner's Guide.
• Information about radon in air can be requested by calling 1-800-SOS-RADON or
by contacting the State Radon office.
Radionucitdes in Drinking Water Fact Sheet—9
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Some homes with private wells also should be tested for radon in water.
• After testing the air for radon and finding levels above EPA's current action
guideline of 4 pCi/1. homeowners with private wells should consult with their State
drinking water office to obtain information on laboratories to test for radon in
water, and test the water. After testing, homeowners should select the mitigation
strategy that is most cost-effective for reducing radon exposure for the individual
home.
- In the majority of cases, the appropriate mitigation strategy will be controlling
the soil gas contribution to indoor air before treating the water to remove
radon.
• If treatment of radon in private wells is appropriate, the most effective treatment is
to remove the radon from the water before it enters the home. This is called
point-of-entry (POE) treatment.
• Two basic types of POE water treatment are available.
- Aeration Systems
Forced air bubblers remove radon gas from the water.
- Granular Activated Carbon (GAQ Systems
Filters remove radon from the water. Homes with high levels of radon in
water should not use GAC to remove radon.
• Treatment at the tap is called point-of-use (POU) treatment. POU treatment will
fail to reduce the most important risk from radon in water, breathing radon in
indoor air transferred from water.
• Information about radon in drinking water can be requested by calling the Safe
Drinking Water Hotline (1-800-426-4791) or contacting the State Drinking Water
Office.
10—Radionuclides in Drinking Water Fact Sheet
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FOR MORE INFORMATION ABOUT RADON IN INDOOR AIR
EPA Radon Information Hotline
S 1-800-SOS-RADON
EPA Regional Offices Radiation Program Managers
EPA Region 1
Pesticides and Toxic
Substances Branch
JFK Federal Bldg., Rm. 2311
One Congress Street, 11th floor
Boston, MA 02203
(617) 565-4502
Connecticutjdassachusetts,
Maine, New Hampshire,
Rhode Island, Vermont
EPA Region 2
Air and Waste Management
Division
26 Federal Plaza, Rm. 1137-L
New York, NY 10278
(212) 264-4110
New Jersey, New York, Puerto
Rico, Virgin Islands
EPA Region 3
Air Programs Branch
Special Program Section
(3AM12)
841 Chestnut Street .
Philadelphia, PA 19107
(215) 597-8320
Delaware, Maryland,
Pennsylvania, Virginia, West
Virginia, District of Columbia
EPA Region 4
Air, Pesticides, and Toxics :
Management Division
245 Courtland Street, NE
Atlanta, GA 30365
(404)347-3907
Alabama, Florida, Georgia,
Kentucky, Mississippi, North
Carolina, South Carolina,
Tennessee
EPA Region 5
Air Toxics and Radiation
Branch
(5AR26)
Chicago. IL 60604
(312) 353-2206
Illinois, Indiana, Michigan,
Minnesota; Ohio, Wisconsin
EPA Region 6
Air Enforcement Branch
(6T-E)
1445 Ross Avenue
Dallas. TX 75202-2733
(214) 655-7223
Arkansas, Louisiana, New
Mexico, Oklahoma, Texas
EPA Region 7
Air Branch
726 Minnesota Avenue
Kansas City, KS 66101
(913) 551-7020
Iowa, Kansas, Missouri,
Nebraska
EPA Region 8
Radiation Programs Branch
999 18th Street, Suite 500
Denver, CO 80202-2405
(303) 293-1709
Colorado, Montana, North
Dakota, Sourth Dakota, Utah,
Wyoming
EPA Region 9
Office of Air Toxics and
Radiation
(AM)
75 Hawthorne Street
San Francisco, CA 94105
(415) 744-1045
Arizona, California, Hawaii,
Nevada, American Samoa, Guam,
Trust Territories of the Pacific
EPA Region 10
Air Programs Branch
(AT-082)
1200 Sixth Avenue
Seattle, WA 98101
(206) 442-7660
Alaska, Idaho, Oregon,
Washington : "__
Radionuclides in Drinking Water Fact Sheet—11
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FOR MORE INFORMATION ABOUT RADIONUCLIDES
AND RADON IN DRINKING WATER
EPA Regional Drinking Water Offices
EPA Region 1
Groundwater Management and
Water Supply Branch
JFK Federal BIdg.
One Congress Street, llth floor
Boston, MA 02203
(617) 565-3610
Connecticut,Massachusetts,
Maine, New Hampshire,
Rhode Island, Vermont
EPA Region 2
Drinking/Groundwater
Protection Branch
26 Federal Plaza, Rm. 824
New York, NY 10278
(212) 264-1800
New Jersey, New York, Puerto
Rico, Virgin Islands
EPA Region 3
Drinking/Groundwater
Protection Branch
841 Chestnut Street
Philadelphia, PA 19107
(215)597-8227
Delaware, Maryland,
Pennsylvania, Virginia, West
Virginia, District of Columbia
EPA Region 4
Municipal Facilities Branch
245 Courtland Street, NE
Atlanta, GA 30365
(404) 347-3633
Alabama, Florida, Giorgio,
Kentucky, Mississippi, North
Carolina, South Carolina,
Tennessee
EPA Region 5
Safe Drinking Water Branch
230 S. Dearborn Street
Chicago, IL 60604
(312) 353-2151
Illinois, Indiana, Michigan,
Minnesota, Ohio, Wisconsin
EPA Region 6
Water Supply Branch
1445 Ross Avenue
Dallas, TX 75202
(214) 655-7155
Arkansas, Louisiana, New
Mexico, Oklahoma, Texas
EPA Region 7
Drinking Water Branch
726 Minnesota Avenue
Kansas City, KS 66101
(913) 551-7032
Iowa, Kansas, Missouri,
Nebraska
EPA Region 8
Drinking Water Branch
999 18th Street, Suite 1300
Denver, CO 80202-2413
(303) 293-1713
Colorado, Montana, North
Dakota, Sourth Dakota, Utah,
Wyoming
EPA Region 9
Drinking Water & Groundwater
Protection Branch
75 Hawthorne Street
San Francisco, CA 94105
(415) 744-1818
Arizona, California, Hawaii,
Nevada, American Samoa,
Guam, Trust Territories of the
Pacific
EPA Region 10
Drinking Water Branch
1200 Sixth Avenue
Seattle, WA 98101
(206) 442-1225
Alaska, Idaho, Oregon,
Washington
EPA Safe Drinking Water Hotline
C 1-800.426-4791
12—Radionuclides in Drinking Water Fact Sheet
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